Vi IjffiRTH LOsCJN COLLiolHV'E CANONS IWfSMteBiF iMIDPkESEX > NORTH LONDON COLLEGIATE SC! CANONS, EDGWARE, MID! When^bOi HDRAWN / huh afaJk / s**/97f ?- % K, ■T ’ft «r a %Jot Learning . . 132 Origin of Japanese Written Characters* . . . 182 The Japanese Syllabary ..... 134 Written Characters of the Legendary Age . . . 130 Pure Japanese Characters . . . . -137 Composition. . . . . . . .139 Metrical Composition ...... Chinese Composition (Kambun) ..... 144 Confucian Learning (Jugaku) ..... 147 Schools ........ ]Ag Private Schools. ...... 149 Examinations and Classification of Honors . . .150 Penmanship (Shogaku) . ..... 152 Chapter VI.— Japanese Arts and Sciences. . . . pr > 4 Drawing and Painting ...... jf '4 The Medical Art ....... 155 Materia Medica. ...... ]£g Surgery . . . . . - . . 1 59 Doctors of Acnpnrefiire . . . . . 759 Calcndrography . . . . . . .160 Chronometry ....... 101 Kami, or Bioshi (Japanese Paper) .... 162 Plants used in the Manufacture of Paper . . . 163 The Manufacture of Paper ..... 168 The Japanese Pencil, or Writing-brush . . . 168 Xnkstone ........ T70 Materials for Inks tone ...... 171 Japanese Ink . . . . . . . 173 The Engraving of Book* . . , . .175 5 CONTENTS , APPENDIX. PAGH I. Constitution of the Japanese Department of Education . . 177 II. Chronicle of Events in the Recent History of the Departmeiit of Education ....... 179 IU. List of Emperors ....... 191 IV. List of Year-Perioda ...... 192 AN OUTLINE HISTORY OF JAPANESE EDUCATION. INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER. The early history of education and literature in Japan, as in all other countries, is obscure and uncertain. In the chapters which fol- low, an honest and an earnest effort has been made by competent Jap- anese scholars, to compile, from all available sources, an outline account of the various steps of progress which have been taken, down to the present time. To the Japanese student, and to those who are interested in search- ing into the foundations of Japanese civilization, these annals must pre- sent material of the greatest interest and importance. In the present introductory chapter it is proposed to give a summary statement of the system of education as it existed before the recent revolution, and also of the new system which has been organized and is now in successful operation. In the theory of the Japanese government, the final and absolute authority is vested in a sovereign ruler called the Mikado. An unbroken line of these sovereigns is traced back in Japanese history to about 660 B. c. Penal laws, imperial edicts, and administrative regulations,. were all supposed to emanate from the sovereign. Prom about the twelfth century, however, owing to internal and external commotions, the act- ual duty of repressing tumults and executing justice upon rebellious subjects was intrusted to a generalissimo of the imperial forces known as the shdgun. 1 At the beginning of the seventeenth century this office 1 In the early treaties and diplomatic correspondence he is. under a misconception, called Tycoon. AN OUT! AX ft IffSTOItr Oft 10 fell into the hands of a member of the Tokugawa family, in which it subsequently became hereditary, and so continued down to 1867, when the incumbent resigned the office into the hands of the mikado. During this period of the Tokugawa power, lasting more than two hundred and fifty years, the entire executive authority of the govern- ment was exercised by the Shogun. He did not, however, assume independent sovereign power, but continued to act nominally as the representative and servant of the mikado. It was during this period that the feudal system attained its highest development in Japan. The ancient territorial nobles, who were for- merly almost independent sovereigns in their territories, were reduced to subjection, and became vassal princes under the shogun. New and conquered provinces were parceled out to the connections of the shogun’s family; so that, at the time of the making of the foreign treaties, there were about two hundred of those princes, who, under the name of daimids , exercised in their provinces local authority, and yielded to the shogun, as their superior lord, feudal obedience. In trod 'net ion of Leai'ning . — The first steps in education in the em- pire were taken before the period of the shogunate. China and Corea were in this particular, as in many others, the source from which they derived their first seeds of learning. As early as a. d. 300, the e are accounts of Corea n and Chinese scholars being brought over to teach a knowledge of the Chinese alphabet and Chinese books to the Japan- ese imperial court. It is now generally conceded that, previous to the introduction of Chinese, no alphabetical writing existed in Japan. The alphabet of forty-eight characters, known as the Japanese i-ro-ha , which is used in the simpler styles of writing, is now considered to have been the modification and simplification of certain familiar Chinese characters. The sounds given to the Chinese characters, when first in- troduced, were an attempt at an imitation of the original pure sounds as used in north of China ; but gradually, under the influence of the native speech, they l)ecame corrupted and modified, until they could only be understood by sight and not by the ear. The first teachers employed were brought over from Corea and JAPANESE EDUCATION. 11 China; but subsequently native scholars who had been e-lucated in China were able to take their places, and gradually there grew up in connection with the Imperial Government a system of education which differed widely from its prototype, but was so far fitted to the wants of the Japanese Empire as to secure not only its stability through many centuries, but a high degree of culture and civilization. The primary object aimed at in the education of this per : od, which may be termed the “middle ages” of Japan, was not the diffusion of knowledge among all classes of people. This is a conception of recent origin even in Western countries. The object sought was, by means of special training, to prepare men to enter the service of the Government. Eor this purpose, an institution which we may call a university was estab- lished at the capital of the empire. It had branches also in the various principal provinces, which were tributary to the central institution. The subjects of instruction were, in the higher departments, chiefly the Chi- nese classical writings, which were read and studied by the pupils, and commented upon by learned professors. Special branches of learning which were required in the public service were established as depart- ments of this university. The care of the calendar, and the regulation of the lunar year with its varying months, were confided to a special department, which was responsible for the preparation of the national almanac. Astrology used for the divination of the future, and medicine, treated in its various branches, in accordance with the Chinese system, were each constituted departments. This university was supported by the Imperial Government, by means of grants of land, and by assessments upon certain provinces. It passed through many periods of trial and at last perished, but. as the parent institution of the many which sprang up in different parts of the country, it had great influence upon the educational interests of Japan. The Grrat Schools of Old Java ??. — The founder of the Tokugawa dynasty of shoguns was a liberal patron of learning, and did much to encourage the organization of schools and libraries. He established at his capital, in Yedo, a college which attained great celebrity, and was n JN OUTLINE ILL STORY OF attended by more than three thousand pupils. It was dedicated to the honor of the Chinese philosopher Confucius. The memorial temple and the statues of Confucius and his disciples are still shown, as objects of interest to those who visit the capital. Other institutions of a like character were founded by several of the more powerful daimios in their provinces. The Paimios of Mito, Sat- suma, Owari, Hizen, Chosiu, Yechizen, and others, vied with each other in maintaining, for the benefit of their subjects, institutions of the high- est character The^c in st’tutions were, however, designed solely for the use of the “samurai” class, i. e., those who held feudal relations as military retainers to their masters. The children of the common people were not provided for in government schools. The education they re- ceived was at private schools, or from private teachers. And it speaks well for the intelligence and love of learning on the part of the mer- chants, farmers, and artisans, that, even under these unfavorable circum- stances, the vast proportion of them could read and write the simpler forms of the language, and could cast up their accounts on the counting- frame. The women also were not educated at the great national schools, but were taught in private schools, or by tutors employed specially for their instruction. The education of females was less extensive and thorough than that designed for boys. They learned to read books in the easier styles, but were not generally taught the Chinese classical authors. They could write and play upon some musical instruments, and were taught the female accomplishments of sewing, embroidery, etc. There were, however, some notable exceptions to this limited female education. Female scholars of great celebrity appeared from time to time, and not a few of the most famous names in literature are those of females. Seliool-Life in Old Japan — The school-life of the “ samurai ” boy began when he was about six years of age. His first task was to make after a copy, in weary routine, the Japanese letters. He used at first a brush as large as one’s little finger, so that every defect of his execution would be plainly manifest. The master sat by him and directed his movements. Every one of the complicated letters was JAPANESE EDUCATION. 13 required to be made witli the strokes in the same order, and with the same emphasis. . As the cost of paper would be a serious burden, they were required to use the same sheets manv times over. The letters of one day were smeared out at its close, and the papers dried in the sun for the next. As you pass along the streets of a Japanese town you may still see the schoolboy’s copy-book hung out to dry. and the schoolboy himself you can always detect in his homeward march from school by his smouched lingers and face, which have received more than their share of the writer’s ink. At the lowest estimate a schoolboy was required to learn one thou- sand different characters. In the Government elementary schools at the present time about three thousand characters are taught. A man laying any claim to scholarship knows eight or ten thousand characters ; and those who pass for men of great learning are expected to be ac- quainted with many tens of thousands. These characters have each their distinct meaning, so that the learner has not merely to learn the mechanical act of making it, but also its meaning and its proper place and use in a sentence. Many years of the boy’s life are mainly spent in this task of learning to write and to use the numerous letters of his alphabet. The earlier reading- books were the simpler Chinese classics, in which the boy was taught the sounds of the characters as well as their meaning. As he advanced, more difficult books were used, and he was exercised, not only in read- ing the passages, but also in explaining their meaning in the ordinary colloquial style. Books on manners and etiquette and morals were also used for reading, and were made the text-books for instruction in these branches of education. Up to nine years of age they read without much refer- ence to meaning, and committed to memory some of the standard specimens of poetry. The following were the standard works for early reading : 1. Kokio (The Classic of Filial Duty). 2. Toshisen (Select Poetry of the To Dynasty), four vols. 3. Kobun Shirnpo (Treasures from Old Literature), two vols. 14 AN OUTLINE JTI ST O RE OF At about nine years of age the hoys who were to receive a higher education entered the Chinese Classical Department. In this they were chielly occupied with the study of the various treatises on Chinese philosophy. The following works, usually taken in about this order, were considered essential ; but others were added ad libitum for pri- vate reading and for special study: 1. Shdgaku; Simple maxims of the sages. 2. Daigaku ; A collection of maxims. 3. Kongo (Philosophy of Confucius), four vols. 4. Mdshi (Philosophy of Mencius), four vols. 5. Chiu-yo; A treatise on the conduct of human life. 6. Nihon Gwaishi (A Plistory of Japan, by Rai Jib). 7. Dai-Nihonshi (A History of Japan prepared under the Daimio of Mito). 8. Shikid (Book of Collected Odes), two vols. 9. Shokio (Record of Classical History), two vols. 10. Shunjiii (Annals of the Shu Dynasty by Confucius), two vols. 11. Raiki (Ritual of the Shu Dynasty), four vols. 12. Yeki (Book of Changes), two vols. 13. Saden (Commentary on the Annals of the Shu Dynasty), four- teen vols. 14. Shiki (History of China bv Shibasen), twenty-two vols. 15. Zenkanjio (Record of the Kan Dynasty), fifty-one vols. 16. Gokanjio (Record of the second Kan Dynasty), fifty vols. 17. Shiehi-tsugan (Chronological History of China), thirty vols. 18. Tsugan-kdmoku (Commentary on the chronological History of China), one hundred vols., etc., etc. Prom this formidable list of text-books it is plain that the life of the Japanese college-student was not an easy one. In some schools the course of study was not limited to a definite time, but continued at the pleasure of the scholar. Hence men frequently continued their studies to mature years, like the fellows of an English university. The daily exercises began at about seven or eight o’clock, and continued until about four. There was no vacation except for fifteen days at each of JAPANESE EDUCATION. 15 the equinoxes, when the festivals in honor of Confucius were celebrated, and on the prescribed local and national holidays. The daily routine of a Japanese classical school such as above described would be about as follows : At the opening the students all assembled, say to the member of three or four hundred, in a large as- sembly-room. Here a professor gave a lecture to the whole body”of students on some passage selected from one of the Chinese classics. The lecture consisted of explanations and comments on the selected passages, and of exhortations to the young men to conduct their lives accordingly. Each student was required to have a copy of the book in his hand, and to follow the citations and comments of the professor. After this general lecture the students retired to separate class- rooms, and there under subordinate teachers read over the works enu- merated as text-books. They were required to explain the meaning, and to answer questions to their teacher. On certain days, also, they drew lots to deliver discourses upon some previously-assigned passage. The professors and teachers we e held in the greatest reverence, and it was deemed the gravest offense for fhe scholars to show their impa- tience or their lack of interest, bv yawning, or lounging or moving their positions. Perhaps to this early severe training, carried on through many generations, are due that wonderful imperturbability of temper and that courtesy of manner which characterize the higher classes of Japan. Pollowing these exercises were others for teaching them composi- tion, and giving them practice in the art of writing. Official letter- writing was an object of special training, and was carried on through many years. In a country where rank and etiquette, and the proper observance of official forms, were deemed of the last importance, this branch of education was necessary one not to be neglected. The finer styles of literary composition were matters of ambition with those who desired the highest culture. They were taught to "write poetry not only in the Japanese tongue, but also in pure Chinese. To this day it is a social amusement among their men of culture to turn off impromptu verses, or compose elegant maxims. It is a fair criticism on the system, that time was spent on the comparatively useless accomplishment of 16 AN OUTLINE III STORY OF versification, which ought to have been employed in increasing their knowledge and in improving their prose composition. The latter part of the day was spent in physical exercises. As these schools were for the benefit of the military class, the students were trained in martial exercises, such as shooting with the bow and arrow, throwing the lance, running, riding on horseback, and sword -exercise. Modern Education . — The first seeds of a reformation in the educa- tional system of Japan were sown while the Dutch held the monopoly of trade at Nagasaki. A considerable number of the Japanese learned to speak and to read the Dutch language; and, although the Govern- ment discountenanced the introduction of foreign ideas and foreign books, yet both of them slowly percolated into the empire. The influence of Dutch learning is plainly traceable, especially in the direction of medical science. At the time of the advent of Commo- dore Perry, in 1853, a very perceptible advance had been made out of the old Chinese medical system into the more rational one of Europe. Put it is only since the country has been open by treaty to foreign trade and foreign intercourse that the influence of Western learning has really begun to affect the national life. The conflicts in which the coun- try was plunged over the question of foreign intercourse led them to investigate for themselves the points in which Western civilization was superior to their own. They could not resist the arguments which were supplied to them in the form of powerful ships with their destruc- tive armaments, the knowledge of military and naval science displayed by the strangers, the many strange and useful articles of manufacture which they brought, and the superior knowledge they displayed in regard to geography, astronomy, navigation, and medicine. They made early efforts, therefore, to remedy their deficiencies in these particulars. They engaged from Prance a commission of mili- tary officers to instruct them in the modes of warfare in Europe; they purchased vessels, and engaged skilled persons to teach them how 7 to manage them ; they bought foreign arms and ammunition for the use of their reorganized troops ; they took every opportunity to study the Dutch, English, and Prench languages, so that they might be able to JAPANESE EDUCATION. 17 obtain from foreign books the secrets of that power which they could not fail to acknowledge. But the most important step was taken when they resolved to send to foreign countries young men to be educated in the sciences and arts of the West. As early as 1861 some of their youth were sent to Hol- land, and afterward to England and America. Strangely enough, some of the first to be sent out were from provinces whose daimios had been the most bitter opponents to foreign intercourse. They were the first to see that, if they were ever to compete with the power of Western nations, they must be able to turn against them the weapons drawn from their own sciences and arts. The education of Japanese young men in foreign countries, although of so recent a date, has already been productive of the most important results. Many of the most responsible positions in the Government are now filled by the men who received their education and acquired their knowledge of for- eign affairs in Europe and America. These men, and others equally enlightened and progressive, saw the necessity of establishing a system of education which should give to their country a knowledge of the languages and sciences of those nations with which in the future they were to be so intimately associated. Origin of the Department of Education. — Hence, after the revolu- tion in the government by which the shog.unate was abolished and the mikado resumed his ancient authority, one of the most important re- forms inaugurated was the establishment of a department of public insi ruction. This took place in 1 8 7 1 , and all matters relating to schools, colleges, libraries, and other educational institutions, were intrusted to this department. The system of education which now prevails, and which is fast providing for the nation a system of universal education, is the work which it has undertaken. It was not necessary in this work to begin from the foundation. The old system of learning which had prevailed for centuries in Japan, and which had been competent to produce its statesmen and writers and artists, showed, by its results, that it possessed high merit. The traditional fondness and aptitude for scholarship which distinguish IS AN OUTLINE HISTORY OF the Japanese nation, made it easy to secure the adoption of measures for the advancement of education. Under the stimulus of foreign inter- course, and the strong desire to learn foreign languages, there had already sprung up in various cities schools designed to satisfy this want, As early as 1856 a school for teaching foreign languages w ? as begun in the city of Yedo, under government auspices. Under native and foreign teachers several foreign languages were taught, and the elements of a Western education w x ere supplied. It was out of this nucleus that the present large and flourishing group of institutions for foreign learning in the city of Yedo originated. The newly-organized Department of Education wisely resolved to utilize all such educational material, and has made it the basis for the more systematic and complete set of institutions which it has established. System of Administration. — In order to understand the system of education devised and established by the department of public instruc- tion, it is necessary to explain something of the mode of administration of the present Government of Japan. The responsible^ head of the empire is the mikado, or emperor, in whose name and authority all laws and edicts are issued. The details of administration, however, are intrusted to various department, each being charged with its appropriate work. These departments are; Foreign Affairs, Home Affairs, Finance, Military Affairs, Naval Affairs* Education, Public Works, Justice, and the Imperial Household. For the purpose of carrying out the details of administration in different localities, the whole country is divided into kens or prefectures, in each of which is organized a local government, the officials of which are appointed .by and are responsible to the central Government. Organization of tlw Department of Education. — The Department of Education is administered by a minister and other officers. At its organization the head of the department was Oki, a man of great energy and judgment. He was subsequently transferred to the head of the Department of Justice. At the present time the head-officer is Tanaka Fujimaro, the vice-minister. The business is transacted in separate bureaus or boards, each having its appropriate work. JAPANESE EDUCATION. 19 The Bureau of Superintendence is charged with the duty of inspect- ing the schools of the empire, and with the duty of general superin- tendence. The officers of the bureau are Nomura Motosuke and Hatakeyama Yoshinari, superintendents, together with inspectors and sub -inspectors. The Bureau of School A fairs has charge of the business of the schools with the department, and with the appointment and designation of officers and teachers. The chief officers are Kuki Riuichi and Tsuji Shinji, with whom are associated secretaries and clerks for the transac- tion of the business. The Bureau of Medical Affairs has charge of the schools of medi- cine and pharmacy under the department. The health-office was formerly connected with this bureau, but has been recently transferred to the Department of Home Affairs. The chief of this bureau is Nagayo Sensai. The Bureau of Reports collects, arranges, and publishes statistics of education. It gathers information concerning education in foreign countries. It publishes a semi-monthly report containing information for teachers and those interested in education. The compilation and preparation of school-books are in its charge. The chief officers are Nishimura Shigeki and Nakashima Nagatomo. The Bureau of finance is charged with the care of all financial transactions of the department, w-ith the payment of moneys to the gov- ernment schools and the distribution of the annual appropriations to the local school bureaus. The head of the bureau is Uchimura Riozo. The government schools are each managed by a director, who is ap- pointed by the Department of Education, and who is generally one of its officers. The director is responsible for the general conduct of the institution, but in all important matters is required to consult the de- partment. In each of the local governments there are officers charged w 7 ith the care of educational affairs, who are required to look after the organi- zation and maintenance of the schools in the different districts. The empire is divided into seven grand school-districts, in each of which it 20 AN OUTLINE HISTORY OF is planned to establish educational institutions for higher instruction. These grand school-districts are subdivided into middle and elementary school-districts. Of the latter there were in 1874 about forty-five thousand. Their boundaries are determined by the natural features of the country, care being taken to construct districts so that the access to the schools may be easy, and also so that the ancient communal asso- ciations of the people may be as far as possible respected. The institutions of learning which have been organized under the department may be classified and described under the following heads: 1. Elementaky Schools. — The elementary schools are under the immediate charge of the educational officers of the local governments. As fast as the circumstances of the districts would justify they have been established, or where schools already existed they have been reor- ganized. In this way many private schools have been adopted and have become public schools. A schedule of studies and other regulations for elementary schools was issued by the Department of Education. They are adhered to as far as the condition of the schools and the ability of the teachers will allow. Text-books on the various subjects of learn- ing have been prepared under the direction of the department, and published for the benefit of the schools. Charts for teaching reading, writing, geography, and arithmetic, have been prepared, and instruc- tions for their use have been issued. The age for admission to the lowest grade is about six years. Males and females are admitted without distinction. The entire programme of study is designed for eight years, and is divided into two courses — a junior and a senior course, each of four years. Each year is divided into two grades, so that each of the two courses is divided into eight grades, of six months each. The subjects of study, with the text-books employed, are as follows : Reading . — Charts of sounds ; charts of familiar objects ; graded series of readers ; lives of western heroes ; accounts of official titles and dignitaries, etc. Writing . — Charts of letters in different styles ; copy-books in differ- ent styles ; official names and titles in Japan, etc. JAVANESE EDUCATION . 21 Arithmetic . — Charts of Japanese and Arabic numerals; addition and multiplication tables; elementary and advanced arithmetic; use of the Japanese counting-frame ; elementary principles of algebra ; sys- tem of Western weights and measures. Geography . — Maps of Japan ; maps of Western countries ; ele- mentary and advanced books on geography; books of travels in all countries, etc. History. —Histories of Japan ; history of the treaty-powers ; general history. Morals and Manners . — Doctrines to foster filial obedience; con- versations on how to behave ; work on virtue, written in pure Japanese ; guide to the customs and manners of the world, etc. These subjects are taught orally to the scholars. Elementary Physics . — First steps in physics ; questions and an- swers in physics for children ; physics with illustrations, etc. These subjects are to be taught in part orally. Physiology . — Elementary physiology and hygiene. As fast as the wants of the communities require it, secondary schools, graded so as to receive the pupils after they have finished the elementary schools, are to be established. Already in some of the cit- ies this necessity has arisen. The subjects of study are designed to follow those pursued in the elementary schools. They differ from those in corresponding schools in Europe and America in giving more weight to the study of the native language. To read and write this language with correctness and elegance is a much more serious task than in any Western country. Its complicated ideographic alphabet, and its various styles for colloquial, literary, and official uses, render it much more difficult of complete mastery. The elementary and secondary schools are supported from four different sources: 1. The Department of Education makes an annual grant to all the schools of the empire, in proportion to the school popu- lation in each district. The power to make or withhold this grant ena- bles the department to require that the schools shall be conducted in accordance with the regulations prescribed. 2. In most districts the 22 AN OUTLINE HISTORY OF children are charged a small fee, which goes to the support of the schools. 3. A tax is levied in each district, under the supervision of the local school-officers. It varies with the ability of the district, and their willingness to sustain education. 4. Private individuals, especially the former daimios, who still have considerable revenues, and rich merchants, frequently make liberal donations for the support of the schools in their localities. To show the number and increase of elementary schools the fol- lowing table is given. The statistics for 1875 are not yet available, but it may safely be stated that the increase has even been greater than that given for 1874. It is estimated that in 1875 the schools numbered at least 30,000, and the pupils 2,000,000. ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS AND PUPILS. 1874. Increase for the Year. Elementary schools, public 18,712 2,356 1,303,300 421,807 10,714* “ “ private 2,224 Pupils of elementary schools, male 293,684 103,471 397,155 “ “ “ female “ “ “ total 1,725,107 The following tables give the income from various sources devoted to the support of elementary schools under the direction of the local \ governments, the expenditures on their account, and the approximate values of their property. The yen is almost identical in value with the gold dollar of the United States. INCOME OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS, 1874. INCOME FOR 1874. Yen. Increase for the Year. From school-fees From school-district rates From voluntary contributions From government pro-rata appropriations From interest of various funds From miscellaneous sources Total 301,603.32 1,458,610.06 1,030,845.40 272,330.17 354.326.50 326.407.50 179.6*0.54 620,291.32 651,030.78 27,804.89 309,768.76 66,428.40 3,794,123.01 1,855,024.69 * Decrease. Japanese education. 23 EXPENDITURES OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS, 1874. EXPENDITURES FOR 1874. Yen. Increase for the Year. 1,295,686.63 282,527.51 28,269.64 643,536.01 488,137.25 170.832.56 286,289.03 672.540.74 150,516.54 22,876.38 351,213.94 176,400.45 107.657.75 138,500.81 For miscellaneous purposes Total 3,195,278.63 1,619,706.61 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PROPERTY, 1874. APPROXIMATE VALUES, 1874. Yen. Increase for the Year. Value of school-houses 1,038,026.57 124.580.39 413,595.61 367,653.63 3,796,392.07 505,752.86 74,090.79 248,346.53 179,867.85 1.936.430.89 Value, of school -grounds Value of school-apparatus Value of school-books Amount, of school -fun rls Total 5,740,248.27 2,944,488.72 2. Normal Schools. — The chief difficulty, in the introduction of the new methods of instruction and the new subjects of study into the schools, was the want of competent teachers. The old teachers had been accustomed to the old Japanese and Chinese system. Modern arithmetic, the geography and history of foreign countries, and the natural sciences, were comparatively unknown. The first task, there- fore, which presented itself to the Department of Education, was the training of teachers for the elementary schools. In 1872 a normal school was organized in the city of Tokio ; 1 it was modeled after similar institutions in foreign countries. An experienced foreigner aided in its organization. It was designed to give the pupils a good education in all the branches to be taught in the elementary schools, and also to give them instruction and training in the proper methods of teaching. This school has now been in operation four 1 At the time of the removal of the imperial capital from Kioto to Yedo, the name of the latter city was changed to TGkio, i. e.\ “ Eastern capital,” 24 AN OUTLINE ILL STORY OF years, and has sent out between two and three hundred graduates. Tt has connected with it a training-school of small children, where the pu- pils of the normal school are exercised in teaching. It is well supplied with books, apparatus for instruction in physics and chemistry, and with gymnastic appliances. It has a fine building in a beautiful situa- tion, on a portion of the ancient site Occupied by the famous College of Confucius. The course of study extends through tw T o years, and is divided into four grades of six months each. An examination is held at the end of every six months, for promotion into the higher grades. The subjects of study may be summarized as follows : Japanese and Chinese literature, w T ith practice in writing, reading, and composition ; geography, including that of Japan and foreign countries, with exer- cises in map-drawing and the use of maps and globes ; mathematics, including Japanese and foreign arithmetic, geometry, algebra, trigo- nometry, with practice in the use of slates and blackboard ; the elements of physics and chemistry, illustrated by experiments ; physiology, bot- any, and zoology; political economy, ethics, and the principles of gov- ernment ; history, including that of Japan and China, and of the prin- cipal Western countries. The training in methods of instruction begins with the second year. Under a proper instructor the students at first observe, and then take part in the teaching of the children in the training-school. They also have a daily conference among themselves and with their teacher, wdiere questions are asked and explanations are given in regard to methods of instruction. As soon as the success of the Tdkio Normal School was assured, it was resolved to establish another in the third grand school-district in the great commercial city of Osaka. It wms modeled after the one in Tokio, and its officers and teachers were selected from among those w r ho had been trained in it. One year later the system of male normal schools was made complete by establishing five others, thus giving one to each grand-school district. Female education had never received that attention in the old sys- JAPANESE EDUCATION. tem of education tliat its importance deserved. The wise and progres- sive statesmen of the present era saw the necessity of giving to female education a great and a decided impulse. This purpose was secured by the enlightened generosity of the empress, who resolved to do something to promote the education of her own sex. She^ gave from her own private purse the money necessary to erect a building for a Female Normal School, and directed the Department of Education to see her wishes carried out. An excellent building was thereupon erected on a beautiful and commanding site, and in October, 1875, it was dedicated in the presence of her Imperial Majesty, with simple but impressive ceremonies. It was immediately opened for the instruction of female teachers, and is now in successful operation. The graduates of the normal schools were, as rapidly as they could be turned out, sent into the various kens to assist in reorganizing the elementary school in accordance with the new regulations. Under the direction of the local school-officers, they have in a variety of ways aided in spreading a knowledge of the new system among the old teachers. Sometimes they have done this by going round from school to school, explaining and illustrating the methods of teaching and showing tbe use of blackboards and charts and books. Sometimes they have estab- lished at some central point a model school, where all the improved appliances are put into use, and where the old teachers come and observe, and receive explanations from the normal graduates. And finally they have in many kens been employed to organize a kind of local training-schools, where the teachers of the ken are gathered to- gether, and not only receive instruction in the methods of teaching with the improved appliances, but also are taught the simpler elements of the subjects which are to be introduced into their schools. At tbe present time there are not less than fifty of those local training-schools in the different parts of the empire. Of course, it is well understood that these improvised teachers are very imperfectly fitted for their work, and only serve a temporary pur- pose. Yet the plan has been successful in establishing schools on a more extensive scale than could have been possible in any other way. 26 AN OUTLINE HISTORY OF Although the instruction must for a long time to come be imperfect, yet tlie progress lias been both substantial and rapid beyond all expectation. The following table gives a summary of the government and local normal schools as they stood in 1874. Since that time great progress has been made. Additional local normal schools have been established, and the Female Normal School, with one hundred and fifty students, has been opened. A TABLE SHOWING THE SCHOOLS FOR TRAINING TEACHERS. NORMAL SCHOOLS IN 1874. NUMBER. Number of Teachers. Number of Students. Govern- mental. Local. First grand-school district 1 17 95 1,477 Second grand-school district 1 6 58 1,079 Third grand-school district 1 4 33 547 Fourth grand-school district 1 6 36 529 Fifth grand-school district 1 4 16 233 Sixth grand-school district 1 6 22 773 Seventh grand-school district 1 2 25 ' 384 Total 52 285 5,022 3. Foreign-Language Schools. — For the present, and possibly for a long time to come, the higher education of the Japanese must come to them through a foreign tongue. Their own language is too de- ficient in the literature of foreign science, and even in well-understood terms for the expression of the ideas of foreign learning and philosophy, to make it a fit medium for their communication. Just as, in the mid- dle ages of Europe, the Latin was employed as the learned language, so for the present, at least, the Japanese must employ the English as the language in which they must study science and philosophy. At a later period, when a set of men have been trained in all the learning of the West, and are capable of drawing continued inspiration from for- eign boohs, they will in turn interpret these ideas to their countrymen. They will coin the new words, write the new books, teach the new sci- ences, wiiich shall put Japan and Japanese literature on a level with the civilization of Western nations. JAPANESE EDUCATION . 27 To effect these results, the Department of Education has estab- lished at important centres schools for foreign learning. In each of the seven grand-school districts a school of this character is established, to be conducted in the English language. In addition to this there is in Toldo a school in which are taught German, Ereneh, Russian, and Chi- nese. An English school for girls has also been in operation for sev- eral years in Toldo. The programme of studies in these language-schools extends through six years, and is divided into a junior and senior course, each of three years. The students are admitted to these schools after they have finished the junior course of the elementary schools, and in addi- tion have acquired such a knowledge of the foreign language that they can read and speak easy sentences. The studies of the junior course include the following subjects: JUNIOE COUESE. Japanese Language : Daily training in reading, writing, and com- posing. English Language: Daily drill in pronunciation, spelling, reading, and conversation, followed by grammar and the art of composition. Writing and Drawing. Geography: Native and. foreign; map-drawing; use of maps, globes, etc. Mathematics: Arithmetic; practice in mental computation; ele- ments of algebra. History : Japanese and Chinese history, and an outline history of Western countries. Morals and Manners: Oral instruction. SENIOE COUESE. In addition to the above subjects the following are studied: Mathematics ; Geometry, algebra, and trigonometry History : The history of the several countries with which Japan is connected by treaty. 28 AN OUTLINE HISTORY OF Physics : The elements of general physics and chemistry. Natural History : Including botany, zoology, and physiology. Philosophy: Including the elementary principles of ethics and metaphysics. Political Science: Including discussion of the different forms of government, the principles of political economy, and of international law. Besides the government foreign-language schools, there are a large number of private schools, taught in a great part by native teachers, in which, however, sometimes foreign teachers are employed. Tor the year 1874? eight-two such schools are reported as in operation. In connection with schools of foreign languages it is proper to men- tion the important influence upon education produced by the schools, established in connection with the various foreign religious missions in Japan. Before the establishment of the present government schools, they were ahnost the only means by which a knowledge of foreign lan- guages could be obtained, and many of the best foreign scholars re- ceived their first instruction in the schools of missionaries. At the present time there are many schools of this kind both for males and females. A careful estimate made for me a year ago gives the number of scholars under the instruction of the Protestant missionaries as not less than seven hundred. Those under the missions of the Greek and Roman Churches must be a still greater number. FOREIGN-LANGUAGE SCHOOLS. NUMBER. Number of Teachers. Number of Students. FOREIGN-LANGUAGE SCHOOLS IN 1874. Govern- mental. Local. First errand-school district 2 56 147 3,631 348 Second grand-school district 1 8 29 Third grand -school district 1 11 23 655 Fourth grand -school district... 1 5 55 Fifth errand-school district 1 i 6 68 Sixth grand -school district 1 2 32 304 Seventh grand-school district 3 4 5 258 Total 10 82 247 5,319 JAPANESE EDUCATION. 2'J 4. University of Tokio. — To provide for tlie higher education in this national system, tlie Department of Education lias begun by estab- lishing in the capital an institution of a high grade. It grew out of the old foreign-language school which was founded in 1856, and which has been developed step by step as the wants of the country demanded. It is designed as the receptacle for those students of the various foreign- language schools who desire to obtain a professional or a technical education. Its present university organization was effected in 1873. The requirements for admission are a proficiency in the studies of the junior course in a foreign-language school. That is, the applicant must possess a through knowledge of the English language, both as to writing and speaking. He must be a good elementary Japanese and Chinese scholar. He must have mastered arithmetic, descriptive geography, and the history of Japan, as well as an outline history of Westerm nations. The programme of studies extends through six years, three of which are devoted to a general course of study in fundamental subjects, de- signed to give general culture as well as a preparation for the separate special courses which are to follow. During the last three years the students enter upon professional or technical subjects, being divided into separate departments or colleges for that purpose. The general course includes the following subjects : Language: Grammar; rhetoric; English literature; logic; with practice in English composition. Mathematics: Algebra; geometry; trigonometry and its applica- tions. History : General history ; history of England and her colonies ; of the United States ; Erance and Germany ; history of civilization. Physics: Elements of physics, with experimental illustrations ; gen- eral inorganic chemistry, with practical illustrations ; descriptive and physical astronomy. Natural History: Human and comparative anatomy and physi- ology ; botany ; botanical physiology ; zoology ; mineralogy ; geology. Political Economy: History and principles of political ethics. 30 AN OUTLINE HISTORY OF Latin : Grammar, and exercises in translation into English. The special courses are pursued in distinct colleges, in which the students, besides continuing certain general studies in science and phi- losophy, are chiefly occupied with special and professional branches. It is a part of the plan of this university to increase the number of special departments as the circumstances may demand. At present the fol- lowing schools are organized and in operation: . 1. College of Law, in which the pupils study the Latin and Trench languages ; the philosophy of mind and morals ; the history and science of politics ; international law ; English law ; Roman law ; Trench law ; comparative jurisprudence, especially as applied to the penal and civil laws of Japan. 2. College of Chemical Technology , in which the pupils study the Trench language; the philosophy of mind and morals; mineral- ogy, geology, and mining; physics, with laboratory practice; general chemistry; analytical chemistry; chemical technology; and metal- lurgy. 3. College of Engineering, in which the studies are the Trench lan- guage; the philosophy of mind and morals; physics, with laboratory practice ; mineralogy, geology, and mining ; higher mathematics ; land and railway surveying ; hydraulic engineering ; theoretical and applied mechanics ; tlienno -dynamics ; machines ; designs for engines and en- gineering works ; drawing, and graphical calculation, 4. In addition to the foregoing departments of study, there is a School of Arts and Manufactures conducted in the Japanese language. The studies are divided into two courses, viz., a course in chemical arts and a course in mechanical arts. Each course extends through three years, of which one year and a half is employed in preparatory studies; and the remaining one year and a half in special studies and technical work. The studies include the following: Chemical Arts: Arithmetic; algebra; physics; chemistry; labo- ratory practice, and practical training in the manufacture of chemical products. Mechanical Arts: Arithmetic; algebra; geometry; drawing; phys- JAPANESE EDUCATION. 