THE INDUSTRIES r% ■ v-i** «m< raLMStf* 9 ? vn. I «Y fi I ^H .'w*>S ■ ■ !*&'& *«* i§f. rl-. • <, td THE INDUSTRIES OF JAPAN. I Rein, Japan II. Plate W. : Engebruum, Lei). LACQUER PATTERN Autumnal Landscape by Moonlight. THE INDUSTRIES OF JAPAN TOGETHER WITH AN ACCOUNT OF ITS AGRICULTURE, FORESTRY, ARTS, AND COMMERCE. ($rom GTraoels mxb |leseartbcs undertaken at tlje Cast of the Prussian (Sobernmcnt. J. J. REIN, Professor of Geography in the University of Bonn. WITH FORTY-FOUR ILLUSTRATIONS AND THREE MAPS. bonbon : HODDER AND STOUGHTON, 27, PATERNOSTER ROW. MDCCCLXXXIX. {All rights reserved.) Butler cr* Tanner, The Schuood Printing Works, Frovie, and London- PREFACE. In publishing these results of many years of study, I hope to afford welcome information and instruction to educated readers of all callings regarding many questions as to the state of civiliza- tion in Japan and the industrial activity of its inhabitants. The rich literature upon this land and people has either not touched at all upon many matters which are here thoroughly treated, or at least in such a way that the scientific and technical side has received scant justice. This circumstance, and various others, inclined me, during my stay in Japan, to extend my observations and studies to regions that did not come directly within the sphere of my undertakings. Still I do not fear that competent judges will find, on that account, any want of devotion and thoroughness in the sections on Japanese art-industry. It is very true, however, that with the wide range which I allowed myself, very considerable difficulties arose, especially when it came to working up and completing in Europe the impressions and results obtained in Japan. That this is so, and how it is so, will best be seen in the separate chapters themselves. In what has been said I have already indicated the chief reason why this work is so late in appearing. It is now more than five years since the publication of the first volume, and two and a half years since its -English edition, although since my return from Japan I have dedicated to the task the greater part of the time and strength left me by the duties of my profession. With the satisfaction of having tilled for the first time a field that was yet for the most part uncultivated, I unite the less agree- able consciousness that all I can offer is only patchwork, notwith- standing all my care and labour. From the fulness and uncommon importance of the material, it was not possible to treat all subjects vi PREFACE. at equal length. It cannot but be that the reader, according to his standpoint and interest, will find one too briefly handled, and another perhaps too fully discussed. The numerous Japanese names, which may be valueless to many in Europe, or even in their way, will be a welcome means of guidance to foreigners and natives in Japan. In the introductory chapter on Japanese art-industry I have merely touched upon painting and the history of its development. I was aware that my judgment and my knowledge in this depart- ment were far inferior to those of a scholar who had devoted six years in Japan itself, and much more time since his return to Eng- land, to this subject and the preparation of a work upon it. The results of his studies are now appearing in a sumptuous volume under the title, "The Pictorial Arts of Japan," by William Anderson (Sampson Low & Co., London). This book not only fills the gap left by me, but offers to every friend of art the first thorough instruction in the character and development of Japanese painting. It remains for me to express my thanks to several friends for their kind assistance. Professor Dr. Justi, of Marburg, furnished, after originals, the excellent pen-and-ink drawings for the wood- cuts figs, i (12), 13, 16, 17, 18, and 19. To my talented scholar Herr C. Schultets I owe the drawings for figs. 8, 9, 10, 11, and 14, and for tables I, II., III., IV., and XV. Herr C. Reinhertz, another of my earnest scholars, drew the review-chart for mining- industry, after a large hand-chart which Engineer Kurimoto, of the " Upper Mining Office " in Tokio, had kindly sent me. I am indebted to the latter for various other points as well, and also to Dr. S. Nagai, who aided me by reading the proofs for errors in Japanese. All the illustrations are original, and I acknowledge gratefully the fact that the publisher has spared neither trouble nor expense to worthily adorn the book. Bonn. CONTENTS. PAGE Introduction i I. AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY. AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES. i. Japanese Agriculture in General 3 Possession and Taxation, 5. Area and Division of Cultivated Lands, 18. Climate and Soil, 12. Efforts of the Government to elevate Agriculture, 18. The Kaitakushi, or Colonial Office, 18. Fertilization and Preparation of the Soil, 23. Terrace Culture, 23. Planting in Rows, 23. 2. Food Plants 37 (a) Grain, Stalk-plants or Cereals, Japanese Koku-motsu, 2>7- W Pulse, or Leguminous Plants, 55. (c) Starch-producing Bulbs, 63. (d) Vegetables and Condiments, 69. (e) Fruits, Berries, and Nuts, 82. (/) Articles of Food and Luxury as Chemical Products of the Raw Materials mentioned under 2 (a)-(e), 94. Supplementary — (a) Chemical Composition of Sake, Mirin, and Shochu, according to Analyses by Atkinson, 102. (b) Sta- tistical Information in regard to these Alcoholic Drinks, 103. 3. Plants of Commerce no (a) Non- Alcoholic Stimulants : Tea and Tobacco, no. (b) Drugs, 134. (c) Oil Plants and their Products, 150. (d) Textile Plants, 165. (e) Dye Plants and Tannic Acids, and their Application, 173- 4. Cattle- Raising and Silk-Growing 183 (The Breeding and Importance of the Yama Mayu, or Oak-spinner — Antheria (Bombyx) Yama-Mai Guer. Menev. in Japan, 205. 5. Forestry ... 211 Relation of Japanese Forests (Hayashi) to Cultivation in general and to Waste Land, 211. Distinction between Cultivated and Natural or Mountain Forests, 213. Character, Extent and Value of Both, 214. Influence upon Climate, 222. 6. The Nature and Use of the more Important Forest Trees and other useful Japanese Woods .... Fam. Gramineae, Group Bambusaceas, 227. Palmea?, 231. Coniferae 231. Salicinese, 239. Betulaceae, 239. Juglandaceas, 239 Corylaceas, 240. Cupuliferae, 240. Moreae, 242. Ulmaceae, 242. Buxaceae, 244. Lauraceas, 244 Scrophularineae, 245 Bignoniaceae, 246. Oleacea?, 246. Styracaceas, 246. Eben- !24 CONTENTS. acese, 247. Ericaceae, 247. Caprifoliaceas, 247. Corneas, 247. Araliaceae, 248. Lythrarieae, 248. Hamamelideae, 249. Ro- sacea?, 249. Leguminosae, 250. Anacardiaceae, 251. Acerineae, 251. Sapindaceas, 252. Rhamnese, 252. Celastrineae, 253. Ilicineae, 253. Meliaceae, 253. Simarubeae, 254. Rutaceae, 254. Tiliaceae, 255. Sterculiaceae, 256. Ternstrcemiaceae, 256. Magnoliaceae, 258. 7. Gardening 261 Size, Enclosure, and Character of the Japanese Garden, 261. Limited Expedients and Peculiarities of Gardening, 263. Dwarfing and Deforming, 265. Improvement of Species, 265. Variegation, 266. The Japanese Love of Nature and Flowers, 267. Flowering Season and other Characteristics of the Flora, 268. Shade Trees, 273. 8. Acclimatization and Extension of Japanese Ornamental and Useful Plants in Europe 274 II. MINING. Incorrect Representations of the Mineral Wealth of Japan, 291. Old Method of Mining, and New Attempts to Elevate it, 292. Tabular View of the Productions according to Number, Value, and most Important Mines, 297. Further Particulars concern- ing the latter, and the Single Products, 302. Salt and Alum Production, 310. Products of Clay-pits and Stone-quarries, 312. III. ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. 1. Japanese Art Industry in General 317 Revival of European Art Industry. Growing Interest in the Pro- ductions of the Chinese and Japanese, 312. China the Master and Model of Japan, 319. Characteristic Features of Japanese Art-handicraft and its Products, 319. The Period of Highest Development and the means of its Advancement, 326. Its Influence upon that of the Christian Countries of the West, 329. 2. Wood Industry 334 Furniture making. Inlaid Work, 335. Peculiarities of Turnery in the Hakone Mountains and Nikko, 335. Comb-cutting. Straw Mosaics, 237- 3. Lacquer Work 338 Prefatory Observations, 338. Manner of Obtaining the Japanese Lacquer ; its Properties, 342. The Urushi-kabure or Lacquer Poisoning, 349. Preparation of Raw Lac for the Lacquerer, 350. Prices of the Material, 351. Other Materials and Uten- sils needed in the Work, 353. Laying on of the Groundwork and Simple Lacquer Ornamentation, 357. Simple Lacquer ( Wares of One Colour, 360. Coloured Lacquer Wares, with Marbled Surface, 361. Coloured Lacquer obtained by Dust- ing with Glistening Powder, 364. The Work of the Lacquer Painter or Makiye-shi, 366. Plain and Relief Gold-lacquer Decorations, 367. Lacquer Carving, 371. Historical Items concerning Lacquer Work, 373. CONTENTS. 4. Textile Industry 378 Hemp, Linen and Muslin, 378. Banana Fabrics, 378. Cotton Industry, 378. Principal Works, Places and Chief Notable Products of Silk Weaving, 379. Auxiliaries thereto, 383. Habutai, Crape ; Kanoko, Brocade, 383. Use of Gold and Silver Paper in Brocade, 386. Velvet Weaving. Embroidery, 388. 5. Paper Industry 389 General Properties of Japanese Paper, 390. Materials for its Manu- facture, and how obtained, 393. Making and Employment of the Principal Kinds of Japanese Bast-Paper, 399. Couched Board : Ita-me-gami and Hari-nuki, 407. Paper Hangings. Chirimen-gami, or Crape Paper, 408. Leather Paper, or Kami- kawa, 411. Shi-fu, or Paper Fabric, 412. Oil Paper, Water- proof Cloaks, Screens, Lanterns and Fans, 414. Appendix: Sumi-ire, the Japanese Writing Box and its contents : Brush, Indian Ink, and Ink Dish, 416. 6. Wood, Ivory and Bone Carving. Tortoise-shell, Horn and Mother-of-Pearl Work. Polishing of Stones . . .419 7. Metal Industry 426 Prefatory Remarks, 426. The Working up of Iron into Swords, Armour, and Objects of Art, 430. Embossing of Cast Iron, 434. The Use of Copper, 436. The most Important Alloys of Copper, 439. Japanese Bronze, 440. Patina, 441. The Use of Bronze in the Household and the Buddhist Religion, 443. Magic Mirrors, 447. Gold and Silver in Japanese Industrial Art, 449. Bronze Analysis, 449. 8. Ceramics 452 Prefatory Remarks, 452. Classification of Clay-wares with special regard to the Japanese, 453. Historical Survey. — Beginnings and Accomplishments of the Industry of Japan till the Introduction of the Potter's Wheel, 456. Progress, 457. Influence of Cha-no-yu, 458. The Invention and Manufacture of Porcelain in China, 460. Introduction of the Manufacture into Japan, 461. Its Centres also of the Stone-ware Industry : Arita, 469 ; Amakusa, 473j Nayeshirogawa, Kagoshima, 474 ; Kioto, 476; Seto, 478; Ota, 480; Hongo, 4S1 ; Kaga, 481. Stone-ware : Banko-yaki and Imbe-yaki, 483. 9. Enamel Industry 488 The Nature and Varieties of Enamel, 488. Historical Glance at the Development of the Industry in different Countries, 490. Character of the Chinese and Japanese Cloisonne, 493. Method of Cellular Lacquer-work Manufacture in Japan on Copper, Porcelain, and Stone-ware, 493. Free Enamel, 497. Com- position and Preparation of Japanese Vitreous Colours, 498. TRADE AND COMMERCE. 1. Money, Measures and Weights 503 (a) Money, Kane or Kinsu ; Paper Money, Kinsatsu ; Bank Notes, Satsu or Gin-ko-satsu, 503. (b) Measures and Weights, 507. 2. Other Currency 508 CONTENTS. PAGE 3. The Foreign Trade of Japan since the Opening of the Country by Commodore Perry in 1854 514 (a) From the Discovery of the Country by Mendez Pinto, 1542, to the year 1639, 514. (b) The Period of the Trade of the Dutch and Chinese in Nagasaki, from 1641-1854. 4. Japan in Intercourse with the World 528 Treaty of Kanagawa, 529. Trade of Yokohama, 530. Kobe- Osaka, 530. Articles of Export, 533. STATISTICAL TABLES. I. Value of the Exports and Imports of Japan from 1866-1885 at the Separate Treaty Ports 542, 543 II. The Foreign Trade of Japan during the past Five Years . . 542, 543 III. {A) Summary of the most Important Articles of Export since 1868 544, 545 (£) Totals, Average Value and Percentages of Exports from 1871-1885 544,545 IV. Chief Articles of Export and their Value during years 1 881-1885 54^ V. Summary of Exports for 1885 according to Goods, Countries, and Value in Yen 547 VI. Comparative Table of the Import and Export of Gold and Silver in Coin and Bars ....... 548 VII. Summary of the most Important Articles of Import since 1868 and their Value in Yen 548 VIII. Imports of the most Important Goods according to Countries and Value in Yen during the year 1885 .... 549 English and Latin Index . . 551 Japanese Index .561 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. I. Tea-plant, Camellia theifera .... II. Silkworms on Quercus serrata .... III. Tools used in the Lacquer Industry IV. „ „ „ ... V. Lacquer-pattern, a. Tsugaru-nuri, b. Wakasa-nuri VI. „ „ a. Kin-ji, b. Nashi-ji, c. Moku-me VII. „ „ Autumnal Landscape by Moonlight VIII. Brocade Pattern from Kioto IX. Embroidery Pattern X. Broussonetia Papyri tera, Vent. From a Japanese wood-cut XI. „ „ Japanese wood-cut printed in Japan on bast-paper made from the same . XII. Edgeworthia Papyrifera, S. and Z. Japanese wood-cut printed in Japan on bast-paper made from the same XIII. Wickstroemia Canescens, Meisn. Japanese wood-cut printed in Japan on bast-paper made from the same . XIV. Japanese Leather-paper XV. Apparatus for Casting Metal, a. Box-bellows, b. Cross-section of a Smelting-furnace, c . d. Gauges, e. Mould XVI. Eagle made of wrought-iron by Miyochin Muneharu. (Original in the Kensington Museum). XVII. Inlaid Vase of cast-iron. (Original in the Royal Museum of Art-industry in Berlin) ..... XVIII. Bronze Vase from Kioto XIX. Ancient Vase of Arita Porcelain .... XX. a. Box made of old Arita Porcelain, b. Bowl made of old Satsuma Stoneware XXI. Satsuma Stoneware Urn. (Original in the Royal Museum of Art-industry in Berlin) ..... XXII. Sake-flask of Kaga Porcelain .... XXIII. Banko-yaki from Yokkaichi XXIV. Copper Mug with Enamel Cloisonne and Painting in 209 356 357 362 364 372 386 3§S 394 396 396 396 410 428 433 436 444 469 472 474 474 474 496 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. WOODCUTS INSERTED IN TEXT. i. Kiseru — the Japanese Pipe 2-6. The Ginseng Plant in various stages 7. Root of the Ginseng Plant ..... 8. Apparatus for producing Camphor, in Tosa, Japan 9. Oil Press 10, 11. Female and Male of the Silk-spinners (Antherea Guerin-Meneville) ..... 13. Cover of a Box ornamented with Tsui-shiu . 14. Apparatus for the preparation of Crape Paper 15. Cast-iron Kettle, with Inlaid work. 16. Copper Box, with Inlaid work .... 17. Cover of Box, with Inlaid work and Chasing 18. Shiro-kane Medallion ...... 19. Tea-pot of grey-brown Stoneware, from Kuwana, in Ise 20. Muffle for burning in of Enamel Colours Yama-mai PAGE . 133 '37-141 142 148 151 209 372 409 433 433 439 448 465 495 MAPS. I. Map showing Distribution of Tea and Silk Culture. II. „ „ Tallow and Lacquer Trees. III. „ Mininsr Districts. INTRODUCTION. FOR three decades, Japan, more than any other Asiatic country, has been attracting, to an ever-increasing extent, the attention and the most widely varied interest of the Western world. Numberless newspaper articles, treatises, and books, as different in contents and value, as in the preparation, fitness, and inclination of their authors, bear witness to this fact. Merchants, artists, and scholars feel attracted in the highest degree by the fair Island-kingdom Nippon, the " Land of the Rising Sun," in the eastern part of the Old World, and by the civilization of its inhabitants and their many interesting productions, both natural and artificial. But even more effective in winning and keeping such sympathies, since the notable occurrences to which the Perry expedition, in 1854, gave the first impulse, has been and is the relation of the government and people of Japan to the advances of Christian civilization. In order to become acquainted with the results of this civilization, and to turn them to account, the Japanese Government invited into the country, from the greatest and foremost lands of Christian cul- ture, educated men as teachers and organizers ; while, on the other hand, it sent forth ambitious and talented young men into the West, to complete their education for the good of their fatherland. Officials in high positions, moreover, have repeatedly appeared among us, with the same intent, and have made it their business to master our principal systems of administration, popular edu- cation, and industrial activity. And we have further proofs of the talent and zeal of this surprisingly progressive nation, when we read how here a Japanese won with honour a university degree, and how there another succeeded in chaining the attention of our German savants by a scientific discourse; how Japan has distin- guished herself by noteworthy contributions to the different national exhibitions of modern times, while opening at home her first railway, in the planning and building of which no foreign engineer participated. But Government and people have won a still greater victory in matters of religion. They have at last exchanged their old prejudices and hatreds, and the severe ban against Christianity, for full religious liberty, which cannot fail to exert a favourable influence upon the spread of Christian teaching. With the restoration of the Mikado to power in 1868, the whole feudal system went to pieces. The Daimios, partly of their own accord, and partly because compelled by the new Government, II. » B INTRODUCTION. deserted their strongholds, many of which, in this transition period, fell a prey to destruction, so that their ruins, like many with us, stand gazing out upon the world, the speechless memorials of a differently constituted age. A similar fate threatens the Bud- dhist temples and cloisters. For with the reorganized adminis- tration there entered a new spirit, a breath of that Christian civilization, whose results have already been briefly hinted at. The religious freedom recently proclaimed is one more natural stride in this direction in which that Asiatic land and people, farthest from us in space, have drawn nearer to us in spirit than any other has ever been. In view of all these phenomena, Schiller's words are here appropriate : — " Das Alte stiirzt, es andert sich die Zeit, Und neues Leben bliiht aus den Ruinen." Old Japan found its ideal in China, in Chinese contributions to political, industrial, and intellectual affairs ; new Japan seeks its ideal in the Christian countries of the West. It has been shown, or at least indicated, in the first volume of this work, 1 that the Japanese are a peculiar branch of the great Mongolian family, in physical appearance, language, and characteristic traits of mind ; and that they belonged to the Chinese system of civilization, and received the impulses to all their social, agricultural, and industrial development from China, principally by way of Corea. The introduction of Buddhism and of Chinese philosophy, par- ticularly the teachings of Confucius, were therein also considered, as mediums of this peculiar civilization. While this philosophy fostered caste-spirit, feudalism, and ancestor-worship, Buddhism especially influenced the industrial population, exerted a softening effect upon manners, and trained up peaceable, quiet labourers in field and workshop. The noteworthy performances of the Japanese in these two departments of labour, and the increasing influence of their productions upon our own affairs, will be fully brought to view in the following chapters. For the history and ethnography of the Japanese people, as well as for the natural history of the land, and its geographical relations, the reader is again referred to the first volume of this work, which, at the time of its publi- cation, I designated as a preliminary study towards the better understanding of the various phenomena of industrial life. 1 Title of Vol. i., as published in English: "Rein's Japan: Travels and Researches." London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1884. AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY. AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES. I. ' Nihil est agricultura mslius, nihil uberius, nihil dulcius, nihil homine libero dignius." — Cic. de Off., lib. I. AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY. AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES. i. Japanese Agriculture in General. Possession and Taxation. — Area and Division of Cultivated Lands. — Climate and Soil. — Efforts of the Government to elevate Agriculture. — The Kaitakushi, or Colonial-office. — Fertilization and P reparation of the Soil. — Terrace-culture. — Planting in Rozvs. Ix contrast with the nomadic races of Central Asia, the inhabit- ants of the monsoon region have for thousands of years been tied to the soil. They are intensely devoted to agriculture, especially in China and Japan. Little opportunity is left in these countries for cattle-raising ; and since meadows and pastures are wanting, milk, butter, and cheese — the principal food of the nomadic Mongolian peoples — were unknown to the Chinese and Japanese. Eggs, and the products of fishing and the chase, play a far more important role than the flesh of domestic animals, which is not eaten by many millions. Since sheep were but seldom found in China, and not at all in Corea or Japan, wool was formerly of small consideration in the matter of clothing. Hemp and cotton goods, and silk among the rich, especially in the winter, are the stuffs with which the popu- lation is clothed. In the countries of Chinese civilization, the dwelling is a more or less solid house, built of wood or bamboo-cane, and roofed with straw, shingles, or tiles. It is airy and pleasant in summer, but less comfortable in winter, when the occupants exercise their skill in protecting themselves against cold by the increased quantity and better selection of their clothing, rather than by solid walls and suitable heating apparatus. In internal arrangement, the dwellings of the Chinese, Japanese, and Coreans differ very considerably from one another. Common to them all, however, is the use of bark-paper for window-panes. From the reports of travellers in Central Asia, it appears that there too, as in the monsoon region, glass panes are not used, but that the paper pane over the window AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY. frame or swinging door has penetrated even into Zungaria, without having been adopted by other peoples. As Tokugawa Iyeyasu, the founder of the last Shogun dynasty, emphasizes in the twelfth of his "Eighteen Laws," the introduction of agriculture into Japan is to be ascribed to the sun-goddess Tensho Daijin (Amaterasu). She was, to the old Japanese, Janus and Ceres in one. Her temple at Yamada, in Ise, was the great national sanctuary, which had to be cared for according to law, and built anew every twenty-one years out of consecrated Hinoki-wood (CJiamczcyparis obtusa, S. and Z.), " in order that the land might have peace, and the Gokoku thrive." By Gokoku (five chief cereals) were meant rice, barley and wheat, Italian millet, other kinds of millet, and beans — in fact, the principal Kokurui, that is, cereals and pulse. The term Go-koku, however, did not mean the same in all ages. Thus we find in Kaempfer, "Amcen. exot." p. 834, Kome {Oryzci), O-mugi (Hordeum), Ko-mugi (Tritiaim), Daidsu {DolicJws soja, L.) and Adzuki [Phaseolus radiatits, L.) mentioned as Gokoku. Later, the idea was extended farther, and included all important food-plants belonging to the group of cereals and pulse. In this high estimate of the Go-koku they imitated the Chinese, as, in general, Chinese agriculture has been the starting-point and prototype of the Japanese. 1 The Emperor Shinnung had introduced and spread the practice of agriculture in China, about the year 2700 B.C. For this he was deified after death, and a temple was dedicated to him in Peking. In the park-like surroundings of this temple, the emperor of China since then, at the time of the spring equinox, annually ploughs a piece of land and sows it with go-koku. The Mikado, it is true, was under no such obligation at the sanctuary of the mother of his race, in Ise ; but agriculture was none the less regarded in his realm on that account. The Japanese appreciates the fact that it is the first and best foundation of the prosperity of the population and of the State, being the most ne- cessary and the only sound basis ; and he expresses this idea in the saying, "No wa kuni no moto," "Agriculture is the prop of the country." According to the latest census of January 1, 1883, it employed 18,160,213 persons, or about the half of a total popula- tion of 37,017,302. And these, moreover, are merely the Hiya- kusho, or actual peasants, to whom are to be added from the group of former Samurai, a portion, estimated at many thousands, who have, in recent times, likewise turned their attention to agriculture. Agriculture pays to the State 58 per cent, of its income ; or, with the addition of the agricultural industries, as Sake-manufacture, etc., and the tax upon them, as much as 80 per cent. 2 1 See Bretschneider : " On the Study and Value of Chinese Botanical Works ;" and Williams : "The Middle Kingdom," i. 78. - At the close of the fiscal year which ended June 30, 1884, the total revenue AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES. Among the three classes of the Japanese people (Heimin), the farmer (Hiyakusho) stood higher in rank than the artisan (Sho- kunin) and merchant (Ahindo). Among the Samurai the occu- pations of the last two were deemed less honourable, but they did not find it beneath their dignity to till the field like common peasants. They made use of this social freedom, however, only in a few districts, as Satsuma and Tosa, that is, in just those regions which were celebrated for producing the bravest and most in- telligent warriors. Maron, in his report on Japanese agriculture, 1 a work that is still worth reading, remarks that, owing to the long isolation of the land, the Government and the nation at large had to yield to the consciousness that bodily existence depended under all circumstances upon the productions of their own lands, and that nothing could make up a possible deficit in the harvest. From this we might argue to an improvement in agriculture at the be- ginning of the Tokugawa rule ; which in fact is well known from the history of Iyeyasu, especially in reference to the plain of Kuwanto. The development of foreign commerce was in those days com- pletely crippled ; and the main working power of the nation was all the more turned to agriculture and kept in that channel. The long period of peace, however, which began with the year 1600 pro- bably had a more far-reaching effect than this fact in determining the character of Japanese agriculture ; for, although it had already attained a vigorous growth after the Chinese pattern, it had later retrogressed very considerably on account of the continual civil wars. According to the old Japanese view, which is based on the tradition and representation of his heavenly descent, and the crea- tion of the Japanese islands by his divine ancestors, Isanagi and Isanami, the Mikado was and is the lord of the whole country, and the only landed proprietor in it. But in reality, the extended mountain forests, as well as all waste and barren land, belonged in later times principally to the feudal lords, and is now the property of the State, while the cultivated soil was owned by the peasant, as hereditary lessee. He was, and is still, what we should call a small farmer, who could inherit his property, let it out to others, increase it by purchase, or transfer it to other hands by sale ; but, in any case, he had to see to it that it remained under the traditional system of cultivation and that the taxes reckoned upon that basis were, at the right time, made over to the prescribed authority. By this the right of possession and disposition was, so far, restricted. The taxes upon cultivated soil were in general high, and had to be paid in kind. Apart from this, however, the Japanese of Japan was 73,943,258 yen. The ground tax paid 43,029,745 of this, and the tax on Sake and similar articles of luxury, 16,768,135 yen (1 yen = 4*3 shillings, about). 1 See Salviati : " Annalen der Landwirthschaft," vol. xxxix., pp. 35-72. AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY. peasant occupied a much freer position than many of his class in Europe during the Middle Ages, who were far more rigorously- oppressed, as Thunberg 1 emphasizes, with villainage and other burdens. From what has been said, we must infer a great difference in the extent of peasant proprietorship. But larger, and according to our conception, better rounded estates, the so-called latifundia, are now altogether wanting. There are no large landed proprietors in Japan, either peasants or nobles. In the most ancient times, as long as the Mikado was still the actual autocrat of land and war, and the various classes of society had not yet been rigidly and by birth separated from one another, the taxation of the peasants was light, for Japanese conditions. Every eight families had to farm for the Mikado a ninth part of the arable land apportioned to, and divided equally among, them, and deliver to the officials its raw products. But as dualism in government and the feudal system under the Shogunat developed, the number of the unproductive classes of the Samurai, in the widest sense, increased, and with it the amount of taxation upon the peasants, which, particularly in time of war, reached, through arbitrary regulations, a weight that was often crushing. In place of the original feudal relation to the Mikado, sprang up that to the feudal lords. Through all the changes of mastership, the peasants remained bound to the soil, and they are, to this hour, in every respect the most conservative class in Japan. The chief support and power of the country rests in the hands of this industrious, sober, and frugal population, which still cultivates the soil in original simplicity, as it has been accustomed for centuries to do under all kinds of rulers. About the year 1595 A.D. Taiko-sama (Hideyoshi) reorganized their system of taxation, decreeing that the contribution of raw products should henceforth consist of a third part of the assessed produce of the fields, and should be paid in rice. Iyeyasu made no alteration in this arrangement with reference to his great pos- sessions, but only declared, in the thirty-sixth of his Hundred Laws, that the produce of forests, groves, mountains, and rivers should also be taken into the reckoning. 2 Thus matters stood until 1716, when the taxation of the lands of the Shogun was increased to one-half of the assessed produce. In the estates of the Daimios, the revenues were by no means everywhere the same. While the peasants under one of these feudal lords were almost crushed by the high land-tax and lived in extreme poverty, the mild, provident rulership of a neighbour was indicated by greater prosperity, by the building of roads and bridges, and many other improvements. But the peasant went about his work in the old-fashioned way, and despite this great 1 In Akerbruket : "Resa," iv. pp. 76-92. 2 Kempermann : " Die Gesetze des Izeyasu," in " Mitth. der deutschen Gesell- schaft," etc., i. p. 12. AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES. difference in the burdens of landed property among the various estates, lived quietly and in a docile manner, even when the harvest was short and he had to surrender almost the whole crop, so that he and his family were afterwards dependent upon the master's good-will and store-house. The arable land was divided into four classes, of which the rice- fields composed the first and most taxable. All returns and revenues were reckoned in koku of rice, 1 and those of the other cereals were reduced to the equivalent in rice. A daimio of 10,000 koku, accordingly, was a feudal lord whose estate was valued at a total of 10,000 koku of rice, even if a considerable part of this sum was only an equivalent term for other crops. The peasants had to surrender to him after harvest the high fixed per- centage (one-third, one-half, or more) ; the rest was their own. This rice-tax, however, went into the storehouse, from which not only the Daimio and his family, but also the Shogun, the Samurai and priests received their allotted shares. Ten thousand koku, however, was the revenue of the smallest Daimio estates, whereas, the largest, for example, Kaga, with the most extended area (next to the Shogun) was estimated at 1,027,000 koku. One of the first efforts of the new Government, after the restora- tion of the Mikado to power, was to introduce a more just and even taxation of landed property, and to substitute money for taxes in kind as a medium of payment. This took place in 1872, by means of a proclamation, for which its originators anticipated great success. But it had the opposite effect upon the peasant class — general discontent and passive resistance against the great innovation, and in the following two years even excited public tumults in certain provinces. These were, however, soon put down ; and the great dislike to the changes also came gradually to an end among thoughtful people. Nevertheless it is an interesting question, What was the cause of such conduct on the part of a class usually so obedient and subservient ? The right answer to it was given in 1873 by Kid6, one of the most prominent and acute of the Mikado's supporters and advisers at the time of the restor- ation. In a memorandum, in which he criticises sharply the revo- lution of all things by new laws and ordinances, he writes: "Another evil is, that the laws are repealed without sufficient deliberation. That which was yesterday accounted just, is condemned to-day ; and even before a new statute comes into operation, another follows and partly supersedes it. It must naturally be hard for the people to reconcile all this." A number of regulations, some of them ridiculous in the extreme, had been, in single ken, added to the new and energetic laws, like the revenue reform and the new re- cruiting act (which made all classes of society liable to military service, hitherto the duty and privilege of the Samurai), and men's 1 A koku holds i8o - 4 liters. The value of a koku of rice ranges from 2 \ to 5 dollars. io AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY. heads were completely turned. It is no wonder then that the peasants looked upon the new revenue system as only increasing their burdens, and accepted it with distrust and ill-will. It was nevertheless carried out, and in the following way. On the basis of the old division of arable land into rice land (ta) and dry-farming land (hata), and of the supposition that the pro- duct of a cho of the former should be reckoned equal to that of 2 - 6 cho of the latter, the Government, in 1873, taxed not only the value of the average harvest-returns, but also the land-value in the several ken, and determined then to raise 3 per cent, of this basal value as a yearly state tax. The proportion was, on January 4th, 1877, reduced to 2\ per cent. To this general State tax one must now add, however, the district, or ken tax, which varies from \ to 2\ per cent, of the land value, thus in general corresponding as to its objects to our district and communal tax, and to which also all institutions (theatres, etc.) and persons that serve for the entertainment and pleasure of the public had to contribute. Liebscher l says with reference to this land-tax, — which, while nominally 2\ per cent, is really from 3 to 5 per cent, of the value of the land, when the ken tax is counted in, — that it would be in other countries too high to collect ; but that the possession of land means to the Japanese farmer something quite different from what it does to us. " With us, a workman can afford to pay a far higher price or rent, than a rich farmer, for a piece of land, which he can cultivate in his leisure hours, and for whose manuring and working he need be at no care or expense. Thus, too, the soil has a much greater worth to the Japanese peasant than is expressed by the money value of the crops possible for him to get from it, being absolutely necessary for his existence." Nevertheless, the peasant insurrections in quite recent times, with their causes, show that the present method of taxation has its hard features ; that the tax cannot be gathered after bad harvests, and may rouse the people to desperation. According to those investigations and decrees of the Japanese ministry of finance, in 1873, which had reference only to the old O-yashima, the area amounted to : — Rice land 2,539,090 cho = 2,5 18, 106 ha. 2 Dry-farmland 1,732,449 „ =1,718,122 „ Total cultivated land . . 4,271,539 cho = 4,236,228 ha. The average value of rice land was : — 5 3 1 "24 yen = 2 1 24-96 marks per cho (or hectare), and that of the hata, 20672 „ = 826-88 „ The gross product of the average harvest was reckoned at 1177 per cent, of the selling piece of land = 62-5 3 yen per cho, for rice 1 " Japans Landwirthschaftliche Verhaltnisse." Jena, 1882. 2 ha = hectare. A GRICUL TURAL IND US TRIES. land, and at 11-29 P er cent. = 2337 yen per cho, for dry-farm land. The harvest products of 1 177 per cent, and 11-29 per cent, respec- tively, of the value of the land were distributed as follows : Rice land. Dry-farm land. s ~ v , " ~= — X per cent. per cho. per cent. per cho. State tax . . . . 2-5 13-28 ... 2-5 5-17 Ken tax .... 2-5 1328 ... 25 5-17 Costs of production 2-77 1472 ... 2*29 4-75 Net earnings . . . 4-00 21-25 ••• 4'°° ^28 1 177 62-53 1129 23-37 On this basis, the ground tax for — 2,539,090 cho of rice land comes to . . 33,719,115 yen, and for 1,732,449 cho of dry-farm land comes to 8,956761 yen; and for both together, 4> 2 7 I >539 cho of cultivated land comes to 42,675,876 yen. And 43,029745 yen was the actual revenue taken in the fiscal year which ended June 30, 1884. At present the area of Old Japan 1 (Hondo, Kiushiu, Shikoku, Awaji, Sado, Oki, Iki, and Tsushima), comprising 18,537 sc l- r * = 28,356,945 sq. cho, is divided as follows : — 1. Uncultivated mountain forests and desert land 17,302,928 sq. cho. 2. Cultivated and useful land, in the broadest sense 11,054,017 „ The latter embraces — a. ta, or rice land 2,642,251 sq. cho. b. hata, or dry fields 1,852,455 „ c. hara in use (for grass, hay, and pasturage) 756,127 „ d. yashiki, or building ground 548,541 „ e. shio-hama (flat sea-shore for salt evapora- tion) 6,364 f. cultivated forests 5,240,571 „ g. artificially made pleasure-grounds . , . 7>7o8 „ 11,054,017 sq. cho. The group b (hata) embraces also — the mulberry plantations for silk culture 1 10,174 sq. cho. tea-plantations 4 2 ,i74 ,» 1 According to information kindly given by the imperial Japanese embassy at Berlin, with reference to the levies of 1879, and also of Heir Regierungsrath Rudolph. 12 AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY. Also the land devoted exclusively to the paper- mulberry, to the lacquer-tree and the tallow-tree, and to fruit-raising, all of which would come to 60,000 cho; so that from the above 1,852,455 cho, 212,000 cho in round numbers are to be subtracted, and there will remain for agriculture, under a and b, only about 4,282,000 cho in all, or 1 5 per cent, of the total area. If one takes into consideration, moreover, the other island groups, it becomes apparent that only the Riukiu islands, with their 156 sq. ri = 244,026 square cho, are under advanced cultivation ; while the great Yezo with the Kuriles = 6,093 square ri = 9,477,280 square cho, has a small amount of agriculture to show. We shall reckon it and the Riukiu high enough in taking the total area of the latter as cultivated land, and adding this to the above 4,282,000 square cho. So then, it turns out that the whole Japanese Empire, with 24,799 square = 38,564,345 square cho, has at the most an area of 4,518,500 square cho for the cultivation of field products, that is to say, not quite 12 per cent, of the entire surface. And even in Old Japan, this small proportion sinks in some provinces, as Hida and Inaba, to as little as 5 per cent, and under. Of the Kuriles, only the most southerly are arable at all, even in streaks and patches ; of Yezo, only the alluvial plains of the Ishikari and other rivers in the west and south, not the north and east coasts, which are foggy, and cold even in summer. In Germany, 41 per cent, of the ground is devoted to agriculture, and 11 per cent, more is meadow-land, for which Japan has no equivalent, since the bottoms of the valleys — with us, especially among the mountains, used for raising grass — are in Japan put under cultivation for rice and similar products. The hara, too, cannot, in an economical sense, be compared with our pastures. Taking the population of Japan as 37,000,000, and that of the German Empire as 47,000,000, the cultivated arable land of the for- mer as 4,270,000 ha, and of the latter as 22,181,000 ha (41 per cent, of 541,000 square kilometres), we discover that there are in Japan 1 1*5 Are to the head, against 47 # 2 to the head in Germany. The cause of this remarkable fact lies partly in the climate and the nature of the soil, partly in the method of farming. Vegetation — and consequently agriculture also — depends above all upon climate, particularly upon temperature, light, and moisture, and is only secondarily conditioned and modified by the nature of the soil and other circumstances. Now, the climate of Japan, as was minutely explained in the first volume, pp. 120-153, 1 is, in a reduced scale, the same as that of the neighbouring continent and that of the oceanic islands, to a certain extent uniting both. Japan lies under the influence of the monsoons and of the sea, which deflects them somewhat and weakens their effects. Atmospheric depressions, 1 In addition to that work, the publications, subsequently issued, of E. Knip- ping, of Tokio, the highly deserving director of the meteorological observa- tories in Japan, were made use of. AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES. 13 as a rule, follow the main directions of the islands, from S. W. to N.E. In winter they are frequent, and generally of short duration. The prevailing directions of storms at this season are from W., S., and E. In summer the depressions of the barometer occur more seldom, are slighter, and move more slowly from S. to N., or from S.E. to N.W. Soft winds are accordingly the rule, and storms seldom occur, and then chiefly from the S. and E. In late summer and autumn, the number and rapidity of depressions increase rapidly, their direction changes to S.W., the normal, and several typhoons are developed amid widespread heavy and lasting rains: These dreaded whirlwinds set in most frequently in September, when the sea-water has reached its highest temperature; and this was the case with both of last year's storms, of which the first was observed on September 15th, and the others on the 17th and 18th. 1 During the first, on September 15th, 1884, which travelled from S.W. to N.E. over the south-eastern part of Hondo, the barometer sank about 45 mm., down to 705 mm., within 4.V hours, and rose again almost as fast. Apart from these isolated cases, the barometric changes in the course of a year are slight. In winter the high barometric state of the continent crosses to Japan, and brings heavy winds from the N. and N.W., and a clouded sky with great fall of snow on the side next the Japan Sea, but a clear sky and little snow on the other, the lee side. The transition from the soft, warm, and damp south winds of summer to the rough and relatively dry north monsoon winds of winter is by no means sharp and immediate. Still less so is the reverse process in spring. This vernal and autumnal change in the direction of the winds marks the end and beginning respec- tively of the two chief divisions of the year, winter and summer. When. the south monsoon enters upon its sway in spring (in March or April, according to the latitude), and Japan proper receives its first warm showers, then begins the sowing of summer grain, es- pecially of rice ; and when in September, after heavy rainfalls, the summer is ended, the harvest of most of the crops begins. A relatively high temperature, light winds, great dampness of the air, and frequent rains, which alternate, however, once or oftener with dry spells a week long, characterize the Japanese summer. October, the general harvest-month, is for the most part dry and clear. The water of the heavy September rains has gradually run off; but above the highest mountain-summits the precipita- tions of vapour have already acquired a sharp outline, and the white hoods, with many other natural appearances, announce that winter is near. Trees and shrubs in gardens, groves, and forests, display a large share of their autumn garments — a delightful diversity of colours, from the deepest, most brilliant dark green of the ever- 1 See "Annalen der Hydrographie und Mark. Meteorologie," 1885, pp. 99 ff. 14 AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY. green varieties through all the shades of dull-green, white, yellow, red, and brown of the deciduous sorts. The nights grow colder, till, towards the end of the month, the change of season is quickly concluded with the first frosts, and winter quiet prevails in wood and field. From this time on, most of the trees are bare of leaves, at least in Central and Northern Japan, and the turf appears much duller and more lifeless than with us. As in all Eastern Asia, so in Japan, winter is the dry season, in which there prevail mostly a clear sky, high pressure and low tem- perature — the last especially at night, and when the monsoon has been blowing for several days with unusual force. On such days, in January and February, there may appear in Japan, though quite exceptionally, those dust-storms which make winter so disagree- able in China. The light, porous soil is whirled about, the sun loses its lustre and the winter grain in the fields its firm hold. And the thermometer sinks during the night to — c/or — io° Centi- grade in Tokio, and approaches the freezing-point even in the day- time. Night-frosts occur from November till March ; and the mean temperature for this winter of five months is only 5*5° C. This shows that the cold is far too great to admit of vegetable growth, although never very severe, and that therefore the fruits of the field have a long period of rest. The mean temperature from April to October is 20 C, and from June to September, the four hottest months, 23 '5° C. The greatest heat, 34-35° C, comes to- wards the end of July or in the beginning of August, but does not last long. From the sea-level to the mountain-tops the elevation is more than 3,000 metres, and the country extends over twenty-seven degrees of latitude, so that there is great diversity of climate. The Bonin-islands and Riukiu (partly of coral structure) in the south approach the tropic of Cancer, while Yezo and the Kuriles are related to Siberia, in situation and climate ; and their coasts have cold foggy summers and long winters, in consequence of the above- mentioned polar current. Thus the meteorological observations for 1883 gave a variation in mean temperature between 167° C. in Kagoshima (31° 30' N. lat.) and 6'$° C. in Sapporo (43° 4' N. lat), over a stretch of country as wide as from Lyons to Memel. It is apparent from this, and from observations at the intervening stations, that the mean annual temperature in Japan falls on the average cc/ C. for every degree of latitude going north — a re- latively rapid change. It is considerably lower than on the same parallels in the west of Europe. For example, the station Nobiru, in latitude 38° on the Pacific, has the same mean annual tempera- ture as Cork and Valentia in Ireland, in latitude 5 2°. The differ- ence is ascribable to the long winters of Japan, with their rela- tively low temperatures, on account of which the climate of Japan approaches that of the continent of Asia. Thus Nagasaki, in latitude 32° 44', has the same mean winter temperature as Mont- A GR1CUL TURAL 1ND US TRIES. pellier, which lies ii° further north; and Kagoshima, although in the same latitude as Damietta, has frequent night frosts in winter. January was the coldest month of 1883 in the greater part of Southern Japan (Kiushiu, Shikoku, and the parts of Hondo which border on the Inner Sea and the Owari Bay) ; but in the rest of Hondo and in Yezo it was February. August proved the hottest almost everywhere. The difference between the mean maximum and the mean minimum temperatures increases naturally with the latitude and with the distance of the station from the coast. It amounted in Miyasaki, for example, to 19° C, and in Sapporo to 28 C. More important, for vegetation at least, are the greatest extremes of 36 - 6° C. in Wakayama and — 22'2°C. in Sapporo. In Kochi the difference between the highest and lowest temperature amounted to 36° C. ; in Sapporo, 56 C. Variations of 14 or I5°C. on the same day and in the same place are not unusual in spring and autumn. With reference also to the amount and distribution of rainfall, the greatest differences were indicated. The stations in Yezo ex- cepted, Aomori, Nobiru, and those on the Inner Sea recorded the least rain-fall (under 1,000 mm.) ; Kanazawa, the highest (2,400 mm.) ; and then followed Kiushiu and Shikoku. During the winter months, the greatest fall is on the north-west and west coasts. The largest amount, for Kiushiu and Shikoku, comes in April, May, and June, while in March, September, and October there is a more equal distribution over the whole country. In general, however, Japan is blessed with copious rains, especially in summer. These, together with the large amount of snow, which in winter lies everywhere upon the mountains, and, towards the north, on the plains, supply a number of springs. The water supply of the country is therefore copious and is of great aid to vegetation, partly directly and partly through irriga- tion. Quiet lakes, murmuring brooks, and rushing cascades heighten the charm of the landscape in mountains and forests ; but there is not room enough for the development of great river systems and a thorough utilization for commerce. The long extended row of the Japanese islands, with predomin- atingly mountainous character and great diversity in relief, is of varying geological structure. This subject has, since my departure from Japan, been thoroughly investigated, especially by Gottsche, Lyman Naumann, and others. The last, particularly, as director of the geological survey, in conjunction with T. Wada, the royal mini- sterial councillor and director of the Royal Geological Institute, has expended much industry and skill in this department. 1 In the order of age, there follow upon the original gneiss, — which, however, has been found outcropping only in a few spots, — widespread and often extensive deposits of crystalline shales. Great 1 See E. Naumann : " Ueber den Bau und die Entstehung der Japanischen Inseln." Berlin, 1885. 16 AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY. masses of mica-, talc-, chlorite-schist, serpentine, and marble, — whose presence on both sides of the Bungo Nada I was the first to prove, and which can be followed through all Shikoku and the peninsula of Yamato, — have been since then found in all parts of the country ; but this formation appears to be most extensively developed in Shikoku, where, according to Naumann, it composes the highest peaks. Then follow, according to age, different strata of clay-shale, greywacke, quartzite and lime-stone, all of which, like the crys- talline shales, often exhibit marked faults — and until now, with the exception of the varieties of lime, have yielded no fossil contents, and therefore no data for a nearer determination of their age ; so that they must for the present be grouped together as palaeozoic strata. The lime-formations exhibit in various localities rich enclosures of Fusulines and other characteristic petrifications, which establish beyond a doubt that they belong to the carbon- iferous formation. 1 In 1874, through the discovery of petrifactions in the brown Jurassic formation of the province Kaga, I furnished the first proofs regarding the existence of mesozoic strata, an indication which has been followed by countless others, so that now there is no doubt as to the appearance also of trias and chalk. Miocene and pliocene conglomerates, sandstone, slate clays, peat, volcanic tufas, and sea-sand, with many fragments of marine shells or a rich land-flora, lie in many places among the older mountain ridges already mentioned, and especially in proximity to the sea, along the coasts and inlets, or in the plains which long ago arose from the ocean itself. Of eocene formations, however, as well as of the diluvian, there has not yet been any certain in- dication. The oldest eruptions, — which have in many places broken through the metamorphic and palseontological strata, and overlie them, — were of granite, which is very widespread. For example, in central Hondo (or Honshiu), it forms a large part of the higher mountains ; the border range between Shinano and Hida, parti- cularly, being a case in point. In the Komagatake of Kai, the granite reaches a height of 3,000 metres. A great number of other mountains of respectable height are also composed of it, and it underlies many others. Later volcanic formations with almost greater frequency break through most varied complexes of strata, and in many cases over- lie them, as they do the granite. Thus they often compose the tops of peaks, or they appear along the mountain side as isolated advanced outposts, in the usual conical shape. Among these the most prominent is Fuji-san, or Fuji-no-yama. This "mons ex- celsus et singularis" (Kaempfer) lifts its head (3,750 meters) far 1 See the first volume of this work, p. 38, and Naumann, pp. 12 ff. AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES. 17 above all other peaks of the land, covered with snow for ten months of the year, and a weather-sign and prognostic for farmers and sailors. It is the most popular mountain in Japan, and the one most visited by pilgrims. It is found reproduced on many works of decorative art. Hot springs, especially neutral, and sulphur springs, are numerous ; and no province is wanting in them. Earthquakes and their accompanying floods, as well as mighty eruptions, with their showers of ashes and streams of lava, have from time to time thrown the country into terror and partly devas- tated it. The predominatingly mountainous character of Japan and the peculiar method of farming, with rice as the chief staple, confine agriculture more or less to the plains and the valley bottoms ; and this fact accounts for the low percentage of cultivated land. A larger part of the soil is indisputably fit for cultivation, so in Yezo and the north of Hondo and particularly of the Hara, and in many of the glades among the mountain forests ; but this amount is not as great as is often maintained. To bring this land under cultivation, however, an altogether different method must be employed, and must go hand-in-hand with the establishment of better means of communication, with the development of cattle- raising, — bringing about, as the latter would, a proper system of manuring, — and with the introduction of a more comprehen- sive method of management, involving more appropriate ap- pliances and machines, not to mention rotation of crops and many other improvements. All this would completely transform the domestic and business habits of the peasants, and for this reason alone cannot take place in a day, but must come about gradually and without arbitrary interference from the organs of Government. Dr. Fesca proves convincingly, from several examples, that of the three deciding factors upon which agriculture depends, — " the general agricultural conditions, the soil, and climate," — the first is more influential than the second, and has indisputably hindered very much the development of Japanese agriculture. "The cost of transporting rice, which is the highest priced product, — fifty kilogrammes being worth about five marks, — amounts to the market price of the rice itself by the time it has been carried only twenty geographical miles, on the best highways, while in Germany, according to Settegast, wheat and other grain, at only twice that market price, say ten marks per fifty kilo., can be transported on ordinary roads 6&6j miles, on turnpikes 100 miles, and by rail 400 miles, before the cost of carriage reaches the market price. And on the poorer roads of Japan, rice does not bear a transport- ation of five miles. We find accordingly, that at some distance from the coast, even good soil has not been brought under cultiva- tion, where the margin of profit is too narrow for it, while near II. c 1 8 AGRICULTURE A&D FORESTRY. the coast, even sandy dunes, certainly very poor soil, are success- fully cultivated." l The onward progress of agriculture was greatly obstructed, not only by insufficient means of internal communication, but also by the country's isolation from the rest of the world, during the long reign of the Tokugawa-Shdguns. There was no market for the surplus, and consequently no strong stimulus towards any con- siderable increase in production. Production was thus kept within the narrow bounds of the normal domestic demand. The endeavour of the farmer must everywhere be to make the best use of the soil at his disposal, and Consequently to increase the products derivable from it. And it is, no doubt, one of the first duties of the State to assist agriculture as much as possible in this endeavour, even to stimulate it ; for there is a certain vis inertia in the conservative character of agriculture and. a population devoted to it, which is all too well disposed to keep everything in its old groove and to meet all innovations with distrust and opposition. From this point of view, the Japanese Government deserves full recognition for its efforts to promote agriculture. Neither can one withhold approval if in all this it did not disturb the organization of the industry as the peasants have been used to carry it on for many centuries, but turned its attention instead to regions, which had not been heretofore subject to this time-honoured method of farming — the island of Yezo, 2 for instance, and the vast expanses of the neglected forest and mountain meadows, or Haras. Cattle- raising, first of all, and also agriculture, were recommended and tried, but both in a different way from that formerly pursued. A glance at the measures employed to attain these ends enables us to recognise the work of incompetent advisers, and a childish changeableness in the selection of means — a jumping about from one attempt to another. There was no well-considered plan laid down in the beginning, and no steady, business-like carrying out of any plan whatever. Naturally, therefore, the long history of these attempts shows an irresponsible waste of money on the one side, and for the most part a miserable result on the other. This is particularly true of the Kaitakushi (pronounced kaitakshi, that is " development "), the Colonial-office, for the development of the resources of the island of Yezo, an institution established in 1869, which came to an inglorious end a few years ago. At its head was placed Governor Kuroda, with the rank of a minister. Having heard of the rapid development in agriculture and mining in various parts of the United States, they took that country as a pattern, and invited thence their advisers and officials. General 1 Dr. Fesca : " Die Aufgaben und die Thatigheit der Agronomischen Abthei- lung der Kaiserl. Japan, geol. Landesaufnahme." Yokohama, 1S84. 