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Sox the nzt of ]&££X8, Printers, ^rgsaltos, $$xokzxz, etc. SECOND EDITION, BE VISED AND GREATLY ENLARGED. By J. W. SLATER, TECHNOLOGICAL AND CONSULTING CHEMIST. LONDON : CROSBY LOCKWOOD AND CO., 7, STATIONERS' HALL COURT, LUDGATE HILL. 1882. [_All rights reserved. ,] D, VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY, NEW YORK. londox : printed by j. s- virtue and co., limited, city road. THE GETTY CENTift LIBRARY PREFACE. The object of this Manual is to furnish, in brief space, an account of the chemical products and natural wares used in dyeing, printing, and the accessory arts — their properties, their applications, with the means of ascertaining their respective values and of detecting the impurities which may be present. My experience has convinced me that information of this kind is needed, both by makers, dealers, and consumers, and I am not aware of any work which exactly meets the demand. The seven or eight years previous to the appearance of the first edition had been very fruitful in novelties, and had wit- nessed such an enlargement of the resources of the tinctorial arts as to render older authorities in some degree obsolete. Still later such changes have taken place that on a new edition becoming necessary a thorough revision of the work was essential. Much new matter has been added, and many altera- tions made in accordance with the most recent discoveries and improvements. On the other hand, several dye-wares and colours, which were described at length in the first edition, have passed so completely out of use that they have now been dismissed with very brief notice. The author would gladly have furnished a complete nomenclature of the aniline and other coal-tar colours, and hopes that what he has done in this direction may prove useful. But new colours are constantly being introduced into commerce and old ones displaced. One and the same substance is sold under different names, and, in return, bodies chemically and practically distinct are confounded under the same name. Not merely inventors and manufacturers give names to new products, but even retail dealers assume the I8O26 PREFACE. same privilege. Thus we have to deal with a most perplexing chaos. It will be perceived that in the valuation of dye wares, I differ from certain authorities in relying more upon strictly chemical methods as distinguished from " rule-of- thumb " pro- cedures. Without presuming to impugn the observations of others, I must say that having had prolonged opportunities of comparing the indications afforded by chemical tests with the valuations of experienced brokers and consumers, and again with the results obtained in actual use, I have found the first more reliable than the second. It has been no part of my plan to give receipts, either for the manufacture of colours and mordants or for their application in dyeing and printing. Concerning adulteration and other tricks of trade, little need be said, or rather, too much has been said already. Rife as sophistication and bribery doubtless are, the question arises, who is entitled to throw the first stone, or how the dreamed- of reforms are to commence. As regards adulteration, indeed, there are, I think, decided marks of improvement. Coal-tar colours, as obtained from dealers of repute, from their accredited agents and from respec- table drysalters, are as a rule free from all impurities. Simple and convenient means for the examination of such colours have, however, been given. In conclusion, I will venture to express the hope that the present edition will prove as useful to practical men as the former has admittedly done. I would, however, cheerfully dispense with the compliment paid it and me by authors, journalists, and lecturers in different countries, who have appro- priated entire passages almost literally and without acknow- ledgment. May, 1882. THE MANUAL OF COLOUKS AND DYE WAEES. Acetate of Iron. — [Black Liquor, Black Mordant, Pyrolignite of Iron,) — This important mordant consists of protoxide of iron, combined -with and kept in solution by crude wood-vinegar, or pyroligneous acid. It is prepared by two distinct methods. Either scrap iron is dissolved in the free acid — generally with the aid of heat — or a solution of copperas is mixed with one of some soluble acetate, such as the acetate of lime, or lead. Contrary to what might be expected, pure acid or pure soluble acetates do not produce as good a quality of black liquor as such containing a certain amount of tarry matter. Concerning the part played by this tar in dyeing there is some diversity of opinion. Black liquor is sold at different strengths, ranging from 10 to near 30° Tw. It has an astringent taste, is of an olive colour, but in large quantities it appears black. It serves for producing upon cotton a variety of shades according to its strength, and the colouring matter with, which it is used. It gives its oxide of iron to the fibre more readily than copperas. The per-acetate of iron — acetate or pyrolignite of the per-oxide — has been proposed as preferable to nitrate of iron, but has scarcely received any other than mere experimental applications. To find if black liquor is genuine add a little nitric acid, and apply heat to per- oxidize the iron. Then add excess of ammonia, and filter off the precipitate. The clear liquid remaining is evaporated to dryness, and the residue heated strongly. Nothing- should remain but a trace of carbon derived from tarry matter. If common salt has been added to raise the Twaddle it will b® found as a white mass. 2 THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. Acetic Acid. — [Pyroligneous Acid, Acetous Acid, Wood Acid, Tar Acid, Wood Vinegar.) — This acid is prepared for manufacturing purposes by submitting wood to destructive distillation, whence the name pyroligneous acid. For domestic uses it is in most countries obtained by the fermentation of sugar, treacle, or inferior kinds of wine. In England vinegar is made from malt, in con- formity with an unhappy prejudice. In a state of absolute purity it is a solid body at temperatures below 60° Fahr. It has a sour smell and taste ; but does not redden litmus unless water is added. The ordinary liquid acid of com- merce contains large and variable amounts of water. By a strange peculiarity the specific gravity or Twaddle affords no clue to its true strength, that is, to the percentage of dry or real acid present. An acid containing 79 to 80 per cent, marks strongest, whilst one containing 99, and one containing onty 57 per cent, raise the Twaddle to the same point, viz., 13°. In consequence some other standard than specific gravity has to be employed in speaking of the strength of samples. Many manufacturers and dealers speak of acetic acid as being of one strength, two strengths, etc., up to seven. This is a remnant of the old excise system. It would be better simply to state the percentage of real acid any sample is warranted to contain. The ordinary range is from 14 to 24. It should be colourless, free from turbidity, have no oily or tarry scum on its surface ; should leave behind no solid matter if eva- porated to dryness. It should give no white precipitate if mixed with a little muriatic acid and chloride of barium. If one is formed it indicates the presence of sulphuric acid. If muriatic acid is present it gives a white precipitate if a few drops of nitric acid and a little solution of the nitrate of silver are added. Acetate of lead in large quantity is a frequent impurity. If present, solid matter will remain on evaporation. If a few drops of sulphuric acid are added to the suspected sample, a heavy white precipitate will fall if lead is present. It will be observed that, except in exceedingly minute proportions, the presence of lead in a sample of acetic acid proves the absence of sulphuric acid. The presence or absence of mineral corrosive acids, such as the sulphuric and muriatic, may be ascertained by moistening a strip of white calico or linen with the suspected sample, and evaporating it to dryness at a gentle heat. If such acids are present the tissue will be THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND LYE WARES. 3 tendered, or even blackened and corroded, according to the quan- tity of the impurities. Acetic acid is used in dissolving certain aniline colours, in the preparation of aluminous and iron mordants, in the manufacture of soluble acetates, and in mixing certain colours for printing. For estimating the strength of a sample of acetic acid, see Acidimetry. To detect free sulphuric acid, as distinguished from soluble sulphates, a portion may be mixed with a little starch and eva- porated down to one -half its bulk. When cold, a drop of the tincture of iodine is added. A blue colour indicates the presence of free acid. Acidimetry. — This process is the converse of alkalimetry. It signifies the estimation, by means of a standard alkaline solution, of the real saturating power of a commercial sample of any acid. For this purpose 270 grs. of the pure carbonate of soda, as pre- pared for standardizing the acid used in alkalimetry, are dissolved in 10,000 gr. measures of distilled water. 1,000 gr. measures of this will saturate exactly 20 grs. of dry sulphuric, 18*5 grs. of dry hydrochloric, 27 grs. of dry nitric, 30 grs. of crystalline acetic, 22*5 grs. of dry oxalic (C 2 0 3 +HO), 57 grs. of dry tartaric, and 97 grs. of dry citric acids. Fifty grains of the sample to be tested are next weighed into a suitable basin. This is done by means of a pipette if the acid is liquid. It is next diluted with water, or if a solid, dissolved in water, and the alkaline standard solution is dropped in with the burette, till a drop of the liquid no longer reddens litmus paper. The amount of standard solution consumed shows the amount of real acid contained in the 50 grs. taken. Acids. — A very numerous and important class of bodies. Some of them are solids, as the silicic and boracic ; some liquid, as the sulphuric; and some gaseous, as the carbonic and sul- phurous. A sour taste is not a necessary characteristic of an acid ; belonging to such only as are soluble in water, whilst other bodies of indisputably acid properties are tasteless. Many acids have, when applied in a concentrated state, a des- tructive effect upon ordinary organic matter. This is eminently 4 THE MANUAL OP COLOURS AND DYE WARES. the case with the three most common — the sulphuric, nitric, and muriatic, and to a less degree with certain organic acids, such as the oxalic. Others, such as the phosphoric, have no corrosive action. The only property common to all acids is their power of com- bining with and neutralizing the so-called bases, such as soda, ammonia, oxide of zinc, aniline, etc. Those acids which are soluble in water give a red colour to blue litmus paper. This result is called the " acid reaction,'' and when it is produced by any liquid or mixture, is regarded as proof of the presence of some acid in a free or unneutralized state. As soon as the acid is exactly satu- rated or neutralized with its equivalent of a base it no longer produces this effect. Many substances can play the part either of an acid or a base, according to circumstances ; of this kind are alumina, oxide of lead, oxides of tin, etc. African Heel. — An aniline colour made up by mixing aniline red in varying proportions with a brown colour. Dyers had better mix colours for themselves. Agar-agar. — A yellow sea-weed produced on the coasts of the Malay Archipelago. It resembles Iceland and Irish Moss in its properties, and has been tried as a thickener for colours, and as a size for finishing ; but with no very satisfactory results* Ageing Liquor. — A compound, or rather mixture, of an alka- line arsenite with chlorate of potash, which some printers have employed to fix mordants, instead of submitting the pieces to the usual " ageing " process. By this means time is saved ; but prac- tical men complain that the action of the liquid is irregular, whilst to chemical theory its composition appears irrational. Air. — To the dyer and printer the air is of interest as the medium in which all their operations have to be performed, and which must consequently influence the results. The chemical composition of the air needs but very brief mention. It is a mixture, not a compound, of 21 measures of oxygen to 79 of nitrogen. Besides these ingredients, it contains much smaller THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WAKES. 5 quantities of carbonic acid, watery vapour, ammonia, ozone ; sulphurous acid, muriatic acid, per-oxide of hydrogen, gaseous hydrocarbons, etc. It holds in suspension the dust or minute particles of a variety of solid bodies, inorganic and organic, and especially the spores or germs of the lower forms of animal and vegetable life. These minor ingredients, many of them imponderable, exert, nevertheless, a very important, and, in some cases, a pernicious influence upon dyed and printed fabrics. I mention some of the more destructive : Sulphurous acid gas, A compound of sulphur with, oxygen in proportion of 16 lbs. of the former to 16 lbs. of the latter. A colourless, invisible gas, of the well-known suffocating odour of burning brimstone. It is readily soluble in water, and in contact with moist air and fibrous organic matter it takes up more oxygen, and passes by degrees into sulphuric acid, or oil of vitriol. Sulphurous acid is given off whenever coal is burnt, from the iron pyrites present; further, whenever sulphurets of iron, copper, lead, etc., are roasted, and in a variety of other manufac- turing operations. The quantity of sulphurous acid poured into the air from these sources, and left to exercise a destructive action, is enormous. The average of coal burnt in boiler-furnaces, etc., contains nearly 1 per cent, of sulphur ; but if we assume merely 1 lb. per ton, we get results sufficiently alarming. A single manu- facturing establishment, consuming 20 tons of coal daily, turns into the air 240 lbs. of sulphurous acid weekly, which is ultimately converted into 363 lbs. of oil of vitriol, or two ordinary sized carboys ! What then must be the total amount from the entire quantity of coal consumed. Sulphurous acid has a tendency to destroy many colours, especially while in the moist state ; and in air highly charged therewith they will, therefore, prove far less permanent than in a dry, pure atmosphere. As it passes into sulphuric acid the action is modified. It ceases to bleach, but, instead, it alters the tone of colours, and tenders the material, especially vegetable fibre. There is no definite prospect of a decrease in the amount of sulphurous acid in the air. Smoke- consumption, however perfect, will rather increase than lessen the evil. All that can be done is to obtain the utmost possible amount of duty from every pound of coal burnt, so that there 6 THE MANUAL OF COLOUKS AND DYE WAKES. may bo no unnecessary consumption, with its accompanying nuisance. Sulphuretted hydrogen, hydric sulpJdde, sulphide of hydrogen, or hydrosulphuric acid, is a compound of sulphur and hydrogen, formed when organic bodies containing sulphur enter into putre- faction. It blackens all compounds of lead, both in the mass and on the fibre, and exerts a similar though less powerful action upon compounds of tin, copper, antimony, and mercury. Muriatic acid gas and chlorine are now less abundantly met with in the air than before the Act for the regulation of alkali- works came into operation. They are highly destructive, especially chlorine. Albumen. — An organic compound known as white of egg, and occurring also in the serum of blood, and in other animal and vegetable juices and solids. It is soluble in water and if carefully dried at 120° Fahr. can be re-dissolved, but if heated to 158° to 160° Fahr., it becomes insoluble in water. In its ordinary state it is coagulated by alcohol, carbolic acid, acetate of lead, chloride of mercury, tannin, prussiate of potash, and all acids except the acetic and phosphoric. The precipitates formed with acids are soluble in pure water, but quite insoluble in diluted acids. Albumen coagulated by means of heat, dissolves in strong muriatic acid with a purple colour. It dissolves also in caustic soda and ammonia, which it neutralizes. Liquid albumen is capable of dissolving phosphate of lime. Albumen contains small quantities of sulphur and phosphorus, apparently in an unoxidized state. Albumen was first introduced as a mordant by Broquette (Mordants, Animal), and serves for fixing coal-tar and archil colours, pigments, etc., upon vegetable tissues in printing. In dyeing it is rarely employed. Albumen is met with in trade in a solid state, and should be entirely soluble in luke-warm water. Egg-albumen is the finest and dearest article ; but blood-al- bumen is now made so pure, that it may be used for all but the lightest shades. Alkaline bisulphites check the tendency of albumen to putrefaction. Its solution can be mixed with gum- water. THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. 7 Alcohol. — {Methylated Spirit, Finish.) — Absolute alcohol, free from water, is a clear colourless liquid, highly mobile, volatile and combustible. Its specific "gravity is 0*79, or in other words it weighs 7 lbs. 15 ozs. per gallon. It boils at 173° Fahr., and freezes about 167° below zero. The ordinary "methylated spirit" of this country weighs about 8 lbs. 1 oz. to the gallon, and consists of alcohol very strong, though not perfectly free from water, to which 10 per cent, of wood-naphtha or methylic alcohol has been added. It is also required that the methylic alcohol used shall be impure, though the excise are not willing to fix a standard of permissible purity. This addition is the condition upon which its sale duty free for manufacturing purposes is permitted. Unless, also, the consumer can find security that he will use the spirit for no other purpose than the one he has specified in his application to the revenue authorities, further additions are insisted on, and the mixture is called "finish." These additions, as far as the tinctorial arts are concerned, have been very unfortu- nately selected. Under the mistaken notion that the spirit would be consumed in varnish-making, government required that a certain quantity of shellac should be dissolved therein. Now shellac greatly reduces the solvent power of alcohol for the aniline colours, and when the mixture is put in the dye-beck, the colour is much more apt to be separated out. Besides, shellac causes the colours to work flatter, and gives the reds a blueish tone which is not always desired. Another addition is to colour the spirit blue or red. Whichever colour is selected, will, under certain circumstances, be objection- able. A blue solvent spirit impairs magentas, and a red solvent injures blues; either being, of course, hurtful to greens. The principal use of alcohol in dyeing and printing is to dissolve the coal-tar colours, for which purpose it should be very pure. The presence of aldehyde, fusel and empreumatic oils, has a bad effect. The alcohol when heated with 1 per cent, of pure caustic potassa, should turn bright yellow. If it becomes brown it should be rejected. Aldehyde. — A very volatile, colourless, mobile liquid, of a peculiar suffocating odour. It is prepared by the action of 8 THE MANUAL OF COLOUHS AND DYE WARES. sulphuric acid upon a mixture of absolute alcohol and bichromate of potash. It is a most powerful reducing agent, being able to withdraw oxygen from almost all bodies capable of yielding it. It was at one time used to some extent in the preparation of " aldehyde green," now superseded. The presence of aldehyde where not required is to be avoided. Aldehyde green. — An aniline green dye, now superseded by the much more beautiful colours, Methyl Green, Malachite- Green, etc. Alder bark. — The bark and even the wood of the common alder contain a colouring matter. When exposed to the air it rapidly takes a deep brown shade. With iron it gives upon silk a softer and bloomier black than can be obtained from galls, or any other astringent. It was sometimes used to give yellowish browns with preparations of tin and alum, but has now fallen into disuse. Algarobillo. — An astringent matter found in the pods of a South American tree, Balsamo carpum or evi folium. It contains 68 per cent, of tannin, and is recommended as a material for the preparation of pure tannin. Alizarine. — The most important of the colouring principles contained in madder. It is the madder-red of Berzelius and Eunge. Alizarine sublimes in orange -coloured crystals on the surface of madder exposed in thin layers to a heat not sufficient to char it. Alizarine is insoluble in cold, but slightly soluble in boiling, water, with a yellow colour, and on cooling separates in yellow flocculent crystals. In hot alcohol it dissolves more freely. Tho spirituous solution gives purple precipitates with the acetates of iroD and copper. In alkaline solutions, caustic and carbonated, alizarine dissolves with a fine violet powder, from which it is again thrown down by acids in dull reddish flocky masses. It produces upon mordanted cloth colours identical with those dyed with madder. THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. 9 The name alizarine was applied in commerce, not to the pure substance above described, but to a kind of extract, made by submitting Madder-flowers to high- pressure steam in a suitable apparatus. It dyed excellent purples, but was not well suited for the other madder shades. Certain shades of Garancine, specially prepared for purples, were also frequently sold under the name alizarine. Alizarine, artificial. — This colour is now manufactured on the large scale from anthracene, and has completely superseded madder in its preparations, so far as cotton-dyeing and printing are con- cerned. When pure it is absolutely identical with natural alizarine, both in its composition and in its behaviour with mordants. It is generally sold in the state of paste, containing from 10 to 20 per cent, of pure alizarine. It may be obtained as a perfectly dry powder, but in that state it does not mix uniformly with the water in dyeing, and is apt to turn the goods spotty. Alizarine paste may be had of various shades. The most blue is pure alizarine, whilst the yellowest grades contain certain proportions of anthra- purpurine or flavo-purpurine. The former kind is of course re- quired for " madder purples." Alizarine blue. — A colouring matter having properties in- termediate between those of alizarine and indigo, now sold by the Baden Aniline Company in the form of a paste. With aluminous mordants it dyes a violet-blue, and with iron mordants a greenish blue. Cottons can be dyed in a vat of alizarine blue set either with zinc and soda, or with hydrosulphite of soda. In printing it is fixed by an admixture of acetate of chrome, chloride of magnesium, and yellow prussiate. The cloth is previously pre- pared with alizarine oil. The colours bear steaming, soaping, chloride of lime, and light. Alizarine blue S. — A modification of alizarine blue, manu- factured by the Baden Aniline Company. It gives fast shades both in dyeing and printing, and does not require the cloth to be prepared with oil. Alkalimetry. — A rapid and convenient method for finding the 10 THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE "WAKES. real value of soda ash, Canadian potashes, and other commercial alkaline matter. For this purpose we require a standard pure dilute sulphuric acid ; and, to ascertain its value, a standard absolutely pure carbonate of soda. The preparation of such standard carbonate of soda is some- what tedious. Select the smallest well-defined crystals of com- mercial carbonate of soda, dissolve them in pure warm water, evaporate the solution down, and when it is near the crystallizing point, cool it rapidly by setting the beaker in a basin of cold water, and stir continually. The carbonate will then be deposited in the form of a fine crystalline meal. Pour away the mother- liquor, throw the powder upon a filter, and wash it with pure water till the washings — after being acidulated with pure nitric acid — no longer cause a precipitate either in a solution of nitrate of silver, or in one of chloride of barium. The mass is then placed in a basin of silver, platinum, or clean sheet iron. It is lightly covered over, evaporated to dryness, and then exposed for two or three hours to a high sand bath heat, not amounting to redness. It is then placed in a beaker, dissolved in pure water, and the deposit of silica, etc., is filtered off. The clear liquid is again evaporated to dryness, small fragments of pure carbonate of ammonia being added from time to time. It is once more dissolved in pure water, and should any flakes of silica appear, they are filtered off. The liquid is then evaporated to dryness in a platinum vessel, and exposed for three hours to a heat just bordeising on dull redness. It is now cooled under a bell-jar over a dish of sulphuric acid (exsiccating or desiccating apparatus), and preserved for use in well-stoppered bottles. Pure sulphuric acid is now diluted with about ten times its bulk of pure water, and allowed to cool. Next weigh out exactly 50 grs. of the pure carbonate, place it in a porcelain basin capable of holding rather more than a pint, dissolve it in pure water, and set the basin over a gas-lamp or other manageable source of heat. Cut up some of the very palest neutral-grey litmus paper into very small bits, and lay them close at hand upon a white slab. An alkalimeter or burette — by preference Mohr's — is next filled with the dilute acid, and allowed to drop gradually into the THE MANUAL OE COLOURS AXD DYE WARES. 11 alkaline solution, the heat being kept close upon boiling. Prom time to time a drop of the solution is taken out of the basin by means of a fine glass stirring-rod, and applied to one of the bits of test-paper. The moment that this shows the very faintest tinge of real, permanent red, the acid liquor is no longer per- mitted to drop, and the number of degrees consumed is read off. This number is of course the quantity of the acid required to neutralize 29-2 grs. of actual soda, being the amount contained in 50 grs. of the pure carbonate. Supposing that 90 degrees of the alkalimeter have been consumed, then label the bottle of standard acid: "90 degrees of standard acid = 29*2 grs. actual soda." Should the number of degrees consumed exceed 95, the acid is too weak, and a little pure sulphuric acid must be added, well mixed up, and allowed to cool. On the other hand, if it fall short of 90, the standard acid is too strong, and must be diluted with a little pure water. In either case a fresh operation must be performed to ascertain the exact strength. The only difficulty in the process is to discriminate between the true red produced upon the litmus paper by a very slight excess of sulphuric acid, and the transitory purplish or claret-coloured stain caused by the liberated carbonic acid. A bit of litmus paper, on being touched with the drop of liquid, will often, towards the end of the process, be fugitively reddened in this manner; but if the operator wait a. little, he will see this redness disappear, and the paper resume a blue colour. It is scarcely needful to state that no vaj)Ours, either acid or ammoniacal, must be present, or the result will be deceptive. Some chemists, instead of using bits of litmus paper to indicate the point of saturation, pour a little neutral tincture of litmus into the basin. In testing any commercial sample of soda ash, it is merely needful to weigh out 50 grs., and proceed exactly as above. Suppose that 81 degrees of the burette have been consumed, and that the standard acid has the strength indicated above, viz. 90 degrees equal to 29*2 grs. of actual soda, then 90: 81 = 29-2: 26*2, the amount of actual soda in 50 grs. The amount per cent, is therefore, of course. 52*4. Alkaloids. — {Organic bases.)— Under this name are grouped 12 THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WAKES. a number of compound bodies, which in their behaviour greatly resemble the common alkalies, soda, or ammonia. They colour red litmus paper blue, they combine with and neutralize acids, and form well- crystallized salts. They are, for the most part, composed of the four organic elements or organogens : oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, and nitrogen ; and contain a large proportion of the latter. Many of them exist in living vegetables, such as strychnine, morphine, quinine, etc. Others are formed artificially by submitting organic matter to destructive distillation. Of this class are aniline, toluidine, etc. Though in themselves colourless, they yield, when treated with certain agents, a vast variety of splendidly coloured derivatives, many of which have come into use as dyes. Alkanet. — The root of Anchusa tinctoria. It contains a large amount of red colouring matter, which has received the names alkanine and anchusine, and which is insoluble in water, though soluble in alcohol, and in the fatty and essential oils. Anchusine is generally prepared by first digesting the roots in water, pouring away the liquor, and digesting again in a solution of carbonate of potash. Prom the blue liquor thus obtained, anchusine is thrown down by the cautious addition of an acid. "With the alcoholic tincture of the root, proto- chloride of tin gives a crimson lake ; acetate of lead, a blue ; and salts of iron, a deep violet. It is used by perfumers for colouring pomades and oils, but is very rarely employed in dyeing and printing. The true oriental alkanet (alkennah or al-hennah) is obtained from a different plant, Laivsonia inermis. Alloxan. — [Erythric Acid of Brugnatelli ; quite distinct from the erythric acid obtained from orchella iveeds.) — Forms colourless transparent crystals, very soluble in water, of an offensive odour, reddens blue litmus, and stains the skin purple. It is a product of uric acid, and was used in some methods of preparing Roman PURPLE. Alloxantine. — Colourless or yellowish crystals, which, if ex- posed to the vapour of ammonia, turn red, and acquire a greenish golden lustre. It is formed either directly from uric acid, or by THE MANUAL OF COLOUES AND DYE WARES. 13 the action of nascent hydrogen upon Alloxan. It was used in the preparation of Eoman purple. Alneine. — An extract from the bark and wood of the alder, recommended by the inventors for dyeing blacks and dark browns. Aloes. — When aloes is submitted to the action of oxidizing agents, especially nitric acid, a series of compounds are obtained, which stand in a close relation to the aniline and phenole colours. Nitro-benzole is detected among the products. Several acids are formed, approximating more and more closely to the picric as the acid employed is stronger, and the action more prolonged. A variety of red, purple, maroon, and brown shades, have been obtained upon silk and wool with these compounds, and it is probable that these might be much improved and extended. As they would be more expensive than the aniline colours, experi- mentalists have not felt disposed for further research in this direction, and the aloes colours may be considered as of little importance. Aloetic acid. — A colouring compound formed by the action of aloes upon nitric acid, at about 50° Tw. It has been proposed as a dye for silk and wool, upon which it yields crimsons, pinks, violets, blues, and browns. It combines with most other colours, and is capable of considerable modifications by means of mor- dants. It has not come into practical use. See Aloes and Chrysammic Acid. Alum. — (Double Sulphate of Alumina and Potash, Roman Alum, Roach Alum, or Rock Alum.) — The composition and origin of common alum are too well known to require notice. Although the earliest known mordant, it is still in daily and extensive use. The only impurity to which it is liable when purchased in the lump is iron, in the state of sulphate of protoxide diffused through the whole mass. This impurity is very readily detected. A mix- ture of the ferrocyanide and ferridcyanide of potassium may be added to the solution of a portion of the alum. An immediate blue precipitate shows the presence of iron. On longer standing, as, e. for an hour, this mixture will produce a blue precipitate 14 THE MANUAL OF COLOUliS AND DYE WAIIES. even in pure alum. Tincture of galls, or a solution of tannin in any form, will produce a black colour in the solution of alum, if iron be present. Some alum exhibits a faint reddish or rusty colour. This arises from iron in the state of insoluble peroxide. Samples of this kind need not be condemned unless, when tested, they exhibit iron also in a soluble condition. Alum bought ground may contain a variety of intentional im- purities. Among these are water, over and above the water of crystallization, common salt, and sulphate of soda. Potash alum contains 10 per cent, of alumina, 33 per cent, of sulphuric acid, and 45 per cent, of water, three-fourths of which are expelled at 140° Fahr. One part of alum, at 54° Fahr., dis- solves in 13 parts of water, at 122° Fahr. in 2 parts, and at 189° Fahr. in 0*06 of a part. Basic-alum is made by adding carbonate of potash, or of soda, to a solution of alum, as long as the precipitate formed is re- dissolved. The sulphuric acid being thus saturated, the compound deposits alumina on the fibre much more readily than ordinary alum. Ammonia-alum differs from common alum by containing sul- phate of ammonia, instead of sulphate of potash. It has a similar crystalline form and taste. It contains rather more alumina and sulphuric acid than potash- alum, and is slightly more soluble. It may be distinguished by adding to the solution a few drops of a solution of caustic- soda, and applying a gentle heat. Ammonia- alum will be at once known by the strong smell of ammonia which it then gives off. If it contains iron, this may be detected in the same manner as in potash-alum. The uses of alum are too numerous, and, at the same time, too well known to require specification. In most cases it is immaterial whether potash or ammonia alum be used, but the latter is unfit for the preparation of alkaline pink mordant. If any iron is present this seriously interferes with its uses as a mordant in dyeing bright colours and in the manufacture of pigments. Alumina, Muriate. — (Chloride of Aluminium.) — If the hydrate of alumina be dissolved to saturation in muriatic acid, we obtain a very soluble and deliquescent salt, rarely used by dyers THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. 15 and printers ; but often employed in the scientific investigation of colouring matters. Alumina, Nitrate. — When in the solid state, generally, forms a tenacious gummy mass, not easily obtained in a crystalline form. Very soluble, both in alcohol and water, and deliquescent. Its uses in dyeing and printing are limited. Alumina, Sulphate. — (Known also as Patent Alum, Concen- trated Alum, and Cake Alum.) — Consists of sulphuric acid saturated with alumina. It shows no tendency to crystallize, but forms softish, semi-granular masses. It is abundantly and rapidly soluble in water. It contains more alumina than alum by one- third, and differs also in containing much less water, and no sulphate of potash or of ammonia. In spite of these advantages, and of its easy solubility, it has not succeeded in replacing alum in dyeing and printing. One reason is that common alum, save for certain impurities of easy detection, is a perfectly definite com- pound of unvarying composition, whilst in the sulphate of alumina not merely the amount of water, but, what is more serious, the relative proportions of alumina and of sulphuric acid are subject to vary — a variation which does not reveal itself in the appearance of the sample, and can be discovered only by a formal quantitative analysis. Now, nothing can be more fatal to the dyer or colour- mixer than an unknown fluctuation in the quality of his materials. Another objection to patent alum is the absence of the sulphate of potash, which, though not a mordant, does undoubtedly modify the action of the alumina, producing effects which are in some cases desirable. A similar modification can, however, be readilv brought about by using sulphate of soda in the dye beck along with the sulphate of alumina. But cake alum is already used in dyeing to a great amount, which will certainly increase as manu- facturers succeed in producing it of greater purity and more regular composition. In preparing other salts of alumina by double decomposition, such as Bed Liquor, its superiority to alum is admitted. The principal impurity to which it is liable is iron, for the detec- tion of which see Alum. It contains 15 per cent, of alumina, 35 per cent, of sulphuric acid, and 48 per cent, of water. 16 THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE "WARES. Amalic Acid. — A compound obtained from caffeine. Eed, blue, and violet colours may be obtained from this material, but on account of its high price it is of no practical importance. Ammonia. — The liquid ammonia, or ammoniacal liquor of commerce, is a solution of dry ammoniacal gas in water, which is capable of absorbing it to the extent of 670 times its own bulk, or nearly half its own weight, acquiring the peculiar odour, taste, and properties of the gas. During the absorption the water expands very much in bulk, and of course decreases in weight. The very strongest has the specific gravity 0*875, weighing only 8|- lbs. per gallon. The specific gravity of ammonia affords a good insight into its value, since all adulterations would make it heavier. The principal impurities to which it is liable are lime. This imparts a turbidity to the ammonia, and by degrees forms a sediment at the bottom of the carboys. Sulphur in the form of sulphide of ammonium. — To detect this, add a trace of a solution of the nitroprusside of sodium, when a splendid but fugitive violet colour will be developed, if sulphur be present. Tarry matters. — To detect these allow the ammonia to stand in an open capsule or saucer until the greater part of the ammo- niacal gas has evaporated, when traces of tar may be detected by their smell. Organic bases. — (Sometimes present.) — The sample turns tran- siently reddish when mixed with nitric acid. The sources whence ammonia is obtained are various, such as stale urine, nitrogenous animal waste (horns, hoofs, riddlings of shoddy, etc.), but the greatest quantity is prepared from the ammoniacal liquor of the gas-works. Of the latter there are two kinds. Either the raw liquor is at once submitted to distillation, or it is neutralized with sulphuric acid and the sulphate of ammonia thus obtained, after purification by recrystallization, is distilled with slaked lime. The latter method yields by far the better product. The ammonia obtained from stale urine is generally preferred by practical dyers, its effects being probably modified by some unexamined body present in minute traces. Ammonia is used in the manufacture of the archil colours, in THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. 17 the preparation of cochineal paste for crimsons, in modifying tho shades produced by many colours ; it serves also to cleanse goods for dyeing." Its action in this respect is not unobjectionable. Certain colours cannot be produced in as full perfection upon tissues scoured with ammonia as if soap had been employed. Carboys of ammonia if left unstoppered in dye or print works, frequently occasion mischief, the ammoniacal gas, escaping, acts either upon colour mixtures, or upon goods exposed to the fumes. Table showing the Quantity of Ammoniacal Gas (NH 3 .) in Aqueous Solutions of different Specific Gravities (Dalton). Specific Gravity. Grains of Ammonia in 100 grains of the liquid. Boiling Points. •850 35-3 26 •860 32-6 38 •870 29-9 50 •880 27*3 62 •890 24-7 74 •900 22-2 86 •910 19-8 98 •920 17-4 110 •930 151 122 •940 12-8 134 •950 10-5 146 •960 8-3 158 •970 62 173 •980 4-1 187 •990 2-0 196 Aniline* — A volatile organic base, discovered by Unverdorben among the products of the decomposition of indigo, and after- wards detected by Eunge in coal-tar. It was formerly known as crystalline and cyanol. When pure it is a colourless, oily liquid, of specific gravity 4° Tw. It boils at 360° Fahr., but evaporates gradually at common tem- peratures. It is readily soluble in alcohol, wood naphtha, ether, aldehyde, and the oils, both essential and fatty. In water it is sparingly soluble. Its presence is detected by adding the sus- pected body to a solution of chloride of lime in water, when a beautiful, though transient, violet-blue colour is produced. 18 THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. With the acids, aniline yields a series of finely crystallized salts, from which it is expelled by potash and soda, and also by ammonia in the cold, though at higher temperatures this action is reversed. The common consumed, then 20 : 100 = 7*1 .7 : 35*85, the percentage of available chlorine contained in the sample under examination. Another process is to dissolve 100 grs. of arsenious acid, and 292*7 grs. of crystallized carbonate of soda, both, of course, per- fectly pure, in 10 ozs. of water. One oz. of this liquid is placed in a beaker, and the solution of bleaching powder, prepared as in the last process, is dropped in till a drop of the solution, taken out with a glass rod, gives a blue stain upon the following test- paper : Heat together 15 grs. of iodine, 105 grs. of crystalline carbonate of soda, 45 grs. of potato starch, and 10 fluid ozs. of water till the mixture turns colourless, when it is made up to 40 ozs. with dis- tilled water. "White paper is saturated with this liquid, and pre- served for use in a slightly damp state. Bleaching soda, chloride or hypochlorite of soda, is now rarely met with. It is examined in the same manner as the correspond- ing lime compound. Bleaching magnesia is every way preferable to either the lime or soda compound. Consumers can readily prepare it for use by mixing a saturated solution of bleaching lime with one of Epsom salts, leaving the latter slightly in excess, and drawing off the clear liquid. Solutions of chloride of magnesia are sometimes known as Grouvelle's or Eamsay's bleach-liquor. The available strength remaining in solutions of bleaching lime, which have been in use, may be most readily ascertained by Crum's method. This is as follows : protomuriate of iron at 40° Tw. is mixed with an equal measure of acetic acid at 8° Tw. A dozen phials being provided of clear white glass, equal in size and alike in shape, an equal portion of the mixture is put into each, enough to occupy one-ninth of each phial. Bleaching liquors are now taken of twelve different strengths, beginning with the strongest used, the others being let down with successively greater and greater quantities of water till we reach the weakest state to which the liquor is brought by use. The twelve bottles are then filled up, one with each strength. They are then marked, stoppered, and put aside for reference. When it is desired to find the strength of a partially spent bleach-liquor, we take a phial of the same size and make. One-ninth part of it is filled with the same mixture of 36 THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. acetic acid and muriate of iron, and the bottle is then filled up with the bleach-liquor in question. It is then compared with the 12 standard reference bottles of known strengths. The phial which it most nearly approaches in colour will indicate its strength with exactness sufficient for all practical purposes. Liquid chloride of potash is sometimes called " eau de Javelle," and the corresponding soda-compound " eau de Labarraque." Blue, Distilled. — This misnamed article is merely an extract of indigo refined and purified. Clean white woollen rags are dyed with the ordinary extract at a temperature near boiling. When they have taken up as much colour as possible they are well washed first in cold and then in hot water. This is continued till the hot washings begin to be very faintly tinged with blue. The rags are then placed in a very weak hot solution of carbonate of soda, containing not more than one half-pound of crystals to 10 gallons of water. This quickly takes up the blue colour. The rags, which retain a dirty brown colour, are removed, and the liquid, being acidulated with sulphuric or acetic acid, serves for a finishing blue. It may be concentrated if needful. Blue Colours, detection of. — Indigo fixed in the vat. — Smears a piece of white silk. Sulphuric and muriatic acids and carbonate of soda no action. Strong nitric acid changes it to a clear yellow. Chlorine destroys it. Indigo as China blue. — Similar. After being destroyed by chlorine takes no colour if dipped in a decoction of logwood. Indigo as pencil Hue. — Similar with acids, alkalies, and chlorine, but takes a red colour if dipped in logwood. Indigo as extract, sulphate of Indigo. — Does not soil white silk. Stripped by strong alkalies. Yields to nitric acid more readily than a vat blue. The variety known as " navy blues " strips very like a vat blue. They resist ammonia and carbonate of soda, turn a greenish yellow with caustic soda sooner than a vat blue and yield more readily to nitric acid. N.B. — The term " navy blue " is sometimes also applied to a kind of vat work. Aniline blues. — Dilute acids, no change. Alkaline carbonates, no change. Strong acids green, blue colour restored by washing THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. 37 in plenty of water. Caustic soda, a red-brown. Alcohol extracts, a fine blue liquid not reddened by citric acid. Prussian Hues, — Dilute acids, no change. Strong nitric acid, a green not restored by washing. Carbonated and caustic alkalies, a rust colour distinct from the red shade produced by soda with the aniline blues. Logwood blues. — Turned red by acids. Mixed blues, — Yat and Prussian blues are frequently topped with one of the red woods, or with cudbear. In this case sul- phuric and muriatic acids should be applied, at first dilute and afterwards concentrated, noting if the liquid is reddened. If so, wood or weed colours are present. If a mixed vat and wood blue is destroyed with nitric acid, the residual colour will be browner than that given by a pure indigo. Ultramarine in pigment styles. — Wet the pattern with ether and alcohol to dissolve the varnish with which it may possibly be mixed, and then apply hydrochloric acid. Colour disappears with a smell of sulphuretted hydrogen. Cobalt in pigment styles. — Will not be discharged when treated as above. Borax or Biborate of Soda. — This salt consists of soda com- bined with two equivalents of boracic acid and ten of water. It has feeble alkaline properties, and were its price more moderate would be extensively used for cleansing goods preparatory to dyeing and printing, its action being milder than that of the hydrated and carbonated alkalies. It has also the power of dissolving various colouring matters, especially such as are of a resinous nature, a property which in the hands of judicious colourists has led to valuable and unexpected results. Borax is soluble in two parts of boiling and twelve of cold water. In dyeing with the Nicholson and Guernsey blues and Pomona green a bath made alkaline with borax is frequently used for getting the colour upon wood or worsted. Borax Powder, French. — This article has disappeared from the market after a short and — for the sellers — brilliant career, and 38 THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WAKES. is mentioned now merely as a caution to purchasers. It was a mixture of soda-ash with sifted quick-lime. Bordeaux G. and It. — Azo-dyes obtained from azo- derivatives of naphthylamine. They are vinous reds, G. being the yellowest and E. the reddest shade. They are manufactured by the Hoechst Aniline Company. Bordeaux B. is a decided claret made by the Berlin Aniline Company. Brauna Wood. — A Brazilian dye wood not in general use. Its colouring matter has a great attraction for cotton, upon which it can yield, alone and with different mordants, a variety of sad shades, from blacks to drabs and fawns. Brazil Wood. — A soft red wood, produced by Ccesalpinia cristata, a tree growing in Brazil. The wood is brought over in irregular knotty masses. When freshly chipped it has a yellow colour, but. on exposure to air and moisture it turns reddish. It may be readily distinguished from barwood and the other hard red woods, by the circumstance that it speedily imparts a bright red colour to water. It does not contain the bluish colour found in logwood, and the precipitates which its watery extract gives with the salts of tin and alumina, are red without a purple cast. Its colouring principle has received the name Brazileine, and is supposed to be formed by the oxidation of a colourless body, Braziline, which bears to it the same relation as white indigo does to blue. The colour of Brazil wood, like that of logwood, appears to be developed, or at least made more available by prolonged exposure to air and moisture after rasping. It is also, if allowed to lie too long in large heaps, subject to heat, but it is not so rapidly spoiled in this manner as logwood. The colouring matter of Brazil wood and its congeners is fugitive, and is especially affected by exposure to light. Mordants lessen, but do not entirely remove this evil. Brazil wood and the remaining soft red woods are largely used in dyeing so-called mock crimsons, in imitation of those produced with cochineal. In scarlet and crimson coburgs, and other mixed goods, the cotton warp is also got up with wood of this class in THE MANUAL OF COLOURS ANT) DYE WARES. 39 conjunction with a per- salt of tin. In clarets and browns, it is also a very important ingredient. The extract or decoction of Brazil wood is used by dyers at from 5° to 10° Tw., and by printers at 20° Tw. or upwards. It is often " sprung," or weighed with common salt and nitrate of soda, which add to the specific gravity without improving the colour, and even diminish its affinity for the fibre. Its detection may often be effected by the taste. If this is not practicable, a little of the liquor is heated with some pure nitric acid till the colour is destroyed. The residual liquor is mixed with distilled water, and some solution of nitrate of silver added. If any common salt was present this will occasion a white curdy precipitate. Extract of Brazil wood improves with keeping, as it becomes freed from a tarry matter, which, whilst it is held in solution or suspension, deteriorates the colour. A paste extract and a solid extract are also met with in commerce. Bromine. — A liquid elementary, or simple body, intermediate in its properties between chlorine and iodine. It destroys vege- table colours. It is used in the manufacture of eosine and its kindred dyes. Bronzes. — By this term I mean all substances which combine with their colour a strong opaque metallic lustre. Some of these substances are metallic alloys finely laminated, and then ground to an impalpable powder. Others are insoluble mineral powders, and others are lakes or compounds of organic colouring matters with alumina, etc. They are all included in the class of pigment colours, and can only be applied to the fibre in printing by means of some varnish, or other appropriate cement, such as albumen or caseine. Many attempts have been made to deposit reduced metallic films with the needful regularity, either in designs or over the whole surface of a piece, or to produce " frosted " ^effects. But no satisfactory results have been reached. With the exception of gold, which is too costly, the other metals easy of reduction have un- fortunately a very strong affinity for sulphur, and when deposited in a thin film over any kind of tissue, they are rapidly blackened, and rendered unsightly. 40 THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. Broom. — [Genista tindoria.) — A shrub formerly employed for producing yellow colours upon wool. The shades obtained were much inferior to those produced by quercitron bark, fustic, etc. , and it has hence been abandoned. Buck-wheat. — [Polygonum fagopyrum.) — The leaves of this plant contain about one-tenth per cent, of a yellow colouring matter, identical with the rutine found in common rue, and the ilixanthine obtained from the leaves of common holly. The colouring matter is sparingly soluble in cold, but readily in boiling water and in alcohol. The watery solution gives to mordanted cotton shades of considerable beauty. The colour dissolves in alkalies, forming deep yellow solutions, from which it is again thrown down on adding an acid. Muriatic and sulphuric acids change its colour to a deep orange. With salts of lead it forms a bright yellow lake. This colour is not at present an article of commerce. The leaves of buck-wheat yield, it has been asserted, a quantity of indigo blue on being exposed to fermentation. Dr. Schunk, however, after a very careful investigation, was unable to detect a trace of blue colouring matter. Burling Inks. — When woollen goods are dyed, they very frequently exhibit a greater or less number of small spots which refuse to take the colour. These spots or " burls" arise from portions of vegetable matter intermixed with the wool, and which, not having the same affinity for the dye, escape uncoloured. To remedy this, the entire piece is either passed through baths capable of producing upon the cotton a shade, similar to what exists upon the wool, or suitable liquids, called " burling inks," are applied to the spots by means of a blunt pen. A good burling-ink must cover well, that is, must entirely hide the white or greyish spot to which it is applied. It must so agree in colour with the dye upon the wool as to be incapable of detection. It must not leave, when dry, any glaze or shine upon the spot, as if gum-water had been applied. Lastly, it must not have any injurious action either upon the texture or colour of the cloth. THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. 41 Cadmium. — A metal which, in small quantities, accompanies many ores of tin. It is chiefly important on account of its sulphuret, a beautiful yellow compound which, unlike the chromates of lead, is not blackened or tarnished by the fumes of sulphuretted hydrogen. It is hence very useful in printing, and may be applied either as a pigment colour or it may be formed upon the fibre by printing on a solution of a salt of cadmium, along with finely-ground sulphur and a reducing agent, generally arsenious acid. A small addition of a salt of cadmium protects chrome yellows from the action of sulphur during the steaming process. Calliatura, or Cariatura Wood. — A red wood of the hard class. It is imported from India, and may be regarded as a superior kind of sanders wood, dying brighter shades. Cam Wood. — (Kambe Wood.) — Cam wood is obtained from Sierra Leone, the Gaboon, and other parts of the West Coast of Africa. It belongs to the second or hard section of the red woods. It yields its colouring matter to water much more readily than barwood and sanders, but much less freely than Brazil wood or any red wood of the soft class. Hence, no true permanent extract of cam wood can be said to exist, since boiling water, charged with its colouring principle, re-deposits the same on cool- ing, and retains merely a trace. Cam wood differs in other respects from Brazil wood and its allies. They are fugitive, whilst cam wood yields exceedingly fast colours. It contains two tinctorial principles, a red and a yellow, and hence, under all circumstances, yields colours more inclining to scarlet than those furnished by Brazil wood. It contains a considerable amount of tannin, and gives with solutions of iron a blackish precipitate ; protochloride of tin turns the liquid a bright crimson, and alum gives a red colouration. Campobello Yellow. — A dye obtained from phenol, and sold by Schroeder and Berend, of Leipzig. It is less extensively used of late years. Caunelle Brown. — An aniline dye which is an acid salt of 42 THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. chrysotoluidine, and is manufactured by Knosp, of Stuttgart. It produces a great variety of compound colours, with yellow, red, and blue dyes. For silk, the water is soured with acetic acid. Tor wool, sulphate of soda and sulphuric acid are added. Cotton must be previously mordanted with tannin. Caoutchouc. — (Indiarubber, Gum Elastic.) — A gum-resin found in small quantities in the sap of many vegetables, and obtained commercially from several trees indigenous in the tropical parts of Asia and America. It dissolves in mineral naphtha, benzole, and bisulphide of carbon, and has been tried in this state for fixing pigment colours in printing. Car aj urn or Chica.— A red dye ware obtained from the leaves of Bignonia chica, a plant growing on the Orinoco and Eio Meta. The dried leaves are extracted with water, and allowed to ferment, during which process the colour is thrown down in a fine powder. It occurs in commerce in cakes about 6 to 8 inches broad, and 3 to 4 thick, of a blood red colour. Under the pestle it acquires a golden green lustre. It is very sparingly soluble in alcohol and ether, and totally insoluble in water. The colouring matter is probably combined with some earthy matter, whence it requires a treatment similar to lac. If treated with acids, or acid mordants, it gives full shades upon wool and upon prepared cotton. It appears to be used, to some extent, in the adulteration of cochi- neal. Some authorities, e.g. Yirey, maintain that chica and carajuru are distinct wares, the former alone being the product of the Bignonia chica from Venezuela and Guayana, whilst carajuru, crajuru, or caracuru is obtained from the interior of Brazil, and has a much redder, brighter, and more beautiful colour. It is described as a powder or collection of irregular fragments, devoid of smell or taste, insoluble in water but completely dissolved by alkalies, and reprecipitated by acids, furnishing a strong and beautiful dye. When carajuru is treated with soda, glucose, and water in a stoppered flask, as in the reduction of indigo, a violet solution is obtained, which becomes immediately brown on exposure to the air. If run into muriatic acid without access of air, a reddish- THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. 43 yellow precipitate is formed, which dissolves in a large amount of water with a yellow colour, and is turned a purple-red by carbonate of ammonia. Carbolic Acid,— (Known also as phenic acid, phenol, and hydrate of phenyl.) — A colourless oily liquid, having no action upon litmus paper. It has the specific gravity of 1*062 ; possesses a very peculiar odour and a burning taste. If applied to the skin it excites blisters, and is highly dangerous if taken internally. With due care it may be obtained as a cry stalline solid body , which melts at 94° Fahr., and boils at 356° Fahr. Carbolic acid has become of importance in the arts as being the material whence picric acid and peonine are prepared. In addition, it has its direct applications. Whenever it is desirable to prevent any organic matter from undergoing fermen- tation and putrefaction, carbolic acid is the most powerful and appropriate agent. " Phenol " is now used as the name of a class of compounds. Carbon Bisulphide. — A heavy, colourless, volatile liquid, used for dissolving oils, fats, and resins. Carbonic Acid. — A gaseous acid evolved during fermentation, the respiration of animals, the combustion of bodies containing carbon, etc. It constantly exists in the atmosphere to a small amount. It gradually combines with caustic potash, soda, ammonia, etc., left exposed to the atmosphere and converts them into carbonates. It is not known to exert any destructive or modifying influence upon colours. Carminaphtha. — A red colouring matter of feebly acid nature, obtained by the action of chromic acid upon naphthaline. It dyes silk and wool a red bordering upon brown, and gives fawn shades upon mordanted cottons. Its nature and preparation are not fully understood. Carmine. — The finest portion of the colouring matters of cochineal freed as far as possible from impurities. It is sometimes used in the pigment style of printing. 44 THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. The name is also improperly used for carthamine, the red colour- ing matter of safflower. Still more incorrectly it is applied, especially by French and German writers, to a neutralised extract of indigo or so-called soluble indigo, which in foreign receipts is often styled indigo- carmine, or carmine of indigo. Carthamine, — (Sometimes erroneously called carmine.) — The pure red colouring matter of Safflower, in a concentrated form ; not, however, in solution, but merely r L in very fine sus- pension. Good carthamine should be rather of a scarlet than of a crim- son tint. If it is crimson it is a sign that the particles of colour are in too dense and compact a state, and consequently will not dye as brightly as desirable. It gives a delicate golden green stain if allowed to evaporate upon the finger nail. The best method of comparing samples of carthamine is to dye them with equal weights of clean cotton cloth and compare the results. Caseine. — One of the nitrogenous albuminoid substances used for " animalising " vegetable fibre and thus enabling it more readily to take up colours. It occurs naturally in milk, from which it separates as curd. It agrees almost exactly in its composition and properties with legumine, the nitrogenous principle of peas or beans. It is sepa- rated from milk — all fatty matter having been previously removed — by dilute acids. It dissolves readily in ammonia, the alkaline carbonates, borax and lime water, with which it forms feeble combinations. Caseine is distinguished from albumen by the circumstance that it does not, when existing in dilute solutions, become inso- luble when heated. When used as an animal mordant it is less fast than albumen, but its cheapness causes it to be very extensively employed. It is generally dissolved in ammonia, which escapes on exposure to the air, or on the application of heat, leaving the caseine deposited upon the fibre. THE MANUAL OE COLOURS AND DYE WARES. 45 Cassel Yellow. — A yellow pigment, the oxychloride of lead, known also as mineral yellow or Turner's patent yellow. Casselman's Green. — A fine copper pigment free from arsenic. It consists of basic acetates combined with more or less water. Catechu, dutch, Gambir. (Formerly called Terra Japonica.) — These dye wares are the juices of certain trees, evaporated down to dryness. The several varieties differ according to the kind of tree whence they are obtained, the country where they are pro- duced, the manner of preparation, and the degree of care expended on its preservation and transmission. The trees from which it is mainly obtained are the Acacia catechu of the Malabar coast and the Uncaria Gambir of Pegu. A certain quantity is also manu- factured from the nuts of Areca catechu. This is the finest kind. It appears in the market in large blocks or bales, weighing from 2 to 3 cwt. ; in round cakes varying in colour from light brown to black, and weighing from 8 ozs. to 2 lbs., and in irregular roundish lumps like a flattened orange. Gambir occurs in square masses of 2 to 3 ozs. in weight. Its texture is resinous, and if good, sufficiently brittle to break under the hammer. The colour, however dark outwardly, should be a brownish cream colour within. If it is deep brown throughout, and soft and pitchy in consistence, so as to cling to a knife, it has become impaired in quality either by long keeping, or by exposure to moisture. It should contain about half its weight of tannin, varying in this point from 31 to 56 per cent. The tannin of catechu is not absolutely identical with that of the gall- nut. It gives not a blue-black but a greenish-black or olive precipitate with the per- salts of iron, and with solutions of the tar- trate of antimony and potash forms no sediment. It is also more soluble both in water and alcohol than normal tannin. Along with tannin, catechu contains a quantity of a peculiar body named catechin, or catechuic acid, which plays a considerable part in its reactions. This body when pure forms white silky crystalline needles, slightly soluble in cold but readily in hot 46 THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. water. If its solutions are exposed to the air they gradually pass into a mixture of rubinic and japonic acids. Catechu is entirely soluble in hot water, if genuine. The brown solution, when cold, lets fall a sediment, containing the bulk of the catechuic acid. Cold water does not entirely dissolve catechu except it has previously been modified by exposure to damp, or by age. The solutions of catechu are brightened by acids and darkened by alkalies. With per-salts of iron they give olive-green precipi- tates, those with proto- salts of iron being of a more brownish shade. It precipitates salts of tin with a yellowish, and salts of lead with a dull-reddish colour. Salts of copper and bichromate of potash give brown precipitates. With concentrated nitric acid catechu yields a modified picric acid which dyes shades resembling those obtained from turmeric. There are also rumours of a beautiful and fast catechu purple, for which the following obscure recipe is in circulation : — Treat the catechu with dilute sulphuric acid, by which it is resolved into grape sugar and a brown resin. The latter when dissolved in sulphuric acid, or in an alkali, gives the purple in question. Catechu, besides being naturally various in quality and liable to deterioration from time and neglect, is frequently adulterated with clay, sand, ochre, etc. The detection of these impurities is very easy. The sample is boiled in water and the decoction strained, when all such admixtures remain and may be dried and weighed. The amount of tannin may be determined as in Diyi-divi. The applications of catechu in dyeing and printing are numerous and important. It enters into a great variety of compound colours, such as olives, dark greens, drabs, fawns, browns, and blacks, to all which it imparts a high degree of permanence. It is abundantly used in combination with madder and garancine. It cannot serve like the ordinary forms of tannin as a mordant for fixing light or bright colours upon cotton, since it imparts a yellowish-brown colour to the fibre. Cauline. — A colour obtained from the red cabbage, red beets, and some other vegetables, and recently ofFered for sale. Cerise. — A coal-tar colour of the rosaniline group obtained THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. 47 by several makers from magenta residues. It is much used in compound colours, but some makes dissolve imperfectly and thus occasion trouble. Cerium. — One of the rarer metals. The sulphate of cerous oxide is used in the crude state for producing aniline blacks and greys. For 220 lbs. of colour, If ozs. of cerous oxide is sufficient, and the shades produced are said to be superior to those obtained with vanadium. Chayavra. — A plant of the madder family, capable of dyeing similar colours. It is abundantly used in India, but is not met with in European markets. Chemic. — A name given in some parts to the acid extract of indigo, unmixed with salt or soda. In other districts it is given to bleaching liquor and bleaching powder. Chestnut. — Chestnut bark and wood belong to the astringents. The ground bark and an extract prepared from the wood are sometimes used for adulterating ground myrobalans, and extract of logwood. On the Continent, they are successfully used as substitutes for galls and sumac. China.