1 ics; chemistry; mechanics; experiments with machines, and practical training in the manufacture of mechanical products. It may be mentioned that the greater part of the philosophical ap- paratus in the educational part of the Japanese exhibit was manufact- ured at the School of Arts and Manufactures. The chief director of the university is Hatakeyama Yoshinari. The instructors are in part foreigners and in part Japanese. The following statistics will exhibit the present condition of the institution : Directors 2 Other officers 11 Foreign professors 20 Japanese professors and instructors 14 Students in School of Law 17 Students in School of Chemistry 24 Students in general course 131 Other students 153 Total students 349 The university has a library of boohs, chiefly text-books and books of reference, for the use of professors and students. The collections of apparatus in physics, chemistry, and engineering, are extensive and practically serviceable. It has also a good working collection of min- erals, and geological and other specimens. 5. Professional and Technical Institutions. — The want of trained public servants led the Government, at an early period of its foreign intercourse, to establish institutions to provide men edu- cated and trained in the special arts of the West. It was under the pressure of this necessity that the following institutions have been organized and put in operation : 1. Military College . — This was established first in 1867, under the care of a Trench military commission, detailed for this purpose from the Trench army. It is doubtless due to this commission, and to the instruction given in the military college, that the Japanese army lias attained its present high degree of discipline and efficiency. 2. Naval College . — The success of the army school led to a subse- quent organization of a similar kind for the navy. The instruction is in AN OUTLINE HISTORY OF 09 OAj tlie English language, and is given by a commission of officers detailed from the English navy. 3. Engineering College . — To supply competent engineers for its operations, the Department of Public Works has established a college. The students are taught the English language, and receive a thorough course of instruction in theoretical and practical engineering. The graduates from this college are appointed to positions in the various divisions of work conducted by the department. 4. Medical College . — Medical education was always a subject of care on the part of the Government, and, when the impulse toward foreign education began to be felt, medicine was one of the favorite new sci- ences. The result of the efforts toward medical education was the establishment of a medical college of a high character. It is conducted in the German language. Already its influence is felt in the progress and improvement of medical practice in the country. Instead of the old empiric Chinese system, there is a strong tendency to adopt the more scientific methods of Western practice. In estimating the progress that has been made in medical education, we must not omit the organization of hospitals in the empire. Of these there are now a large number located principally in the great cities. In most of them one or more foreign physicians are employed, and in all such cases a class of medical students is connected with the hospital, who receive systematic instruction as well as dailyjpractice among the patients of the hospital. 6. Miscellaneous Educational Agencies. — Schools and col- leges are by no means the only agencies by which the education of a nation is advanced. The circulation of books and newspapers, and the establishment of libraries and museums, are now everywhere recognized as exerting an important influence upon the progress of human knowl- edge. Of these influences it is important to give some account in any statement of the agencies which are now promoting education in Japan : 1. Books and Newspapers .^ — Erom an early period a class of literary men existed in Japan. They were held in high esteem, and usually were the pensioners of the General Government or of some one of the JAPANESE EDUCATION. 33 territorial nobles. The ancient literature of Japan consisted mainly of works on history and philosophy, together with poetry and works of fiction. The introduction of the art of printing with blocks enabled printers to multiply books at a moderate cost. Works of fiction were extensively read by all classes, especially by females. Under the im- pulse created by the opening of the country to foreigners, a strong desire sprang up to obtain a knowledge of foreign countries and foreign laws and customs. It may be safely asserted that the new literature in Japan is now chiefly directed to the supply of this want. Thousands of books have been written and published in reference to foreign coun- tries. Many important works have been translated, both for the supply of the popular demand and for the information of the officers of the Government. Educational books have been extensively compiled or translated from foreign sources, covering most of the subjects of ele- mentary instruction in the schools. Dictionaries and other books facili- tating the acquisition of foreign languages have been prepared. The newspaper, in the present sense, is a new institution in Japan, dating back only about nine years. The design in its first establish- ment was, to provide a means of explaining and defending the progres- sive measures which the Government had adopted. Since that time newspapers have multiplied rapidly, so that now there are more than one hundred in different parts of the country. In the capital alone there are at least a dozen, many of which have a large circulation, two at least reaching ten thousand daily. The best literary talent of the day is em- ployed upon these newspapers, and subjects of public and international interest are discussed with a force and intelligence which will bear com- parison with the best journalism of the times. There is a bureau for the regulation of the press, and occasionally unpleasant collisions have occurred, but in the main a large degree of liberty is allowed by the Government, and a hearty support is tendered by the press. The necessity of making the newspaper intelligible to the various classes of readers has produced a marked modification in the style of writing. The stiff, learned Chinese style, affected, by the old admirers of the classics, has given way to a more near approach to the language 34 AN OUTLINE HISTORY OF of the people. It is believed that this modification will become a . permanent improvement to the language, and will render the diffusion of knowledge more rapid and easy. 2. Libraries and Museums . — Prom the time of the recent transfor- mation of the Government, the collection of books has become necessary for the use of the departments and the institutions of learning. The first public library, however, under the new regime , has been opened in the capital by the Department of Education. It was first organized in 1872 and then contained only Japanese and Chinese books. In 1 875 it was reorganized on a larger basis and now contains a valuable collection of foreign as well as native literature. The leading periodicals, both in Japanese and foreign languages, are kept on file. It is free to the public and is designd as a general library, to be annually increased by the expenditure of a stated sum. In 1873 a museum was organized, intended to exhibit the following classes of collections : Industrial specimens ; specimens of art, and art applied to industry ; specimens of scientific and educational apparatus ; specimens in natural history, agriculture, and ethnology. This mu- seum grew out of the collection of articles made for the Vienna Expo- sition, and has gradually increased, until it is now a collection of rare value and interest. Another museum has been more recently organized by the Depart- ment of Education, for the benefit chiefly of the educational institutions located in Tdkio. It is, however, also intended to be opened for the pub- lic benefit. It is less a general museum than a special series of collec- tions in the various subjects important in an educational course. The two tables which follow, and which close this chapter, will fur- nish some statistics in reference to the attendance at the various grades of schools and the number of teachers employed. The population as given in the table does not include that of the northern island, Tezo, nor the Liu Kiu Islands. These dependencies are not included in the seven grand-school districts, and the administration of their educational affairs is not intrusted to the Department of Education : JAPANESE EDUCATION. 8 TABLE SHOWING THE POPULATION AND NUMBER OP PUPILS in 1874. Population of seven grand-school districts 33,579,909 Whole number of pupils 1,739,422 Percentage of pupils to population 5.18 Pupils in elementary schools 1,725,107 “ males 1,303,300 “ “ “ females 421,807 Pupils in government and local normal schools 5,022 Pupils in foreign-language schools 5,319 Pupils in government colleges. 3,927 TABLE SHOWING THE NUMBER OF TEACHERS IN 1S74. V/hole number of teachers 38,385 Whole number of male teachers 37,731 Whole number of female teachers . 634 Teachers in elementary schools. 37,611 Teachers in normal schools 285 Teachers in foreign-language schools 247 Teachers in government colleges 245 Foreign teachers 212 CHAPTER I. GENERAL SKETCH. In the earliest times the use of alphabetical characters was un- known in our country, and was introduced when intercourse with foreign countries was first opened. Characters are said to have been first introduced by natives of Mimana, a part of the present Corea, who visited our country during the successive reigns of the Emperors Kaikwa and Sujin (157 b. c., 30 b. c.). Books were first introduced into this country by the Empress Jingo who brought them from Corea, which country she invaded (200 a. d.) The first use of writing for public affairs seems to have been in the reign of the Emperor Richu (400 a. d., 404 a. d.), when officers of the finance department were appointed to keep accounts of receipts and expenditures, and officers were also appointed in each province to record and report all the affairs of the local gov- ernments. The son of the Emperor O j in (270 a. d.) was taught to read the Chinese classics and histories under the instruction of a professor called Wani, who was sent from Corea to the imperial court, in the sixteenth year of the reign of the emperor. This was the commencement of the study of literature in this country. Although the art of weaving is said to have been originated by JAPANESE EEU CATION. 37 Tensho-daijin, the commencement of its general practice dates from the reign of the Emperor Ojin (270 a. d.), who called weavers and needle- workers from China, by sending messengers thither for the purpose. The Emperor Yuriaku (457 a. d.) again called such artisans from abroad and distributed them to all the provinces. After this period these arts began to be extensively practised. As to the medical art, it owes its origin to Oanamuchi-no-Mikoto, and Sukuna Hikona-no-Mikoto. Subsequently, the Emperor Inkio (412 a. d.) sent for physicians to Shiragi, one of the states of Corea. The Emperor Ninken (488 a. d„) sent for carpenters to Koma, also one of the states of Corea. The Emperor Keitai (507 a. d.) invited professors to teach the Chinese classics from Corea, and the Emperor Kimmei (540 a. d.) sent for professors of medicine, almanac-making, and divination. At this time Buddhism was also introduced. In the reign of the Empress Suiko (593 a. d.) a priest of Corea, named Kwanroku, came and pre- sented to the empress books on almanac-making, astronomy, and geog- raphy. In the twelfth year of her reign almanacs were first used. At this period an embassador was first sent to the court of the Zui dynasty of China, and the ceremony of opening intercourse with that court was performed. After the Zui dynasty was superseded by that of To, the practice of sending embassadors to that court was still kept up. A student named Takamuku no Kuromasa, and a priest called Bin, returned hither after having been educated in China. In the first year of the reign of the Emperor Kotoku (645 a. d.) these two persons were appointed professors, and were directed to assist in the adminis- tration of government. This is the first instance of political honor being bestowed upon scholars. During the reign of the Empress Suiko (593 a. d.), the Prince Sho- toku administered the government, and, while he was thus acting as regent, he established seventeen regulations as the fundamental laws 88 AN OUTLINE HISTORY OF of t"he country.- These are, however, scarcely anything more than mere instructive maxims. The prince being a most devoted believer in Buddhism, exerted him- self to promote its doctrines ; so that from this period it became pre- dominant in the country. The Emperor Kotoku, who was fond of learning, effected a change in the system of government. He enforced a just and equal adminis- tration in all the provinces, and remedied the abuses of the local officers by appointing new governors of provinces in the place of the old ones, who had virtually held the lands and their inhabitants as their own property and subjects. In the second year of his reign, the emperor established new laws, the rules of administration in the provinces and counties, the enumera- tion of the population, the rate of taxes, and the measurement of lands. He also encouraged good government by rewarding merits and punish- ing crimes, and promoting extension of education. At this period Prince Tenji, who afterward became emperor, acted as regent, as the Prince Shotoku had formerly done under the Empress Suiko. First Establishment of Educational Ijistitutions . — The first educa- tional institution was founded in the second year of the Emperor Tenji (668 a. d.), who established at the seat of government a national uni- versity, with its professors and students. In the fourth year of the reign of the Emperor Temmu (672 a. d.) an observatory was erected for the observation of the position and movement of the heavenly bodies. In the first year of Taiho (702 a. d.) the emperor Mommu effected a great change in the educational system, by reorganizing the university in the capital and establishing provincial schools in each province, and a superior school in Dazai, the principal seat of government in the island of Kiusiu. Departments of medicine and astrology were also established in the government, to superintend all matters concerning these sciences in all the provinces. In the university, professors of the sounds of the Chinese characters, of penmanship, of medicine, of the treatment of diseases of women, of JAPANESE EDUCATION. 39 almanac-making, and of astronomy, were appointed, and students were chosen to he educated in each of these sciences. A musical department was also established, with teachers of music to instruct pupils both in the old national music and in foreign music. When the penal laws and the imperial edicts were first codified in the first year of Taiho (702 a. d.), rules of education were also estab- lished, defining the duties of professors and the studies of students. By these rules, the full term of study for students was fixed at nine years, and the boobs to be used in instruction were arranged in three grades, viz., senior, middle, and junior. The ages of students to be admitted were limited from thirteen to sixteen in all branches of edu- cation. But the educational system in those days was not designed to diffuse knowledge among the people at large, but merely to provide from among the students persons to be employed in public offices. Particular rules of examination, therefore, were adopted, according to which students who obtained the first or second degree in the examina- tion were regarded as having successfully passed the examination. •They were again subdivided into six classes, according to the grade attained in the examination. In the first year of Keiun (704 a. d.) a certain allowance was made for educational purposes out of the public fund reserved to meet general exigencies. In the: first year of Tempiohoji (7 5 7 a. d.), and again in the thirteenth year of Yenriaku, public land was appropriated for the encouragement of education. Besides these grants, there was another appropriation made in each province. This was rice collected as interest on loans made to farmers, and was appropriated to pay for provisions and other miscellaneous expenses of students. Expenses for study were first allowed to Sugawara no Kiyogimi by the Emperor Kwammu (782 a. d.). This was called “the monthly allowance;” and since that time this has always been allowed to the children of the Sugawara and Oye families, when applied for. The Empress Jito (690 a. d.) rewarded professors by giving them a revenue from the produce of land, from silver, or from landed property. 40 AN OUTLINE HISTORY OF Subsequently this practice of rewarding men of learning was constantly kept up through successive reigns. In the first year of Tempiohoji (757 a. d.) the students, who were appointed professors or physicians in the provinces, were ordered to present their first year’s salary to their former teachers. In the fifth year of Showa (838 a. d.) this proportion was altered; and in the eleventh year of Jdgwan (869 a. d.) the rate to he thus sur- rendered was fixed at one-tenth of one year’s salary annually, and this was made the permanent rule. The subjects of instruction were divided into four courses, as follows : The course in which history was taught, together with the art of com- position; the course in which the six Chinese classics were studied; the course in which the penal laws and the imperial edicts issued as rules of action were taught ; and the course in arithmetic and mathemat- ics. Besides these, there was a course in the sounds of the Chinese characters, and one in penmanship. In the medical department there were four separate courses, viz. : in the treatment of internal diseases ; the treatment of incised wounds and of skin-diseases ; the treatment of diseases of infants ; and the treatment of diseases of the ear, eye, mouth, and teeth. Besides these, the arts of shampooing, of acupuncture, and of ap- plying moxa, were taught, each as a separate branch of study. In the astronomical department the movements of the sun, moon, and stars, were observed. Astrological divination was taught and practised, and the annual number of days, etc., was computed for the almanacs. As to the method of choosing students, those of the university were to be selected from among the children of families which were entitled to adopt the term Tubitobe (literature) for their family name, and only from those above the eighth rank. Students of the medical department were chosen from among the children of families entitled to adopt the term Kusuribe (medicine) for their family name, and from among those of the families hereditarily professing medicine. Students of astrology were chosen from among the children of the families entitled to use the JAPANESE EDUCATION. 41 term Urabe (divination) for their family name, and from among those of families hereditarily professing that calling. In the fifth year of Jinki (728 a. d.) the professorships of law and composition were established in the university, and students were ad- mitted to be educated in these branches of study. Those students who made distinguished progress in the study of the arts or sciences were chosen to form a distinct class, called Tokugdsho (felloes). A rule was established in the eighth year of Yenriaku (789 a. d.) by which students of the university below thirty years of age were excluded from public employment ; but this rule was abolished in the first year of Tencho (824 a. d.), and students of all ages were admitted into the public service, according to their talents and knowledge. Foundation of Educational Institutions . — In the thirteenth year of Yenriyaku (794 a. d.) the Emperor Kwammu founded the castle called Heianjo at Kioto in Yamashiro, and established near it an imperial university. Subsequently the Sugawara and Oye families founded schools, within the grounds of the university, consisting of two build- ings, called the eastern and western halls. Eujiwara no Euyutsugu, a minister of state, established a school on the southern side of the university for the education of the children of the Eujiwara family. The consort of the emperor, Saga, also founded a school for the education of children of her family, namely, that of Tachibana. The Prince Tsunesada converted a building used as a pleasure-house of the emperor into a school for the education of the children of the 0 family. Ariwara no Yukihira also founded a school for the 0 family. These five schools were originally private institutions, but after- ward were incorporated as branches of the university. With regard to the libraries during the period Hoki (770 a. d., 780 a. d.), a person called Isonokami Iyetsugu collected books for the use of the public. During the period Yenriaku (782 a. d., 805 a. d.), Wake no Hiro- yo founded a library, in which he kept several thousand books. Sugawara no Michizane also collected a library. 42 AN OUTLINE HISTORY OF A large number of books were accumulated by tl\e Oye family, and as they had been preserved through many successive generations with- out being destroyed by fire, Oye no Masafusa once remarked that the literary calling descending by inheritance in his family shared the same fate as the imperial court. This remark proved to be true, for, when the library of the Oye family was subsequently destroyed by fire, the imperial court also declined. Tuiiwara no Yorinaga, a minister of state, who was very fond of literary pursuits, purchased a great number of books, which he arran- ged in the four classes of Chinese classics, histories, miscellaneous, and Japanese books, and placed them on shelves, distinguished from one another. The greater part of the books were of his own copying. Works on Law and History . — The laws and regulations of Japan were formerly divided into the following classes, viz.: The penal laws; the imperial edicts, issued as rules of action ; incidental regulations adopted from time to time to meet special exigencies; and official instructions prescribed for the government of officers in conducting their affairs. Although these were all originally copied from the laws adopted by the To dynasty in China, it w^as by the Emperor Tenji (668 a. d.) that they were first established in this country. These were again arranged by the Emperor Temmu (672 a. d.) and were afterward revised by the Emperor Mommu (697 a. d.), during the periods of Taiho, under the name of Taihorio. The Empress Genslio (715 a. d.) again revised this work during the period Yoro, This was called Yororio, and consisted of twenty-seven volumes, two of which are now lost. The penal law r s consisted of twelve volumes, of which only four are now extant. The incidental regulations were completed during the three periods, Konin (810 a. d., 823 a. d.), Jogwmn (859 a. d., 876 a. d.), and Yengi (901 a. d., 922 a. d,). This work consisted of thirty-two volumes, of which nine are preserved. The official instructions estab- lished in the period Yengi, consisting of fifty volumes, are entirely pre- , served. The two codes of rules established in the period Konin and Jogwan are embodied in Yengishiki. The commencement of the compilation of histories dates from the JAPANESE EDUCATION. 43 twenty-eighth year of the reign of the Empress Suiko (620 a. d.), when Prince Shotoku, with the assistance of Soga no Umako, compiled the history of the emperors, and a history of the country. They were left unfinished, and, being kept in the house of Umako, when his son, Yemiji, having suffered punishment for his crimes, set his house on fire and destroyed himself, the history of the emperors, together with other works, was reduced to ashes. A person called Pune no Esaka saved the history of the country from destruction by the same fire, and presented it to Prince Nakano- oye. The Emperor Temmu having formed the intention of compiling a history, ordered in the tenth year of his reign the Princes Kawashima and Osliikabe to prepare a history of the imperial reigns, with other events of former times. The two princes died before the work was completed. The Empress Gensho ordered the Prince Toneri to su- perintend the work, which was finished in the fourth year of Toro (720 a. d.), and is entitled “ Nihonshoki” (“ A Plistory of Japan”). This is the first history of this country, and was soon followed by others, such as “ Zokunihongi,” “ Nihonkoki,” “ Zokunihonkoki,” “ Montoku-jitsu- roku,” “ Sandaijitsuroku,” “ Honcho-seiki,” etc. All these are authen- tic histories of this country. Eor more than seven hundred years after these works were written, no important historical writings appeared. Works of an historical nature were published, but they were far from being correct and com- plete. Mitsukuni, the Prince of Mito, having in his youth cherished the design of completing a history of Japan, wrote a work commencing from the reign of the Emperor Jimmu down to the time when the two imperial courts became united into one. His son Tsunayeda (1702 a. d.) prosecuted the intention of his father and completed the history after the lapse of one hundred years from the death of Mitsukuni. This history is called “ Dainihonshi” (or, “ History of Great Japan”), and consists of two hundred and forty-two volumes, including the chrono- logical record of events and biographies of particular persons. Though it is to be regretted that notes and chronological tables have not been 44 AN. OUTLINE HISTORY OF added to this history, still it is considered to be the most complete ever written in this country. BecJiue of Learning. — Prom the period of Yenriaku (782 a. d., BO 5 a. D.) perfect tranquillity prevailed in the country during one hun- dred years. Literature was much cultivated through the successive reigns, and many talented and learned men flourished. At this period literary culture reached a standard never before attained. But, as pro- longed peace is apt to produce effeminacy in life and indolence in literary pursuits, the result was that at last educational institutions also began to be less successfully managed than before. Miyoshi Kiyotsura (914 a. d.), who possessed practical ability and political knowledge, presented to the emperor, in the fourteenth year of Yengi, a memorial containing twelve articles, in which, among other things, he stated his opinion on the subject of education in the following words : “ The successful government of a country depends upon wisdom, and wisdom depends upon education. “ Now, educational institutions have been allowed to become places of hunger and cold, in consequence of the insufficient maintenance received from the land-tax and from the income of the farmers’ rice- loans which, in the course of a long period, have come to be not so well-managed as formerly. It is humbly requested that the educational land-tax be restored to its former condition, and that the income from rice-loans be applied to the support of •students ; and it is further requested that strict orders be given to professors to recommend stu- dents to the imperial service in the most impartial way.” It is seen, from what is mentioned in the code of rules established in the period Yengi, that his request was complied with. A work containing a code of regulations, and consisting of fifty vol- umes, was completed and presented to the emperor in the fifth year of Yencho (927 a. d.). It is seen from this work that the literary and political institutions at this time were in a very satisfactory condition. There is one volume called “ The Buies of the University,” which de- scribes the ceremonies to be observed at the festival given in honor of Confucius, and the rules in regard to the lectures given by professors. JAPANESE EDUCATION . 45 and also the rules for examining the students, as well as the regulations for the allowance to he made for their support. The decaying condition of the university is referred to in the. state- ment of Fujiwara no Atsumitsu, who presented his memorial on seven subjects to the emperor in the first year of Hoven (1135 a. d.). When Yorinaga, minister of state, superintended the examination of students in the third year of Nimbio, he examined them in his private residence. In the first year of Chisho (1177 a. d.), the ceremony of the festival given in honor of Confucius was performed in the office of the Im- perial Government, the university having been destroyed by fire. From these facts it will be seen that the university was then in a decaying state. About the Old Libraries and Schools — A library was founded by Hojo Akitoki (1240 a. d.), and was located in the village of Kanazawa, in the province of Musashi. The institution was used as a school during the nine generations of the Hojo family, and a number of books, both Chinese and Japanese, were kept in it. Some of the books are to this day found scattered among the people. A school was established in the village of Ashikaga, in the province of Shimotsuke. It was a provincial school in the middle ages of 'Japan, and when it decayed it was turned into a school for priests of the Zenshu sect of Buddhists. During the period Onin (1370 a. d.), Uyesugi Norizane rebuilt the school-house, stored books in it, and endowed it with lands. As literature was entirely neglected, and became almost extinct at this period, owing to the general disturbances and agitations, this was the only school existing in the whole country, and is said to have been resorted to even by students from the western and northern parts of the country. Tokugawa Tyeyasu (1603 a. d.) instructed Havashi Doshun to establish a school, but owing to some cause the work was not accom- plished. In the seventh year of Kwanyei (1630 a. d.) a school was first established under the government of Tokugawa on the Uyeno hill. In the period Genroku, Nobuatsu, the grandson of Doshun, removed the institution to the site of the Temple of Confucius, when it was called 46 AN OUTLINE HISTORY OF the Shohei School. Doshun, the grandfather of Nobuatsu, and Sliiuiisai his father, both kept their heads shaven, and were classed among the Buddhist priesthood. Nobuatsu, however, abandoned the priesthood, and allowed his hair to grow, and received the title of Chancellor of the University. By the time that Hayaslii Ko Dainaiki represented the family three generations after Nobuatsu, literature became extensively culti- vated. Tokugawa Iyeyasu (1603 a. d.), regretting the destruction of books which had taken place during the long wars and disorders, took meas- ures to enoourage the printing of books. Bor this purpose he instructed Hayaslii Doshun to purchase useful works. He employed every means to obtain them, and when found had them printed. In the thirteenth year of Keicho (1608 a. d.), he used types in print- ing, and in the nineteenth year he is said to have used copper types. Printing was first used as early as in the reign of the Empress Kokeri (749 a. d.J, when “ Mukushojogio,” a sacred book of the Buddhists, was printed; but since that time no mention is made of printing books for the space of nearly four hundred years, till the third year of Shoan (1301 a. d.), when “ Grokenho ” was printed. This is the commence- ment of printing in the middle ages of Japan. “ Hanniakio,” a sacred book of the Buddhists, was printed in the first year of Genriaku (1184 a. d.). “ Sentakushiu” was printed in the second year of Kenriaku, and “ Shidrioshiu” was printed in the second year of Slioka (1258 a. d.). Since this period the art of printing has been extensively practised, so that a second edition of “ Rongo,” the Philosophy of confucius, was printed in the period Shohei (1347 a. d.)v The art of printing with types was early practised, but the precise date is not known. Schools of Eaimios and Frivate Schools . — After the period of Henna (1615 a. d., 1623 a. d.), when general peace and order were established under the Tokugawa family, each Daimio became possessed of his own land, and provided for the education of his vassals, and the? people living in his dominion. The first school ever built by a Daimio JAPANESE EDUCATION . 47 is the one founded by Kobayagawa Takakage (1580 a. d.), but the old- est school among those which have remained until recent times is the one established by Uyesugi Kagekatsu (1596 a. d.). Next to those per- sons comes Mayeda, the Prince of Kaga, who did much for the spread of literary learning, and erected a large school called Meirindo. Besides these schools, there were many similar establishments in Owari, in Higo, in Aidzu, etc. Ikeda, the Prince of Bizen, built a school at Shidzutani, to educate his vassals in literature as well as military science. Among all Others, the two schools of Mito are most conspicuous. A School founded by ItS Jinsai (1680 a. d.) is the first school ever founded by a private individual. Since then nearly all who professed classical or literary learning have had their private schools. In the period Bunkwa (1801 a. d., 1817 a. d.), Nakai Sekizen established a school at Osaka. This was the largest private school in recent times. Modern School System . — -At the restoration of the imperial govern- ment (1867 a. d.), the management of educational matters was again resumed by the Imperial Government, and many changes were intro- duced. In the fifth year of Meiji (1872 a. d.), the Educational Depart- ment was established. The country was then divided into seven grand school-districts for educational purposes. These districts were again subdivided into districts for higher schools, and into districts for com- mon schools. Educational regulations were established, and courses of study laid out, and required to be taught in the schools of the coun- try. A normal school and a school of the English language were also established in the principal seat of each of the large educational dis- tricts. A medical school and hospital were founded at Tokio. At the University of Tokio various sciences and arts are taught in the Eng- lish language. Schools for the instruction in foreign languages, and those for the education of females, have been established, together with normal schools for the education of female teachers. Technical schools for military and naval science, for engineering, for medicine and law, have been organized and opened. So that at least the most pressing educational wants of the country have been provided for. 45 AN OUTLINE HISTORY OF CHAPTER II. EDUCATION IN THE EAKLY AGES. Origin of Characters and Books . — The education of tlie people being the foundation of good government, it lias never been neglected by those who have aimed at promoting the prosperity of a country, and the happiness of its people. To furnish, therefore, the means of education to every youth in the country, by providing schools and teachers of various branches of knowledge, forms one of the most important and necessary measures to be adopted by the state. In the earliest times the use of characters was not known in our country, and tradition was the only means by which the deeds or words, of the ancients were preserved and transmitted. Nor did the use of characters become known till intercourse with foreign countries w r a$ opened. The use of' this important medium of knowledge is said to have been introduced by a native of a country called Okara (one of the ancient provinces of Corea), who visited this country during the reign of the Emperor Kaikwa (157 B. c.). Subsequently, in the reign of the Emperor Su jin (97 B. c.), another person of the same country came to live in .Japan who is believed to have aided in the introduction of a written language. In the sixty-fifth year of the reign of the same emperor (33 b. c.)j an envoy was sent to the imperial court by the King of Okara to pay tribute; and again, in the sixty-eighth year of the same reign, a royal prince of the same country came to pay his personal respects to the imperial court, and entered the service of the Emperor Sujiii (97 B. c.), who thereupon gave the name of Mimana to the prince's native land. Erom this time foreigners began to pay visits to this country, and it is JAPANESE ED U CAT LON 49 believed tliat the art of writing dates from this period, although the national histories furnish no clear evidence on this point. There existed at a later period a book consisting of five volumes, under the title of ,c Hijinsho.” This book was written by Hijin, who, although it is not clearly proved, is said by some to be a native of Koma, in Corea; but the work is now lost, and but a few of the characters used in it are extant. The Emperor Cliiuai (a. d. 192) died while on an expedition against Kumaso, who had been instigated to revolt against the imperial author- ity through secret communications made by tho people of Sankan a country consisting of the three states, Shiragi, Koma, and Kudara, situated in the neighborhood of Mimana. An envoy from Mimana to Japan, sent to pay tribute, "was also robbed by the people of Sankan. These acts of the people of Corea led the Empress Jingo (a. d. 200) to undertake in person a naval expedition against that country. After having conquered the country, she seized the magazines within the cap- ital, and returned with all the writings and books found in them. She then established a branch of the government of Japan in Mimana, to preserve order and peace in Corea. Since these periods our country began to be constantly visited by foreign embassadors, who came to pay tribute, and thus characters and writing came into general use. The Emperors 6 jin (a. d. 270) gild Nintoku (a. d. 313) were both fond of literary pursuits, and greatly patronized them. The Emperor Bichiu (a. d. 400) caused the accounts of receipts and expenditures in the department which had charge of the precious metals, jewels, and other valuable things of the emperor, to be kept in writing, and appoint- ed Wani and Acliino-omi, natives of Kudara, for this purpose. The emperor, in the fourth year of his reign, appointed recording officers in each province to record all the proceedings of the local government, that the wishes of the people of all quarters might be known to the imperial court. This is the origin of the appointment of recording offi- cers in the provinces as well as in the court. Thus the utility of writing and of books began to be manifest. 50 AN OUTLINE HISTORY OF Introduction of Learning , A?’ts, and Laics . — The youngest soil of the Emperor Ojin, named Uchi no Wakiiratsuko when a mere boy, being very fond of reading, endeared himself to his father, and was by him nominated his heir. In the fifteenth year of his reign, (a. d. 284) a son of the King of Kudara, in Corea, named Ajiki, came to this country, and, being a great scholar in the Chinese classics, was made tutor to the prince. Once, being asked by the emperor if he knew any professor superior to himself in learning in his country, Ajiki nominated Wani, saying that he was the most learned man in the whole country. Upon this the emperor immediately sent for Wani, who came the year following and presented to the emperor the book of “Philosophy of Confucius” and also the “ Thousand- Character Classic.” The prince read many books and made great progress in his studies under the instruction of Wani, so that upon one occasion, when a letter was sent to the emperor by the King of Koma, his knowledge enabled him to detect uncivil terms in the letter, which he tore up, severely reproving the envoy who had presented it. Wani passed his life in this country in the service of the imperial court. Erom Wani descended two families with whom literature become an hereditary profession. The posterity of these twm families increased in number, and lived respectively in Yamato and Kawachi. They were called eastern and western families, Yamato being situated in an east- ern and Kawachi in a western direction. In the seventh year of the reign of the Emperor Keitai (a. d. 513) a professor of the five classical books was invited from Kudara, in Corea, by the order of the emperor. A professor was accordingly sent from Kudara, and in the tenth year of the same reign another came to suc- ceed him in his office. This is the commencement of the practice of calling professors from foreign countries to educate students in literature. o In the twenty-fourth year of the same reign, the emperor issued a decree ordering that the selection of men for the public service be made to depend upon their integrity and learning, so as to encourage the JAPANESE EDUCATION. 51 cause of morality and education. This is the origin of the custom of appointing students to the impe- rial service from the university and from the provincial schools, and for a long time this was the fundamental principle of the educational sys- tem in Japan. After a time, Kotoku Bateian, professor of the five classical books, came from Kudara to succeed Koammo in his office, and in the fif- teenth year of the reign of the Emperor Kimmei (a. d. 540) another professor named Oriuki again came and succeeded him in the office. Oshinji, the descendant, in the fifth generation, from Yfani, pursued his hereditary profession, and was employed by the Emperor Bitatsu on account of his literary talents. Once he displayed his ability in reading a letter presented to the em- peror from Koma, which none among the literary families was able to make out. Upon this the emperor much praised his talent, and request- ed him to attend always near him, while he reproached the others for their imperfect learning. About this period Buddhism found its way into this country, and gained many converts among all classes of people. The study of literature from this time fell largely into the hands of the priests, and the practice of calling scholars from Corea to fill the office of professors of literature was no longer kept up. In the reign of the Empress Suiko (a. d. 593), the Prince Shotoku assisted her as regent in the administration of the government. This prince had a strong memory, and acquired an extensive knowl- edge, but, being a most devoted believer in Buddhism, considered the promotion of the religious cause the most important affair of the gov- ernment of the country. He did not, however, entirely neglect the en- couragement of education, and therefore, in the thirteenth year of the same reign, sent an envoy to the court of the Zui dynasty in China, to- gether with two students, named Takamuku and Minabuchi, and the priest Bin, to be educated there. These students remained there for ten years, until the Zui dynasty was superseded by that of To. Takamuku remained more than twenty years longer, but the priest and Minabuchi returned sooner. The latter gave instruction to the 52 AN OUTLINE HISTORY OF Prince Nakano-oye (afterward the Emperor Teiijij and to Nakatomi no Kamako (better known as Eujiwara no Kamatari), wlio afterward aided in destroying the rebellious Soga Emiji and bis son. The Emperor Kotoku, on bis accession to the tbrone (a. d. 645), made tbe Prince Ove lieir-apparent, and promoted Kamako to the rank of chief privy councilor. The emperor was a great patron of literature, showing favor to all men of letters without distinction of position. Pie appointed Takamuku and Bin to the professorships of the provincial schools, giving them a share in the administration of the Government. This is the first instance of natives being appointed to professorships, which had hitherto been occupied exclusively by scholars from Corea. The arts of weaving and sewing were introduced into Japan by A chino Orni. He was the descendant of a king of the Kan dynasty, in China, who fled to the northeastern frontier of the country on the fall of the dynasty. He lived in a region adjoining Corea. On this account lie became acquainted with this country, and in the twentieth year of the reign of the Emperor Ojin came hither to settle, accompanied by inhabitants of all the seventeen provinces. All the people whom he brought with him, both men and women, were intelligent and well-practised in the arts of weaving and sewing. In the thirty-seventh year of the same reign Achigimi was sent to China to procure more weavers and sewers. After the lapse of five years he returned with four female weavers, whom he presented- to the Emperor Nintoku, the last emperor having died in his absence. This is believed to have been the first introduction of these arts into Japan. The cultivation of mulberry-trees, however, was not carried on at these periods. Their introduction dated from the reign of the Emperor Yuriaku (a. d. 457), who, being attentive to the interests of the peo- ple, was anxious to introduce the culture of silkworms. To attain this end he induced the empress to engage in this occupation, in order thus to lead the people. In the fourteenth year of the same reign the emperor again sent for weavers and sewing-women from China by dispatching a special mes- senger for that purpose; and on their arrival distributed them to the JAPANESE EDUCATION. 