2 According to Lyman, this island has 7,000 sq. ri of land suitable for farming, 6,000 sq. ri of pasturage, 5,000 sq. ri of forest, 9,000 sq. ri of mountains. The arable land, therefore, amounts to nearly 25 per cent, of the total area. AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES. 19 Capron was installed as organizer, or " commissioner." Under him were a number of his American countrymen, acting as geolo- gists, engineers, farmers, gardeners, etc., and in addition to them, a host of young Japanese, who were to serve their apprenticeship here. Some of these American officials were certainly capable men, who are not to blame because the success of the undertaking did not by any means meet people's expectations, and whose per- formances are not to be identified with those of General Capron. On his recommendation, the Kaitakushi established on the Yashiki-ground of several former Daimios, near Tokio, three so- called model farms, of altogether about ninety ha. These were to serve as experiment-stations and preparatory schools for Yezo — the first, for the reception of breeding cattle imported from North America and England, and the growing of fodder ; the second, for the cultivation of vegetables and grain ; the third, for the intro- duction of foreign fruit-trees, berry-bushes, and other useful plants. Of the cattle, brought at great cost from the countries named, a considerable number were carried off by disease ; the rest were partly lost through unsuitable fodder and insufficient attention. Other model farms were established on Yezo itself, at Hakodate and the new capital, Sapporo. There was opened, also, in 1876, an agricultural school here, called " The Agricultural College of Sapporo," modelled after an institution in Massachusetts. There had already been a fiasco in Tokio with another college designed for the Ainos. The geological survey of Yezo, the building of a road from Hakodate to Sapporo, new saw-mills, and many other things consumed a great deal of money. If it cannot be said that every undertaking of the Kaitakushi was ill-conceived and neglected, and came to nothing, it is, however, true of many. The general opinion of foreigners in Japan was, that the results stood in shocking disproportion to the enormous outlay. Vast sums were placed by the central Government at the disposal of the Kaitakushi. Thus, for example, in 1877 an additional 1,905,666 yen = about £380,000. It was, indeed, long the goose from which many contrived to pluck a golden feather. In aiming to imitate America, they forgot that, in its case, the Government left everything to free competition and development, that the pioneers from Europe and the Atlantic seaboard, who pressed westward and spread their culture over deserts, were quite a different race from the Japanese and Ainos. In this, as in many other cases, the Government displayed lack of experience, blindness towards better advisers, and a desire to do everything through the State and as quickly as possible. And consequently the great hopes which it placed upon this new branch of its activity and development of power were followed only by disappointments, as was natural. An army of officials, divided responsibility, and want of earnest personal interest, crippling all strength and energy, will produce no better result anywhere. The mistakes of Governments AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY. have never been more prominent than in colonization affairs, as the latest European political history shows. Courage, intelligence, self-confidence, and perseverance in hard work, even in the face of misfortune— these are the qualities through which free, independent men have founded colonies and made them prosper. And if Governments have helped to this end, it was only by temporary, prudent backing, but never by taking matters into their own hands and thus crippling the individual forces at work. And just as the Kaitakushi was extravagant, planless, and incon- sistent in its operations, so many another bureau acted in its sphere. Thus, in 1874, American cows were brought to Kioto-fu and put up in buildings over a gravel soil, on the river-bank, in a place where there was no such thing as pasturage far and wide, and to which fodder had to be brought, with great labour, from a distance. The same administration had heard about the advantages of flax- culture, a thing unknown in Japan. The requisite flax-seed was immediately procured from a European and an attempt made with it. The flax grew finely on the piece of land chosen for it in Kioto, as I can testify. But when it had formed capsules and was ready for the harvest, there was no one who gave it the necessary attention and performed the labours that were now necessary. The flax ripened on its stalks and went to ruin with its bast. Many a reader of these lines will recall the notorious " model farm " in Shimosa ; but I do not care to refer here to all the examples of such perverted attempts to elevate agriculture. The right way for the Government, instead of taking everything into its own hands, would have been to encourage the inclination of foreigners to try farming in Japan, to turn over to them for a term of years State lands free of taxes, or for a moderate rent, and permit them to make their experiments. Had these succeeded, they could have served as patterns for the people, and have excited them to imitation ; had they failed, the country would not have had to pay the costs. But all such considerations were thrown into the background by a fear that concessions to foreigners for the pursuit of agriculture might injure the Japanese and lead to entanglements. In 1867, and therefore towards the end of the Shogun govern- ment, and at its behoof, a German farmer, named R. Gartner, had established a model farm on Yezo and, two years later, taken it up on his own account. " Augustenfelde," as he called the estate, soon developed, under Gartner's circumspect, capable oversight, into a really model establishment, perfectly adapted to farming under local conditions. But this did not last long. Scarcely was the new Government organized and established, before it bought in this estate, paying a good round sum for it, and that was the end of its prosperity. Yezo remained, to use Gartner's own words, " a large, rich house, whose owners, like swallows, live only on its out- side, in a state of extraordinary wretchedness." Its inhabitants AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES. are busied and even supported, though scantily enough, by catching the numerous fish and marine animals, and by gathering marine algae and exporting them under commission for enterprising merchants. Captain Gill 1 says of Chinese agriculture, that in his opinion it has been very much over-estimated. That is true, also, of the Japanese, so closely related to it. In one respect, however, they are peculiar, namely in the care which is taken with ground once under cultivation, to see that nothing is lost. Japanese farming is very much more careful, and more to be compared with the scientific horticulture and market gardening in the neighbourhood of our large cities. Japan possesses all the re- quisites for properly carrying out such methods, namely, division of the land among many small owners, plentiful watering, through rainfall and canals, and, above all, immense supplies of cheap and willing labour, to which also women and children contribute. With all these advantages of cheap labour, combined with great industry and skill, the Japanese peasant can always keep the soil of his small holding loose and free from weeds. He can employ manures wisely, so as to get the most out of them. Of course, this kind of farming does not bring wholesale results, like robbing the soil on a large scale. Kaempfer and Thunberg and other later travellers in Japan have spread the impression, — a false one, — that terracing has been more extensively employed than anywhere in Europe, and is customary high on the mountain-sides. The neighbourhood of Nagasaki and the Omura-bay could easily give rise to this mistake. The basalt and trachyte rocks of these regions, so much decomposed by the weather, and peeling off so easily, furnish such a fruitful soil that rich harvests reward the weary building and care of terraces. With the pumice-stone of volcanic districts, or in slate-hills, the case is quite different. Here the mountain-walls are scarcely ever terraced very high, because the harvests from such meagre soil would not justify their existence. And terraces become gradually fewer the farther north one goes. Nowhere do they exceed, or even reach, in extent, in systematic development, and in success as marks of labour and skill, those of our own vine-dressers on the Rhine and in some of its side-valleys, as, for example, along the Mosel, and in the valley of the Ahr above Walporzheim. Terracing in Japan, as elsewhere, is primarily for the purpose of protecting the soil of steep mountain declivities from being carried away by heavy rain-storms, and secondly to facilitate cultivation and irrigation. Now, since plenty of water is absolutely necessary for raising rice, and can only be had on a level field, the ground is terraced for rice, even where its natural slant is so slight that there would be nothing to hinder ploughing, after our fashion, and also no danger of the loams being washed off by rain. But to make these places perfectly suited for the purpose, it is sufficient to build 1 "Journal Royal Geographical Society," 1878, p. 60. AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY. simple smoothed earth-walls, 25 to 40 centimeters in thickness and height ; though to support the terraces great works must be con- structed along the walls of the valleys. So then we find Cyclo- pean walls, not seldom built of boulders from the neighbouring river, or broader, grassy escarpments, upon which, in the south, tea-bushes, the wax-tree, or the paper-mulberry have here and there been planted. There is only an apparent, not a real, contradiction between this last-mentioned fact, that terraces are often used for raising rice, and my former assertion that, in many travellers' accounts the ex- tent of terrace-farming in Japan is much exaggerated. And this latter is easily seen from the low percentage of all cultivated land. There were formerly no enclosed estates in Japan, nor pasturing herds. It was the universal habit to respect the fields and what was growing there. Thus there was neither opportunity nor reason to fence them in at all by means of ditches, walls, hedges, etc.; and separate pieces of land lay side by side, and do so yet, although receiving different kinds of cultivation. And in the plains and valleys, in order to save as much land as possible for the ever- important rice, dwelling-houses were built shoulder to shoulder in villages, and in a line with the roads. On this account, villages and country towns often lie along the chief avenues of communi- cation, with no side streets to speak of, or are strung out on the borders of small plains. No vehicles of any description are used in Japanese agriculture, so that narrow lanes accommodate the general trade from place to place, and still narrower dams between fields serve frequently as footpaths. As we have seen, agriculture in Japan is confined to a little over one-tenth of the country's area. Arid yet, not only is a very large population fed, but in favourable years there is also a not incon- siderable exportation of rice. It would be natural to conclude from this that the farming-land of Japan is distinguished by great fertility ; and up to within very recent times this assertion has been often made. But it is by no means true. On the other hand, experience and even chemical analysis have shown that without most careful attention and manuring, the soil of Japan could in most cases produce no very favourable returns. Without properly understanding or applying the principle of rotation, the Japanese secures these results by subsoil working and loosening of the ground, by keeping it clear, or by repeated treatment with manure while the plants are growing, which last is possible with such crops only as are sown in rows and terraces. To this must be added plentiful watering, through rainfall or irrigation, and lastly the effect of long, uninterrupted summer heat. Crops in Japan are seldom injured by untimely frosts or severe cold, and probably never, to any real extent, by mice or locusts. Among their living foes come, first, wild swine, which are very numerous, and then apes. On the edges of the forest and valley- AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES. 23 steeps, these often are in advance of the peasant in the autumnal harvesting of his bulbs and grains, so laboriously grown. It is then a general practice to keep fires burning all night along the borders of the fields, and to fire off guns to frighten these importunate guests away. But the greatest damage comes from inundations. After many days of uninterrupted heavy downpour like a cloud- burst, or of gentler rain, the water comes dashing down the moun- tain-sides, sweeps away the terraces, and carries off their loamy soil ; or the rising streams in valley and plain overflow their banks, bearing dykes and dams before them, and covering the fields far and wide with mud and boulders. The fruits of long industry, the joys of a toilsome existence, often disappear in a night. Showers of volcanic ashes, too, and typhoons, leave here and there, at longer intervals, their devastating traces. The soil of Japan is largely the product of old shales, granite and trachytic eruptions decomposed by weather. It displays in most cases small natural fertility, so that newly-broken ground yields only scant harvests. The basic group of crystalline volcanic rock is poorly represented in Japan, especially basalt. Where it or basaltic lavas do occur, one observes in their concentric rings, which peel off under the action of the weather, that species of ferru- ginous loam, which, as in the basalt mountains of Germany, seems not to be wanting in the chief requisites of afruitful soil. I found such soil on the road from Nagasaki to the Omura bay, as well as in Gumai-gori, on the Koshiu-kaido. Those rich deposits of loess which fringe so many of our valley-bottoms and are also widely spread in Northern China, do not seem to exist there ; x and marl- soil, too, which is so productive, is not so frequently found in their lowlands as one might expect. Analyses of the soil, in any degree of completeness, were only lately instituted, especially by Kinch,- Korschelt, 3 and Kellner. 4 With reference to the plain of Kuwanto, these corroborate fully certain old accounts of showers of ashes, which fell upon it, at different times, during eruptions of Fuji-san, Asama-yama, and other vol- canoes. And they also proved, as was formerly discovered through examination and microscopic investigation of the ground, that the topmost layer consists essentially of volcanic ashes and tufa. According to Korschelt, the soil about Tokio is, to a depth of 6 meters, a cement-tufa, six parts of which, with an equal amount of sand and one part slacked lime, give a good mortar, sufficiently strong in all cases except where great hardness is required. This tufa-soil consists of 85 per cent, zeoliths and sesquioxides, II per cent, mineral sand, 1*5 percent, clay, 1*5 per cent, quartz sand, and 1 At least I cannot remember ever having met with any in all my travels. ■ "Transact. Ass. Soc. of Japan," vol. viii., pp. 369-416. 1S80. 3 " Mittheilungen der deutschen Gesellschaft Ostasiens," vol. iii., pp. 180-201. 1881. 4 Nobbe: "Landwirthschaftliche Versuchs-stationen,"vol. xxx., pp. 1-S6. 1884. 24 AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY. I per cent, organic matter. Kinch very properly points to the remarkably large proportion (40 per cent.) of easily broken silicates {i.e. the above-mentioned zeoliths), and the almost total absence of free silicic acid. Its richness in magnetic iron, to which, besides organic matter, this tufa-soil owes its dark-brown colour, was approximately calculated by Kinch with a magnet, and loam from Komaba gave 2'5 per cent, in one test, and some from Shi- mosa even 7 per cent, of the total weight. The soil of Japan has great capacity for absorption and for holding water ; but being deep and porous, it suffers little from sagginess, even after heavy rains. The predominance of acid silicates, including trachytic tufa and ashes, — of which the best loam in Japan is largely composed, — explains its extraordinary poverty in elements most necessary for plant-food : lime, potash, and phosphoric acid ; and this poverty increases from the surface downward, as manures tend to make the top-layers more fertile. Kinch determines as follows the average content, from six tests, after deduction of the hygroscopic water : Phosphoric acid, 0*185 per cent. ; potash, 0-363 per cent. ; lime, °'47S P er cent. The results of his investigations, and those of Korschelt, were confirmed and considerably extended a year ago by the analyses of Kellner. Two of these follow here, taken from the work already cited, in Nobbe's " Landwirthschaftliche Versuchs-stationen," vol. xxx. The specimens of earth, like those which Kinch examined, were taken from the Kuwanto. The earth was dried at ioo° C, and then, by means of cold muriatic acid of 1*15 specific weight, were extracted the following : Soil of the Hata. Soil of rice-land. Top-soil. Under-soil. Top-soil. Under-soil. Si 0, A1 2 3 . ...... . Ca Mg O K 2 O Na 2 P 9 0- . . o'3i 1 5 "93 1 1 73 o - 6o 1-41 0-29 CTJ7 o"i9 o - ii 0-29 1973 11-36 o-66 1-44 0-18 0-13 0-18 - I2 0-82 15-50 7'oo o75 0-45 o*io 0-14 037 0-18 079 14-15 7'49 0-70 0-55 0-17 O'OI 035 S0 3 Total Insoluble remnant . . . Humus and Water of com- bination 3074 48-30 23-67 34-09 49-48 18-33 25-31 5o'oo 26-02 24-21 51-16 25-83 Total 102-71 IOI-gO 101-33 I0I-20 AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES. ?5 This comparison shows that the soils, corresponding to their proportion of aqueous double-silicates, are rich in chemically com- bined water and easily separated bases. Upon digestion with muriatic acid, 38*9 per cent, of top-soil and 408 per cent, of under- soil were converted into bases and acids in solution ; of the rice-soil a little less, namely 33*6 per cent, of top-soil and 3ri per cent, of under-soil. The amount of separated components equals about 50 per cent, of the total mineral substance of the soil, a proportion so high that it is generally observed only in lime and serpentine for- mations. The soils are rich in clay and iron compounds, but noticeably poor in lime and chemically combined carbonic-acid. The differences between Hata and Ta, with respect to the com- position of their soils, is not very considerable. By treating the soil with hot, concentrated muriatic acid, the following substances were dissolved or separated : — Earth free from hygroscopic and iarth dried at ioo >C. chemically combined water and humus. Dry Fields. Rice Land. Dry Fields. Rice 7 ields. Top- Under- Top- Under- Top- Under- Top- Under- Si CV . . soil. soil. soil. soil. soil. soil. soil. soil. 1560 18-15 18-60 15-58 20-44 22-23 25-15 2I"OI Al 2 3 . 17-67 21-03 17-05 1480 23-15 2575 23 - 05 20-03 Fe 2 3 . 679 5-06 9'95 2-68 8-87 6-i8 5-38 3*29 FeO . 4"03 5-8 7 47i 5*31 5-29 7-20 6'33 7-60 CaO . . 076 0-90 0-90 080 0-99 no 1*22 I'll MgO . 170 174 o-66 0-62 2-23 2-18 0-89 0-84 K 2 . 0*27 - 26 0-32 0*26 0-35 0-32 0-43 o'35 Na 2 0. 023 0-13 019 0-25 030 o - i6 0'26 0-34 P 2 5 . 0'34 0-39 0-49 040 0-45 0-48 o-66 0-54 S0 3 . . 020 on 016 0-08 0'26 0*14 - 2I O'lO CI . . 0*07 0-09 0-03 0-03 0-09 O'l 1 0'05 0-04 Total 47-66 5373 47-06 40-81 62-42 65-85 6363 55-25 Unseparated 3020 28-64 27-10 33'4o 39'56 35"°7 36-63 45-03 Humus and ) water ol combina- > 23-67 18-33 26-02 25-83 — tion . . . ) To al. 101-53 100-70 ioo - 1 8 100-04 1 101-98 100-92 1 IOO-26 100-28 It is seen from this that the separating effect of boiling hot muriatic acid does not much exceed that of cold. The plain of the Kuwanto, to which the preceding analyses refer, although now-a-days cultivated like a garden, was first brought under cultivation in its present extent through the Tokugawa and 1 Soluble in Nas C0 3 and taken up by H CI. 26 AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY. in consequence of the development of their residence, Yedo. Its soil has the reputation, among the Japanese themselves, of being less fertile than that of many other parts of the country, especially of the richly watered plain of Mino, the plain of Hiroshima, the province of Higo. But of these we have no analysis. In the Japanese system of soil-improvement, stable manure and rotation of crops play only a subordinate rdle. The productive capacity of arable land is gained and maintained by sub-soil work- ing, appropriate use of the manure which is on hand, proper watering, and extraordinary care in working their fields and keeping them clear. The East Asiatic knows and has followed, from time immemorial, the important principle of rational farming, that the soil must receive back in manure what is withdrawn from it in crops, although his action is no more based on scientific knowledge than is that of an old- school German peasant. But, for all that, he must be acknowledged to have more circumspection and more intelligence in selecting and using manure. Much that the rational farmer in Europe had to learn through theory and experiment, was in part an old-estab- lished practice in the agriculture of countries of the Chinese civili- zation. And this circumstance, together with a favourable climate, is undoubtedly the reason why the soil in China and Japan has preserved its old productive power, notwithstanding that, in Japan at least, as we have seen, it is not at all fertile by nature. Nowhere else in the world is manure (Japanese, Koyashi or Koye) more carefully and industriously collected and drawn from various sources, or more rationally utilized, than in East-Asia. The droppings of beasts of burden along the roads is usually taken up on the cheapest conceivable shovel, a flat ear-shell (Haliotis) on the end of a stick, and carried to the fields in baskets. At no time of year, however, does the Japanese put manure on fallow- fields, there to dry up and be robbed by the wind of its most valuable element. And various as the materials may be which are thus turned to account, care is always taken to get them quickly into the ground, where they can begin to operate. The Japanese does not so much manure the soil as the plants themselves, knowing that only in this way a satisfactory result can be obtained. He pro- vides the places where seed is planted or sprouts are set, with manure. As they grow, he supplies the plants with new manure at regular intervals. And thus he follows the most direct and economical method conceivable, which we call ■" head-manuring" (Kopf-diingung). Stable manure, the chief fertilizer in our economy, is of minor importance in Japan, because stock is so scarce ; and only in moun- tainous districts, with their wide grassy stretches and greater need for beasts of burden, has it much significance. Here, one can sometimes see dung piled up in front of peasants' houses, as in many a German village. Cattle and horses, — the only domestic AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES. 27 animals hitherto worth taking into account, — are fed in stalls the whole year round, with few exceptions, so that the traveller in Japan seldom if ever sees a pasturing herd. Long before our farmers had had their attention drawn by chemical investigations to the high proportion of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash in cesspool manure, and learned to value and use it, this played a distinguished role in the empirical agriculture of China and Japan. Human excrements compose here the manure which is most employed and therefore of most account. Fish-guano and oil-cakes are the only things preferred to it. The chief growth-giving element of this cesspool manure, especially for grasses, 1 and thus also for straw-plants, is, as is well known, nitrogen, which is mostly present in the shape of urea and carbonate of ammonia, but escapes if the manure is not soon applied, on account of the quickness with which these bodies are decomposed, forming free ammonia. How they gather these human excrements and turn them to account is a highly interesting question, since the problem of puri- fying our cities, and meeting the increased demands upon our agriculture, has been already so much discussed. The chief points regarding it will therefore be given here. The system is simple, but will hardly be imitated by us, for it has not that regard for eyes and noses which our civilization demands. The corresponding senses of the Japanese are probably no less acute than ours ; but the habit of seeing and smelling dung has evidently made them accustomed to it, in much the same way as practitioners in anatomical and chemical laboratories get used to sights and smells which nauseate the beginner. There are regions in Europe where the way to the closet is through the kitchen ; in Japan it is, as a rule, through the best room, or at any rate close by it. Japanese dwelling-houses are built lightly of wood, and only one or two storeys high, tending generally more to length and depth than to height. They never have cellars and chimneys, and generally no foundation-walls either. The lower floor rests on posts or stones two or three feet above the ground ; kitchen and ordinary living rooms almost always face the street, with the better rooms on the other side, fronting a garden, from which they are separated by a verandah about a meter broad. A step along this verandah takes one to the closet adjoining it at one end, called Chodzu-ba, Yoba, or (vulgarly) Setzu-in. On account of the light open framework of the house, it often happens that the odour from this place floats directly into its best rooms, as any one who travels in Japan can often enough observe. The Chodzu-ba has a floor of deal, with a rectangular opening in the middle, and a tub or a large earthen jar as a receptacle 1 See Lawes and Gilbert : " The Effect of Different Manures on the Mixed Herbage of Grass-land." Jourtt. Roy. Agric. Soc, vol. xxiv. Part I. 28 AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY. beneath. There is no seat ; but the removable frame, which lies around the opening, has at its front end a small post to hold by. This provision distinguishes the Chodzu-ba favourably from similar conveniences among very different nations, the inhabitants of Morocco for instance, and the ancient Romans. For urination there is almost always some particular provision, except only at night. The vessel for receiving urine stands in a corner, and is usually sunk in the earth. In the better class of houses it is covered with a four-sided based pyramid, the interior of which is half filled with short evergreen twigs. In this way or otherwise the urinal is generally concealed from passers-by. But there are still cities that are far enough yet from such a refinement of manners, and where the old Chinese plan is still in vogue, which appears from old accounts, Thunberg's, for example, to have been formerly almost universal. Two particularly striking instances of this sort fell under my observation in 1874, while travelling. I suppose I may mention them here. In the town of Takaoka, in Echiu, noted for its bronze- foundries, I found two rows of such vessels, only quite without cover of any kind, set up in the principal street. And later, in the town of Sakata, north-east of Niigata, I came across this publicity in a still more striking form. Here every house had an arrange- ment of that sort right at the entrance, and my hotel (the Yadoya) had two of them, just about where the portier's office is with us. This may have been formerly the rule in all towns, now it has already become quite an exception. Indeed, there is really less offence against public propriety now in Japan, than in many places in Germany. In large towns the Koye-tori (literally bringer of manure) comes almost every day to get dung (Daiben) and urine (Shoben) and carry them out to the country. He mixes both, and thins the composition with water, when necessary, which is an easy matter, owing to the peculiarly light diet of the Japanese, consisting of strongly-salted soups and sauces and easily-digested rice. But there are others still, besides the regular Koye-tori, who are glad to take away the contents of these tubs. In Germany it is a common sight to see the farmer who has brought milk, butter, and other commodities to town, go back laden with refuse from his customers' kitchens, with which to feed his cattle. In Japan there is no vendor of butter and milk, and consequently no need of fodder ; and instead of kitchen stuff, the countryman who comes in to market often takes back, for his fields, cesspool manure, in buckets slung on a yoke of bamboo-cane or evergreen oak. The Sumida-gawa is the principal depot of this refuse in Tokio, the capital. Flat boats laden with it are to be seen every day along its banks, either directly filled with the manure, or carrying it in tubs arranged in rows and one above another. These manure- boats float in the river and through the fields in side-canals. AGRICULTURAL IN D US TRIES. 29 When such a boat reaches its destination, its contents, already- thinned with water, are baled out with dippers by Hiakusho (peasants). Small tubs on long poles serve for dipping out and transferring the manure, and still smaller ones for distributing it to the plants. Thus the plants are manured and watered at the same time. All young winter produce and vegetables are treated in this way, but never rice. It is only in time of a great abundance that this manure is col- lected in little vats sunk in the fields, and in big buried casks and tubs, roofed over with straw, for later use. As a rule, it is applied direct and fresh, so that its strength, especially of ammonia, is kept from being dissipated. In many Japanese cities the carrying away of cesspool matter is provided for by companies under whose employ are the above- mentioned Koye-tori. These companies pay the householders for this privilege prices which rise and fall with the time of year, according to the demand. They are highest in spring, falling off in winter frequently by more than one-half. Ten years ago the average price in Yokohama for a ka (a man's burden, here two bucketfuls) was from six to eight sen. Three years ago it rose to ten sen ; in April, to twelve and a half, and in this month the company sold the manure to farmers for fourteen and fifteen sen per ka. In Tokio, where the demand is less in proportion to the enormous amount exported, the prices are relatively lower ; in many smaller places, higher. It is comparatively within recent times that cesspool manure has become of any value and an object of purchase with us, as in Stuttgart, where it is bought by the Suabian peasants. A great role is also played by compost (Koye-tsuchi, manure- earth, or Koyashi-tsuchi). This is prepared from earth and every possible sort of vegetable and animal offal, and is often moistened with dung-water, or even with water merely, in order to hasten de- composition. Lime is never used for this purpose. On being applied, compost often receives an addition of dung or even of green manure. Fish-guano is the most expensive and highly-prized of animal manures. It is an important article of commerce, made up of the offal of various kinds of fish, but especially of several varieties of herring, for example the Nishin (Clupea Jiarengns), the Iwashi {Clupea melanosticta and CI. gracilis), and the Isaza {Engraiilis ■iaponicus). These fish appear in great shoals, in March and April, and again in October and November, off certain parts of the Japanese coast, the eastern shore of Yezo, for instance, the coast of Hitachi, along the shores of the Japan Sea, etc. They are not smoked or salted, as in Europe, but chiefly caught for the sake 'of a kind of train-oil, while their ill-smelling remains, when dried, appear in commerce as manure. After the oil has been extracted by boiling the fish in water, the remains are spread out in the fields, dried in the sun, and then exported either loose or 30 AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY. pressed. Thus, for example, a single place, named Tomacomi, on the coast of Yezo, furnishes yearly about 150 tubs of fish-oil and nearly 7,000 Koku of fish-manure. This vile-smelling but very effective fish-guano is used, among other things, for manuring tea- plants. The refuse of silk-worm culture is also made useful as a fertilizer. Another very valuable sort of manure consists in oil-cakes, or Abura-kasu, which, with fish-manure also, is employed in hastening the growth of young cotton and tobacco plants. They are obtained from the seeds of the different oil-bearing plants, as Brassica^ Sinapis, Perilla, Sesamum and Gossypium, and have, naturally, very unequal values as fertilizers. Abura-kasu, in general, signifies the commonest and most valued, namely, the rape-seed cakes. Besides these oil-cakes, as further vegetable manures, boiled or pounded beans, rape-straw, barley-straw, wheat-straw, chaff, and other refuse, and especially green plants, are used. • Green manure is not, like clover and other plants in China, obtained by special sowing, but is taken from uncultivated patches of ground. It is a mixture of grass, weeds, undershrubs, and young branches, as they grow on mountain-sides and in thin forests. Women and children gather this material and take it to the fields in baskets, though, where it grows higher and farther among the mountains, the work is done by men with pack-horses. Like rape-straw, it is chiefly used for manuring and strewing rice-fields, when the latter are made ready to receive the young seedlings in early summer ; and it is totally decomposed in a few weeks by the action of water and mud. On Amakusa and other southern islands, I observed coarse sea- weeds spread as manure, especially Sargassiun. Of mineral substances, wood and straw ashes, especially those of rice-straw (Wara) and rape-straw are used ; also the mud of the irrigating canals, with which the seed-beds for young rice are covered in spring. Ashes and mud are, in general, favourite fer- tilizers for hastening the growth of young crops. The extensive use of lime has a greater interest for us. As is well known, the French distinguish between ameudement (soil- improvement) and engrais (manuring). Quick-lime serves both purposes. Chemistry teaches that, in close contact with clay, silicates, and water, it frees the silicic acid combinations and makes the silicic acids accessible to the plants, and that therefore a heavy clay soil becomes looser and more fruitful through the addition of slacked lime, quite apart from the direct worth of the lime as plant-food in soil hitherto devoid of lime. In Germany we see lime thus used, for example in the valley of the Sieg, in Saxony, and various other regions. But it is un- likely that any European farmer, by his own observation and experience, arrived so early at such practical results as the Japanese, or has so long been used for manuring heavy clay soil. AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES. I observed powdered quick-lime, called Ishi-bai (stone-ashes), employed in various parts of Japan, principally, however, in non- volcanic districts, where the soil is poorer, being the product of older weather-worn shales and crystalline rocks. Its use, more- over, was confined, as a rule, to rice-fields. When these, at the beginning of summer, are prepared for the reception of young seedlings, and green manure, or rape-straw, is spread out over their muddy surface, lime is strewn over all. It quickly decomposes the fibres of the plants, thereby furthering the distribution and effect of such manure. On account of its caustic properties, it cannot be applied as a fertilizer to growing plants. Limestone appears only exceptionally as a pure carbonic salt. So it is plain that its effect as a soil-improver may often be height- ened through the admixture of phosphate of lime, magnesia, iron and other bodies. Other summer plants besides rice are manured generally with straw-ashes or wood-ashes at seeding-time, and with dung, thinned with water, during their growth. This fluid manure, with the frequent rains, renders artificial watering of the Hata unnecessary. The porosity of the soil and its sloping position make drainage likewise dispensable, except such drainage indeed as is provided through the division of fields into narrow beds with deep furrows between. This is especially the method of planting winter pro- ducts ; as is done also in the South of France, near Bordeaux, for instance. Improvement of the soil by mixture is not known, and neither is the so-called fire-culture (Brandcultur). But there is another fertilizing element in the rice-lands besides lime, green manure, and straw manure, and that is the flowing water with which they can be flooded. In this are contained not merely valuable mineral products of erosion, but also decomposed vegetable matter. The soil's power of absorbing these substances has been proved beyond all doubt. Kellner's chemical examination of water as it passed off, after trickling through the ground, showed fewer mineral constituents than were found in river water. Japanese agricultural implements are mostly simple and service- able. But the latter quality cannot be claimed for those used in raising and harvesting grain, resembling closely, as they do, those used in China and Corea, and having evidently been little changed in the course of many centuries. Manual skill, industry, and per- severance take the place, in Eastern Asia, of our better adapted tools. The plough (Karasuki) resembles, in its commonest form, that of Egypt, which we know is made and used to-day just as in the time of the Pharaohs. At the front end of its beam, which is about two meters long, there is the simple arrangement of a yoke for attaching the horse or ox, while at its other end a crooked piece of wood is fastened, pointing out backwards, and forming at its lower extremity the breast, ending here in the iron-pointed AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY. ploughshare. A cross-bar through the thinner end of the ploughtail forms the handle. The Japanese plough is therefore without fore- plough, coulter, or loam-board, that is, without any arrangement for turning furrows or for ploughing deep or shallow at will. The peasant carries it afield on his shoulder, walking after his ox or horse. With such a plough there is no possibility of thoroughly working the soil by clean, regular, successive furrows, or of cutting roots and laying them bare. It is no wonder that it is not ex- tensively used, and that all deeper working and loosening of the soil is accomplished with the hoe (Kuwa) mostly, and the spade (Suki). The former especially is known in all forms and sizes, and is indisputably the most important tool of the Japanese gardener and farmer. It consists of an iron disk, which as a rule surrounds a wooden centre or hub, through which runs the handle, sixty centimeters long. A second form is the iron four-tined fork- hoe, and then comes the Kumade with four bamboo tines, and the Matsubagaki, with seven tines of the same material. These prongs radiate from one point, and form a right-angled triangle, at whose base they end, and are bent downwards, hook-fashion. These two implements form, to a certain extent, the transition to the simple rake (Sarai). I have seen ploughs used, chiefly in spring, for work- ing rice-fields, but even in this case only sparingly. Remembering that rice-land, after being provided with dykes and then flooded, is worked with the hoe and by hand to an even and uniform paste, one recognises that subsoil culture is employed here, ploughs or no ploughs. For a harrow (Maguwa, pronounced Magwa), they often use an implement which resembles more a large rake, its principal feature being a board with a row of wooden or iron nails. It is attached to the draught animal by two wooden shafts, and has a gallows- shaped arrangement on top which serves as a handle. But there are many modifications of this implement. Wagons (Kuruma) are not used at all in Japanese agriculture. They have not even the wheel-barrow (Ichirin-sha) so popular in China. Manure and seed are taken to the fields, and their pro- ducts in turn are carried home or to market, in vessels slung on both ends of poles laid across the shoulder, or on the backs of pack-horses or oxen. Especially simple, or rather primitive, is the grain-harvesting. Straw is used chiefly in plaits of many sorts, ropes, sandals (even for beasts of burden), and mats, but also for thatching, and some- what for manuring too. Grain is usually cut close to the ground with a sickle (Kama), as in Germany, and then bound in small sheaves. These are either stacked about the stems of alder or other trees along the edges of the fields, or piled in front of the houses, and when necessary, exposed to the sun for drying and maturing. Taking such a bundle by the stalks, and spreading it out in their AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES. hands, they draw it through the steel or bamboo nails of a kind of comb like a flax-rippler (Ine-kogi or Mugi-kogi) of from thirty to forty centimeters in diameter, thus separating the ears and panicles from the straw. Instead of a rippler of this sort, poorer people use a piece of bamboo-cane cut in the shape of a fork or a comb (Kushi) of the same material. The panicles of rice and millet, or rather the grains themselves, are also often separated from the straw by beating the stalks against the edge of a tub. It will be asked : Have the Japanese no flails ? We do find them in use, under the name of Kara-sao and Kururi, but in an exceedingly clumsy, inadequate shape. They consist of cylindrical pieces of wood, tied by ropes to poles, so that it is impossible to strike out well, or to beat hard with them. And the ears of grain are only threshed after being broken from their stalks by the above-men- tioned processes. The threshers stand in two rows opposite each other, and each row strikes in unison, so that there is no such pleasant triple and quadruple beating of flails as salutes the ear from the threshing-floors in the German peasant villages in autumn. Another method of separating the grains from the ears or panicles is by means of a stamping trough (Usu). When they are, in one way or another, separated from the chaff, the cleaning is not done on the threshing-floor with pitchforks, but, as in almost all warm countries, with the help of the wind, the mixture being held out at arm's length, in a sieve, where there is a draught, and then let fall to the ground. The light chaff, of course, flies away from the grain, the reverse of what happens on the threshing- floor by using the fan. With leguminous plants, the pods are generally opened and de- prived of their contents by hand, and less often with mortar and pestle. But for rape-seed, the pods are opened by beating the stalks against the edge of a tub or a basket. Seed is said to be sown broadcast, or in rows. In sowing broad- cast, the sower strides up and down his field in lines and with measured paces, and scatters the seed in regular movement, with a wide sweeping motion of his right arm, trying to cover it afterwards with harrow or rake, as the piece of ground is large or small. But this never succeeds perfectly, for the seeds are not all buried to the same depth, and some always remain on the surface, and go to waste. And then, too, the distribution is often very unequal, being dependent on the sower's skill, the lay of the land, the weather (for example, the presence or absence of wind), and other matters. In row-planting, the seeds are put into the ground at a more equal depth and distance, and into open holes, from two to ten centimeters deep, and then covered to an even height with loose earth. Drilling 1 is essentially the same thing, except that it is done with machines constructed especially for the purpose, whereas ordinary 1 See C. J. Eisbein : "Die Drill-cultur." Bonn, 1880. II. D 34 AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY. row-planting is done with the hand merely, or perhaps with a stick to drill holes. The former is, accordingly, employed in farming on a large scale, while the latter is more in use among small farmers and gardeners. Although row-planting, of which planting in hills is only a special form {e.g. beans), has long been customary, broad- cast sowing has been and is yet always the rule in Germany, where only of late and on large estates it has been laid aside. In the South of France, around Bordeaux for instance, sowing in rows has long been thoroughly carried out, and the fields for winter crops have in consequence been divided into long narrow strips, as in Japan. The Chinese and Japanese farmer, who works only with simple tools, avails himself almost exclusively of row and terrace-planting, except in the case of the little seed-beds in which he cultivates the seedlings of rice and other growths. It is intimately bound up with the entire agricultural system of Eastern Asia, and possesses a number of advantages — economy of seed, and simultaneous and equal sprouting, rooting, and development, in consequence of the seeds having been placed at an even depth and an equal dis- tance apart ; but above all, greater possibility of loosening the soil often and keeping it clear, and a better opportunity of watering and manuring the plants while growing. Finally, too, it permits of sowing for a second crop weeks before the first is ripe for harvesting. Thus, in the province of Higo, wheat is sown in rows in autumn, beside the maturing rice ; and near Sakai, in the plain of Ozaka, cotton is sown in spring beside winter barley. I have often observed tobacco and rape to be nurtured in the seedbed, and then transplanted to the fields when the latter had become free. With their loose soil, unencumbered with stones and weeds, the Japanese are not acquainted with the obstacles which oppose drilling in other countries, and make it necessary to sow by hand. And it is a fact, that, when skilfully done and on fertile soil, broadcast scattering, as experience teaches, brings richer harvests, because the stalks grow closer together. The greater part of the Japanese rice-lands lie fallow all the winter, for either the soil is not strong enough, or the winter is too long for the succession of a winter crop and a second harvest. Soaked with water, and in part covered over, it becomes, with its neighbouring ditches and their dead rushes, the gathering-place of many water-fowl, in the inclement season. Only in milder districts and on particularly fertile land, are the fields turned into a dry /lata after the rice-harvest ; and then comes the planting of barley, wheat, peas, broad-beans, rape, mustard, or radishes, with which the other kind of ground is also covered, that which serves for all kinds of dry-crops in summer. When rice harvest is over, about the end of October, the ground, already dried, is subjected to a thorough turning-over with the hoe, and the field is divided into long, narrow, high beds, in which the seed is planted in from two to four rows, from twelve to eighteen AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES. 35 centimeters apart. In many cases, however, this takes place early in October, before the rice harvest, or the rape, — which has been started in seed-beds, like cabbage-plants with us, — is set out in furrows beside the rice, so that it is only necessary to dig over and heap up the earth when the latter has been removed. In either case the winter crop is richly manured again in March, and the earth is loosened and piled up around its stalks, as we do with potatoes and other vegetables. This custom originated, perhaps, in consequence of the fierce storms of dust in February and March, which, occurring after long dry spells, blow away the light, finely powdered loam, and lay bare many a root. As in Andalusia and other districts of the Mediterranean basin, so in Japan, rape-seed, peas, and broad-beans blossom in April ; barley and wheat put forth their stalks and ears; and then, to- wards the end of May, or in June, follows the harvest of all. these plants. Where there is rice-culture in addition, the field must, of course, be first turned into a swamp, and thus suffer a total change. But if the land is to bear other summer growths, their seeds, — as of beans, maize, and millet of various kinds, — are sown three or four weeks previously, in rows beside the ripening stalks of rape, barley, and wheat ; or the little tobacco and cotton plants, egg plants, and other products which have been raised in the seed-bed are transplanted, generally weeks before the winter crop is ready for harvesting. It does not always happen that a great part of the plain is given over exclusively to rice culture in summer. Here and there, singly and scattered, dry fields appear, lying from one-third to one-half a meter higher, and planted with millet, cotton, beans, various roots, and other growths. They stand out above the bright green rice- plain as the isolated flower-beds in our gardens rise above the well- kept turf. In the classification and consideration of Japanese field products to which we now proceed, I have, in general, followed the natural division of plant-culture in the majority of our agricultural text- books. The first and chief object of agriculture is to furnish food for man. This is obtained principally through cereals, pulse, and root crops. These groups therefore naturally precede all other products of the field, and their cultivation has the oldest history. After these come vegetables and other similar growths, which in some cases, as melons and the garlic family, have also been cultivated for thousands of years. Next come, — with respect to their use, at least, — eagle-fern, mushrooms, sea-weeds and prepara- tions of sea-weed, and also the edible fruits furnished by the fruit- tree and the forest. Then follow the articles of food and luxury, which, like Sake, Shoyu, Tofu, and others, are manufactured from grain and pulse. And the division which then follows of plants of commerce, embraces stimulants and drugs, and also oil, textile, and dye-plants. 36 AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY. Some important representatives of this last group, as oil-seeds, flax, hemp, and tobacco, flourish in Japan, and even in Yezo, most excellently. It will therefore be necessary, in the extension and rational pursuit of agriculture, to pay particular attention to their cultivation. In grain-culture the introduction of better seed in place of the ordinary sort is demanded for wheat and barley, since these have decidedly degenerated in the course of time, bearing lighter kernels and producing smaller crops than with us. They are of less importance in Japanese household economy than rice, and hence the same attention has not been paid to them. Rice, leguminous plants, fish, and eggs have always played the chief part in the food of Japan, in which combination the rice, so rich in starch, is sufficiently complemented by the amount of protein in the others. But in mountainous regions it has been largely replaced by the various sorts of millet. In this relationship modern times have brought about no appreciable change. The Japanese, like his neighbour to the westward, first became acquainted with bread and similar baked foods through the Portu- guese. From them too he adopted the names Pan and Kasntera (pronounced Kastera, that is, Castilla), by which is designated a spongy, saffron-yellow cake. He remained, however, true to his old way of living, and did not imitate the bread at all, and the cake only in rare cases, so that even now a foreigner travelling in the interior of the country must provide himself with bread or some substitute for it, unless he can and will accommodate himself to the Japanese fashion, and be satisfied with rice and grits. Of the various more or less extensive catalogues of cultivated and useful Japanese plants, the following are known to me and were made use of in preparing the divisions of my subject which come next : — 1. Kaempfer: " Amcen. exot," pp. 766-912. Lemgo, 1712. 2. Thunberg : " Flora Japonica." o Leipzig, 1784. 3. Thunberg : " Resa 4. delen. Akerbruket," pp. 76-92. Up- sala, 1793. 4. Von. Siebold : " Synopsis Plantarum CEconomicarum Universi Regni Japonici," in " Verhandelingen van het Bataviasch Genoot- schap," XII. deel. Bat, 1830. 5. Scherzer : " Fachmannische Berichte liber die osterr.-ungar. Expedition nach Siam, China und Japan." Stuttgart, 1872. pp. 175-220. 6. Kinch : " List of Plants used for Food, etc., in Japan. Trans- act. Asiat. Soc. Japan." Vol. xi., pp. 1-3 1. Yokohama, 1883. 7. Dupont: "Essences Forestieres du Japan." Paris, 1880. 8. Reports on various Universal Exhibitions. In order to make the subject clear, and to accompany the several names of plants with such remarks as suit the measure of their importance, I have decided to adopt a plan of my own in AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES. 37 grouping and handling the subject, relying chiefly on my own studies and observations, and this, not so much on account of the greater or less completeness and correctness of these lists, as be- cause, with the exception of those mentioned under 5, 7, and 8, they fail entirely to indicate the relative importance of the plants which they record. 