— A climbing plant found in the forests of Panama. Prom its leaves an exceedingly permanent red dye is extracted by the Indians ; perfectly proof against sun, air, rain, and perspiration. The plant must not be supposed to have any connection with the cinchona tree. Chinese Green. — (Lo-Jcao, Vert-Venus.) — A simple green colour used by the Chinese. It is capable of being prepared from the buckthorn, and dyes shades which retain their green tone by artificial light, and are not very fast. The colouring matter is costly, and is for all practical purposes superseded by the aniline greens. Chinoline Blue. — A fine blue colour obtained from the 48 THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. residues occurring in the extraction of quinine from cinchona bark. Its excessive sensitiveness to light soon caused its use and manufacture to he abandoned. Chlorophyll. — The green colouring matter of the leaves and stalks, etc., of vegetables. It is insoluble in water; but dissolves in ether, alcohol, acids, and alkalies, forming green solutions, which are readily decolourized by chlorine. In the attempts made to use it as a dye, grass has been first boiled out in water, and the colour extracted from the residue by a very weak lye of carbonate of soda, from which the chlorophyll is thrown down as a paste by the cautious addition of an acid. It has been experimentally used in dyeing and printing, but not with satisfactory results, as it is dull, fugitive, and very low in tinctorial power, and consequently expensive. Xanthophyll and erythrophyll are yellow and red colours found in decaying leaves. They are of no practical importance. Chloroxynaphthalio Acid. — This compound and its salts dye a red colour upon wool. By reduction it yields blue and violet dyes. None of these preparations are in practical use. Chlorozone. — A new bleaching agent, the composition of which, though it is manufactured under a patent, seems somewhat doubtful. There appears to be two different qualities, the one acid and the other alkaline. The predominating ingredient is said to be oxygen combined with chlorine, and with a base which may be soda or potash. This description would be literally true of a hypochlorite of soda (chloride of soda). The alkaline variety stands at 49° Tw., and may be preserved for a long time in stoppered bottles, if kept in a cool place. It is prepared by passing washed and cooled chlorine gas into a concentrated soda lye to saturation, the temperature being kept below 50° Fahr. When freshly prepared it is said to consist of 8 0 per cent, carbonate of soda, 11*5 hypochlorite of soda, and 8*5 per cent, of chloride of sodium. This process approaches very closely that in use for making the hypochlorite of soda. It is probable that a certain amount of chlorate of soda must be generated. THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. 49 Chrome Alum.— A double sulphate of chrome and potash. It is obtained as a by-product in the manufacture of artificial alizarine, and is coming into use as a mordant. It is not, as some dyers suppose, a mixture of alum and bichromate of potash. Chromogens. — A name given to a class of bodies which have in themselves no tinctorial properties, but which pass into true dj r es under the action of the air, etc. Chrysammic Acid. — A coloured body obtained by the action of strong nitric acid upon aloes. When purified by washing and crystallization, it forms golden-yellow crystalline scales, soluble in hot water with a purple colour, also in alcohol, wood spirit, and ether. It explodes violently if heated. Its compounds with the alkalies are generally of a carmine-red colour, exhibiting a golden lustre if rubbed in the mortar. It has been used as a dye, but is rarely met with in commerce. (See Aloes, Colours, etc.) It gives brown colours on wool and silk, and is hence sometimes known as Chemnitz brown and Brun d'Elboeuf. Chrysaniline. — An organic base of a fine yellow colour, formed along with rosaniline, by the action of oxidizing bodies upon aniline oil. It is very sparingly soluble in water, but dissolves readily in methylated spirit. It forms crystallizable salts with the acids. With the addition of acetic acid it dyes fine orange-yellow shades on silk and wool, and is met with in commerce under the name Victoria orange. It is a true aniline compound. Chrysaniline Red. — (Diiodhydrate of Trimethyl-chrysaniline.) — Forms fine orange-carmine crystals, and in solution dyes wool and silk a colour between deep orange and scarlet. Chrysoline. — The soda-salt of benzyl fluoresceine. It is soluble in water, and dyes a fine yellow. It was first obtained by M. Eeverdin by the action of phthalic and sulphuric acids upon a mixture of resorcine and chlorbenzyl, and is manufactured by Monnet & Co., of Geneva. E 50 THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. Chrysophanic Acid. — A yellow colouring matter, scarcely soluble in water, but soluble in alcohol. It exists in the roots of rhubarb and the dock plant, in senna leaves and in the lichen Parmelia paricina. It is of no practical value. Citric Acid, and Lime Juice. — A vegetable acid occurring plentifully in the juices of the lemon, lime, orange, currant, and many other fruits. It is prepared by neutralizing the juice of the fruit with chalk, and decomposing the citrate of lime, thus ob- tained, by means of an equivalent quantity of sulphuric acid. The acid liquid thus obtained is carefully evaporated till it deposits citric acid in crystals, which are purified by repeated solution and re-crystallization, and, if needful, bleached by filtering over animal charcoal. When pure, citric acid forms clear colourless crystals of an intensely acid, though pleasant, taste, soluble in their own weight of water at 60° Fahr., and in half their weight at"212° Fahr. For manufacturing purposes, citric acid is often employed in the state of lime-juice, which, if genuine, differs very little in its properties from the solid crystallized acid, and is capable of replacing it in nearly every case. It is a thick-flowing, dark- coloured liquid, containing from 26 to 36 per cent, of actual citric acid, and marking from 45° to 54° Tw. It is ordinarily sold at so much per gallon per degree of a hydrometer specially constructed for the purpose, and which is erroneously supposed to give the amount of actual citric acid present. All such instruments are necessarily fallacious. The only way to ascertain the comparative value of samples of lime- juice is, after having found that no other acid is present, to determine the amount of citric acid by an acidimetrical assay. (See Acidimetry.) The impurity to which crystalline citric acid is most liable is tartaric acid. To determine this, dissolve a portion of the sample in as little water as possible, and add a saturated solution of the nitrate or the sulphate of potash. If any tartaric acid is present, a white crystalline precipitate will fall to the bottom of the glass, although when the quantity is very small some hours may elapse before this appears. Sulphuric acid is occasionally present, not so much as an THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. 5 1 intentional adulteration, as an impurity arising from mismanage- ment. If so, the crystals will be damp, and when dissolved in distilled water, mixed with pure hydrochloric acid, and tested with a solution of the chloride of barium or nitrate of baryta, will give a white precipitate. In lime-juice and lemon-juice sulphuric acid is found in quantity as an intentional adulteration. Crystals of citric acid when strongly heated leave no residue. Samples of lime-juice, even when genuine, must be expected to leave a saline residue after being evaporated down and heated to redness, from the potash naturally present in the juice of the fruit ; but, if the quantity be considerable, potash has been added to raise the specific gravity of the liquid. Besides these impurities, lime-juice may be bad by having been made from inferior or decayed fruit, and by being overloaded with extractive matter. Citric acid, and especially lime-juice, are used for precipitating Carthamine from its alkaline solutions, and as a resist for iron and alumina mordants, having the power of preventing these bases from attaching themselves to the fibre in its presence. Clay, Devonshire. — {Pipe Clay, Cornish Clay, China Clay.) — These clays differ from the common kinds in being free from iron, and, consequently, of a white colour. They are sometimes used by the printers as resists, and they are abused for adulterating lake-colours and other pigments. It must be remembered that alumina precipitated from a solution along with any colouring matter, and alumina added in its insoluble state to a pigment, are totally distinct in their nature and results. The former is con- sistent with perfect beauty in lakes, the latter invariably deteriorates. The value invariably depends on the absence of grit. Coal Tar Colours, Detection of. — The following method given by Mr. Spiller will serve for the recognition of many of the most important dyes of this class. A few grains of the colour are dissolved in oil of vitriol, and the colour is noted. Magdala red (naphthaline pink) Blue-black. Saffranine Grass green, turning deep blue if heated. 52 THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. Chrysoidine Orange, turning towards scarlet on heating. Alizarine Euby red or maroon. Eosine Golden yellow. Primrose (naphthaline yellow) . Slightly soluble ; a yellow colour which disappears if heated. Chrysaniline Yellow or brown ; solution fluor- escent. Aurine Yellowish brown ; solution not fluorescent. Atlas orange Eose ; scarlet on heating. Atlas scarlet Scarlet ; permanent on heating. Biebrich scarlet E Blue-black or deep purple. B Bluish green. Aniline scarlet Golden yellow ; permanent on heating. Induline Slate blue to indigo. Eosaniline, regina and all violets Yellow or brownish yellow. Phenyl and diphenylamine blues Dark brown. Iodine green, malachite . . . Bright yellow ; the former gives off iodine on heating. Muriatic acid distinguishes safTranine from Biebrich scarlet; the former gives a violet solution, and the latter a scarlet pre- cipitate. To distinguish the eosine colours from the azo-colours, a solution of the substance in question is shaken up in a test tube with a little sodium amalgam. If the characteristic green fluorescence of fluoresceine appears the colour is an eosine. Eosine colours on the fibre are turned white by a drop of collodion, whilst the rosaniline and azo-reds give a red solution. Coal Tar Colours, Examination of. — It is often necessary to examine the strength and purity of samples of coal-tar colours. In almost every case this is best done by dyeing comparative swatches with the sample in question, as compared with a satis- factory sample of the same kind, which should be preserved for reference. The material operated upon should generally be a clean white woollen tissue. In case of colours specially intended for vegetable fibre, they must be tried upon cotton, mordanted in THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. 53 the same manner as will be done on the large scale. Tho quantities of dye taken in each case, the weight of the swatches, the quantity of water, the heat, the length of time, and, in short, every particular must be alike in the two cases. With the coal- tar colours, especially those whose tinctorial power is very great, only a very small quantity of each must be taken, since light shades can generally be better compared than such as are very heavy. After the dyed swatches are dry they are then examined, both for depth and for purity. To ascertain whether a colour is homogenous or mixed — and such mixing may be the result, not of intention, but of imperfec 4 purification — dissolve a grain of the sample in water, spirit, etc., as required, and with a glass rod place a drop of the liquid upon clean white blotting paper. If two or more colours are present they will spread with different degrees of speed, and the spot will show a series of rings of different shades. If the sample is pure the spot will be all of one colour. I published this method of examining aniline colours in the first edition of this book in 1870, and had used it privately and shown it to friends since about 1860. If, as stated by Professor Goppelsroeder, it had been used and published in Switzerland at an earlier date, I was not aware of the fact. Mixed and impure samples may often be detected by treating them for a short time with different solvents, such as water and spirit in succession, not giving time for the sample to be entirely dissolved. If the colour is mixed these several liquids will dye different shades. Many possible adulterations, such as sugar, are detected by treating the sample with the strongest alcohol, which dissolves the dye, leaving sugar, etc., untouched. Cobalt Blues. — Otherwise known as Thenard's blue, cobalt- ultramarine, coeline, etc., a pigment, or series of pigments, con- sisting of oxide of cobalt in combination with alumina and phosphoric acid. It is absolutely fast, but it is not yet employed in printing. Coccine. — An orange- scarlet dye, containing, along with aurantia (bromnitro fluoresceine), the ammoniacal salt of hexa- nitro diphenylamine. 54 THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES* Cochineal. — A small insect, parasitical on the nopal, a species of the cactus, cultivated in Mexico and the Canary Islands. The females, which are by far the most numerous, have no wings, and the legs are very imperfectly developed, which gives the insect the appearance of a shrivelled berry. In appearance samples of cochineal vary greatly ; some kinds seem covered over with a whitish powder, and are known as silvery ; others are a deep black, and others dark grey, mottled with red. The colouring matter of cochineal appears to have acid pro- perties, and is known as carminic acid. When pure it is a violet brown, brittle substance, readily soluble in water and alcohol ; also without decomposition in concentrated sulphuric and muriatic acids. Sulphate of alumina forms with its solution a beautiful crimson lake on the addition of a little ammonia, as do also the salts of tin. The acetates of lead, copper, and zinc give purple lakes. Cochineal varies greatly in the quantity and quality of its tinctorial matter, and is subject to various sophistications. The " silvery " sorts are coated with weak gum water, and then dusted over with French chalk, heavy spar, or carbonate of lead. Inferior reddish-grey samples are also turned into silvery by the same process. Black sorts are weighted in a similar manner with finely-powdered black lead. Sometimes a portion of cochineal, from which a part of the colouring matter has been extracted, is dried and mixed up with the fresh lots. To select good cochineals much precaution is therefore needed. The grains should be full and pluinp, of a very dark colour, and of a glossy appearance. This glossiness is, however, sometimes produced upon inferior qualities with the aid of oil. As a rule, silvery sorts are not trustworthy, and in the reddish-grey mottled kinds the colouring matter is generally immature, and deficient both in quantity and in brightness. All samples should be rejected which feel gritty and are found mingled with sand, small stones, and bits of clay, of about the size and shape of the grain. After noting these outward appearances, the next point is to determine, in an approximate way, the specific gravity of the samples. It must be understood that the substances used as sophistications are very much heavier than genuine cochineal, THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE "WARES. 55 and cannot be added to it in a remunerative quantity without making a given measure of the article very decidedly heavier than it ought to be. To apply this test in the most satisfactory manner, weighed portions of the respective samples should be dried at a temperature of 212° Fahr., and the loss of moisture — which may amount to 12 per cent. — should be noted. In good samples it will not exceed o. The next step is to take a small glass, such as a Eham's specific gravity bottle, or, in default, a two-fluid-drachm measure, tare it very carefully, and fill it exactly full of the dried cochineal. This must be done, not by pressing, but by gently shaking the glass and tapping it with the haft of a knife. It is then weighed. The quantity of good cochineal that will fill a two -drachm glass will range from 60 to 66 grs., whilst bad qualities will reach 80, 90, and even 100. This test, which is very simple, and can be more rapidly applied than any other, will generally be sufficient. So far it is infallible that a heavy sample cannot be good. Others propose to gain the same end by burning weighed por- tions to ashes, and noting their weight, which will of course be greatest in adulterated sorts. To execute this method in a satis- factory manner, requires, however, more time and considerable amount of manipulative skill, since cochineal is not easily reduced to an ash perfectly free from carbonized organic matter. If time sufficient is allowed, and it be desirable to examine farther, a colour test is next applied. Equal portions — say 5 grs. each — of the samples are reduced to a fine powder and placed in clear glass tubes, or phials, of equal calibre. Upon each is poured 1 fluid oz. of spirit of wine, and the whole are exposed, loosely stoppered, to a gentle heat with frequent shaking. After two or three hours have passed, the tubes are examined by a north light, and the intensity and the purity of the colours com- pared. Or 20 grs. of each sample are reduced to a very fine powder and dissolved with the aid of a gentle heat, in 2 ozs. of a weak solution of caustic soda ; 4 ozs. of water are then added, and the whole is set aside to cool. A burette graduated into 100 equal divisions is filled with 5 grs. of pure red prussiate of potash, dissolved in a sufficient quantity of water. This liquid is gradually dropped from the burette into the solution of cochineal, till the 56 THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE "WARES. purple colour of the latter is destroyed and changed to a dull reddish brown. To detect this change of colour, drops of the liquid may be applied with a glass rod to a white plate. The sample which requires the largest amount of the test-liquor is, of course, the best. Good cochineal contains about 50 per cent, of colouring matter which it yields to boiling water. It must be remembered that here, as in the case of several other wares, the whole of the colour is not alike in quality. The portion most readily dissolved out, is by far the finest and brightest, whilst what remains is much duller in tone. This fact is of great importance in the manufacture ef the pigment carmine. The uses of cochineal scarcely need to be mentioned. It serves to produce scarlets, reds, crimsons, and pinks, upon woollen and worsted goods. Its proper mordant is tin. For silk, its affinity is less, and for cotton least of all. Indeed, a cochineal scarlet upon cotton is a desideratum not yet fully realized, though of less importance than heretofore. Coeruleine. — A green dye obtained from galleine on heating with a large excess of sulphuric acid. It is manufactured by Durant and Huguenin, of Bale, and yields in dyeing and printing exceedingly fast shades upon cotton. Aluminous mordants give greens, iron mordants browns, and mixtures of the two olives. The commercial paste contains 20 per cent, of the pure colour. An acid modification, Coeruleine S., is manufactured by the Baden Aniline Company. Collodion. — A solution of mono- or di-nitrocellulose (the lower kinds of gun-cotton.) It may be used in preparing a kind of lakes with the coal-tar colours. Colloids. — In contradistinction to crystalloids stand colloids, or colloidal bodies, so named from glue, which is a familiar specimen. Bodies of this class when re-assuming the solid state after solu- tion never take any regular specific geometrical form. Whether evaporated slowly or rapidly they dry up in irregular masses, which, if struck, break up as easily in one direction as another. Familiar examples of colloid bodies are gelatine, gums, and albu- THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. 57 men. They are readily separated from the crystalloids by the process of dialysis. Colorin. — A preparation of madder, differing little from Azale. It was an impure form of Alizarine, and is now out of use. Colours. — In the tinctorial sense, this term is applied solely to bodies which are capable, either alone or by the intervention of a mordant, of imparting a colour to animal and vegetable fibre, that is, of enabling its surface to reflect some particular ray — or set of rays — of light. Many bodies, brightly coloured in themselves, are utterly incapable of doing this, since they can neither be ground to powder nor brought into a liquid state without their colour entirely disappearing. We may instance the opal, fire- marble, Labradorite, peacock coal, etc. A farther limitation is practically needful. Many substances are capable of altering the shade of wool or cotton which is boiled or steeped in their extract of solution, bat the shade thus produced is a mere stain, void of body and of permanency. Colours in this restricted sense are divided into two classes : dyes which are capable of solution, and pigments which are applied in the solid state, as they cannot be dissolved without undergoing decomposition. The use of the latter class is confined to one par- ticular style of printing. The soluble colours or dyes must possess the following pro- perties. They must be soluble either in water or in some liquid which can be mixed with water without decomposition, and which does not exert any injurious influence on the fibre to be dyed. They must have an affinity for, or a disposition to attach them- selves to the tissue to be coloured. Dyes which possess in them- selves this affinity — as magenta, picric acid, safflower, indigo — were called by Bancroft substantive colours. Those which require the intervention of some third body (see Mordants) to fasten them upon the fibre are named adjective colours. This classifica- tion is convenient, but not unobjectionable. A colour is generally found to be substantive upon one fibre and merely adjective upon another. It may be capable of fastening itself alone upon the fibre, and may yet be much improved by the intervention of a mordant. 58 THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WAKES. Further, a colour must either be met with pure or must be easily separable from any accompanying bodies which might stain or spot the goods, or produce an objectionable modification of the shade. Such accompaniments are the tarry matters generated in the manufacture of the aniline colours, the yellow in safflower, the fawn colour in madder. Again, colours must possess commercial permanence. No colour will when applied to silk, wool or cotton retain its beauty undi- minished for ever. The action of light, air, moisture, changes of temperature, etc., must in the lapse of years modify such complex combinations as those formed by a colour, a mordant, and an organic fibre. But the colour produced must be so permanent that the goods dyed or printed may bear rinsing off or otherwise cleans- ing, drying, pressing, and packing ; may suffer no change during transit, pass safely through the merchant's warehouse and the draper's shop, and may after this still last a reasonable time in the hands of the purchaser. The degree of permanence required varies very much according to the nature of the goods, and the circumstances to which they are likely to be exposed. Articles of dress which will only be worn once or twice, and that by artificial light, may be dyed with colours of a very fugitive class. Such goods as will have to be repeatedly washed, or exposed to direct sunlight, rain and dew, sea- air, perspiration, friction, etc., must be dyed with colours of a very different nature. The piece-dyer will always know to what circumstances his work is likely to be exposed, and the dyer of wool, slubbings, silk and cotton skeins, and woollen or worsted yarns, would do well to ascertain. The chief agencies which affect the permanence of colours will require a brief notice. Foremost comes Light, which see. Mois- ture plays a prominent part in the alteration and fading of dyed and printed tissues, especially if applied in the form of dew. Before the discovery of chlorine, exposure to dew was the principal means of bleaching linen and cotton tissues. The reason probably being that dew contains a multitude of those germs and spores which are the acting part of ferments, and which are apt to set up decomposition in organic matter. The action of dew in injuring colours is well known. Consequently goods which will be exposed to its influence should be dyed with permanent colours. THE MANUAL OE COLOURS AND DYE WAKES. 59 Next conies the action of the atmosphere. Although no dyed goods are wholly protected from the air, they are exposed to it in very different degrees. The constituents of the atmosphere which interfere with colours are, in addition to watery vapour and ferments, oxygen in the active state, carbonic acid, Sulphurous ACID (which is always found more or less in the air of countries where coal is an article of fuel), sulphide of hydrogen, and sul- phide of ammonium from decomposing animal matter, etc. As far as articles of clothing are concerned, perspiration is a powerful agent for the deterioration of colours. Its most active constituent is lactic acid, a compound little less powerful than the mineral acids, and whose prolonged action scarcely any colour is able to resist. Friction is another destructive agency. Not only the colours, if at all loose, are thus removed, but the very surface of the fibre to which the colour is attached will be abraded. As a test, goods are rubbed with a piece of clean white silk. If this is at all soiled, the dye is pronounced not friction-proof. This property is not generally demanded in piece-dyed goods, but wool yarns or skeins, which, when woven, will form patterns, are of very little value if the different shades are capable of respectively soiling each other. Printed goods are also worthless if the darker portions of the designs rub off upon white or light- coloured grounds. "Washing is a compound cause of injury, combining the destruc- tive agencies of friction, moisture, soap — sometimes also soda and ammonia — with subsequent exposure to air, light, and sometimes to temperatures considerably above that of boiling water, as in the domestic operation of "ironing." Pew shades can undergo all these processes without showing some degrees of deterioration. Much depends on the manner in which the washing is performed. The permanence of a colour is also very much modified by the nature of the fibre to which it is applied. As a general rule, colours are faster upon wool than upon cotton, while silk holds an intermediate rank. In other instances, e.g. indigo, the order is reversed, the colour being more permanent upon cotton than upon wool. The mineral colours also furnish unsatisfactory results upon animal fibre. This is especially the case when, like the salts of iron and lead, they are capable of being blackened by the action of sulphur. 60 THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. From all this it will appear that a universal test by which the fast or fugitive character of a colour can be once for all ascertained is an impossibility. The only really practical plan is to expose the colour upon the kind of material in question to such in- fluences as goods of the kind are expected to withstand, and note the result. But to conclude because a certain dye is not injured by soap-lyes, that it will therefore resist the sunshine and night- dews of a tropical climate is illogical and unbusiness-like. Another quality which may be fairly demanded from colours is that they should exercise no injurious action either upon the dyer or upon those who may subsequently wear articles of dress made from the dyed materials. Here also there is latitude for judgment, according to the probable destination of the goods. We may safely say that no colour known to be poisonous, and to be capable of acting upon the system by absorption, should be used for dyeing articles to be worn in immediate contact with the skin. The recent outcry about " poisonous dyes " seems to me, however, exaggerated and sensational. Colours vary to a very great extent in their tinctorial power, that is, in the amount of material which they are capable of dyeing. This depends, in part, on the amount of actual colouring matter present in the crude dye-wares, in which there is great difference. Yet this is not all. If we compare two colouring matters in a state of purity, perfectly freed from all extraneous matter, we often find one possessing twenty times the available strength of the other. This difference is nowise indicated by a deeper apparent colour in the solution. Thus we may prepare two solutions of apparently the same depth of colour — the one of sulphate of indigo, and the other of an aniline blue — yet the latter will dye a much greater weight of wool or silk up to a given shade than the former. In like manner, a pale yellow solution of picric acid will dye more material than a decoction of fustic, which seems quite opaque with strength. In all the chemical arts there is a growing tendency to substitute pure proximate principles for crude natural products. This ten- dency is stronger at work in the arts of dyeing and printing. The old dye-wares, as furnished by nature, generally contain several tinctorial principles, mixed in varying amounts with matters indifferent, or in some cases hurtful. Modern tinctorial chemistry THE MANUAL OF COLOUKS AND DYE WARES. 61 seeks to effect a complete elimination of all matters hurtful or useless, and to isolate each true tinctorial principle, so that it may be used when, and only when, requisite, and in the exact propor- tion required. The second class of colours, the pigments , are used in certain styles of printing only. They differ from the dyes spoken of above in being insoluble. Consequently, they can only be attached to the surface of the fibre, instead of to a greater or less extent pervading its whole mass. Many pigments, well adapted for the use of the artist or decorator, are valueless to the printer. The latter requires pigments which are not very opaque, nor too dense in their texture ; otherwise, the designs have a dead, heavy, plastery effect, very unpleasant to the eye. But, at the same time, while they reflect light strongly, and seem semi-transparent, they must cover the fibre perfectly, and not allow any part of the ground to shine through. They must also be full, rich, and soft in tone, otherwise their effect is harsh and chalky. Thus red lead, used as a pigment in this style of printing, would be frightful. The use of pigment colours in printing is greatly on the increase. Colours, Examination of. — A few practical remarks on the examination of colours may be useful. 1 . Whether the body in question be a dye — solid or liquid— or a sample of printed or dyed goods, never examine it in direct sunlight. Select, if possible, a place lighted from the north, and where there are no objects liable to reflect false lights upon what you are examining. 2. The examination of colours is necessarily comparative, and demands that the object in question should be laid side by side with some standard. No man can safely say, " This piece matches that pattern ; this shade is brighter or flatter than that ;" or, " This liquid is more intensely coloured than some other," except he has the two before him. 3. Very bright colours, such as scarlets, magentas, etc., soon fatigue the eye. They should therefore be examined and compared quickly. Nothing can be gained by prolonged gazing. 4. The use of a lens, or any magnifying apparatus, is not only 62 THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. needless, but positively injurious. Colours are best appreciated by the naked eye. Copper, Ammoniuret. — The precipitate which ammonia causes in solutions of the sulphate, nitrate, and other salts of copper is easily re-dissolved on adding a further portion of ammonia, forming a liquid of a rich violet-blue colour. It has the property of dissolving cotton, which, if steeped in it, first becomes a jelly, and is then perfectly liquified. From this solution the cotton is thrown down as a white powder on the addition of acids. This powder has the same chemical constitution as cotton, but retains no trace of fibrous structure. In a less concentrated state it may serve for dyeing pale greens upon cotton. Copper, Nitrate. — This salt is met with of two kinds. Either metallic copper is dissolved in nitric acid till no more is taken up, or the sulphate of copper is dissolved in water, and then decomposed by adding an equivalent of the nitrate of lime, or of lead. The latter kind is most neutral. Nitrate of copper forms crystals of a much deeper and purer blue than the sulphate, but as these attract moisture, except pre- served in stoppered stoneware vessels, they are very rarely met with. The nitrate is commonly sold as a liquid of the specific gravity of 80° to 90° Twaddle, and as many purchasers judge of its strength solely by the hydrometer, it is largely adulterated with zinc, and a variety of other substances. If ammonia be poured into the liquid, the precipitate which is formed at first should entirely re-dissolve on adding more of the ammonia. If a current of sulphuretted hydrogen gas be passed into the liquid nitrate previously rendered more acid by the addition of some hydrochloric acid and continued to perfect saturation, the liquid remaining when filtered off from the precipitate, and evaporated to dryness, and heated strongly, should leave no residue. Much of the nitrate of copper now in the market is made, not by manufacturing chemists, but by workers in metals, who use nitric acid to cleanse articles of copper, brass, etc. , and who now sell the THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. 63 resultant liquor to dyers and printers at very low rates, but often impure. Nitrate of copper is now largely used in black- dyeing ; and in printing is employed along with catechu for a class of browns ; also in certain steam and spirit colours; and in resists for China blue. Copper, Sulphate of, called also Blue Vitriol, Blue Stone, and Roman Vitriol. — This salt is found in fine, deep blue crystals of a nauseously metallic taste, and liable to effloresce in a very dry atmosphere. It dissolves in half its weight of boiling water, and in three times its weight of cold water. The solution saturated at 62° Fahr. marks 36° Tw. At temperature about 212° Fahr., the crystals lose their water of crystallization, and become converted into a white powder, which, on contact with the minutest trace of water, turns blue, and thus may serve to indicate the presence of that liquid, e.g. in alcohol. At a red heat, blue vitriol is decomposed, leaving the oxide of copper as a black powder. Sulphate of copper is contaminated with a variety of impurities. Of these, the most common is sulphate of iron, which may be present to a considerable extent without altering either the colour or the form of the crystals. To detect it, or any other salt of iron which may occur, boil the solution of the sample with a little nitric acid, and add ammonia in large excess. The oxide of copper thrown down at first is re -dissolved by the ammonia, but any trace of iron will be found in the shape of brown flakes floating in the liquid, and may be filtered off. Another very common impurity is the sulphate of zinc. To detect it, pass a current of sulphuretted hydrogen gas into the solution of the sample, to which a little pure hydrochloric acid has previously been, added. Filter off the black sediment (sulphide of copper) ; evaporate the clear liquid to dryness, and apply a strong heat. Nothing will remain if the blue vitriol was pure, whilst oxides of zinc, manganese, magnesia, etc., will remain, if any of these bodies was present. The uses of sulphate of copper in dyeing and printing are not very extensive. Admont vitriol, Cyprus vitriol, Salzburg vitriol, and Eagle vitriol are mixtures of blue vitriol and copperas. 64 THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. Copperas, or Green Vitriol. — A name familiarly given to the protosulphate of iron, from trie mistaken notion that it con- tained copper. It is generally prepared from the soft white variety of iron pyrites frequently found to an immense extent in the coal- measures. These, on exposure to air and moisture, decompose the latter, taking up oxygen, and are thus converted into sulphate of iron. Should the sulphuric acid thus generated from the mineral be more in amount than the iron is capable of saturating, a quantity of iron scrap is added to the liquid which drains from the pyrites-beds. Copperas forms pale greenish-blue, semi-transparent crystals, containing 45 per cent, of water. If this is expelled, there remains a white powder. The crystals dissolve in one and a half times their weight of cold, and in one- third of boiling water. On long exposure to the air, they become covered with a brown rusty coat- ing, especially if damp, owing to the formation of a portion of sesquioxide of iron. Copperas should be well-drained from the mother liquor; the crystals clean and hard, and of a decided green colour. If of a dull whitish or greyish green — or, as it is technically called, milky — the presence of alumina is to be suspected. To detect this, boil a small portion with pure nitric acid. Add pure caustic soda — that prepared from metallic sodium to be preferred— in large excess ; boil in a clean iron vessel and filter. Add to the clear filtrate a solution of pure sal ammoniac. If, on standing, a white precipitate appears, alumina was present in the copperas. To a small extent this impurity will be found in most samples, but if pyrites have been used contaminated largely with aluminiferous shales, or if the copperas has been crystallized from too concentrated solutions, it may rise to very serious proportions, and seriously impair the colours produced by the copperas. It is in all cases an impurity due to mismanagement, not to fraudulent intention. Lime is sometimes dusted over copperas to give a newly-made article that brown, spotty appearance which some consumers prefer. To detect this dissolve a portion ; add to the solution an excess of ammonia, which should be free from carbonic acid. Let the mixture stand in a glass jar with ground edges, which should be slightly greased and covered with a glass plate, so as to exclude THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. G5 the air. When the precipitate has subsided, pour off a part of the clear liquid into a test glass, and add a solution of oxalic acid in distilled water. If lime was present, a white precipitate will be formed on standing for a few minutes. Zinc and copper may sometimes accidentally occur in samples of copperas, but only to a very small extent. The direct uses of copperas in dyeing have very much diminished. For dyeing blacks upon wool in conjunction with logwood, it has been to a very great extent superseded by chrome. For blacks upon cotton, as also for saddening drabs, clarets, etc., the nitrate of iron is generally preferred. But the quantity of copperas consumed indirectly in dyeing and printing, as serving for the preparation of nitrate of iron, is very large. It is also sometimes used in making pyrolignite of iron, and is extensively employed in the cold vat for cottons. Copperas, Calcined. — This is an article used occasionally by some dyers, though what benefit can be derived from its employ- ment is very problematical. If it has been really calcined nothing can remain but the peroxide of iron, which being quite insoluble in water, will settle to the bottom of the dye-beck without any effect. If merely the water of crystallization be expelled, its action must be similar to that of fresh or raw copperas, since, as soon as it comes in contact with water, it will at once return to its ordinary state and dissolve as such. Coralline, Peonine, Aurine. — Colours obtained from car- bolic acid by treatment with oxalic and sulphuric acid. They give certain deep reds verging on a scarlet, and are employed in silk and woollen dyeing and in printing. The shades produced are tolerably fast against air and light, but are readily turned yellow by acids. Peonine seems to differ from red coralline in its behaviour and is probably an amide compound. Yellow coralline is now very little used. Coralline lakes are extensively employed in paper- staining. Cork. — A fine yellow colour may be obtained by the action of nitric acid upon cork-cutter's waste. It was at one time employed in producing a fine and permanent shade upon silk and wool for F 66 THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. fancy waisfccoatings. It was a mixture containing much picric acid, and is not now in use. The outer bark of the cork tree has also been employed in its natural state as a nankeen dye, but is now abandoned. Cotton. — One of the principal modifications of lignine, or woody fibre. It has greater affinities for colours and mordants than most vegetable matters. In this respect, however, different kinds vary. Portions of cotton sometimes occur, in greater or smaller quantity, which have little or no affinity for colour. This phenomenon is not satisfactorily explained ; but in such fibres, the central tube appears to be filled up with a kind of pith. By strong nitric acid cotton is readily converted into Pyroxi- line or gun cotton, and is then soluble in acetic ether ; by con- centrated caustic soda it is mercerized ; by muriatic and sulphuric acids it is rapidly tendered and rotted, as also by mordants which are too strong in acid. Its affinities for the metallic colours are strong, whilst the weed and coal-tar colours, with few exceptions, can only be fixed upon it by indirect methods. Crimson Paste. — A preparation of cochineal and ammonia, used in dyeing grain crimsons upon animal fibre. An actual chemical combination must ensue between the colouring matter of the cochineal and the ammonia, since neither exposure to the air, nor heat, nor the addition of a large excess of oxalic acid, can restore the cochineal to its natural properties, or enable it to dye a scarlet. i Cryolite. — A double fluoride of aluminium and sodium, found in quantity only at Ovifak, in Greenland. Being quite free from iron, it serves for the preparation of pure aluminate of soda and other aluminium compounds. Crystallization. — Many bodies when returning to the solid state — whether such liquidity has been caused by heat or by the aid of a solvent liquid — take a regular form, being bounded by planes of a fixed number, meeting each other at certain angles. In one and the same kind of substance, crystallized under the same THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. 67 circumstances, these planes and angles are immutable. Hence such bodies may be recognized by their crystalline figure. These substances are in fact nearly always crystalline. If we evaporate their solutions down rapidly, we may obtain what at first appears a shapeless mass, but if examined under the lens, it proves to be an aggregation of tiny crystals. The substances which we call amorphous or shapeless, are generally the broken, or worn frag- ments of crystals. Crystallization generally ensues when a hot saturated solution of a crystalloid body is allowed to cool. The more gradual the process, and the deeper the mass of liquid, the more perfect are the crystals. Crystalloids. — Bodies which, when solidifying, take a regular geometrical form, invariable in each kind. They are distinguished from and opposed to the Colloids. (See Crystallization".) Cudbear. — Cudbear is in its origin and properties very similar to archil, from which it differs mainly in being freed from all excess of ammonia, and from moisture, and on being reduced to a fine powder. It is sometimes purposely contaminated with mineral matter, such as salt, carbonate of lime, etc. These frauds may be detected by burning a weighed quantity of the sample to ashes. If genuine, the residue will be quite inconsiderable. Or weighed portions of cloth and woollen yarn may be dyed with equal weights, when the deficiency of the sophisticated samples will appear. Cudbear is used for dyeing ruby and maroon shades, as well as a variety of browns. Its consumption has been lessened by the introduction of certain coal-tar colours, such as " ruby," or aniline- crimson. Cyanogen Purple. — This is a purple pigment invented by Gaston Bong, and is substantially a mixture of the ferrocyanides of copper and iron. It has great power of resisting chemical agents and light, and will probably be useful in pigment styles and in paper-staining. Datiscine and Datiscetine. — A colouring matter obtained from the roots of Datisca cannabina, a plant indigenous to the Punjab, where it is used to dye silks a permanent yellow. G8 THE MANUAL OP COLOUBS AND DYE WA11ES. The roots are of a yellow colour, and are generally found in pieces about six inches long and half an inch in thickness. Datis- cine when pure is colourless, but forms bright yellow lakes with, the salts of lead and tin. If boiled for a few minutes in dilute sulphuric acid, it is converted into datiscetine, which has a far higher tinctorial power. Deliquescence. — Many bodies, crystalline or otherwise, on exposure to air, absorb a quantity of the moisture always present in the atmosphere, in which they dissolve if solids, or with which they dilute themselves if already in a liquid state. Chloride of calcium and sulphuric acid are familiar examples. If placed in a shut-up apparatus, deliquescent bodies may be employed to dry any other article placed along with them, without the aid of heat. Dextrine. — When starch of any kind is exposed for some time to a high temperature, or heated with dilute mineral acids, or treated with diastase, it undergoes a chemical change. It becomes soluble in water, loses the property of taking a blue colour with iodine, and is rendered very similar to the natural gums. In this state it is largely used by calico printers in thickening colours, and is met with in trade under a variety of names, according to the kind of starch originally used as a material and the process employed for its conversion. Thus we have calcined farina and leiocome, generally made from potato-starch ; light and dark British gum, and gum- substitute, gomme d' Alsace, gommine and gommaline, all which names were originally given to wheat-starch, more or less strongly roasted or calcined. (It must be remarked that the epithet calcined, though commonly used, is incorrect, since calcination would simply destroy the material.) So-called soluble gums are prepared by the action of acids upon starch. These names, however, are applied in a very capricious manner. Gums should be nearly free from grit, which is never entirely absent, butwhichif it reaches one-fifth per cent, acts injuriously up on the printing cylinders. To ascertain its quantity a portion of the sample is boiled in a mixture of nitric and muriatic acids till the organic matter is entirely or nearly destroyed. The residue is then ignited, to remove any traces of carbon, and the remaining grit is THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE "WARES. 69 weighed. Sugar (glucose) is often generated to some extent in the manufacture of gum, and remains mixed with the finished product, where it often acts injuriously, interfering with the action of metallic mordants upon colours, etc. The practical value of gums is judged by their thickening power, i.e. the number of pounds which must be dissolved in a gallon of water to thicken it. Dialysis. — In his experiments upon diffusibility, the late Pro- fessor Graham found that soluble substances might be divided into crystalloid and colloid (gluey), The former alone were capable of passing through a vertical partition of membrane, whilst the latter remain behind. In this manner bodies of the two classes may be respectively separated, either in analytical operations, or on a large scale for manufacturing purposes. Dichroic Colours. — Weselsky and Benedikt have obtained colours not yet fully known which dye silks a shade which appears blue by day-light, but rose by gas, or lamp-light. Diffusion. — If different solid bodies are placed respectively in contact with equal volumes of the same fluid, as for instance water, it is found that they differ greatly in their power of travelling through the water. Some kinds pervade the whole liquid with which they are in contact much more rapidly than others. This is called their diffusibility, and has no relation to their solubility. The same phenomenon occurs when miscible liquids are placed in contact. In some cases decompositions, more or less complete, may be effected by taking advantage of the varying diffusibility of the substances concerned. (See also Endosmose.) Diphenylamine Blue, or Methyl-diphenylaniine. — A splendid colour obtained by treating diphenylamine with iodide of methyl at temperatures above 212° Fahr. It is not in practical use. Direct Greens. — A name given to a class of coal-tar colours prepared direct from dimethylaniline. They include solid green, malachite green, Victoria green, and a few others differing little, if at all, in their chemical character, though obtained by different 10 THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. methods. The malachite green is considered the most beautiful, and the " solid" the most easily soluble. The direct greens are scarcely equal to methyl- green in beauty, but they have the advan- tage of bearing a high temperature without being discoloured. They cannot be shaded to any extent with picric acid., as it renders them insoluble. Divi-divi. — One of the most important of the class of astrin- gents, or bodies containing tannin. It is composed of the bean-like pods of Ccesaljpinia coriaria, a small tree found in South America, especially in the district of Maracaibo. The pods are about 3 inches in length by 1 in breadth, and are generally folded up or bent, as if they had been exposed to a great heat. In colour they are brown, sometimes blackish. They are much richer in tannin than sumac or myrobalans ; it is, however, accompanied by a kind of colouring matter, which greatly interferes with its usefulness in certain cases. The tannin is all found in the outer part of the pod, the seeds and the portion in which they are enveloped being inert. Divi pods should be selected thick and fleshy, and of as pale a colour as possible. Those of a very deep brown covered with black blotches have been gathered when wet, or have been subsequently exposed to damp, which considerably injures their quality. The comparative value of samples of divi-divi, may be ascer- tained as follows : A fair average is coarsely powdered, and a known portion of this — say 50 or 100 grs. — is weighed out and steeped for a known time in a pint of boiling water. Some clean white calico, which must be perfectly free from grease, stiffening, etc., is then weighed out and steeped for an hour in the infusion. It is then taken out, allowed to drain, and re-soaked in half a pint of cold water, to which 2 fluid drachms of nitrate of iron have been added. After being allowed to lie in this liquid, with occasionally turning, for about 10 minutes, it is taken out, rinsed in cold water and dried. The patterns are then compared, when the intensity and goodness of the black colour they exhibit will give a good practical view of the strength and value of the samples. The patterns may be preserved for reference. The exact weights and measures used are of no importance, but THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE "WARES. 71 whatever quantities, times, temperature, etc., are once selected should be noted, and ever afterwards adhered to, or the results will not admit of comparison. The nitrate of iron used should always be of the same make and specific gravity. A much more accurate method, requiring some familiarity with chemical manipulation, but which in experienced hands gives nearly the exact percentage of tannin found in the sample, is as follows : The sample being fairly taken, is ground to a very fine powder. 50 or 100 grs. are then weighed out, placed in a small beaker glass, and boiled for a few minutes with a little distilled water, sufficient to cover the powder. While boiling, it must be occasionally stirred with a glass rod. The clear liquid is then poured off without straining or filtering, into another beaker, whilst a fresh portion of distilled water is poured upon the powder and boiled afresh. This is repeated four to six times, when all the decoctions, poured together into the second beaker, are set aside to cool, being kept covered with a glass plate. A standard test solution should have been previously prepared as follows: — 1 drachm of dry uncoloured gelatine is dissolved in 4 fluid ozs. of distilled water, with the aid of a gentle heat. When dissolved, 15 grs. of pure alum in fine powder are added, and dissolved in the liquid with occasional shaking round. It is then poured into a stoppered bottle and preserved for use, in a dark place, and preferable at a temperature just sufficient to keep it from coagulating. 155 grs. of this solution are sufficient for 5 grs. of pure tannin. To complete the operation, a quantity of the test solution is poured into a Schuster's alkalimeter, which is then weighed, and the weight noted. The test liquor is next carefully dropped from the Schuster into the beaker containing the decoction of divi-divi, till when a drop falls upon the surface, a ring-shaped spot is no longer produced. The beaker is then set aside for a few minutes that the contents may settle, when the clear liquid floating above the sediment is thus examined. Take a plate of black glass, or of common glass lying upon a sheet of black paper, and with a glass rod make upon it a couple of spots of the clear fluid. Add to one of these a drop of the test liquor (A), and to the other (B), a drop of a solution of tannin, which should be kept at hand for the 72 THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE "WARES. purpose. If A shows a white turbidity, the liquor under exami- nation will take a further addition of the test-liquor; but if B grows turbid, the mark has been over-stepped. Great accuracy may be reached if this spotting process is frequently applied as the analysis draws to a close. When all is oyer, the Schuster is weighed, when the loss of weight shows the amount of test-fluid consumed, every 155 grs. of which represent 5 per cent, of tannin in the sample examined, if 100 grs. have been taken. Or, after extracting the tannin from the sample by boiling in distilled water as above, add a solution of gelatine. The pre- cipitate that forms is allowed to settle, the liquid above is care- fully decanted off, and repeatedly washed with cold distilled water. It is then thrown upon a paper filter placed in a glass funnel, dried at a temperature of 212° Fahr. till it no longer loses weight, and weighed. 10 grs. of this precipitate signify 4 grs. of tannin. Another method is as follows : — Prepare a standard solution by dissolving sulphate of cinchona in a known measure of distilled water. A very little magenta is added, just sufficient to give the liquid a distinct red colour. A burette is filled with this standard liquid. A grain of pure tannin is next dissolved in water, and the test-liquor is dropped very gradually and carefully into it from the burette, till a faint pink tint appears in the glass above the precipitate which is first formed. Note the number of degrees of the burette which have been consumed to bring about this result, and which will represent 1 gr. of pure tannin. 100 grs. of the sample under examination are now extracted with distilled water, as above directed. A burette is filled with the cinchona liquid, which is then dropped into the decoction of divi-divi, till a faint permanent pink tinge appears in the liquid. The number of degrees of the burette consumed being noted, and compared with the above ascertained number, representing 1 gr. of tannin, the percentage of tannin in the sample will be seen at once. The consumption of divi-divi for dyeing purposes is now very large. Since, however, its tannin, as already intimated, is accom- panied by a peculiar colouring matter, divi-divi is more adapted THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. 7;3 for blacks and other sad colours, than for light and bright shades. Another defect of divi-divi is, that being of an adhesive nature, small fragments of the ground pods are apt to stick fast to the goods which are being prepared therewith. "When these are washed away, it is found that they have acted the part of a resist, protecting the spots where they have adhered from the action of the tannin. Thus when the dyeing process is finished, the goods will appear spotted. To prevent this, the divi-divi is extracted in water, and only the clear liquor allowed to come in contact with the goods. The tannin in good divi-divi may reach 48 to 50 per cent. Efflorescence. — When a salt parts with more or less of its water of crystallization on exposure to dry air or heat, losing its form and transparency and falling to powder, it is said to effloresce. Emeraldine. — An aniline-green produced direct from the fibre, by Calvert and Lowe's patent. It has disappeared from use. Endosmose. — If a saline solution and a quantity of pure water, or two saline solutions of different strength be placed in a suitable vessel, and separated by a division of bladder or artificial parchment, a current is established towards the stronger solution, the water finding its way through the division until the strength of the two is equalized. Enthylrosine Pink. — A colour manufactured by Messrs. Eead, Holliday, and Sons, of Huddersfield. Eosine. — A beautiful artificial red dye, which must rank among the phthaleines. It is obtained by the action of bromine upon fluoresceine dissolved in alcohol, and its scientific name is tetrabrom- fluoresceine. It dyes an intense rose, free from the purple cast of magenta, and verging to the yellow side of red. The sodium and potassium compounds of tetrabromfluoresceine are also known as eosines. Several modifications occur in commerce, some soluble in water, and some in spirit. The latter are dissolved by stirring up 74 THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WAKES. 1 lb. of the colour in J lb. water, and making up to 1 gallon with boiling water in which ozs. soda crystals have been dissolved. Lastly add 20 lbs. alcohol at 94 per cent. Eosine both in solution and on the fibre appears of different tones as seen respectively by reflected or transmitted light. This is the first step towards obtain- ing in dyeing the effects which nature produces in the plumage of many tropical birds, insects, etc. There is also a succinyleosine which dyes shades darker and less fluorescent than common eosine. Eosine, B.N. — A red dye of the phthaleine class, manufactured by the Baden Aniline Company. It is a nitrobromfluoresceine, but the details of its preparation have not been made public. Eosine, Blue. — A colour belonging to the phthaleine group, manufactured by MM. Bindschedler and Busch, of Bale. It is soluble in water, and dyes shades more inclining to the blue than the ordinary yellow eosine. It is a tetraiodfluoresceine-compound of soda, and it is also known as erythraine. Ericine. — A yellow dye alleged to be obtained from the stems of heather (Calluna vulgaris), and from poplar wood, and recommended by the inventors as a substitute for quercitron, berries, etc. Erythric Acid. — A principle existing in orchella weeds. It is a perfectly white tasteless body, soluble in water, alcohol, and ether. Its solutions redden litmus paper. By alkalies it is converted into orcin and carbonic acid. Its solution in ammonia soon takes a reddish purple colour on exposure to the air. Nitrate of silver has no action on an alcoholic solution, but is speedily reduced if boiled with an ammoniacal solution. With perchloride of iron the alcoholic tincture gives a deep purple colour, which is changed into yellow by ammonia. Basic acetate of lead gives a copious precipitate. Erythric acid is considered by Schunck to be the sole basis of the colouring matters extracted from orchella weeds. Brythrine. — A red phthaleine dye which is an ethyl compound of eosine, or, in strict scientific language, monethyltetrabromfluor- THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. 7r> esceine. It dissolves in spirit ; and dyes shades verging to the purple side of red. The potassium salt of erythrine dyes the same shades on silk and wool. It must not be confounded with the erythrine or erythric acid of orchella weeds. Erythrose. — The roots both of common and Turkey rhubarb when digested under certain conditions in nitric acid, yield from 8 to 10 per cent, of an orange or yellowish matter, which possesses strong tinctorial powers, and to which the names erythrose and erythrosic acid have been given. With suitable mordants, erythrose is capable of yielding red and violet colours of considerable beauty and value, but is not in use. Eschscholzine. — The plant Eschsclwltzia contains in its root a colouring matter which may be called eschscholzine, capable of dyeing very fine and bright yellow and orange shades. Owing to the superabundance of yellow dyes it is of no practical value. Extracting Liquor, Runge's. — A mixture very useful in testing dye-woods, etc. It is thus prepared : — Take 90 parts weight of alcohol or methy- lated spirit, the stronger the better. Drop into it very slowly, and with constant stirring, 10 parts by weight of oil of vitriol at full strength. Preserve for use in a stoppered phial. Pel's Yellow. — An acid colour forming red compounds, with bases, and obtained by oxidizing carbolic acid. The colour is soluble in water. Alone, it dyes shades of yellow, and combined with peonine, etc., it gives browns. In presence of lime it dyes shades of red on wool or silk. Fibres, Separation of. — If we suppose a yarn or woven fabric of wool and cotton, they may be separated as follows : — The whole is submitted to the action of steam at a pressure of one and a half to two atmospheres. The wool dissolves out, and the residue may be washed, dried and weighed. Cotton and linen in mixed yarns or tissues are best distinguished from each other by means of the microscope. 76 THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. Hemp and flax may be distinguished by moistening with chlorine water, which is poured off after a few minutes, and a few drops of ammonia added. Hemp turns a pale rose colour, but flax remains colourless. Finishing Blues. — A variety of blue colours are used as a final application to goods which are to be sent out in a white state. After the best-conducted bleaching processes all fibres, both animal and vegetable, still retain a faint yellowish tinge, or rather a mixture of yellow and red. The nearest approach to a pure white is obtained by superadding a very faint tint of pure blue. For this purpose a great variety of blue colours have been tried, according to the nature of the goods and the taste of different markets. Prussian blue in its soluble modification has been used, but is apt to give a greenish colour, and when the goods are sub- sequently washed changes to a rusty shade. The insolubility of ultramarine prevents it being applied with the necessary regularity. The soluble preparations of indigo, especially purpuric acid and Distilled Blue, are better. But certain blue preparations of aniline are now justly preferred to all others from their purity, lustre, and permanence, and the ease with which they may be regularly applied even in the faintest tint. Flavine. — A yellow and orange colouring matter extracted from quercitron bark. There are two qualities in the market, the American and the English. The former, which is preferable, is prepared by a secret process. English flavine is a kind of lake or precipitate from the decoction of bark, and contains a variable amount of mineral matter. I have found in some samples of English flavine 8 per cent, of common salt, or, as it is significantly called in some establishments, the " old useful.' ' As flavine fluctuates greatly, not merely in strength but in brightness and purity of colour, the best method of examining it is to dye swatches of clean woollen yarn or cloth with the respective samples. Like many other yellow dyes, flavine has less affinity for veget- able than for animal fibre. Its usual mordants are the prepara- tions of tin, either tin crystals, or the liquid known as " nitrate of tin," " bowl spirits," or " scarlet spirits." THE MANUAL OY COLOURS AND DYE WARES. 77 Elavine is in very extensive use for yellow and orange shades, as also for giving the yellow parts of scarlets and greens. Flowers, Colours of.— A recent investigator refers all the colours of flowers to a few principles — cyanine, a blue pigment ; a red matter identical with cyanine, but altered in colour by acids and two yellow bodies, one of which, xanthine, is insoluble in water, and the other, xantheine, soluble. Cyanine is non-crys- talline, soluble in water and alcohol, but insoluble in ether ; it is reddened by acids and turned green by alkalies. This may be true as regards some flowers, but it is not universally correct. The red colour of safflower, for instance, is not a blue modified by the action of an acid, since alkalies do not turn it blue even in excess. Franguline. — (Rhamnoxantliine.) — A colouring matter ob- ■ tained from Rhamnus frangula, sl tree of the same genus as that which yields the Persian berries. The colour is contained in the twigs, roots, and bark. When pure, it forms golden yellow crystals, inodorous, tasteless, and nearly insoluble in water, but soluble in alcohol, benzole, and fatty oils. It dissolves in ammonia, potash, and soda, with a splendid reddish purple colour; with alkaline carbonates the colour is less fine. Concentrated sulphuric acid converts franguline instantly into a beautiful emerald green. To preserve the new colour, the acid must be immediately poured off, when it appears very stable, being unaffected by alkalies and dilute acids. But if the sulphuric acid is allowed to remain in contact with the franguline, the green colour speedily passes into purple and red. On the addition of water, the yellow colour returns. Deoxidizing agents convert rhamnoxanthine into a brown colour. "With the hydrated metallic oxides solutions of franguline form lakes, some of which are very beautiful. If it be dissolved in dilute ammonia, acidified with citric acid, and magnesia added, a fine violet lake is obtained. Franguline has a greater affinity for wool and silk than for cotton. A fine golden yellow may be given to silk by a bath prepared with rhamnus twigs extracted in dilute ammonia, sub- 78 THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. sequently acidified with citric acid. Beddish and yellowish browns are produced upon wool without any mordant. By cautiously treating franguline with strong nitric acid, a new colouring matter, nitrofrangulic acid, is obtained in orange crys- tals. It dissolves sparingly in cold, but abundantly in boiling water, forming a crystal ' liquid, from which it is re-deposited either on cooling or on the addition of an acid. In alkalies it dissolves with a violet-red colour. The salts of lead, baryta, and lime give fiery red lakes, with solutions of nitrofrangulic acid. If a prolonged current of the sulphide of hydrogen is passed through a hot aqueous solution of the acid, the dark red liquor changes to a violet blue, which is heightened by the addition of an alkali, and gives a violet blue precipitate with hydrochloric acid. Fruits, Colours of. — The juices of several fruits exhibit intense and apparently rich colours, chiefly of a purple cast. Such are the mulberry, bilberry, blackberry, and elderberry. These colours, when extracted and applied to any kind of fibre, appear very dull, and are exceedingly fugitive. Air, light, soap, acids, etc., rapidly destroy them. Bilberries have been employed upon a small scale for dyeing blueish purples, but are falling into disuse. The colouring matter of the red cabbage, of the rind of the radish, beet-root, etc., appears similar in its reactions, and is of no value. Fuchsine, or Fuschine. — One of the red colouring matters obtained from aniline, and generally included, in England, under the common name magenta. It is a hydrochlorate of rosaniline, and is generated when certain anhydrous chlorides, such as those of carbon, elayl, tin, etc., are allowed to act upon aniline at elevated temperatures. The name which is objectionable, as it would strictly signify some proximate principle obtained from plants of the genus Fuchsia, is still retained in France and Germany. The colour of fuchsine, properly so-called, is rather of & yellower shade than that of roseine. Fustic. — [Cuba Wood, Old Fustic, Yellow Wood.) — One of the most important dye wares, obtained from Morus tinctoria, a large THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE "WARES. 