53 several provinces. Mulberry-trees were planted in all places whose soil was suitable to their cultivation. From this period the arts of weaving and sewing began to be extensively practised. The medical art was introduced in the second year of the reign of the Emperor Inkio (a. d. 412), who sent for a physician from Corea to cure his sickness. The introduction of the musical art also dates from the forty-second year of the same reign, when a musician was brought from the same country. The art of building was introduced in the sixth year of the reign of the Emperor Ninken (a. d. 488), when carpenters were sent for from Corea. Thus it is owing to their introduction from China and Corea, that various arts, such as weaving, sewing, building, etc., including medi- cine and music, were brought to a degree of perfection, although some of these may have originally existed in this country. In the fourteenth year of the reign of the Emperor Kimmei, he sent orders to Corea to send professors of medicine, divination, and almanac- making, together with books on these arts. Accordingly, in the year following, a professor of divination, a professor of almanac-making, and professors of medicine, w^ere sent. Besides these, a professor of materia medica and musicians were also sent. They v T ere to stay in this country and hold their offices, to be succeeded by others after a certain length of time, as in the case of the professors of the five classical books. A priest of Corea, named Ivwanroku, came in tenth year of the reign of the Empress Suiko (a. d. 602), and presented books on almanac- making, .astronomy, and geography, whereupon students were chosen to be educated in these sciences. Tw'o students w^ere instructed in almanac-making, one in astronomy, and one in divination, and they all succeeded in their studies. The almanac w 7 as first made use of in the beginning of the twelfth year of this reign. The Emperor Tenji made a clepsydra wdien he was yet a prince, and wdien lie ascended the throne he placed it in a tow^er built for the purpose, and caused the hours to be struck by means of a bell or a drum, as indicated by the clepsydra. From the above it will be seen 84 AN OUTLINE HISTORY OF that the use of the almanac was introduced from abroad. Laws being the only effectual means of suppressing crimes and pre- venting wrongs, are most important provisions for the preservation of peace and order in a country. But in those early times, when people were, notwithstanding a few instances of revolt, so simple and honest that the state of society approximated to that golden age in which gen- eral peace and harmony prevailed without any provision to control their action, there existed nothing like distinctly enacted laws. But, in the offices and prayers of religion, there existed petitions which recognized their sins against Heaven and also crimes against their fellow-men, and the ceremonies for their expiation. But when intercourse with foreign- ers commenced, and the intelligence of the people was consequently more developed, their habits and manners became to some degree also cor- rupted. Hence, in the twelfth year of the reign of the Empress Suiko (a. d. 604), the Prince Sliotoku published seventeen edicts as the laws of the country. These, however, were nothing more than rules of conduct of a pure- ly instructive nature, and far from what are called laws in modern times. The fact that the main object of legislation was directed to the instruc- tion of the people and the mere prevention of crimes before being com- mitted, shoves the kind care taken of the people on the part of the rulers, and the honest and simple manners still preserved on the part of the people in those days. This document of the prince being the oldest of any composed after the style prevalent prior to the Zui and To dy- nasties in China, is considered by all who have literary taste to belong to the Chinese literary period (from 202 b. c. to 264 a. d.). These laws of Shotoku are the first official documents in Japan written in the Chinese language. Origin and Organization of Institutions for Education , Astronomy , Medicine , etc, — The first establishment of a school dates from the reign of the Emperor Tenji (a. d. 66 &), who in the tenth year of his reign appointed Kishitsu Shushi, a native of Corea, to the office of su- perintendent of the Educational Department. Previous to this time Yei, a priest of Corea, came to this country and became naturalized. Having JAPANESE EDUCATION. 55 the reputation of a great scholar, he was ordered by the emperor to abandon the priesthood, and was appointed superintendent of the Impe- rial University. Thus originated this educational institution in our country. An observatory was erected in the fourth year of the reign of the Emperor Temmu, who was fond of literary pursuits, and especially versed in astronomy and mathematics. The professorship of astro- nomy was also established, and students were chosen to be educated in this branch of science, In the university, a professorship of the sounds of the Chinese characters and a professorship of penmanship were esta- blished, to instruct students who were chosen to study these branches. The Emperor Mommu extended the educational system by reor- ganizing the university, provincial schools, a medical department, a musical department, etc., and causing students to be collected into each of these institutions. The university had one superintendent, one assistant, one professor of the university, two assistant professors, two professors of Chinese sounds, two professors of penmanship, with four hundred students, and one professor of mathematics, with thirty students. The provincial schools had one professor with fifty students in the great provinces, forty in the first-class provinces, thirty in the middle- class provinces, and twenty in the small provinces. The medical department had one superintendent, one assistant, one medical professor with forty students, one professor of acupuncture, with twenty pupils, and one professor of shampooing, with ten pupils, one professor of the treatment of diseases of women, and thirty physi- cians for the same were afterward added. There were attached also to this department a teacher of materia medica, a teacher of cultivating medicinal plants, besides physicians and persons to practise acupunct- ure and shampooing. In each province there was one physician with students whose number was one- fifth less than that of the students of the provincial schools. The astrological department had one superintendent, one assistant. 50 AN OUTLINE HISTORY OF one professor of astrology, one professor of almanac-making, one pro- fessor of astronomy, with ten pupils in each of these branches of science, and two professors of chronometry, with twenty keepers of time. The musical department superintended all matters concerning music. It had one superintendent, one assistant, four singing-masters, thirty singers, one hundred female pupils in singing, and one hundred stu- dents of dancing. Besides, there were teachers of the music of China and Corea, each with pupils under his charge. The above is the system which prevailed during the periods Taiho and Yoro (a. d. 701 — 723). Kiusliiu was by far the most important among the provincial govern- ments, having nine provinces and three islands under its jurisdiction, and exercising the power of imposing taxes, commanding military duty, and dealing with foreign embassadors. In short, it formed an independentggovernment with its seat at Dazai. On this account a special school was established, with a professor of literature, a professor of law, a professor of Chinese sounds, and physicians and keepers of time. The appointment or dismission of professors, as well as the examination of students, was under the sole control of the local government. In the beginning of the years of Tempioslioho (a. d. 749-756), Kibino Mabi was appointed Lieutenant-Governor of Dazai. He was a man of great learning and did much in spreading literary culture. While he was in his post, he built a school, near the government office, in which he instructed his pupils in the study of literature. As the Emperor Mommu (a. d. 697) instituted, as already mentioned, the university and provincial schools, a medical department, an astro- logical department, etc., it became necessary to institute rules and regulations relating to the duties of professors and the tasks of stu- dents. A ccordinglv, regulations for educational institutions were made and distributed. The regulations for educational institutions, together with such other regulations as are connected with education, will be given in the follow- ing pages. JAPANESE EDUCATION. 57 The offices of professor and assistant professor were only to be filled by those whose conduct and knowledge fully qualified them for the position of instructors ; and the professorships of penmanship, ma- thematics, and the sounds of the Chinese characters, were to be occupied by men who were eminently learned in these several arts or sciences, and so also with the professorships of astronomy, medicine, and alrnan ac -mak ing . The professors of the provincial schools and physicians were to be chosen from among the inhabitants of the respective provinces, and should proper persons not be found among them, choice was to be made among the inhabitants of neighboring provinces. In case a choice still failed, application for properly-qualified persons was to be made to the Department of Ceremonies, whereupon the vacancies were filled with persons chosen from among the students of the university. When the governors of provinces and districts were found to be acquainted with the Cliinese classics, they were charged with the duty of teaching in conjunction with their own offices. The pupils of the university were generally chosen from among the children of families not below the fifth rank; but even the cliildern of families down to the eighth rank, if earnestly desiring admission, could obtain the privilege. The pupils of the provincial schools were taken from among those children of governors of districts who were intelli- gent, and aged from thirteen to sixteen. The grades of students were determined according to their ages, and every student on entering school was required to perform the prescribed ceremony of acknowledging the professors and assistant professors as their teachers. The term of service of professors was to be eight years, and the professors of the provincial schools and physicians were not allowed to retire from their posts until the expiration of the fixed term of service, unless there were sufficient cause for their doing so. The term of study allowed to pupils, was nine years, and those who failed to be taken into the imperial service at the expiration of the term of study were sent home. One day of recreation was allowed to students every ten days ; before each recreation-day they were examined 4 AN OUTLINE HISTORY 07 58 by professors in reading-lessons, and tliose who showed themselves more advanced than the rest in these examinations were admitted to the regular examination made at the end of every year. In this examination students of the university were examined by the superintendent and assistant superintendent, and those of the pro- vincial schools by the provincial governors. They were divided into first, second, and third classes, according to their abilities displayed in the examination ; and those who were put in the lowest class for three successive years were to be dismissed. The services of the professors and assistant professors were esti- mated according to their exertions in teaching during one year ; thus those under whose instruction pupils made much progress in their study were placed in the highest class. As to the professors of the provincial schools, their services were also estimated by their efforts in instruction, but they were divided into three classes according to their merits. The services of physicians, too, were estimated according to their success in treating patients. The books used in teaching were divided into distinct classes : 1. Chinese Classics. — Shuyeki, or the Book of Changes; Moshi, or the Book of Collected Odes ; Girai, or the Book of Ceremonies ; Kokio, or the Classic of Filial Duty; Shunjiu, or Annals of the Shu Dynasty, by Confucius ; Shosho, or the Record of the Classical History of China ; Shurai, or the Book of Ceremonies in the Shu Dynasty of China; Raiki, or the Ritual of the Shu Dynasty; Rongo, or the Philo- sophy of Confucius ; Sashiden, or the Commentary on the Annals of the Shu Dynasty. To these were subsequently added: — Kuydden and Kokuridden, or the commentaries on the Annals of the Shu Dynasty. 2. Chinese Historical Worhs. — Shiki, or the History of China by Shibasen; Kan jo, or the History of the Kan Dynasty; Tdkankanki, or the History of the later Kan Dynasty ; Sangokushi, or the History of the three kingdoms of China; Shinjo, or a History of the Shin Dynasty. Jiga, or the Chinese Classical Lexicon, and Monzen, or Selections JAPANESE EDUCATION 59 from Chinese Literature, also formed a distinct class of Books. Books on astronomy, medicine, and mathematics, were distributed into their respective classes. Students were in all cases to study the “Classic of Filial Duty” and the “Philosophy of Confucius” beside their principal subjects of study. In estimating the advancement of the students in learning, certain portions of the above works were considered to be the equivalents of each other, and in making up the grades of the students might be sub- stituted for each other. The students were not allowed to receive new lessons until they had finished the lessons in the particular classical book which they had commenced to study. The mode of instruction was first to teach students the sounds of the Chinese characters, and only after they had become thoroughly acquainted with them were they taught to understand the meaning. Students who had learned to read more than two classical books were allowed to enter into public service. With respect to the students of the provincial schools, if they wished to study more than two classical books, they were transferred to the university. In both the university and the provincial schools, festivals were ob- served in honor of Confucius, in the equinoxes of every year. In the university, ceremonies in honor of Confucius and his ten disciples were performed. But in the provincial schools the festivals were celebrated in honor of Confucius and his disciple Ganshi only; but, in the city of Dazai in Kiushiu, one more was added. The privilege was always given to students of being present at any great ceremonies performed on the occasion of New-Year’s day, or festivals. They were also exempt from manual labor of any kind, except on the occasion of festivals observed in honor of Confucius, and of the ceremony performed by students on entering schools. Should students, who left school on account of the death of their parents, apply after the mourning period had expired for readmittance, they were allowed to return to school, provided their age was under twenty-five. f.U AN OUTLINE HISTORY OF Students were allowed to go home in case either of sickness of them- selves or that of their parents, and they were also allowed to be absent from schools for fifteen days in the fifth month and in the ninth month of every year. To those whose homes were in distant places, a certain number of days was allowed for traveling. They were not allowed to play music, or make any other merriment in schools, except playing on the koto (a stringed musical instrument like the harp), and shooting with bows and arrows. A persistent violation of the prohibition up to a hundred days in a year was followed by expulsion from school. In such cases the reasons of expelling were always to be stated to the proper authority, and then the student was sent to the district to which he belonged. Although the regulations of educational institutions were thus far completed, the aim was not directed toward the diffusion of knowledge among the people fit large, but merely to, the education of persons to be employed in the public service. Hence there was a process for selecting students by examination in the Department of Ceremonies. Students were sent to the examination from the university, and also from the provincial schools. The latter were to be sent to the examina- tion after having been first examined by the provincial governors. Those who obtained the first or second degrees in the examination held in the Department of Ceremonies were reported to the emperor, and employed in various offices with different ranks. Those who obtained the third, or a still lower degree, or who, during the term of their studies, had been dismissed from the university, were not taken into the public service. The candidates for examination for public service were divided into six classes, according to the branch of study in which they had chiefly engaged, viz. : first, those who had displayed great talents ; second, those who had studied not less than two Chinese classics ; third, those who had studied political science, and had also learned to read the Chinese Classical Lexicon and the selections of Chinese literature: fourth i students of law; fifth, students of penmanship, and, sixth, those in mathematics.. To each of these classes only men of integrity and good JAPANESE EDUCATION. 61 conduct were admitted. Different modes were adopted in examining each of these different classes of students. The first were examined in composing two short essays on political questions, and those whose compositions were excel- lent, both in style and reasoning, stood highest. The second class were examined in reading articles selected from the whole Chinese classics. The third class were examined in composing two propositions on some political question, and in reading selections from the most famous Chi- nese classics. The fourth class were examined in articles taken from books on Chinese laws and classics. As to the class of penmanship, facility and elegance of hand were mainly valued and the style of the characters was not regarded. The class in mathematics were examined in theorems, selected from Chinese mathematical works. The classes in astronomy, astrology, medicine, and acupuncture, were examined after methods particularly adapted to each of these sciences or arts, as in the case of the university. Support of Educational Institutions, and Rewards to Professors . — In the first year of Keiun (a. d. 704) an appropriation was made for the support of the university from the public fund reserved for the purpose of meeting incidental expenses. Again, in the first year of Tempi ohoji (a. d. 757-704), the emperor issued a decree stating that “ there is no means better calculated to pre- serve the safety, peace, and harmony of the people, than the observance of appropriate ceremonies, nor is there any means better adapted to the improvement of the habits of the people than music. . . . This is the reason that etiquette and music have been brought into existence. . . . Now, the students of these important subjects at the university and the musical department should be relieved from the want of the necessaries of life. . . . Astronomy, astrology, almanac-making, mathematics, medi- cine, and acupuncture, are of no less importance to the country. . . . There- fore the wants of the students of these branches of knowledge should also be provided for by appropriating public lands.” Accordingly, thirty cho (one cho being about two and a half acres) were appropriated for 62 AN OUTLINE HISTORY OF the support of tlie university, and ten cho each for the departments of of music, astrology, and medicine. In the thirteenth year of Yenriaku (a. d. 794) one hundred and two cho of rice-land in Y r echizen were added in consequence of an insuffi- cient supply for the wants of the students of the university, caused hy the increase of their number. This, together with the land previously granted, made up one hundred and thirty-two cho of land under the name of “The Educational Land Grant.” About the same period Wake no Hiroyo, Minister of Education, contributed his property, amounting to twenty cho of land, to the fund of the university. Subsequently ninety thousand bundles of rice in the sheaf in Hitachi, eighty thousand bundles in Tango, and ten thousand bundles each in Omi, Yetchu, Bizen, and lyo, were loaned to farmers cn interest under the superintendence of the provincial governors, and interest in rice was collected. This interest was applied to the payment of miscellaneous expenses of the university. Another source of school funds was provided by loaning to the in- habitants of the capital new coins, whenever they were made, and ap- propriating the interest on the loan for the support of students. In the first year of Tencho (a. d. 824) five cho of land in YAmashiro, in the fourth year fifty cho of land in Kawachi, and in the seventh year thirty- seven cho of uncultivated land, and twenty cho of unappropriated land in Omi, were granted to meet the expenditures of students. Erom these facts we may form an idea of the large establishment of the university, and the great number of students educated in it at this period. Public lands were also granted to the departments of astrology and medicine, to support the students, as in the case of the university. In the third year of Tencho, twenty cho of unappropriated land in Ka- wachi were granted to the astrological department ; in the fourth year of Showa (a. i). 837), a piece of ground in the northern part of Kioto was granted to the medical department ; in the sixth year a piece of ground formerly belonging to the eastern “ Korokwan,” or the edifice for the reception of foreigners,' was converted into an imperial garden JAPANESE EDUCATION. f>3 for the cultivation of medicinal plants; and in the fifth year of Jogwan an unappropriated piece of land in Kawachi was added to the astrological department. Though such was the patronage given to the several educational establishments by granting lands for their support from age to age, the donations came, in the long course of time, to be improperly managed, and not a small portion of uncultivated and unappropriated lands was neglected to be cultivated, or entirely wasted by Hoods. So also in the management of the interest on the loans in rice and new coins, many abuses arose, as the officials in charge were from time to time changed, and the inhabitants of the capital came to fail in the payment of the interest on the loans of new coins. In the eighth year of Genkei (a. d. 884) twenty-three kwanof new coins were loaned to the inhabitants of the capital, the interest to be employed in support of the university, in compliance with the request of Eujiwara Sukeyo, the superintendent. Notwithstanding all this, the educational grant was at length transferred to defray the expenses of repairing roads, and other lands were also distributed to other depart- ments, leaving the university, once so flourishing, to almost entire ruin. It is seen in “ Daigakushiki/ 4he book containing the regulations of the university, that these funds were, however, restored in consequence of the request made by the assistant minister of the Department of Cere- monies, who stated the evils to the emperor in the fourteenth year of Yengi (a. d. 914). The practice of granting allowances to students, to enable them to enagage exlcusively in study, originated in the reign of the Emperor Kwammu (a. d. 782), who was very fond of learning, and who, while yet a prince, himself filled the office of superintendent of the university. On his ascending the throne, he appointed Sugawara no Euruhito his tutor, requesting him always to attend him, and treating him with the respect due to a teacher. After the death of Sugawara, the emperor, remembering his former services, and regretting that his four sons were prevented by their poverty from pursuing their hereditary profession, granted them an allowance for the necessaries of life in the fourth year 64 AN OUTLINE HISTORY OF of Yenriaku, and tlms enabled them to pursue their studies. This is the first instance in which an allowance for monthly expenses for study was granted. More than fifty years prior to this period, however, in the second year of Tempio (a. d. 730), as some historians say, a proposition was made to the emperor by the imperial council, in which was the following passage : “ Though the students have passed some length of time in the uni- versity, they are still unable to make much progress, and their learning is but superficial, owing to the fact that, although there are persons fond of study, yet they are prevented from accomplishing their object by being destitute of the means of support. . . . Therefore, it is requested that the necessaries of life should be granted to those who are intelligent and much advanced in study, to enable them to engage exclusively in study. ... It is desirable that the students in the departments of as- trology, medicine, and almanac-making, should also be supported, as these branches of knowledge are likewise important and indispensable to the country ; while the professors of these sciences are now declining in age, the sciences may be lost forever if they be not studied and trans- mitted to posterity.” The request was sanctioned by the emperor. This is what is mentioned in some histories, but as it seems that the educational land grant was not yet appropriated at this period, and students were to get their supplies from their own homes, the origin of the practice of supplying students with necessaries is to be dated from the reign of the Emperor Kwammu, instead of this early period. Since that time, the Sugawara and Cye families both adopted litera- ture as their hereditary profession, expenses for study being always granted to their descendants. An instance of the Sugawara family making application for expenses for study is found in the tenth year of Tenriaku (a. d. 956) when Sugawara no Eumitoki applied for the allowance for his sons Korehiro in the following words: “This grant originated in my family, it being made to my forefather Kiyogimi, and his three brothers, at .the same time. ... To assist one to succeed to his forefathers’ profession is the boundless benevolence of a great patron of literature, and to study and transmit the literary profession of JAPANESE EDUCATION. 65 one’s ancestors is tlie duty of the children of the family. . . . For this consideration it is most humbly requested that, by the great favor of the emperor, the monthly allowance be granted to my son to assist him in pursuing his hereditary profession.” In the second year of Koho, he again applied for an allowance to meet the expenses for study of his second son. We also find the Oye family applying for the grant in the fourth year of Choho, when Oye no Masahira made the following request in applying for the expenses of study for his son Yoshigimi, to enable him to succeed to the hereditary profession in the sixth generation : “ In consideration of the services of the Sugawara and Oye families in founding a college of literature, to which students constantly resorted for many years for instruction in literature, the children of the two families enjoyed the privilege of being taken into the imperial service, without regard to their abilities and ages, so that Sugawara no Tamenori was appointed to office in the seventh generation from his ancestor ; and though Takaoka no Sukeyuki, Kamo no Yasutane etc., were men of high talents and ac- quirements, they made no opposition to his appointment; and so also with the appointment of Oye no Sadamoto, which was never disputed by the most learned men of the age, such as Taguchi no Tokina and Yuge no Koretoki, who were skilled in prose composition. . . . Such being the honor done to the hereditary profession, it is humbly requested that the expenses for study be granted to my son Yoshigimi, to enable him to succeed early to the hereditary profession.” In the fifth year of the reign of the Empress Jito (a. d. 694) a re- ward of one thousand bundles of rice in the sheaf was given to Kami- kudara, the professor of the university, for the encouragement of liter- ary learning, and twenty rios of silver were given as a reward to each of the professors of Chinese sounds and of penmanship. In the fol- lowing year a grant of land was made to Kamikudara, and in the seventh year an income from thirty farmstead was again granted to him. The practice of granting rewards to professional men originated at this period. In the fourth year of Keiun (a. d. 707), cloth, hoes, salt, and iron, were given to Yamada no Mikata. In the first year of Reiki (a. d. 715), 66 AN OUTLINE HISTORY OF Kino Kiyohito, and several others, were each rewarded with one hundred koku of rice. In the first year of Yoro (a. d. 717), one hundred koku of rice were again given to Kiyohito, and some rewards were also given to other professional men. In the fifth year of l r 6ro (a. d. 721), an im- perial decree was issued that, “as men of the literary profession as well as military men are of great importance to the state, and medicine and mathematics are also cherished in all ages, persons who are qualified as instructors, being learned in literature or science, should be selected and honored with rewards so as to stimulate young scholars.” Accordingly, the professors of the university, astronomers, astrologers, physicians, and mathematicians, numbering twenty-eight persons, were rewarded in different proportions. In the following year a quantity of rice-land was distributed among twenty-three persons as a reward. During the period of Tempiohoji (a. d. 757), it was decreed that pro- fessors of the provincial schools, and physicians, when first appointed to their offices, should each send one year’s income to their former teachers as a token of gratitude; whereby the respect due to teachers would be kept up, and the work of instruction continually performed. In the fifth year of Showa (a. d. 838), an imperial decree was issued that, “ according to the established regulations, professors and physicians in every province are each to send one year’s income to their former teachers from the time of their appointments ; but, complaint being apt to arise when a whole year’s salary is exacted, a proper rate is there- fore to be fixed for them in proportion to the size of the provinces : two hundred bundles of rice in the straw in the first-class provinces, and fifty bundles in the kwest-class provinces, should be made the fixed rate, and these should be sent, after being exchanged for articles of a light kind of the products of the respective provinces. . . . Those sent from professors should be sent to the university, and those from physi- cians to the medical department.” In the twelfth year of Jogwan a mod- ification was made in this regulation, and one-tenth of the amount of income was made the fixed rate. This was made the permanent rule, being embodied in the regulations established during the years of Yeiigi (a. d. 901-922). JAPANESE EDUCATION . 67 Regulations of the University . — The subjects of instruction in the university were divided into the following departments : 1. Kiden. — T he principal subject of study being history, andthe art of composition. 2. Miogio. — T he principal subject of study being the six Chinese classical boohs and the three commentaries on the Annals of the Shu Dynasty. 3. Miobo. — I n this department books on penal law, and the books of the imperial edicts, together with the books of rules and regulations for officials, were principally studied. 4. Sando. — In this department arithmetic and mathematics were exclusively studied. When the imperial mandates were codified during the years of Taiho (a. d. 701-703), a professorship was established under the title of Dai-hakase, or great professor, and this professor had duties both in the departments of history and the Chinese classics as well as laws. Subsequently these departments w'ere divided each into separate sub- jects of instruction, by increasing the number of professorships. The following list of professors is mentioned in a document con- cerning the rewards given to professional men in the fifth year of Yoro (a. d. 721 ), viz. : Pirst-class professors in the Chinese classics : Kanuchi no Osumi, and Ochi no Hiroye. Second-class professors in the same branch : Sena no Yukibumi, Tsuki no Purumaro, Nukata no Chitari. Professors of law : Yazu no Mushimaro, Slii-oya no Yoshimaro. Professors of the art of composition : Yamada no Mikata, Shimotsuke no Mushimaro, Kino ICiyohito, and Sazanami no Kawachi. Professors of mathematics : Yamaguchi no Tanushi, Shihi no Mita- tsuki, and Kisakibe no Iwamura. Professors of astrology: Otsu no Ohito, Tsumori no Michinashi, Nakabumi no Yemaro, Yotaisho and Shigabe no Amida. Professors of medicine: Goshida no Yoroshi, Goshiku Komei, Shiii- chojcen, and Ye^a no KuninarL 68 AN OUTLINE HISTORY OF The department of historical study and the art of composition be- ing considered from an early period the most difficult one, it was as- signed to the first place. The department of law was established for studying laws and jurisprudence, and Mushimaro and Turumaro were appointed professors of this branch, to arrange laws and edicts. Be- sides, there were professors of the sounds of the Chinese characters, and of penmanship, who instructed pupils in these respective branches. Every student was at first instructed to read the classical books with the correct sounds of the Chinese characters, under the instruction of the professor ; there was therefore no separate class of students for the study of that art ; and so also with penmanship. But at a subsequent period those students who exclusively engaged in studying the sounds of the Chinese characters and penmanship came to form each a distinct class, under the titles of “ students of the sounds of letters ” and “ stu- dents of penmanship.” Yenshin, a native of To ('China), being well versed in the sounds of the Chinese characters, was appointed by the imperial orders professor of the art. In the seventh year of Tempio (a. d. 735) every student was ordered to study the sounds under his instruction. As characters were first introduced from Corea, the, Gon-On (corrupt sound used probably by the natives of the eastern part of China) was mostly used instead of Kan-On (pure sound), both in speaking and reading. In a work about the island Tsushima, it is mentioned that there lived a nun in the island who taught the inhabitants the sacred books of Buddhism in the Go-On, and consequently these sounds came to be exclusively used in reading the Chinese classical books ; hence origi- nated the name Tsushima-On, or the sounds used by the inhabitants of Tsushima. This is the reason that the professorship of the pure sounds of the Chinese characters was established. Although the rule for pronouncing the Chinese characters was for the first time settled on the return of Kibi no Mabi from China, where he had been educated, the use of the corrupt sounds was by no means discontinued. To re- medy this evil a decree was issued in the eleventh year of Yenriaku JAPANESE EDUCATION . P.9 (a. d. 792) by the emperor, to the effect that all the students in the department of Chinese classics should be thoroughly educated in the use of the proper sounds of Chinese. At a later period the rule was fixed that the Kan-On should be used in reading books of Confucianism, and the Go-On in books of Buddhism only ; but in the twelfth year of Yenriaku an imperial decree was issued prohibiting the admission of any candidate to the priesthood unless he had learned to use the Kan-On. In the twentieth year it was again decreed that in the annual examination of candidates for the priesthood only those who, being intelligent and respectable in conduct, and also learned in the use' of the Kan-On, were qualified to be priests, or be admitted to the priest- hood. Thus it is evident that the Kan-On was not preferred in reading books of Confucianism only. In the fifth year of Jinki (a. d.728) professorships of criminal law and jurisprudence, and also a lectureship, were established. This is the beginning of the professorship of each distinct branch of knowledge being made a permanent office. In the second year of Tenpio students were chosen to be instructed in these branches of knowledge. Those who exclusively engaged in historical study were called historical students, and those engaged in studying the Chinese classics were called classical students. There was a class of students called Toku- gosho (fellows) in each branch of study, with the privilege of being furnished with clothes for all seasons. A certain number of those who were most talented and accomplished in each branch were put into this class. Their term of study was seven years. In the medical department students were instructed to read the books on medicinal plants, the treatise on the state of pulsation, and the treatises on the human body. The principal subject of the study of medical plants referred to their forms and properties. The anatomy of the human body was studied by examining diagrams. The condi- tions and movements of the pulse as affected by the temperature of the seasons were learned. The students were also to read different Chinese medical books for two years. After having gone through this course of study they then proceeded to solve the meaning of what they had AN OUTLINE HISTORY Of 70 learned, and to perform practical operations. Medical treatment was divided into several brandies — namely, the treatment of diseases of tlie internal parts of the body ; the treatment of incised wounds, ulcers, and all other diseases belonging to external parts of the body ; the treatment of the diseases of infants ; the treatment of diseases of the ear, eye, mouth, and teeth. Forty students were distributed to these branches, twenty-four being assigned to the study of internal diseases, with a term of study of seven years, two years being occupied with initiatory studies ; two students were assigned to diseases of the eye, ear, and mouth with a term of four years. Besides these, there were students of acupuncture, students of shampooing, and physicians of the diseases of women. The students of acupuncture were to study the art by reading and examining one treatise of Kotei on acupuncture, and the diagram of the human skeleton, the term of study of seven years being allowed to them. The students of shampooing were in- structed in the art of treating bruises and fractures, and in bandaging wounds, three years being their term of study. The physicians of the diseases of women were instructed to assist women in childbirth, and also to treat incised wounds, ulcers, and bruises. They were also to study the practice of acupuncture and of applying the moxa. In study- ing these arts they were not required to read books treating of them, but merely to learn the practical operations. Accordingly, the professor of diseases of women taught the students only by giving them lessons orally from books. The term of study of this class was seven years. The same ceremonies for admission were required, and the same privileges allowed to these students as to the students of the uni- versity. The students of medicine and acupuncture were to be chosen first from among the children of the families who belonged hereditarily to the medical profession, and next from among the children of the people at large. Children who were intelligent and aged between thirteen and sixteen were to be chosen. As to the physicians of the diseases of women, those who were intelligent and aged from fifteen to twenty-five were chosen from among the maids of the court, and they were, when JAPANESE EDUCATION. 71 chosen, placed in a separate building. The students of literature were examined once a month hy the pro- fessors, once a season by the superintendent or assistant superintendent of the university, and at the end of the year they w T ere examined by the Department of the Imperial Household. The physicians of diseases of women were examined by the court physicians, and the mode of exam- ination was precisely the same as that in use at the university. Those w ho had failed in the examination in theoretical learning, but who mani- fested practical abilities, and w r ere able to treat diseases, w^ere allowed to practise acupuncture. Any person who studied and practised the med- ical art was allowed to enter and undergo an examination in the same manner as the regular students. The number of “ fellows ” in the medical department was three in the second year of Tempio (a. d. 730) ; but in the fifth year of Konin (a. d. 814) the number was increased to four, and the same supply of provisions and clothes amd the same term of study were allowed to them as those in the university. This increase w r as in consequence of a proposition then made that “ medicine and acupuncture are of great importance to the country, while it is feared that these arts should decline and professors of the arts might become extinct at length, if their study be not encouraged.” The tasks and term of study of medical students in the provincial schools were the same as those of the medical department in the capital. They w 7 ere examined by physicians of the provinces once a mouth, and at the end of every year they w r ere examined by the provincial gov- ernors, wdio fixed their grades according to their abilities. Those stu- dents who w T ere much advanced, if they desired to be employed, were reported to the Imperial Council, as to their abilities, by the provincial governors, and were taken into the imperial service. In the department of astronomy, the relative position of the sun and moon, the five planets, and the twenty-eight constellations, and various phenomena of the atmosphere, were observed, in order to foretell the good or evil fortunes likely to occur during the year. The astronomical portions of Chinese history were studied. In the astrological department future events were divined, and modes- 72 AN OUTLINE HISTORY OF of avoiding evil influences were determined. The Chinese books of divination, etc., were the text-books. In the branch of almanac-making, calculations of the motion of the sun, moon, and stars, were made, and the number of days and months, etc., in the year, was published. The text-books were the astronomical portions of Chinese histories. Students were chosen first from among the children of the families hereditarily professing divination, and then from among the children of the people at large, in the same manner as medical students. Their tasks, term of study, and ages, were fixed by the same rule as that in the university. The fixed number of “ fellows ” was three in the astro- logical department, and two in the department of almanac-making, their privileges, etc., being the same as those in the university. There were provided celestial globes and other astronomical instru- ments for the use of the students. There was a distinct class of stu- dents under the title of “ observers, ” who were always to observe the aspects of the heavens and watch the various phenomena of the atmos- phere, not being permitted to read books of any sort. Their term of study was not fixed, and the same supply of provisions and clothes as was allowed to “ fellows ’’was granted to them. The almanac was always to be prepared in advance by computing the times beforehand, and to be presented to the emperor by the first day of the eleventh month. One copy was sent to every official in such a manner as to reach him within the year. It was in the twelfth year of the reign of the Empress Suiko (a. d. 604) that the almanac was first used. The almanac then used was that of the Zui dynasty, in China, introduced by a priest of Corea. It being at a later period found to be incorrect, another almanac was adopted in the sixth year of the reign of the Empress Jito (a. d. 695). After being used for five years, this almanac was found to be behind the true time by fifty -three koku (a koku being one hundredth of twenty- four hours). Consequently, in the first year of the reign of the Emperor Mommu a new almanac was adopted and used for sixty-seven years, till the eighth year of Tempiohoji (a. d. 764), when it was found to be JAPANESE EDUCATION 73 behind the true time by fourteen koku, and was replaced by the almanac which had been presented to the emperor by Kibi no Mabi. This being found in the course of ninty-four years to be ahead of the true time by seventeen koku, another almanac was adopted in the second year of Tenan (a. d. 858), which was also found after only four years’ time to be behind the true time by ten koku. In the fourth year of Jug wan, another new almanac was adopted, and continued to be in use for eight hundred and twenty- three years without being altered. These almanacs were brought from China under the Zui and To dynasties, and none was originally composed in this country. In the second year of Jokid a student of astronomy named Yasui Santetsu, a native of Yedo, corrected, by permission of the Government, the almanac then in use, on account of its being behind the true time bv one hundred ninety-five koku. This, again, in the course of seventy years, came to be ahead of the true time by seven koku. Therefore a new almanac was made by making new calculations of time in the fifth year of Horeki (a. d. 1755). After the lapse of forty- three years it fell behind the true time by four koku. So in the tenth year of Kwansei (a. d. 1798) another almanac was adopted, but after a time, a slight error being found in it, a new one was adopted in the fourteenth year of Tempo (a. i). 1843), and was used until the adoption of the solar year instead of the lunar one used heretofore, which took place in the fifth year of Meiji (a. d. 1872). The time contained in the year was then for the first time made to correspond to the true time. Emulations of P?'ovincial Schools . — Though the educational in- stitutions in the provinces were founded on the same system as that of the university, the medical department, the astrological department, etc., they were found defective, arising from the inability of the teachers. To remedy the evil, an imperial decree was issued in the second year of Reiki (a. d. 716), that the professorships of the provincial schools should not be filled by those students of the university who used to hunt for office while they were yet imperfectly learned. Notwith- standing, this office continued to be hunted by persons unqualified for the station, and consequently many were found among the teachers who 5 74 AN OUTLINE HISTORY OF were not yet sufficiently learned. This led to the issue of another imperial decree, proclaimed in the first year of Tempiohoji (a. d. 757), to the effect that “ many of the professors and physicians in the several provinces are found to have obtained their offices, not by virtue of their abilities, but merely by begging them. . . . This, being not only an impediment to the administration of government, but also a dis- advantage to the people, should be put an end to. . . . Students hereafter will not be admitted into the public service unless they have learned all the books required to be studied in their respective offices. . . . The students of the Chinese classics should have studied the five classical books ; the students of history the three histories ; the students of medicine, astronomy, etc., each must have studied the works prescribed for his course.” The above was the established rule for selecting and appointing the students of the university to the offices of professors and physicians in the provinces, but many of the books above mentioned were not pro- vided in the provincial schools. Thus in the third year of Jingokeiun (a. d. 769) an application was made by the city of Dazai for the supply of the three histories, stating that “ the city of Dazai, being one of the largest cities in the country, and its population being so dense, the number of students is constantly increasing, while books supplied for their use consist only of the five classical books, while the three histories are not as yet provided. Therefore, it is requested that one copy of the three histories be sup- plied in order to give encouragement to education within the jurisdic- tion of the Dazai Government.” In compliance with the request one copy each of the history of the- three kingdoms of China and the history of the Shin Dynasty of China was ordered by the emperor to be supplied to the city of Dazai. Subsequently imperial orders were given to the provinces of Sagami, Musashi, Hitachi, Kotsuke, Shimotsuke, and Mutsu, to make copies of the three histories and to send them to the Government. These facts show the scarcity of books in those days. In the eleventh year of Tempio (a. d. 739) the children of noble families above the fifth rank in the Department of Ceremonies were JAPANESE EDUCATION. 