2. Food-Plants. (a) Grain, Stalk-plants or Cereals, Japanese Koku-motsu. (Some of these names of millet have been translated literally ; the translator not being able to find English equivalents.) Of this group, the following are cultivated in Japan as winter crops : barley (O-mugi), naked barley (Hadaka-mugi), and wheat (Ko-mugi) ; and as summer crops, rice (Kome or Ine), common millet (Kibi), Italian-millet (Awa), crowfoot-millet (Hiye), finger- millet (Kamomata-kibi), Guinea-corn (Morokoshi), maize (T6- morokoshi), and Job's tears (Dzudzu-dama). It follows from this list that two of our cereals, rye and oats, are wanting. If they are nevertheless found here and there referred to among the cultivated plants of the country, such reference is to recent attempts at their introduction, or other kinds of grain have been mistaken for them. I have never seen them growing there, and the witness of Ito Keiske, and others acquainted with the flora of Japan, shows that they are not known in that country. And the fact that v. Siebold's list 1 of Japanese fruvienta does not include rye and oats, agrees with this. On the other hand, buckwheat (Soba), although be- longing to an entirely different family, must be mentioned next in order, for the nutritive quality of its seeds and their use. As already mentioned, the land which supports these various varieties of grain is of two kinds, namely ta, rice-land, and hat a, dry-land ; the difference being merely that the former is flooded and turned into a sort of marsh. It is the larger in extent, cor- responding to the preponderance of rice in amount and importance over the total products of all other grain. Having regard to the immense predominance of rice, I shall begin now with a descrip- tion of it and its cultivation, and then add shorter notices of the other stalk-plants. 1. Rice (Japanese Ine, Urushine, or Kome — Oryza sativa, L.). Upon a hollow stalk, not very strong, and from 50 to 120 cm. high, the rice-plant (Ine, or Urushine) develops a narrow, overhanging panicle, with single-blossoming ears, and from thirty to sixty — even occasionally one hundred — grains of seed. There are over two hundred sub-species of this ancient plant, with or without awns, varieties with white, yellow, brown, and black chaff and 1 " Verhandl. van het Batav. Genotschap," XII. deel. Batav. 1830. "Synopsis Plant. Oec. Univ. Regni Jap." 38 AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY. beards, some that ripen early and some late. There is also a variety, mountain-rice {O. Montana, Lour.), Japanese Okabo, which does not require so great an amount of water as the others, being satisfied, like other cereals, with the ordinary moistening of its roots by rain. Hence it grows in higher places and on sloping ground, and has also a shorter term of vegetation (four months, instead of five or six), flourishing therefore in climates which are too severe for common rice. But the stalks of this mountain-rice are shorter, its grains smaller, its crops less than those of the other kind. We therefore find it grown only to a very subordinate ex- tent in the chief rice-countries of the world. The grains of rice grow in close union with the awns, and are therefore angular, so that in this, as in their general shape and size, and in colour, they bear most resemblance to barley, without how- ever being so well filled out in the middle. Unhulled rice goes, in India and in the trade, by the name of Paddy. It is often, brought to Europe now-a-days in this condition, is hulled here, and in this way comes into the inland trade in fuller, handsomer form than that which was imported ready for the kitchen. To this ad- vantage it adds also greater durability. In other than tropical countries rice is one of the summer crops, and in its term of development, — usually six months (from May to October), — it requires an average temperature of at least 20° C, and a soil saturated with water, at least in the early half of its period of vegetation. Its need of a warm climate is greater than that of most other kinds of grain ; and it demands a larger amount of moisture than almost all other cultivated plants of any importance, not excepting the date-palm. In consequence of these requirements we find rice culture only in the tropical and warmer parts of the temperate zone, especially in depressions where it is possible to water the level plain, or where this is rendered unneces- sary by frequent copious rains. In all Eastern and South-eastern Asia, as Grisebach rightly remarks in his " Vegetation der Erde," the first natural principle of rice-culture in its earliest stage is the utilization of the rainy season, which follows the change of monsoon in spring. But the advent of these monsoon rains does not take place always and everywhere with its usual regularity and strength. Wherever, as in most parts of Hindostan and Further India, irriga- tion is not extensively carried out, a delay of these monsoon rains causes a general protraction of planting ; and a short supply of rain brings failure of the crops, and famine. Japan is to a certain extent independent of these monsoon rains, thanks to its mountains, rich in snow and water, and to its systems of irrigation, which, like those of China, are in part several thousand years old. It has therefore a fixed time for sowing and harvest, which we must consider quite necessary, owing to its long, cold winter. The climate in India, on the contrary, being warmer, the time for rice AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES. 39 and other crops can be made to correspond with the rainy season ; on the coast of Coromandel, for instance, it occurs on this account in winter. The northern limit of rice-culture reaches lat. 45 ° at certain points in the Old World — for example, in the valley of the Po ; in America, it remains ten degrees further south. In the southern hemisphere it goes only a little over the tropical line — in Madagas- car, for instance. For Japan, the Tsugaru-strait, in lat. 41 \° N., forms the northern barrier. Wherever its main conditions are perfectly carried out, rice re- wards the farmer's labour better than any other cereal, and bears from 30 to 40 bushels (at from 20 to 25 kg. 1 ) per acre, or 40*5 per are. In Japan one Tan (300 Tsubo, or 10 are) of the best rice- land brings a return of 2 - 4 koku (4*36 hi.) of hulled rice, corre- sponding to 58 hi. of paddy, or 58 hi. to the ha, while the average yield per ha. is equal to 27^5 hi. of hulled rice, or 36-6 hi. of paddy. In Northern Italy, where rotation is the rule, and uninterruped rice-culture a rare exception, fresh land bears in the former case, when circumstances are favourable, 70 hi. per ha., and in the latter, 40 hi. The greater bearing-capacity is here to be ascribed to rotation and broad-cast sowing, and in part also to the greater fertility of soil. Rice was cultivated in the monsoon region of Asia far back in antiquity ; and although all certain traces of its origin are lost, the Buddhist peasantry of China and Japan regard it as a direct gift of the gods. But this much is certain — that, like so many other useful plants, it was disseminated abroad from India. The history of ancient China points to this in unmistakable manner, and not less so the circumstance that from the Sanskrit name vrtki come the Iranic brisi and the Graeco-Latin orj'sa, from which last word, again, all Romanic, Germanic, and Slavic names for it are easily derived. 2 The Russian calls it either riss or saratschinskoc pscJieno — that is, " Saracen millet." At present rice is grown throughout nearly the whole monsoon- region, — all over Japan, except in Yezo and the Kuriles ; in Corea, China, all the Malay islands, in Hindostan, Farther India, in the Tarim-basin (for example, at Yarkand, and at Kabul nearly 2,000 meters above sea-level), in Persia, Armenia, and Mesopotamia, and (so far as is possible with their neglected systems of irrigation) in Arabia. Madagascar, probably in consequence of Malay immigra- tion, was early acquainted with this plant, which furnishes there, to this day, enough for the chief article of food and to spare for the Mascarenes besides. Until after contact with Europeans, bread was as unknown here as in Eastern Asia. Arabs first brought rice- culture to the eastern coast of Africa and into the region of the 1 Kg. = kilogram ; gr. = gramme. 2 See de Candolle : " L'origine des Plantes Cultivees," p. 310; and Hehn : " Culturpflanzen und Hausthiere." 40 AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY. Mediterranean — to the Nile Delta, Sicily, and Spain. Even now the rice-trade of Eastern Africa and the Mascarenes lies entirely in their hands. Through the same agency, rice culture penetrated through inner Africa to the tropical West Coast, where it is, how- ever, carried on only in certain localities, as in Ashantee on the Volta, and in Liberia, whose coloured colonists introduced it from America. In Egypt rice-culture is confined to the Delta region, being especially important at Rosetta and Damietta. On the Balkan peninsula, land and climate occasionally are favourable to rice-culture, but the lazy Turks never. Where it used to flourish, as on the Maritza, the great negligence of the Govern- ment has caused it to disappear. The same is true in part also of Portugal and Spain. Rice is still grown in the latter country, in so far as the old aqueducts in the huertas of Valencia permit it. Among European States, Italy alone plays an important part as a rice producer. In Lombardy, especially about Vercelli, in Pied- mont, Venetia, and the vEmilia (but little in Sicily and Tuscany), there is raised yearly about 70,000,000 lire worth of rice, on an area of about 230,000 ha., so that rice-culture is an important factor of the national prosperity. Let us now cast a glance at the New World, to complete this short survey. The first attempts to introduce rice in the Carolines date from 1647. In 1694 some more seed rice came to Charleston in a Dutch ship (from Madagascar), and was divided among the colonists by the governor, Smith. This was the basis of the rice- culture, which developed rapidly from that time. It is spread to-day over South Carolina and Georgia, and extends also some distance into neighbouring States. The total production, in the United States, of this most valuable of all sorts of rice is reckoned at 4,000,000 kg. Rice-culture has never attained much importance in the Spanish- American republics, though it has in Brazil, where it is carried on in the coast provinces between the Amazon and San Francisco rivers. The majority of the world's inhabitants eat rice ; and for at least one-third of them it is the chief daily food. It is estimated that a Malay labourer of Farther India consumes monthly twenty- eight kg. of rice, and a Siamese as much as thirty-two kg., while the Chinaman and Japanese requires also not less than one kg. daily, if his food consists principally of rice. In Europe the Turks and the English are the greatest rice consumers ; the former be- cause the chief ingredient of their national dish, the Pilau, is rice boiled in water, and the latter using large quantities in making puddings. The chief sources of supply are the Indian ports of Calcutta, Akyab, Malmein, Bassein, and Rangoon, also Bangkok and Batavia, Egypt, Northern Italy, South Carolina, and Brazil. Rice contains less nourishment than most of the other kinds of AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES. 41 grain, but is the most digestible of all. It is on this account peculiarly suited to children and old people, and is given to such and to sick persons in China and Japan, even in regions where it is regarded as a luxury which the healthy peasant and artisan may only exceptionally enjoy, as, for example, in the Chinese provinces of Honan, Shensi, and Shansi, and in the mountain districts of Japan. The attention which the farmer of Eastern Asia, especially of Japan, bestows upon his rice-field is worthy of the highest recog- nition. At the season of tilling he adds to his bee-like industry that cheerfulness of disposition which enables him to perform this severe and dirty labour with ease and rapidity. The work begins in April with the laying out of one corner of the rice-field as a seed-bed. To this end the ground is first dug over with a long- handled hoe, then levelled and surrounded with a little smoothed and hardened wall of earth, from 25 to 40 cm. in height and thick- ness. A small gutter or irrigation-channel is brought into connec- tion, when possible, so that the bed can be flooded when necessary. A favourite manure is the slime dug up from a neighbouring canal, if one is near. The seed-bed is covered with this to a depth of about 20 cm. In default of such slime, ashes must serve, and other quick-working fertilizers, such as stamped beans, compost, and fsecal matter. Next, the dam is broken at some point and water admitted, until the bed is covered to a depth of about 6 cm., when the seed, borne in a flat winnowing basket, is scattered over its surface with the hand. This seed is most carefully selected. In many cases it is kept under water several days beforehand. The grains of rice sink quickly and lie pretty close together on and in the mud at the bottom. In four or five days they sprout. Among other uses, the water serves to protect the fresh seed from birds. It soon evaporates or sinks into the ground and must be replaced, in case no rain falls, with a new supply from the ditch. As a rule, however, the seed-bed is flooded only at night and left dry by day. Thus it is protected against cold, while enjoying the warming influence of the sun. In most parts of Japan the sowing of rice takes place towards the end of April or in the beginning of May, and the time for transplanting is from about thirty to forty-five days later. In certain districts, — for example, in the provinces of Mino and Shinano (south-west of Tokio, in the interior of Hondo), — it is customary to begin cultivation from two to four weeks later, 1 in others, as at Kochi, in Tosa (on the island of Shikoku), as much earlier. This depends partly on climatic causes, according as the temperature of earth and water requisite for the development of rice is attained late or early in spring. But a more important reason for this variation in time is, that in fertile depressions, like 1 In Shindno the thirty-third day before Hange (July 2) is sowing-time. AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY the rich low-lands in Mino, the rice-land did not lie fallow, and its winter crops, especially barley and rape-seed, are not harvested till June, so that the field cannot be got ready for young rice-plants before the middle or end of this month. By far the greater part of the rice-land of Japan lies fallow all winter and, covered in part with water, forms a kind of swamp, the rendezvous of wild ducks, geese, and snipe. This is especially the case where the ground is not adapted to producing two crops a year, either because the winter is too long and the season of vegetation limited to a few months, o . . . . 8476 85-53 83-89 335 Su^ar ) 8-65 1'37 ri8 r6i 0*69 i iocroo IOOTJ2 IOO'OO IOO'OO In these analyses, A, B, and C, refer to unhulled, and D, to hulled rice. The first, with Table II., was published by Kellner in Nobbe's " Landwirthschaftliche Versuchsstationen," vol. xxx., 1884; the last, by Kreusler and Dafert, in the " Landwirthschaftliche Jahr- bucher," vol. xiii., p. j6j. Kellner found no difference worthy of remark in the chemical composition of swamp rice, mountain rice and glutinous rice. On the other hand, the other two chemists state most emphatically that the starch of the glutinous rice gave a brown iodine reaction, instead of the dark blue of ordinary rice- starch. This difference was, moreover, already mentioned by Atkinson, on p. 2 of his treatise on " The Chemistry of Sake-brew- ing," (Tokio, 1 881). But this by no means settles the question as to the cause of the unusual glutinosity of the meal of Oryza glutinosa, Rumph. I received samples of the three chief kinds of rice from last year's harvest in Japan, all three of them being yellow-awned rice and scarcely distinguishable when unhulled. The weight of one hundred grains of paddy was 2,672 gr. for glutinous rice, 2,560 gr. for swamp rice (Oku), 2,209 S r - f° r mountain rice, and of hulled A GR1CULTURAL IND US TRIES. 49 2, 1 88 gr., 2,189 S r -> an< ^ 1,908 gr. respectively, so that 37-4 corns of unhulled glutinous rice, 39 corns of swamp rice, and 45*2 corns of mountain rice go to a grain. Of these weights, 81-9%, 85-5 °/ q , and 86'3 °/ respectively are due to the kernels and the rest to the husks. Table II. Water . . . . In the dry sub- stance. Raw protein . . Fat Raw fibre . . . Ashes (without C and C0 2 ) . . . Starch . . . . Raw sugar and\ dextrin . . Glucose . . . Other extractive- stuffs, free from Nitrogen . . Total Nitrogen Albuminous Nitro- gen . . . _ . . Non - Albuminous Nitrogen (though Cu OH) Ditto (through Phospho-tungs- tic acid) . . . Analysis of Ashes. In 100 parts of pure ashes : ICO Na, O Cab Mg O F e 2 3 Po0 5 S0 3 Si0 2 CI Total . . . . Deduct O for CI II. 14-20 9-84 2-66 i-45 VOI 77-86 10-17 1-571 1-441 0-130 0-047 22-94 4 94 3*24 10-54 1 -03 5 1 '37 1-85 3"H 1-05 i* 1 oo- 1 o 024 99-86 1277 11*27 2-57 1 -62 1*29 77-34 5-91 1 -So 1-34 0-46 21-73 1-59 2'12 6-6 1 r66 51-99 2-08 2-63 4'49 19-27 15-22 5-08 2-50 ro7 7372 2-41 2'435 2-103 0-332 32-64 174 2*21 IO-45 I 28 44-13 3-48 i -97 175 101-90 roi 99-65 0-39 99-26 12-04 8-43 4-40 vsa 1*26 51-99 32-35 20-57 3'34 2-36 14-12 0-44 39"59 3-32 11-59 373 99-o7 0-84 98-23 12-37 12-34 6-17 5"32 5*26 54-49 2-47 10-93 1-975 1-738 0-237 21-44 4-89 2'6l 14-48 r8o 49-72 2-49 - 22 1 '35 99-00 O'^O 11 I2 - 20 15-2 20-84 I - 62 6-89 2-96 6538 3'325 3^55 0-270 45'H 261 3'49 9-98 1-09 33-o5 0-91 0-55 2-36 °'53 5-70 98-85 25*55 1-76 I3'54 4-24 44-84 io - o6 409 3'o5 1-04 081 3 5 '99 1 -85 8-29 7-66 078 36-93 517 0-63 2-15 99"45 o"49 98-96 50 AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY. I and 2 are hulled rice ; 3 is maize, small yellow grains ; 4, Pani- cum italiciun ; 5, Sorghum saccJiaratum ; 6, Ph. radiatus, much cultivated, of the bean order ; 7, Canavallia incurva, forms vines, little cultivated, husks about 20 cm. long, 6 to 8 reddish seeds, each weighing about 2'5 gr. 2. Wheat, Ko-mugi (Triticum vulgare, L.) Mugi is a collective name for wheat and barley, which are distinguished, from the size of their respective grains, as little (ko) and big (o) mugi. I have only met with this one kind of wheat in Japan (finding neither spelt, English wheat, nor any other). 1 And it has always been as a winter crop that I have found it, — generally bearded, though sometimes, too, without beard, both forms frequently being mixed in the same field. Sowing, as a rule, takes place in November, the development of blossoms and ears in May, and harvest in June. In northern parts, however, and in high-lying neighbourhoods, like Shinano, harvest does not begin till towards the end of July or the beginning of August. It has been remarked in a former passage, and Maron noted it also, that wheat does not play a prominent part in Japan, and gives an impression of having degenerated, probably in conse- quence of insufficient seed-interchange. Its flour is mostly made into small cakes (Mochi), with a diameter of scarcely 5 or 6 cm. and eaten, like those made from glutinous rice (Mochi-gome), either by themselves, or in the form of dough, strewn with black bean- meal and brown sugar. 3. Barley, O-mugi (Hordeum vulgare, L.). The four-lined sub- species, H. tetrastichum, and the six-lined, H. hexastichum, L., a short-awned variety, are both cultivated, though as winter crops only. Sowing takes place mostly in October or November, bloom in early May, and harvest in July. Like buckwheat and the different kinds of millet, its grain is used chiefly in porridge, though as horse-feed and chicken-feed also. Two-lined barley, which Maron mentions also, I have never found, nor do I find it copied in any Japanese book. On the other hand, naked barley, Japanese Ha- daka-mugi (Hordeum vulgare, yS, nudum s. cazleste, L.), occurs fre- quently ; it is easily distinguished from the common four-lined form by the mere outward appearance of its ears. Kinch mis- takenly designates Hadaka-mugi as rye {Secale cereale, L.). It has also been confounded with spelt, e.g., by Scherzer), an error that is hardly possible in the field, though perhaps easy enough when the grains alone are compared, they having more resemblance to hulled spelt than to rye. Japan possesses neither rye nor oats, as has been already stated. Kaempfer, certainly, brings in Avena sativa, L., under the name of Karasu-mugi (raven barley?). "Amoen. exot.," 834 ff., as also Thunberg after him. " Flora jap.," p. 54. But ic is found neither in Siebold nor in Kinch, and I do not know any Japanese representation of it. 1 Thunberg, Siebold, and Kinch also mention only Triticum vulgare, L. AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES. $i From April to June inclusive, the various kinds of millet are sown in small furrows — less frequently in beds for subsequent transplanting. They are harvested in September and October. There come now for our consideration : — 4. The common, or panicle millet, Japanese Kibi {Panicum miliaceum, L.), which is grown much less extensively than the two following. 5. Club, or Italian millet, Japanese Awa {Panicum italicum, L. ; vcrticillatum, Th. ; Setaria italica, Kunth), a grain which, with the sort that follows, is oftenest grown on dry, light soil, especially in mountain regions. It is instantly recognisable by its thick cylindrical hanging panicles. There are a good many varieties, among which those predominate which, from their prominent, unfruitful, bristle-shaped, blossom-pedicles, appear as short-awned. The sweet yellow meal of its small seeds is of great importance as food, both in Japan and China. 6. Crow-foot millet, Hiye, Ko-kibi (little millet), in Thunberg (Panicum crus-galli, L. ; P. corvi, Thunb. ; Oplismenus crus-galli, Kunth). Panicum frumentaceum, Roxb. (Oplismenus, Kunth), is also grown under this name, Hiye, but not as often as the former sort. 7. Finger millet, Japanese Kamomata-kibi, or Shishi-hiye and Nora-hiye (Eleusine coracana, Gaertn. ; Cynosurus coracanus, L.). In certain parts of India, as Mysore and the Punjab, this smallish un- pretentious grain is much cultivated under the name Raggi, and fur- nishes the poor people a valuable food-supply. In Japan it is quite subordinate to the two already mentioned (Awa and Hiye), so that you might wander through the country for days together without meeting it. I found it in Echigo, after harvest, where its short stalks had been left standing and only the tops, with their three to five ears standing together finger-fashion, cut off. I discovered it also in Kaga, where the peasants called it Kamoashi and Kamo-mata-kibi. They preferred its meal to Ko-mugi-no-ko (wheat-flour) for small dough-cakes. In other places I heard the name Sankaku-hiye, three-cornered (three-edged) hiye, which refers no doubt to its three-edged stalk. In Thunberg and Kaempfer are to be found the Japanese terms, Kokusa and Nanban-kibi, e.g.. Barbarian millet. 8. Guinea corn or Durrah, Japanese Morokoshi (Sorghum vul- garc, Perse ; Holcus sorghum, L.); called also Taka-kibi (high millet), is of only small importance for Japan. This grain is seldom found except along the borders of fields, encircling them in a furrow ; and even this but rarely. It is raised in April, in a seed-bed. Later, having attained a height of about 15 cm., it is transplanted at intervals of from 25 to 30 cm. It is harvested in September. The same holds good for the long-panicled form, the broom-corn, so often grown in Northern Italy, and of whose panicles brooms are also made in Eastern Asia. 9. Job's tears, Japanese Dzudzu-dama and Yokui-nin (Coix AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY. lacryma Jobi, L.). This grain, which is dioecious and related to maize, is found almost always near houses, in small moist beds. Its white seeds, which are nearly globular and hard, are used, not so much for food, as for making Buddhist rosaries, and even these only exceptionally. I do not know whether the tear-grass is used in Japan to make mats, as in Canton. (See Scherzer.) 10. Maize (Zea Mais, L.) is called T6-moro-koshi, T6-kibi, Satsuma-kibi, and Nanban-kibi by the Japanese. Of the three great gifts which the New World offered the Old in the sixteenth century, tobacco was most joyfully received, and found the quickest entrance and dissemination among the nations of the earth. Maize followed it, and then the potato. This last did not begin its eastern journey till late, and advanced slowly, only winning warm friends, outside of Europe, among the Maoris of New Zealand. Maize, in its half- ripe condition, on the cob, offered a ready food, quickly and easily prepared by boiling or roasting, with a sweet taste, which is more pleasing to the people of Africa and Asia than the stronger flavour of our common potato. This explains its more rapid spread in favourable climates. An additional reason is, that, with its various sub-species, it accommodates itself within a wide zone to manifold conditions of climate and soil, from the equator to latitude 50 in North America, as in Europe, and to the fortieth parallel in the southern hemisphere, — from the hot, damp shores of Eastern Mexico to the plateau of Anahuac and the plain of Utah, where its cultivation is only rendered possible by irrigation. Like rice, maize is a summer growth — more modest, it is true, than the latter in its demands for warmth and moisture, but yet more dependent upon them than are our European cereals. To develop and ripen its grains, it requires a mean summer warmth of at least 15° C. But to flourish, it must have also a bountiful supply of water, natural or artificial, for its deep-growing roots. Hence its cultivation is restricted — in the Mediterranean basin, for example, almost entirely to its northern side, where, as in the valley of the Po, there is no lack of rain in summer. On the other hand, some of its sub-species, with a short period of vegeta- tion (three months, instead of five or six), reach in America quite to the Red River of the North, the southern tributary of Lake Winnipeg. The climate there is, I suppose, harder than that of Northern Germany ; but with a greater rain-fall in the short, warm summer, and an extremely fertile virgin soil, the development and ripening of maize is sufficiently fostered, as is not the case in Thuringia, say, under almost the same parallel. On the discovery of America, Columbus found maize, among other things, cultivated in Hispaniola, and later by the Indians at the various points on the mainland where he touched. The Carib term Mahis was adopted and changed to maize. To this day maize flourishes best in American soil, where, according to Alex- AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES. 53 ander von Humboldt, it returns in some places harvests of three- hundred fold. Moreover, the greatest number of sub-varieties are found in America (over sixty) ; a point of no little significance in answering the question as to its origin. Many of these, too, lose their character when transplanted to other countries. In the fertile Central States of the Union — Iowa, Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Tennessee, Kentucky, and Missouri, its strong roots find abundant nourishment in their deep alluvial soil and copious summer rains. Maize-culture has therefore acquired an extent and significance unequalled anywhere else in the world. As the various Teutonic nations bestow the word corn upon their principal grain, — the German on rye, the Swede on barley, the Englishman on wheat, — so the North American calls maize "corn," or " Indian corn," in proper recognition of its value. Its cultivation, as already remarked, spread rapidly over the Old World, and first to the three great peninsulas of Southern Europe, from west to east successively, but gained no real foot- hold except in the countries adjoining on the north, particularly in the valley of the Po and the lands of the Lower Danube. In the former, polenta, prepared from Indian meal, became a national dish ; in the latter, among the Roumanians, mamaliga, a cake made from the meal of Kukuruz (maize). From the lands of the Lower Danube, maize-culture spread to the fertile Ukraine, and has since then been a competitor there with wheat. The Portuguese spread it, as well as tobacco, with their naval supremacy, along the coasts of Africa * and Southern and Eastern Asia. Its introduction followed their first landing, in China in 15 17, on the Philippine Islands 1520, in Japan 1542, though perhaps not immediately. Different authors have disputed whether this was really the course of the advance of maize in Eastern Asia. Von Siebold believed he had discovered maize-cobs on an old Japanese coat-of-arms, and had found other proofs of a very ancient cultivation of Zea maize in China and Japan. 2 The French agronom Bonafous, also, to whom we owe the most complete work on maize, 3 doubts whether Eastern Asia became acquainted with maize until after the dis- covery of America. The same was the case again in more recent 1 In Dapper : " Beschreibung von Africa," published by Jacob von Meurs, 1670, we find, p. 457 : " Erstlich hat man den Reis, als auch den Tiirkischen Weitzen, den die Indier Mays nennen, und die Portugallier am allerersten aus Westindien, da er iiberniissig wachset, auf der Insel des heiligen Thomas, und von da auf den Goldstrand gebracht, und den Schwartzen mitgeteilet. Dan vor der Portugallier Zeit war ihnen dieses Gewachse unbekant : aber itzund wachset es bey ihnen iiberall in grosser menge. Auch backen sie Broht darvon, darunter sie zuweilen Hiirse, zuweilen keine menge." 2 " Ex antiquis temporibus in insulis Japanicis cultum frumentum." See " Synopsis Plantarum GEconomicarum Universi Regni Japanici," in " Verhand- 1 ingen van het Batavisch Genootschap," XII. Bat., 1830. 3 "Histoire nat., agric. et economique du Mais." Paris, 1836. 54 AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY. times with the interpreter of the English embassy in Pekin, W. F. Mayers. Both base their view, that maize was known in China before the discovery of America, chiefly on the Chinese work " Pen-tsao-kang-mu," the well-known Materia Medica of the Chinese, which contains an undeniable representation of our plant. But Li Shi chen (Tung pi), the celebrated author of that work, compiled it in the twenty-six years from 1552 to 1578. 1 This then does not at all contradict the view that maize did not come to Eastern Asia till after America was discovered. This view has been repeated and most convincingly established by the famous Genevan botanical geographer, A de Candolle, 2 so that to take up the subject again would seem almost unnecessary. There are, however, other proofs, to my mind more direct, of my statement that maize was introduced into Eastern Asia by the Portuguese — proofs which De Candolle did not use, though among other things, he correctly stated that maize has no Sanscrit name, and is mentioned neither by Marco Polo nor Mendez Pinto. Then too, as Von Siebold also mentions, it is a significant fact in this connection, that Japan raises only two sorts of maize. Now, it is highly probable that a larger number of sub-species would have been developed in the case of such an old culture, as of almost all other fruits of the field. Further, it must be emphasized that now-a-days this corn plays only a very subordinate role among the other nutritious plants of the country, its culti- vation being restricted to the borders of fields and to solitary beds, and never extended over wide stretches. Also its grain is used only for a few weeks in summer, when the green ears are roasted over burning coals and then eaten. But this is a street custom in various parts of the East. Considering the conservatism of Japanese agriculture and its adherence to fixed methods, we may take for granted that there has been little change in the use of this grain since its introduction, and that it never was an important part of the country's agricultural products. But a weightier and more convincing reason for thinking that the culture of maize in Japan is not old, but was introduced by the Portuguese, is the fact that Indian corn has no proper Japanese name. All other plants, — those brought over from China no less than most of the indigenous ones, — have such names. But all the designations for maize already mentioned are borrowed names, which clearly indicate a foreign origin for this grain. Thus the term " T6- morokoshi " means Chinese sorghum ; T6-kibi," Chinese millet, and " Nanban-kibi," millet of the southern barbarians. Moreover, the Chinese in Formosa call maize " Fan-meh," that is, foreign grain — an expression they certainly would not have employed if the thing itself had been known to them in their mother-country 1 Bretschneider : "Botanicum Sinicum," p. 55. 2 A. de Candolle: a. " Bibliotheque universelle de Geneve," aout, 1836. b. "Geogr. bot. raisonnee," p. 942. c, "L'origine desplantes cultivees," pp. 311-319. AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES. 55 The words " Fan," foreign, and " Nanban " (pronounced Namban), that is, southern barbarians, point to Europeans coming from the South, especially the Portuguese ; for they, above all, were called foreigners and "Nanban." The expressions " Td-morokoshi " and "Td-kibi" are no less easily understood, however, than " Welsch- korn " (Italian Corn), and " Tiirkischer Weizen " (Turkish wheat) to-day. The Germans became acquainted with maize through Italy and Turkey, and therefore call it after these countries. The same is true of the Japanese with regard to maize, as coming from China. The grain came from that country, and was also, in part, like tobacco, brought directly by the Portuguese, in the period of Tensho (1 573-1 592 A.D.), at the time of Hideyoshi. 11. Buckwheat (Fago/>yrum esculentum, Moench ; Polygonum Fagopyrum, L.), Japanese Soba. The home of this plant, which is spread throughout the northern temperate zone, seems to be Mantchooria and the neighbouring regions of Central Asia, where, according to Maximovicz, it grows wild. 1 From here it was early carried over the north-eastern monsoon region, and in the middle ages across Western Asia to Europe by Mongolian and Turkish- Tartar peoples. As to its cultivation and use, buckwheat is related most to the millet varieties. Like them, it is principally a summer growth ; like them, it is satisfied with light, sandy soil, and fur- nishes in its seeds a meal which is made, in a similar fashion, into soup and broth. This meal, however, is also used to make little cakes, though not in the form of the " Blinies " so much relished by Russians, and the buckwheat cakes of North America. These are unknown in Japanese kitchens, in which another method of preparation prevails. 2 As with us, buckwheat in Japan blossoms in late summer and autumn. Its harvest is in October. It is also raised as a winter crop, though rarely. (b) Pulse, or Leguminous Plants. The agricultural products included under this general name come undoubtedly next to grain in range and importance. In their high proportion of protein, and in nutritious value, they far exceed all other sources of vegetable food, and resemble eggs. Alone, or with eggs and fish, they take the place of meat for many millions of the earth's inhabitants, especially in Eastern Asia. They are called by the Japanese, Mame, a name which is applied especially to various kinds of beans, the most important and wide- spread representatives of the family in Japan. Their use is more diverse than in most other countries. When boiled, they furnish 1 Maximowicz : " Primitise floras Amurensis." St. Petersburg, 1859. 2 " E farina hujus placentas rotundas, saspe coloratas, coctas in usum pere- grinantium, in omnibus tabernis.venales extant." — Thunberg, " Flora Japonica," p. 169. 56 AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY. a favourite relish to the rather insipid water-cooked rice and millet, and other starchy grains. Some of them also serve in preparing sauce, vegetable jelly, and other things known under the names Shoyu, Tofu, and Miso, and much used in Japanese housekeeping. With the exception of peas and broad beans, all the plants in this group are raised only in summer, because the winter of Japan is too severe for them. In the case of the latter, terrace-cultivation is general ; of the former, cultivation in rows. There are grown in Japan : i. The ground-nut, Japanese Rakkuwasho (pronounced Rak- kasho), and T6-jin-mame, that is, Chinese bean {Arachis hypogcea, L.) It is planted only in the warmer southern parts of the country, and over a small territory. Sometimes it is roasted and eaten, at others, made into oil. (See further under oil-plants.) 2. The soy-bean, Japanese Daidzu and O-mame {Glycine hispida, Moench. ; Soja hispida, Miq. ; Dolichos soja, L.), was introduced into our botanical gardens nearly a century ago. 1 But it did not receive much attention from us till after the Vienna Exhibition. There is now scarcely a European country in which attempts to raise it have not been made ; within the last ten years, scarcely a journal of horticulture or agriculture which has not pictured or described it. 2 In France and Austro-Hungary especially, much attention has been paid to the soy-bean during this period ; and its cultivation has been attempted in many places, with greater or less success. 3 The results of these studies and experiments in Austria have been recorded in an interesting work by Prof. Haber- landt, through whom principally they were undertaken, in and on behalf of the imperial high-school of agriculture, with seeds from China, Japan, and Mongolia. 4 These results seem to estab- lish the fact that the soy-bean can be raised in a temperate climate, and to bear witness to its great productiveness, its extra- ordinary nutritiousness, and the various other qualities for which it is celebrated. They thus possess a manifold interest. Among the pulse of Japan (and not less of China), the soy-bean ranks first in extent, variety of use, and value; and chemical analyses prove the empirical judgment to be well founded. In point of nutriment, the soy-bean is of all vegetables the nearest to meat. It contains nearly two-fifths of its weight in legumin rich in nitrogen, and nearly one-sixth in fat. The soy-bean is to the inhabitants of Japan what their garbanzos (chick-peas) are to the Spanish, and their feijdo preto (black beans) to the Brazilians. But chick-peas are only served as relish and garnishing to meat, 1 In the " Hortus Kewensis " of Ait. the year 1790 is given as the date of its introduction into England. 2 See also Ue Candolle : " L'Origine des Plantes cultivees," p. 265. 3 As good representations of the soy-bean, I may mention that of E. Kaempfer, 1880, pp. 154 and 185. 4 " Die Sojabohne." Vienna, 1878. AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES. 57 while Daidzu serves as a substitute, being, indeed, in a certain sense, oil and spice to the insipid, starchy rice and the barley or millet porridge with which it is eaten. The numerous varieties of the soy-bean grow on fine, leafy bushes from 0*50 to roo metre high, with many and regular twigs. The number and extent of its branches correspond to strength of trunk and root. Among further distinctive features of the plant is its abundant foliage of large triplet leaves, which appear at the numerous internodes. But still more distinctive is the thick reddish brown hair with which pods, leaf-stalks, the upper surfaces of leaves, and even twigs are covered. The axes both of trunk and branches in the black-seeded species have a marked tendency to wind, but do not require props. This winding is much less noticeable with the stiffer stems of the pale yellow and reddish brown varieties. At every higher whorl of leaves there is developed a little cluster of blossoms. The blossoms themselves are plain-looking, like those of lentils, in colour a white lilac or pale violet. They are followed by rich growths of fruit, which, with the development of blossoms, continue from the middle of summer till late autumn, when night-frosts usually bring them to a sudden end. The pods, roughly haired and hanging, appear mostly in pairs, though often in threes and fours on a common stem. They have short stems and are short and cylindrical themselves. They end in a beak and have as a rule two seeds, with a strongly-marked division between them, as Kaempfer's picture shows. However, among some species there are many pods of three and four beans and sometimes these outnumber the others. Its great need of light and warmth being supplied, a single soy-plant in proper soil, will, according to Haberlandt, put forth two hundred pods, on an average. In regular field cultivation, the crop is, of course, much smaller. Attempts at cultivation in Austria up to 1878 gave widely divergent results, from 680-fold down to a total failure of the crop in consequence of long-continued wet, cold weather. Haberlandt put down at 73-fold the average produce of 1877, after a summer of rain and low temperature. But the crop-returns of China and Japan by no means agree with this. In the latter, for example, according to Scherzer, six Sho of seed-beans of the early-ripening Shiro-mame are credited with a crop of 120 Sho on 300 Tsubo of land. This means a harvest of only 20-fold, or, taking account of seed lost in sprouting, about twelve pods of two beans each to every plant. In Japan the varieties of soy-bean are distinguished — according to colour, as white (more properly yellowish), black, brownish red, green, and spotted ; according to duration of growth, as early- ripening, middle-ripening, and late-ripening ; according to form, as spherical, ellipsoidal, kidney-shaped, and compressed laterally ; according to use, as those which serve principally in making Shoyu 58 AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY. (soy), Tofu (bean-cheese), and Miso (a sort of sauce), and those eaten in any plain shape. 1 (a) White (pea-yellow) soy-beans, Japanese Shiro-mame or Haku-daidzu. To this division belongs an early-ripening sort with very small seeds, called Goguwatsu-mame, or " five-months- kind," because it ripens in the fifth month of the old Japanese calendar, our July ; also another small-seeded, early-ripening variety, the Wase-mame or Natsu-mame, that is, early and summer-bean. These two are also called Tofu-mame, because they are used chiefly in making Tofu. Another sort serves to produce Miso. It is called Nakate-mame, " middle-late bean," its time of maturity occurring half-way between that of the early and late kinds. Its seeds are round and somewhat larger. The late- ripening varieties, Okute-mame (late-bean), Maru-mame (bullet- bean), and Teppo-mame (gun-bean), or Aki-mame (autumn-bean) have, as their names indicate, mostly bullet-shaped seeds, which become harder and larger than the early ones. The variety last named is used in making Shoyu, while Maru-mame is valuable as horse-feed. (/3) Black soy-beans, Japanese Kuro-mame or Koku-daidzu. These are eaten boiled, with sugar, as an entree or as a relish to rice. There is a middle-late sub-species with round, elliptical seeds, Kuro-mame, in short, and another like it, with big, bullet- shaped beans, called Kuro-teppo-mame. And again there is a late-ripening sort with flat, elliptical seeds under several names. (7) Brown soy-beans, Japanese Katsu-daidzu (thirsty soy-bean) are much less grown than the white and black sub-species, and are used like the latter. They are distinguished as Aka-mame, red soy-beans, round, of red-brown colour, in different varieties, and Cha-mame, tea-beans, three light-brown sorts of small extent and significance. (8) Greenish or bluish green soy-beans, Japanese Ao-mame or Sei-daidzu, are eaten mostly boiled and with sugar, like the black and brown-red varieties. And, with the brownish sorts, they are much less widely grown than the black and yellowish. The Japanese distinguish the following sub-species of Ao-mame : — a. Sei-hito, — epidermis green, inside a whitish yellow. b. Nikuri-sei, — greenish throughout. Both sub- varieties run from roundish-ellipsoidal to a bullet roundness, are of medium size, and remind one of green peas. c. Kage-mame, with pale green, round beans. (e) Speckled soy-beans, Japanese Fuiri-mame or Han-daidzu. This group is not important. Its cultivation is confined to a small area, in a few provinces. Its sub-varieties are known as : — a. Kuro-kura-kake-mame, with a black spot on the saddle (eye), otherwise greenish ; flat and with the outline of an egg. 1 I doubt the spontaneous appearance of the soy-bean in Japan, although it is asserted in several works on the flora of that country. AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES. 59 b. Aka-kura-kake-mame, with a brown spot on the saddle (eye), otherwise yellowish-green, flat and drawn out long. c. Fuiri-mame or Udzura-mame, speckled or spotted soy-bean, yellowish-green with many dark flecks. A rare variety, grown only in a few places, especially in Harima- Early-ripening soy-beans are sown as early as April in Southern Japan, in Central Japan during May. Those that ripen in autumn need much more warmth, and are sown, as a rule, one month later. In mountain-districts, land is often chosen which has lain fallow all winter, or wheat and barley-fields are taken. The soy-beans are here planted in terraces, being put into holes beside the stalks of ripening winter grain. Hence, when this is harvested, the pulse needs only to be hoed and manured. Late-ripening Daidzu is also a favourite for planting along the edge of fields and on the new- built dykes of rice-fields. With its thick foliage, the soy-bean needs more light and warmth than our pulse. If air and light are denied it, the blossoms and fruit are scanty, and without the required warmth, the latter does not ripen. The shade of tea- bushes in Eastern Asia, and of grape-vines with us, is sufficient to diminish considerably its fruc- tification. It is therefore not profitable to plant it in tea-gardens and vineyards. For the same reason its seeds should be planted far apart, from four to fifteen in a square meter. It has been found that the early ripening sorts require an aver- age warmth of from 20 to 30 C, according as they are sown at the beginning or in the middle of May. This varies not merely with the sub-species, but also according to the time of sowing, inasmuch as a delay in the latter until the middle or end of May brings about a quicker development and a shortening of the period of vegetation, in the higher temperature of air and soil that then prevails. These early-ripening sorts flourish farther north even than the limit of successful maize-culture. The others are pre- vented by the first frosts from reaching the natural conclusion of their growth, for their blossoms and unripe pods die when the temperature falls below — 2° C. At the end of his above-mentioned treatise, Haberlandt summed up in five noteworthy propositions, the results of his experiments with the soy-bean and of its chemical analysis. His conclusions are as follows : — (a) The acclimatization of the early-ripening sorts, particularly those with yellow and reddish brown seeds, appeared to have fully succeeded in Central Europe. (b) The seeds obtained were larger, heavier, and handsomer than those from Eastern Asia, the chemical composition, however, remaining unchanged. (c) The soy-plant resists light spring frosts better than our young beans, and endures greater dryness in summer than most leguminous plants, though otherwise much like other kinds of beans. 60 AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY. (d) It is distinguished by heavy crops, besides furnishing - , in its stems and leaves, either green or dried, a nourishing feed, of which cattle are very fond. (e) In their high percentage of protein and fat, they far excel all other pulse in nutritive quality ; and when properly prepared are second to none in flavour. After such favourable judgments, it might have been expected that the soy-bean, at least in the warmer regions of Austro- Hungary, would soon become popular and generally cultivated. The result, however, was quite otherwise. The hopes which he had aroused in behalf of this plant seem to have disappeared with Haberlandt, who died in 1878. As I know from a reliable source, 1 people soon became con- vinced that it was possible to cultivate with certainty the early- ripening yellow sorts. The crops from these, however, are un- satisfactory. It is so difficult to boil them soft that they have no sale and cannot be turned to due account. In view of the interest attaching for all these reasons to the cultivation and use of Glycine hispida in Japan and neighbouring countries, I introduce two tables at the close of this section, the first giving several analyses of it and of its straw, the second a view of its chemical composition as compared with other leguminous plants. 3. Ray-fruited dwarf-bean, Jap. Adzuki {Phaseohis radiatus, L.). Kaempfer gives an excellent description of this, a variety that is always provided with hairs on stalk and leaf. Its short petioles, springing from the base of the leaf, form a cluster of yellow blossoms, followed in turn by from four to six hanging pods, either spread out in wheel-shape or drawn together to a head. These pods are cylindrical. The beans are no larger than small peas, but shaped like a blunt ellipsoid, smooth and shining, and greatly differentiated according to colour and size. Since the Adzuki have a better taste than most other leguminous plants, their cultivation and consumption have always been more extensive throughout the whole monsoon region — in fact, second only to the soy-bean. The numerous sub-species are grouped by Salvatier 3 as follows : — (a) Typicus. Umbellated pods, horizontally flattened, and covered with red or black hairs. To this division belongs Adzuki or "Oku-adzuki (large adzuki) with relatively large, brownish red beans. [b) Pendidns. Pods smooth or set with short hairs, and hanging in sets of four, two opposite two. The following varieties are worthy of notice here. a. Kuro-adzuki, black-fruited adzuki. y8. Shiro-adzuki, white-fruited adzuki. The colour is no more 1 According to written information, kindly furnished by Prof, von Liebenberg, of Vienna. 2 " Enumeratio Plantarum," etc. AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES. 61 white than in the case of the Dolichos. They are yellow, like many peas, which at first glance they appear more to resemble than beans, though smaller and of attenuated shape. 7. Tsuru-adzuki, twining Adzuki. (c) Subtrilobatus, Jap. Bundo and Yayenari, each having from four to six cylindrical, hanging pods. 4. The Japanese sword-bean, "le haricot du Japon," Jap. Nata-mame (Canavalia incurva, D. C. ; Dolichos incurvus, Thunb.), a kind of climbing bean with somewhat large, pink blossoms in simple clusters. Leaves three-cleft, as with all species of beans ; the leaf-divisions oval, pointed, smooth. Pods hanging, curved somewhat like a sword, thick, broad, and often 20 cm. long, with large beans. In the case of one variety, they are pink (Aka-nata- mame) ; of another, white (Shiro-nata-mame). The young pods are cooked with the beans or eaten pickled. 5. Coast sword-bean, Jap. Hama-nata-mame {Canavalia lineata, D. C. ; Dolichos lineatus, Thunb.), growing wild in several reaches of the southern coast ; seeds little used. 6. The common bean, Jap. Ingen-mame (Phaseolus vulgaris, L.), is also cultivated in the climbing form, though mostly as a dwarf-bean. But it is evident from its small number of sub- species (not more than twelve or fifteen) that its cultivation has not the antiquity, and certainly not the importance, which it has in many other countries. The seeds are generally eaten when ripe, though sometimes with the young pods. 7. Phaseolus multiflorus, L. The scarlet-runner is mentioned by Kinch, but without native names. It appears to have been only lately introduced, as no older botanist refers to it, and I have never come across it. 8. Phaseolus Muugo, L. I noticed beans of this kind, probably the smallest of all, in the Kew collection from the Japanese division of the Vienna Exhibition, with the note, " Used for food in Japan." How far this is the case, I cannot say, nor do I find them else- where mentioned as Japanese. 9. Vigna Catjang Walpers (Dolichos Catjang, L.). 10. Pachyrhizus angulatus, Rich. (Dolichos bulbosus, L.). Of both these kinds, which I also saw in Kew as from Japan, the same thing is true as of No. 8. 11. Umbellate-blossomed dolichos-bean, Jap. Sasage or Sasagi (Dolichos umbellatus, Thunb.). The stalk, which is sometimes a climber, puts forth from the bases of its leaves long blossoms. These umbels are followed by as many long, slender, cylindrical pods with small seeds. The latter are eaten sometimes ripe, some- times with the green pods. There are also a number of sub-species belonging to this species, which are distinguished and named partly after the colour of their beans, and partly after other features ; Midori-sasagi, Haku-furo-sasagi, Hata-sasagi, Adzuki-sasagi Yekko-sasagi, etc. 62 AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY. 12. Megane-sasagi {Dolichos bicontortns, Durieu), lately intro- duced from France. 13. Kidney-bean (Lablab cnltratus, D. C. ; Dolichos cuitratus, Thunb. ; and D. ensiformis, Thunb.). The different forms of this bean, which has sometimes white blossoms, sometimes red, are named in Japan Sengoku-mame, Fuji-mame or Azi-mame, Shiro- hana-azi-mame, and Hira-mame. They are distinguished from dolichos-beans proper by the fact that the blossoms grow like ears of corn, and also by their pods, which are short, like those of peas. The seeds of certain wild kinds of beans also serve for food. They are : Tankiri-mame {Rhynchosia volubilis, Lour. ; Glycine villosa, Thunb.), No-adzuki (Atylosia snbrhombea, Miq.), Tsuru- mame or No-mame (Glycine soja, S. and Z.), No-sasage or Karasu- mame [Dumasia truncata, S. and Z.). 14. Peas, Jap. Yendo (pronounced Endo), Endo-mame and Nora-mame (Pisum sativum, L.). Three chief varieties of this species are cultivated, viz., first, the typical, white-fruited, which, as a rule, is eaten with the pods (Saya) while still unripe, Saya-endo, and secondly, the sub-species, P. s. thebaicum, Alefeld (Konigsberg dice-pea) with grey-green seeds (Midori-endo) or with brownish red (Aka-endo). The latter predominates. They are all, more- over, cultivated pretty frequently ; are sown in November, and harvested in May. 15. Broad-bean, Jap. Sora-mame (Vicia /aba, L.). This also is a winter crop, being sown in October and harvested in June. As in the Mediterranean region, the ripe beans are usually shred and used as horse-feed ; but they serve also as food for men. They are not so extensively cultivated as in many other countries. Analyses of Soy-beans (Glycine bispida, Moench). I. Jap. beans. II. JaP- beans. III. Jap. beans. IV. Seeds. V. Empty Pods. VI. Straw and Leaves. VII. Yellow. Beans VIII. Red Brown. from Vi IX. Black. enna. X. Red Brown from S.Tyrol Water . . . Protein . . Fat ... . Extractive mat- ter free from N. Raw fibre Ashes . . . 6*91 38-29 1871 26"20 5 33 4-56 12-88 3500 15-60 29-92 4-40 4-20 11-32 3775 20-89 24-18 2 - 00 3-86 1400 32-32 16-76 26-56 5'57 476 14-00 4-64 1-29 4 r8 7 3Q"45 779 I4'00 6-o8 203 37-12 22-97 9"3i 8-i 36-8 17-6 ? 48 5 "4 9'4 3i-6 i7'4 ? 4'3 5"' 99 31-2 18-1 ? 4-2 48 IO - I 38-1 i 7 -S ? ? 5-2 1 0000 I02'00 IOO'OO 99'97 100-04 9 1 "33 7207 67-8 68-2 6l"2 Rcirifirks * Of these analyses, I., IV., V., VI., VII., VIII., IX., and X. were AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES. 63 taken from Haberlandt's " Die Sojabohne." The last four origin- ated with Mach ; IV., V., and VI., with Caplan ; I., with Senff. Analysis II. was made by Levallois of the Inst. Agronomique in Paris, and is taken from the "Revue horticole " ; III. is traceable to Kinch, and is found in the " Transact. Asiat. Soc. of Japan," viii., p. 398. Comparative Table of Analyses of Various Pulse. I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. VIII. IX. w 3 — -b jra haseolus adiatus Wl/.uki). anavallia incurva tu-mame). haseolus vulgaris en-mame). x S 3 U > S = 3 = $ *j a. s .2 H § ■S M § 5 O, *-^i. - g -* M 3 ■— ' >£. a 2 A Water .... 