FRflMKLlN IMSTITUTE ]JWaRl 
 
 FHILIlDELrHlfl 
 
 -xiMiuj-t; V . — iho Library shall be divided into two classes ; the first 
 comprising such works as, from their rarity or value, should not be lent 
 out, all unbound periodicals, and such text books as ought to l)e found 
 in a library of reference except Avhen required by Committees of the 
 Institute, or by members or holders of second class stock, who have 
 obtained the sanction of the Committee. The second class shall include 
 those books intended for circulation. 
 
 Article VI. — The Secretary shall have authority to loan to Meml)er.s 
 and to holders of second class stock, any work belonging to the second 
 CLASs,T6ubiect to the following regulations : 
 
 Section 1. — No individual shall be permitted to have more than two 
 books out at one time, without a written permission, signed by at least 
 two members of the Library Committe ; nor shall a book be kept out 
 more than two weeks ; but if no one has applied for it, the former bor- 
 rower may renew the loan. Should any person have applied for it, tht; 
 latter shall have the preference. 
 
 Section 2. — A i*'ine of ten cents per week shall be exacted for the 
 detention of a book beyond the limited time ; and if a book be not re- 
 turned within three months it shall be deemed lost, and the borrower 
 shall, in addition to his fines, forfeit its value. 
 
 Section 3. — Should any book be returned injured, the borrower shall 
 pay for the injury, or replace the book, as the Library Committee may 
 direct ; and if one or more books, belonging to a set or sets, be lost, th(; 
 borrower shall replace them or make full restitution. 
 _ Article VII.— Any person removing from the Hall, without permis- 
 sion from the proper authorities, any book, newspaper or other property 
 in charge of the Library Committee, shall be reported to the Committee, 
 who may inflict any fine not exceeding twenty-five dollars. 
 
 Article VIII. — No member or holder of second class stock, whose 
 annual contribution for the current year shall be unpaid or who is in 
 arrears for fines, shall be entitled to the privileges of the Library or 
 Reading Room. 
 
 Article IX. — If any member or holder of second class stock, shall 
 refuse or neglect to comply with the foregoing rules, it shall be the duty 
 of the Secretary to report him to the Committee on the Library. 
 
 Article X. — Any Member or holder of second class stock, detected 
 in mutilating the newspapers, pamphlets or books belonging to the Insti- 
 tute shall be deprived of his right of membership, and the name of the 
 offender shall be made public. 
 
DEC 10 1889 
 
Manuals of Technology. 
 
 EDITED BY 
 
 Prof. Avrton, F.R.S., and R. Worm ell, D.Sc, M.A, 
 
DESIGN 
 
 rur 
 
 TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 THOMAS E. ASHENHUEST, 
 
 HEAD MASTER, TEXTILE DEPABTMBNT, BEADPOBD TECHNICAL COLLEGE. 
 
 WITH 10 COLOURED PLATES ANB 106 DIAGRAMS. 
 
 Cassell & Company, limited: 
 
 LONDON, PARIS, NEW YORK & MELBOURNE. 
 
 [all RiaHTS BEST5EVED.] 
 18S5. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 In this manual an attempt has been made to place before 
 the reader, as briefly and completely as possible, the prin- 
 ciples of design in textile fabrics in its broadest sense, 
 and to deal with the subject in such a manner as to com- 
 bine with the question of decoration that of the proper 
 structure of the cloth. 
 
 The practice of paying little or no attention to the 
 proper structure of the fabric, and its suitability for 
 the purposes to which it is to be applied in the ar- 
 rangement of designs, is unfortunately far too common, 
 and is the cause of a considerable waste of labour 
 and expense in our manufacturing concerns. This 
 may, perhaps, be to some extent due to the method 
 of training those who are to be the designers, and also, 
 to an even greater extent, to the fact that there has 
 hitherto been no systematic treatment of the question. 
 Most men engaged in the manufacture of textile fabrics 
 have confined their attention to one branch, or to one 
 class of goods, and have become proficient from practice 
 only in that class. Their success has been entirely 
 dependent upon the amount of attention they have paid 
 to the particular class of fabrics they were engaged in 
 manufacturing, or to the accuracy of their observations, 
 and not to any — or, at the most, only to a slight — 
 degree upon any systematic method or basis for their 
 work. In the textile trades, as in every other, the 
 
vi 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 "nile of thumb," or guess-work, must rapidly disappear, 
 and be replaced by system. Fabrics must be made, as 
 other articles are, with a proper regard to ornament, 
 utility, and economy; the designer must consider both 
 the end and the means, and nothing but this will secure 
 success to him. 
 
 The rapid disappearance of the old apprentice system, 
 the growth of large establishments, and the consequent 
 subdivision of labour, accompanied by the ever-increasing 
 demand for fabrics of a more artistic character to be 
 applied to useful purposes, make it imperative upon the 
 would-be designer or manufacturer to understand more 
 fully than he has done in the past the principles upon 
 which fabrics should be constructed, so as to fulfil all 
 the necessary conditions. He must work on sound 
 principles and leave nothing to chance. 
 
 The reader must not expect to go through this work 
 in a hurried manner, or to thoroughly grasp all the 
 details of the subject without further efibrt. Within 
 the compass of this volume it is, of course, impossible 
 to enter into all the particulars which would make the 
 student at once perfectly conversant with the whole ; 
 but an efibrt has been made to lay down the leading 
 principles clearly and completely, and to guide the 
 student generally, rather than to enter too closely into 
 minor details, which can only be sufiiciently mastered 
 by actual practice in the mill or workshop. 
 
 T. R. A. 
 
 Bradford. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTEE I. PAGE 
 Textile Fabrics anb their Uses 1 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 The Structure of Threads 20 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 Ornamentation op Fabrics in their Structure . . 29 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 Stripes, Checks, and Figures from Combination of 
 
 Different Twills 50 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 Double Cloths 73 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 Figured Cloths 112 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 Gauze Fabrics 162 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 Pile or Plush Fabrics 
 
 194 
 
viii DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. PAGE 
 General Compabison op the Different Classes and 
 
 Styles of Fabric 22o 
 
 Glossary , • • .241 
 
 Index • 244 
 
 COLOURED PLATES. 
 
 Plate I . . • . • • • To face pa^ 124 
 
 II ...... • 126 
 
 „ III 
 
 IV " 147 
 
 „ V 149 
 
 „ VI » 150 
 
 „ VII » 153 
 
 „ \H1 n 1-54 
 
 „ IX , 165 
 
Design m Textile Fabrics. 
 
 CHAPTER L 
 
 TEXTILE FABRICS AND THEIE USES. 
 
 1. The Objects to be kept in View in designing 
 Textile Fabrics. — The first objects we must set before us 
 in designing textile fabrics are the uses to which they 
 are to be applied, and the purposes they are intended to 
 serve. Exactly in the same manner, if we are designing 
 a bridge, a house, a mill, or a machine, our first concern 
 must be to secure all the conditions of strength, con- 
 venience of arrangement, and other requisites, which will 
 make it most suitable for the purposes to which ifc will 
 be put. This having been done, we may then proceed 
 to ornament the structure as we please, always taking 
 care that the ornamentation does not in any way detract 
 from the conditions of strength and general utility which 
 have been our first and foremost aim. It thus follows 
 that, in speaking of designing textile fabrics, we do not 
 necessarily mean the application of art principles to their 
 decoration, but we use the phrase in a more compre- 
 hensive sense, not only in reference to the decoration or 
 ornamentation of the fabric, but also to its structure. 
 If that is so, we must have what is commonly termed 
 a theoretical basis upon which to build our fabric, and it 
 may be as well to inquire, before going further — What is 
 this theoretical basis 1 or 
 
 2. What is the theory of the structure of fabrics ? 
 — theory may be described as a supposition with 
 
 B 
 
2 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 [Cbap. I, 
 
 regard to cause and effect — or the connection and sequence 
 of phenomena — which embraces all the circumstances 
 known to attend their occurrence. A theory is tested 
 by trial and observation. It must be founded upon 
 actual knowledge of things — of the end to be attained, ' 
 and the means which have been employed, not only by 
 ourselves but by others, to attain the object at which 
 we are aiming, or a similar object. 
 
 Upon this basis, then, we may at once proceed to 
 examine into the theory of the manufacture of cloth, or 
 " Design in Textile Fabrics." Before we can enter into 
 the question of the structure of fabrics, or deal with the 
 materials from which they are made, we must deter- 
 mine what are the purposes they are intended to serve, 
 and the qualities or properties they must possess to 
 ensure those purposes being served in the best possible 
 manner. It may, in the first place, be said that one of 
 the chief uses of textile fabrics is as a covering for the 
 body, to keep it warm, or to protect it from the incle- 
 mency of the weather ; or it may be that the covering is 
 merely ornamental, and need not be of such close texture 
 as that which the needs just referred to demand. Again, 
 whether the covering be of . the purely useful or of the 
 purely ornamental character, yet, in all probability, in 
 each case it will have to fulfil one condition of usefulness 
 — namely, wear. This means that its structure must be 
 such as will enable it to bear some strain, and in many 
 cases also to resist a considerable amount of friction 
 without damage. 
 
 In addition to the fabrics of a purely useful or purely 
 ornamental character, we may in many cases be called 
 upon to produce fabrics where both qualities are requisite. 
 As the artistic taste of the people improves, they are not 
 contented with the purely useful ; articles of utility must 
 also be made more or less beautiful. We must ornament 
 wherever we can, but in introducing the ornament we 
 must be careful that we do not do it at the cost of utility. 
 
 "We may, then, say that in these considerations of 
 
Chap. I.] 
 
 WARP AND WEFT. 
 
 3 
 
 utility or ornament we have the groundwork or basis 
 of our theory. We have the knowledge of what we 
 require, but that is only the first step. Before our 
 theory can be complete we must consider how these 
 fabrics are to be constructed, the materials from which 
 they are to be made, and also, to some extent, the 
 mechanical operations involved in their formation ; and, 
 being guided by a knowledge of what others have done 
 before us, we must, as far as we can, determine the best 
 and most economical methods of obtaining given results. 
 
 Textile fabrics may be generally described as a com- 
 bination of filaments or threads, interlaced with each 
 other in such a manner as to form a texture ; and it is for 
 us to ascertain what is the best method of interlacing 
 those threads, so as to produce the fabric most adapted to 
 our requirements. 
 
 In all cases where utility is to be the first considera- 
 tion, the warp and weft threads which form the fabric 
 must be so interlaced as to produce all the firmness 
 possible, not only so as to be able to bear the greatest 
 amount of strain, but also to be able to resist i'riction. 
 In many instances we must also combine with these 
 qualities bulk, or thickness of fabric ; consequently, our 
 fabric must be constructed so 
 as to allow of the requisite ^ 
 amount of material being in- b 
 troduced into it. 6 
 
 Before going any further » 
 into the subject, we will see * 
 how fabrics are constructed, * 
 and what is the meaning of * 
 warp and weft." In Eig. 1 ^ 
 we have a plan of what is Pig ^ 
 
 known as a plain cloth. It 
 
 will be seen that there are two sets of threads, which 
 cross each other at right angles, and interweave alter- 
 nately. The threads marked a, or the longitudinal 
 threads— or those running in the direction of the length 
 
4 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 [Chap. I. 
 
 of the piece, and which are usually shown on paper in a 
 vertical position, are what are termed the warp threads, 
 and the transverse threads, 6, are termed the weft 
 threads. In all woven fabrics we have these two sets of 
 threads to deal with^ and the relation which one bears to 
 the other, as well as the order of interweaving for the 
 purpose of forming patterns, constitute the design of the 
 fabric. 
 
 In the plain cloth plan in Fig. 1, it will be seen that, 
 although we produce a very firm texture by the manner 
 in which the two sets of threads interweave, yet we 
 cannot possibly produce a very close texture. Certainly 
 the fabric will be strong, each thread supporting the 
 other to the utmost, yet it cannot be made sufficiently 
 compact, either to produce a heavy fabric or a fabric 
 which will retain heat, or keep the body warm to the 
 fullest extent. By the very manner in which the threads 
 intersect each other, they are prevented from lying per- 
 fectly close together ; consequently, the fabric must be, 
 in a greater or less degree, perforated. 
 
 3. The Effect of the Yarn upon the Fabric— The 
 perforations in a plain cloth will vary greatly under 
 certain conditions : for instance, the thicker the threads 
 from which the fabrics are made, the larger will be the 
 perforations, and the thinner the threads, the smaller the 
 perforations. Of course, in such cases the perforations will 
 bear exactly the same ratio to the diameter of the thread 
 if the relation of warp to weft be the same, but cloth 
 made from fine yarns will possess the useful properties in 
 a much greater degree in proportion to its weight than 
 that made from thick threads. Other considerations will 
 also affect the usefulness of the fabric. If we desire to 
 produce a fabric of close texture — one which will have 
 the perforations reduced to the smallest possible dimen- 
 sions and retain the warmth of the body in the highest 
 extent — we must use a yarn in which the fibres of which 
 it is composed are laid as loosely together as possible 
 We can then, in the mechanical operations of weaving, 
 
Chap. I.] 
 
 TWIST OF THE YARN. 
 
 5 
 
 bring those threads closely together, and the looseness of 
 the fibres will permit of their spreading out, and so of 
 reducing the interstices to the lowest point. 
 
 On the other hand, if the threads are twisted very 
 hard — that is, if the threads are made solid and compact — ■ 
 they will resist compression in the operation of weaving, 
 and, the fibres being held firmly together in the thread, 
 there is nothing left to spread out and cover the inter- 
 stices ; consequently, we shall have an open fabric, but 
 the fibres being firmly interlocked in the thread, we shall 
 have a fabric which will bear more strain, and will ofier 
 also more resistance to friction, than in the other case. 
 We must, therefore, obtain one quality in this fabric at 
 the cost of some other. 
 
 4.— The Effect of the Twist of the Yarn.— Another 
 matter which materially afiects the closeness of texture 
 in a plain cloth is the direction of the twist of the weft in 
 relation to that of the warp. On reference to Fig. 1 it 
 will be seen that the two sets of threads when placed 
 together in the fabric have the twist running in the 
 same direction ; that being so, the fibres — or, if we may 
 so term them, the strands — of 
 the two sets of threads will 6 
 become embedded into each b 
 other, and so make a close & 
 and compact fabric. If, on ^ 
 the other hand, the twist of ^ 
 the weft be contrary to that * 
 of the warp when the two are 
 
 placed together, as shown in ' ^ ^ ^ a a a a a a a 
 Fig. 2, the threads cannot Fig. 2. 
 
 become so intimately con- 
 nected, and, consequently, the fabric cannot be so close 
 and free from perforations. 
 
 To give an illiastration on a large scale. If we take 
 two thick cords or ropes, and lay them together at right 
 angles to each other, with the twist of both in the same 
 direction, we shall find that the thick strands of one 
 
6 
 
 DESIQN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 [Chap. I. 
 
 rope will fall into the hollows between the strands of 
 the other, and so the two will occupy the smallest 
 possible space ; but if the strands are in opposite direc- 
 tions, instead of their falling between each other, and 
 one strand filling the hollow in the other, their ridges 
 will come together, and there will be an opening equal 
 to the hollows between the strands of both ropes. 
 We have, therefore, increased openness in the struc- 
 ture of the fabric without a corresponding gain in any 
 direction. 
 
 5. Relations of Warp and Weft, and their Effect 
 upon the Fabric. — Up to this point we have been dealing 
 only with what may be called a true plain fabric, or a 
 fabric in which the weft and warp are equal, or nearly so, 
 in their diameters and in the number of ends per inch 
 each way; but we may produce fabrics in which the 
 relations of weft to warp are quite altered, and we may do 
 this for two purposes — either for obtaining increased 
 strength, warmth, and weight, or for ornamentation. 
 
 Suppose we take the class of fabrics commonly known 
 as poplins, and which present a corded or ribbed appear- 
 ance, the ribs running across the fabric in the direction 
 of the weft ; in such fabrics there is a great preponder- 
 ance of 'warp over weft, more especially as regards the 
 number of threads per incL But for the production of 
 fabrics of the best type the warp threads are much 
 thinner than those of the weft. In fact, although the 
 interweaving of weft with warp is precisely the same as 
 in the plain cloths with which we have been dealing, the 
 alteration in the relative quantities and thickness of weft 
 and warp completely changes the texture and appearance 
 of the fabric. A plain cloth, in which warp, and weft are 
 equal, will present an appearance of waviness in both 
 warp and weft on the fabric being dissected ; but a 
 fabric in which the warp threads predominate largely 
 over the weft, so far as ends per inch go, and in which, 
 consequently, the warp threads are proportionately 
 thimier, would present the weft as a straight line, and 
 
Chap. I.] 
 
 RELATIONS OP WARP AND WEFT. 
 
 7 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 the warp bending round it, A plan of this fabric is 
 shown in Fig. 3, and a section in Fig. 4. 
 
 In the plan it will be seen that the weft threads are 
 much thicker than the warp threads, and also that the 
 latter are placed closely to- 
 gether. In some fabrics of 
 this type these are placed so 
 closely that they are actually 
 compressed, and made 
 to occupy a space less 
 than their true dia- 
 meter. It will also be 
 seen that the weft 
 threads are some dis- 
 tance apart. It only 
 
 requires a careful examination of the structure of 
 the fabric to ascertain the cause of this, as also 
 its effect upon the appearance, as well as upon the 
 usefulness of the cloth. 
 
 The warp threads are placed close together, and 
 cross between each weft thread, or pick, as it is tech- 
 nically termed. The warp is also much thinner 
 Fig. 4. than the weft ; as a consequence, no matter how 
 much tension may be put upon the warp, either 
 in the process of weaving or after the fabric is formed, 
 it cannot bend the weft out of its straight line, simply 
 because the intervals of space between the warp threads 
 are so small, as compared with the thickness of the 
 weft, that the weft cannot be bent into them either 
 from above or below ; or, in other words, the close- 
 ness of the warp threads forms a continuous bed 
 upon which the weft is laid.. Then, with regard to 
 the distance apart of the weft threads, or picks, the 
 warp crossing between them prevents them from 
 coming close together ; each pick being separated from 
 the other in this manner produces the ribbed-like 
 eifect peculiar to this class of fabric. It will be 
 evident from the structure of the fabric, the closeness 
 
8 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 [Chap. 1. 
 
 of the warp threads, and the strength of the weft that 
 this class of cloth is well calculated both to resist wear 
 and retain warmth, and there is, probably, no kind of 
 fabric which, for the weight of material employed, can 
 compare with it in these respects. 
 
 Another class of fabric of a very similar character is 
 largely employed for decorative purposes, and to some 
 extent also for articles of dress— namely, the cloth com- 
 monly known as "repp." Its structure is dif. 
 ferent from that of either of the two plain 
 cloths of which we have been speaking, though 
 possessing one of the chief characteristics of the 
 poplin, or gros-grain, type, inasmuch as the 
 warp is made to bend round the weft, and 
 the weft is laid in perfectly straight lines. 
 In Fig. 5 we have a section of what is consi- 
 dered the best type of this class. 
 
 Here it will be seen that in both the warp 
 and the weft there is a thick and a thin 
 thread alternately, and in the operation of 
 weaving the thin thread in the warp is held 
 very tightly, while the thick thread is held 
 very loosely. Again, the thin weft is always 
 between the warp threads on the same side of 
 Fig. 5. the thin thread, and the thick weft passes 
 always on the contrary side of the same 
 thread; the result is that the thick warp— which 
 usually consists of several threads put together— 
 m consequence of the slight tension upon it, is made to 
 bend round the weft threads, and the thin warp is held 
 quite or nearly straight, thus producing the clearly- 
 defined rib, very prominent on that side of the fabric 
 where the thick weft is, and less so on the other side. 
 Again, another class of plain fabric is obtained by a 
 
 reversal of the conditions which produce the poplin 
 
 that is, the warp threads are thick and the weft thin. 
 The warp is held in straight lines, and the weft made to 
 bend round it. The plan shown in Fig. 3 may be taken 
 
Cliap.I.] RELATIONS OF WARP AND WEFT. 9 
 
 as a plan of tliis class of cloth, as well as the plan of a 
 poplin cloth, only that the thick straight threads must be 
 taken as warp, and the thin bent threads as weft The 
 section Fig. 4 would also be a section of this cloth, but 
 would be a transverse section, the circles showing the 
 end of the warp threads and the bent threads being the 
 weft. This class, commonly known as cords, is usually 
 made with two or more warp threads run together to 
 produce the requisite bulk, instead of usmg one thick 
 
 thread. ^ , r i • 
 
 In the production of the four classes of plam 
 fabrics mentioned, great care should be exercised m 
 proportioning the warp to the weft, but more espe- 
 cially with reference to the poplin and cord. In what 
 we have spoken of as the true plain cloth we have 
 assumed that warp and weft are equal m quantity, and 
 in that case both warp and weft would be slightly 
 bent out of the straight line ; each would exert an 
 equal power over the other. That being so, if faction 
 be applied to the cloth, each set of threads would hold 
 the other firmly in its place, and no matter whether 
 the friction be applied in the direction of the warp or 
 weft, the result would be the same— each would possess 
 the same power of resistance. In the other classes it 
 would not be so. If we take the poplin type, where we 
 have the weft laid straight and the warp bent round it 
 any friction in the direction of the warp threads could 
 have Httle or no effect ; but friction in the direction ot 
 the weft would have the effect of displacing the warp, 
 because there is nothing to keep them m place except 
 their pressure one against another ; they are bent round 
 a straight body more or less smooth, and have no support 
 except their own pressure. Thus, unless they are 
 sufficiently close together to give each other sufficient 
 support, the cloth cannot be serviceable as an article ot 
 dress, or for any other purpose where it will have to 
 resist friction. The same remark will apply also to the 
 " repp " and " cord " classes, but in the latter the dis- 
 
10 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 [Chap. I. 
 
 placement will be in the weft threads by friction in the 
 direction of the warp. 
 
 In all four classes of plain cloth we could only vary 
 the weight of cloth by altering the size of thread ; and 
 our means of ornamentation are also limited. We can 
 only alter the size of cord or rib by the use of different 
 sizes of threads ; but we can ornament the fabric by the 
 introduction of colour, and that colour we may use in the 
 warp only, in the weft alone, or in both warp and weft. 
 So far as the use of colour goes in ornamenting plain 
 cloths, we have a wide field ; but that is a subject we 
 must consider in another chapter. We must first deal 
 with the structure of fabrics, and their ornamentation by 
 the variation in the interweaving of the threads which 
 compose the fabric. 
 
 6. Twilled Fabrics.— We must now discuss the 
 structure of other than plain fabrics, and ascertain what 
 is the use or value of other methods or systems of con- 
 structing cloths. 
 
 The class of fabrics which comes nearest to plain 
 cloth is that known as twills or twilled fabrics ; and in 
 
 their production we may have two objects in view first 
 
 increase of bulk or thickness of fabric; and second' 
 ornamentation. The first and chief difference between 
 the structure of this class' of cloth and plain cloth is that 
 in the latter the warp and weft interweave alternately 
 whereas in twilled fabrics they interweave at such 
 intervals as may be required for the formation of the 
 pattern. Again, what is termed the complete pattern 
 in plain cloth is represented by two ends of warp and 
 two picks of weft, while in twilled cloth a greater 
 number of ends and picks are required to complete the 
 pattern; or, in other words, in all plain cloths, every 
 alternate end is a repetition ; the same holds of the picks, 
 but in twilled cloths the repetition will occur at lono^er 
 intervals. Fig. 6 is the plan of a twill of a very comnTon 
 order, and one regularly in use in fabrics made from all 
 kinds of materials. 
 
Chap. I.] 
 
 TWILLED FABRICS. 
 
 11 
 
 In this it will be seen that each warp thread passes 
 alternately over and under two weft threads or picks, 
 and in like manner each weft thread passes alternately 
 under and over two warp threads. But each end does 
 not pass under and over the 
 same two picks, nor does 
 each pick pass under or 
 over the same two ends, nor 
 are they alternate in their 
 action, as are the ends and 
 picks of plain cloth; but 
 they change in regular 
 consecutive order ; that is, 
 if the first end passes over 
 numbers one and two 
 picks, the second end passes over numbers two and 
 three picks, and so on, each end advancing one pick 
 before it rises to the surface, or passes to the back, 
 and each pick advancing one end in the same manner. 
 This order of changing of the ends and picks will 
 have the effect of producing a distinct pattern upon the 
 fabric, a species of cord running in a diagonal direction 
 across it. But another matter of much more importance 
 than the mere pattern is the fact that this order of 
 working permits us to introduce more material into the 
 fabric, and so make it more bulky and closer in its struc- 
 ture. The reason for this is to be found in the simple 
 fact that the weft and warp interweaving only at in- 
 tervals of two ends or picks permit the two threads 
 both of warp and weft to lie closely together, and 
 consequently to allow of a gi^eater number per inch to 
 be introduced into the fabric than can be done in plain 
 cloths. 
 
 True, as we have shown, we may make plain cloths 
 in which the warp threads lie perfectly close together, 
 and others in which the weft threads lie perfectly close 
 together ; but in the one case the weft threads are a con- 
 siderable distance apart, and in the other the warp threads 
 
12 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 [Chap. I. 
 
 are a considerable distance apart, whereas in the twill cloth 
 the weft and warp both lie equally close together, so 
 that we obtain the requisite closeness of texture in both 
 directions, and a corresponding increase in the bulk 
 of the fabric. Along with this closeness of texture 
 and increased weight or bulk, we also obtain another 
 advantage over the plain cloth, namely, that by the 
 order of interweaving the warp bends round the weft, 
 and the weft round the warp in an equal degree, exactly 
 as m the first order of plain cloth. So that if the 
 number of threads per inch each way is properly pro- 
 portioned to their diameters, and to the order of inter- 
 weaving, the fabric wHl possess the power to resist 
 friction, not merely in the same degree as the plain 
 cloth of the first order, but in a greater degree propor- 
 tionate to the increased quantity of material it contains 
 
 7.— Alteration of Twill to increase Bulk.— We 
 also possess the power of increasing the bulk in a 
 great degree by altering the twill so as to inter- 
 weave the two sets of threads at greater intervals, 
 and just as we increase the intervals we increase the 
 number of threads which may be contained in a given 
 space Of course along with this a limit of increased 
 usefulness will be reached. We say that we increase the 
 powers of resisting friction by the increased material 
 employed m the construction of the fabric, but if our 
 intervals of interweaving are too great, the two sets of 
 threads will to some extent lose their power of support- 
 ing each other; we shall have too great a length of 
 loose yarn presented on the surface. This yarn beincr 
 composed of fibres, each individual fibre is presented 
 for a considerable portion of its length to the wearinc. 
 surface ; and if friction be applied, it may be too readily 
 drawn away from its fellows, and so by degrees the thread 
 and ultimately the fabric, becomes weakened. Again^ 
 no doubt the looseness of the interweaving will reduce the 
 power of the fabric to bear a strain ; although a loosely 
 interwoven cloth— if the quantity of yarn be properly 
 
Chnp. I.] 
 
 SATIN FABRICS. 
 
 13 
 
 proportioned to the order of interweaving— will still be 
 the stronger so far as tensile strength is concerned, than 
 one more closely interwoven, yet it will not be so 
 strong in proportion to the quantity of material oi 
 which it is composed ; and if the number of threads m 
 a <nven space, or the diameter of the threads, be not 
 properly proportioned to the pattern, the fabric will be 
 positively weaker. 
 
 8. Alteration of Twills to increase Strength.— 
 Satins.— Quite apart from the question of ornamentation, 
 there are certain orders of arrangement in twills which 
 may be specially resorted to for the production of fabrics 
 which are designed to bear an increased amount of fric- 
 tion or strain in one direction or another ; and when we 
 are arranging our patterns for the purpose of ornamenta- 
 tion, we must not forget the peculiar properties which 
 attach themselves to patterns of given classes. 
 
 If we take one class as typical, in order to point out 
 the peculiar arrangement and its effect upon the fabric, 
 it may serve as a guide to us 
 when dealing with patterns 
 for ornamenting. This class 
 is commonly known as satins 
 or broken twills. The pecu- 
 liarity of this sort of twills 
 is that the order of inter- 
 weaving the two sets of 
 threads does not follow con- 
 secutively, but at intervals, 
 especial care being taken 
 
 that at no point do they . 
 example of the simplest kind, and one most commonly 
 employed, is shown in Fig. 7. , ^ • 
 
 In this plan it wUl be observed that the order ot in- 
 terweaving is at every fifth end or pick, and that the two 
 succeeding picks do not interweave with adjoining ends, 
 but at intervals of two ; that is, if number one pick 
 pass over the first end of warp, number two will 
 
 rig. 7. 
 
 follow consecutively. An 
 
DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. [Chap. I. 
 
 pass over the third end, and so on. Noav suppose that 
 we wish the fabric to be able to bear a great strain 
 in the direction of the warp, it will be made with what 
 IS termed a warp swrface. The warp threads will be 
 placed as closely together as possible; certainly they 
 should be placed as close to each other as their diameters 
 will permit ; and as the weft is inserted, one end will be 
 withdrawn from the surface of the fabric, and will bend 
 round the weft at the back. As the next pick is inserted 
 another end will be withdrawn, the first one returning 
 to its original place, but as the ends are not withdrawn 
 in consecutive order, the weft is not made to bend round 
 the warp in any degree, but remains perfectly straight, 
 the warp only being drawn out of its course. That 
 being so, the weft threads cannot be laid close together, 
 but will always be separated from each other\y at 
 least the diameter of the warp thread; therefore we 
 shall always have a greater number of warp threads per 
 inch than of weft threads. Again, if it be desired to 
 produce on the fabric a smooth, unbroken surface, with 
 no pattern visible, the warp threads may be placed so 
 closely together that as one is withdrawn to bend round 
 the weft, those on each side of it will close over the 
 vacancy and completely hide the point where it has in- 
 terwoven with the weft. In that case the number of warp 
 threads would be increased in proportion to the number 
 of weft, and consequently the fabric will be capable of 
 bearing an increased strain upon the warp, or in the direc- 
 tion of the length of the piece, but a decreased strain in 
 the direction of its width, or of the weft 
 
 Exactly the same principle will apply to fabrics where 
 a weft surface is produced. The warp threads are set 
 such a distance apart as will permit of the weft threads 
 passing readily between them, and bending round them. 
 The weft threads are inserted as closely as their diameters 
 will allow, and in some cases so as to pass over and hide 
 the point where weft has bent around warp ; and, again, 
 in many cases so closely that the weft is compressed,°and 
 
Chap. I.] 
 
 DOUBLE CLOTHS. 
 
 15 
 
 loses its true cylindrical form. In such fabrics the 
 greatest strength is in the direction of the weft, just in 
 the proportion to the quantity of material employed. 
 
 9. Satins used for Ornamental Purposes. — This 
 principle of interweaving is sometimes employed where 
 the object is purely ornamental, as in the satms used so 
 largely for trimmings and for ladies' dress goods. In such 
 cases the first object is to produce a highly lustrous 
 surface, perfectly smooth, showing no pattern. Then if 
 the fabric is intended to serve an useful purpose, as well 
 as to bear strain, we must take care that the material 
 which is present in least quantity, whether it be weft or 
 warp, shall be of sufficient strength to compensate for 
 the absence of quantity ; otherwise the fabric will be able 
 to bear strain in one direction only, whereas by proper 
 attention to the strength of the material employed we 
 may make it able to bear the requisite strain m both 
 directions. 
 
 Although this class of satins is a large one in itself, 
 yet we are only considering it here as representing 
 a type of structure which may be, and is, used very 
 commonly in conjunction with patterns for ornamentation. 
 These we shall have to consider more fully in a subse- 
 quent chapter. 
 
 10. Double Cloths. — "We next come to the considera- 
 tion of a different class of fabric, not necessarily different 
 in the principle upon which the fabric is constructed, but 
 in regard to its use and ornamentation. 
 
 It frequently happens that in producing fabrics in- 
 tended to serve special purposes, we cannot obtain the 
 requisite weight and bulk of fabric without producing at 
 the same time coarseness and openness of structure. If 
 we wish to produce a heavy fabric, we have only two 
 possible means of doing it — either the use of thick 
 bulky threads, or an increased number of fine ones. 
 If we use thick bulky threads, our fabric must present 
 an appearance of coarseness, no matter what may be the 
 order of interweaving ; and we have no possible means of 
 
16 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 [Chap. I. 
 
 reducing the coarseness. If we use fine threads, it is more 
 than likely that the order of interweaving will prevent 
 the introduction of as many threads as will produce the 
 weight of fabric we desire. Then we have no alternative 
 but to resort to double cloth ; that is, instead of 'trying 
 to crowd into a given space of a single fabric a number 
 of threads, which will necessitate an undue compression 
 of each individual thread, and require an immense 
 amount of power to do so, and at the same time injure, 
 in a greater or less degree, the threads of either warp or 
 weft, or both, we must make two fabrics, and bind them 
 together in the process of weaving so as to make them 
 really one. There are among double cloths, or what are 
 commonly known as double cloths, certain classes which 
 are not really double cloths, but, more correctly speaking, 
 double-faced cloths, that is, there may be one warp and 
 two wefts, or one weft and two warps. A true double 
 cloth must be really two separate fabrics, each having its 
 own warp and weft. The two fabrics are woven at the 
 same time, certainly ; they are more or less intermixed 
 with each other, but they never lose their individuality, 
 whether they are combined for the mere purpose of pro- 
 ducing a fabric of a given weight, or for ornamentation, 
 or for both combined. So as to obtain readily a clear 
 conception of what is really meant by double cloths, we 
 will first examine the double-faced cloths. If we turn 
 to Fig. 7, we find in that a closely-set warp, inter- 
 woven with weft in such a manner that the weft is prac- 
 tically invisible on the surface of the fabric. Suppose we 
 introduce another warp, and so interweave it with the 
 same weft that the weft is contained between the two 
 warps ; we shall then have a fabric both sides of which 
 present warp only, the weft which binds the two warps 
 together being contained between them. This we can 
 easily do by taking care to select the point of inter- 
 weaving the weft with each warp in such a manner that 
 the one warp does not interfere with the other, as shown 
 in the section, Fig. 8. 
 
Chap. I.] 
 
 DOUBLE-FACED CLOTHS. 
 
 17 
 
 We have here, then, a ready means of producing a 
 fabric whicli will give increased weight and bulk, 
 increased strength to bear strain in the direction of the 
 
 G G 0 G O O O Q^S'^yP O g'g' 
 
 ;3SSS^!' v;sssssssv ^s^^^ xSSSSSSS^ wfl. 
 
 Fig. 8.* 
 
 warp, and a cloth which may be used as a reversible 
 article. One side may be of one colour, and the other 
 side of a different colour ; or we may use it for the 
 purpose of producing an article of dress, one side being 
 a fine fabric and the other side a coarser one, to serve 
 merely as a lining. 
 
 Then, exactly in the same manner as we may make 
 the satin referred to in Fig. 7 to have either the warp or 
 the weft predominating, we may have our double-faced 
 cloth so as to present weft on both sides instead of warp 
 on both sides. In that case we should simply reverse the 
 conditions — the wai'p would be contained between the 
 two wefts ; the greatest strength will be in the direction 
 of the weft. And in the same way we may make one 
 side fine and another coarse ; one side in either cloth 
 may be highly ornamented, either with colour or in the 
 order of interweaving the threads together, and the other 
 
 Fig. 9.* 
 
 side may be quite plain as regards colour, and nearly so 
 ^ as regards pattern. Fig. 9 would show a section of a 
 fabric having two weft surfaces. 
 
 In the case of a double cloth, as has been said, we 
 must employ two separate warps, and also two separate 
 wefts, each weft interweaving with its own warp, and 
 
 • In this and other figures, the letters "wp." stand for " wai-p," and 
 " wft." " weft." 
 C 
 
18 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 [Chap. I, 
 
 consequently each fabric made quite separate and apart 
 from the other. Not only may the fabrics be separate, 
 but each may be of a different degree of fineness, made 
 from a different material, and of a different pattern; 
 then the two may be bound together so as to form one 
 fabric. 
 
 In cases where we desire to produce a fabric 
 of a given weight and degree of fineness, and the 
 pattei-n or order of interweaving we desire to apply to 
 the fabric will not enable us to introduce as much 
 material as will produce the required weight, we may 
 then resort to double cloths, because here we can com- 
 bine any two fabrics, and so obtain a greater weight, 
 along with fineness, than we can with a single cloth. 
 Again, we may make one of the fabrics fine and the other 
 coarse, and so produce the required weight at a less cost 
 than in a single fabric of the same weight ; and at the 
 same time we may secure all the advantages of strength, 
 power to resist friction, and to retain warmth as an 
 article of clothing, in an even greater degree than in a 
 single fabric of the same weight. In many cases cloths 
 are made not only double, but three and even fourfold 
 Whenever doiible cloths are resorted to there is a distinct 
 object in view — to produce weight alone, or at a small 
 cost, to make a fine surface on a fabric of a given weight, 
 to secure additional strength, warmth, and wearing 
 powers, or sometimes for the purpose of oi-namentation 
 solely, by causing the cloths to exchange places and so 
 form figures. 
 
 11. Gauze Cloths.— Another class of fabrics, and 
 one which differs very materially from each of the 
 others, is gauze. This belongs to the purely ornamental 
 fabrics. Because of the manner in which it is constructed, 
 it will not permit of a close or thick fabric being formed ; 
 in fact, it may be said to be of the lace type of 
 fabrics. The threads do not merely interweave with 
 each other, but they twist round each other in such a 
 manner as to form an open perforated fabric. One 
 
Chap, r.] 
 
 PLUSn OR PILE FABRICS. 
 
 19 
 
 peculiarity of the structure is to give great strength 
 for the quantity of material it contains ; but from the ^ 
 fact of the threads twisting round each other, the quantity 
 of material mii-st be very limited. Although we cannot 
 produce in this class of fabi'ics articles of use, so far as 
 their power of retaining warmth is concerned, we have 
 probably the widest field for ornamentation, because we 
 can combine it with the other orders of working or inter- 
 weaving, and so have at our command all the means of 
 ornamentation which structure of cloth can give. 
 
 Thus far, we have dealt with the structure of cloth 
 only, so that we might see upon what basis we must 
 work for ornamentation. No matter to what purposes 
 fabrics are to be applied, we must not in ornamenting 
 them detract from tlaeir utility; and a-s the chief mode of 
 ornamenting them is in the variations of the order of 
 interweaving the threads of which they are composed, 
 the structure of the fabric must be the first question to 
 consider in applying our ornamentation to it. 
 
 12. Plush or Pile Fabrics. — We have not yet referred 
 to ornamenting by the introduction of additional threads, 
 these threads being arranged in such a manner as to 
 form figures or patterns, or it may be to form what is 
 termed pile or plush. By the use of such threads we 
 have an unlimited field for ornamentation, without in 
 any way detracting from the usefulness of the fabric, but 
 in the great majority of cases really adding materially to 
 its strength, and making it more useful. 
 
 We have now so far developed our theory as to have 
 determined the common principle of structure of fabrics, 
 and in a general way the qualities or properties each 
 variety of structure must possess, so as to suit it for the 
 ptirposes to which it is to be applied. 
 
20 
 
 [Chap. II, 
 
 CHAPTER IT. 
 
 THE STRUCTURE OP THREADS. 
 
 13. Relation between Thread and Cloth.— Im- 
 mediately connected with the structure of the cloth, 
 and really exerting considerable influence upon it, is the 
 structure of the threads of which it is composed. Not 
 only will this afFect it so far as its usefulness goes, but 
 it will also largely affect the power of ornamenting. • 
 
 It may appear out of place in a work on Design in 
 Textile Fabrics to enter into the question of the 
 structure of threads and the fibres from which they are 
 made ; but as they aflfect in such a degree the structure of 
 the cloth, we must deal with it before we can have a 
 thorough comprehension of our power of varying that 
 structure and ornamenting it. 
 
 14— We may begin by asking, " What is a thread ? " 
 A thread is said to be "a filament composed of fibres 
 twisted together or otherwise." Thus, before we enter 
 into a detailed examination of the structure of the 
 thread itself, we will examine very briefly the chief 
 characteristics of the fibres from which it is made. The 
 fibres most largely used in the manufacture of textile 
 fabrics are wool, cotton, silk, and flax, and each possesses 
 peculiar properties which give it a special and particular 
 value. 
 
 15. — If we examine a lock of wool as it comes 
 from the back of the sheep, the first thing which will 
 attract our attention is a peculiar waviness or crimpiness 
 in the lock. If we separate a single fibre from the rest, 
 we shall find that it is waved in the same manner, and 
 also that the waves are very regular throughout. If we 
 carry our examination further, and place the fibre under 
 
Chap. II.] RELATION BETWEEN THREAD AND CLOTH. 
 
 a microscope, we shall find the whole surface covered 
 with scales, the scales forming a series of rings round 
 the fibre, and all pointing from root to tip. We shall 
 also find that the fibre is a hollow tube filled with a 
 granulated liquid. It is the wave and scale of the wool 
 which give it its peculiar value. In the preparation for 
 spinning, the fibres are intermixed in such a manner 
 that the directions of the scales are as much opposed to 
 each other as possible; that is, the fibres are placed 
 root to tip and tip to root. As they are spun, the scales 
 of the opposing fibres engage with each other, and become 
 interlocked, and the more the thread is spun the more 
 firmly do they hold each other, and so make a strong 
 thread; but the spinning property, or the readiness to 
 form a thread, is not the only value of these scales. 
 After the fabric is formed most woollen goods undergo 
 a process of milling or felting; that is, the fibres 
 are made to interlock with each other more firmly, and 
 consequently the fabric becomes more close and compact. 
 In this operation the waves or crimps of the fibre are 
 valuable as well as the scales. To cause the felting to 
 take place, the cloth is moistened with a. strong solution, 
 consisting largely of soap, and pressure is applied. The 
 result is the fibres are straightened out ; the scales of 
 opi)osing fibres engage with each other. As the pressure 
 is removed, the natural spring of the fibre asserts itself : 
 it tries to return to its original wavy condition ; in doing 
 so the fibres are drawn more closely together. The 
 pressure is again applied, and the operation repeated. 
 By degrees the fibres become so closely intermixed 
 that the threads lose their individuality, and the cloth 
 becomes one compact solid mass. To assist this operation 
 of felting, where it is required in a great degree, the 
 thread must be specially constructed ; and it will be 
 very evident that when the cloth is operated upon in 
 this manner, whatever pattern existed must be, in a 
 great measure, lost. 
 
 Dilierent classes and qualities of wool difier very 
 
22 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 [Chap. 11. 
 
 mucli in the degree in wliicli they possess those waves 
 and scales, and consequently in their value for the pro- 
 duction of fabrics of given characters. 
 
 16. — Cotton, which is a vegetable fibre, presents a 
 very different appearance from wool ; it is really a thin, 
 collapsed tube, and under the microscope appears like a 
 ribbon more or less twisted. These twists in the fibre— 
 which is of a very soft, pliable nature — are valuable as 
 giving strength to the thread by their friction upon each 
 other. 
 
 17. — Silk is a straight, smooth fibre, very highly 
 polished, and when magnified, presents somewhat the ap- 
 pearance of a glass rod. It is very soft and pliable, and 
 lends itself readily to the formation of a thread. 
 
 18. — Flax is a vegetable fibre and has an appear- 
 ance something like long grass ; it is cylindrical in form, 
 and with knots at intervals^ exactly as we often see it in 
 canes or long grass. 
 
 Although we have here four classes of fibre, each is 
 capable of being made into two distinct kinds of thread, 
 and it is the formation of this thread which so materially 
 affects the formation, or at least the ornamentation, of 
 the fabric. 
 
 • 19. Preparing and Spinning the Fibres into Yarn. 
 Woollen Yarn.— If we deal first with the preparation 
 and spinning of wool, it will enable us to have a clearer 
 conception of the preparation and spinning of the other 
 fibres. 
 
 The first process after the wool has been washed to 
 free it from its impurities, is the separation and straight- 
 ening of the fibres, and this is equally necessary for 
 the production of both classes of yarn made from wool, 
 although the mode of dealing with long wool in the first 
 operation is very different from that of dealing with 
 short wools. In the separation and straightening of 
 the fibres of the latter, a carding machine is employed. 
 This machine consists of a series of cylinders covered 
 With cards, or finely set teeth j these cylinders revolve in 
 
Chap. II.] WOOLLEN YARN. 23 
 
 different directions, and at different speeds. They a-e 
 placed so near each other that as the wool is carried for- 
 ward by one upon its teeth, it is caught by the teeth ot 
 the other, and so, by degrees, each fibre is separated from 
 the other, but there is little or no attempt to secure the 
 parallelism of the fibres ; they are simply separated _ 
 
 If the wool is intended for the production of what is 
 termed a woollen thread, it is passed through two or 
 three of these carding machines, according to the qua ity 
 of yarn to be produced, and as it comes off the last 
 machine it is condensed or reduced to thick rope-like 
 threads, and from there it passes to the mule to be spun it 
 must be remembered that in passing through the carding 
 machines, the chief object has been the separation of the 
 fibres, without much regard to their parallelism. When 
 the thread formed by the condenser is placed upon the 
 mule it is passed through a pair of rollers, and thence to 
 the spindle. This spindle is carried upon a carriage 
 which alternately recedes from and advances towards the 
 rollers through which the thread has been passed. 
 Having attached the thread to the spmdle with the 
 carriage brought close up to the rollers, the carriage is 
 made to recede, at the same time the spindles commence 
 to revolve, and so twist the thread; the rollers also re- 
 volve and give off yarn. After the carriage has travelled 
 a given distance the rollers stop, and consequently cease 
 the delivery of yarn. The carriage still contmues to re- 
 cede, and consequently draws out, or attenuates, the 
 thread At the same time the spindles are continuing 
 to revolve and twist the yarn, so that the process^ of at- 
 tenuating or drawing out the thread and twisting go 
 on at the same time. The result of this is that the 
 longest fibres composing the thread, and those most 
 nearly approaching parallelism form the core or centre 
 of the thread, and the short fibres, and those which have 
 not been laid parallel, become partly embedded m the 
 thread, and partly project from it, so that_ the thread 
 presents a rough appearance with fibres projecting from 
 
DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. [Chap. II. 
 
 it all round its circumference, and throughout its entire 
 length. 
 
 20. Inequality of Woollen Thread.— Another feature 
 of woollen threads is the inequality of thickness. In 
 the preparation of the wool for spinning no means are 
 provided, except in the feeding of the wool to the 
 carding machines, to insure equality. And, again, in 
 the actual process of spinning on the mule there is a 
 tendency rather to increase than diminish the inequalities 
 As the twist is being put in the thread by the revolu- 
 tions of the spindles, it will exercise more power over 
 the thin than the thick portions of the thread, and so 
 inake it firmer, and consequently of less diameter than 
 the portions over which it exercises less power. 
 
 _ If we take a thread and make a section of it at 
 points representing the various thicknesses or diameters, 
 the area of these sections will vary as the squares of 
 their diameters, therefore the power of the twist over 
 these portions will be in the direct ratio of the area of 
 their sections. True, a certain amount of equalisation 
 will take place as a result of this varying power of the 
 twist, and of the operations of drawing and twistiiio- 
 occurring simultaneously. As the thin portions be''- 
 come firmly twisted they will naturally resist the draw- 
 ing process, so that from the moment these thin places 
 have become sufficiently firm to resist the diawino- 
 action, the attenuation will be confined to the thick por^ 
 tions, but the latter will not be reduced to the proportions 
 of the thin parts, which all the time are receiving more 
 and more twist, and as a consequence, although they 
 retain all the fibres, or have none drawn from them, are 
 still becoming thinner owing to the compression of the 
 fibres by being more firmly twisted, 
 
 21. Advantage of Structure of Woollen Threads — 
 We may now see what advantages or disadvantages this 
 type of thread possesses in the production of fabrics of 
 given character. From its very unevenness, and what 
 we may term roughness, from the projecting fibres uj)on 
 
Cliap. II.] 
 
 WORSTED YARN. 
 
 25 
 
 its surface, it is unfitted for the production of fabrics 
 where pattern is to be formed by the interweaving of the 
 threads, because the loose, fibrous character of the thread 
 will tend to hide any pattern so produced, and, added to 
 that, the inequalities in its diameter will tend to make 
 the pattern appear very irregular. On the other hand, 
 where the fabrics have to undergo the process of milling 
 or felting, the loose, fibrous character of the thread is 
 a great advantage, because the fibres of one thread 
 can become readily interlocked with those of another 
 and so assist to the utmost the process of felting. 
 Again, there is a further tendency, in consequence of the 
 threads losing their individuality, to lose or hide any 
 pattern in the fabric ; so that we may say that the loose, 
 fibrous woollen thread is specially suitable for the 
 manufacture of close, felted cloths, which will give fine 
 texture, firm compactness of structure, great power of 
 retaining warmth and of resisting strain or friction, but 
 not the power of producing patterns by the interweaving 
 of the threads. 
 
 22. Worsted Yarn. — ^We will now glance briefly at 
 the structure of the second class of thread made from 
 wool, or what is commonly known as worsted. It is 
 usually supposed that the chief difi"erence between 
 woollen and worsted is that the former is made from 
 short wool exclusively and the latter from long wool. 
 In reality, large quantities of worsted are made from 
 wool of exactly the same cla-ss and quality as woollen 
 yarns. Certainly, much shorter wool can be spun into 
 woollen than can be spun into worsted, but the difference 
 in the length of wool does not constitute the difference 
 in the two threads. 
 
 In preparing the wool for spinning into worsted 
 yarns, the first process, as in that of woollen yarn, is the 
 separation of the fibres, and, indeed, where short wools 
 are employed, upon practically the same machine, but 
 accompanying or immediately following the process of 
 separation, the fibres are drawn parallel to each other. 
 
26 
 
 DESIGN m TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 CChap. II. 
 
 Tlie wool passes through several machines for the sole 
 purpose of obtaining this parallelism; when that has 
 been accomplished as far as possible the wool is 
 "combed" — that is, the wool is passed to a machine 
 which draws it through fine steel combs, which further 
 ensures the parallelism of the fibres, and at the same 
 time takes away all the short fibres which, owing to their 
 shortness, are incapable of being straightened out, so 
 that we have all our fibres laid straight and parallel, and 
 at the same time all the very short fibres removed, and 
 we retain for the yarn we are about to spin only the 
 longest and straightest fibres. After the process of 
 combing commences a process of equalisation and attenua- 
 tion. The wool is drawn from the comb in a thick 
 rope, or "sliver." A number of these slivers are put 
 together, passed through a series of combs for the 
 purpose of preserving, and, if necessary, increasing, the 
 parallelism of the fibres, and drawn out to the thickness 
 of one or less than one of the original slivers. This 
 ])rocess of equalisation goes on until in many cases the 
 last thread has been drawn out some millions of times, 
 so that any inequalities in one of the original slivers has 
 been neutralised by inequalities in other slivers. After 
 the process of equalisation is complete, it undergoes a 
 process of attenuation, or further drawing out, and is 
 then passed to the spinning frame. Worsted yarns are 
 usually spun upon the " throstle" frame. This machine 
 is provided with a series of drawing rollers, which by 
 their varying speed further reduce, or draw out, the 
 thread before the operation of twisting commences ; it is 
 then twisted and wound upon the bobbin at the same 
 time. But in this the spinning and drawing out do not 
 take place simultaneously as in Woollen, but successively ; 
 consequently, in whatever position the fibres have been 
 laid in the drawing they will not be disturbed in the 
 spinning, and as we have taken every precaution in the 
 preparation of the yarn for spinning to ensure the 
 parallelism of the fibres, they will still retain that 
 
Chap. II.] 
 
 SPINNING COTTON AND FLAX. 
 
 27 
 
 position. Further, the thread has been equalised as . 
 far as possible ; therefore, wlien spun, we may expect 
 great regularity in its diameter. 
 
 23. Advantages of Structure of Worsted Threads. 
 
 We have here, then, a thread of great regularity in it? 
 
 diameter, with all its fibres laid parallel and nearly ot 
 the same length. It will, therefore, possess great and 
 tolerably uniform strength, and be specially suited for the 
 formation of patterns in the fabric. It will not be 
 suitable for milling or felting, because the fibres of one 
 thread cannot combine with those of another thread, 
 and thus they cannot lose their individuality ; _ conse- 
 quently, although the fabric is strong in the individual 
 threads which compose it, these threads cannot inter- 
 mingle so freely as in woollen cloth. It cannot possess 
 the°power to resist strain and friction in the same 
 degree and in the same way, because the threads retain 
 their individuality, and the fabric not being so compact 
 as a woollen cloth, it will not have the same power of 
 retaining warmth. On the other hand, any pattern 
 woven upon it will not be lost or hid in the process of 
 finishing, so that each class of thread has its own peculiar 
 properties and advantages. 
 
 24. Preparing and Spinning Cotton. — Cotton is 
 prepared like woollen on the carding machines, but 
 undergoes a process of equalisation like worsted ; some- 
 times, for the production of high-class yarns, it is combed. 
 The spinning is done sometimes on the mule and some- 
 times on the throstle frame, so that the majority of 
 cotton yarns may be said to partake of the character of 
 both woollen and worsted so far as their structure is con- 
 cerned. A combed yarn spun on a throstle frame would 
 exactly answer in structure to the worsted thread. Of 
 course, in yarns made from wool there are many which 
 partake of the compound character. 
 
 25. Preparing and Spinning Flax.— Flax also gives us 
 two classesof yarn — ^namely, linen or line yarn, and tow yarn. 
 The processes of preparing linen yarn are very similar to 
 
28 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 [Chap. n. 
 
 those of preparing worsted ; of course, the machines ai-e 
 different in their construction, because of the difference in 
 the length and character of the fibre. Flax is " hackled " 
 —beat or crushed— to make it flexible; it is then 
 " scutched," an operation equivalent to combing. In 
 some cases the fibres are too long to work ; they are then 
 broken by a "saw." After the scutching the short 
 fibres are carded for "tow" yarn in the same manner as 
 the "noil," or short fibres of wool after combing, are 
 carded for woollen yarn. 
 
 26. Preparing Silk Yarns.— Silk is very different 
 from any of the other fibres. Raw silk is drawn from 
 the cocoon of the silk- worm in one long continuous fila- 
 ment several of these are put together, and produce 
 what is known as "tram," or weft silk, and " organ- 
 zme," or warp silk. The one is put together loosely, 
 with little or no twist, and the other is twisted firmly 
 together to make a solid, compact thread. Both have 
 the same feature of being formed of long filaments, con- 
 sequently they are suited for the production of patterns 
 upon the fabric, and also possess great strength. 
 
 In some cases the cocoons are damaged, and incapable 
 of being wound or drawn out in one continuous filament. 
 Such cocoons are taken and torn up into lengths. They 
 are then combed, the fibres laid parallel, and spun in the 
 same manner as cotton or worsted. This yarn, of course, 
 does not possess the freedom from fibres upon its surface 
 which "raw" silk does; yet, the fibres being combed 
 out, and being of considerable length, it is a very strong 
 thread, and well suited for the production of patterns 
 upon the fabric. 
 
 We have now a tolerably clear conception of the 
 first principles which must guide us in our application 
 of ornament to fabrics. First, we have examined into 
 the theory of the structure of cloth, and the suitability of 
 the various kinds of structure for useful and ornamental 
 purposes. We have then had a brief examination of the 
 structure of threads, and the fibres from which they are 
 
Cliap. III.] 
 
 OENAMENT IN STRUCTURE. 
 
 29 
 
 made, and the suitability of each for the different pur- 
 poses to which it may be applied. Our next object must 
 be to examine into the principle of ornamenting fabrics, 
 either by the order of interweaving the threads together, 
 the introduction of colour, or both. And throughout we 
 must keep closely in view the purposes to which the 
 fabrics are to be applied, the considerations of strength and 
 general utility, and in no case must we impair the utility of 
 the fabric by ornamentation, but rather combine the two 
 to the utmost, and direct our attention always to the 
 production of an article which shall not only be 
 pleasing to the eye as a work of art, but also serve 
 to the utmost all tlie objects for which it is designed. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 ORNAMENTATION OF FABRICS IN THEIR STRUCTURE. 
 
 27. Relation of Ornament to Structure.— Our next 
 duty is to consider the ornamentation of the fabric, 
 and in doing so we must take care that we do 
 nothing which will detract from its usefulness. We 
 may, of course, ornament with colour to any extent 
 without in any way adding to or detracting from the 
 utility of the fabric so far as its wearing properties, 
 strength, &c., are concerned. But the question of the 
 use of colour we may deal with separately ; our present 
 concern must be to ornament by the varying order of 
 interweaving of the threads or constructing the fabric. 
 In the first chapter we have shown that plain cloths 
 may be ornamented to a certain extent by the alteration 
 of the relative quantities of warp or weft, so as to cause 
 the formation of cords or ribs ; these cords would at all 
 times run parallel to each other, either longitudinally 
 
30 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS, 
 
 [Clinp. IIL 
 
 through the piece or transversely. That is the simplest 
 form of ornamentation : and, if proper regard be paid to 
 the proportions of warp and weft, although simple, it is 
 very neat and effective. 
 
 28. Twilling.— The next kind of ornament is what, 
 is commonly known as twills. These, in their simplest 
 form, are merely ribs or cords running diagonally across 
 the fabric. It would seem at first sight as if this form 
 of decorating fabrics would not permit of much variation, 
 ^ ^^'^^^^J' off^^'S a wide field, and is prob- 
 ahly more used than any other. The first and 
 simplest sort of twill is represented by the 
 SddSdB plan, rig._10. ^ 
 Fig. 10. In this it will be found that each weft 
 
 thread passes over two and under one warp 
 thread, and that the order of interweaving is consecu- 
 tive, that is, each pick of weft passes under a different 
 end of warp, following in the order 1, 2, 3. The 
 result of this is that every third pick and every third 
 end are_ repetitions, or, in other words, the whole 
 pattern is complete upon three ends and three picks, 
 and that the whole fabric consists of any number 
 of repetitions of these three ends and picks. All these 
 repetitions join to each other in such a manner that the 
 line of twill or pattern is continuous. Although this is 
 the simplest form of pattern-making next to plain cloth, 
 yet, like plain cloth, it is capable of being ornamented by 
 the alteration of the relative quantities and thickness of 
 warp and weft. The twill may be made more or less 
 bold, and the angle at which it runs across the fabric 
 may be altered, and it may be made to present a fine or 
 coarse surface. If the threads per inch of warp and 
 weft be equal, the angle at which the twill will run 
 across the piece will be forty -five degrees, because of its 
 moving from end to end in consecutive order. In this 
 particular pattern either warp or weft must preponderate 
 on the surface of the fabric. As it is presented here, the 
 weft preponderates in the proportion of two to one. If 
 
Chap. III.] 
 
 SIMPLE TWILLS. 
 
 31 
 
 the pattern were worked in the reverse order— that is, the 
 weft to pass under two threads and over one— the warp 
 would preponderate on the surface in the same degree 
 that weft does now. It is a generally accepted rule— 
 and, as will be shown with other patterns, very properly, 
 too— that whichever set of threads, warp or weft, pre- 
 ponderates on the surface in the order of mterweavmg, 
 the same threads must also preponderate m the actual 
 number per inch, though not necessarily using threads of 
 the same diameter. 
 