75 ordered to be admitted to the university without distinction as to their ages. According to the old rule established during the years of Taiho (a. d. 701-3), the choice of students ' was limited to the children of families above the fifth rank, and to those of families not below the eighth rank, who particularly desired to be admitted, and to those of the hereditary literary families, and their ages were limited from thirteen to sixteen, in all branches of knowledge. Now that the limit of admittance was extended, the number of students became greatly increased, so that the Empress of Koken appropriated some lands for the support of the students, under the title of the ££ Educational Land-Grant.” In the eighth year of Yenriaku (a. d. 789) regulations were estab- lished by which appointments of students of the university to any office should not take place under the age of thirty. In the thirteenth year a large extent of land was appropriated to meet the expenses of the university. In the first year of Daido (a. d. 806) all the royal princes and the children of families above the fifth rank who were above ten years of age were made to enter the university to be educated in the various branches of knowledge assigned to them, but, owing to the diversity of character of students, and the consequently various pro- pensities possessed by them for particular pursuits, many were found to be unable to succeed even in a single branch of knowledge after having passed many years in study. On this account an arrangement was made by an imperial decree issued for the purpose in the third year of Konin (a. d. 812) by which they were allowed to choose them- selves those pursuits which they thought most suited to their tastes and propensities. After thirteen years from this period a petition was sent to the emperor from the university, stating that, ££ on account of the edict which has long been in operation, excluding students under thirty years of age from employment, there are found many who, though most earnestly devoted to Confucianism and most diligently applying themselves to study, still are suffering from poverty, not being allowed to be employed for many years after having accomplished their study. . . There seems no reason why age should be taken into consideration 76 AN OUTLINE HISTORY OF when talent is the main question, and it is requested that the students be admitted into Government service on examination as to their abilities according to the former rules.” The request was sanctioned by the emperor. All young persons aged over twenty, belonging to families above the fifth rank, were ordered to enter the university to be educated to read classical and historical works, and those who made such progress as to be fit to be employed were appointed to different offices according to their abilities. This arrangement was made in consequence of the young men of noble families coming gradually to indulge themselves in luxury and license, instead of applying themselves to study. At a later period, great families, such as Tujiwara and Tachibana, established private schools for the education of young persons belonging to their respective families. When the students of law and literature were first chosen in the second year of Tempio (a. d. 730), their fixed numbers were ten and twenty in those two classes respectively. In the twenty-first year the number of students of the former class was increased to twenty ■ and in the fourth year of Konin (a. d.813), in consideration of more difficulty attending the study of the law-class than any other kind of study, and with the view of giving encouragement to those students who, it was found, might be wearied out and prevented from finishing their study on account of the difficulty of their tasks, a change was introduced in the regulations for examination, by which the old rule of admitting into public service only those who gave satisfactory an- swers to eight points or more out of ten proposed in the examination, and excluding all those who could not give answers to more than seven points, was replaced by a new rule of appointing all those who were able to give answers on more than seven points to the professors of the provincial schools. In choosing the students of the literature- class, all intelligent children of the gentry might be chosen, not limiting their ages; but, in the twelfth year of Konin (a. d. 821), a regulation was established prohibiting the selection of children of any other families than those above the third rank. Those moderately advanced in study, among the students, were to form a class called “ Shunshi ” (literally, JAPANESE EDUCATION. 77 men of talent), and the most intelligent of this class were distinguished under the title of “ Shusai ” (literally, men of rare talent). This regula- tion for examination remained unaltered ; hence the admittance to the Shusai class, and the study of the art of composition, were limited to the children of noble families, to the exclusion of all other students. In the fourth year of Tencho (a. d. 827), Miyako no ITaraka, the pro- fessor of the art of composition, requested the emperor to alter the rule for choosing students, stating that “it is feared that scholars of the art of composition may cease to be produced, if this branch of study be, as it now is, limited to men of high birth only, since men of noble birth cannot be expected always to be men of talent, nor are men of great talent necessarily of noble birth. Still more, the university is a place where talent ought to be cherished and intelligence nourished ; and, besides, what the scholars consider their hope and honor is, that talent alone is cared for by rulers in choosing men, so that one who is a mere common domestic in the morning may be raised to the station of minis- ter of state in the evening- Tor these reasons it is humbly requested that students should be permitted to be chosen according to the regula- tion established in the second year of Tempio.” In former times, whenever embassadors were sent to the courts of the Zui or To dynasty (China), scholars who possessed intellect and knowledge were selected to follow them. Takamuku no Kuromasa etc., were the first students sent to China in the reign of the Empress Suiko (a. d. 598-628), and after that time students were often sent. In the second year of Reiki (a. d. 716), Abe no Nakamaro and Kibi no Mabi were chosen as students to be sent to China, and they studied the Chinese classics and other branches of learning with success, and obtained great reputation for their knowledge in that country. The latter returned in the seventh year of Tempio (a. d. 735), after having remained in China for eighteen years, and presented to the emperor books treating on the etiquette of the To dynasty and almanac-making. He was appointed assistant superintendent of the university. The ceremonies to be performed at the festival of Confucius were settled by his dictation, and all the instruments to be used on the occa- 78 AN OUTLINE III STORY OF sion were also completed under liis superintendence ; thus the forms and etiquette came for the first time to be performed with propriety. He was honored with the appointment of Udaijin (one of the highest officers in the government), and died in the sixth year of Hold (a. d. 715). Nakamaro adopted the name of Choko and died in China, having been in the service of the court of the country for more than fifty years. After a while, in the latter part of the period Yenriaku (a. d. 782- 805), Tachibana no Hayanari was sent to China as a student, and was respected as the “talented Tachibana.” Embassadors to the court of the To dynasty ceased to be sent in the seventh year of Kampei, on account of the fall of that dynasty. Conse- quently the sending of students to China was also discontinued. Educational Institutions and Libraries.— The Emperor Kwammu (a. d. 782-805) founded the imperial castle, in Yamashiro, which he made the seat of government, divided the city now known as Kioto into two parts, constructed streets, and built edifices for various depart- ments of government. He also established the university with capacious school-rooms and abodes for students, in a locality in the southern portion. He also instituted medical and astrological departments, with professors and students in each. These institutions were full of stu- dents, and enjoyed a notable degree of prosperity. During the reign of the Emperors Saga, Jnnna, Nimmio, and Mon- toku (a. d. 810-858), education received constant attention, and a large number of men of great talent and learning was produced. However, after the middle ages the literary profession became an hereditary calling and was pursued by certain families, and the offices of superintendent, assistant superintendent, and professors in the university, medical and astrological departments, were not by the established rule to be filled by other than the persons belonging to these privileged families. Thus the art of composition and the study of history were the exclusive profes- sion of the Sugawara and 6ye families ; the study of classics that of the Kiyohara and Hakahara, and the study of law, that of the Sakanouye and Nakahara families. The offices of judge, and of policeman, were also to be held by these two families ; the study of mathematics belonged JAPANESE EDUCATION. 79 to the Miyoshi and Kotsuki families, and medicine to the Wake and Tamba families. Astrology was formerly professed only by the Kamo family, but, in the year of Tenyen (a. d. 973-975), Kamo no Yasunori instructed his son Mitsuyoshi in almanac-making, and his pupil Abe no Seimei in astronomy ; hence the profession of astrology became divided between the two families. The hereditary profession was most success- fully kept up in the Sugawara family, from which men of great talent and learning successively sprung up and instructed their pupils in the school which had been built by the family. This is the first private school ever founded in this country, and was followed by other schools of like character. Bunsho-in founded by Sugawara, the professor of the art of composi- tion, in the latter part of the period of Konin (a. d. 823), consisted of two buildings constructed in the compound of the university, to accommodate the students of the art of composition and history. In the early period of Showa (a. d. 834) the school was placed under the divided superintendence of Oye no Otohito and Sugawara no Kiyo- gimi ; the former superintending the eastern building, and the latter the western. All young men of different families who wanted public employment flocked to these two families to receive instruction, so that this school was the most populous one of the time. Kwangaku-in was founded by Tugiwara no Kuyutsugu in the second year of Tenchd (a. d. 825). He built the school for the purpose of educating the youth of his family, which had greatly increased, and appropriated land comprising one thousand farmstead for the support of the school. He also purchased a certain extent of rice-land for the same purpose. This school, being located in the southern direction of the university, was called the southern hall, in distinction from the east- ern and western halls. Kuyutsugu also founded a charity-hospital, to receive and maintain poor persons of his family. After his death the income from the land appropriated for the support of the school became insufficient to meet expenses. His son Yosliifusa, regretting the decline of the school, made an application to the emperor, in conjunction with Wotsugu, a member of the same family, for an endowment to the school, 80 AN OUTLINE HISTORY OF in tlie period Showa (a. d. 884-847). Their request was granted, and the school was restored to its former condition. Subsequently a superintendent and a chief instructor were appointed in the institution, and a ceremony of annually presenting its graduates to the public service was also introduced. In the third year of Kajio (a. d. 850) Gakkwan-in was founded by the consort of the Emperor Saga, who had undertaken, in conjunction with her brother Ujigimi, to build a school in. which young persons of her family — that of Tachibana — might be educated in the Chinese classics and histories. Notwithstanding the death of her brother, she executed her design in establishing the school and appropriated some land for its support. In the first year of Koho (a. d. 964) this institu- tion was made a branch of the university by the imperial order. Junna-in was formerly a pleasure-house of the Emperor Junna (a. d. 824-833), and was called the Western Palace. After the death of the em- peror, his son, the Prince Tsunesada, having asked the permission of the emperor then reigning, converted the palace into a school, and appointed a superintendent for the education of all young persons of the 0 family. Sogaku-in was founded by Ariwara no Yukihira, the son of the Prince Awo, and the grandson of the Emperor Nara, in the fifth year of Gen- kei (a. d. 831), and was made the southern hall of the university, it being situated on the western side of the school of Eujiwara, and on the southern side of the university adjoining it. It had been intended for the students of the 0 family to study penmanship. The term 0 was adopted as a family name by all those who descended from the royal princes in three or four generations, and still had no particular family name given them by the emperor. As to Yukihira, lie had this particular family name given him by the emperor ; therefore it seems that he established this school for the children of his relations. In the third year of Oho (a. d. 1163) this school was in all respects assimilated to that of Eujiwara. Subsequently it was transferred to the superinten- dence of the Minamoto family, who, being also the descendants of the Emperors Saga, Murakami, and Seiwa, were entitled to superintend the school according to the established rule. JAPANESE EDUCATION . 81 Though the above four schools were originally founded on private account, at length being resorted to by a great number of scholars of all families, they were assimilated to the public institutions, and had a larger number of students than the university. As to libraries, there is no mention made of any considerable one being established in all these ages. During the period Hold (a. d. 770-780) a person named Isonokami Iyetsugu converted his residence into a temple, and within the grounds of the temple, built a house, in winch he stored books, and allowed any one to read the books at pleasure. This is the first instance mentioned of collect- ing books for public use. In the early part of the period of Yenriaku (a. d. 782-806), Wake no Kiyomaro, the Minister of the Interior, undertook to provide a library in his own residence for the use of his family, but did not attain his object. Hiroyo, his son, executed his father’s intention in providing a building, in which he kept sev- eral thousands of books, and appropriating forty cho of land to meet expenses for keeping up the establishment. This was the largest library of the times. At a later period the Sugawara family had accumulated and possessed books from generation to generation, and when the famous Michizane succeeded to the family title he built a study in his* new residence at Gojo, in which he stored the books. In the centre of this study was a storehouse for the reception of books, which were kept in small cases, and arranged upon three shelves placed one above another, on four sides of the house. It is mentioned in his own memoir, written in the fifth' year of Kwampei (a. d. 893), that the study came to be called Riumon by the scholars on account of there having been nearly one hundred students educated in this study who had been taken into public employment. The Oye family kept up its hereditary profession for eight generations, and consequently accumulated a large number of books during three hundred years. Oye no Masafusa built a library at Takakura in Nijo. Some one remarked to him that, as fires were so frequent in the capital, he should take it into consideration in regard to his books. To this he replied that the fate of his hereditary profession of literature depended upon that of the Imperial Government, 82 AN OUTLINE HISTORY OF and, as long as the Government was in a flourishing state, there was nothing to be feared about the safety of the books. When the books were destroyed by fire in the period of Nimpio (a. d. 1051 - 1053 ), the Imperial Government was also in a declining state, and it was said by all that he had a correct foresight. At a later period a library was built by Fujiwara no Yorinaga, the Sadaijin, who, being fond of literary pursuits, engaged in the study of the Chinese classics, and purchased many books. The interior of the library was furnished with shelves on the eastern and western sides, upon which books were placed, being divided into the four classes of classics, histories, miscellaneous, and Japanese books. The greater part of these consisted of books he himself had copied. A merchant of the kingdom of the So dynasty, hearing of the library, contributed to it “ The History of the To Dynasty ” and the history of the five dynasties of China. During three hundred and eighty years from the period of Hoki (a. d. 770) to this time there were no more than these few instances to be mentioned of libraries, and, after one hundred and fifty years had again passed, Kanazawa Bunko, or the library of Kanazawa, was built by Kanazawa Akitoki ; and, after the lapse of another one hundred and fifty years, books possessed by Uyesugi Norizane were collected and stored in the school of Ashikaga. It is, indeed, by these two families last mentioned that literary learning amid wars and distur- bances narrowly escaped its extinction, and was transmitted to posterity. The account of the restoration of learning, which was brought to the brink of extinction during the periods Keiclid and Genwa (a. d. 1596-1623), will be given in the next chapter. JAPANESE EDUCATION. 83 CHAPTER III. EDUCATION UNDER THE SIIOGUNATE. By the rigor of military discipline disorder in a country is suppress- ed, but peace is not preserved without literary knowledge. This truth was not unknown to our former emperors, for in the observance of it they, in ancient times, when in a flourishing condition, directed their attention to literature as well as military affairs. They established at Kioto and in the several provinces garrisons for the preservation of order. At the same time, in Kiusliiu, a local government was established at Dazai to keep out the Western barbarians ; and in Mutsu a military government was established to keep the Eastern barbarians in subjection. They founded in Kioto an Imperial University : and in the provinces of the empire provincial schools were opened. They also made many laws •and regulations under which learning and science flourished. In religion the majority of all classes professed the doctrines of Buddhism, so that even the emperors were satisfied to rank themselves among its believers. Still Confucianism was by no means neglected, but was studied as before. The educational system established and supported by the (Government exerted a good influence on the morals and manners of the people, and helped to train up virtuous men and women. In the first year of Tempiohoji (a. d. 757), the Empress Koken issued an edict to the following effect; “ Eilial piety is the foundation on which to govern the state and to preserve public peace, and, as there is nothing more important than this, every house should preserve a copy of the Chinese classic on ‘Eilial Duty,’ and it should be read night and day.” This plan was copied from the Chinese. It was at this time that education began to be diffused bv the 84 AN OUTLINE HISTORY OF Government among the masses of the people. Following this was a period when the imperial power was usurped by the military subjects, for several hundred year, and the educational system could not be kept in so flourishing a condition as in former times, and it was not until the time when Tolcugawa Iyeyasu rose into power as sho- gun, or military chief under the emperor, that scholars were esteemed, Confucianism respected, the art of government studied, and the benefit of education began to spread itself once more over the empire. Literary Institutions . — In the sixth year of Keicho (a. d. 1601), Iyeyasu founded for the first time a school at Fushimi, near Kioto, in Yamashiro, for the purpose of encouraging literature. After he had gained the battle of Seldgahara, where he finally crushed the power of his enemies, he became the actual, though not the titular, rider of the whole empire of Japan. He encouraged literature and education. In the nineteenth year of Keicho (a. d. 1614), at the request of Doslntn, he found another school at Kioto, and chose Seigwa as its chief. Seigwa was a son of the Councilor Tamezumi, and had joined in liis youth the Buddhist priesthood, which, however, he afterward re- nounced, and began to give lectures on the Chinese classics at Kioto, upon which the priests of Gosan rose in opposition to him, urging that,* in accordance with the custom established since the Ashikaga dynasty of shoguns no one could collect students and deliver lectures to them except their order alone. It will be seen from this incident how low education had fallen at this time. Seigwa, far from being discouraged by this opposition, undertook the restoration of moral education to its former state. His disciples gradually increased, and his fame spread abroad. Many imperial nobles and territorial princes became his followers, and /such great scholars as Hayashi Doshun, Matzunaga Sliosan, Nawa Kwasshio, Kwan Gendo, Ishikawa Jozan, Hori Kio-an, and others, were educated under him. Iyeyasu, hearing of his fame, called him, in the second year of Bunroku (a. d. 1593), to Yedo, and ordered him to deliver lectures on Jogwan Seiyo, the “ Book of Political Science.” JAPANESE EDUCATION 85 Afterward lie begged leave to retire, and returned to Kioto, where he was made the head of a school. It was his desire to build halls for the use of students, which he proposed to get endowed with land, and also to assemble all the illustrious and wise men of his time, so that he might consult them on matters of school administration. But at this time the battle of Osaka was fought, and soon after Xyeyasu died ; he was, therefore, unable to carry out his project. In the fifth year of Genwa (a. d. 1620) he died, in the fifty-ninth year of his age. To him we are indebted for the revival of literature and the restora- tion of education. The former system of education had been pulled to the ground during the perpetual wars which raged in the latter part of the Ashikaga Government, and he devoted himself entirely to its restoration. It was in the seventh year of Kwanyei (a. d. 1630) that Tokugawa Hidetada bestowed on Hayashi Doshun a piece of land at Uyeno, in Yedo, for his residence, and here Doshun founded a private school called Kobun-in. On part of this ground Yoshinobu, Prince of Owari, in the tenth year of Kwanyei (a. d. 1633), caused a temple to be erected in honor of Confucius, which he called the Sage’s Temple ; here ceremonies were performed in honor of Confucius, in the middle months of spring and autumn. Upon this, for the first time, reverence and esteem began to be entertained by all classes for Confucian learning. The Iiayashi family, from the time of Doshun, continued succes- sively to superintend school affairs under the Tokugawa family. Do- shun’s son was Jo, and his grandson, Ko ; they both added to the fame of the family name, and at length this family held supreme power in all literary matters of the empire. Hayashi Doshun was born at Kioto. While yet a child he studied at the monastery Kenninji of Higashiyama, and even at this early age his literary talents were so great that the priests of the monastery bore him much affection ; they tried to prevail upon him to enter upon a religious life, but he did not follow their advice. Afterward he ’was taught by Pujiwara no Seigwa, and he became a believer in the teachings of Chinese philosophy. 86 AN OUTLINE HISTORY OF In liis twentieth year lie began to assemble students, and commenced to deliver lectures on the “ Philosophy of Confucius.” In those days, according to the old established custom, all the professors of the classics at the imperial court made use of the okTcominentaries to interpret the Chinese classics ; but now Dosliun alone commenced to teach the new Chinese philosophy. Upon this Kiyowara no Hidekata, one of the pro- fessors, denounced him, and petitioned that he might be punished ; for, being a private individual, it was alleged that he had, without being in a position which entitled him to do so, delivered lectures on the Chinese classics, and, moreover, he had done so without adhering to the old com- mentaries. lyeyasu, however, rejecting the petition, bestowed his favor on Uoshun, and made him his adviser. Subsequently Dosliun shaved his head, and received a sacerdotal title. He reestablished the ceremonies of the imperial court upon their ancient footing, and revised the laws and edicts. Indeed, at this time there was no proclamation or govern- ment document issued which did not pass through his hands. He served in succession four shoguns, and thus, becoming well versed in the old precedents of the court, always took part in the discussions held on the forms and ceremonies to be observed on all such public occasions, as the coronation, the change in the name of the year, the processions of the emperor, or the ceremonies to be observed upon admission to the imperial presence, and upon offering sacrifices at the ancestral temple, and on those to be observed in foreign intercourse. He died in the third year of Meireki (a. d. 1657), in the seventy-fifth year of his age, leaving behind him works on one hundred and thirty different subjects, and essays to the number of one hundred and fifty volumes. He was succeeded by his son Jo. Hayashi Jo, or Shunsai, as he was more commonly called, was the son of Doshun. In the seventeenth year of his age he accompanied his father to Yedo, and there assisted him in the compilation of his works. He principally devoted himself to the compilation of a genea- logical record of noted Japanese families, consisting of more than three hundred volumes, commenced by his father under government orders in the seventeenth year of Kwanyei (a. d. 1640), and completed after JAPANESE EDUCATION. 87 twenty years of labor. To Sliunsai is mainly due the merit of its composition. In the third year of Manji (a. d. 1660) lie repaired, at the expense of the shogun’s government, the Confucian temple. In the first year of Kwambun (a. d. 1661) he received a promotion to a high priestly rank, and in the third year (a. i). 1663), in honor of his scho- lastic attainments, he was created a doctor. About this time, having obtained the government permissions, he undertook the completion of a history of Japan, commencing with the reign of the Emperor Jimmu, and carried up to the end of the reign of the Emperor Uda. This work had been left unfinished by his father. Eor this purpose he established, at the side of the Confucian temple, an historiographer’s office, and here he worked at the completion of the above-mentioned history. This work was completed after seven years of labor, during which time he was assisted by his two sons, and by more than thirty assistants of his own training ; upon these daily wages and monthly allowances were bestowed by the Government. When this history was about to be published, it was subjected to the revision of the Princes of Owari, Kii, and Mito ; and the last of these, Mitsukuni, Prince of Mito, attacked it, and was strongly opposed to its being pub- lished, because, he said, it contained singular opinions concerning the Emperor Jimmu. Its publication was on this account stopped. Upon this the historiographer’s office was converted into a hall for students, and the fund granted for the compilation of historical works was used for their support. In the twelfth year of Kwambun (a. d. 1672) another hall, on the eastern side of the old one, was erected, with materials supplied by the Government. This was named the Eastern Hall, while the other was called the Western. In the eighth year of Tempo (a. d. 1680), Sliunsai died, in the sixty-third year of his age. His son Ko succeeded him. Hayaslii Ko was the son of Shunsai. He first took as his common name Shunjo, which he afterward changed for that of Atsunobu. At this time Tsunayoshi was shogun ; he was very fond of study, and patronized Atsunobu, whose house being at a great distance from 88 AN OUTLINE HISTORY OF the castle, the shogun gave him a new residence within the castle-ram- parts. In the fourth year of Jokio (a. d. 1687) he received a sacerdotal title, and also succeeded to his father’s title of doctor. In the third year of Genroku (a. d. 1690) he was ordered to remove the Sage’s Temple in his grounds to Yushima, where it was rebuilt with great mag- nificence, and called Taiseiden. In the following year the Shogun Tsunayoslii personally visited this temple, and performed the ceremony in honor of the sage ; on this occasion he made this temple a land- en- dowment, in order to meet the expenditure consequent upon the annual festival held in the sage’s honor ; besides which, he also endowed it with a permanent fund for the purpose of supporting a large number of stu- dents. Such was the source from which the college of Shohei origi- nated ; and, in fact, at no time since the period of Keicho (a. d. 1596- 1614) had learning been so prosperous ; for now everybody, from the nobility down to the masses of the people, began to esteem and appre- ciate literary studies. Rise of the Literary Frofession . — Since the time of the Ashikaga shogunate, wars had raged year after year, and the Ci samurai,” or military class of the people, had devoted themselves entirely to military •arts, while the cultivation of literature had long been left entirely in the hands of the Buddhist priests ; consequently, great scholars such as Seigwa and Doshun, although as Confucianists they had raised them- selves to high positions, still had been obliged to take the priests for their teachers, to shave their heads, and to assume the appearance of being the followers of Buddhism, receiving sacerdotal titles ; this made them a body distinct from the rest of the samurai and nobility. Atsunobu now complained of the injustice he suffered from this cus- tom, urging that, as Confucianism was the code of principles to be ob- served by all men, it was unreasonable that he, whose profession it was to teach and inculcate these principles, should not be equal to those ■who are taught ! The Shogun Tsunayoshi acknowledged the justness of this argument, and accordingly ordered that he should no longer be obliged to shave his head, conferred on him the secular title of the fifth JAPANESE EDUCATION. 89 rank, and made liim president of tlie college. Upon tills, liis disciples, who had also sliaved tlieir lieads, now, following in tlieir master’s foot- steps, allowed tlieir liair to grow. And all tlie scholars throughout the empire copied this change of custom. The professors of Confucianism who served the shogun’s government at this time had all received their education from Atsunohu. The Shogun Tsunayoshi, thus showing his liking for men of letters, incited all the daimios to vie with each other in inviting Confucian scholars to their dominions. Literature had never since ancient times been in so flourishing a condition. In this state of affairs the Shogun Tsunayoshi died, and was succeeded by Iyenobu. Iyenobu took into his favor Arai Kimiyoshi, and consulted him upon the important affairs of the state ; but the opinions of Atsunohu were differ- ent from those of Kimiyoshi ; the former therefore, repeatedly sought permission to retire from office. On this account he received orders to compose works on the organization of offices and ranks, on the par- ticular forms to be observed on occasions of mourning, and works on genealogy. After the death of the Shogun Iyenobu, Kimiyoshi with- drew from office, and Atsunohu again occupied himself with the more important business of the state. ITe served five shoguns in succession ; in the eighth year of Kioho (a. d. 1723) he resigned the office of president of the college in favor of his son, and was made honorary secretary. He died in the eighty- eighth year of his age. His posterity were successively appointed to the office of president of the college, and they held supreme sway in the literary world. During the shogunate of Iyenari, Matsudaira Noriliira was adopted into the Hayashi family, and succeeded to the hereditary office. He aided the shogun’s prime-minister, Matsudaira Sadanobu, in the most important affairs of state, and corrected many abuses of the time. Up to his time Hayashi’s school had remained a private institu- tion in the possession of the Hayashi family, although its expenses were defrayed by the Government ; but now a national school was established by the Government, and held as government property. To this school Noriliira presented his books, and annexed the halls of his old school. At length the Taiseiden, with the school-rooms and halls, was rebuilt. 6 AN OUTLINE HISTORY OF 90 and new school regulations, modes of examination, and systems of gradation, were adopted. According to the old regulations, no one but the retainers of the shogun had been allowed to enter the school ; but now another hall was erected, to which the people at large were ad- mitted for study. Moreover, the learned Shibano Hikosuke, Bito Rio- sulce, and Koga Yasuke, were engaged and made professors. Ever since the time of the Shogun fyenobu, learning had been encouraged and cared for, so that now it was in a more flourishing condition than ever. Since the time when the Tckugawa family had founded their government in Yedo, no shoguns had paid so much attention to the cultivation of Chinese philosophy and literature as Tsunayoshi and Iyenobu. The latter, more especially, took pains to root out the war- like spirit which the people had inherited from early times; and with this end in view he established rules of etiquette and dress. The man- agement of these matters he confided to the care of Arai Kimiyoshi, who, comparing ancient precedents with the practice of modern times, drew up regulations on these subjects. Kimiyoshi, or Hakuseki, by which name he is more generally known, received his education from Kinoshita Junnan. Junnan was a native of Kioto, and was distinguished for his great learning. He first served the Prince of Kaga, and then the shogun’s government, by whom lie was employed as a professor. Junnan had many noted disciples ; they, together with the Bayashi family, wielded supreme power in the literary world. Among these Kimiyoshi was especially favored by the Shogun Iyenobu, receiving daily additional marks of his esteem and favor. Kimiyoshi wrote the genealogical records of three hundred and eighty-seven daimios, commencing from the beginning of the period Keichd (a. d. 1596-1614), and ending in that of Yenrpo (a. d. 1673- 1680), during which eighty years all the events which occurred to these daimios are minutely chronicled. He eventually was made honorary go- vernor of the province Chikugo, with the fifth rank. He died in the tenth year of Kioho (a. d. 1 7 2 3) , in the sixty -ninth year of his age, having during his life written on more than three hundred different subjects. JAPANESE EDUCATION. 91 Muro Naokiyo, otherwise known as Kiuso, nlso, like his teacher Jimnan, served the Prince of Kaga, "but, being recommended to the shogun’s government by Kimiyoshi, was employed by it as a professor. Y/hen Yoshimime, Prince of Kii, was chosen successor of lye- nobu, his first act was the encouragement of literature. A lecture-hall was constructed at the Takakmra Mansion, and Naokiyo was selected as the first court-lecturer. The duties of the holder of this title were, to deliver lectures to the shogun in his court. Yoshimime directed Naokiyo to translate from Chinese into Japanese the work of Chinese moral philosophy, which he caused to be published and distributed to the writing-masters in the city, to be used as copies for their young pupils. Naokiyo also translated the Chinese ethics, viz., the five human relations of father and son, master and servant, husband and wife, of friends, and of brothers ; and the five cardinal virtues, humanity, uprightness, propriety, wisdom, and sincerity. He died in the nine- teenth year of Kioho (a. d. 1734), aged seventy-seven years. Among the works which survived him are forty- three volumes of his essays. It will be seen that, during the period of Kioho (a. d. 1716-1735), the two families of Hayashi and Kinoshita educated more learned scholars than all the other teachers. And, as in accordance with the maxim “What the superior loves the inferior will be found to love more, ” there was not a province in which learning was not cultivated, nor a family in which books were not read. At Kioto there were Ito Jinsai and his sons, and at Yedo, Butsu Sorai, who w ere all considered ornaments of the period. ^ Sorai, commonly called Ogiu Soyemon, was born in Yedo. He was a retainer of Yanagisawa Yoshiyasu, who was a favorite of the Shogun Tsunavoshi. On every occasion that the shogun visited Yoshiyasu, Soyemon had the honor of delivering in his presence lectures on the Chinese classics. Among Sorai’s disciples were many men of excel- lence. They all upheld the old doctrines of the Chinese classics, and spread their fame abroad. Jinsai, whose proper personal name was Itei established at Plori- kawa, in Kioto, a private boarding-school, and devoted himself to the, 92 AN OUTLINE HISTORY OF education of students for upward of forty years ; every province of the empire, except the three of Hida, Sado, and Iki, contributed pupils to his school, and their total summed up to more than three thousand. The Prince of Higo, hearing of his fame, offered him, on the condition of his entering his service, a yearly income of one thousand koku of rice; but Ito declined the prince’s proposal. In the second year of Ho-ei (a. d. 1705) Ito died, aged seventy-nine. Among his works are to be found the comments on the “ Philosophy of Confucius ” and “ Phi- losophy of Mencius, ” the books of “ Changes ” and several others. He had five sons, and was succeeded by the eldest, Genzo. The second was Juzo, who served the Prince of Pukuyama. Sliozo was the third; he served the Prince of Takatsuki. The fourth was Heizo ; he served the Prince of Kuruzne. The youngest was Saizo ; he served the Prince of Kii. They were thus employed by the princes on account of the literary knowledge which they had acquired from their father. They were called the five Zos of Ito, from the final syllable of their common names. Genzo’s works were very considerable, the following being among the number, “ Kogakushiyo, or Treatise on Old Learning,” the “Ko- kongakuhen, or Changes in ancient and modern Learning,” and more than fifty others, wdiich are considered of great utility. There is also besides these a collection of his essays. He died in the first year of Gembun (a. d. 1736), in the sixty-seventh year of his age. From the above-mentioned facts it will be seen that literature was in a very prosperous condition. On this account school rules and regulations, together with methodical courses of lectures, w r ere regu- larly established, and these became the foundation of the future educational system. Soon after many useful institutions, such as the Observatory, the Medical School, and the School for Western Medicine, were gradually established. This state of things naturally arose from the increased civilization of the times, as well as from the attention which the Toku- gawa family devoted to the promotion of literature. We>will now enter upon the historical records of the institutions connected with astronomy, medicine, etc., and, in order more completely JAPANESE EDUCATION. 93 to show their origin, short biographies of those who were more par- ticularly concerned with them will be added to the description of each institution. Astronomical Institutions . — The first observatory was that of Kanda, which was erected in the first year of Yenkio (a. d. 1744) The Shogun Yoshimune had already, while still leading a private life in the residence of the Prince of Kii, shown an inclination for the study of astronomy and calendrieal science, and after he had succeeded to the shogunate he sent for Tatebe Hikojiro, in order that he might personally obtain from him information upon such subjects. He also caused a large celestial globe to be made under the direction of Kato, who was a skillful artificer, and was for this purpose called from the province of Kii. In the third year of Kioho (a. d. 17 IS) Yoshimune himself made an apparatus for determining the sun’s meridian altitude, and he placed it in his garden of Pukiage. He also, hearing of Nishi- kawa Joken, who was well versed both in astronomy and calendrieal science, called him from Nagasaki, and requested him to present his works. In the same year, the first year of Yenkio (a. d. 1744), anew observatory was built, in which the celestial globe, which had been constructed, was placed. In the third year of Yenkio (a. d. 1746) Nishikawa Chiujiro, the son of Joken, having been ordered to correct the Jokid almanac, which Yasui Santetsu had composed from his own calculations, and which had been found to be incorrect, published an amended almanac. Santetsu was originally a skillful player at “ go ” (an intricate game of checkers, introduced from China) ; but, possessing natural talents for mathe- matics, had discovered, upon comparison, that the sun’s actual position and motions did not always correspond with the place and motions in- dicated in the almanac which had been in use since the fourth year of Jog wan (a. d. 862), during a period of more than eight hundred and twenty years. He, therefore, had compiled a new and corrected one, which had been distributed throughout the empire under the name of .1 okio almanac. On this account he was in that year made astronomer to the government. 94 AN OUTLINE HI STORY OF In tlie second year of K wan yen, five years after tlie retirement from office of tlie Shogun Yo'shinobu, tlie almanac (calculated, as above mentioned, by Nishikawa Cliiujiro) was completed. In tlie country, liowever, all matters of a calendrical nature liad, in accordance with law, been managed, from age to age, by tlie Tsucbimikado family. Hence this new and corrected almanac was subjected to the examina- tion of Abe no Yasukuni, and bis approval of tlie corrections was re- quested, upon which Yasukuni went through the ceremony of an as- tronomical calculation on the winter Solstice of tlie third year of Horeki (a. i). 1753), to participate in which the author came from Yedo. In tlie following year this almanac was published and distributed among the people. Soon afterward the astronomical office was abol- ished, although the three families of Shibukawm, Nishikawa, and Yoshi- da, still continued to direct astronomical subjects. In the second year of Meiwa (a. d. 1765), Yhshida Shiro founded at Ushigome an office for compiling new almanacs. Eighteen years later, or in the second year of Temmei (a. d. 1782), this office w r as removed to Asakusa, where a new observatory w T as built. The revised almanac, distributed in the fourteenth year of Tempo (a. d. 1843), was calculated at this observatory. Medical Schools . — A medical school was first founded on the Chi- nese system in the second year of Mehva (a. d. 1765), by Taki Genko, a physician of the shogun’s government. Genko v/as a descendant of the family of Tamba ; his forefathers were physicians in the service of the imperial court ; one of them, how- ever, was a physician of the shogun. Genko distinguished himself greatly in his profession, and in the above-mentioned year be at length asked for and obtained from tlie Government a piece of ground at Soto Kaiida, in Yedo, where he founded a private school, where the younger members of the families of government physicians and tlie physicians of the several provinces and towns were able to study medical science. In the following year Genko died, and was succeeded by. his son Geuto- kti, who superintended tlie medical school. In tlie first year of Anvei (a. i>. 1772), this school was burnt down, and Gentoku, at his own JAPANESE EDUCATION. 95 expense, rebuilt it. In tlie second year of Anyei (a. d. 1773), a]] the physicians in the service of the shogun were ordered to subscribe a certain amount of money toward defraying the expenses of this school. In the sixth year of Ternmei (a. d. 1786) the school was again rebuilt, and new regulations were made, by which the children of government physicians and other students were allowed .to live within the school, and carry on their studies during the term of one hundred days in the two seasons of spring and summer of every year. In the third year of ■Bbvansei (1791) a new system was established, and the school received some land-endowments and became a government medical institution. The new system was formed under the direction of Anchio, the son of Gentoku. He abolished the practice of admitting the physicians of the provinces and towns, and only admitted members of the families of the government physicians, limiting the age of those admitted to forty years and under. Besides which he fixed days on which all the physi- cians of the shogun should meet and discuss matters referring to their profession. The office of school-director, however, was still held by Gentoku himself. On this occasion also all the officers of the school, such as supervisors, lecturers, compounders of medicines, etc., were appointed. When any patients sought advice, they were examined by all the physicians of the institution, and were supplied with medicines at the expense of the Government. Gentoku and Anchio, as a reward for having devoted themselves to this profession, and for having founded, rebuilt, and kept open this school at their own expense, received from the . Government a certain sum of money. Since this the posterity of the Taki family have con- tinued to be made directors of this school. In the third year of Bunlcwa (a. d. 1806) this school was again unfortunately burnt down, when it was removed to another site in Yedo. A School of Japanese Language and Literature . — A school of Japanese literature was founded first in the fifth year of Kwansei (a. d. 1793), by Idanawa Hokiiclii. He was born in the district of Kotaina, in the province of Musashi, and lost his eyesight while yet a child ; afterward he came to ledo and was educated Under Iniajo. He was 96 AN OUTLINE HISTORY OF very fond of tlie old books of this country, and during many years searched for those which in the course of time had become scattered aud lost. In the fifty- fifth year of his age, he received from the Government a piece of ground at Banchio, in Yedo, where he founded a school of Japanese literature, near which he built a library to keep his books. In the seventh year of Kwansei (a. d. 1795) his school was endowed with some land, and placed under the direction of the Sliohei College. Hokiichi classified and arranged 1,273 subjects, about which the old books treated, into one work of 530 volumes, which he published. Afterward he published a continuation of the same, a work of 1,185 volumes, treating upon 2,103 subjects. On this account, in the tenth year of Kwansei (a. d. 1798), he asked for and obtained a piece of land at South Shinagawa, where he built a warehouse in which the wooden blocks of his publications were kept. In the second year of Bunkwa (a. d. 1805) it was found that the ground on which his school was built was too small ; therefore, the Government granted him the unoccupied piece of ground situated on the eastern side of his school. Here he erected larger school-buildings. In the fourth year of Bunsei (a. i). 