6-91 16-08 i3'3 15-0 13-92 16-16 i3'4 I2*6l 6-3 Raw Protein 3829 1775 21-7 269 22-72 24-88 24-0 35"32 28-2 Fat 1871 o'34 r6 3° 2'OI 1 67 2-6 4'97 41-2 Extractive mat- ter free from N. 26 - 20 48*10 477 488 54 27 47-16 49 4 29*17 7*2 Raw Fibre . . 5'33 14-96 u-8 28 4*51 6-85 6-9 14-15 139 Ashes .... 4-56 277 37 33 2'57 3-28 37 378 3 '2 99-90 ioo-oo 99-8 1 0000 I OO'OO 100 00 IOO'OO IOO'OO ICO'00 Of these analyses, I., IV., V, VI., VII., and VIII. are taken from Haberlandt's "Die Sojabohne ;" II., from Dwars in "Transactions Ass. Soc. of Japan," vol. vi. ; III. was calculated after an analysis of Kellner in Nobbe's " Landwirthschaftliche Versuchsstationen," vol. xxx., 1884; IX. is traceable to Wolff, and is taken from Ollech's : " Die Riickstande der Oel-fabrikation," because it turns out, through comparison with the soy-bean and the other starchy leguminous plants, that fat represents, to a certain degree the hydrates of carbon. (c) Starch-producing Bulbs. Under this head we shall consider all of the so-called " Root- crops " (Hackfriichte) which are raised for the sake of their starchy bulbs or roots, and also all uncultivated plants which in similar manner are useful as food in Japan on account of their containing starch ; hence all kinds of potatoes and their substitutes, called collectively Imo. The number of species in this group, and the variety of its forms which are rich in meal and grow underground, are greater than in most other countries. Undoubtedly the oldest inhabitants of Japan derived an important food-supply from wild, though often valuable, species ; but in the course of time there was added to these a number of others, some from China, some 64 AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY. from the Malay archipelago. The growth and consumption of these foreign species were peculiarly favoured by circumstances of climate, or else were developed as the results of particular tastes. The Japanese prefer above all the sweet bulbs of several Araceae, especially the Taro, and also the Batate. They are therefore more largely cultivated than all the others. To follow, however, the natural order, let us here consider : i. The lotus-plant, Jap. Hasu and Renge {Nelumbo micifera, Gaertn. ; Nelumbium speciosum, Wild.; Nymphcea micifera, L.). Its home is the Indian monsoon-region, where it was first sacred to Siva, then to Buddha. It is difficult to determine whether Buddhist priests transplanted it thence to the countries of Chinese civiliza- tion, or whether it was already indigenous there. As far as Japan is concerned, I incline to the former supposition. It is certainly never found growing wild, either in China or Japan. On the contrary, it is often planted in ponds, partly for the sake of its magnificent blossoms, partly to obtain its edible rhizome, called Renkon in Japan, or on account of its oily nuts. Its cylindrical white rhizomes attain a considerable length, and a thickness of from 8 to 12 cm. They lie far down in the mud. They are divided by constricting fibres into long fingers, which when cut across disclose a very porous substance permeated by numerous concentric canals. 1 These rhizomes contain a tolerable amount of starch, and are boiled and eaten in considerable quan- tities. To Europeans their insipid mealy taste is not agreeable ; but the Japanese and Chinese think a great deal of them, chiefly because they consider them very healthy, being easily digested by children and old men. (For NupJiar japonicum and Nymplicza tetragona, see the chapter following.) 2. Arrow-head, Jap. Kuwai {Sagittaria sagitta?folia, L.). This plant does not follow in the botanical system, but by the nature of its cultivation and use it does. In China, too, the arrow-head is grown in ponds as a food. Its rhizomes form white, spherical protuberances, which, when boiled, taste like chestnuts (water-chestnuts). The starch prepared from them is said to be used in China like arrow-root. 3. fjgi (Hedysarwn esculentum, Led.). Like the two kinds that follow, this papilionacea is not cultivated, and is of no great consequence in Japan as a source of food. The tubercle produced by it (I had an opportunity of seeing it only once) outwardly re- sembles truffles. As noted by Gmelin in his " Flora Sibirica," the plant prefers stony places, as, for example, in Japan, the slopes of Fuji-san. Its proper home is Siberia, where it is much eaten by the Samoyedes. 4. Hodo, or Hodo-imo (Apios Fortunei, Maxim.). Found in con- 1 According to Herodotus, II. 92, the edible root of the Egyptian lotus was round, and about the size of an apple. If his statement is correct, the plant must have been some other Nymphasacea, but was certainly not the same as the lotus of the monsoon-region, with which we are concerned here. AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES. 65 siderable quantities in bushy or wooded regions, and on mountains; forms a tuber more spherical than pear-shaped, which is mealy when boiled and is good for food. 5. Kudzu (Pueraria Thunbergiana, Benth. ; Pachyrhizus Thun- bergianus, S. and Z.). This plant is of frequent occurrence, es- pecially on the edges of forests and among bushes, through which its long tendrils twine. Its thick roots furnish a starch meal, which is used for food. 6. The batata, or sweet-potato, Jap. : Satsuma-imo or Riukiu- imo (Batatas edulis, Choisy ; Convolvulus Batatas, L. ; C. edulis, Thunb.). The cultivation of this important vegetable has spread over the greater part of the tropical and sub-tropical regions of the earth. In Europe and North America its territory adjoins that of our common potato on the south, for example in Andalusia and the Gulf States, whose long-continued high temperature in summer is quite sufficient for it. As to its origin, opinions still differ, but there are strong arguments in favour of South America. It was undoubtedly not brought to the eastern monsoon-region till after the discovery of the New World, a fact that is proved not only by the names here applied to it, but also by historical dates. In the Malaccas it is called batata, as in Portugal, though on the Philippines it is named Castillian. About the year 16 10 the cultivation of the batata reached China from Luzon ; from here the Riukiu Islands, 1 where it is called Kara-imo (Chinese potato) and is the principal food of the inhabit- ants. They took up with it at once, and have cultivated it ever since. They were proud of possessing a precious vegetable that was unknown to their northern neighbours. In 1698 their king presented the Daimio of Satsuma with a basketful of batatas, which the latter planted on Tanega-shima. From this point their cultivation spread over the whole lordship of Satsuma, and then further over all the warm parts of Southern and Middle Japan. Thus it has come to pass that the batata is called Riukiu-imo in Satsuma, and Satsuma-imo in all the rest of the kingdom of Nippon. Only a hundred years ago, however, the cultivation of this vegetable, even in southern parts of the country, was so limited that its bulbs seemed rare dainties to children. Their sweetish flavour reminds one of edible chestnuts. They contain only 16 percent, of starch. The credit for its propagation belongs chiefly to a certain Aoki Kongo, to whom the batata-dealers of Tokio, about fifteen years ago, erected a monument in the neigh- bouring Meguro. The smaller bulbs of the Satsuma-imo, which are used in Japan for propagation, are planted, in spring, in loose, well-manured ground. They are arranged in rows and at intervals of from 50 to 60 cm. During the first two months, their young sprouts are watered several 1 I am chiefly indebted for the remarks here following to my old friend, Ito Keiske, of Tokio. II. F 66 AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY. times with fluid cesspool manure. In some neighbourhoods, in June, the trailing tendrils, now from 2 to 2\ m. long, are trimmed, and the cuttings are transplanted for further increase into a freshly- prepared field from which wheat has just been reaped. Each plant produces five or six bulbs, differing greatly in size and shape. The commonest and most popular sub-species is a red-skinned variety (Aka-imo) in the form of an ellipsoid. There is one variety of this again which is more in the shape of a club, and so on to spherical. This sort grows to the size of Kohl-rabi root. Like most climbers, the batata prefers a light, warm soil. Its shoots sprawl out in all directions to a length of two to four meters, with many long-stemmed leaves. The latter somewhat resemble those of the ivy, though larger and with greater variety of form, being found sometimes heart-shaped, and again indented, but generally with three or five lobes. One of the peculiarities of batata bulbs, is the fact that they are fleshy swellings of side-roots, and not underground tubers in the ordinary sense, like potatoes proper and Taro, nor yet rhizomes, like the well-known purgative products of other convolviilacecz} Where the ground is not sufficiently heated through, as in Ger- many, the batata does not develop these root-swellings at all, or at most deposits only a little starch in them. This was proved, also, in attempts at cultivation which I made with several West Indian sub-species, eighteen years ago in the Botanical Garden at Frankfort-on-the-Main. The parts above the surface developed splendidly, and covered the ground with a thick carpet of creepers and leaves. But in autumn, when we sought for bulbs, we dis- covered that the greatest root-swellings had only reached the thickness of one's thumb. 7. The common or Irish potato, Jap. Jagatara-imo (Solanum tuberosum, L.). The Japanese name, Jagatara, is a somewhat un- couth form for Jacatra, the earlier designation for Batavia, and points to the introduction of the potato through the Dutch Com- pany. I could learn no particulars as to when this happened. In the plains and valleys of Japan, where batata or Taro can be raised, ue very seldom meet our potato, though we find it in the mountain- districts of Kiushiu as far as Yezo, and pretty frequently too ; but even here not in large fields. Theydo not understand howto manage the plant, not giving it proper manure, nor digging ridges about it, and consequently get but scanty crops — about five-fold. In fact, the Japanese has acquired neither the knowledge of how to cultivate it, nor a taste for it. And, indeed, it is a favourite with very few nations as with us. The potato fills nowhere so prominent a place as in the domestic economy of Teutonic and Slavic peoples. After crossing the northern boundary of the Mediterranean region, we 1 See also Turpin : " Me'moires du Museum," vol. xix., pp. t, fif., and A. de Candolle : "Archives des Sciences phys. et nat., Troisieme Periode." vol. vii., No. 6, 1882. AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES. 67 perceive a rapid diminution in its cultivation, and one that is caused much less by difference of climate than by a change of taste and the prevalence of substitutes, such as chestnuts and sweet-potatoes. Thus, in Northern Italy it occupies O'^S per cent, of the area ; in Central Italy, C24 per cent, but in Southern Italy, only 0*03 per cent. A similar diminution is seen on the Iberian Peninsula. This, too, explains why the potato was not long ago carried to Japan by the Portuguese. They found it desirable to introduce tobacco, grape- vines, and quinces (from which a favourite sweetmeat is made in Spain and Portugal), but not Solatium tuberosum. Aracetz, so much cultivated on account of their bulbs, do not bloom in the fields any more in Japan than elsewhere, since they can only go through one period of vegetation there, and that does not suffice for them to put forth stalks. So they remain in the low herbal or monopodal form. This renders it rather hard to dis- tinguish them. The most prized and most widespread kind not merely in Japan, indeed, but throughout the whole monsoon- region and Polynesia, is : — 8. Colocasia atitiquorum, Schott {Arum esculcntum, L.), which the Japanese call usually simply Imo, or Sato-imo (village-potato). But the South-Sea Islander calls it Taro. Other Japanese names distinguish different sub-species. At the ends of short sprouts (stoles), the axillary buds develop in several directions from the mother-bulb (Oya-imo), which resembles a rhizome. These buds become fleshy white tubers (Ko-imo), in the shape of an ellipsoid or ovate, about the size of a hen's egg and weighing from 60 to 80 grs. Of carbon-hydrates, they show more glucose and dextrine than starch, — hence their peculiar sweetish flavour. Propagation takes place by means of bulbs, as in our potatoes. The petioles of the Sato-imo are green and longer than in most other kinds of the imo belonging to this division ; the shield or heart- shaped leaves themselves larger. On the upper side they are a polished green, on the under side, a greyish white. 9. Leucocasia gigatitea, Schott (Caladiutti esculetitum, Sieb.), Jap. Hasu-imo, resembles the foregoing closely, but is nevertheless not so much prized and planted. 10. Alocasia macrorrliiza, Schott {Arum macrorrliizutn, L. ; Colocasia esculcntutn, var. C. and Z.), Jap. Manshiu-imo. This kind, likewise widely grown in the South Sea under the name of Taro, and elsewhere too, forms only one large bulbous rhizome. 11. Conophallus koujak, Schott {Arum Dracuuculus, Th.), Jap. Konniyaku (pronounced Konjak), produces a single bulb, like the foregoing kind, only much smaller. It serves in the preparation of a gelatinous, tough food, which bears the name Konniyaku. Of yams, or dioscorcce, the Japanese use the following : — 12. Dioscorea japonica, Thunb. (D. oppositifolia, Thunb.), Jap. Yama-imo, that is, wild potato, or Jinen-jo. It is wide-spread in hill and mountain-forests, up to a height of about 600 m. It twines 68 AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY. about through the bushes here, two or three meters high, and around tree-trunks, putting forth in June numberless delicate green- ish yellow blossom clusters from the bases of its leaves. Because of its long cylindrical root, it is also called Naga-imo (long potato, a name which, however, is applied chiefly to the cultivated form). Jinen-jo is the favourite of all the varieties of Imo. It roots come to market from 25 to 50 cm. long and weighing 150 to 200 grammes. They bring the highest prices. Under these circumstances, it is remarkable that, like all yams in Japan, it is relatively so little grown. This is the case, too, in China, where it is called Ta-shu (big root). The little plantations found here and there are easily recognised by the short sticks about which the tendrils twine. One variety of Naga-imo, namely Dioscorea japonica, var. bulbifera, bears the name Kashiu-imo, and also Tsuku-imo, It has round roots resembling potatoes. 13. With regard to this second kind (D. sativa, L.), Jap. Tokoro or Naga-dokoro, it seems to me that Savatier is mistaken when he says, " Hab. in Japonia saepissime culta ; " for it is grown but sparsely, as far as I could observe it in various parts of the country. 14. D. quinqueloba, Thunb. ; Jap., Kikubaba-dokoro, is men- tioned by Savatier as growing wild. I know neither this variety nor its use. In the Kew collection there is some starch made from it. The bulbs of lilies (Yuri), many species of which grow on the Hara (forest-glades) and in wooded districts, are also much sought after for food, like the roots of the wild yams, and particularly by the poorer people and the Ainos of Yezo. The three following are, I think, especially worthy of notice in this connection. 15. Lilium auratum, Lindl. ; Jap., Horaiji-yuri, which is found in vast numbers on grassy mountain-sides. 16. L. TJiunbergianum, Roem. and Schult. (L. nodosum, Thunb.), Jap. Hirata-yuri and Natsu-sukushi-yuri. Thunberg expressly mentions its edible bulbs. For their sake, this variety is also much grown, according to L. Boehmer, in the vicinity of Hako-date. 1 17. Lilium cordifolinm, Thunb. ; Jap. Uba-yure and Kawa-yuri. According to Steube, the Ainos make a sort of starch from its bulbs, which is boiled with millet or other grain. 3 18. Common brake {Pteris aqui/ina, L.), Jap. Warabi. This plant, perhaps the most widespread in the world, is also found in the Japanese islands throughout their whole extent, from Formosa to Kamtschatka. But it is not so little esteemed there, and so useless to man and beast, as it is with us. 3 People begin to gather its young and not yet unrolled tips in April and May, and eat them 1 " Report to the Kaitakushi," 1875, p. 202. 2 " Mittheilungen der deutschen Gesellschaft Ostasiens." III. Bd. Yokohama, 1880-84, p. 223. 3 In Shikoku I saw in 1875 whole stretches of mountain forests burned up in order that Warabi might grow better. (See Rein, "Japan," i. p. 81.) AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES. 69 fresh, in soup or as vegetables, or preserve them dried for the same uses. But in autumn, when the parts above ground die off, the horizontally branching rhizomes are dug up and used for making fern-starch, Warabi-no-ko, i.e. brake-fern meal. The mode of pro- cedure is simple, being like that employed in obtaining other sorts of starch. The rhizome or root-stalk is dried, broken, and pulverized, mixed with water, squeezed through coarse hemp-linen bags, to separate the starch from the fibres, and then clarified further, till the meal has reached the requisite purity. In this state it is light- grey in colour, and can be bought anywhere. Mixed with millet, wheat-flour, or rice-flour, it is extensively used in cooking, especially by the poor, in Northern Honshiu, for example, and in Yezo, where millet and brake-fern are the principal food-plants. Warabi-no-ko serves yet another purpose. A glue is made from it, which, mixed with Shibu, the sour juice of unripe Kaki-fruit, withstands rain, and is used for pasting paper together, which is oiled and then used for making waterproof-cloaks and umbrellas, and for defence against rain in other ways. The brake serves for food, not only in Japan, but also in Corea and other parts of the continent of Asia. And A. von Humboldt asserts of the Canary Islands Palma and Gomera, that their in- habitants pulverize its root-stalks, mixing them with barley-meal, and use it thus for food. It is well known that Australia, at the time of its discovery, possessed only one edible root, the Pteris eseu/enta, a near relative of our common brake. (d) Vegetables and Condiments. In this group we meet with a great number of most dissimilar plants, partly truly cosmopolitan in household economy, partly peculiarities which have been developed by the land and the special tastes of its inhabitants. This division does not furnish such important articles of food as the farinaceous " cereals, pulse and root crops ; " yet not a few of its members play an important part as a daily spice of material life, in so far as it is affected by the enjoyment of a well-flavoured soup, or of rice and its substi- tutes. One acquainted with Japanese cooking will recall first in this connection the Daikon (giant radish), Nasu (fruits of the egg- plant), Negi-rui (onion family), Uri-rui, (cucumber tribe), Take (mushrooms), and other kitchen-plants, which in this respect seem quite indispensable. Table vegetables among the Japanese are eaten generally in much smaller quantities than with us, and a large number of those most widely scattered and most popular among us are missing altogether, e.g., most of the cabbage-varieties, rape-cole, scorzonera, asparagus, and many salad-plants. The Japanese distinguish between Yasai-mono or Yasai, vege- tables, Tsuke-mono, fruits preserved in salt water or vinegar. 70 AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY. so-called pickle?, and Yakumi, or relishes proper, — a division which can hardly be sharply carried out, since the same product, according to its preparation and application, appears as a vege- table dish or a relish, as, for example, the onion. I shall not, therefore, enumerate and descant upon these plants in any such grouping, but rather recommend their introduction in a systematic order, as follows. 1. Brasenia peltata, Pursch. {Menyanthes nymphoides, Thunb.), Jap. Junsai, and 2. Nnphar japonicum, D. C. {Nymphcea intea, Thunb.), Jap. Kawa-hone and Ko-hone. The rhizomes and young leaves of these two Nymphczacece are eaten, and for this purpose are culti- vated here and there in small ponds. The leaf-buds of Nymphaa tetragona, Georgi, Jap. Hitsuji-gusa, eaten with vinegar, are a favourite dish, especially in Yezo. 3. Pap aver somniferum, L., Jap. Keshi. Poppy is grown in Japan only to a very limited extent. Its seeds are used as a spice, but not for producing oil. 4. Eutrema Wasabi, Maxim. {Cochlearia Wasabi, Sieb), Jap. Wasabi, the Jap. horse-radish, which grows wild on the coast, and is grown in small quantities, rasped up and eaten with fish. 5. Brassica chinensis, L. (B. orientalis, Thunb.), rape, Jap. Na. The young leaves are either eaten as a vegetable or a salad. 6. B. oleracea, L., Jap. Botan-na, Kappa-na. Most plants of the cabbage-order have been only lately introduced, and are not yet widely spread. Longer known and more generally cultivated is a green variety of cabbage, not so sour as the corresponding kind in Europe, and very pleasant to the taste. 7. B. rapa, L., turnip, Jap. Kabura and Kabu, are raised in many sub-species, and sometimes used as a vegetable, boiled, sometimes as salad. Both roots and leaves are turned to account. The ordinary, flat variety predominates ; but there are also long conical sorts^ e.g. the Akanaga-kabura, i.e. red long-turnips. Omikabura and O-kabura are among the thickest kinds. 8. Sinapis integrifolia, Wild., Jap. O-garashi, Taka-na. 9. 6". cernua, Thunb., Jap. Karashi-na. 10. S. chinensis, L. (S. japonica, Thunb.), Jap. Midzu-na, Ise-na. The leaves of these three mustards, like those of rape, are eaten either as salad or vegetables. The use of their seeds as a spice was known to the Dutch, though they were but little propagated. (See Oil-plants.) 1 1. RapJianns sativits, L., Jap. Daikon. Raw, boiled, dried, and, above all, cut up and pickled, the Japanese radish is un- doubtedly the most widely known and favoured vegetable with rice. It is relished equally well by the fisherman and hunter of the more distant islands and the polished inhabitants of the capital. Hence special attention is paid to its culture, which extends as far as the Japanese has permanently settled. In the central and AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES. 71 southern parts of the country, it is raised in all seasons of the year, especially in winter, and sometimes yields enormously long, thick roots from 2 to 3 kg. in weight. The Daikon near the bay of Kago- shima are especially noted for their size and quality. Culture has in the course of time produced sub-species, chiefly with long, cylindrical roots, as Sakura-jima Daikon, Miyashige D., Karahashi D., Murasaki D., Natsu D., Sangatsu D., Hadano D. Some, however, are more like rape-cole or rape, short and thick- set, as Kudzu-hata D. and Karami D., and are even found with bundles of roots, like the bamboo-cane and the palm : the Tako (Poulpe) or Octopus D. Most sorts are white and resemble long turnips. The violet, red, and grey-black are known as Murasaki-, Aka-, and Kuro-Daikon. The European is at first agreeably astonished when he sees the big radishes, washed and tempting- looking, as they are brought to market, especially about spring- time ; but, as a rule, he finds their taste and smell when prepared for the table equally disagreeable. • 12. Portulacca oleracea, L., Jap. Suberi-hiyu, planted in some places, but mostly wild, and little used. 13. Zantkoxylon piperitum, D.C. (Fagaria piperita, Thunb.), Jap. Sansho. The young leaves, and still more the peppery seeds, of this widely extended shrub, serve as a condiment. For this purpose, it is often cultivated near peasants' houses. The other kinds of Zanthoxylon, which are wild, are used somewhat in a ■similar way, but less often. Passing over the Aurantiaceae and Pomaceae, which will be con- sidered under fruits, we come to the Cucurbitaceae, which are represented in many varieties and forms. These are planted : — (a.) On account of their edible products : — 14. Cucurbita pepo, L., the pumpkin, in its typical flat, radiat- ing, ribbed forms.' Its Japanese names are Tonasu, Bobura and Kabocha [i.e. Cambodia). The last indicates the source of one favourite species. Another Japanese sub-species has lately been ex- tensively tried in France, under the name of Cucurbita melonceformis. They praise its productiveness, the thick, light-yellow flesh and the agreeable taste of its fruit when boiled. Its flavour is some- thing midway between that of the potato and maize. These pumpkins are deeply and regularly furrowed and attain a circum- ference of 55 cm. and a height of 13 to 16 cm. Their colour varies from copper-red to deep green. 15. Benincasia cert if era, Savi {Cucurbitacerifera, Fischer), the white gourd, Jap. Togan and Kamo-uri. 16. Citrullus edulis, Spach (Cucurbita citrullus, L. and Th.), Jap. Suikuwa (pronounced Suika), the water-melon. This fine fruit develops but little aroma in Japan, so that its taste is far inferior to that which it possesses in the Mediterranean region and other districts with hot, dry summers. I have no knowledge as to the antiquity of its culture in Eastern Asia. In Egypt, as is well known, AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY. the water-melon was grown more than 3,500 years ago, as was proved by the tomb-discoveries of Brugsch and Maspero in 1881. 17. Cucumis conomon, Thunb., Jap. Shiro-uri, white melon. One frequently meets with the rather large oval fruit of this species, greenish white in colour. It is commonly pickled and eaten as a vegetable with rice, instead of Daikon. 18. C.flexuosns, L., Jap. Awo-uri, green melon. 19. C. melo, L., the melon, Jap. Makuwa-uri {Cticumis melo, L.). A large, strong-branched variety, some seeds of which were taken to France in 1877, where it has been grown since. Its large, cylindrical, thin-rinded fruit attains a length of 15 cm. and a thick- ness of 7"9 cm. Its greyish-green flesh is thick, fine, and of a sweet, agreeable flavour, though with little aroma. 20. Ciicumis sativus, L., the cucumber, Jap. Ki-uri, was, at some time or other, introduced from China. Besides these, the fruits of the wild-growing Momordica char- antia, L. are used, under the name of Tsuru-reishi and Niza-uri. (b.) The following species are grown for the sake of the rind or the tissue of their fruits. 21. Liiffa petola, Ser., Jap. Hechima, T6-guwa. The long cylindric fruit resembles a long straight cucumber. When ripe, it is yellowish. In the green state it is eaten ; but when ripe the pulp disappears and is replaced by a web of fibres, furnishing the so-called Luffa-sponge. 22. Lagenaria vti/garis, Ser. {Cuctirbita largenaria, L.), Jap. Fukube and Higotan, furnishes in its many-shaped shells cheap, popular vessels for daily use, not only in Japan, but in the whole monsoon-region and in Africa. In other lands these are often called calabashes by Europeans, a name which is also applied to the fruit of the melon-tree {Crescentia cujete), whose hard shells are converted into many sorts of vessels, such as buckets, bowls, spoons, etc., by the aborigines of tropical America. The pear-shaped outline of the flask-melon has served in Japan and China as a model, often used for Sake-bottles. So have those which appear to be made of two large balls set one on top of the other. Lagenaria dasystemon, Miq., Jap. Kamo-uri, is similarly utilized. (c.) For making starch, the Japanese use, to a modest extent, the seeds of several wild-growing varieties of the species Trichos- anthes, — Karasu-uri (T. cucitmeroides, Ser.) and Ki-karasu-uri (T. japonica, Regel). 23. Apium graveolens, L., celery. Its Jap. name Oranda-mitsuba, Dutch trefoil, indicates perhaps that it was first introduced into De-shima by the Dutch. 24. Petroselhtm sativum, Hoffm. (Apium petroselium, L.), parsley, seems also to have been first introduced by the Dutch. 25. Pimpinella anisum, L., Jap. Uikiyo, anise. 26. Fceniculum vulgare, Gaertn., Jap. Kurenomo and Uikiyo, fennel. AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES. 73 27. Pastinaca saliva, L., Jap. Amerika bofu, parsnip. 28. Coriandrum sativum, L., Jap. Koyendoro, coriander. All the above-mentioned umbelliferous plants are cultivated also as drugs, Their extent and significance for the Japanese kitchen are slight. 29. Daitcus carota, L., Jap. Ninjin (not to be confounded with the like-sounding word for ginseng). The carrot, too, is one of the commonest vegetables in Japan. But its cultivation and use are by no means as extensive as with us. 30. Aralia cordata, Thunb. (A. edulis, S. and Z.), Jap. Udo, a bush, about one meter high, which is found scattered over moun- tains, and particularly on grassy slopes (Hara), blossoming in July. It is also occasionally planted in the vicinity of dwellings. Its roots, and its young stalks too, are eaten as a vegetable dish and in soup, and people are very fond of them. 31. Petasites japonicus, Miq. (Tussilago Petasites, Thunb.), Jap. Fuki, grows wild under hedges, along roads and forest borders, but is also cultivated. It blossoms in February and March. The stalks of its leaves are eaten with vegetables. 32. Lappa Diajor, Gaertn. (Arctium lappa, Thunb.), Jap. Gobo. The common burdock exists in Japan just as with us, but has a use of which we know nothing. Its long, fleshy tap-roots, as thick as one's thumb, and with an average weight of 350 grs. are eaten by the common people. Like the roots and bulbs of some other composites, they contain inuline. 33. Cicliorium cndivia, L., Jap. Kiku-jisa and Oranda-jisa. 34. Lactuca sativa, L., Jap. Chisa, lettuce. Both of these are cultivated and made into salad and other articles of food, but to a much smaller extent than with us. Especially to the country population they are almost altogether unknown. It is evident, too, that they were first introduced by the Dutch. 35. Solatium melongena, L. (S. esculcutum, Dunal), Jap. Nasu or Nasubi, the egg-plant, l'Aubergine in French. From June or July, when its large violet blossoms appear, followed generally by a wealth of beautiful similarly coloured fruit, this plant is a real ornament of the dry Japanese fields. It is grown all over the country and extends from there over the warmer lands of Asia, quite to the Mediterranean-region. 1 But the egg-plant is raised in several countries of Africa and also in America. The Japanese cut up the oval, club-shaped or pear-shaped fruit, boil the pieces in soup or put them in brine and eat them as a salad with rice, instead of radishes. In other countries, e.g. India, France, North America, the fruit is cut through lengthwise, fried in butter, and eaten, all but the outer rind, as a vegetable. An attenuated form appears in the markets of Paris under the name l'aubergine 1 In " Frau Baron von Gerstorf's Reise in Syrien von Aleppo nach el Deir am Euphrat." Peterm. Mitth., 1865, p. S3, we read, for instance: " Wir kauften noch einige Wassermelonen und Patlitdscban (Solatium melongena, L.), denn hier waien ganze Felder damit bebaut." 74 AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY. violette, which in shape resembles our kidney-potato. This sub- species is met with in Japan, too, but another, with large violet fruit, pear or club-shaped, is probably the most widespread. They are all on the same level as to percentage of water contained and value as food, resmbling watery pumpkins, but requiring great summer- heat, which the German climate cannot supply. 36. Lycopersicum esculentiim, Mill., Jap. Aka-nasu, To-nasu, the tomato or love-apple, is also found in Japan, but has, compared with the egg-plant, only a slight importance in domestic economy there. 37. Physalis Alkekengi, L., Jap. Hodzuki, " bladder-cherry." 38. P. augulata, L. (P. ciliata, S. and Z.), Jap. Sennari-hodzuki. This sort, as compared with the common winter-cherry, is of in- frequent occurrence. Siebold says of the latter : " Fructus edulis ac pro nugis habetur venalis." The skin of the berry is a favourite and unique toy of Japanese girls, especially when carrying their younger brothers and sisters on their backs. They separate the red fruit, which is of the size of a small cherry, from the orange- coloured skin enclosing it, and preserve the berry in salt-water. By rolling and pressing, they free the skin from the flesh and seeds within, squeezing them out through a little hole opposite the stem- end. The skin of the berry has now two openings, like a lamp- globe. This they put in their mouths, blow it lull of air, and then compress it between their gums, making a peculiar noise. Herein consists all the fun. 39. Capsicum annuum, L., Jap. Togarashi, Chilies, Spanish or Cayenne pepper, Span, pimiento, Fr. piment. It is cultivated in many sub-species, which are distinguished principally in colour, form, and size of their fruit. Thus in Japan the Naga-togarashi is especially frequent, — long, pointed peppers (C. longum, D.C.) with glittering red or black berries ; also the Maru-togarashi, with heart- shaped berries {C. cordifolium, Mill.). The black varieties are called Murasaki-togarashi ; the red, Aka-togarashi. 40. C. fmtescens, Willd., likewise called Togarashi, occurs much seldomer in Japan than the above-mentioned herb-shaped kind. According to De Candolle, 1 the Spanish pepper originated pro- bably in tropical America, whence, at any rate, it rapidly spread, soon after Columbus's discovery, for it was known in England as early as 1548. A warm climate is necessary to its proper develop- ment. In many lands it is the favourite spice, either fresh, pickled, or pulverized. Captain Hall remarks, 2 " Chilies {i.e. Spanish pepper) form the chief condiment of Corean cooking," and notices further that they are missing in scarcely any dish, and are much grown in the vicinity of villages. The word Togarashi, pepper, is also used in Japan as a generic name for several different spices. Thus, every morning during my first stay of five months in the German legation at Tokio, I 1 " L'origine des plantes cultivees." Paris, 1883. - Captain Hall: "A visit to Korea." Proc. R. G. S., 18S1. AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES. 75 heard a woman, in passing my windows, cry : " Nana iro togarashi !" i.e. literally, "seven sorts of Cayenne pepper." She sold a pul- verized mixture of seven spices, Togarashi being the chief com- ponent. The other ingredients were : 2. Chimpi, dried orange peel, 3. Goma, sesame-seed ; 4. Kosho, black pepper ; 5. Sansho, Zan- tkoxylum piperitum, D. C. ; 6. Keshi, poppy-seed ; 7. Asa-no-mi, hempseed. 41. Perilla arguta, Benth. (Ocymum crispum, Thunb.), Jap. Shiso. There is a distinction between Aka-shiso, with purple-red leaves, and Ao-shisd, with green. Shiso is a very general kitchen-plant. Its young leaves are eaten as a vegetable and in soup. By soak- ing the leaves of the red variety in plum-vinegar, their colouring matter is extracted, and the resulting red fluid is used in preserving and colouring lumps of ginger and various other roots and fruits. 42. Beta vulgaris, L., Jap. Tensei, beet. Not general. 43. Spinacea inermis, Moench. (S. oleracea /3, L.), Jap. Horenso. Spinach is eaten as a vegetable as with us, though not to so great an extent. 44. Polygonum orientate, L., Jap. O-tade, the oriental knot- grass. This variety, which probably is traceable to India, and is known over a considerable part of the Old World, was, according to Thunberg, first introduced into Japan by the Portuguese. It is found planted here and there, as with us, though not as an orna- ment, but on account of its leaves. The same purpose is served by P. japonicum, Meissn. {P. barbatum, L.), the Tade or Bontoku- tade. 45. Rheum palmatum, L., and Rh. undulatum, L., Jap. Daio. Rhubarb is grown for medicinal purposes mostly ; but its stalks are now and then utilized in the kitchen, as with us. 46. Ciunamomum zeylanicum, Breyn., and C. Loureirii, Nees, Nikkei, cinnamon or cassia-trees of Japan. The former is culti- vated only here and there ; the latter more frequently. The rind, of little value, obtained from the latter is exported via Nagaski, to a modest extent. 47. Cannabis sativa, L., Jap. Asa, hemp. The utilization of its grated seeds as a condiment was mentioned above under Spanish pepper. In regard to the much more important question, as to its bast, particulars are given under textile-plants. 48. Zingiber officinale, L., Jap. Shoga. Ginger has been culti- vated on account of the " claws " of its rhizomes, for home con- sumption, from time immemorial, and always on small damp bits of ground, near dwelling houses, as in China. One may, however, go through many a village without seeing any of it. Ginger was taken to Kew by Sir Joseph Banks, in 1796. Its rhizomes are usually preserved in reddened plum-vinegar, and make a much relished though not common flavouring with rice, instead of Daikon. The young shoots or roots of ginger often appear as a condiment with a certain dish offish, called Ni-zakana (boiled fish). 76 AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY. 49. Z. Mioga, Roscoe (Amomium Mioga, Thunb.), Jap. Mioga. Less cultivated than the common ginger. Yields a condiment in its young shoots. 47. Curcuma longa L., Jap. Ukon, is to a limited extent like- wise cultivated as a condiment, while the well-known yellow dye- stuff is imported from China and India. Condiments of the leek order, " Shin," i.e. stinking herbs, as the Buddhist priest of East Asia calls them, have hitherto existed among all civilized nations, though they have not acquired the same importance everywhere. While, for example, the Spaniard scarcely eats meat of any kind without its being seasoned with garlic, and the Russian regards an onion together with its green top as a tit-bit, such a decided liking is only occasionally found among the Germanic peoples. The fondness of the Israelites for onions and garlic is well known, and is as old as their history. The onion is with many races not a mere relish only, but a real food. To comprehend this, one must remember that besides our common sorts — sharp and tear-compelling — there are others, like the red Portuguese, which often weigh a kilogramme, especially in warm, light soil, and have an agreeable sweetish taste, so that when cooked they can take the place of other vegetables. The Japanese call the cultivated varieties of leek after the onion — Negi-rui, i.e. onion group. Five of them, the Go-shin, i.e., five pungent, stinking herbs, seem to have been especially popular within the range of Buddhism. The enjoyment of them was, and is, strictly forbidden to priests, with the exception of one sect. An inscription at the entrance to many of their temples and cloisters, usually carved on an obelisk of stone, reads, translated : " It is forbidden to carry stinking herbs arid intoxicating drinks through this holy gate." Among the chief accusations brought by Nobunaga, against the monks of the Hiyei-san, 1 is, that they ate fish and stinking herbs, therein despising the law. The following comprise the Go-shin : 51. Allium sativum, L., Jap. Ninniku, garlic, a plant long used by man, well known to the old Egyptians and Greeks, and grown in Japan since the beginning of its history. According to Regel, garlic is indigenous on the Kirgis steppes and Tsungarei. 52. Allium cepa, L., Jap. Negi, the onion. It is found wild in the outlying spurs of the Iranian plateau, and also southward from Kuldscha (Regel). In Japan its planting occurs usually in Feb- ruary or March, its harvest in autumn. 53. The winter-onion, Jap. Negi {Allium fistulosum, L.), which originated in the Altai Mountains, like the foregoing, is raised in several varieties. The Japanese eat onions either boiled or fresh, cut into pieces, as a condiment. 1 See Rein, "Japan," vol. i. AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES. -jj 54. Allium ascalonicum, L., Jap. Wakegi, the shalot. This is not known in a wild state, and is considered by de Candolle merely a sub-species of the onion. 55. Allium schccnoprasum, L., Jap. Azatuki, the chives, also much grown endemically, though not in Japan. 56. Allium porrum, L., Jap. Nira, leek or porret, is, according to Gay, 1 a cultivated form of A. ampeloprasum, L. According to Kinch, A. seuescens, L., is designated Nira. The onion and stalk of this especially pungent variety are eaten mostly boiled. 2 Besides the above-mentioned kinds of leek, the following also are used in Japan : 57. Allium splendens, Willd. {A. arenarium, Thunb.), Jap. Rak'- kiyo and 58. A. japonicum, Regel, Jap. Yama-Rak'kiyo, two species, of which I do not know the cultivated forms. 59. Bambusa puberula, Miq., and several other kinds of Take or bamboo-cane furnish the kitchen with Take-no-ko, young bamboo- sprouts, which break forth from the ground in spring like giant asparagus, and yield at this season a much relished, but insipid dish. 60. Pteris aquilina, L., Jap. Warabi, brake-fern. The rhizome of this plant, as a yielder of starch, was noticed in a former section. But its young tops, too, as long as they are yet undeveloped and rolled together, are highly esteemed throughout the Japanese Empire, and much eaten in soup. In addition to the vascular plants mentioned in the foregoing list, and a large number of other, mostly endemic varieties, which are now and then utilized in Japanese kitchens as vegetables or relishes, we must here consider the fungi and marine algae. Num- bers of people are employed in gathering, preparing and disposing of these plants, which are useful not only for home consumption but also in commerce. Unfortunately the fungi, as well as the lichens of the land, have been hitherto very hardly treated by the botanists. Von Siebold certainly offers us a list of 32 Japanese names, " quae vero fungorum species, aut sponte crescentes, aut arte imo provocatae, crudae, salsae, siccataeque vix in ulla desunt coena"; but there is no closer description or discrimination of them. This gap exists still, nor will it be filled up by the following remarks. They may serve, however, at least to dispose of some 1 "Ann. des sc. nat." 3e serie. Vol. 8. 2 With the above mentioned chief Japanese varieties of leek, I was able to reconcile, only in part, an older list of the Go- shin, for which I am indebted to my learned friend, the priest Nanjio Bunyiu. It follows here with its Chinese-Japanese and Japanese names, the latter in parenthesis : Dai-san, (Chobiru), Shio-san (Ninniku), Kokyo (Aratsuki), Ji-so (Hitomoji or Negi), Kaku-so (Nobirn). The least is AIL nipponicum F. and Sav., a variety which, so far as I know, is not cultivated at all. AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY. errors, and to establish scientifically several varieties with which I became more intimately acquainted. The Japanese designate by Kinoko and Kusabira, the larger fungi in general, and by Take, as aff.x to the proper name, in particular cases. Several varieties of Agaricus stand first in their estima- tion, namely Shii-take and Matzu-take. 57. Agaricus Sp., Jap. Shii-take. This is an agaric, without ring and anil, the hood eccentrically placed and irregular, having a brown outer skin and white lamellae. The stalk likewise is white, rather high and moderately thick. Shii-take has therefore only a slight resemblance to our common champignon {A. campestris, Pers.), being closer in appearance to A.fusipes, Fr., A. contortus, Berk, and A. attenuatus, D. C. It is the more incomprehensible how often they have been confused with it, from Kaempfer's and Thunberg's time down to the present day. Thus Kinch in his list adduces Shii-take as Agaricus campestris, and we find in the catalogue of the Japanese section of the International Health Exhibition, London, 1884/ an analysis of it under this name. According to it, the mushroom when dried, contains 1 1 '847 per cent, of albumen, 1*685 P er cent of fat, 67*508 per cent of cellulous, and other nitrogenous components, 4*370 per cent. \ of ashes, and I I "490 per cent, of water. The Shii-take is easily dried and preserved. In this process there is developed and retained an excellent aroma, which makes it the most precious and valuable of all Japanese fungi. It derives its name from the Shii-tree, an evergreen oak [Que reus cuspidata, Thunb.) of Central and Southern Japan. But the quantity of it found on rotting roots and stumps is by no means equal to the demand. This is mostly met by artificial propagation, as in the case of truffles and champignons in Europe, which in my opinion it far excels in flavour. Truffles and champignons are used for sauce chiefly, and so Shii-take serves principally in making savoury soups. If the quantity used at home and exported (to China) does not represent such great sums as those, the plant is, neverthe- less a factor worth mentioning. Its artificial production, which is described more thoroughly in the English consular report from Kanagawa (Yokohama) for 1875, 3 is subserved not only by Shii-noki (Quercus cuspidata, Thunb.), but also by other oaks, as Kashi (Quereus acuta, Thunb.), Kashivva {Q. dentata, Thunb.). This takes place chiefly in the bark of felled trees, and is carried on in many provinces, namely in Yamato, Ise, Mikawa, Totomi, Suruga, Kai, Idzu, Mutzu, Dewa and else- where. 58. Agaricus Sp., Matsu-dahi, i.e., pine-fungus, because growing mostly in pine-woods. When fresh, it tastes very good, and is 1 "Japan. Internat. Health Exhib., London, 1884. A Descriptive Catalogue of the Exhibits, etc., 'by K. Nagai and J. Murai." 2 The Revue Horticole, of the year 1879, also gives a description of it. AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES. 79 a great favourite. It is eaten in great quantities, either boiled or roasted, and also pickled and dried ; but soon loses its savour and becomes insipid. 59. CantJiarellus cibarius, Fries., Jap. Shiba-take. Under that name persons were offering for sale by the basketful our well-known egg-mushroom, in September, 1874, in the villages at the foot of Fuji-san. I saw it in other places, too, but cannot find it anywhere mentioned as growing in Japan. 60. Clavaria flava, Pers., and CI. Botrytis, Pers., Jap. Nedzumi- take, occurs, like the preceding, in the forests of Fuji-san, and is sold in the neighbouring villages. 61. Lycoperdon Tuber, L. (Thunb., " Flor. jap." 349). Under the name Sho-ro (Sho for Matsu, pine ; and ro-tsuyu, dew), there comes in spring a little mushroom similar to the bovista, growing chiefly in pine-woods. It is much eaten in soup and also as a vegetable dish, and although very tender, is almost flavourless. This also is preserved. The following edible fungi are also frequently mentioned : Shimeshi, Kikurage, Tsuga-take, Hatsu-take, Hira-take, and several others, with which, however, I am still unacquainted. In connection with the preceding, let me here mention two other dry fungi, which, though of no account as food, should not pass unnoticed, being widely spread and utilized in a remarkable manner. In Thunberg's "Flora japonica," p. 347, a tree-fungus is spoken of under the name of Boletus versicolor, which we must add to the dry Polyporus varieties. It bears, as Thunberg too remarks, the name Saru-no-koshi-kake, i.e. ape-stool, and seems to be distributed all over the land. It clings to the trunks of old foliaceous trees in mountain-forests, often attaining great dimensions. I have in my possession one 40 cm. broad and about 20 cm. long. In Nikko people make plates out of them, the borders of which show two or three growth-rings of the mushroom with all the natural irregu- larities. Below they are sawed off and varnished in black ; their upper part is hollowed out and varnished red, and they thus make unique and very pretty vessels. The second kind of fungus, still more widely known, bears the name Reishi, and is a dry, hard, and really worthless sort of hood- mushroom, in appearance related to the Polyporus lucidus, Fries, or P. amboinensis of Farther India and the Malay Archipelago. Reishi is the size of our champignon (A. campestris), and has a stalk which grows occasionally 15 cm. long, and is dark brown like the hood. If it perchance grows to be a curiosity on the stem of an old dwarf-tree in a gardener's pot or tub, the tree is straightway taxed from one to two yen (4 to 8 shillings) higher, and looked upon as a sign of luck, Medetai, and an occasion for congratula- tion. Reishi counts, too, as a good omen in general, and is used to decorate the Tokonoma or slightly raised projection of a room. So AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY. The sea-weeds 1 are of far greater importance than the mush- rooms for Japan. Nowhere else do they form a part of the people's diet to such an extent as with the nations on the Pacific side of Asia. Not only the giants of the marine flora are taken up by the Chinese and Japanese and utilized in various ways as food, but also the more delicate red and green sorts, the use of which has been adopted by the Malays also. In Europe the consumption of a few varieties, as Alaria esadenta, Grev., Sphcero- cocc7is palmatas, K., PorpJiyra laciuiata, Gracilaria UcJienoides, A., and some others, is limited to the poor sea-coast population of the north, especially of Ireland, Scotland, Iceland, and Norway ; while the Frenchman, for example, generally not at all particular in the choice of marine animals for food, and able with his culinary art to make every sort appetizing, despises the algae. The marine flora is influenced most by light and temperature, and hence bythe depth, situation and form of bays,and by ocean currents. Sea-water does not change its temperature as readily or as often as the air. It is the medium of distributing its own inhabitants, and touches all parts of the world. Moreover, the fish and turtles which feed on algae swim with its streams over vast areas, and carry seeds to distant shores. From all these causes, it is inevitable that many algae should be widely distributed, and that we should find many a variety in the waters of Japan which are known in other parts of the ocean, too. The circumpolar tangle {Laminarice) and seawracks {Fucas species) prefer cold sea-water and a heavy surf, both of which are to be had in the vicinity of the island of Yezo and the Kuriles. Two other groups of the Melanosperms, the Cystosiricz (bladder-string seaweed) and Sargassacice (berry- seaweed) join them in the south. The last-named family is repre- sented in especial profusion in several groups (Sargassum, Spongo- carpus, Halochloa, Myagropsis, CoccopJwra). I never saw them used in housekeeping, but only as manure, except HalocJdoa macrantha, Kg., Jap. Houdawara, which is eaten with vinegar, and pickled. A considerable amount of light is the chief condition of life for the more delicate green sea-algae. Many of them do not require very salt water, and are found at the mouths of rivers and in pools where there is little salt, and also on the coast above the mean tide level. 1 An exhaustive work on this subject does not yet exist. Thus far the following have noticed Japanese varieties : — i. Kutzing, in his well-known work, "Species Algarum, 1849, collected by Tilesius, chiefly in Nagasaki." 2. Harvey: "Characters of New Algae, chiefly of Japan, collected by Ch. Wright. Proc. Am. Ac. of Arts and Sc." Boston, 1857. Vol. iv. p. 327. 54 varieties. 3. G. von Martens : " Die Preuss. Exped. nach Ost-Asien. Botan. Theil. Die Tange.," 1866. m varieties, collected by E. von Martens. 4. Suringar : "Algae Japonicas Musei Botanici Lugdano-Batavi." Haarlem, 1874. 34 species, collected chiefly by Siebold in Nagasaki. A GRIC UL TURA L IND US TRIES. The red algae (Fioridae or Rhodosperms), on the contrary, attain the maximum of their growth in deeper water and in places where they are not much influenced by direct sunlight. Those of their varieties which do not follow this rule, but grow near the rim of the sea's great mirror, or, it may be, lie at times partly dry, lose much of their wealth of colour, and incline toward violet, orange, or green. On the island of Yezo, sea-algae, particularly the big seaweeds, form, next to fish, the principal article of export, especially to China. The chief elements of this trade in algae are : — i. Kombu, the tangle or sea-girdle, Laminaria sacharina, La- mour {L.japonica, Arech. ; Fucus saccharinus, Thunb.). 2. Arame, Capea elongata, Ag. 3. Katsumi, Capea flabeliif or mis, Rich. 4. Wakame, Badderlocks, A /aria esculenta, Grev. ; /?. pinnatifida, Harv. 5. Haba-nori, Phylittis debilis Kg., varieties which in part are still gathered on the shores of Honshiu. Most of the edible green and red algae bear the generic name Nori, while the words Umi-kusa or Kai-sd are used for algae in general, these words being simply translations of the English "sea-weed." Of green alga; several varieties of Ulvacece, or green laver, are gathered and used on the Japanese coasts, sometimes fresh, in soup, sometimes dried or with vinegar or pickled in salt. These are not merely the cosmopolitan sea-lettuce, or lettuce laver, as U. Lactna, L., Ao-nori, and others, but also PJiycoseris austra/is, Kg. {Ulva latissima, Ag), called Nori ; likewise Enteromorpha covipressa, Grev. ( U. compressa, L.). Tnc Japanese call them Ao-nori and eat them either fresh in soup, or dried, with vinegar and starch. They usually appear in commerce in the form of little packages with the thalli running parallel. Modzuku is the name of the Mesogloia dccipiens, Sur., which comes especially from the peninsula Kadzusa-Awa, and is used like the above. The same is true of Somen-nori, i.e. the vermicelli- algae {Nemalion vermiculare). Several varieties of Codium, Jap. Miru, distributed through nearly all the seas, are not lacking either; for instance, Codium tomentosum, Ag., and C. elongatum, Ag. The cartilaginous Florideae, particularly species and varieties of the Gigartineae, Caulacantheae, Gelide, Sphaerococceae, and Tylocarpeae, are distinguished for their high proportion of pararabin, and furnish, with boiling water, algae -jelly. They are gathered in great quan- tities on all the coasts of the Malay Archipelago and the waters of China and Japan, and are utilized in part direct as food, partly in the preparation of algae-glue, Jap. Fu-nori, or algae -jelly, Jap. Kanten. In trade, these articles, both when raw and dried and when further prepared, are designated by the Malay word Agar- Agar, i.e. vegetable. This name was originally applied to Gigartina [Ejicheuma) isiformis, G. spinosa, and G. teuax, which is collected II. G 82 AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY. near Singapore, for example, in great masses, and shipped to China. The Chinese use them not only for food, but make of them Hai- Thao, a transparent glue, with which they stiffen silk and other stuffs, and also fill up the interstices of coarse cloths for the manu- facture of lanterns. Of the Japanese algae in this group, the following deserve special mention : — i. CJwndrus punctatus, Sur. 2. Gigartinia tcnella, Harvey, Jap. Ogo. 3. G. intermedia, Sur. 4. Gleopeltis tenax, Kg. {Sphcerococcus tenax, Ag.). 5. Gl. capillaris, Sur., Jap. Shiraga-nori. 6. Gl. coliformis, Harv., Jap. Kek'kai. 7. Gl. i)itricata, Sur., Jap. Fu-nori. 8. Gelidium corneum, Lamouroux, Jap. Tokoroten-gusa. 9. G. Amansii, Lam our. 10. G. cartilagineum, Gail. 11. G. rigens, Grev., Jap. Tosaka-nori, i.e. cock's-comb algae. 12. Sphcerococcus confervoides, Ag., Jap. Shiramo. 