79 tree growing in Cuba, Nicaragua, and Brazil. The wood is yellow, veined with a more orange shade. It contains two colouring matters, morine (the white morine of Chevreul), and morein (identical with the yellow morine of the chemist just named). These colours appear, however, to be modifications of one and the same principle, morine readily passing into morein, when treated with suitable oxidizing agents. Prom fustic can be obtained also a fine red colouring matter, the so-called fustic carmine, which is worthy of more attention than it has hitherto received. Morine is found principally in the heart wood. It is soluble in acids, turns a deeper yellow on contact with alkalies, and with solutions of a per-salt of iron turns a vinous red. Morein, on the contrary, in solution gives a dark-green pre- cipitate with the per-salt of iron. Pure morine is the most delicate test known for ammonia, the smallest trace of which turns it orange. Both morine and morein are apt to take up more oxygen, forming reddish-brown com- pounds. Fustic varies less in quality than most dye wares. It comes into sale in four states ; namely, as chips, rasped to powder, as an aqueous extract, and as a paste or lake. In the two former states it is generally laid up for several weeks before coming into use, being frequently turned over and sprinkled with water. This process softens the woody fibre, and enables the colour to be more easily extracted. Sometimes, however, the water is present in such amount as to constitute an adulteration. I have met with samples both of chipped and rasped fustic, which, when carefully dried at 212° Fahr., lost no less than 48 per cent. Like many other vegetable matters, moist rasped fustic is subject to heat, unless frequently turned over. It is not, however, so soon or so seriously deteriorated by such an occurrence as logwood. Pustic liquor, or extract of fustic, is water saturated at 212° Fahr. with the colouring principles of fustic, and boiled down to 8° or 10° Twaddle. Like the other extracts, this liquor is often sprung, as it is technically called, that is, mixed with some sub- stance that may increase its weight, and cause it to mark a higher degree on the hydrometer. Common salt is generally selected 80 THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WABES. from its cheapness, ready solubility, and from the fact that it does not very seriously modify the appearance of the liquid. Some makers of extracts even profess that salt is necessary to dissolve the colouring matter out of the wood. This, I have satisfied myself by direct experiment, is an error. Pure water takes up a larger proportion of the colour, and holds it more perfectly and permanently in solution than saline liquids. Some of the varieties of paste fustic are simply obtained by evaporating down the liquor. Others are more properly lakes, in which the colour is held in feeble combination with certain mineral bases which readily give it up when required to the fibre. Fustic is very extensively used along with logwood for blacks ; woollen and worsted goods are dyed with it a yellow, and a green after previous treatment with extract of indigo. Upon cotton it is also employed for yellows, as well as for greens and some other compound colours, though perhaps less extensively than quercitron bark. It is less affected by acids than quercitron, but has much less tinctorial power. There is also a dry or solid extract of fustic. Young Fustic, Zante Fustic, or Fustet. — The wood of a European shrub, the Rhus cotinus, or Yenetian sumac. It con- tains a large amount of fustin, a bright but not very permanent yellow colouring matter. Eustin is soluble in alcohol and water. The solution forms an orange-coloured lake with preparations of tin, and a dull green with salts of iron. The solutions of fustin are reddened by alkalies. Eustet is very little used in cotton- dyeing, not at all in calico- printing, but is used by some woollen- dyers to give a more fiery tint to their scarlets. Galium. — A plant growing wild in heathy districts, known as bed- straw. It belongs to the madder family, and contains similar colouring matters. An insect which feeds upon it, Timarcha levigata, appears saturated with a red colour. Gall-nuts, — The so-called gall-nuts are not, as commonly supposed, a fruit, but a diseased growth produced upon the twigs THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WAHES. 81 of a dwarf oak, Quercus infectoria, when irritated by the eggs of the gall-wasp, Cynips gallce tinctorice. The part of the branch where the egg is deposited swells into a round nut-like mass, within which the larva of the insect grows and undergoes its metamorphosis. The galls are of the finest quality when collected just before the insect has made its escape, and are then known in commerce as blue galls. After the insect has emerged the colour is paler, the amount of tannin somewhat less, and they are known as white galls. They are imported chiefly from Asiatic Turkey, those pro- duced in the district of Aleppo being considered the finest. The Chinese galls are of very good quality. The percentage of tannin in fine galls is about 70 to 78. The tannin contained in the gall-nut is not only larger in amount than in most other natural sources of this principle, but it is of finer quality. Hence they are selected as the best material for the preparation of pure tannin. The consumption of galls both in printing and dyeing is very limited. They are used in producing the best class of blacks upon silk. When very light and pure shades of aniline colours require to be fixed upon cotton, gall-nuts are selected as the astringent in preference to myrobalans or sumac. The amount of gallic acid prse-existing in gall-nuts is very small, but the decoction or infusion, like those of other astringents, is liable to the fermentation which converts tannin into the worth- less gallic acid. Infusions of galls gives with the chloride of manganese a dirty yellow precipitate ; with protosulphate of iron a purple tint ; with persulphate of iron a blue-black precipitate ; with the chloride of zinc a dirty yellow ; with the protochloride of tin a straw colour ; with per chloride of tin a fawn colour ; with chloride of copper a yellow brown ; with nitrate of copper a dull green ; with nitrate of lead a faint yellow ; with tartar-emetic a straw colour, and with chloride of cobalt a dirty white. Galleine. — A dye discovered by Baeyer, and obtained by heating pyrogallol along with anhydrous phthalic acid. It is manufactured chiefly by Durant and Huguenin, of Bale. It approaches in its properties Haemateine, the colouring principle G 82 THE MANUAL OF COLOUKS AND DYE WARES. of logwood. With alumina it gives colours resembling those of logwood, but brighter and faster, and with sugar of lead a good violet blue which bears soaping. Gallic Acid exists prse-formed in the seeds of the mango, and is formed in infusions of astringents, such as galls, sumacs, etc., by the decomposition of the tannin, or, as it is sometimes called, tannic acid. Gallic acid is useless in dyeing blacks. On the other hand, it is actually prejudicial, dissolving the iron mordant, and hindering it from combining with the fibre. Its presence is in great part the cause why extracts of astringents cannot be employed in dyeing after they have turned " sour," as it is called. Gallic acid with aluminous mordants has been proposed as a red dye, but is not in use. Galls. — (Wild.) — An astringent body occasionally used to mix with myrobalans or divi. Unlike the true gall, they are not a diseased excrescence, but a seed or berry. In form they are somewhat intermediate between galls and myrobalans. When broken, there appears a thin outer layer in which the tannin chiefly resides, and a large hard stone containing a kernel. Neither of the two latter parts have any important percentage of tannin. The stone forms on an average 50 per cent, of the entire weight of wild galls, and hence the whole nut when ground up is weaker than the myrobalan. The tannin is of good quality. Gamboge. — A fine yellow gum-resin, not soluble in water. It is not employed in dyeing or printing, but serves to some extent in painting in water-colours. Garanceux. — Garanceux is a preparation of madder which agrees with garancine in its mode of manufacture, in its general properties, and in the purposes to which it is applied in dyeing and printing. The distinction is, tha.t whilst garancine is prepared from fresh madder, garanceux is made from the spent or exhausted madder collected from the dye-becks. It is weaker than garancine, having THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. 83 when dried one-third the strength, and when damp but pressed only one-sixth to one-ninth. Garancine. — (Charbon siilpJiiiriqiie.) — A formerly important preparation of madder, taking its name from garance, the French word for that ware. Madder, when treated with strong sulphuric acid, is, like most organic matters, blackened, and converted into a species of char- coal. Its colouring matter, however, is not destroyed, and when the acid is removed by washing, the residue is found to have, weight for weight, a greater tinctorial power than the best qualities of unprepared madder. Madder, during its conversion into garancine, loses from the half to two-thirds of its weight, accordingly as it happens to contain, in addition to colouring matter, more hard woody fibre (lignine) or of soluble principle. On the average, good garancine should be three times as strong as a madder of superior quality. Garancine is ordinarily of a blackish colour, the depth of which, however, throws no light either upon its quality or upon the value of the madder from which it was prepared. Further, by a modifi- cation of the ordinary process, garancine can be made which does not exhibit this dark colour, but which is not on that account either better or worse than the common kind. The uses of garancine were to some extent different in kind, both in printing and dyeing, from those of madder. When used alone in printing it gives shades less permanent, which do not stand soap as well, and cannot be brought to the same degree of brightness. The whites at the same time are clearer and purer. It serves for blacks, reds, and purples, and especially for chocolates. It is much better adapted than madder for using along with other colouring matters, such as the dye-woods, quercitron bark, and especially catechu and sumac. With these additions it gives a variety of brown, drab, grey, chocolate, and orange shades. It has now fallen into comparative disuse. Gardenia Pods. — These pods, sometimes known as Chinese yellow pods, contain a yellow colouring matter named by Eochle- der, its discoverer, crocine. This colour, when in a state of purity, forms a bright powder, easily soluble in water and alcohol. With 84 THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. salts of lead, it forms orange-coloured lakes. The concentrated solution in water, if mixed with undiluted sulphuric acid, becomes indigo-blue, and then violet. If heated with dilute sulphuric, or muriatic acid, it is decomposed, yielding crocetine as a fine dark red amorphous powder, sparingly soluble in water, but readily in alcohol. With undiluted sulphuric acid, it gives the same blue colour as crocine. Crocetine is a true dye. It gives on tissues mordanted with salts of tin, a dingy greenish yellow, but when passed through water containing a little ammonia, it is changed to a bright golden yellow, permanent on exposure to air and light, and unaffected by soap. It appears to be identical with the colouring-matter of the common yellow crocus and with poly- chroite, the colour of the saffron. Other species of Gardenia possess tinctorial properties. G. acideata, a native of Jamaica, gives a fine and permanent blue colour, but has not been brought into use. Gelatine. — A nitrogenous organic matter, obtained by the action of boiling water or steam upon the so-called gelatinous tissues of animals. It is supposed not to prce-exist in such tissues, but to be a product of transformation. Two distinct, though closely allied substances are comprehended under the name : gelatine, properly so-called, and chondrine. The former is obtained from hoofs, horns, hides, and bones ; the latter is produced from the cartilages of the ribs, nose, windpipe, etc. The chief chemical distinction between the two is that gelatine is precipitated by tannin, whilst chondrine is not. Gelatine, when pure, is colourless, tasteless, inodorous, soluble in boiling water, but insoluble in cold, though it swells up and softens. In alcohol it is insoluble. Sulphuric acid, when concen- trated, converts gelatine into sugar of gelatine and leucine. Hot nitric acid converts it into oxalic acid. By strong acetic acid it is dissolved, without injury to its adhesive property ; by weak nitric acid, it is converted into " soluble glue," which dissolves in cold water. Gelatine contains, when in a dry state, 18 per cent, of nitrogen. The purer forms of gelatine have been used for annualizing cotton, and as a mordant for certain colours upon woollen tissues. For such purposes the colourless kinds should be selected. To fix THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. 85 gelatine upon the fibre, solutions of tannin are generally applied, either before or after the colour with which it forms an insoluble combination. For other applications of gelatine see Size. Gens d'armes Slue. — A coal-tar colour recently introduced into trade by Dore and Co., of Frankfort. Gentele's Green. — A very permanent pigment consisting chiefly of stannate of copper. It is rarely used in printing. Geranium Red. — {Iodide of Mercury.) — A magnificent scarlet pigment which has been proposed for use in printing. Although more beautiful than vermilion, its great density and liability to decomposition when exposed to light in contact with organic matter, render it practically almost useless. It is sometimes applied in printing as a pigment-colour, but all attempts to produce it in the fibre by mordanting with one of its constituents and applying the other, have failed. Geranosine (sometimes called Aniline Scarlet.) — A red dye bordering on scarlet, and prepared from rosaniline. Gladioline. — A misleading name formerly given to some of the redder grades of magenta. Glycerine. — The sweet principle of oils and fats, is a secondary product obtained in the soap manufacture and in the preparation of stearine. When pure it is a faintly yellowish liquid, of an intensely sweet taste, and of specific gravity 1*26 or 52° Twaddle. It mixes with water and alcohol in all proportions. It dissolves a great number of salts and organic bodies. As it is not volatile, these solutions are not subject to dry up, or allow their solid constituents to crystallize out — a circumstance upon which many of the uses of glycerine depend. Good glycerine should leave nothing behind if exposed to a red heat. If mixed with water and boiled with solution of caustic soda or potash, it should not be altered in colour. If this takes 8G THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WABES. place tlie sample is adulterated with starch- sugar. If mixed with an equal measure of alcohol, to which 1 per cent, of sulphuric acid has previously been added, it should not give any deposit, even after long standing. Some qualities, otherwise correct, have a slightly empyreumatic taste and smell. This, for the purposes of the dyer and printer, is no drawback. One of the uses of glycerine is, that, used in dissolving certain aniline colours, it prevents their tendency to bronze the surface of the goods, and enables them to yield brighter and softer shades than if dissolved in methylated spirit alone. Greens, Detection of, on Fabrics. — The ordinary greens are compounds of a blue and a yellow. Their components are so various that no hxed rules can be laid down for their treatment. It is advisable to place a bit in a solution of carbonate of soda, and note whether a blue colour is dissolved out. If so, it will be extract of indigo. If instead of colouring the liquid blue, the bit is turned a rusty colour by carbonate of soda and caustic soda, Prussian blue is present, which is very frequent on cottons. If sulphuretted hydrogen blackens the green, chrome yellow is one constituent. This, of course, is confined to cottons. On wool and worsted stuffs if extract of indigo is dissolved off, the yellow part will probably be fustic. If the blue be a Prussian, the yellow will generally be quercitron bark. If the green cannot be resolved into a blue and a yellow part, it will be an aniline green. If so, it will be unaffected by hydro- chloric acid diluted with three times its bulk of water. By the strongest hydrochloric acid it will be stripped in fifteen minutes, the liquid being yellow. Grenade. — A reddish colour, of the rosaniline class, prepared by Knosp & Co., of Stuttgart, from certain residues of the manufacture of magenta. It dissolves readily and completely in water. Alone it dyes a good garnet, and, in conjunction with extract of indigo, picric acid, turmeric, etc., it serves as a sub- stitute for archil in producing a great variety of browns. Guignet's Green. — A fast and beautiful pigment colour, THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. 87 consisting of chromic oxide. It retains its shade by artificial light, and, being unobjectionable on the score of health, is much used in the pigment style of calico-printing, in preference to the arsenical greens. It is fixed with -caseine, or with a mixture of albumen and gum water, the goods being steamed. The same colour is sold as Salvetat's green, Arnaudon green, Pannetier's green, chrome green, and emerald green, though the last name is also applied to arsenical greens. The tone of these chrome greens is easily modified by differences in the method of preparation. Gulal. — A red-coloured starch much used in India. The starch itself is obtained from the root of Curcuma angustifolia, and the red dye probably from sapan wood. Gum. — The gums are a class of vegetable bodies possessing no very marked chemical properties, and holding a kind of inter- mediate place between the starches and the sugars. Prom the former they are distinguished by their solubility, and by the cir- cumstance that they are not coloured when brought in contact with iodine. Prom sugars they are distinguished by their inability to enter into true fermentation with production of carbonic acid and alcohol. Unlike the starches and sugars, they are also in- capable of digestion, and, when introduced into the animal system, are excreted unchanged. They are insoluble in alcohol, and are precipitated by it from their watery solutions in the state of a white powder — a fact which distinguishes them from the so-called gum-resins. Gums are divided into two classes — those which merely swell up in water, such as Gum Tragacanth and Bassora Gums ; and the true gums, which are perfectly soluble, such as Gum Arabic and Dextrine. The latter class is again divided into the natural gums, and those made artificially from starch. Gum Arabic. — The type of the true soluble gums. It consists essentially of a compound known as arabine, which is composed of gummic acid and lime. Hence, if a solution of gum Arabic is mixed with one of sulphate of alumina, sulphate of lime is pre- cipitated, and there remains a solution of gummate of alumina more adhesive than the original gum. It is obtained from several 88 THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. species of Acacia growing in Arabia and Northern Africa, especially A. Arabica. In occurs in irregular rounded pieces, which are brittle, hard, semi-transparent, and either colourless or slightly tinged with yellow. It is without smell, and almost tasteless ; rapidly soluble in hot, and more slowly in cold, water. Its specific gravity ranges from 1*31 to 1*5. When apparently dry it still retains 17 per cent, of water, which may be expelled by prolonged exposure to 212° Fahr. in the state of powder. It is adulterated with picked gum Senegal ,which scarcely differs from it in its properties. When sold, as sometimes, in the form of powder, it is occa- sionally mixed with starch or flour. These frauds are readily detected by the addition of a drop of tincture of iodine, which gives a blackish blue colour if they are present. Gum Arabic is rarely used in printing or finishing from its high price. Gum Mezgnite. — (MucJceet y Mezgneet, and Musgneet.) — The produce of an unknown tree growing in Western Texas and New Mexico. Occurs in irregular pieces and balls, and tears, semi- transparent, and varying in colour from a deep amber to a pale yellowish white. It is very easily powdered. Its composition agrees very closely with that of gums Arabic and Senegal, con- sisting mainly of arabin with traces of bassorin. Cerasin is not present. It is readily soluble in water, forming an adhesive mucilage. It will probably be found a safe and economical substitute for gum Senegal and the inferior qualities of Arabic. Gum Peru. — The root of a plant of the asphodel tribe, dried, powdered, and sifted. It cannot be entirely freed from woody matter, and, if used as a thickener, it fouls the rollers rapidly. Gum Senegal. — This gum is produced by A, Senegalensis, and differs from gum Arabic chiefly by its darker colour and larger amount of impurities, such as sand, earth, fragments of wood, etc. It is more liable to turn sour than gum Arabic when in solution. Still inferior varieties are met with under the name of Turkey gum, Indian gum, etc. These vary greatly in quality, some samples THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. 89 being very little inferior to average gum Senegal, whilst others can scarcely be called soluble in water, as they form ropy masses instead of yielding a smooth, uniform mucilage. The quality of such gums may be best judged by dissolving a small portion in warm water, and noting the texture and adhesiveness of the solution. Cherry gum is never offered in the market under its own name, but is frequently used to sophisticate more valuable kinds. It is generally found in irregular brown lumps, which are hard to break. In water it forms clotty lumps, and dissolves very slowly and imperfectly. Like tragacanth it gives with solution of the subacetate of lead, not a white curdy precipitate, but a transparent jelly. Gum Tragacanth. — This gum is the produce of Astragalus creticus, and is found in irregular flat pieces, threads, and lumps, white or yellowish in colour, opaque, scentless, and tasteless. In boiling water it is entirely soluble, but in cold water it dissolves imperfectly. One pound forms as tenacious a mucilage with an equal bulk of water as twenty-five pounds of gum Arabic. Its use is, however, greatly limited by its scarcity and consequent high price. The solution of tragacanth in water is only rendered very imperfectly turbid by the addition of alcohol, in which respect it differs from the true or normal gums. When sold in lumps it is rarely adulterated, but in the state of powder it is often mixed with gum Senegal. This admixture not merely dilutes the tragacanth, but positively injures it. It may be detected by dissolving a portion of the suspected sample in hot water, and adding, under constant stirring, a few drops of the tincture of guaiacum. If gum Arabic or Senegal be present, even in so small a quantity as 5 per cent., a blue colour will appear. 90 THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. The subjoined Table will be found useful in discriminating the various kinds of gums : — Gums. Sulphate of Iron. Tincture of \X If/ t/llU W II v. Subacetate of Lead* Gum Arabic Yellow precipitate Blue colour White curd Senegal Ditto Blue colour "White curd Cherry Ditto Blue colour Transparent iefiy Tragacanth Ditto No change Transparent jelly Dextrine No precipitate. Gum, Yellow. — {Botany Bay Resin.) — This substance is pro- duced by an Australian tree, named Xanthorrhcea hastilis. It is not a gum, but a gum-resin, being insoluble in water and soluble in alcohol. It is found in reddish -brown irregular masses, par- tially semi-transparent and lustrous, and in parts dull and earthy, and often bearing impressions of the bark of the tree. It is used in making varnishes, and was, till lately, the best material for the manufacture of picric acid, but is now quite superseded for this purpose by carbolic acid. Gutta Percha. — This gum-resin has been much used in chemical, print, and dye works for pipes, syphons, jugs, etc., for cold liquids. It is commonly said to be proof against all alkalies and acids except concentrated oil of vitriol. It is perfectly true that, when immersed in any of these liquids, no immediate corro- sion or other action is manifest. Yet if a gutta percha jug is regularly used for nitric or muriatic acid, solutions of tin, iron, or alumina, it becomes brittle, cracks, and is rendered quite useless. It is worthy of remark that in this state it cannot be repaired. If the cracked and damaged parts are gently warmed and pressed THE MANUAL 01' COLOURS AND DYE WA11ES. 91 together, they refuse to cohere. Thus the properties of the gutta percha appear entirely altered. This want of permanence, coupled with its inability to resist heat, and its high price, has caused gutta percha to be disused in many establishments. Guyard's Violet. — A pigment obtained from the ammoniacal prussiate of copper. It covers well, bears steaming, and will prove useful in pigment styles. Gypsum, — [Plaster of Paris, Sulphate of Lime.) — A white, or yellowish-white, mineral, extensively found near Newark and in some parts of Derbyshire. It is composed of 28 parts of lime united with 40 of sulphuric acid and 18 of water. Below a red heat it loses all its water and crumbles to a powder. If this operation is performed at about 260° Fahr. it sets again into a solid mass if wetted ; but if roasted at 400° Fahr. it refuses to take up the water. It dissolves in about 400 times its weight of water. Gypsum is one of the hardening ingredients present in many natural waters, and has an unfavourable effect upon dyeing and printing operations. Its chief abuse, as far as the tinctorial arts are concerned, is in the adulteration of pigment colours, which it renders dull, harsh, and chalky. Hachrout. — The root of an Indian plant resembling madder in its uses and properties. Harmaline. — A red colour obtained from the seeds of Peganon harmala. It dyes good light reds upon cotton without a mordant, but they cannot bear soaping or exposure to light. On wool it gives dull, dirty reds. The colouring matter is decomposed by heat, and may be pronounced as practically worthless. The name ' ' harmaline" has been unjustifiably given to one of the old aniline violets. Helvetia Green. — One of the Direct Gbeens manufactured by Messrs. Bindschedler and Busch, of Bale, from dimethylaniline. It is a sulpho-acid, or sulphone of solid green, and dyes, conse- 92 THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WAKES. quently, in an acid bath, and can be combined with acid colours. It yields very fine shades of a yellower tone than the " Solid Green" of the same firm, and is remarkably brilliant by artificial light. Hemlock Bark. — The bark of the hemlock spruce, Abies cana- densis, a kind of fir tree very plentiful in Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and the north-eastern states of the American Union. It is, like sumac, etc., an astringent, and has been used for dyeing purposes with unsatisfactory results, as it gives a rusty or " foxy " surface reflexion to the goods. Hibiscus rosa-sinensis. — This plant, which flourishes in Australia, yields a mucilaginous juice, which serves as a substitute for blacking, and might be of use in dyeing and printing. Hollyhock. — A well-known ornamental plant of the mallow tribe. It was at one time alleged to contain a blue colouring matter very similar to indigo, but no one appears to have obtained this colour to any extent beyond mere traces. Hydrochloric Acid, known also as Chlorhydric Acid, Muriatic Acid, and Spirits of Salts. This acid is a compound of hydrogen and chlorine, and is, strictly speaking, gaseous ; the liquids commonly used and sold under the name being water saturated with the gaseous acid. When pure and concentrated the liquid acid is a clear, colourless liquid, of the specific gravity of 1*21 or 42° Tw. As commonly met with in commerce, it has the specific gravity 32° to 34° Tw., and is of a yellowish colour. It often contains a variety of impurities. The principal are sulphuric acid, which may be added purposely to raise the specific gravity, or may be introduced by negligence in the manufacture. It may be detected by adding distilled water and afterwards a solution of the chloride of barium, when a white precipitate shows the presence of sulphuric acid. Common salt is sometimes added to raise the specific gravity of a weak acid. It is scarcely needful to say that, though it raises the hydrometer, it adds nothing to the real strength. This fraud is very readily detected by putting a little of the suspected THE MANUAL OV COLOURS AND DYE WARES. 98 acid in a saucer, and evaporating it down at a steam heat, when the salt or other analogous matter will remain, and may be weighed. Sulphurous acid, and probably other lower oxides of sulphur, may result from decomposition of the sulphuric acid used in the manufacture. It may be detected by putting into the suspected acid a few particles of granulated tin. If sulphurous acid be present, the offensive odour of sulphuretted hydrogen will be per- ceptible, and the liquid, instead of remaining clear, will become yellowish and turbid. Iron is generally present in commercial hydrochloric acid, to which it imparts a pale yellow colour, which disappears on adding a proto-salt of tin. This impurity is rarely, if ever, present in quantity sufficient to interfere with the uses of the acid. The best hydrochloric acid is prepared by acting upon com- mon salt with sulphuric acid in iron cylinders, and condensing the acid vapour in receivers containing water. This kind is known as "cylinder-salts," and should always be selected for preparing mordants or for other uses connected with dyeing and printing. The other kind is obtained as a secondary product at alkali- works, where salt is decomposed by sulphuric acid prepared from pyrites. The operation takes place in open iron pans, and the fumes are drawn into a tower filled with coke, over which water trickles. This acid is known as " tower-salts," and is sometimes sold at the strength of 31° or 32° Tw. for one farthing per pound. It is not to be relied on, yielding good results only occasionally. For liberating chlorine with the black oxide of manganese Decimetre 3-937079 inches Metre 39-370790 ?> 3-2808992 feet 1-093633 yard Decametre 32-808992 feet Hectometre 328-08992 Kilometre 3280-8992 ?> 1093-633 yards Myriametre 10936-33 » 6-2138 miles Inch 2-539954 centimetres Foot 3-0479449 decimetres Yard 0-91438348 metre Fathom . 1-82876696 metres Furlong . 201-16437 Mile . 1609-3149 126 THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE "WARES. Measures op Capacity. Cubic millimetre . = 0*000061029 cubic inch „ centimetre . = 0*061029 „ (milli litre) 10 cubic centimetres . = 0*61029 „ (centilitre) 100 cubic centimetres . = 6*1029 „ (decilitre) 1000 cubic centimetres = 61*0295688 „ (litre) 9J 1-760773 ITTTHPriJll Dint ?> 0*2200967 gallon Weights. Milligramme . 0*015438395 grain Centigramme . 0*15438395 j> Decigramme 1-5438395 ?> Gramme . — 15-438395 ?> ?> 0*643 pennyweight 0-03216 r\'/ \fCWT \JLim LiUy ?> 0-03527 oz. avoirdupois 154*38395 1"TnV CfTfllTICl 5-64 Ixlcllxlo d V UxlVJ.il UUlo Hectogramme 3-2154 ozs. troy ?? 3-527 ozs avoirdunoia Kilogramme 2-6803 lbs. troy 2-2054 lbs. avoirdupois Myriagramme . 26*803 lbs. troy 22*05486 lbs. avoirdupois Quintal metric (100 kilogs) . 220-5486 lbs. a\oirdupois Tonne metric (1000 kilogs). 2205-486 lbs. avoirdupois Ton . 1015-649 kilogs. Hundredweight 50-78245 ?> Quarter 12*6956144 ?> Pound 453*4148 grammes THE MANUAL OE COLOUES AND DYE WARES. 127 Ounce • 28*3375 grammes Dram 1*77168 ?> Troy. Pound = | 373-096 grammes Decalitre . = 610-295688 cubic inches = 2-2009668 imperial gallons Hectolitre = 3*5317 cubic feet ?> = 22-009688 imperial gallons Cubic metre stere 1-308 cubic yard or kilolitre f- 35-3171 cubic feet Myrialitre 353-171 Cubic inch . = 16*3855 cubic centimetres Cubic foot . . = 28*3159 „ decimetres Cubic yard . = 0*764520696 metre Pint . 0*567932 litre Quart . . = 1-135864 Gallon 4*54345797 J? Ounce troy . = 31*0913 grammes Pennyweight . = 1-55457 Grain . . = 0-064773 ;> Apothecaries' dram = 3-8869 jj Scruple . . = 1-29546 ?> Memecylum Tinctorum. — A plant used in Ceylon and India both as a yellow dye and as a mordant for madder colours. With iron and alumina mordants it gives shades very similar to those obtained from quercitron bark. Mercury, Chloride. — {Corrosive sublimate,) — A compound of mercury with chlorine. It is a colourless crystalline body, soluble in water and still more so in alcohol. At a strong heat it is totally volatilized, condensing upon any cold object in a beautiful frost-work. Its chief use in the tinctorial arts was as a mordant for murexide or Eoman purple. It is not very stable in contact 128 THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WAKES. with organic matter, and is readily decomposed by metallic zinc, iron, or copper, which circumstance is an obstacle to its employ- ment in printing. With the iodide of potassium it yields a beau- tiful scarlet precipitate, known as " geranium-red" — the iodide of mercury. Methylene Blue, Carmin Bleu Fence, and Madras Blue. — A coal-tar colour, made by the Baden Aniline Company. It can be fixed upon cotton by means of an iron or aluminous mordant, the goods having been prepared with alizarine oil and a little phosphate of soda, and soda-crystals being added to the dye -pan along with the colour. The colour is fast against light, air, bleaching liquor of a moderate strength, and neutral soap-lye at a boil. It is not equal to indigo in resisting alkalies and caustic soaps. Its chief use will be in printing in place of dip-blues. Methyl Green. — (Metliylaniline Green.) — A beautiful coal-tar colour belonging to the rosaniline class. It dyes greens bordering on a blue. It is altered by high temperatures, passing into a dull violet. Molybdenum. — One of the rarer metals, capable of forming various blue compounds, some of which are capable of being used in dyeing and printing. The molybdate of ammonia has been made to yield good medium blues upon silk and cotton. The molybdate of soda gives lighter shades. It is not in use at present, and does not appear to offer any decided advantage. Molybdenum blue is sometimes called " mineral indigo." Monarda. — The scarlet flowers of Monarda didyma, according to the researches of Belhomme, contain a colouring matter identical with that of cochineal, and may be advantageously employed in the manufacture of carmine. Mongumic Acid. — A yellow pigment found beneath the bark of the mongumo tree, a native of Madagascar. Monnet's Scarlet. — A derivative of flueresceine, in which THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. 129 bromine and hyponitric acid are jointly substituted. It is used chiefly in wool dyeing. Mordants. — Mordants are a class of bodies 'which serve to fix colouring matters upon the fibre. Few colours have the power to attach themselves alone to either wool, silk, or cotton. As a rule, when applied in this manner, they produce merely a faint and fugitive stain, not worth calling a dye. And even those few (see Substantive Colours) which are able to lay hold of the fibre alone, are generally rendered both brighter and more permanent by the intervention of a mordant. A variety of attributes are necessary for a good mordant. It must have a strong affinity both for the fibre and the colour, and be capable of combining readily and permanently with both. Yet these affinities must not be too strong. If it combine too eagerly with the fibre, the result will be unevenness ; those parts of the goods which first enter the dye-pan, or which are in any way more readily acted on, will receive more than their share, and other portions less. Again, if the mordant have a much stronger affinity for the colour than for the fibre, the result is that instead of depositing the colour on the cloth, a lake, or coloured precipitate will be formed, which subsides to the bottom of the dye-pan, leaving the goods very meagrely and loosely covered. Thus many metallic compounds capable of forming fine lakes with this or that colouring principle, are quite incapable of filling the part of mordants. It is essential that the mordant should com- bine both with the fibre and the colour with regularity, and at a moderate rate, so that the compound formed may not be loosely plastered over the surface of the fibre, but penetrate into its pores. The result otherwise will be uneven, fugitive, and dull. Further, the mordant must, in the state in which it is used, be incapable of injuring the fibre. If it be of a corrosive nature, whether from excessive acidity or alkalinity, the texture of the goods will be injured. Its action upon the colour is also important. Thijs must not be dulled or deadened, but, if anything, brightened by combination with the mordant. It is, likewise, desirable that a mordant should not, by itself, affect the colour of the fibre. If it, as is the case with the salts of k 130 TIIE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. iron and copper, possesses any tinctorial power of its own, its use is necessarily restricted to one particular class of shades. Mordants, as a matter of course, must be soluble, and be pre- sented to the fibre and the colour in a liquid state. But they must likewise be capable of readily becoming insoluble when the com- bination is effected. If not, they, together with the colour, would be at once removed by washing. This change from solubility to insol- ubility is accomplished in various manners. Sometimes it is the mere result of new combinations being formed, the mordant and colour, each of them soluble by itself, form an insoluble compound when they come together. Sometimes the mordant when brought in contact with the fibre in a dilute state is decomposed, leaving an insoluble sub -salt in combination with the fabric. Sometimes the insoluble state results from the escape of a volatile acid ; thus, if a piece of cotton is moistened with the acetate of alumina, and is then dried, the acetic acid escapes, and the alumina remains upon the fibre in an insoluble state. From this consideration it appears that such substances only are capable of acting as mordants as are in their constitution unstable, their components being only held together by a feeble affinity, readily overcome. Highly stable permanent compounds refuse to hand over any of their constituents to the fibre. Thus alum, a very permanent salt, is a weak mordant ; but if it be converted into basic alum, whose constituents are held together by a feebler tie, it becomes more efficient. Many of the most approved mordants undergo spontaneous decomposition if kept for a length of time. This is the case with "scarlet spirits," and with the nitrate of iron. Mordants are specific, not general. In other words, a substance very efficacious upon one fibre is not necessarily suitable for others ; and though admirably adapted for certain colouring matters it may be nearly useless, or even mischievous for others. Thus upon cotton certain salts of iron, the acetate and the nitrate, are valuable mordants, but they are not adapted for wool. Tin is the mordant for cochineal and lac ; but it is as decidedly not the mordant for madder. In considering the applicability of a mordant for any purpose, we have to look not only to the base or metallic oxide present, but to the acid with which it is combined, and which greatly modifies THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE "WARES. 131 its properties. An excess of acid not only injures the fibre to be dyed or printed, but holds back the base from being deposited in sufficient quantity upon it, giving the work a meagre appearance. On the other hand, if the mordant be too 1 ' dead," as it is technically styled, the base will be delivered too rapidly, and the colour uneven and generally dull. Some acids deliver the base most readily to wool, and others to cotton. Thus either tin or iron dissolved in nitric acid is more readily deposited upon cotton than if hydrochloric acid were the solvent, the latter being more disposed to hand over its base to wool. Thus if a swatch of delaine is steeped in water containing nitrate of iron, the warp will be coloured buff by oxide of iron. If it be treated with the muriate of iron instead of the nitrate, the worsted is acted upon, whilst the cotton warp comes out nearly colourless. One reason for this different action of the two salts is that the nitrate of iron is a much less stable com- pound than the muriate. Now, as cotton is generally dyed or mordanted in the cold, it is able to take the base from the nitric acid, though unable to overcome the more powerful affinity of the muriatic. Wool and worsted, on the other hand, being dyed at a higher temperature, are able, with the advantage of the heat, to take the base from the muriatic acid. The matter deposited upon the fibre is in most cases not a mere oxide of tin, of iron, etc., as the case may be, but a sub-salt, containing a portion of the acid which was present. Thus the colours respectively produced upon wool, if boiled along with logwood and the sulphate or the muriate of tin, are not alike, the former being a redder shade than the latter. Mordants are either applied along with the colouring matters, previous to them, or subsequently. The first is the general pro- cedure for wool-dyeing, and the second for cotton. The principal mineral mordants are alumina, tin, iron, copper, and chrome ; lead, arsenic, antimony, bismuth, manganese, nickel, cobalt, tungsten, mercury, zinc, magnesia, silica, sulphur, and metallic sulphurets, have also been occasionally employed. Even salts of soda, such as the hyposulphite, borate, and silicate perform, with certain artificial colours, functions which cannot be viewed in any other light. It is, indeed, highly probable that as the employment of pure 132 THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. isolated tinctorial principles as distinguished from crude dye- wares is extended, our catalogues of mordants will become more extensive. Mordants, Organic. — Setting aside the astringents, which we have considered elsewhere, organic mordants may be referred to two classes — albuminoid substances and their kindred, and secondly, oily and fatty bodies. Substances belonging to the former class have been very extensively used by printers for fixing upon cotton the aniline colours, archil, picric acid, and other dyes which have but a feeble affinity for that fibre. The action of these substances is totally unlike that of the mineral mordants we have been considering above. They have a very strong tendency to combine with the colouring matters for which they are employed; but to the fibre they merely cling in a mechanical manner, forming a coating over its surface. The matter that is really dyed or printed is not the cotton, but the thin film of albumen which has been deposited upon it. The principal mordants of this class are albumen, derived from eggs, from blood, or from the roe of fishes ; caseine, or, as it is improperly called, " lactarine," and gelatine. Glutine, or vegetable fibrine, along with other substances of an analogous nature, have also been to some extent applied. All these bodies agree in being highly nitrogenous, but there is no indication that they transfer any nitrogen to the cotton fibre, or exert any chemical action upon it whatsoever. They merely infold it in a layer of matter which, in its relations to colouring matters, resembles wool or silk. Sulphur, in a state of organic combination, is doubtless present in albumen, caseine, etc., just as it is in wool. Nevertheless, as it is absent in one body, which is perfectly capable of acting as an " animal mordant," the theory that such sulphur is the essential element upon which the affinity of aniline colours for the fibre depends cannot be exclusively correct. The use of nitrogenous organic mordants is less extensive in dyeing than in printing. In piece dyeing there are great diffi- culties in applying these mordants to the goods with evenness and regularity, and, consequently, though beautiful shades are ob- tained, they vary in depth in different parts of the piece. In wool THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. 133 and slubbing- dyeing the glutinous nature of these mordants renders them inapplicable. It is remarkable that the affinity of wool for certain colours is heightened by preparation with mordants of this class, shades being obtained which are richer and faster. Woollen and worsted yarns have been very successfully treated in this manner. For the second class of organic mordants, the reader is referred to Oils. Moss, Iceland. — (Irish Moss, Carragheen Moss.) — These names are applied to certain lichens which, with boiling water, yield a gelatinous matter approaching the nature of starch. Prom true starch it is distinguished by its behaviour with iodine, with which it gives not a deep blue, but a dirty green. For thickening colours it is not well adapted, but it is used for finishing purposes, and in the preparation of certain " assistant oils," or liquids used to mix with the oils employed in the woollen manufacture. Munjeet. — (Mungeet, or Manjit, Indian Madder.) — The root of Rubia munjista, a plant of the madder family, cultivated in India, where it is extensively used by the natives in dyeing. It is met with in bunches of stalks which are nearly a yard in length, and which vary from the thickness of a finger to that of a quill. It contains alizarin, the red colouring matter found in madder. Murexide. — (Purpurate of Ammonia.) — A splendid colouring matter, which, when pure, forms crystals of a golden green colour by reflected, but of a garnet red by transmitted light. It yields a reddish-brown powder, which takes a golden green lustre if rubbed with a hard smooth body. It is insoluble in alcohol and ether, but dissolves readily in boiling water. Its source is the uric acid obtained in greatest purity from the excrements of serpents, but more abundantly from Peruvian guano. It was used under the name of Roman purple for dyeing certain brilliant reddish purple shades on silk, with a mordant of the chloride of mercury. It is not well adapted for wool- dyeing, and is at the best not very permanent. With acetate of zinc it gives a yellow. 134 THE MANUAL OF COLOUKS AND DYE WA11ES. Muriates of Tin, single and. double. — The muriates of tin are solutions of tin in hydrochloric, or, as formerly called, muriatic acicl. From tin crystals they differ merely in their liquid state, and in containing relatively less tin and more acid and water. In strength they vary greatly. Single muriates run from 40° to 60° Twaddle, and double muriates from 10° to 120°. The former contain 1 to 2 ozs. of metallic tin in the pound, and the latter from 2h to 5 ozs. Many muriates are adulterated with oil of vitriol, sulphate of magnesia, sulphate of zinc, chloride of zinc, etc. The very price at which some samples are offered, taken along with the current prices for tin, proves at once that they cannot be genuine. For the detection of these impurities and for a method of esti- mating the amount of tin, the reader is referred to Tin- crystals. It must be remembered that small quantities of sulphuric acid may be present in the muriates of tin without any fraudulent intention on part of the maker, if the hydrochloric acid employed contains, as is often the case, some sulphuric acid as an impurity. The double muriate of tin must not be confounded with the bichloride ; the tin in both " single " and " double" being entirely in the state of protochloride. Myrobalans, sometimes called Myrdbolans or Myrabolams. — A fruit produced in India, and very extensively consumed in Europe as a source of tannin. The myrobalan is in shape and size like a slightly shrivelled plum. It is of a pale buff colour, and consists of a fibrous cellular matter of various thickness enveloping a stone. The entire weight of a myrobalan varies from 20 to 300 grs., of which the stone forms from 23 to 52 per cent. The moisture in the nuts as imported varies from 3 to 7 per cent. When reduced to ashes they leave about 10 per cent, of mineral matter. The tannin is mainly seated in the dried pulp enclosing the stone, and is very variable in amount, but on the average exceeds that found in the best sumachs. As imported they are sometimes found mixed with earth, sand, nux vomica, betel nuts, and a variety of seeds and berries. Good myrobalans should be of a pale colour, plump, or but slightly shrivelled, free from blackish stains or blotches and from worm holes. When shaken together they should ring like frag- THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. 135 ments of earthenware. They are hard and firm, and when beaten with a hammer they should break up into a light- coloured dry powder and irregular fragments. If they crumble between the fingers into a dark coloured dust, or if they spread out under the hammer into a paste, they are inferior. The smaller the propor- tion of stones to pulp, the better. To determine this essential point, weigh 50 nuts fairly taken from the bulk, then break them up with a hammer or a pestle, clear the stones from any adhering pulp, and weigh them separately. The smaller their relative weight the better is the sample. For methods of determining the amount of tannin matter see Diyi-diyi. Ground myrobalans should be light in colour, dry, free from a saline or an intensely bitter taste. When slightly moistened and rubbed in the hand they should adhere very tenaciously to the skin, almost like bird-lime. Ground myrobalans, in addition- to the accidental impurities found among the unground nuts, may be contaminated with finely ground divi-divi, with old and worthless sumac, and with wild galls. To detect these impurities portions of the powder are finely scattered upon a sheet of white paper or upon a plate of glass, and examined with a lens. If divi is present, fragments of its brown, flat, pea-like seeds are nearly certain to be found. These from their hardness and smoothness escape being crushed to powder. The outside skin of a myrobalan sometimes approaches a divi seed in colour, but even the smallest fragment of the former exhibits a wrinkled surface, whilst the divi seeds are smooth. The leaf- stalks of sumac are also easily distinguished under the lens from the torn and jagged fibre of the myrobalan nut. The uses of myrobalans are the same as those of other matters containing tannin. Being much cheaper than galls and much stronger than sumac, they are rapidly superseding both these wares, except in special cases. In conjunction with preparations of iron, they dye the cotton warps of stuff a fuller black than can be obtained with sumac. As a mordant for fixing aniline colours upon cotton, they are likewise preferable, probably on account of the oily and glutinous matters accompanying the tannin, and which are not present in sumac. For such purposes, however, the palest qualities of myrobalans should always be selected. 136 THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. Naphtha, Wood. — (Mytliylic Alcohol, Wood- spirit, Pyroxilic Spirit.) — This liquid must not be confounded with "methylated spirit," which is a mixture of common spirit of wine, or ethylic alcohol, with about 10 per cent, of wood naphtha. "Wood naphtha is a clear, colourless liquid, highly inflammable, of peculiar aromatic odour ; of specific gravity 0*79. It generally contains acetone and traces of empyreumatic oil. As a solvent, it acts very similarly to common alcohol. It is used to some extent as a solvent for aniline colours, the shades produced being different, and in some cases preferable to those obtained when methylated spirit is the solvent. The chief impurity to be dreaded is resinous matter, which is detected by adding water, when it separates as a grey turbidity. It may occasion much inconvenience in dissolving colours. Naphthaline. — One of the secondary products of the gas- manufacture, or of the destructive distillation of coal. When pure, it forms thin white flakes of a pungent taste. It is insoluble in water, but dissolves readily in alcohol, ether, and in the acetic and oxalic acids. It melts at 79° Fahr., and has the specific gravity 1*045. It is not readily inflammable, and burns with a smoky flame. As the source of phthalic acid and of the phthalein dyes, it plays a very important part in the tinctorial arts. Naphthaline Rose. — An artificial colour produced from naphthylamine, and closely connected with Magdala red. It dis- solves in water, especially if slightly acidulated, but it is very rarely used. Naphthaline Yellow S. — The potash salt of a sulpho-acid of dinitronaphthol. Naphthameine, or Oxynaphthalidene.— A purple colour obtained by the action of the perchloride of iron upon naphthyla- mine. It has not proved useful in dyeing or printing. Naphthazarine. — A colour obtained from naphthaline, and at first confounded with alizarine, which it in many respects resem- THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WAKES. 137 bles. The shades which it dyes are inferior both in brightness and fastness to the alizarine colours, and it is consequently discarded. Naphthol Yellow S. — A colour recently brought out by the Baden Aniline Company. It serves as a substitute for picric acid, flavine, etc., and will work along with acid colours, such as extract of indigo. Naphthylamine Violets. — Two violet colours of this kind are known apparently distinct, though both produced along with naphthylamine red. Their nature is not fully understood, and they have not come into practical use. Naphthylendiamine Violets. — Two dyes have been ob- tained by treating binitronaphthaline with reducing agents (cyanide of potassium, or protoxide of tin) in alkaline solutions. The colours produced are soluble in spirit, and dye fast shades, but have not come into use. Naples Yellow. — An antimoniate of lead used in painting as a yellow pigment, but of no importance in the tinctorial arts. Nicholson Blue. — An aniline dye, soluble in water, and giving fast shades. It is dyed in an alkaline bath (whence it is sometimes called alkali blue), and the colour is afterwards raised by a passage through a weak acid solution. It is a triphenyl rosaniline monosulphate of soda. Guernsey blue is an analo- gous dye. Nickel.— A metal generally found in company with cobalt. Its solutions are generally of a fine green colour, and if the metal were more plentiful it would doubtless find applications in dyeing. Nitric Acid. — (Aqua-fortis.)— One of the strongest and most useful mineral acids, consisting of 14 parts by weight of nitrogen, combined with 40 parts of oxygen. In this state it is a solid body, known merely as a chemical curiosity, and never occurring in commerce. The strongest known liquid acid consists of 1 equiva 138 THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. lent of water, or 9 parts by weight united to the above. In this state it is, if pure, a clear, colourless liquid, of a sharp suffocating odour, and intensely sour taste, containing 85*7 per cent, of the dry acid above-mentioned, and having a specific gravity of 1*52, or 104° Tw. At this strength, however, it is rarely used on the large scale. The ordinary " double aqua-fortis" of commerce has the specific gravity 1*325 or 65° Tw., or thereabouts. ' ' Single aqua-fortis " stands generally at 33° Tw. or 1*165. Nitric acid is prepared by heating, in appropriate vessels, sulphuric acid along with the nitrate of potash, or more generally the nitrate of soda. The nitric acid distils over, and is collected in suitable receivers. The nitric acid of commerce is subject both to accidental impuri- ties and intentional adulterations, which may at times seriously interfere with its uses. As commonly sold it is very rarely colour- less, but of a tinge varying from pale yellow to brownish orange. This arises from some of the lower oxides of nitrogen, especially hyponitric acid, formed by the decomposition of some part of the nitric acid. This impurity may be easily removed by adding some per- oxide of lead — which does not dissolve in the concentrated acid. It will be, however, reproduced, turning the acid yellow as before, if the bottles be exposed to light. It is not generally known that the action of nitric acid is very greatly modified by the presence of hyponitric and nitrous acids. Other impurities are chlorine or muriatic acid, derived from the common salt existing as an impurity in nitrate of soda. To detect it, dilute the sample with two or three times its bulk of distilled water, and add a solution of nitrate of silver. If it be present, a white curdy precipitate will fall. Sulphuric acid may be present, either accidentally from the employment of too high a temperature, in making the acid; or purposely to raise the specific gravity. To detect it, dilute with distilled water, and drop in a solution of the nitrate of baryta. If any sulphuric acid is present, a white powdery precipitate, insoluble in acids, will subside. Or a portion of the suspected acid may be gently heated in a capsule. If the nitric acid is genuine, it will evaporate entirely away, leaving no residue. But if sulphuric acid have been added there will remain a liquid residue, which does not THE MANUAL OE COLOURS AND DYE WAKES. 139 fly off till the temperature is raised, and then escapes, forming dense white vapours. Nitrate of soda is occasionally added to impart to the acid a false appearance of strength upon the hydrometer. This is readily detected by evaporating a portion to dryness, when nitrate of soda, or any other solid matter remains behind, and may be weighed. In single aqua-fortis for dissolving tin, a certain amount of muriatic acid is necessary. For methods of estimating the actual strength of a sample of nitric acid see Acidimetry. An excellent test to detect the presence of nitric acid in any liquid is as follows : — First pour into a test-glass 1 centimetre of pure concentrated sulphuric acid. Add, drop by drop, ^ cubic centimetre of a solution of sulphate of aniline (prepared by adding 10 drops of common aniline to 50 cubic centimetres of sulphuric acid, diluted in the proportion of 1 to 6). A glass rod is dipped into the liquor to be tested, and then into the mixture in the test-glass, in which red streaks will appear if nitric acid be present. Or, boil the liquid under examination with clean shavings of lead for a few minutes. Mix a few drops of a weak solution of iodide of potassium with some starch paste, and add a little hydrochloric acid of specific gravity 1-006. Add to the liquid to be tested, if alkaline, a little hydrochloric acid, and then pour it into the test-mixture. If nitric acid is present a violet colour will appear in course of time. The iodide of potassium used must be perfectly free from iodate. The uses of nitric acid in the preparation of colours and mor- dants are numerous and varied. Its direct employments in dye and print works are less numerous, though it serves for the pro- duction of a peculiar yellow upon silk, and for modifying the tone of madder reds. 140 THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. TABLE Shoiving the quantity of Real or Anhydrous Nitric Acid (N0 5 ) in 100 parts of Liquid Acid, of different Specific Gravities (Ure). Specific Gravity. Real acid in 100 parts of the Liquid. Specific Gravity. Real acid in 100 parts of the Liquid. Specific Gravity. Real acid in 100 parts of the Liquid. 1-5000 79-700 1-4600 68-542 1-4065 57-384 1-4980 78-903 1-4570 67-745 1-4023 56-587 1-4960 78-106 1-4530 66-948 1-3978 55-790 1-4940 77-309 1-4500 66-155 1-3945 54-993 1*4910 76-512 1-4460 65-354 1-3882 54-196 1 4tooU ( 0 / 10 U4t 00 / 1 OOOO Do otytJ 1-4850 74-918 1-4385 63-760 1-3783 52-602 1-4820 74-121 1-4346 62-963 1-3732 51-805 1-4790 73-324 1-4306 62-166 1-3681 51-068 1-4760 72-527 1-4269 61-369 1-3630 50-211 1-4730 71-730 1-4228 60-572 1-3579 49-414 1-4700 70-933 1-4189 59-775 1-3529 48-617 1-4670 70-136 1-4147 58-978 1-3477 47-820 1-4640 69-339 1-4107 58-181 1-3427 47-023 Nitrate of Iron. — Under this name are included a great variety of preparations, some of which contain nitric as their only- acid ; others nitric and sulphuric, in very various proportions ; and others again a mixture of nitric, sulphuric, and acetic. Some are perfect per- salts of iron, but the majority contain proto- salts in larger or smaller amount. Some are made from scrap iron, some from copperas, and some from a mixture of the two. Some are prepared from pre-existing nitric acid (single or double aqua- fortis), whilst in others the iron is dissolved by nascent nitric acid liberated during the process by the action of sulphuric acid upon nitrate of soda. In strength, too, they vary from 40° Twaddle to upwards of 100° Twaddle. Yet so many and various are the purposes to which nitrate of iron is applied, that any one of these varieties may, for its own purpose, be pronounced of good quality. We have, in the first place, "blue irons," such as serve for printing or dyeing blues upon silk or cotton, with the aid of THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. 141 prussiate of potash. Blue irons should be sharper than irons for other purposes ; if too " dead," that is, if the amount of iron be too great in proportion to the acid, a part of the Prussian blue formed will be deposited at the bottom of the dye-pan, and that which is fixed upon the goods will be dull, loose, and cloudy. Nevertheless, the nitrate of iron must not be too raw ; if so, the colour will be thin and hungry, and the goods will be damaged by the free acid. If the article to be dyed be silk or cotton skeins, a blue iron made from copperas, and approaching very nearly to a pure per- salt of iron, will give results superior to those obtained with a true nitrate, from aqua-fortis and scrap iron. If piece goods with a. cotton warp are to be dyed, the wool or worsted having first received its proper colour from one of the aniline blues, a blue iron made from copperas is not admissible, as it somewhat stains the worsted. If the shade required be a sky, or if it be for conver- sion into a green by the application of a yellow, a blue iron from hoop iron dissolved in nitric acid is advisable. But if a true royal blue is desired of a warm, bloomy tone, the best nitrate of iron is that prepared with nitrate of soda and sulphuric acid. Since aniline blues have been produced applicable to cotton, the use of " blue-irons" has very much decreased. Black irons, or those used for printing or dyeing blacks upon silk, wool, or cotton, in conjunction with galls, myrobalans, log- wood, or some other ware containing tannin, require a different preparation. Thorough saturation is here of great importance, as raw acid tells a fearful tale both upon the goods and the colours. Yet there must not be more iron present than can exist in a true state of solution, and can be delivered in a regular manner to the fabric. If this limit be overstepped, the blacks will not only be uneven and blotchy, but they will, in all probability, be streaked and clouded with rust marks, where oxide of iron has been deposited upon the fibres without having combined with the tannin. Under most circumstances irons made from copperas are decidedly pre- ferable to those made from the metal for black purposes. Nor is it essential that all the iron should be in a state of perfect per-oxide. On the contrary, both theory and practice show that a fuller and bloomier black can be dyed with a nitrate of iron containing a pro- portion of protoxide. If the protoxide be too small in amount, the 142 THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE "WARES. black produced will be brownish ; if too large, it will have too blue a tone. In some cases a quantity of brown sugar of lead is added to black nitrate of iron. By this means a portion of the sulphuric acid derived from the copperas is removed, forming an insoluble combination with the lead, which gives up acetic acid to take its place. The most difficult variety of nitrate of iron to prepare success- fully is " burling iron." (See Burling Inks.) It is used to dye the spots of cotton remaining uncoloured in black woollen cloths. The margin here is exceedingly narrow ; a very slight excess of acid will damage the colours on the wool ; and, similarly, a slight excess of iron will inevitably disfigure the pieces with rusty blotches. A nice balance must likewise be preserved in irons for printing purposes. If too raw and acid, the doctors and copper cylinders of the printing machines are damaged, often to a serious extent. The finished goods if not subject to a final rinsing off are very apt to be corroded. The greatest freedom from corrosiveness is required when unwoven cotton warps are printed. A third class of nitrates of iron are the " common " or " sadden- ing," such namely as are used in drabs, browns, clarets, etc. These require to be rather sharper than the black qualities, so that the combination they form with the sumac or galls, etc., may be faster, and able the better to withstand subsequent treatment with alum or preparations of tin. They should be as nearly as possible perfect per-salts of iron, and may be made either totally from copperas, or may contain a mixture of such and of metallic iron. Muriatic acid should never be added in the manufacture of nitrate of iron. The nitric acid used should be free from this impurity, and the nitrate of soda should be purified from chloride of sodium as far as possible. The reason is not merely that muriatic acid retains the iron it has taken up more tenaciously than nitric acid, but that, in dyeing mixed goods, it delivers the iron upon the worsted instead of upon the cotton. For the examination of samples of nitrate of iron, the following directions may be given. Dilute with distilled water, adding suffi- cient pure hydrochloric acid to prevent subsalts of iron from being THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE "WARES. 