 In this case, then, we say weft preponderates on the 
 surface. Then we should have a greater number per 
 inch of weft than warp ; and if we do so, the angle 
 at which the twill runs will be less than forty-five 
 degrees. We have here, even in a greater degree than _ui 
 pkin cloth, the power of producing a fine compact fabric 
 and at the same time ornamenting. But the question will 
 naturally arise. Of what does the ornamentation consist 1 
 because the mere alteration of the angle of the twill 
 can scarcely of itself be called an increased ornamenta- 
 tion. Certainly it cannot; but accompanying tins 
 altered angle will always be an alteration in the fine- 
 ness of the surface, and this of itself is an improvement. 
 At the same time, along with this fineness we have 
 more compactness, and consequently increased useful- 
 ness. As we increase the number of threads per inch 
 we must decrease their diameters in the proper propor- 
 tion otherwise the proper balance will not be mamtamed 
 between warp and weft, and in all fabrics this must 
 be carefully attended to. Then if we have a greater 
 number of threads per inch, and these threads are pro- 
 portionately thinner, we must have increased fineness, 
 and consequently a better appearance, a closer and more 
 compact fabric, stronger in proportion to the weight of 
 material it contains. 
 
 We have in this one pattern one of the best illus- 
 trations in its simplest form of the ornamentation of 
 fabrics where colour is not employed: and it must be 
 
33 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 [Chap. IIL 
 
 borne in mind that a very large proportion of textile 
 fabrics made for articles of dress are of one colour 
 only, and not a combination of colours, and are 
 dependent upon structural ornamentation for the 
 production of an article which will be pleasing to the 
 eye. 
 
 We may now proceed further in the examination of 
 twill patterns. 
 
 If we refer again to Fig. 6 we shall find that precisely 
 the same principle of arrangement, so far as the consecu- 
 tive order of working is concerned, has been adopted as 
 in the pattern of which we have just been speaking, but 
 instead of either warp or weft preponderating on the 
 surface, they are exactly equal. The generally accepted 
 theory of the true structure of a fabric of such a pattern 
 as this is, that warp and weft should be equal not only 
 in quantity but in thickness. That is quite true, 
 though we may produce a perfect piece of cloth without 
 this being actually the case, but the proper proportion 
 or balance must be maintained; we may increase the 
 quantity of weft or warp, but we must reduce the 
 diameters in a proper degree. Although the actual 
 number of threads per inch is not the same in warp as 
 in weft, the true proportion of one to another must be 
 retained. If we do so, we shall alter the angle of the 
 twill, we shall alter the fineness of the fabric, and the 
 increased fineness will add a value to it, render it 
 
 more pleasing to the eye, and at the same 
 
 time a more serviceable article. 
 
 Proceeding from this form of simple 
 
 twill, we may commence to make designs 
 
 of a larger and more ornamental character. 
 Fig. 11. In patterns of the class of which we have 
 
 just been speaking, whether the repetition 
 occurs every three, four, or any number of ends, we 
 sliould simply have a series of diagonal bars or ribs, 
 all of equal size, and running parallel to each other. We 
 may add very much to the beauty of the pattern by 
 
Chap. III.] AEIIAXGING DESIGNS ON PAPER. 
 
 33 
 
 varying the size of these lines or ribs, and in doing so 
 would probably add very much to the firmness of the 
 structure. 
 
 If we take, for example, the two patterns in Figs. 1 1 
 and 12, we have the same quantities of weft and warp ou 
 the surface, but one would present 
 
 a series of parallel lines all equal ygggS55"SDoBS555 
 
 in size, and the other would present 
 
 a bold and a faint line alternately. g555SgHBS55gy5Bg 
 The one shbwing the variety of KSSBBSKSSSBBSS 
 lines would be the finer structure, -p g_ ^g. 
 
 because the warp and weft inter- 
 change more frequently, are more firmly interwoven 
 together, arid so secure firmness of texture. There 
 is, however, one thing which must not be over- 
 looked. If we are desiring to produce a heavy, bulky 
 fabric, the pattern Fig. 11 will better enable us to do it, 
 by allowing a greater number of threads to be intro- 
 duced into a given space. We have, however, still a 
 means left open of producing variety of lines, and yet 
 of securing the requisite weight, and also the requisite 
 firmness and closeness of texture. We have simply to 
 enlarge our design and employ a greater number of threads 
 in the formation of the pattern, and we may vary the 
 lines at will. 
 
 29. Arrangement of Designs on Paper. — Before 
 going further, it will perhaps be better to explain to the 
 student who may be just commencing his studies of 
 Textile Fabrics the meaning of the arrangement of 
 patterns in Figs. 11 and 12. The series of vertical spaces 
 represent the warp threads, the horizontal ones the 
 weft, and the black points of intersection indicate that 
 weft, and the open spaces that warp, is coming to the 
 surface. Thus by the use of paper ruled in this 
 manner we have a ready means of conveying to 
 the eye the appearance the pattern will present in 
 tlie fabric, and of judging of its effect by the order of 
 interweaving. 
 
 D 
 
34 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. [Chap. III. 
 
 30. Patterns having a Twilled Basis. — Having 
 now determined the mode of ornamenting by the use of 
 
 simple twills, and their 
 effect upon the structure 
 of the fabric, as affecting 
 ■■□□□■■■□□□■□■■■□□□■■■□D not only the appearanc(3 
 □□□aBBDODBBBDDDBBBaanBBB of fineness, but its useiul- 
 
 □□BBBDDDBBBaBaaaBBBmaBB ' , 
 
 □BBBaDaBBBDaBBDDDBBBDDDB ness, WG mav proceetl 
 
 ■BBDnnBBBDDDBBBmDBBBnna „ ^' 1 1 i. 
 
 BBanDBBBDDnBaBBBmDBBBDa further, and see what 
 
 BaDDBBBaaDBBaaBBBDaaflBBa ^ ^ 
 
 p. effects we can produce by 
 
 varying the order and di- 
 rection of the twills. Here we have an immense field. 
 We may take any simple twill and by altering its direc- 
 tion at intervals, 
 
 i^orrnlov Av ivrPfrn- □BBDBBnnBnnBBnBBanBDBnBBnnBDDB 
 
 regular or irregu- □□BBDBBanBDDBBDBBDnBDBBanBDDBB 
 
 Iqt. wo tyiqv rvrn BOnBBnBBaDBmBBDBBmBBDOBDDBBn 
 
 lar, we may pro □■□□■■□■■□□■□□BBDBanBanBonBBDB 
 
 rlnr^o -rm+tornc! nf □□BnDBBaBBDDBDDBBDBBaaBaDBBDBB 
 
 auce patterns oi BooBaaBBDBBaDBDaBBDBnBDDBBaBBD- 
 
 mncf plnViriT-fltp BBDDBDDBBDBBnQBnOBBDBDDBBaBBna 
 
 tne most eiaoorate □BBaaBanBBnBBanHnnBBaaBBOBBDDB 
 
 nli£ivE.f>+Pr nnd nrld BDBBOGBDDBBnBBanBnnBnBBDBBaaBa 
 
 cnaracter, ana aaa BBQBHDDBnaBBDBBDDBanBBnBBDDBnD 
 
 hpQii+v+n ^■l^pf^^'hrl■f □□BmBBDBBDDBnnBHDBBDDBDnBBnBB 
 
 Deauty to tneraoric □BaDBBnBBmBODBBDBBDBDDBnnBBnB 
 
 wiflimit in anv BaaBBnBBDDBnDBBaBBmBBnnBDDBBg 
 
 witnout m any □□^■□■■□□■□□BBaBBnnBnBBDaBaaBa 
 
 flpo-rPP nflTpf+ina itq □BBDBBDDBDnBBDBBanBDBDBBDDBaDa 
 
 degree anectmg its BBgBBDDBnDBBaBBnrjBDDBBDBBnnBaa 
 
 c+rnr-tnrp nr USP- BaBBaDBDDBBDBBnDBnDBDBBDBBDDBg 
 
 structuie ui ube □BBnDBDDBBnBBnnBaDBBaaBBDBBaaB 
 
 fnlnps<? (lenprallv BBDnBDOBBDBBnnBnaBBDBaDBBnBBnLJ 
 
 luiness. ijreneraiiy, BQQBnnBBDBBanBaDBBDBDBnnBBnBBa 
 
 +>n'<j mnrlp nf dpOO- □□BaDBBaBBaaBaDBBDBBnaBDnBBUBH 
 tniS moae OI UeCO- □^□□^■□■■□□BDDBBDBBDBmBDDBBDH 
 rntincr will a^iSlimfi BDDBBQBBmBDDBBDBBaDBBDDIinQBBg 
 
 rating wiii abbume □□BBDBBnnBDnBBnBBnDBnBBnaBDnBB 
 
 nnP ni thrPP fnrm<5' □BBDBBDnBDDBBDBBaDBnBDBBDaBDDH 
 
 one 01 tmee loimb. BBDBBmBaDBBnBBDDBaDBBDBBanBDD 
 
 fir=;t =!tririp=!-qpf'nnd BQBBnDBanBBnBBaDBDDBaBBnBBDDBn 
 
 nrst,stripeb, becunu QyBaaBanBBDBBDnBaDBBnDBBDBBnDB 
 obeok effect's • and BBonBDDBBDBBonBDDBBnBDaBBDBBaq 
 
 third, figures pai • ^jg, 14, 
 
 taking more or less 
 
 of a diagonal character. The patterns in Figs. 13, 14, and 
 , 15, are examples of the three orders or classes, each based 
 upon a difierent twill. They may, of course, all 
 have been based upon the same twill ; but by using a 
 different one for each we can more readily demonstrate 
 the use of variety of twills in producing patterns. 
 
 In. ornamenting fabrics by the use of twills in this 
 
Chap. III.J 
 
 PATTERNS FROM TWILLS. 
 
 35 
 
 manner, we have a very great advantage over the use 
 of twills running continually in one direction. We can 
 obtain all the variety of lines 
 which the continuous twill 
 would give. We can also ob- 
 tain variety of form to any 
 extent we please, and we re- 
 tain the same texture and the 
 same degree of usefulness. 
 
 Extensive and valuable 
 as this form of ornamentation 
 is, it is really only the first 
 introduction to our work. 
 Certainly, a very large pro- 
 portion of the fabrics made 
 are decorated from a basis of simple twills only, probably 
 in many cases because of structural advantages ; yet the 
 use of twills in other forms may readily be resorted to, 
 and with all the advantages of the simple twill, and 
 greater scope for producing variety of pattern. 
 
 Another form in which twills may be, and, indeed 
 are, very largely used, is shown in Fig. 1 6, where a very 
 bold diagonal line is run, and a smaller twill running 
 
 □□■HmHBDaHBaDBBDDHH 
 ■□□■■□■□□■■□BDDBBDaB 
 
 ■■□□■■□□■■□□■■□□■■□a 
 
 □□■■□□qBDDHHDDBBnnBB 
 
 ■■□□■■□□■■□□■■□□■■□a 
 
 □■■□□■■□□■□□□■■□□■■a 
 
 ■□□■■□□■■□□■■□□■■□■a 
 
 □■■□□■■□□■■□□■■□■□□a 
 ■■□□■■□□■■□□■■□□■■□a 
 
 Fig. 15. 
 
 □■□□■■□□Binni 
 
 □■■□□■■CXDBDBaBBD 
 □□■■□□BBDDHaBBna 
 ■□□BBnOBDBBBBaaB 
 BBDDBBaDBBBBaBaa 
 
 □BBDaaaBBBBaoBBa 
 
 □□BBaDBBBBDBaaBB' 
 flDQBnBBBBaaBBDDB 
 BBaaBBBBDBaDBBDD 
 □BDBBBBaDBBmBBa 
 □□BBBBOBDaBBaDBB 
 □BBBBDnBBDQBBaDa 
 
 flaaaaaDDBBaDBBaa 
 BaannaaDDBBDaaDB 
 aaaaaDBaaaaaaaaB 
 BDaaaaDBaaaaDBBB 
 
 Fig. 16 
 
 □BBBBGDDnaDflBnail 
 
 □aaaaaDDaDBBDBaa 
 □aaaaDnDaaaaaam 
 □BBBBaDnaaaaaaDD 
 □BaBaDaaaaaaDaDD 
 ■aaaaaaaaaanaaaa 
 BaaDDaBcaamaaaa 
 BBDaBaaBanaaaaaa 
 □□□aaDaaDDaaaaaa 
 □□aanaaaDaaaaDm 
 □aaDBaanaDaaanan 
 aanaamDaaaaaaaa 
 anaaaDaannaaaana 
 □aaDDaaaaaaaaaaB 
 aaaDaaaaaflanaaaa 
 ■□□■aaaaBBDaaaaa 
 
 Fig. 17 
 
 between and in the opposite direction, and again in 
 Fig. 17, where the same diagonal line is employed, and a 
 small spot introduced between. In either of these orders 
 of working we have an immense field for the production 
 
36 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. [Chap. HI. 
 
 of variety of pattern. When dealing with the system of 
 combination shown in Fig. 17, it requires great care and 
 judgment to prevent the fabric from becoming too loose 
 in its structure. If we attempt to make the figure too 
 large, or the diagonal line too bold, we are running great 
 danger of interweaving the warp and weft at such long 
 intervals that the fabric will lose its value as an article 
 of utility. 
 
 Again, we may produce patterns in twill, forma 
 which are nothing more or less than a series of small 
 figures arranged in diagonal lines, 
 without producing actually one con- 
 tinuous unbroken line, as in Fig. 18, 
 ■■■□□■□□■■■□"a and also in many cases — and these 
 ai-e a very large class indeed — where 
 we have a diagonal line running upon 
 a ground-work of plain cloth. In 
 the case of a pattern upon a ground 
 rig. 18. of plain cloth, we produce a fabric 
 
 of \eTy firm texture, but not one 
 into which we can introduce a very large quantity of 
 material. In fact, whenever we combine plain with 
 any order of working, we reduce our power of making 
 either heavy or bulky fabrics, so that whenever our 
 object is to produce heavy goods we must bear this care- 
 fully in mind. 
 
 31. Twills Arranged in Satin Order. — We must 
 now turn our attention to another class of twill, and 
 one which is of much importance, not only from a 
 decorative point of view, but also from considerations 
 of utility. In the first chapter (Sect. 8) reference was 
 made to satins as being arrangements suitable for the 
 production of fabrics requiring strength in one direction 
 only; but satins are also valuable for the production of 
 fancy patterns ; or, rather, perhaps we should say for 
 the present, the principle upon which satins are 
 arranged is valuable when applied to other patterns, as 
 twiUs. 
 
Chap. III.] 
 
 TWILLS in SATIN ORDER. 
 
 37 
 
 In that portion of the first chapter to which we have 
 just referred, it is pointed out that the peculiar featitre of 
 satins is, that no two succeeding picks of weft inter- 
 weave with adjoining ends, but that the points of inter- 
 weaving are distributed regularly, and in such manner 
 that no two can come together. This is dependent upon 
 tho principle of arrangement, or perhaps it would be 
 as well to say rearrangement, of the threads, or the 
 points of interweaving. On examining any 
 satin it will be found that those points of □□□□□ 
 interweavii g are such distances apart as will BSbSd 
 be represented by such a number of threads 
 as is not a measure of the total employed in □□SJ|S 
 the pattern. Thus, in what is termed a five- 
 thread satin, the points of interweaving are 5"nSS 
 two threads apart ; in an eight- thread satin pig. 19. 
 they are three threads apart, and so on. This 
 may be taken as representing the rearrangement of 
 the threads of a regular twill. Suppose we take 
 Fig. 19 as representative of a simple twill upon five ends, 
 and we number the ends 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 ; we then take 
 these five ends and rearrange them in such manner that 
 
 the points of interweaving are always at in- 
 □□□□□ tervals of two from each other, as shown in 
 
 Fig. 20. By following the numbers in Fig. 20, 
 
 it "^i^l ^6 ^^^^ t^^t threads are simply re- 
 
 arranged. 
 
 I* already been pointed out that in 
 
 pattern where either warp or weft pre- 
 Pig. 20. ponderates on the surface of the fabric in 
 the order of interweaving, it must also pre- 
 ponderate in the actual quantity of yarn employed, 
 and that this applies more especially to satins. In 
 the case before us, where we have a twill and satin 
 side by side in Figs. 19 and 20, and we show that the 
 satin is simply the rearrangement of the twill, it would 
 appear that the rule should apply equally to both ; but 
 it cannot quite do so, because -of ojie interweaving warp 
 
38 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 [Chap. ILL 
 
 with -weft in consecutive order, and the other at in- 
 tervals. Now, if that be the case in this kind of simple 
 twills, it is even more so in that of other twills. Let us 
 examine the two patterns Figs. 21 and 22. 
 
 Here we have the separate warp threads numbered 
 inexactly the same manner as Figs. 19 and 20, the only 
 difference being that a greater number 
 □□□□□□□□□□□□ threads are occupied, and therefore 
 □□□□□□□□□□□a the order of rearrangement is different, 
 □□□□□■■■■■n* ^lio^gh is based upon precisely the 
 □□□■■SSSma principle — namely, that the in- 
 
 □■KSSSBBaa ^^^^^^ ill tlie order of interweaving is 
 MBMDnHaBBS ®1^i^i *o the first number which is not 
 E^BBBBBSSS ^ Pleasure of the total. 
 '□BBBBBBBmS ^'^^^^ ^ perfect fabric with the 
 
 Fig, 21. pattern in Fig. 21, warp and weft should 
 
 be equal in every respect. There is the 
 same quantity of each on the surface, the order of in- 
 terweaving is consecutive, and the angle of the twill 
 would be one of forty-five degrees, but in the rearrange- 
 ment, as in Fig. 22, the conditions are altered. True, 
 there is still the same quantity of warp and weft on 
 the surface ; the angle of the twill is also one of forty- 
 five degrees, but the order of interweaving is completely 
 changed. In the pattern, when worked as a regular twill, 
 each end as it comes to the surface is 
 supported for five-sixths of its length ^®g^«^«-s'os"" 
 by the end adjoining it on each side, nySBSBSSBSBS 
 consequently the cloth will look fine and 
 compact II the threads are lust set so close 
 as to touch each other, or if thev occupy 
 a space each equal to their diameters. 
 
 Ihe same remark will apply exactly ■□■□■■□Bnana 
 to the wetfc, but m the pattern as j,.^ ^9 
 
 shown in Fig. 22 alternate ends are 
 brought to the surface, as in the formation of plain cloth, 
 but they remain on the surface for a longer period than 
 in plain cloth. If we weave this pattern with the warp 
 
Chap. III.] TWILLS IN SATIN ORDER. 
 
 39 
 
 set the same distances ajiart as for the regular twill, each 
 warp thread will stand separate and distinct, and the 
 cloth would not be nearly so firm as in the 
 common twill. We must compare patterns of gRSSSS" 
 this class with plain cloths constructed so as gSSSSan 
 to form a rib across the piece ; we must have SSSBGy" 
 the warp threads fine, and so closely set "aan""" 
 that all those on the surface will be in ^'^•23. 
 actual contact with each other, or so near 
 as not to show any division. The weft is con- 
 tained between the warp, it will therefore be 
 laid straight, and the warp will bend round 
 it. Another example is shown in Figs. 23 
 and 24 ; and, further, in Figs. 25 and 26. 
 In both the instances of regular twill 
 Fig. at. patterns, Figs. 23 and 25, the quantities of 
 warp and weft are nearly equal, and the order 
 of interweaving would produce a very firm fabric. In 
 the rearranged patterns, in Figs. 24 and 
 26, each pick is as nearly as possible ggggSSSSSSS 
 a plain pick— that is, under and over ggSSSHSSBR 
 alternate threads— and for at least one ggSSSSgBom 
 half the pattern two picks together ggKSBBRBSS 
 are under and over the same threads. ggggggBSSSS 
 Again, they differ from the pattern in 
 Fig. 22 m the angle at which the twill ^^s- 25. 
 runs across the fabric. In Fig. 22 two 
 
 threads come to the surface together at 
 regular intervals, in Figs. 24 and 26 
 □■□■□■■□"□5 tliey do not, taking in both cases the 
 □■■□■□■□■□S black dots as indicating weft. In Figs. 
 ■□■□■□■□■■S 24 and 26 the number of ends employed 
 SB5B5SS5B5B is an odd number, while in Fig. 22 
 ■ it is even. Although all the three 
 
 Fig. 26. patterns in Figs. 22, 24, and- 26 are 
 arranged upon the same basis — they are 
 all simple rearrangements of a regular twill — they will 
 produro difi"erent efi'ects in the fabric, first, as to the angle, 
 
40 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 [Chap. III. 
 
 □□□□□□□□□□□□□□□a 
 ■□■■□□□■■■■■□□□B 
 
 ■■□□□■■■■■□□□■■a 
 
 ■■□□□■■□■BDoaaaB 
 
 □□■■□■■□□□■■■■■a 
 ■■□■■□□□■■■■■□□a 
 
 rig. 27. 
 
 and second, as to the regularity of the twill. However, 
 the\ all possess one feature in common, namely, that they 
 are akin to the corded or ribbed class of plain cloth, but 
 the rib will not be in the direct line of the weft, and at 
 right angles to the warp, but will be more or less of the 
 nature of a diagonal line. They all require that the warp 
 shall be closely set, and the angle 
 of the twill varies in each case as 
 the relative quantity of warp and 
 weft vai-ies. 
 
 We have in this principle of re- 
 arrangement in satin order a very 
 easy and simple method of pro- 
 ducing patterns for ornamentation, 
 and if proper relations be main- 
 tained between warp and weft ac- 
 cording to the order of interweav- 
 ing, our fabrics will be of a most 
 useful character. In fact, in many cases the rearranged 
 pattern will give a more useful fabric than the simple 
 twill, just in the same manner as 
 the corded plain cloth is a more 
 useful and strong er cloth than 
 the plain cloth of the pure type. 
 
 The rearrangement of twills 
 in satin order will, in a great many 
 cases, produce patterns of a very 
 ornamental character, and present- 
 ing an appearance greatly different 
 from that of the original twill 
 from which it comes. This is 
 well illustrated in Figs. 27 and 28. 
 
 In the former we have a twill of ordinary type, but in 
 the latter we have one of a very different character. Not 
 only is it a distinctly ornamental twill, but the angle at 
 which it runs is altogether different; the order of 
 interweaving is different so far as the successive 
 order of each end is concerned, though the enda 
 
 □□□□□□□□□□□□□□□a 
 
 □■■□■■□■□■■□■■□a 
 ■h'5 Ji"-'"" :rjr:BB';iB 
 
 □■■□■□■■□■■□□□■H 
 
 ■L-55D"L-"BT«icnr,S 
 ■■□■■□■□■■□■■□□a 
 
 Fig. 28. 
 
Cliap. III.] EFFECT OF ANGLE OF TWILL. 
 
 41 
 
 taken individually are precisely the same. In fact, if we 
 examine the ends and their numbering, we shall see that 
 Fig. 28 is Fig. 27 rearranged. It would be a very 
 easy matter to give a very large number of illustra- 
 tions, but the limited space will not permit it, and the 
 number of patterns capable of being produced has 
 already been fully illustrated in my " Album of Textile 
 Designs." 
 
 It was pointed out on page 38 that in many cases the 
 rearrangement of a twill in satin order very frequently 
 altered the angle of the twill, and by the alteration of 
 angle, as well as the order of interweaving, would neces- 
 sitate the alteration of the relative quantities of warp 
 and weft. This is true in the great majority of cases ; if 
 the rearrangement takes place in the warp threads, the 
 angle of the twill generally runs in the direction of the 
 weft, and so approaches a ribbed fabric, as shown in Figs. 
 24 and 26, but in some cases the angle of the twill 
 will remain the same as in the original, though these 
 cases are not very numerous. In some few the angle 
 will be more in the direction of the warp. The altera- 
 tion of the angle is mostly dependent upon the order of 
 rearrangement, but in a few instances it is affected by 
 the order of interweaving of each individual thread. In 
 any case it is a matter of the greatest imjjortance that 
 the relation of warp to weft should be carefully adjusted 
 to the pattern, so as to secure a proper balance of struc- 
 ture, and so make the fabric serve all useful purposes to 
 the utmost. 
 
 There is one point here which may be observed : if 
 the fabric is to be fine in the wai-p, or to be able to bear 
 great strain in the direction of the warp, it is generally 
 most readily obtfiined by rearrangement of the warp 
 threads, as already shown ; but if it must be fine in the 
 weft, or be able to bear lateral strain, then it may be 
 readily obtained by the rearrangement of the picks or 
 weft threads. The ornamentation of patterns of this 
 character need not be dependent only upon the particular 
 
42 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 [Chap. III. 
 
 class of pattern shown in Fig. 28, but as in ordinary 
 twills it may consist of a variety of lines, or, in other 
 words, by variation in the thickness or width of the 
 ribs. 
 
 From what has been said the formation, and more 
 especially the rearrangement, of twills is intended to 
 serve the joint purpose of ornamentation and increased 
 usefulness ; but rearrangement of twills may be made for 
 the sole purpose of ornamentation, and we have in this 
 mode of working an immense field. It may be said that 
 by the rearrangement of twills we have a means of pro- 
 ducing a large variety of fancy patterns by a purely 
 mechanical process, and that for their application to the 
 fabric only judgment in selecting is required so as to 
 apply that class of pattern which is most suitable for the 
 class of fabric to be produced. 
 
 32. The Production of Pattern by Rearrangement 
 in Different Orders. — The system of rearrangement of 
 which we have been speaking is one of the most 
 perfect, but, as has been shown, it will produce 
 generally but one class of pattern. We must now 
 look for systems which will give us greater variety. 
 We might look to what is commonly known as per- 
 mutation to supply us with this, but we must be 
 careful not to be led away by false ideas of the number 
 of patterns we can produce, or the modes of producing 
 them. 
 
 According to the system of permutation, two objects 
 can be placed in two positions in relation to each other, 
 three objects can be placed in six positions, four objects 
 in twenty-four positions, and so on. At first sight it 
 would appear that we may produce so many patterns 
 upon any number of ends as permutation will give us 
 positions, and that simply by the rearrangement of those 
 positions. Further, we might say that as each end of 
 warp must interweave with a given number of picks of 
 weft, the number of patterns capable of being produced 
 upon a given number of ends and picks would be repre- 
 
Chap, in.] REARRANGEMENT OF PATTERN. 
 
 43 
 
 sented by the permutation of ends and picks together ; 
 thus, if we take four ends and four picks, as represented 
 here, □□□□ there are sixteen points of intersection of 
 warp ggg^ with weft. Now, the permutation of six- 
 teen naaci gives us a number represented by fourteen 
 places of figures,or 20,867,685,888,000, so that it would 
 appear that that would be the number of patterns we 
 can produce. We must see what is the real state of the 
 case. Patterns must have some definite order in their 
 arrangement, and they must also be so arranged as to be 
 continuous. Any pattern must be so that it will join to 
 itself on all sides, and be perfectly continuous if extended 
 or re])eated in any direction. Let us take, for example, 
 a plain cloth. Here we have a complete plan of 
 a plain cloth. Two ends and two picks are used ; 
 there are four points of intersection. Those two ends 
 and picks would be repeated any number of times so 
 as to produce the width and length of fabric required. 
 Suppose we exchange the places of the two ends, 
 thus, and repeat this rearrangement any num- 
 ber of °" times, we should not produce a new pattern ; 
 when extended they would both be exactly the same 
 tiling. Again, in exchanging the ends we have also 
 exchanged the picks, so that it is quite incapable of 
 further alteration in this respect, and all further efforts 
 to produce patterns in this direction will be in vain. 
 We will go one step further, and alter the order of 
 interweaving, thus, Here we make three of the 
 four spaces black, or ■■ make weft come to the sur- 
 tace at three of the four points. If we were to ex- 
 change the places of either ends or picks the result 
 would be the same as in the previous case — that is, the 
 pattern being repeated, the threads would be made to 
 bear the same relation to each other as they did originally, 
 so that we can go no farther in that direction. There 
 is another point also which reduces this proposition 
 to an absurdity. It will be seen that one pick of 
 -weft passes over both the ends ea'xployed, and also 
 
44 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 [Clmp. m. 
 
 that one end passes under both picks ; therefore, no 
 interweaving can take place, and cloth will not be 
 formed. 
 
 It must always be borne in mind that whatever 
 number of ends or picks are employed in the formation of 
 a pattern, we are confined to that number, and the whole 
 fabric is a series of repetitions. That being the case, 
 plain cloth is incapable of any variation in the order of 
 interweaving, although, as previously shown, it may be 
 made the basis of a system of ornamentation. If we 
 take three ends and three picks we have apparently some 
 room left for ornamentation, but in realiiy we are again 
 limited to two positions, thus. We may 
 
 place our three ends in any □■□ or □■□ order we 
 please, but they will always "™ produce 
 exactly the same thing — a regular twill running from left 
 to right or from right to left ; and any alteration in the 
 order of the ends will produce an exactly corresponding 
 alteration in the picks. In fact, it is as if we take three 
 straight lines ; we can produce but one figure from them 
 — namely, a triangle. We may obtain an apparent 
 alteration in the twill by bringing weft over two warp 
 threads instead of one, thus, but it is the same 
 
 pattern. We are merely □■■ substituting weft 
 for warp on the surface, and ""° the back of one 
 fabric will be exactly like the face of the other. If we 
 take four ends we have a little more scope for the produc- 
 tion of patterns, but it is still very limited. We may run 
 our twill in one direction or the other, or we may break the 
 pattern into two portions, and reverse the order 
 of position of one of the pairs, thus, and so 
 
 produce a quite distinct effect, but so far as re- 
 
 arrangement goes, that is all we can do, every 
 other rearrangement producing precisely the same result. 
 We have, however, one advantage, which increases as 
 the number of ends employed increases — that is, we can 
 vary the order of interweaving more — though with four 
 ends we are limited to two — the one given above and 
 
Chap. III.] 
 
 COMBINATION OP TWILLS. 
 
 45 
 
 that in which we allow weft to pass over and under two 
 warp threads, thus, each being equally capable, 
 
 of the same varia- tion. 
 
 If we were to pro- ceed in detail through each 
 
 number of ends in succession, we should find at each step 
 that we have not only the advantage which has just 
 been pointed out — the power of varying the order of 
 interweaving — but greater variety of rearrangements. 
 We have not only the satin arrangement already 
 spoken of, but a great number of other orders. 
 For example, we might transpose the ends in twos, 
 threes, fours, or any number— thus, 2, 1, 4, 3, 6, 5, 
 or 3, 2, 1, 6, 5, 4, &c. Each of these transposed orders 
 may be further rearranged. After we have trans- 
 posed, say, in twos, take the resulting pattern and 
 rearrange it in satin order, the pattern resulting from 
 that in some other order, and so on, until we eventually 
 return to the original starting point. There is but the 
 one thing to bear in mind — that all our rearrangements 
 must be regular ; there can be no pattern without regu- 
 larity and order. If we do not carefully attend to that, 
 we shall have simply a jumble of threads together and 
 no pattern. 
 
 33. Patterns Produced by Combination of Twills.— 
 This method of producing patterns by rearrangement is 
 but the first step in the production of new designs 
 for fabrics in a systematic manner. Great as is the 
 -number of designs which may be obtained by this mode 
 of working, it is small compared with what may be 
 obtained by other and equally systematic methods. We 
 may turn our attention next to what is known as the 
 doctrine of combinations, and from that we shall be able 
 to obtain an infinite variety. We will first examine into 
 the system of combinations, and then see how far we 
 can apply it to the work in hand. Although, as has been 
 shown, permutation gives nominally great power of pro- 
 ducing patterns, yet, in reality, when applied in regular 
 order, as is necessary for designs, it is limited. It miglit 
 
46 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 [Chap. IIL 
 
 almost be said that combinations give an unlimited 
 power. The combination of two square pieces, each 
 divided diagonally in two colours, is said to be capable 
 of being made in sixty-four different ways. According 
 to Prestet's calculation, the combinations possible of the 
 twenty-four letters of the alphabet taken bv twos, then 
 by threes, and so on, amount to a number represented by 
 thii-ty-three places of figures, or thirteen billions of 
 billions, or 139 quintillions, or so many different words 
 may be produced. There is this difference between the 
 combination of such things as the letters of the alphabet 
 and the ends of a pattern — whereas the letters of the 
 alphabet are all different, the order of working of the 
 ends of a pattern should be similar. Still, although the 
 working of the ends should be similar, the order of inter- 
 weaving of the picks need not necessarily be similar; 
 and again, any two letters will admit of but one com- 
 bination, but two patterns will admit of a number 
 of combinations, and at each one produce a new 
 pattern. 
 
 Combinations are generally taken as denoting the 
 placing together of objects, quantities, &c,, and their 
 alteration or variation in all possible ways. Thus, one 
 object will admit of no combination; two objects will 
 admit of one combination only, provided they- are simple 
 objects, but if they are not simple ones — if they present 
 different appearances on their different sides, as in the 
 case of the coloui-ed squares — then they will permit of a 
 great number of combinations ; and further, as we 
 increase either the variety or the number of objects, we 
 increase at the same time the number of fresh combinations 
 possible. We will proceed first with the combination of 
 simple objects in twos. Two objects will admit of one 
 combination only — viz., ab ; three objects will admit 
 of three combinations — ab, ac, and BC ; four objects will 
 admit of six combinations — ab, ac, ad, bc, bd, cd ; five 
 objects will admit of ten combinations ; and so on. The 
 combination of any number of objects will proceed ac- 
 
Chap. TII.l COMBINATION OF TWILLS. 47 
 
 cording to the triangular numbers 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, 21, &c., 
 or a general formula will be '^^^Y^ = combinations ; 
 that is, let N represent the number of objects — suppose 
 6— then ^\^l2^ ^ = 15 ; or fifteen will be the number of 
 combinations which may be produced from six objects. 
 
 Now let us see how this will apply to patterns, and 
 how far we may extend it by placing the patterns in & 
 
 ■■nnana 
 
 "SSSRaS SRSSSRf^ 
 
 aySHRSS RSSSRnS 
 
 QS^Huan 
 
 ■□□■sgg SRqssss SSHnSHS 
 
 Fig. 29. Fig. 30. Fig. 31. Fig. 32. Fig. 33. 
 
 different position in relation to each other. In Fig. 29 
 we have a combination of two seven-end twills, pick and 
 pick alternately ; that is, the first, third, fifth, &c., picks 
 would form one complete seven-end twill of themselves, 
 and the second, fourth, sixth, &c., picks would form one 
 pattern. The two patterns are 
 
 placed together alternately, one ygggggg SmSmS 
 pick of one and one pick of the ggSgSSS SBSSSSS 
 other, and so form a new pattern. gSgggSH aSnSSSn 
 
 Now,' as we have just pointed out, gggSggg 
 two simple objects permit of one ggSgggg ggSSma 
 combination only; but two patterns gSggggg gSSnBSB 
 can scarcely be called simple objects, ggggggg SSBBSBS 
 
 In the first place, each pattern oc- j^ig. 34. Fig. 35. 
 cupies seven ends, consequently 
 
 they can be placed in relation to each other in at 
 least seven different positions, as shown in patterns 29 
 
 to 35. . , • 
 
 Then, after we have found by the formula given 
 
48 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 [Chap. in. 
 
 how many combinations we can produce from a given 
 number of patterns, we may multiply that by the 
 number of ends in the pattern, 
 be cause we can combine them in as 
 many positions as there are ends 
 employed. 
 
 Upon seven ends suppose we 
 make, say, sixteen simple twills — 
 not a very difficult thing to do. 
 
 We can combine these sixteen twills in 1^-^^=120 times 
 
 1x2 
 
 in one position in relation to each other, and as there 
 are seven ends, we may produce 120x7 = 840 patterns 
 
 rig. 36. 
 
 Fig. 37. 
 
 ■■□□■□H 
 
 Fig. 38. 
 
 ■□aBBaa 
 
 ■□□■□■H 
 □□□□HBB 
 □BDBBBD 
 □□BBBm 
 □BBflODB 
 BBBDnm 
 BBDJBDB 
 ■□□□□BB 
 
 Fig. 39. 
 
 BDnBDBB 
 
 □□□BBBG 
 □flDBBBQ 
 
 □BBBDDa 
 □BBBGOB 
 BHOaaGB 
 BBDUBDB 
 □□□□BBB 
 □□BDBBB 
 □□BBBOQ 
 BOBBBOa 
 
 ■BBoaan 
 
 BBBDDBa 
 
 ■□□□□BB 
 
 Fig. 40. 
 
 ■BaDBGB 
 
 □□□BBBQ 
 □GBQBBB 
 □BBBD^G 
 BGBBBGG 
 BBGGD^B 
 ■BBQ^B^ 
 □□□□BBB 
 BQ^B^BB 
 □□BBBO^ 
 □BGBBBG 
 BBBGGGO 
 □BBBQ^B 
 BG^Q^BB 
 
 Fig. 41. 
 
 ■BBnOBD 
 
 □□□BBB^ 
 BGQBQBB 
 □BBBQ^n 
 □BGBBBQ 
 BBGOGGB 
 GBBBGGB 
 □□□□■BB 
 ■BGGfl^a 
 □GBBBGG 
 □GBGBBB 
 ■BBGGG^ 
 BGBBBGQ 
 ■□□□□■■ 
 
 Fig. 42. 
 
 by combinations. But we have not done even yet, for 
 each of these simple twills is capable of rearrangement, 
 and they can then be combined 
 in their rearranged form. Thus, 
 Figs. 36 and 37 are rearrangements 
 in satin order of the two patterns of 
 which Fig. 29 is composed, and the 
 patterns 38 to 44 are combinations 
 of those rearrangements. The ap- 
 pearance presented by these patterns 
 is very different from that of those 
 composed of straight twills, so that 
 we have here again 840 more patterns possible, 
 is only one rearrangement. Many others may be made ; 
 each again may be dealt with as before, and so give us 
 
 □BBBGGB 
 □GGBBBG 
 BBQGBGB 
 GBBBGGG 
 GGBGBBB 
 ■BGGGGB 
 BGBBBGG 
 □GGGBBB 
 ■BBG^BG 
 GGBBBGG 
 BGGB^BB 
 ■BBOGGG 
 □BGBBBG 
 BGGQ^BB 
 
 Fg. 43. 
 
 ■□■BB^G 
 
 □GGBBBG 
 ■BBGGBG 
 □BBB^OG 
 ■□□BGBB 
 BBGGGGB 
 GBGBBBG 
 GGGGBBB 
 □BBB^GB 
 GGBBBGG 
 BBGGBGB 
 BBBGGGG 
 □□B^BBB 
 ■□□□GBB 
 
 F,g. 4i. 
 
 But this 
 
Chap, in.] 
 
 COMBINATION OP TWILLS. 
 
 49 
 
 an unlimited field for the production of new designs 
 
 Perhaps, in producing this great number of patterns, 
 
 we should find in many cases that we have repetition, 
 
 though the repetition would not take exactly the same 
 
 form, but probably the pattern would appear in reverse 
 
 order ; still, it would be none the less the same pattern, 
 
 and again, many of the patterns would come so nearly 
 
 alike that they would amount practically to the same 
 
 thing in the fabric. However, the principle is valuable 
 
 as enabling us to produce a large number and variety of 
 
 designs with the least possible amount of labour, and 
 
 giving us a power of producing patterns of even a more 
 
 elaborate character than the combinations previously 
 
 alluded to produce. 
 
 So far we have been speaking of combining our twills 
 
 in regular order in twos only, but we may vary the 
 
 order as much as we like, provided only it is on a 
 
 systematic basis ; and we may combine in threes, fours, 
 
 or any number we please. We will see how far the 
 
 combinations in threes or any number will enable us to 
 
 go. If we combine in threes, three objects will admit of 
 
 but one order, four objects will admit of four orders, 
 
 ABC, ABD, ACD, and BCD, and five objects will admit of 
 
 ten combinations. Thus for combinations in threes a 
 
 N N — 1 N — 2 
 general formula will be j- x — X — g— , and so on ; 
 
 and the same formula may be extended to the combination 
 of any number of objects, and by any number at one time ; 
 and the formula for determining the number of combi- 
 nations will be as above, continued to m, the number of 
 factors. In these series, as in the series of twos, each 
 pattern is capable of being placed in relation to each of 
 the others in as many positions as there are ends used. 
 So that we have surely a sufiiciently wide field for the 
 production of designs of this class without having in any 
 way to draw upon imagination, but we have to exercise 
 a proper discretion in applying them to the fabric. 
 
 E 
 
60 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 STRIPES, CHECKS, AND FIGURES FROM COMBINATION OF 
 DIFFERENT TWILLS. 
 
 34. The Effects of Combination of different Twills 
 in Stripe form. — We may now proceed to deal with the 
 production of designs from the combination of twills or 
 other patterns, and in doing so we must not only take 
 into account the pleasing effects we may obtain from 
 such combinations, but also the relations of the structure 
 of fabric of one pattern to the structure of another 
 pattern ; and thirdly, the economic use of patterns in 
 the process of weaving. We have already pointed out 
 in reference to Figs. 13, 14, and 15 that patterns 
 may be readily produced from simple bases, by com- 
 bining them so as to form stripes, checks, and figures. 
 In all those cases the pattern is produced by combining 
 the twill with itself ; that is, it is allowed to run for a 
 given number of ends or picks in one direction, and 
 then for a given number in another direction, so forming 
 the pattern by the twill lines running hi various direc- 
 tions. This is probably the easiest mode of producing 
 patterns of a large size, and also of an elaborate character, 
 though it must of course be borne in mind that there will 
 always be a certain stiffness about them. One chief value 
 of patterns arranged upon this basis is their economical 
 production in the loom. The stripes or checks may be 
 varied to any extent; the pattern may be as large or 
 elaborate as we please ; but if proper care is taken in their 
 arrangement there are only a limited number of different 
 orders of working ; that is to say, the whole pattern con- 
 sists of a twill, which is represented by a limited number 
 of ends. These ends are simply repeated over and over 
 again, perhaps not exactly in the same order, but the 
 
Chap. IV.] 
 
 COMBINATION OF PATTERNS, 
 
 51 
 
 order is varied according to the working of the pattern. 
 Still a few ends are representative of the whole, and 
 consequently a few " healds " will suffice in the loom 
 for weaving the pattern. It only requires that proper 
 care be taken to arrange the order of succession of the 
 ends, and the order in which they are drawn through 
 the healds, to ensure the proper pattern being produced 
 in the most economical manner. 
 
 In the principle of rearrangement with which we 
 dealt in Chap. III. we have a power of producing pat- 
 terns of much greater variety than we can obtain by 
 the mere combination of a simple twill with itself, 
 at the same time that we preserve the economical mode 
 of working. But in its application very great care be- 
 comes necessary to ensure the fabric being perfect ; and 
 not only for that reason, but also because although we 
 may combine patterns which have the same common 
 base, and so produce a pattern which can be worked 
 with a small number of healds, yet we may so combine 
 the two that they cannot be worked with a small number. 
 And again, we must bear in mind the similarity of the 
 two patterns, or their bases, must not be imaginary but 
 real. 
 
 We will examine first into the question of the com- 
 bination of patterns coming from the same base, but 
 producing different effects in the fabric, and requiring a 
 rearrangement of the proportions of warp and weft. 
 If we refer to Figs. 21 and 22, we shall find an 
 illustration of the fact that the rearrangement of the 
 threads of a pattern will require an alteration of the 
 relative quantities of warp and weft. Now, these two 
 patterns come from the same base. Every separate end 
 in one pattern is raised and depressed exactly in the 
 same order as the ends in the other pattern, only they 
 do not bear precisely the same relation to each other 
 in their order of succession, as is indicated by their 
 numbers. But one can be woven upon the same 
 healds as the other ; that is, the heald which carries 
 
52 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 [Chap. IV. 
 
 thread No. 1 in one pattern might also carry thread 
 No. 1 in the other, and so with thread No. 2. This is 
 usually the first point looked to in the arrangement of 
 patterns, because if we can produce an elaborate design 
 upon a small number of healds, we can do our work in 
 the most economical manner; and so far as the two 
 patterns to which we have referred are concerned, this 
 can be done readily, but we must look carefully to the 
 effect in the cloth. "We have already seen that in the 
 two patterns to which we are now alluding the one will 
 require considerably more warp threads per inch than 
 the other, or if we were to weave them both from the 
 same warp, with the same size of yarn and the same 
 number per inch, there would be a great difference in 
 the two cloths. Then it must be very evident that if 
 we combine these two patterns in. the same cloth in stripe 
 form, there will be a difficulty in the formation of the 
 fabric in consequence of one portion interweaving more 
 loosely than the other. The effect will be that the warp . 
 forming one portion will gradually become slack, and an 
 effect commonly termed " cockling " will be produced. If 
 we make very small patterns, or patterns occupying only 
 a very small number of ends, this would not perhaps 
 be so apparent ; but if the pattern be large, then it 
 would become a serious objection, and in fact it would 
 be almost, if not quite, impossible to produce a per- 
 fect piece of cloth, unless the two patterns were made 
 from different warps, and came from different warp 
 beams in the loom. 
 
 35. Combination of Different Twills in Check 
 Form. — If we take the same two patterns, and combine 
 them in a different order, say so as to form a kind of 
 chequered pattern, as in Fig. 45, we shall obviate the 
 difficulty to some extent. Here it will be seen that each 
 set of threads works first to one pattern and then the 
 other alternately. That being the case, one will 
 neutralise the other, and so prevent the " cockling " 
 which will occur in the case of a stripe pure and 
 
Chap. IV.] 
 
 TWILLS IN CHECK FORM. 
 
 53 
 
 simple. We have in this case obviated one difficulty, but 
 care must be taken that in doing so we don't fall into 
 another. If we are working in this stripe form, by a 
 simple combination of the two patterns Figs. 21 and 22 
 side by side regularly, therp would be no difficulty about 
 weaving the pattern with the smallest number of healds 
 possible — namely, twelve — because one portion is simply 
 the other rearranged, so that it is really a continual 
 repetition of the same twill, but not with the ends 
 always in the same con- 
 
 It is not intended here to enter closely into the 
 question of " drafting," as that subject is fully treated in 
 my " Treatise on Weaving and Designing Textile 
 Fabrics;" but it is necessary to refer to it so as to 
 enable the student to more fully understand the 
 application of design to the fabric from a practical 
 point of view. For the purpose of explaining this more 
 clearly we will refer to Fig. 46. This is, in all appear- 
 ance, exactly the same pattern as Fig. 45. It is, in fact, 
 the same combination, and made in apparently the same 
 manner; but if the threads be carefully examined all 
 through the pattern it will be seen that there are no 
 two exactly alike, so that although we are making the 
 same pattern, exactly the same combination, we have 
 
 secutive order. The same 
 may be said also of the 
 design Fig. 45, but as the 
 two orders of working ex- 
 change places at intervals, 
 unless those exchanges are 
 properly arranged, the 
 two sets of warp threads 
 will not be exact fac- 
 similes of each other ; 
 and unless they are so, 
 they could not possibly 
 be woven with the same 
 healds. 
 
 Fig. 45. 
 
54 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS, 
 
 [Chap. rv. 
 
 made it more difficult and more costly to produce, by 
 requiring a greater number of healds to weave it witli 
 
 36. The Method of Joining Patterns in Combina- 
 tion. — In arranging patterns of this kind, the manner in 
 which the two patterns join together requires much care. 
 The point of junction should be such as to show no 
 imperfection ; that is, the weft or warp should not pass 
 
 under or over a greater 
 
 or less number of threads 
 
 □BnBBnBDBnDBQDnnBBBBBBDa at that pomt than they 
 
 □BnnanBnBBnBnDnBBBBBBnnn j i i mi 
 
 OBBDBDBDDBnBnnBBBBBBnnna do anywhere else. Ihere 
 
 nnangnBBnBnBnBBBBBBnnnnn • , i 
 
 BnBnBDDBDBDBBBBBBBnnDnDn are instances where some 
 
 ■ nBDBBDBDBDDBBBBBnnnnnnB T,.i • £ , 
 
 BnBnnBnBDBBDBBBBDDDDDDBB little impertections must 
 
 ■□BBDBDBDDBDBBBDDDDDDBBB j. x i • i , 
 
 BnnBnBnBBnBnBBnDDDDDBBBB occur at the lunction, but 
 
 BBnBnBDnBDBnBDnnnnnBBBBB n /i • , 
 
 □uDaDDBBBBBBDDBQBDBBDBDB all care must be exercised 
 
 nngnnBBBBBBnnBBDBnBonBnB j. j ,i , 
 
 DGDDBBBBBBDDDBDDBDBDBBDB to reduce them tO a 
 DngBBBBBBnDDDBDBBnBnBnnB • • 1 
 
 □gBBBBBBDDDDDBDBDDBDBDBB mimmum, and present 
 
 □f ■■■■■□□DGDaBDBDBBDBDBD ,i f u • 4- 
 BBBBBBDDDDDDBBDBDBDDBDBD the tabriC to the OVO per- 
 BBBBBDDDDDDBanDBDBDBBDBD r . i "V ^ i • 
 
 BBBBDDDDDDBBBDBBDBDBDDBG lect Or nearly SO. In this 
 
 ■■BppqDDGBBBBDBDDBDBDBBG . i • 
 
 BBpagqaaBBBBBDBDBBGBDBDa system of producing pat- 
 
 ■aaDGGOBBBBBBGBDBaaBaBDH x iT xi. i, • 
 
 j,^ ^ terns we have the basis 
 
 of most of the designs for 
 fabrics for men's wear, and we certainly obtain a very 
 great variety ; and they are used both for heavy fabrics, 
 such as coatings and trowserings, and for many other 
 cloths. 
 
 37. Effects upon the Fabric. — In the illustration 
 in Figs. 45 and 46 of the difficulty of combining two 
 patterns one of which is a rearrangement of the other, 
 we have not by any means shown all the difficulties, nor 
 in the simplest form. In dealing with patterns which 
 appear easy and simple, and in which the principle of 
 rearrangement is carried out in its simplest form, we 
 may find that the effect of the two portions in the 
 fabric is very different ; and we cannot be too careful 
 how we place them in juxtaposition. Suppose we take 
 a pattern based upon a simple six-end twill, as in 
 Fig. 47. We may have no doubt or difficulty about 
 
Chap. IV.] EFFECT OF PATTERN UPON FABKIC. 
 
 55 
 
 its working. The twill occupies the largest portion of 
 the fabric ; the stripe, a, occupies hut a small 
 portion, as does also 6. In the order of in- gSSSaa 
 terweaving of these three portions it would gggSSa 
 seem that there could be little diflference, tggBnS 
 and there certainly is not so much difference gSSSaa 
 as there may be in some patterns, but just HdSSbb 
 enough to require caution and proper arrange- SyBaSS 
 ment. It will be evident that in the twill gSSSnn 
 portion the weft and warp will bend round gggKS 
 each other in an equal degree, and con- 
 sequently that the same quantities of warp gSSSaa 
 and weft will be required to form a perfect BoShSb 
 cloth. The same may be said of the stripe 5SBB55 
 6, although it is not the same kind of struc- SSgggS 
 ture; but there is this difference between gggggS 
 this portion and the twill : whereas in the gggggS 
 twill every succeeding end and pick inter- gSgnoB 
 weave differently— that is, not under and gggggg , 
 over the same threads — in the portion h there SSSggS ^ 
 are three warp ends, and three weft picks .gSSSga ' 
 together exactly alike, and therefore a greater jSgBoS 
 ' number of threads per inch of the same size gBBSSS 
 of thread could be introduced into a fabric BSSSSa 
 of the structure h than of the twill cloth. SSgBBg 
 In the portion a of the pattern each weft gBBSSa 
 pick passes between alternate warp threads, 
 and three succeeding picks are exactly alike, 
 so that the warp in this case cannot exercise gBBaBg 
 power over the weft, and make weft bend BSSSoa 
 round warp in any degree, but the warp must SSgBBa 
 bend round the weft. That being so, to gBBSSS 
 make a perfect structure of the fabric there SSSBag 
 should be a greater number of warp than ggggga 
 weft threads per inch. It must be clear that BBBSS5 
 if we were to combine three orders of work- SSSBBa 
 ing such as these in large patches or stripes, gggSSS 
 say of one inch each, there must be some 
 
56 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 [Chap. I V. 
 
 difficulty in obtaining a perfect cloth. As lias already 
 been said, the difference in this case is not so great as in 
 
 rig. 48. 
 
 □□■■□□■■□□■■□□■■□□■a 
 
 □BBOBDDBDDBBnBBaBnnB 
 
 S2RS25SS5SH°"DnBnBB" 
 
 ■■□□BBnnBBnDBBDDBBaa 
 □□BBDDBBDDBBaDBBDaBB 
 □□■BDDBBanBBnaBBHHBB 
 ■■□□BBDDBBaDBBnnBBnn 
 ■BDnBBanBBmBBDDBBHH 
 □□BBDDBBaDBBDnBBDSBB 
 
 ■■□□BBnnBBDQBBnoBBnn 
 
 ■□gBgBBOBBDDBnHBSBBa 
 
 □■■□■□□■□□bbdbbdbdSb 
 
 ■□□BnBBDBBmBDDBDBSa 
 ■■□□BBDDBBnDBBaaBBaa 
 
 ■BnOBBanBBDDBBDDBBDDBBnn 
 
 ■■na""Sg""SS«HdnBBHDBBHn 
 
 □■■BnyBBQgBBDDBBaDBBmDB 
 laBBDnBBDaBBmBBDDBBan 
 
 Fig. 48a. 
 
 Fig, 48b. 
 
 many patterns which are combined ; still, it is sufficient 
 to cause trouble if used in large patches. Then there are 
 
Chap. IV.] 
 
 TWILLS OP DIFFERENT SIZES. 
 
 57 
 
 only two alternatives : we must use the stripes in small 
 quantities, so that the difference in the order of working 
 cannot assert itself as it would in large stripes ; or we 
 must have the relations of warp and weft in our cloth 
 such as to produce as nearly as possible a perfiBct cloth 
 in all the three orders of working at the same time. Of 
 course, each one will be something short of the true 
 structure of a cloth of the class to which it belongs, but 
 will not be so far removed from perfection as to be 
 positively faulty or imperfect to the eye. We have next 
 to show that from this system of combination, patterns 
 of a very elaborate character may be produced, either all 
 coming from the same simple base, or a combination of 
 patterns of a different character. For this purpose we 
 have prepared a few designs shown in Figs. 48, 48a, 
 and 48b. 
 
 38. Combination of Twills occupying Different 
 Numhers of Ends. — Although we have a wide field in 
 the class of patterns and combinations we have been 
 dealing with, yet it is only the first step, and our power 
 of obtaining varied patterns increases enormously as we 
 depart from this simple system of combinations. At the 
 same time, many of the patterns with which we are now 
 about to deal are built upon the same basis — that is, the 
 same principle of combination is employed. 
 
 We have already pointed out how patterns may be 
 readily produced by the 
 
 combination of two twills, □□□■■■■□□■□■■□■■□■□□mbbb 
 
 Tn the examnles <y\wen m 
 
 Flo's 29 to 35 we have □BDBBGBBnBDDBBBBaODBBBBa 
 JTi^b. UU wc iiavc □BHQBBQBDaBBBBDnnBBBBDaB 
 
 simnlv the combination of BDBBnBDaBBBBDonBBBBDnBna 
 
 bimpiy WIB cuiiiuiiiciuiuii uj. paQBnQBBBHDanBBBBnQBDBBa 
 
 tvSTO twills each OCCUOVmo- □BDDBBBBnDaBBBBDDBQBBnBB 
 
 LWU tWiiib, e<*Wi Ul-u-upjiii □□BBBBamBBBBaDBQBBGBBDB 
 
 the same number of BHBBaaaBBBBDnBDBBDBBnBDa 
 
 me fadintJ liuiiiuci uj. BBaDDBBBBaaBDBBaBBaBaaBB 
 
 ends ; but m many cases 
 the combination of twills 
 
 occupying difierent numbers of ends or picks may 
 be very desirable, and we shall produce large patterns, 
 and in many cases very elaborate ones. Take, for ex- 
 
58 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 [Chap. IV. 
 
 ample, the pattern Fig. 49 ; we have the combination of 
 a simple four-end twill with a three-end twill, an end of 
 each alternately. It will be seen of this pattern that it 
 differs from the combination of two twills, each occupy- 
 ing the same number of ends, inasmuch as the two 
 twills in this case fall in relation to each other in all 
 the positions possible ; consequently, we have all the 
 variety in this one pattern which is obtainable, and, 
 what is quite as important, the pattern can be produced 
 in the most economical - manner. As it consists of two 
 simple twills, one occupying four and the other three 
 ends, the whole pattern will require but seven healds 
 for its production in the loom. We must, however, 
 examine patterns of this description from every point of 
 view. It is very easy and pleasant to see the advantages 
 we may obtain by working in a certain manner, but we 
 must also, at all times, look for whatever disadvantages may 
 accompany it. It has been pointed out already that every 
 end in a pattern should work as nearly as possible alike, 
 so as to prevent variation in the tension during the process 
 of weaving, or that some other safeguard must be re- 
 sorted to to counteract, any varying tension. In the 
 pattern before us— Fig. 49— we have a combination of 
 two twills which interweave differently, one passing over 
 and under the weft at intervals of two threads, above 
 and below, the other over two and under one weft thread, 
 or vice versa. That being the case, the pattern which 
 interweaves most frequently, which has to bend round 
 the weft more than the other, will of necessity " take 
 up " more, or, in other words, require a greater length of 
 yarn to produce a given length of fabric ; therefore, if 
 the two threads are being given off side by side an 
 equal length of each, one must of necessity gradually 
 become tighter than the other. In this particular 
 pattern the difference would be very slight, perhaps not 
 so much as to cause any trouble to the weaver. That 
 would depend to some extent on the class of material 
 employed. If the thread be of an elastic nature— one 
 
Cliap. IV.] RELATION OP PATTERN TO CLOTH. 
 
 59 
 
 which would stretch some length without breaking — it 
 would be quite easy to produce this pattern ; but if the 
 thread be of a stiff, brittle character, it would probably be 
 a little difficult. Of course, there is always this to be said 
 of patterns combined alternately, or, as it is technically 
 termed, "end and end." Although there maybe con- 
 siderable difference in the order of working of the two 
 patterns combined, the fact of their being alternate will 
 tend, in a great measure, to neutralise the difference in 
 the working, because that which interweaves most 
 loosely will exert very little power over the weft, and so 
 when the thread which is interweaving more intimately 
 begins to have a greater tension than its neighbours, 
 it will cause the weft to bend a little out of its course, 
 and so decrease the tension upon the warp thread. 
 
 In applying patterns of this character to the fabric, 
 all these considerations must be carefully taken into 
 account ; as also must one or two other matters which 
 will have a material effect upon it. We have already 
 shown how the elasticity or rigidity of the warp threads 
 may affect it ; in the same manner, if the weft be of a 
 very stiff material — one upon which the warp threads 
 cannot exert much force — the warp has no opportunity 
 of recovering itself by bending the weft. Again, if the 
 warp threads be set very closely together, it is very 
 difficult for the warp to act upon the weft, but the warp 
 will always bend round the weft. In this case, care 
 must be taken that the difference in the order of working 
 is as little as possible ; in fact, it ought to be accepted 
 as a general rule, unless there be some specific object in 
 view — a desire to produce some special effect — that the 
 working of each thread in the pattern be nearly 
 alike. It very frequently happens that this is the 
 case. For example, one half or any portion of the warp 
 may be desired to form the ground-work of the fabric, and 
 the other half may simply be used for the purpose of 
 ornamentation.. In such cases it may be a great advantage 
 for the threads which form the ground- work to be as 
 
60 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 [Chap. IV. 
 
 tighb as possible, so as to throw up the ornamenting 
 threads prominently. But even if such is not the case, 
 and it is desired to keep each thread nearly equal in 
 tension, any inequahties in the order of working which 
 would affect the tension may be perfectly neutralised 
 in the process of weaving, by allowing the two sets of 
 threads to come from two separate warp beams, and 
 regulating the amount to be given off exactly according 
 to the length required by the increased or decreased 
 intervals of interweaving. It requires some little 
 skill on the part of the weaver to accomplish this satis- 
 factorily, but it is not one of the most difficult tasks, 
 and it certainly is one which, as we shall have to show in 
 reference to other fabrics, must be frequently resorted to. 
 