13. Gyrnnogongrous flabelliformis, Harv., Jap. Home-nori. 14. G.japonicus, Sur., Jap. Tsuno-mata. 15. Kallymenia dentata, Jap. Tosaka-nori. 16. Porphyra vulgaris, Ag., Jap. Asakusa-nori. (e) Fruits, Berries, and Nuts. Japan, like China, possesses many kinds of fruit and other edible plants, not only peculiar sorts, but also those which have long been distributed over a great part of the temperate zone. But most of them lack flavour, being insipid and in our judgment not to be recommended. Almost all our favourite fruits, such as apples, pears, cherries, plums, apricots, peaches, soon lose their aroma, and degenerate somewhat in form and size too, when trans- planted to Japan or China. Hence Californian apples, for example, win great favour and have a large sale among foreigners, during the winter months, in all the larger ports of Eastern Asia, from Yokohama to Singapore. The cause of this degeneracy of fruit in Japan and China, especially the loss of aroma, may possibly be the climate, particularly in the damp, rainy summers, but this has not yet been definitely ascertained And the land is ill provided with berries, too. Our black mulberries, currants,gooseberries, raspberries, bilberries, and other kinds do not exist there at all, and strawberries and grapes only scantily and in poor quality. The wild berries that are eaten are mostly unpleasant to our taste. Tropical berry- fruits do not enter into the question, as the most important and hardiest of them, the banana, does not come to maturity, even in Satsuma. A GRICUL TURAL IND US TRIES. It is worthy of note that dwarf training, so popular in Japan with decorative plants, is seldom applied to fruit-trees. The same is true of pyramidal, cordon, and wall-fruit training which are so much esteemed and so widely known in Europe. A few kinds of fruit do receive special attention, however, such as grapes, oranges, peaches, and pears, but even with these such care is not universal. It may be that this results from a national peculiarity of taste, for that of many races differs from ours even in respect to mere material things. For instance, a number of fruits, such as apples and pears, are eaten in Japan, as well as in Morocco and China, while still hard and green, or at least gathered thus and put away to ripen, as the Biwa {Eriobotrya japonicd). Quite in accordance with this liking, the Japanese value their handsome and juicy though hard and unaromatic pears, which De Candolle 1 rightly calls "plus beau que bou," and which most foreigners cannot endure. Among the few well-flavoured fruits of Japan come first of all mandarin oranges, persimons and chestnuts, to which Eastern Asia is an ancient home. Mandarin oranges were long ago transplanted to Southern Europe and elsewhere from their oldest home in China, but Kaki has been only lately introduced. The chestnut is so widely distributed and so easily becomes wild, that it is very difficult, if not impossible, to determine its original starting-point. A fourth kind of fruit, however, from Eastern Asia, the Eriobotrya japonica, has attained with astonishing rapidity to successful culti- vation in almost all tropical and sub-tropical climates inhabited by Europeans. The explanation of this is easily to be found in the character of the plant. The following enumeration and description of edible Japanese fruits is based upon W. Lauche's practical classification in his " Handbuch des Obstbaues." Omitting the plants of agriculture proper, the Cucurbitaceae, for instance, which have been already considered, we divide them into kernel and stone fruit, berries, and nuts. (a) Kernel-fruit. I. Pyrus sinensis, Lindl. (P. usurie/isis, Maxim.), the pears, Jap. Nashi. This tree originated in Mantchooria and Mongolia. It was evidently distributed early over China, Corea, an J Japan, where, next to Kaki, it yields the commonest fruit.' 2 This variety is dis- tinguished from our common pear-tree chiefly by its leaves and fruit. The former are large and always sharply dentated. The Japanese pears, like our cherries and many apples, are spherical and somewhat flattened at both ends. They are all large, with thick, bronze-yellow skins, which are covered with little light-grey 1 " L'origine des plantes cultive'es." Paris, 1883, p. 136. 2 Decaisne in his " Jardin fruitier du Museum Poitiers," pi. 5, gives a good illustration of it ; and the Revue Horticole, a few years ago, furnished another equally good. 84 AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY. spots. They do not differ so much among themselves as our pears in regard to season, size, shape, colour, or flavour. The early pears, which ripen in August, are, I think, smaller than those of the general crop, which follow one or two months later, but in other respects they do not differ essentially from them. The flesh is coarse, full of lumps, of a yellow colour, very juicy and tolerably sweet, but lacks the mellowness and aroma of our pears. The taste resembles that of ours when green. In addition to the judgment of De Candolle, cited above, there is another in the Revae Horticole, which deliberately says that Japanese pears are poor fruit. The plant is as a rule propagated through shoots, though some- times through seeds and subsequent grafting. Between the middle and the end of March, stout, healthy yearling shoots, 42 to 45 cm. long, are whittled to a point, and the ends are then charred over a slow fire. The shoots thus prepared are set out one after another in furrows, in good soil, manured with compost, and then packed around with earth. Transplanting takes place a few years later. Pear-trees are most frequently met singly in Japan, as with us, growing high with natural development, and evidently without special attention. In northern Honshiu the mistletoe (Viscum album, L.) often finds lodgment upon them, though more frequently still on Castanea vulgaris Lamk., and also on deciduous oaks. This mistletoe differs from ours in its wine-coloured berries. Quite another method of treatment and much greater care is employed with pear-trees here and there in the neighbourhood of large cities, e.g., at Kawasaki, between Tokio and Yokohama. The trees here are planted in rows at equal intervals of twelve Shaku (3 '64 metres) in all directions. They are manured twice a year. For this purpose circular rings are dug about the trunks. These are closed again after being filled with manure. Then, too, the ground is kept clear of weeds and loosened from time to time. At a height of five or six Shaku (150 to 180 cm.), the tree-tops are bent hori- zontally, after the manner of our arbours. Rows of posts, as well as cross-bars of bamboo cane, serve as supports to the branches. When I inspected these plantations more closely, about the end ef April, blossoming-time was over, and I found the owners busy cutting away the new shoots, 20 to 25 cm. long, lest they should withdraw nourishment from the abundant young fruit. I learned on this occasion that such an orchard has to be renewed every fifty or sixty years. The pears ripen here at the end of August, becom- ing very large and a beautiful yellow-brown, running into grey- brown. They appear to keep for a very long time, but are just as watery in flavour and deficient in aroma as the others. 2. Pyrns mains, L., the apple-tree. This tree and its insignificant fruit, Jap. Ringo, are so infrequent that many a foreigner dwells in the country for years without seeing them. AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES. 85 3. Pyrus Cydonia, L. (Cydonia vulgaris, Pers.). The quince, Jap. Marumero, was introduced by the Portuguese, and is found scattered all over Japan, planted about houses, though not fre- quent. 4. Cydonia sinensis, Thouin (Pyrus chinensis, Poir.). The Chinese quince, Jap. Kuwarin, is likewise grown here and there. Its fruit is smaller than that of the former variety, and is made into pre- serve. The product of P.japonica, Thunb., a nearly related native sort, is scarcely used at all and cannot be looked upon as fruit. 5. Eriobotrya japonica, Lindl. (Mespilus japonica, Thunb., PJ10- tinia japonica, Fr. and Sav.). The Japanese name for the plant and its product is Biwa, Chin. Lu-kuh, Engl. Loquat, French Bibasier, Nefles du Japon, Span. Nispero de Japon. In Japan, China, and Corea, this peculiar, beautiful variety of fruit is esteemed as the first crop of the new year and has been cultivated from early times, though not extensively. I have, for example, only seen scattered trees near peasants' dwellings in Japan, and never large orchards. 1 In the more central parts of Japan the fruit does not mature before June ; as a rule, however, it is plucked by the bushelful before that time and put away (with some of the leaves, to the detriment of its flavour), to get ripe afterwards. The fact that Kaempfer in his day mentions the presence of the Loquat in Java leads to the conclusion that long ago it was spread all over Eastern Asia. In 1787 Sir Joseph Banks brought it to England. Since then it has been introduced into almost all warm countries, e.g., most of the English colonies, the whole Mediter- ranean region, and the West Indies, for it recommends itself, equally for ornament and fruit, and also for its easy cultivation and quick growth. It is a tall bush or small tree, making a pleasing and stately appearance with its large leaved evergreen foliage and still more so when covered with white bunches of blossoms or a wealth of yellow fruit. It begins to bear in the third year, producing abundantly between the sixth and tenth ; flourishes in a light soil, and has withstood — 9 C. of cold on the Riviera and by the lakes of Northern Italy, when many native fruit-trees perished. It is easily propagated, by means of cuttings or seeds. In the Bermudas, whither the Biwa was brought from Malta forty-five years ago, I found ripe fruit on March 3rd, in Malaga on April 7th, in Gibraltar on April 14th. But May and the beginning of June are the proper season of maturity in most Mediterranean countries, as for example, in Seville, where long rows of large fine bushes can be seen in the garden of the Duke of Montpensier. Not only in 1 It also seems to me very doubtful whether Eriobotrya was derived from Japan and not rather transplanted thither from China in very early times, and then allowed to go wild in different localities, although the authors of works on Japanese flora, from Kaempfer and Thunberg on, call it indigenous. I myself have never found it except under cultivation. 86 AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY. the Mediterranean region, but in the West Indies too, I have found that the Biwa becomes larger, handsomer, and better flavoured than in their Japanese home. The shape, too, has changed. In Japan the fruit is usually more or less spherical and as large as big heart-cherries, in the adopted countries mentioned it is often found in the form of a club or pear. The flesh, which is furnished with a yellow epidermis, lies loosely about I to 6 large kernels ; it is very juicy and of a tart, refreshing flavour, but without much aroma, When not fully ripe, however, it tastes sour, and when kept too long, insipid. The Biwa forms a transition to the group — {&) Stone-fruit. 6. Amygdalns persica, L., Jap. Momo or To. Peaches are by far the most popular and widely-distributed stone-fruit of Japan. They are of Chinese origin, and indeed de Candolle considers China to have been in general the home of this plant. Several varieties are found. They are smaller than the Chinese peaches and most of ours, being, moreover, much inferior to the latter in taste. Many large orchards exist, where they are carefully culti- vated. Light sandy soil is chosen, as in the Mediterranean region and the United States. The trees are planted in rows and are trimmed to medium height. The ground is kept free from weeds. 7. Primus armeniaca, L., Jap. Andzu, apricots of the small- fruit kind found in Southern Europe, and seen often in Germany also, and called by Duhamel " abricot de Portugal." They are here and there offered for sale in July, but in general are rare. I found them to be not materially different from ours in appearance and taste. 8. Primus insititia, L., and P. domestica, L. Real damsons, as well as cherries, are not found in Japan. Of the many sub- species of plums one meets now and then a few the fruit of which looks good enough, but it tastes insipid and watery. They have evidently, like the apricots, found no great favour, and were pro- bably introduced some time ago by the Portuguese or Dutch. The name Hadankio is applied to a big yellow egg-plum, which recalls Dame-Aubert (Duhamel). Botankio is a red variety, possibly identical with Primus oxycarpa, (Bechstein). There is also a kind resembling the Victoria plum. 9. But the common red plum of Japan, called Su-momo, is Primus japonicus, Thunb. 10. Primus Mume, S. and Z. (Amygdahts nana, Thunb.), Jap. Mume, Bai, Japanese apricot-tree (Lauche). This species, a favourite plant of the Japanese, and as such largely grown in gardens and temple-groves, is cultivated chiefly on account of its blossoms. Its round, pubescent fruit resembles apricots in form, or rather small, hard peaches. It is hard and sour, and as a rule is eaten salted or dried, under the name Ume (Mume)-boshi or Haku- bai. It is also made into vinegar. AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES. 87 11. Primus /^k° N. Lat, in northern Echigo. Much can be learned from the table in the appendix. First we observe that the provinces of Suruga, Mino, Tdtomi, Ise, Musashi, Shimosa, Yamashiro, Omi, Hitachi, and Yamato stand in advance of all the others in the area devoted to tea-culture, and Suruga alone has more than one-eighth of all tea-gardens in Japan. In these ten provinces tea-gardens take up 07 per cent, of the area, in Suruga 1*5 per cent. There is no doubt that the extensive tea- culture of Suruga is due in part to the great protection afforded by Fuji-san and other high mountains against the rude north winds. Of the total area in 1881 given up to tea-culture, 42,224 ch6 or 41,874 ha, the proportion was as follows : kin. Tencha or Hikicha, i.e. pulverized tea . . 36,66s Giyoku-rd or dewdrops ..... 167,728 Sencha or common tea ..... 14,797,945 Bancha or ordinary tea ..... 14,294,895 Hiboshi or tea dried in the sun ) Kamairi or tea heated in the pan y . . 4,940,277 Kuroguchi or badly heated tea J Kocha or Congo ...... 450,124 Uriyo or Oolong 319,604 Total kin 35,007,241 or 21,040,724 kilo. This makes 480 kilo per ha. AGRICULTURAL LNDUSTRIES. 129 In general four pounds of fresh tea-leaves yield one pound of the finished article of commerce. The leaf-crop of a Japanese tea- garden of one ha would therefore amount to 1,920 kg. Tea culture in India has been developed since the year 1835, at first but slowly, but afterwards the more rapidly during the last twenty years. After the first experiments, the Assam Tea Com- pany was founded, in 1839. From 1S64 to 1876 the crop increased from 2h million pounds to 28 million pounds of prepared tea. In the last-named year the average price in London for one pound of Indian tea was is. lid. as against is. 3d. for one pound of Chinese tea. In the year 1879 the area devoted to tea-plants in India was reckoned at 206,874 acres, which yielded a total of 44,771,632 pounds of tea. Of this 41-^- million pounds were shipped to Europe. It is evident from these data that an acre yields on an average 216 pounds of tea, which is 245 kg. to a hectare. This amount is so far behind that ascribed to Japan (480 kg. per ha) that one cannot help doubting the correctness of one or other of the reports upon which the calculation is based. The Indian tea-- industry has spread from the Assam valley over Chittagong and Arracan, Darjeeling, Nagpore, Kangra, and other regions, and gains ground every year. Tea culture in Java, although beginning in 1828, seven years before that of India, has had no such rapid growth. Java tea has, certainly, a good appearance and is nicely rolled, but its decoction is weak and tastes bitter. Its price is therefore far less than that of the Indian and even of the Chinese, and indeed to this circum- stance is attributable the fact that the industry has not become as widespread in Java as was expected. The exportation of tea from Java was 3,104,000 kg. in 1872. During the last fifty years, as has been shown, the cultivation of the tea-plant has extended over two new countries (India and Java), while ever spreading, with increasing exportation, in its old homes, China and Japan. But it remained, for all that, till lately confined to the monsoon-region. Now, the Colony of Natal must be added as another part of the globe in which tea has been successfully tried and forms already an article of export. However, we find, in the monsoon-region as nowhere else, the two fundamental conditions of its success, — a proper climate and plenty of cheap labour. Machines can never quite take the place of hand labour in picking, preparing, and sorting tea. Throughout the monsoon-region the cost of hand labour is so low, and that of tea in proportion, that it would be hard for other civilized countries to compete with it. The climatic requirements of tea-growing, too, can only here and there be met elsewhere. The tea-plant flourishes best and yields the most valuable leaves where the temperature ranges between 0° and 35° C, where the humidity of the atmosphere during the period of vegetation is considerable, and rainfalls rather frequent. II. K 13° AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY. Its needs in this respect are quite different from those of the grape- vine, to which dry heat is especially advantageous, so that a suc- cessful cultivation of the one excludes the other, so to speak. A. — Table of the areas devoted to tea-growing in Japan, in 1881. Province. Suruga Mino Totomi Ise Musashi Shimosa Yamashiro Omi Hitachi Yamato Higo Tosa Hiuga Echigo Tamba Cho. 5355-5 4069-3 354i'2 3300-8 2830*2 2354-8 2260-5 i555-o 1388-9 1040*2 9307 9617 867*1 849-8 797*2 32102*9 Province. Cho. 321029 Hizen 721*1 Iga 679*7 Kaga 655-2 Iyo 564-0 Etchiu 5i3'9 Buzen 464-6 Awa 428*5 Kii 395'2 Mikavva 389-3 Chikugo 348*3 Osumi 3337 Kawachi 308*0 The rest of the coun try Total. 4320-0 42224*4 or 1 .1174 Ha. B. — Analyses of Tea. By A. W. Blythe : Water. Theme. Extract. Gum. Ashes. ^J Potash. Ge |£ c n a 0US Hyson 661 Japan 4-69 i*6o 1-38 3^95 39'4i 7*25 10-29 6-85 6*56 3'37 3*21 i-53 1*41 0*52 079 Green Chinese Tea according to Hassall : Matter Water - The'ine. wj°Fat & um - Tannin. Fibre. Ashes. 24-39 9-37 279 1*83 5-89 18*69 31-66 5*38 Stonehouse according to the "Annalen der Chemie u. Pharmacie," vol. 45, p. 336, found the proportion of thei'ne as follows : Huasan. 1-09 Congo. 1*02 Black Assam. i'37 Green Twankay. 0-98 AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES. 13 r 2. Tobacco, Nicotiana Tabacum, L.,andN. rustica, L. The foreign origin of this world-wide narcotic article of luxury is indicated not merely by the name Tabako, — the Japanese have no name of their own for it, — but also by authentic historical accounts of its introduction. Like Christianity, gunpowder, and fire-arms, tobacco first reached Japan through the " Nanban " (pronounced Namban) or "southern barbarians." By " Namban," however, were meant distinctively the Portuguese, and then later the Spaniards who came from Manila. One may say that smoking was introduced in the last decades of the sixteenth century. The planting of tobacco, however, began about the year 1605. A physician named Saka, of Nagasaki, made some interesting and characteristic observations about it in a family chronicle of that period. 1 In 1607 he writes: "Of late a thing has come into fashion, called tobacco. It is said to have originated in Nanban, and consists of large leaves, which are cut up, and of which one drinks the smoke." Two years later the same observer remarks: " For the last two or three years an article called Tabako has been coming from Nanban, with which all classes of Japanese regale themselves. It is said to be a cure for all diseases. On the other hand, however, there have been cases where people got sick after they had drunk tobacco-smoke. Now since no medicinal work contains directions for the treatment of such patients, no medicine could be offered them." In another record, of the year 1605, according to Satow, there is found the following note : " In this year tobacco was brought in ships of the Nanban-people, and sown near Nagasaki. The inhabitants of the capital (Kioto) contend with one another in smoking, and the habit is rapidly spreading over the country." 2 We may be sure that the innovation, before it got to Nagasaki, was known in Bungo, the chief foothold of the Portuguese from the beginning, and in Satsuma, which to this day has a great reputation throughout Japan for its tobacco, and had been visited by Pinto and likewise by Xavier. And there can be scarcely any doubt that smoking came to the Coreans and the neighbouring Mandschu from Japan, at the time of Hideyoshi, through the expedition and subsequent efforts between the years 1592 and 1597. On the other hand, China proper was blessed with tobacco vid Luzon, as can be proved from several sources, among them Satow. In China, as in Japan, smoking spread among all classes of the people and in both sexes, with incredible rapidity. As vain as the efforts of Pope Urban VII. and James I., to check the habit in 1 See Satow: "The Introduction of Tobacco into Japan," Japan Weekly Mail, Nov. 17, 1877. Rein : " Zur Geschichte der Verbreitung des Tabaks und Mais in Ostasien." Peterm., Mitth., 1878. 2 We here expressly remark that other narcotic luxuries, such as smoking opium or hemp and chewing betel, are unknown. AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY. Europe, were the decrees of their mighty contemporaries, of the Ming-dynasty in China and Iyeyasu in Japan. Indeed, of all the laws of the founder of the Tokugawa rule, probably none has proved so ineffectual as the edict of 1612 against smoking and planting tobacco. The Kiseru, the Japanese pipe, with its shining metal mouthpiece and the elegant little bowl of brass or silver at its other end — the stem is of thin bamboo — is quite a different apparatus from our smoking implement, and demands a different kind of treatment. The little ball of fine-cut tobacco with which its possessor fills the bowl, which in shape and size resembles the cup of a large acorn, suffices for only two or three whiffs. Then the bowl must be knocked against the edge of an ash-basin and filled anew. The case and tobacco-pouch, of stamped leather-paper, are as delicately made as the little pipe itself, and often artistically decorated with lacquer or silver-work, as shown in the illustration. Both are hung to the girdle-cloth by means of a netzuke (of which an account is given under art-industries), a sort of carved button. The form of such a pipe, which, with tobacco, every one carries in Japan, does not permit of smoking on the road nor at work. On the other hand no opportunity before or after is wasted ; out comes the pipe and at least a couple of whiffs are taken, a good deal of time being often spent with it. When any one enters a house, the first attention shown him by the female servants, after the customary greeting, is to set the tobacco-tray (Tabako-bon) before him, even before offering him tea. Upon this tray stands, however, the Hi-ire or fire-pot, with glowing coals, and a big ash-basin (Hai-fuki) of bamboo-cane, which serves also as a spittoon. The Japanese tobacco-pipe resembles the shell of a snail of the genus Clausilia, which is represented by many forms in that country. This has not escaped the attention of the Japanese, who call them kiseru-gai, pipe-snails. In his book, " Himalayan Journals," Table III. fig. 7, Hooker gives an illustration of a Thibetan tobacco pipe, very similar to the Japanese Kiseru. Tobacco-smoking is much more common in Japan than with us, and I always caused astonishment by the phrase I used so much, " Arigato, tobako-o nomimasen," (" Thank you, I don't drink tobacco "), for they can hardly imagine a foreigner who does not like tobacco. The Japanese says, not incorrectly, "Tabako-o nomimas," " I drink tobacco," since he sips in the smoke and expels it through his nose. In Germany too it was called at first "drinking tobacco," instead of smoking, as, among others, Freytag teaches us in his " Bilder aus der deutschen Vergangenheit." On the paper-lined screen that divides a Japanese tobacco shop from the street, a tobacco-leaf is painted instead of a sign, and beside this stand two Chinese hieroglyphics which in other cases might perhaps be translated " chief town of the country," but which mean in this case Kohibu, a district of Osumi in southern Kiushiu, A GRIC UL TURA L IND US TRIES. celebrated for its tobacco. Its name has been everywhere applied to the tobacco business. I visited the district of Kokubu in the spring of 1875. It com- prises a small plain on the north-eastern shore of the Kagoshima Fig. I. KISERU — THE JAPANESE PIPE. Bay. Its light soil, mixed with much pumiceous sand, yields fairly good harvests only when very carefully manured and worked. The seed-bed of the tobacco is protected against too great cooling from radiation on spring nights by straw roofs about a meter high. 134 AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY. Towards the end of April the shoots are strong enough to be trans- planted into rows, as elsewhere. They are set out beside rows of barley, which has by this time passed its bloom. Elsewhere, for instance in Higo, tobacco-sowing does not take place till April, but transplanting is in June, to barley or wheat fields which are not intended to receive rice. Tobacco-growing is widely, though very unequally, spread throughout the Japanese islands. The first picking takes place in August, with a second and third in September. The leaves are then hung about the houses to dry, as with us. I saw the following arrangement employed for this purpose in Aidzu : one person was twisting two thin straw ropes into a thicker one, another mean- while inserting tobacco leaves in pairs, with their stems all turned up at intervals of about io cm. When fixed in this way the rope was hung up on the walls of the building or on poles, with numerous leaves pointing downward. Of all the varieties of Japanese tobacco that from the former dominion of Satsuma, to which Kokubu also belongs, as we have said already, has the greatest reputation among the natives. Its flavour is too sweet for Europeans, however, and it is therefore but little exported. The kind most valued for export, though it too is far inferior to American tobacco, comes from Higo and other provinces of the south. It is sent to Nagasaki packed in straw mats. Here it is stemmed and repacked in bales. These go exclusively to England. The leaf has a spongy character ; it is therefore mixed with stronger sorts, with the result that it ab- sorbs a considerable amount of the sharpness. As an article of exportation, tobacco ranks far behind many other products, and is in general not much in demand. b. Drugs. In the diary of my first journey in Japan, in the summer of 1874, there is this entry, at the town of Sunjo, at the foot of Ibukiyama (See Rein, "Japan," vol. i. p. Jj) : — " My host told me that Ibukiyama abounded in herbs, yielding 130 different medicines, mostly vegetable. From his little collection he presented me with two included in that number, the one a piece of stalactite, the other a piece of fibrous wollastonite." The Chinese science of pharmacy, which the Japanese followed blindly till thirty years ago, like our own in the Middle Ages and even later, up to the development of chemistry, enumerates a very large number of drugs, some of which are exceedingly rare. Thunberg brought a small list of Japanese plants used for pharmaceutical purposes, and v. Siebold in the work already cited, " Verhandl. van het Batav. Genootschap, xii. deel. Bat. 1830," furnished a long, but by no means exhaustive, catalogue. Oyaku-yen (the Garden of Physic), which was estab- AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES. 135 lished by the Tokugawa in Yedo, two hundred years ago, the Botanical Garden of the Tokio of to-day, contains the most im- portant of them. 1 It is not within the scope and purpose of this work to repeat or enlarge it. I shall confine myself rather to the relatively few plants which I found cultivated for medicinal pur- poses, and in regard to which I know, from my own observation, that they are still of more or less importance in husbandry. (1) P Lamk.), Jap. Ajisai. Few of the older importations from Eastern Asia have been more quickly and widely extended than this Hortensia. We have a great many varieties, whose original, simple forms are found in the forests of China, and more frequently in those of Japan. In 282 AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES. Germany it is known as a pot-plant generally, as it needs protec- tion from our severe winter weather. It thrives well in the ground south of the Alps, and without any special cultivation. Besides its many varieties, we have also lately cultivated — Hydrangea paniculata, Sieb., a tall bush known among the Japanese by the names Shiro-utsugi and Nori-no-ki, which with us is quite proof against the winter. At home it grows in the moun- tain forests to an elevation of 1,500 m., and is gathered for its mucilaginous inner bark, which is used in making paper. Its flowering season is in midsummer, like that of Hortensia. Macleya cordata, R. Brown, Jap. Chanpagiku and Takeni-gusa. This perennial, herbaceous, ornamental plant from China and Japan, attracts attention by its figure and the form and colour of its leaves. It belongs to the Papaveracese family, is cultivated in gardens and parks from the Mediterranean to England, and lately often seen in Germany also. The perennial roots send out each year a stiff stalk, up to 2 m. in height, which, late in summer, bears on its very end a long flower-spike. The deeply indented leaves and the white down which covers the entire plant are its most noteworthy features. There are few herbaceous plants which are so majestic and ornamental in appearance. Polygonum cuspidatum, Sieb., Jap. Itadori. This species is noted, even more than the preceding, for its exceptionally rapid and fine development. Many dozens of strong stalks shoot up, like asparagus, 2 to 3 m. high, early in the spring, from a perennial root having a pad-like appearance and thick, branching rootlets. With their fine foliage they form a close, tall bush of fine effect, es- pecially when standing alone and developing freely on all sides. The plant in Japan belongs to the mountain forests and the far north, so that its easy cultivation with us is quite certain. Aiicnba japonica, Thunb., Jap. Ao-ki. 1 This well-known orna- mental bush fulfils nearly every condition of a good foliage plant. It is moderately hardy, and combines with this quality rapid growth, thick branches, and an abundance of large, shiny, evergreen leaves. The female tree, in summer, in addition to this beautiful and abundant foliage, bears fine scarlet berries which resemble the larger and kindred cornel cherries, but do not find a use, like them. The brownish dioecious blossoms, whose panicles appear in May on the ends of the twigs, are not at all conspicuous. Besides the camellia, there is scarcely another of the numerous Japanese ornamental plants so popular and so widely spread as the Aucuba. Nature, accident, and cultivation have given it in its own home, and even with us, a number of sub-species which are 1 It takes its Japanese name, Ao-ki, " green tree," from the green colour of the branches. Aucuba may be a corruption of Ao-ba, or "green leaf," or Ao- ki-ba, i.e. " green-tree leave," but is not used in Japan. The plant is always bush-like in its own home, so that Thunberg's designation of " Arbor magna " is decidedly erroneous. ACCLIMATIZATION, ETC. 283 distinguished chiefly by the size, form, and variegation of their leaves. Japan and China are the home of the original single species. It is found in those countries with the variegated variety also as a bush 1 to 2 m. high, quite frequently, especially in the bushy forests of hilly parts of the country, also cultivated in temple groves and gardens. The story of its introduction into Western lands is not without interest. Thunberg's first description of the plant appeared in 1784. A year before, John Graeffer had brought to England 1 a female specimen with variegated leaves {Aucuba japouica, var. punctata) (unequal yellowish white spots scattered over the yellowish green of the leaf's surface). From this plant have sprung nearly all the innumerable bushes which are now to be found in Europe and North America, either in the open air or as ornamental plants in the house. They are propagated every- where, and very easily by means of slips. At first the Aucuba was cared for very tenderly in hothouses, as in France; but it was found that the plant was better adapted to the cold house, and finally it was ventured out of doors. The moist atmosphere of England, with its mild winters and cool, damp summers, is most favourable to its growth. It is more frequent in London than any other evergreen, even in the humblest gardens, and one may find finer specimens of it there than even in Japan. In the Netherlands, also, and France, and in the warmer portions of Germany, especially at Bonn and thereabouts, Aucuba plays an important part as an ever- green out-of-door plant, and is seen much oftener than the cherry laurel, the Ilex, and others. It freezes in other parts of Germany in winter, and although, as a rule, it starts up again from the roots, cannot be well cultivated out of doors. The dry, hot summers of Southern Europe are also unfavourable. In Northern Italy and the South of France it is seen extensively, but farther south it falls off rapidly, and is at last only found where it can be specially pro- tected, and in shady places. For more than a hundred years this female Aucuba has been cultivated in its many varieties with variegated leaves. But grown either in the changeable air of the house, or out of doors in the greatest variety of soil and treatment, it has not materially altered its original variegated form, nor in one leaf even, to say nothing of its entire individuality, returned to its former simple green colouring. Can this variegation, so constant in appearance, be simply a disease ? Up to 1862, only this female Aucuba (plant veuve, as it is called by Siebold) was known in Europe. At that time Fortune found the male plant in China, also the single green-leaved original, and sent both to England. Siebold also, at that time, made the Dutch gardeners acquainted with the original plant from 3 Aiton : " Hortus Kewensis," V. p. 257. 284 AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES. Japan. This is the reason why the number of single green-leaved and male specimens is so much smaller than those of the female, variegated plants. Later, a new species, Aucuba kimalaica, Hooker, has been introduced as a decorative plant, which, however, has not begun to contest the field with the older varieties. Fatsia japonica, Decn. and Planch. {Aralia japonica, Thunb., A. Sieboldi, Hort.). The Japanese call this plant Yatsu-de, i.e., Eight Fingers — a name which comes from the eight lobes at the end of the great shiny green leaves. Many of them, especially with us, are only seven-lobed, though sometimes having nine lobes. The name Fatsia may perhaps be corrupted from the Japanese designation. This beautiful ornamental plant, of luxuriant tropical appearance, after its introduction into Europe, passed, like the Aucuba, from the hot-house to the cold-house and the flower-stand, and contests with it for the supremacy in popular taste and in ease of cultivation. It is found wild here and there in Southern and Middle Japan, but more often as a decorative plant in court-yards, gardens, and temple groves. There it blossoms, as with us, in November and December, and ripens its black berries in March. It is much cultivated in Mediterranean countries, though it is necessary there to shade it in the hot, dry summer. It has proved hardy in England also, but seldom blossoms. On our flower- stands it reaches a height of 2 to 3 m., and compares well in size and beautiful leaf-decoration with the finest specimens in Japan. Owing to the great popularity of conifers in our modern land- scape-gardening, and the peculiar beauty of many Japanese kinds, their introduction and distribution has been actively carried on in many places. The first one brought to Europe was Gingko bi/oba, L., and it has shown itself exceedingly well adapted to cultivation here. It is the oldest known from the shores of the North and Baltic Seas to those of the Mediterranean, and with- stands the winter cold of Germany as well as the summer heat of the southern European peninsulas. The several varieties of Biota orientalis were some time ago introduced in our country by way of Hither Asia. During the devastating winter of 1879-80, most of the Japanese conifers in Europe proved themselves much better able to resist the cold than those which had been brought to us from the forests of the Pacific coast of North America. The hardiest of all, apart from the two already named, were Taxus cnspidata, S. and Z., Chamezcyparis obtusa, S. and Z., CJi. pisifera, S. and Z., TJmjopsis dolabrata, S. and Z., Abies polita, S. and Z., A. tsnga, S. and Z., and Larix leptolepis, Gord. The adaptation of these species to forestry can scarcely be doubted. Nevertheless Abies firma, like all the Japanese firs of the Picea tribe, shows little advantage over our " Edeltanne," and the same is true of Taxus cuspidata in com- parison with our yew. The five other kinds mentioned, however, furnish very valuable woods, whose useful properties are greater ACCLIMATIZATION, ETC. 285 than those of our well-known forest trees. They are well worth cultivating, and may be introduced to supply gaps in the qualities of our woods. (See also pp. 234-241.) Cryptomeria japonica, Don., and Sciadopitys verticillata, S. and Z., which thrive out of doors only in a specially favourable part of the Rhine district between Basel and Diisseldorf, are much more sensitive to our German winters. We could not expect to make their cultivation a source of wood supply, even if it were especi- ally desirable. In Marburg some attempts made with the two most common Japanese pines (Finns Massoniana and P. dentiflora.) showed that their development here is very slow, and that they cannot endure more than 20" C. of cold. The idea of planting the exceedingly useful black pines {A. Massoniana) on the North German sand dunes seems to promise no very favourable results. 1 Of the deciduous trees which recommend themselves partly on account of their valuable wood, and partly because of their beauti- ful foliage, the following seem best adapted to cultivation in Europe : — Zelkoiua Keaki, S. and Z. (Keaki), Magnolia hypolenca, S. and Z. (Hd-no-ki), CercidipJiyllumjaponiciun, S. and Z. (Katsura), Acer cratcegifolium, S. and Z. (Hana-no-ki), ALsculos tnrbinata, Blume (Tochi). They grow in the rough atmosphere of the moun- tains and northern portions of Japan, and justify the belief that they may be, at least in part, acclimatized in Germany. There remain still to be noticed a number of Japanese plants in the gardens and public parks of the countries along the Mediterra- nean Sea. There is no lack of warmth and light in this region, but moisture, a third important element in prosperous plant-life, is often wanting. When this is the case, there can be no fine sward cultivation with our known grasses, and various halophytic succulent plants, like Mesembryanthemum, several foreign weeds like Commelina and others may be used to fill up the sod. Special success has been attained with a simple little Japanese lil) r , the Ja-no-hige, "serpent's beard" (OpJiiopogon japonicus, Garv.), which has been often called by gardeners by the old name of Convallaria japonica (Japanese lily of the valley), given it by Thunberg. The kindred Yabu-ran {O. Jabnran, Loddig) is also employed for this purpose. Even now a fine green turf made in this way can be seen on the Italian lakes, but still more often in Southern Italy, Spain and Portugal. I first found the modest little Yano-hige, with its bluish berries, in the shady places of the temple grove in Uyeno Tokio. The narrow, dark-green, grass-like leaves of the plant resemble those of the several lighter Gagea species. Its relationship to our lily of the valley is not very close. North of the Alps and the Pyrenees, the quickset hedges are 1 I expressed myself in a similar manner in a report which I had to give regarding Japan Conifers, in June, 1884, to His Excellency, the Minister of Agriculture and Forestry. 286 AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES. generally bare in winter, and their commonest material is the white-thorn. In Mediterranean countries, on the other hand, many evergreen bushes are used, as here and there the myrtle, laurel, Viburnum Tinus, Durantha Plumieri, Ligustrum japonica especially, and with even greater preference, Euonymus japonicus, the Japanese Masa-ki. In fact these Euonymus hedges excel all others in beauty because of their uniformity and closeness, as well as the abundance of their magnificent green leaves. Those hedges, which enclose all the roads in Las Delicias at Seville, the public parks of the Corso, and the left bank of the Guadalquivir, especially are surpassingly beautiful. They are kept well trimmed there as almost everywhere, and are about one meter high and broad. This plant is used also in preference for bordering, where we generally use the box. Of course these borders are kept low and narrow, and prettily cut. In other places on the Iberian peninsula also, e.g., Madrid and Lisbon, such hedges are very common. The hedges made of the Ligustrum japonicum, Thunb., the Ned- zumi-mochi of the Japanese — for example, those at the railway stations at Seville and Huelva, and also some in Southern France and Northern Italy — resemble in colour our common Liguster hedges, which, it is well known, retain their leaves longer than any other of our deciduous shrubs. The young leaves are at first reddish brown, and even later are not so bright and fine a green as those of the Euonymus. Their colour and shape is most like those of the nearly-related Syringa. But the most important use of both these evergreen bushes is not as close and well-trained hedges, but as ornamental plants for gardens and public parks. We find them in the quadrangular courtyard of the Andalusian hotels and dwellings, in the open squares of almost all Southern European cities, and in every public park. And in such conditions the Japanese Liguster very often passes from a bush to a tree, with a trunk 8-IO m. in height, and of 80-100 cm. circumference. I saw some such at San Jose near Malaga, in Lisbon also, and on the Plaza Mayor near the royal castle at Madrid. In Italy, where the plant is also very widely distributed, its dimensions are much smaller. Euonymus japonicus is less sensitive to cold, and thrives in South- ern France and in the parks of Paris. One finds there not only the simple original variety, but the many variegated varieties also, in particular E. Jap. sulferea. I take this opportunity of mentioning several other evergreen Japanese ornamental bushes which are often found in company with the foregoing, and have also found a wide distribution in Southern Europe. These are Photinia serrulata, Lindl. (Cratcegus glabra, Thunb.), Jap. Aka-megashi, Pittosporum Tobira, Ait., Jap. Tobira, and Olea fragrans, Thunb., Jap. Moku-sei and T6-sei. Fortune says of the Photinia that it is " a noble, ornamental ever- green," and is much cultivated in gardens and near the temples of ACCLIMATIZATION, ETC. 2S7 Japan and China. This large, wide-spreading bush is found in many places on the Iberian peninsula, and no open space, in Madrid, for example, is without it. Its large umbels of white flowers lend it a special charm in March and April. Its smooth, serrated and pointed leaves resemble those of the cherry-laurel in their form and size. One of its peculiarities is the appearance of older purple and brownish red leaves against the younger, which are a beautiful green. The Tobira was introduced into our hot houses in 1804 under the name Pittosporum sinense. It grows out of doors in Southern Europe, as in Southern Japan, to a bush of medium height, and during the past two decades has been more and more superseded by its more stately Australian relative, P. undulatum. The latter is specially frequent in the parks of Portugal, and particularly in the gardens of Lisbon. It grows as a beautifully formed tree, of 70-80 cm. circumference and 8-10 m. in height. The yellowish white blossoms, which appear in spring, have a much stronger and more agreeable smell than the pure white flowers of the Tobira, which appear some four weeks later. The regular form and even distribution of its leaves also make it more ornamental than the Tobira, whose leaves are oval and crowded together at the end of the twigs. Oka fragrans, Thunb., although imported to Europe from Japan, is only an ornamental plant there, originating in China, as its name, T6-sei, indicates. 1 What Pittosporum undu- latum is in spring to the gardens of Lisbon, Malaga, and other Iberian cities, that and far more by Olea fragrans becomes in September and October to the gardens and parks of Northern and Middle Italy. Its simple white blossoms then shed their fragrance far and near in the gardens on Lakes Como and Maggiore, in Florence and the Riviera. In Genoa I remember it only in a little park near Acqua Sola. Besides these, there is a wild olive {Elceagnus umbellata, Thunb., E. refiexa, Morr.) here and there in Northern Italy, e.g., near Pallanza, which is very popular. It is trained upon houses, and more still on the garden fences, clothing them with a beautiful green, as the long, winding shoots may be easily twined in and out through the iron palings. This plant grows as a medium- sized bush very extensively in the Himalayas, China and Japan, bearing the name of Gumi. It is cultivated also as an ornamental shrub. Euonymus radicans, Sieb., Jap. Tsuru-masaki, serves similar purposes. Although quite hardy in the warmer parts of Ger- many, it has not yet received due consideration. It is very widely distributed in Japan as a bush. If it finds anything on which it can lean however, a tree, or rocky slope or a wall, its mode of life resembles that of the ivy. Providing itself quickly 1 I refer to p. 123, and what is said there concerning the use of the flowers of the Kwei-hwa by the Chinese, in perfuming tea. 288 AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES. with tendrils it lays tight hold of, and mounts up the tall pines to the very top, or often entirely covers the wall of rocks with ever- green. In the Mediterranean region it could perform the same service that Ficus repens does in hot-houses, clothing the naked masonry with foliage. Shizophragma hydrangeoides, S. and Z., the Shiro-tsuta-no-ki, or "white climbing tree" of the Japanese, is known for similar peculiarities and still greater hardiness. It is one of the largest climbers of the mountain forests of Japan, with a mossy trunk attaining 40-60 cm. in circumference, and sometimes mounts up 15-20 meters high on the rocks and old trees. There is in the Mediterranean countries a beautiful thornless climbing rose, Rosa Banksice, R.Br., the Mokoko of Japan and China, which is more of a favourite than the preceding climbers for cover- ing surfaces. Its has shiny, evergreen leaves, and double yellow or white flowers which blossom in spring and in small irregular clusters on the ends of the branches. The yellow variety is the most beautiful and most numerous, and is seen in greatest perfec- tion in the villa gardens on the North Italian lakes. In the snug patios of Cordova, Seville and other Spanish cities, it often covers entire walls, and is seen in gardens winding itself, like the Wistaria, through the crowns of the ornamental trees, and adorning them in a peculiar fashion with its abundance of blossoms. The traveller from Northern Europe, in visiting the beautiful gardens of Mediterranean countries is struck not only by the luxuriant abundance of plant-life, the motley forms and colours of the deciduous trees, with the evergreens from all sub-tropical lands, but more than all by the appearance of the palms and bamboos in their free and perfect development. If he seeks the homes of these exotic plants, he will find among the palms, in addition to the Japanese Shuro (Chamcerops excelsa, Thunb.), which is here perfectly acclimated, the representatives of nearly all species of the non-tropical regions of the earth, but among bamboos chiefly the Japanese kinds. These latter are the smaller species and sub-species which the gardeners generally call Bambasa nigra, B. mitis, B. aitrea, B. viridis glaucescens, B. viridis striata, B. Fortunei, B. pygmcea, and B. Kumasasa. The Kuro-dake or black bamboo is unquestionably the most striking and beautiful of all (see p. 230). It grows in fine wide-spreading groups on Lake Maggiore, reaching its full development at 6 m. height and an average diameter of 3! cm. According to Tschihatchef, 1 in the Jardin d'Essai at Algiers, it sometimes grows 400 mm. in twenty-four hours. 1 Tschihatchef : "Espagne, Algerie et Tunisie," p. 164. MINING. IL 2 s 9 u II. MINING} Incorrect Representations of the Mineral Wealth of Japan. Old Method of Mining, and New Attempts to Elevate it. Tabular View of the Productions according to Number, Value, and most Important Mines. Further Particulars concerning the latter, and the single Products. Salt and Alum Production. Pro- ducts of Clay -pits and Stone-quarries. [Herewith a Map.] The statistical reports of the products of Japanese mining since the Restoration seem strikingly out of harmony with the traditions, extending back to the times of Marco Polo, regarding the rich mineral wealth of Japan, and especially the abundance of its precious metals. The land was long known among the Chinese and Arabs, and in Europe also, as the Eldorado of the far East — "das giildene Ophir"as Kaempfer named it. According to Edrisi, the very dogs of the country wore golden collars, and according to Marco Polo the roofs, floors and window mouldings in the royal palace were of pure gold. 2 1 I have used the following works in treating this subject, as a supplement to my own observations and the friendly oral communications of the Engineers Bansa, Reh and Vogel. i. Brassert : "Das japanische Berggesetz von 1873." Zeitschrift fur Berg- recht. Bd. xxv. (1884), p. 1. 2. Hagmaier : " Reise nach Kosaka and Aufenthalt daselbst." Mittheil. d. deutsch. Ges. Ostasiens. Bd. ii. p. 64. 3. Netto : "Ueber japanisches Berg- und Hiittenwesen." Mitth. der deutsch. Ges. Ostasiens. Bd. ii. pp. 367-405. 4. Rosing : " Das Silberbergwerk Innai in Japan." Zeitschr. fur Berg- Hiitten- and Salinenwesen. Bd. xxxii. (1884), p. 126. 5. Zappe : "Der Bergbau Japans und seine Haupterzeugnisse." Zeitschr. fur Berg- Hiitten- und Salinenwesen. Bd. xxvii. (1879), PP- 204-220. 6. " Geological Survey of Hokkaido." Reports by Lyman and by Munroe. 7. Lyman : " Geological Surveys of Japan." Reports. 2 " Chipangu is an island towards the east, in the high seas, 1,500 miles from the continent, and a very large island it is. . . . I will tell you a wonderful thing about the Palace of the Lord of that Island. He has a great palace which is entirely roofed with fine gold, just as churches are roofed with lead, insomuch that it would scarcely be possible to estimate its value. Moreover all the pavements of the palace and the floors of its chambers are entirely of gold, in plates like slabs of stone, a good two-fingers thick ; and the windows also are of gold, so that altogether the richness of the Palace is past all bounds and all belief." — Yule : Marco Polo, vol. ii. p. 235. It is known that Columbus, in his ever memorable western voyage, hoped to secure these wonderful treasures of Chipangu, described by his countryman. »92 MINING Even after Japan was really known and the ports of Macao, Manila and Batavia were successfully brought into commercial relations with it, the export of silver appeared to be a further and surer proof of the metallic wealth of the country. But this ceased entirely in 1642, and was replaced from that time by copper, to the great advantage of the Dutch. After the re-opening of Japan, now more than thirty years since, the inhabitants shared only too gladly the general belief of the foreigners. It was true that their old mines yielded little or no profit, but this was owing, so said many, to the fact that the means at hand and employed for taking out the supposed treasures were not adequate to the task. The thing needful, was to cast off the old system and to make use of the rich experiences and scientific appliances of mining in the Christian lands of the West. And so there came engineers from America, England, France and Germany successively to counsel and instruct, but after a few years and the expiration of contracts they were generally dismissed, for the conviction deepened that it was not in their power, with all their science and experience, to assure the State or private enterprise a new and large source of revenue. The best and most conscien- tious among them found themselves encompassed with difficulties and hindrances in adapting their studies and experience to the situation and in establishing a scientific industry. I mention only the serious difficulty involved in not understanding the language, and the impossibility of establishing immediate direct intercourse ; the crowd of useless officials that surrounded them ; the lack of proper means of transport, 1 added to the unsteadiness and con- stant desire for innovation on the part of the authorities, who could not patiently wait till the reforms begun should be carried through and tested. The Japanese had searched their country for valuable minerals, and had exhausted the existing mines, far more than was believed at the beginning of the new era, some thirty years ago. In fact I have not learned that one of the many foreign engineers was able anywhere to discover new openings or beds of mineral. The interest of the nation to find and dig up the treasures of the earth had been from early times a very lively one, as numerous traces of old prospecting and mining, and a fairly rich literature on the subject, plainly show. Most of the foreign mining engineers who were called to Japan after the Perry expedition, to assist as counsellors and enterprisers 1 The absence of well adapted means of intercourse, and the great distance of most mines from the coal supply, made the smelting of their products more and more difficult and expensive. For reasons which have been mentioned, this process must take place in the neighbourhood, but since charcoal serves as the means of reduction, the forest not being replenished has gradually disappeared in a wide circle around the mines. This has necessitated the bringing of char- coal on beasts of burden from ever-increasing distances, as Hagmaier relates in the account of his travels mentioned above. GENERAL. 293 of mining industry, returned home disappointed on the expiration of their contracts. A few, who understood the arts of flattery and thus how to make rich contracts with officials and tradesmen for the delivery of machines and other needed articles, at the expense of the State, remained longer, but these people were least of all the ones to bring about a healthy state of the mining industry. 1 When we look over the annual reports of the results of mining since 1868, we recognise the fact in most cases the efforts made up to this time, have not been able to increase the products in any con- siderable degree. They only justify my opinion, previously given (vol. i.), that the distribution of metals, like gold, silver, tin, lead, zinc and mercury is very small, and not to be compared with that of other countries, that iron and antimony are to be found in greater quantities, but that Japan is only really rich in coal and copper. It is evident that the gold and silver mines were much richer in earlier times. They were gradually exhausted, however, under the Tokugavva regime, as far as was possible with their rude manner of working. For even if the estimates and reports of the former metal export (viz., that of gold and silver in the time of Portuguese com- merce with Japan) were exaggerated, and are not borne out by the sober judgment of to-day, still it is distinctly stated in the com- munications of E. Kaempfer, 2 that the Dutch carried away from Hirado a yearly average of 1,200-1,400 chests of silver, 1,200,000- 1,400,000 taels, or from ^"352,941-^411,765 in value, during the period between the years 1600 and 164.1 ; that for some time after this, they exchanged their wares for copper instead of silver, and brought away from 12-20,000 pikuls a year, or 720,000-1,200,000 kilogrammes. Reckoned together, this yearly 45-52 tons of silver, and 720-1,200 tons of copper makes a very important amount for those times. According to government statistics, which however can make no claim to reliability in regard to private mining, the yearly aver- age yield of silver during the years 1 877-1 881 was 11 64 tons, and of copper 8,900 tons. Thus, in modern times, Japan has for its yearly silver production only the fourth part of what it formerly exported. The amount of copper seems exaggerated, for in 1874 G. Hochstetter, the conductor and counsellor in the chief mining office at that time, estimated the copper production at 3,000 tons, 1 One of the most competent German engineers gave his experience in the following sharp, but I am told quite correct expressions. "The Japanese is vain, remarkably susceptible to flattery, unsteady and always seeking some new thing. The most unsuccessful attempts were made at mining. Some of the foreign advisers gave poor counsel because of their own lack of knowledge. Many others flattered the childish vanity of the Japanese, in order to fill their own pockets, and found ready accessories, since sharpers have the keen scent and eye which honest men often lack." 2 E. Kaempfer's " Gesch. u. Beschreib. von Japan." II. Bd. Lemgo, 1779, pp. 89-122. 