143 thrown down, then add a solution of chloride of barium. A white precipitate shows the presence of sulphuric acid either added as such or in the form of copperas. Add to a small portion of the sample pure ammonia, till all the oxide of iron has been precipitated. This is then filtered off, and the clear liquor evaporated down to dryness, and the residue heated to redness in a small porcelain capsule. If any fixed matter remains, the sample has been got up with nitrate of soda. For the detection of alumina, an objectionable impurity, see Copperas. Dilute a portion with distilled water, add a little pure nitric acid to prevent turbidity, and then add a solution of nitrate of silver. A white curdy precipitate indicates the presence of muriatic acid. To ascertain whether any portion of the iron is in a state of protoxide, drop in cautiously a solution of carbonate of soda. If the sample be a pure peroxide, the precipitate will be of a uniform pale yellow. If any protoxide be present, clouds of a greenish colour appear in the liquid. Or a dilute solution of the red prus- siate of potash may be added, which, if any protoxide exist in the sample, will give a blue precipitate. To find the comparative acidity of two samples of nitrate of iron, measure off equal volumes of each, and drop carefully into each of them, from a burette, a standard solution of carbonate of soda, till the exact point is reached, when the liquid no longer reddens blue litmus paper. The number of degrees of the burette consumed in each case will show the relative acidity of the samples. Of course, only samples which mark the same specific gravity or degree on the hydrometer are thus comparable. If they differ, the stronger must be let down with water to the same degree as the weaker, and equal measures of each are then taken. The brightness, fastness, and evenness of the shades given by different samples can only be judged by dyeing swatches of calico, or skeins of cotton. For blue irons, equal weights of perfectly clean calico are steeped in equal measures of the samples under comparison, each previously diluted with an equal quantity of cold water for equal times. They are then lifted, allowed to drain, and steeped for 144 THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. equal times in equal measures of water, to each of which an equal quantity of a solution of prussiate of potash is added. The swatches are then lifted, rinsed, dried, and compared. Black irons are tried as directed under Drvi-Divi, preparing the swatches with some astringent, and then steeping them in the respective samples of nitrate of iron under examination. Saddening irons may also be tried in precisely the same manner, only after being taken out of the iron liquor the swatches are each steeped in a solution of alum. That which, after this treatment ? looks fullest and brightest, receives the preference. Nitrate of Lead. — Litharge or metallic lead dissolved up to perfect saturation in nitric acid, forms nitrate of lead. It forms very hard white crystals, which do not attract moisture from the air. It dissolves in twice its weight of water at 63° Fahr., the solution marking 79° Tw. If a little solution of yellow prussiate of potash be added, the precipitate formed should be a perfect white, without the slightest tint of blue, which would indicate the presence of iron ; or of brown, which would betray copper. These impurities, when present, are of small amount, and are never intentionally added. Nitrate of lead is employed for chrome oranges and yellows upon cotton, for murexide colours, as also for preparing nitrate of copper by double decomposition. Nitrocuminine. — A red colouring matter obtained by the action of heat and sunlight upon nitrocuminic acid, but of no practical use. Nitroxynaphthalic Acid. — A yellow dye, which gives shades resembling those of picric acid. As it is dearer, and has a lower tinctorial power, it is not in use. Nona. — The root of a plant of the madder family, used for similar purposes in India, but not met with in European markets. Nopal. — The plant called by botanists Cactus cochenillifer, important as being the food of the cochineal insect. All the very numerous species of cactus produce vividly scarlet, crimson, or THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. 145 rose-coloured blossoms, and it is hence a disputed point whether the colouring matter of cochineal pre-exists in the plant, and is merely collected by the insect, or whether it is elaborated by the latter from its elements. A bright red colouring matter named cactin has been extracted by Yogel from cactus blossoms, but its identity with carminic acid is still questionable. Wopaline. — (Ecarlate, Imperial Red, Hortensia, and probably Scarlatine.) — Scarlet dyes, mixtures of bromnitro fluorescein e with binitronapthol. These colours are used as substitutes for lac and cochineal, but it is complained that the binitro-naphthol rubs off and sullies the whites during the steaming process. Safrosine is a similar dye inclining more to the yellow. Nucine. — A substance in the walnut which yields a splendid red colour on treatment with ammonia. Nux Vomica. — The seeds of Strychnos nux-vomica and S. colulrina. They are flat, circular, button-like discs, rather thickened at the edges, of a pale yellowish grey or drab colour, and intensely bitter taste. I notice them here merely because they are often found mixed with myrobalans as imported, to which, when ground, they impart an exceedingly bitter taste. Strychnine, the bitter principle of these nuts, may be made to yield a series of colours analogous to those obtained from aniline. Nycth ant lies arbor-tristis. — A tree common in India. Its flowers yield two dyes, an orange and a violet, known as "gul- hamah." Ochre. — A name given to natural compounds and mixtures of peroxide of iron with more or less alumina. Ochres vary in colour from yellow to dark brownish red, and are used to some extent in pigment styles, and very extensively in painting. They are sold under such names as Terra di Siena, ruddle, Armenian bole, and (by corruption) " bole armoniac." Their value depends on freedom from grit. L 146 THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE "WARES. Oerces Canadensis. — An American tree, the twigs of which are capable of dyeing nankeen shades upon wool. Oils and Fats. — We speak in this paragraph merely of the fixed or fatty oils, which do not evaporate at ordinary temperatures, and leave permanent grease spots upon paper. The distinction popularly made between " oils " and 4 £ fats " depends merely upon climate. Palm oil is liquid on the Guinea coast, but in England it is a solid. The distinction between " drying " and " non-drying " oils is highly important as regards their chemical character and their uses. The drying-oils, when exposed to the air, especially in thin films, take up oxygen from the air, and become converted into a hard, resinous body, which ultimately dries up altogether. As familiar examples I may mention poppy, nut, and linseed oil. The non-drying oils take up oxygen also, but show no disposition to solidify. If the exposure be prolonged they generally turn rancid, acquiring an offensive smell and taste. Eape, olive, and palm oil are good examples of non-drying oils. A considerable amount of adulteration prevails in the oil trade, valuable kinds being extensively adulterated with inferior qualities. These frauds cannot always be detected by chemical analysis, whilst the very fact of their extensive existence proves that they cannot be discovered by smell, taste, touch, or any other "rule of thumb " procedure. The first point to be attended to is the specific gravity, which is best taken with an instrument specially graduated for the purpose, and styled an oleometer. The degrees run from 22° to 50°, the heavier oils corresponding to the lower degrees. As the density of oils is much more modified by temperature than that of inorganic fluids, a small and delicate thermometer, on which 0° is equal to 60° Fahr., is inserted in the stem of the instrument. In pure rape and olive oils the oleometer marks 37° or 38°; in poppy oil, 32° to 33°; camelina, 31° to 32°; and linseed, 29° to 30°. If the temperature marked on the inclosed thermo- meter is above 0°, it is subtracted from the degree shown on the oleometer scale, but if below it is added. The specific gravities of the principal oils at 60° Eahr. are : — THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WAKES. 147 Tallow Oil . 0-900 Poppy . 0-924 Eape . 0-913 Camelina * . 0-925 Olive . 0-917 Hemp . 0.926 Train . 0*923 Almond . . 0-932 Cod . . 0-923 Linseed . 0-934 Nut .' . 0923 Cotton-seed . 0-9230 Castor oil is still heavier, going beyond the range of the oleometer. From its high price it is never added to other oils. The following additional tests are important. Rape, camelina, colza, and mustard may be detected in olive oil down even to 1 per cent, as follows : — Boil in a porcelain capsule 400 to 500 grs. of the sample, along with 30 grs. of pure soda dissolved in 300 grs. of distilled water. After the mixture has boiled a few minutes it is thrown upon a filter previously moistened, and the liquid that flows through is tested with a solution of the subacetate of lead. If this is blackened, one of the above oils is present in the sample. The fish oils may to a very considerable extent be detected by their offensive smell when heated. They are also blackened if chlorine gas is passed into them. No such change takes place with the other animal oils, or with lard. The following reactions are also characteristic. Caustic soda, at 70>° Tw., added to 5 times its measure of sperm oil, gives a dark red colour. Poppy oil gives an intense rose-coloured mass if first mixed with l-5th its bulk of an aqua-regia, made by mixing 25 measures of muriatic acid, at 30° Tw., with 1 measure of nitric at 65° Tw. In this the oil is allowed to stand for 5 minutes. Twice as much caustic soda as oil, at 70° Tw., is then added. The most characteristic reactions of the different oils are the so-called " cohesion figures" recently studied by Messrs. Tom- linson and Moffatt. The method of procedure is as follows: A perfectly clean soup-plate is filled with clean cold water, a small dry pipette, drawn out to a fine point, is filled up to a fixed height with a pure sample of the oil in question, and a drop is allowed to fall upon the surface. A drop of the sample under examination is now allowed to fall in a similar manner upon the surface of water in another plate, and the figures or patterns produced on the surface are compared. 148 THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. To get satisfactory results the following points must be attended to : — The plates and water must be perfectly clean, and the latter cold. There must be no shaking, or currents of air that could communicate even the slightest motion or vibration to the water. The drop of oil in each case must be alike in size, and must be let fall from the same height, say 4 inches, upon the surface of the water, in the middle of the plate. If these precautions are observed, a genuine sample of any particular oil will always give the same pattern. The principal oils are — Cocoa-nut oil. — This is solid at the ordinary temperature of cold climates. It is of an exceedingly emollient nature — a property shared by soaps made from it, which leave animal fibre in a kindlier state than any other oil. Palm oil. — Likewise solid in cold climates. It has a yellow colour, which is easily removed. It can be readily saponified, and yields excellent soaps for manufacturing purposes. Being the cheapest solid fat in the market, it is not often adulterated, but is frequently contaminated with sand, fragments of wood and bark, arising from careless preparation. From these it can be easily freed by passing it through a cloth when melted. Lard is too expensive for ordinary manufacturing purposes, though it is employed in some lubricating compounds. It is adulterated with farina, which is detected by rubbing a portion with iodine. If farina is present it will be blackened. A large quantity of water is also sometimes added. To detect this a weighed quantity of lard is exposed to a heat of 212° Fahr. for some time, and the loss is noted. Mineral impurities may be detected by burning a small quantity of the sample in a platinum crucible. Tallow is the most generally used of the fats. It is the hardest, and can be made to yield whiter soaps than any other fat. They are, however, by no means as emollient as those made from palm, cocoa-nut, and olive oils. Olive oil. — The inferior quality known in commerce as Gallipoli is very largely used in manufactures. It should be of a yellowish grey colour, clear, free from all rancidity of taste or smell. It yields very valuable soaps, though when employed without any admixture of other oils the result is too hard for most purposes. THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. 149 It is used in Turkey-red dyeing, for which purpose it must have the property of forming with a dilute solution of pearl-ash a milky emulsion. It is also used in mixing certain colours. Cotton- seed oil, well purified, is little inferior to olive oil, and is decidedly preferable^to rape and camelina. Rape oil approaches olive in some of its properties, and is often mixed with it. Itsjsmell and taste, even when perfectly free from rancidity, are disagreeable. Its specific gravity very nearly ap- proaches that of olive oil ; it saponifies more readily, yielding a softer soap. It is largely used as a lubricant in the woollen manufacture, though on the Continent olive oil is preferred. The oils of camelina, colza, mustard, and other cruciferous plants, are very similar in their nature to rape. Tallow oil, known also as oleic acid and oleine (incorrectly oilic acid and oiline), is used in soap-making and as a lubricant. The use of the drying oils in the tinctorial arts, either direct or indirect, is very limited. Linseed oil may be applied in colour- mixing for the same purposes as Gallipoli. Along with nut and poppy oils it is also, to a limited extent, employed in the pigment style in calico printing, the difficulties in which are being gradually overcome. Resin, Pine, or Vegetable oil, from its low price, is now very frequently used for mixing with more valuable oils. It has a muddy, opalescent appearance. By transmitted light its colour is reddish-brown, but by reflected light it has a lilac, sometimes even a bluish-plum, colour. Its smell and taste are strong and peculiar, totally unlike any of the natural expressed oils, and may serve to detect it except present in very small proportions. It is heavier than the true oils, ranging up to 0*99, and going beyond the range of the oleometer ; but, from its viscid, varnish-like nature, its density cannot well be taken with any instrument acting upon the principle of the hydrometer. It is not applicable to any purpose in the tinctorial arts, beyond lubricating machinery. A kind of grease is now extensively made from waste soap lyes. It is soft, smeary, of very offensive smell and taste, and of a blackish-brown colour. It is used in making soaps of a low quality, and by stuff-dyers for ' ' crabbing " or cleansing the pieces preparatory to dyeing, along with carbonate of soda and ammonia. 150 THE MANUAL OP COLOUBS AND DYE WARES. Oil Mordants. — {Turkey Red Oil, Alizarine Oil.) — In several departments of cotton-dyeing, and especially for Turkey-reds, a treatment -with certain oils is necessary. Formerly a particular kind of Gallipoli (so-called Huile tournante) was used. Such oils, if shaken up with a weak solution of pearl-ash, form an emulsion, which should not separate for at least twenty-four hours. Latterly olive, or preferably castor-oil, is treated with sulphuric acid, so as to liberate the oleic or ricinoleic acid, and the mixture is then neutralized with an alkali or with ammonia, and the alkaline sulphate is allowed to crystallize out. This process was first suggested by Eunge. To determine the relative quality of such oils, put 5 ozs. in a glass cylinder, and shake it up with 2 ozs. of dilute sulphuric acid (1 part 0. g. to 10 of water). The layer of sulphoricinoleic acid is then dissolved in ether, poured off, the ether let evaporate, and the residue weighed. Opal Blue. — A blue colour prepared from aniline, thoroughly freed from all traces of red and violet colour. Opal blue is insoluble in water, either cold or hot, but dissolves in alcohol and methylic spirit, though less freely than the impure blues. A small amount of sulphuric acid, which should be free from lead and from nitrogen compounds, promotes solution, and enables it to dye faster and brighter shades. The alcoholic solution of the colour is added to water in the dye-bath, and gives very pure and beautiful blues upon wool and silk. For cotton it has no affinity except an animal mordant has been applied. To judge of the quality of opal blues, it is sufficient to place a drop of the solution upon a piece of white blotting-paper, and examine the spot produced. If this be a pure, uniform blue, free alike from greenish or violet zones, the colour is good. If it show a greenish reflection, or exhibit a reddish or violet margin, it is not sufficiently purified. Oranges. — A group of azo-colours, formed by the action of the azo- and diazo-derivatives of sulphuric acid upon a and b naphthols, dimethylaniline, and diphenylamine. Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4, have been introduced into commerce by Poirrier, though No. 4 appears to have been prepared and sold by Williams, Thomas, and Dower. THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. 151 No. 2 is used for modifying the tone of scarlets, and No. 4 is a useful substitute for turmeric. They are sometimes sold as " Jaune Beige " and " curcumine." Orchella Weeds. — A class of lichens used in the manufacture of archil, cudbear, and their kindred colours. The so-called Lima weed generally commands the highest price, though excellent archil is obtainable from the Bombay and Zan- guebar qualities. As a general rule, weeds from maritime rocks are preferable to such as are obtained from inland districts. The only available method of testing the quality of samples of weed is to steep a portion, previously cut and bruised, in ammonia for a few days, frequently stirring the mixture. To determine the amount of colouring matter in weed, digest 100 grains of the sample in a dilute solution of caustic soda, repeating this operation till every trace of useful matter is extracted. The liquids obtained are mixed and filtered. Meantime, prepare a solution of the hypochlorite of soda (chloride of soda or bleaching-soda) of known strength, and drop this from a burette into the liquor as long as a transient red colour is produced. The amount of the test-liquor consumed by each sample will show its relative value. Orcin. — A crystalline body obtained from orchella weeds, and produced by the decomposition of erythic acid. It forms regular four-sided prisms, soluble in hot water and alcohol, and having a sweet taste. The aqueous solution readily dissolves magenta. In contact with air, water, and ammonia, it is transformed into orceine, a violet colouring matter known in an impure state as orchil paste, liquor, etc., and constituting also the colour of cudbear. Orpiment. — (Tersulphide of Arsenic.) — A compound of arsenic and sulphur used in calico printing as a reducing agent, in conjunction with indigo. It is now little employed. Orseilline. — A name given to certain coal-tar colours of the azo-class. The varieties known as Nos. 1 and 2 are derived from picramic acid, and have not been adopted in practice. Orseilline No. 3 is also known as rocelline, rubidine, fast rod (Echt-roth), 152 THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. and rauracienne. It may be obtained by the action of diazo- naphthionic acid upon 6-naphthol, but the processes of the various makers are supposed to differ. It dyes shades like those of orchil, but brighter, cheaper, and faster. It produces upon wool cheap garnets, and serves in compound colours in place of cudbear. In conjunction with the tropeolines or the oranges, it gives such shades as cardinals, amaranths, etc. Houge Fran9ais is a mixture of orseilline No. 3 with &-naphthol orange. Oxalate of Tin. — The trade -name applied to a variety of preparations. Some of these contain oxalic acid in quantity, some a mere trace, and some none at all. Hydrochloric and sulphuric acids, and protoxide of tin, are always present. These compounds are very largely used in woollen dyeing. They serve for giving a surface bloom to chrome-blacks, rendering the colour at the same time more permanent, so that it may better pass for a woaded black. They are used for finishing lac and grain scarlets, crimsons, oranges, etc., and by some dyers are employed without the previous use of " scarlet spirits." Oxalic Acid. — This powerful acid occurs, combined chiefly with potash, in the juices of plants of the genera Oxalis and Bumex. Artificially it was obtained by the action of nitric acid upon sugar and starch, but has latterly been prepared by treating saw- dust or spent dye-woods with alkalies. Oxalic acid forms colourless transparent prismatic crystals, which have the specific gravity 1*64 ; are inodorous, intensely and unpleasantly sour, and do not grow moist on exposure. If they become damp, some nitric or sulphuric acid used in the preparation has not been thoroughly removed. It is soluble in its own weight of boiling water, but requires eight times its weight of water at 60° Fahr. To detect sulphuric acid, dissolve in pure water, and add first pure hydrochloric acid, and then chloride of barium. If the oxalic acid is pure, the liquid will remain clear, but if there be an impurity of sulphuric acid a white turbidity will appear. To detect organic impurities, heat a portion with concentrated THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. 153 sulphuric acid. If any such matter be present the sample will turn brown or black. If the smallest trace of nitric acid be present, a small quantity of the extract of indigo, boiled along with the solution of the sample, will have its colour destroyed. If lime, potash, or soda be present, a portion of the acid, heated to redness, will leave a fixed residue. In dyeing, oxalic acid is used to give fire to cochineal and lac colours, especially scarlets and oranges. It also gives a bloom and richness to royal blues upon wool and worsted which cannot be otherwise produced. It is useful for removing spots and stains, especially the rust of iron. Great care is required in its use, or the goods will be injured in their texture. In printing it serves for a discharge in certain cases. It is also used in the preparation of colours, e.g. aurine. Oxygen. — A colourless, tasteless, and inodorous gas, forming, it is calculated, one-third part of the entire earth. Water contains it in the proportion of 89, and air of 23 per cent. Its presence in the air, of which it may be styled the active principle, is the cause of those natural processes known as com- bustion and decay. It has a powerful affinity for most of the other elements, combining with all except fluorine, in many cases in more than one proportion, and forming very important com- pounds. With the non-metallic bodies, such as sulphur, phos- phorus, carbon, etc., and also with certain metals such as arsenic, antimony, and manganese, it forms acids; whilst with the majority of metals such as sodium, calcium, zinc, and silver, it forms oxides of basic pr6perties able to combine with the acids. Upon organic matter it produces also important changes. Many colours, such as indigo-blue, are formed by the influence of oxidizing agents, and can be decolourized by a process of reduc- tion. On the other hand, by the prolonged action of oxygen, most colours are gradually destroyed. Bleaching, as effected by exposure to the atmosphere, or by a solution of bleaching-lime, appears to depend on the destruction of colouring matters by oxidation. Like other elements, oxygen is most active and powerful in what is called the nascent state, that is, in the instant of its libera- 154 THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AKD DYE WARES. tion from some other compound. The principal oxidizing agents are bodies such as binoxides of barium, or of hydrogen, nitric, chromic, permanganic, and chloric acids, etc. Bodies placed in contact with these undergo changes which mere exposure to oxyge n gas would not produce. Ozone. — A gaseous substance said to exist in the atmosphere, and first discovered by Schoenbein. Most chemists at present view it as merely oxygen in a state in which its properties are exalted or intensified. It exerts a most powerful oxidizing action, bleaching colours, decomposing miasmata, etc. There can be no doubt that had we a means of preparing ozone cheaply, it would find abundant and most important applications in the arts. The present process for its preparation, i.e. exposing sticks of phosphorus to the air in bottles containing a small quantity of water, is tedious, expensive, and if attempted on a large scale would be dangerous. It is also ormed during the slow oxidation of ether. Panama Bark. — The bark of Quillaja saponaria, a tree found in Central America. It occurs in commerce in flattish pieces, and fragments of a yellowish grey colour, darker and smooth on the outside, and paler next the wood. It easily breaks and splits up into thin layers, which exhibit a curious twisting and crossing of fibre. If chewed, and the juice swallowed, it has a most irritating effect upon the throat. A similar result is produced by the dust if inhaled. The decoction in water is of a faint orange-brown colour, neutral to litmus -paper. By the natives of the country where it grows, Panama bark is used as a substitute for soap. In the tinctorial arts it serves in the form of decoction — First, to prevent aniline colours from flushing or bronzing on the surface of the goods, rendering them solid and level, and controlling the tendency of the colours to curdle and fall to the bottom. Second. — Goods that have become flushed can frequently be cleared by working or wincing in a decoction of the bark. Third. — It serves, either along with or after soap, to prepare THE MANUAL OY COLOURS AND DYE WARES. 155 goods for receiving the brightest and most delicate colours, pro- ducing a clearer and more brilliant surface than can be obtained by the best soaps alone, and this without rendering the texture harsh. Its uses in dyeing and printing will be extended. Farementine. — A mixture made by boiling up 100 parts of gelatine in the smallest possible quantity of water, and adding 70 parts dextrine, 20 parts glycerine, 20 parts sulphate of soda, and the same weight sulphate of zinc. It is used as a finishing material. Paris Blue. — An aniline blue dye resembling in many respects Lyon blue, but soluble in water. The same name is sometimes given to superior varieties of Prussian blue. Permanent White. — Artificial sulphate of baryta, sometimes used as a pigment. Pawlownic Acid. — A crystalline yellow colouring matter obtained from the fruit capsules of Pawlownia imperialis. It does not exhibit any practical value. Peachwood. — One of the commonest varieties of the soft red woods. It is, strictly speaking, the produce of a species of Ccesalpinia growing in Campeachy, of which its name is a corrup- tion ; but soft red woods from other localities are included by dyers under the same name. In its chemical and tinctorial properties it agrees with Brazil Wood. Patent Colours. — (Cachou de Laval.) — This vague name is applied to certain colours invented by Croissant and Bretonniere, and prepared by heating bran, sawdust, starch, and organic bodies generally with sulphur and caustic soda, or with the sulphuret of sodium, to about 300° Fahr. in a covered crucible. They give all grey, yellow, and brown shades up to a deep black brown. Some of the varieties have even a reddish or a lilac reflec- tion. They dissolve in water, work on to both animal and vegetable fibres without mordants, and even serve as mordants for other 156 THE MANUAL OF COLOUKS AND DYE WARES. colours. Shades dyed with these colours are very fast. They have not, however, been very generally adopted in the trade, and their manufacture has been abandoned by several firms in England and Germany. They are still prepared by Poirrier, of Paris. Persian Berries, known also as French, Avignon, and Turkey Berries. — These berries are the fruit of Rliamnus infectorius y B. saxatilis, and B. amygdalinus, the dyer's buckthorn, small trees, which grow in France, Spain, the Mediterranean Islands, and Turkey, both European and Asiatic. The quality of the berries differs considerably according to the locality where they are grown. Some of the berries are large and greenish, whilst others are smaller, brown and wrinkled, the colouring principle in these two kinds being distinct. The colour of the former is known as rhamnein or chrysorliamnin. This principle is soluble in alcohol, but very sparingly soluble in cold water. In boiling water it dissolves readily, and is converted into xanthorhamnin, the colour naturally occurring in berries of the brown kind. The berries are sometimes known as grenettes. Persian Red. — (Mineral Lake or pink colour.) — A stannate of chrome used as a pigment, and also for colouring glass and porce- lain. Phenicienne. — An artificial colouring matter discovered in 1863, by Both. It is derived from phenol by submitting it to the action of a mixture of nitric and sulphuric acids. It produces a series of shades ranging from a golden buff to a garnet red, which have the advantage of being permanent. It is known also as " Phenyl brown,' ' and as " Eotheine." It must not be confounded with Bismark brown. Phloxine, Rose Bengale, and Cyanosine. — Phthaleine dyes manufactured by Monnet and Co., of Geneva, and giving different shades of rose. They are eosines in which iodine takes the place of bromino, and are dyed in a bath containing acetic acid. Phosphine. — (Chrysaniline Yellow or Victoria Orange.) — A THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. 157 coal-tar dye of great purity, brightness, and intensity. It is a salt of chrysaniline, and dyes a golden yellow on wool and silk in a not which must be neutral or even faintly alkaline. Phthalic Acid. — A compound obtained from naphthaline. Though not in itself a dye ware, it is of importance in the manufac- ture of tinctorial bodies, as it converts the phenols into so-called phthaleines. Phosphoric Acid. — Phosphoric acid and its salts, the phos- phates, have not hitherto received any very extended application in dyeing and printing. Phosphoric acid has been occasionally employed in some of the many substitutes for tartaric acid and tartar, which have latterly made their appearance. Phosphate of soda is used in dung substitutes. The attempts to utilise the reducing power of phosphuretted hydrogen gas in producing metallic effects upon textile fabrics have been hitherto unsuccessful, from the irregular and un- manageable character of the agent employed. Picramic Acid. — A derivation of picric acid obtained by the action of reducing agents. It dyes a fine and permanent brown, but is of little direct use. Picric Acid, called also Carbazotic Acid, or Trinitrophenol. — A bright yellow crystalline body first obtained by the action of strong nitric acid upon indigo. It has subsequently been obtained by the action of the same acid upon silk waste, upon leather clippings, upon crude coal-tar, and upon the resin of Xanthorrhea hastilis, known as yellow Australian gum. It is at present manufactured from crystallized carbolic acid. When pure it is of a very pale yellow, of an intense and persistent bitter taste. It dissolves readily in water, and is also soluble in benzole, and in twenty times its weight of ether. Benzole may be used as a test for the purity of commercial samples. If these are adulterated with borax, oxalic acid, sulphate of soda, etc., the impurities remain behind, whilst the picric acid is readily taken up. Its tinctorial power is very great, and its affinity for wool and 158 THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. silk is strong, but it does not attach itself to cotton in the slightest degree. The presence of a trace of sulphuric acid enables it to dye brighter and more permanent shades. It is sometimes used both for yellows and greens, especially the night-greens, which, if too blue, are brought to the exact shade re- quired by its use. It was also employed as the source of Picbamic and Isopur- pubic Acids. The picrates of potash and soda are sometimes used in dyeing, and have been sold under the name of Boboeuf powder. They are powerfully explosive. Pink Salt. — [Double Chloride of Tin and Ammonium.) — This salt is a compound of bichloride of tin (perchloride) and of sal- ammoniac or chloride of ammonium. It contains when pure 70 parts of bichloride of tin to 30 of sal-ammoniac. It is soluble in three times its weight of water, at 60° Fahr. If boiled in a state of con- centrated solution, it is not decomposed; but if dilute, the whole of the tin is deposited in the form of flakes of oxide. It is very valuable as a solvent ' for organic colouring matters, and its uses both in printing and dyeing are likely to increase the more these arts are followed in^a scientific manner. Fittacal. — (Eupittonic Acid, Corn-flower Blue.) — A colouring matter, first discovered by Beichenbach ] in the tar of beech-wood, and now produced on a commercial scale by Gratzel. If dissolved in ammonia it dyes wool and silk,*especially if mordanted with tin, a peculiarly beautiful violet-blue. In an acid solution it dyes the same fibres an orange. Plessy Green. — A pigment belonging to the chrome greens. It is rarely used, being deficient in colouring power. Pomegranate Husks. — The husk or rind of the pomegranate fruit, though very rarely used in England, is a valuable astringent, containing about 58 per cent, of tannin of a fine quality. The blacks which it yields with iron have a peculiar softness and rich- ness of colour. In Spain it is preferred to sumac, and is well adapted for silk-dyeing. THE MANUAL 03? COLOURS AND DYE "WARES. 159 Ponceau R. — [Xylidine Red.) — A colour of the azo series, manufactured by Meister Lucius and Brtining, of Hoechst, by the action of the disulpho- conjugated derivative of 6-naphthol upon the chloride of diazoxylol. It dyes silk and wool in scarlets and reds resembling cochineal colours, but which have the advantage of not being turned dull and blueish by soap. It is consequently often used in preference to cochineal. Ponceau B.B. is a red colour verging more on the purple side, and Ponceau Gr. inclines to a yellow. Both are manufactured from xylidine by the same firm. Ponceaus, of an analogous character, are also made by the Berlin Adien Gesellschaft fur Anilin Farben in four shades, Gr. (the most yellow), E., 2 E., and 3 E. (the reddest). The name Ponceau is also given to an intensely bright red colour produced by Messrs. Brooke, Simpson, and Spiller, by a process which has not become public. Potash, Bichromate, otherwise known as Red Chrome and Bichrome, and often simply as Chrome. — This salt consists cf one equivalent of potash, combined with two equivalents of chromic acid. It contains no water of crystallization, and consequently cannot lose weight by exposure to heat or dry air. It is not deli- quescent, attracting no moisture from a damp atmosphere. It dissolves in ten times its weight of cold water, and is insoluble in alcohol. It forms bright red crystals, which, when powdered, take a more yellowish colour. The solution is of a deep orange-yellow. Good bichrome is found in clear, well-defined crystals, without any whitish or yellowish spots or incrustations. It should dissolve entirely in pure water, leaving no sediment or residue. If dis- solved in distilled water, acidified with nitric acid, the solution, on the addition of nitrate of baryta, should not give a precipitate. If one appears, it denotes the presence of sulphuric acid, present as sulphate of potash. The bichrome of commerce, generally speaking, varies exceed- ingly little in composition, and makes a near approach to a state of chemical purity. Bichromate of potash is a powerful oxidizing agent, and produces very complex and interesting changes in tinctorial bodies. It is an intense poison, and acts deleteriously, not merely when swal- 160 THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. lowed, but also when allowed to remain much or long in contact with the skin. Its most extensive application is now in the production of black shades upon woollen and worsted goods, along with logwood. The chrome blacks are cheap from the low price of the materials, and can be dyed much more rapidly than the logwood and copperas blacks. On the other hand, they are less permanent. The best chrome blacks, upon prolonged exposure to air and light — especially direct sunshine — exhibit a greenish reflection, which becomes more decided in time. This change is due to the gradual reduction of the chromic acid, which passes to the state of green sesquioxide of chromium. Bichrome is also extensively used, both in dyeing and printing, for yellows and oranges, along with various preparations of lead. These colours are adapted for cotton, but have the disadvantage of turning black wherever exposed to the fumes of decomposing organic matter. Potash, Chlorate. — A very powerful oxidizing agent, some- times used in calico-printing in aniline blacks, in raising shades upon the fibre, and in the preparation of colours. It should be found in clear, colourless crystals, sparingly soluble in water. The solution should yield no precipitate with a dilute solution of the nitrate of silver. Care should be taken never to bring large quantities of this salt in contact with strong acids. Potash, Chromate of. — [Yellow Chrome or Neutral Chrome,) — This salt differs from bichrome in containing only one equivalent of chromic acid. It is much more soluble than the bichromate, but does not attract moisture from the air, except it contains some carbonate of potash as an impurity, which is very often the case. It is sometimes met with in crystals, but more frequently in soft irregular crusts and masses. In its action upon organic colouring matters, it is milder and more easily regulated than bichrome, and produces some totally distinct results. Nevertheless, it is little used by dyers and printers, from the reason that two samples are rarely found alike, and the effects produced exhibit, of course, a corresponding irregularity. THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE "WARES. 161 The impurities found in yellow chrome are carbonate of potash, as above mentioned, and sulphate of potash. The latter is some- times present to the extent of 56 per cent. It may be detected by dissolving in pure water, and adding first a little nitric acid, and then some solution of nitrate of baryta. A white precipitate shows the presence of sulphate of potash. The double chromate of potash and soda, 1 a salt which exactly agrees in its properties with neutral chromate of potash, may be easily and safely made, by adding to 151 parts of bichrome, 143 parts of good clean soda crystals, which must not be effloresced, or dried in. Potash, Prussiate. — This important salt has many names, such as yellow prussiate, ferrocyanuret of potash, blood-salt, etc. Its scientific name is, at present, potassium ferrocyanide. It forms large fine crystals of a lemon, or rather amber-yellow colour. In the superior qualities, the shade inclines rather to the orange, and in inferior to the greenish side. It is generally met with pure. The chief contamination to which it is liable, is sulphate of potash, when the mother-liquor has not been perfectly removed by crystallization. To detect this, a small portion is dissolved in water, mixed with a very little pure hydrochloric acid, and then with a few drops of a solution of chlo- ride of barium. If sulphate of potash be present, a white turbidity will appear in the liquid, which will soon subside to the bottom of the glass. The value of an unknown sample of yellow prussiate may be ascertained as follows : — Prepare a standard solution of pure ferrocyanide of potassium, so that 10,000 fluid grains of water may contain 200 grs. of ferrocyanide. A solution is also prepared of pure permanganate of potash. 100 grain measures of the standard solution of ferrocyanide are poured into a beaker glass, standing on white paper, and 250 grain measures of water are added. The mixture is now acidified with sulphuric acid. The permanganate solution is now carefully dropped in from the burette, till a very faint pink tinge appears in the liquid. The number of degrees of permanganate required to effect this will, of course, represent 2 grs. of perfectly pure prus- siate. Two grains of the sample to be tested are next weighed M 162 THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. out, dissolved in 350 grain measures of water, acidified with, sul- phuric acid, placed in a beaker as above, and the solution of permanganate dropped in. The number of degrees consumed before the pink tinge makes its appearance will show the amount of real permanganate present in the sample. The consumption of prussiate of potash has been greatly reduced in consequence of the introduction of the aniline blues. It is still, however, used in dyeing royal blues, gentians, etc., both on wool and cotton, and in preparing the tin- pulp for steam blues. It also serves as the material for the manufacture of " red prussiate." Potashes, — (Vegetable Alkali.) — Potash occurs in the market in several states ; the crude, brown Canadian, or American pot- ashes ; pearlashes, which are partially refined and sometimes extensively adulterated ; and salts of tartar, which are tolerably pure. To ascertain the strength of a sample of ashes of any of these kinds, weigh out 50 grs., and proceed exactly as directed under Alkalimetry. It must be remembered that an acid of which 81 degrees neutralise 29*2 grs. of actual soda will saturate 44*2 of actual potash. Pearlashes and salts of tartar — potashes more rarely — are adul- terated with soda-ash, which is much cheaper. In such cases, the results obtained by saturating with a standard acid are quite deceptive. The method of estimating the potash in such cases,' is too tedious and complicated for any but professional chemists. Potash and soda are, for many purposes, nearly identical. The greater power of the former for absorbing moisture from the atmo- sphere, gives it an advantage for certain purposes. It is preferred for extracting the pink colouring matter of safnower, and for dis- solving annatto. Pearlash serves also to form an emulsion with the oil used in dyeing Turkey reds. Potash is now generally obtained from a mineral source, the Stassfurt salts. Potassium Cyanide. — This salt has as yet received a very slight application in the tinctorial arts. It is 'a most powerful reducing agent, and capable of discharging many aniline colours. It serves also in the preparation of the isopurpurate of potash. THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. 163 Potato Leaves. — The leaves of the potato plant, after a roasting or baking process, have been used in France for thicken- ing colours. Prussian Blue. — This well-known pigment is of somewhat complex constitution. There are two varieties ; the one, common Prussian blue, is a ferrocyanide of iron, formed by adding a solution of the yellow prussiate of potash to a persalt of iron, such as the perchloride, pernitrate, or persulphate. The other, known as Turnbull's, and sometimes as Chinese blue, is a ferridcyanide of iron, and results when the red prussiate of potash is brought in contact with a protosalt of iron, such as common green copperas. Prussian blue is brighter than indigo, insoluble in water, unaffected by dilute acids, but decomposed by concentrated acids, and rapidly destroyed by alkalies, which leave a rusty brown residue. When in lumps, it exhibits a coppery reflection, which is the brighter and more intense as the quality of the colour is better. The pre- paration of superior Prussian blues requires attention to a variety of minute points, such as the degree of dilution of the liquids, the order in which they are brought in contact, the salts of iron selected, etc. The ordinary qualities are contaminated with alumina, which reduces the intensity of the colour, and robs it of its softness and lustre. By a peculiar process, Prussian blue may be made perfectly soluble in water. "When in this state, it may be distinguished from solutions of indigo as follows : the latter, when artificial light is allowed to shine through them, appear of a reddish purple, which is not the case with soluble Prussian blue. Common Prussian blues^ may be dissolved by the aid of oxalic acid. These solutions are, however, imperfect, the colour being ordina- rily merely held in a fine state of suspension, and being gradually decomposed. The uses of Prussian blue in the tinctorial arts are but limited. As a pigment colour in printing it has been superseded by arti- ficial ultramarine; as a finishing blue, it has been used in the soluble state, but has now been abandoned in favour of the aniline blues. As a blue dye prseformed, Prussian blue rendered soluble is deficient in brightness, though it is sometimes applied as a spirit colour, after being rendered soluble by chlorides of tin. Prussian 164 THE MANUAL OF COLOUBS AND DYE WARES. blues are sold under the names Paris blue, Millori blue, or Berlin blue. Prussiate, HscL — {Ferridcyanide of Potassium, Ferricyanide of Potassium, Chhroprussiate.) — This salt occurs in deep red pris- matic crystals, which should be bold, clean, and free from green, grey, or brown powdery matters. It should be quite dry, losing no weight upon exposure to a heat of 212° Pahr. ; it should be perfectly soluble in water, and its solution should give no blue precipitate with persalts of iron. It must, however, be remem- bered that if the smallest quantity of protosalt of iron be present, a blue precipitate will appear, even with the purest samples of red prussiate. The red prussiate is considered by some dyers to yield richer and bloomier shades of blue than can be obtained from yellow prussiate. Purpuric Acid. — (Known also as " Bed Extract of Indigo" Phenicin and Sulphopurpuric Acid.) — The ordinary extract of indigo is formed, as stated under that head, by the prolonged action of the strongest sulphuric acid upon indigo. If the quantity of acid is considerably reduced, and its time of action shortened, a different product — purpuric acid — is obtained. It may also be obtained by fusing finely ground indigo with the bisulphate of soda. Purpuric acid dyes richer and bloomier shades than can be pro- duced by the ordinary extract of indigo. Contrary, however, to what might have been theoretically anticipated, the colour is not more stable, being completely stripped by hot soap-lyes. By digestion in sulphuric acid, it is readily converted into the common extract. Purpurogalline. — A brown dye obtained by oxidizing pyro- gallic acid. Its uses are very trifling. Purree. — [Indian Yelloiv.) — A pigment containing magnesia and alumina, combined with an organic colouring matter of uncer- tain origin. It is generally said to be obtained from the urine of camels, fed upon the rind of the mangostan. It is used as a pig- ment by artists. THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE "WARES. 165 Puteaux Blue. — A colour obtained by Lauth by treating muriate of phenylene diamine with sulphuretted hydrogen and perchloride of iron. It is a costly colour, and is chiefly used for silks and woollens. It is made by Patz & Co., of Puteaux, in France. It must not be allowed to come in contact with copper. Pyrosine J. and R. — Ponceau colours manufactured by Monnet & Co., of Geneva. These compounds are respectively pure hi-iodfluoresceine and a mixture of bi- and tetra-iodfluoresceine. The last-mentioned body, if alone, dyes shades tending to the violet side of red. These colours are sometimes known as Ponceau d' Orleans and Jaune d' Orleans. Pyroxiline. — Commonly known as gun-cotton. When clean ootton is steeped for a short time in a mixture of concentrated nitric and sulphuric acids, and afterwards well washed in water, it undergoes a remarkable change. Instead of being destroyed, as might have been expected, the fibre increases in weight, takes up the elements of nitric acid, becomes exceedingly combustible and •explosive, and its affinities for colours are altered. According to the experiments of Kuhlmann, cotton soaked for twenty minutes in a mixture of 1 measure nitric acid, at 34° Beaume, 2 measures sulphuric acid full strength, and ^ measure water, afterwards washed in water, passed through a bath of carbonate of soda, again washed and dried, possesses an extra- ordinary affinity for colours, even archil and picric acid. Brazil- wood, and garancine, likewise, gave much fuller and brighter •colours upon prepared cotton, than could be produced upon unpre- pared, with the same mordants. It is further remarkable that "animal fibres, such as silk, wool, hair, and feathers, though, of course, incapable of conversion into pyroxiline, w r hen treated with the above-mentioned mixture of acids, acquire greater affinity for colours. Quebracho Wood. — The wood of Aspidosjperma quebracho, a tree found in South America. It contains about 18 per cent, of tannin, and may be used in dyeing and tanning. It is, however, asserted that the wood brought to Europe under this name is in reality obtained from a different tree. 166 THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WABES. Quercitron Bark. — An important yellow colouring matter, obtained from Quercas wfectoria, a variety of oak, growing in North America. There are two varieties in the market, the Phila- delphia and the Baltimore, the former being superior. It is sold ground, a mixture of dust and fibres, and is of a yellowish stone colour. Its tinctorial power is great. The colouring matter of bark is sold also in the form of extract or liquor, of a paste, and of a powder, known as .Flavine. Bark is very extensively used for the yellow part of compound colours, such as scarlets, oranges, greens, drabs, olives, and blacks. It works both upon animal and vegetable fibre, its mordant for the former being salts of tin, and for the latter, alum. Quinine Green. — An artificial colour obtained from quinine, but of no practical value. Ratanhia Red. — A dye obtained on boiling the tanning matter of ratanhia root with weak sulphuric acid. Red Colours, Detection of. — The principal red colours likely to be met with upon dyed and printed goods are :— 1. Madder and its allies, such as munjeet, and artificial alizarine. This is the fastest red, not being affected by water containing 4 per cent, of hydrochloric acid or ammonia. 2. Cochineal, with lac and kermes. These colours are turned to a more fiery shade by oxalic acid, and take a more violet hue with ammonia. 3. Safflower, carthamine. Eeadily discharged by very weak soap-water. 4. Murexide, or Boman purple. It is discharged by citric acid, and by boiling soap-lyes. 5. Magenta, fuschine, roseine, etc. Impoverished and dulled by ammonia. 6. Coralline, or peonine. If a portion of the cloth is soaked in hot alcohol, the colour is dis- solved away, and in the liquid state is then brightened by ammonia. 7. Weed-colours, such as cudbear, archil, etc. These are easily turned blue by alkalies, and reddened again by acids. They are destroyed by the protochloride of tin. THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. 167 8. Wood-reels, from barwood, peaclrwood, etc. Affected by acids and alkalies ; the former turning them a more fiery, cherry, or orange hue, and the latter, a more purple tint. They are not destroyed by protochloride of tin, like weed-colours. Heel Liquor. — (Known also as Bed Mordant, Acetate of Alumina, Pyrolignite of Alumina, etc.) This very important mordant consists of acetic acid in combina- tion with alumina. It is generally prepared by double decom- position. Some soluble acetate, generally 'the acetate of lead, or that of lime, is mixed in solution with alum or sulphate of alumina. The lead or lime is precipitated in combination with the sulphuric acid whilst the alumina unites with the acetic acid, and remains in solution. The proportions employed vary exceedingly according to the views of the compounder, or the particular purpose in view. The best results are obtained from the use of proportions which are not exactly equivalent, and which consequently do not mutually decompose each other entirely. About three-fourths of the acetate of lead or of lime needed to produce a pure acetate of alumina are generally used. The result consequently contains a portion of undecomposed alum, or sulphate of alumina. An excess of acetate of lead is to be avoided. A variety of other ingredients are occa- sionally added, such as carbonate of soda crystals and chalk, common salt, acetic acid, nitrate of zinc, and acetate of copper. Chalk and carbonate of soda neutralise a part of the acid, and thus enable the alumina to be more readily deposited upon the fibre. It is difficult to see what can be the use of a salt of copper, or to look upon the addition of common salt in any other light than an adulteration. Eed liquor is generally of a yellowish or brownish colour, of a sweetish taste, and a smell of wood-tar. Its strength varies from 8° to 24° Tw. The quality of a sample, or rather its adaptability for any parti- cular purpose, is best decided by practical tests. E»ed Woods. — There are two classes of red woods used in dyeing and printing, as well as in the manufacture of red inks and of certain pigments. Firstly, we have the soft woods, whose colouring matter is easily soluble in water, and from which 168 THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. aqueous decoctions or extracts of various degrees of consistence can be prepared. These are all obtained from various species of the botanical genus Ccesalpinia. The principal species are Per- nambuc wood, Brazil wood, Peach wood, Lima wood, Nicaragua wood, Santa-Martha wood, Brasiletto, and Sapan wood. All these, except the last two mentioned, are obtained from South and Central America. Sapan is procured from Siam and other parts of India. The hard red woods are of a more resinous nature, produce faster dyes, but yield their colouring matter very imperfectly to water, and cannot be used in the form of extract. They are cam wood, santal wood, Calliatura wood, and barwood. Regina Purple. — The trade-name of a peculiar kind of aniline-violet, as prepared by heating magenta alone to a certain elevated temperature, when it is decomposed with separation of ammonia. Resorcine or Resorcinol.— A compound belonging to the class of the phenols. It is now obtained on the large scale from benzol, and in contact with anhydrous phthalic acid it forms nuoresceine, from which by the introduction of bromine is pro- duced eosine. Eesorcine is considered to be the chromogene of the soft red woods. Resorcine Rose. — A colour probably of the phthaleine group, which dyes shades resembling those obtained from samower. Rhubarb. — The red colouring matter of the Rhubarb-root has been elsewhere mentioned under the name of erythrose. The red colour of the stalks is exceedingly fugitive and not brilliant. The leaves are coming into use in some districts in place of woad, as an adjunct to the indigo vat, where they serve to promote fermentation. Rinman's Green. — A pigment known also as cobalt green and Saxon green. Its use is very limited. Rosaniline.— An organic base, which in combination with THE MANUAL OF COLOUKS AND LYE WARES. 169 different acids forms the varieties of magenta, i.e. roseine, azaleine, fuschine, etc. Bosaniline is formed by submitting the mixture of aniline and toluidine known as aniline oil, to the influence of oxidizing agents at a high temperature. See Magenta. Rosin. — The chief impurity in rosin is water, which at once adds to the weight and improves the colour. To detect this, an ounce of the suspected sample is exposed to a steam-heat, and the loss of weight is noted. It should be clear, free from specks and from dirt. It is chiefly used in bleaching cotton goods in the state of an imperfect soap -like compound. Rosolic Acid. — An artificial colour discovered by Eunge whilst investigating the constituents of coal-tar. It is now pre- pared by the joint action of sulphuric and oxalic acids upon carbolic acid. It produces orange tints, bordering upon flame-colour upon silk and upon cotton with animal mordants. Hottlerine. — An orange -red dye obtained from the fruits of Bottler a tindoria. It was formerly used to some extent in silk- dyeing. Rub eo sine. — A phthaleine colour prepared from Aureosine by the action of nitric acid, or of nitrate of potash and acetic acid: It dissolves in alkaline water, and dyes silk a scarlet.. R»ubine, AcicL— A sulphacid compound or sulphone of magenta, manufactured by the Berlin Actien Gesellscliaft fur Anilin Farben by the action of chlorosulphuric acid. It dyes in an acid bath, and may be used for compound shades along with orchil, extract of indigo, etc. Hubus chamsemorus. — A Bussian berry which dyes buff, amber, and orange shades. Safnower. — The flower of a plant known as Carthamus tinc- torius, and obtained in the greatest perfection from India, where it is largely cultivated. 170 THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. Safflower contains three colouring matters — two yellows, which are worthless, and a red, which is very fine. There is some reason for supposing that the yellows are formed at the expense of the red by the action of the air and moisture, and many attempts have been made, in consequence of this view, for reconverting the yellow into the red. These attempts have not been successful, and are now abandoned. The yellow matter is soluble in cold water, but very careful washing is needed for its entire removal. The red colour is found in not more than one-third the amount of the yellow, or about 0*5 per cent. It is soluble in alcohol, and in water containing a trace of an alkaline carbonate, from which it is reprecipitated by acids. Hence it is considered as a feeble acid, and has received the name carthamic acid, or Garth amine. In pure water it is insoluble ; a fact upon which is founded the method employed for its separation from the yellow colour. The cakes of compressed safflower, as imported, are broken up, placed in bags, and steeped in a current of pure water till no further yellow tint is imparted to the stream. The safflower thus washed is treated in the cold with a weak solution of carbonate of potash or crystallized soda, to the extent of one gallon to each pound of safflower. In this it is soaked for about six hours with frequent and careful stirring. At the end of this time the whole is carefully strained through a fine hair cloth. The liquid which runs through contains the colour. The solid residue is well pressed, and the liquid that oozes out is added to the rest. The carthamic acid in this state is, however, not capable of dyeing. For this purpose it requires the addition of an acid to neutralise the alkali — preferably the tartaric or citric ; oxalic acid turning the colour too much to the orange side, whilst sulphuric acid gives it a bluish tint. With this addition the solution of colour can be immediately used for dyeing cotton. The longer it is allowed to stand in this state the feebler its affinity for the fibre seems to become. The colour prepared as above directed, though it dyes cotton beautifully, produces unsatisfactory shades upon silk and wool, a quantity of another yellow colouring matter being present, and attaching itself to fibres of the two latter kinds. The presence of this second yellow is variously accounted for. THE MANUAL OE COLOURS AND DYE WARES. 171 Some assert that if the red colouring matter is kept too long in contact with a large quantity of water, especially if the tempera- ture be high, it undergoes partial decomposition, a portion of it being converted into a yellow colour. Others maintain that a portion of yellow colour is combined with the red in such a manner that it cannot be extracted by washing with pure cold water. I would suggest that a part of the safflower may also escape perfect washing. The masses or cakes in which safflower arrives being very compact and very dry repel water, and, without great care, some portions may escape being wetted, and if so, these will yield up their yellow colour along with the red to the alkaline solution. When a very superior quality of colour is required for silks, some dyers first dye a quantity of very clean cotton with the colour prepared as above, wash the cotton well in pure water, and then steep it in a weak solution of pearlash. This dissolves the red colour away from the cotton, forming a liquor with which, after the addition of an acid, the silk can be dyed. The only available method of judging of the quality of safflower is to take equal weights of the respective samples, prepare them as aforesaid, and dye equal weights of cotton with them, comparing the depth and purity of the shades produced. Safflower is not liable to adulteration ; but varies much, both as to the quantity and quality of its red colouring matter. Safflower ranks among the most fugitive of colours. It is strongly acted on by light, especially whilst the goods are still moist — by soap, and alkalies, and by acids and sulphuretted vapours. Hence, first-rate safflower shades can be produced only where the air is pure. A current of dry, cold air in a darkened chamber is the best arrangement for drying the goods. The use of safflower has diminished since the introduction of saffranine, eosine, etc. As in the case with many other wares, the portion of carthamine which first, and most readily, dissolves out of the safflower is by far the finest, whilst the last is much inferior. Saffranine. — A beautiful red coal-tar colour belonging to tho "azo" class. It was first introduced into commerce by Perkins, 172 THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. and serves as a substitute for Safflower. It is formed when the heavy aniline oils are treated with a current of nitrous acid, and are then oxidized. It is sold as a brown powder, soluble in water. If dissolved in sulphuric or muriatic acid it forms a green solution, which, on dilution, passes into blue, violet, and red. There are two varieties of saffranine in the market, one of which dyes yellower tones than the other. Both are extensively used in silk- dyeing. Saffron. — The flowers of Crocus sativus, formerly used as a dye ware, but now rarely employed, except in colouring articles of food. Its colouring matter is insoluble in water, but dissolves readily in alcohol, and essential and fatty oils. It has received the name polychroite, and its composition has been a matter of dispute, but it is now considered identical with crocin, the colouring principle of Gardenia grandi flora. Sal-ammoniac. — {Chloride > of Ammonium, Muriate of Ammo- nia.) — A compound of ammonia and chlorine found in commerce either in the state of crystals, or in tough, compact, fibrous masses formed by sublimation. Sal-ammoniac is neutral to litmus paper ; does not melt in the air ; has a pungent taste ; volatilises when heated ; dissolves in its own weight of boiling water, and in about 2 J- parts of cold. The chief impurity likely to be present is chlo- ride of iron. It may be easily detected by adding a mixture of the solutions of red and yellow prussiate of potash to the solution of the suspected sample. A blue precipitate shows the presence of iron. The presence of sal-ammoniac modifies the action of metallic salts upon organic colours, as may easily be seen by adding per- chloride of tin and pink- salt (which is a compound of perchloride of tin and sal-ammoniac) to two portions of a solution of cochineal. It is extensively used along with salts of copper. Common Salt.-— ( Chloride of Sodium, formerly Muriate of Soda.) — The properties of common salt need no description. It is directly used in a few cases in mixing colours. Indirectly, it is of vast importance in the manufacture of muriatic acid, and soda with its salts. It also serves to precipitate certain colours from their THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WAKES. 17$ solutions, -which, it effects by means of its superior attraction for water. In this manner it is useful in the purification of extract of indigo, the aniline colours, etc. Its fraudulent uses would require a volume for their exhaustive description. It is added to the liquid and paste extracts of dye- woods, to turmeric, flavine, cudbear, dyer's spirits, soda-ash, etc., etc. In all these cases its presence is more or less injurious. Samples, Taking. — To take a sample which shall be a per- fectly fair representative of a bulk, is best accomplished on the Cornish system, which is equally applicable either to a ship's load or to a single bag or chestful, no matter how heterogeneous the mass may seem. The bulk, if needful, is spread out in a pretty level mass of an oblong shape, and a tract or channel is cut through it from end to end. This is then intersected by other cuts or channels at right angles with the first. At each point of intersection, or from each face of the compartments into which the bulk is thus divided, we take a barrowful, spadeful, scoopful, or spoonful, according to size. These portions are next thrown all together, well mixed, and any very large lumps are broken up. This reduced quantity is now again spread out, cut, and portions taken as before. These are well mixed together, brought to a coarse uniform powder, again spread out, divided, and portions taken. These are finally mixed up and brought to a fine powder. In this manner a sample of an ounce can be obtained which fairly represents a bulk of 1000 tons. If the bulk to be sampled is contained in casks, bags, or chests, the first spreading out is needless. A scoopful, or handful, is taken from every package. These are then mixed, and further treated as above. If the bulk consists of particles nearly equal in size, as in case of myrobalans, cochineal, etc., no grinding or pounding need be re- sorted to till the final sample is obtained. If it is impracticable to grind up the bulk, as in case of indigo, a small portion is taken off each lump or block with a rasp. The raspings are mixed together and thoroughly pulverized. Santai Wood, known also as Sandal Wood, Saunders Wood, and Bed Sanders. — This wood is brought from India, principally from 174 THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. the eastern coast of Hindustan, and is the produce of a large tree known as Pterocarpus santalinus. It is one of the hard red woods, yielding very little colour, even to boiling water. It contains 16 per cent, of santaline, a peculiar colouring matter found also in barwood, and which may be extracted by means of alcohol, or acetic acid. Like barwood, it dissolves in soda and ammonia with a purple-red colour, and may be reprecipitated from these solutions by an acid. The alcoholic extract gives lake colours similar to those yielded by the tincture of barwood. Santalwoodis usually imported in large heavy billets of a blackish- red colour. For use it must be rasped very fine, and is, when recently ground, of a red colour, but turns brownish on long exposure to the air. From cam wood, and still more from the soft red woods, santal wood is known by its very much more sparing solubility in water. From barwood it is known by its powerful and pleasant odour, barwood on the other hand being scentless. Santal wood is employed, though not very extensively, in woollen dyeing. It yields certain browns of great permanence, and, like the other hard woods, is sometimes applied to cloths which are afterwards to be dyed an indigo-blue in the vat. In other cases the indigo is applied first and then topped with santal wood. It is similarly applied along with certain aniline colours, such as " Guernsey Blue." An African variety of Sanders is known as Poa-Gaban. Sap Green. — [Bladder Green.) — A colour obtained from the fruit of the buck-thorn (Rhamnus catharticus) . It is used by manufacturers of paper-hangings, and by leather stainers, but not, save experimentally, in tissue-dyeing or printing. Sapan Wood. — One of the soft red woods yielded by a variety of Ccesalpinia, growing principally in Siam and Bimas. It yields a good liquor or extract, and is on that account much used by printers. Its properties agree with those of Brazil Wood. An inferior variety is known as Padang wood. Scarlet Spirits. — (Bowl Spirits or Nitrate of Tin.) — The existence of a true, permanent nitrate of tin is very questionable. THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. 