1821) Hokiichi, on account of his advanced age, retired from office, and his son Tadatomi was made school-director in his place. In the following year Hokiichi died in the seventy-sixth year of his age. This school which he founded existed till late years, being in the possession of the Hanawa family. In ancient times in Japan native learning was not cultivated. It was only after the foreign learning had spread in this country that Japanese learning began to improve. After letters were introduced, composition came into use, and by means of these letters the various meanings of words were explained; but in these writings the foreign style of composition had to be adhered to. When Chinese learning had made much progress in Japan the native literature was made to imitate it, and even government enact- ments were in accordance with the Chinese style. Nevertheless, the colloquial language could not be changed, so that, although the Chinese JAPANESE EDUCATION . 97 style was used for the written language, the spoken language remained as it always had been. Even at the present day the written and spoken languages are different from each other. Before the Japanese middle ages the orthoepic differences between direct and indirect sounds, or pure and impure, were distinctly observed. On this account, that which was written coincided exactly with that which was spoken. As Chinese learning became more extensively followed, this ancient precision was gradually lost. Still, during the periods Ivwampei (a. d. 889-897) and Yencho (a. d. 923-930) the priest Slioju and Minamoto no shitago each published a dictionary, in both of which the definition of the words was very clear, and the spelling in the Japanese alphabet- sounds was par- ticularly good, so that up to this time the deterioration had not been very considerable. After this there were few who studied the correct accents, and none who corrected the faulty pronunciations. Eujiwara no Sadaiye following the profession of poet, established a system of his own for the employment of the Japanese alphabet-sounds, which not only differed from that in ancient use, but also impugned the correctness of ancient books on this subject. This false system, called the “ Gosho- kana,” was used for four hundred and fifty years without its errors being discovered by any one. During the period of Tempo (a. d. 1673-1680), the Buddhist priest Keicliiu, of Osaka fond of Japanese learning, and well acquainted with the old Japanese works, compiled for Prince Mitsukuni, of Mito, the book of twenty-two volumes of comments on ancient poetry. Keichiu’s leading argument was : “ In the language of my country, the correct or classical and the vulgar, and again the ancient and the modern, are to be distinguished; if these distinctions are not clearly borne in mind, a correct etymology of the Japanese language will be impossible. The most ancient memorial of the language is the “ Collection of Ancient Poetry;” if, therefore, one does not depend upon this work, it will be impossible to explain the source of the language.” With this in view he composed the work to correct the errors then current, and he revived the ancient system of orthography with the Japanese alphabet. At this time a Shinto priest of Kioto, Kada no Adzuma maro, also a votary of Japanese learning, 98 AN OUTLINE HISTORY OF lamented that since the middle ages the pronunciation had become incorrect. He composed a work in eighty volumes, for the purpose of correcting this evil. Kamo no Mabuchi of Totorai, being for his pleasure in Elio to, became a pupil of Adzuma-maro, and acquired a knowledge of Japanese learning. In the second year of Kwanyen (a. d. 1749) ■Mabuchi came to Yedo, and entered the service of Councilor Tayasu Munetake. Here he greatly fostered and extended Japanese learning. What he continually impressed upon his students was: “Let us com- pare the present condition of Japanese learning to agriculture. We find that Keichiu commences and prepares the ground for seed, but does not complete the sowing of the seed; my teacher nearly completes this, but suddenly dies, so that it remains for us to be responsible for the work of harvest; therefore, you must diligently exert yourselves to finish this work.” At length Mabuchi, to disseminate his views, put forth several works on Japanese poetry. Afterward he retired from office, and lived at Hamacho. He died in the sixth year of Meiwa (a. d. 1789), at the age of seventy-three. Moto-ori Norinaga was a pupil of Mabuchi, and was more espe- cially skilled in Japanese learning. He composed a “ History of Old Times ” in forty-eight volumes. In this work the Japanese language is about at its best. Moto-ori Norinaga was from the province Ise. When he read one of the works of Mabuchi he made a written application to him to become one of his pupils ; Mabuchi, admiring his earnest desire, encouraged him, and 'was the cause of his writing his work on history. Besides this he was the author of the work on " words, ” and many others. He died in the first year of Kiowa (a. d. 1801), at the age of seventy-two, and left two sons, Haruniwa and Ohira, who both followed their father’s profession. Haruniwa was the author of works on grammar. About this time, besides Norinaga, Buyetani Nari-akira taught this subject at Kioto. Afterward Hirata Atsutane, Ban no Nobutomo, and Tachibana no Moribe, successively appeared; but these, desiring to improve what was already correct, produced a contrary effect ; nevertheless they were sufficiently correct to be called masters. School of Foreign Languages . — In the second year of Ansei (a. d. JAPANESE EDUCATION. 99 1855 ), at the base of the ascent of Kudan, inTTedo, a school was built where the Dutch language was to be taught, Koga Z6 being appointed director of this school. In the third year of Ansei (a. d. 1856 ), Sugita Seikei, a subject of the prince of Obama, and Mitsukuri Gempo, a subject of the prince of Tsuyama were appointed teachers in this school. In the following year the school was opened and teaching commenced ; at first, however, subjects of the shogun only were admitted as students ; it was not until some time after that the retainers of the several dai- mids were admitted. In the first year of Manyen (a. d. 1860 ) the school was removed to Ogawa-machi, on which occasion English and [French, ■ together with the German and Russian languages, were added to the regular course, and a class in chemistry was commenced. Thus the course of instruction in Western learning was gradually made more complete. In the second year of Bunkiu (a. d. 1862 ) new and larger buildings for the school were erected near Hitotsubashi Gate. Seikei haying died in the mean time, Mitsukuri Gempo and Kawamoto Ivomin, the latter a retainer of the Prince of Kagoshima, having been called to Yedo and made subjects of the shogun, were appointed professors. In the third year of Bunkiu (a. d. 1863 ) the school was placed under the management of the Sliohei College, and named the Kaiseijo. In this year some students were for the first time sent to study in England, and the study of European mathematics was com- menced in the school. In the first year of Keio (a. d. 1865 ) a Dutch professor was engaged to teach natural philosophy and chemistry. At this time students of the English, Erench, and German languages in- creased daily, so that it was found necessary to enlarge the school-rooms and to change the rules of instruction. Early Eorc'ujn Scholars . — The first book published on foreign sub- jects is by Aral Hakuseki, and it was only after the appearance of this work that foreign learning w r as taken notice of in this country. The first European nations that had intercourse with Japan were the Portuguese and Dutch. The former for a long time continued their intercourse with the country • but through their intrigue with tlie local princes of the western coasts they became odious to the Government, 100 AN OUTLINE HISTORY OF and were expelled in the sixteenth year of Kwanyei (a. d. 1639), and forbidden to return. At this time, as the Dutch were of service to this country in explaining the real intentions and acts of the Portuguese, special permission was granted them to carry on trade, and in the eighteenth year of Kwanyei (a. d. 1641) the port of Nagasaki, in Hizen, was opened, mercantile houses were established, and this was made the seat of commerce with the Dutch. Once a year an envoy from the Dutch at Nagasaki paid a visit of respect to the shogun’s government at Yedo; and on this account a few young men had been educated to act as interpreters. But these had not been allowed to learn the Dutch letters or to read Dutch books, but had been obliged to acquire their knowledge of the Dutch orally. The Shogun Yoshimune, being deeply interested in his astronomical and calendrical studies, was informed that the Dutch were well versed in these sciences. He, therefore, called Nishikawa Joken, a native of Nagasaki, and questioned him upon these matters. Upon this the interpreters, Nishi, Yoshio, and others, by mutual agreement, applied to the Government for permission to learn to read and write Dutch. During the period of Kioho (a. d. 1716-1735) this permission was at last granted, and for the first time ■ the Dutch lan- guage was learned from books. The Shogun Yoshimune, having also obtained some Dutch books, so much admired the minuteness of their engravings that he desired to know the meaning of the explanatory text. There was at this time a private individual called Awoki Bunzo, who, being found of study, had by special permission obtained the use of the government library books. He finally was made Confucian professor to the Government. The government library was also under his care, and he continually urged the benefits to be derived from the use of Dutch works. Upon this the Shogun Yoshimune commanded Bunzo and Noro Genjio to apply themselves to the study of the Dutch language and literature. In view of this these two men were present at the receptions of the annual messenger from Nagasaki, in order to hear the Dutch language spoken, jjpanf.se education. 101 and they found that with the aid of the interpreters they were able to understand the meaning of what was said. But, owing to the pecu- liarities of the foreign idiom, they found it difficult to comprehend, and were much embarrassed, more especially as it was only once a year that the messenger came. Although they thus studied for several years, they only acquired a knowledge of the alphabet. During the period of Yenkio (a. d. 1744-1747) they received orders to proceed to Naga- saki, where they studied Dutch with Nishi and Yoshio, and eventually acquired an elementary acquaintance with it. Of these four students, Yoshio especially devoted himself to the acquirement of this language, and for the benefit of future students desired to publish a Dutch and Japanese vocabulary; but he died without carrying out his intention. Bunzo remained and continued his studies for several years, acquiring a knowledge of about four hundred words of daily use, of the various shapes of the capitals and small letters, of the foreign way of spelling monosyllables, together with the method of combining syllables into words. He then returned to Yedo. But Yoshimune had died some time before Bunzo’s return to Yedo, and his position was not the same as formerly, for he found himself without a teacher, without fellow- learners, and without books to pursue his studies. He could on this account do no more than publish the books, “ Dutch Letters,” “Dutch Conversation,” and others. At about this time Mayeno Riotaku, a physician in the service of the Brince of Nakatsu, and a man who aspired after eminence, and was fond of reading strange and curious books, accidentally came across the fragment of a Dutch book. Being desirous to read it, he became a pupil of Bunzo, and Bunzo, admiring his perseverance, taught him all he knew. But the fragment in question was a very difficult , one, and, although day and night were devoted to study, but a very small portion of its contents was understood. The Brince of Nakatsu, believing that Riotaku’s desire was good, sent him to Nagasaki, where he learned about six or seven hundred more words and then returned. After this he once more went to Nagasaki, but, owing to the fact that the interpreters only knew a few words, and that none were able to 102 AN OUTLINE HISTORY OF read books or to translate, although for several years he continual! v sought from them a more perfect knowledge, he failed in acquiring any- thing but the mere elements of the Dutch language. Finally, Riotaku secretly acquired a translated vocabulary and several medical works, with which he returned to Yedo. Here, with the aid of what he had learned, as w r ell as by the aid of the new books, he learned a good deal that he had not known before, and after six or seven years, by his own efforts, acquired an adequate knowledge of the Dutch language. He now commenced several translations, and published a number of works compiled from the Dutch. In the third year of Kiowa (a. d. 1803) lie died, at the age of eighty-one years. He was called Rankwa Sensei. Before this the family of Katsuragawa had successively, from father to son, been the shogun’s court-surgeons. The ancestor of this family was Morishima, a doctor of the Prince of Hirato. He studied under Arashiyama Hoan, and later changed his surname to Katsuragawa. When lyenobu, before he became shogun, was in Kofu, he sent for Hochiku to be his body-physician. Hochiku afterward became the government doctor. His great-grandson Hosan became a pupil of Awoki Bunzo, and Ploshiu the son of Hosan was very desirous to learn Dutch. Ide, together with Sugita Gempaku, became a pupil of Riotaku, and they studied diligently. They formed a society called Komei-Sha, and assisted each other, hoping thus to acquire a per- fect knowledge of the Dutch. Gempaku was the physician of the Prince of Obama, and his father, Hosan, had at first learned Dutcli surgery from Nishi Sosliun. Gempo, the father of Soshun, was a Dutch interpreter at Nagasaki, and was afterward employed by the shogun’s government as a physician. Gempaku having obtained a Dutch ana- tomical work, was desirous of practically comparing its teachings witli the ancient Japanese beliefs on this subject. It opportunely happened at this time that the Government had ordered the post-mortem exami- nation of an executed criminal to be held, and Gempaku, together with Riotaku, undertaking the work, found that the drawings in the Dutch book exactly corresponded with the real organs. Prom this it was found that the old beliefs were incorrect. He desired, therefere, to. JAPANESE EDUCATION. 103 lave this anatomical work translated and brought to the aid of medi- cal science. But Gempaku did not even liave an elementary knowledge of Dutch ; on this account, Riotaku was made chief, and thus the work was in a fair way of being commenced. The help of the inter- preters was not desired. But, as a member of the committee of trans- lation, Gempaku was at a loss where to commence. He first applied himself to learning the Dutch alphabet, and thus went on till he grad- ually acquired a knowledge of words. At last the actual work of translation was commenced ; but sometimes the translation of a single word would occupy more than a day, and sometimes several days were needed to translate one sentence. In view of these difficulties, the members , of the committee declared that the work could not possibly be achieved; but Gempaku said, “It is possible for man to do it, but it must be with the help of Heaven.” The days for carrying on this work were fixed, and ITcshiu, Nakagawa, Junnan, Mine Shuntai, Toriya- ma Shoyen, and Kiriyama Shotetsu, formed themselves into a regular so- ciety. Without once ceasing, these men consulted and worked together year after year ; the quantity translated increased, and they gradually, and unaided by others, acquired a knowledge of the peculiarities of the Dutch language, so that in each successive year some discrepancies were discovered in the translations done in the preceding year. In this wav, during a period of four years, the rough sheets were rewritten not less than eleven different times before the work was finished at last. This work was called “ A New Work on Analytical Anatomy.” It was engraved and published, and a copy presented to the shogun’s govern- ment, and to the principal nobles in Kioto. Prom this the people of the empire learned that it was possible to translate Dutch books, and they learned, besides, the truth respecting the human frame; all this they owed to the energy and perseverance of Gempaku. At about this time Otsuki Gentaku, a native of Sendai and grand- father of the writer hearing that Gempaku was engaged in translating a work on anatomy, came to Tedo, and became a pupil of Gempaku, and a member of the translating society. If he had not believed in the practicability of his work, he would not have joined in it, and lie 104 AN OUTLINE HISTORY OF was a man who only wrote what he thoroughly understood. Gempaku, admiring these sterling qualities, helped and encouraged him, and thus contributed to the development of his talents. Gentaku had in view, not only the medical science, but also the examination of the Dutch grammar, and Dutch books in general. He left Gempaku, and became a pupil of Riotaku, who, also admiring the earnestness of Gentaku, taught him without any reserve all he knew. Nevertheless, all this did not satisfy Gentaku. Pie therefore left Riotaku, and proceeded to Nagasaki, where he more fully studied and examined various Dutch works. He then returned to Yedo, and published the work " Steps to the Dutch Language.” Before this, Awoki, Mayeno and others had also composed books on the Dutch language, but none had been published. Each of these persons had his own peculiar method of translating according to his own ideas of the grammar of the Dutch language. Their knowledge had been acquired entirely by rote, and not from systematic books. They were, therefore, unable to express cor- rectly the sounds; nor were they more successful in syllabification. But the work treated comprehensively of the combination of vowels with consonants, and of several syllables into words, the main principles involved in the structure of the language and the correct method of translating. It became, therefore, now possible for all Japanese to learn to read and understand Dutch books. In consequence of this a large number of people eminent for talent and ability, seeing this book, be- came desirous to study the Dutch language. The following people came to Yedo and became pupils of Gentaku: Udagawa Genzui, a doctor of Tsuyama ; Inamura Sampaku, a doctor of Tottori ; Yamamura Saisuke, a subject of Tsuchi-ura; Yasuoka Genshin, a native of Ise; Hashimoto Sokichi, of Osaka, and others. In the fourth year of Bunkwa (a. d. 1807) difficulties with the Russians took place in the northern parts of the empire. In the following year the appearance of the English on the western coast caused considerable commotion. The shogun’s government decided, therefore, to make itself acquainted with the condition of these two countries, and Gentaku received orders to compile an account of these countries from the Dutch books. JAPANESE EDUCATION. 105 Accordingly, lie composed tlie works in regard to tlie Russian questions. In tlie eiglitli year tlie shogun’s government paid Gentaku twenty ingots of silver, and continued this payment yearly, making him trans- lator of Dutch works. In the fifth year of Bunsei (a. d. 1822) he at length received a monthly salary. The above was the first instance of the shogun’s government directly encouraging western learning. The works of Gentaku were very numerous, and with a spirit simi- lar to that of Gempaku, he published the revised edition of the new work on “ Analytical Anatomy,” which entered minutely into the details of the science. He also published “Strange News of the Seas” and “ Miscellaneous Essays,” etc. In the tenth year of Bunsei (a. d. 1827), he died, aged seventy-one years. His son Genkwan followed with suc- cess his father’s profession. He, too, received commands from the shogun’s government to translate Dutch works. He published a small work, which explained the peculiarities of Dutch composition ; this was the first work purely on grammar. Besides this he published, also, works on the proper pronunciation of Dutch. At this time there were not a few others besides Genkwan who made Dutch learning their occupation. Among these was Awoclii Rinso, who, devoting himself to natural philosophy, published a work on the subject. This w T as the first work on natural philosophy. Kawamoto Komin was a pupil of Rinso, and published an enlarged edition of the work on natural phi- losophy. Yasuoka Gensliin followed this by publishing a work which described the functions of the external and internal organs of the human body. To Genshin is due the merit of advancing medical science. His son Y6-an published the first book on chemistry. Mitsukuri Gempo, of the same clan as Genshin, placed himself under him as his pupil. Gempo devoted himself to geography and history, and published the works on those subjects. His son Seigo also composed a work on geog- raphy. The son of Gempaku, Hakugen, acquired his father’s learning and communicated it to his son Seiki. This Seiki was eminent for his great talents and extensive knowledge, having finished his studies while still young. He composed works on military subjects. All the above-mentioned men devoted their energies entirely to foreign learning. 106 AN OUTLINE HISTORY OF Foreign Medical Science . — There was in Yedo an institution called the Western Medical Science School. During the period called Tempo (a. d. 1830-1843), Ito Gemboku, a doctor in the service of the Prince of Saga, Totsuka Seikwai, in the service of the Prince of Kagoshima, Otsuki Shunsai, in the service of the Prince of Sendai, Hayashi Tokai, in the service of the Prince of Kokura, Takenouchi Gendo, in the ser- vice of the Prince of Maru-oka, established themselves severally in Yedo, and practised medicine successfully on European principles. A little later, in the hope of arresting the great mortality among Jap- anese children of both sexes, they added vaccination to their other practice. In the fifth year of Ansei (a. d. 1858), the above-mentioned doctors having formed themselves into a society, established, with the permission of the Government, a private institution for vaccination. During this year the Shogun Iyesada being sick, sent for Gemboku, Gendo, and Seikwai, and made them his court-physicians. This is the first instance in which physicians of the European school, who were not also surgeons, were appointed to the dignity of court-physicians,, Upon being appointed to this rank, they made over to the Government their vaccination institution. Shunsai and Tokai being made directors of the institution, three classes of students were established, viz., a general medical class, an anatomy class, and a vaccination class, Ishi- kawa Osho, Tsuboi Shindo, and others, were appointed teachers. The following year, this institution having been burnt, a new one was built, to which was attached a lecture-room, and chambers for the use of the pupils, and Shunsai was made sole director. The current expenses of this institution were borne by the Government. In the first year of Buiikiu (a. d. 1861) the institution, in order to distinguish it from another medical school where Chinese medical art was taught, was named the European Medical School. In the second year of Bunkiu (a. d. 1862) a chemical department was added to the institution, and a class for physiology was formed, and physiological works were pub- lished. In this year the director, Shunsai, died, and his son Gensliun was appointed in his place, Gemboku, Gendo, and Tokai, being appoint- ed to advise him. Later on Ogata Koan was sent from Osaka to re- JAPANESE EDUCATION 107 place these three. Previous to this, Matsumoto Riojun and others had been sent to Nagasaki to study medicine with a Dutch physician. Afterward Gempaku, the son of Gemboku, and Kenkai, the son of Tokai, were sent to Holland to study medicine. Subsequently Riojun opened a medical school at Nagasaki, which was entirely built and conducted in accordance with the Dutch system. In the first year of Genji (a. d. 1864) Koan died, and to replace him Riojun was called from Nagasaki, and he reformed and amended the rules and regulations of the institution, and made it much more pros- perous. The medical school at Nagasaki was opened in the first year of Bun- kiu (a. d. 1861), Matsumoto Riojun haying obtained the permission of the shogun’s government for this purpose. At this time it was only at Nagasaki that medical students received foreign instruction, and the teachers in all cases were Dutch’doctors. Riojun having learned from the Dutch doctors the rules and regulations of military and public hos- pitals, established for the first time at Nagasaki a hospital. Although the principal object was the healing of the sick, still a medical class was attached^to it, and a medical professor was engaged from Holland which increased its prosperity greatly. After this Riojun was called to Yedo, to take office in the medical school. In the first year of Keio (a. d. 1865), Natural Philosophy and Chemistry class-rooms were added to the Nagasaki Medical School, and a Dutch professor was engaged to teach these sciences. In the third year of Bunkiu (a. d. 1863) there was also established at Nagasaki a foreign-language school, at which the five following lan- guages were taught by professors engaged from each of the countries named, i. e., Chinese, Dutch, English, Prench, and Russian. The divi- sion into classes and the manner of teaching were such as prevailed in the several countries from which the professors had been obtained. Subsequently mathematics were also taught. At this time one of the professors, an American, having an extensive knowledge of Japanese, was a very successful instructor, so that the number of students increased greatly. AN OUTLINE HISTORY OF 108 The above-mentioned institutions and schools, together with the Osaka Medical School and the Hakodate Hospital, were all established by the shogun’s government. At the time of the restoration, the Im- perial Government took over these institutions, revised and improved the regulations, and enlarged their scope. At the present day these are the centres from which scientific knowledge is diffused. Printing under the Shoguns. — During the period Onin (a. d. 1467) the political troubles in the empire and the contests of warlike factions resulted in the destruction of most of the educational institutions of the empire. Books which had been gathered into libraries, or collected in private houses, were scattered or destroyed. A military spirit sprung up in the country, which was unfavorable to the cultivation of literature and the production of books. Previous to this period, the art of printing had made considerable progress in the country. As early as the fourth year of Jingo Kei-un ( a. d. 770) the Empress Koken had caused to be prepared a large edition of the Buddhist canonical book, and distributed it among the Buddh- ist temples throughout the empire. This book was printed from the wooden blocks in the ordinary style of printing Chinese and Japanese. In this method of printing, a block is made for each page of the book, which is used like a stereotype plate of the present day. These blocks are made from wood, by cutting away the intervals between the letters and leaving the face of the letters standing in relief. Eor the purpose of printing from these blocks they are laid face upward on a flat table. The ink is put on with the flat brush. Then the sheet of paper is laid upon the face of the block, and pressed down upon it by means of a soft pad or rubber. A single block contains two pages. The paper is printed only on one side, and then folded into a single leaf. Printing with movable types w r as probably introduced into Japan during the Ashikaga dynasty (16th century), but w ? as never extensively used until a very recent time. These types at first were made from wood, but now are made from type-metal in the usual manner. Printing with movable type is a matter of more difficulty in the Jap- anese 1; nguage than in European language. Ordinary books require JAPANESE EDUCATION. 109 at least five thousand different types. In spite of these difficulties, how- ever, movable types have been extensively introduced, and all of the newspapers are now printed with them. Accession to power of the Tokugawa family restored peace to the country, and was followed by a great revival in the printing and col- lection of books. The great historical works which were undertaken under the patronage of the shogun and different daimios were printed with blocks at their expense. A class of booksellers and book-publishers grew up in the country, and a regular system of copyright and censorship is found to have existed for the last two centuries. Provincial and Private Schools under the Shoguns . — Toward the close of the Asliikaga dynasty, ambitious and warlike leaders sprung up in every part of Japan, and divided the country among themselves ; the more powerful continually sought to increase their dominions, conse- quently an unceasing state of warfare prevailed ; the larger absorbed the smaller, and the more powerful subdued the weaker. For a long time this unsettled condition prevailed, until Ota Nobunaga and Toyotomi Hideyoshi, by their superior prowess, brought them all to a state of sub- jection. From this time dates the commencement of the feudal system. Although the daimios were subdued, still they each in their several countries ruled their retainers by their own laws, and in each country the education of the young was encouraged by the chiefs. In the fol- lowing pages is a brief account of the most prominent means employed for this purpose. In the fifteenth year of Tenslio (a. d. 1587), Toyotomi Hideyoshi re- duced the country of Satsuma to a state of obedience ; and at this time he made Kobayagawa Takakage feudal lord of the province of Chikuzen. This prince fostered and encouraged education in his province, and estab- lished a school, on the plan of the Asliikaga College in Shimotsuke. Owing to the unsettled state of the country, learning had been universally neglected, and nobody paid attention to it except Takakage, and he was the first who took measures for the education of the military class. Nevertheless, after his death this school seems to have been 119 AN OUTLINE HISTORY OF neglected, so that it is difficult now to find out the rules and regulations that once were in force there. In Yechigo, the feudal lord, Uyesugi Kagekatsu, and his son were fond of learning ; and Mao ye Kanetsugu, tlieir retainer, too, was desirous that the education of the people should he encouraged. Afterward Kagekatsu was transferred to Dewa. Here he established a school where his retainers received instruction. Afterward Harunori, the grandson of Kagekatsu, reformed and enlarged this school so much, that it became celebrated throughout the north and east. Tosliitsune, the son of Maveda Toshinaga, who had received the three provinces of Kaga, Moto, and Yechiu, as his dominion, established schools where the young men of his retainers were taught literature and military science. At a later period Tosliitsune retired to the castle of Komatsu, where he established a local school. Ikeda Mitsumasa, the feudal lord of Bizen, was a great admirer of literature, and intrusted the government of his country to the scholar Kumazawa Riokai. In the ninth year of Kambun (a. d. 1669) he established a new school called Sliidzutani, open to the civil and military classes. To this school was attached a department for teaching mili- tary exercises. Besides the above-mentioned schools, the other fiefs were not without their schools. In these schools, although the rules were various, still the principles of education were equally recognized in all. The principal and most prosperous among these schools were in Owari, Mito, Saga, Kumamoto, Kagoshima, Sendai, Aidzu, Hagi, Kubota, and Ise. In each of these rules w r ere established, classes formed, and the young of the province taught. On this account it is not surprising that at the present day learned scholars and men of tal- ent abound in these provinces. The above is an account of the schools established by the feudal lords after the ascendency of the Tokugawa dynasty. But there were as yet few private schools that had attained to any celebrity, although learned men had devoted themselves to teaching scholars collected around them, and had opened Ixjardiiig-schools, where literature and penman- ship were taught. Although private schools did not flourish, we must JAPANESE EE U CAT I ON. Ill bear in mind that they lacked tlie encouragement and support of tlie local government. Among tliem tliere were some that were continued from generation to generation in the same family. Tliose that became most flourishing and were regarded with the greatest respect in Japan, were one in Kioto founded by ltd Itei, and one in Osaka founded by Nakai Sliiuan. Itei in his youth embraced the classical teachings of tlie Chinese authors of the period of So, and he was tlie author of two works on philosophy; but later lie came to believe that the Chinese authors, Tei and Shu, did not express in their writings the true and original meaning of the Chinese classics. He therefore discontinued their use, and introduced in their place a set of doctrines of his own composition. This school being built in Horikawn, was commonly called and known as the Horikaw 7 a School. Chdin, the son of Itei, supported the family fame for learning. On the death of Chdin, his son Zensho being very young, Clioken, the uncle of Zensho, returned from Kii, and for ten years took the direction of the school upon himself, after which Zensho undertook its management. Zensho followed his father’s example, and by him, too, the reputation of tlie family name was upheld. This school was carried on by the descendants of the family •without a break till the thirteenth year of Tempo (a. d. 1642). By a special order of the Government the land-tax on the school-premises was remitted. Prom tlie foundation of the school by Itei to the thir- teenth year of Tempo was a period of about ninety years. In the eleventh year of Kioho (a. d. 1726), Sliiuan having applied for and obtained the government permission, founded the Osaka City School. At this time Miake Seimei was made master, and Goi Juntei made assistant teacher. The inhabitants of Osaka being principally devoted to commercial pursuits, learning was not thought of much account by them. The school established by Sliiuan w r as the first one opened in that city ; and seeing that he selected such competent men as teachers, he deserves great praise. Later Juntei left Osaka and went to Yedo, upon which Shuan himself taught in the school. After a lapse of several years Juntei returned and resumed his duties in the school. On tlie death 112 AN OUTLINE HISTORY OF of Sliiuan and Juntei, Sekizen, the son of Shiuan, succeeded his father in the school. Sekizen was noted for his great knowledge and literary powers. He composed an historical work of thirteen volumes, and pre- sented it to the shogun’s government. The Government sent in return to Sekizen money for repairs, etc., for his school. JAPANESE EDUCATION. 118 CHAPTER IV. EDUCATION SINCE THE DEVOLUTION. In the 10th month, 3d Keio (a. d. 1867), the Sliogun Toku- gawa Yoshinobu resigned into the imperial hands the office which his family had held for more than two hundred and fifty years. During that period the chief executive power had been held by the shogun at his capital in Yedo. The nominal authority had, however, always re- mained in the person of the mikado, who maintained his court at the imperial capital, Kioto. The change which resulted from the resump- tion of authority by the mikado affected all departments of the Govern- ment. It has required several years of experiment to adapt the forms of government and administration to the altered circumstances. Dor a time the old adherents of the sliogunate resisted by force of arms the cession of power into the imperial hands. But in the 2d Meiji (a. d. 1869) all opposition ceased, and since that time the process of reformation in the Government has gone on rapidly and successfully. A Tear-Period adopted . — In the year after the accession of the present mikado, the year-name was changed to Meiji. This system of a year-name was borrowed from China, and the changes were made at frequent and irregular intervals. Some lucky or unlucky event generally formed the pretext for making the change. In the present instance the period is made to correspond with the reign of the mikado. The first year of Meiji corresponded with the 2528th year of the im- perial dynasty, from the accession of Jimmu Tenno, and with the 1868th year of the Christian era. In the 2d Meiji (a. d. 1869) the Government was removed from the 114 AN OUTLINE HISTORY OF former capital, Kioto, to Yedo, and, in order that the event might he duly signalized, the new capital was called Tokio. The new Government early gave its attention to the subject of education, and, in the years of transition which preceded the estab- lishment of the present Department of Education, made many important movements toward giving to the nation an adequate educational sys- tem. Some of the most important of the measures we shall proceed to enumerate, premising, however, that, as they were tentative in their character, they were often superseded or modified. First Educational Measures . — In the 3d month 1st Meiji (a. d. 1868) the Imperial Government took its first step in educational matters, by establishing a school in Kioto for the promotion of literature. An organ- ization something like the old national university which had existed in the middle ages was reestablished, and to it was intrusted the super- vision of educational affairs. The theory of this university, it will be remembered, was, that it should serve as a means for training up the young men of the noble classes for public service. It was, moreover, not merely a college for study, but an educational board for the exam- ination and licensure of the candidates for official positions. In order to train suitable men for the new duties which were now to be devolved upon the Imperial Government, an order was issued urging upon the court nobles the importance of cultivating their tal- ents and acquiring a knowledge which would be of practical use in the official duties which they might be called upon to fulfill ; and calling attention to the new educational board which had been organized. The Government also took measures to carry on the educational work which had been begun by the shogun. In the 5th month the foreign- language school at Nagasaki was taken under government protection, and its rules and regulations were reformed. The hospital at Naga- saki was also taken over, and provision made for instruction in medi- cine. A. hospital was also built at Kioto. In the 6th month all the educational institutions in Tokio were taken under government control, teachers were obtained for the medical school, and instruction was commenced. Before this a hospital had been opened at Yokohama, JAPANESE EDUCATION. 115 for tlie treatment of wounded soldiers, which was now removed to Tbkio^and placed in charge of the medical school. A school of chem- istry and physics was established in the city of Osaka, and extensive provision was made for instruction. A temporary military school was also opened at Kioto in the 8th month, especially designed for training the court nobility in the military duties which were now re- quired of them. A Chinese medical school, which had been maintained in Tokio, was now converted into a dispensary for vaccination; and this, together with an infirmary and other medical institution, was placed under the direction of the medical school. The College of Con- fucius, which had attained great fame under the sliogunate, was now, after having been suspended on account of the civil war, reopened ; and in the 9th month the Foreign -Language School, which had also been for a time suspended, was resumed, and a room for the discussion of general subjects was opened in connection with it. Reestablishment of the University at Kiotoi — In this same month an imperial edict was issued directing the establishment of a national university for the promotion of literary and military education. This design, however, was not carried out. The pressure of business made it impossible for the Government ‘ to enter upon this scheme at that time. As a temporary expedient, a school for Japanese learning was opened at Kioto, where the court nobles, the government officers, and others, might acquire literary and practical culture. The following are some of the excellent principles promulgated in connection with the establishment of this school : 1. It is incumbent on every citizen to understand the nature of the public institutions of his country, and to become familiar with the duties pertaining to his position in society. 2. Foreign learning, both Chinese and European, must be made to subserve the interests of Japan. The past calamities of the empire have been due to the usurpation of power and the neglect of their appro- priate duties on the part of the military chiefs. Hereafter let all adhere strictly and honestly to the duties belonging to their respective stations. 3. Useless styles of composition, and aimless discourses and dis- 116 AN OUTLINE HISTORY OF missions, ought to be abandoned in the future methods of education ; and the literary and military branches of learning ought to be so culti- vated as to be mutually helpful. 4. Japanese and Chinese learning are not antagonistic, and there- fore the students of these systems, forgetting their former conflicts, should show forbearance toward each other. In the latter part of the 1st Meiji (a. d. 1868) a proclamation was issued to the following effect : “ Japanese learning has of late greatly declined, so that the honor of the country in its relations with foreign nations has been materially prejudiced. It is now the intention of the Government to take measures to revive Japanese learning, and it is earnestly desired that every one, by diligent study and by encouraging sound scholarship, should aid in this work.” On the reopening of the Foreign-Language School at Tdkio, the buildings formerly used were then occupied as military barracks. Hence temporarily the school occupied other quarters; but, in the 12th month, it was again put in possession of its own buildings near Hitotsu- baslii gate. In the 1st month 2d Meiji (a. d. 1869) the restrictions in regard to rank were abolished in reference to students admitted to the College of Confucius, and to the Foreign-Language School.. English and French teachers were engaged for the Foreign-Language School, and the stud- ents were separated into two divisions, the first to be taught by foreign teachers, and the second by Japanese. Publication of Newspapers etc . — In the 8d month the publication of newspapers was sanctioned by the Government. This is believed to have been the first public recognition of the modern newspaper, an institution which has received a remarkable development since that time in Japan. The bureau for their management was for a time connected with the Department of Education, but subse- quently was transferred to the Department of Home Affairs. At the time of this first sanctioning of newspapers, there was also established a bureau for the compilation and correction of historical records. JAPANESE EDUCATION. 