294 MINING. and three years later, Netto estimated it at 75,423 cvvts., not quite 4,000 tons. The production, however, has much increased since then. In 1855 the old copper works of Ashiwo alone yielded about 3,000 tons. Before entering further into the present condition of Japanese mining, a short retrospective glance at the earlier methods of work- ing, and also the manner of preparing and smelting the ores may be in place. Here, as almost everywhere, the mining of metals and coal was conducted on the plundering principle, which was carried on as long as the water in the shafts permitted, and the ore yielded a small amount of gain. The development of the mine and the excavation of ore were accomplished solely by means of galleries or Ogiri, which went up or down, according to the direction of the lode, but were also run across the strata to effect an opening. The hauling out took place partly through these passages, and partly through the so-called chimneys or Kemuri-dashi, which, however, are not to be confounded with shafts, these being then unknown to them. These Kemuri- dashi are not simple, smooth holes, leading directly to the depths below, but a peculiar arrangement of galleries, which rise and fall, twist about, grow wide or narrow, according as they encounter hard rock or non-metallic soil, or productive lodes and deposits which may be excavated. In many respects this resembles the clumsy, unscientific method of mining among the Romans. But these em- ployed captives and slaves, whereas in Japan, even to the present day, one part of this difficult labour, the hauling out, is done by women and half-grown children. In the Roman and Carthaginian mines, windlasses at least lightened the labour ; but in Japan, all the material, ore or coal and waste earth, is carried to the surface in baskets or straw sacks on the back. The name, Kemuri-dashi (chimney) for these upper exit galleries, indicates also that they are used for ventilation. In like manner the lowest gallery serves principally to carry off tke water of the mine, wherefore it is commonly called Midzu-nuki, water drain. In these mining oper- ations no machines were employed, except very inadequate hand pumps ; and the tools and other appliances were few in number. It is therefore surprising that they reached a depth of from 700- 800 feet (2i2 , 3-242 - 6 m.), and that the galleries had a length of 10,000 feet, or 3,033 m. In these operations, proper sledge hammers were altogether wanting. The work had to be done almost entirely with the help of the pick-axe, crowbar and steel wedge, and, in the absence of explosives, was necessarily carried on in a very limited space. Most of the galleries and short passages are therefore very narrow and low. In former times, when the vicinity of the mines furnished wood in abundance, the excavation was furthered by setting fire to piles of wood in the pits, as was still done twenty years ago in the Norwegian mines, e.g., in Kongsberg. According to Netto, gunpowder has now become general as an explosive in Japanese MIXING AND SMELTING. 295 mines. Its introduction, however, dates only from the year 1872, when the American Pumpelly came to Japan as counsellor of the government of the Shogun, in the department of mines. The water control belongs indisputably to the most primitive and inadequate arrangements of Japanese mines, being effected by means of a poor kind of hand-suction pumps, which are often quite insufficient, so that a mine frequently has to be deserted because the water becomes unmanageable. With these defects was often associated a system of mining by contract, which increased the planless plundering of the mines. The owner provided the plant and looked after the water control, and maintained a weak over- sight. The contractor undertook the extraction, preparation and smelting. The preparation of the ores when brought to the surface is effected without machines, and falls into the hands of women and children exclusively, who are much employed in Europe also for such work. First of all the ordinary method, picking by hand, is employed to separate the richer ores from the poorer. Then the latter are further crushed with a hammer, or in the stamping trough (see p. 45) as employed for shelling rice. (There are. however, more perfect stamping arrangements, like ours, with water for a motive power, and an overshot wheel.) Next, the heavier, better kinds of ore are separated from the lighter ore yet to be stamped by a sort of jigging with the help of water, and thus prepared for roasting and smelting. Gold ores, on the contrary, are ground after the hand-picking in hand-mills under a stream of water ; and the ore still to be washed is allowed to pass off over inclined boards, grooved diagonally, so that the heavier gold-bearing lumps are caught in the grooves. The sulphate roasting or calcining of the prepared sulphurized ores takes place not in kilns or open stacks, but in Yaki-gama or roasting furnaces, built up with stones and mortar. These are con- structed as a rule on a circular foundation of from 4-6 feet in diameter (121-182 cm.), and to a height of 4 feet (I2T32 cm.), and have air holes on one side. For smelting all sorts of ores, the Japanese use a small, simple oven or smelting hearth, O-doko, or Fuki-doko (big, or blast-bed), with a hand chest-bellows placed at its side. This is called O-fuigo, and is worked by one man. One person is sufficient also for the smelting hearth. This hearth is a shallow pit, 12-15 cm - m depth, and 40-50 cm. in diameter. It has a floor 30 cm. thick, made of a cement of coal ashes and clay, stamped hard, resting in turn upon sand. The fire wall surrounding the pit is a basket work made of thin branches, and then covered close with mortar. Charcoal is the means of reduction in mixing the charge materials. For further details of smelting and of its results, and of mining in general, I beg to refer to the instructive and profitable works, above cited, of Rosing and Netto, which contain also observations on the Japanese J96 MINING. mining law. We learn from the interesting book of Superin- tendent Brassert also quoted, which treats this subject more fully, that Japan, in 1873 (sixth year Meiji), received its first genera', mining law. It was modelled after the German law in essentials, although leaving great play for the discretion of the government. To the owner of the soil belong only building stone, sand, gravel, lime — in -short, substances available for building and agricultural purposes. On the other hand, all metals and their ores, combus- tible fossils, rock salt, phosphorite, and precious stones are mining property, and subject to the State. The government has free right of disposal over this, which, however, is exercised only in behalf of subjects of the Japanese empire. The investment of foreign capital is forbidden now, as formerly, in mining and in agriculture. By far the most and often the very best mines are now owned and worked by private individuals. Of late, the government has however let out several of its best mines at comparatively low rates, after having organized their administration anew with the help of foreigners. It is manifest that it finds its method of administering and operating too costly, and the annual expenses too great to continue them. Mining is a separate department of the Kobusho or Bureau ot Public Works, under the name Kozan-kiyoku. This superior mining office represents the eight Bun-kiyoku (branch or mine offices) of the country. The following table A gives a summary of the yield of Japanese mines during the five years 1 877-1 881. I have used Momme for gold and silver, and Kuwan-me (pronounced Kamme), for the other products. Table B shows the more important mines of the country, arranged according to the value of their returns in the year 1882. 1 It must be borne in mind that 1 Kuwan-me equals 1,000 Momme (3756*5 gramme), and that 1 Yen equals 1 dollar. 1 I am indebted for both these tables to my young friend, the competent and energetic mining engineer, Kurimoto, of the Superior Mining Office, who re- ceived part of his education at the School of Mines in Freiberg. TABULATED VIEW OF PRODUCTION, ETC. 297 Table A. a. — Production of Government Mines. 1877. 1878. 1879. 1880. 1881. Gold . . . 87,433 53,522 50,231 53,925 48,084 Silver . . 2,020,730 i,579,oo3 1,286,863 1,574,482 2,264,652 Copper . . 112, 01S 101,115 85,174 67,798 71,225 Lead . . . 36,410 38,803 35,ii2 29,812 27,984 Iron . . . 157,357 427,965 5U,677 Coal . . . 18,347,343 25,808,943 38,833,844 46,422,080 47,262,595 Coke . . . 18,168 22,590 89,884 H7,53i 129,366 b. — Production of Private Mines. 1877. 1878. 1879. 1880. 1881. Gold . . . 5,988 19,165 19,457 29,392 33,129 Silver . . 924,687 1,058,629 1,136,415 1,182,494 2,498,353 Copper . . 939,3oi 1,033,908 i,U9,635 i,i77,39S 1,201,246 Lead . . . 36,281 41,814 34,o75 42,148 41,220 Iron . . . 2,191,132 2,721,322 2,909,034 3,208,378 3,112,005 Manganese 3,442 11,380 3i,54o 394 Sulphide of Antimony 5,048 46,249 174,048 134,560 104,108 Coal . . . 115,812,298 156,896,323 192,586,134 190,460,983 201,211,707 Graphite . 73,142 2,954 i,348 1.300 Petroleum . 404,560 756,812 982,621 1,078,954 708,843 Sulphur 353,289 573,8i3 462,981 317,963 186,206 Alum. . . 5,895 4,795 2,138 3,160 6,639 Kaolin . . 4,377,137 4,539,556 5,492,819 6,113,005 6,267,293 293 MINING. Table B. Value of the Production of the Principal Mines in 1882. (The asterisk denotes mines belonging to Individuals). Value Value Province. Town. Product. in Yen. in£. * Hizen Takashima Coal (1884) 1,026,000 205,200 * Iyo Besshi Copper 568,519 H3,704 * Chikugo Miike Coal 410,641 82,128 *Hida Kamioka Silver 351,701 70,340 *Sado Aikawa Gold and silver 316,163 63,233 * Rikuchiu Kosaka Gold, silver, and copper 241,118 48,224 * Nagato Zomeki Copper 224,863 44,973 * Ugo Ani Gold, silver, lead, and copper 175,147 35,029 * Echigo Kusakura Copper 170,248 34,049 * Iwashiro Handa 1 Silver 165,690 33,138 * Yamato Tatesato Copper 153,763 3o,753 *Tajima Ikuno Gold, silver, and copper 139,844 27,969 * Harima Kuratoko Gold and silver 125,743 25,149 * Ugo Arakawa Copper 115,008 23,002 * Iyo Ojoin Antimony 114,163 22,833 *Bitchiu N akaso Copper H3,455 22,691 Chikuzen Katsuki Coal 96,265 19,253 * Shimotsuke Ashio Copper 95,563 I9,H3 Echigo Takidani ,, 95, 56 19,011 Hizen Kosasa Coal 74,433 14,887 * Rikuchiu Osarusawa Copper 71,279 14,256 *Ugo Innai Gold and silver 70,645 14,129 Hizen Kishiyama Coal 64,593 12,919 * Rikuchiu Kamaishi Iron 62,844 12,569 Echigo Fukasawa Petroleum 61,600 12,320 * Echizen Omodani Silver and copper 61,229 12,246 * Mimasaka Seto Copper 55,827 11,165 * Izumo Udo 5, 54,348 10,869 Hizen Shishimachi Coal 43,018 8,604 *Hida Kamioka Silver and lead 40,607 8,121 * Yamato Wada Copper 40,491 8,098 *Hida Kamioka » 38,860 7,772 *Ugo Sotta ,, 36,961 7,392 Hizen Kosamurai Coal 35,294 7,o59 *T6tomi Sugegaya Petroleum 34,74i 6,944 Hizen Hirayamashita Coal 33,778 6,756 Hizen Nagasaka 5, 28,707 5,74i * Bingo Neshimo Yasuka Mine Copper 28,642 5,728 Hizen Tsukinokawa Coal 28,487 5,697 * Uzen Aburato ,, 27,737 5,547 *Hida Kamioka Lead and copper 26,070 5.214 *Uzen Shachiki Copper 24,430 4,886 1 According to E. Naumann (see "Verhandl. Gesellschaft fur Erdkunde." Berlin, vol. xiv. p. 229) the amount of silver produced annually from the mines of Handa surpasses that of Kamioka by far. TABULATED VIEW OF PRODUCTION, ETC. 299 ! Province. Town . Product. Value Value 1 in Yen. in £■ Chikuzen Seita Coal 24,067 4,813 * Echigo Akadami ,, 23,567 4,712 Hizen Namise „ 22,421 4,484 Hizen I way a », 22,023 4,405 * I warn i Toyokasegi Copper 20,885 4,177 * Hizen Koyagi Coal 19,582 3,916 Nagato Ube ,, 19,130 3,826 *Bizen Ishigami Copper I8,8S 3 3,777 Hizen Imazuku Coal 18,804 3,76i *Mutsu Ennagose Copper 18,747 3,749 * Kaga Isengi »> 18,692 3,738 *Tajima Okuyama Gold 18,540 3,7o8 * Yamato Murasakizono Copper 17,882 3,576 * Yamato Kinoura 5, 17,342 3,468 * Mino Hatasa Silver, lead, and copper 17,091 3,4i8 * Chikuzen Shakano Coal 16,894 3,379 Chikuzen Neeta )> 16,680 3,336 Hizen Hiada ,, 16,492 3,298 * Rikuchiu Ida Copper l6,2IO 3,242 * Kitami Tonehetsu Sulphur 15,984 3,i97 *Chishima Tofutsu 5) 15,802 3,160 * Mutsu Sunagose Silver, lead, and copper 15,558 3,H2 * Bingo Shimoyama- mimami Copper 15,019 3,004 * Osumi Yamagano Gold and silver M,734 2,947 Hizen Ochi Coal 14,525 2,905, * Wakasa Nojiri Copper 14,260 2,852 * Rikuchiu Osarusawa Gold I4,I3 2,826 Buzen Igeta Coal 14,006 2,801 * Mimasaka Bessho Copper 13,986 2,797 * Hiuga Kitakata ,, 13,656 2,73i * Rikuchiu Shibanai ,, 13,584 2,717 * Harima Tsurudani 5, 12,857 2,57i *Echizen Yamatakeda 5, 12,789 2,558 *Toza Asadani 5, 12,788 2,558 * Rikuchiu Oyu ,) 12,323 2,465 *Echizen Kokuro ,, 12,323 2,465 Nagato Suge Coal 12,250 2,450 Buzen Ikejiri ,» 12,000 2,400 Chikuzen Katsuno 5, U,37I 2,274 *Mimasaki Kumegawa- minami Copper 10,954 2,191 Hizen Sasa Coal 10,876 2,175 Echigo Oarato Petroleum 10,790 2,158 Hizen Takuhara Coal 10,594 2,119 Nagato Takatomari j? IO,286 2,057 * Bitchiu Fukiya YoshiokaMine, Copper 10,266 2,053 Chikuzen Yateiwa Coal 10,240 2,050 Hizen Yamaguchi it 10,013 2,003 * Satsuma Taniyama Tin 9,752 i,95o 300 MINING. Gold, Jap. Kin, Ko-gane and Ogon, according to Kaempfer came principally from Sado and Suruga. In its original deposits it is now only found in such very small quantities that the yield, even by the most practical methods of working, would not cover the cost. The gold also from the river-beds of Yezo, Suruga and Kai are said to be so insignificant in amount that it scarcely pays the humblest wages. The celebrated old gold and silver mines of the island of Sado were formerly in the possession of the Tokugawa-Shdgun. They were worked by criminals, and yielded rich returns. These mines are situated in the western part of the island, not far from the capital Aikawa, in a narrow, steep-walled valley (see map) 220 meters above the sea-level. The ore, says Reh, is found in quartz lodes which lie in quartzite rock and extend from west to east. Their thickness varies from 60 centimeters to 6 meters. They contain fine sprinklings of the sulphides of silver, copper and lead, and small quantities of native gold and silver. In 1874, when the Engineer Reh undertook the management of the mines, they were opened up, to a large extent, but yielded that year only about 83,365 yen of gold and silver. In Kofu I was shown some beautiful specimens of gold-bearing quartz from the district of the Haya-gawa in Kai (tributary of the Fuji-kawa), but I do not know of any gold-mining in that neighbourhood. I found in 1875, at Serigano, 2\ ri from Sendai in Satsuma, a similar appearance of gold and silver-bearing quartz, like that of Sado. The lodes contain also some quicksilver, but are very poor as a whole. It is said, however, that the Daimios of Satsuma drew a great deal of gold from them in earlier times. The gold and silver works of Yamagano in Osumi, whose product so far is very unimportant, were thought for a long time to be the richest gold mines in the country. Silver, Jap. Gin or Shiro-gane (white metal), is much more frequent in appearance and in much larger quantity than its nobler associate. It is usually found in sulphides like argentite, stephanite, and red silver ore. It is worked off in different ways, as a rule however after an old fashion of melting up the roasted ore with lead (verbleiern) and fining off the raw lead. The best silver mines of Japan are thought to be those of Ikuno, Sado, Kosaka, Innai, Mandokoro, and Ani. In the following list, they are arranged according to their yield in 1882. a. Kamioka in Hida, bears copper also. The yield of the mine in 1882, of 351,701 yen, is higher than ten years before, when, according to another estimate, two mines of the province yielded 29,760 ounces of silver, and three others 156 tons of copper. b. Sado, already mentioned under " gold." c. Kosaka, in the province of Ugo (Akita-ken), in the vicinity of the Upper Noshiro-gawa, and of the frontier of Rikuchiu and SILVER AND COPPER. 301 Mutsu, lying about 40 N. lat. has an old mine in a very remote district. The silver is auriferous. d. Ani, also in Ugo, somewhat south of the preceding, 39 55' N. lat. and 140 30' East from Greenwich (according to C. von Weyhe, 39 Heft der Mittheil, der deutsch. Gesellsch. Ostasiens) yields more copper than silver. e. Handa in the north-eastern part of Iwashiro, north of the city Fukushima. f. Ikuno in the northern part of the province of Tajima, con- tains with its silver a considerable amount of gold and copper, and is situated on the water-shed between the Japan Sea and Seto-uchi. Nine years ago it was excellently managed by the Frenchman Coignet, so that it belonged to the few mines under governmental control which yielded a surplus. In i8yy-y8 its nett yield was 70,000 yen, but none of the following years show a like favourable result. At that time there were a thousand men, a dozen French- men among them, employed in the works. The place, formerly a village with scarcely 1,000 inhabitants, had become a town of six times that population. According to Coignet, the mines are 360 meters above the level of the sea, and the temperature occasionally sinks to — 14 C. g. The mine of Kuratoko in the province of Harima yields some gold with the silver. h. Innai, in Ugo. According to the above-mentioned highly- interesting treatise of Rosing upon this mining district, the prin- cipal place Gin-san-machi (Silver-mine town) in the district Okatsu (Oka-tsu-gori) of the Akita-ken, is situated 38 57' N. lat. and 140 36' East from Greenwich, northward from Yamagata, 235 meters above sea level. Here for nearly 300 years (according to Rosing the mine was opened in 1599), silver, some gold, and lead have been mined. Argentite is the principal ore, then stephanite and dark red silver ore. They are found in lodes which appear in tufa as quartz lodes and calcareous spar, and in some places are several meters thick. The most common and often associated sulphides, pyrites, copper pyrites, sulphuret of zinc and galena are found here, but only in small quantities. The silver ores contain from O'l-io per cent. ; on the average, however, 2\ per cent, silver and 1 per cent. lead. The silver product contains 1 per cent, of gold. 1 i. Omodani. This silver and copper mine is situated in the province of Echizen, near the frontiers of Mimo and Kaga. The remaining silver mines yield a very insignificant amount. Copper, Do or Aka-gane (red metal) has formed a prominent article of export from Japan since 1642. It is especially valued for its purity. The amount of its annual yield is next to that 1 The mines of Innai were sold by the government a few years since to a private individual in Tokio, for the low price of 75,000 yen, and the great copper mine at Ani, for a double amount. 3Q2 MINING. of coal. It is seldom found native, or in oxydized form. Copper pyrites is the chief of its sulphides, out of which at least nine- tenths of all the Japanese copper is extracted. It is customary to mix the roasted ores (copper pyrites, copper glance, and bornite) with ironstone and metallic iron, and to reduce them in little blast furnaces by means of charcoal. 1 If the crude metal contains silver it is again melted together with lead, which takes up the silver and some copper, and then to set free the silver, passes through the well-known conversion in the refining furnace. I saw this process at Hachiman in Mino. The larger number and by far the best of the Japanese copper mines are in private hands.' 2 Table B shows the copper mines of Beshi in Iyo on the island of Shikoku to be the richest in yield of all the mines of the country. It is the well-known D6-san or copper mountain, cele- brated throughout the whole country, which has been worked for a long while. Close upon these mines follow those of Zomeki in Nagato, concerning which I know nothing further — nor of the others succeeding in the list, the mines of Kusakura in Echigo, Tatesato in Yamato, Arakawa in Ugo, Nakaso in Bitchiu, and Takidani in Echigo. The last-named directly precedes Ashio in Shimotsuke in the list. This mining and smelting work is situated 6 ri from Nikko, has been for a long time (according to Lyman since 1610) in operation, and must be the copper-yielding mine spoken of by Kaempfer as Asingo. I saw in Nikko pink coloured rock crystals from there and heard that the smelting-house in 1873 yielded 20,000 kilogrammes of blue vitriol besides 500 tons of copper, amounts which according to more recent reports have been greatly increased. 3 The copper mine Osarusawa is situated in the same district (upper valley of the Noshiro-gawa) of Katsuno of the Akita- ken, to which the before-mentioned silver mines of Ani and Kosaka belong. Twelve years ago, this mine was accounted the richest in Japan. It lies 24 ri north-west of Morioka in Nambu whence the copper is brought by beasts of burden, in order to be shipped in flat boats down the Kitakami-gawa to Ishinomaki, and thence by sea to Tokio. 4 Our table shows many other copper mines in different parts of the country, and gives evidence that copper is, in fact, the most widely distributed of all the Japanese metals. Lead, Yen or Namari. The very meagre quantity of this metal is seen in the two lists. Japanese lead mining, consisting of a 1 The extracting of lead from Galena ore takes place in similar manner by the help of iron and coal as reducing agents. See Pumpelly, " Across America and Asia," p. 147. 2 The enormous increase in the priceof copperduring the last twelve months has had great influence on the production and rentability of Japanese copper mines. 3 See Lyman : " Geological Survey of Japan." Reports, 1878-79. 4 In the autumn of 1874, on the way from Morioka to the Ganju-san, I met a great many horses and oxen laden with such copper, and heard on the following day that 39 horse-loads of it had arrived to be shipped. LEAD AND IRON. 303 poor galena, does not yield enough for the domestic need. Lead is extracted with silver and copper at Kamioka in Hida, Hatlasa in Mino, and Sunagose in Mutsu. Pumpelly mentions the lead mine of Ichinowatari in Oshima on the island of Yezo, which he saw in 1863, and reports that at that time it yielded about 80 pounds of lead a day, but three years before 100 pounds daily. Tin, Jap. Shaku or Sudzu. What has been said of lead is also essentially true of this metal. It is scarcely found anywhere except on the island of Kiushiu, and only in insufficient quantities as shode. Our map notes Tani-yama in Satsuma, which furnished tin to the valve of £3,922 in 1882, and Ohira-tetsu-san, in Bungo. Iron, Jap. Utsu and Kuro-gane, i.e., black metal. The pro- duction of iron in Japan is still small and not sufficient to meet the home demands. It is extracted chiefly from ferruginous sand, and also from magnetic iron ore. The first is a frequently occur- ring product of alluvium along the coasts, and also inland. It is found oftenest and in largest quantity in the provinces of Iwami, Izumo, and the bordering portions of Bingo and Mimasaka. The magnetic iron-ore deposits and iron mines of Kamaishi in the old district of Nambu (province of Rikuchiu), are the most considerable in the country. They are located in lat. 390 18' N. approximately, 5 ri westward from the bay and town of Kamaishi on the Pacific ocean. They are connected with the harbour by a narrow track. The deposits occur chiefly in the water-shed be- tween Kitakami and the bay of Kamaishi within a circuit of 3 ri in at least a dozen places, generally in diabase rock together with granite. Most of these deposits seem to dwindle toward the depth. Near the surface some of them show a thickness of 40-45 meters. The magnetic iron ore is often mixed with iron and copper pyrites and a trace of malachite and lapis lazuli. It is then coarse- grained and crumbles easily on exposure to the air. The better sort is free from these admixtures, fine-grained and compact. By roasting, the greater part of the sulphur is expelled and a very good quality of iron obtained. This method has been used for 35-40 years at Ohashi and Sahinai, where the ore is said to have been first discovered. I was told that a Japanese, twenty-five years ago, es- tablished blast furnaces here after Dutch drawings. I saw them in operation. The construction was old-fashioned, the top-gases not being made use of. The casting is primitive in fiat pigs on sand. Ohashi is on the east side, and Sahinai on the west side of the wooded heights which form that water-shed. Fifteen years ago the Japanese government was very hopeful and devised great projects in regard to these iron-ore beds. They wanted to make of Kamaishi another Essen, with or without the help of a Krupp; but nothing has come of it. In autumn, 1874, when I examined the condition of affairs, they were busy with a narrow track 5 ri long, from the mines at Ohashi to the harbour, and erecting two furnaces on the newest principles. These have been for some time in 304 MINING. operation, also a puddling furnace ; but soon it was found that the quantity of ore remained far behind expectation. The works are now in private hands, the government having tried unsuccessfully to work them with the help of foreign engineers. The desire now is to supersede the constantly diminishing supply of charcoal by coke, and many attempts, for the most part unavailing, have been made to manufacture it from the domestic coal. A charcoal furnace was built by some English engineers at Nakakosaka in the province of Kotsuke, but it has returned little profit to its owners up to this time. The quartzite lodes of the older slate rocks, which are the beds of most Japanese ores, contain besides copper pyrites, the sulphides of iron also in large and available quantities. It is said too (on the oral testimony of the director of mines, Vogel, at Freiberg), that magnetic iron pyrites is much more universally abundant than white iron pyrites, as e.g., in the frontier districts of Bitchiu, Bizen and Mimasaka, where the copper mines of Ichigami, Nakaso, and others are situated. I did not know that these sulphides of iron had been used for the pro- duction of sulphuric acid, at all events, it did not occur in the Mint of Ozaka, when the manufacture of this important substance was first introduced into Japan some twenty years ago. On the other hand, the inhabitants have long understood the preparation of Beni-gara or red oxide (Colcothar), which they probably learned from the Chinese. They used for this purpose then as now, the abundant magnetic and iron pyrites, for Beni-gara plays a part not only in their medical science, but is used in many branches ot industry, especially in porcelain painting. In extracting it, the iron pyrites is first roasted, then the calcined ore is leached with water, the copperas crystallized and then heated to a glow. The colour of Beni-gara is more vivid and beautiful red according as the copperas used has been pure in quality, and as the trituration of the heated residuum has been thorough and careful. The Japanese have only recently become acquainted with the manganic oxides and their uses, and have accepted their European designations. The most important of these, pyrolusite or man- ganese ore, is found in many localities, chiefly however eastward from Utsunomiya on the borders of Shimotsuke and Iwaki. Zinc, Jap. Totan, is found as zinc-blende in small quantities. Nickel has not been discovered as yet, and cobalt only in a combin- ation of small value, earthy cobalt, which however, was, formerly of importance in Japan. The Japanese call it Guwa-sho-sei', or Goshu, and according to its different appearance, Seto-konjo, or blue Seto, and its blue extract Yegusuri. Apropos of this, I take from my note-book the following, made during my visit to the porcelain district of Seto in Owari. " The blue cobalt glaze is interesting. The colour is extracted from a black, earthy mineral (evidently a kind of Asbolite) which ANTIMONY, COAL. 305 serves as a medium of quartz conglomerate. It is found about 6 cho (ten minutes' walk) from Seto, and in several other places in the neighbourhood, always in diluvial gravel. The people drive short adits in these gravel pits, without any timbers or other supports, till they come to the places where the mineral is found in pockets. They carry it out in baskets and pour it out on an inclined plane. The fine sand and gravel remain, but the breccia-balls, which are seldom as large as the fist, roll down, and are picked out and tested by women and children, then sold at the porcelain manufactory. The cobalt colour is extracted thus : the washed material is heated till the medium has become a peach-red colour, then pulverized and washed after separating the worthless stone. The portion which has been thus treated is then precipitated by salt water, the precipitate rinsed and then used." 1 Antimony, or grey antimonite, Jap. Shirome-ko and Iyo- shirome-ko, i.e., antimony from Iyo. Its real nature and value has only recently become fully known to the Japanese. They did not formerly know how to use the deposits found chiefly in the old slate rocks of the larger southern islands — particularly from Amakusa through Kiushiu and Shikoku, — but now it is a constant and considerable article of export. The antimony mines of the country, those of Ojdin-mura in Iyo on the island of Shikoku especially, have furnished our mineral collections for some years with the largest and most beautiful crystals of antimonite known. Table B gives the value of the yield of this and other neigh- bouring antimony mines, for the year 1882, as over ^22,385. The mine is situated south-east of the city Saijo, and not far from the copper mines of Besshi. But there are others also in various parts of Iyo, especially in the south-western portion, as well as in the neighbouring province of Tosa. They are found on Kiushiu at Bungo, Hiuga, and Higo. The island of Amakusa, too, shows several antimony lodes.- On the other hand, the find of anti- mony runs in the direction of the southern schist range (vol. i. p. 32), and in a north-westerly direction over a part of Kiushiu, and Yamato on the island of Hondo. Coal, Sekitan or Ishi-dzumi. No other article of Japanese mining industry, copper perhaps excepted, is found in so many localities, from the Riukiu islands to Yezo, and no other has engaged so much attention during the last twenty years, nor has any other increased so steadily in the amount and value of its 1 It is interesting to note that the Chinese name Go-shu means, " Gravel-pit of Go," (the province Kiangsu, where Nanking is situated). We are indeed justified in concluding that Asbolan was found in China also as a cement of gravel, and yielded the blue cobalt for ceramics. At any i-ate, this popular colour is one of the oldest which was used in both countries for decorating porcelain. 2 I saw it at Takahama near the west coast in 1875. The lode had a thick- ness of 16-20 cm. II. X 306 MINING. annual product. Japanese coal it is true, like all Eastern Asiatic coal, is not, so far as is known, as good in quality as the English and Rhine coal. In the judgment of those who understand its qualities, among whom we must class machinists and stokers of steam engines, it belongs to the family of fatty coals, which pro- duce a great deal of smoke, blacken boilers, form clinkers, thus hindering the draught, and cake very easily, without, however, forming a good kind of coke. Lieut. Roberts, of the Perry ex- pedition, for example, reports of them as follows : — " The coal which we got at Nagasaki was of fourth grade, and poorer than the Australian and American coal furnished us in Hongkong. It made a great deal of slag and dirty ashes, and the fire required to be often stirred. We used 23 tons a day in place of 18 tons of good English coal. The coal of Takashima requires to be kept dry, as when wet it often fires spontaneously." Japanese coal in most places, if not everywhere, is tertiary coal, and its origin of lacustrine formation. Its recent formation is proved by the many leaf impressions of deciduous plants in the shales accompanying it, but its properties and appearance are like hard coal, and only in exceptional cases resemble those of brown coal. This is true also of the coal from Diu, on Sachalin, which was examined by the academician, F. Schmidt, of St. Petersburg, and his companion von Glehn. A correspondent of " Export" x after enumerating, with this same unfavourable criticism, the pro- perties of the fatty coal of Kelung on Formosa, writes : " As the Japanese coal shows the same defects, the coal of Kelung may compete with it in the markets of Eastern Asia. Together with such coal — for it is really bituminous coal, not- withstanding its lack of age — may be found also many seams oi genuine brown coal in the neo-tertiary strata of Japan, although they are generally thin. Several dozens of such weak seams are often found one over another, separated by some intermediate stratum. The north-western part of Kiushiu, with the provinces of Hizen, Chikuzen, and Chikugo forms the richest coal district, although Yezo boasts of numerous occurrences of coal. Lyman writes: "One of the principal results of the geological survey of Yezo is the recognition of the fact that on this island there are perhaps 150,000 million tons of workable coal, or two-thirds as much as the coal of the same thickness in the celebrated coal fields of Great Britain. The amount of coal on Yezo would put the island in position to furnish the present annual production of Great Britain for nearly 1,000 years. 2 The island of Yezo is not known to me by personal observation. 1 Export^ VI. Jahrgang, No. 51, Berlin, 1885. 2 Lyman : " Geological Survey of Hok-kai-do. General Report." Tokio, 1877, pp. 106-7. COAL. 307 What I could learn from other sources however, and could gather also in part from the export statistics, does not agree very well with this enthusiastic description of its wealth of coal. From all investigations it seems to be evident that the coal of Yezo is no exception to the before-mentioned universal rule, either in age or character, and that in its value and use it will not compare at all favourably with the older English and German coal. Only a small portion of the coal of Yezo, and indeed of all Japan, is adapted to the production of good compact and pure coke, with a metallic lustre, such as has become so important in metal- lurgy and so necessary in the modern furnace processes. There are, however, a number of other important uses for their coal, and there is scarcely a doubt that its possession promises much for the future development of Japanese industry and national prosperity. The best of the already discovered coal strata of the island of Yezo are found in the provinces Shiribeshi and Ishikari. From the latter come the coal of Sorachi, and of Poronai, Horumui, and other places in the Ishikari valley. The shipping of a part of this coal has been rendered possible by a railway from Poronai, via Sapporo, to the roadstead of Otaru. In the province of Shiribeshi is the coal district of Kayanoma, to which the Honshiki coal be- longs also. The thickness of the workable coal strata of the island appears from the reports of Munroe and Lyman to vary from 15 cm. to 2.\ m. There are thicker seams in Japan proper also that have not yet been opened. Owing to the more recent geo- logical age of Japanese coal, deep mining, with its costly timber- ing and ventilation, is not necessary. All existing coal mines begin with coal lying near the surface, and proceed by means of galleries through the running and trending of the stratum. According to our tables, the coal mine at Aburato, in the province of Uzen, on the Japan Sea southward from Sakata, yields the largest amount of all the mines of Hondo, the chief island. Then follow those of Akadami, Ube and Takatomari in Nagato, lying east of Shimonoseki on the Seto-uchi, opposite the coal district of Chiku- zen. This latter embraces a considerable territory on the island of Kiushiu, not only Chikuzen, but Buzen bordering it on the east, and the northern part of the island. Table B places the produc- tion of one of its mines, that of Katsuki, after that of Miike. This last very notable mine is situated in the vicinity of the flat eastern coast of the bay of Shimabara, in the province of Chikugo, not far from the boundary towards Higo. When I visited it ten years ago it was still worked by the government. Below the red argil- laceous sand lies a thin layer of earthy coal, then follows a stratum of clay schist (slaty clay pebbles) of half a meter thickness. It is full of leaf impressions of dicotyledonous trees, but very much crumbled and broken. Now follows the coal stratum of 2 meters thickness in places, then again the mixed coal and clay schist, and then sandstone. These strata lean at an angle of 20-2 5 ° toward 308 MINING. the south-east. The mine yields a very good gas coal, and has been known for some 400 years. It passed into private hands about ten years ago, and is now, with one much like it on the island of Sakashima, by far the most productive, especially for export to China. The Takashima coal is black, lustrous and firm, but light, like almost all Japanese coal when compared with older qualities. It breaks in irregular, prismatic pieces, exhibits a black streak, and furnishes a brownish black powder. It is the best known of Japanese coal, as it supplies every ship bound for Nagasaki, and on account of the favourable location of the mine is most ex- ported. Taka-shima, a little island of only 54 hectares extent and perhaps 100 m. above the sea level, is situated at the entrance of the long narrow bay of Nagasaki, eight or nine nautical miles from the capital city of Hizen. Grey-white, micaceous, cross-grained sandstone, friable clay in thin layers, and coal strata lean toward the north at an angle of 20-25 . The inhabitants of the island, distributed among a few small villages, earn their livelihood principally in the mines which lie close to the sea on the side toward Nagasaki, and have been worked for about eighty years. In 1 875, a private company purchased the mines of the government for the sum of ^122,550 In the spring of that year the longest shaft was only 50 meters, still the gallery slanted considerably from this point, following the principal stratum, which is on an average 2 m. in thickness. The larger coal basin of the province of Hizen, of which Taka- shima appears to be an outlying member, lies farther to the north, and embraces a number of mines, among which the best known is that of Karatsu, lying not far from the sea. The occurrence of coal on the island of Amakusa, in the southern part of Hizen, deserves mention also, and in Shiki-mura, near the little city of Tomioka on the northern side. The strata of Oniki, however, on a little bay at the south-west, are thicker and much more valuable. The foregoing statements regarding Japanese coal were written before the November number of the German " Handels-Archivs " for 1885, with its short statement of the " Import and Export of Coal, and the Coal Production of Japan," 1 came to hand. I extract very gladly some interesting facts which supplement and corroborate my own observations and opinions. According to this the coal export of Japan for the three years 1882-84 was as follows : — Production. Value in Yen. Export. Value in Yen. 1882 327,240 tons 1,197,053 128,230 to China 455,146 1883 391,944 » 1,373,570 126,155 » 407,185 1884 522,211 „ 1,828,263 180,950 „ 604,676 1 The statement is made probably by our Consul-General Zappe. COAL, PETROLEUM. 3°9 Over against these amounts must be set the much smaller amount of English and Australian coal which was imported for the fuel of foreign vessels, because these vessels are not con- structed for burning Japanese coal, which " makes so much ashes and dust." It is feared, too, that the export to China will decrease or cease entirely as soon as that country has somewhat more developed its own coal mines, and provided for the transportation of their products to the coast. Analyses of the Coal of Japan and Neighbouring Islands. A. Elementary Analysis. I. Taka- shima. II. Miike. III. Karatsu. IV. Sorachi. V. Horu- mui. VI. Hon- shiki. VII. Midzu- nuki. VIII. Kelung. Vv ater . . . Carbon . . Hydrogen Oxygen and \ Nitrogen . J Sulphur . . Ash ... 1-320 78-633 5-8l6 8721 0-659 4-8 5 I 0-536 69-280 5'524 4-888 3-488 16-284 2-690 69-436 5-156 11-920 1-177 9-621 292S 77-040 5-685 iroi4 0-542 2791 8-479 68-842 4771 15-iSo 0-472 2*256 5-360 65-221 5-222 io-iiS 1-607 12-472 3714 57-689 4-620 IO'I44 3765 20'o68 3774 73-013 6-3I3 15-129 roS7 4-408 103774 IOO - 000 IOO'OOO IOO'OOO IOO'OOO IOO'OOO 1 IOO'OOO IOO'OOO B. Fractional Analysis. I. Taka- shima. II. Miike. III. Karatsu. IV. Sorachi. V. Horu- mui. VI. Hon- shiki. VII. 1 VIII. Midzu- i tt , nuki. Kelun - Water Evapo- ~) ration, at > 40 C. . . ) Combustible ) Gases . .J Carbon resi- \ duum . . J Ash residuum 1-32 33-13 55 - 45 5-IO 0-54 33-51 43'36 17-50 2-69 40'13 47-12 io-oi 2-93 35'°3 59-o5 2-99 S-48 37*52 51-67 2-43 5-36 35*95 46-11 13-08 3-5 1 22*98 67-51 6 - oo 377 52-13 43'47 4-41 IOO'OO IOO'OO 99*95 ioo-oo IOO'OO IOO'OO ioo-oo 103-78 Spec. Gravity I '260 i"335 i'349 1-279 1-323 1-351 — 1-254 Of the coal classified above, I., II., and III. are from Kiushiu, and IV., V., VI., and VII. from Yezo. Their analysis is taken from the work " Yesso Coals, by H. Munroe, Tokei, 1874." Number VIII. is taken from F. Hawks' " Narrative, Perry Expedi- tion "; vol. ii. pp. 167, 168; and IX. from Pumpelly's "Across America and Asia," Appendix, p. 444, XIII. Petroleum, Jap. Sekitan-yu, Seki-yu, or Sekitan, is found princi- 3io MINING. pally in the provinces of Echigo and Totomi, but is not sufficient in quantity to supply the constantly increasing home consumption. The chief petroleum district of both provinces lies on the west of a line drawn from the point of Omage-saki on the coast of Totomi to Niigata. The production of Totomi is concentrated around Sugegawa, but the little city of Sagara is the principal place of the district. Here in 1877 (according to Lyman) 50 wells yielded in all 1,200 barrels of oil, which is superior in lightness and in bright- ness of colour to that of Echigo. For Echigo, our map gives Fukawasa and Oarata, mentioned in Table B, as the central points of production. In 1876 there were not less that 522 oil wells in this district, the deepest measuring 732', or 222 meters. None of them, however, yielded particularly profitable quantities. The entire production was estimated by Lyman at 9,500 barrels, worth 31,650 yen ; but this amount has increased considerably since then, as is seen by the figures given in Table B, pp. 298, 299, as the production of these places. Sulphur, Jap. Iwo or Yuwo. This is found as a glossy product of sublimation often covering the crater walls and crevices and clefts of active or extinct volcanoes ; but by far the greatest amount of sulphur is formed by decomposition of the sulphuretted hydrogen of the solfataras. As these volcanic manifestations are very wide- spread in Japan, the frequent occurrence of sulphur is not sur- prising. Sometimes the suffix " Iwo " in the name of a mountain or an island indicates its presence there. Satsuma was formerly, says Kaempfer, the principal sulphur producer. The little island Iwo-shima, to the south, also furnishes sulphur. It is obtained at Iwo-dake and Yadake in Hida, from Shirane-san on the boundary between Kotsuke and Shinano. When Pumpelly visited Yezo in 1864, he ascended Iwaounobori from Iwanai on the south-western coast. He saw several solfataras and their effects, and states that the monthly production of sulphur of the mountain was 6,400 pounds, and the total for the year, 38,400 kilogrammes, or 384 tons. Our table indicates two other places in Hokkaido, however, as the most important sulphur producers, viz., Tonebetsu in Kitami, and Tofutsu on the not far distant island of Kunashir. Salt, Jap. Shiwo or Shio, up to this time has not been found as rock-salt or in applicable salt springs, 1 but is extracted exclusively 1 When one considers the great number of hot springs scattered over the whole of Japan, the dearth of salt springs is particularly surprising. The only- exception worth noting appears to be Oshio in Aidzu (Iwashiro). This place which I passed on the 4th of October, 1S74, on the way from Wakamatsu to Yonezawa, lies 6 ri from the former in the bason of an old volcanic mountain ring, whose principal rock seems to be grey Andesite. By crossing over a small stream was reached, on whose right bank, to the right of the road, are two warm springs close together. I tested the temperature at 39 and 38 C, and found that each one flowed at the rate of 1 sho (about i*8 liter) every four or five seconds. The water is weak in salt and rich in iron. A ^reat amount of carbonic acid SALT. 311 from sea-water. The Japanese method of salt-producing is exactly the same as that employed in China, described, e.g., by Fortune. 1 In the summary of Japanese agricultural product, given on page 1 1, one division of the soil is designated Shio-hama, or salt-coasts. These are fiat sandy strips of coast, in all 6,364 cho or hectare, which are devoted to the extraction of salt from sea- water. The sandy flat coast, to make a salt garden, must lie out of reach of the tide. It is divided usually into fields of 2\ tan or 25 are, each one worked by two men. They smooth it to a perfect level, and cover it with an even coat of well pounded clay. On this they spread a thick layer of coarse sand, carefuly raked over. This is then wet with sea-water, which is carried by little ditches through the garden, and repeated after each evaporation till a con- siderable amount of salt has been left in the sand. This is raked up together for leaching in a kind of filter, by the addition of sea- water whose amount of salt is thereby greatly increased. The sand is then spread out to dry, and again wetted with salt water, etc., as before. The brine is collected in ditches or tubs and poured into the boiling pans whose construction resembles the contrivances used for drying tea (see p. 118 U). These salt pans are usually 2-2 1 meters long, \\ meters broad, and about half a meter in depth. The pans consist of a frame-work of woven bamboo, plastered in- side and out with clay cement, and supported by two beams with wooden cross pieces. Wood is used as fuel for the evaporating process, chiefly the branches (and needles also) of conifers. Coal is also used. There are besides large iron evaporating pans called Shio-gama, but they appear to be little in use compared with the arrangements described above. Japanese sea-salt is far less pure than that from the shores of the Mediterranean, has a grey-white colour, and with 8 to 12 per cent, of water, contains only 80 to 90 per cent, of chloride of sodium. Its preparation is not a government monopoly, as in China, and is carried on in many places along the coast, especially in the south, most of all along the Japanese Seto-uchi (Inland Sea), on the coast of Iyo, Sanuki, Awa and the provinces of Sanyodo. The coast of Satsuma also has salt fields already mentioned, e.g., at Akune. At Kanazawa, in the vicinity of Yokohama, a considerable amount of salt is produced. According to Geerts, 3 the yearly salt production of the Japanese escapes from it, and much ferric hydrate is precipitated. It is said to have been used many centuries for salt extraction, but for the last twenty years it has flowed unutilized into the brook. Ascending still higher along the road, I found a third weaker salt spring with 20 c temperature, this change proceeding from cold water flowing into it. 1 "A Residence among the Chinese," pp. 305, 306. 2 " Les produits de la nature japonaise et chinoise." Yokohama, 1883, p. 308. This book contains many valuable statements, which unfortunately, however, must be used with care, owing to the lack of judgment with which others of a different character are minsrled with them. 312 MINING. coast is estimated at 5,700,000 hectoliters, distributed as stated above, over 6,364 hectares of salt gardens, making an average pro- duction of 895 hectoliters to each hectare during the seventy or eighty dry summer days. This amount does not compare with the returns from the salt gardens of equal area on the Mediterranean coast. It must be especially borne in mind, however, that the climate of the latter, with its dry air and rainless summers, is in- comparably more favourable, and therefore the production can be carried on in an entirely different way from that of the eastern monsoon district with its numerous summer rains. Alum, Jap. Mio-ban (Miyo-ban) has been known for at least 1,200 years in Japan, and is used there, as with us, as a mordant in dyeing. It is frequently found native in a white earthy decom- position of volcanic rock, which has taken place by the action of solfataras. This Ji-nen-han or natural alum is extracted, and the pure crystals are formed in the solution. It is generally called Ban- seki or Han-seki, alum stone, but is not to be confounded with it. I saw beautiful alum at an Exhibition in the spring of 1875 at Funai, the capital of the province of Bungo, which is considered the principal place for its production. Shinano, Kotsuke, and Hida are also mentioned for their alum. Porcelain stone, Kaolin, Potter's clay. A number of different products of the decomposition of felspathic rocks are used in the extended, and in some of its branches highly developed, pottery industry of Japan. They are called in Japanese, Ishi, stone, and Tsuchi, earth, according to their nature, while usually the different species are designated with the name of the place where they are found. We divide these ceramic materials into two classes accord- ing to the agencies which have wrought the decomposition of the felspathic matrix, viz. : 1. Porcelain stones. Peculiar products of the decomposition of trachyte, euritic porphyry and other volcanic rock, rich in silicic acid, and appearing in unstratified masses. Their decomposition was probably brought about by the influence of the sulphides of hydrogen and aqueous vapour of the solfataras. To this class belong the most valuable materials of Japanese porcelain manufacture, the Arita-ishi of Hizen, the Amakusa-ishi of the island of Amakusa, the Kutani-ishi and Nabetani-ishi of Kaga, and others beside. The solfatara (Jap. Jigoku, hell) affects not merely the vegetation in its vicinity, but also the rock. It bleaches trachy tic and doleritic lava, and works an entire transformation in them. The silicic acid, among other things, is often separated as stalactite, and then ap- pears as a medium of a new cementation, as is shown very distinctly in Amakusa-ishi. Pumpelly observed a similar transformation by the solfataras, at Yu-nonai — the solfataras of Iwanai on the island of Yezo — concerning which he remarks as follows : " The hot springs here are in close connection with snow-white quartz porphyry. This rock is impregnated with iron pyrites, which in many places PORCELAIN STONE, POTTER'S CLAY, KAOLIN, SLATE. 313 is only indicated by cubic cavities containing sulphur." 1 The bleached Liparite of the Lipari Islands, and the grey-white Rhyolithe of Hungary are perhaps the results of similar changes under the influence of solfataras, at least they resemble strongly the Arita and Amakusa rock, concerning the chemical composition and employment of which more will be said in the section on Ceramics. 2. Disintegration. Products of common felspar and kindred minerals and rock rich in argillaceous earth. Kaolin belongs to this class, and the plastic clays in their varied modifications, even to common loam. The principal sources of porcelain stone and Kaolin, the basic material of fine pottery, are indicated in the tables with the pro- ducts of mining industry proper, and will be further treated under Ceramics. Porcelain stone and Kaolin, are taken from the surface of the ground, and do not therefore belong properly to mining, but to the Gioku-seki-rui, the family of stones which are obtained from the quarry, Jap. Ishi-yama (stone mountain), or Ishi wo hori-dasu tokoro (i.e., place where stone is dug out). It has been shown in the first volume of this work, that freestone proper, and stone in general, has had but very subordinate use in building, e.g., for the massive walls of old fortresses, stairs leading to temples located on heights, stone turrets, monuments, bridges, pavements of temple courts and gardens, cooking hearths, wash-basins and rice troughs. For these purposes they used almost without exception granite, especially the Mikage-ishi from Settsu, and the Teshima-ishi from Bizen, besides trachytic and doleritic lava, as well as the older slate. Common limestone is burned and its powder (Ishi-bai, i.e., stone powder) is used as a manure, but seldom for building purposes. Marble, called R6-seki and Sarusa-ishi by the Japanese, is found in several parts of the country, in Bizen, Mino, and Hitachi. Some statues in and around temples, from the white marble of Hitachi — quarried near the coast north of Mito, the capital — show that it is spendidly qualified for the purposes of sculpture. From the variegated marble (Fusuline lime) of Akasaka in Mino, a variety of small articles are cut, among them saucers to rub India-ink in. Slabs of old slate, Seki-ban, or Date-ishi, are used for paving walls in gardens and courts, and large ones for small bridges over- streams and irrigating ditches. The greyish blue slate which resembles our slate used for pencils in hardness, colour, and grain, is employed very extensively in the manufacture of India-ink saucers. The best known and most celebrated for this purpose is the Amabata-ishi from the province of Kai, whose quarrying and working, owing to the large demand, has 1 Pumpelly : "Across America and Asia," p. 177. 3H MINING. furnished employment a long time to a large number of labourers. The method of polishing is similar to that employed for rock- crystals, Jap., Suisho, agates (Meno-seki) and related semi-precious stones. The most celebrated source of rock-crystals is the Kimpu- zan in Kai, where the beautiful twins, in certain of our collections, were found. Agates, cornelians, and chalcedony, occur in Echiu and Idzumo, being also worked there. For polishing all these hard stones, garnet sand is used (Kongo-sha, i.e., sand from the Kongo-san, a long mountain ridge in Kawachi on the right of the Yoshino-gawa). But this kind of stone-work belongs properly to Art Industry, and will therefore be discussed more in detail in the next section. ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. III. ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. " Quam quisque norit artem in hac se exerceat." — Cic. Tiisc.,'\, 1 8, 41. i. Japanese Art Industry in General. Revival of European Art Industry. — Growing Interest in the Pro- ductions of the Chinese and Japanese. — China the Master and Model of Japan. — Characteristic Features of Japanese Art- handicraft and its Products. — The Period of Highest Develop- ment and the Means of its Advancement. — Its Influence upon that of the Christian Countries of the West. One of the most conspicuous and lasting effects which may be credited to the great International Art and Industrial Exhibitions of the last three decades, is undoubtedly their influence on the revival of interest in art industry. The first conception of such a great universal exhibition was formed in England, and from that country also the first intelligent impulse toward the important matters of art industry has spread rapidly abroad among the Christian civilised states of the West. Since then, by means of instruction and illustration in schools and museums, it has been sought to revive the much sunken and deteriorated art handicraft afresh, to awaken the feeling for the really beautiful in industrial products, or, as it has been expressed, to ennoble taste and thus to advance trade and industry. First of all, proportion and harmony were to be studied and fostered. These two conceptions, most important and far reaching in every art, are no less necessary in art industry. They embrace everything which form and decoration must offer in order to meet our ideal sense of beauty, which Plato ranks so high as to attribute it to a divine origin. These earnest and energetic efforts to elevate art industry by means of collections and instruction, and so to advance national labour and welfare, were not displayed in Germany till after several neighbouring countries had furnished us good and successful examples. We soon made up for our neglect however, and al- ready see the fruits of the greater energy which our Governments, together with many private interests, have shown. We can but observe what has been accomplished for example in textile pro- 318 ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. ducts, and especially in embroidery, or compare ihe artistic forms and decorations which to-day distinguish the work of our gold and silversmiths, with the many awkward and tasteless specimens of preceding periods. Bad models, abundantly set and followed, spoil the taste as inevitably as in morals bad examples corrupt good manners. Good designs of figure and decoration are thus necessary also in art industry, in order to refine the taste and to guide tastes already refined. To obtain them we went back to the operations of art industry in the Middle Ages, and even farther, to the antique. They were sought and found also in the far Orient, among Arabs, Persians and Indians, and even beyond the boundaries of Aryan nations, among the Mongolians of the Chinese system of civiliza- tion, especially in China and Japan. The manifold productions of Japanese art industry in particular, which are brought to Europe and North America by almost every ship, and reach even the smallest inland cities, have exercised a powerful influence on many branches of Western European art industry. This has been shown to a surprising degree in the Industrial Exhibitions of the last sixteen years, notably in the great Paris Exhibition of 1878. So much has been written concerning it, as well as of the history and peculiarity of Japanese art industry, that it may seem almost superfluous for me to attempt in the following treatises to discuss the subject in a comprehensive and perhaps a somewhat original way. I am moved to it by the consciousness that I had a better occasion and opportunity to make a thorough study of the art handicraft of the Japanese than has been the case with most of its reviewers hitherto. Architecture, which among Aryan nations has the most notable and powerful influence upon art industry, has not developed any such high significance in Chinese civilization. All its architectural creations are perishable wooden buildings, and only exceptionally make any monumental impression. The most important are Buddhist temples, which seem weighed down and burdened under their disproportionally heavy roofs. They exhibit a multiform wooden ornamentation which may indeed be the expression of a rich fancy, but seldom however, with the exception of the carving, is a sign of a particularly developed artistic sense. Art industry among those Eastern Asiatic people has its centre in the many little productions which they form out of plastic clay, metal, wood, and ivory. These are richly decorated partly with lacquer and enamel colours, partly with engraving, chasing, inlay- ing with metal, and an extremely tasteful use of curves, and even more of straight and broken lines. So also is it in textile industry, from simple weaving to the most complicated silk or cotton fabrics. In Japan as in China, it is in the art of lacquering, fine ceramics enamel, chasing and inlaid work, especially bronze work and forg- ing of weapons, also wood, ivory, bone and stone cutting, and in JAPANESE ART INDUSTRY IN GENERAL. 319 the weaving and colouring, that the feeling for art and the artistic skill of the people show themselves. China is the original home of these branches of industry. Japan has received them thence as well as the most of its peculiar habits and decorations. Chinese state polity and jurisprudence, Chinese letters and literature, Chinese ethics and medicine, Chinese art and industry with all their peculiarities of operation and tendencies of taste, all reached Japan, and mostly by way of Corea, with Bud- dhism, the great base and supporter of the particular Eastern Asiatic civilization which includes China, Corea, Japan, and a part of Farther India. Japan has regarded China as her model in all these departments for many centuries, and has developed great aptness of imitation and skill in the use of its acquirements, but on the other hand very little independent creative power. The indisputable fact that it now far surpasses its old masters in the most extended branches of art handicraft, is to be attributed to this very gift of imitation, and inclination to appropriate what has been seen and to make it useful, and above all to its own developed sense of beauty in nature and art. The relics of Japanese industry before the time of the ascendancy of Chinese influence, which have become known chiefly from excavations, show that the country at that time occupied a very low plane of artistic ability and taste. There is a great resem- blance in the forms and decorations of these ceramic discoveries to the first phases of cultivation in many other and widely separated nations. The forms are awkward, inclining to spherical shapes, and the decorations simple. As in all young civilizations, the older people of Japan before their contact with Chinese and Coreans in the first centuries of our era, beside simple lines and dots, imitated animals instead of plants in their decorations. In Europe, from the Middle Ages onward, so-called free aca- demic art, i.e., painting and sculpture, forsook art industry altogether, went its own way, and soon was far in advance. In Eastern Asia it was entirely different. Here free art has remained far behind art industry, and has been only partially developed. The Eastern Asiatic has been for centuries especially hampered by conventional forms in the pictorial representation of the human body. He paints after an old traditional type, no matter how little it may be like nature. A dreary naturalism on the one side, and the free play of an exuberant fancy on the other, rule the art industry of Eastern Asia. But nowhere else have these traits been so thoroughly cultivated. We find together with a highly developed sense and comprehen- sion of the beautiful in nature and in art, an inclination toward the grotesque and unsymmetrical all the more striking with a surprising and fascinating truth in design and execution, a strongly marked fancy and tendency to irregularity and caricature ; with a 320 ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. high technical perfection, numerous failures in perspective and proportion. The frequent departure from line and symmetry in their decorations offends our eye and feeling something as in certain of Wagner's compositions, e.g., in Siegfried, the many dissonances which follow a passage of harmonious accord offend the ears of many a lover of music. This love of the Japanese for the bizarre, the unsymmetrical, and in our eyes, the unlovely shows itself not only in art in- dustry, but in their gardening, for instance in the way in which they arrange their flowers, and especially in the frequent treatment of the pine or Matsu (Pinus Massoniana and P. densifiora), in their gardens. Their eyes delight in its deformed figure, in its unnatural and disproportionately long horizontal branches. Specimens which have been made particularly monstrous in this way, e.g., the old pine of Karasaki on Biwa Lake, are accounted among the most notable sights of the country and attract visitors from far. Many of the productions of art industry, as well as the examples of architecture, show that constructive art is far less advanced among the Japanese than decorative art. We seek in vain among their works of an industrial character for " the noble restful great- ness of the Greek masterpieces " (Winkelmann), which distinguish also Greek ceramics. Many of the Japanese models, like the temples and Daimio fortresses, which were formerly the chief repositories of art, are clumsy and dwarfed. But with these, how- ever, there are many which, for lightness and attractiveness of form, satisfy the most refined taste. Nevertheless their principal skill is unquestionably in the line of decoration. Their compo- sitions show well controlled exactness and strength, and charm by their life and truth to nature, their often masterly colouring and the high technical perfection of their embellishment. Most of the slender, airy, well-proportioned art forms of Aryan nations are either wanting or are so changed as to be beyond recognition. In their ceramics and metal industry we miss en- tirely the beautiful vase and jug-shaped Amphora, Hydria, Lekythos, and Oinochoe, while Krater and Kantharos appear in numerous modifications, especially among bronze vases, because they are so well adapted to hold loosely the blooming stalks placed in them. The beautiful shape of the Indian sarai, which is used so much of late for water and wine flagons made from crystal glass, has been much changed in the Chinese and Japanese imitations in porcelain and bronze. That which has been most retained is the spherical enlargement at the base, but in place of the narrow slender throat is one wider and far less pleasing, often with wing-like appendages, and even griffins at the mouth of the vase. The form of the Greek wine jar has never become domesticated, not- withstanding it has been so often introduced into the country among the presents of the Portuguese and Dutch. Cylindrical vase-forms, copied from the bamboo cane, as well as polygonal JAPANESE ART INDUSTRY IN GENERAL. 321 and prismatic shapes, seem peculiar to Chinese and Japanese art industry. In the ethnographical collections of Europe they are known only from these sources. The Romans, it is true, had pris- matic glass bottles on a quadrangular, hexagonal, or octagonal base, these angles disappearing rapidly toward the top in a short, wide cylindrical throat (the square prismatic being urns for holding the ashes of the dead), but in the ceramics of antiquity such forms it appears were not imitated. Whatever may resemble them in Indian and Persian art industry is most likely of Chinese origin. In the art industry of the Aryan nations — Indians, Persians, Arabs, Greeks and Romans, and in Christendom also — symmetry and proportion seem to be the first principles of ideal beauty. They form the ruling feature of true artistic execution in all these countries. In their patterns style rules, i.e., they show in both decoration and form an ideal stamp that may often diverge widely from the natural object which first suggested it. Especially is this true of decorations which the Aryan artist generally evolves from his own thoughts and mostly without paying any strict heed to nature. The contrast to this in the prevailing decoration of the Japanese and Chinese is very great, especially where the style of the Indians, Persians and Arabs is in question. The motifs of these Eastern Aryans are only exceptionally taken from nature, and even then are conventionalized beyond all recognition. The straight line plays with them only a subordinate part. Curves and flourishes of every sort, combined in every possible way, but still symmetrical and orderly, distinguish their work. Their principal charm is in this harmonious arrangement — the charm of all con- ventional decoration. This peculiar adaptation is not entirely wanting in Japanese art industry, but it falls into the background in comparison with the realistic side. It goes by the name of Kara-kusa, i.e. China weed, among them. In the realistic exact copying of natural forms, especially of plants, birds, insects and sea animals, also various quadrupeds, such as monkeys, rabbits, rats, and in the representation of clouds, rocks, and water scenes, the Japanese have great skill and remarkable execution. The drawing answers sharply and definitely to the pattern in expression and action, and fascinates the beholder with its exactness no less than by the ease and delicacy of the perfect execution. This is the principal charm of the productions of Japanese art industry. In all surface decoration, the use of arabesques and other ideal curved ornamentation falls far behind the conventionalizing of straight lines. The Vitruvian curve with the Gammadion and Hook-cross (Chin. Man-tse, Jap. Man-ji) and geometric figures play a conspicuous part. The first of these is never found in the subjects of Indian and Perso- Arabian art industry, and the last named only in exceptional cases. No symbolic design was so much used in ancient times as the Hook-cross. It is found on Scandinavian, Celtic and Gallic II. Y 322 ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. coins and ornaments, also on Etruscan terra cotta amphorae, and on old Egyptian monuments where it signifies immortality — an at- tribute of Osiris and Horus. 1 It is also a design in many of the forms of Greek art. In India and Eastern Asia it is the symbol of wisdom and the thousandfold virtues of Buddha. The busts and statues of this divinity often display it worn on the breast, espe- cially in Farther India, as was shown on the two gilded statues of Buddha at the French-Indian Colonial Exhibition in Antwerp some years ago. The Hook-cross of western nations, including Egypt also, is distinguished from that of the Buddhistic East by a secondary claw on the arm of the cross. The arms of the Eastern cross also have often an opposite direction, as the accompanying sketches show. A GREEK HOOK-CROSS. BUDDHIST. GAMMADION. The Japanese call the Hook-cross Man-ji ; the Chinese, Man-tse, the word "Man" meaning "ten thousand." By another arrangement of the four Gamma of the Hook-cross, the Gam- madion is formed, which is not only nearly related to that of the old Greeks but is much used as a pattern in surface decoration in the art industry of Eastern Asia. The heliotype of the inlaid vase (see Metal Working) shows the connection of the Man-ji with the Gammadion on both sides of the vine-representation. The non-appearance among the Aryan Orientals of the Vitruvian curve which is so important an ornament in Grecian and Christian art, its frequent use again in Chinese and Japanese art industry, is certainly striking, although, so far as I can learn, it has never been noticed before. Is this beautiful design spontaneous among both Greeks and Chinese, or has one of these nations borrowed it from the other, or is its origin to be found farther back, among the Assyrians and Chaldeans ? Such questions suggest them- selves, but are not so easy to answer as might appear at first glance. The separate zone of the Arabo-Persian-Indian district from which the Vitruvian curve is entirely absent, points towards spontaneous origin and use, as well as the circumstance that it is found on the cotton fabrics from the old tombs of Peru, though it is not so per- fect in them. The art industry of Eastern Asia employs the Vitruvian curve usually as a border decoration. The vine and other creeping plants serve the same purpose. 1 According to P. Cassel : " Literatur und Symbolik." Leipsic, 1884. JAPANESE ART INDUSTRY IN GENERAL. 323 The Chinese origin of most of the forms and motifs of the pro- ductions of Japanese industrial art is easily recognised. Paeonies and chrysanthemums, the iris and the lotus flower, the slender, graceful bamboo, and deformed, bizarre pines, leafless and blooming branches of the mume plum and the magnolia, leafy branches of Kerria and the wild cherry, the creeping Glycine with its hanging clusters of blue flowers, the evergreen Nandine with its red berries, the so-called seven autumn weeds, especially the ornamental Eulalia, Lespedeza, Patrina and Hisbiscus mutabilis, the flag, rush and arrow-head ; rock and water scenes in gardens with fishes and turtles, cranes, herons, pheasants, the Japanese nightingale (Ugui- su) and other singing birds, insects in motion and at rest, then the animals of the Chinese zodiac, 1 and several others like the elephant and the peacock, renowned in Buddhism and Chinese legends. These are the natural objects chosen by the Japanese as well as the Chinese. Four others are also associated with them, the Shi-rei or four animals of good fortune, fabulous animals, viz., the Howo or Phoenix, Riyd (Tatsu) or dragon, the Kirin or unicorn, and the Ki (Kame) or turtle. 2 The dragon is pictured on the Japanese coat of arms. Curled up like a snake, scaly, with the most horrible expression of the head, a distorted animal figure, it is found not only on the imperial escutcheon and coins, but everywhere imitated, in bronze, in wood and even in woven fabrics. It is the emblem of vigilance and strength. An animal which appears more often than the unicorn, and as its substitute, is called the Kirin ; it has the head and breast of the dragon, the posterior portion of its body like a dog or cat, and the mane of a lion. It often forms the knob on the cover of urns and smoking utensils, and is as much of a favourite for this purpose as the lotus bud. The Howo is seldom represented in reliefs, much more frequently in fabrics. The turtle is very popular especially the Mino-game (mantle turtle) i.e. a turtle with long green confervae attached to its shell. It is the symbol of a peaceful old age, one of the seven felicities of human life. Another group of decoration-designs, employed extensively in bronze reliefs, is from the Buddhist mythology and the old 1 The Chinese zodiac consists of the Rat, Bull, Tiger, Rabbit, Dragon, Serpent, Horse, Goat, Monkey, Cock, Dog and Wild Boar, answering to the Ram, Bull, Gemini, Cancer, etc. 2 In the Rei-ki, or Relation of Ceremonies, one of the five classic works of the Chinese, they are classified briefly and in another order : Rin, Ho, Ki, Riyo. They are the kings among beasts and stand at the head of the five classes of the animal kingdom in the old Chinese natural history, as follows : — 1. Man stands at the head of all naked animals. 2. The Ki-lin (Jap. Ki-rin) or the Unicorn leads and protects all hairy animals. 3. The Howo (Fung-hwang) or Phcenix represents the feathered creation. 4. The Riyo (Lung. Jap. Tatsu) or Dragon stands at the head of scaly animals. 5. The Ki (Kwei, Jap. Kame) or Turtle represents and protects all animals provided with a shell. 324 ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. Japanese sagas and heroic legends, which furnish abundant material. To this group belongs the representation of the Shichi Fuku-jin, or the seven gods of good fortune. Certain combinations exist as a rule in all the subjects borrowed from nature. The most general of them are : the bamboo cane and the tiger ; the mume plum and the nightingale (Uguisu) ; sun- rise with the pine and the crane ; the lion and the pseony ; the deer and the maple ; the crane and the turtle (symbols of happiness and long life) ; the pine bamboo and mume ; the bulrush and the silver heron ; bamboo-cane and sparrow ; rain or willow and swallow ; lotus flower and silver heron. The homeward flight or alighting of wild geese, the awakening of nature in spring, the snowfall and other natural incidents furnish popular decorative themes. (Compare Table VII.) The Chinese representations of these and other objects are fre- quently clumsy and not very true to nature. Especially with tree-forms their wild fancy plays wayward tricks, putting leaves and flowers together which belong to very different species or are not to be found at all. Their work often shows glaring colours and tasteless combinations, particularly in the ordinary market wares. For example, at the great Paris Exhibition of 1878 there was to be seen a Chinese screen with paintings on silk which represented among other things, a blue convolvolus which twined itself around the blossoming branches of a pomegranate tree ; on the tree was a fanciful bird with a yellow breast, and on a rock at the foot stood a cock toward which a dragon fly was flying. No Japanese artist would choose such combinations, because they are unnatural, and his sense of colour would forbid him. China maintains its con- spicuous rank among the countries of, Eastern Asia, because of its size and its commercial and political importance ; but in its bearing toward Christian civilization, in its government, institutions and its influence upon our industrial art, Japan is far in advance. Though the Japanese were for centuries blind admirers and imitators o f their Western neighbours and masters, they are so no longer. Itv the beautiful scenery of their own country they find the most of those decorative themes which have been introduced from the West in clumsy and distorted forms. Many of these objects, especially those which their own hills cannot furnish, they plant in their gardens and the parks of their temples, and what they admire and gaze upon with such pleasure here, the natural productions of their own land, become their subjects in art. To delight in nature, sitting quietly at her feet to watch her in her life and work, and to render back the fleeting and pleasing picture with warmth and truth as it was felt and seen, this is gradually becoming the found- ation principle of Japanese industrial art. The pictures with which the Japanese love to adorn their vases and trays, their screens and costly silk embroideries, are therefore the expression of a refined taste, of practised observation of nature, JAPANESE ART INDUSTRY IN GENERAL. 325 and a loving appreciation of all the beauty which mountain and valley, wood and field in all their manifold forms and phenomena can spread before him. " Natura artis magistra" — this motto of the Zoological Garden of Amsterdam suits no people better than the Japanese. It does not stand written on the products of their art industry, but the eye of the connoisseur recognises it and its full significance in them, and admires the freedom of treatment, the surprising force of expres- sion which the Japanese artist knows how to unite with great truth to nature, especially in the representation of birds and insects and many of the popular flowers. Who will dare to deny that this is the true, the fully justified Naturalism ? The artist takes his subject from nature. He seeks to represent with devotion and truth the utmost beauty that she offers, uncorrupted and unfalsified by any addition of his own fancy or of a low and obscene taste. Not that the latter is wanting in the Japanese art world. It was formerly very prevalent, but has been repressed by the better judgment and co-operation of foreigners and natives of higher aim and cultivation. That tendency of our realistic art toward the representation of dreadful scenes where blood and the odour of death prevail {e.g. those of the celebrated Brussels painter Wiertz, or Benvenuto Cellini's well-known bronze statue in the Loggia at Florence) has never found approval with the Japanese. And it betokens a better development of our own taste, when this bronze masterpiece, " Per- seus, standing on the body of Medusa," with the severed, blood- dripping head in one hand, and in the other the sword triumphing over its bloody work, is being regarded everywhere as an unworthy and cruel theme for art. The choice by many artists also of sub- jects from daily common life, in so far as they are immorally and unaesthetically handled, cannot stand before a strict artistic judg- ment, and is at any rate not Fine Art. In every art, realism has its justification and its limits. The latter cannot be embraced in one short rule, but are defined by a moral power which governs and translates the sense of what is beautiful. The question whether art must be moral, indeed, whether it always can be, is a very old one, and long ago occupied Grecian philosophers. Each individual answers it according to his own taste and inclination. Obscene representations, however artistically perfect they may be, are without question a misuse of art, which should educate and form a proper taste. For this reason, the Venus di Medici, which is quite in place in a museum, is surely not suited for a school. In the many decorative subjects which have been borrowed from Japanese history, and especially from the great Buddhist mytho- logy, the old warriors appear in clumsy armour checking all free movement, and the court people in stiff ceremonial dress, but generally in remarkably expressive positions. The men are always 326 ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. represented with full beards, as up to the time of Shogun-Yomorito inKama-kura (1185-1199 A.D.) it was the universal custom to wear this appendage. The representations of Buddha as a mild, bliss- ful divinity, of feminine appearance, in his several occupations of blessing, teaching, and meditating, as expressed by the position of the hands and fingers, show a great deal of artistic ability. Religion has been at all times and among all peoples the most potent stimulant and support of art and art industry. To represent deities, to beautify their worship and the temples dedicated to them, inspires not only artistic working of wood, stone, and metal, but leads to progress also in textile industries. It may be generally accepted that the higher men rise in their conception of God, the more artistic and spiritual will be the representations of the em- bodied divinity. There is, however, no generic difference, but only one of degree, between the rough forms of wood and clay of uncivilised nations, and the perfected and beautiful Grecian and Christian art. The ideals and grade of civilization in any nation are seen more clearly in its art and industry than in its laws and history. With the introduction of Buddhism, as has already been said, the language, literature, and art industry of China was spread abroad throughout Japan. What had been accomplished in the latter up to this time was of no high grade, and in its forms and ornamentation was not unlike the productions of our own heathen ancestors. Buddhism was, till the middle of this century, the principal promoter and patron of art industry. 1 In Buddhist temples and cloisters the best efforts found application and preser- vation, so that the inscription at the entrance to the South Kensington Museum — " Quam quisque norit artem in hac se exerceat " — was appropriate in these also. As feudalism developed under the Minamoto, and still more since the tranquillizing of the country under Iyeyasu at the begin- ning of the seventeenth century, the feudal nobles (the court nobility was too poor) constituted themselves the patrons of art industry. The castles of the Daimios and the temples became from this time the places where its best productions were collected. The dynasty of the Tokugawa-Shoguns (or the Tycoon) in Yeddo, i.e. from the battle of Sekigahara in 1600 to the restoration of the Mikado government in 1868, is the golden age of Japanese art handicraft. The long peace and the equally long closure of the country served to bring its several branches to stronger and more individual development. The germs of this development were planted in Japan by the long intercourse with Corea and China — which latter country had served as a model for over 1,500 years — and as the outcome of an expedition to Corea, organized in 1586 by Hideyoshi, and on this new and fruitful soil had grown 1 Siebold calls the Buddhist religion " Conductrice des sciences et des arts," in his " Sur l'etat de l'horticulture au Japon." Leide, 1863. JAPANESE ART INDUSTRY IN GENERAL. and reached their best period during a long and undisturbed season of nurture. The condition and ability of Japanese art industry in the first half of the seventeenth century can be understood best by its various accomplishments in Nikko. After this beautiful site l at the foot of the wooded and well- watered mountains had been chosen for the resting-place of the great Shogun Iyeyasu, by his own wish, and his body had been removed thither from Ku-no-zan in Suruga, the nobles and most faithful followers of their dead master and leader made great exertion to pay him all possible re- spect in death. The temples and pagodas which they founded, the granite columns and water basins, stone and bronze lanterns as well as many bells, the wood carving in relief and open work, the priests' robes and utensils, lacquer work and many other articles preserved from that time, furnish indubitable evidence that art in- dustry had even then attained a high degree of perfection. Its further advancement is seen in many beautiful articles from the tombs of the Shdguns at Shiba and Uyeno in Tokio, and in many celebrated temples of the age following. Several art connois- seurs consider the reign of the eleventh Shogun, Iyenari Bunkio (1787-1836 A.D.), as the real golden age of Old Japanese art in- dustry. Finally, after long practice, and after the opening of the country to foreign commerce, New Japan appeared in the markets of the West, with its manifold productions of lacquer art, with its ceramics, its enamelling of copper and earthen vessels, its bronze industry and its forged weapons, with its splendid silk fabrics and embroideries, and its bewildering variety of playthings and fancy articles by which it won very rapidly the admiration of nearly all patrons of art, and at the several international exhibitions com- peted successfully with the civilized nations of Christendom. Like the mountain streams which, after long obstruction, at last suddenly pour forth over the plain, flooding and enriching it, these products of Japanese industrial art surged into the markets of Western Europe and exercised more or less influence on the taste and efforts of many of our artisans and artists. The feudal system of Japan and its barriers had been overcome, the Daimio fortresses had fallen, the cloisters had been robbed of a large part of their support, and with this the former supports and patrons of its peculiar artistic handicraft had disappeared. Most of the art collections of the country went into foreign lands, to enrich public and private exhibitions ; many were squandered away at ridiculously low prices ; and the fear became widespread that the old skill would die out, and the art industry of Japan de- generate. This anxiety was well-founded, in so far as the foreign exporters of these articles now had them manufactured in quan- 1 See illustrations on pp. 302, 456, and 462, vol. i. 328 ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. titles in the treaty ports and in the interior, at the lowest prices, since their whole aim was to make as much money as possible. The artisans themselves forsook to a great degree the old patterns and the old methods of work, and sought eagerly for new forms and decorations to please European taste, which hitherto they had not known. The most tasteless things, considered so by the Japanese, thus reached their market and found their customers. But unexpectedly, with the revival of our own art handicraft, and the spreading of an educated taste abroad in Europe, there came a turning-point in this corrupting tendency in Japanese art industry. The number of connoisseurs and amateurs of the pure industrial art-productions of Japan increased, the demand for them grew, and a new impetus was given to industrial efforts, greater and more powerful than any previous influence. This turning- point is due not a little to the effect of the great industrial exhibi- tions upon all interested Japanese, the government as well as the artisans. The degeneration feared by so many, the ruin of Japanese industrial art, has not come to pass ; but, in many depart- ments, I mention only enamel and bronze work, there has been remarkable progress during the past fifteen years. The conviction has been reached that the future of Japanese art industry lies in the preservation of its individuality. Only while the Japanese people retain their childlike joy in the beautiful scenery of their country ; while they keep up the careful nurture of their favourites in wood and field, temple-grove and house-garden, continuing to draw from this living and ever fresh source their themes and artistic inspirations, and do not lose their satisfaction therein — the main ground of their happiness and of their cheap labour-power — only in such case will they keep their place at the head in their peculiar industrial and artistic productions. Only thus can they hope to preserve the market they have gained, and to adapt themselves to it anew. In the feudal days of Japan, as has been said, the finest products of art industry went to the adornment of temples and dwellings of the barons. They were generally made to order, and the princes vied with each other in developing and maintaining conspicuous talent. This gave the artist an undisturbed leisure and joy in his creations. When it is maintained however that in recent times many persons in the higher classes of Japan showed not only interest in art industry, but occupied themselves with it — that even princes and ministers modelled and painted lacquer ware, it must be owing to a great misunderstanding of existing circumstances. Dilettanti of this sort are much rarer there than with us. Verse- making or poetising was always fashionable even in the highest circles, and so w r as painting probably, but these circles have played no such noticeable part in the development of industrial art as has been sometimes reported. In Japan, art and art industry do not dwell in palaces, but in the modest little wooden dwellings of JAPANESE ART INDUSTRY IN GENERAL. 329 poor but contented and happy people, whose needs are few and easy to satisfy. Their products are called Te-zai-ku, i.e. " fine hand work." The apprentice advances through a long and, in our eyes, a hard schooling to the rank of journeyman, from journeyman to master, and it is only when talent, diligence, and perseverance are com- bined that the highest rank can be reached — the place of a leading, progressive artist. But the whole people, from the highest in posi- tion to the lowest, show interest and comprehension for the produc- tions of industrial art, and in this fact may be found undoubtedly a powerful means of its advancement. The eye and hand of the Japanese are on the average more practised than those of the European. Even the ordinary man can generally make a fairly clear sketch of an article or a route. Why is it ? Is this keener artistic sense, this greater executive ability of the people, inborn or acquired ? I think the latter, and believe that the key to the problem is chiefly in the difficulty with which Chinese and Japanese letters and characters are learned. It takes years of practice and great diligence for the eye to distinguish them quickly, and for the hand to imitate them easily with the India-ink brush. But in this way the eye acquires great facility in recognis- ing and grasping form and proportion, and the hand the dexterity to reproduce them both with truth. 1 The Japanese combine with their artistic skill not only a great imitative faculty, but also much inventive power where small art- conceptions and surprising effects are concerned. The inventive spirit of the American is a speculative one, directed to the devising of useful working-material and contrivances, some of which are known in England and America as " Yankee notions." The Japan- ese, however, invent little artistic trifles instead. In the one case the spur to invention is the lightening of hand labour by substitu- tion of other means. Here, it is the joy of artistic creation, with- out any reckoning of the material benefit to be gained. In speaking of Japanese influence on the art industry of the Christian West, it seems best to distinguish three periods of com- merce with this land of the sunrising, viz., the Portuguese, Dutch, and modern. The period of the almost exclusive commerce of Portugal with Japan covers the last half of the sixteenth cen- tury. After the discovery of the country by Mendez Pinto in 1542, Portuguese Jesuits, led by Francis Xavier, introduced Christ- ianity into the southern and middle parts, with such success that many thousands were converted. The influence of these followers of Loyola grew noticeably, until in 1582 some Christian princes of the island of Kiushiu sent an embassy with rich presents to the Pope at Rome and the court at Madrid by way of Lisbon. 1 If the comparison be allowed, I would remind the reader here of the Slavic nations and the well-known ease with which they acquire foreign languages. The difficulties of their mother tongue exercise ear and tongue in such a way as to fit them for a quick comprehension and use of foreign idioms. 33° ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. These gifts, as well as all the other industrial products of Japan which may have reached the Iberian and Italian peninsulas at this time, did not exercise any direct influence upon the art industry of those countries any more than did the Portuguese priests and mer- chants at that time trading there. 1 As these latter were banished from the country during the first decades of the seventeenth cen- tury, Europe found she had gained little from her eighty years of intercourse with Japan save the increase in her historical and ethnographical knowledge. This interesting country remained a terra incognita for the naturalist particularly, and its investigation in this respect was only begun toward the end of the century by the German E. Kaempfer. During this long period (1624-1854), in which Holland alone maintained and only in Nagasaki the intercourse of Europe with Japan under very profitable but very humiliating conditions, many valuable industrial Japanese products were brought to the Nether- lands. For a long time after, these articles were, so to speak, foreign to the rest of Europe, as they only reached the private collections of individual princes. They were principally urn-shaped covered vases, of Hizen porcelain, and even in Holland only exercised a noticeable influence on ceramics. There flourished at that time (1639- 1 764) the celebrated Faience manufactory of Lambertus Cleffius in Delft. It followed the tendency of the time, and painted its pictures on hard, burned tin enamel, while in the preceding period the colours had been laid upon air-dried enamel sheaths, and burned with them, so that the decorations were much lighter and more delicate in form. The painters of the establishment were now greatly inspired by the new decorative designs of the Japanese models, as were also those of many other Dutch manufactories of the time, all of which called their wares porcelain, some of even receiving patents for their correct imitations of the Japanese, e.g., Pinaker. The Japan- ese patterns were not followed in material, but in their forms, and still more in their decorations. We find represented on the pro- ducts of this expanded Dutch Faience industry, for instance, the Botan (Pceonia Montan), the Mume {Primus Mume), the Matsu (Pinns densiflora), and other specimens of Japanese flora, also cranes, silver herons, peacocks, etc., after their Japanese models. 1 My hope to find these presents and other products of Japanese industrial art of that time in the collections at Lisbon, Madrid, or Rome, or in Portuguese cloisters, and so to have some firm basis for a judgment of the work of Japan in the sixteenth century, was not fulfilled, greatly to my regret. The investiga- tions which a well-informed friend made for me last year in Rome proved as fruitless as my own in Madrid, Lisbon, and the vicinity. Don Fernando, the late king and art patron, who was an excellent judge of industrial art-productions, and who had the kindness to take me himself through the Lisbon collection, was of the opinion that Portugal possessed nothing from that period. The same is even more true of Spain, whose capital does not yet possess any ethnographical or industrial art collection. JAPANESE ART INDUSTRY IN GENERAL. 331 As, however, in the eighteenth century, Faience with its opaque tin enamel was more and more displaced by the successful opera- tions of this porcelain manufacture, in Europe the Japanese pat- terns vanished also, and were superseded by Chinese, as Ave can discern especially in the older specimens of Meissen and Sevres ware. The earliest products of Bottger and Tschirnhaus, the so- called " red porcelain " — stone and earthenware of a reddish brown jasper colour, such as eighty years later was supplied by Wedgwood in England — consist mainly of tea-pots, a part of which, in colour- ing, form, and decoration might be confounded with many manu- factured in these days in China, e.g., with those in the province of Shantung. In the same way the hard porcelain made in Meissen from 1709 resembles in every particular the Chinese models. In later times, the decorations of Meissen, as of other places, forsook more and more the East Asiatic patterns, and kept only a few conventional fragments, like the blossoms of the rose, pseony, and mume plum, which, deprived of their other constituent parts, they combined with arabesques and other ideal decoration, forming pictures which made up in symmetry and beauty of form what they lacked in truth to nature. In Sevres too, where in 1695 they had already begun to manu- facture a kind of porcelain, but did not understand before 1768 how to imitate the hard Chinese variety, the decorations were at first a simple copy of the Chinese, and only took on by degrees an inde- pendent character. And now comes the noticeable and widely extended movement of modern times, quite outside of all connection with these earliest influences of the ceramic art of Eastern Asia on the noble pottery of Europe, and far removed from them in point of time. This new movement toward the Japanese art of decoration, which does not aim to copy blindly the Japanese forms, has been observed only within the last fifteen years, or in exceptional cases ten years earlier, and first found expression at the Great Exhibition at Vienna. It was caused by the great popularity of this Japanese decorative art in fashionable circles, and of Japanese products, after the old barriers to their export had fallen. France and England, hitherto the countries which set fashions in industries of all sorts, have also gone the farthest in the new direction. Setting aside the evidence of the Vienna Exhibition, we see the Japanese influence on the industry of these countries, especially in ceramics, decoration of bronzes, gold and silver work (less in other branches of industry), and this was shown especially in the Paris Industrial Exhibition. Among the ceramics of the French Exhibition of 1878 there were imitations of Japanese patterns in porcelain and terra cotta, and many especially in Faience. The specimens of Faience from Gien (Loiret), and of Choisy le Roi (Seine), should be mentioned as remarkable productions of this kind. The great manufactory of Gien exhi- 33? ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. bited plates whose decorations were not distinguishable from Ku- tanityaka (Kaga porcelain), and the imitations of the censers of Satsuma were as surprisingly true. The porcelain painter, L. Celliere, of Paris, has developed great taste and skill in imitating Japanese masters ; also F. Gaidan, who copies Awata-yaki (Kioto Faience) remarkably well, and has distinguished himself particu- larly by his free use of Japanese manner. Majorelle, a manufac- turer from Nancy, produces good copies of the lacquered Imari vases. If we turn our attention to the exhibitions of Paris bronze work, which was brilliantly represented at the Universal Exhibition of 1878, Barbedienne naturally first enlists our interest. Of all Frenchmen he has accomplished most in general bronze manufac- ture, and especially in the employment of imbedded enamel, and is almost the only one who has succeeded in imitating Japanese cloisonne enamel, and using it in surface decoration. This he has done with great success, though not indeed in a financial sense. Not content with mere imitation, he aims to use more familiar de- corative themes after the Japanese manner, which in our eyes is a much more valuable service. He exhibited a large plate with the central design of a pond with white water-lilies, while water lilies (Butomus) and yellow blooming iris surrounded one side, and a wild duck was just settling upon the water surface. Blackberry bushes, vines, twigs of oak, oats and reeds, as well as several other plants belonging to our domestic flora, were used on other bronze articles with a corresponding application. Over against these truly noteworthy accomplishments are others in which the Japanese have been copied in a most senseless and ridiculous way. Of this kind was- a fire screen, from the firm of Bouhon & Co. Its bronze decoration, which rested on woven wire in a broad brass frame, was intended to represent the branch of a pine whose needles had been transformed into shield-shaped leaves, the blooming twigs of the mume plum forming the ramifi- cation. To add to this unnatural combination, a silver heron was placed on the horizontal part of the branch. " Make what you will, somebody will praise it," wrote the "Wandsbecker Bote" (Claudius) once to his friend Andre. So here also ; the article, priced at 300 francs, was five times ordered, as a placard stated, evidently just because of this artistic combination. What Barbedienne is to the manufacture of bronze ware, Chris- tofie is to gold and silversmith's work in France, and even more as a galvano-plastic plater and decorator of nickel-silver and bronze. His wares are chased partly before and partly after silver plating. Often after plating, the engraved ornamentation is gold plated or enamelled in black, with especially fine effect. Chris- tofle employs Japanese decorative themes very frequently ; an entire division of his large and rich exhibition was devoted to Japanese styles. JAPANESE ART INDUSTRY IN GENERAL. 333 If one wished to know the influence of Japan upon English art industry, he had only to look at the most brilliant part in the British section of the Exhibition, the productions of the five fol- lowing great houses, viz., Elkington, Minton, the Royal Porcelain Manufactory of Worcester, H. Doulton and Thos. Webb & Sons. The exhibition of Elkington, the most celebrated English silver- smith, included chiefly useful articles of gold and silver and electro- plated nickel wares. Japanese models played a large part in the varied ornamentation, and generally were employed with great taste. In Minton's porcelain manufactory at Stoke-upon-Trent, which imitates the varied Faience of earlier times, and had an extraor- dinarily rich collection in Paris, there is scarcely one Japanese theme that has not been used. Especially noticeable were the cups in the colouring of the Awata-yaki, each with its mume plum and flying nightingale (Uguisu) charmingly painted on a shield of violet ground. But who will pay 105 francs for such a work when he can get the same cup from Japan for a few dollars ? The Royal Porcelain Works of Worcester, the second great manu- factory of English china, in its efforts to imitate Satsuma Faience, discovered " ivory porcelain," with a colour between that of Satsuma and Awata-yaki, resembling ivory more than either however, and well-suited to its name. It is a notable specialty of this factory, and not only the decorations but in part the Japanese forms also are imitated very successfully in its prismatic and bamboo-cane vases, basins, etc. There are many Japanese copies also in the work of the great London Faience factory of H. Doulton at Lambeth, and in many other of the English exhibits of fire-clay wares. The factory which shows the least Japanese influence among the five mentioned above is the glass works of Thomas Webb & Sons. The United States of America appeared also in the Champs de Mars. Among their exhibits, I note that of the firm of Tiffany & Co., New York, which received one of the three great prize- medals in the department of Orfevrerie. A large part of its heavy silver ware was decorated in Japanese designs with fishes, butter- flies, crabs, herons, iris, garlands, etc., partly engraved and partly in relief. The ceramic industry of America was but slightly represented ; but nevertheless the Japanese section of the " Cen- tennial Exposition" in Philadelphia, 1876, has had a surprising influence upon it. Where formerly it was the custom, even in the households of the rich, to use plain white plates and cups, from this time, wherever possible, everybody would have them decorated in Japanese style. Most of the other countries which were represented at the Paris Exhibition made but little display in this direction. Russian art industry for instance, has held itself entirely independent of Japa- nese influence, and preserves more than all others its own national 334 ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. character. But the porcelain works of Stockholm, which, as also some of our German factories, are furnished with a very fine raw material in the white-burning felspar (Mikroline) from the neigh- bouring islands of Ytterby, have evidently felt the impress of the new tendency and taste. The celebrated factories of Rdrstrand and Gustavsberg, which are among the oldest in Europe, and have received high distinction in competition with other countries, seemed to have taken from the Japanese partly the form and decoration and partly only the genre of the latter. Under the first class there were two four-cornered vases — not at all successful copies — painted with Japanese girls who showed the blonde hair of the Scandinavians. But wherever they had freely followed Jap- anese manner, only in fine antique forms, e.g., in two other vases ornamented with Swedish grasses and wild flowers, the truth, and free, easy and forcible treatment delighted every art lover. My consideration of Japanese art industry is almost ended. On page 4 of the beautiful work of C. von Liitzow, " Kunst und Kunstgewerbe auf der Wiener Weltaustellung," J. Falk says especially relative to Japan, " By means of Universal Exhibitions, the highly coloured and decorative art of the Orient has come forth from its isolation and retirement. It has become a great power in Europe, making itself forcibly felt in its industry, and threaten- ing in some departments to entirely revolutionize its taste." If this expression was justified by what followed the Vienna Exhibi- tion on the Prater in 1873, it is confirmed still more by the de- velopment in art industry shown in 1878 on the Champ de Mars in Paris. I do not consider an entire revolution in European taste through Japanese influence possible in any branch; but rather a continuance for some time yet of blind imitation of Japanese models. They have in my opinion no direct steady value, but serve indirectly, through refinement of taste and its wider spread among us, to work against a one-sided unnatural conventionalism, and to lead us more to nature as a teacher. It is not the blind imitation, but acceptance of the light, pleasing manner of their art, that will essentially aid our art industry and tend to the further development of that fine taste of which the French minister, in his speech at the distribution of the prizes in Paris, 1878, said so aptly : " Le gout est la fecondite" du travail." WOOD-INDUSTRY. Furniture making. — Inlaid Work. — Peculiarities of Titrnery in the Hakone Mountains and Nikko. — Comb-cutting. — Straw Mosaics. It has already been stated that Japanese architecture, like that of Eastern Asia generally, is not, as in the European civilization, the oldest and most eminent exponent of art, but that its wood JAPANESE ART INDUSTRY IN GENERAL 335 structures lack much in solidity, adaptation and elegance, besides being an easy prey of fire. The Japanese show their inventive genius, skill and perseverance in woodwork of an entirely different character from building, viz., in the hundreds of little articles which they manufacture from this material. Therefore it is not as car- penters and architects that their peculiar talent and taste is dis- tinguished, but as joiners, turners, and wood-carvers. The frames of the Shoji or window panes, the wainscotting of the walls in many of their temples, and numerous other works, are samples of their fine and careful joinery. The very simple way of living and the household arrangements among all classes of Japanese people, excluding as it does the use of heavy furniture, does not tend to develop any individual style of cabinet-making. The principal work of manufacturing the few wooden household articles, such as chests, sword stands, eta- geres, screens, dining-tables, trays, sedan chairs, etc., falls to the lacquerer, who paints the light and neatly made frames and ground- work of pine with the precious varnish, and decorates them with his skilled and artistic hand. Now, however, in modern times and with the necessity to furnish the houses of foreigners and natives after European style, artistic cabinet-making has been developed and attempted with growing success, not only in making common furniture, but above all in fine wood mosaic work called intarsia or marquetrie. And in this line the most excellent results were very soon reached. A peculiar kind of wood-working is wrought in the Hakone Mountains, and at Shidzuoka, the capital of Suruga. The cabinets, commodes, and tables ornamented with wood inlaid-work, are very much prized and already many of them are exported. For inlaying, the yellow-brown wood of the camphor laurel with its silky lustre is chosen. Also the black pith-wood of kaki, or the persimon tree (Doispyros kaki). The wood most prized for all kinds of cabinet-work and for turnery also in part, is that of the keaki (Zelkowa keaki), already mentioned in this connection on page 242. It is used by itself alone much as our oak, but serves also as a stout framework in the large amount of intarsia work, for tables and commodes, neither splitting nor warping, and showing off the light- coloured mosaic in its dark colour and fine flecking very advanta- geously, like a dark picture frame. It is also very useful in turning and carving, as for instance in the pipe-case in the illustration, Fig. 1. P- *33- The wood-work of the Hakone mountains, — a day's journey from Yokohama, — which goes by the name of Hakone-zaiku, (Ha- kone-work) consists mainly of these mosaics, and a great variety of small articles turned by the lathe, very cheap, and extensively ex- ported. I need only mention the little ash cups standing on one foot, made from the wood of the Sansho (Xanthoxylum piperitum, (p .255), the black-veined light plates and bottle stands of Sotetsu Cycas revoluta) and the heavier ones of Hari-no-ki (a sort of alder) 336 ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. which have the same appearance, besides the different boxes, some of which, if opened, show that they are intended for candlesticks, and other things, as cigar cups, all made from this peculiar-looking alder wood. The busy people of the Hokone Mountains, who support themselves in this way, keep the preparation of Hari-no-ki {A Inns incana and A.firmd) a secret, and pass off the articles made from it as the product of Tsuta-no-ki {Actinidia volubilis, Planch.) whose extremely light, large-pored wood is not really very similar. It is not difficult however for the searching, practical glance to penetrate the secret in the Hakone villages, Hata, Kawabata, Miya- noshita, and several others where this work is extensively carried on, as well as in the little city of Hakone itself, and the bathing resort, Atami. This secret lies in the fact that the trees are felled in the neighbouring woods in spring, when the wood is full of sap. The branches and tops are cut off, and the trunks sawed into lengths of about two meters each, and then left to lie in their bark during the warm, -rainy summers, being often turned. The wood in this way becomes mouldy, its red colouring matter undergoes a chemical change not yet investigated, becomes dark brown, and collects in particular places, so that the wood assumes a dark, spotted appearance. In turning on the lathe, both of these changes, the mouldy character and the peculiar marking, show distinctly through the colouring. After polishing with shave -grass, the articles are put back upon the lathe, pressed close to a piece of vegetable wax (R6, see p. 158 ff.) and turned, which gives them a smooth, shiny surface, at the same time filling the pores with R6. The turning-lathe just mentioned is a very simple apparatus. The turner has the main element, an iron axis, with one end, a four tined fork, turned towards himself. The other end of the axis rests and moves on a support in the middle of a pan. Between them is a twisted strap ending underneath in two treadles. The workman sits with the legs in a box-like recess, to which' the straps with the treadles reach. When he moves the treadles up and down like the blower at the bellows of an organ, the horizontal axis is turned not in one direction, but now to the right and now to the left. The turner places the thick cross-section of wood on the before mentioned fork, and according to his wish turns a narrow or a wide cup-like hollow in it, and then forces in one end of the piece of wood out of which he wishes to form the article. Nikko-zaiku (Nikko work). In the celebrated temple and pilgrimage place, Nikko (Imaichi) there are a comparatively large number of shops which deal in simple lacquer wares for home conr sumption, and also with peculiar carved and turned woodwork. The former come from Wakamatsu in Aidzu, the others are manu- factured in Nikko itself, and it is these which are called by the above name. The articles are neither so various and beautiful nor so prized as those from Hakone, but are very peculiar. The woods of the camphor laurel, alder and other trees, so generally used there JAPANESE ART INDUSTRY IN GENERAL. 