 In the case of fabrics where difficulties might arise in 
 consequence of the variation in the tension of the warp 
 threads, we are still at liberty to apply this class of 
 pattern by simply inverting it, making warp become 
 weft and vice versa, or, in other words, combining the 
 patterns pick by pick, instead of end and end alternately. 
 If we do this, the pattern cannot be "woven on so 
 small a number of healds in the loom as in the other 
 case, and of course the relative quantities of warp and 
 weft must be reversed to produce a perfect fabric, but 
 the ornamentation will be equally effective. 
 
 39.— When Patterns produced by Combinations are 
 
 nnnrn-rn— ^-r. Complete. OuO questlou 
 
 SKg5gSSS5RSRR°°"KSgg might probably arise in 
 g5R:Sn5HgRRyy"KSgS8SSS the mind of the student 
 2g5RSRRSS5"S5ggG@SB:Sg: as to the extent of the 
 ■□□□Sg-SMggygggKgSRKg pattern produced by the 
 ESSSggPRSRF"gSS5SgS8g8 combination of such sim- 
 SSS5BBgg5SgSS:Sg5ggSgg£a pie twills as those ocou- 
 .^ig.so. Pying three and four 
 
 ends respectively. In all 
 cases of the combination of two patterns the design must 
 be carried out to such a point as will give both patterns 
 employed complete at the same moment. In the case 
 
Chap. IV.] WHEN PATTERNS ARE COMPLETE. 
 
 61 
 
 before us, when tlie four-end twill is once completed the 
 three end twill is once and one-third complete ; when the 
 four-end twill is twice complete the three-end twill will 
 be twice and two-thirds complete; and when the four-end 
 twill has been three times repeated, the three-end twill 
 will have been four times repeated ; they will, therefore, 
 both be complete at the same time. Then, as the patterns 
 are combined end and end, twelve ends will be required 
 of each pattern to complete the design, or twenty-four 
 ends in all; but only twelve picks will be required, 
 because in the warp the patterns are alternate with each 
 other, but in the weft they are running simultaneously ; 
 or if the patterns are combined pick and pick instead of 
 end and end, twenty-four picks and twelve ends would 
 be needed. 
 
 A very great variety of patterns may be produced by 
 this method of combinations, and, like those with which 
 we have previously been dealing, they are made in a 
 systematic manner. It will generally be found that 
 the best patterns, and those showing the greatest 
 variety of workings, are produced by the combinations 
 of patterns, each occupying such a number of ends that 
 they have no common measure. If we combine, for 
 instance, two occupying six and four ends respectively, 
 we shall have the pattern complete upon twenty-four 
 ends — twelve of each — and twelve picks ; or one of the 
 twills will have been repeated twice over, and the other 
 three times. In that case, the two patterns would be 
 placed in three positions in relation to each other only, 
 as shown in Fig. 50. This certainly makes a fairly effec- 
 tive pattern, but it does not show such great variety of 
 working. If we alter one of those twills which form 
 the base — make the six-end into seven, or the four 
 into five — we shall alter the whole effect. In the one 
 case we should require twenty-eight ends of each 
 pattern, or fifty-six in all, and twenty-eight picks; 
 in the other we should require thirty ends of each 
 twill, or sixty in all, and thirty picks, and in each case 
 
62 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 [Chap. TV. 
 
 the two twills will be placed in all the positions in rela- 
 tion to each other which are possible, as shown in Fio-. 51. 
 
 40. The Combination of Rearranged or Irregular 
 Twills. — In the combination of twills which occupy 
 
 different numbers 
 of ends we may 
 deal with them in 
 the same manner 
 as with those which 
 occupy the same 
 number, that is, 
 combine them as 
 simple regular 
 twills, or one twill 
 regular and the 
 other rearranged, 
 or both rearranged. 
 Of course we can- 
 not place til em in 
 as many positions 
 in relation to each 
 other as we can 
 when they occupy 
 the same number 
 of ends, and so pro- 
 duce a great num- 
 ber of different 
 patterns, because 
 in one combination 
 we have the two 
 patterns in all the 
 positions possible. 
 Of one thing we 
 must be careful — 
 in combining regular with broken or rearranged twills the 
 result will be irregular. In fact, we may be guided by the 
 well-known axiom that equals added to equals produce 
 equals, &c., and put it into language which will suit the 
 
 ■■□□■■□□■■□□■■□□■■□□■■□□BByg 
 
 □■■■□□□□■■■□□□□■■■□□□□Sbb""" 
 
 □□BBBaDaDBBBDnaaBBBDnHSBBBDa 
 ■□□BBDaBBaaBBDDBBnDBBDDBBnnB 
 □□□BBBDDDDBBBaODDBBBndHnBBB" 
 BBDDBBDDBBraBBmBBDDBBDDBBna 
 □□□□BBBanDDBBBDDDDBBBnnDDBHB 
 □BBDaBBgDBBDaBBDDBBanBBDaBB" 
 {■□□□□BBBDDnDBBBDDDDBBBDnnnBB 
 □gBBDDBBDDBBnDBBDnBBDDBBDDBB 
 ■BDnDnBBBDnDDBBBDDnnBBBDDaDB 
 ■□□BBmBBnnBBDDBBDnBBnDBBDDB 
 BBBDaDDBBBDnDDBBBmaSBBBaHH" 
 BBnDBBDDBBDDBBDDBBDDBBDaBBbd 
 □BBBDDnDBBBnnanBBBaDDnBBBDDn 
 □BBggBBnDBBDDBBnaBBDDBBSDBBn 
 □□■BBDDnDBBBDDDnBBBDnanBBBm 
 
 anDBBBnaaaBBBDnDaBBBaDDDBBBn 
 
 ■pnBBnaBBDDBBDDBBDDBBdnBBDDB 
 □gDDBBBDDanBBBDDDDBBBDDSnBBa 
 ■BDDBBmBBmBBnDBBOOBBDDBB" 
 
 BggnDBBBDamBBBnnmBBBDnnnBB » 
 
 □BBnnBBDDBBDnBBmBBnDBBDDBB" £ 
 
 BBDDnDBBBDDnDBBBaDDnBBBOn""B 
 
 ggBBpnBBDDBBDDBBDDBBnDBBODBB 
 
 BBBggDDBBBDDnDBBBnnDDBB-v' □□□□ 
 ■gg5"DD""nOBBnnBBDDBBDnBBDnB 
 □BBBDDDDBBBnmDBBBmnDBBBbn" 
 ■BgnjBnDBBDDBBanBBODBBDDBBDD 
 
 □□BBBmanBBBDDnDBBBnmnBBBm 
 
 □BBggBBDDBBaaBBDDBBaDBBDDBBd 
 □□gBBBaDDDBBanDDDBBBDnDDBBBn 
 □□BBnDBBnDBBDDBBDDBBDDBBnDBB 
 □□□gBBBnDDDBBBDnnnBsBDnnDBBB 
 ■□□BBaOBBDDBBDDBBnnBBDDBBDDB 
 BDDDDBBBDDnaBBBDaDDBBBnnnDBB 
 BBDDBBDDBBDDBBdDBBDDBBDDBBS" 
 BBnDDDBBBDnDnBBBnDnOBBBtiDDDB 
 □BBmBBDDBBODBBmBBDDBBnnBB" 
 BBBmnnBBBaDnDBBBDDnaBBBDDDb 
 □□BBDDBBDDBBDDBBnQBBDDBBDDBB 
 □BBBDnanBBBDDnnBBBaDDDBBBd"" 
 BDgBBDDBBnnBBanBBDnBBnaBBDDB 
 □□BBBDDDaBBBDDnnBBBDaDDBBBti" 
 BBmBBaDBBDDBBnnBBnDBBmBBm 
 □ggBBBnpDDBBBDDDDBBBDnaDBBBn 
 □BBDgBBDDBBnDBBDDBBnnBBnnBBH 
 □□ggBBBDDDDBBBDnnDBBBnanDBBB 
 □□BBDnBBnOBBanBBDDBBDDBBnDBB 
 
Chap. IV.] IRREGULAR TWILLS COMBINED, 63 
 
 case, and say regular twills combined will produce regular 
 patterns, regular combined with irregular will produce ir- 
 regular patterns, and irregidar combined with irregular will 
 produce regular patterns. These axioms must be carefully 
 borne in mind, because a very great proportion of the 
 patterns produced by the combination of regular with 
 irregular twills are such that they could not properly be 
 called patterns, but some few may be sufSciently regular 
 to be worth while using and calling patterns. Take, for 
 example, the patterns in Figs. 62 and 53 ; in each case 
 
 BKnnHmBiBnBBDnnBBnBBBnnBDnBBBnBBnnDBBn 
 
 ■nnnnBBBBnBDnBDBBnBDBBDBnnBnBBBBnDDDB""" 
 
 □□□BBDBBBDnBHnBBSDBBaDDBBDBBBDqBgnBBgnM 
 
 □BBBBDBSnBnBBDBDBBaBDDBDBBHBnagDBBBBBnm 
 
 ■SSnBBnnDBBDBBBaDBaaBBBDBBDaaBBDBBSDDByy 
 
 BnBHnBHBBaBHBBOBDnBnBBBBnDDDBBBBBDpnnBBB 
 
 BHDBDDBBBHBBnDnBBDBBBnnBggBBBnBBDgnBBnB 
 
 nnnBBnnnBanBnnBriBBBBDaaaBBBBBaDDDBBBBnBD 
 
 □BBnBBBBnBHDBBBHBBDSDBBDBBBDnBnDBBBDBBm 
 
 ■nSnSSnBnnBnBBBBDDnaBBBBBaDDDBBBBaBDDBDB 
 
 ■nBBnnnBaaBBBDDBHnBBBaBBDanBBDBBBDnBDDBfl 
 
 BBDBnBBnBBBBSHnDBBBBBnnngBBBByBDnBDB 
 
 □annBBBDBBDaaBBaBBBnnBDaBBBaBBaggBBDBBBg 
 
 HnBHBBBBnSDDBBBBBaDnDBBBBaBDnwaBBqBgBBaB 
 BnBBBnaBDDBBBDBBnDDBBnBBBDnBDnBBBgBBpDgi 
 
 BBBB5nd"BB3S"nnDn""""D"Hq5aS52SRS2HS22SR 
 
 BBDSdBBDBBBaDBDDBBBDBBDDaBBDBBBDDBmBBBa 
 
 Fig. 52. 
 
 □BBBDnDaDDBB we have a combination of regular 
 
 -IBDDDmnBDB . / . , . i; j.r, 
 
 -JDnBDDDBBnD with irregular, the basis ot the 
 
 ■□□BBDDDBDBa " , • _l- i • 1 + A 
 
 combination being shown at a and 
 
 b in each. In the one it will be 
 geen that the four-end twill is rearranged, or in broken 
 order, and in the other the five-end twill is in the re- 
 arranged order. Now, in both patterns, more especially 
 in Fig. 52, there is some show of reason for the result 
 being°regular. Although the twill is rearranged, and 
 the pattern resulting is not what is commonly known 
 as a regular twill, yet there is a great ^ amount of 
 regularity about it. It runs continuously in the same 
 direction, although the angle is not one of forty-five 
 degrees, as in the four-end twill which accompanies 
 it; yet the fact of the rearrangement being a regular 
 
64 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 [Chap. IV. 
 
 one and giving a continuous twill, will cause it, when 
 oombined with another regular twill, to produce a 
 regular effect. But although the effect has vhe ap- 
 pearance of regularity, it is not the character of regu- 
 larity which is to be found in the patterns resulting 
 from the combination of regular twills, but rather what 
 might, perhaps, be termed regularly irregular; yet the 
 pattern is a pleasing one, and is of a style which might 
 with advantage be employed in a great many fabrics. 
 This illustration will serve as a guide as to what will 
 
 □□■□■■□■■□□□■■■■□□■□□■■■■□□□■■□■■□■□□■HB 
 
 □□■■□■■□■□□■■■□□■□■■□■■□□□■■■■□□■□□yyssg 
 
 ■■■■□□■□□■■■■□□□■■□■■□■□□■■■□□■□■■□■■□□a 
 
 □■■■□□■□■■□■■□□□■■■■□□■□□■■■■□□□■B"5y"5y 
 ■■■□□□■■□■■□■□□■■■□□■□■■□■■□□□■■■■□□■□□a 
 ■□□□■■■■□□■□□■■■■□□□■■□■■□■□□■■■□□yysyHS 
 
 □■■□□□■■■■□□■□□■■■■□□□■■□■■□■□□■■■"yys^ 
 
 ■□□■■■■□□□■■□■■□■□□■■■□□■□■■□■■□□□yySiHg 
 ■■□■■□□□■■■■□□■□□■■■■□□□■■□■■□■□□■■■"□HQ 
 □■■□■□□■■■□□■□^■□■■□□□■■■■□□■□□■■■■□□aSy 
 
 ■■□□■□□■■■■□□□■■aMBaBaaBBBDaaDBHaBBDaDBB 
 
 irig. 53., 
 
 □BBDBnannDDn , , 
 
 BBBSnrngBBBg P^'o^^ce good patterns. Although 
 BBSSBaaaBaDB combination of 
 
 o h regular with irregular will produce 
 
 irregular patterns, yet, when the 
 irregularity of the pattern which is to form one of the 
 bases is of the character shown here, the resulting 
 pattern will, in all probability, be a satisfactory one; 
 but it is not generally desirable to resort to such com- 
 binations, unless the intention is to produce some special 
 effect resembling a figure, as these combinations usually do 
 41. Elongated Twills.— We have not yet done with 
 the arrangement of patterns which assume a twill 
 form, or which have a twill for their base. We may 
 yary^ them still further than we have done in an 
 infinite degree, but there are one or two special modes 
 
Char.. IV.] 
 
 ELONGATED TWILLS. 
 
 65 
 
 of arranging them which it will be necessary to deal 
 with here. It was pointed out in an earlier chapter 
 that twills often run across the fabric at an angle 
 of more or less than forty-five degrees — that is, they 
 may be nearly vertical, or nearly horizontal ; and in 
 many cases such twills may be most readily produced by 
 the combination of two or more 
 twills " end and end," or " pick 
 and pick," as the circumstances 
 of the case may require. Al- 
 though that is a ready mode of 
 producing such patterns, yet 
 very frequently when we desire 
 to procure some special effect we 
 may more readily obtain it by 
 the simple process of elongation. 
 "We may take any ordinary twill 
 for the base of our pattern, and 
 draw it out or elongate it to any 
 extent by simply making any 
 number of ends or picks alike, 
 as in Fig. 54 ; then we may alter the pattern so as to 
 prevent a number of picks being alike, as it is in this 
 pattern, by introducing some order of working twill or 
 otherwise between the main twill, as in Fig. 55, when a 
 small twill is run between the main twills, and in the 
 contrary direction. 
 
 This not only prevents more than one pick being ex- 
 actly alike, but gives variety also to the pattern. Tlie 
 small twill may, of course, be varied, as well as the 
 main twill, and it may be made to actually join, 
 or finish quite clear of, the main twill; though it is 
 generally best not to let the two come in actual con- 
 tact. Thus the pattern will be more decided and clear. 
 In many cases figures or spots may be substituted for the 
 small twill, or even introduced along with it, and so give 
 again greater variety and character. 
 
 Twills or patterns of this description are, after all, 
 
 F 
 
 □□□□«□■□ 
 Fig. 54. 
 
 □■□□■□□n 
 
 ■□■□□nan 
 ■□□■□□■□ 
 ■□□□■□■□ 
 □■□□□■□■ 
 □□■□□■□■ 
 □□□■□■□■ 
 ■□□□■□■□ 
 □■□□■□■□ 
 □□■□■□■□ 
 □□□■□■□■ 
 ■□□■□■□□ 
 □■□■□■□□ 
 □□■□■□■□ 
 □□■□■□□■ 
 ■□■□■□□□ 
 □■□■□■□□ 
 □■□■□□■□ 
 □■□■□□□a 
 ■□■□■□□□ 
 ■□aaoana 
 ■□BQGQaa 
 
 Fig. 55. 
 
66 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 [Chap. IV. 
 
 only combinations of simple twills. If the picks in 
 succession be examined, they will be found to consist of a 
 series which, if separated from each other, and if all those 
 which work in the same order be put together, would 
 form a twill of themselves, so that the whole would be 
 the result of the combination of two, three, four, or 
 more simple twills. The same result might, of course, 
 have been obtained by the simple process of combination. 
 But what would be the advantage or disadvantage of 
 either mode of working 1 In the first place, when we 
 proceed upon the system of combinations, if we desire 
 to produce some special effect, we must use great care 
 and judgment, and be thoroughly familiar with every 
 possible form of twill, and their effects when combined 
 with each other, or we could never be certain what would 
 follow from a combination of any two or more patterns 
 together; in fact, our patterns would be more the result 
 of chance than design. By the system of elongation we 
 aim at once at a given effect ; we take the surest 
 means of attaining the object we have in view, and 
 consequently lose little time in experiments, and leave 
 nothing to chance. It is certainly desirable to have 
 easy methods of working to obtain a variety of patterns, 
 but it is quite as desirable to be able to obtain whatever 
 result we want at once by design, and leave nothing to 
 accident. We must study all the short methods of 
 economising time and labour, but we must, as far as 
 we can, be sure that the results are those for which 
 we are seeking, otherwise it will be better for us to 
 study the doctrine of chances instead of the principles 
 of design. 
 
 42. Figured Twills.— In many cases we may desire to 
 produce patterns having a figure running between the twill 
 without having the pattern elongated, or without having 
 recourse to the system of combinations. A definite re- 
 sult is aimed at at once ; it is desired to produce a given 
 effect without leaving anything to chance ; we desire, 
 say, to produce a pattern of the character of that shown 
 
Chap. IV.] 
 
 FIGURED TWILLS. 
 
 67 
 
 in Fig. 56. In this we have a decided figure running 
 between the twill, and the angle of the twill is one 
 of forty-five degrees. If we were to analyse this to 
 find of what it consists, it may be said to be the result of 
 the combination of portions of four distinct twills, but 
 to attempt to produce the pattern by the system of com- 
 binations would probably be an absurdity ; that is, to 
 produce it as an original design. We might obtain what 
 we are seeking, but again we are trusting to chance. 
 If we wish to produce figured twills, we must proceed 
 in a manner which will ensure what we are trying to 
 produce. We must determine beforehand the character 
 and proportions of the twill. We must determine 
 also the character of the figure, and combine the 
 two as the combination of twill and figure, not as a 
 number of twills. Our readiest mode of working 
 is, first to put down the twill upon paper, after we have 
 determined its size and character, then to introduce the 
 figure between, and continue or repeat the figure until 
 complete. Of course the production of patterns of this 
 class is dependent entirely upon the inventive faculties of 
 the designer, and his ingenuity in combining two different 
 orders of working so as to produce a harmonious whole, 
 but there are certain rules which may assist him, and in 
 some instances guide him. It is 
 generally understood that variety 
 in a design, if properly treated, 
 may conduce to beauty. In designs 
 for textile fabrics it is desirable in 
 many cases not only to make the 
 pattern continuous, but such that 
 any repetitions of it shall not be 
 too apparent to the eye. For 
 instance, in making such patterns 
 as figured twills, we should not ar- 
 range the figures in such a manner that they appear to 
 run in straight lines, either longitudinally or transversely, 
 in the fabric, or, to use the technical phrase, "their repeti- 
 
 □□□■■■□■■■□□□■BH 
 
 □■■□□□■□■■□□■■■a 
 □■■□□□■■□□□■■■□a 
 
 ■□BDDaBBDaBHBDDB 
 BBDBBBDDDBBBDDDB 
 □□BDBBDQBBBDDBBa 
 
 □□BBanOBBBDDDBBn 
 □□BBDDBBBDDBflaBa 
 BBanaBBBDaaBBBDB 
 BBaDBBBDDBBaOQBa 
 
 □□□BBBDDDBBnaDBB 
 □□BBBDGBBaflDaDKB 
 □BBaDDDBBBDBBBDD 
 BBBDOBBDnDBaBBOa 
 
 BBancBBnnaBBDDaB 
 
 BDaBBDBDaDBBaaBB 
 
 Pig. 66. 
 
68 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 [Chap. IV. 
 
 tion either in the warp or weft must not be in lines 
 or rows." There must appear an equal and regular 
 distribution ; there must be nothing which will be too 
 striking or attract too much attention to itself to the 
 cost of the rest of the composition. In the pattern 
 before us — Fig. 56 — there is not much to fear on this 
 score ; it is so small, and repeated at so short intervals, 
 that no such difficulty could arise, but in the case of large 
 patterns it might, and even sometimes in the case of 
 comparatively small patterns also. In such case we may 
 resort to the plan shown in Fig. 57, where the figure is 
 a series of steps. Now, if these steps all formed in the 
 same horizontal or vertical line, the appearance of the 
 pattern would certainly be unpleasant ; it would simply 
 present a series of lines straight across, or running the 
 length of the piece, broken at regular intervals by 
 the diagonal line ; but as it is, the lines are broken by 
 the relation of the steps to each other, and we have con- 
 sequently a more harmonious diagonal. The steps in 
 the figure do not fall either immedi- 
 ately under or alongside each other, 
 consequently . there is nothing to 
 break the diagonal line. We have 
 only given variety to it by the intro- 
 duction of the waved line. The 
 diagonal is the principal feature of 
 the design, the figure is merely an 
 accessory, and each plays its own 
 proper part. 
 
 Then we must arrange such figures 
 so that they cannot form lines, and 
 as we have said, this is more espe- 
 cially necessary when dealing with 
 large figures, because they stand out 
 more prominently, and strike the eye 
 more readily, and therefore any little 
 defect or want of harmony is more apparent. But the 
 question naturally ax'ises, how can we ensure this 1 We 
 
 ■□□□□■BGBBDnDB 
 ■□□□■■□HBDDnnB 
 ■□□■■□■■□■■BBB 
 BDBBDBBDDBBBBB 
 □BBDBBnnnBBDDD 
 BBDBBDmDBBnan 
 BaBBDBBBBBBDDB 
 □BBDDBBBBBBaBB 
 
 BBnaDBBDaaaBBD 
 
 BDDDDBBDaDBBDB 
 □BBBBBBaDBBDBB 
 □BBBBBBOBBDBBD 
 
 □BBDaDDBBaBBaa 
 
 □BBnanBBDBBana 
 
 BBBODBBaBBaBBB 
 BBBaBBaBBDOBBB 
 
 □□□BBDBBOaDBBa 
 □□BBDBBanDDBBD 
 □BBnBHDBBBBBBn 
 BBDBBaDBBBBBBD 
 
 BnBBanDBBDDaaB 
 
 □BBaDDDBBDnOBB 
 BBaBBBBBBDDBBa 
 BDDBBBBBBDBBDB 
 
 Fig. 57. 
 
Chap. IV.] WHEN FIGURED TWILLS ARE COMPLETE, 
 
 69 
 
 must, as we have said before, leave nothing to chance. 
 The most simple and ready manner of doing this is to 
 make the figure occupy a number of ends or picks which 
 will not be a measure of the number occupied by the 
 diagonal. In Fig. 57 the number occupied by the 
 diagonal is fourteen, the number occupied by the figure 
 is four ; therefore at each repetition of the twill we 
 do not have a repetition of the figure, but only at every 
 alternate repetition. The variety would even be greater 
 if the figure occupied a number which has no common 
 measure with that of the diagonal, as, for example, the 
 diagonal occupying fourteen, and the figure five ends, 
 The repetition would not be so frequent; that is, the 
 point where the twill and figure meet at the same 
 moment would not occiir so often, and consequently 
 there would be less risk of the figure detracting from the 
 diagonal, or breaking the line. 
 
 43. When Figured Twills are Complete. — We 
 have only one matter now to look at in connection with 
 this system of combining twill or diagonal patterns and 
 figures — namely, the determining the point where the 
 pattern is complete ; and the principle which we applied 
 to the combination of twills occupying difierent numbers 
 of ends will also apply here— that is, carrying them 
 forward to a number of which that occupied by the 
 diagonal and the figure shall be a measure. Thus, 
 in Fig. 57 the twill occupies fourteen ends and the 
 figure, counted diagonally, occupies four ; then the 
 number of which fourteen and four are both a mea- 
 sure is twenty-eight, so that the pattern will^ require 
 fourteen ends and twenty-eight picks, or vice versa, 
 to complete it ; had the figure occupied five ends and the 
 diagonal still remained upon fourteen, then the number 
 of picks required to complete the pattern would have 
 been seventy, because that is the first number of which 
 each is a measure. 
 
 44. Combination of Different Orders of Working 
 in Stripe Form. — We have now one other system of 
 
70 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 [Chap. IV. 
 
 combining twills or other working for the purpose of 
 producing patterns to consider, and in this, although 
 the mere placing of the patterns together upon paper is 
 much the same as some of those we have already con- 
 sidered, yet the conditions or characters of the combinations 
 may be such as to completely alter the structure of the 
 fabric and to require special consideration of the relative 
 quantities of warp and weft in each portion of the cloth. 
 We will, in the first place, deal with the subject in 
 the most simple manner, by combining two patterns 
 of the plainest character. It often happens that we 
 desire to produce a striped effect upon a fabric having a 
 plain ground, and we desire to make this stripe stand 
 out as plainly and prominently as possible, whether the 
 stripe be of the same colour as the ground or of a 
 different colour. Or it may even be that the material com- 
 posing the stripe is different from that of the ground, 
 and the order of working also different. We will take, 
 for example. Fig. 58, and suppose in the first place that 
 we are using one colour only, and one material only, 
 so that we may see more directly the effect upon the 
 fabric of the different orders of interweaving. In the 
 first place, we have a number of ends weaving quite 
 plain, or interlacing with each other alternately. We 
 have then a number of ends weaving in the order of 
 a twill, or interlacing with each other at intervals of 
 four. Now, it must be obvious that if all the warp 
 threads of which the cloth is to be composed are of 
 the same thickness, are set equally close together, and 
 come from the same warp beam, so that the same length 
 of each be given off as the fabric is formed, the portion 
 which is weaving plain cloth, being more intimately 
 woven with the weft, will " take up," or become much 
 tighter than the portion which is forming twill. In 
 addition to that, the texture of the fabric in the plain 
 portion will be much firmer than that of the twill portion. 
 It is a generally accepted rule that all portions of a piece 
 of fabric should be as nearly as possible equal in firm- 
 
Chap. IV.] DIFFERENT PATTERNS IN STRIPES. 
 
 71 
 
 ness of texture, and also that the portion which forms 
 the ornamental part should certainly not be inferior to 
 the ground or body of the fabric. Then we must resort 
 to one of two expedients — either we must use thicker 
 warp, or there must be a greater number of ends in 
 the twill portion than in the other. If we use thicker 
 warp simply, we increase the bulk of the fabric very 
 much, and greatly increased bulk is objectionable. 
 On the other hand, if we increase the number of ends 
 simply, employing the same thickness of warp as for the 
 ground, we again obtain increased bulk, though cer- 
 tainly not in the same degree as in the previous case ; 
 that is, if we bring the threads of the same weight as the 
 ground warp sufficiently close together to make the twill 
 portion as firm in texture as the plain, we shall not have 
 so much weight as if we keep the number of threads 
 in a given space, as in the ground, and increase the 
 thickness of the threads to a sufficient extent to obtain 
 the requisite firmness of texture, because the weight of 
 threads does not vary in the direct ratio of their diameters, 
 but as the squares of their diameters. This being the case, 
 it is clearly better not to increase the weight of the 
 threads employed in forming the stripe, but to increase 
 the number of threads in a given space ; because we not 
 only keep nearer the weight of the ground fabric, but we 
 increase the firmness of the stripe, and so improve the 
 appearance. Indeed, we may go a step further, and 
 instead of using the same thickness of thread for the 
 stripe as for the ground of the fabric, use a much thinner 
 thread, and increase the number again proportionately, 
 and we shall not only be bringing the relative weight 
 of stripe and ground nearer together, but we shall be 
 bringing the relative firmness of structure nearer the 
 same level, and at the same time improving the appear- 
 ance of the fabric in a great degree ; for in many cases, 
 especially where only one colour is employed, the fine 
 appearance of the stripe is the chief thing relied upon 
 for the ornamentation. Well, suppose we don't resort 
 
' DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. [Chap. IV. 
 
 to these expedients, we must see wlmt will be the 
 general effect of the fabric. In the first place, as we 
 have already pointed out, the sk-ipe portion will be less 
 firmly interwoven than the ground ; it will consequently 
 have a ragged, thin, and meagre appearance, and 
 from this very thinness and looseness it will be liable 
 to "fray," or the threads will slip upon each other, 
 instead of being held firmly in their places. Acrain it 
 will probably present an unsatisfactory appearance 
 from what is termed " cockling," or, in other words, 
 one portion of the fabric will appear nice and straight, 
 while another, the stripe portion, will be uneven and 
 appear as a series of ridges and hollows. 
 
 Such a state of affairs could not of course be satis- 
 factory, therefore in all such cases we must take care 
 that the ground and stripe are properly proportioned to 
 each other, and the relative quantities of warp , and the 
 thickness of the warp in such portion properly propor- 
 tioned to the order of interweaving. 
 
 In the example (Fig. 58) we\ave taken the stripe 
 as a simple twill, but very frequently the stripe is a 
 
 satin, or it may be anv 
 ■aSSSgggSggSBBSgBBSgSggS order of working which 
 SSSSSgggggSSgSBBSgBBSSBB win separate it sufficiently 
 rig. 58. from the ground, and 
 
 show it up with enough 
 prominence. It may also be not only of a different 
 colour, but also of a different material. It is no un- 
 common occurrence to see the ground of the fabric 
 formed with cotton warp and the stripe portion silk 
 In any case the true relations must be maintained 
 between the stripe and the ground, and either the 
 difference m the thickness, or the number of ends in 
 a given space, or both, must be properly regulated to 
 the order of interweaving, so as to secure the most 
 perfectly balanced fabric. 
 
 In many fabrics the ground will show a pre- 
 dominance of weft on the surface, while the stripe shows 
 
Chap, v.] 
 
 DOUBLE CLOTHS. 
 
 73 
 
 a predominance of warp. Here the relative quantities 
 will require even more careful attention, though perhaps 
 in some few instances the predominance of weft in one 
 case will, to some extent, neutralise the predominance of 
 warp in the other. But we have already pointed out 
 that, in general, when the weft or the warp predominates 
 on the surface in the order of interweaving, it should 
 also do so in the actual number of threads employed in 
 a given distance. In any case it is necessary that great 
 care should be taken to make the fabric as perfect as 
 possible. 
 
 CHAPTER Y. 
 
 DOUBLE CLOTHS. 
 
 45. The Value of a Knowledge of Double Cloths. — 
 
 Whilst consideiing the structure of fabrics, combined 
 with their ornamentation, and before entering upon the 
 question of ornament purely, there is one class with 
 which we must deal — namely, double cloths. This com- 
 prises a great many of the most useful fabrics made, 
 and enables us to produce not only an useful article, 
 but gives us great powers of ornamentation. Another 
 feature of much importance in double cloth is that 
 a thorough knowledge of fabrics of this structure is 
 perhaps the best guide to the production of fabrics 
 of a purely ornamental character. In fact, any 
 one who has a complete mastery of the principles of 
 the weaving of double cloths, and the methods of orna- 
 menting with them, need not despair for a moment of 
 being able readily to deal with fabrics of any description. 
 For he must not only be able to ornament his fabric, 
 but he must be able to follow in detail every separate 
 thread, or set of threads, and deal with each, and 
 apply it to the purpose for which it is intended, with 
 
74 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 [Chap. V. 
 
 a due regard to both the structure of the fabric of 
 which this set of threads is composed and also to the 
 order of working of the fabric and threads which may 
 accompany it. 
 
 _ 46. We may inquire, in the first place, What is the 
 object of making double cloths ? Generally speaking, we 
 may be said to have one of two objects in view, or 
 perhaps the two may sometimes be combined. First,' we 
 may make double cloths for the purpose of producing a 
 fabric of great bulk and strength, and with great power 
 of retaining warmth as an article of clothing ; second, we 
 may make double cloth for the sole purpose of producing 
 an ornamental fabric ; or we may combine the two by 
 producing an article both useful and ornamental. In 
 discussing this portion of the subject we must be 
 careful to omit no detail which is likely to have a 
 bearing upon future work; and the student must be 
 equally careful to be thoroughly master of it before 
 he leaves it, otherwise he may find that some of the 
 fabrics with which he may have to deal appear quite 
 foreign to him, based upon a principle of which he has 
 no knowledge, whereas they may have their first basis or 
 ground-work in double cloths, perhaps of the most simple 
 kind. ^ It will not be necessary here to enter too 
 fully into the mere arrangement of the design upon 
 paper, as that has already been done in the " Practical 
 Treatise on Weaving and Designing," already re- 
 ferred to; but we must deal more especially with 
 the structure of the cloth, and the methods of orna- 
 menting it. 
 
 47. Cloths with two Wefts and one Warp.— In the 
 
 first place let us consider what are commonly known 
 as double cloths, which are made for the purpose solely 
 of producing a heavy fabric, chiefly with a view to 
 making a warm, useful article of clothing, and then show 
 the application of the same mode of working for pro- 
 ducing an ornamental as well as an useful article. 
 
 This class of what are called double cloths, is double 
 
Chap, v.] 
 
 BACKED CLOTHS. 
 
 75 
 
 only in one sense — namely, there are two separate 
 wefts, one for the formation of the wearing surface, 
 and the other for forming the back, or, as it is some- 
 times and very properly called, the " lining " of the 
 cloth, and there is only one warp. Generally speaking, 
 the pattern on the face of the fabric is a fancy one, 
 and that on the back of as plain a character as the 
 structure of the cloth will permit ; but sometimes, more 
 especially when the article is intended to be reversible, 
 both patterns are alike. In the latter case the most 
 general practice is to make both patterns of a plain 
 character, a simple twill or plain satin, the chief object 
 being to cover the warp as effectively as possible, and at 
 the same time to prevent the weft of the opposite side, 
 which is frequently of a different colour, from showing 
 through. We will first deal with the class where the 
 back cloth or back weft is used merely to add to 
 the weight, strength, or wearing qualities of the fabric, 
 regardless of pattern. In such cases we should deal 
 with the face fabric as regards pattern, proportion 
 of weft to warp, and other conditions, just as if we 
 were dealing with a single cloth. In fact, the con- 
 ditions of structure must be just as if there were no 
 probability of a back being put upon it. We must 
 consider the back as a "lining" only. We must 
 prevent it interfering with the face, either as regards 
 the formation of the pattern or as affecting the relative 
 quantities of warp and weft. The back must be merely 
 an addition, introduced independently of the face, with a 
 view to make the fabric serve the purpose for which it 
 is intended more thoroughly, and must be interwoven 
 with the warp so as substantially to form a part of the 
 fabric, but must not, unless for some special reason siich 
 as we may have to point out, in any way interfere with 
 the working of the face pattern. 
 
 We will take for our first illustration one of the 
 plainest patterns possible, so as to show clearly what 
 is meant by this system of making double cloths or 
 
DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. [Chap. V. 
 
 lining thera. Fig. 59 is the working design for a 
 plain twill cloth face and a back of weft upon it, such 
 as is commonly used for cloths for gentlemen's coat- 
 ings. The separate designs for face and back respec- 
 tively are shown at a and b. In designing fabrics of 
 this kind these are the two chief 
 objects — namely, the proper re- 
 lation of the back to the face 
 pattern, and the proper relation 
 of the warp and weft which 
 forms the face. Let us examine 
 this pattern for the purpose of 
 showing how we may best deal 
 with these considerations. First, 
 with regard to the relation of 
 the two patterns to either. An 
 examination of the pattern in 
 Fig. 59 shows that it is simply 
 a combination of the two patterns a and b, but that 
 combination is made in a particular manner; in 
 fact, the two patterns are specially arranged to suit 
 each other. We are not proceeding upon the same lines 
 of combination as we did when we were combining 
 merely to produce new patterns for ornamentation, 
 but we are proceeding to combine with a specific 
 object in view. It will be observed in the design that 
 at the point where the back weft passes over a warp 
 thread the same thread is also passed over by the face 
 pick of weft which goes before as well as by that which 
 follows the back pick ■ or, in other words, we have first 
 arranged our face pattern, then introduced the weft 
 which is to form the back or " lining," and interwoven 
 that back weft into the warp at a point where it is on 
 the under side of the fabric. By this means the weft 
 forming the back is effectively prevented from coming to 
 the surface of the fabric ; the face picks will close over 
 it, and continue to form their own pattern as if the back 
 had no existence. Thus we have here the first principle 
 
 ■□□■BODH 
 
 □□■■□□BB 
 
 □□□□□□BD 
 □BBDQBBa 
 □BDaDDDD 
 BBDDBBaa 
 
 Fig. 59. 
 
 BDnBBDDB 
 □□BBQDBB 
 □BBmBBD 
 BBDDBBna 
 BaDBBODB 
 □□BBDOBB 
 □BBDnBBD 
 BBDDBBaa 
 
 a 
 
 □□aDBDnn 
 
 aaDDDDDB 
 DGBDDDDD 
 DDDDDBDG 
 BODDDDDD 
 DDDBaDDD 
 □DGDDGBG 
 □BDGaDDG 
 
Chap, v.] 
 
 BACKED CLOTHS. 
 
 77 
 
 of making designs for double cloths ; and, altlio\igli we 
 are speaking of one class of double cloth only, that one 
 feature belongs to all classes. We have now to con- 
 sider more in detail the arrangement of the design. It 
 may be said that, so long as the face pattern is perfect— 
 a regular continuous twill, or a complete pattern of 
 any description — it matters little as to the order of 
 binding the back weft provided it does not interfere 
 with the face ; but in this, as in the arrangement of all 
 designs, we must have regularity and definite order, and 
 the order of binding the back must be arranged to suit 
 the face pattern, so that it wUl always fall in the proper 
 place. Sometimes it may be that the pattern on the 
 back is a twill, or it may be a satin or other broken 
 order. In the case before us we have the back pattern 
 arranged in satin order simply as a matter of necessity, 
 so that it shall fall always in the same position in re- 
 lation to the face twill, and also so that the binding 
 falls equally in each twill and upon every end of the 
 pattern. It will be noticed that there is one pick of 
 the face weft to one of the back weft ; the face pattern 
 is a four-end twill, the weft passing over two and under 
 two ends alternately ; the back pattern passes over one 
 and under seven ends. The twill of the face advances 
 one end to the right at each pick, and the back pattern 
 advances three ends to the left or five to the right at 
 each pick. The face twill having advanced one to the 
 right, and being twice repeated in the whole pattern, 
 may be said to have brought the point in the face twill 
 corresponding to that when the first backing pick is 
 bound, to a position three ends to the left or five ends 
 to the right from that binding point ; consequently, if 
 we advance three in one direction or five in the other 
 with our binding of the back, we shall place each back- 
 ing pick in the same position in relation to the face, and, as 
 three is not a measure of eight, the result will be a perfect 
 distribution of the binding points ; each end will be 
 occupied. We have, therefore, a perfect pattern on the 
 
78 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 rCliap. V. 
 
 back. Each of the face twills has an equal number of 
 binding points, and those points always fall in the same 
 relation to the face twills, and we have as perfect an 
 arrangement of double cloth as it is possible to obtain. 
 We will examine another arrangement of the same face 
 twill with a back upon it, and then we shall be able to 
 see more readily the defects which may occur. Take 
 the pattern in Fig. 60. Here we have the same face 
 pattern, but we have two picks of the face to one of 
 the back. The pattern has, therefore, advanced two 
 ends from the position of the first binding of the back 
 before we come at the proper place for the binding of 
 the next back pick, and, as two is a number which is a 
 measure of eight, we cannot resort to the satin arrange- 
 ment of the back pattern. We must, of course, keep 
 the binding in the proper position in relation 
 to the face pattern ; we must also distribute 
 the binding equally over all the twills; 
 therefore the arrangement shown at Fig. 60 
 is the only possible one. On the paper this 
 has all the appearance of being perfect, and, 
 perhaps, in some qualities of cloth would be 
 so, but it is not all that could be desired, 
 and in other fabrics may be very imperfect. 
 It will be noticed that, in consequence of 
 the order of arrangement of the back pat- 
 tern, only every alternate end of the warp 
 is occupied by it; and again, there is a 
 decided twill formed by the back weft run- 
 ning in a direction contrary to the face twill. 
 If the weft used for the back happened to be very thick, 
 more especially if at the same time that of the face was 
 fine, not only would this counter twill be distinctly 
 visible, but the ends passed over by the back weft would 
 tend to work much more tightly than the others, and so 
 produce a fabric of a most imperfect kind ; in fact, it 
 would be a quite unsa *able article, and the nature' of 
 the defect is such that it could not be remedied. 
 
 Fig. 60. 
 
Chap, v.] 
 
 PATTER'NS FORMED BY BINDING. 
 
 79 
 
 Again, in Fig. 61 we have the same face pattern, but 
 the back is different. In this case we have the same 
 defect of the binding only occupying every alternate 
 end, and the twill of the back running counter to the 
 face, or rather the appearance of a twill — it is not in 
 reality a twill ; but as the binding and this 
 apparent twill are so much more frequent, 
 there would probably be less of the defect 
 visible on the face. There is, however, 
 another matter to consider here — namely, 
 that the binding of the back into the warp 
 occurring at every fourth end, instead of at 
 every eighth, as in Fig. 60, it might in some 
 degree prevent the face weft going in so 
 closely, and thus prevent the face from being 
 made quite so fine in texture. In the fabrics 
 with which we are now dealing the general 
 practice is to make the back weft of very 
 much coarser and heavier material than the 
 face, the chief object being to increase weight, 
 and to make the fabric more useful as a warm article 
 of clothing, and at the same time to make it as cheaply 
 as possible. It is therefore evident that great care 
 must be taken to prevent the undue intei-ference of 
 the back with the face cloth, because we must make 
 the face extremely fine, and free from faults or 
 blemishes. 
 
 48. Pattern formed by Binding. — In some few 
 instances the back weft is purposely brought through 
 into the face to assist in the formation of patterns, or 
 perhaps it would be more correct to say to form a pattern 
 in addition to that made by the face weft. For instance, 
 by bringing the back weft through to the face at 
 regular intervals, and constantly upon the same end 
 or ends, a stripe would be produced, and if to this were 
 added one of the picks coming through in like manner 
 all across the piece a check design would be obtained. 
 Any pattern may be formed by bringing the back weft 
 
 ■□□■■□□a 
 
 □□■■□□BB 
 
 oauaaama 
 
 □BBDnBBD 
 
 BBDQiaBaa 
 BDnaflDm 
 BuaBanDB 
 
 □□BBDOBB 
 
 □□BaaoBD 
 
 □BBDDBBa 
 BBOaBBGD 
 
 BnonBDaa 
 
 BDDBBnnB 
 □□BBDOBB 
 □□BOODBD 
 □BOaDBBD 
 BBUOBBGD 
 
 BaaDBDm 
 
 BaaBBDOB 
 □□BBDOBB 
 □□BDDOBa 
 □BBDaBBO 
 BBDUBBOD 
 
 Fig. 61. 
 
80 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 [Chap. V. 
 
 through at such points as may be required for its 
 formation. 
 
 49. Reversible Cloths. — Another most valuable use 
 to which this class of double cloths is largely applied 
 is the production of reversible fabrics, which may 
 be worn on either side at will — such as shawls, rugs, 
 a great many mantle and other cloths. Usually in 
 fabrics of this description, the pattern upon both sides is 
 the same, but the colours are different. Fig. 62 shows a 
 plan of a fabric of this kind which is simply a com- 
 bination of two satins, one showing a greater pro- 
 portion of weft than of warp to the surface, and the 
 other the same quantity to the back. In this it must 
 be observed that the same principle of arrangement is 
 carried out as in Fig. 60 — namely tlie point where the 
 back pick interweaves with the warp is covered on the 
 face both by the preceding and the succeeding picks, 
 so that there is no possible chance of its showing 
 through to the face ; and, in the same manner, the point 
 where the face weft interweaves is hid at the back by 
 the back weft, so that both sides shall be equally 
 perfect. In this class of pattern we have to 
 □■□□a consider both sides of the cloth, unlike that in 
 which the back is simply a " lining," and the 
 t'^'o also differ in this respect — that whereas 
 reversible fabrics must have both sides equal in 
 Fig. 62. quality or degree of fineness, and generally in 
 texture or pattern also, those which are simply 
 backed to give weight may have the back any degree 
 of fineness or coarseness, and the pattern may be any- 
 thing which will not interfere with the face. 
 
 The colours of the weft used may be different for 
 each side, or one side, may be all of one colour and the 
 other side any fancy stripe pattern. Generally the chief 
 object in fabrics of this description is to make each side 
 as different as possible from the other, whether they be 
 both solid colours, or one side solid and the other striped, 
 or both striped, and to ensure this distinction there must 
 
Chap, v.] 
 
 EEVERSIBLE CLOTHS, 
 
 81 
 
 be absolute certainty that the weft of one side cannot 
 possibly show through to the other, and that the warp — 
 which may be of an indifferent colour — cannot be seen 
 on either side. If the pattern be a twill, we may pre- 
 vent the wefts from showing through to the opposite sides, 
 but we cannot prevent the warp from showing, because, 
 the order of interweaving being consecutive, each suc- 
 ceeding warp thread is, as it were, laid bare, and must be 
 visible on the surface of the fabric. 
 
 Then to cover this the usual practice is to make the 
 pattern a satin, so that by the order of interweaving 
 being arranged at intervals, each succeeding pick has an 
 opportunity of covering the binding of the preceding pick, 
 and so securing a perfectly solid surface, and avoiding 
 the possibility of the warp showing through. Of course 
 in such cases there can be no pattern visible, except 
 tbat formed by the varying colours of weft ; there is 
 no pattern in the fabric formed by the interweaving of 
 the warp and weft threads. 
 
 50. Figured Reversible Cloths. — Although so far 
 we have dealt only with reversible cloths in which we 
 are dependent entirely upon the use of colour for orna- 
 menting, we have other means still at our disposal for 
 producing ornamentation upon them. It has been shown 
 that we may have a fancy pattern on one side of 
 the cloth, and a plain or simple twill on the other, 
 and also that in fabrics where the working or order of 
 interweaving the warp and weft is the same on both 
 sides, it may be reversible for wear, and each side 
 may be of a different colour or colours. We have 
 now to deal with the ornamentation of this latter class 
 by figuring. This mode of figuring differs somewhat 
 from all other systems, though to a certain extent it 
 resembles in style one or two methods with which 
 we shall have to deal. We have already pointed out that 
 in making reversible cloths we use two distinct wefts, 
 one for each side of the fabric. In making figured rever- 
 sible cloths exactly the same principles are involved, only 
 
 G 
 
82 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 [Chap. V. 
 
 instead of letting each weft remain always on the same 
 side they are made to exchange places. Fig. 63 shows a 
 section. The dots represent the warp threads just as we 
 
 a h 
 
 Fig. 63. • 
 
 should see them if we were to cut the cloth and look at 
 it as it has been cut, and the waved lines represent 
 the weft, and show the order of interweaving with 
 the warp. This section shows each weft forming a four- 
 end twill pattern with the warp, but at the points a and 
 b respectively the weft which has been on the face of the 
 fabric passes to the back, and that which has been on the 
 back comes to the face. This would be repeated at each 
 succeeding pick, and the points where the two wefts 
 exchange places would alter according to the pattern to 
 be formed. So that, assuming the 
 two wefts to be black and white, 
 we should have on one side of the 
 cloth a white ground with black 
 figures, and upon the other side a 
 black ground with white figures. 
 Of course the size, form, and order 
 of distribution of the figures woiild 
 be the same upon each side, being 
 formed as they are simply by the 
 two wefts exchanging places. In 
 Fig. 64 we have a plan of a pattern 
 showing this order of working, and 
 forming a diagonal of black and 
 white alternately. If each pick of 
 weft be examined, it will be seen 
 that for a given distance each 
 comes to the surface of the fabric 
 and then passes to the back, and 
 the next succeeding pick works exactly the reverse, 
 
 □□■□□■■■□■■■□□■a 
 
 □■□□■■■□■■■□□■□a 
 ■■■□■□□□■□□□■■■a 
 ■□□■■■□■■■□□■□□a 
 
 □■■■□■■■□□■□□□■a 
 
 ■■■□■■■□□■□□□■□a 
 ■□□□■□□□■■■□■■■a 
 
 □□■□□□■■■□■■■□■a 
 ■■■□□■□□□■□□■■■a 
 
 □■□□□■□□■■■□■■■a 
 ■■■□■■■□■□□□■□□a 
 
 Fig. 64. 
 
Chap, v.] FIGURED REVERSIBLE CLOTHS. 
 
 83 
 
 the point of exchanging places altering at each succeed- 
 ing face pick in such a manner as to form the desired 
 pattern. 
 
 This system of figuring may be carried to any length. 
 There is practically 
 no limit to the 
 ■variety of patterns 
 we may produce. 
 They may be large 
 or small, simple or 
 elaborate, at will, 
 and the fabric will 
 always be such as 
 can be worn on 
 either side. It may, 
 perhaps, be as well 
 to guard the student against one possible misconstruction 
 of the words we have just used as to the variety of the 
 patterns we may produce by this mode of working. What 
 is meant is, that patterns, or, as they are usually termed in 
 the trade, " figures," of the most varied forms may be pro- 
 duced, but not that 
 variety of colours 
 may be introduced 
 into the design. 
 We have one colour 
 of weft for one side, 
 and another colour 
 for the other side, 
 and, as we have 
 shown, the figure or 
 pattern is formed 
 Fig. 66. by these exchanging 
 
 places and occupy- 
 ing alternate sides of the fabric ; therefore we have one 
 colour of ground, and a different coloured figure 
 upon it on one side of the cloth, and exactly the 
 reverse on the other side, so that the ground is one 
 
 Fig". 65. 
 
84 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 [Ctap. V. 
 
 solid colour, and the figure is another solid colour in 
 each case. Sometimes a variation is made, and one 
 side of the cloth is striped in the ground ; in that case 
 the figure of the reverse side is striped in exactly the 
 same manner, as shown in Figs. 65 and 66; but that 
 stripe in the figure will be more likely to spoil the efiect 
 than to add to its beauty, because in all probability, if 
 the stripe be a small one, the figure will present a quite 
 broken-up appearance, without any order, and if the 
 stripe be a large one, it may be divided into two portions, 
 one of one colour and the other of the other. Those 
 portions may be equal or unequal, and unless considerable 
 care and skill be employed, the divisions of the colours 
 in the various figures will be very irregular. In any 
 case the use of varied colours in fabrics of this class must 
 be of a more or less stiff character, partaking of the 
 stripe form ; and where the fabric is not figured — each 
 weft remaining on its own side — they may be used with 
 advantage ; but when figured, the greatest care must be 
 taken that the figures are not too much or too irregularly 
 broken up, otherwise the efiect will be very unpleasant. 
 If the patterns be of a regular character, as a diagonal, 
 then the use of more than one colour may be decidedly 
 advantageous, because the pattern being continuous, the 
 striping will occur regularly, and will be no drawback, but 
 may rather add to the beauty and variety of the design. 
 
 Generally, any variety of colour in stripe form is con- 
 fined to one side of the cloth, at any rate in figured 
 goods, so that we have on one side a solid coloured figure 
 on a striped ground, and on the other side a striped 
 figure on a solid coloured ground. If both ground and 
 figure were striped, the efiect would probably be too 
 much of a mixture, especially if the sizes of stripe in each 
 case were similar. However, we must be guided at all 
 times by the particular efiect desired, and also by the 
 due consideration of the purposes to which the fabric 
 is to be applied, and suit our pattern to the require- 
 ments of the case as best we can. 
 
Chap, v.] DOUBLE WARP- FACED CLOTHS. 
 
 85 
 
 51. Cloths with two Warps and one Weft.— The 
 
 second class of double cloths, or what is known as double 
 warp faced cloths, consists, as before said, of two warps 
 and one weft, and is really the class with which we have 
 just been dealing inverted, warp becoming weft, and weft 
 becoming warp. The uses to which this class of fabric 
 is put are probably much fewer than the double weft 
 face, but still sufficient to make it well worth while for 
 the intending designer becoming thoroughly master of 
 the principles upon which it is based. This principle 
 of structure is most generally applied to fabrics in 
 which both sides are intended to be alike in pattern 
 and quality, though they may be different in colour. 
 The arrangement of the plan upon paper is precisely 
 the same as for double weft face, taking weft for warp, 
 and vice versa; for example: Fig. 62, if read warp for 
 weft, would be a plan of a double warp 
 face, as shown in Fig. 67. "We need not, 
 therefore, dwell at length upon the ar- 
 rangements of the design or plan of this 
 class of fabric, seeing that all we have 
 said of the double weft face applies also to the double 
 warp face, so far as it is used in practice. We must, 
 then, apply ourselves to the consideration of the uses of 
 double warp face to the production of useful fabrics, and 
 see how far what we have said of double weft face is 
 applied in practice to double warp. 
 
 It has already been pointed out that this principle of 
 structure is most generally applied to fabrics where both 
 sides are alike in quality and structure, as, for example, 
 to ribbons used by ladies for trimming, when one 
 side is of a totally different colour from the other, but 
 both present the same fine satin appearance. In fact, it 
 is to this class of goods more than any other that the 
 double warp face is applied. For this reason such goods 
 are usually made with fine silk on the surface, and in the 
 process of weaving an immense number of threads of 
 such fine material may be used per inch as wai'p. Their 
 
86 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 [Cliap. V, 
 
 very fineness, and the smooth nature of the silk thread, 
 will not create any difficulty in the process of weaving ; 
 and the small number of threads per inch in the opposite 
 direction or weft enables the weaver to produce a much 
 greater length of fabric per day than if the cloth were 
 made on the double weft principle, where the con- 
 ditions would be reversed ; but in the case of woollen- 
 faced goods these considerations would not hold, because 
 of the thickness and roughness of the thread, which 
 would render it quite impossible to weave with the 
 number per inch which would be required to produce 
 the necessary fineness of fabric. In some few instances 
 the use of two warps is applied to fabrics made from 
 wool for the same purpose as the use of two wefts — 
 namely, to obtain increased weight. In such cases the 
 face, or fine warp, forms the fabric proper with any 
 pattern that may be desired, and the back warp forms 
 merely a lining of any loose pattern which will not 
 interfere with the face. Such fabrics are not so easy to 
 weave as if they were made with two wefts instead of 
 two warps, because of the thickness and roughness of the 
 threads ; but the necessity for employing two warps may 
 often arise from the fact that our looms are not adapted 
 to the production of double weft cloths. For instance, 
 if our looms are constructed to weave with one shuttle 
 only, we are only able to use one weft ; and if the 
 material we are using for the face cloth be very fine, we 
 cannot afford to use that for the lining also, because the 
 cost of the cloth would be so much increased without a 
 corresponding advantage. Then we must resort to the 
 use of an extra warp for the back, and although we 
 may increase the difiiculties of the weaver, we shall, 
 by the use of coarser material for the back, be enabled 
 to produce the fabric at a cheaper rate. We may say, 
 generally, that the use of the double warp cloth is 
 confined chiefly to the two classes of goods we have 
 named, being rarely used for producing figures, though 
 perhaps in some fev/ instances it may be so employed, 
 
Chap, v.] 
 
 TWO SEPARATE CLOTHS. 
 
 87 
 
 but those wxil, in most cases, be where the warp is silk, 
 or very fine yarns in other materials; hnt the loose 
 fibre upon yarns made from other materials than silk 
 renders it somewhat difficult to weave with the number 
 of threads per inch required to make the fabric suffi- 
 ciently fine, even if the yarns are spun to very fine 
 
 52. Two separate Cloths.— We now come to the 
 third and most generally useful class of double cloth— 
 namely, where there are two separate and distinct fabrics, 
 each formed with its own weft and warp— and the con- 
 sideration of the various purposes which it may serve ; 
 and we must urge the student to pay the closest attention 
 to this class of fabric, and make himself thoroughly master 
 of it. A complete knowledge of the two preceding 
 classes will help him very much in understanding this 
 class; but he must not be content with this. It he 
 wishes to be a competent designer for fancy cloths he 
 must study this branch until he has entirely mastered it 
 To begin, let us examine the manner m which 
 double cloths of this class are produced. In the first 
 place, we Lave 
 
 in making our Fig- 68. 
 
 working plan 
 
 each must be dealt with by itself, so far as pattern 
 goes, as though the other had no existence We 
 have in Fig. 68 a section showing two cloths, both ot 
 which are twilled; or, rather, we show two picks 
 (one of each cloth) which may each be taken as 
 being the first pick of a twill, in which weft passes 
 over and under two threads alternately. Each wett 
 interweaves with its own warp only, and the two 
 cloths are consequently quite independent. They are 
 both woven at once, but the material forming each cloth 
 is confined to that cloth alone, and takes no part m 
 
 counts. 
 
 a separate warp 
 and weft for 
 each cloth ; and 
 
88 DESIGN m TEXTILE FABRICS. [Chap. V. 
 
 uor combines with that forming the other cloth in anv 
 degree. The plan of this cloth is sho^vn in Fis 69 In 
 It the first tlmd, fifth, and seventh ends and picka 
 are those which are to form the face, or upper cloth, 
 and the second, fourth, sixth, and eighth ends and 
 picks are those ^'hich are to make the back or lower 
 ■• i^^'^x'.? ^P°^ ^^ose ends 
 
 □□□□□SHI t "^^'^^ ^""^ face cloth 
 
 RnHS^S^S examined, it will be seen that they make 
 eSSSgS ^ dots which are 
 
 upon the back ends and picks only also 
 Fig. 69. form a regular twill ; but upon those picks 
 
 ^.f. 1 " 7 * 7^'''^ ^""^ ^^^^ tlie face cloth 
 dots are placed at the point where they intersect the 
 warp threads of the back cloth. In all cases we are 
 assuming that those dots represent weft as passing 
 
 that tr?- ^""^ -eii 
 
 tliat the face weft passes clear over everi/ end of the 
 
 back cloth ; and in like manner the weft of the back 
 
 cloth passes under every end of the face cloth, so that 
 
 each weft interweaves with its own warp only, each warp 
 
 being kept out of the way-lifted up or left down, as Se 
 
 case may require-while the weft of the other cloth is 
 
 .Zir7 f- . J^'^' ^ arranging the plans for two 
 separate cloths, this is the principle upon which we must 
 proceed : first put the face-cloth pattern upon those ends 
 
 wf/.f 1""^'^ T ^^"'^ ^1^*^' d« tl^e same 
 with the back cloth, and next arrange that as each pick of 
 weft IS inserted they interweave with the warp of the 
 cloth to which they belong only. 
 
 53. Relation of the two Cloths to each Other — 
 bo tar as the arrangement of the plan of the fabric is 
 concerned, the foregoing is perhaps sufficient to indicate 
 the geneml mode of procedure, but we have now to 
 consider the relation of the two cloths to each other 
 iJouble cloths of this class are capable of a great variety 
 of arrangements, but they may be classed generally 
 under four distinct heads : first, when the two cloths arl 
 
Chap, v.] 
 
 RELATIONS OF CLOTHS. 
 
 89 
 
 equal in quality and pattern ; second, when they differ 
 in pattern only ; third, when they differ in quality 
 only; and fourth, when they differ in both quality 
 and pattern. Of those in use, it may be said that the 
 first and fourth of the above are by far the most general, 
 and, as we shall proceed to show, for quite sufficient 
 reasons. 
 