175 Yet so-called " single aqua-fortis," i.e. nitric acid at about 32° to 34° Twaddle, to which a small percentage of hydrochloric acid, or of a solution of sal-ammoniac or of common salt, has been added, is capable of dissolving a considerable amount of metallic tin and of holding it in solution for some time. The liquid thus obtained contains about 2 J ozs. of metallic tin to the pound of acid, marks from 58° to 65° Tw., and is of a clear reddish-amber colour. In cold weather it retains its transparency for months, but at higher temperatures it soon becomes milky and opaque, depositing its tin as a yellowish gelatinous mass, and becoming unfit for use. In the preparation of this mordant and of the aqua-fortis used for that purpose, a variety of precautions are required which do not come within the plan of this work. It is especially necessary that the aqua-fortis should contain no sulphuric acid. This spirit, as its name implies, is used in dying scarlets, crimsons, and other cochineal colours upon woollen and worsted goods. Silicates, Alkaline. — The uses of these salts, especially of the Silicate of Soda, are various and extending. It is now employed as an addition to certain kinds of soaps. For the bath for dyeing Guernsey and Nicholson blues, and pomona greens, silicate of soda is sometimes used? instead of borax or the carbonate of soda. When carefully neutralised so as to be free from all excess of alkali, it is occasionally employed as a dung substitute. It is also sometimes employed for fixing pigment colours in printing, but without satisfactory results. Silk. — A nitrogenous fibre of great importance. Unlike wool and cotton, a thread of silk appears under the microscope plain and simple, like a minute wire. It is secreted in the state of a gum or varnish by most insects during the larva period of their existence, but only by certain nocturnal lepidoptera in quantities of importance. The common silk-moth, Bomhyx mori, has been hitherto the chief producer, though there is reason to believe that certain allied species may prove of no less value. Silk as imported is coated with a loose matter technically known as gum, and forming 23 to 30 per cent, of the total weight. This requires to be removed before the silk can be manufactured. This 176 THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WAKES. process, called ungumming, is performed in Europe by boiling the raw silk with weak soap-lye of fine quality. In China, a mixture of wheat flour, bean meal, salt and vinegar, is used. If the soap- lyes be too strong, or the boiling too prolonged, a part of the silk itself is dissolved and the remainder is deteriorated. Even boiling water alone is in time capable of producing this effect. We may hence conclude that the so-called gum differs from the true silk, not in its chemical composition, but merely in its less compact state of aggregation. It is to be regretted that so much valuable matter should be wasted as is generally the case, or, at best, used only for manure. The value of silk, as far as the tinctorial arts are concerned, lies in its affinity for colours and in its relations to light. In its affinity for colours it is generally pronounced to hold an intermediate place between wool and cotton. Like the former it has a strong affinity for picric acid, the aniline colours, archil, etc. Like the latter it works well with salts of iron. It is very readily injured by either strongly acid or strongly alkaline solutions. Nor is it advantageously dyed at the high temperatures suitable for wool. The peculiar beauty of silk, and the reason why it displays most colours to greater advantage than any other material, lies in the circumstance that it reflects a larger amount of light from its surface. Hence the colours applied necessarily have a brilliance not found elsewhere. Substitutes for Silk. — Erom time to time rumours are circu- lated, that some vegetable fibre has been discovered which is a perfect substitute for silk. This is simply an impossibility. All vegetable fibres are varieties of lignine, and are consequently in their chemical composition totally unlike silk. However glossy and lustrous they may appear, the dye-pan soon shows that in their affinity for colours, these substitutes for silk are only equal — often indeed decidedly inferior — to cotton. Silk, Artificial. — Attempts have been made, not without success, to coat cotton, flax/etc., with a thin layer of silk, to thus give them a power of taking up dyes with the same lustre as silk. Magnier and Doerflinger convert cotton into nitro- cellulose (gun- cotton) in the usual manner, reduce it in a vacuum with phosphoric acid and sulphite of soda, and then heat it to 374° Eahr. with a THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE "WARES. 177 solution of silk- waste in acetic acid. Samples said to have been produced by this process appear satisfactory, but the operation is evidently expensive. Size. — The coarser kinds of glue, or gelatine, are extensively used in finishing, and to some extent in dyeing, for communi- cating stiffness, gloss, and an artificial body to the goods. Two kinds occur in commerce, known respectively as bone- size and glue- size. The former is pale, clear, and forms solid, semi-transparent cakes or masses. Its adhesive power is, however, less than that of glue-size. The latter is a dark brown, stiff, semi-fluid mass of great adhesive power. It is frequently contaminated with the exuviae of the larvae of carrion flies, hairs, etc. If exposed to warmth and moisture, it is liable to mildew, as are also the goods to which it has been applied. This change can be easily and cheaply prevented. In judging the quality of sizes, the Twaddle is utterly useless. Neither can the feel or apparent tenacity be considered as trust- worthy. Samples may be weighed out, and perfectly dried — a very slow process — noting the loss as water. Weighed portions may also be burnt to ashes, to find the mineral matters. These, in many cases, are considerable, including a heavy allowance of common salt. Certain additions are, of course, requisite to prevent putrefaction, but these are not always correct, either in kind or quantity. Yet, if consumers will always give the preference to the dealer who asks the lowest price, or offers the highest discount and the longest credit, they must expect to buy water, salt, and the like at a heavy price. Soap-berry. — The fruit of a West Indian plant, Sapindus saponaria. It is said to have a much greater cleansing power than the best soap, and deserves a close examination. Soaps. — Soaps consist of any of the three alkalies, soda, pot- ash, and ammonia, in combination with one or more of the fatty acids, especially the oleic, palmitic, margaric, and stearic. Soda N 178 THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. soaps are hard ; potash forms the so-called " sweet," or soft soaps ; whilst ammonia yields a still softer semi-fluid kind, little used except in medicine, and technically called liniments. The nature of the fatty acid employed has also a great influence on the con- sistence of the soap. The more stearic acid is present, the harder — other things being equal — will be the soap, while the pre- dominance of oleic acid renders it softer. In addition to alkali and fatty acids a variety of substances are present in soaps, to a greater or less extent. These are glycerine, derived from the oil or fat employed, water, alkaline sulphates, chlorides, and carbonates from the impurities in the potash or soda employed, rosin, silicate of soda, Cornwall clay, ground flints, potter's slip, fuller's earth, gelatine, and other kinds of nitro- genous animal matter, dissolved in soda ; farina, dextrine, and a variety of other substances. On these secondary bodies a few remarks will be needed. Glycerine is an important constituent of every kind of oil and fat, in which it exists in combination with the fatty acids above mentioned. When these, in the process of soap-making, combine with soda or potash, the glycerine is set free, and in the case of hard soaps is drawn off along with the spent lyes. In the soft potash soaps, it remains blended with the mass. Its presence must not, on any account, be considered an adultera- tion or impurity, since without impairing the cleansing powers of the soap, it renders it more emollient and kindly in its action, whether upon the human skin, or upon animal or vegetable fibre. Accordingly many soap-boilers now endeavour to re-incorporate the eliminated glycerine with their hard soaps. Water, to a certain extent, is present in soaps, hard or soft. It may, however, by dexterous management be added even to 80 per cent., though the soap all the time appears quite firm, and in such proportions must be regarded as a fraudulent admixture. To determine the amount of water present, a known quantity, say 1000 grains, is reduced to fine shavings, dried at the heat of 212° Fahr., and the loss noted. This method, though not absolutely accurate, is sufficient for all practical purposes. When several samples have to be compared, a good idea may be obtained by putting equal weights of each into a number of small tin cups, pouring upon each an equal measure of boiling water, THE MANUAL OF COLOITRS AND DYE WARES. 179 which should not be much more than will suffice to dissolve them, stirring till melted, and then setting them aside. When cold, they will be found to have formed jellies, differing greatly in con- sistence according to their respective amounts of water ; the dry samples being firm, whilst those containing large proportions of water will be semi-fluid. In soft soaps the water is from 45 to 55 per cent., in hard mottled soaps about 35, in curd soaps from 20 to 30, and in fitted yellow and white soaps 40 to 60. Sulphate and muriate of potash are invariably present in soft soap, as the caustic alkali from which it is made is never quite pure. They do not ordinarily interfere with its quality. In hard soaps the sulphate and muriate of soda are less commonly found, since the impurities contained in the soda are removed in the spent lyes. Sulphate of soda is sometimes added in order to harden soft kinds of fat, and common salt is occasionally employed as an adulterant. The detection of these salts is easy. Dissolve a little of the soap in distilled water, and add pure nitric acid enough to combine with the alkali, and cause a separation of the fat, which will rise to the top. Pour off the clear liquid beneath this, and add to one portion thereof a little nitrate of baryta dissolved in pure water. If a white precipitate is formed, alkaline sulphates are present in the soap. To another portion solution of nitrate of silver is added in like manner. If a white curdy precipitate is formed, either chloride of potassium (muriate of potash) or common salt is present. Carbonate of potash or of soda may be found in soaps when the alkali employed has not been duly causticised. It generally appears in hard soaps in the form of an efflorescence like hoar frost over the bars. Eosin is a common ingredient in yellow soaps. In all soaps in- tended for the use of the dyer or printer, it is an objectionable impurity, imparting to the goods an unpleasant clamminess or stickiness. It may be easily detected. Dissolve some of the soap in as little boiling water as possible. Add enough hydrochloric or dilute sulphuric acid to combine with the alkali, and liberate the fatty matters. Then cover the vessel in which the whole is con- tained with a lid or a plate of glass, and set it aside for a few minutes. On uncovering it, rosin, if present, may easily be detected 180 THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. in the cake of fatty substances by its smell and taste, and by the peculiar stickiness which it imparts to oils and fats with which it is mixed. Silicate of soda as a constituent of soaps has given rise to a great variety of opinions. Some condemn it as a mere adulteration and even deny that it has any detergent powers. Insoluble silica and alumina, in the various shapes of Cornish clay, powdered pumice, ground flints, potters' slip, and fuller's earth, can be and often are added to soaps to a considerable extent. Their action is merely mechanical, that is, they cleanse by scraping or abrading the dirt and grease off the bodies to be purified, and of course they roughen the fibre. This action will necessarily be un- equal, and the goods will then take any dye unevenly, the colour being deposited most heavily where the surface has been most acted upon. We must therefore consider silica and alumina, if not as direct adulterations, as additions which for manufacturing purposes cannot be recommended. Their detection is not difficult. A weighed portion of the soap is dissolved in dilute spirit of wine ; the liquid is filtered, and the insoluble matter which remains on the filter is dried and weighed. Animal matter other than fat, such as tendons, intestines, ground bones, waste glue, etc., can be regarded in no other light than a filthy adulteration. It is to be regretted that any soapmaker should derive a portion of his materials from the knacker's yard, and that even the offal of the fish market should find its way into the soap- pan. Soaps so contaminated give a most nauseous odour to any wool, yarn, etc., that is scoured with them, and should therefore be carefully avoided. The detection of such impurities is not difficult. A little of the soap is dissolved in hot water, and decomposed by the addition of a little hydrochloric acid. The spurious animal matters will be entangled in the cake of fat which separates out, and may be easily recognized. Farina and dextrine are less formidable. They add, of course, nothing to the value of the soap, but they have no action positively injurious. To detect them dissolve the soap in strong spirit of wine. Farina and gum remain undissolved, and may be separated from the other articles by filtering. Farina is then easily recog- nized by adding a drop or two of the tincture of iodine, which if farina be present will give to the mass a deep blue -black colour. THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. 181 Dextrine (British gum) may be dissolved out from any mineral impurities present in a little hot water, and can then be readily recognized. The normal ingredients of soap, the fatty matter, and alkali, are determined as follows : Take 100 grs. of the sample, dissolve in hot water, avoiding excess, in a small and very light glass-beaker. Add hydrochloric acid in slight excess, and set the glass aside till the oils and fats congeal into a cake at top. This crust is then carefully pierced with a needle, the liquid poured off, and the beaker weighed. After deducting the tare, this gives the amount of fatty matter. Some analysts put along with the soap a weighed quantity — say 100 grs. — of pure white wax. The decomposition is managed as above, the cake of fatty matter and wax is taken out of the beaker and weighed. The weight, after deduction of 100 grs. for the wax added, shows the amount of oil or fat. This latter process is preferable for soaps containing a large amount of oil ; or of any fat that congeals only at very low tempera- ture. The amount of alkali is determined as in Alkalimetry. A good soap should not only be free from the impurities above mentioned, and from excess of water, but should be neutral, the alkali and fat being duly balanced. If either of them be in excess, or if they are not well incorporated and combined, disappointment to the consumer must result. The quality of the fats employed is also of the highest importance. For the use of the dyer and printer, the following alone should be employed, singly or in mixture : — Tallow, palm-oil, cocoa-nut oil, olive oil, rape-seed oil and its congeners, and sun-flower seed oil. Of these common convention assigns the superiority to tallow. Nevertheless, I hold that well-made palm and cocoa-nut oil soaps leave the fibre in a more desirable condition than any tallow soap. The following oils and fats should be carefully avoided : — Train oil, cod fish oil, linseed oil, kitchen refuse, fat collected by bone boilers, grease separated out from accumulated soap-lyes. All these give evil- smelling, clammy soaps. Soap Powders. — (Washing Powders, Scouring Salts, Washing Sugars, Soap Ashes, Extracts of Soap, Extracts of Fuller's Earth, 182 THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. Saponaceous, etc., etc., etc., ad infinitum.) — These are bodies which have been very largely used, not only for domestic, but also for manufacturing purposes. They concern the dyer and printer only in as far as they are used instead of, or along with soap, ammonia, or carbonate of soda, for cleansing wools, yarns, or pieces preparatory to being dyed or printed. They consist, generally speaking, of common carbonate of soda crystals, reduced to a fine powder either by grinding or by fusion and stirring during solidification. This powder differs in no- thing from the ordinary crystallized carbonate of soda ; it contains the same amount of soda, of carbonic acid, and of water. Being, however, in a state of fine division it is much more rapidly, though not more abundantly soluble in water, which for certain purposes is an undoubted advantage. To this powder a variety of ingre- dients are added ; some to effect a real or supposed improvement in its quality, others for the less righteous purpose of disguising its appearance or reducing its cost. Among the beneficial additions, the chief are palm oil, cocoa-nut oil, and soaps of different qualities. Among the disguises and adulterants we may reckon rosin, sulphate of soda, common salt, and in some few cases even chromate of lead in the state of paint ! The amount of available alkali in any of these bodies may be determined by an ordinary alkalimetrical operation (see Alkali- metry). To estimate approximately soap and oils, dissolve the sample in as little water as possible, when these substances will separate out. To find the amount of moisture, weigh out 100 grs., dry it carefully at a steam heat and note the loss. Eosin is a most objectionable ingredient, for reasons stated under Soap. Sulphate of soda and salt merely diminish the cleansing power of the soap powder without imparting any property positively injurious. The so-called " dry soaps " which have at present a very large consumption, belong also here. They consist of a soap made perfectly free from water, by means well known to every soap- boiler, and in that state ground to powder and mixed with caustic soda and carbonate of soda. They are powerful detregents, but obviously less safe — for manufacturing purposes at least — than good soaps. The name is evidently deceptive, since it leads con- THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. 183 Burners to think that they are buying merely soap, less the ordinary amount of water. Soda, Acetate. — A very soluble salt formed by neutralizing acetic acid with soda. It is soluble also in alcohol. Its uses are not extensive. Soda, Aluminate. — (Known also as Alkaline Pink Mordant.) — This salt was formerly prepared in an impure state, by adding caustic soda in excess to a solution of common alum, or of sul- phate of alumina, and boiling till the precipitate at first formed was redissolved. It was, of course, contaminated with sulphate of soda, and if common alum was employed, with sulphate of potash also. It now occurs in commerce, in the solid form, and in a state of nearly absolute purity, being obtained either from cryolite or from bauxite. This salt is used by printers, as a mordant for pinks, the cloth being passed through sal-ammoniac, chloride of zinc, etc., to fix the alumina upon the fibre. Its use among dyers is only in its origin. I may venture to say that the aluminate of soda is capable, when properly treated, of producing every effect producible by alum, and, in addition, many others peculiar to itself. It is remarkable that, although of an alkaline nature, it is capable of depositing its base, and consequently of fixing colours, upon wool. An aluminate of potash can be made in an analogous manner, but is more expensive and less useful. Soda, Arsenite. — A salt of considerable use in dyeing and printing, as a mordant. In order to fix certain coal-tar colours upon cotton a mixture of acetate of alumina and arsenite of soda is applied, the result being that arsenite of alumina is deposited upon the fibre and acts as a mordant. Soda-ash. — A powder of a white, or very pale white-grey colour. It should be entirely soluble in water ; if any insoluble matter is left behind, it will be either lime, silica, or particles of 184 THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. carbon. It should not display a brownish or yellowish shade, neither should it change colour on exposure to the air. Either of these circumstances shows the existence of compounds of sodium and sulphur, which, in some cases, may produce injurious effects. It should not contain hard lumps, slowly soluble. These result from negligent workmanship, and are productive of waste, as they often remain un dissolved. Soda-ash is sold at so much per cent, of actual or available alkali present in the sample. The strength of a pure soda-ash would be 58^ per cent. Such an article, however, does not occur in commerce, though every alkali manufacturer seeks to get his ash as strong as possible, and samples at 54 and 55 per cent, may easily be met with. These are the best for consumers, since weaker kinds are made by letting down the strong, either with common salt or with " weak-ash." " Weak-ash" is made from the mother-liquor remaining from the preparation of crystals of soda, evaporated down to dryness and furnaced over again, and, of course, contains all the impurities. The subjoined table shows the amount of actual soda-ash present in solutions of different strengths. Twa. Per cent. Twa. Per cent. 36° . 14-8 28° . 11-9 35° . . 14-5 27° . 11-5 34° . 14-1 26° . Ill 33° . 13-7 24° . 10-4 32° . 13-3 22° . 9-6 30° . 12-6 20° . 8-9 29° . 12-2 Some kinds of soda-ash contain caustic soda to a considerable extent. To detect this, determine the total percentage of alkali in the sample. (See Alkalimetry.) Then take another portion, dissolve it in pure water, add to the solution chloride of barium in large excess, filter, wash slightly, and again determine the alkali in the clear liquid. This second determination shows the amount of caustic alkali present, and if subtracted from the first, the remainder will show the percentage of real carbonate. Soda-ash containing caustic alkali loses strength on exposure to the air, the caustic soda taking up its due amount of carbonic THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. 185 acid from the air gains weight, and, of course, contains a smaller percentage of real alkali. For some purposes it is unsafe, and in any case, when caustic soda is required, it is better to buy and use it under its own name, instead of in an uncertain and variable mixture. To detect sulphide (sulphuret) of sodium, a slip of paper steeped in the nitroprusside of sodium is dipped in the solution of the sample. If this impurity is present, the paper will turn a violet colour. The moisture in a sample of soda-ash may be determined, if re- quired, by weighing out, say 200 grs., and heating it to about 400° Fahr. for an hour. It is then cooled, weighed, and the loss noted as moisture. Soda, Bicarbonate. — (Sometimes called merely Carbonate.) — A white powder, containing two equivalents of carbonic acid in union with one of soda. It is a much milder alkali than the common crystal soda, or than soda-ash, and is, therefore, useful where corrosive action is especially to be avoided. It is less soluble in water than common soda. Bisulphite of Soda. — (Leucogene.) — If common soda crystals are dissolved in water, and perfectly saturated with sulphurous acid gas, they yield the above salt, which may either be kept in the liquid state or crystallized. Bisulphite of soda is a bleaching agent, applicable both to veget- able and animal fibre, and has some advantages over sulphurous acid gas as present in the brimstone stove. Its action is more regular, and it does not injure the health of the workmen. It appears not only to bleach, but to mordant the goods for some colours. Soda, Caustic. — {Hydrate of Soda.) — This substance differs from the carbonate of soda in containing no carbonic acid, and being consequently a much more powerful detergent, and more corrosive in its action. It is readily soluble in water, deliquescing on exposure to the air. It is sold both in the solid state and as lye. A saturated solution marks 100° Tw., boils at 266° Fahr., and contains nearly 37 per cent, of soda. The lye commonly sold stands about 60° Tw., containing 20 per cent. 186 THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. Its uses are various. It is an essential ingredient in all hard soaps. It may be used with due care in bleaching cottons, but is very destructive to woollen and silk, and if used for scouring, the least excess in quantity, strength, or time must be carefully avoided. Soda, Chromates of. — These salts correspond respectively to the chromate and bichromate of potash, which they precisely resemble in their behaviour and properties. As the equivalent of soda is lower than that of potash, they contain in a given weight a larger amount of chromic acid than the corresponding salts of potash. This circumstance, joined to the lower price of soda, ought to give them the preference. Unfortunately they are very easily adulterated, and such adulteration does not reveal itself by the appearance of the sample. Hence, the dyer is always at a loss without submitting every sample to a quantitative analy- sis. As a necessary result, the chromates of potash retain the preference. Soda Crystals. — (Carbonate of Soda Crystals, Scotch Soda, Newcastle Soda, Washing Soda, Sal Soda.) — If soda-ash is dissolved in water, and the solution concentrated, the carbonate of soda sepa- rates out in a crystalline form, containing 10 equivalents, or about 63 per cent, of water. The greater part of the impurities, such as sulphate of soda, chloride of sodium, caustic soda, silica, etc., remain in the mother-liquor. The crystals are consequently purer and more uniform in composition than soda-ash, and for many purposes, therefore, preferable. If exposed to a gentle heat, the crystals melt in their own water of crystallization. In the open air they effloresce, and fall more or less completely to powder, losing an amount of water, which varies with the temperature and degree of atmospheric moisture. They dissolve in twice their weight of cold, and in less than their own weight of hot water. A solution saturated at 46° Fahr. marks 21° Tw. If honestly made, these crystals vary exceedingly little in quality, accordingly as they are more or less completely freed from the mother-liquor with its impurities. A spurious article is, however, sold some- times as washing soda, sometimes as " common soda," which needs to be avoided. It is a mixture of sulphate and carbonate of soda THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. 187 in fine large crystals, which to the eye might pass for a genuine soda. It may easily be detected by an alkalimetrical process, as its saturating power will be very small in comparison with good soda crystals. If a little of the spurious kind is neutralized with muriatic acid, and tested with chloride of barium, it will also indi- cate a large amount of sulphuric acid. An article has appeared in the market, under the name of " car- bonated crystal," which the maker asserts, when dissolved in water, does not raise the Twaddle of the solution ; which circum- stance — strange, if true — is to be of great but unexplained advantage to the consumer. Soda, Hyposulphite. — A compound of soda and hyposulphu- rous acid. It forms clear colourless crystals of a peculiar sulphurous taste, readily soluble in water. Its uses are extensive and increasing. Under the name of "green mordant" it was used as a means of fixing a certain class of aniline greens upon the fibre. As " antichlore" it is used by bleachers to counteract the effects of any excess of chlorine which may remain in the goods from the use of bleaching-lime. It has been employed to prepare, by double decomposition, a hyposulphite of alumina, to be used as a mordant. The results have not been very satisfactory. It has also been used in the production of bronzing or argentine effects, in conjunction with a salt of copper, which it effected by covering the fibre with a film of sulphuret of copper. Soda, Nitrate. — {Cubic Petre, Soda Saltpetre, Chilian Salt- petre.) — A compound of nitric acid and soda, occurring naturally in immense deposits at Atacama, in Bolivia. It forms cubic crystals, and being slightly deliquescent is always damp. Its direct uses in the tinctorial arts are very limited, being confined to a few cases in colour-mixing, where it is added to prevent a mixture from drying. Its indirect uses are very important. It is the source of nitric acid, and is used in making the arseniate of soda. Soda, Nitrite. — This salt has hitherto been a mere chemical curiosity, without use in the arts. It is now employed to some 188 THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. extent by dyers and printers, along with the naphthaline colours, etc. Soda, Phosphate. — A salt used to some extent in the pre- paration of dung-substitutes. Its dilute solution in water, if acidified with pure nitric acid, must not give a precipitate either with the nitrate of silver or the chloride of barium. The trial must be made with two separate portions. Soda, Plumbate (erroneously called Plombate). — This is a com- pound in which an oxide of lead plays the part of an acid. It is best formed by melting caustic soda in an iron crucible with the peroxide of lead, dissolving the resulting mass in condensed steam- water, and allowing the liquid to settle in a covered vessel. Being gradually decomposed by the carbonic acid of the atmo- sphere, it should be carefully protected from the air and only be made in small quantities at a time. Very similar in its properties and nature, and more frequently used, is the Plumbite of soda. This is made either by boiling litharge in strong caustic soda, or by adding caustic soda to a strong solution of nitrate or acetate of lead till the precipitate first formed is redissolved. The same precaution is needed for its preservation as for the plumbate. The plumbate of soda is used in dyeing chrome yellows and oranges upon cotton. A great objection to their employment is that, like all colours into which lead enters, they are permanent only in a pure atmosphere. Where sulphuretted fumes are present they are very soon turned a blackish-grey or lead colour. Soda, Silicate (otherwise known as Soluble Glass). — A com- pound formed by melting together 31 parts sand, freed from iron, with 53 parts dry carbonate of soda. It is used as an addition to soaps; as a sizing to render cottons, paper, etc., fireproof; and as a mordant, especially for certain aniline colours. The goods after being worked in solution of soluble glass are taken through a solution of sal-ammoniac, and are then ready for dyeing, the colour being taken up by the silica deposited on the fibre. THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. 189 Soda, Stannate. — {Preparing Salt.) — An important mordant in which an oxide of tin plays the part of an acid. It is some- times prepared as wanted by adding caustic soda to a highly concentrated acid solution of a persalt of tin until the precipitate first formed is redissolved. It is also prepared in the dry way in the solid state, and can be dissolved when wanted. The dry solid stannate would contain 70 per cent, of peroxide of tin and 30 per cent, of soda. To ascertain its amount, a portion of the sample should be dissolved in a small quantity of water, slightly acidulated with hydrochloric acid, and some strips of clean pure metallic zinc placed in the solution. The tin will be thrown down in the spongy state. This is then carefully collected, washed, redissolved in a small quantity of hydrochloric acid, and its amount determined as directed for Tin crystals. Some consumers dissolve a fixed quantity of the stannate in a certain measure of water, and note the degree it marks on Twaddle's hydrometer. This is no test, since an adulterated or ill-made sample will raise the specific gravity of water as well as one of the best quality. The impurities likely to be met with are common salt, an inten- tional fraud, and an excess of alkali, caustic or carbonated, resulting from bad workmanship. Certain additions are also occasionally made to the stannate, not with fraudulent design, but avowedly for the purpose of improving its quality. These are the tungstate of soda, the antimoniate of soda, and the arsenite and arseniate of soda. It cannot be denied that good results have occasionally been obtained with stannates containing a certain proportion of these admixtures, but it is far from proven that they have any advantage over a well-made pure stannate. The amount of water in a hydrated or crystallized stannate is 20 to 27 per cent. In printing it is used to prepare calico for receiving the so- called steam colours, the cloth being afterwards passed through an acid, generally dilute sulphuric acid, which combines with the soda, leaving the oxide of tin combined with the fibre. In dyeing it is less extensively used, though it is an efficacious mordant for cotton, serving amongst other purposes to fix several aniline colours upon that fibre. In using it for mordanting the cotton warps of mixed goods, one precaution is needed. The 190 THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. sulphur in the wool is liable to react on the tin of the stannate, and turn the fibre brown or blackish, a change which does not occur when the tin is present in an acid, instead of an alkaline compound. To prevent this reaction, the solution of stannate must be at a low temperature, not too concentrated, and must not be allowed to act too long. The stannate of potash, an analogous compound, has fallen into disuse. The stannites of soda and potash are salts in which the tin, though playing the part of an acid, is present, not as peroxide, but as protoxide. They are very rarely used. Solution of Tin. — This mordant, often called simply " solu- tion/' consists of tin dissolved in a mixture of nitric and muriatic acids. The proportions used differ greatly, both as regards the weight of metal and the relative amount of the two acids. The result is generally perchloride of tin, with an admixture of pro to - chloride, and with a residue of nitric acid. Some makers add also sulphuric acid, by which the result is greatly complicated. The finished spirit generally marks 44° Tw., or thereabouts, and is a clear pale yellow liquid. It is very much used in cotton dyeing, especially for the warps of mixed piece goods, where it serves along with sumac or myro- balans as a mordant for clarets, browns, &c. Sooranjee. — A plant growing in India, known to botanists under the name of Morinda citrtfolia. In its native country it has long been employed as a dye-ware, yielding colours analogous to those obtained from madder. The part employed is the root, which is imported in pieces from one to four inches in length, and which vary in diameter from one-half to one-eighth of an inch. The bark of the thick pieces is thin, whilst that of the thinner portions is much thicker. Outwardly the colour of the root is a light brownish-grey. If cut across, the bark displays a fine "yellow or brownish section, and the wood a pale yellow. This root contains a colouring matter, morindin, which is obtained in a state of purity by extracting the bark of the root with boiling alcohol. Morindin forms yellow lustrous crystals, sparingly soluble in cold, but readily in boiling water, from which on cooling it is THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. 191 deposited as a jelly-like paste. In alkaline solutions it dissolves with an orange-red colour. In oil of vitriol it gives a purple colour, and after standing for some time and being diluted with water, it is thrown down in yellowish flocks, but in a modified state, as it is now totally insoluble in water, and forms with am- monia a solution which is not orange, but violet. Solutions of morindin give the following lakes : — With sub- acetate of lead, crimson, very unstable ; with alum and ammonia, red. Perchloride of iron darkens the colour, but yields no preci- pitate. Morindin attaches itself to cotton prepared for Turkey-red dyeing, and yields shades which are fast, but less beautiful than those produced by madder. It has also an affinity for ordinary mordants, dyeing red with alumina, and purple to black with the acetate of iron. It attaches itself to mordants also after being treated with sulphuric acid. Sorghum Red. — A colour obtainable from the Chinese sugar- cane, Sorghum saccharatum. The canes, after extraction of the sugar, are allowed to ferment for two weeks, with precautions to prevent putrefaction. They are then dried, ground, thoroughly extracted with cold water, drained, and again extracted with weak soda-lye. The alkaline extract contains the colour, which is deposited in red flakes on cautiously neutralizing the liquor with sulphuric acid. The colour thus precipitated is collected, washed, and dried. It is soluble both in alkalies and dilute acids, and can be used for dyeing wool and silk with the ordinary tin mordants. The shades produced resist light and hot soap -lyes. The colour is not in the market, and it is very doubtful whether the yield is sufficient to pay for the tedious process of extraction. Spirits, Crimson. — A name given in some districts to Bed Cotton Spirits. Spirits, Plum. — A solution of tin in an aqua-regia containing but a small relative proportion of nitric acid. It is generally a mixture of proto- and persalt of tin, and is used by dyers along with logwood and peach wood for reddish purples. 192 THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE "WARES. Spirit, Purple. — A preparation of tin, differing from " scarle spirit " chiefly in containing a much larger relative amount of metal. It is, like scarlet spirit, mainly a sesquisalt of tin, and is still more readily decomposed by exposure to direct sunlight, or to an elevated temperature. It should therefore only be prepared immediately before it is wanted. It is used in producing certain shades of purple upon woollen goods. Spirits, Red Cotton. — A solution of tin in a mixture of nitric and muriatic acids. It differs in no essential point from the so-called Solution of Tin, but is generally sent out at a lower specific gravity. The proportions of metals and acids vary greatly in the hands of different makers, each maintaining the superior excellence of his own formula. The quality and practical value of these preparations cannot be determined by the most exact chemical analysis, since the manner in which the ingredients are put together is of even more importance than their amount Too high or too low a temperature in the preparation of the spirit may seriously modify the result, or even render it altogether worthless. Spirit, Royal Blue Finishing. — A preparation of tin used, as its name implies, in finishing royal blues upon woollen and worsted goods. It is a protosalt of tin, in combination with the muriatic, sulphuric, and occasionally oxalic acids in very various proportions. The only test for its quality is actual use. It is now of little importance. Spirit, Royal Blue. — A mixture of the sulphuric, nitric, and hydrochloric acids, in varying proportions according to the views of the compounder or user. It is a deep orange -coloured liquid, giving off pungent irritating vapours. Its strength varies from 70° to 90° Twaddle. Its principal use is for dyeing royal blues upon wool, and woollen and worsted goods, where it serves to decompose the prussiate. Its quality can only be ascertained by actual use. Where red prussiate of potash is used for royal blue dyeing, the THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. 193 presence of nitric acid in the royal blue spirits is quite unnecessary, if not injurious. These preparations are in little demand since the introduction of aniline blues. Spirits, Yellow. — This name is given to various preparations of tin, used for dyeing yellows upon wool and worsted with quer- citron bark, fustic, etc. The acids present are sulphuric and muriatic, but the respective proportions of these, as well as the amount of tin, and the strength of the article as sent out, vary greatly. To award an absolute superiority to any one of these mixtures is impossible on account of the different materials required to suit the methods followed by different dyers. As a general rule, we may say that where a yellow is required which shall exhibit a greenish shade " overhand," that is, when held up to the light and viewed horizontally, or along its surface, an excess of free acid must be carefully avoided. Starches. — (Fecula, Farina, etc.) — Starch exists in a great variety of vegetables, but is only extracted commercially from the seeds of the cereals and from certain roots. The name farina is generally confined to potato starch. In its chemical nature it stands in very close relation with the gums and the sugars, into either of which it can be artificially — as well as naturally — con- verted. Starches are insoluble in cold water, and form a jelly on boiling. They are coloured a blackish -blue by a solution of iodine and a yellow by bromine. All are perfectly insoluble in alcohol and ether, and are incapable of reducing the salts of copper and silver. From whatever plant they are obtained, they are identical in constitution, consisting of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen, in the same proportions. Nevertheless they exhibit characteristic differ- ences, not merely in their appearance under the microscope, but in their chemical behaviour. Thus some kinds, when dry, absorb moisture much more rapidly than others. The tenacity of the jelly, which starches form with an equal quantity of water, varies extremely. To determine the hygroscopic character of a starch weigh out 200 grs., and place them in the desiccating apparatus over sulphuric acid. After some hours, note the amount of mois- jure lost. Now expose the dried sample to the atmosphere, and by weighing from time to time, observe at what rate the lost moisture o 194 THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. is recovered. Starches that readily absorb moisture are of rela- tively low value for finishing and stiffening purposes. To determine, comparatively, the relative tenacity of various starches, weigh out 24 grs. of each sample, and mix each with 400 grain measures of pure water in capsules of a proper size. The mixtures are then heated and boiled briskly for three minutes, constantly stirring, and are then poured each into one of Clarke's conical test-glasses, which the mixture nearly fills. Note the exact time when each glass was filled, and allow each to stand for precisely two hours, in a current of air. Some flat round pieces of sheet brass should have been previously provided, each seven- tenths of an inch in diameter and alike in weight, not exceeding 50 grs. One of these is laid upon the surface of the jelly in each glass, and weights are added till the surface is broken, and the disc begins to sink in. The weights required may vary from 87 to 2446 grs. The more tenacious the starch the greater — other things being equal — is its value for thickening colours and for finishing purposes. Starch is sometimes deteriorated by the presence of nitrogenous matter. To detect this, dissolve one part of mercury in two parts of nitric acid of 50° Tw. at a gentle heat. "When dissolved boil the liquid for a few minutes. If the sample is coloured reddish by this liquid, nitrogenous matter is present. The presence of dirt of various kinds may be observed either on mixing the sample with water, or on allowing the solution to cool in tall glasses. Mineral matters are sometimes extensively present, such as Cornish clay, heavy spar, gypsum, etc. To detect these, a weighed portion is burned to. ashes in a platinum crucible, when these im- purities will remain, and may be weighed. A genuine starch leaves a very small trace of mineral matter. Mineral matter of any kind is objectionable in starches for thickening colours. In those for finishing purposes it is less material. Starch made from wheat flour is generally preferred to all others — a fact which gives rise to several grave problems, chemical and sociological. "We ask, firstly, for a process of making starch wherein the nitrogenous matters, in which the main value and nutritive powers of wheat lie, shall not be wasted or deteriorated, but brought out in a state fit for human food. THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. 195 Secondly, can a starch equal to that derived from .wheat be prepared from some substance of less value or valueless as human food ? Can, e.g., lignine be converted into starch, or can matters capable of replacing starch and dextrine in thickening colours, stiffening woven materials, etc., be obtained from mineral sources ? Lastly, we may even ask whether it is consistent with good policy to allow wheat flour to be used for such purposes? — whether it would not be prudent to prohibit any alimentary substance, containing above a certain percentage of nitrogen, from being used for any purpose soever, for which such nitrogen is not essential ? Sugar. — A substance, or rather class of substances, nearly related to the gums and starches. Three of the sugars only are likely to have any bearing upon our subject, viz. cane-sugar or sucrose, fruit-sugar or fructose, and starch-sugar or glucose. Fructose is in its composition and properties intermediate between the other two, whilst glucose is the final result of the action of heat and acids, etc., either upon the starches or the other sugars. The sugars, especially glucose, are powerful reducing agents, and have further the property of suspending the ordinary relations of metallic compounds. If sugar be added to a metallic solution, it will be difficult — in some cases impossible — to detect and estimate the metals present until the sugar has been destroyed. On this account it interferes seriously with the action of mor- dants, and if present, as may sometimes happen in the artificial gums, or if unwittingly produced in colours by the action of heat and acids upon the starch, it may interfere seriously with the results. Sulphate of Soda. — (Glauber's Salts, called also vulgarly Sally Nixon, in corruption of the ancient name, sal enixum.) Sulphate of soda crystals should be neutral in their composition, and should have a very feeble alkaline reaction. They should dis- solve in water without leaving any residue, and above all they should be free from compounds of iron. If they exhibit a rusty colour, or if when dissolved they deposit a brownish sediment on the addition of carbonate of soda, iron is present. 196 THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. Sulphate of soda is very extensively used by dyers for levelling, that is, for preventing the colours from attaching themselves to the fibre in a too rapid and irregular manner. By calico printers it is used to fasten the lead mordants employed in dyeing chrome yellows and oranges. The crystals of sulphate of soda lose their water of crystallization in a dry warm air, and become covered more or less deeply with a white powder — the anhydrous salt. This change does not in the least impair their usefulness. For solution, one part of the crys- tallized salt requires at 68° Fahr. If parts of water, the resulting liquid marking 25° Tw. This salt has certain indirect uses which concern the dyer. Thus it is by some manufacturers added both to various mordants, and to the Washing or Scouring Powders, often used for cleansing wool previous to dyeing. Sulpho-acids. — Compound bodies formed (as far as our pur- pose is concerned) by the action of sulphuric acid upon colouring matters. Sulphindigotic acid (soluble indigo) is the oldest known instance, but many colours are capable of forming similar com- pounds. Sulpho-acids can be neutralized with alkalies, and then form soluble salts, like dry extract of indigo. Sulphocyanides. — The sulphocyanide of aluminium is now used instead of red liquor in mixing alizarine steam reds. A purer colour is thus obtained with a less consumption of alizarine, and the doctors are not attacked. Sulpho-cyanide of ammonium is used as a resist for aniline blacks. Sulphur. — Independently of its uses in chemical manufactures, sulphur in a state of fine division is in certain cases a useful mor- dant. Sulphuric Acid, commonly known as Oil of Vitriol, or by abbreviation simply " Oil." — The commonest and most important acid, which is to the chemist and the dyer what iron is to the mechanic. It occurs in commerce in four different states, and in various degrees of purity. The strongest kind, fuming, or Nordhausen acid — so called from THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. 197 a place where it was long manufactured — was formerly prepared by distilling dried copperas at a high temperature. It is now obtained in greater purity from the alkaline bisulphates. It is generally of a pale brown colour, viscid like oil, and has the specific gravity 1-896°, or 179^° Twaddle. It consists of two equivalents, or 80 parts by weight of the dry, solid acid — a com- pound little known in commerce — combined with 9 parts of water. It gives off copious fumes, and if boiled, exposed to damp air, or mixed with a little water, is converted into common oil of vitriol. Its price is necessarily high, and its uses at present limited, being mostly confined to the preparation of extract of indigo, and even there the advantage said to be derived from its employment is far from being indisputable. Double or rectified oil of vitriol is prepared in chambers of lead, by a very familiar process, which need not be here described. It is then concentrated in glass or platinum retorts. It consists theoretically of 40 parts of the dry acid combined with 9 parts of water. It has, in its highest state of concentration, the specific gravity 1*845°, or 169° Twaddle. It is a clear, colourless, oily fluid, weigh- ing ISi lbs. to the gallon. It boils at 620° Fahr. It has the power of expelling all other acids from their combina- tions in the moist way. If mixed with water, a great elevation of temperature takes place, which, if one part of water is added to four of oil of vitriol, reaches 300° Fahr. It rapidly destroys most organic bodies, depriving them of their oxygen and hydrogen, and leaving the carbon behind as a blackish mass. Upon certain colouring matters, however, such as indigo- blue and alizarine, the red colour of madder, it does not possess this destructive action. If any particles of organic matter, such as sawdust or straw, fall into a carboy of oil of vitriol, they are decomposed, and impart a dark colour to the liquid. Oil of vitriol takes up water from the air, if left in unstoppered bottles, and thus dilutes itself and loses strength. Single Oil op Yitriol is an acid slightly weaker than the t "double." It generally marks 165° to 167° Twaddle, possesses otherwise the same properties as the double kind, and can be applied to the same purposes, save dissolving indigo, for which it is totally unfit. 198 THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. Brown Oil of Vitriol, or chamber acid, is the sulphuric acid as it is run from the lead chambers, without having been submitted to any subsequent concentration or purification. Its specific gravity is not higher than l-7o°, or 170° Tw., and is sometimes lower. It has a brown colour, from traces of organic matter, and is more likely to contain traces of nitrogen compounds. In strength it is about 16 per cent, below double oil of vitriol. In cold weather it is liable to freeze or solidify, an occurrence which frequently leads to the breakage of the carboys and the loss of their contents. It may be applied to the same purposes as the two former kinds, but must not be allowed to come in contact with indigo. The impurities and adulterations in sulphuric acid are various. Sulphate of lead is often present. This body is soluble in concen- trated oil of vitriol, raising the specific gravity, without, of course, adding anything to the strength. It is detected by diluting a portion with pure water, when the sulphate of lead, not being soluble in dilute acid, settles to the bottom as a white sediment. It is rarely large in quantity, and is never added purposely. Sulphate of soda, in the dry state (saltcake), is frequently added, in order to raise the specific gravity of diluted acids. It may be detected by evaporating away a portion at a red heat, when any alkaline salts present will remain behind. Nitric" oxide is frequently present, and is under many circum- stances destructive to colouring matters. To detect it, put a little of the suspected acid in a test tube, or, in default, in a wine glass, and drop in a clean fragment of the sulphate of iron (cop- peras). If the least trace of nitric oxide or hyponitrous acid be present, a faint reddish tinge will appear in the liquid and gradu- ally deepen. Arsenious acid is frequently found in samples of sulphuric acid made from iron and copper pyrites. In many cases this substance, being capable of acting as a reducing agent, may produce injury. Acid prepared from Sicilian sulphur should, therefore, be used in dye, print, and colour works, to the exclusion of that obtained from pyrites. The following table shows the amount of real acid contained in the liquid acid at different strengths : — THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. 199 Twaddle. Dn/ Acid per cent. Oil of Vitriol per cent. ioy 81*54 100 loo t 0 zo loo 4 0 uo 94 104 / 0 \jo 1 £9 / 0 00 ioy 71 «7^ i 1 / 0 00 loo /u 1Z OU 101 Oo 4y 84 14/ OO OO 82 1425 OO Zo 80 lo/ DO OvJ 78 1 Q9 loZ ft! *Q7 Ol (J i 76 lzo OU 04: 74 1 OA 1224 OO 4 1 72 Tin iiy O i uo 70 115 OO 40 UO 110 OO O^j uu 105 OZi 10 64 101 OU OO 62 y / 40 no yo A7«9Q 58 oy 40 OO Ol> oO 44 UO 54 ol 4.9-4.0 L ±£ 4U 52 4U / / 50 7*3 39*14 48 •7 n /U O 1 ol 40 act 00 *}*vftft OO OO 44 Do 34*25 42 p;o 1 o9f OZi 01 40 00 ou yo 38 06 9Q'*^Pi zy oO 36 97*79 Li i A 34 40 32 43 24*46 30 40 22*83 28 37 21*20 26 34 19*57 24 200 THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE "WARES. Twaddle. Dry Acid per cent Oil of Vitriol per cent. 21* 31 28 25 L9 16 13 17-94 16-31 14-68 13-05 11-41 9-78 815 22 20 18 16 14 12 10 Sulphurous Acid. — A gaseous body well known as the fume given off during the combustion of brimstone. It is colourless, of a suffocating odour, dissolves to a considerable extent in water, and forms, with the alkalies and metallic oxides, two series of salts — the sulphites and the bisulphites. The latter contain twice as much sulphurous acid as the former, or two equivalents of acid to one of base. Sulphurous acid, if exposed to air and moisture, especially if in contact with organic or porous matter, gradually takes up an additional equivalent of oxygen, and is converted into sulphuric acid. Sulphurous acid is the agent in the bleaching effect of burning sulphur, as witnessed in stoving woollens. The colours thus bleached are not entirely destroyed, as in bleaching with the chloride of lime, but merely masked, and can be made to reappear by means of alkalies, sulphuric acid, etc. (See Air.) Liquid sulphurous acid, in solutions of about 14° Tw., bleaches silk and wool better than the fumes of burning brimstone. Sumac. — (Sometimes also called Sumach and Shumac.) — This ware consists of the leaves, leaf- stalks, and small twigs of Rhus cotinus, a shrub growing in Sicily, Italy, Spain, Portugal, and some districts of France. It is sometimes sold whole, sometimes coarsely bruised, but most commonly ground to a fine powder — a preparation which enables it to be somewhat more readily ex- tracted by cold water, but at the same time disguises the presence of impurities. THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. 201 The sumac of Alcamo, in Sicily, is generally preferred to all others. Its powder is green and bright, giving off a pleasant tea- like odour. The second quality, from the same district, is of a more reddish -yellow hue. Sicilian sumac is generally packed in bags weighing 1 J or 1 J cwt. Of Spanish sumacs, that of Priego, near Malaga, is the best ; then those of Molina and Yalladolid. They have more of a fawn colour than the Sicilian growth. The quality of sumac may be known to a considerable extent by its appearance. It should be quite dry, and not contain any cakes or lumps. These, if present, show that the sample has at some time been exposed to moisture, and in consequence more or less of the tannin, its valuable principle, has been converted into gallic acid, which is to the dyer and printer useless, if not actually injurious. The colour should be bright. If dull, it is probable that the sample has been mixed with sumacs of an inferior quality or with such as have become deteriorated by long keeping. The foot- stalks and mid-ribs of the sumac leaf can always easily be distinguished under the lens or microscope. An impurity in ground sumacs, due to negligence rather than fraudulent intention, is earth or sand. This is sometimes present to such an extent, that a portion of the sumac, burnt to ashes, yields 10 per cent, of ash, or mineral matter. In comparing different samples of sumac, they should always be laid upon papers of the same colour. Dealers generally exhibit sumacs upon pink or rose- coloured paper, which by contrast makes the green shade appear brighter and more decided. For more exact methods of determining the value of sumacs, see Diyi-divi. The uses of sumac, like those of other astringent vegetables, are either to serve as a mordant for other colouring matters upon cotton, or to dye blacks and other sad colours along with prepara- tions of iron. For the former purpose, the Sicilian sumac deserves the preference, especially in the production of peachwood reds upon cotton. In strength, sumacs are found in practice to vary to an extent far greater than the published analyses would seem to indicate. Twenty pounds of some kinds will be found more serviceable than fifty of others. The determinations, published under the name of Sir H. Davy, are not accurate. Like all other astringent matters, 202 THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. decoctions or infusions of sumac on long standing, or exposure to heat, are apt to turn sour, the tannin being converted into gallic acid, and becoming useless. This change is indicated by the smell and taste of the liquid, and by a ropiness which appears on the surface. Strong sumacs, containing as much as 27 per cent, of tannin, are grown in America, but they contain more colouring matter than the Sicilian kinds, which never have more than 24 per cent. Superargol. — One of the many modifications of argol which have sprung up since its price was enhanced in consequence of the grape-disease. Superargol is simply argol to which a certain quantity of sul- phuric acid has been added, which, seizing upon the whole or a part of the potash, sets more or less of the tartaric acid at liberty. Its uses may be gathered from its nature ; but it is now very rarely met with. Syrian Rue. — A plant known to botanists as Peganonharmala, and growing abundantly in Southern Eussia, Asia Minor, Syria, etc. Its seeds yield a peculiar principle, named harmaline, which may be used as a yellow dye, and when oxidized yields a red colouring matter. It is not used in England. Tamarac. — An extract from the bark of the hemlock- spruce, of Canada. It is of an astringent character, consisting of tannin in conjunction with a dark colouring matter not yet examined, and is used in America for dyeing blacks upon cotton. Tannin. — Tannin or tannic acid, the active constituent of gall- nuts, sumac, and the other astringents, is, when pure, a colour- less, inodorous body, soluble in water, alcohol, and in ether, which dissolves one-tenth part of its weight. It possesses in a high degree that peculiar taste known as " astringent," but is quite free from bitterness. Tannin is found in a great variety of vegetable matters, very few woods and barks being entirely free from it. Tannin is generally accompanied by gallic acid, a substance which was formerly thought took part in the effects of tannin, but which has been latterly found to be utterly useless, not merely in dyeing and printing, but also in tanning. THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. 203 Tannin when in a state of solution, especially at elevated tem- peratures, has a great tendency to pass into gallic acid. This change occurs more readily in the crude decoctions of astringent vegetables, than in solutions of pure tannin.- It may be retarded by excluding the air as far as possible, by keeping the liquids at a low temperature, and may be altogether prevented by the addi- tion of such substances as are opposed to fermentation. By their aid, decoctions of galls, sumac, etc., may be kept till exhausted, even in the warmest climates, without spoiling. It is highly probable that there are several distinct varieties of tannin, or, more correctly speaking, that the name tannin is applied to several bodies not absolutely identical. Thus the tannin of galls, of sumac, and logwood forms a blue-black precipitate with salts of the peroxide of iron, whilst that present in catechu, kino, in horse-chestnut bark, and in tea, gives a green precipitate with the same reagent. Tannin has a powerful affinity for vegetable fibre, e.g. , cotton. It also combines readily with the salts of alumina, tin, and iron, etc., as well as with most colouring matters. On this depends the use of tannin in dyeing cotton ; the goods being steeped in an infusion of sumac, galls, or other astringent, take up or com- bine with a portion of tannin, and are thus enabled to combine more readily and intimately both with the mordants and the colours. A purified form of tannin is now an article of commerce. It is extracted from gall-nuts, and is of a yellowish colour. It is used to a considerable extent by calico-printers in the fixation of ani- line colours, etc. Artificial Tannin. — When nitric acid is allowed to act upon charcoal or upon bodies rich in carbon, a substance is formed capable of giving a precipitate with gelatine. The yield has hitherto been too insignificant to be of any practical value. It is however, a subject worthy the attention of experimentalists, as the consumption of tannin in dyeing, tanning, etc., appears to out- grow the supply of suitable materials. For the determination of tannin in its sources, see Divi-Divi. Tartar, known also as Bitartrate of Potash and Cream of Tartar* — Argol still further purified is sold as grey tartar, and 204 THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. when freed as far as possible from all foreign matter, it becomes white tartar. Of course in these preparations dregs of wine cannot be present, but the risk of adulteration with alum, salt, sulphate of soda, etc., is greater. For the detection of such impurities, see Argol. In woollen dyeing the use of tartar is more limited than that of argol, being chiefly restricted to a few of the more delicate cochineal shades, such as pinks. In printing, its uses are more extensive. Tartar Cake. — A mixture of sulphate of soda to which some free sulphuric acid is added, and a small quantity either of white argol, of tartar, or of tartaric acid. The whole is melted and when cold broken up. It forms flat cake-like fragments which have an intensely acid taste and corrosive action, and which attract mois- ture if not kept in a very dry place. It is used chiefly in stuff- dyeing for so-called " sour browns." Tartar-Emetic. — The double tartrate of antimony and potash, or potassio-tartrate of antimony, is much used along with tannin in fixing coal-tar colours upon cotton. Tartar, Essence of. — A name sometimes given to a solution of tartaric acid in water. Tartar, Liquid, called also Protartar Spirits, is a mixture of the tartaric and sulphuric acids, diluted with water and weighted more or less with alkaline salts. It is generally made up to about 18° Twaddle, and is a clear liquid, colourless, or slightly tinted, and having an intensely sour taste. It is used by some dyers for " levelling " a variety of colours, amongst others, aniline blues upon wool and worsted. Tartaric Acid. — A vegetable acid, which, both in the free state and in its combination with potash, is largely used in dyeing and calico-printing. It exists in the juice of grapes — at present the only commercial source — and in certain tropical fruits which might be rendered available for its extraction. In a pure state tartaric acid forms large THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. 205 colourless crystals which dissolve readily in water, and possess a very sour but not disagreeable taste. It is frequently sold in a fine white powder, a practice which should be strongly discountenanced as tending to conceal im- purities. The chief adulteration met with is the bisulphate of potash. This fraud is very easily detected. A small portion is very strongly heated upon a slip of platinum foil. If genuine, nothing will re- main, but if bisulphate of potash is present, a white saline matter is left. Or the suspected sample is dissolved in pure water, acidulated with some pure nitric acid, and a few drops of the nitrate of baryta are added. A white turbidity, insoluble in a large excess of pure water, shows the presence of bisulphate of potash. Tartaric acid is occasionally used as an adjunct in dyeing cochi- neal colours. In printing, it serves for a discharge on Turkey reds and dipped blues, and in steam blues and greens, where it serves to decompose the prussiate of potash. Tayegu Wood. — A dye-wood obtained from Paraguay. On treatment with a weak solution of carbonate of soda it yields an extract which dyes cotton in shades very similar to those obtained from annatto. Terra-merita. — A new name which certain French dyers and technical writers have most needlessly given to turmeric. Thermometer Scales. — Rule for converting Centigrade into Fahrenheit. — If the temperature be above the freezing-point of water (0° Cent.), multiply by 9, divide by 5, and add 32 to the quotient. If it be below 0° Cent., but above — 18° Cent., multiply by 9, divide by 5, and subtract the result from 32. If below — 18° Cent., multiply by 9, divide by 5, and subtract 32 from the result. To convert Fahrenheit into Centigrade. — If above 32° Fahr., sub- tract 32, multiply by 5, and divide by 9. If below 32° Fahr., but above 0° Fahr., multiply by 5, and divide by 9. 206 THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. If below 0° Fahr., add the temperature to 32, multiply by 5, and divide by 9. The conversion of Eeaumur into Fahrenheit, and vice versa, is performed on the same principle, the number 4 being used instead of 5 as multiplier or divisor. Tin. — A metal of the greatest importance to the dyer and colour- maker, from the readiness with which its salts attach themselves both to the fibre and to colouring matters, and the beauty and per- manence of the latter compounds. It is one of the less plentiful metals. The commercial supply is derived from Cornwall and from the island of Banca, and some adjacent districts of the Malay archipelago. It is, however, a certainty that tin ores abound in Australia, California, and New Grenada. Tin is one of the lighter and more easily fusible metals. It decomposes water in contact with acids, but is much less rapidly soluble either in dilute sulphuric or muriatic acid than is zinc or iron. By pure nitric acid it is not dissolved, but converted into an insoluble oxide. By organic acids it is very slightly affected. Hence it is preferred for pans for dyeing delicate shades, for ex- tracting colours, etc. From its softness and great fusibility, how- ever, it is rarely exposed to the naked fire, but is heated by steam or water, or else pans of iron and copper are fitted with a tin lining. It dissolves more readily in acids if placed in contact with copper, silver, platinum, and especially gold. Boiling muri- atic acid has no action at all upon copper, if metallic tin be present in the liquid. Hence muriate of tin can be safely prepared in copper pans, if the tin be kept in excess. Zinc throws down tin readily from its solution. Lead precipitates tin slightly, the action soon coming to a close. Iron and tin placed together in an acid dissolve simultaneously, yet, by a peculiar arrangement, the former can be made to precipitate the latter. Tin forms with oxygen three compounds capable of combining with acids. The protoxide consists of one equivalent of tin combined with one equivalent of oxygen. Its salts are colourless, and have a strong affinity for an additional quantity of oxygen, whence they are capable of acting as reducing agents. The protoxide of tin, in contact with power- ful alkalies, is capable of playing the part of an acid, forming com- pounds known as stannites. The sesquioxide of tin consists of two THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AJND DYE WARES. 