117 In the 4th month a Chinese classical lecture-room was opened at the College of Confucius, in Tokio, at which the court nobles /the dai- mios, the lesser nobles, and public officers, attended. This was designed ns a method of mutual improvement, in order to give to the leading men of the day an opportunity to increase their culture and their knowledge of affairs. There seems to have been a division into classes for the better attainment of their purposes. There was the class of explana- tion, , the class of mutual improvement , the class of inquiry, and the class of debate. The attendants were allowed liberty of choice in regard to which of these classes they would join. Further arrangements were about this time also made for the College of Confucius, and the Foreign- Language School. In each provision was made for three hundred pupils to be boarded and taught. Instruction in the German language was commenced in the Foreign-Language School. New buildings for the School of Chemistry and Physics in Osaka were completed. In the Medical School at Nagasaki, mathematics, physics, and chemistry, were added to the regular course, and a Dutch teacher was engaged to teach these branches. Educational Regulations. — In the 7 th month a government edict was issued, defining the duties of the several officers of the Educa- tional Board. The chief officer of this board was charged with the direction of the higher institutions of learning and of the Board of His- torical Compilation, as well as with the general superintendence of the city and provincial schools. The relative ranks in which teachers had before been classed were abolished, and the new ranks of senior, middle, and junior professor, and senior, middle, and junior teacher, were substi- tuted. The officers of all the schools under the direction of the Educa- tional Board were also classified. For each school there were appointed a supervisor of students, a school-monitor, and a clerk. Rules and regulations for the schools were gradually introduced, and a better sys- tem of education was thus step by step established. In the 9 th month a hospital and a foreign-language school were established at Osaka. Shortly afterward a regulation was adopted by the Government confirming ill their profession all physicians in their 118 AN OUTLINE HISTORY OF service aboVe thirty years of age, and confiding all below that age to the care of the Educational Board for further instruction and examination. A medical school was also opened at Osaka in connection with the hos- pital at that place. The medical establishments in Tokio where the Chinese and Japanese systems were taught were placed in the charge of the Educational Board, and provision was made for instruction to be given by competent native physicians. In the 1st month, 3d Meiji (a. d. 1870) additional regulations were issued in regard to the admission of students to the Foreign- Language School at Tokio, and to the National University. As the latter of these give some idea of the views of education which prevailed at that time, we add a summary of them as follows : 1. Frinci'ples of Learning . — The principles of law exist in all things, and have so existed from all time. They show themselves in the three natural relations which bind society together, viz., justice between mas- ter and servant, affection between father and son, and the affection between husband and wife. They also are manifest in the five cardinal virtues viz., humanity, uprightness, propriety, wisdom, and sincerity. In public affairs they serve to secure good administration in civil and criminal cases. A school is an institution in which these principles are taught, so that they may be practically followed throughout the country. It is essential that in the young men of a nation should be inculcated the principles of filial piety, of brotherly love, of the just rela- tions between master and servant, parent and child, husband and wife, and brothren and friends. It is equally essential that they should be educated in all the domestic and public virtues, so that the duties which relate to the state and to individuals may both be faithfully per- formed. 2. Educational System . — Near the imperial residence a university has been established. In each of the cities and provinces middle and elementary schools will be organized under regulations issued by the university. In these, talents which may eventually be of service to the state will be cultivated. The university is designed to be the culminat- ing point at which the most advanced students may be collected, and JAPANESE EDUCATION. 119 where their education may he completed. For admission to the univer- sity the full quota of studies in the lower schools must be finished, and an examinatien passed. 3. Regulations for sending Students from the Provinces to the University. — The limit as to age will be thirty year. The local exam- ination must be passed and a government certificate obtained. Those admitted are to have the title of “university students.” Liberty of selecting the course of study is to be allowed, but when selected the course is to be pursued throughout. The duration of a course in the university is to be three years, after which the students return to their own provinces. In case of vacancy students are to be admitted from the local schools. 4. Manner of Examination. — Examinations are to be held in the middle months of spring and autumn The students are to be exam- ined upon those brandies which they have pursued. They are also to be required to prepare an original essay upon some assigned subject. The results of these examinations are to be compared by the teachers. If any exhibit unusual talent, and their conduct has also been without fault, they are to be reported specially to the Government, in order that if their services are required they may be appointed to office. 5. School Expenses. — The amount to be allowed for educational pur- poses in each city and province is to be fixed in proportion to their local revenues. 6. Departments of Study. — In the university there shall be five de- partments of study, each having its respective branches as follows : (1.) Religion. — Shinto dectrines ; moral philosophy. (2.) Laiv. — Politics ; civil law ; commercial law ; criminal law ; civil procedure ; international law ; political economy ; regulations of court etiquette ; statistics. (3.) Science . — Physics; astronomy; geology; mineralogy; zoology; botany ; chemistry ; mechanical power; machinery; mathematics; sur- veying ; architecture. (4.) Medicine. — In the preparatory division, mathematics ; physics ; chemistry; mineralogy; zoology; botany; metrology. In the principal 120 AN OUTLINE HISTORY OF division, anatomy; physiology; artiology; aeology; toxicology; post- mortem examinations ; medical jurisprudence ; surgery ; therapeutics ; hygiene. (5.) Literature. — History; biography; literature; philosophy. Rules were also made for the middle and elementary schools. For the elementary schools the pupils were to be between eight and fifteen years of age; and for the middle schools, from sixteen years upward. The studies assigned were reading, penmanship, arithmetic, geography, and foreign languages. In the last part of the middle-school course they were to be taught the elements of one of the courses of study assigned for the university. Selections were to be made for the entrance to the uni- versity in accordance with the talents displayed. A selection of books to be read in each of the departments was made, and the students re- quired to read and study these. Astronomy and the compilation* of the national almanac had for many generations been the special pursuit of the family of Tsuchi- mikado. The old observatory which had existed at Yedo had already been abolished. In order to provide for this branch of science, an office was established in connection with the university, where the calcula- tions for the almanacs were made, and from which they were annually distributed. Revision of the Educational System . — In the summer of this year, so much discussion arose in regard to educational matters, that it was thought necessary to remodel the entire system, and for this purpose an imperial edict was issued, temporarily closing the schools, and sending the students to their homes. The Roreign-Language School at Tokio was continued, and the local authorities of the provinces were required to send their quotas of students. The number to be sent from each province was determined according to its population. Several stu- dents were at the same time sent abroad for the purpose of pursuing their education. In the 12th month all venders of medicines were required to have their stock examined by the medical school, and to apply for a license to sell them. All persons desiring to open private schools, or to en- JAVANESE EDUCATION. 121 gage in teaching the arts and sciences, were also required to procure permission from the local governments. Originally the students in foreign countries had been under the care of the Department of Foreign Affairs. They were sent in some cases by departments of the Government, and in other cases by the local governments of the provinces to which they belonged. Others, again, went abroad as students at their private expense. In consequence of these several methods of sending students, they were of various de- grees of talent, age, and advancement. For these reasons the care and direction of these students for the future were intrusted to the Educational Board. New regulations were made for their management. Each was required to obtain a permit before going abroad. A distinc- tion was made between those who were sent by the Government and those who went at their own option. All, however, were put under the care of the Japanese diplomatic agents in the countries where they resided. Several students this year were sent from the Foreign-Lan- guage School at Tokio. The imperial prince, Higashifushimi, and other members of the imperial family, were sent out as students, as well as some of the sons of the higher nobility. In the 1st month, 4th Meiji (a. d. 1870), a class room was opened in the Tokio Foreign-Language School for the study of the German language. A Prussian was employed as a teacher, and thirty students were admitted to study German. In the 2d month a school was opened in connection with the Department of Foreign Affairs, for learning the Chinese and European languages. This was designed to train young men in these languages who might serve the department in the necessary intercourse with the foreign countries with which they were connected by treaty. Establishment of a Department of Education . — In the 7th month of this year (a. d. 1870), the most important step was taken in the modification of the educational machinery of Japan. The old organization, modeled after the idea of the university of the middle ages, and which we have denominated the Educational Board, was abolished. Its university functions had never in reality been exer- 8 1&2 AN OUTLINE HISTORY OF Cised, and it had duly served the purpose of a bureau of adminis- tration. In connection with the changes which at this time were made in all the departments of government, educational affairs were also as- signed to a distinct department, called the Mombuslio, or Department of Education. It had charge of the general management of all edu- cational matters, whether connected with the upper, middle, or lower schools. It had power to make and change rules and regulations for schools 3 to open, close, divide, and unite them ; to organize school districts ; to take charge of the erection of school-buildings • to engage teachers, and to regulate the expenses of schools. This department had also charge of all affairs connected with medicine and medical education, and of the matter of licensing and regulating the publication of books and periodicals. All the institutions of learning which had been established in the capital and in other cities were transferred to this new department. The officers of this department entered upon their work with energy and discretion. At first only unimportant and casual changes were made. Meanwhile a more comprehensive scheme of national education w r as matured and at a later date was initiated. In this same month anatomical lectures were begun by a German professor at the Tokio Medical School. Other foreign professors were subsequently added, and the instruction of a large body of students in medicine according to the Western system was fairly inaugurated. The want of proper text-books to enable the Department of Edu- cation to carry out its plans was severely felt. The old text-books used under the pure Japanese system were not sufficient to teach the arts and sciences of modern times. A Bureau of Book Compilation was therfore organized in the department, to which were joined the lexi- graphic-office and the translating-office which had existed under the old Educational Board. The offices of translation which had been established in the Foreign-Language School and the Medical School of Tokio were also consolidated with this bureau. Men versed in foreign languages and sciences were here employed to compile and prepare JAPANESE EDUCATION. 123 works suitable to be used for text-books in the schools of the empire. An Embassy to Eoreign Countries . — The 4th Meiji (a. d. 1871) was not marked by any important changes in educational mat- ters. It was during this year however that the embassy headed by Iwakui’a, junior prime-minister, was dispatched to America and Europe. One of the objects aimed at in this embassy was an investigation of the educational institutions and administration of these countries. One of the embassadors was specially charged with the duty of studying and reporting upon education. Tanaka Eujimaro also accompanied the embassy as a special commissioner on this subject. He was absent during the whole of the 5th Meiji (a. d. 1872)* and visited the leading nations, and made an examination into their educational systems. The results were embodied in ail extended report, and in the code of education which was subsequently prepared. In the 1st month, 5th Meiji measures were taken to collect a museum of articles to be sent to the Vienna International Exhibition. The collection proved so extensive and interesting to the public that, after making a selection to be sent to Vienna * the remainder were kept open as a public museum. This was the beginning of the present extensive Tokio Museum. It afterward received large accessions, both by further collections of native articles and by foreign articles obtained by purchase or exchange at Vienna. In the same month press-laws were issued by the Department of Education for the regulation of the printing and publication of books and periodicals. It was thereby enacted that, for the publication of any book, a government license must be obtained ; that the publication of all matter which impugned established laws, or was libelous or contrary to sound morals, was prohibited ; that the pirating of published works of other authors was forbidden. In the 2d month the first female school was opened in Tokio. The course of study included the English language. Besides this, a schedule of subjects was provided similar to that in the elementary schools. The teachers were in part foreign and in part Japanese ladies. In the 5th month steps were taken to organize a normal school for 12 4 AN OUTLINE HISTORY OF training teachers for the elementary schools of the empire. The want of competent teachers who could carry on the schools in accordance with the present requirements of education was greatly felt. The old teachers had been accustomed to the Chinese methods, and were un- skilled in foreign science and knowledge. This normal school was the first step in the work of providing a better-trained class of teachers. A sufficient number of suitable candidates presented themselves for admis- sion, and the school was accordingly opened. An American teacher, familiar with the organization and methods employed in such institu- tions, was engaged to introduce a proper system of instruction. Code of Education — The deliberations of the Department of Edu- cation resulted, in the 7th month 5th Meiji (a. d. 1872), in the issue of an important code of education. It was intended to include the principles and regulations necessary for all classes of schools in the empire. In the subsequent years it has been found necessary to alter and amend this code in many particulars, but in the main it has proved a valuable and satisfactory manual for the administration of school affairs. The following extract is given from the introduction to this important document : “ The acquirement of knowledge and the cultivation of talent are essential to a successful life. By education men learn to acquire property, practise learned professions, perform public services, and make themselves indepen- dent of the help of their fellow-men. Schools are designed to provide this essential education. In their various capacities they are intended to supply to all classes of men the knowledge necessary for a successful life. The sim- ple forms of language, the methods of writing, the principles of calculation, the highest knowledge of law, politics, science and arts, the preparation of the officer for his duties, of the farmer and merchant for their occupations, the physician for his profession, all of these it is the proper function of schools to supply. Poverty and failure in the careers of life find their chief cause in the want of education. “Although schools have been established for many centuries in Japan, yet so far as they have been provided by government they have been confined to the military retainers and to the upper classes. For the lower classes of soci- JAPANESE EDUCATION. 125 ety, and for women, learning was regarded as beyond their sphere, and, if acquired at all, was of a limited character. Even among the higher classes the character of education was defective. Under the pretext of acquiring knowledge for the benefit of the state, much time was spent in the useless occupation of writing poetry and composing elegant maxims, instead of learn- ing what would lie for their own benefit or that of the state. “ Recently an improved educational system has been formed, and the methods of teaching remodeled. It is designed henceforth that education shall not be confined to a few, but shall be so diffused that there may not be a village with an ignorant family, nor a family with an ignorant member. Learning is no longer to be considered as belonging to the upper classes, but is to be equally the inheritance of nobles and gentry, farmers and artisans, males and females. “For the purposes of administration it is directed that the whole empire, excepting the island of Yezo, which has a distinct colonial government, shall be divided into eight grand-school districts. The two cities of Tokio and Osaka, and the six provincial capitals, Aichi, Ishikawa, Hiroshima, Nagasaki, Niigata, and Awomori, have been designated as the seats for the establish- ment of colleges, and other important educational institutions. Each grand- school district is to be divided into thirty -two middle school districts, in each of which a middle school will be established. Each middle-school district will be divided into elementary -school districts, and schools provided for each. Superintendents and inspectors are to be appointed, whose duty it will be to direct in regard to school-buildings, the organization of schools, and the man- agement of moneys appropriated for school purposes.” Certain clianges were found necessary in this plan of school adminis- tration. The number of grand -school dfttriets was reduced to seven instead of eight. The number of middle-school districts has not been maintained at the designated figure. And in the settlement and estab- lishment of elementary-school districts more attention has been given to the natural boundaries and association of communities than was originally deemed necessary. In the practical carrying out of all the plans there has been no hesitation in departing from the original schedule when circumstances required. 126 AN OUTLINE HISTORY OF Schedules for Elementary ayid Higher Schools . — The department issued a scheme for the studies of the elementary schools. They were to he divided into two divisons, a junior division and a senior division; children of both sexes, from six to nine years of age, to compose the junior division, and those from ten to thirteen the senior division. The entire course was fixed at eight years. The subjects of instruction were reading and writing the Japanese language, arithmetic foreign and Japanese, geography, drawing, the elements of physics, chemistry, geometry, and history, together with drawing and the explanation of common things. The middle schools were also divided into junior and senior divisions, and the course of study continued through six years. Tor entrance, the course of the elementary schools was required to have been finished. Besides the subjects of study of the elementary course which were here to be continued, the pupils were to be also taught a higher knowledge of the Japanese language together with some foreign language and such studies as ethics, political science, surveying, etc. In this code of education were also prescribed regulations for the organization and management of foreign-language schools, and for university and technical courses of study to be pursued in the higher institutions for which provision was made. Rules for those studying in foreign countries were also laid down. The allowances for educational purposes to the different cities and provinces of the empire were settled. These regulations and the prescribed schedule of studies have been fol- lowed with only such modifications as the changing circumstances of the country made necessary. Tokio Public library . — iS* the 8th month of this year the De- partment of Education opened a public library. It was divided into two sections. In one were placed rare books, which were carefully guarded and preserved, and in the other common works intended for the use of the public. At first this library contained only Japanese and Chinese works, but in the 8th Meiji (a. d. 1875) a large addition was made of foreign works. It is now kept in the old Temple of Confucius, which belonged to the College of Confucius, established JAPANESE EDUCATION. 127 under the shoguns. The library is free to the public, and contains a valuable collection of native and foreign books as well as newspapers and other periodicals. In this month also the Department of Education was removed from its quarters in the old Confucian College to a building near the Kanda Bridge. The building vacated was turned over to the Normal School, which had previously been organized, but was now first opened for instruction. An office was also opened in connection with the Normal School for the preparation of school-books. Many of the school-charts and elementary text-books which are now used in the schools were prepared at this office. In the 11th month it was enacted that the old lunar calendar, which up to this time had been used in Japan, should be abolished, and in its place the Gregorian system should be substituted. Some confu- sion has arisen from this important change. Some of the old national holidays and festivals which, from time immemorial, had fallen upon certain dates according to the old calender, were quite displaced by the new calendar. To this day some of these festivals are celebrated oil two different days, according to the conservative or progressive views of different sections. At the opening of the sixth Meiji (a. d. 1873), a government hospital was opened in the city of Tokio. To assist in defraying the expense of this establishment the Department of the Imperial House- hold made it a special grant of ten thousand yen, and the imperial court physicians were directed te give their services to it on their days of leave. In the 4th month the eight grand-school districts which had been established in the code of education were consolidated into seven, and the number and boundaries of the elementary and middle school districts were readjusted. The proposed establishment of a college at Ishikawa Ken was abandoned, and Miyagi was substituted for Awomori as the proposed site of a college in the sixth grand-school district. Development of the Institutions at Tokio . — It was at this time also that a new step in advance was taken in the development of the Foreign^ 128 AN OUTLINE HISTORY Of Language School in Tokio. A considerable number of the pupils had by this time advanced sufficiently far in their studies to enter upon those of a collegiate and technical character. It was, therefore, determined to set off from the Foreign-Language School those students sufficiently advanced for this purpose. From this time, therefore, may be dated the regular organization of a foreign college in Japan. The students still remaining in the Foreign-Language School continued to make the study of language and the preparatory branches of learning their chief occupation, while those set apart composed a newer organization under a separate director and with separate professors. The Medical College, in like manner, was reorganized to meet the wants of the advanced condition of its students. A department was organized for the study of anatomy and other branches of medical science, while the students of the preparatory department were engaged in the study of foreign language and elementary science. A new building had been erected for the use of the Kaisei Gakko, by which name the new institution set off from the Foreign-Language School was designated. The old buildings were now occupied entirely by the classes of the Foreign-Language School. The opening of the new institution was signalized by a visit from the emperor in person accompanied by a number of the high officers of the Government ; and a little later the empress also visited the institution, and personally inspected the operations of the different departments. At this time, in the Foreign-Language School, English, French, Ger- man, Russian, and Chinese, were taught. The intercourse of Japan with the leading foreign nations made necessary the instruction of young men in these languages. In the Kaisei Gakko, three foreign lan- guages were employed, English, French, and German. Subsequently, however, the use of one foreign language only was deemed essential to the economy and efficiency of the administration, and at the present time English alone is employed. Additional Normal and Foreign-Language Schools . — The reorganiza- tion of the elementary schools had been especially aimed at in the code of education ; and, although the provincial governments and the JAPANESE EDUCATION. 129 communities themselves were anxious for the improvement of their schools, and contributed willingly and liberally for this purpose, the want of competent teachers made it impossible to secure this object at once. To hasten the realization of this object, the Department of Edu- cation resolved to increase the number of normal schools, and in the 9th month directed the establishment of one at Osaka. In the early part of the next year they also organized normal schools at the towns of Aichi, Hiroshima, Nagasaki, and Niigata. This completed the pro- vision of a normal school for each of the grand-school districts. They were all regulated upon the same plan and with the same subjects of study as the one already successfully begun in Tokio. In the 7th Meiji (a. d. 1874) foreign-language schools were established in each of the grand-scliool districts, except in the first and second, where they already existed. They were located in the same towns where the normal schools were situated, to wit, at Tokio, Osaka, Hiroshima, Nagasaki, Miyagi, and Niigata. These foreign-language schools, with the exception of that at Tokio, were exclusively employed in teaching the English language, so that subsequently they were de- nominated English-language schools. The institution at Tokio was in the following year divided into two parts, the one called the English- Language School, and the other the Eoreign-Language School. Classification of Schools . — The educational institutions had now been brought into the condition in which they have since continued. They consisted of three classes: 1. Those which were established at the government expense and maintained by a yearly allowance granted by the Department of Education, such as the Kaisei Gakko and Medical College in Tokio, the foreign -language schools and the normal schools in each of the grand-school districts. 2. Those which were built at the expense of the people, and were supported by the people, but received from the Department of Education a certain sum to assist in defraying their current expenses. These schools were under the super- vision of the local governments, but were visited and inspected by the agents of the department. 3. Private schools, which were estab- lished by private individuals at their own expense. They were only 130 AN OUTLINE HISTORY OF required to report their regulations to the local government, and obtain a license. In this year also the Department of Education began the publica- tion of a semi-monthly bulletin, in which useful information on educa- tional affairs and instructive discourses in regard to schools and sanitary matters were printed for the benefit of the public. First Report presented to the Emperor . — On the 4th day, 1st month, 8th Meiji (a. d. 1875), Tanaka Eujimaro, the senior vice- minister, presented the following address to the emperor : “ Your humble servant has had the good fortune to hold his office at a fa- vorable time when civilization is beginning to be diffused, and the people are gradually becoming cultivated. Although it is my earnest desire to advance the affairs of this department, still it is not long since it was organized, and its operations are comparatively recent. In regard to sanitary matters which are at present under its direction its imperfection is apparent. But, in regard to its educational duties, it is the humble opinion of your servant that it has in some degree established order and system. I am, therefore, happy respect- fully to present to your majesty the first annual report of this department. In this report for the 6th Meiji (a.d. 1873) are shown the internal arrangements of the department, together with the work it has accomplished, and the condition of the schools and school-districts regularly classified under appropriate heads. For the purpose of easy reference, an abridgment is attached. Owing to the necessity of respecting local customs, and to the incompleteness of the reports received from the cities and provinces, some discrepancies will be discovered. It is the opinion of your humble servant that the time when complete and correct reports may be obtained, and when such reports shall show that every family is educated and every individual is in good health, can only be reached by gradual and slow approximations. Your humble servant, therefore, re- spectfully presents this report, such as it is, and begs your majesty’s gracious acceptance and examination of the same.” Female Normal School . — The most important event in educational matters of the 8th Meiji (a. d. 1875) was the establishment of a female JAPANESE EDUCATION. 131 normal school. It is designed to train female teachers especially for the work of teaching in the elementary schools. The empress made a generous grant of five thousand yen toward this object. The building was completed in due time, and in the 10th month it was opened with appropriate ceremonies in the presence of the empress. The Bureaus of Sanitary Affairs and of Press Regulations were during the year transferred from the Department of Education to the Department of Home Affairs, under which they are now managed. 132 AN OUTLINE HISTORY OF CHAPTER Y. JAPANESE LANGUAGE AND LEARNING. Origin of Japanese Written Characters . — In the earliest times the Japanese language had no written characters. The opinion entertained by some, that writ ting was known at the remotest times, has sprung from the belief that “Hihumi, ” “Anaichi,” and “Hozuma” (mere forgeries of literary impostors), are really of ancient origin. In “ Kogo- shiui,” a collection of ancient traditions, Imube no Hironari its author, says, “In the remotest periods there were no written characters.” This well-known statement is most wortldy of belief; for the auther was a member of a family that during successive reigns was distinguished for talent and learning. He of all men should have known whether anv characters had ever existed previous to those now in use; and, even supposing that such characters had once existed, whether they had been afterward lost. There is no doubt that, in the remotest periods, events were transmitted from mouth to mouth, without being reduced to writ- ing, as is seen in the case of an ancient history of Japan in three volumes, by Hiyeta no Are, the contents of which, it appears, were recited and learned by heart before being reduced to writing. It is true that, even before the reign of the Emperor Ojin (a. d. 270) many foreigners had come over to Japan from the continent ; but we have no account of the introduction of Chinese or other characters at that early periods. After the military expedition to Shiragi, a part of Corea, the intercourse be- tween that country and ours became more frequent — a circumstance which furnished reason to believe that some foreign characters were then introduced into the country; but w T e have no accounts of their having been then learned or used by the Japanese. In the fifteenth year of the Emperor Ojin’s reign (a. d. 284), the JAPANESE EEU CATION. 133 King of Kudara, a part of Corea, sent a person called Ajiki to Japan, who was a good Confucian scholar. By this man the crown-prince IJji no Wakiiratsuko was taught to read the books of the sage. This is the first account we have of the introduction of Confucian books into our country. It appears that from that time sufficient progress was made in the study of letters to make epistolary correspondence practi- cable ; but the writing of anything like Chinese composition was out of the question as yet. In “Kojiki,” an account history of Japan, and “ Manyoshiu,” a collection of Japanese poetry, Chinese characters were indeed used, but only as phonetics of the Japanese sounds. As the square and unabbreviated form of the Chinese characters, however, consisted of so great a number of strokes as to occasion much perplex- ity, contractions and abbreviations were made ; and so, after many and probably gradual changes, the characters assumed a permanent form called HiraJcana, more or less different from the original. In some other characters, a part only of the original was retained, leaving out the more complicated part of the original, for the sake of convenience in writing. These abbreviated characters, being very simple, soon as- sumed a permanent form. Such was the origin of Kat alcana, or side- letters. % The popular opinion is, that the Hirakana, or plain letters, were in- vented by Koukai, while the Katakana, or side-letters, originated with Kibi no Mabi ; but there is sufficient proof in support of this opinion. The table which stands below represents the syllabic sounds of the Japanese language, written in Katakana. By the combination of these, and a supplementary character corresponding to n, all the words of the J apanese language may be represented : AM OUTLINE HISTORY OF m THE JAPANESE SYLLABAEY.* [y y ir X Y 9 y 7 wa ra ya ina ha na ta sa ka a # «) A b Y y =P A wi ri yi mi hi ni chi shi ki i ! }ls ZlL A 7 y vy A 7 y WU m yu mu hu nu tsn sn ku n X u X y Y T M > X we re ye me he ne te se ke e y o =t X -1- / b y n t wo ro y° mo ho no to so ko 0 The origin of this syllabary is unknown, but we ttiiik we are justified in supposing that it dated from the return of Koukai, the Buddhist priest who is more commonly spoken of under his posthumous name of Kobo Daishi, from China, and the introduction of Sanskrit by him. For, though there is some difference of opinion on this point, yet the arrangement of the syllables adopted by the best authorities is the order corresponding to the vowel- sounds (a, i, u, e, o); and this order is derived from the five vowel-sounds in the ancient Hindostani writing — a feature which we do not find to exist in the syllabaries of any other language. When Koukai went over to China, he was in- structed by Fukusanzo in the ancient Hindostani writing and the sounds * In giving the equivalent sounds in Roman characters, we have followed the system now adopted by most Anglo- Japanese scholars. The sounds of the consonants are the same as in English, and the sounds of the vowels the same as in Italian. The table is to be read in vertical columns, beginning at the right hand. JAPANESE EDUCATION. 135 of the Hindustani characters. These branches of learning were entirely neglected in China toward the latter part of the Gen dynasty ; but With us, especially by the numerous Shingon sect, which was founded by Koukai, they continued to be extensively and attentively cultivated. It is, therefore, tolerably certain that Buddhist priests composed the table of fifty syllables. What the gamut is to vocal harmony, this table is to prosody and to the al’t of combining initial and final sounds by means of characters. But, there beiiig but forty-seven syllables in our lan- guage, the table contains a few supernumerary ones. There are in the table, too, slight inconsistencies ; but, on the whole, the classifica- tion of the syllables is clear and the sounds are well harmonized. On account of its simplicity and convenience, the table is now very gener- ally used by scholars. But, besides the above usual arrangement of the syllabary, other arrangements have been used : for instances* we also have a, a, o, u , i, or u, o, i, a, a, instead of a, i,n, a, o, and, instead of the common lat- eral order, these two modified systems respectively follow the order of a, ica, ya, ?m , ta ^ ra, hu b ma, lea , sa, and, a, ra , ma, ica, ka • sa, ta , na, ha, ya ■, and these kana are therefore placed at the head of the ten columns of syllables in the tables, to indicate the modified lateral order of the columns in those peculiar arrangements. Some recent writers say that this table of syllables was invented by sages of the remotest ages for the use of the people, or that it was made by the sacred kings in ancient Hindostan; but both these statements are forced inferences drawn from the fact that it is now ex- tensively used. In the foregoing table of the Japanese syllabary, we have fifty syllables arranged in regular order ; but our language has in reality no more than forty-seven. It will be seen that in the Column ya, yi, yu , ya, yo, the characters for yi and ya do not differ from those for i and e ; and in that of if a, iSi, wa b wo, the character for wu is the same as that for u. There is another arrangement of the Japanese syllabary said to have been invented by the priest Koukai, who was one of the most celebrated Japanese scholars. It was contrived for the putpose of facilitating. 136 AN OUTLINE HISTORY OF the memorizing of the syllabary. Being divided into words the whole composes the following celebrated stanza: I-ro-ha iii-Iio-he-to ehi-ri-nu-ru-wo Wa-ka-yo ta-re-so tsu-ue-na-ra-mu U-wi-no-c-ku ya-ma ke-fu-ko-e-te A-sa-ki yn-me mi-shi we-ki-mo-se-su From the first three letters in this arrangement the syllabary is com- monly called the I-ro-ha, just as the English word alphabet has been derived from the first two Greek letters. Written Characters of the Legendary Age . — We have said above that the so-called characters of the legendary age were not made by the sages of old. But the opinion entertained by some writers, that they were derived from the Corean Rito (a system of writing), is not supported by facts. According to our opinion, these characters are identical with those known as “new characters,” and were in use at our Board of Books and Writings during the middle ages. In the eleventh year of the reign of the Emperor Temmu (a. d. 683) these new characters were made by Sakaibe no Muraji Ishitsumi by imperial command; but they were never generally used in Japan. Shimbun was King of Shiragi (part of Corea), and, an irregular inter- course having sprung up with that country, I am convinced that these characters were then introduced into Corea, for at the present time they are called vulgar characters by the Coreans, and are in general use with them. The composition of the table has by them been attributed to Sesso, a distinguished scholar of that early time. But, while we have the square and unabbreviated, as well as the cursive form of these characters, they have only the former without the latter, which latter form I think was never introduced into Corea. Of both forms of characters, some specimens are extant in the old Shinto temples of our country. This is probably owing to the fact that the use of the Chinese characters did not spread so early and so extensively in the country as it did in the cities and towns. The “ new characters” were known and used until the middle ages, and were called Satsujin and Hijin charac- JAPANESE EDUCATION. 137 ters (i. e., characters used by the people af Satsuma, and Hizen, and Higo). Such is our opinion concerning those characters which Hirata Atsu- tane, the most distinguished scholar of recent times, held to be the oldest Japanese characters, and which Ban Nobutomo pronounced to be purely Corean. These two opinions, however, are not free from doubt, and I therefore set forth my opinion, committing the question to the future examination of others. Pure Japanese Characters . — As said above, in the remotest periods of our country, we had no written characters ; but, in later times, sev- eral new characters have been invented here. The characters have forms similar to the Chinese ; but are not contained in Chinese diction- aries, because they are of purely Japanese origin. There are also some Chinese characters which have been gener- ally used here, but, having become extinct in China, are said by some to be of Japanese origin. Such characters have been attributed to Jap- anese invention erroneously, on account of their absence in Chinese dic- tionaries. Besides the above, some Chinese characters have been natu- ralized here in a corrupt form, and have become Japanese. A few dic- tionaries which contain characters of the above classes are still extant : Wamioruijusho, a dictionary. Buiju-meigi-sho, a dictionary. Shin-sen-iikio, a dictionary. Shin-sen-sarugakuki. Iroha-jiruisho. dictionary. Wagiokuhen, a dictionary. Unpo-shikiyosho. Teikin-orai. Isei-teikin. Sekiso-orai. Shinsen-ruiju-orai. Kagaku-shu. Setsuyb-shu, of which there are two editions called Soji and Yekirin. •J 138 AN OUTLINE HISTORY OF The characters in question mentioned in the above works are too numerous to be repeated here. The Table of Marks . — In order to render Chinese writing intel- ligible to a Japanese reader, without making a complete translation, certain marks are fixed to the Chinese text, to indicate the order in which the Chinese characters must be read to suit the Japanese idiom. Some particles too are inserted at the side of the Chinese characters to show the relation of words to each other. These supplementary elements have collectively been called “ The Tables of Marks.” The use of these tables was well defined previous to the middle ages, and was designed to secure the correct rendering of Chinese texts. But in modern times the free and arbitrary use of those marks has frequently given rise to a misunderstanding of the sense of the composition to which they were affixed; and, what is still worse, sometimes serious errors were created, by attributing ideas to an author which he had neither entertained nor expressed. We quote from Dr. Hepburn’s arti- cle on “ The Japanese Language,” in Appletons’ “ American Cyclo- pedia, ” his statement in regard to the use of the Chinese characters in Japanese literature: “ There are three general styles of literary compo- sition in use. One is pure Chinese, in which none but Chinese charac- ters are employed, and the grammatical construction is in accordance with the Chinese idiom. Frequently, in this style, marks or signs are used along the line of the characters to designate the order in which they should be read in translating the sentences into the J apanese lan- guage, or to suit the native idiom. Another, and the most common, is that in which the Chinese characters are used to a greater or less ex- tent, mixed with native words written with their own letters, and where the structure and idiom are purely Japanese. Most of the literature intended for the unlearned and common reader is in this form. There is still another, written almost entirely in the native characters, with little or no admixture of Chinese, intended for the use of women and children and uneducated persons.” JAPANESE EE U CATION. 139 COMPOSITION. In very ancient times, as already related, writing was unknown, and oral language only existed. Prom such records as are left of this lan- guage, we know that its form was graceful, its sound harmonious, and its style rich in ornament ; but owing to the non-existence of letters to preserve it, only a very small portion has descended to our times, as for instance, in the Koden (ancient records), Notto (Shinto prayers), etc. And we owe the preservation of even this small amount to the fact that the “ Koden” were orally taught from generation to generation, and the “ Notto ” were particular forms of prayer used from age to age on religious festivals. In such works as “Kojiki,” “ Fudoki,” etc., we find analogical sentences joined together in couplets, which give us some idea of the style of this ancient language. When the emperor issued proclamations upon any important state business, they were called Semmio. They were written in large char- acters ; grammatical inflections, etc., being expressed by the aid of small auxiliary characters inserted between the larger ones. It is only these Semmio and Notto that are exclusively or purely Japanese. Even in modern times this style is used in religious festivals, the naming of an heir to the crown, the imperial marriage, the changing of the year’s name, the appointing of ministers, etc. From the time of the Emperor Kimmei (a. d. 540), Chinese compositions began to be studied, and, as in all things Chinese customs were respected, the ordinary writing became entirely Chinese ; on this account, even in the above-mentioned Semmio, a few Chinese words found entrance. In this way the docu- ments issued by the Government gradually came to be written in Chinese. From about the time of the Emperor Daigo (a. d. 898), students ceased to go to China to study, and, communication with that country be- coming infrequent, Chinese grammar became corrupted, and the result was that a hybrid style of composition was created by this confusion. This is the style now used by the Government in its documents, and by the people in their daily correspondence. In this style the characters On and Sbro are indiscriminately used to express respect. Although this is the style currently used, there is another style which sprung from 140 AN OUTLINE HISTORY OF the most ancient forms, and became a style distinct by itself. It liad its origin in the Japanese middle ages, at about the period of Yengi (a. id. 901-922). The works “ Tosa Nikki,” etc., by Kino Tsurayuki, were written in this style. Before the issue of this work, indeed, the works “ Ise Monogatari,” “ Taketori Monogatari,” etc., existed; but the “ Tosa Nikki” is the oldest work concerning whose authorship no doubt exists. The styles Sho-soko-bun (Japanese epistolary style), Waka-no-jo (style for introductions to Japanese practical works), Nikki and Kiko (diaries and travels), and Monogatari (light literature), sprung out of the above-mentioned mediaeval style. Nikki and Kiko Style. — Between this style and the Monogatari style there exists but little difference. The use of honorific terms, as in the Sho-soko-bun, did not prevail when this style was in vogue. It is noted for its plainness and naivete ; in fact, it represents things as they are. At least, these were its peculiarities from the period of Yengi to Tenriaku after which, however, it gradually was encumbered with orna- ments, so that at length it was merged in the Monogatari style. Monogatari Style. — Its simplest form is seen in the “ Taketori Mo- nog&tari,” and the height of its elegance appears in the “ Genji Monoga- tari. The former is of about the period Yeiven, the latter of about the period Yeiso ; which accounts for the increased elegance of this style. Waka-no-jo Style. — There was a peculiar style of composition used for precursive remarks to poetical stanzas ; this style was also employed in writing the epilogistic remarks to a verse. These remarks often served the double purpose of sequel to the stanza it followed, and of preface to the one it preceded. This style was called the Waka-no-jo. It was also used in writing short introductions to poetical works ; and again it was used when people assembled together for the purpose of composing verses. These verses, when collected, were preceded by an introduction explanatory of the special occasion of such assembly, written in this style, with richly-ornamental flourishes. This highly- ornamented style is derived from that used in the introductions to Chinese poetical works, and prevailed in the later mediaeval times, but it is only a modified form of Chinese composition, with the mere ad- JAPANESE EDUCATION . 