 In considering each of these four types of double 
 cloths one question must be kept constantly before us — 
 namely, the relations of the warp to the weft and to 
 the pattern. It must be evident if the two cloths are 
 equal in quality and pattern, the " take up," or shrink- 
 age of both will be equal, both in the warp and weft, 
 but if they are equal in quality and different in pattern, 
 should one pattern interweave more loosely than the 
 other, the " take up " of one will be greater than of the 
 other, and if they are bound together in the process of 
 weaving, that which works most loosely will be liable to 
 " cockle " on the surface. Perhaps it may be done 
 for a purpose ; if so, well and good, but generally it is 
 desired to obviate such an effect and make the surface of 
 the cloth as smooth as possible ; in fact, to give it all the 
 appearance of a single cloth. In that case the greatest 
 care must be taken to make the cloths equal, and if they 
 must for any reason differ either in quality or pattern, 
 every precaution must be observed to ensure the " take 
 up " being equal in both. Or, if the two cloths be made 
 from materials which possess in a different degree shrink- 
 ing properties, and which may be differently affected in 
 the process of finishing the goods, then they must be made 
 to neutralise each other, or some influence must be 
 brought to bear which will neutralise them in the fullest 
 extent. 
 
 "We will first deal with cloths which are equal both 
 in quality and pattern. Such cloths are iisually made 
 for the same reason as some of the double weft face 
 cloths, namely, to produce greater weight, or to make 
 the fabric reversible — more generally the latter ; and in 
 
90 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 [Chap. V. 
 
 such cases the two fabrics, though equal in all other 
 respects, will be different in colour, or one may be a 
 solid colour, and the other a stripe or check. In any 
 case the same principle of making the plan is carried out 
 as has been already indicated in Fig. 69, the warp 
 and weft of each cloth being arranged alternately, end 
 and end or pick and pick, and each weft interweaving 
 only with its own warp, ^ 
 
 54. Binding Double Cloths.— Cloths of this descrip- 
 tion have usually to be bound together, so as to make 
 them appear as one cloth, and in fact to become one 
 cloth. In such cases the warp of one has to interweave 
 in a greater or less degree with the weft of the other ; 
 but this must be done so as not to interfere with the 
 pattern of either, and if the two are of different colours, 
 they^ must not show through each other at the point of 
 binding. This being so we must select a point where 
 the weft of one cloth and the warp of the other meet, 
 if possible at a point where one or both are inter- 
 weaving very loosely, so that there will be no proba- 
 bility of the two being so intimately interwoven as to 
 show one cloth through the surface of the other. 
 
 Again, we must consider whether we desire to pro- 
 duce in the cloth a feeling of firmness of texture or 
 otherwise. If we want the cloth to be of a firm texture, 
 we must bind the two separate parts very frequently 
 and intimately ; if we want softness and looseness, we 
 must bind them only as often as will hold the two 
 together, and no more. This knowledge of the fre- 
 quency or firmness of the binding can of course only be 
 gained by actual practice, combined with a knowledge 
 of what is wanted in respect to looseness or firmness of 
 texture ; but no matter whether the binding be frequent 
 or otherwise, the same principle will hold good as to 
 the selection of the point where the binding shall take 
 place. 
 
 55. Relation of the Pattern of each Cloth to 
 Facilitate Binding. — In making the selection of the 
 
Chap, v.] 
 
 FIGURING WITH TWO CLOTHS. 
 
 91 
 
 point of binding, it is often necessary to consider 
 the relations of the patterns of the two cloths to 
 each other, so that the weft of one and the warp of 
 the other may be brought into such a position that 
 they can be interwoven in the readiest and the most 
 perfect manner. The surest method of working is to 
 make a section first of the two patterns, and place the 
 two sections together so that the weft of one cloth at 
 some point where it is interweaving loosely will be 
 immediately above or below the warp of the other at a 
 point where it also is interweaving loosely, and by that 
 means the designer can see at a glance the best relation 
 of the two patterns so as to secure the best binding 
 
 ^^^*^56. Figuring with two Cloths.— The most useful 
 purpose to which double cloths of this class can be 
 applied is in the production of figured goods, the 
 ficruring being obtained by the two cloths exchanging 
 pfaces, in a similar manner to the weft exchanging 
 places in double weft face goods. And there is this 
 decided advantage in figuring with two separate cloths 
 which are equal in structure— that each may be either 
 perfectly plain or of any texture which may be desired ; 
 and if the weft of each be of the same colour as the 
 warp with which it is interwoven, we shall have a 
 perfectly solid coloured figure upon an equally solid 
 
 ^^°^\guring with two separate cloths of this description 
 is practised in the production of a very large variety of 
 fabrics, and in all cases the results are most satisfactory ; 
 for we have not only a strong fabric, but a very warm 
 one, and one also capable of resisting both strain and 
 friction. These advantages, coupled with that of great 
 facilities for ornamentation, make it a most useful 
 class, and one which may be resorted to for a variety of 
 
 purposes^^^^^^ of the same Quality but different 
 Patterns. — ^We must now turn our attention to the 
 
^2 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. [Chap. V. 
 
 second of the four classes— namely, those in which the 
 tabrics differ m pattern but remain of the same quality 
 In the use of the term " same quality " it must be 
 distinctly understood that we simply refer to the 
 number of threads per inch of both weft and warp, the 
 thickness of the yarn being exactly the same in both 
 cloths, and not to the quality of the fabric as it will be 
 affected by the structure or order of weaving. It must 
 
 ^ft be our object to 
 
 wp.'- » \ « • r \ « . — r\ show that where 
 
 ""^^'^^ rrs ^ ^ t'^^O cloths which 
 
 >ssss^ ^^isss^' ^s:^ are woven together 
 
 are made from the 
 same material, it 
 
 requires the greatest possible care to insure the quality 
 ot the two being the same in texture as well as in the 
 material from which they are made. The pattern of 
 each cloth must be so arranged as to secure this, other- 
 wise the fabrics will not be perfect. 
 
 We will begin, for example, with an illustration of 
 the simplest kind, and combine two patterns which are 
 probably more known and used than any other— that is 
 a four-end twill and a plain cloth, as in Figs. 70 and 71 
 buppose we are weaving two cloths together, one of 
 which IS plain and the other the twill given here, and 
 that the threads per inch both in warp and 
 weft, and the thickness of these threads, are □□□■□□□b 
 the same in both. The two could not be 
 equal in texture. One would be much firmer 
 than the other; they could not both be 
 equally perfect in structure. If the quantity ""^r'^" 
 or_ thickness of the material be arranged to ' 
 suit one of the patterns and to make it a perfect fabric 
 It could not make the other equally perfect. Perhaps a 
 medium might be found— the plain cloth made heavier and 
 firmer than it should be, and the twill lighter and looser, 
 so that neither should be so far removed from a true and 
 perfect structure as to be so imperfect as to be objection- 
 
Chap, v.] RELATIONS OF QUALITY AND PATTERN. 
 
 93 
 
 able ; and, at the same time, tlie two might be so intimately 
 bound together that the plain or stronger fabric would 
 support, and to some extent improve, the strength and 
 quality of the twill cloth. Still, with all these pre- 
 cautions, there would be danger of the fabric being 
 imperfect. In the process of weaving the plain cbth 
 would work very tight and firm, and would require a 
 greater length of warp to make a given length of cloth. 
 Again, not only will there be more shrinkage in the warp 
 (which may be overcome by letting the two warps come 
 from difi"erent warp-beams), but there will be more 
 shrinkage in the weft, because of its having to bend more 
 round the warp threads in a plain cloth than in a twill. In 
 some cases, perhaps, this may be advantageous, because if 
 the two cloths are sufficiently bound together it will in its 
 shrinkage carry the twill cloth with it, and so give 
 greater roundness to the twill. On the other hand, if 
 the fabric has to undergo a process of finishing, which 
 will cause shrinkage, the twill cloth, because of the very 
 looseness of the threads, will be liable to shrink more _m 
 the finishing than the plain one, and so counteract its 
 influence. But in- fabrics of this description the two 
 must be bound together very closely. It is difficult 
 to estimate the exact amount of shrinkage which is 
 likely to take place relatively in the two cloths, and 
 more especially if the process of finishing be a 
 severe one, or if the material be of a nature which will 
 assist the shrinkage, as, for instance, in woollen cloths 
 which are milled. If, in sueii cases, the two cloths are 
 too loosely bound together, or the points of binding are 
 too far apart, that which shrinks most, even if it be 
 only in a slight degree, will cause the other one to form 
 bubbles, or "cockle," and so give a most unsatisfactory 
 appearance to the whole. 
 
 It is even more difficult to deal with fabrics of this 
 class if we attempt to figure with them in the same 
 manner as when the two cloths are equal in quality and 
 texture, because usually in figured double cloths there 
 
94 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 [Chap. V. 
 
 IS no binding introduced, except where the two cloths 
 intersect each other. Consequently, if one should shrink 
 more than the other, the " cockles " or bubbles would 
 exactly correspond with the figure. There are double 
 cloths where an efiect similar to this is aimed at, but in 
 such we must adopt means which will ensure the even- 
 ness and regularity of the embossed character which it 
 wdl present ; we must not trust to chance, or the possi- 
 bility of the effect being produced by one shrinking more 
 than another. It may be all very well to rely upon it 
 to some extent, but we must not do so too much, other- 
 wise we shall probably be often disappointed. 
 
 It will readily be seen that the combination of two 
 cloths of the same quality, so far as the number of 
 threads per inch and thickness of these threads is con- 
 cerned, but of different patterns, is not a desirable 
 thing to practise, unless for some specific purpose; 
 and even when resorted to great care and skill must be 
 exercised to secure the proper result. Sometimes, per- 
 haps, it may be necessary, but it is well to avoid it as 
 far as possible, and where it must be employed, let the 
 conditions be examined with the greatest care, otherwise 
 disappointment will be sure to follow. 
 
 68. Cloths of the same Pattern, but dilferent in 
 Quality.— What has been said of cloths which are of the 
 same quality but differ in pattern will apply practically 
 to cloths which are of the same pattern but differ in 
 quality. For instance : if we make two cloths together 
 in the same loom, both of the same pattern, and both 
 having the same number of threads per inch, but the 
 threads of one cloth of a different thickness from those of 
 the other, the two cannot possibly work well together, or 
 assimilate ; and it is an imperative condition in nearly all 
 double cloths that the two must assimilate and combine 
 to form the same fabric ; but if one be very fine, and the 
 other be very coarse, this is scarcely possible. 
 
 It may be said, if we combine two cloths of the 
 same pattern, each composed of threads of different 
 
Chap, v.] RELATIONS OF QUALITY AND PATTERN. 
 
 95 
 
 thicknesses, we may vary the number of threads so 
 as to compensate for the difference in thickness. That 
 is perfectly true; but there must be some harmony 
 between the relative number of threads in each cloth. 
 Suppose, for example, one had, say, sixty threads per 
 inch, whilst the other had eighty-five, there would be 
 a difficulty in weaving. In the first place, they could 
 not be arranged satisfactorily in the reed, nor could 
 the weaver arrange the succession of the picks in any 
 definite order without an immense amount of labour. 
 The points of binding the two together would be ever 
 varying in relation to the pattern, and altogether there 
 would be endless confusion in the work. To weave 
 double cloths satisfactorily it is imperative that there 
 must be reg-ular order of succession of the threads of 
 both warp and weft; that is, they must be alternate, 
 or two of one cloth to one of the other, or some such 
 order. Then it follows that if the patterns be equal, 
 and the threads are alternate, the diameters of the 
 threads must be equal. If the patterns be equal, and 
 the order of succession or proportion of threads m one 
 cloth be two to one, then the diameter of the threads 
 must bear the same relation to each other ; and what- 
 ever the proportion of threads in one cloth be to the 
 threads of the other, their diameters must bear the same 
 relation. Fabrics of this description are often made, but 
 unfortunately the true ratio of the threads per inch and 
 their diameter are not always considered, and even if 
 they are, they are in many cases considered upon a 
 false basis, the designer proceeding upon the assumption 
 that the diameters of threads vary in the direct ratio of 
 their weights, instead of the ratio of the square root of 
 their weights. This false assumption is probably a 
 greater source of trouble to the makers of double cloths 
 of all descriptions than anything else. No matter what 
 may be the character of the fabric, the true ratio of 
 the diameter should never be lost sight of from first to 
 last. 
 
96 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 [Chap. V. 
 
 Cloths of this class are frequently used, more es- 
 pecially where it is desired to have a heavy, strong 
 fabric with a very fine surface. The face may be 
 made as fine and the back as coarse and heavy as we 
 please, so long as we preserve the proper proportion 
 between the two; in fact, the back becomes simply 
 a "lining," something to give weight and strength. 
 Fabrics of the most beautiful texture on the face, and 
 yet of a very heavy, useful character, may be made upon 
 this principle, and it is capable of application in a great 
 many ways. ^ At the same time, although the texture 
 may be varied, the patterns are not much varied in 
 cloths of this class, but are confined chiefly to plain or 
 simple twills, for the reason that it would be absurd to 
 make the back pattern a fancy one, when it is intended 
 only as a lining. 
 
 59. Cloths where both Quality and Pattern are 
 Different. — If we wish to produce a fabric with a fancy 
 face, and gain weight and strength by putting in a lining, 
 we must resort to the fourth class of double cloths, where 
 pattern and quality are both different. Here we 
 have at command all the capacity of ornamentation 
 which single cloths give, combined with the means of 
 : obtaining weight and strength, by the use of double 
 .cloths. Double cloths of this type are perhaps more 
 used than any other. Throughout the woollen trade, 
 in making cloths for men's wear, they are almost 
 universal, and in many other branches they are also 
 largely used. Generally such cloths are made with some 
 fancy pattern on the face fabric — fancy, not only in the 
 
 order of interweaving, but also by the use of colour 
 
 while the back cloth is either a perfectly plain one or a 
 simple twill. The face cloth is usually very fine, made 
 from fine material, while the back is coarse and heavy. ' 
 Of course the face cloth may be made as elaborate as 
 possible, and the back as plain as possible ; in fact, the 
 plainer the back, provided it will admit of a sufljcient 
 quantity of material being put in, the better, because 
 
Chap, v.] 
 
 BINDING DOUBLE CLOTHS. 
 
 97 
 
 the plainness adds to the strength by the warp and weft 
 being so intimately interwoven. 
 
 The arrangement of the pattern on paper for this 
 class of fabric is, of course, precisely the same as for 
 cloths which are equal in both quality and pattern, 
 only instead of the threads of warp and weft being 
 alternate, they will generally be two of face to one of 
 back, or in such proportion as is required to give the proper 
 weight or thickness of cloth, or to produce any desired 
 effect. 
 
 In making double cloths of this class the cultivation 
 of the habit of dealing with each independently of 
 the other is of the greatest value, so that the designer 
 may know exactly what is the structure of each, and 
 be able to see what is the pattern upon it at a glance ; 
 he can then compare their relative orders of working, 
 and select his binding places with certainty. Of course 
 the same principle of binding must be followed in 
 this class of cloth as in the preceding, but in many 
 cases there is much greater difficulty of binding than 
 in the others. In the first place, the difference in 
 the quality and thickness of the yarns makes it 
 necessary to select binding places where there can be 
 no risk of their showing through to the face ; and it 
 is most advisable, to assist perfect binding, to select 
 the two thinnest materials ; for example : if the back 
 cloth be a very coarse, heavy one, in most cases the 
 weft will be thicker than the warp, and the back weft 
 will certainly be thicker than the face weft ; so that it 
 would be very desirable, in such a case, to bind the two 
 together by lifting a back warp thread, and allowing a face 
 weft thread to pass under it. Of course this must be 
 done in accordance with the rule mentioned for binding 
 two equal cloths together — namely, that the back warp 
 must be on the upper side of the back cloth, or next the 
 face cloth, and the face weft must be on the under 
 side of its cloth, so that neither is drawn out of its 
 regular course more than the mere thickness of the thread. 
 H 
 
98 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 [Chap. V. 
 
 Then the second, and in many instances the greatest, 
 difficulty arises from the relation of the two twills 
 to each other. If the two patterns, for example, oc- 
 cupy such a number of ends each that they are not 
 both complete at the same time, or, in other words, that 
 the number of ends occupied by the back pattern is not 
 a measure of the number occupied by the face, then at 
 every repetition of the face pattern the back will fall in 
 a different position in relation to it, and a binding place 
 selected at one point which might be perfect would be en- 
 tirely wrong at the next repetition of the pattern. We 
 will take, for example, a ten-end pattern for the face and 
 a four-end pattern for the back, and make a section as 
 shown in Fig. 72. 
 
 This pattern cannot be complete until twenty ends of 
 each are gone over, because that is the first number of which 
 ten and four are both a measure. Had the relative quanti- 
 
 Fig. 72. 
 
 ties of face and back cloth threads been two to one, then it 
 would have required forty threads of face and twenty 
 of back to complete it, and consequently the difficulty of 
 binding would have been greater. However, we will 
 examine the binding of this pattern. We have selected 
 our first binding point at a ; the next repetition of the 
 face pattern is at h, but if we bind at h we are not 
 taking an end from the back twill corresponding to that 
 we have taken at a, and if the binding at a is perfect 
 that at b cannot be. 
 
 Again, if we take every corresponding end of the 
 back twill, they will fall at c, d, and e. Now, every one 
 of these points occupies different positions in relation to 
 the face twill, and if the weft be brought from the face 
 under the back at these points, some of them would be 
 
Chap, v.] 
 
 BINDING DOUBLE CLOTHS. 
 
 99 
 
 very imperfect. Take, for instance, the point d, where 
 we should have to bring the face weft through its own 
 warp to bind, under the back end. Instead of weft of 
 one cloth and warp of tKe other being together, we have 
 the warp of both cloths together, the weft of one cloth 
 above and that of the other cloth below them, so that it 
 would be quite impossible to bind them perfectly at such 
 a point. It will be obvious that nothing but great 
 care in selecting the points at which the binding is to 
 take place, and in arranging the relation of the two pat- 
 terns to each other so as to facilitate this selection, can 
 ensure perfect fabrics, more especially when the two pat- 
 terns occupy different numbers of ends, and fall in 
 different positions in relation to each other in consequence. 
 Of course, having found one or two places where binding 
 can take place if the two patterns run concurrently, as 
 they very frequently do, there would be no further 
 trouble. We can bind as often as we please simply by 
 following up the line of pattern, and always binding at 
 corresponding points. Sometimes, though, we are de- 
 barred from this, and we have another kind of difficulty 
 presented to us. Suppose we have on the face a fancy 
 twill running, say, in a vertical direction up the fabric, 
 one which may be the result of the combination of two 
 or more twills, or simply produced by the process of 
 elongation, as, for instance, in Fig. 49 or Fig. 55, and we 
 are putting a back cloth of an ordinary twill along with 
 it. The two patterns running at different angles, we should 
 have to find fresh binding places at every point where we 
 wish to bind. Because of the diffei-ent angles, the two pat- 
 terns could not occupy the same position in relation to each 
 other at any two points, except at such distances apart, 
 determined by the repetitions of the back pattern bringing 
 it into concurrence with the face, as would probably be 
 too great for binding purposes. At any rate we can 
 never deal with the binding of such patterns in the same 
 easy manner as we can where the two twills run con- 
 currently. When we are using such patterns as this 
 
100 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. [Chap. V. 
 
 for t}ie face it is generally better, if we can, to use a 
 plain back, not only because of the binding, but quite as 
 much because the difterent angle of the two twills may 
 make one cloth draw the other a little out of its proper 
 place, and so cause " cockling." We cannot always use 
 a plain cloth, perhaps, because of the weight of fabric we 
 wish to obtain, but we should do so wherever we can, 
 and avoid whenever possible — and it is possible in most 
 cases — the combination of two twills which do not run 
 at the same dngle. 
 
 60, Forming Patterns on Double Cloths by Bind- 
 ing. — The binding of double cloths may be used for the 
 purpose of producing patterns ; and in certain classes of 
 goods with which we shall presently have to deal the 
 whole of the figuring is produced by binding, but in 
 considering the subject generally we may point out how 
 the figure may be most effectively produced. Of course 
 such patterns are obtained by binding the two cloths to- 
 gether as firmly as possible all round the outline of the 
 figure ; for instance, if we wish to make a check pattern 
 upon a cloth by binding, as is frequently done in worsted 
 coatings, and also in many woollen goods. Along the 
 line of the check, both warp and weft way, we make the 
 two cloths become one, not at intervals, as in ordinary 
 binding, but throughout the length of the piece upon 
 the warp threads, and across the piece upon the weft 
 threads, which mark the line of the check. These 
 patterns may be made as fanciful as we please, but 
 generally in the cloths we have named they are con- 
 fimed to stripe or check form. 
 
 61. Relations of Pace to Back Cloth in both 
 Quality and Pattern. — Before we enter into the question 
 of the application of double cloth to particular fabrics, 
 we must consider the relation of the back to the 
 face cloth in all its aspects. We have already examined 
 the relation of the two cloths to each other when they 
 differ in pattern only, and when they are the same in 
 pattern but differ in quality. We must now proceed 
 
Chap, v.] RELATION OF FACE TO BACK. 
 
 101 
 
 to the examination of those which differ both in 
 quality and pattern. As has been already pointed 
 out, the fabrics which differ in both quality and 
 pattern are far more numerous than the other classes ; 
 and we may say that it almost necessarily is the case, 
 for if we are making a fancy fabric, and putting a back 
 cloth upon it which is intended merely for a lining, we 
 usually make the lining as simple a pattern and as cheap 
 a fabric as possible. As a matter of course, the face 
 cloth — that which is to be seen, and which is to be the 
 wearing surface — must receive the first attention. We 
 must make that not only a fancy fabric in the great 
 majority of cases, but we must make it as unexceptionable 
 as we can. It must be what is termed a well-balanced 
 cloth, perfect in structure. The relative quantities of 
 warp and weft must be properly apportioned according 
 to the pattern, and, in fact, every care taken that it is 
 treated properly, as if it were a single cloth. We must 
 then consider the back. Usually, as we have seen, 
 the back cloth may be made as plain as possible,^ and 
 if not actually a plain cloth, it must be a twill of 
 the simplest character, and only just sufficiently loose 
 in its order of working to permit of the quantity of 
 material being put in to give the required weight. It 
 too often happens that the pattern of the back or 
 the thickness of the threads are determined by arbitrary 
 rules, or perhaps more frequently by guess-work, or 
 "rule of thumb." Now, if the two fabrics are to be 
 perfect, and neither cloth to interfere with the other, 
 as we have shown they may do, they must both be con- 
 structed equally firm. Not that the back cloth must be 
 as fine as the face, or that the pattern must be in the same 
 order of interweaving, but that the thickness of the 
 yarn and the ends per inch must be suited to the pattern 
 in one cloth as perfectly as it is in the other. The 
 quantity of material in one must not be such as to 
 make a firm, stiff fabric with the pattern in which it is 
 being woven, while that in the other is making a loose, 
 
102 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 [Chap. V 
 
 flabby article ; they must be as nearly equal as possible. 
 If the face cloth has two threads of warp and weft 
 to one of the back, it does not necessarily follow 
 that the weight of the back threads is double the 
 weight of those forming the face; but we must take 
 first theii- relati^-e diameters into account, and then 
 the relative order of interweaving. Suppose, for 
 instance, we determine that the back shall be a plain 
 cloth, and the face a twill, say a four-end twill, two 
 weft and two warp on the surface, and that we have 
 two threads of face cloth to one of back, both in weft 
 and warp,— the question will be, what should be the 
 relative thickness of the face and back threads to produce 
 a perfect cloth, and one in which the two are alike 
 perfect. Now, although in both patterns weft and warp 
 on the surface of their respective cloths are equal, yet 
 the order of interweaving is not equal ; the twill will 
 be a much looser fabric than the plain. Therefore, 
 although the number of threads is as two to one, the 
 diameters of the threads must not be in the same ratio, 
 but we must take into account the order of interweavinf^, 
 which in the twill to the plain will be as six is to eight| 
 the number of ends of face to back, which is as two to 
 one, and the diameter of the threads, which are to each 
 other as the square root of their counts. We shall then 
 make each cloth equally perfect; the "take up" of one 
 will be equal to that of the other, and there will be no 
 fear of one acting upon the other, and so affecting its 
 appearance. Well, it may be said, " in practice we cannot 
 take all these things into account ; we are working upon 
 certain counts of yarn, and we cannot alter exactly to 
 suit any fancy system of calculation of this kind." The 
 only answer is, " Then your fabrics cannot be perfect." 
 Very frequently fabrics are made without any previous 
 calculation of the relative thickness of the two sets of 
 threads, and they come up so nearly perfect that they 
 pass as such ; but in these cases the maker is guided 
 entirely by previous knowledge of fabrics which have been 
 
Chap, v.] 
 
 KELATION OP PACE TO BACK. 
 
 103 
 
 made, and which are approximately perfect, and using this 
 previous knowledge he may again arrive at something 
 sufficiently near perfection; but that is not quite 
 enouo-h, for he may have to make a number of 
 experiments, waste time, labour, and material, and in 
 the end his results are only aj^jyroxiynately true, whereas 
 a proper consideration of the condition will give him with 
 certainty the proper counts of the material for one cloth 
 to make it perfect in its relations to the other. 
 
 So far we have been speaking on the assumption that 
 the weft in each cloth is equal to its own warp, but 
 frequently the warp and weft may be very different. 
 In the face cloth this may be governed by the pattern, as 
 was pointed out in dealing with single cloths, and m the 
 back cloth it may be governed by questions of economy. 
 Perhaps, in some cases, although the warp threads are as 
 two to one in the two cloths respectively, the character 
 of the patterns may render it necessary that the wefts 
 may be in different proportions. Again, it may be that 
 our back warp must be of cotton and the weft of woollen, 
 then the weft would be much thicker than the warp ; 
 yet we must not lose sight of the proper relation of that 
 weft to the face weft, and to the order of interweaving, 
 and so keep our two cloths as perfect as possible m their 
 relations to each other. If any difference does exist 
 between the two cloths, generally the back one should be 
 the looser and softer. Serving as it does the purpose of 
 a lining, we can afford to have a greater degree of loose- 
 ness and softness in it than we can usually in the face, 
 because the face has to be subjected to wear, to friction, 
 and in a great measure to strain, which does not fall upon 
 the back, and any liability to "cockling" is far less 
 objectionable in the back cloth, which is never seen m 
 wearing, than in the face cloth. However, this dif- 
 ference must not be too great ; it must not be such 
 as to be very perceptible either to the eye or the 
 touch, and more especially in cloth such as woollen — 
 a material in which this class of fabric is more 
 
104 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. [Chap. V. 
 
 made than in any other— where a process of milliner 
 or felting has to be undergone. In some cases this 
 mcveased softness of one cloth may be an advantage: 
 It will give more elasticity to the cloth as a whole 
 and make the face cloth assert itself more, and con- 
 sequently show to better advantage ; but it must not 
 be carried too far, whatever degree of softness be 
 given to It : it must not be much looser than the face 
 else the advantage gained by increased elasticity will 
 be more than counteracted by excessive looseness and 
 loss ot wearing power. 
 
 .f^ "Ply" ClotliS.-In addition 
 
 to double cloths pure and simple, there are many 
 others known as -three ply," -four ply," &c., imply- 
 mg that the c oth is not merely a"^ double but ^a 
 three or four-fold cloth. It does not always follow 
 though that a three or four ply cloth means that there 
 are three or four distinct fabrics woven together, though 
 that may be so ; there may be two perfect and complete 
 cloths, and a filling between them which is not in itself 
 strictly speaking, a complete cloth. Or it may be 
 that we_ combine two double-faced cloths, as, for in- 
 stance, is the case with some very thick bulky cloths 
 which are used for covering rollers and other purposes. 
 A section of a cloth of this kind is shown in Fig 73 
 where we have two double weft face cloths combined to 
 
 . ^ — V / — . ^ ^ make one. These 
 
 . ' ^ "7 T ^^-^^V^^ ^^^-^^^V^-^P- two cloths, if 
 'fl — bound 
 Kg. 73. together, as they 
 
 1 . may easily be 
 
 make an immense thick bulky fabric; in fact, when 
 milled,_ if the proper thickness of threads be employed 
 in their manufacture, they will present a section fully 
 a quarter of an inch in thickness. This in common 
 speech would be styled a four ply cloth, and may 
 be so called with a certain amount of propriety be- 
 cause each of the cloths of which it is composed is a 
 
Cliap.V.] THREE AND FOUR "PLY" CLOTHS. 
 
 105 
 
 double-faced clotli; there are only two warps, but there 
 are four wefts, and the manner in which these weft 
 threads are interwoven with their respective warps allows 
 the whole four to go into the space of one in an ordinary- 
 single cloth. This is one of the most simple applications 
 of the three or four ply cloths, but it will help us to 
 understand how the multiplication of cloths will enable us 
 to produce fabrics of any bulk. Of course the principle of 
 structure is exactly the same as in a pure double cloth. 
 We have only to consider how many warps and wefts we 
 have, and deal with each independently, as a weft or 
 warp ; but in combining we must consider its relation to 
 the other wefts or warps, or the other cloths, so that they 
 can be bound together in the most perfect manner, and 
 so that each cloth, although bound to another, is still a 
 cloth in itself. 
 
 It would be an easy matter to multiply illustrations, 
 and perhaps by doing so we might add force to the one 
 object we have in view — namely, urging the student to 
 practise the consideration of all the individual threads 
 which go to form a fabric, and to classify them, and con- 
 sider them, in the first place at any rate, as being there 
 for one specific purpose, and that they form part of a 
 whole for that purpose only. 
 
 So that we may be able to do this more completely, 
 and to prepare for the consideration of other fabrics in a 
 more thorough manner, we will examine some of the 
 applications of double cloths as they are generally used 
 and applied to fabrics which come under the almost 
 daily notice of every one, whether engaged in the 
 textile trades or not. If we can direct the attention 
 of the student to objects which are daily before his 
 eyes, but of which, perhaps, he takes little or no notice, 
 we shall probably do more to educate him than by 
 any amount of rules or definitions. He will examine 
 and think for himself, he will begin to inquire the 
 reason, and in many cases he will familiarise himself with 
 the principle of the structure of fabrics, which in after- 
 
106 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. fChap. V. 
 
 life he may apply to goods of a totally different cha- 
 racter. It IS not sufficient for the designer or manufac- 
 turer of textile fabrics to know merely the structure of 
 some particular class in which he is immediately engaged • 
 he should have a general, and, as far as possible, a par- 
 ticular knowledge of the structure of other classes of 
 fabrics, so that he may import new ideas into his own 
 branch of industry ; and it is for this reason that we lay 
 so much stress upon a complete knowledge of double 
 cloths, because it will be found to be the keystone of a 
 vast variety of fabrics to which, at first sight, perhaps 
 it has no relationship. ' 
 
 63. Scottish or Kidderminster Carpets.— One of the 
 most largely manufactured class of fabrics to which 
 double cloth is applied, is what are known as Scottish 
 or Kidderminster carpets, which consist of simply two 
 separate cloths of the same texture but of different 
 colours. These cloths exchange places so as to form figures 
 or patterns. In many of these carpets great variety of 
 colours IS employed, and patterns of the most elaborate 
 description produced, but a careful examination of them 
 will show the student that each cloth remains to itself 
 throughout. They exchange places to form patterns, 
 but each weft weaves into its own warp. This is one of 
 the simplest forms of application of double cloth to 
 figuring. The fabrics may sometimes be made three or 
 four ply, and the figures be of the most elaborate 
 character, yet the application of the principle of double 
 cloth IS extremely simple. 
 
 64. Quilts.— Another large class of fabrics made as 
 double cloths, and one in which the most elaborate 
 patterns are produced, although no colour is employed 
 the articles being white only, is what are generally 
 known by the name "quilts," which includes cover- 
 Jets for beds, and also toilet covers and other such 
 articles. These goods are usually of that class of double 
 cloths which are equal in pattern but different in 
 quality. 
 
Chap, v.] QUILTS. 107 
 
 Usually both cloths are quite plain, but the face is 
 very much finer than the back, and in some of the 
 conmioner qualities, which are known as "mock," or 
 imitation quilts, there is no back warp but only weft. 
 The system or mode of producing figures in this class of 
 fabrics is very difierent from that of other double cloths 
 of which we have spoken, though it is in effect the same 
 as that mentioned in connection with coating cloths m 
 
 section 60. • i i • 
 
 So as to deal in the most complete manner with this 
 important class of fabrics, it will perhaps be as well to 
 begin with an examination of the best qualities, and 
 show the mode of producing patterns, then the other and 
 inferior qualities will be more readily understood, and a 
 more comprehensive knowledge obtained of the whole 
 
 system. . n j 
 
 Quilts of the best quality may m one sense be called 
 three ply cloths, though there are not three distinct 
 and perfect cloths, but two cloths and a "wadding." 
 That is, there are two distinct and perfect plain cloths, 
 and a loose weft inserted between them, which not only 
 gives bulk to the fabric but assists in producing that 
 embossed ef- a ^ 
 
 feet which is ^Txv'TX.i/Av^^WAlAV/^^ 
 
 peculiar to r ■ \= p r 
 
 this class of ^y^7\W/'«"N^^__^/''^%^^^ 
 fabric. The rig. 71 
 
 section (Fig. 
 
 74) will explain most readily how the cloth is con- 
 structed and the figure produced. There is a fine face 
 cloth, represented by the thin Hnes and dots; a back 
 cloth, represented by the thick lines and dots ; and the 
 wadding, represented by the double straight lines. It will 
 be seen that the face and back cloths are both perfectly 
 plain, and the wadding pick passes clear between them. 
 The manner in which the figure is produced is by binding 
 the two cloths together, as shown at the points a and 6, 
 all round the outline of the figure. By bindmg the 
 
DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. [Chap. V. 
 
 cloths together in this manner, with the wadding weft 
 between them, the figure is raised, and so produces the 
 embossed effect. This is easily accounted for, because at 
 the point of binding the two cloths become one, and so 
 compress the wadding weft between them, while in the 
 body of the figure the two are quite loose from each 
 other, and the wadding loose between them ; so that the 
 latter pushes the cloths apart, and of course the larger 
 and more loose the figures, the more this will take place 
 -babrics produced upon this principle not only give wide 
 scope for producing very elaborate designs, but they also 
 give a very substantial useful fabric. From the fact of 
 the cloths both being plain, the strength is all that could 
 be desired, and the wadding gives warmth. In this case 
 the back cloth, of course, is a lining only; in fact 
 the whole structure is as if we had taken two separate 
 cloths, laid one upon the other with a thick wadding 
 material between them, and then with a needle stitched 
 through the whole mass all round the outline of the pat- 
 tern, so as to bind them firmly together. It is very ob- 
 vious that the drawing of the two cloths together with 
 the stitching, leaving the body of the figure without 
 any stitching, will produce an embossed effect, and 
 the thicker the wadding and the larger the fi<rure the 
 more roundness we give to it. The structure of' this 
 cloth IS just as if we had done so, the only difference 
 being that instead of using the needle, the cloths are 
 bound together m the process of weaving, and by the 
 threads of which the cloth is composed. 
 
 In many of the lighter fabrics of this class no wad- 
 ding weft at all is used, but simply the two cloths, and 
 more effect is given to the figure by the two cloths be- 
 coming one where no figure is being formed. 
 
 By this means pretty much the same effect is pro- 
 duced as if wadding were used ; though of course the 
 figures do not stand out quite so prominently as if 
 wadded, nor is the cloth so stout and bulky ; yet the 
 very flatness of the ground where the two cloths form 
 
Chap, v.] 
 
 MATELASSES. 
 
 109 
 
 one gives more prominence to the figure than would be 
 expected. A section of a cloth figured in this manner is 
 given in Fig. 75. Even more prominence will be given 
 to it by the weft of the back cloth being thick like wad- 
 ding, and by allowing, at the back of the figure which is 
 to be most raised, the back material to be quite loose ; 
 the weft, which may be called wadding, lying loosely 
 between the plain face cloth and the loose back warp, 
 the latter having no weft interwoven with it at this ponit. 
 In fact, the great majority of common toilet articles seem 
 to be made after this latter method. Again, a similar 
 effect may be produced by using backing weft only, and 
 
 Fig. 75. 
 
 letting it interweave into the ground, so as to form a 
 thick cloth, and then pass loosely behind the figure in 
 the same manner as the foregoing, only that there is no 
 back warp. By this method the figures are not quite so 
 clearly defined, and the embossed effect is not quite 
 so good. However, by any of the three methods we 
 have a ready means of producing most elaborate patterns 
 without the use of colour, and the patterns may partake 
 of any character ; they need not be of the stiff type, as 
 stripes, checks, diamonds, &c., but they may be floral, or 
 in fact of any style which the requirements of the cloth 
 for the purpose to which it is to be applied, or the fancy 
 of the designers may call forth. 
 
 65. Matelasses. — Another class of fabric which has 
 been largely used within the last few years may be 
 said to belong to the same family as quilts, though the 
 material of which it is made is different, and there 
 is also more ornamentation on the face cloth. These 
 fabrics are chiefly used for ladies' jacket or mantle cloths, 
 and are known as "matelasses." The face cloth is 
 
110 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. [Chap. V. 
 
 generally silk or fine worsted ; the back cloth woollen and 
 cotton, or all cotton, according to the quality of the 
 goods. The principle of structure is precisely the same 
 as in the best quality of quilts. The face and - back are 
 two separate cloths, and there is a wadding weft. The 
 figure is produced by the binding of the two cloths to- 
 gether m exactly the same manner as in quilts, but in 
 addition to the figuring by binding, greater effect is given 
 to It by varying the working of the face cloth by twiUina 
 and otherwise, so that the cloth is ornamented to the ut*- 
 most, and also gives a thick useful fabric. In this, of 
 course, the pattern may be of any character, and more 
 effect be given to floral designs, especially by the twiUintr, 
 &c., on the face than can be given in quilts when the clotli 
 IS quite plain. This system of figuring is, of course, ap- 
 plicable to many other fabrics ; we have merely selected 
 these two for illustration, because more complete and per- 
 fect representatives of their class than any of the others 
 
 _ 66. Woven "Tucks," &C.— To enumerate all the ap- 
 plications of double cloths would be a difficult task. We 
 might point to the weaving of hose, which is made as a 
 double cloth, and many others, but we should be occupy- 
 ing space needlessly. However, we may refer to one or 
 two other forms of application of a more- or less novel 
 kindj for instance, the weaving of 'Hucks" for 
 children's dress skirts, a section of which is shown in 
 Fig. 76. To make these tucks, all the warp forms one 
 solid fabric for the ground, then when the tuck is to 
 
 be formed, every al- 
 ternate warp end only 
 is used until a suffi- 
 cient length has been 
 woven. The warp is 
 , , brought off two 
 
 beams, and as soon as the tuck has been woven the 
 warp of which it is formed is let forward, and the tuck 
 pressed forward by the reed, or, what is equivalent, 
 the ground cloth is let back up to the reed, until the 
 
Chap, v.] USES OF DOUBLE CLOTHS. Ill 
 
 edge of the tuck and the point where it commenced 
 being formed are brought together, then the whole warp 
 again begins to form one solid fabric, leaving the 
 tuck as a protuberance on its surface. This operation is 
 repeated at intervals, greater or less according to the 
 size of tuck or their distances apart. 
 
 67. G-rooves in Cloth. — Fabrics are sometimes woven 
 with grooves in them for various purposes, the grooves 
 being formed by weaving two separate cloths for a given 
 distance, then combining them so as to form one cloth only. 
 The section w^ould be similar to that shown in Fig. 75, 
 except that the grooves would be straight across the 
 piece. Then the woven "ladder-tapes" for Venetian 
 window-blinds are made upon the same principle, the 
 narrow cross-pieces entering the body of each separate 
 tape alternately. 
 
 68. The Ornamentation and Uses of Double Cloth. 
 — We have now gone pretty fully over the principles of 
 double cloth making, and examined the advantages to 
 be gained in increased weight of fabric — strength, and 
 warmth — as well as the various methods of ornamen- 
 tation which it places within our reach. We may 
 ornament one of the cloths only, and use the second 
 only as a lining ; we may bind the lining into the face 
 cloth in such manner as to produce additional patterns ; 
 or we may cause the two cloths to exchange places 
 for the production of figures, and have by that means a 
 solid coloured figure upon a ground of another colour. 
 These are the chief features of double cloth, but in 
 their application there is no limit to the varieties. 
 
 A thorough knowledge, however, of the manufacture of 
 double cloths in all the varieties of form or combination, is 
 ' not only valuable as giving the power of producing a 
 great variety of fabrics more or less he^vy, but we can 
 constantly apply it to fabrics which do not come strictly 
 under the head of double cloths, but which are rather 
 more for the purpose of ornamenting single cloths by the 
 introduction of material which is used for figuring only, 
 
112 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 [Chap. VI. 
 
 and which form more or less of a double cloth only at 
 the point where the figuring comes in. 
 
 Before leaving this subject we might briefly point 
 out generally the classes of fabric to which the various 
 classes of double cloth weaving are most applied. 
 In the first place, there are those which consist of one 
 warp and two wefts, used chiefly for woollen goods, such 
 as union shawls, mantle cloths, rugs, coating cloths, and 
 other heavy fabrics. Secondly, there are those which 
 consist of two warps and one weft : applied to silks, 
 ribbons, a few coating cloths, but mostly to fine material 
 where a great many threads per inch in the warp can be 
 used without difficulty. And thirdly, there are those 
 which are two separate cloths : applied to heavy shawls, 
 carpets, quilts, heavy coating cloths, and heavy goods 
 generally, whether of an extreme fancy character or 
 where plain texture is required. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 FIGURED CLOTHS. 
 
 69. Forming Patterns upon the Fabric. — We have 
 in the previous chapters dealt chiefly with the structure 
 of the fabrics and the consideration of ornamenting in 
 the structure, with the view of rather adding to than de- 
 tracting from its usefulness. Of course, as we pointed 
 out in the first chapter, we must at all times have the 
 application of the fabric before us ; yet we may deter- 
 mine the general structure first, and then the question of 
 ornamentation separately. As we have dealt with the 
 question up to this point, we have kept the two strictly 
 together. We may now begin to consider the question 
 of ornamentation from a somewhat different standpoint. 
 We have to deal with pattern of a more elaborate 
 character and its application to fabric, and make 
 
Chap. VI.] 
 
 PIGUHED CLOTHS. 
 
 113 
 
 structure of cloth subservient to design rather than 
 design subservient to structure, at least so far as the 
 question of usefulness goes. Of course, we can never 
 afford to ignore the latter, but, as we have considered 
 it so very fully, we may now make it, perhaps, more of a 
 secondary question. 
 
 So far we have only discussed the question of 
 figuring on fabrics in a general way, without entering 
 into the question of arrangement of figured patterns. 
 The designs with which we have dealt, except in 
 double cloths, have been figures of a simple des- 
 cription, commonly designated twills, the one chief 
 characteristic being that they are continuous and un- 
 broken all over the fabric. The number of threads 
 occupied by one complete pattern is very small, and 
 although, as we have shown, there may be a great 
 number of patterns produced, either of twills or having 
 twills for their base, yet there is little room left for 
 the play of imagination, at any rate as compared with 
 what may be exercised when dealing with designs of 
 a floral character or patterns occupying a larger area. 
 Again, the patterns with which we have dealt in detail 
 — except the references made in the last chapter to 
 figuring with double cloths— being such as occupy only 
 a small number of threads, are capable of being woven 
 in the loom with healds ; but as the area of patterns so 
 woven is necessarily limited, we must resort to the 
 Jacquard machine to enable us to produce larger and 
 more complicated patterns, or, in other words, to give us 
 command over a greater number of threads, so that we 
 may vary their order of working in a greater degree, and 
 not have the repetition of the pattern occurring so 
 frequently. 
 
 In all the patterns which we have discussed up to 
 now, where we have formed a pattern by interweaving 
 the warp and weft threads in varied order, it has been 
 formed by both sets of threads in a similar degree. 
 We have had no fixed or definite ground fabric with 
 
114 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 [Chap. XI. 
 
 a figure upon it. The figure has covered the whole ; 
 in fact, we may be said to have been designing fabrics. 
 There has been only ornamentation on a small scale in 
 the structure. We must now determine the structure 
 of the fabric first, or what is technically termed the 
 ground pattern, and then work our design upon it. For 
 forming the figure upon the surface of the cloth, we may 
 use either the material which composes the body of the 
 fabric or we may introduce extra material. Suppose we 
 are weaving an ordinary plain cloth, and we wish to 
 ornament it by the introduction of a figure, we may 
 either introduce additional wnrp or weft to make the 
 figure, without in any way interfering with the plain 
 fabric, or we may let the ground warp and weft, as that 
 which forms the fabric is termed, cease to interweave 
 with each other, and simply lie loosely one above the 
 other at intervals regular or irregular according to the 
 arrangement of the figure we desire to produce. Some- 
 times we may have the weft thrown to the surface, 
 sometimes the warp, according to the material of which 
 each is made ; or we may bring up portions of each for the 
 purpose of producing some special efi'ect, as, for instance, 
 if warp and weft are of difi"erent colours. In many 
 cases also we not only make figures with the material of 
 which the ground or body of the fabiic is composed, but 
 we also introduce along with it some extra material 
 either in the warp or weft, or both.. 
 
 We must examine into this subject very closely, so 
 that we may see clearly not only how the figure is made, 
 bub the arrangement of designs, and the probable effect 
 upon the fabric of designs of different 
 characters when the pattern is formed by 
 ■□■■"■□S" ground material. 
 
 "^O- Figures Formed by the Ground 
 Fig. 77. Material. — Let us take Fig. 77 as a 
 plan of a small figure, formed by the 
 ground weft upon a plain cloth, and Fig. 78 as a section 
 of the same. The general body of the cloth is per- 
 
Chap. VI.] FIGURING WITH GROUND MATERIAL. 
 
 115 
 
 fectly plain, the warp and weft passing over and under 
 each other alternately, but the figure is formed simply 
 by their ceasing to interweave, each set of threads 
 being quite free from the other. When figures are so 
 made the quality of the cloth must be in some degree 
 afiected; but this will vary according to the amount 
 of figuring introduced, the size of the separate figures, 
 and their distances apart. We say that plain cloth 
 is the most firm in texture of all ordinary fabrics, but 
 if we intermix with the plain a quantity of figuring 
 where the warp and weft are both quite loose, we make 
 the fabric loose in texture exactly in the degree in which 
 we figure it. Generally speaking, the amount of figure 
 introduced is not so much as to afiect the fabric detri- 
 
 wft.. 
 wp. 
 
 Fig. 78. 
 
 mentally, but this, of course, must be carefully watched 
 by the designer of the pattern ; and if his cloth would 
 be deteriorated by the introduction of a certain amount 
 of figure, then he must alter it by the use either of a 
 greater number of threads per inch, or of a thicker 
 yarn. The consideration of the structure of the fabric, 
 as afi"ected in this way, is not the only or ' even the most 
 important one in designing figured goods, but the 
 arrangement and distribution of the figure also require 
 a proper amount of attention. If the design be floral 
 it will be necessary to distribute the weight of figuring 
 equally, not alone for the purpose of pleasing the eye, 
 but so that the fabric shall not be more loose at one 
 part than another. It must always be borne in mind by 
 the 'designer of fabrics of this type that large figures 
 or figures set closely together will give looseness and 
 extreme softness to the cloth. And by having a large 
 quantity of loose weft or warp thrown to the surface the 
 wearing qualities of the fabric are very much affected; in 
 
116 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS, TCHap. VI. 
 
 fact, where the figure is formed there is no cloth — cloth 
 has ceased to be formed, it is simply loose warp and weft, 
 and it does not require an expert to know that this must 
 not be carried too far. In a great portion of the fabrics 
 figured upon this principle the designs are not strictly- 
 floral. Perhaps floral objects may form the basis of 
 the design, but they are set at regular intervals over 
 the surface, not arranged as a continuous pattern, not 
 a design, perhaps, in the general acceptation of the word, 
 but simply an object or number of objects scattered at 
 regular intervals and in definite order over the surface. 
 
 Take Fig. 79 as an example. We have here the same 
 object as we used in Fig. 77, but a mimber of them are 
 distributed. So as to arrive at a definite understanding 
 of the order of arrangement we 
 must examine each spot or object 
 and its relation to each weft pick 
 and warp end of the pattern. It 
 will be noticed that the spots aa 
 each commence on the same pick, 
 and so do hh and cc, &c., and 
 further, that a and c are upon 
 the same warp ends, and so are 
 6 and d, so that a is a repetition 
 of a in the direction of the weft, 
 and c is a repetition of a in the direction of the 
 warp; and in like manner h and d are repetitions 
 of h. Consequently a and h constitute the complete 
 pattern, the rest being simply repetitions of these 
 two. This mode of arranging the spots is usually 
 spoken of as being "two spots set alternately," 
 which simply means that there are only two spots 
 in the complete pattern, which are arranged so that 
 they occur alternately in the order of weaving. This 
 is the simplest and easiest mode of arranging the' dis- 
 tribution o£ spot figures over the surface of the fabric, 
 and may be applied to figures of any size or form, but it 
 possesses what is generally considered a disadvantage in 
 
 ■□■□■□■□■□■□■□■a 
 
 ■□■□■□■□■□■□■□■a 
 
 ■□■□■□■□■□■□■□■a 
 □■■■□■□■□■■■□■□a 
 
 ■□■□■□■□■□■□■□■a 
 
 Fig. 79. 
 
Chap. VI.] 
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF FIGURES. 
 
 117 
 
 woven fabrics, as far as appearances go, but whicli is much 
 gi-eater so far as the structure of the cloth is concerned. 
 In the pattern before us, if we glance along the centre of 
 the figure we see the weft passing clear over five warp 
 threads, and interweaving only with three. Exactly 
 the same occurs with the warp threads through the 
 centre. Again, if we look along the line where one 
 figure is just ending and the next beginning, we shall see 
 that the weft passes under and over every alternate warp 
 thread. The same also occurs with the warp thread 
 interweaving with the weft at the corresponding position. 
 Such a variation in the order of weaving of the variou? 
 threads of which the fabric is composed must produce 
 irregularities in its texture, which are objectionable, 
 for they not only detract very much from its appearance 
 but also from its usefulness, because of the different 
 degrees of tension thrown upon the threads. In a figure 
 so small as this it might not be serious, but in a large 
 one it certainly would, and the small pattern is used here 
 only for the purpose of illustration. 
 
 Then, if the arrangement of spots alternately in this 
 manner is objectionable, as it evidently must be in some 
 cases at least, we must adopt some other mode which 
 will obviate the difficulty. Now, it is very clear that 
 whatever system of arrangement we use, there must 
 be regularity : the spots must be 
 regular distances apai't, and equally 
 distributed. Fig. 80 is one of the 
 most perfect arrangements of its 
 kind. Here we have the same 
 spots ; they are equal distances 
 apart, equally distributed, and the 
 order of interweaving of each re- 
 spective end and pick is also equal. 
 The appearance of the fabric, so 
 far "as size and distance apart of 
 the spots are concerned, would be exactly the same as 
 that of Fig. 79, but the cloth will be more perfectly 
 
 □■□■□■■■□■□■■■□a 
 ■□■□■■■■■□■□■□■a 
 ■■□■□■■HaBDBDana 
 
 ■BBaBOBDanHDaDBB 
 BBDBDBaBaBBBDBaB 
 BnBDBDBDBBBBBDBa 
 □BQBBBDBDBBBDBDB 
 BaBBBBBDBDBnBnBa 
 r.BLiBBBnBGBUB: MmU 
 ■L..BL.:BnBL'BLlBi iBBBB 
 □BaBnBDBBBaBDBBB 
 BOBDBnBBBBBDBnBa 
 □BBBDBDBBBDBDBaB 
 ■BBBBDBaBDBnBaBa 
 □BBBDBDBDBDBBBDfl 
 ■□■□BDBDBaBBBBBa 
 
 Fig. 80. 
 
118 
 
 DESIGX IN TEXTILE FABRICS 
 
 [Chap. VI. 
 
 constructed, more pleasing to the eye — inasmucli as the 
 figures do not run in the same straight lines — and 
 more serviceable, because of the equality in the tension 
 of the threads by reason of their interweaving regularly 
 and equally throughout. This arrangement is exti-emely 
 simple, being upon the basis of what is commonly known 
 as an eight-end satin. In some cases other orders of 
 satin may be adopted, doubtless for a good and sufficient 
 reason. We must, of course, calculate the area we 
 propose to give to the figure, and find the number 
 of ends and picks it will require to occupy, and if 
 that number happens to be one which is not a mea- 
 sure of the number of hooks contained in our Jacquard 
 machine, which simply means the total number of 
 threads at our disposal for figuring purposes, then we 
 must alter it and adopt five, six, eight, or ten, as the 
 case may require. Again, perhaps the form of the figure 
 is such that an arrangement of eight spots in satin 
 order would give them the appearance of irregularity ; 
 if so, we must adopt some other system which is better 
 suited to it. For instance, an elongated figure may 
 frequently be better arranged with five or ten spots than 
 eight, because the order of distribution is not qixite so 
 regular to the eye ; and this apparent irregularity may 
 be neutralised by the placing of the elongated figures, 
 and thus present a much more regular appearance. Oa 
 the other hand, as a matter of course, if the spot is regular 
 in shape, no method of arrangement can be better than 
 an eight-end satin. Although the example we have 
 taken for our illustration is a figure of a very stitF 
 character, and one which perhaps exaggerates the 
 difiiculty, yet the rule is more or less applicable to figures 
 of every description, whether they be stiff or free in 
 their outline. No doubt the difficulty is greatest in 
 figures which vary so much in the length of "float" 
 — that is, in the number of ends over which the weft 
 passes without interweaving. If they are pretty equal in 
 this respect, then the only reason for abandoning the alter- 
 
Chap. VI.] RELATION OF FIGURE AND GROUND. 
 
 119 
 
 nate order of arrangement is to prevent the figures from 
 running in straight lines across or the length of the piece. 
 
 So far we have confined ourselves to figures upon 
 a plain cloth, and formed with the material of which the 
 fabric is composed ; but we are not necessarily confined 
 to plain cloth ; we may figure with equal facility upon 
 twilled or satin cloth. In fact, we determine the fabric 
 first, and then figure upon it ; and the figure must be 
 made subservient to the structure of the cloth, not the 
 cloth to the figure. What we mean is, that we determine 
 the weight, quality, and texture of our cloth, according 
 to the purposes to which it is to be applied, and then 
 proceed to ornament it. 
 
 In ornamenting twilled or satin fabrics, there is 
 less risk of afi"ecting the general character of the 
 cloth than in plain cloth, because the looseness of the 
 figure more nearly accords with the nature of it, the 
 looseness of the interweaving of the ground of the fabric 
 approximating more closely to the figure ; and as_ there 
 is necessarily more material employed, a slightly 
 increased looseness is not so detrimental. Further, 
 in cloths which have not a plain ground we employ 
 figures with more freedom of outline. In plain cloths 
 we are bound to consider the order of interweaving, and 
 as this happens at every alternate end, our outline must 
 necessarily be more or less stiff"; whereas in a satin, 
 for instance, the interweaving would be only at every 
 fifth end, and we can, therefore, change from weft to 
 warp, or vice versa, with more freedom, and consequently 
 relieve the outline from stiffness. This is also assisted 
 by the increased quantity of material employed. 
 
 One feature of the arrangement of spot figures 
 must not be overlooked, whether we arrange them 
 alternately, or in satin, or any given order. If the form 
 of the figure is such that more threads are used in 
 one direction than the other, whether in the warp or 
 weft, by one spot, whatever number of spots are 
 employed, the whole must occupy a space proportionate 
 
120 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS, [Chap, VI. 
 
 to that occupied by one. Suppose, for instance, that one 
 spot occupies thirty ends, and only sixteen picks, and we 
 are employing five, eight, or ten spots, the number of 
 ends and picks which the whole number of figures 
 occupies must be proportionate to those occupied by one 
 spot. It would be absurd to put eight, say, of such spots 
 upon a square space; at some points, if they were not 
 actually touching each other, they would come very near, 
 while at others they would be very wide apart. 
 
 In many instances, when we figure with the ground 
 weft or warp, or even with both, upon a plain cloth, the 
 figure is not allowed to be quite loose, but is twilled, or 
 the warp and weft are bound together in satin order ; 
 and even upon other than plain fabrics this may be done. 
 The first object in doing this is to give firmness to the 
 cloth, and sometimes also effect to the pattern. If the 
 spots be large ones, the introduction of twilling will give 
 more eflfect, more light and shade, as it were, to the 
 pattern, and at the same time the cloth will be more 
 useful for wearing purposes, and there will be less loose 
 material on the surface. 
 
 Spot figures of the type of which we have been 
 speaking are amongst the simplest and easiest patterns 
 to produce. They require simple, methodical treatment 
 only. We take any small object, either from nature or 
 fancy, and distribute it in regular order and with 
 mathematical precision over the surface, so that the 
 designer's skill — from an art point of view — is called 
 forth chiefly in the selection of his object. He will have 
 no difiiculty in finding plenty to select from. If he 
 wishes to have large figures he has a great variety of 
 flowers, leaves, &c., from which to select, which readily 
 admit of variation, and which he may conventionalise to 
 an unlimited extent. If only small objects are required, 
 the number to choose from is even greater. The petals 
 of flowers, grains of corn, portions of leaves, and other 
 objects in nature, afford him unlimited scope. 
 
 In many cases small objects which are stiff" in outline 
 
Chap. VI.] 
 
 FLORAL DESIGNS. 
 
 121 
 
 are arranged in such order as to form a continuous 
 pattern, like that shown in Fig. 81, which may be 
 compared to a series of intersecting diagonals, made by 
 objects each of the same size and shape. In patterns 
 of this type effect is frequently given by variety of 
 twilling, and at the 
 same time the balance 
 of pattern or loose- 
 ness of weaving is 
 regulated by it. In 
 this design, for in- 
 stance, the thick bars 
 where the weft is laid 
 loosely on the top of 
 the fabric ai'e coinci- 
 dent with the . plain 
 cloth, whilst at the 
 point where there is 
 little or no plain the 
 figure is twilled, thus 
 giving a balance or 
 equality of texture. 
 
 In the arrangement of these patterns too much 
 attention cannot be paid to such little matters, for 
 the same reason that in the small set spots we 
 distribute them in satin or some other order which will 
 equalise the interweaving. If our pattern will not admit 
 of such orders of distribution, we must take other means 
 of equalising the texture. 
 
 71. Floral Designs formed by the Ground Weft. 
 — In making floral designs, all the same conditions must 
 be observed as in the patterns of which we have just 
 been speaking. We must take care that our pattern 
 does not run in too straight lines either with the weft or 
 warp. It may be permitted to run diagonally, be- 
 . cause that would not affect the relative tension of the 
 threads. Any inequalities may be neutralised by vary- 
 ing the twilling, and by the same means variety given 
 
 Pig. 81. 
 
122 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. [Cliai^. VI. 
 
 to the pattern, and to some extent the absence of variety 
 of colour supplied. 
 
 In some cases, where the floral design is of a scroll 
 character trailing over the surface, after the fashion of 
 clinibing plants, with leadingorprominentobjects occurring 
 at intervals, it is well to arrange these first, so as to 
 ensure their equal distribution. They may be placed 
 in satin, or some other more or less regular order, and 
 the general body filled up afterwards, and in such a 
 manner as to relieve the stiff monotony of the regular 
 order of arrangement. If this is done judiciously, not 
 only will it assist beginners in their first arrangement 
 of original designs, but it k'eeps before their eyes 
 constantly the necessity of this regular order of dis- 
 tribution ; and a thorough conviction of the necessity of 
 this, so as to keep the fabric regular, is one of the surest 
 guarantees of success to the designer of textile fabrics. 
 