207 equivalents of tin combined with three of oxygen. Its compounds are of a reddish amber colour. The so-called " scarlet spirit" consists principally of sesquioxide of tin. The peroxide or binoxide of tin contains two equivalents of oxygen to one of tin. Its salts have an oxidizing effect. The peroxide can also act as an acid, combining with alkalies to form salts called stannates. All these compounds are capable of employment as mordants, serving different purposes, according to their stage of oxidation, and to the kind and amount of acid with which they are combined. This last has so marked a modifying effect, that we can scarcely help concluding that what enters into combination with the fibre and the colouring matter is not an oxide, but an insoluble subsalt, holding a part of the acid in combination. As a rule, the protosalts of tin are preferred for wool and the persalts for cotton, the sesqui- salts being in certain cases applicable to both. The compounds, where tin acts as an acid, such as the stannate of soda, are almost exclusively applicable to cotton. Many of the ordinary dyers' spirits, those at least which are formed by acting upon the metal with a mixture of nitric and muri- atic acids, contain variable relative proportions of protoxide and peroxide, according to the temperature at which the tin was' dis- solved. The very same ingredients may yield a perfect persalt, or a mixture containing chiefly protosalt, according to the speed with which the metal was added to the acid. The condition of a sample of " solution," " red cotton spirit," etc., in this respect is very easily detected. The persalts of tin, as commonly prepared, have a very pale straw colour, whilst the protosalts are perfectly colourless. If a little chloride of mercury (corrosive sublimate), dissolved in water or alcohol, be added to a tin spirit, if any of the tin is present in the state of a protosalt, a white precipitate will be formed, which speedily blackens. If the tin be entirely a persalt, there will be no apparent action. If, again, the temperature be allowed to rise higher than is re- quired for the formation of a perfect persalt, mischief ensues. The tin may entirely or in part be thrown down to the bottom of the vessel, in the state of insoluble peroxide, utterly useless as a mor- dant. This result is technically known as " firing," and is not un- common in careless hands. But an excess of heat, insufficient to produce firing, will destroy 208 THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. the affinity of the tin for the fibre. A mordant thus spoiled cannot be distinguished by specific gravity, smell, taste, or colour, from one in a proper condition. Nor is any difference discovered on submitting the two to ultimate quantitative analysis. Yet there are chemical means, founded upon the comparative action of light upon these fluids, by which their condition may be ascertained, as decidedly as by dyeing comparative swatches with the two kinds. In this latter case, the overheated sample will not attach itself to the fibre to any available extent, whilst the other will produce a full colour. Such facts prove that the peroxide of tin may exist in at least three distinct states, one only of whieh has an affinity for animal and vegetable fibre. With the protosalts, such a distinction does not exist. The impurities found in commercial tin, are arsenic, antimony, bismuth, zinc, lead, copper, and iron. These impurities are more dangerous in some cases than others. In scarlet spirits, they are extremely objectionable, as also in spirits for fastening any light and bright colours. Indeed, to use inferior qualities of tin in dye- ing and printing is a grave mistake, which has often led to costly failures. The above impurities maybe thus detected : — Copper will remain as a black powder, after dissolving the tin in muriatic acid. It may be washed, dissolved in nitric acid, freed from excess of acid by evaporation, and mixed with excess of ammonia, which will turn it a violet blue. Arsenic and Antimony. The suspected metal is placed in a Marsh apparatus, and dissolved in pure hydrochloric acid. The issuing gas is burnt at the jet, and pieces of white porcelain are held in the flame. If shining metallic spots are formed on the porcelain, arsenic or antimony, or both, are present. Eor the remaining impurities, a portion of the clear solution in hydrochloric acid is saturated with sulphuretted hydrogen gas. The precipitate formed may contain, besides the tin, lead, copper, arsenic, and antimony. It is digested in hydrosulphate of ammonia, with excess of sulphur for some time. If any not- volatile matter remains undissolved, it is probably sulphuret of lead. Zinc and iron, if present, will be found in the liquid filtered off THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. 209 from the precipitate given by sulphuretted hydrogen. The liquid is evaporated down to a small bulk, heated with nitric acid, and then mixed with excess of ammonia. Iron, if present, is thrown down as red-brown hydrated peroxide. It is filtered off and the residue, after being again concentrated, is tested with perfectly pure carbonate of soda. A white precipitate indicates zinc. If the respective quantities of these impurities are required, the case should be placed in the hands of a professed analyst. Tin, Acetate. — The protoxide of tin, in a hydrated state, is sometimes dissolved in acetic acid, and employed under the above name in printing. Its uses are very limited. Tin, Bichloride of. — (Sometimes called, especially by German authorities, Colour -makers' Composition.) — When free from water, or anhydrous, it is a thin colourless liquid, which fumes on expo- sure to the air, and boils at 248° Fahr. In the hydrous state, it exists in combination with water, and generally with more or less free acid. In this state it is the main ingredient of all those kinds of dyers' spirit which are made with a mixture of nitric and muriatic acids. There are very many ways of bringing tin into this state, according to the purpose intended. From single and double muriate, and tin crystals, the bichloride differs, by containing an additional atom of chlorine combined with the tin. The anhydrous bichloride of tin was used for preparing that kind of magenta known as fuschine, the muriate of rosaniline. Tin, Crystals of. — [Salts of Tin.) — When metallic tin is dis- solved in hydrochloric acid to saturation, the liquid, on concentra- tion, deposits the proto chloride of tin in combination with an equivalent of water in the form of white silky crystals. These crystals should be dry, smooth to the touch, and perfectly colourless. If dissolved in distilled water with the addition of a few drops of pure hydrochloric acid, no turbidity should appear on dropping in a solution of the chloride of barium. If a white cloud appear in the liquid sulphate of zinc, or sulphate of magnesia, may be suspected as an adulterant. If chloride of zinc is present, the sample will grow damp on exposure to the air much more p 210 THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. rapidly than is the case with the genuine tin crystals. To detect this impurity sulphuretted hydrogen may be passed into a solution of the crystals in water to which a little hydrochloric acid has been added. The sulphuret of tin thus formed is filtered off, and the clear liquor is evaporated down to dryness. If the sample be genuine nothing will remain after exposing the residue, if any, to heat. It is often desirable to know the exact amount of tin present in any salt or liquid containing that metal. This may for practical purposes most readily be done on the volumetric principle. Prepare a solution of tin of known strength, by dissolving 500 grs. of the purest tin in pure hydrochloric acid, so that the liquid obtained may measure exactly 20 ozs. Prepare also a solution of iodine as follows : Weigh out 127 grs. of pure iodine, and 180 grs. of pure iodide of potassium. Dissolve them in 10,000 grain measures of water without the aid of heat. Preserve the liquid in 6 oz. stoppered bottles. Now find the value of the iodine solution as follows : Measure off exactly such a portion of the standard tin liquid as may contain 2 or 4 grs. of metallic tin, put it in a beaker, add an excess of bicarbonate of soda, together with double tartrate of potash and soda enough to keep the liquor clear. Add a little thin starch paste, and drop in the iodine liquor from a burette till a faint blue tint appears permanently in the glass. The number of degrees of the burette consumed show what quantity of the iodine liquor represents 1 gr. of metallic tin. A portion of the tin crystals, say 5 grs., is next weighed out and dissolved in water with the addition of a very little hydro- chloric acid, bicarbonate of soda, and double tartrate of potash and soda as above. The starch paste is next added and the iodine solution dropped in as above till a blue tint appears. The quantity of metallic tin thus contained in the crystals is easily calculated. Tin crystals should dissolve in a small quantity of pure water, — say 10 times their weight — without turbidity. In an excess of water they turn opaque and milky, though the liquid readily becomes clear again on adding a few drops of hydrochloric acid. They dissolve very readily in hydrochloric acid, generating a con- siderable degree of cold. THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AXD DYE WARES. 211 Tin crystals should be kept as far as possible from contact with, the air, since they absorb moisture and are gradually decomposed with formation of the insoluble oxychloride of tin. They are largely employed for a great variety of purposes both in dyeing and printing. Tin, Oxymuriate. — This name is applied to a more or less perfect bichloride of tin in solution. For the use of printers it is generally prepared by the action of nitric acid upon tin crystals with due precautions. (See Tin, bichloride.) The names nitro-muriate, per chloride, and joermuriate are some- times given to similar preparations. Tokio Purple. — The tinctorial matter of Lithospermum offi- cinale, a Japanese plant. The root is sold in thick lumps, purple without and yellowish -white within. The colouring matter is obtained by treating the ground root in an extracting apparatus with alcohol, acidulating with muriatic acid, distilling off the spirit, and purifying with basic sugar of lead. It forms dark red masses, soluble in ether, alcohol, benzol, &c, but almost insoluble in water. It much resembles the colouring matter of alkanet, and will probably be more useful for colouring oils and soaps than for dyeing cloth and yarns. Toluidine. — A base, or rather a group of bases, present in coal-tar. There are three distinct but closely - related kinds. Paratoluidine, formerly known simply as toluidine, forms when pure large colourless, crystalline plates. It melts at 110° Fahr., and boils at 388° Fahr., but evaporates slowly at common tempera- tures. It dissolves slightly in cold water, more readily in hot, but freely in alcohol, wood-spirit, ether, oils, benzol, and aniline. By solution of chloride of lime it is tinged a reddish-brown, which distinguishes it from aniline. If the two are mixed together the brown tint alone appears ; but if a little ether be added, the brown colour will be retained by that solvent, whilst a blue colour will appear in the water. Orthotoluidine (formerly known as pseudo-toluidine) is an oily liquid boiling at 386° Fahr. It gives a violet colour with solution of chloride of lime and muriatic acid, and a blue with a mixture of 212 THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. sulphuric and nitric acid. Metatoluidine, whiebf is less often met with, is also a liquid boiling at the same temperature. These toluidines give each different results in colour-making. Toluidine Heel. — A colour very similar to magenta. It is obtained both from ortho- and par a- toluidine. It dissolves in water more readily than does magenta, but dyes shades more inclining to blue. Probably two compounds are grouped together under this name. It is known also as roso-toluidine, and as Coupler's xylidine-red. Tropeolines. — A group of coal-tar colours belonging to the "azo" class. They were, I believe, first invented by Dr. 0. N. "Witt, and are used in dyeing wool with an addition generally of sulphuric acid. I mention : — Tropeoline V, a pale yellow powder ; it dyes straw yellows. Tropeoline O, otherwise known as chrysoine and chryseoline, dyes yellows upon wool and silk, and, in conjunction with induline and rocelline, yields so-called " mode" shades. Tropeoline 0 O, identical, or nearly so, with Orange IY., and "jaune d'aniline" of some makers, is a derivative of diphenyl- amine. It dissolves in oil of vitriol with a deep violet-blue colour, but becomes reddish on dilution. It dyes a brilliant yellow, and is used in shades from maize to scarlet. It cannot bear sulphuric acid, and in dyeing the water is acidified with acetic acid. A superior quality bears the mark 0 O S. Tropeoline D, otherwise known as methyl-orange, gold-orange, Orange III., and helian thine. It gives a more orange shade, but is too easily affected by acids to be of service in dyeing. Tropeoline 0 0 0, Nos. 1 and 2. These colours are identical respectively with Orange L and II., the latter being also known as Z>-naphthol orange and chrysaureine. They dye reddish- orange. Tungsten. — (Wolfram.) — A metal found accompanying tin, which it somewhat resembles in its chemical properties. In com- bination with oxygen it forms tungstic acid, which combines with the alkalies, &c. The tungstate of baryta is a valuable white pigment, and, unlike white lead, is not affected by the fumes of sulphur. Tungstate of soda has been used as a substitute for and THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. 213 a mixture with, stannate of soda with quite unsatisfactory results. With reducing agents it yields a fine blue colour which has not yet been successfully fixed upon fibre. Turmeric. — The root of a plant (Curcuma Tonga) growing in India, China, and Madagascar, and now chiefly cultivated in Bengal. The roots are long, and vary in thickness from that of a quill to about half an inch in diameter. They are wrinkled, and have joints or ring-like swellings at short intervals. Outwardly the colour is a yellowish- grey, whilst inwardly it is of a deep yellowish- brown, darkest in the middle. When reduced to powder they appear of a bright yellow. The roots contain from to 6 per cent, of mineral matter, mois- ture from 5 to 7, and 11 to 12 of colouring matter. The colouring principle of turmeric is sparingly soluble in cold water, and dissolves freely in boiling. It is also soluble in alcohol. By alkalies it is turned brown, whence paper saturated with tincture of turmeric has long been employed as a test. Sulphuric, nitric, and hydrochloric acids turn the colour of turmeric a kind of red, which, however, soon disappears ; alkaline chlorides for a time brighten the colour, and solutions of iron turn it brown. The only adulteration to which turmeric is liable in commerce is common salt, which is sometimes added in quantity to the roots whilst going through the mill. This sophistication, besides adding to the weight, gives it a brighter appearance in the powder, at the risk of very seriously interfering with its uses in the dye- house. The detection of this fraud is easy. A small portion of the suspected powder is boiled in a test-tube, with pure concentrated nitric acid, till the organic matter is destroyed. The remaining liquid is then diluted with pure water, and a solution of nitrate of silver added. If salt has been present a copious white curdy pre- cipitate will be formed. The characteristics of a good turmeric are — it has a rich, deep, but bright-orange colour, and a strong aromatic, rather pungent odour. It should be perfectly dry. If damp it loses its bright- ness, turns a dull brown, and dyes only flat colours. The best method of testing turneries is to dye weighed pieces of woollen cloth with equal weights of the samples in boiling water. 214 THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. The swatches are compared for depth of colour and examined for brightness overhand, i.e., held up horizontally to the light, and viewed along the surface. In this position it should have a beau- tiful golden lustre, on the purity of which its value for many pur- poses mainly depends. Turmeric is a so-called substantive colour, dyeing full shades without any mordant. It is, however, very fugitive, being affected by air and light, as well as by acids and alkalies. A very remark- able circumstance is that no mordant hitherto known increases its permanence, whilst nearly all bodies of that class decidedly im- pair its beauty. Some time back the use of turmeric was almost exclusively con- fined to printing and dyeing silks. It is now employed to a vast extent in dyeing stuffs, forming an important constituent in certain compound colours applied to the cotton warps. Turpentine, Oil of. — (Otherwise called Spirits of Turpentine and Turpentine.) — This is the commonest and best known of the essential or volatile oils. It is obtained by distilling crude or raw turpentine, a semi-fluid resin. It should be clear and colourless ; a drop placed upon paper and gently heated should leave no greasy mark behind, nor should any solid matter, resinous or otherwise, remain when a small quantity is evaporated to dryness. Oil of turpentine was formerly used to take out grease spots, but is now superseded by benzole. It is still employed by printers in mixing many colours, in order to prevent " flurrying " or frothing, and give uniformity of composition. Tyrian Purple. — A splendid purple dye, of which descrip- tions are given by Pliny and other ancient authors. It was said to be obtained from two molluscs, which Pliny names buccinum and purpura. A small sac in the throat of each animal yielded a single drop of the precious liquid, but an inferior quality was obtained by crushing up the entire substance of the buccinum. At first it is colourless, but by exposure to air and light it becomes successively lemon-yellow, green, sky-blue, red, and in about forty- eight hours, a splendid purple. The colour was remarkable for its permanence. According to Plutarch, when Susa was taken by Alexander, a quantity of purple cloth was found in the treasury THE MANUAL OE COLOURS AND DYE WARES. 215 of Darius, which still retained its beauty, though 190 years old. The Tyrians gave the first ground for their purple dye with the unprepared liquor of the purpura, and then heightened or topped it with that of the huccinum. The huccinum lapillus, a shell-fish found in the British seas, yields a juice which undergoes a similar change of colour when exposed to air and light, and produces a purple dye on calico. In the time of Augustus a pound of wool dyed with the Tyrian purple was worth nearly £30, a sum which certainly gives scope for the use of rare and expensive material. Ulrich's Scarlet. — An aniline dye, redder than magenta, and produced by an incomplete oxidation of the latter. Ultramarine. — Natural ultramarine is the finest blue pig- ment known. The artificial ultramarine, now a common article of trade, has, from its low price, almost entirely superseded the natu- ral product. Both kinds are unstable, being destroyed by acids even in the state of vapour. Many qualities are rapidly attacked even by acid salts, such as alum. Ultramarine is insoluble in water, and cannot be dissolved without decomposition. Hence, it can only be used in pigment styles, and in blueing paper-pulp, and has been employed as a finishing blue, but being insoluble it cannot equal the aniline blues. Eed, violet, and green ultramarines are now in the market, and are occasionally used in printing. Ultramarine, Yellow. — A name sometimes given to the chromate of baryta, a yellow pigment which does not blacken on exposure to sulphuretted vapours. Umber. — A soft, friable brown earth, varying much in shade, and containing a considerable proportion of carbonaceous matter. It is used by printers in pigment styles. It is known also as Yan- dyck brown, and Cologne earth. Uranium. — One of the rarer metals, which forms a variety of bright green, yellow, and orange-coloured compounds. It is em- ployed to some extent in painting earthenware and staining glass, 216 THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. but is rarely applied in dyeing or printing. It appears to have a strong affinity for vegetable fibre. Uric Acid. — A peculiar substance, found naturally in the excre- ments of birds, reptiles, and insects, and usually prepared on a com- mercial scale from guano. It has not yet been obtained artificially. When pure it is tasteless and inodorous, forming brilliant white scales of a silky lustre. It is almost insoluble in cold water, sparingly soluble in boiling water, and dissolves more freely in concentrated sulphuric and muriatic acids. It plays the part of a feeble acid in contact with the alkalies, forming salts, which are nearly insoluble. It derived at one time practical importance as being the source of Murexide. Urine. — Before the manufacture of ammonia had been de- veloped, stale urine was much used by dyers in the preparation of wool, woollen cloth, etc., under the names lant, wash, or weet- ing. It contains a quantity of ammonia in the state of carbonate, and has, of course, alkaline and detergent properties. Some dyers maintain that, both for scouring and for modifying colours, lant is superior to the liquid ammonia made from gas liquor. It is a remarkable fact that even urine is liable to adulteration, being let down with water and weighted with refuse salt. Its actual value may be ascertained by an alkalimetrical operation. Urine substitutes are crystals of carbonate of soda in a fine state of division, so as to be readily soluble. Valonia Nuts. — The cups of the acorns of Quercus aegilops, and of Q. macrolepis, a species of oak which grows in Greece and Asia Minor, and is chiefly exported from Smyrna, as also from Trieste. They should be of a bright drab colour. If they are black, it is a sign that they have been allowed to become damp, and are in consequence impaired in quality. The ordinary valo- nias are about two inches in diameter ; but there is a smaller kind, not exceeding the size of a cherry, and known as Camatas and Camatinas. These are by some authorities described as being half- grown cups, whilst others pronounce them to be the produce of a distinct kind of tree. THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AJSD DYE WARES. 217 The value of valonia nuts depends upon the tannin they contain, which enables them to be used for the same purposes as sumac, divi, etc. They contain about 22 per cent, of tannin. They are rarely used in cotton dyeing, but answer better for silk. Vanadium. — One of the rarer metals, found, among other places, at Alderly Edge, near Manchester. Its salts form with astringents a blue-black colour, much more intense and perma- nent than that furnished by the salts of iron. The vanadiate of ammonia in minute traces is the most powerful agent known for producing aniline blacks. With chlorate of potash and extract of logwood the salts of vanadium dye a rich golden yellow on silks, and if the muriate of solid toluidine is used instead of the logwood there is produced a fine bronze with a coppery lustre. It may also be used as an oxidizing agent with the catechu colours, and serves to produce greys, browns, and modes with napthylamine. Verdigris. — Acetate of Copper.— There are several varieties of verdigris, differing both in shade and in mode of preparation. That commonly employed in dyeing and printing is made by de- composing a solution of sugar of lead with an excess of blue vitriol. Its applications are now very limited, and where employed its utility is sometimes questionable. Verditer. — A pigment consisting essentially of the carbonate of copper. It occurs in two kinds, a green and a blue, and is known also as mountain green and mountain blue. They are rarely used in printing. Vermilion. — Cinnabar. — A compound of mercury and sul- phur. The sulphuret of mercury as ordinarily obtained by preci- pitation, or by the immediate contact of its elements, is a dirty black ; but when brought into the state of a crystalline powder it becomes a brilliant scarlet, almost as fine as and more permanent than geranium red. Its great density and deficiency in covering power render it not well adapted for a printing pigment. It is a strange fact that vermilion figures in some old receipts as an 218 THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE "WARES. ingredient for scarlet dyeing. It cannot be dissolved without decomposition and the loss of its colour. Verona Earth. — A natural green pigment, now out of use. It went under the names stone-green, celadon green, etc. Vesuvine. — An aniline colour which has been extensively introduced into commerce. It yields various shades of deep orange and bright brown. It is a substantive colour upon silk and wool, but cannot be fixed upon cotton without mordants. It is probably identical with the u Manchester brown " of Eoberts and Dale. Victoria Green. — {Benzoyl Green, or Bitter Almond Green.) — One of the " Direct Greens." It is made by the Baden Aniline Company, by F. Bayer & Co. of Elberfeld, and by Bindschedler and Busch of Bale. The dye is substantially identical with Malachite Green. The same dye was formerly made by Gerber and Uhl- mann, of Bale, under the name of Ethyl Green. They now use the name Benzoyl Green. It is sometimes sold as Vert Lumiere. Vine Black, or Frankfort Black. — A pigment obtained by the destructive distillation of the residues of the wine-press. It is simply a fine, pure form of charcoal. Violaceine. — A violet-blue colour obtained from wood-tar. It is supposed to be an oxide of eupitton, and to pass on further oxidation into pittacal. Violet, Britannia. — An aniline colour prepared by a process analogous to that employed for Hofmann's violet, which it much resembles in its properties and in its ready solubility in water. It is or was made by Perkins and Co. Violet Colours — Detection of, on the Fibre. — Boil a piece of the yarn or tissue in water, and let it stand for about ten minutes. The water is either coloured red with a blueish reflection (I.), or remains colourless or faintly reddish (II.) — I. — Add a drop of strong soda-lye to the coloured liquid. If it is decolourised we have an aniline violet. If the shade turns more to a blue it is an orchil-colour. THE MANUAL OF COLOUES AND DYE WABES. 219 II. — In the second case the colour may be alkanet (rare), the woods, cochineal or madder (alizarine). Boil a fresh portion of the material with alcohol. If the liquid takes a dirty red colour we have alkanet. For confirmation, moisten a fresh portion of the material with strong muriatic acid, when there is a slight reddening, but the colour is not extracted. A solution of tin crystals turns the cloth a greenish yellow. If the alcohol has extracted little or no colour we have logwood, red- wood, cochineal, or madder. To distinguish these dyes, steep a fresh portion of the material in about 80 grains water acidulated with five drops of muriatic acid. If the liquid and the swatch both become red the colour is logwood. To distinguish the other three, boil in a solution of sulphate of alumina, and let stand for ten minutes. If the liquor is red, with a golden-green reflection, we have madder. For confirmation burn a little of the material to ashes, which will be red from the iron mordant. If the liquid extracted by sulphate of alumina is a blueish red we have cochineal; if yellowish red, one of the red-woods. For confirmation add to the red liquid sulphide of soda. Eed-wood is bleached; cochineal is not. It must further be noticed that the aniline violets (except the old mauve, now rare) are turned green or yellowish by strong muriatic acid, but the original colour is restored by washing in much water. Violets, with an indigo or Prussian-blue ground, topped with magenta, are rarely met with. Chloride of lime has no action upon alkanet violets. Pigment violets may contain ultramarine, which is quickly destroyed by weak acids, leaving the red, which will generally be vermilion. Violet, Dorothea. — A colour prepared by the firm of Lewin- stein and Sons. It is not remote from Hofmann's violet in its properties and uses, though prepared by a different process. Violet, Hofmann's. — A beautiful aniline colour, perfectly soluble in hot water, and dyeing wool and silk without mordants. It is made in many shades ranging from the red to the blue side. It is manufactured by Brooke, Simpson, and Spiller. 220 THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. Violet, Paris, also known as Poirrier's violet. — An aniline dye, readily soluble in water and differing little in its properties and mode of application from Hofmann's violet. Violet, Wanklyn's. — Propyl Violet. — A fine aniline dye, ob- tained by acting upon rosaniline with iodide of pseudopropyl. It much resembles Hofmann's violet. Viridic Acid. — Caffeo-viridic Acid. — A splendid green colour- ing matter which occurs in unroasted coffee, and is extracted by treatment with albumen or with carbonate of soda. It may be fixed upon cotton by means of animal mordants, but possesses no distinctive advantages to counterbalance its high price. It is highly suitable as a green colour for confectioners. Viridine. — A green colour invented byE. Meldola, and manu- factured by Brook, Simpson, and Spiller. The colour readily forms a sulpho-acid, which is used in dyeing wool and silk in the same manner as Nicholson blue. Hence it is sometimes known as " alkali green," being dyed in an alkaline flot. Waifa. — A green colour obtained from the buds of Soplwra, japonica. It is used by the Chinese in cotton-dyeing. Walnut Tree- — Almost every part of the walnut-tree contains a principle which in contact with the atmosphere rapidly develops a deep brown colouring matter of great permanence. This is most abundant in the outer coat or husk of the nut, an extract of which is used in pomades for darkening the hair, and in stains for the complexion. It can also be employed for producing brown shades upon wool, and for " saddening " other colours in place of iron. The tinctorial principle of the walnut is clearly distinct from the astringents in as far as it is a substantive colour, and darkens zvithout the presence of iron. Hence it deserves a more thorough chemical investigation than it has yet received. It is not, I believe, employed by English dyers. Washing Paste. — A mixture of liquid caustic soda, with sufficient farina to form a paste. Some makers employed the THE MANUAL OP COLOURS AND DYE WARES. 221 white Devonshire clay as a thickener in place of, or along with the farina. It was a powerful but unsafe detergent, and is now rarely heard of. Water. — Of all articles employed in dyeing and printing, water is the most important. If it be defective in quality or quantity, the utmost skill will be expended either in vain or at a disadvan- tage. To remedy bad water on " paying" terms is a most difficult, often an altogether impracticable affair. Pure water consists merely of oxygen and hydrogen combined in the proportions of 8 lbs. of the former to 1 lb. of the latter. But such water, like a mathematical line, exists merely in hypothesis. The purest water in existence holds in solution the gases and vapours of the atmo- sphere with which it has come in contact, as well as minute traces dissolved from the vessels in which it has been preserved. Almost all natural waters existing in available quantity contain foreign matter sufficient to modify their chemical behaviour, and to pro- duce results different from what would be obtained even with ordinary distilled water, which is conventionally styled "pure." The foreign matters present in water may be divided into two classes : substances held in suspension and such as are truly dis- solved. The former are the less dangerous and the more easily removed. They consist of sand and clay, oxide of iron, sulphuret of iron, and debris of animal and vegetable substances ; also in streams passing through manufacturing districts, greasy matter,, compounds which may be styled soaps of lime, iron, alumina, lead, tin, etc. Some of these matters, especially spent or half-spent dye- wares, grease, and the soaps just mentioned, are capable of doing much mischief. They are, however, capable of being removed by filtration whenever there is room for filter-beds and lodges suffi- cient to contain a necessary supply. The dissolved impurities are more varied, more detrimental in their effects, and much more difficult to remove. They include gases held in solution, such as oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, carbonic acid, hydrosulphuric acid, etc. ; liquid acids, such as sulphuric, muriatic, nitric, oxalic, free or combined ; the alkalies, soda, potash, and ammonia ; soluble salts of alumina, lime, magnesia, manganese, iron, copper, lead, tin, and arsenic ; further extracts and solutions of dye-wares, the soluble portions of sewage, etc., etc. 222 THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. The effects of these impurities are of course highly varied, nor can any stream contain all these in a liquid form, as many of them, on meeting, mutually precipitate each other. The most formidable are salts of iron and copper, which sadden all the dye-woods, cochineal, etc., and render it impossible to dye light and bright shades ; salts of lime and magnesia, which prevent the water from bleeding the dye-wares, and precipitate a portion of the dissolved colours as lakes, etc. ; alkalies, which precipitate or spoil acid mordants, render it impossible to purify safnower, give scarlets and oranges an unpleasant bluish cast, etc. Soluble sulphides or hydro -sulphates blacken all colours containing lead, injure those containing tin, and spoil royal blues. The mixture of organic matters, dye- wares, etc., soil all fabrics, and lessen the lustre of every colour even when they do not positively alter the shade. If it is intended to erect a new dye, print, or colour works, or to bring a fresh supply of water to one already existing, the proposed source, stream, or spring, should be carefully examined. Note first the strata from which it is fed. The best waters are those which flow from clay-slate, granite, quartz-rock, trap-rocks, and mill- stone grit, or from beds of sand and gravel, also the surface-drainage of peat-moors. Those from dolomite, mountain limestone, chalk, etc., are inferior, being charged with lime and magnesia. In particular, the drainage from alum-shales, iron- shales, ochre-beds, and coal-deposits, which always contain iron- pyrites, should be avoided. To this end observe whether any of the feeders of the proposed stream deposit a yellowish-brown sediment (iron-mud) in their course ; whether the stones lying in and near the water have yellow or brown discolourations, and whether there is an iridescent scum where the water is still. In general, the water of rivers and lakes, if not artificially contaminated, will be better for tinctorial purposes than that of the springs by which they are fed, since certain salts, both of iron and lime, on prolonged exposure to the air, are rendered insoluble. The next point is to ascertain what manufacturing refuse, sewage, etc., if any, enters the stream. Particular attention must be paid to possible sources of colouring matters, iron, acids, soap- refuse, grease, soda, tar-refuse, etc. THE MANUAL OF C0L0U11S AND DYE WARES. 223 The next thing is to test the water. No one process is of course sufficient to detect all possible impurities. The water, if turbid, is cleared by settling and filtration if necessary, and the following special tests applied. To detect alkaline sulphides, add a few drops of a solution of the nitro-prusside of potassium, which will give a fine violet tinge if this impurity be present. For salts of iron con- centrate the water by evaporation in a white porcelain dish, noting if any ochreous matter is deposited. To the concentrated liquid add a solution of galls, and observe if any browning or blackening appear. To another portion a mixture of the red and yellow prussiates is added. A blue colouration or precipitate shows the presence of iron. Sulphuric acid is detected by adding first a few drops of pure muriatic acid, and then solution of chloride of barium. A white precipitate shows the presence of sulphuric acid, or soluble sulphates. If the water is in like manner acidulated with pure nitric acid, and a little of a solution of nitrate of silver added, a white curdy precipitate falls if muriatic acid or soluble chlorides are present. To detect lime, add to the concentrated water some oxalate of ammonia. If a white precipitate falls after standing a few minutes, lime is present. If alum or sulphate of alumina is present, sulphuric acid will be detected. Again, concentrate the water as far as practicable, add pure caustic soda in excess, and to the clear liquid decanted off from any precipitate add solution of sal-ammoniac. If this produces a gelatinous precipitate, alumina in a soluble state is present. To detect magnesia, a more compli- cated process is needed if alumina — as is possible — be also present : Evaporate to dryness, redissolve in pure nitric acid, and heat upon the sand-bath to 480° Fahr., keeping up the heat till a glass rod dipped in ammonia, and held over the vessel, no longer shows the presence of acid fumes. This operation is best performed in a platinum capsule. The residue is moistened with a strong solu- tion of nitrate of ammonia, and heated afresh till no more ammoniacal fumes are given off. The mass is treated with water, and digested at a gentle heat. A drop of weak liquid ammonia is added, which will occasion no turbidity if the heating has been rightly managed. The clear is now decanted off, rendered slightly alkaline with, ammonia, and mixed with oxalate of ammonia, allowed to stand several hours, and filtered. This operation removes lime. Evapo- 224 THE MANUAL OE COLOURS AND DYE WARES. rate the clear filtrate to dryness with an excess of nitric acid to destroy ammoniacal salts ; dissolve in pure water, and add phos- phate of soda and a little ammonia. If a precipitate is formed, magnesia was present in the water. Magnesia, if present as bicarbonate, is a very formidable im- purity, being particularly unfavourable to madder-dyeing ; if in the state of chloride or sulphate, it has very little detrimental influ- ence. To ascertain this point, after having found that magnesia is present by the above process, take a fresh portion of the water and keep it at a boil for about an hour. Then allow it to cool, and filter it carefully. Then re-examine this clear liquid. If magnesia is not found in this boiled and filtered water, or is found in smaller quantity than in the unboiled water, it exists, in part at least, as carbonate, which is held in solution by free carbonic acid. By boiling, the free carbonic acid is expelled, and the magnesia precipitated. Waters containing magnesia in this state may be corrected by the addition of a trace of oxalic acid. Soluble organic matter is detected by adding a few drops of a solution of permanganate of potash. If organic matter is present this will soon be reduced, forming a brown precipitate of the hydrated peroxide of manganese. The hardness of water depends on the amount of earthy matter present, whether lime, magnesia, iron, or alumina. This is best estimated by the " soap-test," which is performed as follows: — A solution of soap is made by mixing methylated spirit (free from shellac) with an equal measure of water, and adding a convenient quantity of soap — preferably the soft medicinal soap of the London Pharmacopoeia — and letting the mixture stand in a stoppered flask or bottle at common temperatures till the soap is dissolved, and the liquid has grown clear. If at all turbid it may be filtered, and is then preserved in a stoppered bottle. To find the value of this soap -solution, a standard water is needed. To prepare this, rub some pure crystallized gypsum (sulphate of lime) to a very fine powder; put 27*5 grains of this in an exact gallon of pure water, and let it dissolve. This quantity is equivalent to 16 grains of carbonate of lime, and hence the water was called by Clark, the inventor of the process, " standard water of 16° hardness," every grain of carbonate of THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WABES. 225 lime, or its equivalent of other hardening matter, being called one degree of hardness. When the standard water is ready, 1000 grain measures are put in a 6-oz. stoppered bottle, and 40 grain measures are added of a cold saturated solution of carbonate of soda crystals. A burette should have been filled with the soap solution, and this is carefully dropped into the bottle until the point of saturation is reached. To ascertain this the bottle is from time to time stoppered and well shaken. As soon as a soft and abundant lather is formed which will remain for five minutes, the operation is at an end, and the number of degrees consumed is read off. It is most convenient, as saving calculation, if 32° of the soap-liquor have been used, in which case 2° of the burette represent exactly 1 degree of hardness. The value of the soap-liquid thus being known, it may be applied to testing waters. 1000 grain measures of the sample are placed in a bottle, mixed with 40 grain measures of the carbonate of soda solution, and the soap -liquid added as above. If the hardness of the water exceeds 16°, it is well to dilute it previously with an equal or double bulk of distilled water ; then take 1000 grain measures of this diluted portion for examination, remembering to multiply the result obtained by 2 or by 3, accord- ing to the extent of dilution. This method shows with great exactitude the value of a water for cleansing and scouring purposes, it being of course the better the less soap it needs to yield a lather. For dyeing and printing, and for extracting colours, it may also be laid down that a very hard water cannot be good, save for sad colours. But a very soft water, if heavily charged with alkali, may be wretched for tinc- torial purposes, and two waters equally hard may be of very different values for dyeing, according as the hardness proceeds from lime, magnesia, alumina, or from iron. In all cases it is well, after having ascertained the hardness of the water cold, as taken from the stream or spring, to boil another portion well and test it again. If a difference is found, as is generally the case, that difference is caused by lime or magnesia, present in the form of bicarbonate, and rendered insoluble by boiling. The hardness remaining after boiling is due to sulphates Q 226 THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE "WARES. and chlorides of lime, magnesia, etc., and is noted as permanent hardness. By this double procedure we ascertain not merely the amount of the hardening matter, but to some extent its nature, and how it may be removed. To supplement the soap-test the following procedure may be employed, and will be found very useful in ascertaining the com- parative value of waters for tinctorial purposes : Make a standard extract of logwood by digesting distilled water upon an excess of rasped logwood in a stoppered flask for 24 hours. Pour off the clear and preserve it in a stoppered bottle. If it is needful to examine a number of samples of water, provide a set of clear white glass phials holding a little more than 4 ozs. Put into one phial 4 ozs. of distilled water and add 100 grain measures of the logwood liquor. Place 4 ozs. of each sample in one of the other bottles, and add 100 grs. of logwood liquor to each, and compare the colours. The phial with distilled water will be of a clear reddish amber colour. The others will depart from this standard according to the nature and amount of their impurities. If the water contain a soluble chloride it will be yellower than with pure water. Sulphate of lime and alkaline sulphates give a yellowish olive colour. Alkalies, caustic or carbonated, give a brownish red ; salts of alumina, a maroon passing into plum-colour ; free acids, a cherry ; and salts of iron and chromates, a brownish black. Even the quantities of these various impurities may be approxi- mately estimated by preparing solutions containing known quantities of the salts in question and comparing their action, at various stages of dilution, upon the logwood liquor with that of the water under examination. Purification, — The purification of water on a practical scale is in some cases exceedingly difficult and in all expensive, owing to the amount of room required. The available expedients are three — subsidence, filtration, and liming. The action of the two former is very nearly connected. Subsidence is merely a carrying out of a fact observed in nature, that rivers are usually found freer from mineral impurities than the springs whence they are fed. This is readily explained : the action of exposure to the air, especially in shallow extended layers, is similar to that of boiling. Bicarbonates are decomposed, and free carbonic acid escapes, whilst the neutral THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE "WARES. 227 carbonates of lime, magnesia, and iron subside in an insoluble state. Again, all soluble protosalts of iron are decomposed, the bulk of the objectionable metal remaining behind in the form of insoluble subsalts. All matters also, mineral or organic, held merely in suspension, are removed. The best arrangement for subsidence, and at the same time the first step to filtration, is a reservoir, having its greatest length in the direction of the current. It should not be very deep, but as extensive as the ground and the owner's means will admit. At the top end it must be provided with a sluice, so that the water of the stream can be admitted only when desirable. If there are any works above which emit refuse, it is well to admit water to the reservoir only in the night and on Sundays, and to keep a watchful eye on the stream. Filtration, — Filtration consists, in principle, in passing water through porous matter, which shall by mechanical action arrest all insoluble suspended matter, and shall also exert a chemical action by means of the oxygen condensed in its pores. The bed of a filter should commence with coarse large irregular stones, over which is laid rough gravel, and finally a bed of fine sand about a foot in thickness. All these materials must be such as can neither furnish iron, alumina, lime, or magnesia to the water. An excellent material to place above the gravel is the surface soil of moorlands, consisting of a mixture of peat and clean sharp silicious sand. This article is abundant and cheap in the manu- facturing districts of Lancashire, Yorkshire, and Scotland, and is, to the best of my knowledge, the most efficacious substance avail- able. The size of each filter must depend upon the quantity of water required, but it should never be allowed to stand deep over the filter-bed, otherwise the effect of the porous materials in trans- ferring oxygen from the air to the impurities in the water will be lost. Therefore the water, as it flows from the subsidence- reservoir, must be allowed to enter at just such a speed that it may keep the whole surface evenly wet, and be drawn off 0 below as fast as it filters through. Of course a filter, however well made, will in course of time cease to act, being choked up with the dirt deposited by the water in passing through. It is well, therefore, to provide a double series of filters, the one to be in action whilst the other is cleansed 228 THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WAKES. and relaid. The cleansing is generally effected by scraping off a few inches of the sand, and placing it where it may be exposed to the air, sun, and rain for some weeks before it is put back. Where suitable filtering material is near at hand, the filter-bed is better made up with new sand, etc. How often the filter requires reno- vating depends upon the quality of the water and the amount of work performed. The only rule that can be laid down is to attend to the matter as soon as a filter either passes its water too slowly, or without being sufficiently purified. Great care should be taken in the mode of leading the water into a filter. If allowed to enter with great force, and to impinge upon one particular spot, it may make one or two channels through the bed, and thus escape with- out filtration. Liming. — In many cases the addition of milk of lime will be beneficial to waters charged with either mineral or organic im- purities. The bicarbonates are precipitated by this expedient, iron is got rid of, and a great many organic matters are deposited in the form of lakes. This operation, when required, is best pre- formed in the stream above the subsidence-dam. The addition should be gradual and constant, so that all the water in the channel may be acted upon. Other additions have been recommended, and used in particular cases. Thus, to remove mineral matters and render water softer, beds have been constructed of spent madder and other dye-wares, and over these the water has been filtered. I think the peat or moor-earth recommended above will be found more convenient and efficacious. With certain waters acids may be required to neutralize an alkali, or alkalies to " kill " an acid. Such additions, where needed, are best made in the dye-pan or cistern. Purification of Spent Waters. — Sometimes the dyer or printer is required not alone to purify the water which he receives so as to render it fit for use, but to filter the waste liquors which he discharges, in order to escape litigation, on the score of nuisance. The increasing attention paid to the pollution of rivers will pro- bably compel greater and more general care in this respect. Having had successful experience in dealing with the refuse of dye-works, I can say that, where a plot of falling ground can be had below any works, the water can be emitted in a state perfectly free from nuisance. If the refuse of a dye-works were THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE "WARES. 229 allowed to flow continuously into a river as every vat or beck becomes spent, a great nuisance would be created. But if these various kinds of refuse are allowed to pass into a settling-dam large enough to hold two or three days' store, the case is entirely altered. The various wares, etc., present, react upon each other, and the impurities are thrown down in an insoluble form. The articles likely to be in excess are the spent or nearly spent dye- woods — logwood, peachwood, etc. — which are sure to arrest any iron, chrome, tin, copper, etc.. emitted from the dye-works. The faint tinge of colour resulting from these woods is afterwards easily got rid of by passage through a filter-bed, with the addition of a little lime. This simple system was successfully carried out at Jackroyd Dye- works, Wheatley, near Halifax, where litigation had arisen in con- sequence of the emission of refuse into the river Hebble. To meet the difficulty, the spent liquors from the works were collected in a settling-dam divided into several compartments. "When the first compartment was full the foul water passed through wire-gauze at the surface into the second, and when this also was filled, into a third. In these dams the various ingredients had opportunity to react upon each other, to undergo the influence of the atmosphere, and to deposit their insoluble ingredients. Erom the last settling-dam the water was allowed to enter filter-beds, and on issuing from them it reached a couple of dams near the river. In these it was clear, colourless, and devoid of smell and taste. Attested samples of the water were found by the soap-test softer than the spring supplying the works. When submitted to careful chemical examina- tion the same water was found equal to the water of the Hebble above the dye-works, and superior to the water with which at another works in the district the most delicate cochineal, safflower, and aniline shades were being successfully dyed. Finally — a most important point — the firm occupying the works, in a dry season, conveyed the water back from the last dam and used it with satis- factory results. White Lead. — (Ceruse, Kremser White , etc.) — A compound of the hydrate and carbonate of lead, much used by painters, but rarely in printing. It is quickly blackened by sulphuretted vapours. It is much adulterated with sulphate of lime, sulphate of 230 THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE "WARES. lead, sulphate of baryta, etc. If pure it should dissolve completely in dilute nitric acid. When it is sold ready ground up with oil it can- not be tested in this manner till the oil has all been dissolved away by digestion with ether or benzol — a tedious process which must be per- formed in a stoppered bottle, shaking the mixture up frequently. Weld, or Wold. — A yellow colouring matter which has latterly fallen into disuse. The whole plant is used, though the colouring matter is found chiefly in the tops. It is met with in commerce dried in the form of sheaves or bundles. For use it is placed in bags suspended in the dye-beck, or else previously extracted with water and the decoction applied to the goods. The decoction in water is yellow, with a slight greenish cast. The colour is deepened and rendered turbid by acids, changed to a more golden hue by alkalies, thrown down as a yellow lake by the salts of alumina, tin, and lead. It is used mostly for silk, less frequently for cotton, upon both of which fibres it gives a fine bright yellow with alum, and a still superior shade with the aluminate of soda. These shades bear washing with soap and water, but are sooner or later im- poverished by exposure to air. The pure colouring matter of weld is known as luteoline, from the botanical name of the plant, Reseda luteola. Woad; — Isatis sativa, a plant containing a small amount of indigo, and formerly used as a dye, though now merely added to indigo-vats for wool-dyeing as a promoter of fermentation. Avariety of the plant cultivated in the south of Fiance is known under the name of Pastel, whence the term pastel-vat applied especially by foreign dyers to a kind of indigo -vat. Wongshy; — The seed capsules of a Javanese plant of the order Gentianese, used, or capable of being used, as a yellow dye. The colouring principle is soluble in water, with a fiery red colour, which, when diluted largely, passes into a golden yellow. The tinctorial power appears high. It dissolves also in alcohol with similar colours. The solution in water is not precipitated by acids ; by alkalies only when added in excess ; unaffected by protochloride of tin in the cold, but on boiling a deep orange-lake is produced. THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WAKES. 231 Alum and red- liquor give yellow precipitates only on boiling. Lime and baryta water give yellow precipitates in the cold. Neutral acetate of lead gives no precipitate, and basic acetate an orange precipitate on boiling. It dyes "wool a fine orange shade without any mordant, the addi- tion of which rather impairs the result. The best shades are obtained at about 104° Fahr. At the boiling point the colour produced is less pure. Upon silk it proves also to be a substantive colour, giving a bright gold shade. For cotton a mordant — preferably a salt of tin — is needed, when the shade produced is orange. These colours are very fugitive upon cotton, faster upon wool, and best upon silk, where they rank with the best yellows known, as regards resistance to the action of light. They are not affected by soap-scouring upon any fibre. Fine shades of yellow may be obtained by adding small quan- tities of potash, soda, or ammonia, caustic or carbonated, to the watery extract of wongshy before immersing the cloth in the dye. Wongshy resembles annatto in many respects, but differs in being turned yellower by alkalies, and redder by acids and the salta of tin. Wood Tar. — -A solution of wood tar in ten times its weight of water ; in other words, tar- water, allowed to settle and filtered, has been recommended as giving a fine ash-grey with a mordant of perchloride of iron. The colour produced is more of a drab than an ash, and, though good of its kind, has nothing sufficiently distinctive to warrant its adoption. Wood tar is the source of the fine blue colour known as pittacal, or corn-flower blue. Wool. — A few of the chemical properties of wool require brief notice. Wool is readily injured, and even destroyed and dissolved, by the caustic alkalies, potash and soda, and certain of their com- pounds. Hence, as a general rule, it is ill-adapted for alkaline mordants, such as the aluminates, stannates, plumbates, etc. These compounds not only fail to deposit their alumina, tin, etc., in sufficient quantity and with due regularity, but frequently injure the fibre itself. 232 THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE "WARES. On the other hand, wool can bear the action of strong acids and acid salts much better and longer than cotton. Aqua-fortis, how- ever, if allowed to act upon wool in a concentrated state, turns it indelibly yellowish or brownish, the surface of the wool being converted into picric acid. Free chlorine and bleaching powder likewise give wool a permanent yellowish tint. The sulphur naturally present in wool is an important feature. Some contend that this constituent is the cause of the superior affinity of wool for colours, which others again ascribe to the nitrogen. Attempts have been made to combine sulphur with vegetable fibre for the purpose of increasing its affinity for colours, but the results have been unfavourable. The presence of sulphur is one cause of the unfitness of wool for alkaline mordants. These extract the sulphur from the wool, forming a portion of alkaline sulphide, which, reacting upon the lead or tin present, blackens it. The superiority of wool to cotton, as regards its affinity for organic colours, is striking. It takes many colours which vege- table fibre will not take at all, and many more, though they can be fastened upon cotton, are much more beautiful and permanent upon wool. Xylidine Red (Hofmann's). — A new colour prepared from a mixture of xylidine and aniline, heated with arsenic acid, as in the preparation of magenta. It forms carmine-red masses, and dyes wool and silk a beautiful colour. It is distinct from Coupier's xylidine-red. The name " xylidine red " is also given to an azo colour. See Ponceau E. Yellow Colours, Detection of. — Chrome Yellows. — Black- ened by sulphuretted hydrogen ; destroyed by caustic alkalies (on cotton). Annatto. — Little affected by chlorine or bleaching powder; a bluish-green with oil of vitriol. Discharged by nitric acid. Fustic and Young Fustic are also not much affected by bleaching powder ; with oil of vitriol they are reddened, and with nitric acid discharged. A deep brown, with caustic soda. Quercitron Barh and Flavine. — Discharged by chlorine and sul- phurous acid, not perceptibly browned by soda or tin- salt. THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE "WARES. 233 Persian Berries. — Discharged by chlorine ; turned an orange- brown by tin- salt ; give a stone colour with sulphuric acid. Turmeric, browned and dissolved out by dilute acids and alkalies. Picric Acid (silk and wool only). — The tissue has a bitter taste. Unaffected by acids. Dissolved off by alkalies. Zinc. — A metal which has some resemblance to tin in its appearance, but little in its chemical and tinctorial relations. It is much more readily soluble in acids than tin, forming solutions of a much higher specific gravity, which are less readily rendered turbid or precipitated by exposure to the air, or by admixture of water, cold or hot. It does not form an insoluble compound with nitric acid. It forms only one oxide and one chloride. Its salts combine with colouring matters to form lakes. These, however, have for the most part a dull, earthy appearance, and are held together by a very feeble affinity. For animal and vegetable fibre the compounds of zinc have scarcely any affinity, and are hence generally useless as mordants. The only compounds of zinc which have been at all employed in the tinctorial arts are the oxide, hydrate, chloride, nitrate, sulphate, and acetate. Zinc, Acetate. — A soluble salt generally obtained by mixing the sulphate of zinc with sugar of lead, both in solution, and decanting the clear liquor. It is rarely used except as a mordant for murexide yellows. Zinc, Chloride of, known also as Muriate of Zinc or Butter of Zinc. — This salt is a colourless liquid, or, if concentrated, a syrup. It can easily be brought to a state of perfect neutrality, and is then rendered slightly turbid if mixed with water. It combines readily with most colouring matters, effecting little change in their pro- perties, and abandoning them to any salt of tin, iron, or alumina, with which it is brought in contact. Chloride of zinc is an antagonist to fermentation, putrefaction and the development of those low forms of vegetable life known as mildew, mouldiness, &c. It is also strongly deliquescent, attract- ing moisture from the air. Hence it is sometimes added to colours and other mixtures to prevent drying up. By printers it is some- times used to fix the alumina of alkaline pink mordant. 234 THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE WARES. Zinc, Nitrate. — A very deliquescent salt, sometimes used to keep colours moist. Its properties and applications are very similar to those of the chloride of zinc, but being more costly it is less used. Zinc Powder. — A mixture of metallic zinc in a state of very fine division, with variable quantities of oxide of zinc, silica, &c. On account of its reducing powers it is often used in the treatment of colours. Its value depends entirely upon the quantity of metallic zinc present, which may be determined as follows : — To one gramme of the zinc powder add 100 cubic centimetres of a solution of pure melted bichromate of potash (40 grammes per litre) ; and stirring diligently, add twice each time 10 cubic centi- metres of dilute sulphuric acid, and allow it to act for a quarter of an hour. When the zinc powder is entirely dissolved, save a small residue which always remains, an excess of sulphuric acid is added, and 50 cubic centimetres of a strong acid solution of sulphate of iron (200 grammes per litre), whose value in reference to the chrome has been already determined. A slight excess of this latter is then cautiously added and titrated back with the acid solution of chrome till a drop of the liquid is no longer coloured blue by red prussiate. The quantity of bichromate consumed by 0-66113 gives the metallic zinc in the sample. Zinc, Sulphate of, otherwise known as White Vitriol. — It is a white, semi-transparent, crystalline body, easily soluble, and having the property of coagulating animal fluids and preventing fermen- tation and putrefaction. Its uses are but limited. It has been proposed as a substitute for tartaric acid as a discharge, and in some styles it serves as a resist. Sulphate of zinc is used to some extent in dyeing Nicholson blues. Some practical men assert that if used along with tin mordants it throws the tin better upon the fibre. My own observations lead me to the opinion that where not inert it is rather injurious. Sulphate of zinc is sometimes fraudulently used as an adulte- rant in tin-crystals, double muriate, and other preparations of tin. INDEX. PAGE ACETATE of alumina 167 „ copper 217 iron 1 „ lead 109 „ tin 209 Acetic acid 2 Acetous acid 2 Acid, acetic 2 „ aloetic 13 „ amalic 16 „ arsenic 27 „ arsenious 27 „ benzoic 31 „ carbazotic 157 „ carbolic 43 „ carbonic 43 „ canninic 54 carthamic 170 „ catechuic 45 „ chlorhydic 92 „ chloroxynaphthalic 48 „ chrysammic 13 „ chrysophanic 50 „ citric 50 „ erythric (Brugnatelli's) ... 12 „ erythric (from orchella weeds) 74 „ eupittonic 158 „ gallic 82 ,, hydrochloric 92 „ isopurpuric 105 „ japonic 46 ,, lactic 108 „ lecanoric 110 „ malic 124 „ manganic 124 „ mongumic 128 ,, muriatic 92 „ nitric 137 ,, nitrocuminic 144 „ nitrofrangulic 78 „ oxalic 152 „ pawlownic, 155 ' PAGE Acid, phenic ... 43 ,, phosphoric ... 157 „ phthalic ... 157 „ picramic ... 157 „ picric ... 157 „ purpuric ... 164 „ pyroligneous 2 „ rosolic ... 169 „ rubinic ... 46 „ sulphindigotic ... 101 „ sulphindylic ... 101 „ sulphopurpuric ... 164 „ sulphuric . . . 196 „ sulphurous ... 200 ,, tannic ... 202 „ tartaric ... 204 „ uric ... 216 „ viridic ... 220 Acidimetry 3 Acids 3 Admont vitriol 63 African red 4 Agar-agar 4 Ageing liquor 4 Air 5 Albumen 6 Alcohol 7 „ methylated 7 „ methylic ... 136 Aldehyde 7 „ green 8 Alder bark 8 Algarobillo 8 Alizarine 8 „ artificial 9 „ blue ... 9 „ blue S 9 » oil ... 150 Alkalimetry 9 Alkaline, pink mordant ... 183 Alkaloids ... 11 Alkanet ... 12 236 INDEX. PAGE PAGE Alloxan 12 Argol 26 Alloxantine 12 Arnotto 19 Alneine ... 13 Arseniates ... 26 Aloes 13 Arsenic ... 26 Aloetic, acid 13 „ acid ... ... 26 Alum, ammonia ... 14 „ white 27 basic ... 14 Arsenical greens 26 „ cake ... 15 Arsenious acid ... 27 ,, chrome ... 49 Arsenites ... 27 ,, concentrated ... ... 15 Artichoke green ... 27 patent ... ... 15 Ash, black 33 tj potash ... ... 13 Astringents 27 roach ... 13 Aurantia ... 28 „ rock ... 13 Aureine ... ... 65 „ Roman ... 13 Aureosine ... 28 Alumina, acetate ... 167 Azale ... 28 ,, muriate ... 14 Azaleine ... 121 ,, nitrate ... 15 Azuline ... ... ... ... 28 , , pyrolignite ... 167 sulphate 15 BARANILINE ... 18 Aluminate of potash... ... 183 Barberry 28 ,, soda ... 183 Barilla ... 28 Aluminium, chloride 14 Bark, alder 8 ,, sulphocyanide ... ... 196 „ extract of ... 28 Ammonia 16 „ hemlock ... 92 „ alum 14 ,, liquor ... 28 soaps ... 177 „ Panama ... ... ... 154 Ammonium chloride ... 172 „ quercitron ... 166 sulphocyanide ... ... 196 „ quillaia ... 154 Anchusine 12 ,, soap ... 154 Aniline ... 17 Barwood ... 29 „ black ... 18 „ spirits ... 30 ,, blues 18 Baryta, carbonate ... 30 „ browns ... 19 „ sulphate ... 30 ,, greys ... 19 Bases ... 30 greens ... 69 „ organic ... 11 oil 18 Beaume's hydrometer ... 95 ,, reds 121, 86 Benzaurine ... 31 ,j scarlets ... 85 Benzene ... 31 ,, violets ... ... 19 Benzine ... 31 Annatto ... ... ... 19 Benzoic acid ... 31 A n nf;f".£» ililUHil ... «•• ... ... 19 Benzol ... 31 Anthracene ... ... ... 20 Benzoyl green ... 218 blue 21 Benzyl blue ... 32 Ulaiigu ... ... 21 Berries, Persian ... 156 ,, violet 21 Bethabarra wood ... 32 Anthra purpurine 21 Biborate of soda ... 37 Anthraquinone, diamido 21 Bichloride of tin ... 209 Antichlore 21 Bichrome ... 159 Antimony ... ... ... 21 Biebrich scarlet ... 32 ,, and potash, tartrate ... 204 Bismark brown ... 156 Aqua-fortis ... 137 Bismuth ... 32 Aqua-regia ... 22 Bisulphide of carbon ... 32 Archil ... 22 Black, aniline ... 18 Areometer ... 94 „ ash ... 33 Argentine effects ... 24 „ Frankfort ... 21S INDEX. 237 r PAGE PAGE Black liquor 1 Burling iron ... 142 mordant... ... 1, 33 vine ... 218 C ACHOU DE LAVAL ... 155 Blackley, blue ... ... 33 Cactine ... ... 145 ,, orange ... 33 Cadmium ... ... ... 41 Blacks, detection of, on fibre ... 33 Cake -alum 15 Bleach -liquor, Grouvelle's ... ... 35 Calcined copperas 65 ,, Ramsay's ... 35 Calliatura-wood 41 Bleaching-lime 34 Camwood 41 ,, magnesia 35 Camatas ... ... 216" „ soda 35 Camatinas ... ... 216 Blood-salts ... 161 Campobello yellow ... 41 Blue, alizarine 9 Cannelle brown 41 ,, alizarine, S 9 Caoutchouc ... 42 ,, benzyl 32 Carajuru... 42 Blackley 33 Carbazotic acid... ... 157 ,, chinoline 47 Carbolic acid 43 ,, cobalt ... ... 53 Carbon, bisulphide 33, 43 corn-flower ... 158 Carbonic acid ... 43 distilled ... 36 Cariatura wood 41 ,, Gens d'armes ... 85 Carmin bleu fonce ... 128 Madras ... 12S Carminaphtha 43 methylene ... 128 Carmine ... 43 ,, millori 164 Carminic acid ... 54 „ Nicholson 137 Carragheen moss ... 133 „ opal ... 150 Carthamic acid ... 170 Paris 155 Carthamine 44 Prussian ... 163 Cartier's hydrometer 97 Blue, puteaux ... ... 165 Caseine 44 „ stone 63 Cassel, yellow 45 „ vitriol 63 Casselman's green ... 45 Blues, aniline 18 Catechu 45 „ detection of, on fibre . . . ... 36 Catechuic acid ... 45 ,, diphenylamine ... 69 Cauline ... 46 ,, finishing 75 Cerise ... 46 Boracic acid 37 Cerium ... 47 Borax 37 Ceruse ... 229 „ powder, French 37 Chayavra 47 Bordeaux ... 38 Chemic 47 Botany Bay resin ... 90 Chemnitz brown ... 49 Brauna wood 38 Chestnut 47 Brazil wood " . . 38 Chica 42 Brazilein ... 38 China ... 47 Braziline... 38 China clay ... 51 Britannia violet 218 Chinese green ... 47 British gum 68 Chinoline blue ... 47 Bromine ... ... 39 Chloride of lime ... 34 Bronzes ... ... ... 39 „ of magnesia ... 35 Broom ... 40 „ of soda ... 35 Brown cannelle ... 41 Chlorophyll ... 48 Brown, Chemnitz ... 49 Chloroxynaphthalic acid ... 48 „ Manchester ... 218 Chlorozone ... 48 Browns, aniline ... 18 Chromates ... 159 Brun d'Elbceuf ... 49 Chrome ... 159 Buck- wheat ... 40 ,, alum ... 49 Burling-inks ... 40 „ yellow ... 108 238 INDEX. PAGE PAGE Chromogens 49 JJinusion... 69 Chrysaniline 49 Diphenylamine blues 69 „ yellow ... 156 Direct greens 69 Chrysoline AQ Divi-divi ... ••• 70 Chrysophanic acid 60 Dung-substitutes 26 Cinnabar .. 217 Citric acid 50 EAU DE JAVELLE OO Clavel's red .. 