141 dition of rhetorical flourishes. Metrical Composition . — Poetry has existed from the most ancient times, and, as it was handed down from generation to generation by word of mouth, even now some of the oldest poetry is extant. Poetry or song is generally understood to be delivered in audible intoned cadence; but, since the middle ages (Japanese), poetry has been divided into two kinds, the one being simply read, while the other kind is sung. Of the latter kind are Kagura, Saibara, Imaye, Yokioku, etc., while the former developed into a distinct subject of literary art. There were two kinds of verse, one of five syllables and one of seven syllables. Verses, however, of six, eight and nine syllables were also composed. Although there were no fixed rules for the length of the stanzes, still in more modern times the usual rule was that they should be of thirty- one syllables. But as yet poetry had not developed into a distinct art. It first became so during the period of Chdho (a. d. 999-1003), when the Buddhist priest No-in became the pupil of Eujiwara no Mototoshi. With these, during the later mediaeval age, originated the peculiar style of Nijo, Reizei, and Asukai (these are family names), and these styles were followed by everybody. But in later ages, these styles having been found to be erroneous, the Buddhist priests Keichiu, Kamo no Mabuchi, etc., purified them, and remodeled them so as to be conformable to the ancient style. Pujitani Nariakira, of Kioto, classified the various styles of poetry according to six periods, which he called 1. Josei (ancient period) ; 2. Chiuko (early mediaeval period); 3. Nakagoro (mediaeval period); 4. Kinko (later mediaeval period); 5. Kinsei (modern period); 6. Konsei (present period). Examples of the styles of these periods are here enumerated, the numbers in brackets indicating the number of syllables in eacli verse : I. Josei (Ancient Period). Y a-kii-rno-ta-tsn ("5} I-dsu-mo va-he ga-ki f'f'j Tsr.-m a-go-rai ni v . . ("5') Ya-he ga-ki tsu-ku-ru ... f7} So-uo ya-ye ga-ki wo (7) By Susanowo-no-rnikolo. 142 AN OUTLINE HISTORY OF Ta-ta lia-me-tc (5) I-na-sa no-ya-ma-no (7j Ko-no ina yo mo (5) I-yu-ki ma-mo-rahi (7) Ta-ta-ka-he-ba P5) Wa-re ha-va we-nu [6 ) Shi-ma-tsu do-ri (5) U-ka-hi ga to mo ' (6) I-ma-su ke ni ko-ne (7) By Jimmu Tenno. II. Chiuko (Early Mediaeval Period). The style of this period first came into vogue about the time of the Emperor Nimmio (a. d. 834), and was at its height about the time of the Emperor Daigo (a. d. 898). EXAMPLES OF ITS EARLIER AGE. I-to to si-kn Su-gi-yu-ku ka-t.a no Ko-hi-si-ki ni U -ra-ya-ma si-ku-mo Ka-he-ru na-mi-ka-na* (7.) (5) (73 (7) It flourished most during the periods Yengi (a. d. 901-92 2) and Ten- riyaku (a. d. 947-956). There being eminent poets at this time, poeti- cal assemblies were field even at the imperial court • and, this art being generally cultivated, the style w r as extremely good. Sa-kti-ra ba-na (5) Sa-ki ni ke-ra-si na (7) A-si-bi-ki no (5) Ya-ma-no ka-hi yo-ri (7) Mi-yu-ru si-ra-ku-mo (7) To-si-fu-re-ba (5) Ko-si-no si-ra jm-ma ( 7 ) O-yi ni ke-ri (5) O ho-ku no to-si no (7) Yu-ki tsu-mo-vi tsu-tsu (7) JAPANESE EDUCATION. 143 III. and IV. Chiusei (Mediaeval). This period is subdivided into Nakagoro and Kinko (mediaeval and later mediaeval periods). The former is distinguished for the solidity, the latter for the floridness and elegance of its style. This latter style came into vogue about the time of the Emperor Horikawa (a. d.1100). EXAMPLES OF STYLE OF NAKAGOKO. Ha-ru-sa me ni 5) N u-re-tc ta dzu-nem (7 ) Ya-ma za-kn-ra , (5) Ku-mo no ka he si no (7) A-ra-si mo zo fu-ku (7) EXAMPLES OF THE STYLE OF KINKO. Yo no na-ka ha (5) Wa-ga mi ni so-he-ru (7) Ka-ge na-re ya (5) O-mo-hi su-fsu -re-do f7) Ha-na-re-za-ri ke-ri (7) Ta-dzu-ne ki-te (5) Ha-na-ni ku-ra-se-ru (7) Ko-no ma vo-ri (5) Ma-tsu to-si mo na-ki (7) Ya-ma no ha no tsu-ki (7) Fu-ru sa-to ni (5) Ki-ki si a-ra-si no (7 ) po-we mo ni zu (5) Wa-su-re-ne hi-to mo (7) Sa-va no na-ka-ya-ma C7J 144 AN OUTLINE HISTORY OF V. Kinsei (Modern Period). This also is subdivided into two periods ; the first flourished before the period Bun-po (a. d. 1317-1318), and the other about the period Yeikio (a. d. 1429-1440.) EXAMPLES. Fn-ke nu-re-ba.. (5) U-ra mim to da ni (7) O-mo-fu ma-ni (5) Ivo-nu-yo si-ra-ru-ru (7) To-ri no kc-we ka-na (7) Although in this we perceive a decline of force and power, still in elegance and grace great improvements are visible. VI. Konsei (Present Period.) Although the best pieces of this period are in imitation of the Kin- sei, still they have peculiarities of their own which entitle them to a separate classification. The compositions of about the time of the Em- peror Go Kashiwabara (a. d. 1501) almost all belong to this period. About the time of the Emperor Higashiyama (a. d. 1687) the ancient style was revived ; the poetry after this date, therefore, resembles that of ancient times. EXAMPLES. Se-ki no na-no (5) Ka-su-mi mo tsu-ra si (7) Ka-hc-ri mi-ru (5) Ki-no-hii -110 sc-ra mo (7 ) Ke-hu-Ha he-da-te-te. (7) Chinese Composition (. Kambun ). — The introduction of Chinese com- position into Japan took place during the reign of the Emperor Ojin (a. d. 270-312); but what the style of this composition was at this age it is impossible to say. In the 4th year of the reign of the Empress Suiko (a. d., 596), at Dogo, in the province of lyo, a stone monument was erected, and, although this monument no longer exists, still a copy JAPANESE EDUCATION . 145 of the inscription which was engraved upon it is preserved in the work “Sliaku Nihongi.” Thirty-one years after this, an image of Buddha was made, upon the hack of which an inscription was engraved ; and, although this idol yet exists in the temple of Hori-uji of Yamoto, still, owing to the Japanese not yet having obtained perfection in Chi- nese composition, and also to the fact that the inscription has been par- tially effaced by time, there are portions of it which it is impossible to read. About eighty or ninety years later, Oho no Yastunaro presented to the emperor the work “ Kojiki ” (Ancient history of Japan), and he prefaced it with an address to the emperor composed in pure Chinese, which was very different from the two inscriptions mentioned above. After this, Chinese came over to Japan, and Japanese students went to China. Bor a time Chinese composition was extensively used ; but after- ward, since about the period Yengi (a. d. 901) intercourse with China ceased, and no more students went to that country, so that finally a peculiar Japanese style of Chinese composition arose, in which the characters were not read in the same order as they were written. Those coming first in order when writing a sentence being placed at the end of the sentence in reading ; the characters forming no complete meaning if read as they were written. This hybrid style is in. use at the present time for epistolary correspondence and for government documents. In ancient times, neither literary studies nor books for imparting knowledge existed in this country. It was only subsequent to the middle ages that the study of history and of ancient customs was commenced, and this was confined to the members of the imperial court only, the mass of the people not occupying themselves with these matters, nor with the imperial records on local customs and usages which were composed about this time. In the 8th month of the 4th year of the reign of the Emperor Richiu (a. d. 408), officers were first established in the provinces for the purpose of recording local events, public opinions, etc., but before this a similar office existed in the imperial court. Afterwards, during the reign of the Empress Sniko (a. d. 593 -628), the following works were composed: “Tennoki” (historial record of the successive 146 AN OUTLINE HISTORY OF emperors), “Kokki” (provincial records), and genealogical history of the two families of Omi and Muraji; but in the fourth year of the reign of the Empress Kokioku (a. d. 645), during the feud with Iruka and Emiji, these works were burnt. Later, in the 5th Wado (a. d. 712), during the reign of the Empress Gemmio, Olio no Yasumaro presented her with a history which he had composed from the personal narrative of the Emperor Temmu, and still later the six histories, “ Nihon-shoki,” Montoku-jitsuroku,” and “ Sandai-jitsuroku,” etc. were successively written. But they were written in Chinese, so that without explanation the unlettered could not understand them. Hence there existed in the middle ages rules for the interpretation of the Nihongi, and gradually it came to be considered as a religious work on Shintoism. Both Shinto and Buddhist priests explained it as a work on Confucianism or Buddh- ism, so that at last incorrect opinions and statements were formed, with which the ignorant were misled. Owing to the frequent wars, however, these doctrines were neglected, and at last there were none who believed in them. In the period of Genroku (a. d. 1688-1703), the Buddhist priest Keicliiu, of the province of Settsu, who was clever in composing Japanese poetry, in order to acquire a knowledge of old Japanese words, consulted all kinds of books, so that eventually he cor- rected the erroneous opinions of the scholars of the middle ages, and the true meaning of old Japanese was in some degree made clear. Con- temporaneous with Keichiu, the Shinto priest Hagura Itsuki, of Yama- sliiro, calling himself Kada no Adzumamaro, carefully examined old works, and discovered much in them; and one of his pupils, Okabe Yeji, of Totomi, who also called himself Kamo no Mabuchi, corrected many errors of long standing. He was the first to excite a general interest in the cultivation of Japanese learning, and to him is due the revival of the study of Shinto sacred works, history, poetry, etc. Moto- ori Norinaga, of the province of Ise, one of his scholars, found out much that his master had not discovered and recovered a considerble store of historical, antique, and poetic knowledge, that had been lost for more than a thousand years, thus greatly increasing and stimulating learning. This learning was called “ Japanese learning/’ in distinction JAPANESE EDUCATION 147 from Chinese learning. Among his pupils were Murata Harumi and Kato Chikage. The former was noted for his acquaintance with law and ancient customs ; the latter was well versed in poetic lore, and was also expert in composing poetry. After this there were many who applied themselves to Japanese learning, but there were none who were not indebted to the above-mentioned scholars, and to them is also due the universal prevalence, at the present day, of ‘ ‘Japanese learning ” in the empire. Confucian Learning ( Jugahu ). — The origin of Confucian learning dates from the 15th year of the reign of the Emperor Ojin (a. d. 284), when Ajiki came from Kudara, in Corea, and taught the imperial Prince Uji no Wakiiratsuko the Chinese classics. In the following year Wani came to Japan and became the prince’s teacher. This was the source from which Confucian learning originated, and gradually in- creased and spread. In the 7th year of the Emperor Keitai (a. d. 513), Dany 6 ni came over from Corea, and in the thirteenth year of the same reign Ko-ammo followed. After this others came over and taught, while students went from Japan to Corea to study. In the 1st year of the reign of the Emperor Kotoku (a. d. 645), the Buddhist priest Bin and Takamuku no Kuromasa were appointed professors of Confucian learning. In the 7th year of the reign of the Empress Suiko, (a. d. 599) they had returned to Japan from their studies in China. By imperial command, in the 2d year of the same reign, eight government departments and a hundred offices were organized under the direction of these two professors, and it is probable that at this time a university was also established. At a later time, the mode of examination was made the same as it was in China. We may, therefore, conclude that at this time there were many learned scholars. After the middle ages the two families of Kiyowara and Nakahara were instrusted with the direction of the study of the Chinese classics, while the families of Sugawara and Oye were concerned principally with Chinese composition. Subsequently students ceased to go abroad, and foreigners ceased to come over. Moreover, continual wars raged, and learning fell entirely into the hands of the Buddhist priesthood. Tn the 148 AN OUTLINE HISTORY OF periods of Tcnsho (a. i). 1573-1591), Sosliun, the second son of the noble Rcizei Tamezumi, became a priest of the Buddhist temple Shoko- lcuji. Having studied the works of the philosophers Tei and Shu, being the first who did so, he left the priesthood, called himself Eujiwara no Shiku, and also took the surname Seigwa. Hayaslii Dosliun, Matsunaga Sekigo, Nawa Doen, and others, were among his pupils. After this Chinese learning once more began to flourish, and supporters of the doctrines of Yomei arose, while others devoted themselves to the study of the art of composing by the aid of ancient Chinese characters. In consequence of this, the descendants of old families such as Sugawara, Kiyowara, and others, at this time became learned scholars. Schools ( Gahho ). — The first mention of a school-director (Fumuya- no-kami, i. e., commissioner of schools) is made in the 10th year of the reign of the Emperor Tenji (a. d. 664), when Kishitsu Shushin was invested with this rank. However, as the Buddhist priest Bin and Ta- kamuku no Kuromasa were appointed professors in the 1st year of the reign of the Emperor Kotoku (a. d. 645), and in the 5th year of the same reign, the eight departments and a hundred offices were created ; it is probable that at this time also a school was opened and a Eumuya- no-kami (commissioners of schools) was appoined. Afterward, in the 4th year of the reign of the Emperor Temmu (a. d. 676), the Daigaku Rio (university bureau) existed, among the officers of which the several ranks of Kami (chief), Suke (vice-chief), Daijo (senior secretary), Shojo (junior secretary), Dai Sakan (senior clerk), and Sho-sakan (junior clerk), existed. These officers managed all matters connected with the university. Eor providing instruction a Hakase (professor) and two Jokio (assistant teachers) were appointed, who taught the classes. There were four hundred students, who were divided into various classes, each studying the subject taught in the class to which he belonged. Besides the above teachers, there were two On-Hakase (professors of the sounds of Chinese characters), two Sho-Hakase (writing-masters), and two San-Hakase (arithmeticians) ; these two last mentioned taught each thirty students. The above was the number of officers, teachers, and students, as fixed by law JAPANESE EDUCATION. 149 during the period of Taiho (a. d. 701-703). But, although this system was adhered to in after-times, some slight changes were made, such as the appointing and abolishing of Kiden-Hakase (professors of his- tory and records) and Ritsugaku-Hakase (professors of law), and the appointing of Monjio-Hakase (professors of composition) and Miobo- Hakase (law professors). Excepting these slight changes, the before- mentioned system was adhered to. In after-times the two families of Sugawara and Oye established in the university a monjio-in (composition -school), which was divided into East Hall and West Hall, the chief of the former being Sugawara, while the latter was directed by Oye. Here composition was exclusively taught and encouraged. Although such was the condition of the uni- versity, still before the periods of Genkio (a. d. 1321-1823) and Kemmu (a. d. 1333-1335) it had gradually declined, and at last, after the wars of the period of Onin (a. d. 1467-1468), not even a trace of it remained. Contemporaneously with the university at Kioto, schools existed and flourished in all the provinces. In each of these provincial schools there was a hakase (professor), a doctor (i. e., medical professor), etc. In the very large provinces the number of students was fifty; in the larger provinces it was forty ; in those of medium size it was thirty ; and in the smaller twenty. Those among these students who success- fully passed the examinations of the Shikibu (Board of Rites) were admitted to the university. Although it is impossible to say when these provincial schools ceased to exist, yet, owing to the gradual breaking up of the local governments, and to the cessation of the old rule of sending chief magistrates from Kioto, the diffusion of education came to a standstill in every part of the empire. Private Schools ( Shigahi ). — The establishment of private schools originated with the noble Wake no Kiyomaro, whose son Hiroyo carry- ing out and fulfilling his father's intentions, converted, during the period of Yenriaku (a. d. 782-805), his own residence into a school, which he called the Kobun-in. Afterward the Kwangaku-in of the Eujiwara family, the Gakkwan-in of the Tachibana family, and the Sogaku-in of the Ariwara family, were established. The Sogaku-in was founded 150 AN OUTLINE HISTORY OF by Ariwara no Yukihira ; the Gakkwan-in by Tachibana no Kachiko the imperial consort of the Emperor Saga (a. d. 850) ; and the Kwangaku-in by Eujiwara Euyutsugu. The use of each of these schools was confined to the members of the respective families who had founded them. The first private school established by the military class was founded during the period Showa (a. d. 1312-1316) by Akitoki, the grandson of Hojo Yoshitoki, at Kanazawa, where he resided, and by which name he called himself. To this school he added a library, and collected books, At the present day books beaming the stamp of the Kanazawa Li- brary are to be found here and there ; these books all belonged to this school. After this, during the prevalence of wars, it happened from time to time that the powerful chieftains who acquired dominions estab- lished schools for the benefit of the members of their families and of their retainers, but none of these reached the flourishing condition of the Shoheiko founded by the Tokugawa family. The origin of this schools was as follows: Dainagon Tokugawa Tosliinawo founded, at the country-seat of Hayashi Doslvun, situated in Uyeno, a school which he called the Kobun-in. In the 4th Gen- roku (a. d. 1691) this school was removed by the Shogun Tokugawa Tsunayoshi to the ascent of Shohei, and here a magnificent temple in honor of Confucius was built, where the shogun’s retainers received education. Rules of examination were fixed, and those who were found proficient were appointed to office. This was called the Slioheizaka Gaku-monjo, and the festivals, etc., held in spring and autumn, in honor of Confucius, were very celebrated. EXAMINATIONS AND CLASSIFICATION OF HONORS. According to the book of laws, called Rio, examinations were divided into the four classes of Shiusai, Miogio, Shinji, and Miobo. To these were added examinations in penmanship and mathematics, thus forming six subjects similar to the six examinations which had been established in China during the dynasty of To. The candidates for examination were divided into two kinds, namely, those sent from the university, who were called Xiojin, and those sent from the provinces, JAPANESE EE U CATION. 151 who were called Kojin. The following are the particulars of the above : Shiusai . — The candidates for this examination were chosen from those who had read many books. Two important subjects were selected upon which essays were to be composed, such subjects, for instance, as the following : “ What was the cause of the abundance of sages during the Chinese dynasty of Shu?” Those whose composition was conspicuously elegant and pure, and Avhose reasoning was very acute and sound, received the rank of Jo-no- jo (First of the First). Those whose composition was equally good, but did not reach so high a standard in reason, received the rank of Jo- no -chiu (Medium of the First). Those who were noted for their rea- soning, but less so for the style of their composition, took this degree also. Those whose composition and reasoning were only good, took the rank of Chiu-no-jo (First of the Medium). Those whose work was below this did not take any degree. The Jo-no-jo received the honorary rank of Sho-hachi-i-jd. The Jo-no-chu that of Shd-hachi-i-ge. The others did not receive any rank, but were attached to the department of Shikibu, and when vacancies occurred they were tilled from among them, and together witli this appointment rank was con- ferred. Miogio . — This examination consisted of one subject out of each of the Chinese classical works of “ Shurai,” “ Saden,” “Raiki,” and “Moshi,” three other subjects from among the other Chinese classics and also three subjects from the two Chinese classics of “ Kokio ” and “ Rongo,” in all ten subjects. In all these subjects questions were asked both upon the original text and the commentaries. All those who clearly and correctly explained the sense of both the text and the commentaries passed. Those successfully passing in the ten subjects receiving the degree of J6-no-jo; those passing in eight and more received the degree of Jo-no-chiu. Those who passed in six received the degree of Chiu-no-jo. Those who passed in only five sub- jects and one classic, and besides failed in Rongo and Kokio, obtained no degree, while those who comprehended two or more classics were 152 AN OUTLINE HISTORY OF examined in one subject selected from each of the classics, being* required to give the principal ideas, and. if live or more subjects were success- fully answered, the candidates passed. The Jo-no-jo received the rank of Sho-hachi-i-ge ; the Jd-no-chiu that of Ju-hachi-i-jo; the others were rated the same as for the Shiusai examination. Shinji . — This examination consisted of two subjects upon public matters of the period, seven trials of memory in reading the work “ Monzen,” and three in the work “ Jiga.” These trials were made by concealing certain characters, which characters were to be supplied in reading the passage. Those who answered the two questions on public matters in a clear and correct manner, and successfully read the passage in which some character was concealed, obtained the degree of Ko. Those who were successful in passing the questions, but failed in not more than four of the passages, took the degree of Otsu. All others did not obtain any degree. Miobou. — This consisted of seven questions on Ritsu (law) and three upon Rio (edicts). Those who ans wered correctly the two questions took the degree of Ko. Those who failed in not more than two took the degree of Otsu. Penmanship (, Sho ) — Those who formed and finished the characters with elegance passed. Mathematics {San ). — This examination consisted in three questions on the work “ Kiusho,” and one question in each of the works “ Kaito,” “Shiuhi,” “ Gdso,” “Kiushi,” “Sonshi,” “Sankai,” and “ Chosa.” Those who passed successfully in all took the degree of Ko. Those who failed in not more than four took the degree of Otsu. But, although six questions were successfully answered, still, if those on the Kiusho had not been answered, no degree was conferred. Penmanship {Sho-gaku ) — In this country the manner of writing was learned by copying Chinese writing, and in ancient ages did not differ from the Chinese; and, if we examine old records and manu- scripts, we find that the character in which they are written is exactly similar to the Chinese. JAPANESE EEUCATION. 153 In the period of Yenriaku (a. d. 947-956), Ono no Tofu, a cele- brated calligrapher, composed seventeen rules of penmanship ; and, in the period of Kwanjin (a. d. 1014-1020), Fujiwara no Yukinari made sixteen different specimens of handwriting. From these two originated a kind of Wafu (Japanese style). The style which these two introduced was, in later ages, called Jodairiu (ancient style). The Fusliimino-in style also sprung out of the above-mentioned style. The Imperial Prince Sonyen, son of the Emperor Fushimino-in, afterward introduced the rich and beautiful style of Sonyenriu ; this prince was the designer of the purest Japanese style. The Prince Sondo learned this style, and origi- nated another style, which, in later times, was called Oiyeriu (imperial style). Until recent days a knowledge of this style of writing was necessary to be able to obtain a secretaryship under the government ; on this ac- count all writing-masters taught it to their pupils. Although this style generally prevailed, still gentlemen and poets occasionally introduced new stales, which they named after themselves ; but in reality no great difference existed between them. Those, how T ever, which were most readily recognized by their peculiarities were the Teika, Konoye, Taki- moto, and Kwoyetsu styles. The Chinese style of writing now in use was originated by Hosoi Chishin. Fie was a native of Yedo, and adopted the name of Kotaku. His style was in great vogue during the period of Genroku (a. d. 1688- 1703), being called the Karayo (Chinese style). Among his pupils was Matsushita Kasshin, w r ho called himself Useki. He became, like his master, very celebrated for penmanship. Immediately succeeding these, Akai Tokusui, Toko Genrin, and others, attained to celebrity; neverthe- less, the styles which became especially popular were the recent ones of Ichikawa Sangai and Maki Taijin. At present the Maki Taijin style is as universal as the Oiye style formerly was, 10 154 AN OUTLINE HISTORY OF CHAPTER VI. JAPANESE AKTS AND SCIENCES. Drawing and Fainting (Gwa-gaku ) . — Although Japanese pictures are not imitations of those of other countries, still the art was originally acquired from foreigners. The earliest mention made of foreign artists is in the 7th year of the reign of the Emperor Yuriaku (a. d. 463), when, by imperial command, various artists were sent over from Ku- dara, in Corea, and among these was the painter Isluraga. Though many other artists afterward came to this country, none of their authen- ticated productions remain. There exists, however, at the present day, in the temple of Horiuji, in the province of Yamato, portraits, etc., of the Imperial Prince Shotoku ; these works have in all probability de- scended from that ancient period. Subsequently, a painting-department was established in the govern- ment, to which, besides the managing officers, were attached four Gwashi (artists) and sixty Gwabu (inferior artists or sketchers). This department was probably created during the period of Taiho (a. d. 701- 703). In the 3d Daido (a. d. 808), it was abolished as a dis- tinct department, and was incorporated with the Takumi-rio (architect- ural department), in which a Yedokoro (government studio) was formed, and to which a chief, styled Yedokoro-adzukari, was attached. Al- though this was the case, still it would appear that the principal pur- pose of this office was the decoration, etc., of the imperial palace; so that no great skill was at that time attained in drawing and painting. Put after Kose no Ilirotaka became the Yedokoro-adzukari, this office was filled from age to age by skillful painters. Besides, there were many private artists who were noted for their skill; such as Kudara no Kawanari, Eujiwara no Mototsune, Eujiwara JAPANESE EDUCATION. 155 no Nobuzane, Sojo Kakuyu, and others. Their works are noted for clearness of outline and the minute and delicate handling of the details. Afterward the style gradually changed into one of less vigor but of greater beauty, and more particularly noted for the fineness of its strokes. The art was used to delineate court nobles in their dress of ceremony, and other similar subjects. The creations of this style were called Yama- to or Tosa pictures ; they received the latter appellation from Tsunetaka, the grandson of the Yedokoro-adzukari, Yujiwara no Takayoshi. He became vice-governor of the province of Tosa, and hence his descendants adopted the family name of Tosa. Among these descendants was Hi- romiclii, who, in the 2d Kwambun (a. d. 1662), changed the family name to Sumiyoshi. During the middle ages, from the period of Yenkio (a. d. 1308- 1310) to the period of Jowa (a. d. 1345-1349), Kao, Miocho, Josetsu, Shiubun, and others, appeared, who studied the style of the Chinese dynasties of So and Gen. This style is noted for its sketchy char- acter; confining itself to making, by means of a few hasty strokes, a mere approximate outline of the object delineated. Afterward, and during the Ming dynasty (Chinese), the Buddhist priest Sesshu went to China and attained great fame. Soon after this, Kano Oinosuke Masanobu, of the province of Sagami, flourished ; his son Motonobu, by his fame as an artist, ren- dered his family name celebrated; his descendants followed this art from age to age. The two families of Sumiyoshi and Kano continue, even at the present day, to follow this profession. During the period Tensho (a. d. 1573-1591) Iwasa Matabei, adopting the Tosa style, delineated the customs of his time ; productions in his style are generally known as Ukiyoye (popular pictures). During the period of Genroku (a. d. 1688-1703), Hishigawa Moro- nobu, of Yedo, rendered the Matabei style popular; and Torii Kiyo- mitsu, Okuda Masanobu, and others, distinguished themselves in it. At the present day, the style of Utagawa who lived about fifty years ago is very generally cultivated, although it is not much esteemed, and is also called Ukiyo, 156 AN OUTLINE HISTORY OF The Medical Art (. I-gahu ). — Although in this country it is impos- sible to trace the healing art to its beginning, still there is no doubt but that it has existed from very ancient times ; for we have Oana-muclii and Sukuna Hikona, both of whom were honored as deities of medicine. But no complete account of the methods they followed has descended to us ; besides, owing to the fact that much has been incorrectly ascribed to them, it is very difficult to determine for what we really are indebted to them. In the reign of the Emperor Xnkio (a. d. 412-453), Kimpa Shinkankibu, of the province of Shiragi, in Corea, came over to Japan, and, possessing a knowledge of medicine, cured the emperor of his illness. After this, the Chinese medical system gradually came into use ; students went abroad and acquired the arts of surgery, acupuncture, amma (i. e. , dry shampooing of the body to promote a freer circulation of the blood), etc. At the same time numerous medical practitioners came over to this country, and the healing art was practised according to Chinese medical works. The first record of the appointing of imperial court physicians is in the 1st Shucho (a. d. 686), at which time there were many who were proficient in therapeutics. After this the rules, etc., for the exami- nation of medical students became very complete; the students being examined monthly by the professors, annually by the chief and vice- chief of the Medical Department, and again at the end of each year by the chief and vice-chief of the Imperial Household. Those who passed in all the subjects obtained the honorary rank of Ju-hachi-i-ge (a rank of the twenty-sixth degree), while those who failed in not more than two subjects obtained the honorary rank of Dai-so-i-jo (a rank of the twen- ty-seventh degree). The students of acupuncture ranked one degree below the medical students. Those who failed to obtain a degree at the examinations were sent back to the schools from which they had come. Similar examinations for doctors were also held in the prov- inces, and medical art was industriously pursued. Subsequently, however, these examinations gradually ceased. In the 1st Tenri- aku (a. d. 947) they were, by an imperial order, reestablished, but without any great success. As time advanced, the two families of JAPANESE EDUCATION. 157 Wage and Tamba produced from age to age numerous celebrated phy- sicians, so that at length these two families hereditarily supplied the imperial court physicians. But all their descendants did not succeed in the medical art, so that, although they successively held the posts of medical chief” and cc dispenser-in-chief,” there were, nevertheless, those among them who were not qualified to fill these offices. There- fore, from time to time, outside physicians were called in to attend upon the emperor; such, for instance, as Jubutsu, Shibutsu, the Buddhist priest Kojo, and others. In the period of Tembun (a. d. 1532-1554) there lived Managase Dosan, who was in the service of the Shogun Ashikawa Yoshiteru, and who cured the Emperor Okimachi of his sickness ; he was called a doctor of the Tankei school. Also at this time Osada Tokuhon became celebrated. He was a native of the province of Mikawa, was the author of the nineteen medical doctrines, and, having introduced many new ideas and making use of powerful medicines, became noted for the effectiveness of his treatment. He was the reviver of Japanese medical art. He died at the beginning of the period of Kwanyei (a. d. 1624-1643), aged one hundred and eighteen years. Between and during the periods of Gembun (a. d. 1736-1740) and Horeki (a. d. 1751-1763), there lived a man by the name of Hatake- yama Tamenori, of the province of Aki, who called himself Todo and changed his family name to Yoshimasu. Lamenting the decline into which the medical art had fallen, this man cleared away many long- standing errors, adopted the ancient method of the Chinese dynasty of Kan, and confined himself to the use of powerful medicines. His school was called Koho-ka (ancient method). Before this such men as Eukui Eutei, Hangino Taishiu, Mochidzuki Sanyei, Taki Angen, and others existed, who followed a method which they had formed by combining the ancient and modern systems, and which was noted for its good results. At this time Maveno Riotaku, of the province of Buzen, followed the surgical profession, and, intent upon anatomy, studied with his 158 AN OUTLINE HISTORY OF friends Sugita Isai and Katsuragawa Hoshiu, by the aid of the inter- preters at Nagasaki, some Dutch works, and, together with Udagawa Yo-an and Otsuki Gentaku, made use of Dutch medicines. Besides introducing the use of Dutch drugs, they were the founders of the whole system of European learning existing at the present day. It is true that before them Awoki Bunzo and Arai Kimiyoshi had al- ready made a beginning in this direction ; but they did not get so far as to be able by themselves to study European books. Materia Medica ( Yakubutsu-gahi ). — In the middle ages the science of drugs was not studied, as it had been in more ancient times. The first record we have concerning this science is in the “ Nihongi,” where it is mentioned that during the reign of the Emperor Ivimmei, (a. d. 540) professional searchers of medicinal herbs were sent over from Kudara, in Corea. We find that afterward there were native botanists in this country, who taught their pupils the Chinese botanical works of “ Honzo,” etc. Eukaye Sukehito, Tamba Yasuyori, and others, were celebrated for their know ledge of acology. In later years, and during the period of Onin (a. d. 1467-1468), there was Takeda . Sadamori, and during the period of Tembun (a. d. 1532-1554) there lived such others as Yoshida Sdkei, who, although they followed this art, did not render themselves conspicuous in it by the discovery or identification of medicinal plants in the Japanese flora. About the period of Genroku (a. d. 1688-1703) Kaibara Tokushin, of the province of Chikuzen, composed the botanical work “Yamato Honzo,” and, shortly after, Ino Nobuyoslii, of Yedo, also called Jakusui, composed the work “Shobutsu Ruisan,” of one thousand volumes, executing himself the botanical drawings with which it is illustrated. Erom him Matsuoka Gentatsu received his learning, and Gentatsu was the tea- cher of Ono Ranzan. The shogun’s government, hearing of Ranzan’s fame, called him to Yedo. Many of his pupils became noted in their profession, among whom was Ito Keisuke, who continued his studies under Udagawa Yd-an, and, acquiring a knowledge of the Linnsean botanical system, introduced it into this country, where it is still in vogue. Udagawa Yd-an and Otsuki Gentaku studied European botany, JAPANESE EDUCATION. 159 and were the first to bequeath to Japan Dutch learning. Among the works of Gentaku is “ Ranyen-teki-ho,” in forty volumes. Among those of Yo-an is “ Shokugaku-kei-gen.” Besides the above-mentioned celebrities, Abe Shoo, Tamura Ransui, Hiraga Kiukei, Ota Taisliiu, and others, have become renowned for their botanical studies and learning. Surgery ( Gehcd ). — -In ancient times surgeons were called Soshoi (doctors of wounds and sores), and this art existed as a distinct call- ing ; but after the middle ages the distinction was abolished, and the most effectual surgical treatment was that practised by members of the two families of Wake and Tamba. About the period of Keicho (a. d. 1596-1614), Takatori Hidetsugu flourished, and was celebrated in surgery, the followers of the system he originated being called the Takatori school. Besides this there were those who practised surgery according to the Portuguese method ; these were called the Namban (foreign school). However, these systems gradually declined, and new ones were introduced by such men as Kurizaki Shou, Narabayashi Toyoshige, etc. During and between the periods of Kiowa (a. d. 1801-1803) and Bunkwa (a. d. 1804-1817), Hanaoka Zuiken, of the province of Kii, invented some surgical in- struments, with which he performed operations for the cure of cancer in the breast, and caries, opening the parts affected for the purpose of washing them and removing the virulent matter. By his skill he be- came very celebrated, and even at the present day followers of his sys- tem exist, who are called the Hana-oka school. Doctors of Acujnnicture ( Harii ). — At what time the art of acupunct- ure was first followed in this country cannot now be ascertained. But, according to the ancient imperial orders, provision is made for the ap- pointment of a professor of acupuncture, and also for the instruction of students in this art. But few became noted for their skill in it. In the early part of the period Yeiroku (a. d. 1558-1569), Yosliida Ikiu went to China to study acupuncture ; and his disciples were called the Yoshida school. During the period of Bunroku (a. d. 1592-1595), Iriye Yoriakira studied this art under Chinese teachers, and among his 160 AN OUTLINE HISTORY OF pupils was Yamase Taku-ichi, wlio was tlie instructor of Sugiyama Wa- ichi. Wa-iclii was employed by the shogun’s government as a doctor of acupuncture. Calendrograpky ( ReJci-Gahu ). — The first mention of this art is in the 15th year of the reign of the Emperor Kimmei (a. d. 554), when, in 2d month of this year, Kotoku Olioson, a professor of calendrograpliv, was sent over from Kudara in Corea. In the 10th month of the 10th year of the reign of the Empress Suiko (a. d. 602), the Buddhist priest lvwanroku, of Kudara, brought to this country an almanac, the use of which he explained and taught to students. This almanac was called the Genka almanac. It was com- posed in the 2d year of the Chinese period of Genka (a. d. 425), of the Chinese dynasty of So, and was in use for eighty-nine years after its introduction. In the 4th year of the reign of the Empress Jito (a. d. 693), the two almanacs of “Genka” and “Giho” (i. e., “Rintoku”) were in use. In the 8th month 7th Tempiohoji (a. d. 763), and during the reign of the Emperor Junnin, the “Giho” almanac was suppressed, and in its place the Taiyen almanac was used. This almanac was composed by the Buddhist priest Ichigi- yo, during the 16th year of the period Kwaigen (a. d. 728) of the Chinese dynasty of To. This almanac remained in use during ninety- four years; when, owing to inaccuracies being discovered in it, it was, upon the memorial of the ealendrograplier Okasuga no Manomaro, suppressed in the 1st month 1st Tennan (a. d. 857), and the “ Goki” almanac came into use. This was an almanac which Kwaku Kenslii and others had corrected, in the 1st year of H6-o (a. d. 762), of the Chinese dynasty of To. But in the 6th month 3d Jogwan (a. d. 861), and during the reign of the Emperor Seiwa, Mano- maro again memorialized the emperor, and, in consequence, the “ Sem- mei almanac” first came into use. Later on, there were those who asserted that errors existed in this calendar; but, owing to these errors not being minutely pointed out, and also to the fact that the office of imperial ealendrograplier had existed from age to age in the family of Abe, and no one else had the power of making alteration in almanacs, JAPANESE EDUCATION. 161 tliis almanac still continued in use. After the lapse of eight hundred and twenty-three years, and in the 1st Jiokio (a. d. 1684), there lived at Yedo Yasui Santetzu. He was noted for his skill at go (an intricate game resembling checkers), and was also a skillful mathematician. Finding out the errors in the “ Semmei” almanac, he compiled, upon the basis of the “ Juji” almanac of the Chinese dynasty of Gen, the “Jiokio” almanac. Afterward, and in the 4th Horeki (a. d. 1754), Shibukawa Dzusho recorrected the “ Jiokio” almanac, and composed that of “Horeki.” Before this almanac had been long in use, the science of calendrog- rapliy made rapid progress, and Takahashi Naritoki, of Yedo, and oth- ers, studying the work “ Reki-sho-kdsei,” which had been written dur- ing the period of Koki (a. d. 1662-1722) of the Chinese dynasty of Shin, calculated and compiled a new almanac, which they presented to the emperor in the 9th Kwansei (a. d. 1798). This almanac was, in the following year, distributed throughout the empire, being called the “ Kwansei” almanac. Subsequently, and in the 13th Tempo (a. d. 1842), Shibukawa Ivagesuke and Adachi Nobuaki compiled another new almanac, which was circulated in the same year, and was called the “ Tempojinnin” almanac. Finally, since the 6th Meiji (a. d. 1873), the Gregorian calendar has come into use. Chronometry ( RokoJai-gaku ). — To the ancient department of Ommid rio (astronomical and calendrical department) there was attached a ro- kokuhakase (professor of the clepsydra), who had assistants whose duty it was to watch and keep the time. The first clepsydra was made by the Emperor Tenji, while still a prince. In the 4th month of the 10th year of his reign (a. d. 671), this apparatus was placed on a new stand. Such was the origin of chronometry in this country. It is impossible to say at what date, after this, this apparatus ceased to exist, and no records remain of the manner of its construction. It is probable that clepsydras ceased to be used after the invention 162 AN OUTLINE HISTORY OF of automatic-striking instruments for measuring time. On account of the invention of these more perfect instruments, clepsydras were con- sidered as useless, and therefore no descriptions, etc., were written of them. Automatic-striking time-keepers were first brought to China by Ri- eci Matteo (an Italian) during the Ming dynasty, and were first intro- duced into Japan during the periods of Bunroku (a. d. 1592-1595) and Keiclio (1596-1614), certainly not before this time. From the time of the clepsydra above mentioned, up to this period, it is hardly possible that no instruments existed for measuring time • still, although they may have existed, it is no doubt owing to the incon- venience of their shape, inefficient working, etc., that no minute details concerning them have descended to our days. Kami, or rioshi (Japanese Paper). Although the first use of paper in this country is now unknown, still in the Japanese history, the “Nihongi,” there is a record in the following words: “ Paper is manufactured,” referring to the 18th year of the reign of the Empress Suiko (a. d. 610). It is very probable that paper was first made shortly after the introduction of writing. In the “Rio” (record of enactments) the following sentence occurs: “ Six sheets of paper two feet long and one foot wide;” but it is im- possible to say of what materials this paper was made. At about the period of Yengi (a. d. 900-922) the three kinds of paper, Mashi, Ilishi, and Kokushi, existed. The kind called Mashi was made from the pulp of hempen rags. Hishi paper was made from such plants as Gampi (JYicJcstroemia canescens), while Kokushi was made from Kozo ( Broussonetia papyi'ifera), and was similar to the paper in common use at the present time. Subsequently Usuyo and Atsuyo paper were manufactured ; but these kinds were of the same nature as the Hishi paper. From the Kozo-plant also two kinds of papers, Danshi and Sugihara, were made; it is, however, also said that Danshi was, in ancient times, made from the Mavumi ( Euonymus Tli u nbergian us). JAPANESE EDUCATION . 168 During the middle ages Shuzenji paper, which was made at the temple of Shuzenji, in the province of Idzu, came into use. There was also a kind of paper which was made from old paper, and was called Shukushi. In recent times many other kinds have come into use, an account and the names of which will he given in the suc- ceeding paragraph. PLANTS USED IN THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. Kozo ( Broussonetia 'papyri far a. See Dig. 1.). — The fourth order of the twenty-first class of the Linnaean system, and a genus of plants belonging to the natural order Urticacece of Do Candolle. It is a small shrub, attaining about five or six feet in height, and having branches which proceed directly from the earth ; it is deciduous, the new leaves appearing in spring. These leaves are of a dark-green color, ovate in form, with a sinuous or serrated margin, and very rough upon the upper surface. Of this shrub there are two kinds, pistilliferous and stamenif- erous The latter kind blossom about the middle of May ; this intlo- I'To. 1.— Kozo (Broussonetia papyrii'era). 