 72. Figured Stripes. — In many cases figures are made 
 to run in regular stripes the whole length of the cloth ; 
 that is, a stripe is produced upon the fabric by figuring 
 alone. It may be that the stripe is a floral pattern, and 
 the ground is either plain or twilled, or has small spot 
 figures distributed over it. In such patterns care must 
 be taken as to the relative tension of the warp threads of 
 the stripe and ground fabric, or, if there be a great 
 difference, the warps for each respectively must come 
 from different warp beams, because it would require so 
 much more length of warp to make a given length of 
 cloth in one case than the other ; and if they both come 
 off* the same beam, the same length of each being given 
 oft; one would of necessity be much tighter and 
 straighter than the other. Of course the necessity for 
 two beams would only arise when the difference in the 
 orders of working made a very perceptible difference 
 in the tension of the warp. Sometimes the figure of the 
 stripe may be of the same character as the ground, but 
 differing from it either in some of the forms employed, 
 or in the arrangement or distribution of the objects, and 
 
Chap. VI.] 
 
 FIGURED STRIPES. 
 
 123 
 
 tlie difference in the orders of working might be so 
 slight that there would be no real difference in tlie 
 tension, and consequently no need for the employment 
 of two warp beams. 
 
 73. Stripes which differ in Texture and Quality 
 from the Ground. — -We have already referred to making 
 stripes finer than the ground, or what is called " crammed 
 stripes," but we spoke of them merely as plain stripes, 
 or simply twilled. The same class of stripe is also 
 largely used for figured goods. Tlie ground of the fabric 
 may be either plain or twilled, or may have spot figures 
 over it — the last two are the most common — and the stripe 
 may be twilled or satin, and the figure running upon it. 
 
 This is by far the most effective method of making 
 stripes, because not only does the figure give character to 
 it, but its very closeness and compactness distinctly 
 mark it, and separate it from the ground. Again, 
 stripes of this description are frequently a different 
 material from the ground, as well as a different colour 
 or shade of the same colour. When we say that 
 these stripes are usually finer than the ground, we say 
 so in a very broad sense, or perhaps it will be better 
 to qualify it, and say that it is either much finer or there 
 is a greater quantity of material in a given space. For 
 instance, if the stripe be twilled, we may . either have 
 more threads per inch than in the ground, or an equal 
 number of a thicker thread. The latter possesses the 
 advantage of being cheaper, but tlie former that of 
 superior appearance. If the stripe be a satin, we cannot 
 so readily resort to the thicker material only, as the 
 nature of the pattern requires a greater number of 
 threads to make it " cover " properly. In either case 
 there must be an increased quantity of material, whether 
 there be actually increased weight or not. If we simply 
 use thicker threads there will be increased weight, but if 
 we use more threads of a finer count the increase of 
 weight accompanying the number of threads is neutralised 
 by their fineness in a greater or less degree. 
 
124 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. [Chap. VI. 
 
 In making figured stripes, the same rule must be ob- 
 served as in the combination of any two patterns in any 
 form — namely, that either the number of picks occupied 
 by the ground pattern, or whichever is smaller, must be 
 a measure of that occupied by the stripe or larger pat- 
 tern, or they must be continued to a point where the two 
 meet at the same time. In the majority of instances, 
 the stripe will occupy the greater number of picks, be- 
 cause that is usually the fancy portion of the fabric, the 
 ornamental part put on as a decoration to it. But this is 
 not the universal rule ; sometimes the ground may bo 
 figured, and the stripe a plain twill or satin introduced 
 to give relief to the ground. This may be determined 
 variously by the caprices of fashion, or the uses to which 
 the article is to be applied. An example of each kind 
 is given in the coloured plate I. 
 
 When the figuring occurs on the stripe, the best efiect 
 is generally obtained by having the ground darker than 
 the stripe and solid in colour; that is, the weft and the 
 warp of the ground both alike in colour, whether they are 
 in the material or not, and the warp of the stripe either a 
 lighter colour, or a somewhat lighter shade or tint of the 
 same colour. By this means the figure on the stripe will 
 be darker than the stripe itself, and will therefore give 
 more efiect to it. "Where it is a plain sti^pe upon a 
 figured ground the same rule will apply to some extent, 
 but more liberty may be taken. A light figure upon a 
 dark stripe will give a rather "seedy" appearance, it will 
 be wanting in force or character, but a dark solid stripe 
 upon a light figured ground will not be deficient in the 
 same degree. Or even if the plain stripe be of the same 
 colour as the ground, it will be more pleasing than a 
 figured stripe upon a plain ground of the same colour. 
 In the first case the stripe will break, and give relief to 
 the figure, but the plain ground cannot give relief to the 
 figured stripe to the same extent. Of course this will 
 somewhat depend upon the relative quantities of stripe 
 and figure; if they are equal, or nearly equal, the 
 
Plate I. 
 
Chap. VL] FIGURED STRIPES. 125 
 
 condition will not be exactly tlie same as if the ground 
 be three or four times as broad as the stripe. The 
 desic^ner must be guided by this in his use or non-use of 
 different depths of colour, as well as by other circum- 
 stances accompanying it. . n a 
 74. Figures running over both Stripe and Ground. 
 —Although we have been speaking of figuring the 
 ground and stripe separately, we are not, necessarily, 
 bound to confine ourselves strictly to that. Very 
 excellent efiects are produced by letting the figure run 
 over both stripe and ground; in fact, arranging the 
 pattern as though the stripe had no existence. This 
 may be done whether the stripe be finer than the ground 
 or not, though in most cases it has most efi'ect when stripe 
 and ground are equal in all respects except colour ; as, 
 for instance, if the fabric is a fine satin throughout. 
 Again, very pleasing efi'ects may be produced by letting 
 the figure run over the ground in sprays, and have the 
 termination of its branches in the stripe ; and this may 
 be done either when ground and stripe are equal or 
 otherwise. Probably in such cases the best efi'ect is 
 produced when the stripe is finer than the ground, as it 
 will give a more striking contrast to the terminals of the 
 sprays. If the object of running the figure over ground 
 and stripe alike is to break up the stripe a little, and make 
 it lose some of the harsh straight outline which usually 
 distinguishes stripes, it will be better to let the stripe and 
 the fic^ure occupy diff"erent numbers of ends, or, m other 
 words, occupy difi'erent spaces. Suppose, for instance, 
 that the stripe is repeated every three inches and the 
 fi<rtire every four inches, then the stripe will not be 
 broken by the corresponding part of the figure until it 
 has been repeated four times and the figure three times, 
 so that it is relieved considerably of the monotonous 
 repetition which would present itself if the stripe were 
 broken all across the piece at the same point. This, ot 
 course, may or may not be an advantage, but ui most 
 cases it is a most decided one, because the harsh outlme 
 
126 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. [Chap. VI. 
 
 and the individuality of the stripe are more completelv 
 and effectively broken up. We give examples in Plate II. 
 ot two figured stripes, one of which has the figure 
 runnmg indiscriminately over the surface, and the other 
 having the terminals of the sprays in the stripe. Some- 
 times small stripes are made running in thin, straight, 
 lines, and broken either with figures similar to those 
 shown m Plate II., or with small spot figures arranged so 
 that they fall across the stripes and break the lines 
 feuch spots are best arranged in satin order, so that they 
 dont break m straight lines across the piece. In fact 
 the same reasons prevail as for the spiral scroll and other 
 similar figures previously mentioned to prevent the too 
 frequent repetition of the break in the stripe from beincr 
 in the same straight line. ® 
 75. Figured Diagonals.— In addition to fio-ured 
 stripes there IS another class of figures nearly akin to 
 them-namely, figured diagonals, or stripes arranged 
 diagonally across the fabric. These, of necessity, differ 
 from stripes running the length of the piece, not only in 
 appearance but in the order of arrangement; and 
 while m figured stripes we may have the stripe different 
 m both colour and fineness from the ground, we cannot 
 have It so m diagonal patterns, from the fact that the 
 diagonal stripe must be made of the same warp or weft 
 as the ground. We might introduce extra material for 
 producing the diagonal stripe, but as we shall show when 
 WP Z aa ! ^^g^ring with extra material, 
 
 we should add to the weight of the cloth considerably • 
 and at present we wish to deal with figures formed by 
 the material composing the ground cloth only. It may 
 be said that m dealing with stripes of a different colour 
 trom the ground, and, perhaps, in different material also 
 we are ornamenting with extra material. That is 
 quite true, but it is not figuring with extra material in 
 the general acceptation of the term. When we are 
 making that stripe, it forms the whole fabric at that 
 particular place; there is no ground cloth under if 
 
Plate II 
 
Chap. VI.] 
 
 FIGURED DIAGOXALS. 
 
 127 
 
 while what we usually mean by using extra material is 
 that the ground cloth runs throughout, and the extra 
 material figures upon it, and does not enter into the body 
 of the fabric, except to form figure. 
 
 Then in figured diagonal patterns we are dependent 
 upon form or variety of lines to produce variety of pat- 
 terns ; unless we do introduce extra material we cannot 
 resort to variety of colour to assist us. But even when 
 confined to single colours, we may produce great variety 
 of patterns. In the first place, our pattern may consist 
 more or less of scroll or sprays, running continuously 
 diagonally, yet the variety of forms may break the 
 rigid straightness of the line, or we may use straight 
 lines with floral or other spots introduced at intervals 
 between the lines. Again, we may use the straight lines 
 combined with the scroll, and the scroll may be ei-ther 
 confined strictly between the lines, or, like the stripes, 
 it may break through it at intervals, regular or irregular. 
 In fact, all that has been said of producing figured stripes 
 so far as the design itself is conceriied, apart from the 
 use of colour an(3 varying degrees of fineness, applies 
 equally to figured diagonals. One remark which was 
 made in a previous chapter in reference to small diagonals 
 with spots running between them, also applies here — 
 namely, that the number of ends occupied by the figure 
 counted in a diagonal direction, must be a measure of the 
 number occupied by the whole diagonal, or the pattern 
 must be repeated to a number of which each is a measure. 
 It is even more important that this rule should be borne 
 in mind in commencing to make a large figured diagonal 
 than in a small one, because any discrepancy between 
 the number occupied by the diagonal and the figure 
 respectively would lead to the necessity of carrying the 
 design out to an immense length, and the increased 
 number of ends employed makes it so much easier to 
 arrange before the design is commenced that the two 
 numbers shall coincide than is the case in smaller 
 patterns. We might say that a little carelessness or 
 
128 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. [Chap. VI. 
 
 ignorance in the application of this rule will lead to a 
 great waste both of labour and material which might 
 quite easily be saved. * 
 76. Combination of Figured Stripes and Diagonals. ' 
 
 — ^ot only may we make figured stripes and diagonals, 
 but we may also combine them, running figured diagonals 
 between the stripes. In the arrangement of such patterns 
 the rule of determining the extent of the design will 
 apply as to stripes, but it need not apply as to diagonals, 
 ihe diagonal must be repeated so as to show no break 
 throughout the length of the piece, but it is not neces- 
 sary that It should be a true diagonal across the piece 
 It is broken up, as it were, into long narrow strips con- 
 tained between two parallel lines ; then it must be per- 
 fect as between these parallels, but it need not be arranged 
 so that it would be a perfect diagonal if these parallel 
 lines or stripes were removed. Perhaps if the stripe 
 were a very narrow one it would have a much better 
 appearance if it were so arranged, but if the stripe be 
 sufficiently broad to prevent the eye detecting any break 
 m the continuity of the diagonal, it would not matter 
 whether a break occurred or not. True, the eff-ect would 
 m most instances, be more pleasing could any break— 
 whether actually visible or not— be prevented; but what 
 we mean by calling attention to this is, that if any 
 extension of the design were necessary to prevent this 
 break, provided no actual fault would be visible it 
 would be more economical to allow the break to take 
 place, because it would, in many cases, require— in order 
 to avoid It— an extension of the Jacquard power, and 
 probably also a greater number of picks in the pattern 
 which would mean the use of a greater number of Jac- 
 quard cards, and consequently entail more labour and 
 expense m producing the design in the fabric ; and when- 
 ever labour and expense can be saved it is certainly 
 advisable to do so. 
 
 77. Figured Checks.— In addition to stripes and 
 diagonals formed by figures, we may also make checks or 
 
Chap. VI.] 
 
 FIGURED CHECKS. 
 
 129 
 
 stripes crossing each other at right angles. These may- 
 be classed generally under three heads : — First, when a 
 figured check encloses a plain, square space; second, 
 when a plain check encloses a square figured space (in 
 both cases the check lines being equal in texture and 
 quality to the space enclosed) ; and third, when the 
 check lines are difierent in quality and texture to the 
 space enclosed. 
 
 In arranging designs for the first of these care must 
 be taken that the figures running across the piece and 
 those running the length of the piece join perfectly to 
 each other. The two portions of the pattern must not 
 have the appearance of having been made at different 
 times, or by different hands, and put together by chance 
 They must combine to form one complete whole. They 
 must be part and parcel of the same idea, otherwise 
 there will be an incongruity about the pattern which will 
 be most offensive to the eye. Patterns of this kind in 
 the hands of a beginner are, perhaps, the most difficult 
 to manage ; the point of junction is often to him a 
 source of much trouble. It may not, perhaps, be such a 
 very difficult matter when making a design upon plain 
 paper, but when he is applying it to the fabric, where he 
 has to follow the warp and weft thread by thread, he 
 often finds considerable difficulty. This difficulty is by 
 far the greatest if the pattern has any stiff", rigid lines. 
 These must fall in and join to each other perfectly. If 
 the slightest break occur, it will be immediately visible. 
 If the pattern run in flowing, graceful lines, the diffi- 
 culty will be lessened, because a slight deviation will 
 not be in any way detrimental, though it must never 
 be attempted with stiff* lines. The length of the lines 
 must be measured with the most perfect accuracy, 
 and the chief points carefully marked out upon the de- 
 sign-paper, so tha.t nothing which will aff"ect or be likely to 
 affect their joining properly will be left to chance. We 
 have thought it well to give this warning most explicitly, 
 knowing the liability of the beginner to fall into error, 
 J 
 
130 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 [Chap. VI. 
 
 which would result in spoiling his whole pattern, and 
 compel him to begin the task again. 
 
 In the second class, where a figure is surrounded by a 
 plain check, there is no necessity for this caution. 
 Each square of figure is complete in itself, and, even 
 more than in the striped diagonal, no regard need be 
 paid to its continuity. It may be treated as we might 
 treat a tile, or any square article with a figure in its 
 centre and a border surrounding it. This border will 
 prevent effectively the adjoining square from interfering 
 with it. In fact, the different squares need not be all 
 alike ; different patterns may be alternated, and as much 
 variety as the extent of figuring surface will permit may 
 be introduced. There is no difficulty in arranging designs 
 of this kind for the fabric. 
 
 In the third class, where the check surrounding the 
 figure is of a different quality from the ground, what has 
 been said of the second class applies exactly so far as 
 regards the figure, but in respect to the check itself some 
 knowledge of the structure of fabrics is required. We 
 may say that it is a combination of two stripes placed at 
 right angles to each other, both of which are finer than 
 the ground fabric which they surround or upon which 
 they are placed. Now, whatever may be the texture and 
 degree of fineness of the longitudinal stripe, that of the 
 transverse stripe should be exactly similar. If these 
 two stripes or sets of stripes be much heavier or more com- 
 pact in their structure than the ground cloth, they will 
 exert a power over it, and cause it to "cockle" or curl. 
 On the other hand, if the ground be firmer in texture 
 than the stripe, it will exert a similar power over the 
 stripe. 
 
 From the very fact that the stripes are finer, contam- 
 inc^ a greater number of threads per inch than the 
 ground, they must be more loosely interwoven, so as to 
 allow of this increased quantity of material being put m. 
 
 This being so, if the relative quantities or thick- 
 ness of the materials of the ground and checking be 
 
Chap, VI.] 
 
 DIAPER. 
 
 131 
 
 not properly proportioned to the order of interweav- 
 ing of each respectively, trouble must of necessity ensue. 
 Therefore, too much care and attention cannot be paid to 
 the subject before actually attempting to make the 
 pattern. 
 
 78. Diaper. — In all the patterns with which we have 
 been dealing we have assumed that the figure is formed by 
 the warp and weft ceasing to interweave with each other, 
 or if not entirely ceasing, interweaving only very slightly 
 — just suflficient to hold them together" and' prevent 
 them from appearing as so much loose material, or 
 to give some special effect to the design. We may now 
 turn our attention to a class of figuring in which 
 throughout, both in figure and ground, they are equally 
 firm in texture. Such patterns are variously known as 
 "diaper'' and "damask." The former is not so much 
 used as it once was, the latter, which permits of much 
 greater variety of form in the figures, having, since the 
 great development of the Jacquard machine, almost 
 entirely superseded it. However, both are alike in th« 
 principle of structure of the fabiic, and it is probable 
 that diaper preceded and was the original of damask, 
 which, with improved machineiy, 
 has developed into a more perfect 
 
 and pleasing class of designs. RggBGgSBSggSSgS: 
 In Fig. 82 we have a plan of SBBgSBBggKgSSSg 
 a diaper pattern of the simplest BgSgBgSBSgSHgS: 
 kind which will convey _ most SgSSSgSSBgSBBgSB 
 readily an idea of the principle SS:ggSSgSBBgSBBg 
 upon which the fabric_ is con- SgggSgSZBgSBBgSB 
 structed On the first eight ends gSSgSKgSBBgSBBS 
 and picks it will be seen that the ^ ^_ g^. 
 
 weft comes to the surface, forming 
 
 a four-end twill, and for the next eight ends exactly the 
 reverse taking place. There is still a four-end twill 
 formed, but running in the opposite direction, and with 
 the warp brought to the surface. For the next eight 
 picks the conditions are reversed, the ends which went 
 
132 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 [Chap. VI. 
 
 to the back at first now coming to the face, and those 
 which were on the face going to the back, and the twills 
 turning in the opposite direction at the same time. 
 Throughout the whole system of diaper weaving this one 
 principle is followed. The figures are formed by the 
 warp and weft changing places from back to face and 
 vice versa. In whatever direction the twill runs when 
 the weft is on the surface, it runs in a contrary direction 
 when the warp is on the surface ; consequently both sides 
 of the fabric are alike in pattern, and, what is quite as 
 important, the fabric is equally firm in texture through- 
 out. There is no loose material on face or back. 
 
 The pattern we have given in Fig. 82 would form a 
 simple chequer pattern, but generally they are of a more 
 elaborate character than this. The intervals of changing 
 may be varied to any extent, and not only simple 
 chequer patterns produced, but others which may almost 
 be called figured goods. In all true diapers the chief 
 characteristic of the pattern is that it runs in squares ; 
 the whole design is simply the changing of the order of 
 working, as shown in Fig. 82, in various-sized squares or 
 parallelograms. Fig. 83 is a plan of one in which there 
 is greater variety than in Fig. 82. 
 It is not carried out to the full extent, 
 ■■■■■■■"□□■■□a shows the twilling, but is simply 
 
 upon paper to explain the pat- 
 ■■■■■■[■ggjjgg tern. In arranging designs for dia- 
 ■□□■■□B P®^^ TplBLTi adopted in Fig. 83 is a 
 !□□■■□□ vsry general one — at least, when 
 woven as diapers formerly were, with 
 Fig. 83. healds. The warp is divided into 
 
 divisions of four or more ends, ac- 
 cording to the pattern ; each of these divisions is repre- 
 sented by one of the spaces on the paper, and all the 
 divisions which correspond in their order of working 
 have their warp threads drawn through the same set of 
 healds, so there are as many divisions of healds as there 
 are divisions of the pattern which are difierent from 
 
Chap. VI.] 
 
 DAMASKS. 
 
 133 
 
 each other in their order of working. So that, as will 
 readily be seen, very large patterns may be produced 
 with a very small number of healds ; and if each of 
 the spaces given on the paper represent a division 
 of four ends, the whole pattern will be four times the 
 size of that represented. Of course, what is said of ends 
 aj)plies also to picks. 
 
 There are many small patterns in both linen and 
 cotton goods which are known as diapers but are not 
 in reality such. They are simply small figures, many 
 of them made on the principle we have before described 
 — namely, a loose weft or warp figure upon a plain or 
 other ground. 
 
 It may seem that if diapers are, as shown here, a 
 mere combination of twills for the purpose of producing 
 patterns, that the subject should have been treated under 
 the head of figuring with twills in a previous chapter. 
 Strictly speaking, that is so ; because they are not only 
 patterns which were always produced with healds in the 
 days when they were most largely used, but the character 
 of the pattern altogether would place it in the category 
 of those with which we have already dealt. Our sole 
 object in reserving it for this chapter has been to use it 
 as an introduction to damask. In speaking of diaper 
 patterns we have referred to them as being regular twills 
 reversed to form patterns. This is a perfectly accurate 
 description of the great majority of diapers, but some- 
 times instead of a regular twill a satin would be substi- 
 tuted, the pattern still being arranged in straight lines, 
 squares, or parallelograms. 
 
 79. Damasks. — The structure of damask is precisely 
 the same in principle as that of diaper. The figures are 
 not arranged in straight lines or squares, but are gene- 
 rally more or less of a floral character. 
 
 It is supposed that the silk weavers of Asia invented 
 diaper weaving. Damask, which was formerly made 
 entirely of silk, though now both of worsted and linen, 
 takes its name from the city of Damascus, whence it 
 
134 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 [Chap. VI. 
 
 is supposed to have come. So that it is probable that, 
 as we have already said, the diaper is the original of 
 the damask ; and although we now a:pply the name 
 exclusively to the class of patterns we have been des- 
 cribing, yet the two are pi-actically the same thing so 
 far as. structure of the cloth is concerned, and the one 
 is the outcome and development of the other so far 
 as character of design goes. 
 
 In damask figuring we have, perhaps, more scope 
 for producing large figures than in any other mode. 
 Generally the ground is warp satin and the figures weft 
 satin, or it may be the reverse. In either case the 
 binding of the weft and warp together is the same in 
 both ground and figure, so that the cloth is equally firm 
 throughout. That being so, figures as large as we please 
 may be introduced. It is not a question of having so 
 much loose material on the face or the back, but 
 merely the exchange of places of warp and weft, the 
 two continuing to interweave in the same order which- 
 ever may be uppermost. One matter relating to the 
 structure of the cloth requires notice here. We have 
 said that to have a perfect structure of cloth the 
 relative proportions of warp and weft must be re- 
 gulated by the pattern of the fabric. In damask 
 weaving what is termed the pattern of the fabric is that 
 of the ground, or the general order of interweaving, 
 which is usually a satin. To make a satin ])erfect with 
 the warp predominating on the surface, we say that there 
 should be a greater number of warp threads per inch 
 than weft; and if the weft be on the surface, there 
 should be a greater number of weft threads per inch than 
 warp. Now, in damask we have the warp and weft on 
 the surface alternately, and each weaving as a satin. 
 Perhaps there may be nearly equal quantities of each, 
 and at any rate both are on the surface at different 
 parts of the cloth at the same time ; then it is quite 
 impossible to comply with the conditions required to 
 produce a perfect satin. We cannot make either material 
 
Chap. YI.] 
 
 DAMASKS. 
 
 135 
 
 predominate just at the point where it comes to the surface, 
 and nowhere else ; if one predominate it will do so not 
 only in the figure or ground, but in both. Then we are 
 reduced to the necessity of making the fabric equal 
 both ways, that is, warp and weft will be equal both in 
 quantity and thickness. But that equality will not be 
 the same as for a plain cloth. In plain cloth, we say, to 
 make perfect structure, not only should warp and weft 
 be equal in quantity and thickness, but the intervals 
 between the threads should be equal, or nearly so, to the 
 diameter of the threads, so that warp and weft threads 
 may bend round each other equally. In satin cloth the 
 threads do not interweave alternately, but at least once 
 in every five. Then our threads must be closer together 
 than for plain cloth; but as both sets of threads come 
 to the surface neither must be set so closely as if only 
 one were intended to come to the surface, but just so that 
 both warp and weft will have to bend a little out of the 
 straight line, without departing so much from it as in 
 a satin of a perfect type. 
 
 The outcome of this must be, then, that in a damask 
 we cannot have a perfect type of a satin. We certainly 
 cannot, but we must come as near it as we can, con- 
 sistently with the fact that hoth sides must be equally 
 perfect, and not one side only. An examination of 
 damask cloth, either in linen or worsted, will convince 
 even the merest tyro of this, and more especially if he 
 compare it with satins which are not figured after the 
 style of damask. Instead of there being a fine unbroken 
 surface, presenting only one set of threads to the eye, 
 either in the ground or the figure, and all the points 
 of interweaving of the warp with the weft being hid, he 
 will see the weft come through to the warp surface, and 
 the warp come through to the weft surface. The 
 thicker the threads employed the more apparent will 
 tins be, and the thinner the threads the less will this 
 be visible. The reason is not hard to find. Where 
 the threads are thick the point of interweaving is 
 
136 DESIGN IN TEXTILE PABEICS. [Chap. VI. 
 
 more difficult to cover, by reason of their bulk, even if 
 the threads on each side spread out pretty well : but if 
 the threads be thm, and those on each side of the point 
 of niterweavmg spread out slightly, it will have a better 
 chance of being covered; hence fine cloths present a 
 more perfect appearance than coarser ones, although the 
 diameters of the threads in both bear exactly the same 
 ratio to the number in a given space. Although damask 
 patterns are usually made upon fabrics with a satin 
 ground, and the figure, as we have said, is produced by 
 the warp and weft exchanging places on the surface, yet 
 they are not necessarily confined to that only. As in 
 other fancy_ cloths, variety of working may be intro- 
 duced to give more effect to the figure. At points 
 where some special efi-ect is desired the satin may be 
 exchanged for a twill, and the twill may be varied in ii:s 
 direction, or even in its order of weaving. Sometimes 
 small spots of weft or warp are introduced to give 
 additional vari(.ty and effect to the pattern, but in all 
 cases care must be exercised not to make the fabric 
 too loose at any point. The general practice is to 
 make these goods all of one colour, as, for example, in 
 linen tab e-cloths and similar articles, and again in 
 worsted damasks for furniture purposes. So that the 
 whole effect of the pattern is dependent upon the threads 
 ot which It IS composed, and which are placed at ri<rht 
 angles to each other, being brought to the surface 
 alternately, according to the form of the figure, and thus, 
 by the light falling upon them at different angles relief is 
 given. It will be easily understood that a little variety 
 m the order of interweaving the threads in the pattern 
 instead of keeping strictly to the ground pattern as satin 
 wixl give a pleasing effect of light and shade to the whole 
 80. Combination of Damask and Repp.— Another 
 type of fabric which is much used for furniture pur 
 poses is one which may be termed a combination of 
 damask and repp, or a repp fabric with a damask figure 
 ui)on It. The general body is constructed on the 
 
Cliap. VI.; 
 
 DAMASK AND REPP. 
 
 137 
 
 principle mentioned "in the first chapter, with a number 
 of threads together as one, alternated with a single 
 thread, and the ground of the cloth woven plain, so that 
 all the thick or combined threads when passing over the 
 pick form a distinct rib across the piece. For the 
 purpose of figuring, those thick threads are allowed to 
 " float " or pass over all the weft picks, so that they 
 present a flat surface of loose warp upon the ribbed 
 ground. This is all very well where the figures are 
 small, and make stiflT-looking objects, which run either 
 across the piece or in diagonal lines ; but if the figures 
 are too large or too long in the direction of the warp 
 there would be too much looseness, more especially for 
 use in connection with articles of furniture, such as 
 covering of chairs, &c. Then to prevent this looseness, 
 and to enable the designer to employ large figures, the 
 threads which combine to make a thick one are sepa- 
 rated in the figuring, and woven into the ground weft in 
 the order of a satin or twill. By this means not only 
 the flat surface required is produced, but with the 
 number of ends which they make when separated they 
 cover the weft and the points of interweaving most eff"ec- 
 tively, and make a firm fabric ; and in this, as in the 
 damask proper, great variety may be obtained in the 
 pattern by using a variety of twilling to give shaded ef- 
 fects. From the very boldness of the ribbed ground, the 
 prominence of figures formed by the thick threads where 
 they are not separated, and the flatness of the figure 
 where they are separated, more effective and striking 
 patterns may be made upon fabrics of this class than 
 upon the ordinary damask. Quite as much extent of 
 figuring can be produced, either floral or otherwise, and, 
 of course, greater variety of effects. If proper regard be 
 paid to the relative thickness and number of the threads 
 according to the pattern, the cloth will be a most useful 
 one also ; but if this be neglected, in common with all 
 repp goods, they will be liable to " fray," and be unser- 
 viceable for wear. 
 
138 
 
 DESIGN^ IN TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 [Cliap. VT. 
 
 81. Figuring with Extra Material — Extra Warp.— 
 
 We have now examined pretty fully into the question of 
 figuring with the material of which the fabric is com- 
 posed. We must next enter into figuring with extra 
 material, or the introduction of weft or warp, or both, 
 for the purpose of forming pattern. 
 
 We shall now begin to find our knowledge of double 
 cloths of value ; for the whole system of figuring witli 
 extra material may be said to be based upon double 
 cloth, although two cloths are not actually formtnl. 
 Even though we may not actually form two distinct 
 cloths, yet we have one warp and weft making the fabric 
 })roper, and we have another weft, or warp, or both, 
 forming figures upon it. In some instances, where we 
 use both warp and weft extra, we may be said to actually 
 form double cloth, at intervals, at any rate ; because if 
 the extra materials interweave to make a figure, they 
 will, as a matter of fact, at that point form a cloth 
 of their own, separate and distinct from the ground 
 cloth. 
 
 We will deal with this subject under the three 
 distinct heads : — First, where extra warp only is used ; 
 second, where extra weft only is used ; and thii'd, where 
 both extra weft and warp are used ; at the same time 
 the combination of figures formed by extra material 
 combined with those formed with ground material must 
 be shown. 
 
 We will first take figures formed with extra warp, 
 and deal with it in stripe form. Suppose we make 
 a perfectly plain cloth for the ground, and we wish to 
 make a stripe upon it either figured or otherwise ; we 
 arrange the stripe ends in such a manner that they pass 
 alternately to the face and back of the cloth, according 
 to the pattern, but they take no part whatever in the for- 
 mation of the cloth. When they come to the surface the 
 ground cloth remains plain underneath them, and when 
 they go to the back the ground cloth remains plain above 
 them. Fig. 84 will represent a longitudinal section. In it 
 
Chap. VI.] 
 
 EXTRA AVARP FIGUUES. 
 
 139 
 
 the ground cloth is shown as being quite plain tlirough- 
 out, and the thick thread, which represents the extra 
 warp, is shown as passing from one side of the cloth to 
 the other to 
 
 of fabrics 
 
 figured in this manner, the first condition, to ensure 
 the figure being solid in appearance and effectually 
 coverinsr the gjround, is that the extra threads should 
 be set as closely together as ever they can be, and that 
 they shall be of sufficient thickness to cover the inter- 
 stices between them as nearly as possible. Those extra 
 threads must, of necessity, be alternated with the 
 threads of the ground warp ; then, to ensure this solidity 
 as far as may be, two conditions are requisite in the 
 ground fabric : first, the ground t'lreads must be set 
 closely together, and second, these threads must be 
 as thin as possible ; and further, there should not be 
 more than one ground thread between the extra ones. 
 Suppose that the ground warp is set very openly, the 
 extra threads have not only to fill the space between 
 them, but it must spread out so as actually to cover 
 them. If the diameter of those extra threads be less 
 than the spaces, it cannot, of course, even cover these 
 spaces ; and if the diameter and space be equal, it of 
 course can do no more than cover the space, so that 
 there would be a space between each extra thread equal, 
 at least, to the diameter of the ground thread, and that 
 could not possibly show a solid compact figure on the 
 surface. Again, if the space between the ground 
 threads be small, but the threads themselves be thick, 
 extra ones would undergo some compression at the 
 the point where they are passing from face to back 
 or from back to face, but they will still be unable 
 to spread out enough to cover the thick ground 
 threads ; then there is only one alternative : if the 
 
 form figure. 
 In the ar- 
 rangement 
 
 rig. 84. 
 
140 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. [Chap. VI. 
 
 figure must show a solid surface, the diameter of the 
 extra threads must be equal to both the diameter of the 
 ground threads and the spaces between them. It will 
 then, at the point of changing from one side of the 
 cloth to the other, undergo a compression equal to the 
 diameter of the ground thread, or rather the two threads 
 together — ground and extra — will undergo this com- 
 pression ; and as the extra one issues from the cloth 
 it will spread out to its full diameter, and so cover 
 the ground efFectively. If the " floats " on the surface 
 be very long there will be all the better opportunity of 
 covering, but if they be short these opportunities will 
 be decreased. Now with regard to the question of 
 compression. If the ground threads be " soft spun " 
 -^that is, not having much twist in them, the fibres 
 lying loosely together — ^^they will be all the more sub- 
 ject to compression, and the extra ones will keep near 
 their natural state. On the other hand, as is most 
 commonly the case, if the extra threads be soft they will 
 undergo the compression. Probably the latter alternative 
 is the better, more especially if we look at it from a 
 practical point of view. The ground threads have to 
 bear all the strain of weaving; they form the wear- 
 ing cloth ; they really constitute the fabric. The 
 extra thread simply ornaments ; therefore, for the con- 
 venience of the weaver, and to obtain the strongest cloth, 
 the ground threads should be tolerably firm in their 
 structure, and we may have the figuring threads soft and 
 loose, so as to cover the ground in the most effective 
 manner. We have been speaking now on the assumption 
 that the ground of the cloth has to be absolutely 
 covered by the extra material. We have done so to 
 illustrate more clearly the true basis upon which we 
 must work. It is well known that a succession of 
 sounds, if sufficiently rapid, conveys to the ear the 
 impression of a continuous sound; or, in like manner, 
 a succession of sparks will convey the impression 
 of a continuous line of light; then, if the colours of 
 
Chap. VI.] 
 
 EXTRA WARP STRIPES. 
 
 141 
 
 our extra warp be brighter than the ground, as they 
 usually are, although they do not entirely cover the 
 ground, the spaces between them may be so small that 
 they will convey to the eye the impression of solidity, 
 or continuity of colour. 
 
 If we wish the stripe to appear solid, like some of 
 those of which we have already spoken where they are 
 " crammed," or have double the number of ends in a given 
 space of stripe to what there are in the ground, we cannot 
 obtain it so perfectly by treating it as extra warp, and 
 allowing the extra warp i-o form figure upon plain ground, 
 as if we employ all, both ground and extra, of the same 
 colour to form the stripe. Nor will it have the same fine- 
 ness of appearance. This will be very easily understood; 
 by bringing extra warp to the surface to figure upon the 
 ground, only half the quantity is presented to the eye 
 that there would be if both ground and extra combined 
 to form the stripe ; and whether the stripe be twilled or 
 satin, it must appear finer in the latter case. 
 
 On the other hand, the ground cloth being quite 
 plain under the stripe will give a firmer and stronger 
 fabric, and there will be less tendency to "cockle," 
 because of the texture being equal throughout. Again, 
 from an economical point of view it may be advanta- 
 geous. If the ground of the cloth be of cotton warp, 
 and the stripe silk, it will be much cheaper to make it 
 as an extra warp stripe, because only half the number 
 of threads would be employed. Perhaps those would 
 have to be somewhat thicker than if the whole were silk, 
 but still there would be an economy, though we must 
 again say not so good an appearance. 
 
 It is not often, however, that this system of 
 working is resorted to for the making of solid coloured 
 stripes ; more generally it is employed for figured ones, 
 and then it certainly does possess advantages. The 
 figure may be approximately solid in appearance and 
 well defined, and the stripe may be broken up as much 
 or as httle as may be desired by the figuring. 
 
U2 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 [Chap. VI. 
 
 Perhaps it will be necessary to show the arrange- 
 ment of the design upon paper for figured stripes of this 
 
 description. Fig. 85 is a design for 
 S8gBSR5gS5S:S:gg a small figure. It will be seen 
 ■□□■■■□■■■□□■□□H that every alternate end weaves 
 ■■■■■■□□■□□ggBg. quite plain, and the figuring ends 
 
 form figure only, and consequently 
 BaDDBDnBBBDBBBaa ^ay De brought to the surface as 
 BBnBBBDBBBgSBmB i^uch Or as little as we please. The 
 BBaBBBaDBmaBagB figure may be large or small, or the 
 ■Ba5BBgnBB5BBBS3 stripe may be broken up so that 
 Fig. 85. there is little semblance of a stripe 
 
 left, or it may remain nearly solid. 
 Very frequently, although the warp is introduced in 
 stripe form, no stripe is formed, but merely spots ; the 
 warp coming to the surface to form the figure, then 
 passing to the back and remaining there until required 
 to form another spot. If the spots are some distance 
 apart, the loose material at the back must be dealt 
 with. It must not be left loose for any length; it 
 must either be bound at intervals into the cloth^or cut 
 away. Sometimes difficulties arise with this loose ma- 
 terial. If the cloth be a thin one, and more especially 
 if it be woven quite plain in the ground, the loose 
 material which is not figuring cannot be bound into it 
 without showing through to the surface, and it would 
 be most objectionable to have it showing through in dots 
 at all the points of binding. Thus there is no alterna- 
 tive but to cut it away. Then, again, another difficulty 
 arises. If after forming the figure on the surface it 
 simply pass to the back, as shown in Fig. 84, and we cut 
 away that which is at the back, there will be nothing to 
 keep the figure on the cloth but the slight pressure of the 
 ground threads upon the figuring threads at the point 
 where they pass through the cloth. This would cer- 
 tainly not be sufficient, at any rate, if the cloth is to be 
 applied to any useful purpose. The least rubbing on the 
 figure would bring it away from the cloth as so much 
 
Clifip. VI.] BINDING EXTRA WARP FIGURES. 
 
 143 
 
 loose yam. Then we must bind it into the cloth 
 round the edges of the figure. The best method of 
 doing this is to let the extra ends weave plain Luto the 
 ground cloth all round 
 
 the figure for a sufficient ggggBBmSSSSSSSBBBSSBBHS 
 
 number of picks to make 8BBBSBSg2SSS555SSBgS5SBB 
 
 It nrm, tnen tne loose □□□□■□□■BBBBBDDBDanBDBDn 
 
 „ -K^ fvr^m □□□□□BnBBBBBnnBDBnanDDap 
 
 yarn may be cut trom tne □□BnBnHBBBBBDBDBannaDDna 
 
 back, but it must not be BBS5SBS555555BgSBBBBBBBB 
 cut quite close to the BSSgSBSSSSSSS^gggBBBBBBB 
 
 ^l^+l, TT-:^ «fi i*a o v,lQ-n □□□BDBDDBBBDBnBacnDDDnDr' 
 
 cloth, .tig. 00 IS a plan □□□□□□BDBDaDDBDDDaDDaaaD 
 of a small spot showing Fig. 86. 
 
 the binding around the 
 
 spot. If this binding can be introduced as part of 
 the figure it will be all the better, and if some 
 more can be introduced into the body of the figure 
 better still. This may be done, not only as a species 
 of shading to the figure, but also to give variety of 
 effect to the colour. This subject of binding also 
 brings another matter before us. We very fre- 
 quently have to give variety and character to our 
 figures by what might perhaps be called light and 
 shade ; that is, we wish the figure to vary in the degree 
 of prominence given to its various parts. At some 
 points the colour should appear in its full intensity, 
 at others in a somewhat subdued form, and again at 
 others be modified to the extent of being almost 
 invisible. To obtain these effects we must bind the 
 figuring material into the body of the cloth in a sufli- 
 cient degree, and in such order as will reduce the colour 
 to what we want. This binding we may vary as we 
 please. "VVe may twill in either a bold or a very firm twill, 
 or we bind in plain or satin ; our twill may throw a pre- 
 ponderance of the material to the face, or it may throw 
 it to the back ; in fact, we may bring as much or as little 
 as we please to the surface, and so produce any effect 
 we desii'e. 
 
 If the fabric upon which we are figuring with extra 
 
144 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 [Chap. VI. 
 
 warp be a heavy one, we can deal much more readily 
 with the binding. Should the ground be twill or satin 
 instead of plain, we can bind into it at will, without its 
 showing through to the surface, upon the same principle 
 as binding double cloths. In fact, where the extra warp 
 comes, we treat it as a double warp cloth, except where 
 It is forming figure. In such cases it is not often neces- 
 sary to cut away loose material at the back. Havina 
 facilities for binding, it is better to do so, not only 
 because of the saving of labour, but also because the 
 figure will be less liable to pull out in wearing. Where 
 cutting is resorted to we can never be quite sure that 
 the binding round the edge of the figure is sufficient, 
 more especially if cut too close ; therefore it is not 
 desirable to resort to it, except under circumstances 
 which admit of no alternative. 
 
 In addition to spots or stripes formed with extra 
 warp, we may figure all over the fabric with it, and by 
 this means produce not only very pretty, but very elabo- 
 rate designs ; for we may use more colours than one, and 
 even with the use of one colour we have excellent scope 
 for making pretty patterns. We have two illustrations 
 m Plate 3 of figures formed with extra warp, one with 
 the use of one colour only, and one with two colours. 
 With regard to the arrangement of these two colours, 
 they nmst of necessity be arranged in stripes in the 
 warp, that is, a given number of ends of one colour, and 
 a given number of the other, and so on. The first 
 object, however, must be to arrange the design so that 
 these stripes are not too apparent on the surface; the 
 figure must be broken up in such a manner that the 
 existence of the stripe is not too plainly visible, at any 
 rate to the untrained eye. 
 
 This breaking up of the figure may be very mate- 
 rially assisted by the use of figuring with the- ground 
 material along with the extra warp, and if judiciously 
 done, very pleasing effects will be the result. Again, to 
 up of the stripes, we may vary them 
 
Plate III. 
 
Chap. VI.] 
 
 EXTRA WEFT FIGURES. 
 
 145 
 
 as much as ever we please in size, and at the same time 
 we shall be varying the sizes of the different figures 
 formed by each colour respectively at various points. 
 
 In arranging designs for figures formed with extra 
 warp upon the design paper, proper regard must be 
 paid to the relative quantities of warp and weft. 
 Suppose all over the piece the extra ends are alter- 
 nate with the ground ends, and that the quantities 
 of ground weft and warp are equal, then the total quan- 
 tity of warp will be just double that of the weft. In 
 that case if the J acquard machine with which we are to 
 weave the cloth has eight rows of hooks, our paper must 
 have eight divisions in one direction and only four in the 
 other — what is known as eight by four paper. If we 
 were to use paper equal both ways, the figure would of 
 course be distorted, the width on the paper being 
 double that of the length, if it were to be correct in the 
 cloth; and if correctly drawn on paper, it would be 
 drawn to double the length on the cloth in weaving. 
 
 82. Extra Weft Figures.— We now come to the 
 question of figuring with extra weft. This mode of 
 figuring possesses decided advantages over the system 
 with which we have just been dealing, and has but one 
 disadvantage compared with it. "When we figure with warp 
 alone we weave as if we were weaving a plain, twill, or 
 satin cloth only ; the weft which forms the ground serves 
 also to bind the figure. Consequently we can wea.ve at a 
 more rapid rate, having to pass the shuttle a sufficient 
 number of times to make the ground cloth only, where- 
 as in weaving with extra weft we have to form the 
 ground cloth and pass the shuttle to form the figure 
 also. On the other hand, in warp figuring we have 
 tlie warp very crowded. This adds to the diffi- 
 culty of weaving if carried too far, so that in most eases 
 we are confined to the use of one colour only, or if we 
 use more, they must be arranged in stripe form, as shown 
 in Plate 3. Now, in figuring with extra weft we may 
 use as many colours as we please ; it simply means the 
 
 K 
 
146 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABUIOS. 
 
 [Chap. Vr. 
 
 use of so many more shuttles, and so mucli additional 
 weaving ; that is, the shuttle has to be passed through 
 the warp so many more times, though this is necessarily 
 accompanied by slow production. Again, by the use oi 
 the " swivel " we may dispense with the loose material 
 on the back, and use only just what is required to form 
 the figure ; and there is also an advantage in putting the 
 pattern upon design paper, no distortion being necessary, 
 as we shall show. ^ 
 
 All that has been said respecting the relative thick- 
 nesses of the figuring and ground threads applies to weft 
 figures equally with warp figures. 
 
 It is not often that continuous stripes are formed 
 across the piece with extra weft, though it may perhaps oc- 
 cur sometimes. If it does, however, it will generally be m 
 conjunction with warp stripes, so as to form a check pat- 
 tern, though it frequently happens that the weft is 
 thrown all across the piece to form spot figures. In such 
 cases, what has been said of binding and of cutting off 
 loose material in warp stripes will exactly apply also to 
 weft, so that we need not enter further into the considera- 
 tion of that question. Let us, then, tui'n to the discus- 
 sion of figures formed with the " swivel," and see what 
 are the advantages to be gained. 
 
 What is known as the " swivel " is an apparatus at- 
 tached to the loom, and carrying a series of small shuttles, 
 each being intended to form a separate spot; and m 
 the process of weaving, after the shuttle carrying the 
 ground weft has been passed through the warp, the 
 " shed " is opened, or the warp threads are separated 
 for the weft which is to form the figure, and instead 
 of one shuttle being passed all the way across the 
 loom, carrying weft which has only to form figure at 
 intervals of two, three, or four inches, a small shuttle is 
 passed through the warp at each figure, so that each one 
 is formed by its own weft and with its own shxittle. 
 The advantage of this is obvious at first sight ; there is 
 no loose material to deal with on the back, and conse- 
 
Plate IV. 
 
Chap. TI.] 
 
 SWIVEL FIGURES. 
 
 147 
 
 sequently no need either to bind into the fabric or cut 
 away. Again, as each figure is formed with a shuttle of 
 its own, they may be of different colours ; whereas, if 
 one shuttle must serve them all, they will, of necessity, 
 all be of the same colour. 
 
 The swivel, from the fact of its being a series of 
 shuttles, is specially adapted for the production of spot 
 figures ; and the shuttles all being of a given size, and 
 set a certain distance apart, necessitate the figures 
 being set in like manner ; in fact, the position of the 
 figures is determined by the position of the shuttles, 
 and the distribution of the figures is determined by 
 the number of positions in which the shuttles can be 
 placed. ^ We have in Plate 4 a small figure formed 
 by a swivel. An examination of the figures will show 
 that the space occupied by the figure is much less than 
 that between them. Generally the space actually oc- 
 cupied by the figure must not be more than half the 
 space between each ; that is, if the width of the spot 
 be one inch, there must be an interval of two inches 
 between that spot and the next. This is entirely de- 
 pendent on the construction of the " swivel " apparatus. 
 There are several forms in use, some of which occupy 
 much less room than others, and consequently al- 
 low the spots to be placed much nearer together. With 
 swivel figuring we are not necessarily confined to simple 
 spots, but may make figured stripes, after the character 
 of those we have spoken of as being produced by warp. 
 The shuttle being placed in one position, if we keep con- 
 stantly weaving without changing it, a continuous stripe 
 would be the result. 
 
 83. Combining Extra Weft Figures with Figures 
 formed by Ground Weft.— Again, we may combine the 
 extra figure with figuring produced by the ground weft. 
 Suppose, for instance, we are wishing to weave a repre- 
 sentation of a rose-bud. The leaves, stem, &c., may be 
 formed by the ground weft, or we may use both weft 
 and warp, and the bud itself may be formed by the extra 
 
148 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 [Chap. VI. 
 
 weft. By this system of combining figures some very 
 pretty effects may be produced economically, but great 
 care is required in the arrangement of the designs. 
 We have already shown that the spots formed with 
 the swivel must occupy certain positions, according to 
 the arrangement for moving the shuttle from one position 
 to another. If the figures so formed are to be combined 
 with others, all must be arranged so that they fall 
 properly into the places assigned to them. 
 
 Sometimes figures of this description are made with 
 the extra material introduced as warp. In such cases the 
 distortion of which we spoke with reference to warp 
 figures occurs on the design paper; the extra ends coming 
 in alternately with the ground ends only at intervals, the 
 whole figure must occupy at those places double the space 
 upon paper. The paper will be ruled alike throughout. 
 As the conditions of the pattern alter, so also must the 
 form alter upon the paper. In extra weft figure this 
 need not be the case. The figure may be painted upon 
 the paper in the various colours, and the rest will be 
 arranged in cutting the cards for the Jacquard machine. 
 When cutting the ground cards, simply treat the extra 
 colouring as if it were ground, and when cutting the cards 
 for the extra figuring deal with it only. 
 
 Swivel figures may assume a great variety of forms. 
 They may be simple spots, or may introduce additional 
 colour or colours into figures formed with the ground ; 
 or the spots may be surrounded by checks. They may 
 form continuous stripes, or, by the judicious movement 
 of the shuttles and corresponding arrangement of the 
 figure, waved lines ; or a series of figures broken in a 
 greater or less degree may be obtained. In fact, there 
 is scarcely a limit to the varieties ; the only limit is the 
 width of figuring which may be produced at once. 
 
 Although swivels may be used to give us these 
 varieties of figures, with economy of material, yet we 
 liave often to step beyond their range. If our figur- 
 ing occur too frequently, or occupy a greater area than 
 
Chap. VI.] EXTRA AND GROUND FIGURES COMBINED. 149 
 
 the swivel can give, then we must resort to the ordinary 
 shuttle, and throw the weft all across the piece. 
 
 If we throw the weft across the piece for the pur- 
 pose of forming spot figures only, it will often be 
 desirable to arrange the figures so that they shall not 
 too strongly suggest a stripe. This may sometimes be 
 the result of the arrangement of the figure formed by the 
 ground material accompanying the extra figure; for 
 mstance, if the ground figure run in a diagonal direction 
 asm the designs in Plate 5, although the spots are really 
 in straight lines across the piece, the general arrangement 
 altogether neutralises it. In the first of these two figures 
 the spots are so far apart that they might be easily woven 
 with the swivel. It would only require to be so that it 
 could be moved the requisite distance to suit each spot. 
 
 In the second design the spots are so arranged that 
 the weft forming the large spots is at the same time 
 forming also the small ones, yet there is nothing that will 
 sugg'est to the eye a straight line of colour across the 
 fabric. If the figures be large and rather close together 
 It will not be easy to prevent the tendency to show 
 stripes ; but if they be small and well distributed it may 
 be prevented without much trouble. If we use more than 
 one colour in the same spot, as will often be necessary, it 
 will be desirable as far as possible to arrange the colours 
 so that one colour is ended before the other begins ; or 
 if that would make the division too harsh, let both 
 colours run simultaneously for a short period. But in 
 
 using two colours one of two things must be done 
 
 either the two colours must continue simultaneously 
 throughout the fabric, or for a very short period only. 
 As can be easily understood, if two extra colours come 
 m together for a time, and then either one or both 
 cease, or if one cease and the other shortly after, there 
 will be great variation in the bulk of the cloth, and that 
 variation will detract from its value as an useful article. 
 We may introduce one colour at intervals and not mate- 
 rially afi'ect the structure. If the cloth be a heavy one 
 
150 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 [Chap. VI. 
 
 we may, perhaps, introduce two, but if the cloth be a 
 light one two will be dangerous. But if our colours be 
 judiciously treated, and arranged in such a manner that 
 one commences when the other has finished figuring, 
 whether it be to take part in the formation of the same 
 spot or another, then we may use them with freedom. 
 
 In Plate 6 we have two examples, one showing the 
 use of two colours, or rather two shades of the same 
 colour, which would necessitate the use of two shuttles, 
 as though they were two colours. In one case both 
 colours take part in the formation of the same figure, 
 and in the other they form separate figures. 
 
 In the pattern when both colours go to form one 
 figure, there is a tendency to show a stripe across the 
 piece. Even if this occur only in a slight degree it will 
 offend the eye ; possibly it would be less offensive if the 
 stripe were more decided : it can neither be called a 
 figure free from stripe, nor can it be called a stripe. 
 The latter is suggested without actually having an 
 existence. This might be neutralised to some extent by 
 the introduction of other small spots between, so as to 
 break the line a little, or rather to show the colour 
 more distribxited over the surface of the cloth. 
 
 When we are figuring with extra weft we do not 
 necessarily confine ourselves to its use for spot figures 
 or stripes, but figure all over the surface of the cloth, 
 and we figure not only with one colour but with many 
 colours. In the common speech of the trade, when 
 we figure with a number of colours all over the fabric, 
 each colour is termed a " cover ; " thus, it is no uncom- 
 mon thing to hear the terms, " three cover," " four 
 cover," &c. This means that three, four, or any 
 number of shuttles indicated by the number of 
 " covers " follow each other in regular succession in 
 the order of weaving, or that every time a ground 
 pick is inserted so many picks of extra weft, or that 
 which takes no part in the formation of the cloth, only 
 in figuring, follow it in regular succession. Sometimes 
 
Plate VI. 
 
Chap. VI.] FIGURING WITH SEVERAL COLOURS. 
 
 151 
 
 it may be spoken of as " three covers," or " ground 
 pick and two covers," which would mean that there 
 is a ground weft and two extra wefts. Again, in 
 some instances we have a number of " covers " and 
 " extras that is, a number of colours running 
 throughout as figuring material, and an extra colour 
 coming in occasionally to form some particular part of 
 the figure. 
 
 Now, when we are making a cloth with a number of 
 " covers," it does not necessarily follow that we are con- 
 fined to that number of colours ; though such is generally 
 the case, one of the " covers " may be a " changing " 
 one. Instead of always remaining the same it may 
 consist of two or more, but always keeping the same 
 relation to the others. When one colour has completed 
 its portion of the figure another takes its place, and so 
 on ; so that if it is called a " three cover," there may be 
 four, five, or even six colours, but there are never 
 more than three wefts being inserted at once. Either one 
 or two of the covers may be " changing " ones. 
 
 When we are making cloths of a number of colours, 
 we cannot make them very light fabrics in weight, so 
 that we have an opportunity of binding the loose mate- 
 rial into the back. In some cases the extra materials 
 instead of being bound into the face cloth, have a bind- 
 ing warp at the back with which they interweave, and 
 form a separate cloth or "lining." This has two advan- 
 tages : first, it enables us to deal readily with the extra 
 material, and leaves none loose on the back, as well as 
 forms a good support to the face cloth, giving addi- 
 tional strength ; and second, it saves any risk of the 
 binding showing through to the face. Again, some- 
 times there is a separate back put upon the cloth, so that 
 all loose material which could not be conveniently bound to 
 the face, and which might not be sufficient to form a 
 separate cloth on the back, might be held between two 
 cloths, and so give the cloth a " smart " appearance, as 
 well as additional strength. 
 
152 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 [Chap. VI. 
 
 When we are figuring with extra wefts in this 
 manner we have also the ground material which we may 
 use for the same purpose, and thus give more variety to 
 the pattern ; and in order to retain the full strength and 
 compactness of cloth, when the ground weft comes to the 
 face, one of the extra wefts takes its place, weaving into 
 the warp as the ground weft ; thus forming, in addition 
 to keeping the cloth strong and perfect, a more stable 
 background for the figure, and throwing it more promi- 
 nently to the surface. To such an extent is this carried 
 sometimes, that it would be difficult to say which is the 
 ground and which is the figuring weft. In figures of 
 this description the same resource is open as in making 
 spot figures by interweaving the extra or figuring mate- 
 rial into the ground for the purpose of giving variety of 
 shade to the pattern. If we are weaving, for instance, 
 with black figuring weft upon a white ground, by allowing 
 the black to enter into the structure of the ground fabric 
 we may produce as much variety and as much delicacy 
 of light and shade as in fine engravings. 
 
 Suppose we are weaving a small picture, a land- 
 scape, a portrait, or designs in which • foliage or great 
 variety of light and shade is required, and our 
 ground cloth is a plain one. To obtain the deepest 
 shadows, we should bring the black weft to the sur-- 
 face, and if it had to cover a large area, or such that 
 if allowed to float for a considerable distance the weft 
 would be too loose on the face, we should bind it in 
 satin order just enough to attach it to the cloth with 
 sufficient firmness, withoiit at the same time allowing 
 the white to show through it. Then for a medium 
 "between black and white, let the black weft enter 
 into the ground and form plain cloth, passing the 
 white weft to the back out of the way. For the lighter 
 shades, or where it approaches white, simply let the 
 black enter into the ground in some twill form, more or 
 less of it entering into the structure of the cloth, accord- 
 ing to the depth or lightness of the shade required, and 
 
Plate VII. 
 
Chap. VI.] FIGURING WITH SEVERAL COLOURS. 
 
 153 
 
 by this means we may obtain any degree of light and 
 shade that may be needed. 
 
 Some splendid examples of this kind of weaving are 
 exhibited in the well known book-marks of Mr. Stevens 
 of Coventry, not only as illustrating the best methods of 
 figuring with coloured yarns, but really as works of art. 
 The use of coloured silks as well as of black and white is 
 shown in many of these productions in the most perfect 
 manner. Again, in the Paisley shawls, which were so 
 extensively worn some years ago, we have some beautiful 
 examples of weaving. In the fancy waistcoats of a by- 
 gone day, and in some of the ladies' dress goods of the 
 present time, excellent work is also displayed. 
 
 In Plate 7 we have a small portion of a pattern 
 copied from a Paisley shawl, not by any means one of 
 the most intricate designs, nor showing the greatest 
 variety of colour, but sufficient to show clearly the prin- 
 ciple. This is what would be called a " three cover," or 
 " two cover and ground." There are two colours em- 
 ployed for figuring upon a white ground, the white itself 
 taking some part in the formation of the figure. One 
 striking feature of this design, as indeed of many of the 
 patterns for this class of shawl, is that there is not at 
 any point a great quantity of one colour either on the 
 face or back of the cloth at once. This arrangement 
 prevents the necessity for binding the loose material, 
 although with the amount of figuring on the face 
 the binding might be done without there being much 
 probability of its being seen on the face ; yet in light 
 fabrics, such as the one from which this design is copied, 
 it is better not to have to resort to it, but to bind by figur- 
 ing. Although we may not bring any of the colours to 
 the surface in large quantities at once, yet there is no 
 difficulty in making predominate sufficiently at any 
 part of the design to give character to it, as will be 
 seen from the example before us. We have only to bear 
 in mind the illustration we have previously made use of, 
 of the succession of sounds conveying the idea of a con- 
 
154 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 [Chap. VI. 
 
 tinuous sound. A close examination of this pattern 
 shows that the colour is in small patches, but at a short 
 distance it has the appearance of being solid in colour. 
 This is one of the most simple of patterns of this des- 
 cription, but it will probably be sufficient to convey to 
 the student an idea of the manner in which they are 
 formed. Very frequently a great many colours are 
 employed, sometimes each colour being continuous 
 throughout, at other times some of them " changing," 
 and so giving greater variety. It would be an easy 
 matter to multiply the illustrations infinitely, but pro- 
 bably most students of weaving will have opportunities of 
 examining real fabrics of this description, which would 
 convey more to their minds than any amount of writing. 
 
 In Plate 8 we have an illustration of a design for 
 ladies' dress goods. It is a species of lace pattern 
 upon the surface of the fabric, and was awarded the 
 gold medal offered by the Worshipful Company of 
 Clothworkers of the City of London at the Fine Art and 
 Industrial Exhibition at Bradford in 1882. The designer 
 of it, Mr. J ames T. Lishman, has kindly given permission 
 for its use in this work. The pattern is formed by one 
 extra weft and the ground weft combined; but though 
 we speak of them as a ground and an extra weft, it 
 would be difficult to say which we should have to call 
 the ground, for both take an equal part in the forma- 
 tion of the cloth. The ground fabric is a satin with the 
 warp on the surface and very closely set in the threads ; 
 this gives an opportunity for binding both wefts into the 
 warp, and so imparting additional firmness to the cloth. 
 Both wefts are lighter in colour than the warp, and thus 
 the pattern is shown to the best advantage. 
 