120 ,, Labarraque OO Clay, China Ecarlate 140 Cornish ) - 51 ■;: 1 Efflorescence 73 „ Devonshire Emeraldine 73 „ Pipe Endosmose 73 Coal-tar colours, detection of OK) Enthylrosine pink Cobalt blues 53 Eosine to Coccine 53 » B. N 4 4 Cochineal 54 ,, blue 74 , , ammoniacal rr .. DO Epsom salts Cceruleine KR DO Ericine 74 Collodion 56 Erythric acid (Brugnatelli's) 12 Colloids 57 „ „ (from orchella weeds) 4 1 Colorine 57 Erythrine 74c Colours 57 Erythrose to ,, dichroic RQ Escholtzine ... ... ITS 4 0 „ examination of 61 Extract of bark 28 „ coal tar, detection of 51 ,, indigo 1U1 5J ,, examination of KO oz Extracting liquor (Runze's) Composition, colour-maker's 209 Copper, ammoniuret 62 ±ao nitrate... 62 Fast red ... 151 ,, sulphate 63 Fecula ... ... ... ... 1QQ Copperas RA 04 FePs yellow 4 O „ calcined RK Fibres i O Coralline RK DO Finishing blues VR 4 0 Cork RK OO Flavina *7R 40 Corn-flower blue 158 Fleur de garance Corrosive sublimate ... 127 Flowers, colours of 77 Cotton 66 Frangulina 77 Crimson paste RR .. OO Frankfort black spirits... ... ... 191 Fruits, colours of 78 Crocine 63 Fuchsine 78, 121 Cryolite 66 Fustic 78 Crystallization 66 „ carmine 79 Crystalloids ... 67 „ young 80 Cuba wood 78 „ Zante 80 Cudbear .. 67 Fustet 80 Curcumine 1 KR 100 Cutch 40 GALIUM 80 Cyanogen purple RT 0< Galleine ... 81 Cyanosine 156 Gallic acid Galls, nut 82 80 DATlbC-CillJNJcj .. 67 „ wild 82 Datiscine... 67 Gambir 45 Deliquescence ... 68 Gamboge 82 Dextrine .. 68 Garanceux 83 Dialysis .. 69 Garancine 83 Dichroic colours .. 69 Gardenia pods 83 INDEX. 239 PAGE VTLlLtLIIltr ••• ■•• ••• 85 Gens d'&rniGs bluG ..• 85 GcirtelG's grGGii 85 VTclcti-ilUIll leu ••• oO Geranosine 85 Gladioline 85 Glauber's salt ... 195 Glycerine 86 Green, benzoyl ... 218 >> Til q rf^rlov ±14: ff C*.a ccplm on n ' c V^Ct OoCllllcllllJ. o • • 40 ff Chinese 47 ff Gentele's SO Guignet's OO Helvetia 91 ff manganese ... 125 ff methyl ... 128 ff methylaniline . . . 128 ff Plessy ... 158 ff quinine ... 166 ff Rinman's 168 ff sap ... 174 ff solid ... 91 ff Victoria ... 218 vitriol ... 64 Greens, detection of, on the fibre ... 86 „ direct 69 Grenade 86 Grenettes 156 Gulal 87 Gum, arabic 87 cherry 89 „ megnite 88 „ Peru 88 „ Senegal 88 „ tragacanth 89 „ yellow 90 Gums 87 Gun-cotton 165 Gutta percha 90 Guyard's violet 91 Gypsum 91 HACHROTTT 91 Harmaline 91 Heavy spar 30 Helvetia green 91 Hemlock bark 92 Hibiscus rosa-sinensis 92 Hollyhock 92 Hortensia 145 Huile tournante 150 Hydrochloric acid 92 Hydrometers 94 Hypernic 98 TAGE IMPERIAL PURPLE 98 ,, red . . . 145 Indian yellow ... 164 Indigo 98 artificial ... 101 ,, extract of ... 101 „ red extract of .. . 103, 164 refined ... 103 soluble ... 101 Indophenols 103 Indulines ... 104 Inks, burling 40 Iodine 104. 1U4 Iron, acetate of 1 muriate 104 ,, nitrate 140 ,, persulphate of ... 105 ,, protosulphate of • 64 „ pyrolignite 1 „ sulphuret of 105 Isopurpuric acid ... 105 Isopurpurine 21 101 „ d'or ... 105 ,, d' Orleans 1 DO Jute 105 KELP ... 105 King's yellow ... 105 Kino ... 105 LAC 106 Brooke's dye 107 „ dye 106 „ lake 106 Lactarine 108 Lactic acid 108 Lake colours 108 „ mineral 156 Lamp black 108 Laureline 108 Lead, acetate of 109 „ chromate of 109 „ nitrate of 144 „ peroxide of 109 „ red 109 „ subacetate of ... no „ sugar of 109 „ sulphate 110 „ vinegar 110 „ white 229 Lecanoric acid 110 Leucogene 185 Leukaniline 110 Lichens Ill 240 INDEX. PAGE Light ... ... Ill Light green S. ... ... 112 Lignine ... ... 112 Lima wood ... 112 Lime, carbonate ... 112 „ caustic ... 113 chloride of ... 34 „ hypochlorite of ... 34 „ juice ... 50 „ sulphate of ... :9i Linseed ... 113 Lithospermine ... 113 Logwood ... 114 Lo-kao ... ... ... 47 Lucee ... 118 Lutecienne ... 118 MADDER ... 118 „ bloom ... 120 „ flowers of ... 120 Indian ... 133 „ refined ... 120 Madras blue ... 128 Mafurra oil ... 120 Magdala red ... 120 Magenta ... ... ... 121 Magenta S ... 122 Magnesia bicarbonate ... 123 „ bleaching 35, 123 „ carbonate ... 123 „ chloride ... 35 „ hypochlorite ... 123 „ muriate ... 123 „ sulphate ... 123 Magnesium chloride ... 123 Malic acid ... 124 Manchester brown ... 218 „ yellow ... 124 Mandarine ... 124 Manganese ... 125 „ green ... 125 Mango ... 125 Mangrove-bark ... 125 Martius' yellow ... 124 Mauveine ... 125 Measures and weights, metric ... 125 Mercury, chloride of ... 127 Methyl green ... 128 Methylaniline green ... 128 Methylated spirit 6 Methyldiphenylamine ... 69 Methylene blue ... 128 Methylic alcohol ... 136 Mimecylum tinctorum ... 127 Minium ... 109 Molybdenum ... 128 PAGE Monarda 128 Mongumic acid 128 Monnet's scarlet ' 128 Mordant, alkaline, pink 183 „ black 33 Mordants 129 „ oil 150 organic 132 Moreine 79 Morine 79 Moss, Iceland 133 „ Irish 133 Munjeet 133 Murexide 133 Muriates of tin 134 Muriatic-acid 92 Myrobalans 134 NAPHTHA, wood 136 Naphthaline 136 „ rose 136 „ yellowS 136 Naphthameine 136 Naphthazarine 137 Naphthol yellow S 137 Naphthylamine red 120 „ violets 137 „ yellow 124 Naphthydendiamine violets ... 139 Naples, yellow 137 Nicholson, blue 137 Nickel i 137 Nitrate of copper 62 ,, of iron 140 „ of lead 144 „ of tin 175 Nitric acid 137 Nitrocuminine ... '. 144 Nitroxynapthalic acid 144 Nona 144 Nopal 144 Nopaline 145 Nucine 145 Nut-galls 80 Nux vomica 145 Nycthanthes 145 OCHRE ... 145 Oerces Canadensis 146 Oil mordants 150 Oils and fats 146 Old fustic 78 Opal, blue 150 Orange, Blackley 33 „ Palatine 124 „ Victoria 49 INDEX. 241 PAGE Oranges ... . . . 150 Orchella weeds ... 151 Orchil 22 Orcin . . . 151 Orpiment ... 151 Orseilline ... 151 Oxalate of tin ... 152 Oxalic acid ... 152 Oxygen ... 153 Oxynaphthalidine ... 136 Ozone ... 154 PALATINE, orange ... 124 Panama bark ... 154 Parementine ... 155 Paris, blue ... 155 Pawlownic acid ... 155 Peach-wood ... 155 Peonine ... 65 Persian berries ... 156 red ... 156 Phenic acid 43 Phenicienne ... 156 Phenicine ... 164 Phenol ... 43 Phenyl brown ... ... 156 „ hydrate of ... 43 Phloxine ... 156 Phosphine ... 156 Phosphoric acid ... 157 Phthalic acid ... ... 157 Picramic acid ... ... 157 Picric acid ... ... 157 Pink mordant, alkaline ... 183 Jrinx saiu ... 158 Pipeclay ... ... 51 iiitacai ... ... 158 Plaster of Paris ... 91 Plessy green ... 158 Plum spirits ... 191 Pomegranate husks ... 159 Ponceau d' Orleans ... 165 Ponceaus ... 159 Potash, bichromate ... 159 ,, bitartrate ... 203 „ chlorate ... 160 „ chromate ... 160 ,, prussia te ... 161 »> 5 > red ... ... 164 Potashes ... 162 Potassium cyanide ... 162 „ ferrocyanide ... 161 „ ferricyanide ... 164 Potatoe leaves ... 163 Protartar spirits ... 204 Prussian blue ... 163 R PAGE Prussiate, red 164 Purple, French 98 „ imperial 98 „ regina 168 „ spirits 192 Purpuric acid 164 Purpurogalline 164 Purree 164 Puteau blue 165 Pyrosines 165 Pyroxiline 165 QUEBRACHO WOOD 165 Quercitron bark 166 Quinine green 166 RATANHIA RED 166 Rauracienne 152 Red, chrysaniline 49 „ colours, detection of ... .... 166 „ cotton spirits 192 „ fast ,.151 ,, geranium 85 „ imperial ... 145 „ liquor 167 „ mordant .... 167 „ Persian ... 156 „ xylidine, Hofmann's 232 „ woods .... 167 Regina purple 168 Resorcine 168 „ rose ,. ... 168 Rhubarb , 168 Rinman's green ,. ... 168 Rocelline , ... 151 Roman vitriol ... 63 Rosaniline 166 RoseBengale ., ... 156 Roseine 121 Rosin „ ... 169 Rosolicacid ... ... 169 Rotheine... 156 Rottlerine 169 Rouge Francais 152 Royal blue spirit 192 ,, „ „ finishing 199 Rubeosine 162 Rubidine 151 Rubine 121 „ acid 169 Rubus chamaemorus 169 Rue, Syrian 202 SAFFLOWER 169 Saffranine ... 17 1 Saffron 172 242 INDEX . PAGE Sal ammoniac 172 „ soda 186 Salt, common 172 Salts, spirits of 92 Salzburg vitriol 63 Sflmnlps Trine Otllll IJXCo^ Ltlii.lJ_l^-j . . • ... 173 yj c. 3 MR. HUTTON S PRACTICAL HANDBOOK S— continued. STEAM BOILER CONSTRUCTION. A Practical Handbook for Engineers, Boiler-Makers, and Steam Users. Containing a large Collection of Rules and Data relating to Recent Practice in the Design, Construction, and Working of all Kinds of Stationary, Loco- motive, and Marine Steam-Boilers. By Walter S. Hutton, Civil and Mechanical Engineer, Author of " The Works' Manager's Handbook," "The Practical Engineer's Handbook," &c. With upwards of 500 Illustrations. Fourth Edition, carefully Revised, and Enlarged. Medium 8vo, over 680 pages, cloth, strongly bound. [Just Published. 18/0 This Work is issued in continuation of the Series of Handbooks written by the Author, viz. : — "The Works' Manager's Handbook " and " The Practical Engineer's Handbook," which are so highly appreciated by engineers for the practical nature of their information ; and is consequently written in the same style as those works. % The Author believes that the concentration, in a convenient form for easy reference, of such a large amount of thoroughly practical information on Steam- Boilers, will be of considerable service to those for whom it is intended, and he trusts the book may be deemed worthy of as favourable a reception as has been accorded to its predecessors. " One of the best, if not the best, books on boilers that has ever been published. The infor- mation is of the right kind, in a simple and accessible form. So far as generation is concerned, this is, undoubtedly, the standard book on steam practice." — Electrical Review. " Every detail, both in boiler design and management, is clearly laid before the reader. The volume shows that boiler construction has been reduced to the condition of one of the most exact sciences ; and such a book is of the utmost value to the fin de siicle Engineer and Works Manager." — Marine Engineer. " There has long been room for a modern handbook on steam boilers ; there is not that room now, because Mr. Hutton has filled it. It is a thoroughly practical book for those who are occupied in the construction, design, selection, or use of boilers." — Engineer. " The book is of so important and comprehensive a character that it must find its way into the libraries of every one interested in boiler using or boiler manufacture if they wish to be thoroughly informed. We strongly recommend the book for the intrinsic value of its contents."— Machinery Market. PRACTICAL MECHANICS' WORKSHOP COMPANION. Comprising a great variety of the most useful Rules and Formulae in Mechanical Science, with numerous Tables of Practical Data and Calculated Results for Facilitating Mechanical Operations. By William Templeton, Author of " The Engineer's Practical Assistant," &c, &c. Eighteenth Edition, Revised, Modernised, and considerably Enlarged by Walter S. Hutton, C.E., Author of "The Works' Manager's Handbook," "The Practical Engineer's Hand- book," &c. Fcap. 8vo, nearly 500 pp., with 8 Plates and upwards of 250 Illus- trative Diagrams, strongly bound for workshop or pocket wear and tear . 6/0 " In its modernised form Hutton's ' Templeton ' should have a wide sale, for it contains much valuable information which the mechanic will often find of use, and not a few tables and notes which he might look for in vain in other works. This modernised edition will be appreciated by all who have learned to value the original editions of ' Templeton.'"— English Mechanic. " It has met with great success in the engineering workshop, as we can testify ; and there are a great many men who, in a great measure, owe their rise in life to this little book." — Building News. "This familiar text-book — well known to all mechanics and engineers — is of essential service to the every-day requirements of engineers, millwrights, and the various trades connected with engineering ancl building. The new modernised edition is worth its weight in gold."— Building News. (Second Notice.) " This well-known and largely-used book contains information, brought up to date, of the sort so useful to the foreman and draughtsman. So much fresh information has been introduced as to constitute it practically a new book. It will be largely used in the office and workshop."— Mechanical World. "The publishers wisely entrusted the task of revision of this popular, valuable, and useful book to Mr. Hutton, than whom a more competent man they could not have found." — Iron. ENGINEER'S AND MILLWRIGHT'S ASSISTANT. A Collection of Useful Tables, Rules, and Data. By William Templeton. Eighth Edition, with Additions. i8mo, cloth 2/6 "Occupies a foremost place among books of this kind. A more suitable present to an apprentice to any of the mechanical trades could not possibly be made." — Building News. " A deservedly popular work. It should be in the 'drawer' of every mechanic."— English Mechanic. A 2 CROSBY LOCK WOOD & SON'S CATALOGUE. THE MECHANICAL ENGINEER'S REFERENCE BOOK. For Machine and Boiler Construction. In Two Parts. Part I. General Engineering Data. Part II. Boiler Construction. With 51 Plates and numerous Illustrations. By Nelson Foley, M.I.N. A. Second Edition, Revised throughout and much Enlarged. Folio, half-bound . Net £3 3s. PART I. — Measures.— Circumferences and Areas, &c, Squares, Cubes, fourth Powers.— Square and Cube Roots.— Surface of Tubes.— Reciprocals.— Logarithms. — Mensuration. — Specific Gravities and Weights.— Work and Power. — Heat. — Combustion. — Expansion and Contraction. — Expansion of Gases.— Steam.— Static Forces.— Gravitation and Attraction.— Motion and Computation of Resulting Forces.— Accumulated Work.— Centre and Radius of Gyration.— Moment of Inertia.— Centre of Oscillation.— Electricity.— Strength of Materials.— Elasticity.— Test Sheets of Metals.— Friction.— Transmission of power.— Flow of Liquids.— Flow of Gases.— Air pumps, Surface Condensers, &c— Speed of Steamships.— Propellers.— Cutting Tools.— Flanges. —Copper Sheets and Tubes.— Screws, Nuts, Bolt Heads, &c— Various Recipes and Miscellaneous Matter.— With DIAGRAMS for Valve-Gear, Belting and Ropes, Discharge and Suction Pipes, Screw Propellers, and Copper Pipes. PART ii.— treating of Power of Boilers.— useful Ratios.— Notes on Construction. — Cylindrical Boiler Shells. — Circular Furnaces. — Flat Plates.— Stays. — Girders.— screws. — Hydraulic Tests. — Riveting. — Boiler Setting, Chimneys, and Mountings.— Fuels, &c— Examples of Boilers and Speeds of Steamships.— Nominal and Normal Horse power.— With DIAGRAMS for all Boiler Calculations and Drawings of many Varieties of Boilers. " Mr. Foley is well fitted to compile such a work. The diagrams are a great feature of the work. It may be stated that Mr. Foley has produced a volume which will undoubtedly fulfil the desire of the author and become indispensable to all mechanical engineers." — Marine Engineer. " We have carefully examined this work, and pronounce it a most excellent reference book for the use of marine engineers." — Journal of American Society 0/ Naval Engineers. TEXT-BOOK ON THE 5TEAM ENGINE. With a Supplement on Gas Engines and Part II. on Heat Engines. By T. M. Goodeve, M.A., Barrister-at-Law, Professor of Mechanics at the Royal College of Science, London ; Author of " The Principles of Mechanics," " The Elements of Mechanism," &c. Fourteenth Edition. Crown 8 vo, cloth . 6/0 " Professor Goodeve has given us a treatise on the steam engine which will bear comparison with anything written by Huxley or Maxwell, and we can award it no higher praise." — Engineer. " Mr. Goodeve's text-book is a work of which every young engineer should possess himself." —Mining Journal. ON GAS ENGINES. With Appendix describing a Recent Engine with Tube Igniter. By T. M. Goodeve, M.A. Crown 8vo, cloth 2/6 Like all Mr. Goodeve's writings, the present is no exception in point of general excellence. It is a valuable little volume." — Mechanical World. GAS AND OIL ENGINE MANAGEMENT. A Practical Guide for Users and Attendants, being Notes on Selection, Construction, and Management. By M. Powis Bale, M.I.M.E., A.M.I.C.E. Author of " Woodworking Machinery," &c. Crown 8vo, cloth. [Just Published. Net 3/6 THE GAS=ENGINE HANDBOOK. A Manual of Useful Information for the Designer and the Engineer. By E. W. Roberts, M.E. With Forty Full-page Engravings. Small Fcap. 8vo, leather. Net 8/6 A TREATISE ON STEAM BOILERS. Their Strength, Construction, and Economical Working. By R. Wilson, C.E. Fifth Edition. i2mo, cloth 6/0 " The best treatise that has ever been published on steam boilers."— Engineer. THE MECHANICAL ENGINEER'S COMPANION of Areas, Circumferences, Decimal Equivalents, in inches and feet, millimetres, squares, cubes, roots, &c. ; Strength of Bolts, Weight of Iron, &c. ; Weights, Measures, and other Data. Also Practical Rules for Engine Proportions. By R. Edwards, M.Inst. C.E. Fcap. 8vo, cloth. 3/6 • ' A very useful little volume. It contains many tables, classified data and memoranda generally useful to engineers." — Engineer. "What it professes to be, ' a handy office companion,' giving in a succinct form, a variety of information likely to be required by mechanical engineers in their everyday office work."— Nature. MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, &c. 5 A HANDBOOK ON THE STEAM ENGINE. With especial Reference to Small and Medium-sized Engines. For the Use of Engine Makers, Mechanical Draughtsmen, Engineering Students, and users of Steam Power. By Herman Haeder, C.E. Translated from the German with additions and alterations, by H. H. P. Powles, A.M. I. C.E. , M.I.M.E. Third Edition, Revised. With nearly 1,100 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth Net 7/6 " A perfect encyclopaedia of the steam engine and its details, and one which must take a per- manent place in English drawing-offices and workshops." — A Foreman Pattern-maker. " This is an excellent book, and should be in the hands of all who are interested in the con- struction and design of medium-sized stationary engines. ... 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Net 3/6 REFRIGERATING & ICE=MAKING MACHINERY. A Descriptive Treatise for the Use of Persons Employing Refrigerating and Ice-Making Installations, and others. By A. J. Wallis-Tayler, A.-M. Inst. C.E. Third Edition, Enlarged. Crown 8vo, cloth . . 7/6 "Practical, explicit, and profusely illustrated."— Glasgow Herald. " We recommend the book, which gives the cost of various systems and illustrations showing details of parts of machinery and general arrangements of complete installations.'' — Builder. " May be recommended as a useful description of the machinery, the processes, and of the facts, figures, and tabulated physics of refrigerating. It is one of the best compilations on the subject." — Engineer. ENGINEERING ESTIMATES, COSTS, AND ACCOUNTS. A Guide to Commercial Engineering. With numerous examples of Estimates and Costs of Millwright Work, Miscellaneous Productions, Steam Engines and Steam Boilers ; and a Section on the Preparation of Costs Accounts. By A General Manager. 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By G. Croydon Marks, A.M. Inst. C.E. With nearly 200 Illustrations. 8vo, cloth. Net 9/0 Summary of Contents. Principles of Hydraulics.— The Flow of Water. —Hydraulic Pressures, Material.— Test Load Packings for Sliding Surfaces. —Pipe Joints.— Controlling valves.— Platform Lifts.— workshop and Foundry Cranes.— warehouse and Dock cranes.— Hydraulic Accumulators.— presses for Baling and otherPurposes.— Sheet Metal working and forging Machinery. —Hydraulic Rivetters.— Hand, power, and Steam Pumps.— Turbines.— impulse Turbines.— Reaction Turbines.— Design of turbines in Detail.— Water wheels. —Hydraulic Engines.— Recent Achievements.— Pressure of Water.— action of Pumps, &c. " We have nothing; but praise for this thoroughly valuable work. The author has succeeded in rendering" his subject interesting as well as instructive." — Practical Engineer. 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The Causes of their Formation, and their Treatment by " Induced Tidal Scour " ; with a Description of the Successful Reduction by this Method ®f the Bar at Dublin. By I. J. Mann, Assist. Eng. to the Dublin Port aad Docks Board. Royal 8vo, cloth 7/6 " We recommend all interested in harbour works — and, indeed, those concerned In the improvements of rivers generally — to read Mr. Mann's interesting work." — Engineer. TRAMWAYS: THEIR CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING. Embracing a Comprehensive History of the System ; with an exhaustive Analysis of the Various Modes of Traction, including Horse Power, Steam, Cable Traction, Electric Traction, &c. ; a Description of the Varieties of Rolling Stock ; and ample Details of Cost and Working Expenses. New Edition, Thoroughly Revised, and Including the Progress recently made in Tramway Construction, &c, &c. By D. Kinnear Clark, M. Inst. C.E. With 400 Illustrations. 8vo, 780 pp., buckram. 28/0 " The new volume is one which will rank, among tramway engineers and those interested in tramway working, with the Author's world-famed book on railway machinery."— The Engineer. SURVEYING AS PRACTISED BY CIVIL ENGINEERS AND SURVEYORS. Including the Setting-out of Works for Construction and Surveys Abroad, with many Examples taken from Actual Practice. A Handbook for use in the Field and the Office, intended also as a Text-book for Students. By John White- law, Jun., A.M. Inst. C.E., Author of " Points and Crossings." With about 260 Illustrations. Demy 8vo, cloth Net 1 0/6 "This work is written with admirable lucidity, and will certainly be found of distinct value both to students and to those engaged in actual practice." — The Builder. PRACTICAL SURVEYING. A Text-Book for Students preparing for Examinations or for Survey-work in the Colonies. By George W. Usill, A.M. I. C.E. _ With 4 Lithographic Plates and upwards of 330 Illustrations. Seventh Edition. Including Tables of Natural Sines, Tangents, Secants, &c. Crown 8vo, 7/6 cloth; or, on Thin Paper, leather, gilt edges, rounded corners, for pocket use . . . 1 2/6 "The best forms of instruments are described as to their construction, uses and modes of employment, and there are innumerable hints on work and equipment such as the author, in his experience as surveyor, draughtsman and teacher, has found necessary, and which the student In his inexperience will find most serviceable. "—Engineer. "The first book which should be put in the hands of a pupil of Civil Engineering."— Architect. AID TO SURVEY PRACTICE. For Reference in Surveying, Levelling, and Setting-out ; and in Route Sur- veys of Travellers by Land and Sea. With Tables, Illustrations, and Records. By Lowis D'A. Jackson, A.M. I. C.E. Second Edition, Enlarged. 8vo, cloth 12/6 " Mr. Jackson has produced a valuable vade-mecum for the surveyor. We can recommend this book as containing an admirable supplement to the teaching of the accomplished surveyor."— Athenceum. " The author brings to his work a fortunate union of theory and practical experience which, aided by a clear and lucid style of writing, renders the book a very useful one."— Builder. CIVIL ENGINEERING, SURVEYING, &>c. SURVEYING WITH THE TACHEOMETER. A practical Manual for the use of Civil and Military Engineers and Surveyors. Including two series of Tables specially computed for the Reduction of Readings in Sexagesimal and in Centesimal Degrees. By Neil Kennedy, M. Inst. C.E. With Diagrams and Plates. Demy 8vo, cloth. Net 10/6 '* The work is very clearly written, and should remove all difficulties in the way of any surveyor desirous of making use of this useful and rapid instrument." — Nature. ENGINEER'S & MINING SURVEYOR'S FtELD BOOK. Consisting of a Series of Tables, with Rules, Explanations of Systems, and use of Theodolite for Traverse Surveying and plotting the work with minute accuracy by means of Straight Edge and Set Square only ; Levelling with the Theodolite, Setting-out Curves with and without the Theodolite, Earthwork Tables, &c. By W. Davis Haskoll, C.E. With numerous Woodcuts. Fourth Edition, Enlarged. Crown 8vo, cloth 1 2/0 " The book is very handy ; the separate tables of sines and tangents to every minute will make It useful for many other purposes, the genuine traverse tables existing all the same."— Achenaum. LAND AND MARINE SURVEYING. In Reference to the Preparation of Plans for Roads and Railways ; Canals, Rivers, Towns' Water Supplies ; Docks and Harbours. With Description and Use of Surveying Instruments. By W. Davis Haskoll, C.E. Second Edition, Revised, with Additions. Large crown 8vo, cloth . . . 9/0 " This book must prove of great value to the student. We have no hesitation in recom- mending It, feeling assured that it will more than repay a careful study."— Mechanical World. " A most useful book for the student. We can strongly recommend it as a carefully-written and valuable text-book. It enjoys a well-deserved repute among surveyors." — Builder. PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF LEVELLING. Showing its Application to Purposes of Railway and Civil Engineering in the Construction of Roads ; with Mr. Telford's Rules for the same. By Frederick W. Simms, M. Inst. C.E. Eighth Edition, with Law's Practical Examples for Setting-out Railway Curves, and Trautwine's Field Practice of Laying-out Circular Curves. With 7 Plates and numerous Woodcuts. 8vo 8/6 " The text-book on levelling in most of our engineering schools and colleges." — Engineer. "The publishers have rendered a substantial service to the profession, especially to the younger members, by bringing out the present edition of Mr. Simms's useful work."— Engineering. AN OUTLINE OF THE METHOD OF CONDUCTING A TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY. For the Formation of Geographical and Topographical Maps and Plans, Mili- tary Reconnaissance, LEVELLING, &c, with Useful Problems, Formulae, and Tables. By Lieut. -General Frome, R.E. Fourth Edition, Revised and partly Re-written by Major-General Sir Charles Warren, G.C.M.G., R.E. With 19 Plates and 115 Woodcuts, royal 8vo, cloth .... 16/0 " No words of praise from us can strengthen the position so well and so steadily maintained by this work. Sir Charles Warren has revised the entire work, and made such additions as were necessary to bring every portion of the contents up to the present date."— Broad Arrotu. TABLES OF TANGENTIAL ANGLES AND MULTIPLES FOR SETTING-OUT CURVES. From 5 to 200 Radius. By A. Beazeley, M. Inst. C.E. 6th Edition, Revised. With an Appendix on the use of the Tables for Measuring up Curves; Printed on 50 Cards, and sold in a cloth box, waistcoat-pocket size. 3/6 " Each table is printed on a small card, which, placed on the theodolite, leaves the hands free to manipulate the instrument— no small advantage as regards the rapidity of work."— Engineer. M Very handy : a man may know that all his day's work must fall on two of these cards, which he puts Into his own card-case, and leaves the rest behind."— A thenceum. HANDY GENERAL EARTH = WORK TABLES. Giving the Contents in Cubic Yards of Centre and Slopes of Cuttings and Embankments from 3 inches to 80 feet in Depth or Height, for use with either 66 feet Chain or 100 feet Chain. By J. H. Watson Buck, M. Inst. C.E. On a Sheet mounted in cloth case 3/6 i 4 CROSBY LOCK WOOD SON'S CATALOGUE. EARTHWORK TABLES. Showing the Contents in Cubic Yards of Embankments, Cuttings, &c, of Heights or Depths up to an average of 80 feet. By Joseph Broadbent, C.E., and Francis Campin, C.E. Crown 8vo, cloth 5/0 " The way in which accuracy is attained, by a simple division of each cross section into three elements, two in which are constant and one variable, is ingenious." — Athenceum. A MANUAL ON EARTHWORK. By Alex. J. Graham, C.E. With numerous Diagrams. Second Edition. i8mo, cloth 2/6 THE CONSTRUCTION OF LARGE TUNNEL SHAFTS. A Practical and Theoretical Essay. By J. H. Watson Buck, M. Inst. C.E., Resident Engineer, L. and N. W. R. With Folding Plates, 8vo, cloth 1 2/0 " Many of the methods given are of extreme practical value to the mason, and the observa- tions on the form of arch, the rules for ordering the stone, and the construction of the templates, will be found of considerable use. We commend the book to the engineering profession."— Building Neivs. " Will be regarded by civil engineers as of the utmost value, and calculated to save much time and obviate many mistakes." — Colliery Guardian. CAST & WROUGHT IRON BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION (A Complete and Practical Treatise on), including Iron Foundations. In Three Parts. — Theoretical, Practical, and Descriptive. By William Humber, A. M. Inst. C.E., and M. Inst. M.E. Third Edition, revised and much im- proved, with 115 Double Plates (20 of which now first appear in this edition), and numerous Additions to the Text. In 2 vols., imp. 4to, half-bound in morocco £6 1 6s. 6d. " A very valuable contribution to the standard literature of civil engineering. In addition to elevations, plans, and sections, large scale details are given, which very much enhance the Instructive worth of those illustrations." — Civil Engineer and Architects Journal. "Mr. Humber's stately volumes, lately issued — in which the most important bridges erected during the last five years, under the direction of the late Mr. Brunei, Sir W. Cubitt, Mr. Hawkshaw, Mr. Page, Mr. Fowler, Mr. Hemans, and others among our most eminent engineers, are drawn and specified in great detail." — Engineer. ESSAY ON OBLIQUE BRIDGES (Practical and Theoretical). With 13 large Plates. By the late George Watson Buck, M.I. C.E. Fourth Edition, revised by his Son, J. H. Watson Buck, M.I. C.E. ; and with the addition of Description to Diagrams for Facilitating the Construction of Oblique Bridges, byW. H. Barlow, M.I. C.E. Royal 8vo, cloth 1 2/0 " The standard text-book for all engineers regarding skew arches is Mr. Buck's treatise, and it would be impossible to consult a better." — Engineer. "Mr. Buck's treatise is recognised as a standard text-book, and his treatment has divested the subject of many of the intricacies supposed to belong to it. As a guide to the engineer and architect, on a confessedly difficult subject, Mr. Buck's work is unsurpassed."— Building News. THE CONSTRUCTION OF OBLIQUE ARCHES (A Practical Treatise on). By John Hart. Third Edition, with Plates. Imperial 8vo, cloth ........... 8/0 GRAPHIC AND ANALYTIC STATICS. In their Practical Application to the Treatment of Stresses in Roofs Solid Girders, Lattice, Bowstring, and Suspension Bridges, Braced Iron Arches and Piers, and other Frameworks. By R. Hudson Graham, C.E. Containing Diagrams and Plates to Scale. With numerous Examples, many taken from existing Structures. Specially arranged for Class-work in Colleges and Universities. Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged. 8vo, cloth . 1 6/0 " Mr. Graham's book will find a place wherever graphic and analytic statics are used or studied." — Engineer. " The work is excellent from a practica point of view, and has evidently been prepared with much care. The directions for working are ample, and are illustrated by an abundance of well-selected examples. It is an excellent text-book for the practical draughtsman." — Athenceum. WEIGHTS OF WROUGHT IRON & STEEL GIRDERS. A Graphic Table for Facilitating the Computation of the Weights of Wrought Iron and Steel Girders, &c, for Parliamentary and other Estimates. By J. H. Watson Buck, M. Inst. C.E. On a Sheet .... 2/6 CIVIL ENGINEERING, SURVEYING, &c. GEOMETRY FOR TECHNICAL STUDENTS. An Introduction to Pure and Applied Geometry and the Mensuration of Surfaces and Solids, including Problems in Plane Geometry useful in Drawing. By E. H. SpRAGUE, A.M.I.C.E. Crown 8vo, cloth. [Just Published. Act 1 /Q PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. For the Architect, Engineer, and Mechanic. Giving Rules for the Delineation and Application of various Geometrical Lines, Figures, and Curves. By E. W. Tarn, M.A., Architect. Svo, cloth 9/0 " No book with the same objects in view has ever been published in which the clearness of the rules laid down and the illustrative diagrams have been so satisfactory."— Scotsman. THE GEOMETRY OF COMPASSES. Or, Problems Resolved by the mere Description of Circles and the Use of Coloured Diagrams and Symbols. By Oliver Byrne. Coloured Plates. Crown 8vo, cloth 3/6 EXPERIMENTS ON THE FLEXURE OF BEAMS Resulting in the Discovery of New Laws of Failure by Buckling. By Albert E. Guy. Medium 8vo, cloth. [Just Published. Net 9/0 HANDY BOOK FOR THE CALCULATION OF STRAINS In Girders and Similar Structures and their Strength. Consisting of Formulas and Corresponding Diagrams, with numerous details for Practical Applica- tion, &c. By William Humber, A. M. Inst. C.E., &c. Fifth Edition. Crown Svo, with nearly ioo Woodcuts and 3 Plates, cloth . . . 7/6 " The formulae are neatly expressed, and the diagrams good." — Athenceum. " We heartily commend this really handy book to our engineer and architect readers."— English Mechanic. TRUSSES OF WOOD AND IRON. Practical Applications of Science in Determining the Stresses, Breaking Weights, Safe Loads, Scantlings, and Details of Construction. With Complete Working Drawings. By William Griffiths, Surveyor. 8vo, cloth 4/6 "This handy little book enters so minutely into every detail connected with the con- struction of roof trusses that no student need be ignorant of these matters." — Practical Engineer. THE STRAINS ON STRUCTURES OF IRONWORK. With Practical Remarks on Iron Construction. By F. W. Sheilds, M.I.C.E. 8vo, cloth 5/0 A TREATISE ON THE STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. With Rules for Application in Architecture, the Construction of Suspension Bridges, Railways, &c. By Peter Barlow, F.R.S. A new Edition, revised by his Sons, P. W. Barlow, F.R.S., and W. H. Barlow, F.R.S. ; to which are added, Experiments by Hodgkinson, Fairbairn, and Kirkaldy ; and Formulae for calculating Girders, &c. Edited by Wm. Humber, A.M.I.C.E. 8vo, 400 pp., with 19 Plates and numerous Woodcuts, cloth . . .1 8/0 " Valuable alike to the student, tyro, and the experienced practitioner, it will always rank n future as it has hitherto done, as the standard treatise on that particular subject."— Engineer. SAFE RAILWAY WORKING. A Treatise on Railway Accidents, their Cause and Prevention ; with a De- scription of Modern Appliances and Systems. By Clement E. Stretton, C.E. With Illustrations and Coloured Plates. Third Edition, Enlarged. Crown 8vo, cloth 3/6 " A book for the engineer, the directors, the managers ; and, in short, all who wish for information on railway matters will find a perfect encyclopaedia in 'Safe Railway Working.' "— Railway Review. EXPANSION OF STRUCTURES BY HEAT. By John Keily, C.E., late of the Indian Public Works Department. Crown 8vo, cloth 3/6 " The aim the author has set before him, viz., to show the effects of heat upon metallic and other structures, is a laudable one, for this is a branch of physics upon which the engineer or architect can hnd but little reliable and comprehensive data in books. "—Builder. i6 CROSBY LOCK WOOD & SON'S CATALOGUE. PUBLICATIONS OF THE ENGINEERING STANDARDS COMMITTEE. The Engineering Standards Committee is the outcome of a Committee appointed by the Institution of Civil Engineers at the instance of Sir John 'Wolfe Barry, K.C.B. , to inquire into the advisability of Standardising Rolled Iron and Steel Sections. The Committee is supported by the Institution of Civil Engineers, the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, the Institution of Naval Architects, the Iron and Steel Institute, and the Institution of Electrical Engineers ; and the value and importance of its labours has been emphatically recognised by his Majesty's Government, who have made a liberal grant from the Public Funds by way of contribution to the financial resources of the Committee. The subjects already dealt with, or under consideration by the Committee, include not only Rolled Iron and Steel Sections, but Tests for Iron and Steel Material used in the Construction of Ships and their Machinery, Bridges and General Building Construction, Railway Roiling Stock Underframes, Component Parts of Locomotives, Railway and Tramway Rails, Electrical Plant, Insulating Materials, Screw Threads and Limit Gauges, Pipe Flanges, Cement, &c. Reports already Published : — 1. BRITISH STANDARD SECTIONS. List i. Equal Angles. — List 2. Unequal Angles.— List 3. Bulb Angles. List 4. Bulb Tees. — List 5. Bulb Plates. — List 7. Channels. — List 8. Beams, F'cap. folio, sewed. [Just Published. A T et I/O 2. BRITISH STANDARD TRAMWAY RAILS AND FISH PLATES: STANDARD SECTIONS AND SPECIFICATION, F'cap. folio, sewed. {Just Published. Net2MO 3. REPORT ON THE INFLUENCE OF GAUGE LENGTH AND SECTION OF TEST BAR ON THE PERCENTAGE OF ELONGATION. By Professor W. C. Unwin, F.R.S. F'cap. folio, sewed. [Just Published. Net 2/6 4. PROPERTIES OF STANDARD BEAMS. Demy 8 vo, sewed. [Just Published. Net 1/0 MARINE ENGINEERING, NAVIGATION, S SON'S CATALOGUE. SEA TERMS, PHRASES, AND WORDS (Technical Dictionary of) used in the English and French Languages (English-French, French-English). For the Use of Seamen, Engineers, Pilots, Shipbuilders, Shipowners, and Ship-brokers. Compiled by W. Pirrie, late of the African Steamship Company. Fcap. 8vo, cloth limp . . . 5/0 " This volume will be highly appreciated by seamen, engineers, pilots, shipbuilders and ship- owners. It will be found wonderfully accurate and complete." — Scotsman. " A very useful dictionary, which has long been wanted by French and English engineers, masters, officers and others."— Shipping World. ELECTRIC SHIP- LIGHTING. A Handbook on the Practical Fitting and Running of Ships' Electrical Plant, for the Use of Shipowners and Builders, Marine Electricians and Sea-going Engineers in Charge. By J. W. Urquhart, Author of "Electric Light," " Dynamo Construction," &c. Second Edition, Revised and Extended. With numerous Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth ..... 7/6 MARINE ENGINEER'S POCKET-BOOK. Consisting of useful Tables and Formulae. By Frank Proctor, A.I.N. A. Third Edition. Royal 32ino, leather. ....... 4/0 " We recommend it to our readers as going far to supply a long-felt want."— Naval Science " A most useful companion to all marine engineers." — United Service Gazette. ELEMENTARY MARINE ENGINEERING. A Manual for Young Marine Engineers and Apprentices. In the Form of Questions and Answers on Metals, Alloys, Strength of Materials, Construction and Management of Marine Engines and Boilers, Geometry, &c. With an Appendix of Useful Tables. By J. S. Brewer. Crown 8vo, cloth 1/6 "Contains much valuable information for the class for whom it is intended, especially in the chapters on the management of boilers and engines." — Nautical Magazine. MARINE ENGINES AND STEAM VESSELS. A Treatise on. By Robert Murray, C.E. Eighth Edition, thoroughly Revised, with considerable Additions by the Author and by George Carlisle, C.E., Senior Surveyor to the Board of Trade at Liverpool. Crown 8vo, cloth 4/6 PRACTICAL NAVIGATION. Consisting of The Sailor's Sea-Book, by James Greenwood and W. H. Rosser ; together with the requisite Mathematical and Nautical Tables for the Working of the Problems, by Henry Law, C.E., and Professor J. R. Young. Illustrated. i2mo, strongly half-bound 7/0 THE ART AND SCIENCE OF SAILMAKING. By Samuel B. Sadler, Practical Sailmaker, late in the employment of Messrs. Ratsey and Lapthorne, of Cowes and Gosport. With Plates and other Illustrations. Small 4to, cloth 1 2/6 " This extremely practical work gives a complete education in all the branches of the manu- facture, cutting out, roping, seaming, and goring. It is copiously illustrated, and will form a first- rate text-book and guide."— Portsmouth Times. CHAIN CABLES AND CHAINS. Comprising Sizes and Curves of Links, Studs, &c, Iron for Cables and Chains, Chain Cable and Chain Making, Forming and Welding Links, Strength of Cables and Chains, Certificates for Cables, Marking Cables, Prices of Chain Cables and Chains, Historical Notes, Acts of Parliament, Statutory Tests, Charges for Testing, List of Manufacturers of Cables, &c, &c. By Thomas W. Traill, F.E.R.N., M.Inst.C.E., Engineer-Surveyor-in-Chief, Board of Trade, Inspector of Chain Cable and Anchor Proving Establishments, and General Superintendent Lloyd's Committee on Proving Establishments. With numerous Tables, Illustrations, and Lithographic Drawings. Folio, cloth, bevelled boards £2 2s. *• It contains a vast amount of valuable Information. Nothing seems to be wanting to mak.e it a complete and standard work f reference on the subject."— Nautical Magazine, MINING, METALLURGY, &> COLLIERY WORKING. 19 MINING, METALLURGY, AND COLLIERY WORKING. THE OIL FIELDS OF RUSSIA AND THE RUSSIAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY. A Practical Handbook on the Exploration, Exploitation, and Management of Russian Oil Properties, including Notes on the Origin of Petroleum in Russia, a Description of the Theory and Practice of Liquid Fuel, and a Translation of the Rules and Regulations concerning Russian Oil Properties. By A. Beeby Thompson, A.M.I. M.E., late Chief Engineer and Manager of the European Petroleum Company's Russian Oil Properties. About 500 pp. With numerous Illustrations and Photographic Plates, and a Map of the Balakhany-Saboontchy-Romany Oil Field. Super-royal 8vo, cloth. [ Just Published. Net £3 3s. MACHINERY FOR METALLIFEROUS MINES. A Practical Treatise for Mining Engineers, Metallurgists, and Managers of Mines. By E. Henry Davies, M.E., F.G.S. 600 pp. With Folding Plates and other Illustrations. Medium 8vo, cloth .... Net 25 IO " Deals exhaustively with the many and complex details which go to make up the sum total of machinery and other requirements for the successful working of metalliferous mines, and as a book of ready reference is of the highest value to mine managers and directors."— Mining- Journal. THE DEEP LEVEL MINES OF THE RAND, And their Future Development, considered from the Commercial Point of View. By G. A. Denny (of Johannesburg), M.N.E.I.M.E., Consulting Engineer to the General Mining and Finance Corporation, Ltd., of London, Berlin, Paris, and Johannesburg. Fully Illustrated with Diagrams and Folding Plates. Royal 8vo, buckram Net 25/0 " Mr. Denny by confining himself to the consideration of the future of the deep-level mines of the Rand breaks new ground, and by dealing with the subject rather from a commercial stand- point than from a scientific one, appeals to a wide circle of readers. The book cannot fail f prove of very great value to investors in South African mines."— Mining Journal. PROSPECTING FOR GOLD. A Handbook of Information and Hints for Prospectors based on Personal Experience. By Daniel J. Rankin, F.R.S.G.S., M.R.A.S., formerly Manager of the Central African Company, and Leader of African Gold Pros- pecting Expeditions. With Illustrations specially Drawn and Engraved for the Work. F'cap. 8vo, leather Net 7/6 "This well-compiled book contains a collection of the richest gems of useful knowledge for the prospector's benefit. A special table is given to accelerate the spotting at a glance of minerals associated with gold." — Mining Journal. THE METALLURGY OF GOLD. A Practical Treatise on the Metallurgical Treatment of Gold-bearing Ores. Including the Assaying, Melting, and Refining of Gold. By M. Eissler, M, Inst. M.M. Fifth Edition, Enlarged. With over 300 Illustrations and numerous Folding Plates. Medium 8vo, cloth .... iVW21/0 " This book thoroughly deserves its title of a ' Practical Treatise.' The whole process of gold mining, from the breaking of the quartz to the assay of the bullion, is described in clear and orderly narrative and with much, but not too much, fulness of detail." — Saturday Review. THE CYANIDE PROCESS OF GOLD EXTRACTION. And its Practical Application on the Witwatersrand Gold Fields and elsewhere. By M. Eissler, M. Inst. M.M. With Diagrams and Working Drawings. Thiid Edition, Revised and Enlarged. 8vo, cloth .... Net 7/6 "This book is iust what was needed to acquaint mining men with the actual working of a process which is not only the most popular, but is, as a general rule, the most successful for the extraction of gold from tailings. "—Mining Journal. DIAMOND DRILLING FOR GOLD & OTHER MINERALS. A Practical Handbook on the Use of Modern Diamond Core Drills in Pro- specting and Exploiting Mineral-Bearing Properties, including Particulars of the Costs of Apparatus and Working. By G. A. Denny, M.N.E. Inst. M.E., M. Inst. M.M. Medium 8vo, 168 pp., with Illustrative Diagrams . 1 2/6 " There is certainly scope for a work on diamond drilling, and Mr. Denny deserves grateful recognition for supplying a decided ■want.''— Mining- Journal. 20 CROSBY LOCK WOOD & SON'S CATALOGUE. GOLD ASSAYING. A Practical Handbook for Assayers, Bankers, Chemists, Bullion Smelters, Goldsmiths, Mining and Metallurgical Engineers, Prospectors, Students, and others. By H. Joshua Phillips, F.I.C., F.C.S., A.I.C.E., Author of "Engineering Chemistry," etc. Large Crown 8vo, cloth. [Just ready, price about 7 IS net. FIELD TESTING FOR GOLD AND SILVER. A Practical Manual for Prospectors and Miners. By W. H. Merritt, M.N.E. Inst. M.E., A.R.S.M., &c. With Photographic Plates and other Illustrations. Fcap. 8vo, leather Net 5/0 "As an instructor of prospectors' classes Mr. Merritt has the advantage of knowing exactly the information likely to be most valuable to the miner in the field. The contents cover all the details of sampling and testing gold and silver ores. A useful addition to a prospector's kit." — Mining Journal. THE PROSPECTOR'S HANDBOOK. A Guide for the Prospector and Traveller in search of Metal-Bearing or other Valuable Minerals. By J. W. Anderson, M.A. (Camb.), F.R.G.S. Ninth Edition. Small crown 8vo, 3/6 cloth ; or, leather .... 4/6 " Will supply a much-felt want, especially among Colonists, in whose way are so often thrown many mineralogical specimens the value of which it is difficult to determine." — Engineer. " How to find commercial minerals, and how to identify them when they are found, are the leading points to which attention is directed. The author has managed to pack as much practical detail into his pages as would supply material for a book three times its size." — Mining Journal. THE METALLURGY OF SILVER. A Practical Treatise on the Amalgamation, Roasting, and Lixiviation of Silver Ores. Including the Assaying, Melting, and Refining of Silver Bullion. By M. Eissler, M. Inst. M.M. Third Edition. Crown 8vo, cloth . 10/6 " A practical treatise, and a technical work which we are convinced will supply a long-felt want amongst practical men, and at the same time be of value to students and others indirectly connected with the industries. "—Mining Journal. THE HYDRO=METALLURGY OF COPPER. Being an Account of Processes Adopted in the Hydro-Metallurgical Treat- ment of Cupriferous Ores, Including the Manufacture of Copper Vitriol, with Chapters on the Sources of Supply of Copper and the Roasting of Copper Ores. By M. Eissler, M. Inst. M.M. 8vo, cloth .... Net 12/9 " In this volume the various processes for the extraction of copper by wet methods are fully detailed. Costs are given when available, and a great deal of useful information about the copper industry of the world is presented in an interesting and attractive manner."— Mining Journal. THE METALLURGY OF ARGENTIFEROUS LEAD. A Practical Treatise on the Smelting of Silver-Lead Ores and the Refining of Lead Bullion. Including Reports on various Smelting Establishments and Descriptions of Modern Smelting Furnaces and Plants in Europe and America. By M. Eissler, M. Inst. M.M., Author of "The Metallurgy of Gold," &c. Crown 8vo, 400 pp., with 183 Illustrations, cloth 1 2/6 " The numerous metallurgical processes, which are fully and extensively treated of, embrace all the stages experienced in the passage of the lead from the various natural states to its issue from the refinery as an article of commerce." — Practical Engineer. METALLIFEROUS MINERALS AND MINING. By D. C. Davies, F.G.S. Sixth Edition, thoroughly Revised and much Enlarged by his Son, E. Henry Davies, M.E., F.G.S. 600 pp., with 173 Illustrations. Large crown 8vo, cloth -N^12/6 " Neither the practical miner nor the general reader, interested in mines, can have a better book for his companion and his guide." — Mining Journal. EARTHY AND OTHER MINERALS AND MINING. By D. C. Davies, F.G.S., Author of " Metalliferous Minerals," &c. Third Edition, Revised and Enlarged by his Son, E. Henry Davies, M.E., F.G.S. With about 100 Illustrations. Crown 8 vo, cloth 12/6 " We do not remember to have met with any English work on mining matters that contains the same amount of information packed in equally convenient form."— Academy. BRITISH MINING. A Treatise on the History, Discovery, Practical Development, and Future Prospects of Metalliferous Mines in the United Kingdom. By Robert Hunt, F.R.S., late Keeper of Mining Records. Upwards of 950 pp., with 230 Illustrations. Second Edition, Revised. Super-royal 8vo, cloth £2 2s. MINING, METALLURGY, & COLLIERY WORKING. 21 POCKET-BOOK FOR MINERS AND METALLURGISTS. Comprising Rules, Formulae, Tables, and Notes for Use in Field and Office Work. By F. Danvers Power, F.G.S., M.E. Second Edition, Corrected. Fcap. 8vo. leather 9/0 "This excellent book is an admirable example of its kind, and ought to find a large sale amongst English-speaking prospectors and mining engineers."— Engineering. THE MINER'S HANDBOOK. A Handy Book of Reference on the subjects of Mineral Deposits, Mining Operations, Ore Dressing, &c. For the Use of Students and others interested in Mining Matters. Compiled by John Milne, F.R.S., Professor of Mining in the Imperial University of Japan. Third Edition. Fcap. 8vo, leather 7/6 " Professor Milne's handbook is sure to be received with favour by all connected with mining, and will be extremely popular among students." — A thenczum, IRON ORES of GREAT BRITAIN and IRELAND. Their Mode of Occurrence, Age and Origin, and the Methods of Searching for and Working Them. With a Notice of some of the Iron Ores of Spain. By J. D. Kendall, F.G.S., Mining Engineer. Crown 8vo, cloth . . 16/0 MINE DRAINAGE. A Complete Practical Treatise on Direct-Acting Underground Steam Pumping Machinery. By Stephen Michell. Second Edition, Re-written and Enlarged. With 250 Illustrations. Royal 8vo, cloth . Net 25/0 HORIZONTAL PUMPING ENGINES.— ROTARY AND NON-ROTARY HORIZONTAL Engines.— Simple and Compound Steam pumps.— VERTICAL PUMPING ENGINES.— rotary and non-rotary vertical engines.— simple and compound steam pumps. — triple-expansion steam pumps. — pulsating steam pumps. — pump Valves.— Sinking Pumps, &c, &c. "This volume contains an immense amount of important and interesting new matter. The book should undoubtedly prove of great use to all who wish for information on the sub- ject." — The Engineer. ELECTRICITY AS APPLIED TO MINING. By Arnold Lupton, M.Inst.C.E., M.I. M.E. , M.I.E.E., late Professor of Coal Mining at the Yorkshire College, Victoria University, Mining Engineer and Colliery Manager; G. D. Aspinall Parr, M.I.E.E., A.M.I.M.E., Associate of the Central Technical College, City and Guilds of London, Head of the Electrical Engineering Department, Yorkshire College, Victoria University; and Herbert Perkin, M.I. M.E. , Certified Colliery Manager, Assistant Lecturer in the Mining Department of the Yorkshire College, Victoria University. With about 170 Illustrations. Medium 8vo, cloth. Net 9/0 (For Summary of Contents, see page 23.) THE COLLIERY MANAGER'S HANDBOOK. A Comprehensive Treatise on the Laying-out and Working of Collieries, Designed as a Book of Reference for Colliery Managers, and for the Use of Coal Mining Students preparing for First-class Certificates. By Caleb Pamely, Mining Engineer and Surveyor ; Member of the North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers ; and Member of the South Wales Institute of Mining Engineers. With 700 Plans, Diagrams, and other Illustrations. Fourth Edition, Revised and Enlarged. 964 pp. Medium 8vo, cloth £"f 5s. Geology.— Search for Coal.— Mineral Leases and other Holdings.— Shaft Sinking.— Fitting Up the Shaft and Surface arrangements.— Steam Boilers and their Fittings.— Timbering and walling.— Narrow work and Methods of working. — Underground Conveyance. —Drainage.— The Gases met with in Mines ; Ventilation. — On the Friction of Air in Mines. — The Priestman Oil Engine ; Petroleum and Natural Gas. -- Surveying and Planning.— Safety Lamps and Firedamp Detectors.— Sundry and Incidental Operations and Appliances.— Colliery Explosions.— Miscellaneous Questions and Answers.— Appendix: Summary of Report of H.M. Commissioners on Accidents in Mines. " Mr. Pamely's work is eminently suited to the purpose or which it is intended, being clear, Interesting, exhaustive, rich in detail, and up to date, giving descriptions of the latest machines in every department. A mining engineer could scarcely go wrong who followed this work."— Colliery Guardian. " Mr. Pamely has not only given us a comprehensive reference book of a very high order suitable to the requirements of mining engineers and colliery managers, but has also provided mining students with a class-book that is as interesting as it is instructive."— Colliery Manager. "This Is the most complete 'all-round work on coal -mining published In the English language. . . . No library of coal-mining books is complete without it."— Colliery Engineer (Scranton, Pa., U.S.A.). CROSBY LOCK WOOD & SON'S CATALOGUE. COLLIERY WORKING AND MANAGEMENT. Comprising the Duties of a Colliery Manager, the Oversight and Arrange- ment of Labour and Wages, and the different Systems of Working Coal Seams. By H. F. Bulman and R. A. S. Redmayne. 350 pp., with 28 Plates and other Illustrations, including Underground Photographs. Medium 8vo, cloth. 15/0 "This is, indeed, an admirable Handbook for Colliery Managers, in fact it is an indispensable adjunct to a Colliery Manager's education, as well as being a most useful and interesting work on the subject for all who in any way have to do with coal mining. The underground photographs are an attractive feature of the work, being very lifelike and necessarily true representations of the scenes they depict." — Colliery Guardian. " Mr. Bulman and Mr. Redmayne, who are both experienced Colliery Managers of great literary ability, are to be congratulated on having supplied an authoritative work dealing with aside of the subject of coal mining which has hitherto received but scant treatment. The authors elucidate their text by 119 woodcuts and 28 plates, most of the latter being admirable reproductions of photographs taken underground with the aid of the magnesium flash-light. These illustrations are excellent." — Nature. COAL AND COAL MINING. By the late Sir Warington W. Smyth, M.A., F.R.S., Chief Inspector of the Mines of the Crown and of the Duchy of Cornwall. Eighth Edition, Revised and Extended by T. Forster Brown, Mining and Civil Engineer, Chief Inspector of the Mines of the Crown and of the Duchy of Cornwall. Crown 8vo, cloth. 3/6 " As an outline is given of every known coal-field in this and other countries, as well as of the principal methods of working, the book will doubtless interest a very large number of readers."— Mining Journal. NOTES AND FORMULAE FOR MINING STUDENTS. By John Herman Merivale, M.A., Late Professor of Mining in the Durham College of Science, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. Fourth Edition, Revised and Enlarged. By H. F. Bulman, A.M.Inst.C.E. Small crown 8vo, cloth. 2/6 "The author has done his work in a creditable manner, and has produced a book that will be of service to students and those who are practically engaged in mining operations." — Engineer. INFLAMMABLE GAS AND VAPOUR IN THE AIR (The Detection and Measurement of). By Frank Clowes, D.Sc, Lond., F.I.C. With a Chapter on The Detection and Measurement of Petro- leum Vapour by Boverton Redwood, F.R.S.E., Consulting Adviser to the Corporation of London under the Petroleum Acts. Crown 8vo, cloth. Net 5/0 " Prolessor Clowes has given us a volume on a subject of much industrial importance . . . Those interested in these matters may be recommended to study this book, which is easy of compre- hension and contains many good things." — The Engineer. COAL & IRON INDUSTRIES of the UNITED KINGDOM. Comprising a Description of the Coal Fields, and of the Principal Seams of Coal, with Returns of their Produce and its Distribution, and Analyses of Special Varieties. Also, an Account of the Occurrence of Iron Ores in Veins cr Seams ; Analyses of each Variety ; and a History of the Rise and Progress cf Pig Iron Manufacture. By Richard Meade. 8vo, cloth . . £1 8s. " Of this book we may unreservedly say that it is the best of its class which we have ever met. ... A book of reference which no one engaged in the iron or coal trades should omit from his library." — Iron and Coal Trades Review. ASBESTOS AND ASBESTIC. Their Properties, Occurrence, and Use. By Robert H. Jones, F.S.A., Mineralogist, Hon. Mem. Asbestos Club, Black Lake, Canada. With Ten Collotype Plates and other Illustrations. Demy 8vo, cloth. . 1 6/0 " An interesting and invaluable work." — Colliery Guardian. GRANITES AND OUR GRANITE INDUSTRIES. By George F. Harris, F.G.S. With Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth 2/6 TRAVERSE TABLES. For use in Mine Surveying. By William Lintern, C.E. With two plates. Small crown 8vo, cloth Net 3/0 ELECTRICITY, ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING, &-c. 23 ELECTRICITY, ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING, ETC. THE ELEMENTS OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING. A First Year's Course for Students. By Tyson Sewell, A.I.E.E., Assistant Lecturer and Demonstrator in Electrical Engineering at the Polytechnic, Regent Street, London. Second Edition, Revised, with Additional Chapters on Alternating Current Working, and Appendix of Questions and Answers. 450 pages, with 274 Illustrations. Demy 8vo, cloth. [Just Published. Net 7/6 Ohm's Law.— units Employed in Electrical Engineering.— Series and Parallel Circuits ; current Density and Potential Drop in the Circuit.— The Heating Effect of the Electric Current.— The Magnetic Effect of an Electric Current.— The Magnetisation of Iron.— Electro-chemistry ; Primary Batteries.— Accumulators.— Indicating instruments; Ammeters, Voltmeters, Ohmmeters.— Electricity Supply Meters.— Measuring Instruments, and the Measurement of Electrical Resistance. — measurement of Potential Dif- ference, Capacity, Current Strength, and Permeability.— Arc Lamps.— Incan- descent Lamps; Manufacture and Installation; Photometry. — The Con- tinuous Current dynamo.— Direct Current motors.— Alternating Currents. —Transformers, Alternators, synchronous Motors.— Polyphase Working.— Appendix of Questions and Answers. "An excellent treatise for students of the elementary facts connected with electrical engineering."— 17ie Electrician. " One of the best books for those commencing the study of electrical engineering. Every- thing is explained in simple language which even a beginner cannot fail to understand."— Engineer. " One welcomes this book, which is sound in its treatment, and admirably calculated to give students the knowledge and information they most require." — Nature. CONDUCTORS FOR ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION. Their Materials and Manufacture, The Calcu'ation of Circuits, Pole-Line Construction, Underground Working, and other Uses. By F. A.C. Perrine, A. M., D.Sc. ; formerly Professor of rilectrical Engineering, Leland Stanford, Jr., University ; M.Amer.I.E.E. 8vo, cloth. {Just Published. iVet2QI~ Conductor Materials— Alloyed Conductors— Manufacture of Wire— Wire-Finishing— Wire insulation— Cables— Calculation of Circuits— Kelvin's Law of Economy in Conductors— Multiple Arc Distribution— Alternating Current Calculation— Overhead Lines— Pole Line— Line insulators— Under- ground Conductors. WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY; Its Origins, Development, Inventions, and Apparatus. By Charles Henry Sewall. With 85 Diagrams and Illustrations. Demy 8vo, cloth. [Just Published. Net 10/6 ARMATURE WINDINGS OF DIRECT CURRENT DYNAMOS. Extension and Application of a General Winding Rule. By E. Arnold, Engineer. Assistant Professor in Electrotechnics and Machine Design at the Riga Polytechnic School. Translated from the Original German by Francis B. De Gress, M.E , Chief of Testing Department, Crocker- Wheeler Com- pany. With 146 Illustrations. Medium 8vo, cloth . . . A r et ELECTRICITY AS APPLIED TO MINING. By Arnold Lupton, M.Inst C.E., M.I.M.E., M.I. E E., late Professor of Coal Mining at tht Yorkshire College, Victoria University, Mining Engineer and Colliery Manager; G. D. Aspinall Parr, M.I.E.E., A M.I.M.E. , Associate of" the Central Technical College, City ai.d Guilds of London, Head of the Electrical Engineering Department, Yorkshire College, Victoria University; and Herbert Perkin, M.I. ME. Certificated Colliery Manager, Assistant Lectuier in the Mining Department of the Yorkshire College, Victoria University. With about 170 Illustrations. Medium 8vo, cloth. JVetQj- Introductory. — dynamic Electricity. — Driving of the Dynamo. — The Steam Turbine.— Distribution of Electrical Energy.— Starting and Stopping Electrical Generators and Motors.— Electric Cables.— Central Electrical Plants.— Electricity applied to pumping and hauling.— Electricity applied to Coal-Cutting.— Typical Electric plants Recently Erected. — Electric Lighting by Arc and Glow Lamps— Miscellaneous Applications of Electricity —Electricity as Compared with other modes of Transmitting Power- Dangers of Electricity. CROSBY LOCK WOOD &■ SON'S CATALOGUE. DYNAMO, MOTOR AND SWITCHBOARD CIRCUITS FOR ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS. A Practical Handbook dealing with Direct, Alternating an-l Polyphase Currents. By William R. Bowker, C.E., M.E., E.E., Lecturer on Physics and Electrical Engineering at the Municipal Technical School, Bury. 8vo, cloth. [Just ready, price about 6/0 net* DYNAMO ELECTRIC MACHINERY: its CONSTRUC- TION, DESIGN, and OPERATION. By Samuel Sheldon, A M., Ph.D , Professor of Physics and Electrical Engineering at the Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn, assisted by Hobart Mason, B S. In two volumes, sold separately, as follows : — Vol. I.— DIRECT CURRENT MACHINES. Third Edition, Revised. Large crown 8 vo. 280 pages, with 200 Illustrations . . Net 1 2/0 Vol. II.— ALTERNATING CURRENT MACHINES. Large crown 8vo. 260 pages, with 184 Illustrations Net 1 2/0 Designed as Text-books for use in Technical Educational Institutions, and by Engineers whose work includes the handling of Direct and Alternating Current Machines respectively, and for Students proficient in mathematics. ELECTRICAL AND MAGNETIC CALCULATIONS. For the Use of Electrical Engineers and Artisans, Teachers, Students, and all others interested in the Theory and Application of Electricity and Magnetism. Bv A. A. Atkinson, Professor of Electricity in Ohio University. Crown 8vo, cloth Net 9/0 "To teachers and those who already possess a fair knowledge of their subject we can recom- mend this book as being useful to consult when requiring data or formulae which it is neither con- venient nor necessary to retain by memory." — The Electrician. SUBMARINE TELEGRAPHS. Their History, Construction, and Working. Founded in part on Wunschen- dorff's " Traite de Telegraphie Sous-Marine," and Compiled from Authorita- tive and Exclusive Sources. By Charles Bright, F.R.S.E., A.M.Inst.C.E., M.I E.E. 780 pp., fully Illustrated, including Maps and Folding Plates. Royal 8vo, cloth Net £3 3 S . "There are few, if any, persons more fitted to write a treatise on submarine telegraphy than Mr. Charles Bright. He has done his work admirably, and has written in a way which will appeal as much to the layman as to the engineer. This admirable volume must, for many years to come, hold the position of the English classic on submarine telegraphy." — Engineer. "This book is full of information. It makes a book of reference which should be in every engineer's library." — Nature. " Mr. Bright's interestingly written, and admirably illustrated book will meet with a welcome reception from cable men." — Electrician. " The author deals with his subject from all points of view — political and strategical as well as scientific. The work will be of interest, not only to men of science, but to the general public. We can strongly recommend it." '—A thenceum. THE ELECTRICAL ENGINEER'S POCKET-BOOK. Consisting cf Modern Rules, Formulae, Tables, and Data. By H. R. Kempe, M.I.E.E., A.M.Inst.C.E., Technical Officer Postal Telegraphs, Author of u A Handbook of Electrical Testing," &c. Second Edition, thoroughly Revised, with Additions. With numerous Illustrations. Royal 321110, oblong, leather 5/0 " It is the best book of its kind."— Electrical Engineer. " The Electrical Engineer's Pocket- Book is a good one. " — Electrician. " Strongly recommended to those engaged in the electrical industries." — Electrical Review, POWER TRANSMITTED BY ELECTRICITY. And applied by the Electric Motor, including Electric Railway Construction. By P. Atkinson, A.M., Ph.D. Third Edition, Fully Revised, and New Matter added. With 94 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth . . Net 9/0 DYNAMIC ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM. By Philip Atkinson, A.M., Ph.D., Author of "Elements of Static Electricity," &c. Crown 8vo, 417 pp., with 120 Illustrations, cloth . 1 Q/6 ELECTRICITY, ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING, &c. 25 THE MANAGEMENT OF DYNAMOS. A Handybook of Theory and Practice for the Use of Mechanics, Engineers, Students, and others in Charge of Dynamos. By G. W. Lummis-Paterson. Third Edition, Revised. Crown 8vo, cloth 4/6 " An example which deserves to be taken as a model by other authors. The subject is treated In a manner which any intelligent man who is fit to be entrusted with charge of an engine should be able to understand. It is a useful book to all who make, tend, or employ electric machinery." —A rchitect. THE STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY. A Popular Encyclopaedia of Words and Terms Used in the Practice of Electrical Engineering. Containing upwards of 3,000 definitions, By T. O'Conor Sloane, A.M., Ph.D. Third Edition, with Appendix. Crown 8vo, 690 pp., 300 Illustrations, cloth Net 7/6 " The work has many attractive features in it, and is, beyond doubt, a well put together and useful publication. The amount of ground covered may be gathered from the fact that in the index about 5,000 references will be found." — Electrical Review. ELECTRIC LIGHT FITTING. A Handbook for Working Electrical Engineers, embodying Practical Notes on Installation Management. By J. W. Urquhart, Electrician, Author of " Electric Light," &c. With numerous Illustrations. Third Edition, Revised, with Additions. Crown 8vo, cloth 6/0 " This volume deals with the mechanics ot electric lighting, and is addressed to men who are already engaged in the work, or are training for it. The work traverses a great deal of ground, and mav be read as a sequel to the author's useful work on 'Electric Light.'"— Electrician. " The book is well worth the perusal of the workman, for whom it is written." — Electrical Review. ELECTRIC LIGHT. Its Production and Use, Embodying Plain Directions for the Treatment of Dynamo-Electric Machines, Batteries, Accumulators, and Electric Lamps. By J. W. Urquhart, C.E. Sixth Edition, Enlarged. Crown 8vo, cloth. 7/6 " The whole ground of electric lighting Is more or less covered and explained in a very clear and concise manner, "—Electrical Review. "A vade-mecum, of the salient facts connected with the science of electric lighting."— Electrician. DYNAMO CONSTRUCTION. A Practical Handbook for the Use of Engineer-Constructors and Electricians- in -Charge. Embracing Framework Building, Field Magnet and Armature Winding and Grouping, Compounding, &c. By J. W. Urquhart. Second Edition, Enlarged, with 114 Illustrations, Crown 8vo, cloth . . 7/6 " Mr. Urquhart's book is the first one which deals with these matters in such a way that the engineering student can understand them. The book is very readable, and the author leads his realers up to difficult subjects by reasonably simple test's,." —Engineering Review ELECTRIC 5HIP= LIGHTING. A Handbook on the Practical Fitting and Running of Ships' Electrical Plant. For the Use of Shipowners and Builders, Marine Electricians, and Seagoing Engineers-in-Charge. By J. W. Urquhart, C.E. Second Edition, Revised and Extended. With 88 Illustrations, Crown 8vc, cloth . . . 