164 AN OUTLINE HISTORY 01' Pig. 1. — Kozo (Broussonetia papyrifera). rescence is axillary, and supported on a peduncle of a little more than an inch in length ; the corolla is monopetalous, divided into four lobes at the limb, and is of a dark-purple color. The blossoms are te- trandrous. The inflorescence of the pistilliferous plant is also supported on a peduncle, and consists of a number of flowers arranged together in a head ; from each blossom a long pistil projects ; their color is dark purple. Gampi ( Wickstroemia canescens. See Tig. 2.). — The fourth order of the eighth class of Linnaeus, and a genus of plants belonging to the natural order Thymelacece of De Candolle. This plant is a deciduous JAPANESE EDUCATION. 165 shrub, which grows from about three or four feet to about ten feet in height. The leaves, which resemble the leaflets of the Nandim domes- O J tica, are arranged on the stem alternately ; the under surface of each is covered with soft hairs. It blossoms at about the middle of June ; the inflorescence, besides being axillary, also terminates each branch, and is of a pale -yellow color. The flowers are octandrous, and have one pistil. Mitsu Mata ( Edgeieorthia papyrifera. See Tig. 3.). — The first order of the eighth class of Linnaeus, and a genus of the natural order Tliymelaeece of De Candolle. This is a deciduous shrub, which grows to about seven or eight feet in height. 1 66 AN OUTLINE HISTORY OF Its stem and branches are trichotomous. At the close of autumn, from the ends of the branches many buds spring forth, which arrange themselves in a cluster, hanging down like a wild-bee’s nest, and blos- som when the spring comes round. The flowers are like those of the Dziiiko (. Daphne odora), having four slender petals. The inside of the corolla is of a yellow color, while its outside is white. JAPANESE EDUCATION. 167 The flower is enneandrous, and has one pistil. The leaves only appear after the blossom has fallen, and, like those of the Dzuiko ( Daphne odor a), are large and elongated. The branches are so soft and pliant that they will not break if bent or knotted. Tororo {Hibiscus. See Tig. 4.). — The seventh order of the sixteenth class of Linnaeus, a genus of Malvaceae of De Candolle. This is an her- baceous plant, the seeds of which are sown in spring. It grows to the height of one or two feet, and is of a hairy nature. The leaves are pal- mate, having five or seven lobes, and are arranged alternately on the stem. During the hot season flowers spring from the ends and axils of the branches. The corolla has five petals, and is more than two inches in diameter ; it is of a pale-yellow color, with a dark-purple blotch at the bottom of each petal, and is ephemeral. These flowers are mona- 168 AN OUTLINE HISTORY OF delphous and polyandrous. The pod is five-celled, each cell containing many seeds. These seeds resemble those of the Ichibi (. Abutilon avicemuB), and are of a dark-gray color. The root is conical, and abounds with viscous juice. The Manufacture of Paper . — The plants Kozo and Gampi are cut into lengths of about three feet, are then steamed in *a huge boiler, in the bottom of which there is a little boiling water. After this the bark is peeled off, and from this bark the outer pellicle is then scraped. The bark is now boiled in lye, and is then well pounded on stone blocks. After this the pulp is mixed with a certain amount of the diluted mucilage of the root of the tororo, and is placed to steep in a wooden tank. When it has remained in steep a sufficiently long time it is spread out into sheets by means of a sieve. As soon as the water has drained off from this paper, each sheet, with the aid of a straw brush, is transferred to boards to dry. Although, according to locality and the nature of the paper manu- factured, there are some differences in the details of manufacture, still the above was and is the general method employed in making it. The following are the principal kinds : Eanslii: Of this there were two kinds, smooth and corrugated. Hoshio : That made in the province of Yechizen is the best. Sugihara: First made at Harima. THE JAPANESE PENCIL, OR WRITING-BRUSH. The Japanese pencil is called fnmute, or fade, the latter name being most commonly used. It is also called hananolci {see Yakumo- sho), but this is only a kind of poetical name. The origin of the Japanese pencil, or f ide, we presume, dates from the same time as that of paper. Pencils were at first made by Chinese immigrants . In the “ Record of Surnames ” we find the surname of Fade, or pencil ; those who had this surname being the descendants of Yenshokoku Yeimanko. They had the honor to receive this surname by a grant from the emperor, who was pleased with their skill. At a later time, about the period of Taiho (a. d. 701-703), ten pen- JAPANESE EDUCATION. 26.9 cil-makers began to be employed in tbe “ Board of Books and Writ- ings” for manufacturing pencils there. Then, pencils were made of tbe hairs of rabbits, badgers, and deer. Subsequently there was a pencil-maker called Kohoslii. It is said that he made a number of large and small pencils, which he presented to the imperial court. Manufacture . — The process of manufacturing the Japanese pencil is as follows : The hairs of certain animals being placed on the hand, are sprinkled with “pencil-powder,” which consists of the ashes of burned rice-hulls, and which is exposed for sale in the same shops that deal in the hairs for pencils. Then the hairs are rubbed with both hands, cleansed from grease, equalized in length, and ad- justed with a fine brass comb. After this adjustment the hairs are still further equalized with the tongue and lips, and then by means of a decoction of Bunori, a kind of sea- weed used for starching, etc., made to adhere to each other, so as to form a body of about an inch and a quarter in breadth, the thickness varying according to the size of the pencils to be prepared. Then the hairs are dried, as shown in the fol- lowing (Big. 5). If, in examining these hairs, some are found to be imperfect or in a wrong direction, these should be taken out by means of the point of 11 170 AN OUTLINE HISTORY OF a knife. The mass of the properly-adjusted hairs is then divided or separated into parcels of the size or form of a pencil. At this stage of the process, shin, or a paper cone, which is to keep together the hairs of the pencil, is made, and a layer of hairs (which, however, is not used in the case of inferior kinds of pencils) is laid around the paper cone, a little above its point. In the case of the Japanese pencils used during the middle ages, half their body was . wound around with a piece of paper, as shown in the following (Tig. 6). Fig. G. After the process of which we have given an account, the hairs are again adjusted with the mouth and collected into shape ; after that, their points are rubbed repeatedly with the back of the blade of a knife, to put the hairs in order. This process, which is called Kezuri or Shitateru (planing or smooth- ing down), is the most important part in the work of pencil-making. Thus the inner layer of hairs having been adjusted, next, the exterior layer of hairs is to be laid around ; a quantity of hairs which is required for that purpose being picked out by means of a knife, and combed well, is laid around the pencil, still higher up than the inner layer ; the upper end of the exterior layer of hairs is then fastened with a hemp- thread, one end of which is inserted in the pencil stem or holder witli the upper ends of the now brush-shaped hairs, and the pencil is ready for use. INKSTONE. The inkstone, called in Japanese Sumisuri, Suzuri, or Miru-ishi, was invented about the same time as the pencil. At first, however, ink- stones were mostly made of earthen- ware, good inkstones, properly so called, being of later origin. Thus, for instance, those in use at the Dajokwan, as well as even those brought to the imperial palace, were JAPANESE EDUCATION. 171 all of earthen-ware. Afterward, it appears, a little before the periods of Genko (a. d. 1821-1323) and Kemmn (a. d. 1334-1335), the true inkstone was coming into general use ; and it is at about the same period that we first find Saga-ishi, Shiaku-6-ji-ishi, and Tosa-ishi (stones very valuable for the inkstones), held in great estimation. Besides the above stones, we have many other kinds of which the inkstone can be made, and of which we shall presently give the names. Manufacture . — In the first process a stone is cut into even slabs by two persons, who sit opposite to each other, with an instrument. Then the stone thus cut up is polished with a white whetstone, on which a quantity of sea-sand is spread out. The “ ink-pond,” or the part of the inkstone in which the ink is kept, is cut with a large chisel, to which the workman applies his shoulder in working it. When this process is nearly finished, and the “ink-pond” is formed, it is again pared with the hand -chisel, and then polished with a, blue whetstone. In the case of superior kinds of inkstones, the inside and outside of the “ ink-pond,” as well as other parts, are polished with a whetstone called Nagura, and with a small stone, with which the workman finishes off the hollow parts. MATERIALS FOR INKSTONE. Tosa : It is a kind of marine stone, usually containing something like copper and iron, the absence of which, however, is a requisite for stones of best quality. SJiiaJcu-6-ji : It is found in the province of Tamba ; it has silvery veins running through it lengthwise. The ready darkening of the veins is a mark of the inferior quality of the stone. This inferior quality is produced from some newlv-discovered quarries, and cannot be com- pared with that which comes from the old and celebrated quarries of Tamba. Amebata : This stone comes from the province of Kai ; there are two sorts of it, respectively called Okuyama and Hayama, the former being the better of the two. 172 AN OUTLINE HISTORY OF Hosoku : This stone comes from the province of Wakasa ; the best kinds are hard to be obtained. It is sometimes called Takata-ishi, and is of a red color. Tsukinoica : This stone comes from the province of Yamashiro. Ta/cao : This stone comes from the same provin.ce. Takashima : This stone comes from the province of Omi. Nikko-ishi : This stone comes from the Nikko Mountain ; it is of a jet-black color, and the best material, but rather hard. Sakurakawa: This stone comes from Numata, the province of Kozuke. Kansui : This stone comes from the province of Hitachi. There is another kind resembling this, called Shima Kansui. Kuroyama: This stone comes from the province of Mutsu; the hard and fine quality is difficult to be obtained. Kinho-seki: This stone comes from the province of Mikawa. Yoro: This comes from the province of Mino. UcJtiyama-isJii : This comes from the province of Bungo; the best sorts of it are exceedingly rare. Takata: This comes from the province of Mimasaka; there are some very old inkstones made of the best kinds of this stone. Kamogawa-ishi : This comes from the province of Yamashiro. Takanogawa-ishi : This comes from the same province. Iiagami-ishi : This comes from the province of Ise ; it is vulgarly called Sasameno. Futami-ishi: This comes from the province of Ise; it is something like Sldraltama (a kind of stone), but softer. SJnra-isJii : This comes from, the province of Higo. Shirahama-islii : This comes from the province of Kii. Takahama : This comes from the province of Hizen. Konoha-ishi : This comes from the province of Yechigo, and several other places. Takayama-ishi : This comes from the province of Bingo. Akama : This comes from the province of Nagato. Manjiu-ishi : This comes from Iwaki. JAPANESE EDUCATION . 173 SJioboji-ishi : This comes from the province of Rikuchiu : it is of a rather rough nature, hut well suited to rub the ink on. Off acid-, This comes from the province of Ugo; it is black. Nobe-oka-isJd : This comes from the province of Hiuga. Tamba Kuro-ishi : This comes from the province of Tamba ; it is somewhat like Amebata stone. It is brought from some newly- discovered quarries. Nagaregaiva-isld : This comes from the province of Kai ; it is a sort of Amebata stone, being of a purple color. Eukazaica-isld : This comes from the province of Sliinano; it is of the same kind as the Amebata stone. Tsukuba-isJd : This comes from the province of Hitachi ; it is like Takashima-ishi. Busina Kuro-isld : This comes from the province of Musashi, Isldnoma/d-islit: This comes from the province of Mutsu; it is of a black color. Kinsei-selci : This comes from the province of Kozuke ; it is like the stone of the same name found in Liobisan, China. Kaivagoe-isld : This comes from the province of Musashi ; it is of a gray color, and of the same nature as that produced from the province of Omi. JAPANESE INK. The origin of the Japanese ink dates from the same period as that of paper and the pencil, the processes of making them all having been introduced into this country from China. During the middle ages the ink used in public or government offices was manufactured in the “Board of Books and Writings,” and the process of making it was the same as that which we use at the present day. At later periods, Musa ink, made in the province of Omi, Kai- bara ink, made in the province of Tamba, as well as Taihei ink, made in the province of Yamashiro, were very noted for their superiority to others. Again, at a still later time, lamp-black ink (i. e., ink made of lamp-black) was invented in Nara, the southern capital, and has ever since been a celebrated article of production of that place. 174 AN OUTLINE HISTORY OF Manufacture of Ink . — The material for the ink, whether* it be lamp-black or so-called pine-smoke, i. e., soot obtained by the imperfect combustion of pine-wood, is worked into a proper consistency by com- bining* it with glue and water. At first, the lamp-black or pine-smoke which is thus worked with glue and water does not readily come into a mass, still being in a dry state and separated and scattered — a state which indicates the proper proportions of the mixture of these ingredi- ents. After being kneaded repeatedly, however, it comes into a mass somewhat like dough. This process is performed on a plank, which in winter should have a fire below it, in order to prevent the congelation of the glue. When the material has been worked into a perfect con- sistency, it is put into the ink-mould, which is made of wood, and consists of two parts, one being called the higher and the other the lower, and is pressed by a heavy stone bearing on it, or by a press. It depends on the thoroughness of this process whether the figures on the surfaces of the cakes of ink stand out clearly or not. After this the cakes of ink are taken from the mould and put in a mass of very slightly-moistened ashes. After having been kept in the moist ashes for four hours, the cakes are transferred to a mass of dry ashes for one day : after this, the ink is put into a mass of perfectly dry ashes for three days, at the expiration of which it is taken out and washed clean with cold water. After having been dried and polished, the whole process is finished, and the ink ready to be used. To obtain lamp-black, lamps are placed in regular order on a shelf, and are covered with unglazed porcelain receivers. The lamp-black which thus collects upon the receivers is regularly scraped off from time to time ; if too much time were allowed to pass before scraping it off, the lamp-black w T ould become a solid mass, and be useless. As to the kind of oil used for obtaining lamp-black, that of the Sesa- mnm orientals is the best, that of the rape-seed being next. The collecting of the soot of pine- wood used in manufacturing ink is performed as follows : A. plastered house of three or four ken (one ken being seventy-one and a half English inches) is built, in wdiich partitions are made, and the four walls of which are pasted over with JAPANESE EDUCATION. 175 some kind of coarse paper. The ground is paved with stone, on which the resinous boughs of the pine are burned after having been split into slender pieces. The soot which collects on the paper is scraped off in due time. The Engraving of Books . — The first engraving of books took place in the 3d month 1st Hoki (a. d. 770), when “Darani” (a Buddhist book written in Pali characters), of the Hiakuman Towers, was engrav- ed ; but since then we do not hear of any book being engraved till the 3d day, 6th month, 1st Kwangen (a. d. 1243), when the engraved “ITokekio” (a Buddhist book) was offered to the Buddhist gods; next to it, “ Sentakushu ” (the Buddhist book of the Jodo sect) and the “Confucian Analects” were engraved one after the other. It was not till the Btli Genroku (a. d. 1695) that any book was printed with five kinds of colors. . . ^ ■> ' - • . i , , * ■ . ■ •-iVil APPENDIX. I. CONSTITUTION OF THE MOMBUSHO, OR JAPANESE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION. THE Mombusho is a department of the Government for the administration of the educational affairs of the empire. Its duties are ; 1. To manage government schools and colleges. 2. To supervise public and private local schools. 3. To collect and diffuse educational information. The official organization of the department is as follows : Ki6 (Minister of Education), whose duties are : 1. To superintend the officials and the business of the department, and to administer the educational affairs of the empire. 2. To propose to the Government measures in regard to education ; to nominate for appointment, promotion, and dismissal, all officials above and including the seventh rank; and to appoint or dismiss, of his own motion, all officials below the seventh rank. Tayu (Senior Vice-Minister of Education), and Shfiyu (Junior Vice Minister of Education); Whose duties are to assist the Minister of Education in discharging his duties, and, when required, to perform the duties of minister. Daij6 (First Senior Secretary), Gon-daijS (Second Senior Secretary), Sh6j6 (First Junior Secretary), and Gon-sh6j6 (Second Junior Secretary) : Whose duties are to conduct the business of the department under the direction of the minister, and to preserve and keep in order all public documents. 178 APPENDIX. Bairoku (Chief Clerk). Gon-dairoku (Second Chief Clerk). Chiuroku (Middle Clerk). Gon-chiuroku (Second Middle Clerk). Sh6roku (Junior Clerk). Gon-sh6roku (Second Junior Clerk). Hissei (Scribe). Sh6sh6 (Miscellaneous Business). Connected with the department of Education is the Bureau of Superin- tendence, called the Tokugakukioku, containing the following officers ; Bai-Tokugaku (Chief Superintendent), Chiu-Tokugaku (Second Superintendent), and Sh6-Tokugaku (Third Superintendent) : Whose duties are to superintend educational matters, and to inspect and cause to be inspected the schools under the department. Bai-Shigaku (Chief Inspector), Chin- Shi gaku (Second Inspector), and Sh6-Shigaku (Third Inspector) ; Whose duties are to inspect and supervise the educational business of the several school-districts. Bcii-Shoki (Chief Clerk), Chiu-Shoki (Second Clerk), and Sho-Shoki (Third Clerk) : Whose duties are to transact the business of the office, and to preserve and keep in order the public records. REGULATIONS FOR THE TRANSACTION OF BUSINESS. The business of the department is divided into two classes. The business of the first class is transacted by the minister after the approval of the Gen- eral ^Government. The business of the second class is conducted at the dis- cretion of the minister, who is, however, responsible for all the business both of the first and second classes. Business of the First Class . — To devise and establish systems of educa- tion ; to make and revise educational regulations ; to establish school taxa- tion ; to regulate the grants of money to local school -districts ; to establish APPENDIX. 179 government schools ; to send officials of the department to foreign countries, etc. Business of the Second Class . — To present educational measures to the General Government; to issue notifications concerning the business of the department ; to supervise the local authorities in regard to educational mat- ters ; to confer academic degrees; to regulate the disbursement of govern- ment grants to the school -districts ; to collect books and apparatus conducive to the progress of science and the arts ; to collect and diffuse information in regard to education ; to summon conventions of inspectors of school -directors, or of school-teachers and school-experts, for the purposes of discussion of edu- cational questions ; to send students to foreign countries and to superintend the same ; to engage native and foreign teachers, and to regulate their sala- ries, etc. II. ■ CHRONICLE OE EVENTS IN THE RECENT HISTORY OE THE DEPARTMENT OE EDUCATION. At the time of the restoration of the Government, the subject of educa- tion was intrusted to an Educational Board, which administered the affairs connected with this branch of the Government from the 1st to the 4th Meiji (a. d. 1868-1871). On account of the disturbances caused by the civil war which existed in the country in the 1st Meiji, educational matters were in a very unsettled condition. Many of the school-buildings had been occupied for army-quarters, and the medical schools and hospitals were occupied with the care of the sick and wounded. In the 11th month, 1st Meiji, the Foreign-Language School, which had been established by the shogun’s government, in Yedo, was reopened under the neAV Educational Board. Foreign languages were taught in part by native and in part by foreign teachers. In the 12th month, the old College of Confucius, founded by the shogun's government, was also reopened, under the name of Shoheiko. It was about this time that Yamanouchi Yodo, Prince of Tosa, was appointed chief of the Educational Board, and the offices of secretary aud second secretary, as well as professors of the first, second, and third ranks, were created. From this time the Foreign -Language School and the Medical School and hospital came under the control of the Educational Board. 180 APPENDIX. In the 2nd month, 2nd Meiji (a. d. 1869) the publication of newspapers was placed under the charge of the Educational Board, and rules therefor were issued, and in the 5th month following the publication of books was in like manner intrusted to it. In the 6th month, it was ordered by the Government that the Shoheiko (Col- lege of Confucius) was to be hereafter called Daigakko (the university), and should take the place of the ancient national university as the head of the educational system. The offices of the temporary Educational Board were thereupon abolished, and corresponding ones connected with the university were created. In the 7th month, several of the professors in the Confucian college and the Foreign -Language School were selected as members of the Assembly com- posed of representatives from the provincial governments. In the 10th month, a Bureau of Translation was created in the Foreign- Language School, for the purpose of translating and compiling text-books from foreign languages. In the 12th month, the Foreign-Language School and Medical School were ordered to be called respectively the South College and North College. At the same time several new offices, both of administration and instruction, were created, the chief of them being Daigaku-no-Betto, which position was held by Matsudaira Shungaku, Prince of Yechizen. In the 2nd month, 3d Meiji (a. d. 1870) school-laws in relation to col- leges, high -schools, and primary schools, were proclaimed. This was the first attempt, after the restoration of the Government, to make general laws in regard to the education of the country. This was an evidence of the interest manifested in the education of the people by the emperor and his government. In the 7th month, it was ordered that each of the provincial governments should select one or more pupils who were promising scholars, to be sent to the Foreign -Language School to be educated at the government expense. In the 8th month, several of the most advanced students in the English and French sections of the Foreign -Language School were sent abroad to be educated in Western science and literature at the government expense ; and in the 1 1th month of the same year a few students were sent from the Medical Col- lege for the purpose of studying medicine in Europe. In the 12th month it was further ordered that all the students studying abroad, whether sent by the cen- tral or local governments, should be under the control of the Educational Board. In the 1st month 4th Meiji (a, d, 1871) the work of compiling a complete APPENDIX. 181 English-and-Japanese dictionary was begun under the Educational Board. In the 6th month, orders were given to the Medical College to send medical officers into the several parts of the country, for the purpose of taking control for the college of all matters connected with medicine. During this same month the most important step was taken in the progress of education. It was deemed by the Government that the education of the people was of sufficient importance to be intrusted to a distinct department of the Government; hence, in the place of the old Educational Board, a De- partment of Education (Mombusho) was organized. All powers relating to educational affairs were vested in this department. Elementary and higher instruction, the management of schools and colleges, were intrusted to its charge. Yeto Shimpei was created Vice-Minister of Education, and most of the old officers, both in the Foreign-Language and Medical Schools, were con- tinued in their positions under the Department of Education. The old quar- ters of the Educational Board were used by the new department. The au- thority of the department was extended over the schools of Osaka and at Nagasaki, as well as over the students studying abroad. Matters connected with medical education and the public health were in like manner put under its control. In this same month Oki Takato was appointed Minister of Education. The students who had been sent abroad by the several provincial governments were now, on account of the change of these governments, left to the control of the Department of Education ; and, as they were more numerous than the department could properly support, it was determined to recall them and send them out under new regulations. In the 8th month, the elementary and high schools in Tokio were placed under the direct charge of the Department of Education. This, however, was only temporary, as, after the issue of the code of education in the 5th Meiji, they were restored to the control of the Tokid local government. It was in this month that Yeto Shimpei, who had been Vice-Minister of Education was relieved from duty, and appointed a senator of the first rank. In the 9th month, a Bureau for the Compilation of Text-books was cre- ated in the Department of Education. New regulations were at this time made for the Foreign-Language and Medical Schools. The mixed system of Japanese and European instruction was modified, so that all the scholars were taught according to the foreign method and by competent teachers. It was also determined that the method of appointing students by the provincial 182 APPENDIX. governments be abolished, and that hereafter all persons might be admitted to the schools on passing a satisfactory examination. It was, moreover, de- termined, in order to encourage scholarship, that promising students who ob- tained a high standing should be sent abroad to complete their courses of study. In the 10th month, a Bureau of Vaccination was established in the Tokio Medical School. In the 11th month, Tanaka Fujimaro, then chief secretary of the De- partment of Education, was sent to America and Europe in connection with the embassy under Udaijin Iwakura, as a commissioner to investigate and report upon educational matters in foreign countries. A report was made on his return giving in detail his observations, which has been printed and published. In the 2nd month 5th Meiji (a. d. 1872) a building for a female school in Tokio was completed and opened under the charge of the Department of Edu- cation. Up to this time the education of women had not received the same government support as that of men, and therefore this first step in providing better facilities was an important event in the history of education. This school was designed to provide education both in Japenese and English. In the 4th month, a library was opened at the seat of the College of Confu- cius, and the public admitted free. In the 5th month the Tokio Normal School was established and opened. It was designed to train teachers for the elementary schools, which, under the new orders of the department, were to be taught in accordance with more approved methods. The students admitted to the Normal School were sup- ported at the expense of the Government. In the 8th month, the new educational laws were proclaimed throughout Japan. These laws are still in force. The old schools maintained under the direction of the local governments were by these laws to be replaced by oth- ers modeled after the regulations of the department, and pursuing definite courses of instruction. The sum of two million yen was appropriated by the General Govern- ment for the expenses of the Department of Education, and for the educa- tional institutions under its charge. In the 10th month a Bureau of Superintendence was organized in Tokio, to inspect and supervise the schools. Oki Takato was appointed Minister of Religion in addition to the office of Minister of Education, and the offices of the Department of Education were APPENDIX. 188 removed to the same building as was occupied by that of the Department of Religion . In the 11th month, a notification was issued to the local governments, that any local officers connected with education who might be present in Tokio and desired to consult the Department in regard to educational matters, should have the privilege of attending at the Department. In the same month a notification was issued that an annual sum of money would be appropriated by the Department for the support of education under the local governments, and for that year was fixed nine -tenths of a sen (0. 9 sen) per capita of the school population. In the 2nd month 6th Meiji (a. d. 1873), the department issued orders to the local governments in regard to the divisions of the grand-school districts into middle and elementary school districts, and also in regard to the number of elementary schools already established, and the regulations and mode of maintenance of the same. The Government made its annual appropriation to the Department of Education for school purposes, being at the reduced rate of one million three hundred thousand yen per year. The chief secretary, Tanaka Fujimaro, sent out. as commissioner of educa- tion, returned to Japan, and was soon after appointed to the office of Shoyfi, or junior vice-minister. The publication of the gazette of the department was begun. It was designed to contain accounts of the systems and progress of education, and such information in regard to foreign and native education as might be of value. In the 4th month, the following alterations were announced in regard to the divisions of the grand-school districts, and the principal educational seats in them : The grand-school districts, were reduced from eight to seven, and the boundaries readjusted. In the first grand-school district, Tokio was made he principal seat of learning ; in the second, Aichi ; in the third, Osaka; in the fourth, Hiroshima ; in the fifth, Nagasaki ; in the sixth, Niigata ; and in the seventh, Miyagi. Oki Takato, the Minister of Education, was made one of the Cabinet Council, and thereupon ceased to be minister, whereupon the junior vice-min- tister Tanaka became acting chief. The Tokio Foreign-Language School was separated into two parts: the first to be called the Tokio Kaisei Gakko, and to be organized as a university, 184 APPENDIX.. where general science and literature, as well as special courses in law, chemi- cal technology, engineering, polytechnic science, and mining, were to be pursued ; the second part to continue as a school of foreign languages, and to provide instruction in the English, French, German, Russian, and Chinese languages. In the 5th and 6th month, educational officers were sent from the depart- ment to visit and inspect schools in the first, third, fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh grand-school districts. In the 7th month, the Tokugakukioku, or Bureau of Superintendence, was established in the Department of Education, the business of which was the inspection of the schools under the department. In the 8th month two additional normal schools were founded, one at Osaka, and one at Miyagi, the latter of which, however was not opened until some time later. For the purpose of making better regulations in regard to physicians in the country, orders were issued that each local government should report to the Department of Education the names and number of physicians, and also other information concerning medical matters within its jurisdiction. A med- ical laboratory was also established in the Tokio Medical College. Dr. David Murray, of the United States, having arrived in Japan, entered upon his duties as superintendent of educational affairs. Among other amendments in regard to the grade of officers and instruc- tors the following academic ranks were established, viz.; Hakase (Doctor), Gakusfii ’(Master), and Tokugidshi (Bachelor), to be conferred by the Depart- ment of Education. In the same month the new buildings were completed for the Kaisai Gakko (University of Tokio), and were opened with appropriate cere- monies by his majesty the emperor, accompanied by high officers of the Gov- ernment. During this month her majesty the empress visited the University of Tokio and the Tokio Female School, and witnessed the exercises of the students. It was determined from this time that the students who had been sent abroad at the expense of the Government should be recalled, with a view to send others better qualified, and selected from these who had been educated in the home institutions. Orders were therefore sent for their recall at the earliest time. APPENDIX. 185 In the 1st month 7th Meiji (a. d. 1874) Kido Takayoshi was appointed Minister of Education in addition to his office of cabinet councilor. In the 2nd month of this year a department of industrial arts was establi- shed in the University of Tokio. It was to be conducted in the Japanese language, and to give instruction in the chemical and mechanical arts. Four additional normal schools were founded by the Department of Edu- cation, viz., at Aichi, Hiroshima, Nagasaki, and Niigata ; and in the month following foreign language schools were established in Aichi, Hiroshima, Niigata, and Mivagi ; thus in each of the seven grand school districts there were noAv a normal school and a foreign language school. In the 3rd month the Tokio Female Normal School was established by the Department of Education. Her majesty the empress had indicated her wish to contribute the sum of five thousand yen from her private purse for the purpose of promoting the education of her sex in the empire. She therefore gave this amount to the department toward the establishment of the Female Normal School. Accordingly, buildings were erected, and in the 10th month of the following year were dedicated by the empress in person. A Bureau for the Examination of Medicines was established in the city of Tokio under the Department of Education. In the 5th month Kido Takayoshi resigned the office of Minister of Educa- tion. In the 9th month Tanaka Fujimaro was advanced to the rank of Taya, or Senior Vice-Minister of Education. The arrangement of bureaus in the department was modified as follows ; 1. Bureau of Schools. 2. Bureau of Finance. 3. Bureau of Publication. 4 . Bureau of Copyright and Press Laws. 5. Bureau of Public Health. The Medical School and Hospital at Nagasaki, which had been under the control of the Department of Education, -was transferred to the local govern- ment. In the 12th month all the foreign -language schools except that at Tokio were constituted English language schools. That at Tokio was divided into two schools, the one an English-language school, the other a foreign-language school for instruction in French, German, Russian, and Chinese. In the 1st month 8th Meiji (a. d. 1875), the amount appropriated by the Government to the Department of Education was fixed at two million yen per year, and the sum contributed by the department to the local governments for the support of elementary education was fixed at seventy thousand yen. • 12 A P PEN 1)1 X. ISO A Bureau for the Examination of Medicine was in the 2nd month establ- ished at Kioto, and in the 3rd month at Osaka. The museum, library and botanical garden, which had hitherto been under the control of the Exhibition Office of the Central Government were. transferred to the superintendence of the Department of Education ; and in the 6th month the Bureaus of Public Health and of Copyright and Press Laws were transferred to the Department of Home Affairs. In the 7th month, three officers were sent out to America to investigate the methods of conducting normal schools. From the highest class also in the University of Tokio, students were sent out to continue their education in special branches, viz., nine in America, one in France, and one in Germany. The annual appropriation from the General Government to the Depart- ment of Education was made on the scale of one million seven hnndred thou- sand yen per annum. In the 11th month of this year the constitution and limitations of the author- ity of the Department of Education were revised and proclaimed by the Gen- eral Government. In the 12th month the official grades of the Bureau of Superintendence were altered. In the 2d month, 9th Meiji (a. d. 1876), a notification was issued to the local authorities to the effect, that the government contribution for the support of elementary,’ education, which had hitherto been distributed in pro- portion to the -whole population, should henceforth be distributed in proportion to the school population. In this month the Ken of Oda was abolished, and incorporated with the Ken of Okayama which has consequently been brought within the 4th grand school district since that time. During the same month Nomura Motosuke, second superintendent, was sent to the fourth and fifth grand school districts for the purpose of inspecting the condition of education in the various localities. In this month all books and documents connected -with the preparation of the national almanac, which had hitherto been controlled by the Department of Education, were transferred to the Home Department, as henceforth the publication was to be under the charge of the latter Department. During the 4th month Tanaka Fujimaro, Senior Vice-Minister of Education, was sent to the American Centennial Exhibition at Philadelphia, accompanied with a suite consisting of four officials of the Department, for APPENDIX. 187 investigating various matters connected with Education. During the absence of Tanaka Fujimaro, Kuki Riuieki, First Senior Secretary of Education, was authorized to act as chief in the transaction of aU departmental business. During this month, inspectors and clerks of the Bureau of Superintendence were sent to the five Kens of Chiba, Tochigi, Ibaraki, Kumagaya, and Saitama, to visit and inspect the schools. In the 6th month the Corean Embassy at that time in Japan paid a visit to the Government Colleges and the Tokio Library. During the same month, ten of the students of the Tokio Eaiseigakko, having the highest qualifications, were gent to Europe as loan students, eight to England and two to France. In the 7th month the annual appropriation to the Department of Educa- tion for the current year, from the 7th month of the present year to the 6th month 10th Meiji, was fixed at 1,704,800 yen. In the 8th month a notification was issued to the schools under the control of the Department, that educational reports to be presented to the Depart- ment, should henceforth be prepared in conformity with the educat- ional year. In the 9th month inspectors and clerks from the Bureau of Superinten- dence were sent to the Fu of Tokio, and the two Kens of Kanagawa and Yamanashi to visit and inspect the schools. During this month, the two Kens of Tsurugaoka and Oitami were abolished and united with the Ken of Yamagata which has consequently been brought within the sixth grand school district since that time. In the same month, her majesty the empress visited the Tokio Female Normal school, and attended the exercises of the scholars. In the 11th month a kindergarten was opened in the ground of the Tokio Female Normal school. In the 1st month, 10th Meiji (a. d. 1877), Tanaka Fujimaro, senior Vice Minister of Education and his suite of officials returned from America. On the return of Tanaka Fujimaro, Kuki Riuichi was released from his temporary duty as acting chief of the Department. In this month the annual appropriation of the Department, for the current rear, was fixed at one million and two hundred thousand yen. In this month the office of secretary of the Department, called Jo, was abolished, and that of senior and junior secretary, called Shokikwan, was APPEND IX. 1SS established. In this month the Bureau of Superintendence was abolished and during the same month an office of superintendence was established anew in the De- partment. In this month the office of the private secretaries to the Minister of Educa- tion was reorganized. In this month the name of the Tokio Museum under the Educational Department was changed to that of Educational Museum. In the 2d month the Government aid for elementary education, which had been called shogaku fujokin, was made to be called shagaku-hojokin (the mean- ing of both words being however unchanged). In this month the Tokio Female School, the Aichi Eigogakko (English language school), the Hiroshima Eigogakko, the Hiroshima Normal School, the Niigata Eigogakko, the Niigata Normal School, Nagasaki Eigogakko, the Miyagi Eigogakko and the Tokio Library were closed, and arrangements made for transferring them to their respective local authorities, to be per- manently maintained and controlled by them. In this month a notification, was issued to the local authorities to the effect, that a sum of fifty thousand yen per year would be granted and distributed in proportion to the population, for the purpose of supporting public normal schools for training elementary teachers, with a view of gradually confiding that work of training teachers to the local authorities, on account of the decrease in number of the Government normal schools. In this month the Receipt and Distribution office was consolidated with that of the private secretaries to the Minister of Education. In the 3d month the Second Annual Report of the Department, for tins 7th Meiji (a. d. 1874), was completed. In this month a notification was issued to the local authorities to the effect, that a sum of four hundred and twenty five thousand yen would he granted and distributed, as the Government contribution for elementary education, for the current year from the 7th month 10th Meiji (a. d. 1877). In the 4th month the Tokio Kaiseigakko and Igakko (Medical college) were united in one organization to he called the Tokio Daigaku or Tokio University, comprising four departments of Law, Science, Medicine and Literature. In the same month the Tokio Eigogakko or Tokio English Language School was annexed to the University, as a preparatory Department under the APPENDIX. 1M name of the Tokio Daigaku Yobimon. In this month the Botanical Gardens at Koishikawa, hitherto controlled by the Educational Museum, was finally placed under the management of the Tokio University. In this month the Department of Education, which had up to that time been situated at Lot No 1 in the second street of Otemachi in the second subdis- trict of the first district, was removed to Lot. No 1. in Takehiracho in the second subdistrict of the fourth district of the City of Tokio. During the same month Kuki Riuichi and Nishimura Shigeki, First Senior Secretaries of Education were sent to the third and second grand school districts respectively, for the purpose of inspecting local educational affairs. In the 5th month an outline History of Japanese Education Avas com- piled and published by the Department of Education. » u. r. , r\ ;; I *:•-* Ur \ . APPENDIX. m III. LIST QE EMPERORS. Date of Acces- sion. from Fimmu. i Christ- an Era. 1 j 3. c. 660 79 581 112 548 Tfnkn 150 510 itdshd 185 475 288 392 Tfnrp.i 370 290 1-46 214 Kbikwa 503 157 Snjin 563 97 629 a. x>. 29 R>ikd 731 71 791 131 852 192 881 201 Oiin ? 930 270 973 313 rtichii 1080 400 Hansei 1085 405 Inkid 1071 411 Anko 1113 453 VuT’ifl.lm 1116 456 Seinei 1140 480 TTpnqn 1145 485 tbnken 1148 488 Bureisu 1159 499 Emtai 1187 507 Ankan 1194 534 Ren kwfr 1196 536 K_ini tp p.ii . , 1200 540 Bidatsu 1232 572 VnrnAi 1246 586 Su shun 1248 688 Pnikn (PTYVpresiR) 1253 593 Jomei 1289 629 Y o^ioku (empress) 1302 642 Kdtoku 1305 645 fsaiTYip.i 1315 655 Teuji 1328 668 K obun 1332 672 Temniu 1333 673 .Titd '(empress) 1350 690 AfOTpTPll . , , T , 1357 697 f-emmio (empress) 1368 708 fieri si) n “ 1375 715 ' RTt 6m r| _ r 1384 724 j■-« p “ -2*3,3 ft * NAME. ll D l 'Sal *81 H 2032 1372 Temtmn 2192 1532 2035 1375 Koii 2215 1555 2041 1381 Yeiroku 2218 1558 2044 1384 Genki . *J 2230 1570 6 22- ’3 1573 NOTHERN DYNASTY. Bunrdku 2452 1592 ^JirVlrin 1992 1332 Kiocho 2256 1596 1998 1338 G eirwa 2275 1615 2002 1342 Kwanvei 2284 1624 2005 1345 Shall 6 ; • 2304 1644 2010 1250 Reran ........ 2308 1648 2012 1352 Jowo 2312 1652 Yembun 2016 1-356 Meiriki 2515 1655 Koaii 2021 1361 Manji.... 2318 1658 Joii 2022 1362 Kwamibim 2321 1661 Oa n 2028 1368 Yempo 2333 1673 Yerwa 2035 1375 Tenwa 2341 1681 Koriakti 2039 1379 Jokio 2344 1684 Yeitolui 2041 1381 Genroku . 2348 1688 t.nktl 2044 1384 Hoyei ....... ' 2364 1704 Rakio. . . '2047 1387 Shotokn 2371 1711 Kowo 2049 1389 Rich 6 2376 1716 Meitoku 2050 1390 Gembun 2396 173 (5 Kwamipo 2401 1741 6yei 2054 “1394 Yenki6 2404 1744 Shffdhd 2088 1428 Kwanven '2408 ' 1748 Yeikio 2089 1429 Horeld . 2411 1751 Kak£tsti 2101 1441 Meiwa 2424 1764 Busan 2104 1444 Anvei 2432 1772 Hotoku 2109 1449 Temniei . 2441 ' 1781 Kiot'oku . 2112 1452 Kwansei ..... ... » ;. ..' 2449 1789 Kosh 6 2115 1455 Kiowa 2461 1801 Clioroku ‘2117 1457 Bunkwa 2464 1804 Kwansho — 2120 1460 Bnnssi '2478 1818 Bunch 6 ‘2126 1466 Tempo . 2490 1830 Gnin 2127 1467 Koka 25u4 1844 Bnmmei '2129 14-69 || Eayei 2508 1848 Chokio 2147 1487 H Ansel i. 2514 lv54 Yentoku 2149 1489 |i Manyen 2520 1860 Meiwo ‘2152 1492 Bnnkiu 2521 1801 B dnki 2161 1501 1 Genii 2524 1864 Yeishd. 2164 1504 || Keiw r o . . 2525 1865 Daivei . . 2181 1521 | Meiii 2528 1868 1876 Kioroku ... 2188 1528 | Meiji. ninth year.. 2536 NORTH LONDON COLLEGIATE SCHOOL r ? * v"v jr* Ur ; ■- ■ * ~>r FOGW'ARE 'AO TP | 1 ■' > - / •: Sg . • .i&.V v V f . % -■> 5 i -■ ip r - •**U ! *5ifci r “ v ? • v'-i •' •■■-—' - \ -** ■ . . | ^ \ : V. ■:> ' ' • 0 r- < ’ -v / ; W - .< | ' '• .; V ‘ •V i’. c » ?->'■ W: -v: - ' . 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