 This pattern is an illustration of the fact that all our 
 figuring material need not be the same ; one is of silk 
 and the other of worsted. Patterns are frequently made 
 where the yarns are different in the materials of which 
 they are made, and of the same or different colours. In 
 some instances, as in the use of soft wool and silk to- 
 
Cliap. VI.] EXTRA WARP AND WEFT FIGURES. 
 
 155 
 
 gether, we may obtain very pretty effects, simply from 
 the ditference in the brightness of the material. If one 
 be dull and the other very bright, the pattern will be 
 distinctly visible, though both are of the same -colour. 
 Other instances might also be mentioned, such as the use 
 of mohair, or alpaca and cotton in combination, and in 
 all cases the effect of the pattern is dependent upon the 
 brightness of one material and the dulness of the other. 
 
 ''84. Combination of Extra Warp and Weft.— We 
 must now turn our attention to the production of pat- 
 terns in which extra warp and weft are both employed, 
 and a consideration of the reasons for using both. 
 
 One of the commonest forms of using both extra 
 warp and weft is for the production of stripes with 
 figures running between. Thus, for instance, if we were 
 to take the pattern on Plate 4 where we have spots set 
 some distance apart, and we wished to insert a stripe 
 either between every figure or at alternate figures, that 
 stripe would in all probability be of a different colour 
 from the figures, and even if it were the same, it would 
 be better and easier to make the stripe with extra 
 warp than with weft. Then we have here not only one 
 of the commonest forms of the use of both materials, 
 but one which commends itself at once as being both 
 a ready and economical mode of making such patterns. 
 Of course this class of pattern is capable of an endless 
 variety of arrangements ; the stripes may be varied, and 
 the figures also, and figure may be formed upon the 
 stripe as well as upon the ground of the cloth by the 
 extra material; and again in this, as in other cases, 
 we may call in the aid of the ground material to give 
 further variety to our figures. Another form of using 
 both warp and weft is where we are figuring all over the 
 fabric with extra weft, as in Plate 8, and we _ desire 
 to introduce a small spot of a different colour, this spot 
 to come in only at intervals. More force is given to this 
 mode of working when our looms are capable of working 
 with only a limited number of shuttles, and we wish to 
 
156 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. [Chap. VI. 
 
 use more colours than we have shuttles. In addition 
 to that, where the spot can be as readily made with the 
 warp, as we have previously pointed out, it saves time 
 and expense m weaving, so that the designer will find 
 numbers of instances where he can introduce a spot with 
 extra warp, and add very materially to the effect of his 
 pattern without m a great degree increasing the cost, 
 in such cases due care must be taken in arranging the 
 pattern upon paper because of the distortion at the point 
 where the extra warp comes in, caused by that warp 
 being alternate with the ground. 
 
 Not only may we use extra warp for spots when we 
 are figurmg all over the fabric with weft, but we may 
 also use both for figuring all over. Patterns made in 
 this manner will have practically the same appearance as 
 it two wefts had been employed; but there is this great 
 advantage— that when they are not forming figure oS the 
 face, they may interweave with each other so as to form 
 a cloth on the back, and prevent any loose material either 
 from being cut off or bound into the face cloth, with the 
 risk ot showing through to the face. 
 
 Both warp and weft are used for the purpose of 
 forming figures perfectly solid in colour, and of a 
 texture quite different from the ground cloth, perhaps 
 quite as frequently as for the purposes already named : and 
 in such cases it is no uncommon thing for several kinds of 
 figuring material to be employed upon the same fabric. 
 VVe may use silk and worsted, or cotton and linen or 
 any combination, according to the nature of the cloth' we 
 are making, or the purposes for which it is intended. 
 Whenever we figure upon this principle, we deal with the 
 extra material as belonging to a second cloth: in fact 
 
 is employed in its 
 
 entirety. At the point where the extra materials inter- 
 weave with each other, they form a cloth quite separate 
 and distmct from the ground cloth; and if both are 
 passing to the back at the same time— that is, if at any 
 one point any of the extra warp is passing to the back 
 
Chap. VI.] EXTRA WARP AND WEFT FIGURES. 157 
 
 and at the same time extra weft, which may be forming 
 figure elsewhere, is passing to the back also— they inter- 
 weave with each other^ and so form cloth at the back of 
 the fabric. 
 
 It will be easy to understand that by this system 
 of working not only may we make the figures of 
 any form, but we may introduce any number of colours 
 also. If we make our warp in stripe form, and arrange 
 the colours of the weft to correspond, taking care that 
 any colour of weft always interweaves with the same 
 colour of warp, and that the spaces occupied by each 
 colour are equal to the spaces occupied by the figures 
 they are to form, we shall have a series of figures, all 
 different in colour but each solid in its own colour. 
 Again, we may so arrange the colours of either weft or 
 warp, or both, that each figure has more than one colour 
 in it, and the colours may be mixed as we j)lease ; so that 
 this mode of figuring gives us more scope for producing 
 pretty effects, especially where we must have the figure 
 displaying solidity of colour, than any other mode of 
 working. 
 
 It is really an application of double cloth pure and 
 simple in one sense. It is double cloth wherever figure 
 is formed, but not necessarily all over the piece. If the 
 two cloths were separated the ground would be one 
 complete fabric, but not necessarily so of the figuring 
 cloth — it would only appear in patches ; and if the 
 figures are formed from different materials, as silk and 
 worsted, each material interweaving with its own warp 
 only, we may be said to be using portions of three 
 fabrics, but not more than two of them occurring at the 
 same place. 
 
 But when we are figuring with extra warp and weft 
 in this manner, we are not bound to confine them to 
 interweaving with each other, but either or both may 
 figure independently, and they may enter more or less 
 into the ground cloth. In fact, we can combine in this 
 one method of figuring all that we can do by each of 
 
158 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 [Chap. VI. 
 
 the other methods with which we have dealt, so that of 
 all methods of figuring this one is the most com- 
 prehensive. 
 
 We have but one other mode of figuring to deal with 
 at present, and that is what is known as lappet weaving. 
 "VVe shall subsequently have to point to other modes 
 of ornamentation, but they will refer chiefly to special 
 forms of structure in the fabric, and ornamenting by 
 varying those forms of structure. 
 
 85. Lappet weaving is really figuring with warp 
 threads, but presents to the eye the appearance of 
 figuring with weft, very similar to swivel figuring. 
 To convey an accurate idea to the reader of the true 
 nature of this class of figures, it will be necessary to 
 describe the mechanical method of producing the figure. 
 From the warp beam the threads are brought forward 
 towards the cloth ; but instead of being passed through 
 healds, in the usual manner, they are passed each through 
 a needle in front of the reed or slay. These needles are 
 carried in a vertical position on a horizontal movable 
 bar. As a weft pick is being inserted the bar is raised, 
 still keeping its horizontal position. The eye of the 
 needle is near its upper extremity, so that as it is pushed 
 through the warp which forms the lower half of the 
 " shed," the threads which it carries are raised to the 
 position occupied by the upper half of the shed, so giving 
 room for the shuttle to pass under them. The moment 
 the shuttle has passed through the warp the bar is 
 lowered until the needles are quite clear of the warp ; it 
 is then moved horizontally to the right or left, and such 
 distance as is required to form the intended figure ; it is 
 again raised, the weft inserted, lowered again, and the 
 same operation repeated as before. By this method of 
 moving the threads, a figure is formed on the under side 
 of the cloth. This will really have to be the face ; the 
 cloth is woven wrong side up. The figuring material is 
 bound into the fabric by being passed round a weft 
 thread, always entering and issuing fi-om the cloth 
 
Chap. VI.] 
 
 LAPPETT WEAVING. 
 
 159 
 
 between the same warp threads, but not between the 
 same weft threads. Figures of this description are easily- 
 distinguished from "swivel" figures, or any figures 
 formed by weft. In forming weft figures the thread 
 does not necessarily "float" on the surface the entire 
 width of the figure, but may be bound into the cloth at 
 any point, or any number of points, either for the 
 purpose of preventing looseness or for producing given 
 effects, such as the veins or stems of leaves or flowers. 
 But lappet figures cannot be so bound ; they must 
 " float " the entire length of the figure, consequently the 
 figure must be of a simple character, and present an 
 appearance of solidity. An appearance somewhat 
 approaching that of a " swivel" figure may certainly be 
 produced by letting the thread forming the figure enter 
 the cloth at some point in the middle of the figure, but 
 a pick of weft must be inserted before it again issues 
 from the cloth, so that it will present the appearance 
 of two threads, not of one thread having simply been 
 bound into the cloth by passing imder warp. 
 
 Lappet figures are not usually made very large or 
 in masses ; they generally are of a scroll character, 
 showing only thin lines, such as would be produced by a 
 thread stitched into the cloth at intervals, so as to form 
 some simple pattern, similar to that shown in Plate 9, 
 Fig. 16, and referred to at page 188. Of course it must 
 be understood that the threads for figuring are not 
 set so closely as the ground warp, but at intervals of 
 an inch or so, according to the size and arrangement of 
 the figure. 
 
 This method of figuring has peculiar advantages, and 
 some disadvantages. As compared with " swivel " weav- 
 ing, it uses just the quantity of material required to 
 form the figure as the swivel does ; but the figure cannot 
 be bound into the cloth in the same way, and consequently 
 cannot give the same effects. On the other hand, the 
 figures can be set nearer together, in fact, as near as we 
 please ; we need not consider the size of the shuttles. And 
 
160 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 [Chap. VI. 
 
 again, we have not to pass a shuttle through the warp 
 for the sole purpose of forming the figure ; the ground 
 weft binds in the figuring thread, just as in ordinary 
 warp figuring, so there is economy of time and labour. 
 
 86. The allotment of Area to Figures. — We have 
 now dwelt generally with all the ordinary methods of 
 figuring on fabrics, and also to some extent with the 
 efiects upon their structure, but we must take into con- 
 sideration the areas to be occupied by figures of difierent 
 descriptions, not so much in reference to the ornamental 
 or decorative efiect intended to be produced, as to the 
 efiect upon the texture of the cloth and its application 
 to useful purposes. If we are making figures by allowing 
 the material which forms the ground of the cloth to cease 
 to interweave and simply lie loosely one upon the other, it 
 is very obvious that we caimot carry the figuring to any 
 great, extent without very materially impairing the 
 structure of the fabric and afiecting its utility. We 
 have already shown the necessity for perfect distribution, 
 and the question of the proportional area which the 
 figure must occupy in relation to the ground ought 
 always to accompany that of equal distribution. To lay 
 down hard and fast lines, definite rules, would be 
 impossible ; we must be guided in the first instance by the 
 uses to which the fabric is to be applied, and in the second 
 place by the order of interweaving of the ground cloth. 
 
 No matter what may be the structure of the ground 
 cloth, if the figuring occupy a considerable portion of 
 the surface we must alter the quantities of warp or weft, 
 or both, because the want of structure at the points where 
 the figure is formed will very materially afiect the whole 
 fabric, so that we cannot separate one consideration from 
 the other. In fact, we must treat it somewhat as we 
 treat twills, whether plain or fancy. As we have made 
 the fabric loose in its texture by the order of inter- 
 weaving, we must compensate for it by the increase of 
 material, so that one set of threads can give the proper 
 amount of support to the other. 
 
Chap. VI.] AREAS OCCUPIED BY FIGURES. 
 
 161 
 
 As we have seen, when figuring on the principles of 
 diaper or damasks, we need not take the areas into 
 account as when the figures are loose, for the texture of 
 the cloth is not altered; it remains the same through- 
 out, and our figures may occupy any space, or come as 
 ■ closely together as we please. The same may be said of 
 figuring with extra material, provided sufiicient pre- 
 cautions have been taken to bind the figure on the face, 
 so that the " floats " are not too long, or so that they do 
 not appear as so much loose material on the face of the 
 cloth. In figuring with double cloths we are much in 
 the same position as with diapers and damasks; no 
 matter what extent of figuring we have, each weft con- 
 tinues to interweave with its own warp'; there is no loose 
 material, but always a solid fabric. If the figures be 
 very large, however, it may be necessary to bind them 
 together in the middle of the figure, if formed of two 
 separate cloths, else they would separate from each 
 other, and give the cloth a flabby character ; but if 
 it is simply a double faced cloth the binding goes on 
 the same throughout. These considerations of allot- 
 ment of area and the efiects upon the fabric are such 
 as must be dealt with as they arise, and as the circum- 
 stances of the case may necessitate, and not by any arbi- 
 trary rules, which could not apply in every case alike. 
 The designer having made himself thoroughly familiar 
 with all the various structures of cloth, with the relative 
 quantities of warp and weft necessary to give a perfect 
 fabric, and with the conditions and circumstances which 
 will tend to destroy this perfection, will find little diffi- 
 culty in counteracting these conditions as they arise. 
 
162 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 CHAPTER YII. 
 
 GAUZE FABRICS. 
 
 87. The Structure of Gauze. — We may now turn our 
 attention to fabrics of a totally different character from 
 those with which we have been dealing, and consider not 
 only their structure or their decoration, but the 
 decoration by variation in the structure. We have yet 
 several classes of fabric to examine, all of which present 
 certain inherent peculiarities in their structure, and 
 these forms of structure we may combine with those 
 we have already considered for the purpose of orna- 
 mentation. 
 
 We will first deal with gauze and its varieties, and 
 examine into the structure and methods of ornamenting. 
 The whole structure of gauze cloth is quite different 
 from any other and most nearly approaches lace. The 
 fabrics of which we have been treating up to now, 
 whether plain or figured, have all the warp threads 
 parallel to each other, and the patterns are produced by 
 the order of interweaving. In gauze the warp threads 
 are not parallel, but twist round each other more or less, 
 and the pattern may be formed either by a variation of 
 the order of twisting, or by their ceasing altogether to 
 twist, and forming figure after the manner of cloths with 
 which we have dealt. We will endeavour to discuss 
 this subject in the most exhaustive manner possible, and 
 show the combinations with other orders of weaving, but 
 it will be a difiicult matter to put the subject before the 
 student in such a way as to elucidate all the uses and 
 applications of gauze weaving. We can only hope to 
 give the general principles, and show very briefly how 
 we may combine with other orders of weaving for the 
 production of patterns. 
 
Cliap. VII.] 
 
 PLAIN GAUZE. 
 
 163 
 
 Since the introduction of the Jacquard machine, 
 gauze, like other classes of goods, has been very much 
 improved, at least so far as its combination with other 
 orders of weaving is concerned. ' On the other hand, 
 the introduction of the lace frame, and the consequent 
 cheap production of lace, have caused some of the 
 most elaborate forms of gauze weaving to become obso- 
 lete. Murphy's excellent work on the "Art of Weav- 
 ing," shows some most beautiful patterns of fabrics 
 which have been quite superseded by lace, and which are 
 probably not made, or anything approaching them, at the 
 present time. Perhaps the introduction of power loom 
 weaving — upon which, so far as they are perfected at 
 present, such fabrics cannot be woven — may have had 
 something to do with this, but cheap lace has probably 
 had more. On the other hand, the combination of 
 gauze with other orders of weaving, as it has been 
 developed within recent years, gives much more beau- 
 tiful patterns than the most elaborate gauzes of former 
 days, though, perhaps, not so ingenious in the structure 
 of the cloths. 
 
 We will first deal with gauze in its simplest forms, 
 and show the various methods of producing patterns, and 
 then proceed to the more elaborate combinations. 
 
 Plain gauze has all the warp threads divided into 
 pairs, the threads of each pair half twisting round each 
 other between each weft thread. The plan in Plate 9, 
 Fig. 1, is one of plain gauze. An examination of this 
 plan will show that one half the warp is always under 
 the weft, and the other half always over it ; the thread 
 which comes uppermost always passing under the other 
 between each weft pick, and consequently coming up on 
 one side and then the other alternately, so that the fabric 
 is held together solely by this crossing of the warp 
 threads. If the straight thread were drawn out of the 
 cloth, the crossing thread, or that which comes to the 
 surface, would simply lie perfectly loose upon the weft, 
 no interweaving whatever taking place. In fabrics made 
 
164 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. [Chap. VII. 
 
 upon this principle there must of necessity be very great 
 firmness of structure; the twisting of the threads round 
 each other, and holding of the weft in their coils, as it 
 were, must give a very strong texture. At the same time, 
 the crossing of the threads between the weft picks will not 
 permit these picks to come close together. Suppose we 
 hold what we for convenience call the straight thread — 
 that which never comes to the surface — perfectly tight, 
 and allow the crossing thread to go comparatively slack 
 during the operation of weaving, so that the crossing 
 thread has not only to bend round the weft but also 
 round the straight warp thread, each weft pick will be 
 kept apart for a space just equal to the diameter of the 
 warp thread; but if both threads are held equally tight, 
 then, as each successive weft pick is driven up to the 
 cloth, both are equally bent out of their course and the 
 twist occurs exactly between the picks, thus keeping 
 them a distance apart equal to at least the diameter 
 of both threads. 
 
 In the event of the threads being held at an equal 
 tension in this manner we have a more open texture and, 
 at the same time, a firmer one. When one thread is 
 quite straight and the other bends round both it and 
 the weft, the weft cannot be so firmly held between them 
 as when the crossing thread is so tight as to draw the 
 other out of its straight line. 
 
 Of all fabrics there is none so firm in texture or so 
 light in the quantity of material it contains as plain 
 gauze. It cannot be made into a very bulky cloth, and 
 the order of interweaving prevents it from being made a 
 close, compact cloth. It will always present a perforated 
 appearance, and increased thickness of threads, more 
 especially of warp, will increase the size of the 
 perforations. 
 
 88. Figuring with Plain Gauze. — We must now 
 proceed to deal with the ornamentation of gauze fabrics; 
 and so as to deal most efliectively with the subject, we 
 will first examine the various methods of crossing and 
 
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 Plate IX. 
 
Chap. VII.] GAUZE PIGUKED BY CROSSING. 
 
 165 
 
 interweaving, and the reasons which may induce us to 
 adopt them. We have shown in Plate 9, Fig. 1, a plan 
 of plain gauze ; of this we may produce some varieties. 
 If, for instance, we have every alternate pair of threads 
 crossing in opposite directions, that will give a slight 
 variation, but it will be more effective if the weft thread 
 be very thick ; it will throw it up as though it were a series 
 of small spots. Again, further variety may be given to 
 it by using thick and thin weft alternately, or by using a 
 given number of picks of one thickness and a number of 
 another ; or other similar means may be resorted to for 
 the production of special effects. Again, a further 
 variety of plain gauze may be made by having two pairs 
 of threads crossing in one direction, say, from right to 
 left, and at the same time two pairs crossing in the 
 opposite direction. It may seem absurd to speak of 
 forming patterns with plain gauze, but what we mean by 
 plain gauze is where one end crosses one, and that at 
 every pick, the mere reversal of the direction of crossing, 
 or the use of threads of various thickness, although it 
 produces pattern, still leaves the structure of the cloth 
 equal to that of a plain gauze, so that we speak of it as 
 such, but when we vary the order of crossing, then it 
 may become a fancy gauze. 
 
 A very pretty example of figuring with plain gauze, 
 by reversing the crossing, and in which weft threads of 
 different thickness are used, is shown in Plate 9, Fig. 2. 
 Although in the order of crossing, with the exception 
 that they are reversed, the cloth is quite plain, yet the 
 combination of this reversal with the different thickness 
 of the weft threads produces quite the effect of a figure. 
 
 89. Figuring by various orders of Crossing.— In a 
 great many instances of the production of patterns by 
 varying the order of crossing, a number of weft threads 
 are allowed to come together so as to form one ; they 
 then separate, some of them after separation continuing 
 single for some time, then rejoining the group, others 
 leaving one group to form part of another, and so by 
 
166 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 varying the division and bringing them together at 
 different points forming a distinct pattern. An example 
 of this mode of working is shown in Plate 9j Fig. 3. 
 
 This method of figuring, as may be seen, is capable 
 of great variation, and, as compared with plain gauze 
 weaving, will give more weight of fabric ; for while in 
 plain gauze every pick is kept quite distinct, whether 
 we reverse the crossing or otherwise, in this mode of 
 figuring more picks run together to form one ; and 
 although they may separate and form part of other 
 groups, yet the fact of a number of picks running 
 together, even at different points of the fabric, will 
 permit of a greater number of picks per inch being in- 
 serted, and so give more weight to the cloth. 
 
 In addition to the mere formation of patterns in the 
 gauze in this manner, we may combine any two or more 
 of these orders of working for the production of stripe 
 check or distinct figured effects. For instance, we may 
 take the patterns shown in Figs. 1 and 3 (Plate 9) and 
 form a stripe with them, or in like manner any two work- 
 ings or patterns ; but there is one thing we must very 
 carefully observe in doing so. We say that Fig. 3 will 
 permit of a greater number of picks per inch of the 
 same yarn than would Fig. 1. If that be so, and we 
 combine them together in stripe form, we cannot put as 
 many picks per iach into the cloth as will make the stripe 
 formed of Fig. 3 pattern perfect without at the same time 
 forcing too many into that formed with Fig. 1. Indeed, 
 what will most likely happen will be that the plain 
 gauze stripe will not permit the number of picks being 
 inserted which can make the other perfect ; and even 
 if it did, the warp forming the plain stripe would become 
 very tight as compared with the other, and the gauze 
 would not have a sufficiently open and perforated ap- 
 pearance as compared with the fancy one. Then we 
 must adopt some means of counteracting this ; we must 
 have both stripes equally perfect in their structure. We 
 may easily do this by allowing two or more picks — ac- 
 
Chap.VIT.] GAUZE COMBINATIONS. 1G7 
 
 cording to the pattern of the fancy stripe— go to form 
 one of the plain gauze. By doing so we can bring both 
 to the same density of structure very readily, and also 
 crive more openness to the plain gauze. 
 
 It would be an easy matter to give a great many 
 patterns of gauze made upon this principle, and some 
 of them very nearly approaching the appearance of lace, 
 and if we were writing a history of gauze we might 
 show some most excellent and elaborate patterns produced 
 in the days before the lace frame made such progress ; 
 but at the present time their manufacture could not be 
 carried on profitably. . , ^, « j e 
 
 90. Combination of Gauze with other Orders ot 
 Weaving.— It is not so much in producing pattern by 
 variety of crossing as by combining gauze with other 
 forms of structure that such fabrics are made at the 
 present time, and in this we may manufacture fabrics 
 which do not come at all in competition with the lace or 
 
 net goods. , 
 We will endeavour to deal with all the most general 
 combinations, and show both the method of forming pat- 
 terns and the chief characteristics of each kind of combi- 
 nations. , . , 
 We will begin by taking those combinations whicJi 
 most nearly approach pure gauze, and which are, in fact, 
 intended to convey to the mind the idea of pure gauze^ 
 and at the same time produce a heavier fabric, with 
 more marked perforations, without making them actually 
 coarse by usiiTg thick yarn. 
 
 If we refer to Plate 9, Fig. 4, we have a pattern 
 which is a combination of gauze and plain cloth, but 
 which presents to the eye the appearance of pure gauze. 
 The warp is divided into sets of four threads, and m 
 the crossing two of those threads cross the other two ; 
 at the same time there are four picks of weft which 
 appear to go in as one. But those four picks are effec- 
 tually separated by one pair of ends out of each alternate 
 set interweaving with them as plain cloth, and the next 
 
168 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 set of four picks weaving plain with two ends of the next 
 set of warp ends ; the result of this plain weaving being 
 that, instead of the four picks which go into the cloth 
 apparently as one, forming a thick rope, as it were, they 
 are spread out and laid side by side, and form more of a 
 ribbon-like structure. The effect of this, both in the 
 appearance and in the structure of the cloth, is much 
 better than if the four picks had gone in absolutely as 
 one. The gauze effect is quite as good, the perforations 
 being clearly marked, and the cloth is somewhat stronger, 
 without appearing quite so bulky. In some instances, 
 where it is desired to spread the weft even a little more 
 than is done in the pattern before us, two of the four 
 threads would weave plain with one set of four picks, 
 and the other two with the next four. This would make 
 the cloth a little firmer again^ and prevent any possi- 
 bility of any of the picks getting too close together or 
 one on the top of another. A very simple and effective 
 method of combining gauze with plain is shown in Plate 
 9,^ Fig. 5, where two or more threads are weaving plain 
 with the weft all through the piece, and a thick figuring 
 end, as we might term it, is forming gauze by crossing 
 and recrossing round the ground ends. In this pattern 
 the effect is somewhat similar to that of the previous 
 pattern, but the thick gauze thread gives it a good efiect. 
 Again, sometimes the gauze thread Weaves plain into the 
 ground along with the other ends, and then crosses round 
 them, as shown in Plate 9, Fig. 6. 
 
 In all the patterns we have shown so far all the 
 crossing threads are crossing at the same time, so that 
 the division between the picks is all across the piece. 
 Certainly some of the threads are crossing in opposite 
 directions at the same time. Even by this method of 
 working we may produce some very pretty effects. 
 
 The patterns shown in Figs. 2, 3, 5, and 6 (Plate 9) 
 would have somewhat the appearance of net. The perfo- 
 ration would all run in straight lines, but the threads 
 would be drawn out of the straight line, and by some being 
 
Chap. VII.] 
 
 GAUZE COMBINATIONS. 
 
 1G9 
 
 drawn to the right and others to thp left, a distmct net 
 pattern would be formed. 
 
 Although such patterns may be very pretty, much 
 better effects may be produced by varying the crossing ; 
 that is, by not letting all the threads cross at the same 
 place. Take, for example, Plate 9, Fig. 7, in which the 
 crossing threads form a distinct pattern. Another very 
 good specimen is given in Fig. 239, p. 250, of my 
 " Treatise on Weaving and Designing," 2nd Edition ; 
 and did our space permit we might give numbers 
 of illustrations all showing patterns of gauzes crossed 
 in different manners, and producing some of the most 
 beautiful effects in the fabric. 
 
 When we have obtained all the patterns we can in 
 the gauze, though they make pretty fabrics in them- 
 selves, we may treat them as the basis for further 
 ornament. We may combine any two of the different 
 oi-ders of working, and produce stripe or other patterns, 
 or we may figure upon the gauze grounds, or form 
 figures of gauze upon plain or other grounds. 
 
 We have already shown the combination of plain 
 with gauze in one simple form. Before entering too fully 
 into the question of figuring with gauze, we may 
 examine a few more simple combinations of a different 
 character. Sometimes the introduction of gauze into a 
 fabric is not so much for the purpose of ornament as to 
 obtain lightness of cloth or openness of texture, and, as 
 we have already shown, there is no better means of obtain- 
 ing light open texture combined with strength than the use 
 of gauze, and by combination of gauze with plain or 
 other orders of working we may regulate the weight and 
 bulk of the fabric. Take the example shown in Plate 9, 
 Fig. 8. We have three picks of weft weaving quite 
 plain, then a crossing takes place in the warp ; there are 
 three more picks of plain, and another crossing takes 
 place. Now this cloth is as nearly as possible a plain 
 one, the crossing which takes place is not what is termed 
 a full gauze, but only a " half-cross ; " that is, after the 
 
170 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 crossing thread has changed from one side to the other 
 of the straight thread it remains there for some time 
 before crossing back again, all the time weaving plain 
 with the weft. That being the case a division takes 
 place, or the weft threads are held apart by the crossing 
 of the warp threads at every three picks. This division 
 will be equal to at least the diameter of the crossing 
 thread of warp, and it will certainly be greater than that 
 between two picks of the plain portion of the piece, and 
 will therefore show an opening or " crack " all across the 
 piece ; consequently there will not be as many picks per 
 inch as if this crack did not exist, and as a matter of 
 course the more frequently these cracks occur the less 
 weft the piece will contain. Sometimes what is termed 
 a full gauze pick is introduced ; that is, the warp crosses 
 on both sides of one pick of weft, as shown in Plate 9, 
 Fig. 9, the distances between the gauze picks being 
 varied according to the weight of cloth required, or the 
 eSeet desired to be produced. 
 
 If we wish to combine plain cloth and gauze in 
 stripe form, we must consider the relative structure of 
 the two cloths. We will suppose in the first instance 
 that we wish to have a stripe running the length of 
 the piece plain cloth and gauze alternately, and we 
 have the same number of threads per iach in both. The 
 plain portion will be a very loose fabric and the threads 
 would slip upon each other and fray ; that being the 
 case we must either have a greater number of ends per 
 inch in the plain stripe, or adopt some modification 
 in the gauze. If we increase the number of ends 
 in the plain stripe, or the diameter of the threads of 
 which it is composed, or, what would be better, combine 
 the two alterations, we may make it sufficiently firm, 
 but we shall have increased the weight very considerably, 
 and it is not desirable that there should be such a great 
 difference in the weight of two portions of the same 
 fabric as would necessarily accompany this arrangement ; 
 then we must resort to the expedient of altering the 
 
Chap. VII.] 
 
 STRIPED GAUZES. 
 
 171 
 
 gauze so as to enable us to put more weft in. This may 
 be done by simply letting a number of picks go into the 
 gauze as one. Suppose, for instance, it should require 
 sixty picks per inch in the plain cloth to make it such a 
 cloth as we require, we could not possibly put sixty of 
 such picks into the gauze portion, with the wai-p threads 
 crossing between each one ; but if we allow two, three, 
 or four of these picks to go into one shed between each 
 crossing, then we can get them in quite easily. If two 
 picks go in between each crossing, it reduces the number 
 of crossings to one half, and the two go together to make 
 one pick, and consequently occupy much less room. The 
 most common practice is to put three or four picks to- 
 gether, but this will be regulated by the quality and 
 weight of cloth required. 
 
 If the stripes are to be across the piece, then a dif- 
 ferent mode of working must be resorted to. We may, 
 perhaps, put more than one pick together in the gauze, 
 so as to give more decision to the perforations, but we 
 must alter the warp threads. We have up to now been 
 speaking of the gauze ends as single in the warp, but we 
 may put any number together. Suppose we want our 
 plain stripe to be finer than the gauze in the proportion 
 of two threads to one ; then when we are weaving the 
 gauze, two threads go together as one, and the gauze 
 shows two threads crossing two, but the moment we 
 begin to form plain cloth they separate and work inde- 
 pendently of each other. This method of altering the 
 gauze, putting a number of threads together either in 
 the warp or in the weft, or both, is the most ready and 
 efficient for forming either stripes or figures. If in 
 making patterns which are combinations of gauze and 
 plain cloth we do not desire to have quite so much or so 
 striking a difi"erence as is shown between gauze and plain, 
 the gauze having a number of threads together, both in 
 warp and weft, we may obtain a medium between the two. 
 
 We have in Plate 9, Fig. 10, an illustration of one 
 mode of dividing the threads of weft after they have 
 
172 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS, 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 combined to form gauze, and also of intermixing plain 
 in the gauze, and making that which is so intermixed 
 different from the ordinary plain cloth in appearance. 
 For the purpose of illustrating this most clearly, we have 
 shown it as really forming part of a check pattern instead 
 of a stripe ; that is, with plain cloth all round the gauze. 
 
 The system of forming pattern in stripes or checks, 
 by the combination of gauze and plain cloth, such as we 
 have been dealing with, may strike the reader as being 
 extremely simple. So it is. There is no more simple 
 method of forming patterns upon light fabrics, or of 
 ensuring the lightness of the fabric, and at the same 
 time producing very pretty effects ; but in the decoration 
 of gauze fabrics, or using gauze for the decoration of 
 fabrics of other structures, the stripes or checks are 
 the most simple, though even they are capable of giving 
 very great variety, especially if threads of different 
 thicknesses be employed, or if there be a variation in 
 the number of ends and picks which are put together. 
 
 91. Figures formed by Combination of Gauze and 
 Plain Cloth.— Though we can produce great variety by 
 combination of gauze and plain in these two forms, we 
 have far more scope when we begin to form figures with 
 them. There may be said to be two distinct methods 
 of combining these two orders of working to form figures : 
 first, figures formed by plain cloth upon gauze ground; and 
 second, figures formed by gauze upon plain ground. 
 We will examine both in detail, so that we may see to 
 what class of fabric each is applicable. If we are making 
 a plain cloth, and we wish, to form patterns upon it by 
 giving it the appearance of being perforated, we may 
 introduce gauze working to form the perforations, and by 
 doing so give lightness to the cloth without detracting 
 from the firmness of structure, but rather adding to it. 
 Take, for example, the small pattern, Plate 9, Fig. 11, 
 where we have every alternate pick of weft forming 
 gauze at some point, and the gauze being distributed 
 regularly over the surface of the fabric. As it appears 
 
Chap. VII.] 
 
 GAUZE FIGURES. 
 
 173 
 
 on the diagram, each of the weft threads forms straight 
 lines, the warp bending round them at the point of 
 crossing. This is shown so for the purpose of giving a 
 clear view of the structure of the cloth; but in the actual 
 fabric the weft threads would not form straight lines, 
 but on each side of the gauze crossing would curve 
 round, disclosing a distinct perforation on each side of the 
 pick, and the thicker the warp threads the wider will 
 the perforations be. The pattern we have here is one 
 which in the cloth would convey the impression of the 
 gauze and plain being in about equal quantities, although 
 really only one-fourth of the interweaving is gauze, hut 
 the plain picks are so much bent out of their straight 
 line, and jammed together by the crossing of the warp, 
 that they occupy less space than they otherwise would. 
 This will prove, then, that greater firmness is obtained 
 in the cloth by the introduction of the crossing than if it 
 were all plain. If the weft threads can be so much bent 
 out of their straight line, and, as it were, pushed closer 
 together by the gauze, they cannot be so firmly^ inter- 
 woven with the warp ; the relative quantities or 
 thicknesses of warp and weft threads cannot be such as 
 to make a satisfactory cloth, were it not for the presence 
 of the gauze. These remarks will apply all the more if 
 the weft threads are soft; that is, loosely twisted together 
 or made of soft materials. 
 
 We have in this pattern a medium between pure 
 gauze and plain cloth. It contains more material, is 
 closer in texture, and heavier than if it were pure 
 gauze, but not so close, compact, or heavy as a plain 
 cloth. It presents the chief characteristics of the gauze, 
 with some of the qualities of a plain cloth, or^ in other 
 words, it has the decorative features of gauze with the 
 wearing properties of plain cloth. If we wish to make 
 the perforations more marked, we can easily do so by 
 letting the crossing take place with more than two ends ; 
 that is, let two ends cross over two, or more ; or, let a 
 number of picks go together to form one in the gauze. 
 
174 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 [Chap. VTI. 
 
 By resorting to either expedient we may have the plain 
 portion both closer and heavier, and the gauze portion 
 quite as open, or even more open, than in the combina- 
 tion of simple plain gauze with plain cloth. 
 
 We must, however, consider the character of figure 
 most suited to this class of fabric, and the effect upon 
 the cloth. An examination of a figured gauze will imme- 
 diately reveal the fact that where the crossing of the 
 threads takes place, a greater length of warp yarn is 
 taken up than where there is no crossing, even in a small 
 simple pattern like that shown in Fig. 1 1 (Plate 9), but 
 if the gauze be further extended it will be even greater. 
 In fabrics consisting of a combination of plain and gauze, 
 for the most economical production, the whole of the 
 warp should come from one warp beam.' Such being the 
 case the gauze must be distributed as equally as possible, 
 so that one portion of the warp, by reason of a greater 
 amount of gauze being formed with it, shall not become 
 tighter than the rest. Then, if we are forming spots, 
 they must be very equally distributed, so that every 
 thread has its equal share in the formation of gauze. 
 Again, the figures must not be too large, or occupy too 
 much space at once, and the gauze must he considerably 
 less in quantity than the plain, otherwise the plain 
 portion of the cloth will be too thin, and the threads will 
 be too loose upon each other. 
 
 92. Distribution of Gauze Figures on Plain Ground. 
 — We have already pointed out in reference to spot 
 figures what is the best method of arranging the spots so 
 as to secure equal distribution, and what was said there 
 will also apply equally to gauze spots, and it is even 
 more imperative that the rule should be observed than in 
 ordinary warp or weft spots, so as to secure uniformity 
 of texture. But we may not always desire to produce 
 spot figures ; it may be that we wish to have figure or 
 gauze working running all over the fabric, in fact, to 
 imitate to some extent lace ; then we may adopt scroll 
 patterns, or any other which will give such effects as we 
 
Chap. VII.] PLAIN FIGURES UPON GAUZE. 
 
 175 
 
 wish to produce. If we do adopt such figures we must 
 be extremely careful in their arrangement, so as to 
 ensure equal distribution. We shall generally find that 
 geometrical designs are best adapted to this class of 
 figuring, not necessarily of the stifi'est character. We 
 may introduce some freedom of design, but if we have a 
 geometrical basis we shall be more certain of obtaining 
 equal distribution. Of course, we are speaking now of 
 the combination of pure gauze ; that is, one end crossing 
 one, and only one pick between each crossing, with 
 ordinary plain cloth, and the gauze forming the figure. 
 
 93. Plain Figures upon Gauze Ground. — When the 
 figure is formed by plain cloth upon gauze ground, the 
 conditions of the structure are difi"erent. We obtain only 
 a very light cloth if the warp threads are one crossing 
 one and at every pick. The mere fact of so much cross- 
 ing taking place — the greater part of the fabric being 
 gauze — will necessarily make it a light open fabric ; that 
 being the case, any figure formed by plain cloth will be 
 very loose. No matter whether the figure be large or 
 small this will apply ; but it would of course be more 
 apparent in large than in small figures. If extremely 
 light fabrics are desired, this mode of figuring may be 
 resorted to, and some very pretty eff"ects obtained ; but as 
 in the case of gauze figure upon plain ground, there must 
 be very perfect distribution, and if the figures are so 
 small that the pressure of the warp in the crossing can 
 push the weft picks a little closer together in the plain, 
 the appearance may be very much improved, for not only 
 will it make the plain look finer, but the curvature given 
 to the weft threads will give a more novel effect than if 
 they were quite straight and parallel to each other. 
 
 It may be observed of gauze cloths, as differing from 
 all other woven fabrics, that instead of keeping the 
 threads of either warp or weft parallel to each other, the 
 object very frequently is to draw them out of their 
 parallelism as far as possible. 
 
 94. Warp or Weft Figures upon Gauze. — This com- 
 
176 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 [Chap. Vir. 
 
 bination of gauze and plain is the most simple form of 
 ornamenting gauze fabrics, no matter which of the two 
 predominates or forms the ground. In addition to this 
 system of figuring we may also resort to warp or weft ' 
 figures, as in ordinary fabrics, but we must not be under 
 the impression that when we do so we can figure as 
 readily and with the same results as figuring on ordinary 
 fabrics. 
 
 In the first place, if our ground cloth be an ordinaiy 
 plain gauze, of the type of which we have been speaking, 
 and we suddenly cease to form gauze, and leave the 
 weft and warp quite free of each other, neither of them 
 would be present in sufficient quantity to cover the other. 
 And as it is usually one of the first conditions in figures 
 that the material which comes to the face shall quite 
 cover that which goes to the back, so as to present a 
 solid appearance, it could not give a satisfactory effect if 
 the warp and weft were both visible, one through the other, 
 in the figure. Again, the sudden transition from gauze 
 — the firmest possible structure of fabric— to absolute loose- 
 ness, the warp and weft not interweaving at all, would be 
 too great. If we wish to have either warp or weft figure 
 upon gauze ground, we must separate the figure from 
 the gauze by plain cloth. This will to some extent 
 modify the looseness of the figure, and, what is quite as 
 important, it will give it most clear definition. If we 
 were to change direct from gauze to figure, the figure 
 could not be clearly defined, especially if it were large, 
 and its outline at all indented ; but by bringing in the 
 plain all round it, it is formed just as upon an ordinary 
 plain fabric. Another question arises also; the figure 
 must in all probability be bound down more or less. 
 This binding will be more in harmony with the ground 
 surrounding the figure if it be plain than it would be if 
 gauze. We still, however, have the difficulty of want 
 of fineness, not only in the plain which surrounds 
 the figure, but more especially in the figure itself. If the 
 figure is to be formed with the weft, we may resort to 
 
Chap. VII.] 
 
 FIGURES UPON GAUZE. 
 
 177 
 
 the expedient we have before mentioned — namely, 
 putting more than one pick of weft in one shed ; and 
 this we may vary according to the size of the figure or 
 quality of the cloth. By doing so we shall not only 
 make the figure " cover " bettei-, but we shall add to the 
 fineness and firmness of the plain portion without detract- 
 ing from the openness of the gauze. If the figure is to 
 be formed with warp, we may make a number of ends 
 work together in the gauze, and then separate them in 
 the plain, so making sufficient fineness, and making the 
 warp figure cover the weft. We may also combine the 
 two methods, a number of ends going together as one, 
 and a number of picks going together as one in the gauze, 
 thus increasing the fineness of the plain and the weight 
 of the cloth to any degree, without interfering with the 
 openness of the gauze, unless it be to make it more open. 
 To begin with, suppose that we only want to increase 
 the fineness in a slight degree in the warp, and to obtain 
 the requisite increase of ends we let them work in groups 
 of three, one crossing two — that is, one end working by 
 itself, and two working as one along with it when form- 
 ing gatize, but separating for plain, as shown in Plate 9, 
 Fig. 12. 
 
 When the crossing is of this description, the crossing 
 threads may go all in one direction, or they may cross 
 alternately in opposite directions, as shown in the figure ; 
 but in either case when they separate they must form 
 perfect plain cloth. In arranging designs upon the 
 squared paper for this kind of crossing, perhaps more 
 care is required than for any other kind, because the 
 gauze threads being arranged in threes, and the plain 
 having alternate ends alike, or, as it were, working in 
 pairs, each end must be properly arranged, or a fault 
 will occur in the plain. Now, if we form warp figures 
 with the ends arranged in groups of three in this manner, 
 and we do not separate the figure from the gauze by 
 the introduction of plain, our warp threads will be laid 
 in groups of three, which will look like one thick thread. 
 
 M 
 
178 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 Our object must be to distribute the threads ; then we 
 have no alternative but to inti-oduce some plain so as to 
 eflfect this separation and distribution. The more general 
 practice in figured gauzes is to arrange the threads in , 
 groups of four, two threads together as one throughout, 
 and crossing each other in pairs, as shown in Plate 9, 
 Fig. 13, and separating to form plain as before. This 
 has the double advantage over working with three 
 threads of making the cloth still finer, and giving us even 
 numbers of ends to deal with at once. In such cloths, 
 however, the mere increase in the warp threads is not 
 enough usually, we must also increase the weft threads 
 by putting two, three, or four together in the gauze and 
 separating them in the plain. Now, in many instances we 
 may desire that our figures should be not merely loose warp 
 or weft on the surface, but, perhaps, boimd in satin order, 
 after the manner of damask or such figures, so that it is 
 absolutely necessary to obtain fineness in the figuring ■ 
 ])ortion ; but no matter how the figure may be formed, 
 the almost invariable rule is to surround it with plain, 
 so as to ensure the proper separation of the threads be- 
 fore the figure is formed. This plain need not be more 
 than a few ends, but it must be there. Another feature 
 of gauze figures is that a true even outline cannot be 
 formed as in patterns upon plain or satin ground, the 
 threads running together in groups of, say, four ; all 
 these four will cease to form gauze at the same time. 
 One portion cannot be making gauze while the other 
 portion is making plain or figure, therefore the outline 
 will form a series of steps, not a steady, free line. This 
 difficulty is even more apparent in flowing curves, the 
 steps interfering very much, in some instances, with the 
 beauty of the curve, and requiring the utmost care in 
 reducing the interference to a minimum. 
 
 Perhaps it will not be out of place here to say a few 
 words upon the mechanical operations required in gauze 
 weaving. Our excuse for doing so must be that 
 existing treatises on weaving do not deal in a sufficiently 
 
Chap. VII.] 
 
 THE USE OP DOUPS. 
 
 179 
 
 complete manner with the subject, as applied to the 
 looms of the present day. 
 
 The general principle of gauze weaving is fully- 
 treated in the " Treatise on Weaving and Designing " 
 before referred to, so far as the formation of gauze in 
 small patterns and stripes is concerned ; and more fully 
 in the excellent treatise on the " Art of Weaving," by 
 John Murphy. But Murphy's book was written before 
 figured gauzes of the class now mostly used were deve- 
 loped by the Jacquard machine, which was at that time 
 quite in its infancy ; and, again, most of the fancy gauzes 
 of which he treats are such as could only be woven in 
 the hand loom by careful weavers, because of the com- 
 plication of cordage, and the delicacy of manipulation 
 required; and besides, such goods have been entirely 
 superseded by the lace frame. 
 
 In the " Treatise on Weaving and Designing," the use 
 and construction of the doup heald are fully explained, as 
 also the use of several doups along with healds for 
 forming patterns in the gauze, but nothing is said of 
 Jacquard harnesses for weaving figured gauze. If all the 
 doup healds are attached to one heald shaft it will be 
 obvious that they will all rise together whenever that 
 shaft is raised ; and if we use two or even three heald 
 shafts for the doups, it is evident that our orders of 
 crossing will still be limited. But even limited though 
 it be, under certain conditions we may make great variety 
 of patterns ; for instance, such patterns as that shown in 
 Plate 9, Fig. 11, can be woven quite easily, either with 
 healds, or a common Jacquard harness and one dotip. 
 Although all the ends are not crossing at the same time, 
 the crossing end is drawn through the doup and through 
 one of the ordinary healds at the same time, but is 
 carried under the thread with which it works between 
 the common heald and the doup, so that as the common 
 heald rises, it will take it to one side of its companion 
 tliread, and when the doup rises it will take it to the 
 other side, Now, if we have half the threads drawn 
 
180 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 through the doup heald, and each through a separate 
 common heald, so far as the pattern goes — as, for instance, 
 in the pattern before us, there are eight separate threads — 
 we shall require eight common healds, each thread drawn 
 through one of them, and the first of each pair also 
 through the doup. If the ends are crossed from the 
 common heald to the doup, from left to right, whenever 
 we raise the doxip all those ends will rise on the right of 
 the threads they cross ; then if the pattern is to be a 
 combination of gauze and plain, as in this case, we lift 
 the doup at every alternate pick of weft ; and if we wish 
 to form gauze at the next pick we raise the common 
 heald carrying the crossing thread, so bringing that 
 thread up on the left of its companion, as shown in the 
 figure ; and if we wish to form plain we raise at the 
 second pick the thread which does not go through the 
 doup. If we now substitute for the eight common 
 healds, a J acquard machine, where we can actuate each 
 thread separately, and we place in conjunction with that 
 a doup heald, and draw the ends through the doup in the 
 manner described, it is very evident we can produce any 
 variety of figure which is a combination of plain cloth 
 and plain gauze, or we may make warp figures upon tlie 
 plain, or further, we can combine plain gauze with 
 twill, or make one end cross three or any number ; but if 
 gauze is forming at some point throughout the piece we 
 are necessarily confined to one pick in a shed, and to one 
 end crossing at once, and all ends which do cross must 
 cross at the same time and in the saine direction. True, 
 we may give some variety by using more than one doup, 
 but still we should be confined to certain classes of figure; 
 then if we wish to figure freely, and at will, we must 
 resort to what is known as a gauze harness — that is, with 
 doups formed in the harness of the Jacquard machine ; 
 this provides that each set of threads has its own 
 separate doup, which may be brought into use at will, so 
 enabling us either to vary the direction of our crossing, 
 or the number between each crossing as we please. 
 
Chap. VII.] 
 
 GUAZE UPON TWILL, ETC. 
 
 181 
 
 95. Combination with other Orders of Working 
 than Plain. — We may now proceed to examine a little 
 more in detail the combination of gauze with otlier 
 orders of weaving. We have shown pretty fully how it 
 may be combined with plain, and how the fineness of the 
 cloth may be increased to almost any degree, and also, to 
 some extent, how figures may be formed with warp or 
 weft, or both. When we are figuring upon a gauze 
 ground, we may vary both the form of the figure and the 
 order of interweaving of the weft with the warp as we 
 please, provided, as we have already said, we surround 
 the figure with plain, so as to prevent the gauze from 
 interfering with the outline, and the ends from runnmg 
 together in groups. Having done that, we are as 
 free to figure or introduce twill, satin, or any other order 
 of working, for the purpose of obtaining special effects, 
 as if our cloth were an ordinary one with no gauze 
 in it. Not only that, but we may vary our gauze ; we 
 need not necessarily keep to the plain form of gauze 
 working, either with single threads or a number thrown 
 together, but we may adopt any of the forms of gauze 
 such as those shown in Plate 9, to make the gi'ound- 
 work. It is not necessary that we confine ourselves to 
 the gauze forming the ground of the cloth. Yery 
 frequently we may desire to produce a somewhat heavy 
 cloth with a simple twill or satin gi-ound, and in order 
 to give a light appearance to it, we may introduce a 
 gauze figure. Or the ground may be a figured one, 
 such as a rich damask, in w^hich case a small portion of 
 gauze introduced into certain parts of it will give light- 
 ness ; by this means some of the richest and most 
 beautiful fabrics are produced. We often see in silk 
 goods that some of the choicest fabrics are combinations 
 of this character ; in fact, there is no limit. 
 
 Quite apart from the combination of gauze with 
 plain or warp or weft figure, we may also produce 
 excellent efiects by combining two orders of gauze 
 working, one forming the figure upon the other, but, of 
 
182 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. [Chap. VII. 
 
 course, in such cases the cloth must necessarily be a light 
 one ; and if one portion of the gauze be much firmer 
 than the other, the remarks which we applied to the 
 combination of gauze with other orders of weaving 
 respecting the proper distribution will apply to it also. 
 
 Having examined the combination of gauze with 
 plain to form figures, we may now examine the combi- 
 nations with other orders of weaving, for the production 
 of effects of different characters. We have already 
 referred to the formation of plain stripes upon gauze 
 ground, and pointed out the necessity of either putting 
 a number of picks together in the gauze, and separating 
 them for the plain, or having a greatly increased number 
 of ends in the plain stripe. In many instances the latter 
 arrangement is preferable ; by increasing the number of 
 ends we may, by using these ends of a different colour 
 from the ground ends, show a distinctly coloured stripe. 
 The closeness of the warp threads will so completely hide the 
 weft that the colour of the warp only will be seen; conse- 
 quently, the weft and the gauze warp may be of the same 
 colour, and so show a difference between ground and stripe. 
 We may also form checks on the same principle ; let the 
 stripe in the warp be formed exactly as above described, 
 and to form the cross stripe use thick weft, and instead 
 of weaving gauze into the ground let it weave plain, so 
 that the gauze warp will be hid in the thick weft in the 
 same manner as the gauze weft is hid in the thick warp. 
 This mode of working has also another advantage apart 
 from the question of colour ; the contrast between the 
 compactness of the stripe and the openness of the ground 
 makes the pattern most striking. 
 
 In some cloths more substantiality is required. 
 Instead of forming plain stripes upon gauze ground, 
 gauze stripes upon plain ground are formed, and with 
 very pretty effect. We give one illustration upon Plate 10, 
 where we have a drab ground and a pure white stripe ; 
 of course we use white weft only throughout, and white 
 warp in the gauze stripe, the ground warp being drab, 
 
Chap. VII.] GAUZE WITH EXTRA WAKP. 
 
 183 
 
 and so closely set as to completely cover tlie white 
 weft. 
 
 Perhaps a more effective method of forming stripes 
 upon gauze is to work the stripe as a satin. We can 
 then give any degree of fineness to it, and present a 
 perfectly smootK surface. Some of the most beautiful 
 examples of striped gauze have the stripe worked 
 in satin. This class of stripe also gives some pretty 
 effects when a little figuring is introduced into the gauze 
 ground, and nothing is lost if the figure be run 
 over ground and stripe indiscriminately, and more 
 especially if the figure be formed with weft satin. ^ In 
 such case it becomes necessary to put a number of picks 
 together in the gauze, and also sometimes a number of 
 ends also, so as to give sufficient fineness to the figure, 
 and make it cover well enough. 
 
 96. Combination of Gauze Figures and Figuring 
 with extra Warp. — From what we have said, it will 
 be clear that a great variety of effects may be 
 obtained by combining various orders of weaving with 
 gauze, and using only the material which takes part in 
 the formation of the ground fabric; but, as in other 
 classes of cloths, this variety may be very much increased 
 by the introduction of extra material, warp or weft. It 
 must, however, be borne in mind that we have not the 
 same' freedom for the use of extra material upon gauze 
 cloths that we have upon simple plain or figured fabrics. 
 
 In these cloths we may use extra warp or weft, 
 or both, forming figure on the face, and then passing 
 to the back, and being bound to the back of the 
 cloth, instead of being cut away. We cannot do 
 the same upon gauze— the open texture of the cloth 
 would show it; we must either use only what will 
 form the figure, or we must cut the waste away from the 
 back. Again, for reasons we have pointed out in 
 reference to ordinary warp or weft figures, we cannot 
 very well figure upon the gauze itself, but must form a 
 p^ain ground upon which to do so, in order that when we 
 
184 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. [Chap. VII. 
 
 introduce extra materials to form figures, we must also 
 hguve^ to some extent with the ground material also. In 
 speaking of figunng with extra material, at present we 
 are speakmg_ of it as an extra colour; in fact, as a 
 
 ZfZ .^ Tl^ T^'l "^^""^^ the pattern, 
 
 malTL f «h°r%l^--^to speak of the use of extra 
 material for a different class of figuring ; however, in 
 the ineantime we must confine ourselves to the use of It as 
 ail additional colour. Figures made with extra warp, 
 whether upon gauze or other grounds, must either be 
 arranged sfcripewise, or the whole surface of the cloth 
 must be figured. It does not necessarily follow that in 
 all fabrics the figures appear to the eye as being in stripe 
 form, even though they are so arranged, whether the 
 loose material be cut away from the back ^r no 7 but 
 gauze cloth unless the material be cut away from the 
 back they must appear in stripe form. The fi<.ure as 
 we have shown, must be formed upon plain ground ' If 
 when xt IS completed we chang^ the stru^cture from 
 ft wm bP^'"; and eave the .naterial on the back, 
 It will be clearly visible through the gauze, and bein^ 
 visible as so much loose material it would not add to the 
 appearance of the fabric; then it must be cut away 
 Before being removed the same rule must be observed Is 
 mfiguring upon ordinary fabrics, of binding it round 
 the edges of the figure, so as to prevent it slfpping out 
 Then If we wish to avoid the cutting ofi" at the back we 
 must make the plain continuous throughout. Althou-h 
 this IS a disadvantage, as to some extent crippling us in 
 our power of producing patterns, yet we may obtafn some 
 
 m I'late 10. In this we give coloured and white stripes 
 alternately, but we may have other colours at will and 
 not only each stripe of a difierent colour, but several 
 colours m each stripe. One ready means of introducing 
 more colour, without adding much to the weight, " t? 
 let the extra warp take the place of the ground wkrn in 
 forming plam cloth under the figure, lor instlnce, i? 
 
Chap. Vn.] 
 
 GAUZE WITH EXTRA WEFT. 
 
 185 
 
 we wisU to have two colours in the stripe, whilst one of 
 them is forming pattern on the face, the other is forming 
 plain cloth under it, and they are constantly changing 
 places according to the pattern, each forming figure and 
 plain alternately. 
 
 97. Figuring with extra Weft upon Gauze. — 
 Figuring with extra weft upon gauze frees us from the 
 necessity of making the figures in stripe form. If the 
 weft be thrown all across the piece, we shall, of course, 
 form stripes in that direction, but we may use the swivel 
 shuttle, and so place our spots as we please, exactly as 
 if we were figuring \ipon a compact cloth as shown in 
 Plate 4, instead of upon a perforated fabric ; the same 
 rule will, however, apply to these as to extra 
 warp figures, of the cloth being plain under the figure. 
 Indeed, no matter how we figure upon gauze, we must 
 have plain cloth somewhere about the figure. We have 
 no other means of distributing the warp and weft 
 threads, or of securing the proper form of the design. 
 When we are using extra weft, we have all the advan- 
 tages and opportunities of ornamentation which can 
 possibly be obtained, for we may not only combine figures 
 with gauze, but we may combine all the forms of figuring 
 • — plain figure upon gauze ground, gauze figures upon 
 plain ground, loose weft or warp figure, figures formed 
 after the character of damask, or with extra material in 
 any colour or any number of colours. We may make 
 extremely light fabrics, or we may give to heavy fabrics 
 the appearance of lightness by the introduction of gauze 
 figuring. Sometimes very pretty efiects are produced by 
 figuring with extra weft of the same colour as the 
 ground, but in different material, or in thicker yarn of 
 the same material, so giving prominence to it merely by 
 the thickness of the yarn. 
 
 98. Combination of Gauze and Plush. — We have 
 not yet, however, quite exhausted the means of orna- 
 mentation of gauze cloths. In addition to the methods 
 we have already described, we may introduce pile or 
 
18G 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. [Chap. VII. 
 
 plush figures. There are two distinct methods of doing 
 this : first, when the pile is formed upon gauze, and 
 second, when the pile is formed upon plain surrounded 
 by gauze. Now as to the figures formed by pile upon 
 gauze ground, we have the means of obtaining pretty 
 and novel eflfects. The ends of warp which are to form 
 the pile assist also in forming the gauze. Plate 9, 
 Fig. 14, shows a longitudinal section, indicating the 
 manner in which the threads twist round each other, 
 and how the loop of the pile is formed. In this it will 
 be seen that one of the three threads is constantly 
 twisting round the other two, and at intervals one of 
 these issues from the cloth and forms a loop. The 
 manner in which the loop is made will be fully ex- 
 plained in the next chapter ; we merely wish to call 
 attention here to the fact of its being formed. On each 
 side of the loop formation a weft thread is inserted, 
 represented by the dot, and the crossing thread passes 
 from one side to the other of both the loop thread and 
 its companion. This constant twisting taking place, the 
 loop thread is held firmly between the straight thread 
 accompanying it and the crossing thread, so that what- 
 ever loop is formed it is held rigidly just as it is made. 
 Sometimes it is cut, so forming velvet pile ; and 
 even though there is really no solid cloth under it, it 
 will be so firmly bound between the ground threads that 
 there will be no fear of its slipping out or being easily 
 pulled out. 
 
 In the second class, as it may be termed, of plush 
 figures on gauze, instead of the pile being formed 
 actually upon the gauze, plain cloth is formed by a 
 portion of the threads and the pile by the other portion, 
 as shown in the section, Plate 9, Fig. 15. By this 
 system, all the threads share in the formation of the 
 gauze, as in the other, but when we come to the figuring 
 they are separated into two portions — one for the ground 
 cloth and the other for the pile — so that a solid cloth is 
 formed in the ground. The pile is not held so firmly as 
 
Chap. VII.] PLUSH FIGURES UPON GAUZE. 
 
 187 
 
 in the previous case, but still sufficiently so to make 
 a serviceable article, and it has the advantage of making a 
 more solid structure. There is necessarily more warp 
 employed, more threads running together in the gauze, 
 and consequently a heavier cloth. The principle of the 
 formation of the pile is the same in every respect, but it 
 issues from the plain cloth instead of from the gauze 
 cloth. The pile may be cut or uncut, exactly as in the 
 previous case. 
 
 Beautiful effects are produced by this combination 
 of gauze and pile weaving ; but of course the pile is 
 of the same colour as the ground, when the figuring is 
 distributed over the whole surface. Sometimes, how- 
 ever, the plush is made to form stripes ; then different 
 colours may be introduced, or, indeed, we may have 
 coloured figures all over. But as the pile threads have 
 to take part in the formation of the gauze ground, if we 
 have two colours of warp the ground will necessarily 
 partake somewhat of the colour of the figure, though 
 modified by the presence of the second colour; but 
 where the figure runs in stripe form it may be totally 
 different from the ground. To give variety to figured 
 goods of this description, we may combine with the pile 
 or plush figuring any or all of the other modes of 
 figuring we have referred to. If the figure run in 
 stripe form, we may combine with it figures formed by 
 extra warp, or plain, satin, or other figures in the 
 ground. If they are distributed all over the surface, we 
 may introduce extra weft and any other forms of 
 ornamentation, and so make our patterns as elaborate as 
 we please ; and again, instead of the gauze being an 
 ordinary plain one, with any number of threads running 
 together, we may use any of the fancy gauzes — such as are 
 shown in Plate 9— so that by the contrasts of colour, 
 or such as are produced by the variety of structure in 
 the fabric, we may ornament to an unlimited degree, 
 and in all cases produce pleasing effects. 
 