7/6 "The subject of ship electric lighting is one of vast importance and Mr. Urquhart is to be highly complimented for placing such a valuable work at the service of marine electricians." — The Steamship . ELECTRIC LIGHTING (ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF). By Alan A. Campbell Swinton, M.Inst.C.E., M.I.E.E. Fifth Edition. With 16 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth 1/6 ELECTRIC LIGHT FOR COUNTRY HOUSES. A Practical Handbook on the Erection and Running of Small Installations, with Particulars of the Cost of Plant and Working. By J. H. Knight. Third Edition, Revised. Crown 8vo, wrapper 1/0 HOW TO MAKE A DYNAMO. A Practical Treatise for Amateurs. Containing Illustrations and Detailed Instructions for Constructing a Small Dynamo to Produce the Electric Light. By Alfred Crofts. Sixth Edition, Revised. Crown 8vo, cloth . 2/0 THE STUDENT'S TEXT-BOOK OF ELECTRICITY. By H. M. Noad, F.R.S. 650 pp., with 470 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth. 9/0 26 CROSBY LOCKWOOD * SON'S CATALOGUE. ARCHITECTURE, BUILDING, ETC. PRACTICAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. A Handbook for Students Preparing for Examinations, and a Book of Reference for Persons Engaged in Building. By John Parnell Allen, Surveyor, Lecturer on Building Construction at the Durham College of Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne. Fourth Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Medium 8vo, 570 pp., with 1,000 Illustrations, cloth. [Just Published. Net 7/6 " The most complete exposition of building construction we have seen. It contains all that is necessary to prepare students for the various examinations in building construction."— Building News. " The author depends nearly as much on his diagrams as on his type. The pages suggest the hand of a man of experience in building operations— and the volume must be a blessing to many teachers as well as to students."— The Architect. " The work is sure to prove a formidable rival to great and small competitors alike, and bids fair to take a permanent place as a favourite student's text-book. The large number of illus- trations deserve particular mention for the great merit they possess for purposes of reference in exactly corresponding to convenient scales." — Journal 0/ the Royal Institute 0/ British Architects . PRACTICAL MASONRY. A Guide to the Art of Stone Cutting. Comprising the Construction, Setting Out, and Working of Stairs, Circular Work, Arches, Niches, Domes, Penden- tives. Vaults, Tracery Windows, &c. ; to which are added Supplements relating to Masonry Estimating and Quantity Surveying, and to Building Stones, and a Glossur}^ of Terms. For the Use of Students, Masons, and other Workmen. By William R. Purchase, Building Inspector to the Borough of Hove. Fourth Edition, Enlarged. Royal 8vo, 210 pp., with 52 Lithographic Plates, comprising over 400 Diagrams, cloth . [Just Published. Net 7/6 "Mr. Purchase's * Practical Masonry ' will undoubtedly be found useful to all interested in this important subject, whether theoretically or practically. Most of the examples given are from actual work carried out, the diagrams being carefully drawn The book is a practical treatise on the subject, the author himself having commenced as an operative mason, and afterwards acted as foreman mason on many large and important buildings prior to the attainment of his present position. It should be found of general utility to architectural students and others, as well as to those to whom it is specially addressed."— Journal o/the Royal Institute 0/ British Architects. MODERN PLUMBING, STEAM AND HOT WATER HEATING. A New Practical Work for the Plumber, the Heating Engineer, the Architect, and the Builder. By J. J. Lawler, Author of " American Sanitary Plumbing," &c. With 284 Illustrations and Folding Plates. 4to, cloth . Net 21/" HEATINQ BY HOT WATER, VENTILATION AND HOT WATER SUPPLY. By Walter Jones, M.I.M.E. 340 pages, with 140 Illustrations. Royal 8vo, cloth. [Just Published. Net 6/0 CONCRETE: IT5 NATURE AND USES. A Book for Architects, Builders, Contractors, and Clerks of Works. By George L. Sutcliffe, A.R.I.B.A. 350 pp., with Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth 7/6 " The author treats a difficult subject in a lucid manner. The manual fills a long-felt gap. It is careful and exhaustive ; equally useful as a student's guide and an architect's book of reference." — Journal o/the Royal Institute 0/ British Architects. LOCKWOOD'S BUILDER'S PRICE BOOK for 1904. A Comprehensive Handbook of the Latest Prices and Data for Builders, Architects, Engineers, and Contractors. Re-constructed, Re-written, and Greatly Enlarged. By Francis T. W. Miller. 800 closely-printed pages, crown 8vo, cloth 4/0 " This book is a very useful one, and should find a place in every English office connected with the building and engineering professions. " — Industries. " An excellent book of reference."— Architect. " In its new and revised form this Price Book Is what a work of this kind should be — compre- hensive, reliable, well arranged, legible, and well bound. '— British Architect, DECORATIVE PART OF CIVIL ARCHITECTURE. By Sir William Chambers, F.R.S. With Portrait, Illustrations, Notes, and an Examination of Grecian Architecture, by Joseph Gwilt, F.S.A. Revised and Edited by W. H. Leeds. 66 Plates, 4to, cloth . . 21/0 ARCHITECTURE, BUILDING, &>c. 27 THE MECHANICS OF ARCHITECTURE. A Treatise on Applied Mechanics, especially Adapted to the Use of Architects. By E. W. Tarn, M.A., Author of "The Science of Building," &c. Second Edition, Enlarged. Illustrated with 125 Diagrams. Crown 8vo, cloth 7/6 " The book is a very useful and helpful manual of architectural mechanics."— Builder, A HANDY BOOK OF VILLA ARCHITECTURE. Being a Series of Designs for Villa Residences in various Styles. With Outline Specifications and Estimates. By C. Wickes, Architect, Author of "The Spires and Towers of England," &c. 61 Plates, 4to, half-morocco, gilt edges £1 11s. 60. " The whole of the designs bear evidence of their being- the work of an artistic architect, and they will prove very valuable and suggestive. "-B uilding News. THE ARCHITECT'S GUIDE. Being a Text-book of Useful Information for Architects, Engineers, Surveyors, Contractors, Clerks of Works, &c, &c. By F. Rogers. Crown 8vo, cloth. 3/6 ARCHITECTURAL PERSPECTIVE. The whole Course and Operations of the Draughtsman in Drawing a Large House in Linear Perspective. Illustrated by 43 Folding Plates. By F. O. Ferguson. Third Edition. 8vo, boards 3/6 '* It is the most intelligible of the treatises on this ill-treated subject that I have met with."— E. INGRESS BELL, ESQ., in the R.I.B.A. Journal. PRACTICAL RULES ON DRAWING. For the Operative Builder and Young Student in Architecture. By George Pyne. 14 Plates, 4to, boards 7/6 MEASURING AND VALUING ARTIFICERS' WORK (The Student's Guide to the Practice of). Containing Directions for taking Dimensions, Abstracting the same, and bringing the Quantities into Bill, with Tables of Constants for Valuation of Labour, and for the Calculation of Areas and Solidities. Originally edited by E. Dobson, Architect. With Additions by E. W. Tarn, M.A. Seventh Edition, Revised. With 8 Plates and 63 Woodcuts. Crown 8vo, cloth 7/6 " This edition will be found the most complete treatise on the principles of measuring and valuing artificers' work that has yet been published." — Building News, TECHNICAL GUIDE, MEASURER, AND ESTIMATOR. For Builders and Surveyors. Containing Technical Directions for Measuring Work in all the Building Trades, Complete Specifications for Houses, Roads, and Drains, and an Easy Method of Estimating the parts of a Building collectively. By A. C. Beaton. Ninth Edition. Waistcoat-pocket size, gilt edges 1/6 . " No builder, architect, surveyor, or valuer should be without his 1 Beaton.'" — Building News. SPECIFICATIONS FOR PRACTICAL ARCHITECTURE. A Guide to the Architect, Engineer, Surveyor, and Builder. With an Essay on the Structure and Science of Modern Buildings. Upon the Basis of the Work by Alfred Bartholomew, thoroughly Revised, Corrected, and greatly added to by Frederick Rogers, Architect. Third Edition, Revised. 8vo, cloth 1 5/0 '* The work is too well known to need any recommendation from us* It is one of the books with which every young architect must be equipped."— Architect. THE HOUSE-OWNER'S ESTIMATOR. Or, What will it Cost to Build, Alter, or Repair ? A Price Book for Un- professional People as well as the Architectural Surveyor and Builder. By J. D. Simon. Edited by F. T. W. Miller, A.R.I.B.A. Fifth Edition. Carefully Revised. Crown 8vo, cloth Net 3/6 "In two years it will repay its cost a hundred times over."—- Field. 28 CROSBY LOCKWOOD * SON'S CATALOGUE. SANITATION AND WATER SUPPLY. THE HEALTH OFFICER'S POCKET=BOOK. A Guide to Sanitary Practice and Law. For Medical Officers of Health. Sanitary Inspectors, Members of Sanitary Authorities, &c. By Edward F. Willoughby, M.D. (Lond.), &c. Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Fcap. 8vo, leather Net 1 0/6 " It is a mine of condensed information of a pertinent and useful kind on the various subjects of which it treats. Tiie different subjects are succinctly but fully and scientifically dealt with." — 77te Lancet. " We recommend all those engaged in practical sanitary work to furnish themselves with a copy for reference." — Sanitary Joicrnal. THE BACTERIAL PURIFICATION OF SEWAGE: Being a Practical Account of the Various Modern Biological Methods of Purifying Sewage. By Sidney Barwise, M.D. (Lond.), D.P.H. (Camb.), etc. With 10 Page Plates and 2 Folding Diagrams. Royal 8vo 5 cloth. Net 6/0 THE PURIFICATION OF SEWAGE. Being a Brief Account of the Scientific Principles of Sewage Purification, and their Practical Application. By Sidney Barwise, M.D. (Lond.), M.R.C.S., D.P.H. (Camb.), Fellow of the Sanitary Institute, Medical Officer of Health to the Derbyshire County Council. Crown 8vo, cloth .... 5/0 WATER AND ITS PURIFICATION. A Handbook for the Use of Local Authorities, Sanitary Officers, and others interested in Water Supply. By S. Rideal, D.Sc. Lond., F.I.C. Second Edition, Revised, with Additions, including numerous Illustrations and Tables. Large Crown 8vo, cloth Net 9/0 RURAL WATER SUPPLY. A Practical Handbook on the Supply of Water and Construction of Water- works for Small Country Districts. By Allan Greenwell, A.M.I.C.E., andW. T. Curry, A.M.I.C.E. Revised Edition. Crown 8vo, cloth 5/0 THE WATER SUPPLY OF CITIES AND TOWNS. By William Humber, A.M. Inst. C.E., and M.Inst. M.E. Imp. 4to, half- bound morocco. (See page 11.) Net £6 6S. THE WATER SUPPLY OF TOWNS AND THE CON- STRUCTION OF WATER-WORKS. By Professor W. K. Burton, A.M. Inst. C.E. Second Edition, Revised and Extended. Royal 8vo, cloth. (See page 10.) .... £1 5s. WATER ENGINEERING. A Practical Treatise on the Measurement, Storage, Conveyance, and Utilisa- tion of Water for the Supply of Towns. By C. Slagg, A.M. Inst. C.E. 7/6 SANITARY WORK IN SMALL TOWNS AND VILLAGES. By Charles Slagg, A. M. Inst. C.E. Crown 8vo, cloth . . . 3/0 PLUMBING. A Text-book to the Practice of the Art or Craft of the Plumber. By W. P. Buchan. Ninth Edition, Enlarged, with 500 Illustrations. Crown 8 vo, 3/6 VENTILATION. A Text-book to the Practice of the Art of Ventilating Buildings. By W. P. Buchan, R.P. Crown 8vo, cloth ........ 3/6 CARPENTRY, TIMBER, frc 2Q CARPENTRY, TIMBER, ETC. THE ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF CARPENTRY. A Treatise on the Pressure and Equilibrium of Timber Framing, the Resistance of Timber, and the Construction of Floors, Arches, Bridges, Roofs, Uniting Iron and Stone with Timber, &c. To which is added an Essay on the Nature and Properties of Timber, &c, v/ith Descriptions of the kinds of Wood used in Building ; also numerous Tables of the Scantlings of Timber for different purposes, the Specific Gravities of Materials, &c. By Thomas Tredgold, C.E. With an Appendix of Specimens of Various Roofs of Iron and Stone, Illus- trated. Seventh Edition, thoroughly Revised and considerably Enlarged by E. Wyndham Tarn, M.A., Author of "The Science of Building," &c. With 61 Plates, Portrait of the Author, and several Woodcuts. In One large Vol., 4to, cloth £1 5s. " Ought to be in every architect's and every builder's library "— Builder. " A work whose monumental excellence must commend it wherever skilful carpentry 13 concerned. The author's principles are rather confirmed than impaired by time. The additional plates are of great intrinsic value." — Building- News, WOODWORKING MACHINERY. Its Rise, Progress, and Construction. With Hints on the Management of Saw Mills and the Economical Conversion of Timber. Illustrated with Examples of Recent Designs by leading English, French, and American Engineers. By M. Powis Bale, A.M.Inst.C.E., M.I.M.E. Second Edition, Revised, with large Additions, large crown 8vo, 440 pp., cloth . . . .9/0 " Mr. Bale is evidently an expert on the subject, and he has collected so much information that his book is all-sufficient for builders and others engaged in the conversion of timber." — Architect, "The most comprehensive compendium of wood-working machinery we have seen. The author is a thorough master of his subject."— Building News. SAW MILLS. Their Arrangement and Management, and the Economical Conversion of Timber. By M. Powis Bale, A.M.Inst.C.E. Second Edition, Revised. Crown 8vo, cloth 10/6 " The administration of a large sawing establishment is discussed, and the subject examined from a financial standpoint. Hence the size, shape, order, and disposition of saw mills and the like are gone into in detail, and the course of the timber is traced from its reception to its delivery in its converted state. We could not desire a more complete or practical treatise."— Builder. THE CARPENTER'S GUIDE, Or, Book of Lines for Carpenters ; comprising all the Elementary Principles essential for acquiring a knowledge of Carpentry. Founded on the late Peter Nicholson's standard work. A New Edition, Revised by Arthur Ashpitel, F. S.A. Together with Practical Rules on Drawing, by George Pyne. With 74 Plates, 4to, cloth £1 1 a . A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON HANDRAILING. Showing New and Simple Methods for Finding the Pitch of the Plank, Drawing the Moulds, Bevelling, Jointing-up, and Squaring the Wreath. By George Collings. Revised and Enlarged, to which is added A Treatise on Stair-building. Third Edition. With Plates and Diagrams. i2mo, cloth. 2/6 " Will be found of practical utility in the execution of this difficult branch of joinery."— Builder. " Almost every difficult phase of this somewhat intricate branch of joinery is elucidated by the aid of plates and explanatory letterpress." — Furniture Gazette. CIRCULAR WORK IN CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. A Practical Treatise on Circular Work of Single and Double Curvature. By George Collings. With Diagrams. Fourth Edition, i2mo, cloth . 2/6 " An excellent example of what a book of this kind should be. Cheap in price, clear in definition, and practical in the examples selected. "—Builder. THE CABINETMAKER'S GUIDE TO THE ENTIRE CONSTRUCTION OF CABINET WORK. By Richard Bitmead. Illustrated with Plans, Sections and Working Drawings. Crown 8vo, cloth 2/6 CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON'S CATALOGUE. HANDRAILING COMPLETE IN EIGHT LESSONS. On the Square-Cut System. By J. S. Goldthorp, Teacher of Geometry and Building Construction at the Halifax Mechanics' Institute. With Eight Plates and over 150 Practical Exercises. 4to, cloth .... 3/6 "Likely to be of considerable value to joiners and others who take a pride in good work. The arrangement of the book is excellent. We heartily commend it to teachers and students."— Timber Trades Journal* TIMBER MERCHANT'S and BUILDER'S COMPANION. Containing New and Copious Tables of the Reduced Weight and Measure- ment of Deals and Battens, of all sizes, and other Useful Tables for the use of Timber Merchants and Builders. By William Dowsing. Fourth Edition, Revised and Corrected. Crown 8vo, cloth 3/0 "We are glad to see a fourth edition of these admirable tables, which for correctness and simplicity of arrangement leave nothing to be desired."— Timber Trades Journal, THE PRACTICAL TIMBER MERCHANT. Being a Guide for the Use of Building Contractors, Surveyors, Builders, &c, comprising useful Tables for all purposes connected with the Timber Trade, Marks of Wood, Essay on the Strength of Timber, Remarks on the Growth of Timber, &c. By W. Richardson. Second Edition. Fcap. 8vo, cloth . 3/6 "This handy manual contains much valuable information for the use of timber merchants, builders, foresters, and all others connected with the growth, sale, and manufacture of timber."— Journal 0/ Forestry. PACKING-CASE TABLES. Showing the number of Superficial Feet in Boxes or Packing-Cases, from six inches square and upwards. By W. Richardson, Timber Broker. Third Edition. Oblong 4to, cloth . 3/6 " Invaluable labour-saving tables." — Ironmonger. "Will save much labour and calculation."— Grocer. GUIDE TO SUPERFICIAL MEASUREMENT. Tables calculated from 1 to 200 inches in length by 1 to 108 inches in breadth. For the use of Architects, Surveyors, Engineers, Timber Merchants, Builders, &c. By James Hawkings. Fifth Edition. Fcap., cloth. 3/6 " These tables will be found of great assistance to all who require to make calculations of superficial measurement."— English Mechanic. PRACTICAL FORESTRY. And its Bearing on the Improvement of Estates. By Charles E. Curtis, F.S.I., Professor of Forestry, Field Engineering, and General Estate Management, at the College of Agriculture, Downton. Second Edition, Revised. Crown 8vo, cloth 3/6 Prefatory Remarks. — Objects of Planting. — Choice of a Forester. — Choice of Soil and Site.— Laying Out of Land for Plantations.— Preparation of the Ground for planting.— Drainage.— Planting.— Distances and Distri- bution of Trees in Plantations.— Trees and Ground Game.— Attention after Planting.— Thinning of Plantations. — Pruning of Forest Trees.— Realization. —Methods of Sale.— Measurement of Timber.— Measurement and Valuation of Larch plantation.— Fire Lines.— Cost of Planting. " Mr. Curtis has in the course of a series of short pithy chapters afforded much informa- tion of a useful and practical character on the planting and subsequent treatment of trees."— Illustrated Carpenter and Builder. THE ELEMENTS OF FORESTRY. Designed to afford Information concerning the Planting and Care of Forest Trees for Ornament or Profit, with suggestions upon the Creation and Care of Woodlands. By F. B. Hough. Large crown 8vo, cloth . . . "| 0/0 TIMBER IMPORTER'S, TIMBER MERCHANT'S, AND BUILDER'S STANDARD GUIDE. By Richard E. Grandy. Comprising : — An Analysis of Deal Standards, Home and Foreign, with Comparative Values and Tabular Arrangements for fixing Net Landed Cost on Baltic and North American Deals, including all intermediate Expenses, Freight, Insurance, &c. ; together with copious Informa- tion for the Retailer and Builder. Third Edition, Revised. 121110, cloth 2/0 " Everything it pretends to be: built up gradually, it leads one from a forest to a treena : l, and throws in, as a makeweight, a host of material concerning bricks, columns, cisterns, &c." — English Mechanic. 3* DECORATIVE ARTS, ETC. SCHOOL OF PAINTING FOR THE IMITATION OF WOODS AND MARBLES. As Taught and Practised by A. R. Van der Burg and P. Van der Burg, Directors of the Rotterdam Painting Institution. Royal folio, 18^ by 12% in., Illustrated with 24 full-size Coloured Plates ; also 12 plain Plates, comprising 154 Figures. Fourth Edition cloth. [Just Published. Net £"| 5 S . List of Plates. x. Various Tools Required for wood Painting.— 2, 3. Walnut; Preliminary Stages of Graining and Finished Specimen. — 4. Tools used for Marble Painting and Method of Manipulation.— 5, 6. St. Remi marble; Earlier Operations and Finished Specimen. — 7. Methods of Sketching Different Grains, Knots, &c— 8, 9. Ash : preliminary Stages and Finished Speci- men. — 10. Methods of Sketching Marble Grains. — n, 12. Breche Marble ; Preliminary Stages of Working and Finished Specimen.— 13. Maple ; Methods of Producing the Different Grains.— 14, 15. Bird's-Eye Maple; Preliminary Stages and Finished Specimen.— 16. methods of Sketching the Different Species of White Marble.— 17, 18. white Marble ; Preliminary Stages of Process and Finished Specimen— 19. Mahogany; Specimens of Various Grains and Methods of Manipulation. —20, 21. Mahogany; Earlier Stages and Finished Specimen.— 22, 23, 24. Sienna Marble; Varieties of Grain, Preliminary Stages and Finished Specimen.— 25, 26, 27. Juniper Wood; Methods of Pro- ducing Grain, &c. ; Preliminary Stages and Finished Specimen.— 28, 29, 30. Vert de Mer Marble; Varieties of Grain and Methods of. Working, Unfinished and Finished Specimens.— 31, 32, 33. Oak ; Varieties of Grain, Tools Employed and Methods of Manipulation, preliminary Stages and Finished Specimen.— 34. 35. 3 6 - waulsort marble ; varieties of grain, unfinished and finished Specimens. "Those who desire to attain skill in the art of painting woods and marbles will find advantage In consulting this book. . . . Some of the Working Men's Clubs should give their young men the opportunity to study it." — Builder. " A comprehensive guide to the art. The explanations of the processes, the manipulation and management of the colours, and the beautifully executed plates will not be the least valuable to the student who aims at making his work a faithful transcript of nature. "—Building- News. " Students and novices are fortunate who are able to become the possessors of so noble a work."— The Architect. ELEMENTARY DECORATION. A Guide to the Simpler Forms of Everyday Art. Together with PRACTICAL HOUSE DECORATION. By James W. Facey. With numerous Illus- trations. In One Vol., strongly half-bound 5/0 HOUSE PAINTING, GRAINING, MARBLING, AND SIGN WRITING. A Practical Manual of. By Ellis A. Davidson. Eighth Edition. With Coloured Plates and Wood Engravings. Crown 8vo, cloth . . . 6/0 " A mass of information of use to the amateur and of value to the practical man." — English Mechanic. THE DECORATOR'S ASSISTANT. A Modern Guide for Decorative Artists and Amateurs, Painters, Writers, Gilders, &c. Containing upwards of 600 Receipts, Rules, and Instructions ; with a variety of Information for General Work connected with every Class of Interior and Exterior Decorations, &c. Eighth Edition. Cr. 8vo . 1 JQ " Full of receipts of value to decorators, painters, gilders, &c. The book contains the gist of larger treatises on coiour and technical processes. It would be difficult to meet with a work so full of varied information on the painter s art." — Building News. MARBLE DECORATION And the Terminology of British and Foreign Marbles. A Handbook for Students. By George H. Blagrove, Author of " Shoring and its Applica- tion," &c. With 28 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth .... 3/6 "This most useful and much wanted handbook should be in the hands of every architect and builder."— B uilding- World. "A carefully aud usefully written treatise ; the work is essentially practical."— Scotsman. 32 CROSBY LOCKWOOD 6- SON'S CATALOGUE. DELAMOTTE S WORKS ON ILLUMINATION AND ALPHABETS. ORNAMENTAL ALPHABETS, ANCIENT & MEDI/EVAL. From the Eighth Century, with Numerals ; including Gothic, Church-Text, large and small, German, Italian, Arabesque, Initials for Illumination, Monograms, Crosses, &c, &c, for the use of Architectural and Engineering Draughtsmen, Missal Painters, Masons, Decorative Painters, Lithographers, Engravers, Carvers, &c. Collected and Engraved by F. Delamotte, and printed in Colours. New and Cheaper Edition. Royal 8vo, oblong, ornamental boards 2/6 " For those who insert enamelled sentences round gilded chalices, who blazon shop leg-ends over shop-doors, who letter church walls with pithy sentences from the Decalogue, this book will be useful. "— -A thenceum. MODERN ALPHABETS, PLAIN AND ORNAMENTAL. Including German, Old English, Saxon, Italic, Perspective, Greek, Hebrew, Court Hand, Engrossing, Tuscan, Riband, Gothic, Rustic, and Arabesque ; with several Original Designs, and an Analysis of the Roman and Old English Alphabets, large and small, and Numerals, for the use of Draughtsmen, Surveyors, Masons, Decorative Painters, Lithographers, Engravers, Carvers, &c. Collected and Engraved by F. Delamotte, and printed in Colours. New and Cheaper Edition. Royal 8vo, oblong, ornamental boards . 2/6 " There is comprised in it every possible shape into which the letters of the alphabet and numerals can be formed, and the talent which has been expended in the conception of the various plain and ornamental letters is wonderful. "Standard. MEDIAEVAL ALPHABETS AND INITIALS. By F. G. Delamotte. Containing 21 Plates and Illuminated Title, printed in Gold and Colours. With an Introduction by J. Willis Brooks. Fifth Edition. Small 4to, ornamental boards Net 5/0 "A volume in which the letters of the alphabet come forth glorified In gilding and all the colours of the prism interwoven and intertwined and intermingled." — Sun. A PRIMER OF THE ART OF ILLUMINATION. For the Use of Beginners ; with a Rudimentary Treatise on the Art, Practical Directions for its Exercise, and Examples taken from Illuminated MSS., printed in Gold and Colours. By F. Delamotte. New and Cheaper Edition. Small 4to, ornamental boards 6/0 '* The examples of ancient MSS. recommended to the student, which, with much good sense, the author chooses from collections accessible to all, are selected with judgment and knowledge as well as taste." — Athenceum. THE EMBROIDERER'S BOOK OF DESIGN. Containing Initials, Emblems, Cyphers, Monograms, Ornamental Borders, Ecclesiastical Devices, Mediaeval and Modern Alphabets, and National Emblems. Collected by F. Delamotte, and printed in Colours. Oblong royal 8vo, ornamental wrapper Net 2/0 "The book will be of great assistance to ladies and young children who are endowed with the art of plying the needle in this most ornamental and useful pretty work." — East Anglian Times. WOOD=CARVING FOR AMATEURS. With Hints on Design. By A Lady. With 10 Plates. New and Cheaper Edition. Crown 8vo, in emblematic wrapper 2/0 " The handicraft of the wood-carver, so well as a book can impart it, may be learnt from * A Lady's ' publication."— A thenczum. PAINTING POPULARLY EXPLAINED. By Thomas John Gullick, Painter, and John Timbs, F.S.A. Including Fresco, Oil, Mosaic, Water-Colour, Water-Glass, Tempera, Encaustic, Miniature, Painting on Ivory, Vellum, Pottery, Enamel, Glass, &c. Fifth Edition. Crown 8vo, cloth 5/0 %* Adopted as a Prize Book at South Kensington, " Much may be learned, even by those who fancy they do not require to be taught, from the careful perusal of this unpretending but comprehensive treatise."— A rt Journal. NATURAL SCIENCE, &>c. 33 NATURAL SCIENCE, ETC. THE VISIBLE UNIVERSE. Chapters on the Origin and Construction of the Heavens. By J. E. Gore, F.R.A.S., Author of " Star Groups," &c. Illustrated by 6 Stellar Photographs and 12 Plates. Demy 8vo, cloth 1 6/0 STAR GROUPS. A Student's Guide to the Constellations. By J. Ellard Gore, F.R.A.S., M.R.I. A., &c, Author of "The Visible Universe," "The Scenery of the Heavens," &c. With 30 Maps. Small 4to, cloth 5/0 AN ASTRONOMICAL GLOSSARY. Or, Dictionary of Terms used in Astronomy. With Tables of Data and Lists of Remarkable and Interesting Celestial Objects. By J. Ellard Gore, F.R.A.S., Author of " The Visible Universe," &c. Small crown 8vo, cloth. THE MICROSCOPE. Its Construction and Management. Including Technique, Photo-micrography, and the Past and Future of the Microscope. By Dr. Henri van Heurck. Re-Edited and Augmented from the Fourth French Edition, and Translated by Wynne E. Baxter, F.G.S. Imp. 8vo, cloth .... 18/0 A MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. A Treatise on Recent and Fossil Shells. By S. P. Woodward, A.L.S., F.G.S. With an Appendix on Recent and Fossil Conchological Discoveries, by Ralph Tate, A.L.S., F.G.S. With 23 Plates and upwards of 300 Woodcuts. Reprint of Fourth Edition (1880). Crown 8vo, cloth 7/6 THE TWIN RECORDS OF CREATION. Or, Geology and Genesis, their Perfect Harmony and Wonderful Concord. By G. W. V. le Vaux. 8vo, cloth 5/0 LARDNER'S HANDBOOKS OF SCIENCE. HANDBOOK OF MECHANICS. Enlarged and re-written by B. Loewy, F.R.A.S. Post 8vo, cloth . 6/0 HANDBOOK OF HYDROSTATICS AND PNEUMATICS. Revised and Enlarged by B. Loewy, F.R.A.S. Post 8vo, cloth . 5,0 HANDBOOK OF HEAT. Edited and re-written by B. Loewy, F.R.A.S. Post 8vo, cloth . 6/0 HANDBOOK OF OPTICS. New Edition. Edited by T. Olver Harding, B.A. Small 8vo, cloth 5/0 ELECTRICITY, MAGNETISM, AND ACOUSTICS. Edited by Geo. C. Foster, B.A. Small 8vo, cloth .... 5/0 HANDBOOK OF ASTRONOMY. Revised and Edited by Edwin Dunkin, F.R.A.S. 8 vo, cloth . . 9/6 MUSEUM OF SCIENCE AND ART. With upwards of 1,200 Engravings. In Six Double Volumes, £1 1 s. Cloth, or half-morocco £1 11s. 6d. NATURAL PHILOSOPHY FOR SCHOOLS . . 3 6 ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY FOR SCHOOLS , 3 6 THE ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. Revised by E. B. Bright, F.R.A.S. Fcap. 8vo, cloth . 2/6 CROSBY LOCK WOOD &> SON'S CATALOGUE. CHEMICAL MANUFACTURES, CHEMISTRY, ETC. THE OIL FIELDS OF RUSSIA AND THE RUSSIAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY. A Practical Handbook on the Exploration, Exploitation, and Management of Russian Oil Properties, including Notes on the Origin of Petroleum in Russia, a Description of the Theory and Practice of Liquid Fuel, and a Translation of the Rules and Regulations concerning Russian Oil Properties. By A. Beeby Thompson, A.M.I.M.E., late Chief Engineer and Manager of the European Petroleum Company's Russian Oil Properties. About 500 pp., with numerous Illustrations and Photographic Plates, and a Map of the Balakhany- Saboontchy-Romany Oil Field. Super-royal 8vo, cloth. [Jicst Published. Net £3 3s. THE ANALYSIS OF OILS AND ALLIED SUBSTANCES. By A. C. Wright, M.A.Oxon., B.Sc.Lond , formerly Assistant Lecturer in Chemistry at the Yorkshire College, Leeds, and Lecturer in Chemistry at the Hull Technical School. Demy 8vo, cloth Net 9/0 THE OAS ENGINEER'S POCKET=BOOK. Comprising Tables, Notes and Memoranda relating to the Manufacture, Distribution and Use of Coal Gas and the Construction of Gas Works. By H. O'Connor, A.M. Inst. C.E. Second Edition, Revised. 470 pp., crown 8vo, fully Illustrated, leather . 1 0/6 "The book contains a vast amount of information. The author goes consecutively through the engineering details and practical methods involved in each of the different processes or parts of a gas-works. He has certainly succeeded in making a compilation of hard matters of fact absolutely iuterestine to read." — Gas World. "The volume contains a great quantity of specialised information, compiled, we believe, from trustworthy sources, which should make it of considerable value to those for whom it is specifically produced. "—Engineer. LIGHTING BY ACETYLENE Generators, Burners, and Electric Furnaces. By William E. Gibbs, M.E. With 66 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth 7/6 ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY. A Practical Treatise for the Use of Analytical Chemists, Engineers, Iron Masters, Iron Founders, Students and others. Comprising Methods of Analysis and Valuation of the Principal Materials used in Engineering Work, with numerous Analyses, Examples and Suggestions. By H. Joshua Phillips, F.I.C., F.C.S. Third Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Crown 8vo, 420 pp., with Plates and other Illustrations, cloth. .... Net 1 0/6 "In this work the author has rendered no small service to a numerous body of practical men. . . . The analytical methods may be pronounced most satisfactory, being as accurate as the despatch required of engineering chemists permits." — Chemical News. "The analytical methods given are, as a whole, such as are likely to give rapid and trust- worthy results in experienced hands. . . . There is much excellent descriptive matter in the work, the chapter on ' Oils and Lubrication ' being specially noticeable in this respect."— Engineer. NITRO=EXPLOSIVES. A Practical Treatise concerning the Properties, Manufacture, and Analysis of Nitrated Substances, including the Fulminates, Smokeless Powders, and Celluloid. By P. Gerald Sanford, F. I. C, Consulting Chemist to the Cotton Powder Company, Limited, &c. With Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth. 9/Q "One of the very few text-books in which can be found just what is wanted. Mr. Sanford goes steadily through the whole list of explosives commonly used, he names any given explosive and tells us of what it is composed and how it is manufactured. The book is excellent." — Engineer. A HANDBOOK ON MODERN EXPLOSIVES. A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture and Use of Dynamite, Gun-Cotton, Nitro-Glycerine and other Explosive Compounds, including Collodion-Cotton. With Chapters on Explosives in Practical Application. By M. Eissler, M.E. Second Edition, Enlarged. Crown 8vo, cloth . . 1 2/6 " A veritable mine of information on the subject of explosives employed for military, mining and blasting purposes."— Army and Navy Gazette. CHEMICAL MANUFACTURES, CHEMISTRY, &c. 35 A MANUAL OF THE ALKALI TRADE. Including the Manufacture of Sulphuric Acid, Sulphate of Soda, and Bleaching Powder. By John Lomas, Alkali Manufacturer. With 232 Illustrations and Working Drawings, Second Edition, with Additions. Super-royal 8vo cIoth £1 10s. M We find not merely a sound and luminous explanation of the chemical principles of the trade, but a notice of numerous matters which have a most important bearing on the successful conduct of alkali works, but which are generally overlooked by even experienced technologica 1 authors." — Chemical Review. DANGEROUS G00D5. Their Sources and Properties, Modes of Storage and Transport. With Notes and Comments on Accidents arising therefrom. A Guide for the Use of Government and Railway Officials. Steamship Owners, &c. By H. Joshua Phillips, F.I.C., F.C.S. Crown 8vo, 374 pp., cloth .... 9/0 " Merits a wide circulation, and an intelligent, appreciative study."— Chemical News. THE BLOWPIPE IN CHEMISTRY, MINERALOGY, Etc. Containing all known Methods of Anhydrous Analysis, many Working Examples, and Instructions for Making Apparatus. By Lieut. -Colonel W. A. Ross, R.A., F.G.S. Second Edition, Enlarged. Crown 8vo, cloth . 6/0 "The student who goes conscientiously through the course of experimentation here laid down will gain a better insight into inorganic chemistry and mineralogy than if he had 4 got up ' any of the best text-books of the day, and passed any number of examinations in their contents — Chemical News. THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE-WARES. Their Properties, Applications, Valuations, Impurities and Sophistications. For the Use of Dyers, Printers, Drysalters, Brokers, &c. By J. W. Slater. Second Edition, Revised and greatly Enlarged. Crown 8vo, cloth . 7i6 " There is no other work which covers precisely the same ground. To students preparing for examinations in dyeing and printing it will prove exceedingly useful."— Chemical News. A HANDY BOOK FOR BREWERS. Being a Practical Guide to the Art of Brewing and Malting. Embracing the Conclusions of Modern Research which bear upon the Practice of Brewing. By Herbert Edwards Wright, M.A. Second Edition, Enlarged. Crown 8vo, 530 pp., cloth . . 12/6 M May be consulted with advantage by the student who is preparing himself for examinational tests, while the scientific brewer will find in it a resume" of all the most important discoveries of modern times. The work is written throughout in a clear and concise manner, and the author takes great care to discriminate between vague theories and well-established facts."— Brewers' Journal. " We have great pleasure in recommending this handy book, and have no hesitation in saying that it is one of the best— if not the best — which has yet been written on the subject of beer-brewing In this country ; it should have a place on the shelves of every brewer's library." — Brewers Guardian. FUELS: SOLID, LIQUID, AND GASEOUS. Their Analysis and Valuation. For the Use of Chemists and Engineers. By H. J. Phillips, F.C.S. , formerly Analytical and Consulting Chemist to the G.E. Rlwy. Fourth Edition. Crown 8vo, cloth 2/0 " Ought to have its place in the laboratory of every metallurgical establishment and wherever fuel Is used on a large scale." — Chemical Ntws. THE ARTISTS' MANUAL OF PIGMENTS. Showing their Composition, Conditions of Permanency, Non-Permanency, and Adulteration?, &c, with Tests of Purity. By H. C. Standage. Third Edition. Crown 8vc, cloth 2/8 " This work is indeed multum-in-paruo, aRd we can, with good conscience, recommend it to all who come in contact with pigments, whether as makers, dealers, or users." — Chemical Review. A POCKET-BOOK OF MENSURATION AND GAUGING. Containing Tables, Rules, and Memoranda for Revenue Officers, Brewers, Spirit Merchants, &c. By J. B. Mant, Inland Revenue. Second Edition, Revised. i8mo, leather 4/0 "Should be in the hands of every practical brewer."— Brewers' Journal. 36 CROSBY LOCK WOOD *• SON'S CATALOGUE. INDUSTRIAL ARTS, TRADES, AND MANUFACTURES. TEA MACHINERY AND TEA FACTORIES. A Descriptive Treatise on the Mechanical Appliances required in the Cultivation of the Tea Plant and the Preparation of Tea for the Market. By A. J. Wallis-Tayler, A. M. Inst. C.E. Medium 8vo, 468 pp. With 218 Illustrations Net 25/0 summary of contents. Mechanical Cultivation or Tillage of the Soil.— Plucking or Gathering the Leaf. —Tea factories.— The Dressing, Manufacture, or Preparation of Tea by Mechanical Means. — Artificial Withering of the Leaf.— Machines for Rolling or Curling the Leaf.— Fermenting Process. — Machines for the Automatic Drying or Firing of the Leaf.— Machines for Non-Automatic Drying or Firing of the Leaf.— Drying or Firing Machines. — Breaking or Cutting, and Sorting Machines.— Packing the Tea.— Means of Transport on Tea Plantations.— Miscellaneous Machinery and Apparatus. —Final Treatment of the Tea.— Tables and Memoranda. " The subject of tea machinery is now one of the first interest to a large class of people, to whom we strongly commend the volume." — Chamber of Commerce Journal. " When tea planting was first introduced into the British possessions little, if any, machinery was employed, but now its use is almost universal. This volume contains a very full account of the machinery necessary for the proper outfit of a factory, and also a description of the processes best carried out by this machinery." — Journal Society of Arts. FLOUR MANUFACTURE. A Treatise on Milling Science and Practice. By Friedrich Kick, Imperial Regierungsrath, Professor of Mechanical Technology in the Imperial German Polytechnic Institute, Prague. Translated from the Second Enlarged and Revised Edition with Supplement. By H. H. P. Powles, Assoc. Memb. Institution of Civil Engineers. Nearly 400 pp. Illustrated with 28 Folding Plates, and 167 Woodcuts. Royal 8vo, cloth £1 6s. "This invaluable work is, and will remain, the standard authority on the science of milling. . . . The miller who has read and digested this work will have laid the foundation, so to speak, of a successful career ; he will have acquired a number of general principles which he can proceed to apply. In this handsome volume we at last have the accepted text-book of modern milling in good, sounH Hnelish, which has little, if anv, trace of the German idiom."— The Miller. " The appearance of this celebrated work in English is very opportune, and British millers will, we are sure, not be slow in availing themselves of its pages." — Millers' 1 Gazette. COTTON MANUFACTURE. A Manual of Practical Instruction of the Processes of Opening, Carding, Combing, Drawing, Doubling and Spinning of Cotton, the Methods of Dyeing, &c. For the Use of Operatives, Overlookers, and Manufacturers. By John Lister, Technical Instructor, Pendleton. 8vo, cloth . . 7/6 "This invaluable volume is a distinct advance in the literature of cotton manufacture."— Machinery. " It is thoroughly reliable, fulfilling nearly all the requirements desired." — Glasgow Herald, MODERN CYCLES. A Practical Handbook on their Construction and Repair. By A. J. Wallis- Tayler, A. M. Inst. C. E., Author of " Refrigerating Machinery," &c. With upwards of 300 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth ..... "| 0/6 " The large trade that is done in the component parts of bicycles has placed in the way of men mechanically inclined extraordinary facilities for building bicycles for their own use. . . . The book will prove a valuable guide for all those who aspire to the manufacture or repair of their own machines."— The Field. "A most comprehensive and up-to-date treatise ' — The Cycle. "A very useful book, which is quite entitled to rank as a standard work for students of cycle con ^traction. "— Wheeling, MOTOR CARS OR POWER CARRIAGES FOR COMMON ROADS. By A J. Wallis-Tayler, Assoc. Memb. Inst. C.E., Author of "Modern Cycles," &c. 212 pp., with 76 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth . . 4/6 "The book is clearly expressed throughout, and is just the sort of work that an engineer, thinking of turning his attention to motor-carriage work, would do well to read as a preliminary to starting operations."— Engineering. INDUSTRIAL AND USEFUL ARTS. 37 PRACTICAL TANNING. A Handbook of Modern Procesess, Receipts, and Suggestions fcr the Treatment of Hides, Skins, and Pelts of every Description. By L. A. Flemming, American Tanner. 472 pages. 8vo, cloth. [Just Published. Net 25/0 THE ART OF LEATHER MANUFACTURE. Being a Practical Handbook, in which the Operations of Tanning, Currying, and Leather Dressing are fully Described, and the Principles of Tanning Explained, and many Recent Processes Introduced ; as also Methods for the Estimation of Tannin, and a Description of the Arts of Glue Boiling, Gut Dressing, &c. By Alexander Watt. Fourth Edition. Crown 8vo cloth. 9/0 "A sound, comprehensive treatise on tanning and its accessories. The book is an eminently valuable production, which redounds to the credit of both author and publishers." — Chemical Review. THE ART OF SOAP-MAKING. A Practical Handbook of the Manufacture of Hard and Soft Soaps, Toilet Soaps, &c. Including many New Processes, and a Chapter on the Recovery of Glycerine from Waste Leys. By Alexander Watt. Sixth Edition, including an Appendix on Modern Candlemaking. Crown 8vo, cloth . *7/Q "The work will prove very useful, not merely to the technological student, but to the practical soap boiler who wishes to understand the theory of his art." — Chemical News. "A thoroughly practical treatise. We congratulate the author on the success of his endeavour to fill a void in English technical literature." — Nature. PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. A Manual for Paper-Makers and Owners and Managers of Paper-Mills. With Tables, Calculations, &c. By G. Clapperton, Paper-Maker., With Illus- trations of Fibres from Micro-Photographs. Crown 8vo, cloth . . 5/0 " The author caters for the requirements of responsible mill hands, apprentices, &c, whilst his manual will be found of great service to students of technology, as well as to veteran paper- makers and mill owners. The illustrations form an excellent feature."— The World's Paper Trade Review. THE ART OF PAPER=MAKINQ* A Practical Handbook of the Manufacture of Paper from Rags, Esparto, Straw, and other Fibrous Materials. Including the Manufacture of Pulp from Wood Fibre, with a Description of the Machinery and Appliances used. To which are added Details of Processes for Recovering Soda from Waste Liquors. By Alexander Watt. With Illustrations. Crown 3vo, cloth . . 7IQ "It may be regarded as the standard work on the subject. The book is full of valuable information. The ' Art of Paper-Making ' is in every respect a model of a text-book, either for a technical class, or for the private student."— Paper and Printi?ig Trades Journal, A TREATISE ON PAPER. For Printers and Stationers. With an Outline of Paper Manufacture ; Complete Tables of Sizes, and Specimens of Different Kinds of Paper. By Richard Parkinson, late of the Manchester Technical School. Demy 8vo, cloth 3/ 6 CEMENT5, PASTES, GLUES, AND GUMS- A Practical Guide to the Manufacture and Application of the various Aggluti- nants required in the Building, Metal-Working, Wood-Working, and Leather- Working Trades, and for Workshop and Office Use. With upwards of 900 Recipes. By H. C. Standage. Third Edition. Crown 8vo, cloth . 2/0 "We have pleasure in speaking 1 favourably of this volume. So far as we have had experience, which is not inconsiderable, this manual is trustworthy." — Athenceum. THE CABINET=MAKER'S GUIDE TO THE ENTIRE CONSTRUCTION OF CABINET WORK. Including Veneering, Marquetrie, Buhlwork, Mosaic, Inlaying, &c. _ By Richard Bitmead. Illustrated with Plans, Sections, and Wcrking Drawings. Small crown 8vo, clcth 2/6 FRENCH POLISHING AND ENAMELLING. A Practical Work of Instruction. Including Numerous Recipes fcr making Polishes, Varnishes, Glaze-Lacquers, Revivers, &c. By Richard Bitmead, Author of " The Cabinet- Maker's Guide." Small crown 8vo, cloth . 1 /6 38 CROSBY LOCK WOOD & SON'S CATALOGUE. WATCH REPAIRING, CLEANING, AND ADJUSTING. A Practical Handbook dealing with the Materials and Tools Used, and the Methods of Repairing, Cleaning, Altering, and Adjusting all kinds of English and Foreign Watches, Repeaters, Chronographs, r.nd Marine Chronometers. By F. J. Garrard, Springer and Adjuster of Marine Chronometers and Deck Watches for the Admiralty. With over 200 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth. [Just Published. Net 4/6 MODERN HOROLOGY, IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. Translated from the French of Claudius Saunier, ex-Director of the School of Horology at Macon, by Julien Tripplin, F.R.A.S., Besancon Watch Manufacturer, and Edward Rigg, M.A., Assayer in the Royal Mint. With Seventy-eight Woodcuts and Twenty-two Coloured Copper Plates. Second Edition. Super-royal 8vo, £2 2s. cloth ; half-calf . . . £2 10s. " There is no horological work in the English language at all to be compared to this produc- tion of M. Saunier's for clearness and completeness. It is alike good as a guide for the student and as a reference for the experienced horologist and skilled workman." — Horological Journal. •'The latest, the most complete, and the most reliable of those literary productions to which continental watchmakers are indebted for the mechanical superiority over their English brethren — in fact, the Book of Books is M. Saunier's ' Treatise.' " — Watch?naker ; Jeweller, and Silversmith. THE WATCH ADJUSTER'S MANUAL. A Practical Guide for the Watch and Chronometer Adjuster in Making, Springing, Timing and Adjusting for Isochronism, Positions and Temperatures. By C. E. Fritts. 370 pp., with Illustrations, 8vo, cloth . . . 16/0 THE WATCHMAKER'S HANDBOOK. Intended as a Workshop Companion for those engaged in Watchmaking and the Allied Mechanical Arts. Translated from the French of Claudius Saunier, and enlarged by Julien Tripplin, F.R.A.S., and Edward Rigg, M.A., Assayer in the Royal Mint. Third Edition. Gr. 8vo, cloth. . 9/0 "Each part is truly a treatise in itself. The arrangement is good and the language is clear and concise. It is an admirable guide for the young watchmaker." — Engineering. HISTORY OF WATCHES & OTHER TIMEKEEPERS. By James F. Kendal, M.B.H. Inst. 1 /6 boards ; or cloth, gilt . 2/6 "The best which has yet appeared on this subject in the English language."— Industries. " Open the book where you may, there is interesting matter in it concerning the ingenious devices of the ancient or modern horologer." — Saturday Review. ELECTRO PLATING &ELECTRO REFININGoFMETALS. Being a new edition of Alexander Watt's " Electro-Deposition." Re- vised and Largel}/ Rewritten by Arnold Philip, B.Sc, A.I.E.E., Principal Assistant to the Admiralty Chemist. Large Crown 8vo, cloth. . Net "f 2/6 "Altogether the work can te highly recommended to every electro-plater, and is of un- doubted interest to every electro-metallurgkt."— Electrical Review. "Eminently a book for the practical worker in electro-deposition. It contains practical descriptions of methods, processes and materials, as actually pursued and used in the workshop,"— Engineer, ELECTRO=METALLURGY. Practically Treated. By Alexander Watt. Tenth Edition, including the most recent Processes. i2mo, cloth ....... 3/6 " From this book both amateur and artisan may learn everything necessary for the successful prosecution of electroplating." — Iron. JEWELLER'S ASSISTANT IN WORKING IN GOLD. A Practical Treatise for Masters and Workmen, Compiled from the Experience of Thirty Years' Workshop Practice. By George E. Gee. Crown 8vo. 7/6 " This manual of technical education Is apparently destined to be a valuable auxiliary to a handicraft which is certainly capable of great improvement.' '—The Times. ELECTROPLATING. A Practical Handbook on the Deposition of Copper, Silver, Nickel, Gold, Aluminium, Brass, Platinum, &c, &c. By J. W. Urquhart, C.E. Fourth Edition, Revised. Crown 8vo, cloth '6/0 "An excellent practical manual." — Engineering. " An excellent work, giving the newest information."— Horological Journal. INDUSTRIAL AND USEFUL ARTS, 55 ELECTROTYPING. The Reproduction and Multiplication of Printing Surfaces and Works of Art by the Electro-Deposition of Metals. By J. VV. Urquhart, C.E. Crown 8vo, cloth 5/0 "The book is thoroughly practical; the reader is, therefore, conducted through the leading laws of electricity, then through the metals used by electrotypers, the apparatus, and the depositing processes, up to the final preparation of the work."— Art Journal. GOLDSMITH'S HANDBOOK. By George E. Gee, Jeweller, &c. Fifth Edition. i2mo, cloth . . 3/0 "A good, sound educator. %, —H ore logical Journal. SILVERSMITH'S HANDBOOK. By George E. Gee, Jeweller, &c. Third Edition, with numerous Illustra- tions. i2mo, cloth . 3/0 "The chief merit of the work is its practical character. . . . The workers In the trade will speedily discover its merits when they sit down to study it." — English Mechanic. *** The above two works together, strongly half-bound, price 7s. SHEET METAL WORKER'S INSTRUCTOR. Comprising a Selection of Geometrical Problems and Practical Rules for Describing the Various Patterns Required by Zinc, Sheet-Iron, Copper, and Tin-Plate Workers. By Reuben Henry Warn, Practical Tin-Plate Worker. New Edition, Revised and greatly Enlarged by Joseph G. Horner, A.M.I.M.E. Crown 8vo, 254 pp., with 430 Illustrations, cloth . . 7/6 SAVOURIES AND SWEETS Suitable for Luncheons and Dinners. By Miss M. L. Allen (Mrs. A. Macaire), Author of " Breakfast Dishes," &c. Twenty-ninth Edition. F'cap 8vo, sewed ... ... 1/0 BREAKFAST DISHES For Every Morning of Three Months. By Miss Allen (Mrs A. Macaire), Author of " Savouries and Sweets," &c. Twenty-second Edition. F'cap 8vo, sewed . 1 /O BREAD & BISCUIT BAKERS & SUGAR=BOILER , S ASSISTANT. Including a large variety of Modern Recipes. With Remarks on the Art of Bread-making. By Robert Wells. Third Edition. Crown 8vo . .1/0 " A large number of wrinkles for the ordinary cook, as well as the baker." — Saturday Review. PASTRYCOOK & CONFECTIONER'S GUIDE. For Hotels, Restaurants, and the Trade in general, adapted also for Family Use. By R. Wells, Author of " The Bread and Biscuit Baker " . . 1 /O " We cannot speak too highly of this really excellent work. In these days of keen competition our readers cannot do better than purchase this book."— Bakers' Times. ORNAMENTAL CONFECTIONERY. A Guide for Bakers, Confectioners and Pastrycooks ; including a variety of Modern Recipes, and Remarks on Decorative and Coloured Work. With 129 Original Designs. By Robert Wells. Crown 8vo, cloth . . . fi/O " A valuable work, practical, and should be in the hands of every baker and confectioner. The Illustrative designs are worth treble the amount charged for the work." — Bakers' Times. MODERN FLOUR CONFECTIONER. Containing a large Collection of Recipes for Cheap Cakes, Biscuits, &c. With remarks on the Ingredients Used in their Manufacture. By R. Wells. 1 \Q " The work is of a decidedly practical character, and in every recipe regard is had to economical working. '—North British Daily Mail. RUBBER HAND STAMPS And the Manipulation of Rubber. A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of Indiarubber Hand Stamps, Small Articles of Indiarubber, The Hektograph, Special Inks, Cements, and Allied Subjects. By T. O'Conor Sloane, A.M., Ph.D. With numerous Illustrations. Square 8 vo, cloth. . . . 6/0 CROSBY LOCK WOOD &■ SON'S CATALOGUE. HANDYBOOKS FOR HANDICRAFTS. BY PAUL N. HASLUCK. Editor of " Work " (New Series), Author of " Lathe Work," " Milling Machines," &c. Crown 8vo, 144 pp., price is. each. These Handybooks have been written to supply information for Workmen, Students, and Amateurs in the several Handicrafts, on the actual Practice of the Workshop, and are intended to convey in plain language Technical Know- ledge of the several Crafts. In describing the processes employed, and the manipu- lation of material, workshop terms are used ; workshop practice is fully explained ; and the text is freely illustrated with drawings of modern tools, appliances, and processes. METAL TURNER'S HANDYBOOK. A Practical Manual for Workers at the Foot-Lathe. With 100 Illustrations. 1/0 ** The book will be of service alike to the amateur and the artisan turner. It displays thorough knowledge of the subject." — Scotsman. WOOD TURNER'S HANDYBOOK. A Practical Manual for Workers at the Lathe. With over 100 Illustrations. 1/0 " We recommend the book to young turners and amateurs. A multitude of v/orkmen have hitherto sought in vain for a manual of this special industry." — Mechanical World. WATCH JOBBER'S HANDYBOOK. A Practical Manual on Cleaning, Repairing, and Adjusting. With upwards of 100 Illustrations 1/0 " We strongly advise all young persons connected with the watch trade to acquire and study this Inexpensive work." — Clerkenwell Chronicle. PATTERN MAKER'S HANDYBOOK. A Practical Manual on the Construction of Patterns for Founders. With upwards of 100 Illustrations 1 /O "A most valuable, if not indispensable manual for the pattern maker."— Knowledge, MECHANIC'S WORKSHOP HANDYBOOK. A Practical Manual on Mechanical Manipulation, embracing Information on various Handicraft Processes. With Useful Notes and Miscellaneous Memoranda. Comprising about 200 Subjects 1/0 "A very clever and useful book, which should be found in every workshop ; and it should certainly find a place in all technical schools." — Saturday Review. MODEL ENGINEER'S HANDYBOOK. A Practical Manual on the Construction of Model Steam Engines. With upwards of 100 Illustrations. 1/0 "Mr. Hasluck has produced a very good little book." — Builder. CLOCK JOBBER'S HANDYBOOK. A Practical Manual on Cleaning, Repairing, and Adjusting. With upwards of 100 Illustrations 1/0 *' It is of inestimable service to those commencing the trade." — Coventry Standard. CABINET WORKER'S HANDYBOOK. A Practical Manual on the Tools, Materials, Appliances, and Processes employed in Cabinet Work. With upwards of 100 Illustrations . .1/0 "Mr. Hasluck's thorough-going little Handybook is amongst the most practical guide; we have seen for beginners in cabinet-work." — Saturday Review. WOODWORKER'S HANDYBOOK. Embracing Information on the Tools, Materials, Appliances and Processes Employed in Woodworking. With 104 Illustrations 1/0 " Written by a man who knows, not only how work ought to be done, but how to do It, and how to convey his knowledge to others."' — Engineering. " Mr. Hasluck writes admirably, and gives complete instructions." — Engineer. " Mr. Hasluck combines the experience of a practical teacher with the manipulative skill and scientific knowledge of processes of the trained mechanician, and the manuals are marvels of what can be produced at a popular price." — Schoolmaster. " Helpful to workmen of all ages and degrees of experience." — Daily Chronicle. " Concise, clear, and practical." — Saturday Review. COMMERCE, COUNTING-HOUSE WORK, TABLES, S-c. 41 COMMERCE, COUNTING-HOUSE WORK, TABLES, ETC. LESSONS IN COMMERCE. By Professor R. Gambaro, of the Royal High Commercial School at Genoa. Edited and Revised by James Gault, Professor of Commerce and Commercial Law in King's College, London. Fourth Edition. Crown 8vo, cloth . 3/6 " The publishers of this work have rendered considerable service to the cause of commercial education by the opportune production of this volume. . . . The work is peculiarly acceptable to English readers and an admirable addition to existing class books. In a phrase, we think the work attains its object in furnishing a brief account of those laws and customs of British trade with which the commercial man interested therein should be familiar." — Chamber of Commerce Journal. " An invaluable guide in the hands of these who are preparing for a commercial career, and, In fact, the information it contains on matters of business should be impressed on every one."— Counting House. THE FOREIGN COMMERCIAL CORRESPONDENT. Being Aids to Commercial Correspondence in Five Languages — English, French, German, Italian, and Spanish. By Conrad E. Baker. Third Edition, Carefully Revised Throughout. Crown 8vo, cloth . . . 4/6 '•Whoever wishes to correspond in all the languages mentioned by Mr. Baker cannot do better than study this work, the materials of which are excellent and conveniently arranged. They consist not of entire specimen letters, but — what are far more useful— short passeges, sentences, or phrases expressing the same general idea in various forms." — Athenceum, " A careful examination has convinced us that it is unusually complete, well arranged and reliable. The book is a thoroughly good one." — Schoolmaster, FACTORY ACCOUNTS: their PRINCIPLES & PRACTICE. A Handbook for Accountants and Manufacturers, with Appendices on the Nomenclature of Machine Details ; the Income Tax Acts ; the Rating of Factories ; Fire and Boiler Insurance ; the Factory and Workshop Acts, &c, including also a Glossary of Terms and a large number of Specimen Rulings. By Emile Garcke and J. M. Fells. Fifth Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Demy 8vo, cloth 7/6 *' A very interesting description of the requirements of Factory Accounts. , . . The principle of assimilating the Factory Accounts to the general commercial books is one which we thoroughly agree with."— Accountants' Journal. " Characterised by extreme thoroughness. There are few owners of factories who would not derive great benefit from the perusal of this most admirable work." — Loca I Government Chronicle. MODERN METROLOGY. A Manual of the Metrical Units and Systems of the present Century. With an Appendix containing a proposed English System. By Lowis D. A. Jackson, A. M. Inst. C. E., Author of " Aid to Survey Practice," &c. Large crown 8vo, cloth 1 2/6 M We recommend the work to all interested in the practical reform of our weights and measures. " — Nature. A SERIES OF METRIC TABLES. In which the British Standard Measures and Weights are compared with those of the Metric System at present in Use on the Continent. By C. H. Dowling, C.E. 8vo, cloth . 10/6 "Mr, Dowling s Tables are well put together as a ready reckoner for the conversion of one system into the other."— Athenceum. IRON AND METAL TRADES' COMPANION. For Expeditiously Ascertaining the Value of any Goods bought or sold by Weight, from is. per cwt. to 112s. per cwt., and from one farthing per pound to one shilling per pound. By Thomas Downie. Strongly bound in leather, 396 PP 9/0 " A most useful set of tables, nothing like them before existed." — Building News. " Although specially adapted to the iron and metal trades, the tables will be found useful every other business in which merchandise is bought and sold by weight." — Railway News. CROSBY LOCK WOOD &- SON'S CATALOGUE. NUMBER, WEIGHT, AND FRACTIONAL CALCULATOR. Containing upwards of 250,000 Separate Calculations, showing at a Glance the Value at 422 Different Rates, ranging from xig th of a Penny to 20s. each, or per cwt., and £20 per ton, of any number of articles consecutively, from 1 to 470. Any number of cwts., qrs., and lbs., from 1 cwt. to 470 cwts. Any number of tons, cwts., qrs., and lbs., from 1 to 1,000 tons. By William Chadwick, Public Accountant. Third Edition, Revised and Improved. 8vo, strongly bound 1 8/0 " It is as easy of reference for any answer or any number of answers as a dictionary. For making up accounts or estimates the book must prove invaluable to all who have any considerable quantity of calculations involving price and measure in any combination to do." — Engineer. " The most perfect work of the kind yet prepared." — Glasgow Herald, THE WEIGHT CALCULATOR. Being a Series of Tables upon a New and Comprehensive Plan, exhibiting at one Reference the exact Value of any Weight from 1 lb. to 15 tons, at 300 Progressive Rates, from id. to 168s. per cwt., and containing 186,000 Direct Answers, which, with their Combinations, consisting of a single addition (mostly to be performed at sight), will afford an aggregate of 10,266,000 Answers ; the whole being calculated and designed to ensure correctness and promote despatch. By Henry Harben, Accountant. Sixth Edition, carefully Corrected. Royal 8 vo, strongly half-bound. {Just Published. £1 5s. " A practical and useful work of reference for men of business generally." — Ironmonger. "Of priceless value to business men. It is a necessary book in all mercantile offices." — Sheffield Independent. THE DISCOUNT GUIDE. Comprising several Series of Tables for the Use of Merchants, Manufacturers. Ironmongers, and Others, by which maybe ascertained the Exact Profit arising from any mode of using Discounts, either in the Purchase or Sale of Goods, and the method of either Altering a Rate of Discount, or Advancing a Price, so as to produce, by one operation, a sum that will realise any required Profit after allowing one or more Discounts : to which are added Tables of Profit or Advance from i| to 90 per cent., Tables of Discount from i\ to o8f per cent., and Tables of Commission, &c. from \ to 10 per cent. By Henry Harben, Accountant. New Edition, Corrected. Demy 8vo, half-bound . £1 5s. " A book such as this can only be appreciated by business men, to whom the saving of time means saving of money. The work must prove of great value to merchants, manufacturers, and general traders."— British Trade Journal. TABLES OF WAGES. At 54, 52, 50 and 48 Hours per Week. Showing the Amounts of Wages from One quarter of an hour to Sixty-four hours, in each case at Rates of Wages advancing by One Shilling from 4s. to 55s. per week. By Thos. Garbutt, Accountant. Square crown 8vo, half-bound 6/0 I RON = PLATE WEIGHT TABLES. For Iron Shipbuilders, Engineers, and Iron Merchants. Containing the Calculated Weights of upwards of 150,000 different sizes of Iron Plates from 1 foot by 6 in. by \ in. to 10 feet by 5 feet by 1 in. Worked out on the Basis of 40 lbs. to the square foot of Iron of 1 inch in thickness. By H. Burlinson and W. H. Simpson. 4to, half-bound £1 6s. AGRICULTURE, FARMING, GARDENING, &>c. 43 AGRICULTURE, FARMING, GARDENING, ETC. THE COMPLETE GRAZIER AND FARMER'S AND CATTLE BREEDER'S ASSISTANT. A Compendium of Husbandry. Originally Written by William Youatt. Fourteenth Edition, entirely Re-written, considerably Enlarged, and brought up to Present Requirements, by William Fream, LL.D., Assistant Com- missioner, Royal Commission on Agriculture, Author of " The Elements of Agriculture," &c. Royal 8vo, 1,100 pp., 450 Illustrations, handsomely bound. £1 11s. 6d. Book I. On the Varieties, breeding, Rearing, Fattening and Manage- ment of Cattle. Book II. On the Economy and Man- agement of the Dairy. Book hi. On the breeding, Rearing, and Management of horses. Book IV. On the breeding, Rearing, and Fattening of Sheep. Book V. On the Breeding, Rearing, and Fattening of Swine. Book VI. On the Diseases of Live Stock. Book vii. On the Breeding, Rearing, and Management of poultry. Book VIII. On Farm Offices and Implements of Husbandry. Book IX. On the Culture and Man- agement of Grass Lands. Book X. On the Cultivation and Application of grasses, Pulse and Roots. Book XI. On Manures and their Application to Grass Land and Crops. Book XII. Monthly Calendars of Farm work. " Dr. Fream is to be congratulated on the successful attempt he has made to give us a work which will at once become the standard classic of the farm practice of the country. We believe that it wiil be found that it has no compeer among- the many works at present in existence. . , The illustrations are admirable, while the frontispiece, which represents the well-known bull, New Year's Giftj bred by the Queen, is a work of art." — The Times. " The book must be recognised as occupying the proud position of the most exhaustive work of reference in the English language on the subject with which it deals."— A thenczum. " The most comprehensive guide to modern farm practice that exists in the English language to-day , . . The book is one that ought to be on every farm and in the library of every land owner" — Mark Lane Express. " In point of exhaustiveness and accuracy the work will certainly hold a pre-eminent and unique position among books dealing with scientific agricultural practice. It is, in fact, an agricul- tural library of itself." — North British Agriculturist. FARM LIVE STOCK OF GREAT BRITAIN. By Robert Wallace, F.L.S., F.R.S.E., &c, Professor of Agriculture and Rural Economy in the University of Edinburgh. Third Edition, thoroughly Revised and considerably Enlarged. With over 120 Phototypes of Prize Stock. Demy 8vo, 384 pp., with 79 Plates and Maps, cloth. . . 1 2/6 " A really complete work on the history, breeds, and management of the farm stock of Great Britain, and one which is likely to find its way to the shelves of every country gentleman's library." — The Times. "The 1 Farm Live Stock of Great Britain ' is a production to be proud of, and its Issue not the least of the services which its author has rendered to agricultural science."— Scottis h Farmer. NOTE-BOOK OF AGRICULTURAL FACTS & FIGURES FOR FARMERS AND FARM STUDENTS. By Primrose McConnell, B.Sc, Fellow of the Highland and Agricultural Society, Author of " Elements of Farming." Sixth Edition, Re-written, Revised, and greatly Enlarged. Fcap. 8vo, 480 pp., leather, gilt edges . . 6/0 Contents.— Surveying and Levelling.— Weights and measures.— Machinery and Buildings. — Labour. — Operations. — Draining. — Embanking. — Geological Memoranda. — soils. — Manures. — Cropping. — Crops.— Rotations. — weeds. — Feeding.— Dairying.— Live Stock.— horses. — Cattle. — Sheep.— Pigs.— Poultry,— Forestry.— horticulture.— Miscellaneous. " No farmer, and certainly no agricultural student, ought to be without this multum-in-parvo manual of all subjects connected with the farm. "— North British A^rictdturist. "This little pocket-book contains a large amount of useful information upon all kinds of agricultural subjects. Something of the kind has long been wanted." — Mark Lane Express. " The amount of information it contains is most surprising ; the arrangement of the matter is so methodical— although so compressed— as to be inteliigible to everyone who takes a glance through Its pages. They teem with information." — Farm and Home. THE ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURAL GEOLOGY. A Scientific Aid to Practical Farming. By Primrose McConnell. Author of "Note-Book of Agricultural Facts and Figures," &c. Ro} r al 8vo, cloth. Net 21/0 " On every page the work bears the impress of a masterly knowledge of the subject dealt with, and we have nothing but unstinted praise to offer.''— Fie/d. CROSBY LOCK WOOD & SON'S CATALOGUE. BRITISH DAIRYING. A Handy Volume on the Work of the Dairy-Farm. For the Use of Technical Instruction Classes, Students in Agricultural Colleges and the Working Dairy- Farmer. By Prof. J. P. Sheldon. With Illustrations. Second Edition, Revised. Crown 8vo, cloth 2/6 " Confidently recommended as a useful text-book on dairy fanning." — Agricultural Gazette. "Probably the best half-crown manual on dairy work that has yet been produced." — North British Agriculturist. " It is the soundest little work we have yet seen on the subject." — The Times. MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. A Practical Handbook on their Properties and the Processes of their Produc- tion. Including a Chapter on Cream and the Methods of its Separation from Milk. By John Oliver, late Principal of the Western Dairy Institute, Berkeley. With Coloured Plates and 200 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth. 7/6 •* An exhaustive and masterly production. It may be cordially recommended to all students and practitioners of dairy science." — North British Agriculturist. "We recommend this very comprehensive and carefully-written book to dairy-farmers and students of dairying. 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