 99. Lappet and Whip— net Figures on Gauze. We 
 
188 
 
 DESIGN m TEXTILE FABRICS, [Chap. VII. 
 
 have now but two forms of ornamenting gauze cloths to 
 refer to, both of which have to some extent been an- 
 ticipated—first by lappet threads, and second by 
 threads crossing over wide open spaces. We give an 
 illustration of lappet figuring in Plate 9, Fig. 16, 
 and of the crossing threads over open spaces in Fig. 17.' 
 In the first we have an ordinary plain gauze ground, 
 with single threads forming figures by being stitched 
 as it were over the surface; this stitching is done in 
 the manner described at Art. 85. By this mode of 
 figuring considerable variety may be produced, but 
 all by a series of single threads. An appearance 
 of solidity might be given to the figure by crossing 
 and recrossing in quick succession, say at every 
 pick, but generally such efiects as shown here are more 
 aimed at. This mode of figuring is seldom combined 
 with others, being usually applied to fabrics of very light 
 texture. The same remark will apply to the class of 
 figuring shown in Fig 17, but the designs are of a 
 stifFer character. This arises from the fact that each 
 thread is arranged to be brought into the cloth only at 
 two certain points in relation to the warp threads, 
 though their positions in relation to the weft may 
 be varied — that is, the number of picks inserted be- 
 tween each point of interweaving may be varied, but 
 the number of ends cannot, in the same piece of cloth ; 
 therefore the figures must partake of a stifi" character, 
 this stiflfness only being modified by a varied arrange- 
 ment of the order in which the ends are drawn through 
 the doup, and consequently the manner in which they 
 are manipulated. However, both lappet and this form 
 of figuring will partake more or less of the stripe character, 
 though the stripe may be almost hid by the variety 
 of lines introduced. 
 
 100. The Materials from which to make Gauze.— 
 One necessary part of the design of gauze fabrics is a 
 proper consideration of the structure of the threads 
 from which the cloth is made. From the nature of the 
 
Chap. VII.1 SUITABLE MATERIAL FOR GAUZE. 
 
 189 
 
 cloth, its open perforations, and the necessity for the 
 pattern being very clear, threads of a smooth even 
 structure, with little or no loose fibre on their surf ace, are 
 best adapted. Silk being a long continuous smooth fila- 
 ment is best suited of any class of yarns. Next come 
 cotton and linen, for although they may have a little 
 loose fibre on the surface of the thread, yet it. will 
 be very little, and not likely to interfere much with 
 the clearness of the pattern. We may also use worsted 
 yarns, but they will not give the same clearness of 
 pattern as the other three, especially if not made 
 from the finest wools. Woollen yarns are quite 
 unsuited for making gauze cloths, as are also the 
 coarser cottons and tow yarns ; though, if well twisted, 
 they may be employed in making the heavier goods when 
 gauze is combined with twill or other forms of working, 
 and where clearly defined patterns are not needed. 
 It is not only so as to obtain clearness of pattern that 
 smooth even yarns are required in making gauze, but it 
 is necessary to have a strong thread in the warp at any 
 rate. When the crossing takes place considerable 
 strain is thrown upon the threads, and also great 
 friction; probably the latter is most likely to do 
 harm. If the thread is not strong and well twisted, 
 it will soon give way under the friction, and if it 
 has much loose fibre on its surface, there will be a 
 great amount of friction in the threads passing each 
 other, and also in passing and repassing through the eye 
 of the heald, so that the smooth thread is as neces- 
 sary to the successful operation of weaving as to the 
 clearness and definition of the pattern. In fine woollen 
 yarns with the thread sufficiently twisted as to give 
 strength to the yarn to bear the work it has to do m 
 the process of weaving, some excellent efi"ects are pro- 
 duced by the combination of gauze with other orders of 
 working, chiefly with twill in stripe form, but the texture 
 must be very open, the threads being set a sufficient 
 distance apart to reduce friction to the lowest point, so 
 
190 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 as to obtain all the ease possible in weaving, and even 
 then the pattern of gauze will not be well defined, but 
 will be partly hid by the loose fibre on the thread. 
 Perhaps it is this want of definition which gives the 
 charm to this class of fabric ; the perforations are not 
 clearly marked, there is a kind of hazy mystery about 
 the pattern which probably renders it more attractive 
 than if it were well made out, and what adds to the 
 attractiveness is that the character of the gauze is 
 quite in keeping with the body of the cloth. At any 
 rate, some really charming fabrics are made in this man- 
 ner, but they require great skill in the use of the material, 
 because of its soft fibrous character and the amount of 
 friction thrown upon it in the process of weaving, 
 
 101. Madras Muslin.— It may be necessary to refer 
 to and point out the chief characteristics of some 
 fabrics which ■ bear a strong resemblance to gauze. In 
 the first place, there are several varieties of extremely 
 light texture, which at first sight, from tlieir very light- 
 ness, would lead one to suppose they were gauze, but 
 which are not necessarily of that material. The 
 term gauze is often applied indiscriminately to all 
 cloths of a light open texture, without regard to 
 the mode of interweaving of warp and weft; but this 
 habit is very misleading to the technical student. 
 One class of fabrics, which gives pretty eSects upon 
 a light cloth, is known as Madras muslin. This is a 
 very light texture indeed, with a figure formed by the 
 introduction of a thick thread of weft into the ground 
 and then cut away where no figure is formed, so that 
 it is really an alternation of thick, or moderately thick, 
 and very thin, light cloth. Similar efiects are also 
 produced in fancy coloured goods, two or even three 
 colours of weft being employed to form figures, some- 
 times one weaving plain into the ground cloth, and the 
 other figuring upon it, and sometimes both entering 
 partly into the ground cloth, and figuring alternately ; 
 and, as in the previous case, when no figure is being 
 
Chap. VII. 1 
 
 NET WEAVING. 
 
 191 
 
 formed the extra material, wliicli would otherwise go to 
 the back, is cut away. In the arrangement of .pat- 
 terns for such fabrics we should be guided by the 
 same rules as for figures upon ordinary fabrics ; the 
 only difference being that the ground cloth is of a much 
 lighter texture, and the figuring weft in a great measure 
 goes in when the figure is formed, as an ordinary ground 
 pick, or partly as a ground and partly as a figuring pick. 
 There must be proper care as to the distribution of 
 figures, and all the other precautions which usually 
 accompany the arrangement of them. We must not 
 omit net and lace in our comparison of fabrics, often 
 confounded with gauze. 
 
 102. Net. — Whip net, a class of fabric formerly 
 made, but now almost entirely superseded by lace, was 
 really an extension of gauze weaving of a very 
 complicated character. The pattern given in Plate 9, 
 Fig. 17, may, perhaps, be called a species of whip net, 
 though of the simplest kind. What is termed the 
 whip or crossing thread, is made to pass over a greater 
 distance than in ordinary gauze weaving, and fre- 
 quently they not only cross what might be termed 
 straight threads, but also cross each other, the crossing 
 of the weft threads between them at the point or points 
 of intersection keeping them in their places. Some- 
 times these weft threads would be so thin as to be 
 scarcely visible to the naked eye without careful exami- 
 nation; and the whip threads being thick, all the 
 appearance of lace would be obtained by the variety of 
 crossing and interweaving. Although whip net produced 
 some beautiful fabrics, it has been superseded by bobbin 
 net and lace, partly because of the superior figured 
 eflfects which can be secured, but mostly on the ground 
 of economy. 
 
 Bobbin net, as its name implies, is formed by having 
 a series of bobbins, which are made to travel to and fro 
 in a pair of " combs," or bars. A series of threads are 
 placed vertically, and the bobbins, which are extremely 
 
192 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS, [Chap. VTI. 
 
 thin, are passed through between them from one comb to 
 the other; they are then returned, hut not through, 
 between the same threads. A lateral motion is given to 
 the combs, or bars, termed " shogging," so at to move the 
 threads to a different position in relation to the bobbins, 
 thus causing them to pass through between different 
 threads at each movement. The effect of this is to cause 
 the bobbin thread to twist round the straight, or what 
 may be termed the warp thread; and as bobbin and 
 thread are moved at each passage of the bobbin, the 
 bobbin thread is passed round each warp thread in 
 succession, as shown in Plate 9, Fig. 18. Sometimes 
 small spots are formed upon net by one thread 
 traversing a number of times across the " mesh," but 
 these are not large or elaborate, and call for no special 
 skill, except so far as applies to regulating the move- 
 ments of the machine. 
 
 Net very nearly approaches lace in its structure, but 
 in the latter more elaborate designs can be produced. 
 
 103. Lace. — It is not our intention to deal at length 
 with designing lace for two reasons: firstly, lace 
 is not strictly speaking a woven fabric, and secondly, 
 because to do justice to the subject it would require a 
 complete work in itself. We shall, therefore, only refer 
 to the general character of the structure of the fabric, 
 and the manner in which patterns are formed, so that we 
 may be able to compare with other fabrics. 
 
 If we examine the cheaper kinds of lace curtains, we 
 shall see readily how the fabric and design are formed ; 
 and we can then understand more easily the formation of 
 other kinds of lace. In the curtains referred to there is 
 first a straight warp thread ; along with this is another, 
 which when no figure is being formed remains with the 
 straight thread ; tliese two have constantly a third thread 
 twisting round them. When figure is to be formed, the 
 figuring warp thread passes from one straight thread to 
 the next, is made fast to it by the twisting thread, then 
 returns to its former position as shown in Plate 9, Fig. 1 9. 
 
Chap. VII.] 
 
 LACE WEAVING. 
 
 193 
 
 This passing and repassing of the figuring thread 
 is carried on with each one all over the fabric, according 
 to the pattern to be produced. 
 
 This is, perhaps, the commonest kind of lace, but it 
 will serve to convey an idea of how lace is made. In 
 other kinds of lace those threads which we have spoken 
 of as straight, and which in the common laces 
 remain straight, are drawn out of their course by the 
 varying strain put upon them. A similar kind of 
 twisting action takes place with the bobbin thread, but 
 the warp threads are varied in their thickness. They 
 are made to traverse varying distances, and are bound to 
 different ends by the twisting of the weft or bobbin 
 threads ; this, coupled with the varying tension, causes 
 them to be drawn, and to make any pattern that may be 
 desired. < 
 
 It will be apparent that lace gives by far the greatest 
 scope for producing ornamental open texture. The whole 
 fabric is formed of such texture ; the shape of the 
 openings, the lines made by the thick or the twisted 
 threads are capable of infinite variation, so that the 
 texture may be as light, as open, and as varied as ever 
 the designer may please. 
 
 In net we cannot have the same variety; the "mesh" 
 will be of the same form throughout, most generally 
 hexagonal, and any figuring will be limited, usually to 
 small spots ; while in gauze weaving we have something 
 which may be said to come in between the two, and is 
 capable of producing effects which cannot be obtained in 
 either net or lace, whilst, of course it cannot give the 
 effects which lace can. In gauze cloths, as we have 
 shown, we may vary the weight and texture in any 
 ^ degree, and at the same time ornament by the texture. 
 We may combine gauze weaving with any or all of the 
 other forms of weaving, and form such patterns as we 
 like. In fact, the combination of gauze with other 
 textures affords more scope for the production of 
 ornamental fabrics than any other class of fabric or 
 
 N 
 
194 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. [Cliap. VIII. 
 
 texture. In lace there is not this power of combination, 
 and we are therefore limited to the production of light, 
 open textures. 
 
 CHAPTER yill. 
 
 PILE OR PLUSH FABRICS. 
 
 104. The Classification of Pile Fabrics. — We have 
 now but one kind of fabric to deal with, so far as the 
 ornamentation in the structure is concerned, and that is 
 the class known as plush or pile fabrics. This class 
 differs in appearance from all others, having on its 
 surface a series of short threads which issue from the 
 cloth, and present the ends of the fibre to the eye, or 
 the threads issuing from the cloth in the same way form a 
 series of loops. We will examine each section in detail, 
 so as to see to what extent the principle of orna- 
 mentation can be carried in it, and also its combination 
 with other orders of weaving. 
 
 It may be said sometimes that pile fabrics are divi- 
 sible into two classes, cut and uncut, or cut and loop pile, 
 but that is not a sufficient division. They are separable 
 into two kinds more distinct than cut and uncut 
 ■ — namely, weft and warp pile ; that is, when the pile is 
 formed by weft, or when it is formed by warp. 
 
 105. Weft Pile. — Let us deal first with weft pile, 
 and examine it in all its forms. It consists in the 
 first instance of a seiies of weft threads bound into the 
 ground cloth at intervals, and floating over the sur- 
 face loosely after the manner of a figure. This loose 
 material is then cut by using a long bar of steel made 
 into a knife at the end. This knife is extremely sharp, 
 and is provided with a guide, which is simply a narrow 
 piece of thin sheet-iron doubled so as to form a groove 
 which fits on the knife. As it leaves the point of 
 
Chap. VIII.l 
 
 WEFT PILE FABRICS. 
 
 195 
 
 the knife, the iron is welded into one piece, and is 
 tapered off to a point, more or less sharp according to the 
 length of the plush to be cut. This point is inserted 
 under the weft floats, and as the knife is pushed forward 
 it raises the weft up to the knife, which severs it, so 
 forming the cut pile on the surface of the cloth. Take, 
 for example, the section of a velveteen in Fig. 87, 
 where two picks of weft are shown, one of ground and 
 
 ■ 6 
 
 Fig. 87. 
 
 one of pile. The ground weft forms with the warp quite 
 a plain fabric, while the pile weft passes under one end 
 only and over seven. By inserting the point of the guide 
 of the cutting knife under this pile thread and pushing it 
 forward the tapering form of the guide will raise it up 
 until the guide just holds it tight, when the knife coming 
 in contact with it severs it, as shown at a being an 
 uncut loop, just as it comes from the loom. Thus the 
 pile is formed. 
 
 106. The Structure of the Cloth, and Binding 
 Weft Pile. — We must consider the structure of the cloth 
 most carefully in order to determine the best mode of 
 binding the pile into the cloth, so as to make it serve the 
 most useful purposes, and also the best distribution of the 
 pile over the surface of the fabric. The ornamentation 
 of the fabric may be left for after consideration, or we 
 may deal with it as we refer to the different modes of 
 structure, as well as the uses to which pile-surfaced 
 fabrics may be applied. 
 
 The binding of weft plushes into the fabric to secure 
 firmness is one of the most important questions in con- 
 nection with their manufacture ; for if it is not firmly 
 bound it will not, in the first place, permit of its being 
 cut — ^the knife will pull it away from the cloth ; and in 
 the second place, even if it were cut^ it would constantly 
 
196 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. [Chap. YITI. 
 
 be coming out in wearing. There would be no power 
 to resist friction, and these are matters which must 
 not be neglected. The firmness of the binding is in 
 some degree dependent upon the compactness of the 
 fabric, the firmness with which the threads forming the 
 ground texture are bound and beat together, and perhaps 
 more especially the closeness of the weft threads, so that 
 the pile weft which is introduced between them shall be 
 gripped, as it were, in a vice. It is also in a measure 
 dependent upon the manner in which the pile weft is 
 interwoven into the ground. 
 
 Very frequently the pile weft passes round only one 
 end of the warp, as shown in Fig. 87. Then it may be 
 said of such that it can make no difference how this bind- 
 ing point is distributed, because it will have to depend 
 entirely upon the pressure of the ground picks on each 
 side of it to secure it firmly in the fabric. The fact, however, 
 that numbers of patents have been taken out for difiierent 
 modes of binding so as to make the pile more firm, and 
 even when only passing under one end, proves that there 
 must be something more than the mere pressure of the 
 tveft threads, or that this pressure may be increased by 
 che mere arrangement or distribution of the pile. Let us 
 take the case of a pattern of velveteen we have now 
 before us, examine the manner in which it is made, 
 and how it might be made, and see what the efiect 
 would be in each case. Fig. 88 is the plan of the cloth. 
 
 It will be seen that there are four picks of 
 P^^® weft, each floating over seven ends and 
 binding under one only. Then there is a 
 plaiii pick, the four pile picks are repeated, 
 there is another plain pick. Those 
 SmBBBSB ^"^^ plain picks will form a perfectly plain 
 Fig. 88. ground. Now, with regard to the pile 
 picks, an examination of them will show- 
 that the four taken together would be equal to one 
 plain pick — that is, every alternate end is occupied 
 by them, and the same four ends are passed under by 
 
Chap. VIII.J 
 
 VELVETEEN. 
 
 197 
 
 the plain pick immediately following. Then the four 
 pile picks are exactly repeated, and the next ground pick 
 passes under the ends which have been passed over, and 
 over those which have been passed under. Thus the first 
 four plush picks would constitute as it were one complete 
 plain pick, the ground pick a second, and the next four 
 plush picks a third ; so that we have an exact equivalent 
 to three picks of weft in one shed, or under and over the 
 same ends, and one in the contrary shed^ or under those 
 which have been passed over before, and over those 
 which have been passed under. Now those three picks 
 coming together as one, or, more correctly speaking, the 
 nine picks coming together as three in one^ will form one 
 very solid mass when pressed together by the crossing 
 of the warp for the next pick, and the driving of the 
 latter up to the cloth, and each will help to bind the 
 other into the fabric. The nine also becoming one, will 
 allow a considerable number of picks per inch to be put 
 into the cloth, so that we shall have weight, closeness of 
 the pile, a solid compact cloth at the back, and the pile 
 bound firmly into it. But there are other ways of look- 
 ing at the subject. We may obtain too much weight of 
 cloth if we beat the pick up close enough to make the 
 pile firm. We have been speaking as if we were beat- 
 ing the weft as close as possible in the process of weaving, 
 but if the cloth we have produced is too heavy, and we 
 simply reduce the number of picks per inch, and retain 
 the same arrangement of binding, we shall loosen the pile 
 just in proportion as we reduce the picks. 
 That will not answer our purpose. How- 
 ever much we reduce the weight we must 
 keep the pile firmly bound. Then suppose 
 we adopt the arrangement shown in Fig. '□□□SoBS 
 89 ; this would have the effect of making gggggBSB 
 each set of four plush picks and the ground rig. gg. 
 pick following it go together as one, so that 
 instead of being practically three picks together as one, and 
 then a single one as in the previous case, they would be 
 
198 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS, 
 
 [Chap. VIII. 
 
 double picks throughout. This would possess two ad- 
 vantages : first, the plush would be even more firmly 
 bound, because each set of plush picks is followed 
 by a plain pick passing over the ends they have 
 passed under, and two picks going together as one 
 would make the whole order of interweaving firmer 
 for the same weight, or equally firm for less weight ; 
 and secondly, the pile would be binding with all the 
 warp, instead of only with every alternate end, as in the 
 previous case, so giving more even distribution of ten- 
 sion upon the ends than before, and consequently a better 
 constructed fabric. 
 
 Suppose, again, that the plush picks are arranged in 
 their order of binding, that one portion of them goes into 
 the same shed as the ground pick which precedes them, 
 and the other portion into the same shed as that which 
 follows them, they would require to be arranged so that 
 equal quantities went into each. And even then they 
 could not be held with the same degree of firmness as if 
 they all went into one shed, because the pressure upon 
 them by the ground picks would not be so evenly distri- 
 buted, there would be a slight degree of waviness given 
 to the ground weft picks which would make them hold 
 one portion of the plush more firmly than another. 
 
 Binding the plush with one end of v/arp is sufficient 
 only when the weft is so closely beaten into the cloth as 
 to exert great pressure upon the pile, and hold it by 
 pressure only ; and in a large number of 
 instances there is not enough of this 
 pressure; in fact, it may be said that 
 ^ majority of plushes there is not. 
 Then when such is the case we must 
 resort to other means or methods of 
 binding; we must let the plush weft 
 Fig. 90. interweave with more of the warp 
 threads. We have a plan in Fig. 90 of 
 a velveteen similar in its ari'angement to that shown 
 in JFig. 88, but having the plush pick intei'weaving 
 
Chap. VIII.] VELVETEENS. 199 
 
 with three warp ends, instead of one only. There are 
 five plush picks to each ground pick; the pattern 
 occupies ten ends instead of eight, but as the plush weft 
 interweaves with three ends instead of one, the lengtli 
 of pile is just the same, floating over seven. The first 
 five plush picks go under the same ends as the second 
 around pick, so do the second five, so that five complete 
 mcks go under every alternate" end, and only one— the 
 first gi'ound pick— over them; thus it is equivalent to 
 having five picks together in one shed, and only one m 
 the other l^ow this plan will possess all the advantages 
 pointed out in reference to Fig. 88, with the additional 
 one of the plush being even more firmly bound by inter- 
 weaving with more warp ends. The back of the cloth 
 will present less of the appearance of a plain fabric than 
 even will that of Fig. 88, but it will form decided ribs 
 and there will be more strain thrown upon that halt ot 
 the warp under which each plush pick passes. Certainly 
 this strain will be somewhat neutralised by the thread 
 having to pass over one only, but it will still be greater 
 
 than the other portion of the warp If 
 we arrange the plan as shown m J^ig. yi 
 we shall neutralise this, and give more ■□□Hmga-Q 
 plainness to the back cloth, and more 
 
 r"""" 1 . m ^ v^cvT. □■□■□■□BUB 
 
 firmness to the bmamg. ihere is, per- 
 
 haps, one advantage, or so-called advan- 
 ta^e in the arrangements shown in 
 Figs. 88 and 90 over those shown in Fig.9i. 
 Fi^s. 89 and 91— namely, in imitating 
 warp pile. In the latter the pile runs distinctly 
 in rosvs across the piece, because of its bemg formed 
 with wires, as we shall show; and the arrange- 
 ment of Figs. 88 and 90 will give more of the same 
 appearance than Figs. 89 and 91. In each of the 
 examples we have given there are four plush picks to one 
 ground pick, and these four are distributed over the 
 whole surface ; but it must not be taken either that there 
 are always four plush picks to one ground pick, or that 
 
200 
 
 DESIGN m TEXTILE FABRICS. [Chap. VIII. 
 
 the plush picks between each pair of ground picks are 
 distributed over whe whole surface; the number of plush 
 picks will be regulated to some extent by the density of 
 the pile required, and the distribution which takes place 
 between each pair of ground picks will be dependent 
 partly upon the number of plush picks to one ground 
 pick and partly upon the length of the pile. For 
 instance, if we were only having two plush picks to one 
 ground pick in such a pattern as shown in Fig. 88, we 
 should only occupy two ends out of the eight, while with 
 the same proportion of picks in Fig. 90 we might occupy 
 every alternate end, so that the order of binding will 
 also interfere with it. 
 
 The patterns we have given in Figs. 79 to 82 are 
 what are commonly known as "tabby" velvets, or 
 velveteens; the term "tabby," as used in the trade, being 
 synonymous with "plain." And in such patterns it 
 appears to be a general practice to occupy only every 
 alternate end, and in most cases also 
 to preserve the arrangement shown 
 BBSBSgBBBBBSBB Figs. 88 and 90, of having one of 
 □B"B""S5B"B""B the ground picks to go into the same 
 dBBBBBBBSBSBBB shed as the plush on each side of it. 
 □□BddBdB"B""h" There are some exceptions, and some 
 ■□■□□BBBBBBBBB of these are amongst the patented 
 □B55S5BSBS5B5B patterns. One feature of the perfect 
 GBBBBB5BSBBBRB Guiding of plush into the ground, 
 □□□□□BSBSdSSB" which has been made much of by 
 ■BBBBBBBBBBBdB practical designers of fabrics, is that 
 □□■□B5BS5B5B5B the ground pick succeeding the plush 
 □BBBaBSBBBBBBB picks shall be contrary to those plush 
 □B5BdB55b5B5B5 picks in the order of interweaving at 
 □□□□□□BBBBSBSB the point where they bind into the 
 Fig. 92. fabric. This is shown in Fig. 92, 
 
 where the ground is not quite plain, 
 but nearly so, and the departure from plain is evidently 
 due more to a regard for the proper binding of the plush 
 than from any desire to produce a pattern on the 
 
Chap. TUT.] 
 
 BINDING VELVETEENS. 
 
 20i 
 
 ground fabric. This is a most ingenious arrangement, 
 and effectually secures the perfect binding of the plush 
 into the 'cloth. The same principle of arrangement is 
 applicable to plushes of any length, or with any number 
 of picks of plush between the ground picks, or with the 
 plush binding into any number of warp threads. 
 
 " Tabby " velveteens, or velvets, are only suitable for 
 the production of light fabrics. The pile may be 
 tolerably dense, but the ground cloth cannot be very 
 heavy, because of the order of interweaving preventing 
 the threads coming very close together ; and as the pile 
 cannot well occupy more than every alternate warp 
 thread between the ground picks, the number of them 
 issuing from the cloth in a given space cannot be so 
 large as if there were more ground picks per inch. Then 
 if we wish to increase the bulk or thickness of ^^^|-|^, 
 the cloth we must substitute twill or satin for gl^aaBa 
 the " tabby." If we do that our binding of ■■□■■g 
 the plush cannot be so firm or perfect if it only gggygy 
 passes under one end, but if interweaving with gggggg 
 more than one end it may be equally perfect. j,.^ 
 We have in Fig. 93 a plan of a velveteen with 
 a three-end twill ground, and two picks of plush to each 
 ground pick. In this it will be seen that again the 
 principle of occupying every alternate warp end in 
 binding the plush is employed, and also that every 
 
 alternate plush pick falls in a different position 
 relation to the ground twill, and conse- 
 
 quently that one half the plush will be more 
 □□□□■a firmly bound than the other. Again, in Fig. 94 
 
 ^® another pattern upon a three-end 
 
 ^^^^ ground, but with three plush picks to 
 ground pick. In this, only one-third of 
 Fig. 94. tlie pile will be imperfectly bound. Now all 
 
 these are patterns which have been regularly 
 used, yet they are not free from defects in their 
 binding. They have probably depended more upon the 
 mere quantity of the material which the fabric con- 
 
DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS, [Cliap. VIII. 
 
 tained for the firm binding of the plush than upon any- 
 thing else, but this is not satisfactory ; each pick should 
 be equally perfect in its binding to ensure a good cloth, 
 but with a twill ground, and more than one plush pick 
 to one ground pick, this is difficult to attain when the 
 plush passes under one end only, but if the plush inter- 
 weaves with more than one end, then it can be bound 
 perfectly. We showed in JFig. 91 the method of binding 
 into more than one end upon plain ground, and 
 also the best mode of making the pile firm. Precisely 
 the same rule will apply to twill grounds, only that 
 instead of interweaving with three ends it would be 
 
 probably with four, or even 
 perhaps more, after the 
 
 j^ig 95 manner shown in Fig. 95. 
 
 In this section it will be 
 seen that the pile issues from the cloth between two ends, 
 which are passed over by the succeeding pick, and which 
 are in consequence pressed close together at that point, 
 and so tend to cause the pile not only to be firmly bound, 
 but also to stand more erect on the surface after it is cut. 
 In most pile fabrics the systems of binding shown would 
 be quite sufficient to hold the pile quite firmly in the 
 fabric ; but sometimes the nature of the material, such, 
 for instance, as mohair, renders it desirable to bind it 
 more firmly into the cloth. Then, if the ground be 
 plain, the pile may bind into as many ends as is desired, 
 and a number of picks going to form one, always being 
 arranged so that the point where the first pick, say, 
 issues from the cloth, the next pick enters it so that the 
 pick formed by the succession of plush picks shall be 
 one complete plain pick, just as the five picks in Fig. 90 
 form two complete picks. 
 
 107. Distribution of Pile.— We now come to the 
 question of the distribution of the pile, and here there are 
 two distinct features to consider — first, equal distribu- 
 tion, so that the whole surface of the fabric shall be 
 equally covered ; and second, the arrangement, so that 
 
Chap. VIII.] DISTRIBUTION OP PILE. 
 
 203 
 
 what are termed courses for the knife shall be regular. 
 Although, as we say, these are two distinct features, 
 and both often exercise the mind of the designer, yet if 
 the first condition be properly complied with, the second 
 must be. Let us see what this distribution means. 
 In the patterns Figs. 88 and 89 the four plush picks 
 are arranged in what is commonly known as four-end 
 satin, or satinette order. Each alternate end is occu- 
 pied by a plush pick, but not in consecutive order. In 
 this particular case they might have been arranged in 
 consecutive order, as what may be termed the pattern is 
 complete between each ground pick, but if there had 
 been only two plush picks and one ground pick, then 
 there would have been a tendency to show a twill, and 
 this would not only have been apparent at the back of 
 the cloth, but also on the face of the plush. Again, in 
 Fig. 90, the plush is arranged in almost what may be 
 termed a twill order, though not following on consecutive 
 ends, yet from the manner in which they issue from the 
 cloth, and the " pattern " again being complete between 
 the ground pick, no twill will be visible. Generally, 
 the best arrangement of plushes is that of a satin order, 
 the number of changes being regulated by the length of 
 the plush, and the number of plush picks required to 
 complete " one round of the pattern." If we keep our 
 plush distributed equally in this manner, we at the same 
 time also insure regular courses for the cutting knife ; 
 the pattern being ia regular order, the distribution per- 
 fect, we are of necessity bound to have perfectly straight 
 courses. But if this regularity is not preserved^ if the 
 binding is distributed irregularly over the fabric, then the 
 courses will be irregular, and the cuts will be " heavy 
 and light " — that is, in one course there will be more 
 material to cut through than in another, and so irregu- 
 larity in the quantity of pile on the surface and difiiculty 
 of cutting properly will be produced. 
 
 108. The Effects of Cutting Plush.— Cutting the 
 plush has quite as much to do with the ultimate appear- 
 
204 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. [Chap. VIII. 
 
 ance as the regularity and perfection of the binding, 
 .though in the short plushes of which we have beeii 
 speaking not so much diiference can be made, perhaps, as 
 m longer plushes. We have already explained how the 
 plush is cut by the knife and guide. Now, this guide 
 plays a most important part ; its first function is to raise 
 the thread up to the knife, but it must also determine 
 exactly where the knife shall cut that thread, in the 
 middle of the float or elsewhere. This is governed by 
 the size of the guide itself ; if the pile is all to be of equal 
 length — that is, the float of weft to be cut exactly in 
 ct the centre — then the 
 
 guide must be just of 
 such size that it will 
 
 fill the space between 
 the weft and the cloth 
 of one float only. Take, for instance. Fig. 96, where two 
 weft floats are shown binding at two different places, as 
 would be the case of any two picks in a plush pattern. If 
 the knife-guide is of the proper size, it will pass under only 
 one of these at once, but if it be not large enough, it will 
 pass under two or more, as at the point a. In that case, 
 mstead of the thread being severed into two equal parts, 
 one. will be much longer than the other. Instead of 
 bemg cut between the two binding points of one thread, 
 it will be cut between a binding point of each thread', 
 and so produce long and short plush intermixed. 
 
 109. Imitating Skins of Animals with Plush.— In 
 such fabrics as velveteen, and others where the pile is 
 very short, this would be a fatal objection ; the surface 
 of the pile would present a most irregular appearance, 
 but where the pile is of considerable length it may 
 be an advantage. Very frequently plushes, more espe- 
 cially weft plushes, are made to "imitate the skins of 
 animals. Most people are aware that a great many ani- 
 mals have next the skin a short close fur, covered 
 with a longer hair, the hair lying over the fur and 
 serving to turn off the wet, while the fur serves to keep 
 
Chap. VIII.] 
 
 IMITATING SKINS. 
 
 205 
 
 the animal warm. In imitating such furs two lengths of 
 plush must be formed. Sometimes this may be got suflB- 
 ciently well merely by the cutting, using a guide so small 
 as to catch two or even more picks, after the maimer 
 shown in Fig. 96, and so producing long and short. If 
 three picks at different points of the pattern are caught 
 by the guide, there will of course be three different 
 lengths of plush, and so on. Sometimes, however, this 
 does not give sufficient difference in the length of the plush, 
 and the floats of the weft are varied — in fact, two dis- 
 tinct plushes are combined upon one ground ; say, for 
 example, one having a float of an inch in length, or even 
 more, to form the long hair, and the other having a float 
 of only a quarter of an inch. In cutting these, one of 
 two courses must be adopted : either the long plush must 
 be cut first, with a guide which cannot enter the short 
 plush, or both must be cut together with the short plush 
 guide. In the first case the long hairs may be equal in 
 length, or unequal, according to the size of the guide used ; 
 in the second case the long plush will be all equal, and 
 very nearly of the full length of the float, from one bind- 
 ing place to another, because the guide for the short plush 
 will be so thin, and the cuts so frequent, that the long 
 floats will always be cut nearly close to the binding point, 
 the short end of it being just of the same length as the 
 short or under plush. If two different materials be used, 
 as fine wool for the short, and silk or bright mohair for 
 the long plush, some pretty effects may be obtained, 
 and very correct imitations of the skins of some animals 
 made. Sometimes even three materials, each forming a 
 different length of plush, may be employed, and more 
 variety given to the fabric. In making imitations of 
 skins, the nature of the material employed to form the 
 pile must of necessity be properly considered; for instance, 
 in making imitation sealskin, smoothness and brightness of 
 the fibre are essential conditions. Again, if the pile is 
 required to stand erect upon the surface of the cloth, 
 unless it is very short pile, the hair or fibre of which it 
 
206 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 [Chap. VIII. 
 
 is made must be very strong, so that it can retain its 
 erect position. 
 
 110. Density of Pile.— Another question now arises 
 —namely, the density of the pile. If it must stand erect 
 It must be tolerably dense; that is, there must be 
 a great many pile threads issuing from the cloth iii a 
 given space, so that they can support each other. To ob- 
 tain this density of pile the number of plush picks to one 
 ground pick must be properly proportioned to the length 
 of the pile and to the number of ground picks per inch. 
 It may to some extent be obtained by the use of thick 
 pile weft, but this must not be carried too far, else it 
 will appear rough and coarse. In obtaining density by 
 an increased number of plush to one ground pick, we 
 must not carry the proportion too far, Fig. 90 'will 
 represent what should be the limit; in fact, it goes 
 almost too far. The ground picks must be sufficient to 
 form a fabric of such weight and strength as will carry 
 easily the pile to be put upon it. Perhaps the pile weft 
 may take part in the actual formation of the ground 
 fabric. Sometimes it does ; then, of course, more strength 
 is given to the structure. These are all matters in which 
 the designer can only be guided by the circumstances of 
 the case immediately before him. Empirical rules cannot 
 be laid down, and if an attempt were made to lay such 
 rules down they would only be misleading. 
 
 111. Special Effects produced by Yarns.— The same 
 remark will apply also to the preparation of yarns for 
 forming pile to produce special effects. For instance, in 
 the imitation lambskin the yarns must be made from soft 
 fine wool, with good felting properties ; the softer it is 
 spun into the thread — so that it will hold together to be 
 cut — the better. Then after it is cut it must undergo a 
 teazing process to separate the fibres as effectually as 
 possible; then they are felted until they form little 
 " cots " all over the surface of the cloth. Again, in the 
 imitation of dog and other skins, the yarns must undergo 
 a preparation which will give them the proper amount of 
 
Chap VIII.] CORDUROYS OR RIBS. 
 
 207 
 
 wave or curliness ; and in some cases the subsequent 
 processes of finishing assist or intensify these effects ; 
 however, all such must be left to the ingenuity and skill 
 of the designer, and a due consideration of the efiect he 
 desires to produce. 
 
 112. Corduroys. — Plushes, in addition to being dis- 
 tributed equally over the surface, are often made to 
 produce patterns upon the ground cloth, such, for instance, 
 as stripes, which when they occupy a small space are 
 commonly called cords, or, when they run the length 
 of the piece, corduroys. They may also run across the 
 piece, or in diagonal form. Figures are also formed. 
 
 In the small cords or corduroys the principle of 
 binding referred to in velveteens is usually employed, 
 only that the binding of the plush is not dis- 
 tributed over the whole surface, but confined to 
 a few ends. We have in Fig. 97 a simple cord 
 on a plain ground cloth, which is known as a 
 "velveret on tabby back." In this the bind- 
 ing of the plush weft is confined to two ends 
 throughout, so that when cut up between the 
 the pile will form a rib or cord. In Fig. 98 
 
 the same cord on a three-end twill back, other- 
 wise known as the " Jeanette " back. In these 
 two patterns there is nothing which calls for 
 special remark, except the formation of the 
 cord : it is one of the most simple which can be 
 made. In Fig. 99 we have 
 one on a four-end twill ground, 
 which is a more perfect form of cord. 
 These cords, to give the best efiects, 
 should be rounded on the top ; that is, 
 the pile forming the centre of the cord 
 should be longer than that forming the 
 sides, so that it will stand above it and 
 give a rounded appearance. In the 
 patterns given in Figs. 97 and 98 this will take place 
 to a slight ej '.tent, but in pattern Fig. 99 it will be more 
 
 rig. 97. 
 
 bindings 
 we have 
 
 Fig. 98. 
 
 □□□□□■□□□□■a 
 
 □□□□■□□□□□□a 
 □□□□□■□□□□■a 
 
 □□■BDaBHDDBa 
 
 □□□□□■□□□□■a 
 □■■□□■■□□■■a 
 
 □□□□■□□□□□□a 
 □□□□□■□□□□■a 
 
 rig. 99. 
 
208 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 [Chap. VIII, 
 
 marked. Take the two plush picks which occur between 
 each ground pick. The first pick has a float of four and 
 then of six ends altei.iately ; the second pick is the same, 
 but the long float of one follows the short one of the ' 
 other. The cutting will sever both threads in the centre 
 of the float, so that the longest ends of pile will be in 
 the middle of the cord, and the shortest ones at the 
 sides or edges. This, then, will give a greater degree of 
 roundness than in Figs. 97 and 98. Although the 
 pattern in Fig. 99 will give a rounded cord, in many- 
 cases it is desirable to have even more roundness and 
 prominence imparted to it ; this may be done by giving 
 three or four difierent lengths of float to the pile weft, 
 and generally arranging them so 
 gSBBSSBgSSBBBBRB that the longest are slightly pre- 
 BB55BB55SB55BB55 dominant in quantity; such, for 
 BSSBBSSgBSSBBSSB instance, as that in Fig. 100, which 
 BB8BB5BS2SBBBBBB ^ould produce a very bold cord. 
 □□BB55SB55SB55BB in this pattern one of the two plush 
 SBBSSBBSSBBSSBBS picks forms the edges of the cord 
 rig. 100. only, while the other forms the 
 
 intermediate and the centre, thus 
 giving more threads issuing from the centre of the cord 
 than the edges. This would make the cord very full up 
 the centre, but as part of this would fall towards the 
 edges instead of remaining perfectly erect, it will supply 
 proper roundness to tlie cord. Cords of this description 
 may be made of varying widths, and with any degree 
 of roundness; and they may not only be made as 
 plain straight cords, but as fancy ones, and of varying 
 sizes. 
 
 113. Diagonal Cords. — It is not necessary that we 
 confine ourselves to cords running either the length of 
 the piece, or simply across it, parallel or at right 
 angles to the edges, but they may run diagonally, and 
 the weft which forms the pile rib may either be intro- 
 duced to form the rib solely, or it may take part in the 
 formation of the ground. After the consideration we 
 
Chap. VIII.] FIGURED PLUSHES AND CHENILLE. 
 
 209 
 
 have given to straight cords it will not be necessary to 
 say much about diagonal cords : the principle of structure 
 and binding applies equally to both ; the roundness of 
 surface on the cord required in one may be equally 
 desired in the other, and the mode of obtaining it would 
 be the same. In fact, instead of binding all the plush 
 picks upon a given number of ends, they would be dis- 
 tributed upon all the ends composing the fabric, and 
 following each other in a diagonal direction. 
 
 114. Figured Plushes.— Figures may be formed with 
 weft plush in the same manner as cords or diagonals, 
 simply by binding the plush weft into the cloth where 
 tigare is to be formed, as though the whole surface were 
 to be covered^ and where there is to be no figure, either 
 let the plush weft enter the ground as part of it, or float 
 loosely over it. In the latter case, the loose material 
 which is not forming pile will have to be cut away. 
 Some very pretty eftects may be produced in this 
 manner, as also in the formation of figures by different 
 lengths of pile, or by the use of different colours of pile 
 weft. In fact, we have in this system of ornamentation 
 the means of producing 
 
 great variety of effect, as 
 well as most useful fabrics, 
 not only for wearing but 
 as warm articles of clothing. 
 
 115. Chenille. — Che- 
 nille is another class of 
 fabric, if we may so term 
 it, which though used for a 
 great variety of purposes, 
 may be classed among weft 
 plushes. The mode of its 
 manufacture is by weaving 
 weft into a warp having its threads set in small groups a 
 short distance apart. After the piece of cloth is woven, 
 the whole of the weft is severed between each group of 
 warp threads, thus cutting the whole fabric up into 
 
 o 
 
 Fig. 101. 
 
210 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. [Chap. VIII. 
 
 narrow shreds, as in Fig. 101. Here the warp threads 
 are shown in groups of three, and are intersected by 
 the weft in regular order • sometimes these warp 
 threads weave with the weft in perfectly plain order, 
 but in the best formed chenilles they are woven as 
 gauze, thus holding the weft more firmly in the warp, 
 making the cutting more easy and certain, and making a 
 more durable article. After the chenille is cut it is 
 twisted, all the three threads of warp being thus formed 
 into one, with the short threads of weft projecting from 
 it all round, making as it were a fringed thread. This 
 twisting tends to hold the weft fringe stiU more firmly 
 in the threads of warp, so that if in the plain woven 
 fabric it can be held sufficiently firm to resist being 
 pulled out in cutting, it will become more secure after 
 the twisting operation. 
 
 116. Sham Plush. — One of the uses to which chenille 
 is sometimes applied is the production of what may be 
 termed sham plush ; that is, it is woven into a cloth as 
 weft, and the loose f linge formed on the thread, as before 
 described, projects itself through between the warp 
 threads, and so gives the fabric the appearance of a plush. 
 If it is woven into a plain piece, there is, of course, the 
 same quantity of plush on each side of the cloth, but if 
 thrown pretty loosely on the face it will present very 
 much the appearance of an ordinary plush, and can be 
 made much more economically. One thing which is 
 necessary in making cloths with cheniUe weft is to have 
 the warp threads pretty wide apart, so as to give the 
 loose fringe an opportunity of projecting itself between 
 them ; if put into a closely set fabric it would not have 
 an opportunity of doing this, and would consequently be 
 nearly, if not entirely, lost. Chenille, if judiciously 
 used, gives some very pretty effects indeed, and at a 
 cheap rate compared with what can be done with other 
 kinds of plushes. 
 
 117. Warp Pile. — We now come to the question of 
 the formation of pile or plush on the surface of 
 
Chap. VIII.] THE STRUCTURE OP VELVET. 
 
 211 
 
 fabrics _ with warp. The principles involved in the 
 formation of pile of this description are similar to 
 those of weft pile, the warp taking the place of weft, 
 but the modus operandi is different. In the formation 
 of weft pile two wefts and one warp are employed ; in 
 warp pile, two warps and one weft. In the former the 
 cutting takes place usually after the cloth comes from 
 the loom, in the latter usually in the loom, or the pile 
 may be left uncut and form loops ; so that we have two 
 forms of warp pile, commonly known as "cut" and 
 "loop" pile, or "cut" and "Terry" velvet. Whether 
 the pile be cut or uncut the structure of the cloth is the 
 same ; it is merely a question of using the knife or not. 
 We will first examine what is known as common velvet 
 — as there as several modes of forming the pile, or rather 
 of binding it into the cloth— so that we may obtain a 
 more ready and accurate idea of the general principles 
 upon which the binding is effected. 
 
 118. The Structure of Velvet.— In the first place, 
 velvet is formed by the pile warp issuing from the cloth, 
 passing over a wire, and then passing into the cloth again, 
 where it is interwoven, so as to secure it firmly. We 
 may bring the whole of the pile warp at once over the 
 wire, or we may bring only a portion of it, but in either 
 
 V.g. 102. 
 
 case we must consider the binding, so as to properly 
 secure it ; and in the event of bringing only a portion 
 over the wire at once, we have the double consideration 
 of binding and proper distribution. Suppose we first 
 bring the whole of the pile warp over each wire, as 
 shown in the section in Fig. 102, we bind the pile 
 threads into the ground in the order of plain weaving 
 between each wire. In this section the loops are shown 
 
212 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. [Chap, VIII. 
 
 just as they are formed by the wire, except at a, where 
 they are shown as cut. Now, one feature of this section 
 must strike the reader : the pile issues from the cloth 
 after a pick is inserted, passes over the wire, and returns 
 to the cloth before another pick is inserted. To secure 
 the pile properly in the cloth it must pass under the 
 pick which precedes the wire, and also that which 
 follows it, and the ground thread next to it must pass 
 over both these picks, so that virtually both are in one 
 shed. It must not be supposed from this section that 
 the pile thread necessarily forms part of the ground, 
 that is, that the thread seen here and the ground thread 
 accompanying it are the only two representative threads 
 of the cloth; but a ground thread accompanies the pile 
 thread in the order of interweaving in the ground, so 
 forming a double thread throughout, except in passing 
 over the wire, when they separate. Thus this arrange- 
 ment secures the pile firmly into the fabric, and- the 
 double pick has also another advantage — namely, that the 
 pile threads issuing from and returning into the cloth 
 between two picks which are contained between the 
 ground threads in the sarne shed, and which are beaten 
 as closely together as the thickness of the pile warp will 
 permit, are held firmly together, thus supporting each 
 other and standing erect upon the surface of the cloth. 
 This method of binding the plush gives all the security 
 to the binding which is required, but it will form distinct 
 rows or ribs across the piece. If the pile warp be thick 
 enough, and spread itself out sufScieaatly on being cut, 
 these rows will be hid, but if the cloth be doubled back, 
 each row will at once disclose itself. This is certainly a 
 characteristic of all velvets, and is the feature we 
 referred to in Art. 106, which is imitated by the 
 velveteen when two sets of plush picks and one ground 
 pick pass into practically the same shed, thus giving a 
 sort of ribbed effect to the back of the piece, and showing 
 the plush in rows. If we are making our cloth with fine 
 ground weft these rows would be so close together as not 
 
Cliap. VIII.] THE STRUCTURE OF VELVET. 
 
 213 
 
 to be at all objectionable ; in fact, not visible to the 
 unassisted eye. Again, in the process of weaving we 
 must consider the effect of weaving in this manner. If 
 the warp be a smooth thread and not over thick, as silk, 
 for instance, we may raise or depress all the pile threads 
 at once, without fear of " choking " the shed, but if the 
 pile threads be very thick, or not of the smoothest 
 nature, or too closely set, then there would be a probabi- 
 lity of " choking " as they pass between the ground 
 threads, and probably also the rows and the openings 
 between them would be too decided. Then in such cases 
 we must divide the pile warp into at least two portions, 
 and bring each portion over the wire alternately. In 
 doing so we alter the structure of the cloth. Practically, 
 each portion of the pile warp is bound into the fabric, 
 just as shown in Fig. 102, but as we have two portions 
 to consider, each to be bound in a similar manner, the 
 order of succession of ground picks in their relation to 
 the ground warp must be altered. A section is given in 
 Fig. 103, showing the method of binding the warp when 
 bringing only half over the wire at once. The black line 
 
 Fig. 
 
 represents one portion of the pile warp, and the dotted 
 line the other portion, the ground end being represented 
 by the double line. In this, as in the previous arrange- 
 ment, the pile issues from and returns into the cloth 
 between two ground picks which are in the same shed, 
 being held so exactly in the same manner. Again, on 
 returning into the cloth it passes under one pick, over 
 two which are in the same shed, and under another, 
 when it again issues from the cloth; so that practically 
 each portion of the pile weaves into the ground in precisely 
 the same way as in the previous case — namely, three 
 ground picks and a wire, two of the picks being practically 
 
214 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. [Chap. VIH. 
 
 one, so far as this portion of the pile is concerned. Then 
 the other half of the pile warp issues from and returns 
 to the cloth between the next pair of picks, thus making 
 a loop at every two picks of the cloth, but two picks 
 always going into the same ground shed, being separated 
 by the pile warp as it issues from and returns to the 
 cloth. Such being the nature of the structure when the 
 pile warp is brought to the surface in halves, there must 
 be a better distribution of the pile. The firmness of the 
 binding and the texture of the ground cloth will be 
 practically the same in both methods of working, but in 
 the second the rows of pile will not be so decided, their 
 greater frequency, and the fact of only one half the 
 pile coming to the face at once, tending to equalise the 
 distribution, and give a more regular appearance to the 
 pile, more especially if thick yarn, or yarn made from 
 strong fibres, be used. 
 
 "What we have said has more especial reference to 
 velvet, or cut pile. If it be uncut, forming loops, so 
 far as the binding or the pile running in rows is con- 
 cerned, there is no advantage in either system, because 
 the pile will always stand in rows, just as it is left by the 
 wire, but by bringing half the warp up at once we can 
 get the rows closer together ■; and although each row of 
 the pile brought over each wire cannot be quite so much 
 in quantity as if all the warp be brought up at once, yet 
 the increased closeness of the wires, and the fact that we 
 can have the warp more closely set, will enable us to form 
 a greater quantity of pile on the cloth. 
 
 119. Pile formed without Wires. — Loop pile may 
 be formed without the use of wires, but its appearance is 
 not so regular; although formed in rows, the loops do 
 not stand perfectly straight, nor exactly equal in height ; 
 thus they intermix with each other, and give a very 
 rough appearance to the fabric. This kind of pile is 
 most used for bath towels and similar articles. 
 
 120. Ornamenting Pile Fabrics. — We must now turn 
 our attention to the ornamentatioji of pile fabrics. This 
 
Chap. VIII.] ORNAMENTING PILE FABRICS. 
 
 215 
 
 we may deal with under two heads : first, the decoration of 
 pile fabrics, and second, the decoration of fabrics with pile. 
 
 The first idea which naturally occurs in connection 
 with the ornamentation of fabrics is the use of colour. 
 In ordinary velvets, whether cut or uncut, colour can 
 only be used under certain conditions, and consequently 
 can only give some specific character of ornamentation, 
 and not be used in a general way. The pile formed on 
 the surface of the fabric entirely covers the ground cloth; 
 then any ornamentation which may be visible must be 
 formed with the pile warp. If we introduce^ variety of 
 colours into that they must necessarily run in stripes ; 
 figures could not be formed. The warp consists of a 
 number of threads laid side by side. If these threads are 
 of difierent colours, a given number of one colour, and a 
 given number of another, when woven into the fabric, 
 and forming the pile on the surface, exactly the same 
 stripe must be presented on the cloth as in the warp, so 
 that our power of ornamentation in that direction is 
 limited. Then our chief power of ornamentation must 
 be by forming patterns in or with the pile itself, in a 
 great measure without the aid of colour. When we 
 speak of the ornamentation of pile fabrics, we naturally 
 conclude that the whole surface of the cloth is covered 
 with pile, or at least that the greater part is so covered, or 
 that some ornamentation is formed in the pile itself, or 
 by its being formed in varying quantities on the fabric. 
 
 First of all, we may produce pattern by the pile 
 varying in length. When such is the case it will usually 
 be in stripe form across the piece, because the difference 
 in length is produced by wires of different sizes being 
 inserted under the pile warp during the process of 
 weaving, so that it would not be very convenient to form 
 figures in this manner. Of course figures can be so 
 formed, but the expedient is not very frequently 
 resorted to. 
 
 The next means of ornamentation is by the combina- 
 tion of velvet and terry— that is, cut and uncut \ and this 
 
216 
 
 DESIGN m TEXTILE FABRICS. [Chap. VIII. 
 
 IS very frequentlj^ employed, figures of terry being formed 
 upon a velvet ground, and vice versd. Tlie same warp 
 is employed in the formation of both kinds of pile, but 
 two kinds of wires : one provided with a groove for guidint^ 
 the "trevette," or cutting knife, or having a knife formed 
 at its extremity so that it cuts its way as it is being 
 drawn out, and the other being a plain wire which when 
 drawn out leaves the loop intact. No prettier efiects can 
 be produced than by this combination of velvet and 
 terry ; although both are of the same material, and of 
 the same colour, the contrast between the loop and 
 the cut fibres marks the pattern very distinctly. One 
 great advantage of this mode of ornamentation is that 
 the texture of the ground cloth is not at all aff"ected, the 
 interweaving of the pile with the ground remains the 
 same; the same amount of pile is formed all over the surface 
 of the fabric, the cut and terry simply taking the place 
 of each other, so that the usefulness of the article is not 
 impaired, either in its strength or in the wearing surface, 
 there being no inequalities whatever in the pile. In fact' 
 this _ kind of figuring bears the same relation to pile 
 fabrics that damask does to ordinary figured cloths. 
 Figures may be formed upon velvet grounds by ceasing 
 to form pile at intervals ; for instance, taken in its 
 simplest form,, if we weave say half an inch of velvet in 
 the ordinary manner, then cease to insert wires, but 
 continue to let the pile warp interweave with the ground, 
 we should form plain cloth, having two picks of weft in 
 each shed, and with two ends going together as one. We 
 are now assuming that the pile is formed by bringing 
 half the w-arp at once over the wire ; then we should 
 have alternate stripes of velvet and plain cloth. But 
 instead of forming simple stripes we may let our plain 
 cloth form figures, and the figures may assume any form. 
 Then we are ornamenting by the introduction of patches 
 of plain cloth, such patches taking the form of figures, and 
 being distributed according to the fancy of the designer, or 
 the special eflTect intended to be produced. When figures 
 
Chap. Vm.] 
 
 FIGURED VELVETS. 
 
 217 
 
 are formed in this manner, the plain portion of the fabric is 
 a little more loose in texture than when pile is formed. 
 As will be seen on referring to the sections of velvet in 
 Figs. 102 and 103, when pile is formed, the warp separates 
 the two ground picks, which otherwise go into the same 
 shed, but if pile is not being formed, the pile warp simply 
 lies under them along with the ground warp, so that 
 there is nothing to separate the two picks, consequently 
 they will lie closer together and occupy less space. 
 Now, if one portion of the fabric has two picks together 
 as one, and another portion has the same two picks 
 separated by a series of double threads, one must of 
 necessity be firmer in texture than the other. Perhaps 
 this difference is not such as to have a material effect in 
 the majority of fabrics, yet it is necessary to be aware of 
 its existence, since if the pile warp be very thick, or the 
 figures be not equally distributed, it may be detrimental 
 to the structure, and a knowledge of the possible cause 
 of defects enables us all the more efiectually to guard 
 against them. 
 
 In addition to irregularities in the texture, the wearing 
 surface is also irregular, the velvet standing up as a pro- 
 jection on the surface of the fabric; but for the purposes 
 to which such goods are usually applied this is not a 
 matter of much importance. Plain figures of this des- 
 cription upon velvet grounds are about the most simple 
 mode of ornamentation, though a very eflfective one, the 
 design produced being of an embossed character. In fact, 
 common velvets are frequently made to imitate them by 
 being embossed, but these are not so good for wearing 
 purposes as when they are properly figured, because that 
 portion of the pile which has been flattened by pressure 
 to form the figure will become loose with friction, and 
 gradually rise to almost its former position and so destroy 
 the pattern, whereas if the pattern be woven in, nothing 
 can destroy the clear definition of the figure except the 
 actual wearing away of all the pile of the ground — a cir- 
 cumstance which cannot often occur. 
 
218 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 [Chap. VIII. 
 
 121. Combination of Pile and Figuring with extra 
 Material. — Fabrics figured, in this manner are like those 
 figured with velvet and terry, necessarily all of one 
 colour J but variety of colour may be obtained, by the 
 introduction of extra material, after the manner pointed 
 out in reference to ordinary fabrics, and in this way 
 some of the richest possible effects produced ; the 
 density of colour which is always a characteristic of 
 velvet, and the variety of light and shade produced by 
 the pile, being wonderfully relieved, and giving the most 
 beautiful effects by the introduction of bright or contrast- 
 ing colours. There is probably no class of ornamentation 
 applied to fabrics which gives such magnificent results as 
 combinations of velvet with coloured figures. 
 
 122. Pile or Velvet Figures. — "We now come to the 
 ornamentation of fabrics with plush or pile, and what 
 has been said of the ornamentation of pile will practi- 
 cally apply to this, in so far as structure of the cloth 
 and wearing properties are concerned ; the mechanical 
 operations required for the formation of patterns are also 
 the same. In fact, we may almost sum up the difference 
 by saying that in one case the plain or figured ground 
 cloth becomes an ornament to the pile surface, the latter 
 of which predominates largely in quantity ; and, in the 
 other case, the small quantity of pile which forms a figure 
 becomes an ornament to the ground cloths. The fabric 
 which we wish to ornament with velvet figures may be 
 anything- — plain, twilled, satin, figured, or gauze. It is 
 made on the ordinary principles. The wai-p which is to 
 form the pile may take part also in the formation of the 
 ground ; it may form figures in the ground, or may be 
 dealt with in any manner when not forming velvet ; then 
 when it is reqtiired to form velvet it begins to interweave 
 with the ground cloth in the ordinary manner of plain 
 velvet, and is also passed over wires in the same manner. 
 Sometimes the velvet is formed in stripes ; when such is 
 the case there is no trouble with the arrangement of the 
 design, further than to provide the pile ends in the warp, 
 
Cbap. VIII.] PLUSH FIGURES UPON GAUZE. 
 
 219 
 
 and consequently in the arrangement of the pattern upon 
 paper, at the places and in such quantities as are 
 requisite. The stripes may be plain or figured ; when 
 figured, the pattern is produced by simply passing such 
 ends over the wire as will form the figure desired, and 
 leaving the rest in the ground cloth. If the figures be 
 distributed over the whole surface of the cloth, at greater 
 or less intervals, then they must be distributed equally ; 
 in fact, the same rules must be observed as for any 
 ordinary figures. Plush figures upon a ground fabric 
 differ from plain figures upon a plush ground in one 
 respect — namely, that the figure may be different in colour 
 from the ground, more especially if the figures be small, 
 because then the pile warp would be treated as extra 
 material, and thrown to the back when not forming pile. 
 Of course, in plain figures upon plush ground, a similar 
 effect may be produced by the introduction of extra 
 material, as we pointed out for the formation of extra 
 spots ; but this is not so general a practice as introducing 
 extra warp to form plush figures. Then again we may 
 combine extra material for the formation of other figures, 
 after the manner of ordinary cloths between the plush 
 or velvet figures, or we may figure with the ground fabric. 
 In fact, we may combine with velvet figuring all other 
 forms of ornamentation which can be applied to fabrics, 
 and our velvet figures may be either cut, or terry, or 
 both. 
 
 123. Plush Figures upon Gauze Ground. — We have 
 already referred to the formation of plush upon gauze 
 ground, but that will call for a few more words here. 
 As it is shown in Plate 12, Fig. 14, the pile is formed 
 ripon the gauze ; that is, the twistings of the gauze threads 
 take place between the loops of the pile, so that really 
 there is no solid ground fabric under the pile. This is a 
 very pretty and useful mode of working, but will only 
 serve for very light fabrics, and does not permit of any 
 other mode of ornamentation being applied along with it. 
 Now, we may frequently wish to combine plush figuring 
 
220 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 [Chap. VIII. 
 
 with some other upon gauze ground, or plush figuring with 
 gauze upon some other ground. Suppose, for example, 
 that our plush is to be surrounded with plain upon a 
 gauze ground; then in the first instance we combine plain 
 with gauze in the usual manner, then, as plush is to be 
 formed, we cease the plain working and adopt that which 
 will give a proper ground for the plush, and proceed to 
 the ^ insertion of the wires. This mode of working, in 
 addition to enabling us to make a heavier cloth than if 
 the plush is upon the gauze direct, will also make the 
 plush appear better by being more dense. Again, the 
 plain cloth may predominate, and figures be formed alter- 
 nately by plush and gauze, or we may further call the 
 use of extra material to our aid; so that we may be said 
 to have here all the different methods of ornamentation 
 at our command at once, to apply as we please. There 
 is, perhaps, nothing which produces such striking effects 
 as the combination of plush and gauze, whether any 
 other order of weaving be combined with them or not ; 
 the contrast between the density of one, and the open 
 perforated character of the other, always giving a very 
 decided character to the whole design, and, at the same 
 time a very pleasing one. 
 
 To the designer there can scarcely be any more 
 pleasing duty than the designing of figured velvets ; he 
 has so much scope for the display of artistic merit, and 
 also of complete technical knowledge of the structure of 
 fabrics. 
 
 124. The Production of Special Effects in Plushes.— 
 
 In dealing with warp pile so far, we have confined 
 ourselves chiefly to velvet, or fabrics having a very short 
 pile ; but there are numerous other kinds of pile fabrics 
 in which the pile varies, though in principle of structure 
 they are practically the same. But although they are 
 the same in structure, yet great variety of effects is 
 produced by varying lengths of pile, by special prepara- 
 tion of the pile warp before being put in the loom 
 
 such as printing, curling, waving, &c. — similar to the 
 
Chap. VIII.] 
 
 BRUSSELS CARPETS. 
 
 221 
 
 operations we referred to in connection with weft pile; 
 and, again, special effects are often produced in the 
 process of finishing after the fabric leaves the loom, 
 such as tinting to produce the imitation of skins of 
 animals, and other effects. 
 
 125. Brussels Carpets. — Figuring with colour upon 
 pile fabrics involves a different arrangement of the 
 structure and also of the pile threads, unless the pattern 
 is printed. We might take as an illustration Brussels 
 carpets, in which well-defined patterns are formed by a 
 variety of colour, and see what is the principle of 
 structure, and how far it will apply to others. The pile 
 itself is formed exactly the same as in ordinary or terry 
 velvet — namely, by the insertion of wires under the pile 
 threads — but the process of selection of the threads is 
 different. In weaving ordinary velvet we bring either 
 the whole or half the pile warp to the surface over each 
 wire, but in Brussels carpet we may be said to have a 
 
 Fig. Iji. 
 
 series of duplicate ends, each of a different colour, and 
 from these we select one, according to the pattern we 
 require. Again, in ordinary velvet the pile warp inter- 
 veaves into the ground just the same as the ground warp, 
 except at the point where pile is formed ; but in Brussels 
 carpet it does not, but is contained as a straight thread 
 in the body of the cloth when not forming pile. Take 
 the section Fig. 104 ; the ground warp is represented by 
 the lines a, and the weft by the dots, the three colours of 
 warp by b, c, and d. Now the ground cloth is plain 
 in one sense. If the ground warp threads be separated 
 from the pile warp, and considered only in relation to 
 
222 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. [Chap. VIII. 
 
 the weft, they will form a plain cloth with two picks in 
 each shed, but taken as they stand, the ground picks are 
 separated by the pile warp. In fact, the pile warp is 
 held between the ground weft, and intersected by the 
 ground warp, so that if no pile or loops were to be formed, 
 we should have a plain cloth with a stout packing in the 
 middle, the packing threads being perfectly straight, and 
 taking no part in the formation of the cloth, except to 
 give bulk to it. Between every pair of ground warp 
 threads there is one thread of each colour of pile warp 
 which is to be employed. Then, for the formation of the 
 pattern, one of each of these sets of pile threads is 
 raised between each pair of ground picks and passed over 
 a wire, it then returns to the cloth, and if required to 
 form the next loop is again raised, and so on, until its 
 own portion of the figure is completed, when it remains 
 in the cloth until again wanted to form figure. In the 
 same maimer the pile threads are treated ; they are lifted 
 over the wire to form a loop whenever the arrangement 
 of the pattern calls for their presence on the surface, and 
 as soon as that portion of the pattern is completed they 
 return to the cloth, and continue to form the body. 
 From this it will be seen that although there may be 
 three, four, five, or six colours, and consequently as many 
 separate pile threads between each pair of ground threads, 
 only one of each set is brought to the surface at once, so 
 that there is always the same quantity of pile on the 
 surface, and the same substance in the body of the cloth, 
 no matter what the pattern may be, or how frequently 
 the pattern changes from one colour to another. 
 
 Then the advantages of this mode of structure are 
 that we have uniform surface and body of cloth ; and we 
 have pattern formed by colour only, and any amount of 
 variety in the pattern will not afiect the structure or 
 quality of the cloth. The pattern being formed by 
 difierently coloured threads coming to the surface in suc- 
 cession, is very clear and well defined, and the whole of 
 the pile material being embedded in the body of the cloth 
 
Cliap. VIII.] 
 
 TAPESTRY CARPETS. 
 
 223 
 
 makes the fabric both bulky and soft. One peculiar 
 advantage, from the useful point of view, which Brussels 
 carpets possess, is that each thread which comes to the 
 sui'face to form a loop, being only one of a number, is 
 well embedded with the rest in the body of the cloth, so 
 that when the foot is placed upon it, it is pressed into a 
 naturally elastic body of material, which serves as a cushion 
 for it, enabling it to give way under the pressure of the 
 foot, and also by its elasticity to spring back to the 
 original position, thus reducing the wear and tear con- 
 siderably. 
 
 126. Tapestry Carpets. — Another class of carpets 
 which are made to imitate Brussels are known as 
 tapestries. The structure of the cloth presents some- 
 what the appearance of Brussels, but instead of there 
 being a number of threads together of different colours 
 between each pair of ground threads there is only one, 
 and that is printed so as to form the pattern. In fact, 
 each pile thread is printed in colours according to the 
 pattern to be formed, proper regard being paid in the 
 process of printing to the length of warp which will be 
 required to form the loop, and also for bending round 
 the weft. Then they are put together in the warp in 
 their proper order, and, as we have said, woven after the 
 manner of Brussels carpet, but one printed thread 
 serving for a number of coloured ones. This is a most 
 economical method of producing figured carpets, but of 
 necessity does not produce so serviceable an article as 
 that which it imitates. There is no substance in 
 the body, except what is known as the backing, and as 
 this consists of stout linen, there is not the same elasticity 
 as in the worsted body of Brussels carpet, and therefore 
 not the same tendency to reduce wear and tear. 
 
 The structure of the Wilton carpets is similar to thab of 
 Brussels, but the pile is cut, or practically the difference 
 is the same as that between cut and terry velvet. 
 
 127. The Varieties and Properties of Plushes. — We 
 have now enumerated the principal kinds of plush or pile 
 
224 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 [Chap. VIII. 
 
 whicli are made. There are many modifications of these 
 in use, in the production of difierent kinds of fabric for 
 different purposes, but these are modifications of miiior 
 details generally : the principle of structure is not alFected 
 by them. There are numbers of patent, plushes, all 
 claiming some advantage over others, but still, the 
 improvement is usually in some trifling alteration of 
 binding or distribution, or perhaps more frequently in the 
 method of production, but the general principles we have 
 referred to cannot be far departed from without impairing 
 the structure of the cloth, or even if that is not actually 
 done, there can be little advantage gained. One very 
 economical method of making velvets, which has been 
 attempted over and over again with varying degrees of 
 success, has been within recent years brought to something 
 like a state of perfection — namely, weaving two cloths 
 together, and the pile passing from one to the other; they 
 are then severed in such a manner as to leave a proper 
 proportion of pile upon each cloth, thus dispensing with 
 the use of wires, and consequently reducing the cost of 
 production very materially. But even in this, the 
 principle of structure of each cloth remains practically 
 the same as if they were woven with wires ; it is only a 
 modification of the means by which the article is manu- 
 factured. With respect to the utility of pile fabrics, 
 little need be said more than we have already pointed 
 out. From the nature of the surface, as well as the 
 structure of the body of the cloth, they must necessarily 
 form very warm articles of clothing, the closeness of 
 texture and the intermixing of the loose fibres of the 
 pile all tending to assist in retaining warmth. They are 
 also soft and pleasant to the touch, and altogether pleasing 
 as articles of dress or furniture ; one remarkable feature 
 to which we have already referred being the richness of 
 colour, and the variety of light and shade which they 
 present, more especially when arranged in folds, the undu- 
 lations placing the loose fibres in so many different 
 positions to reflect the light, and this variety of reflections 
 
Chap. IX,] GENERAL COMPARISOIT OP FABRICS. 225 
 
 giving richness and variety to the colour and lustre of 
 the whole fabric. 
 
 In their wearing properties plushes are also very 
 vahiable, there being scarcely any fabric of the same 
 weight which will prove more durable, so that they 
 combine all the properties which go to make cloths 
 valuable — richness and beauty with utility. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 GENERAL COMPARISON OF THE DIFFERENT CLASSES AND 
 STYLES OF FABRIC. 
 
 128. The Considerations involved in the Structure 
 of Fabrics. — We have dealt pretty fully with the 
 different principles of structure of fabrics and their 
 ornamentation ; and it will perhaps be desirable now to 
 examine a little more fully some of the considerations 
 involved in their structure, to make a comparison of the 
 different classes and styles of fabric, and also to deal 
 with some forms of ornamentation which we have not 
 touched upon, and the special method of their application. 
 
 "We may first recapitulate generally some of the 
 points discussed in the earlier chapters, so that we may 
 take a more comprehensive view of the whole. 
 
 Dividing, for the moment, all fabrics into two distinct 
 classes, without entering into their particular structure, 
 we may say that the one is intended for useful and the 
 other for ornamental purposes. Taking the purely useful, 
 we have the question of strength before us, the necessity 
 of the fabric being able to bear strain, or friction, or both ; . 
 then we have to regard it as an article of clothing, its 
 power of retaining the warmth of the body, or of resisting 
 climatic influeuces. In the first case one of two con- 
 p 
 
226 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 siderations comes in; either we must have a strong, 
 compact, well - formed thread, of which to form the 
 cloth, or the threads must be so interlocked with 
 each other as to make the whole fabric as it were 
 one solid mass. If the threads are of such a nature 
 that all the fibres of which they are composed are spun 
 intimately together, foi-ming a smooth- surfaced, even 
 filament, then they will stand separate from each other 
 in the fabric, and its entire strength will consist of the 
 multiplication of so many units ; and if the cloth is to 
 bear a great strain, more especially if this strain is likely 
 to be localised, either each individual thread must bo 
 very strong, or strength must be obtained by having a 
 great number in a small space. The strength of individual 
 threads may be obtained in two ways : either by having it 
 constructed of fibres of great strength, or by having the 
 fibres well twisted together. Combined with the strength 
 of the thread, the order of interweaving of the two sets 
 of threads of which the cloth is composed must be taken 
 into account, and, as we have shown of ordinary fabrics, 
 the plain cloth, or that in which the two sets of threads 
 interweave alternately, is the strongest for the quantity 
 of material which it contains (we are leaving gauze out 
 of the qiTCstion, as being an ornamental fabric). If the 
 capacity of the fabric to bear strain is to be in one 
 direction rather than another, as in the warp or weft, then 
 that material must predominate, and we arrive at the class 
 of cloth showing a rib in one direction or the other. We 
 have here, then, the general considerations of strength 
 immediately before us, and although we have spoken only 
 of plain cloth, the remarks will apply equally to 
 twilled or other fabrics, in which we have resorted 
 to a different order of interweaving, either for the 
 pui'pose of obtaining greater weight or for ornamentation. 
 
 In cloths formed of the kind of thread we have 
 spoken of there will be openness of texture, and the 
 size of the openings between the threads will be in 
 the direct ratio to the diameters of the threads in a 
 
Chap. IX.] GENEBAL COMPARISON OF FABRICS. 
 
 227 
 
 clotli where warp and weft are equal in quantity. Thus, 
 to obtain closeness we must increase the quantity of 
 either warp or weft. To do that is to increase the 
 weight. Now, if our cloth is to be a light one, and we 
 wish it to be still of a close texture, we may obtain it to 
 some extent by altering the structure of the thread. 
 Instead of having a smooth, even thread, we may have a 
 considerable amount of loose fibre on the surface ; these 
 loose fibres will help to cover the interstices, and in the 
 process of finishing, if the fibres of one thread be made 
 to interlock with those of other threads, the compactness 
 of the fabric will be increased. But this is not all ; the 
 interlocking of fibres gives additional strength. Not 
 only do the warp threads support each other, but the 
 weft threads interlock with them, and the whole fabric 
 becomes more compact, not merely as far as closeness of 
 texture is concerned, but as regards tensile strength^ and 
 also the power to resist friction. Thus we have here a 
 very intimate relation between the structure of the 
 thread and the strength of the fabric, as well as its 
 closeness of texture ; so that it is evident the character 
 of the thread is an item we cannot afibrd to ignore in 
 determining the structure of the cloth. 
 
 Apart from the question of material or structure of 
 thread, we must now consider how these conditions can 
 be obtained in the structure of the cloth only. If we 
 resort to twilling — that structure which most nearly ap- 
 proaches to plain cloth — we obtain in the first place 
 greater closeness of texture than in an ordinary plain 
 fabric, because of the necessity for introducing a greater 
 number of threads, to compensate for the looser order 
 of interweaving. We obtain also greater strength for 
 the same reason, and also of course increased bulk. 
 Then, again, this increase may be in the weft, in the 
 warp, or both, according to the character of the twill we 
 employ. If we take satin cloths — one form of twilling — 
 we obtain all we require in strength and closeness of 
 texture in one direction only — that is, by an increase of 
 
228 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 [Chap. IX. 
 
 either warp or weft, in number of ends or in thickness, 
 more generally by the increase of ends. Our next alter- 
 native is a resort to double cloths, which gives us the 
 means of increasing weight, strength, or closeness of 
 texture to any degree. Then we have here, in the struc- 
 ture of the threads, and the structure of the fabric, in 
 simple form, all that we require to enable us to make the 
 cloth fulfil all the conditions of usefulness. 
 
 129. Ornamentation of Fabrics by the Use of 
 Colour. — Now with respect to ornamental fabrics. As 
 we have shown, we may ornament with colours, with 
 patterns formed upon the fabric, or in the structure of 
 the fabric itself. We will first turn our attention to the 
 question of ornamenting with colours, not with a view 
 to dealing with the theory of colour in general — that has 
 been already done many times in works on decorative 
 art, including, of course, textile fabrics, in a much more 
 complete manner than could possibly be attempted here 
 — but to consider it in its connection with structure 
 of the fabric, and see what will afiect or interfere with 
 its use, and how far this interference may necessitate 
 the ornamentation assuming some particular form or 
 character. 
 
 It has been pointed out in a previous chapter that 
 the ornamentation of plain cloth must be by the use of 
 colour, or by the predominance of either warp or weft, so 
 as to produce cords running the length of the piece or 
 across it ; but this predominance of one of the materials 
 will also affect the use of colour. When weft and warp 
 are equal in plain cloth, we may introduce coloured 
 threads into either one or the other with a fair chance 
 of their being visible on the surface. Then we may form 
 either stripes or checks, just as we use coloured threads 
 in the weft or warp, or both ; and the variation in those 
 threads, in both colour and quantity, will give us great 
 scope for the display of ingenuity and taste. True, the 
 patterns always run in straight lines, yet they may be 
 made both pretty and efl'ective by proper regard being 
 
Chap. IX.] ORNAMENTING WITH COLOURS. 
 
 229 
 
 paid to variety of line and colour. But it is only when 
 warp and weft are equal, or nearly equal, that we may 
 use colour in both warp and weft at will. We will sup- 
 pose, for example, that the warp is predominating very 
 largely, that the number of ends per inch greatly exceeds 
 the number of picks ; then the weft will be completely 
 hid, and whatever colour it might be it would not be 
 seen on the surface of the cloth ; so that in such a case 
 we are precluded from using variety of colours of weft, 
 and consequently, the cloth being plain in structure, we 
 can only apply colour to form stripes running in the 
 direction of the warp, seeing that the only coloured ends 
 which can be visible must be in the warp. On the other 
 hand, if we are making a corded cloth, with the cord 
 formed in the warp, then the weft would predominate 
 largely in quantity, though not necessarily in the thick- 
 ness of the threads ; but the closeness of the weft picks 
 would completely cover the warp, so that whatever might 
 be the colour of the warp, it would not be seen, at least 
 not sufficiently to permit of a pattern of coloured ends 
 being formed by it. So that whether the warp or weft 
 predominate, we can only use colour in that portion of 
 the fabric. Precisely the same rule will apply to twilled 
 or satin cloths, and perhaps even in a more marked degree 
 than in the majority of plain cloths. In either twill or 
 satin cloths, where the warp or weft is brought much 
 to the surface, it also predominates largely in actual 
 quantity also ; so that the other material is thrown abso- 
 lutely to the back of the fabric, and is not seen at all on 
 the face. Thus we can ornament only in the direction 
 of the threads which are on the face, and we are there- 
 fore necessarily confined to stripes. 
 
 Although we cannot form anything but stripes by the 
 use of colour in fabrics where either warp or weft pre- 
 dominates on the face, and when we confine ourselves to 
 the material which forms the ground or body of the cloth, 
 yet we are not preckided from the use of extra weft or 
 warp to form checks. But of course the cloth will cease 
 
230 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 [Chap. IX, 
 
 to be purely plain, twill, or satin, as the case may be. We 
 will take as an extreme instance a cloth, say such as a 
 repp, in which the warp predominates very largely, and 
 introduce coloured threads in the warp; these colours 
 will stand out very prominently, because the modification 
 usually produced by interweaving with the weft is not pre- 
 sent here, the weft being so completely hid. Then if we 
 wish to form a check upon this, our coloured weft must not 
 interweave with the warp in the usual manner, or it will be 
 lost, but it must be thrown to the surface of the cloth, 
 and interweave with the warp threads only at intervals. 
 In fact, it must form either a twill or satin with the weft 
 predominating, and by this means and this only we may 
 form our checks as distinctly as we please. If it is a 
 cloth in which the weft forms the surface, then the 
 coloured extra threads must be in the warp. 
 
 In forming figures upon such cloths as we are speaking 
 of, the use of colour is most effective. Suppose the warp 
 is a light colour and the weft a dark one, and that a 
 figure is formed by bringing the weft to the surface, the 
 warp preponderating on the surface all over the ground ; 
 in the ground the colour of the warp only will be seen, 
 the weft being hid, and in the figure the weft only will be 
 seen, so that the pattern will stand out very prominently. 
 If the colours be properly suited to each other, so as to 
 form an harmonious contrast, the effect will be most 
 striking. 
 
 Then in using colour for the ornamentation of fabrics 
 when the coloured threads form part of the groundwork 
 of the cloth, it is evident we must take into account 
 the structure of the fabric, and only use the colour in 
 such manner as will be effective. When we are using 
 extra colour or coloured threads for the sole purpose 
 of ornamentation the conditions are quite different — 
 whether we use them in the weft, in the warp, or in both 
 — from those which exist when the coloured threads form 
 the ground fabric ; when they are extra threads we may 
 treat them as we please, bring them to the surface in long 
 
Chap. IX.] THREADS OF MIXED COLOURS. 
 
 231 
 
 or sliort i^eriods, or bind them into the cloth, so as to 
 intermix the colour with the colour of the ground threads, 
 and so modify their effect. In short, we employ them for 
 decorative purposes only, and need to use proper discretion 
 in their disposal, so as to produce the effect desired, 
 with little or no regard to the structure of the ground 
 fabric, except such as has been previously pointed out. 
 
 130. The Use of Threads of mixed Colours.— In 
 speaking of coloured threads we generally mean threads 
 which are one colour throughout, but we are not 
 necessarily confined to coloured threads of this descrip- 
 tion in ornamenting fabrics. We may twist two 
 differently coloured threads together, and so produce a 
 parti-coloured one, known in the trade as " grandereile 
 or we mix fibres of different colours together, m the 
 preparation of the material for spinning, and so produce 
 " mixture " yarn ; or we may have the fibres of which 
 the thread is to be composed printed in one of the inter- 
 mediate stages of preparation, and so produce the 
 "melange" yarn; or we may have the threads printed. 
 From such fancy yarns as these we may obtain very 
 pretty effects upon fabrics which may be perfectly plain 
 in their structure; or if a pattern is formed in the fabric, 
 it may be of the simplest kind. The whole effect may 
 be a mixture, or melange. We may introduce the 
 twisted, coloured, or printed threads into otherwise solid 
 coloured fabrics, or coloured threads into mixture fabrics. 
 These extra threads, as we may term them, may either 
 form part of the ground cloth or interweave simply as 
 ornamenting threads, according to the kind of effect to 
 be produced, whether it is to be of a mild, tame character 
 or a striking one. In fact, we have a wide field thrown 
 open for the exercise of ingenuity in the use of these 
 fancy threads. The use of "mixture" or "melange" 
 threads generally is for the production of a tertiary 
 coloured effect upon the fabric with very small patches 
 of strong local colour; and if several striking colours 
 are introduced into the mixture it does this in the most 
 
232 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. [Chap. IX. 
 
 effective manner. The intimate mixture of the fibres in 
 the yarn will, when woven into the cloth, insure to the 
 utmost the tertiary effect being procured, while on 
 moderately close observation the local colours will assert 
 themselves, and even at a distance will give a bricrht 
 sharp freshness to the whole. ^ ' 
 
 In cloths where no specially striking effect is intended, 
 the best means of ornamentation and of producin^r 
 prettiest effects is by the use of "mixture " threads 
 
 131. Fancy Yarns in Fabrics.— In addition to fancy 
 yarns composed of differently coloured fibres, or by 
 the twisting of differently coloured threads, many 
 very good efiects are obtained by twisting two threads 
 together of the same or different colours, at different 
 degrees of tension, so that one wraps loosely round 
 the other— say, for instance, a thick thread twisting 
 more or less loosely round a fine one— and presents 
 to the eye a kind of crimped effect; this, when woven 
 into the fabric, if judiciously used will be very 
 pretty Again, loops may be formed upon the thread by 
 one thread running in loosely during the process of 
 twisting while the other is held tight, or one thread may 
 be given off at a regular rate of speed, while the other is 
 varied m speed, so producing not only different thick- 
 nesses of thread, but, if the two threads are of different 
 colours, different coloured effects. All these give us 
 powers of ornamentation merely by their introduction 
 into an ordinary fabric. We now come to the question 
 ot the ornamentation of fabrics in their structure 
 and we will consider it first apart from the question 
 oi utility. ^ 
 
 132. Ornamentation of Fabrics in their Structure 
 
 —in plain cloths we can form patterns in one way only 
 —namely, by the formation of ribs, which may run either 
 lengthwise or crosswise in the piece ; these ribs we may 
 vary m size, or place at varying distances, but we 
 have no further power of ornamentation. In ordinary 
 twill cloths we have similar ribs running diagonally 
 
Chap, IX.] ORNAMENTING WITH FIGURES. 
 
 across the fabric, which we may vary in size and distance 
 apart, but unquestionably we obtain the best effects when 
 we either combine these diagonal ribs with small figures, 
 or simply run small figures in a diagonal direction. 
 There is no field so wide for obtaining different patterns 
 in the structure of the cloth as in the combination of 
 diagonal lines and figures. The variety of lines, heavy 
 and light, and the combination of forms give us a power 
 of ornamentation which is not to be exceeded by any 
 other method where we do not call in the aid of colour. 
 There is no branch' of the subject which should be more 
 carefully studied by the textile designer, especially where 
 his province is as much the designing of fabrics as of 
 patterns. 
 
 Next we come to the formation of figures by the 
 ground weft, warp, or both — that is, by the material 
 which forms the ground fabric ceasing to interweave, and 
 so forming pattern by the weft, or warp, or both, lying 
 loosely on the surface. By this mode of figuring we 
 can produce any variety of form in the figures, and, 
 by proper regard to the order of binding or inter- 
 weaving, ornament the fabric to any extent, the only 
 limitation being a due regard for the structure of the 
 fabric. Then we have figuring with extra material, 
 which again gives us the power of introducing additional 
 colours, as well as the formation of distinct patterns on 
 the surface ; so that our power of forming patterns is 
 extended beyond that when the figures are formed by the 
 ground material alone, and if we combine the two 
 methods we have a still further extended power. In fact, 
 the extent and elaborateness of our designs are without 
 ' limit, and may fairly be likened to the use of colour 
 and brush. Figuring with double cloths may perhaps best 
 be compared with the use of extra material, as we have 
 not only a figure of one colour upon a ground of a totally 
 different colour, each formed by different materials, but 
 any amount of figuring may be introduced without 
 aflecting the structure of the cloth, and moreover, the 
 
234 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE PABEICS. 
 
 [Chap. IX. 
 
 fabric is reversible and may be used on either side. The 
 advantage of figuring with double cloth, apart from the 
 question of utility, is that the figure is perfectly solid 
 in colour, upon a ground equally solid. 
 
 Gauze, net, and lace are forms of ornamentation 
 quite difi'erent from all other classes of fabric, and for 
 lightness and elegance of fabric, as well as for the 
 variety which may be introduced into the design, far 
 exceed all others. Gauze is perhaps the most simple, 
 and in the forms in which it is now generally made 
 is probably the easiest of production ; at any rate, it 
 possesses one advantage over both the others — it can be 
 combined with ordinary woven fabric, either for the 
 purpose of varying the design, or for ornamenting a 
 cloth of closer or heavier texture. The other two will 
 give a greater degree of openness and lightness. 
 
 Plush ornamentation is peculiar to itself; it may be 
 made to form simple figures, or the pattern may be in 
 the plush itself. In what are commonly known as velvets — 
 that is, where the pile is very short — ^the ornamentation is 
 usually confined to the use of colour, in stripe or check 
 form, or the formation of figures by the pile ; but in 
 what are commonly termed plushes, where the pile is 
 longer, the ornamentation more generally takes the form 
 of making the pattern in the plush itself, either by 
 waving, crimping, or varying the length of the pile, or 
 some such expedient. We have used the terms velvet 
 and plush here in the popular sense, not with the in- 
 tention of making a distinction between the two, for 
 they may be taken as being practically synonymous, so 
 far as the manufacture of such articles is concerned. 
 
 133. Ornamentation by different Tension of the 
 Threads, etc. — In addition to the methods of ornamenta- 
 tion we have referred to, there are many others which 
 can scarcely be called regular, but are the result of some 
 freak or fancy on the part of the designer or manufac- 
 turer — such, for instance, as the introduction of slack or 
 tight ends in the warp, either singly or in numbers. 
 
Chap. rX.l THREADS OF DIFFERENT TENSION. 
 
 235 
 
 Suppose we allow a single end at intervals to run into 
 the cloth much slacker than the rest of the warp ; it will 
 crimp all along as the cloth is formed, and if it be a 
 different colour from the body of the cloth, it will assert 
 itself very strongly and produce quite a novel effect. 
 Again, if a number of these threads have different 
 degrees of tension, and of different colours, the effect 
 will be still more novel. Another use of tight and slack 
 ends is to form crimped stripes. Suppose one portion of 
 the cloth is woven quite plain, and the rest twilled, 
 or satin, the two running side by side in stripe form :— 
 the twill or satin, if not very much more closely set in 
 the reed, will permit much more weft being inserted than 
 the plain ; then if the warp threads come off separate 
 beams, one for the satin and the other for the plain, and 
 the latter is allowed to go in quite slack, the weft as it is 
 beaten in will carry the plain cloth forward, while the 
 satin portion is quite straight, and so cause regular 
 crimps or waves in the plain portion. These crimps may 
 be increased or decreased, made more or less prominent 
 by varying the setting of the warp threads in the plain 
 or satin portions, or by varying the tension at which the 
 warp threads are held. 
 
 134. Utility combined with Ornament.— We may 
 now consider the question of utility combined with 
 ornamentation, or, in other words, in all the various 
 forms of ornamentation with which we have dealt, 
 examine into their effects upon the fabric, and see how 
 far they will affect its utility. Beginning again with plain 
 cloth, as we have shown, when warp and weft are 
 equal, there is no ornamentation except by the use of 
 colour ; but we have a strong useful fabric, not heavy, 
 except so far as the thickness of the threads of which it 
 is composed makes it heavy, and not of a close or com- 
 pact texture, owing to the order of interweaving of its 
 threads, but yet strong and useful for the quantity of mate- 
 rial which it contains. If we ornament it in its struc- 
 ture, it must be by the alteration of the relative quantities 
 
236 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 [Chap. IX. 
 
 and thickness of the warp and weft ; and in doing so 
 we increase closeness of texture, generally also bulk and 
 weight of fabric. By increased closeness we obtain 
 necessarily increased strength ; for although each unit of 
 strength, as represented by any single thread, may be 
 less than in an ordinary plain cloth, the combination of 
 these units will give greater strength to the whole. So 
 that by ornamentation we increase usefulness both in 
 wearing properties and in the power of retaining warmth 
 as an article of clothing. 
 
 When we ornament by twilling, we again obtain 
 practically the same results — namely, increased weight, 
 strength, and closeness of texture. The order of inter- 
 weaving of necessity produces these results, but in 
 different degrees, by the different kinds of twilling ; so 
 that it becomes necessary for the designer in making his 
 pattern to consider thoroughly its effect upon the fabric, 
 and the kind of fabric he desires to produce ; and the 
 relative quantities of warp and weft must be carefully- 
 proportioned to the design of the twill. 
 
 When we come to figuring with the material which 
 forms the ground fabric — that is, when the fabric is of a 
 given structure, and a figure formed by the weft and 
 warp ceasing to interweave, and one coming to the surface 
 as loose material — whatever may be the structure of the 
 ground cloth, the formation of the figure must in some 
 degree detract from it. If the ground is plain, we shall 
 have a firm texture, though perhaps somewhat open; 
 but when figure is formed, we have positively no texture, 
 simply so much loose material ; in that case the useful- 
 ness of the fabric is decreased, and just in the ratio of 
 the amount of figures introduced. If the figures be 
 small and closely set together, the texture of the cloth as 
 a whole will be looser ; if they be large, then it will give 
 extreme looseness in the figured portion, and will not 
 much affect the ground, which will be in proportionately 
 large patches ; but the cloth will be very irregular in 
 texture, and this of itself is a serious drawback. Then, 
 
Chap. IX.] 
 
 UTILITY WITH ORNAMENT. 
 
 237 
 
 for useful purposes, the small figures, equally distributed, 
 are preferable ; for if the texture be very much loosened, 
 we may to some extent compensate for it by the intro- 
 duction of more material, either in warp or weft, or 
 both, and treating it somewhat as we should treat a 
 twilled cloth. Whatever applies to figures upon plain 
 cloth also applies equally to figures upon any other 
 ground, when the figure is formed by loose material. 
 
 If our figures are formed upon the principle of 
 diapers or damasks— that is, by the warp and weft 
 merely changing places, and still preserving the same 
 order of interweaving— then our figures may be as large 
 or as frequent as we please, without in any degree im- 
 pairing the utility of the fabric. 
 
 When we introduce extra materials for the formation 
 of figures, we in no degree afiect the ground cloth, either 
 for better or worse ; it is merely applying so much 
 colour to the surface, adding certainly to the bulk of the 
 fabric at that point, but not necessarily increasing its 
 usefulness, the extra material being in most cases simply 
 laid loosely on the surface, so that it possesses no special 
 wearing qualities, and will not add materially to the 
 powers of the cloth for keeping warm. Of course we 
 are speaking of the formation of spot figures by extra 
 material. If the extra weft or warp be distributed over 
 the whole area of the fabric, then it becomes a different 
 thing; especially if it be bound into the cloth at the 
 back, for it will then form a kind of double cloth, 
 and often really two distinct fabrics. Of course 
 in such cases we add to the fabric in every way ; we in- 
 crease bulk, strength, and closeness of_ texture, and 
 have a better wearing and a warmer article, as well as 
 ODB more ornamented. Double cloths should always be 
 treated under two distinct heads— first, when one of the 
 cloths forms merely a Uning ; and second, where the 
 two cloths exchange places to form patterns. The former 
 may include all cloths where either two warps and two 
 wefts, or where one warp and two wefts are used, if 
 
238 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. [Chap. IX. 
 
 one surface be different to the other in texture and in 
 pattern, and where one is intended for the wearing 
 surface and the other merely as a lining. The second 
 should include all cloths which are reversible— that is, 
 which are wearable on either side, or in which either side 
 may be made the face— whether there are two distinct 
 cloths, or merely two faces formed either by two wefts 
 and one warp, or two warps and one weft. In the first 
 class will be included all fabrics which have a fancy face 
 and a plain back, and which for wearing purposes are 
 extremely useful. The texture of the face is usually 
 fine, and ornamented according to the purpose to which 
 It IS to be applied, possessing generally all the qualities 
 ot useful fabrics. The back is of a more or less plain 
 character according to the weight to be obtained, or 
 it may be governed by the pattern and texture of the 
 face, so that they may bear a proper relation to each 
 other, Its chief purpose being to give weight, strength, 
 and warmth. In producing heavy cloths, as those re- 
 quired for overcoats, this principle is absolutely neces- 
 sary, because the proper weight and texture of cloth 
 could not be obtained in a single cloth. If we obtained 
 weight it would be at the cost of fineness, and fineness 
 would be obtained at the cost of weight ; but by the 
 combination of two cloths, or two surfaces, we can comply 
 with both requirements at once. 
 
 When the cloth is reversible, both fabrics or both 
 sides of the same fabric are equal in quality and texture 
 though perhaps different in colour. Each surface may 
 remain the same throughout, or they may exchange 
 places. Their exchanging places is merely for the 
 purpose of forming patterns; it will not affect the 
 structure or utility of the fabric as a whole. If the 
 fabric consist of two separate cloths these will exchange 
 places bodily, each preserving its own individuality 
 they continue to weave weft with warp in each cloth as 
 though no exchange had taken place. If it consist 
 simply of two wefts and one warp, or two warps and 
 
Chap. IX.] 
 
 UTILITY WITH ORNAMENT. 
 
 239 
 
 one weft, the wefts or the warps only exchange places ; 
 but on whichever side of the fabric they are weaving, 
 they still preserve the same order of interweaving weft 
 with warp. In fact, it may be said to be a double diaper, 
 or damask, inasmuch as weft and warp always bear the 
 same relations to each other in their orders of inter- 
 weaving, whichever may be uppermost, so that whether 
 figured or plain, the utility of the fabric is not impaired 
 in the slightest degree. "With respect to gauze fabrics 
 we need not say much as to their utility ; they are 
 essentially fancy or ornamental cloths. Strength they 
 may possess, but for warmth and general wear they are 
 not specially suited, so that we need only regard them, 
 except under exceptional circumstances, from a decora- 
 tive point of view, and if we should have to consider 
 them for purposes of utility, it will be in combination 
 with other orders of working, and the conditions which 
 apply to other fabrics will also apply to them. 
 
 Plushes are essentially useful fabrics, as well as 
 heavy ones, and in ornamenting them we very rarely 
 impair their utility, except in the slightest possible degree. 
 The body of the cloth must at all times be a very strong, 
 compact structure, so as to hold the pile with sufficient 
 firmness; and whatever ornamentation is introduced 
 either with or in addition to the pile, or whatever is 
 done with the pile, will not much impair the structure of 
 the body. The wearing surface may be more or less 
 affected, but that is not generally a serious matter, but 
 the body of the cloth wUl never be much affected. This 
 is equally true of both weft and warp pile. 
 
 When we ornament with coloux'ed threads we do not 
 afiect the utility ; the structure is not altered. We 
 determine the structure of the cloth to suit it for the 
 purpose to which it is to be applied, and then vary the 
 colours of the threads of which it is composed, so that 
 we first say.-jvhat the cloth shall be.^ajnd then how it 
 shall be oriig,n{£?»tQd \S>it3): ddout-J^.ind^ll'iife^^h'^ 
 have to consider, .th^ Hn'^ja'PEi^yi^^ 
 
24G 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS, 
 
 [Chap. IX. 
 
 yet the colour cannot affect the structure nor its utility 
 as a fabric. If we ornament by varying the degrees 
 of tension of the threads, then we do impair the struc- 
 ture, for any strain thrown upon the cloth will be thrown 
 upon the threads which are tight, and as they are only a 
 portion of the whole, they cannot be expected to bear as 
 much strain without fracture as if the strain were equally 
 distributed over the whole fabric. Consequently fabrics 
 of this kind must be made for purely ornamental pur- 
 poses, and never considered as articles of utility, unless 
 the slack threads are very few indeed. 
 
 135. The Special Knowledge required in the Manu- 
 facture of Fabrics,— We may now understand the 
 special knowledge required in the manufacture of textile 
 fabrics, and upon what it is dependent. We have first 
 to consider the nature of fabrics, and the uses to which 
 they are to be applied. Having determined what we 
 require, the character of the fibre from which the fabric 
 is to be made, and the structure of the thread, we must 
 next enter fully into the question of the structure of the 
 cloth, considering it first from the useful point of view, 
 then from the ornamental, or from a combination of the 
 two. In any case thorough mastery of the different 
 structures, of the various modes of ornamenting in tlie 
 structure, and also of the effect of ornament upon 
 structure, so as to know the extent to which utility will 
 be impaired or increased by the particular method of 
 ornamenting, is absolutely necessary. Given all this, 
 along with knowledge of the mechanical operations of 
 weaving and also of decorative art, and the designer 
 possesses all the materials for the successful following of 
 his vocation ; he will only further require those qualities 
 which are essential in every walk in life — energy, perse- 
 verance, and a right application of his industry and 
 knowledge. 
 
GLOSSARY. 
 
 Angle of Twill. — The angle which a twill forms with the weft or 
 warp. 
 
 Backed Cloths. — Cloths having a back woven upon them which 
 serves as a lining. 
 
 Beams, —Rollers upon which the warp threads are wound side by 
 side before being -put in the loom. There are also cloth beams upon 
 which the cloth is wound as it is formed. 
 
 Binding in Cloths. — The securing together in the process of 
 weaving two separate cloths, or extra material used for figuring or 
 other purposes on an ordinary single cloth. 
 
 Bobtoin-Net. — An open perforated fabric formed by a series of 
 threads crossing and partially twisting round each other. 
 
 Checks. — Patterns which are usually formed by coloured threads 
 crossing each other at right angles. 
 
 Chenille. — A thread having loose fibres projecting from it. 
 
 Choking the Shed. — "When the warp threads are so numerous, or 
 of so rough character that they will not pass through between each 
 other, and separate readily into two portions between which the 
 shuttle may pass. 
 
 Cockling. — When the cloth, instead of presenting a smooth, even 
 surface, is irregular, some portions standing up in bubbles. 
 
 Cords. — Cloths with ribs which run longitudinally, or in the direc- 
 tion of the length of the fabric. 
 
 Corduroys. — Cords formed with cut pile. 
 
 Crammed Stripes.— Striped fabrics in which one portion contains 
 more warp threads in a given space than another portion. 
 
 Cutting Plush. — Severing the threads which are to form the 
 " pile " or surface of the fabric. 
 
 Damask. — A cloth said to be named from the city of Damascus, 
 formerly made of silk, but now of worsted or linen chiefly. 
 
 Q 
 
242 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 Density of Pile.— The closeness with which the threads of velvet 
 or plush are set together. 
 
 Diagonals. — Patterns arranged to run in a diagonal direction 
 across the fabric. 
 
 Diaper. — A cloth similar to damask, but with the pattern of a 
 " chequered " character. 
 
 Double Cloths. — Two separate fabrics woven and fastened together 
 in the process of weaving. 
 
 Doups. — A special arrangement of healds used for gauze weaving, 
 and so arranged that they may cause the warp threads to cross each 
 other. 
 
 Elong'ated Twills. — Twills which do not run across the fabric at 
 an angle of forty-five degrees. 
 
 Extra Warp or Weft Figures.— Figures formed upon a fabric by 
 material which takes no part in the formation of the body of the 
 cloth. 
 
 Figured Cloths. — Fabrics having a pattern formed upon them by 
 the order of interweaving of the weft and warp of which they ai-e com- 
 posed. 
 
 Figured Twills.— Figures running diagonally across the fabric. 
 
 Floats. — Where the weft and warp of which a fabric is composed 
 do not interweave with each other. Sometimes patterns are formed 
 by " floats " only, and sometimes " floats " are formed accidentally in 
 the process of weaving, and produce imperfection. 
 
 Flushing is sometimes used in the sense of "floats." 
 
 Fraying. — One set of threads slipping upon the other, and so pro- 
 ducing imperfections in the fabric. 
 
 Gauze. — A light perforated fabric in which the warp threads are 
 made to twist more or less round each other. 
 
 Healds. — An arrangement for effecting the separation of the warp 
 threads, so that the shuttle carrying the weft can be passed between 
 them. The he ild consists of a series of cords having an eye in the 
 centre, and attached at each extremity to a flat piece of wood, called 
 the "heald shaft," the warp thread being passed through the eye of 
 the heald. Whenever the heald shaft is raised or depressed the warp 
 threads are also raised or depressed, and so the warp is separated into 
 two portions for the shuttle to pass between. 
 
 Jacquard Machine. — An apparatus for separating the warp threads 
 in a similar manner to healds but on a more extended scale, and con- 
 sequently facilitating the production of elaborate patterns. 
 
GLOSSARY. 
 
 243 
 
 Lace.— An open perforated fabric produccxl by the threads of which 
 it is composed being twisted together in such a manner as to form 
 patterns. . 
 
 Lappet Figuring.— Figures or patterns produced on a fabric by a 
 warp thread being made to cross and recross on its surface by means 
 of a "lappet frame." 
 
 Madras Muslin, or sometimes called Indian Muslin.— A light 
 fabric figured by the insertion of thick weft threads, which are cut 
 away where there is to be no figure. 
 
 Net.— A fabric formed in a manner somewhat similar to lace, but 
 having its perforation equal. 
 
 Pile.— The threads which issue from and form the surface of fabrics 
 such as velvets. 
 
 Plain Cloth.— A fabric in which the warp and weft threads are 
 placed at right angles to each other, and which interweave alternately. 
 
 PIusH.— A fabric the surface of which is covered by short threads 
 which issue from the body of the cloth. 
 
 Repps.— Fabrics ribbed across the piece. 
 
 Sham Plush.— An imitation of a plush fabric produced by using 
 Chenille weft. Sometimes sham plushes are made by " raising "—that 
 is, dragging— the fibres partly out of a cloth of ordinary loosely con- 
 structed fabrics. 
 
 Shed.— When the warp threads are separated for the shuttle to 
 pass through. 
 
 Shuttle. — A small apparatus for carrying the weft, and which is 
 passed to and fro through the warp. 
 
 Swivel Shuttles.— An arrangement of small shuttles for forming 
 figures on a fabric, somewhat after the manner of embroidery. 
 
 Tabby. — A name commonly applied to plain cloth. 
 
 TwlU. — A pattern running diagonally across the fabric. 
 
 Velvet. — A short or closely shorn plush. 
 
 Warp.— The threads which run lengthwise in a fabric 
 
 );(^eft.— The threads which run crosswise in a fabric. 
 
 Yam.— The thieads of which a fabric is composed. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 ADVANTAGES of structure of 
 
 woollen tlireads, 24 
 Advantages of structure of worsted 
 
 threads, 27 
 Allotment of area to figures, 160 
 Alteration of twills to increase 
 
 bulk of cloth, 12 
 Alteration of twills to increase 
 
 strength of cloth, 13 
 Angle of twill. Effect of, 41 
 Arrangement of designs uponi^aper, 
 
 33 
 
 BACKED cloths, 74 
 Binding cloths, 76 
 
 — double cloths, 90, 97 
 
 , relations of pattern, to 
 
 facilitate, 90 
 Binding extra warp figures, 143 
 
 — Patterns formed by, 79, 100 
 
 — weft pile and structure of cloth, 
 195 
 
 — velveteens, 200 
 Bobbin net, 191 
 
 Bulk of cloth, to increase by altera- 
 tion of twill, 12 
 Brussels carpet, 221 
 
 CARPETS, Brussels, 221 
 — Scotch or Kidderminster, 
 106 
 
 — Tnpestry, 223 
 Checks, Figured, 128 
 
 — figures, and stripes from combi- 
 nation of twills, 50 
 
 CheniUe, 208 
 
 Classification of pile or plush fabrics, 
 194 
 
 Cloths, Double, 15 
 
 — Double-faced, 16 
 
 Value of knowledge of, 73 
 
 Cloths, Backed, 75 
 
 — increase of bulh by alteration of 
 twiU, 12 
 
 strength by alteration ol 
 
 tmll, 13 
 
 — Reversible, 80 
 Figured, 81 
 
 — with two wefts and one warp, 74 
 . — warps and one weft, 85 
 
 — Two separate, 87 
 
 Relations of, to each other, 88 
 
 Binding, 90 
 
 of same quality but different 
 
 pattern, 91 
 
 of same pattern but different 
 
 quality, 94 
 
 where both quality and pat- 
 tern are different, 96 
 
 — Three and four-ply, 104 
 
 Cloth and thread. Relation between, 
 20 
 
 Colours, Figuring with several, 150 
 Colour, Ornamenting fabrics with, 
 228 
 
 — Threads of mixed, 231 
 Combined patterns. Relation of, to 
 
 cloth, 58 
 — • — when complete, 60 
 Combinations of twills. Patterns 
 
 produced by, 45' 
 
 How to calculate, 46 
 
 in stripe form, 50 
 
 check form, 53 
 
 — Method of joining patterns in, 51 
 
 — of re-arranged or irregular twills, 
 62 
 
 different patterns in stripes, 
 
 69 
 
 of twills occupying different 
 
 numbers of euds, 57 
 
 — of damask and repp, 136 
 
 — of extra weft and ground figures, 
 147 
 
INDEX. 
 
 245 
 
 ComMnation of extra warp and 
 weft, 155 
 
 gauze -witli other orders of 
 
 weaving, 167 
 tigures with extra warp 
 
 figiires, 183 
 
 plush, 185 
 
 Considerations in structiire of 
 
 fabrics, 225 
 Corded or rihbed fabrics, 6 
 Cords, Diagonal, 208 
 Corduroys, 207 
 Cotton, 22 
 
 — Preparing and spinning, 27 
 Cutting plush, Effects of, 203 
 Crossings, Figuring in gauze by 
 various, 165 
 
 DAMASKS, 133 
 — and repp combined, 136 
 Density of pile, 206 
 Designs, Arrangement of, upon 
 paper, 33 
 
 — Floral, 121 
 
 Designing fabrics, Object to be 
 
 k&s)t in view in, 1 
 Diagonals, Figured, 126 
 
 — cords, 208 
 Diaper, 131 
 
 Different patterns combiaed in 
 stripes, 69 
 
 — tension of threads, Ornamenta- 
 tion by, 234 
 
 Distribution of figures, 116 
 
 gauze figures on plain ground, 
 
 174 
 
 pile, 202 
 
 Double cloths, 15, 73 
 
 — faced cloths, 16 
 
 — cloths, Value of knowledge of, 73 
 Binding, 90 
 
 Relation of quality and pat- 
 tern in, 92 
 Doups, Use of, 179 
 
 EFFECTS of cutting plush, 203 
 — Special, produced by yam, 
 206 
 
 — of yam upon fabric, 4 
 
 twist of yarn, 5 
 
 relations of warp and weft 
 
 upon fabric, 6 
 
 angle of twill, 41 
 
 comb'nation of different twills 
 
 in stripe form, 50 
 Effect upon fabric of patterns in 
 
 combination, 55 
 Elongated twills, 64 
 
 Extra warp. Figuring with, 138 
 
 stripes, ISS 
 
 figures. Binding, 143 
 
 — weft figures, 145 
 
 — and ground figures combined, 147 
 
 — warp and weft combined, 155 
 
 — weft figuring upon gauze, 185 
 
 "TiABEICS, Object to be kept in 
 -1- view in designing, 1 
 
 — Theory of structure of, 2 
 
 — Effect of yarn upon, 4 
 
 of relations of warp and weft 
 
 upon, 6 
 
 — Corded or ribbed, 6 
 
 — TwUled, lOJ 
 
 — Plush or pile, 19 
 
 — Ornamentation of, in their struc- 
 ture, 29, 232 
 
 — Relation of combined patterns to, 
 58 
 
 — General comparison of, 225 
 
 — Considerations in structure of, 
 225 
 
 — Ornamenting, with colour, 228 
 
 — fancy. Yarns in, 232 
 
 Face to back cloth, Relations of, in 
 both quality and pattern, 100 
 
 Fibres, Preparing and spinning 
 into yam, 22 
 
 Figured twills, 35, 66 
 
 when complete, 69 
 
 — cloths, 112 
 
 — reversible cloths, 81 
 
 — stripes, 122 
 
 — checks, 128 
 
 — diagonals, 126 
 
 — plushes, 209 
 upon gauze, 219 
 
 — velvet, 216, 218 
 
 Figures, stripes, and checks from 
 combination of twills, 50 
 
 — Distribution of, 116 
 
 — and ground. Relations of, 119 
 
 — Allotment of area to, 160 
 
 — Binding extra warp, 143 
 
 — Extra weft, 145 
 
 — Swivel, 146 
 
 — extra and groimd. Combined, 147 
 
 — formed by gauze and i)lain clotb, 
 172 
 
 — Gauze upon twilled ground, 181 
 combined with extra warp 
 
 figures, 183 
 
 — Lappet and whip-net, upon gauze, 
 187 
 
 Figuring with two cloths, 91 
 
 ground material, 114 
 
 extra warp, 138 
 
246 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 Figuring with several colours, 150 
 
 — — plain gauze, 164 
 
 — by various crossings in gauze, 165 
 
 — with extra weft upon gauze, 185 
 Flax, 22 
 
 — Preparing and spinning, into 
 yam, 27 
 
 Floral designs, 121 
 
 J.AUZE combined with plush, 185 
 ' —Figuring upon, with extra 
 weft, 185 1 
 
 — Lappet and whip-net figures upon, 
 187 
 
 — Materials from which to make, 188 
 
 — Plush figures upon, 219 
 
 — cloths, 18, 162 
 
 — Structure of, 162 
 
 — Plain, 163 
 
 Figuring with, 164 
 
 Gauze, Figuring by various cross- 
 ings, 165 
 
 — Combination of, with other orders 
 of weaving, 167 
 
 — Striped, 171 
 
 — and plain cloth, forming figures, 
 172 
 
 — Figures, Distribution of upon 
 plain ground, 174 
 
 — ground. Plain figures upon, 175 
 
 — Weft or warp figures upon, 175 
 
 — figures upon twill gi ound, 181 
 
 ■ combined with extra warp 
 
 figures, 183 
 General comparison of fabrics, 225 
 Grooves in cloth. 111 
 Ground material. Figuring with, 114 
 
 — and figure, Relations of, 119 
 
 TIEALDS, Patterns which may or 
 may not be worked with a 
 small number of, 51, 53, 58 
 
 TNCEEASING bulk of cloth by 
 
 alteration of twill, 12 
 — strength of cloth by alteration of 
 
 twill, 13 
 Imitating skins of animals, 204 
 Inequality of woollen threads, 24 
 Irregular or re-arranged twiUs com- 
 bined, 62 
 
 "TOINING patterns in combination, 
 " Method of, 54 
 
 TT-IDDEEMINSTEE, or Scotch, 
 -^^ carpets, 106 
 
 Knowledge of double cloths. Value 
 of, 73 
 
 T ACE, 192 
 
 Lappet weaving, 158 
 — ^and whip-net figures upon gauze. 
 
 ly/rADEAS muslin, 190 
 
 •^^^ Matelasses, 103 
 
 Materials from which to make 
 gauze, 188 
 
 Method of joining patterns in com- 
 bination, 54 
 
 ^ET, whip, and bobbin, 191 
 
 /^BJECT to be kept in view in 
 ^ designing fabrics, 1 
 Ordinary satins, 13 
 Ornament combined with utilitv, 
 239 
 
 — Relation of, to structure, 29 
 Ornamental use of satins, 15 
 Ornamentation of fabrics in their 
 
 structure, 29, 232 
 
 — and use of double cloths. 111 
 Ornamenting by different tensions 
 
 of threads, 236 
 
 — fabrics with colour, 228 
 figures, 233 
 
 — pile fabrics, 214 
 
 pATSLET shawls, 153 
 
 Paper, Arrangement of de- 
 signs upon, 33 
 Patterns having a twilled basis, 34 
 
 — produced by combination of 
 twills, 45 
 
 — Method of joining, in combina- 
 tion, 54 
 
 — in combination. Effects of upon 
 the fabric, 55 
 
 — combined. Relation of to cloth, 58 
 
 — formed by binding, 79, 100 
 
 — of double clotb. Relations of to 
 facilitate binding, 90 
 
 — and quality. Relation of in double 
 cloth, 92 
 
 Patterns which may or may not be 
 worked with a small number of 
 healds, 51, 53, 58 
 
INDEX. 
 
 247 
 
 Pile or plnsh fabrics, 149 
 Classification of, 194 
 
 — weft, 194 
 
 — Bistribution of, 202 
 
 — Effects of cutting, 203 
 
 — Density of, 206 
 
 — warp, 210 
 
 — without wires, 214 
 
 — fabrics. Ornamenting, 214 
 Plain cloth, 4 
 
 — gauze, 163 
 
 Figuring with, 164 
 
 — cloth and gauze, Figures formed 
 by, 172 
 
 — figures upon gauze ground, 175 
 
 — ground. Distribution of gauze 
 figures on, 174 
 
 Plush or pile fabrics, 19 
 
 — combined with gauze, 185 
 
 — figured, 209 
 
 — sham, 210 
 
 — figures upon gauze, 219 
 
 — Special effects in, 220 
 Preparing and spinning the fibres 
 
 into yarn, 22 
 
 cotton, 27 
 
 flax, 27 
 
 — silk yams, 28 
 
 Production of patterns by re- 
 arrangement, 42 
 Propeities Cif wool, 20 
 
 — and varieties of plushes, 223 
 
 QUALITY and pattern, Relations 
 of in double cloth, 92 
 Quilts, 106 
 
 "OBLATIONS of warp and weft, 
 
 and effect upon fabric, 6 
 Eolation between thread and cloth, 
 20 
 
 — of ornament to structure, 29 
 
 combined pattern to fabric, 58 
 
 two separate cloths to each 
 
 other, 88 
 
 patterns of double cloth to 
 
 facilitate binding, 90 
 quality and pattern in double 
 
 clott), 92 
 
 fare to back cloth in both 
 
 qu ility and pattern, 100 
 
 figure and ground, 119 
 
 Ee-arranged or irregular twills 
 
 combined, 62 
 Ee - arrangement. Production of 
 
 patterns by, 42 
 Eeversible cloths, 80 
 flgui-ed, 81 
 
 Eepps, 8 
 
 — and damask combined, 136 
 Eibbed or corded fabrics, 6 
 
 SATINS, ordinary, 13 
 — used for ornamental pur- 
 poses, 15 
 
 — order, Twills arranged in, 36 
 Scotch or Kidderminster carpets, 
 
 106 
 
 Separate cloths, Two, 87 
 
 Eelations of to each other, 
 
 88 
 
 Several colours. Figuring with, 150 
 Sham plush, 210 
 Shawl, Paisley, 153 
 Silk, 22 
 
 — yams, preparing, 28 
 Simple Twills, 30 
 
 Skins of animals. Imitating, 204 
 Special effects produced by yarns, 
 206 
 
 in plushes, 220 
 
 — knowledge required in the manu- 
 facture of fabrics, 240 
 
 Spinning, Preparing and, the fibres 
 iato yarn, 22 
 
 cotton, 27 
 
 flax, 27 
 
 Striped gauzes, 171 
 Stripes, Figured, 122 
 
 — which differ from ground, 123 
 
 — Extra warp, 140 
 
 — checks, and figures, from com- 
 bination of twills, 50 
 
 — Combination of different patterns 
 in, 69 
 
 Structure of gauze, 162 
 
 cloth and binding weft pile, 195 
 
 velvet, 211 
 
 fabrics. Considerations in, 225 
 
 Theory of, 2 
 
 threads, 20 
 
 wooUen threads. Advantages 
 
 of, 24 
 
 worsted threads. Advantages 
 
 of, 27 
 
 — Oruamentati'' n of fabrics in their, 
 29 
 
 — Eelation of ornament to, 29 
 Strength of cloth increased by alter- 
 ation of twill, 13 
 
 Swivel figures, 146 
 
 rpAPESTRY carpets, 223 
 
 Tension of threads. Ornamenta- 
 tion by different, 231 
 Theory of structure of fabrics, 2 
 
2i8 
 
 DESIGN IN TEXTILE FABRTOS. 
 
 Ihr ;ads of mixed colours, Use of, 
 231 
 
 Threads, structure of, 20 
 
 — and cloth, Tlelations between, 20 
 Three aud four ply cloths, 104 
 Twilled Fabrics, 10 
 
 — basis. Patterns haviug a, 34 
 Twilled ground, Gauze figures upon. 
 
 Twilling, 30 
 
 Twills, Alteration of to increase bulk 
 of cloth, 12 
 
 — Alteration of, to increase strength 
 of cloth, 13 
 
 TwQls, Simple, 30 
 
 — Figured, 35, 66 
 
 — arranged in satin order, 36 
 
 — Effect of angle of, 41 
 
 — How to calculate combinations of, 
 46 
 
 — Patterns produced by combina- 
 tion of, 45 
 
 — Occupying different numbers of 
 ends. Combination of, 57 
 
 — irregular or re-arranged. Com- 
 bined, 62 
 
 — Elongated, 64 
 
 — Figured, when complete, 69 
 Twist of yam. Effect of, 5 
 
 Two wefts and one warp, Cloths 
 with, 74 
 
 — warps and one weft. Cloths with, 
 85 
 
 — separate cloths, 87 
 
 Relations of, to each other, 
 
 88 
 
 Tucks, Woven in, 110 
 
 TTSE of doups, 179 
 
 — and ornamentation of double 
 
 cloth. 111 
 — of satins for ornamental piirposes, 
 
 15 
 
 Utility combined with ornament, 
 236 
 
 VALUE of knowledge of double 
 cloth, 73 
 
 Various crossings in gauze, Figur- 
 ing by, 165 
 Va^ties and properties of plushes, 
 
 Velvet, Structure of, 211 
 
 — Figured, 216, 218 
 Velveteen, 196 
 
 — Binding, 200 
 
 TyAEP and weft, Meaning ot, 3 
 
 ' Relations of, and effect 
 
 upon fabric, 6 
 
 — extra. Figuring with, 138 
 stripes, 140 
 
 — figures. Binding extra, 143 
 Extra, 145 
 
 — pile, 210 
 Weft pile, 191 
 
 binding and structure of cloth, 
 
 195 
 
 — or warp figures upon gauze, 175 
 When combined patterns are com- 
 plete, 60 
 
 Whip-net, 191 
 
 Wool, Properties of, 20 
 
 Woollen yarn, 22 
 
 Irregularities of, 24 
 
 Advantages of structure of, 24 
 
 Worsted yam, 25 
 
 Worsted yarn. Advantages of struc- 
 ture of, 27 
 Woven tucks, 110 
 
 -yAEN, Effect of, upon the fabric, 4 
 *- twist of, 5 
 
 — Fancy, in fabrics, 232 
 
 — Preparing and spinning the fibres 
 
 — into, 22 
 
 Special effects produced by, 203 
 
 — Woollen, 22 
 
 — Worsted, 25 
 
 CASSELL AND COMPANY, LIMITED, BELLE SAUVAGE WORKS, LONDON, E.G. 
 1.2,285 
 
Date Due