337 do not play any part in Nikko. What gives Nikko ware its charm is the individuality of its shapes, and the materials employed in making it. Roots and pieces of branches of the Shakunagi {Rhodo- dendroii Mettemichii) are stripped of their bark, and hollowed out for bowls, ash cups, water dippers, and other purposes, then lac- quered on the inside, and provided with a lacquered cover. Old cork-like Polyporus is treated in the same way, and furnishes a quantity of hollow vessels which attract by their want of symmetry as well as their originality. Comb-cutting. The Japanese till now have made by far the greatest part of their toilette and small-tooth combs of wood, and used for this purpose chiefly the heavy, thick wood of several ever- green trees of the southern part of the country. The following obser- vations and memoranda relative thereto were gathered atSawa-mura, in the province of Idzumi, on the way from Sakai to Wakayama. Comb-cutting is carried on here in many of the houses. The woods employed are chiefly the following, arranged in the order of their estimation ; 1. Tsuge (Buxns japonica, p. 246), 2. Isu or Yusu (Distylium racemosum, p. 251), 3. Tsubaki (Camellia japonica, p. 259). The relative price of the combs made from these woods is 8 sen, 2 sen, and 1 sen each. Ginger, or Ukon, is often used to give camellia wood the yellow colour of box, but cannot impart to it the more important qualities, equal fineness of grain, hardness and toughness. The imitation is otherwise very deceptive. Yusu wood is easily recognised by its reddish brown colour. It comes, like box, from Kiushiu, by way of Osaka and Sakai. It is soaked in water for a longer or shorter time as necessity may require, in order to prevent splitting. As in the case with Tsubaki, the wood of kindred varieties is used also, e.g. of Mokkoku (Ternstroemid), but much less frequently. A sort of division of labour exists in this industry. One man saws the wood into plates, another with a circular saw cuts out, a third files, grinds, and polishes the prepared comb. When it is to hold up and adorn the hair of a girl or a woman, it is as a rule ornamented by the lacquerer. In Yabuhara on the Nakasendo also, the comb manufacture occupies many hands, but the softer deciduous woods of the neigh- bouring forests are used here, and the wares are cheap and inferior. Straw Mosaic, Jap. Wara-kise-zaiku. The most common way of ornamenting many small articles of Japanese woodwork, and at the same time protecting them against the effects of weather, is by lacquering, about which the following chapter will give more extended information. There is another decorative art by means of a sort of mosaic work. Intarsia, or the inlaying of different coloured woods, such as is carried on chiefly in the Hakone Moun- tains, has already been mentioned. A third method is the over- laying of wooden ware with plaited rattan or straw. The first is seen chiefly on the oval bread basket, the outside of which instead II. Z 338 ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. of being lacquered is often covered with fine rattan braiding, glued on, also in egg-shell porcelain. It is more often the case that straw mosaic is used for decora- ting small wooden ware. These are little cabinets, boxes, bowls, and other articles commonly made of Kiri-wood, which are very popular because of their lightness. The most beautiful of them are sent from the province of Tajima to the treaty ports. These, as well as the favourite straw toys of children, made also at Omori, on the Tokaido, between Yokohama and Tokio. Barley straw split and coloured with aniline dyes is used for mosaic work. The ornaments are first placed together after a pattern on bast paper, and glued on with Fu-nori or some other paste, and then in the same way fastened to the wood. Even in this work, the common labourer manifests a cultivated taste in the arranging and contrast- ing of colours that is not to be found in any other nation. The manufacture of toys, or Omocha, belongs also to this small- wood industry (I recall only the koma or top) in which the Japanese show themselves very skilful and careful workmen. We turn now another branch of industry in which these qualities are manifested in a far higher degree. Lacquer Work. Prefatory Observations. — Manner of Obtaining the Japanese Lacquer; its Properties. — The Urushi-kabure or Lacquer Poisoning. — Pre- paration of Raw Lac for the Lacquer er. — Prices of the Material. — Other Materials and Utensils needed in the Work. — Laying on of the Groundtvork and Simple Lacquer Ornamentation. — The Work of the Lacquer Painter or Makiye-shi. — Plain and Relief Gold-lacquer Decorations. — Lacquer Carving. — Historical Items concerning Lacquer Work. Prefatory Remarks. AMONG the many well developed branches of Japanese art industry, lacquer work undoubtedly takes the first place. In no other have the feeling for art and artistic ability of the Japanese, their free play of fancy, and their admirable perseverance and skill in executing their richly figured pictures, developed earlier and more. In none have they so quickly disengaged themselves from their Chinese masters and patterns and stood more independently, and finally in no other have they so surely won eminence among all civilized people. 1 Besides, in scarcely any other branch of their industry is the employment and use of the raw material so varied, ^ Father d'Incarville, 128 years ago bore repeated testimony to the superiority ich it sprang, fy lacquering. of Japanese lacquer work over that"of the Chinese, from which it sprang. The English designation " to Japan," is likewise intended to signify lacquering LACQUER WORK. 339 the purposes and excellence of the articles it serves to adorn so manifold, as in the case of the Japanese lacquer-work, and the in- dustry which gives it value. The great superiority of the Japanese lacquer wares is not only the result of several excellent properties of the peculiar lacquer, 1 but is also based on the careful manner in which that excellent material is used. Japanese articles of this kind are distinguished by greater lightness and elegance of appearance ; by their solidity, and the beauty and spirit of their decorations ; principally, however, by several very valuable elements in the material itself. To these belong : — 1. Its great hardness, in which the Japanese lacquer varnish far excels all others, even the copal, tar, and asphaltum, without showing brittleness or becoming cracked. 2. Its high lustre and the mirror-like surface of the carefully laid- on lacquer coating, especially the black, qualities which are pre- served under the most different atmospheric influences for decades, and even centuries. 3. Its resistance to a number of agencies which attack and destroy our common resinous lacquer varnish. Thus the Japanese lacquer is not injured by boiling water, or hot cigar ashes ; it withstands even alcoholic liquids of all sorts, and acids, at least when cold. The hot, sharp, salty soup of the Japanese makes as little impression on the lacquered wooden dish from which they eat it, as does the heated sake. According to Professor H. W. Vogel, the simple black Japanese lacquered dish is proof against acid and alcohol, and serves an excellent purpose on this account in photo-chemistry. It is by these properties, quite apart from the artistic adornment, that Japanese and Chinese lacquer wares may be recognised and distinguished from their European imitations, which are brought into the market from Holland, from Spa, Forbach, and other localities ; for all these imitations are prepared from resinous var- nishes which do not share in the properties of the Japanese. All Japanese lacquer wares are called Nuri-mono^ less frequently Uru-shi-saiku. Urushi signifies varnish — nuri, to spread over, es- pecially with varnish ; mono, the work ; saiku, the wares or the manufacture. The lacquerers are divided into two general classes, viz., Nuri-mono-shi or Nushi-ya, and Makiye-shi. The first sup- ply the groundwork and common lacquering. Those belonging to this class understand nothing of the business of the others, and only in exceptional cases employ precious metals for decoration. The Makiye-shi or lacquer painters stand higher. They understand also all the work of the Nuri-mono-shi, but are employed mostly with the decoration of the primed lacquer ware, especially with 1 "Japanese lacquer is not like our copal varnish, an artificial mixture of resin, fatty oils, and turpentine, but in reality a ready-made product of nature." — Wasrener. 340 ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. the representation of pictures and designs in gold and silver dust. They are real artists, who wield their small brush with great firmness and skill, and not only work according to patterns, but often develop admirable creative power in designing. Besides these two, there are or were still other classes of spe- cialists, e.g., Ao-gai-shi or mother-of-pearl inlayers, and the Saya- shi or sword-sheath lacquerers. There is no longer any secret in the Japanese art of lacquer- work, although even in modern times the contrary has been as- serted. Every one who will take the time, and bring to it the necessary previous knowledge, can study in Japan, as I myself did, the manner of obtaining and preparing the raw material. A real, expert study is indeed necessary, and as but few have hitherto had time and opportunity for this, and many have repeated without understanding what they have gained from incompetent Japanese sources, their reports are always full of erroneous assertions. For these reasons, and because this treatise is almost exclusively the outcome of personal studies made on the spot and continued later in Europe, a complete statement of the literature of the subject seems unnecessary here. I will indicate only the most valuable works bearing upon it, remarking upon a part of them in passing. i. " Memoire sur la vernis de la Chine." By Father dTncarville, Jesuit and Correspondent of the Academic This appeared in " Memoirs de Mathematique et de Physique, presentes a l'Academie Royale des Sciences, par divers Savans, et lus dans ses Assemblies." Vol. iii. pp. 1 17-142. Paris, 1760. A free German translation of this may be found in the Supple- ment to Heidemann : "M. Watin's lyunst des Staffiermalers, Ver- golders, Lackierers, und Farbenfabrikanten (in ' Neuer Schauplatz der Kunste und Handwerke '). Ilmenau, 1824." In the first sentence of this still readable article, the author states that the lacquer of China is not a composition, but a gum or resin that exudes from the lac tree. Much of what is said about the manner of obtaining the lac, and its use, applies to Japan also, and is as true to-day as then. It is not to be wondered that there are some errors also, as, e.g., when dTncarville calls tea oil a drying substance, and gives it a place beside black Japanese lac, with burned hartshorn. Nevertheless, the article remains instructive and interesting, because in more than one place he gives expression to the superiority of the Japanese as perceived by the Chinese themselves. 2. Wagener,Dr.G. : "Japanischer Lack. Dinglers Polytechnisches Journal." Band 218, p. 361. 1875. This small work is the result of thorough observation and sound judgment, as is everything which this scientific and cultivated author has written concerning Japan. 3. Maeda : "Les Laques du Japon. Revue scientifique." 2 me Serie. Vol. vii. pp. 1 17-128. Paris, 1878. LACQUER WORK. 341 4. Rein: " Das Japanische Kunstgewerbe. Oesterr. Monatsschrift fur den Orient." Vienna, 1882. Nos. 4 and 5. 1 5. Quin, J. J. : " Report by Her Majesty's Acting Consulate at Hakodati, on the Lacquer Industry of Japan." London, 1882. 2 6. H. Yoshida : " On Urushi Lacquer. Journal Chem. Soc." 1883, p. 472 ff. 7. O. Korschelt and H. Yoshida. "The Chemistry of Japanese Lacquer. Transact. As. Soc. Japan." XII. pp. 182-220. While my limited chemical aids in Japan made it possible for me to make only a qualitative investigation of the raw lac, the authors of this very interesting article have succeeded in throwing light upon the constitution of its several elements. Korschelt particu- larly has pointed out its most important constituent — lac-acid, and thoroughly investigated its properties, besides tracing several inter- esting phenomena in its relation to the lacquer process, and making corresponding statements. Wherein I differ from his conclusions, I have given my own views in the place where such difference occurs. 1 I spent the first five months of the year 1874, and of my stay in Japan, in Tokio, chiefly in the study of lacquer work. After I had set up a chemical laboratory in the German Legation, 1 engaged two experiencedand very competent lacquerers, one of whom, named Kisaburo, was a thorough artist, and arranged a workshop under their directions. My principal purpose was to become ac- quainted with the art of lacquering, and all the utensils and materials used in the work. In order to accomplish this, and at the same time to secure for the Royal Museum of Industrial Art in Berlin an instructive collection of samples, I ordered from a joiner one hundred tablets of Hi-no-ki wood (Retinispora obiusa), each 20 centimeters long by 13 centimeters broad. I kept a journal giving account of all the work, which I myself also participated in, and I also investigated all materials employed. When the collection was finished I sent it with a report to His Excellency the Prussian Minister of Trade and Industry, in Berlin. That report forms the foundation of this treatise. In order to com- plete it, and to learn more of the cultivation and value of the lac tree in the interior of the country, and the other branches of industry, I started upon my travels. The result of this journey was a report concerning the cultivation of the tree, the extraction of the raw lac, and of the vegetable tallow, after I had visited all the great centres of this cultivation, as well as nearly every place where important lacquer work was carried on, and had obtained the most truly scientific information regarding all. The succeeding pages cover the ground of my investigations as briefly as practicable, and treat also of the collection in the Royal Industrial Art Museum in Berlin, which in the nature of its origin and its instructive value may be truly said to stand alone. 2 In Balfour's Cyclopaedia of India, of 1873, there is this statement: "The manner of preparing the varnish, and the mode of applying it, is and is likely to remain a secret." Sir Joseph Hooker of Kew, in his report for 1882, quotes this, and concludes that Quin, consul in Hakodate, had learned the secret. Both these gentlemen appear to have as little knowledge of the above quoted works of Father d'Incarville and Dr. Wagener as of my own study of lacquer work in Japan. ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. Method of Obtaining the Raw Varnish, and its Properties. The material of the industry now treated is an emulsion, the sap of the lac tree or Urushi-no-ki [Rhus vernicifera, D. C), culti- vated in China and Japan. The character of this species of sumach, its variety, and the distribution of its culture in Japan, also its introduction into Germany, have already been discussed on pp. 158-160. It has been especially noted also that the chief districts of lac cultivation lie in Northern Hondo, between the 37th and 39th parallels. 1 About three-fourths of all raw lac is obtained north of the 36th parallel. The inland provinces and former Daimio territories of Aidzu, Yonezawa, Yamagata, and Nambu, and lying nearer the Japan Sea, parts of the provinces of Echizen {e.g., Ochiyama, not far from Fukui), Echigo (neighbourhood of Murakami, Nagaoka, and others), Ugo (Akita, in the district of the Tochima-gawa and Noshiro-gawa), and Mutzu {e.g., at Hirosaki), are distinguished above all others for their extensive plantations of the lacquer tree. The lac of the young trees in the vicinity of Yoshino in Yamato is particularly estimated. The extraction of the sumach lac has much similarity to the manner of obtaining manna from the trunks of Fraxinus Ornus in Sicily. 3 It is done by making a horizontal slit upon the tree (girdle cutting), and can be undertaken the whole summer through, from April to the end of October. The lac taken in spring is the least valuable, because it is very watery. The autumn product is much thicker, but also granulous and slow in exudation. The best time for the lac harvest is midsummer, as then the quantity and quality of the material fulfil best the demands. The sap, however, never flows from the incision so easily and plentifully that it can be caught in vessels, as has been several times asserted. Lac extraction begins commonly when the tree is from nine to ten years old, and only in exceptional cases four to five years 1 I add to the foregoing only this, that the tree in the Botanical Garden at Frankfort-on-the-Maine, nine years' old, at the end of its last vegetation-period, had reached a height of 6h meters and a trunk-circumference of 48 cm., but as yet has never blossomed. On the other hand 19 smaller specimens, among which only one female tree was found, blossomed in June last year. Owing to the unfavourable weather of the autumn, their abundant fruits did not become fully ripe, but attained their full size and had deposited fat in the mesocarp. Professor Wallach did me the kindness to allow his pupil, W. Sundheim, in the chemical laboratory of the University of Bonn, to undertake the extraction and estimate of the gravity of the fruit. The result was as follows : From 100 fruits dried in the open air, and 6"i 5 1 grammes in weight, there was ex- tracted of fat, o"6o625 grammes ; shell (epidermis and mesocarp), 236 grammes ; kernel (putamen and embryo), 4*15 grammes. The fat formed 29/37 per cent, of the weight of the shell, and io - 23 per cent, of the weight of the entire fruit. The colouring matter extracted is not brought into the calculation. 2 See Fluckiger, " Pharmakognosie," 2 Au f ., p. 21. LACQUER WORK. 343 earlier, as in the district of Yoshino, province of Yamato. The two most important instruments used in obtaining it, are the Kaki-gama or scratching sickle (Plate III. fig. 10), a thin iron plate bent like a fish-hook, with its U-shaped end tempered and sharp- ened like a knife on the concave side, corresponding to the lancet of our foresters ; and the Natsu-bera or summer spatula (Plate III., fig. 11), a flat iron spoon with a short, bent-over point. The first is used to cut the tree, but the Natsu-bera for scraping out the channels when full of lac, and lifting it into the Go or small wooden or bamboo pail. In the case of old trees with a thick, rugged bark, this must first be cleared away and the trunk made smooth before the Kaki-gama can be used. This bark scraping is effected by the Kawa-muki or bark peeler, a long, somewhat sickle-shaped, bent knife. The straight knife or Hocho (Plate III., fig. 1), and the Ye-guri, punch or gouge (Plate III., fig. 2), are also occasionally used by the lac-tapster. If he is sensitive to the poisonous vapour of the sap, he protects his hands by Te-bukuro or mittens. Almost all the workmen engaged in extracting the lac come from the vicinity of Fukui in the province of Echizen. They number some fifteen or sixteen hundred. They go out into the several lac-districts in spring, mostly toward the north, where they are employed by the lac-dealers, who buy the trees from the peasants and point them out to their workmen, usually 1,000 young trees to each. Where the trees are older, from 600 to 800 will keep a Shokunin busy for the entire summer. Ten years ago the average price of 100 trees was from 30 to 36 yen, but it is now almost doubled, owing to the greater demand for raw lac, and its increased price. When the lac-tapster has made all his preparations and cleared his trees of bark, he takes the Kaki-gama, and with a quick stroke in a horizontal direction makes an incision through the rind and bast about two millimeters broad, on the lower part of the trunk. He passes the hook of the knife through this girdle-cutting, in order to remove any bits of bark which may have fallen in, and then a span (15 to 20 cm.) higher, on the opposite side, makes a second and a third gash the same distance apart, then afresh on the other side in six to ten places, quickly following, as far as he can reach. I have seen a practised Urushi-shokunin make an incision each second. Then he goes to another tree and does the same. When he has cut ten or fifteen trees, he returns to the first and collects the raw lac or Ki-urushi in the same order. It is a greyish white thick emulsion, which becomes first yellowish brown and soon after black, on exposure to the air. It fills the gash but does not usually run over. It is taken out with the point of the Natsu-bera and then scraped off over the edge of the little pail (Go) which the workman carries in his left hand. When he has finished this work, he goes to another group of 344 ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. trees, and performs the same operation, and so on. After four days he returns to the first trees and makes this time new incisions parallel to the others, and about two millimeters lower, then to the others in the same way, scraping out the exudations from the new series as he did in the first instance. As this operation is repeated with the same interval some fifteen or twenty times, it will be seen that the work of the lac-tapster occupies not less than 60 to 80, and often 100 days before it is finished. If the tree is to be sacrificed to the lac-extraction, then he makes incisions in all parts of the tree not yet cut, even the branches, but at greater distances. If, however, it is to be kept for further yield, and especially for wax-extraction, the treatment is more careful, and the incisions more sparing. In the first case, where the tree is made to yield its utmost, it is customary to cut down the branches after the leaves have fallen, and to bind the thicker parts together in fagots of one meter length, and to put them with the tops in warm water. The parts of the branches which protrude out of the water are then scratched, the lac extracted, the fagots are turned and the process repeated on the other side. The sap can be made to circulate anew, not only in water but by the heat of fire. But the lac so extracted, Se-shime, or Shime-urushi, is con- sidered the poorest of its kind, and is used only in groundwork. The best Ki-urushi comes from the lower part of the tree and flows best during the hottest part of the year. It is of an even, viscid constituency and a tan-brown colour. The poorer qualities are generally darker, and not homogeneous, somewhat granulated and almost jelly-like in thickness. These are obtained from the branches and higher parts of the trunk. One lac tree yields on the average under exhaustive treatment, to which the tree of course is sacrificed, only 1*5 to 3 go, or 53'50 ccm. of raw lac, corresponding to about 27 to 54 grammes, as its specific gravity is a little above that of water. 1 According to Dallas, 3 in 1874 the lac yield of Okitama-ken (district of Yonezawa in Uzen), one of the principal districts of lac-culture, was 3,608 kin, or Japanese pounds (a 592^593 gr.) = 2,i65 kilogrammes. Besides this there was manufactured from the fat of the fruit 62,598 kin = 37,559 kilogrammes of R6-soku or candles. If the average yield be 40 grammes raw lac per tree, 60,140 trees must be sacrificed to gain these 2,165 kilogrammes. Ki-urushi is always packed in Taru (tubs) of the size and form of our common wooden pails. They are made of Sugi (Cryp- tomeria japoncid), bound with bamboo hoops and covered with a 1 W. Williams, in "The Middle Kingdom," says that in China, each 1,000 trees are supposed to yield an average of only 20 lbs. of lac. This makes (one pound avoirdupois=453"6 grammes) in all 9,072 grammes, or only nine grammes per tree. 2 "Notes collected in the Okitama-ken." Trans. As. Soc. of Japan, 1S75, p. 118. LACQUER WORK. 315 round cover like the bottom, of the tub. Before they are closed up, two sheets of strong, oiled bast paper are laid on the lac, large enough to overhang the rim, between it and the cover. As soon as the cover is fastened on, the paper is bound over the edge of the tub from 4 to 6 cm., and straw rope is then wound around tight from nine to twelve times. The sealing is thus so perfect that during transportation, even if upset or laid in a hori- zontal position, the tub is safe from leakage or overflow. I was told in Yonezawa that such a tub holds usually 8| Kuwanme (1 Kauwnme=iooo Me=3'37i kg.) or 29/S48 kilogrammes. Quin, however, states in his above-mentioned work, that it contains about four English gallons, or a round 18 kilogrammes, which seems to me also more probable. From this it appears that the above- named product of Ki-urushi in Yonazawa-ken, 2,165 kilogrammes, could have been carried in 120 Taru. The quantity of Ki-urushi yielded by the whole country varies apparently between 60,000 and 100,000 kin, corresponding to 35,556-59,259 kilogramms, or from 1,975-3,292 Taru or tubs at 18 kilogrammes each. In 1875, twenty Momme or 75 grammes of Ki-urushi were bought for 2 Shu (about sixpence) ; in 1882, however, only 875 Momme= 32*8 gramms. The price also was advanced to about fifteen shillings the kilogramme, against seven shillings in 1875. 1 1 According to official statements, which however include very many un- doubtedly erroneous data, the raw lac production of Japan for the years 1876-77-78, was 60,656 kin, 99,267 kin, and 66,639 kin, respectively, in value 37,742 yen, 49,800 yen, and 49,179 yen. In 1878, the yield was estimated in Fu, and Ken, as follows : — Kioto-fu . 756 kin. Yamagata-ken . 4,624 kin Aitchi-ken . 2,210 „ Akita-ken • 2,771 „ Miye-ken . 53 „ Fukui-ken • 2,697 „ Yamanashi-ken 429 ,, Ishikawa-ken . • 7,785 „ Kanagawa-ken . • i,3°9 >, Niigata-ken • 3,887 „ Gifu-ken . • 5,014 „ Shimane-ken . 205 „ Nagano- ken • 8,656 „ Okayama-ken . 225 „ Gumba-ken 458 „ Hiroshima-ken • 1,5*6 „ Tochigi-ken • 3, or 4 „ Wakayama-ken • i,295 „ Fukushima-ken • 3,6i4 „ Kochi-ken • 3,5°4 „ Miyagi-ken 562 „ Yehime-ken ■ i,75o „ Iwate-ken . 8,Sor „ Fukuoka-ken . 600 „ in all 65,735 kin. Apart from the fact that this sum does not agree with the total amount given above, many of the single items have such a mark of arbitrari- ness, that it will not do to rely upon these statements. They make Kochi and Yehime-ken, for instance, or the island of Shikoku, a very large lac-producer, while the cultivation of the lac tree is limited almost entirely to the eastern part, the province of Awa and the bordering Sanuki. I did not see lac trees anywhere in Tosa and Iyo, nor hear of their culture anywhere in the districts I did not visit. The provinces of Owari, Mino and Shinano (Aichi-Gifu and Nagato-ken), appear here also as large producers, while I sought lac trees in vain in all three, and as in Tokio, was referred at every inquiry to the north, and particularly to Aidzu, which had long been celebrated for its wax, but as a lac-producer was far behind the provinces of Echigo and Uzen. According to the reports of Quin, the yearly extract of raw lac in Japan is 346 ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. Ki-urushi or raw lac, like the varieties of lac prepared from it, is kept in wooden vessels (tubs or flat round boxes), and protected carefully from light and dust. It cannot be used by the lacquerer without further preparation, but must first go through various processes of purifying and transformation, the first of which con- sists in freeing it from the mechanically introduced bits of bark and wood. To effect this, it is pressed through cotton cloth, and then is called Ki-sho-mi, i.e., raw lac free from foreign substances. Before I go farther, I will give the results of my own, and par- ticularly of Korschelt's, investigation of this substance. Ki-sho-mi, or purified raw lac, is a grey to tan-brown, syrupy, very sticky liquid of varied consistency and a specific gravity but little greater than that of water. Korschelt estimated this at roo20-ro379, with which my own observations agree very well. A peculiar, sweetish smell is especially noticeable in it, if it has been long in a closed vessel. Under a powerful microscope a brownish mass scattered with small globules of two sorts may be discovered, viz., a very numerous small dark brown, and a more sparsely scattered larger light-coloured sort. On adding water the latter disappear, while pure alcohol dissolves only the first kind. Alcohol, like all solvents of resin, — ether, chloroform, bi-sulphide of carbon, benzine, — dissolves when cold, but much easier when moderately warmed, a large quantity (between 60 and 80 per cent.) of raw lac, while water has scarcely any influence, save to take up a small percentage of the raw lac, after long shaking, which shows that this lacquer is of a gummy resinous character. The constituents are as follows: 1. A very small proportion of volatile acid. This disappears very soon in ordinary temperature and the drying of the lacquer- paint, but more rapidly when the lacquer is distilled with water. I attribute the poisonous properties of raw lac, and the lacquer- disease, to this not yet sufficiently understood substance. 2. Water in varying quantities, from ic to 34 per cent, accord- ing to whether the raw lac is obtained from young or old trees, trunks or branches, in spring, summer, or autumn. It can be expelled by stirring in the sun or over a slow fire, but especially by distillation in a water-bath. 3. A nitrogenous substance which Korschelt considers as albu- men. Its quantity varies from 17 to 3*5 per cent. 4. Gum, which in all essential characteristics seems to be the from 30,000 to 35,000 tubs. If he is followed in his estimate of four gallons to the tub, or a weight of 18 kilogrammes, we have the enormous quantity of 540,000 to 630,000 kilogrammes, or more than five or six times the heavy yield of 1877. There can be no doubt that this statement is erroneous. This is seen also in Quin's own words, that every year about 1,500 lac tapsters are sent out into the several districts of the country, and that each one can collect about 4-g Taru or tubs of lac. Given now, the maximum of collection to these 1,500 persons, and we have 1,500x4^=6,750 tubs, and to each tub 18 kilogrammes, the total production amounts to only 121,500 kilogrammes. LACQUER WORK. 347 same as gum Arabic, and amounts to from 3 to 6-5 per cent, of the whole. 5. Lac-acid or Urushi-acid is the predominant and most im- portant ingredient. Its quantity is usually between 60 and 80 per cent, of the total weight, and in the best lac of Yoshino amounts to 85 per cent. Analyses made by Korschelt from seven different lac-samples, give the following result : 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 >" i 6 t/J > c 6 Constituents of the Raw Lac. £ 0" 11 rt 75 a w CI ■eg oh ■£ E ■5> O > K 2 3 O M u O 2 7} JE; H 85-I5 64-62 65-83 66-92 So'oo 64-07 58-24 3-15 5-56 5 '02 475 4-69 6-05 6-32 Nitrogenous Substance 2-28 2TO 2 - OI 1-72 33* 3'43 2-27 Oil ? C09 o - o6 o - o6 p 0-23 ? Water 9-42 27-63 24-08 26-55 I2'00 26'22 33 - i7 The small quantity of oil found in several of the foregoing analyses is not an original property of the lac itself, but came in the process of obtaining it from the tree, as the tapster oils his knife and spatula with E-no-abura (Perilla oil) in order to prevent the lac adhering to the iron. The principal and most important constituent of the lac is the already-mentioned lac- or urushi-acid, C u H 13 2 which is distin- guished by the microscope as little brown globules, and extracted best in pure, warm alcohol. This formula ascertained by Korschelt in an elementary analysis, is distinguished from that of the Borneo camphor by 6 parts less of carbon. Lac-acid shares with resinous acids its solubility in alcohol, ether, chloroform and other liquids, and in many cases the relation to metallic bases also, but is much more active, inasmuch as its alcoholic solution enables it to decompose nitrates and chlorates. The reaction in sugar of lead solution is peculiar. It forms in contact with lac-acid at once a grey, flaky precipitate of lac-acid lead. Most interesting of all, however, is the conversion of the lac- acid into an exceedingly steady neutral substance, oxylac-acid, whose properties will be discussed further on under the lacquer process. The Ki-sho-mi or purified lac, according to my observations, when closely mixed with water added to it, takes it up gradually and completely, especially if it previously contained proportion- ably but little water. It loses in this way its fluidity, however, 348 ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. and becomes of a jelly-like thickness, which when painted on wood or other groundwork, dries very quickly. On the other hand, besides heat, camphor or Shono is the only material for thinning the lac known to the Japanese from earlier times and is the only one still used. It is taken in its usual granulated and crystalline condition, pulverized and mixed with the lac' by the spatula and thus made liquid. Camphor oil, although it answers the same purpose very well, as my experiments with it in the presence of my Japanese lacquerers proved, appears never to be used by them. Among the properties remaining to be noted in the material under treatment are these ; that it turns to black on exposure to the light, dries easily in a damp atmosphere in ordinary temperature, and that its evaporation produces a kind of poison which is the cause of the lac-disease. The drying of fresh lacquer-painting differs from that of our resinous varnishes in that it is not promoted by artificial heat, but is best accomplished in a damp atmosphere, as free as possible from dust, in the ordinary temperature, between io° and 25 C. or at most 30 C. The direct rays of the sun are injurious, because the heat is uneven, and the stronger it is the more it hinders drying. The lacquerer fulfils the necessary conditions by choosing a dark room (chest, closet or chamber) in the most quiet retired place, and provides against the insufficient moisture of the atmosphere by some artificial means. In a small shop, where a roomy chest with some boards inside resting on cross-pieces suffices for the work, the boards, the inner walls and the cover are all washed with cold water before the freshly painted lacquer wares are placed in it to dry. In other cases a large cupboard is treated' the same way, for the same purpose. If it is necessary to use an entire room, it is customary to hang wet cloths on the walls, and to set vessels of water about in order that the necessary moisture of the atmosphere may be gained through evaporation. Father d'Incarville says on page 127 of his before-cited work : " Ici a Peking, ou Fair est extremement sec, pour secher le vernis, il faut necessairement l'exposer dans un endroit humide, entoure de natte, que Ton arrosera d'eau fraiche ; autrement le vernis ne secheroit pas ; si c'est une piece mise en place, qu'on ne puisse detacher, ils sont obliges de l'entourer ainsi de linges mouillies." 1 The lac-acid extracted by means of pure alcohol does not possess this peculiarity of drying, as I learned in 1874, and as the numerous experiments of Korschelt have shown later. It hardens only when it is mixed with the albumen and water, as in lac. The mixture, however, loses this property when heated over 6o° C, i.e., above the temperature in which albumen coagulates. 1 In this connection, his countryman Watin, in his book on the Art ot Decorators, Gilders and Lacquerers, says, "This observation seems contrary to all experience." LACQUER WORK. Korschelt has pointed out further that the albumen present in raw lac acts in drying as a ferment upon the lac-acid, and that the hardening of the lacquer-paint is due to a process of oxydising, by which the lac-acid taking up oxygen is converted into oxylac-acid, according to the formula C u H 18 3 + O = C u H 13 O s . When Kor- schelt investigated still further this oxy-urushic acid which he ob- tained in the form of a brown powder, he found that it is entirely insoluble in all the solvents of lac-acid, and that both potash and soda lye, ammonia in all degrees of concentration and of every temperature, and most acids, strong saltpetre excepted, have no effect upon it. It is therefore evident that the remarkable resist- ance of dry Japanese lacquer-work to these influences is due to the presence of this oxylac-acid. Korschelt's investigations and opinions do not favour the ac- cepted theory that in the drying of lacquer-paint water is used for making hydrates. But this leaves me without an explanation of the thickening of the raw-lac to which 1 have alluded before, especially of the Se-shime-urushi, when water is added, — a process any one may observe, and in which a separation of the hydrogen is not perceptible. In conclusion, I will mention the lacquer-poisoning or Urushi- kabure as the Japanese call it, to which I have already referred briefly on p. 343. It is a peculiar, not very painful, and not at all fatal, but always very disagreeable disease, always attacking one new to the work, whether he be lac-tapster, dealer, or lacquerer. It appears in a mild reddening and swelling of the back of the hands, the face, eyelids, ears, the region of the navel and lower parts of the body, especially the scrotum. In all these parts great heat is felt and violent itching and burning, causing many sleepless nights. In two or three days the crisis is reached, and the swelling im- mediately subsides. In severe cases, small festering boils form also. This lacquer disease, admirably described by Father d'ln- carville on page 119 of his work, to which I have now frequently alluded, is not only caused by direct handling of the lac, but by its evaporation chiefly, especially that of the sharp Se-shime, to which I owed my own illness. The poison, however, is a volatile substance, and has nothing to do with the lac-acid and its higher oxydation, as Korschelt believed. If the poisonous property disappears in the drying of the paint, this amounts to nothing save that the volatile poison fully escapes in this manner. A considerable part of it is driven off in the preparation of the several kinds of lacquer, and by stirring in open vessels. For this reason, the lacquers mixed with colours are regarded far less dangerous than raw lac and its direct derivatives. When such lac has been for a long time shut up in a closed box or tub, the experienced workman turns away his face when the vessel is opened that he may not inhale the accumulated vapour. This is noted by d'Incarville also in the following : " II faut prendre 35o ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. garde, en couvrant et decouvrant les vases qui contiennent le vernis, de s'exposer asa vapeur ; on tourne la tete pourl'eviter ; sans cette attention Ton courroit risque de gagner les clous de vernis." Preparation of the Raw Lac for the Lacquerer. Ki-sho-mi, the raw lac (Ki-urushi) purified from foreign sub- stances, is ground for some time in a shallow wooden tub, to crush its grain and give it a more uniform liquidity. It is then pressed through cotton cloth (wata-goshi) or hemp-linen (nuno-goshi), In this way the several varieties of Se-shime 1 which appear in the price list are obtained, and are much used not only for ground- work, but also in the final (polishing) work upon the lacquer wares. Thus Se-shime is nothing else but a purified, filtered and evenly flowing raw lac. In order to describe the remaining varieties of lacquer, it will be necessary to follow the mechanical purification in its removal of a considerable part of the water admixture. This is done by evaporation in the sun, or by mild heat over a coal fire. The Ki-sho-mi, or Se-shime, is poured into shallow pans, which have an average diameter of 0'5 to I meter, and walls 2 to 4 centimeters thick, and is stirred constantly with a flat paddle. In the northern cities specially engaged in the lacquer industry (Niigata, Waka- matsu, Yonezawa, Hojiri, etc.), these pans are made of cross sections of Tochi {ySsculns turbinata, Bl.), and in Tokio and other southern cities, out of such cuttings from the trunks of the Keaki (Zelkowa Keaki, Sieb.). The lac is heated in the former over a moderate coal fire, in the latter in the sun, the pan being inclined against a wall, so that the contents, as they are stirred may have the full benefit of the sun's rays. The work takes usually a few hours, the quantity of water is noticeably reduced, and the so- treated Kurome-urushi becomes a syrupy, greyish brown liquid like Se-shime. In the three principal cities of the country (Tokio, Kioto and Osaka) this preparation and that of the hereinafter named varieties is made by a particular guild of lacquer dealers, which ten years ago numbered sixteen members. These dealers, or Urushi-ya, recognise in their price list 16 to 20 varieties of lacquer. The workmen of other cities informed me that this was an unnecessary division, and maintained that for all practical necessities, 5 to 6 varieties would suffice. The Urushi-ya is evi- dently a medium which furnishes a better though higher-priced material to the lacquerer than that which he gets by preparing it for himself, as is done in the cities where a more limited lacquer industry is carried on. 1 The word Se-shime is not to be taken here in the narrow sense of lac ob- tained from the branches of the tree, but is derived from seshimerit (to make firm and durable), and refers to its use in groundwork. Only a small part of this Se-shime-urushi is branch lac. LACQUER WORK. The differences between the several varieties in the price list are certainly small. A number of them are not found among dealers in Tokio at all, as, for example, the Saya-hana, whose significance departed as the old swords and their sheaths lost their place in the common esteem. At all events, Se-shime, Nashiji, Shu-urushi, Ro- iro, Nuritate and Hana-urushi are the varieties which are most valued and used in the best workmanship. Urtishi Nedan Dzuke, or Lac Price List of Tokio, for the years 1875 and 1882, combined and arranged in order. I. According to the number of Momme (a weight of 375 gr. ), which may be bought for 2 shu, or 50 pfeninge. II. According to the price for 1 kilogramme in marks. 1. Nashiji, i.e. pear ground, greyish brown lacquer 2. R6-iro, i.e. wax colour, best black lustre lacquer 3. Shu-urushi, i.e. cinnabar lacquer . . 4. Nuritate, finishing lacquer .... 5. Saya-hana, sword sheaths, flower lac- quer 6. Hako-shita, i.e. groundwork for boxes 7. Shun-kei, yellowish lacquer .... 8. Jo-tame, best light brown lacquer . . 9. J6-hana, best flower lacquer .... 10. Jo-naka, Jo-chiu-hana, or Naka-nuri, for use between the layers . . . . 11. Yoshino, purified raw-lac, from Yoshi- no in Yamato 12. Jo-chiu-tame, light brown middle lac- quer 13. Ki-sho-mi, purified raw lac . . . . 14. Chiu-hana, flower lacquer, 2nd quality 15. Wata-goshi- Se-shime, i.e. Seshime pressed through cotton 16. Men - goshi - Se-shime, i.e. S. pressed through cotton cloth 17. Nuno-goshi Se-shime, i.e. S. pressed through hemp-linen 18. Kuro-tame, black-brown lacquer . . 19. Chiu-tame (Naka-tame) light brown middle lacquer, 2nd quality . . . . 20. Nami-tame, ordinary light brown lac- quer I. Number of Momme which one gets for 2 shu. II. Price of a kilo- gramme in marks. 1875- 9 12 12 12 12 15 15 15 I7-5 I7-5 I7-5 20"0 20 - 20"0 25- 25- 32-5 1882. 4'5 5-25 6-25 6-166 6-125 7'375 7-375 T° 7-875 875 875 875 875 9'375 10-625 I4-375 1875. 20-95 16-30 I2'22 12*22 I2'22 I2 - 22 978 978 978 8-04 8-04 8-04 7'33 7-33 T33 6-67 5-87 5-87 4-52 1882. 29-63 25"39 ii-33 :r62 21-77 18-07 18-07 19-04 i6-37 17-51 17-51 17-51 17-51 14-22 12-55 9-27 This list shows that the several varieties of lacquer differ greatly in price, that even the least important are very costly, and that the price has increased remarkably of late years. If in spite 352 ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. of this, the common lacquer wares are sold at very low prices, it is to be explained by the fact that it takes but a very small quantity of this expensive material to paint over a large surface, and that the necessities and wages of the Japanese workmen are very small. Nashi-ji and Shu-urushi, and the nearly related Shiyun-kei and Jo-tame, are classed together as Suki-urushi, i.e. transparent lacquer. They are free from iron admixture, are of a reddish yellow colour, and transparent in thin layers, and are used mainly in the final operations of the lacquerer. Nashi-ji gets its name " pear ground " from its use in a kind of surface decoration with coarse gold powder or its bronze substitute, which is said to be an imitation in colour of the Japanese pears. This most expen- sive of all lacquers contains I per cent, of Shio, or gamboge, which is added in powder or concentrated solution to the Ki-sho-mi after it has been pressed through hemp-linen, either before or while it is being stirred in the sun. From i6to 18 hours are neces- sary for the evaporation of the water, steady stirring, according to the degree of warmth and amount of moisture in the air. The Nashi-ji is then pressed twice through the cotton filter, and can be used without any further process. Shiyun-kei is pre- pared in a similar way, but with less quantity of raw lac, and with an addition of Ye-no-abura (Perilla oil). Instead of gamboge, also plum juice (from the fruit of the Mume) is used, or the yellow extract of Kuchinashi, i.e. the fruit of Gardenia fiorida. Jo- tame is obtained by exactly the same process save that a thicker raw lac is used. Shu-urushi, cinnabar lacquer, is a transparent variety, which is prepared like Nashi-ji from the best raw lac taken from the lower part of the trunk, at the hot Doyo (dog-days), but is dis- tinguished from it by an addition of from I to io per cent, of Yegoma-no-abura. It is called cinnabar lacquer, because cinnabar is carefully and thoroughly rubbed into it, and it is used in pro- ducing this colour in painting. To produce very ordinary red colour, Beni-gara or colcothar is sometimes used. Kuro-urushi is the collective name of all black lacquer, which is prepared by adding to the purified and filtered raw lac a solution of some salt of iron (green vitriol or acetous ferric oxyde) or Toshiro (iron filings water) and then expelling the water again by stirring. In the preparation of Ro-iro-urushi, or best black lustrous lacquer, a very good quality of purified raw lac is used, and to "Wata or Nuno-goshi, Haguro, a solution of acetous protoxide of iron is added, and the whole is stirred in shallow pails or small tubs in the sun or over a moderate fire, till the water is fully evaporated. (This protoxide of iron is the material generally used by Japanese women for blacking the teeth. It is obtained by pouring rice beer or vinegar over iron nails or iron filings and keeping the solution for several days in a warm place.) LACQUER WORK. 353 The quantity of iron solution added is determined by the colour. The iron contents vary from 0'5 to 2 per cent. When all the water is expelled, the Rd-iro-urushi is passed twice through cotton cloth, and is ready for use as a black lacquer, without further treat- ment. Hana-urushi, flower lacquer, is also a black lacquer, like the preceding, and similarly prepared. It contains somewhat less iron, but has a slight addition of Yegoma-no-abura, while Haka-shita is prepared like R6-iro without oil, but of a much poorer quality of raw lac. Saya-hana, Jd-hana, J6-chiu-hana and Chiu-hana are several kinds of flower lacquer, as appears on the price list. Naka is a synonym of Chiu, meaning " between," and in the word Naka- urushi signifies a black lacquer of poorer quality which is employed generally to finish the groundwork. All these cheaper black lacquers, which are made from the poorer varieties of raw lac and used chiefly in groundwork, contain Yegoma-no-abura. In Nuritate, which must be classed with them, the oil amounts to 10 per cent. In the northern cities, where each lacquerer prepares all his lacquer materials for himself as he needs them, only one kind of black lacquer is made, and is designated simply as Kuro- urushi. The different grades of chestnut brown, or Kuri-iro-urushi are made by mixing the black and cinnabar lacquers together. Gold- yellow or Kin-iro is made by genuine gold powder or its bronze substitute, and Gin-iro or silver white by means of silver dust. Kiwo-urushi, i.e. orpiment lacquer, is greenish yellow in colour, and is made by an admixture of the yellow powder of sulphide of arsenic with transparent lacquer. Awo-urushi or green lacquer is produced in a similar way, by mixing very thoroughly with trans- parent lacquer a green powder called Sei-shitsu (pronounced Sests'). 1 As this exhausts the number of Japanese lacquer colours, it appears that the lighter shades of colour, white, yellow, blue and red with their many shades and combinations, and the light green also, are wanting. The Japanese and Chinese have made many attempts to get them, and their failure is to be attributed to the peculiarity of the lacquer. In conclusion, I add to this description of the several varieties of lacquer and their preparation, a list of other materials and utensils used by the Japanese lacquerer. Of colours and other decorative material there are: 1. Shu, cinnabar; 2. Kiwo, orpi- ment ; 3. Ai, or indigo from Polygonum tinctorium ; 4. Sei- 1 I found to my surprise, in the analysis of this Sei-shitsu, — concerning which during my stay in Japan I could only obtain the explanation that it was " a kind of green colour," as Hepburn remarks in his dictionary, — that it is a mixture of Japanese indigo with orpiment. Later, when I procured the before- mentioned work of Father d'Incarville, his observation on page 137 astonished me ; " Pour le vert, ils se servent d'orpiment qu'ils melent avec de l'indigo." II. A A 354 ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS shitsu, a mixture of 2 and 3 ; 5. Beni-gara, red oxide of iron ; 6. Beni, carthamin ; 7. Shio, gamboge ; 8. Tonotsuchi, white lead ; 9. Sumi, charcoal, particularly a. Matsu-no-sumi-no-ko, i.e. pulverized pine charcoal ; b. H6-no-ki-sumi, magnolia charcoal ; c. Tsubaki-no- sumi, camelia charcoal ; d. Ro-iro-dzumi, charcoal of Lagerstromia indica ; 10. Aogai, mother of pearl of Haliotis and large species of Trochus ; 1 1. several sorts of yellow and green gold dust (Yaki- gane and Koban) ; 12. Gin-pun, silver dust; 13. Kin-baku, genuine gold foil ; 14. Gin-baku, silver foil ; 15. Shari-kaganai, tin foil ; 16. Shari-nashi-ji, tin dust. There are used in groundwork : 1. Nuno, hemp canvas ; 2. Kokuso, hemp bast or cotton wadding cut into small pieces ; 3. Kami, bark paper ; 4. Shono, camphor ; 5. Nikawa, animal glue ; 6. Shibu, the astringent juice of unripe persimons {Diospyros Kaki) ; 7. Hai-dzumi, lamp black ; 8. Ji-no-ko, finely pulverized brick dust; 9. To-no-ko, iron ochre powder; 10. To-ishi, whet- stones of several kinds for grinding; n. H6-no-sumi, and other above-named charcoals for the same purpose; 12. Tsuno-ko, pulverized burnt hartshorn for polishing after lacquering; 13. Tane-abura, for the same purpose, and for cleaning the pencils and brushes ; 14. Nori, paste. The utensils for lacquering are simple and in general well adapted to the work. Illustrations of those most used may be seen in Plates III. and IV. The originals are in the Royal Industrial Art Museum in Berlin. The following are used in groundwork : I. Hocho, a straight, sharp kitchen knife (Plate III. 1); 2. Ko-gatana, a straight, stiff, but smaller pocket-knife carried in a case ; 3. Ye-guri, a hollow chisel or gouge (III. 2) ; 4. Hasami, a pair of shears resembling our wool-shears (III. 3) ; 5. Hera, a wooden spatula (III. 4, 5) ; 6. Take-bera, a pointed bamboo spatula (III. 6); 7. Hake, a fiat brush of human hair (III. 7) ; 8. Unoke-hake, a flat brush of rabbit's hair (IV. 3) ; 9. Abu, a rack for drying the brushes ; 10. J6-ban, a little wooden box to hold the tools, on whose projecting cover the different groundworks are prepared, the brushes cleaned and the spatulas sharpened. These two instru- ments are the most important. The spatulas are made out of Hi- no-ki [Retinispora obtusd) or some kindred variety of pine. They have a pointed, rounded-off handle, and an elastic, flexible plate, thinner and wider in front, growing broader to the end, which is from 1 to 3 fingers broad, and cut off diagonally. The flat brushes also, or Hake, are of different breadth according to the purpose which they serve. A strand of long, black human hair, glued tightly together, is laid along the length of and between two thin wooden plates, which are glued together and bound on the long sides by bands, the hair projecting from 1 to 2 millimeters. When the hair has been used till it is worn away, the wood is sharpened off like a lead pencil, and the hair carefully and evenly trimmed off. The colours and other materials that are to be used in LACQUER WORK. 355 lacquering are crushed on a board or the cover of the Jo-ban, and then mixed thoroughly into the lacquer with the spatula. This also takes the place of the pestle in the pulverizing mortar. With it is carried the cement and jelly-like materials for the groundwork, the brush taking up all the lacquer varnishes. In the delicate final work, several different Fude or round brushes (IV. 6-1 1) are used, made from rat, rabbit and deer hair, in bamboo handles with bamboo protectors, as some of the illustra- tions show, which can be pushed down over the brush when it has been cleaned after using. The Fude-tate is a brush carrier, for the preservation of the foregoing (Fig. 2). For laying on the fine jelly-like colours, a little palette of tortoise-shell or buffalo-horn, called Tsuno-ban (III. 8), is used, being pushed over the thumb of the left hand. Several little Nashi-ji-tsutsu, dust sieves, or Tsutsu- furui, pipe-sieves, are used, according to the size of the surface, freshly painted with lacquer, which is to be strewn evenly with some kind of powder. These are made by cutting quills or bamboo canes diagonally across, and pasting a porous fabric of silk or " other stuff over the openings. See Plate IV. Fig. 1. A small stick with a Tai-ki or little fish-tooth (from Serranus marginalis, the Tai) on the end is shown by Plate IV. Fig. 2, and used for polishing bent corners and other furrows into which the sharpened charcoal will not reach. Plate IV. Fig. 3 shows a Yanagi-yoji or willow-wood brush, universally used by the Japanese as a tooth-brush. It serves to brush away superfluous powder, while the pointed end of the handle, or a specially pointed stick, as the Hirame-fude, is used for picking up and laying on of gold foil or mother-of-pearl leaves on the fresh layer of lacquer. Kebo (IV. 5) is the long-haired brush of deer or horse-hair which is used to brush off any dust that may have settled on the lacquered article. Plate III. Fig. 9, represents the Saji, or spoon used to put the gold and silver dust into the pipe sieve. The back can be used also instead of a spatula for laying single layers of groundwork on concave surfaces. Wood (Ki) stands first among the materials from which articles to be lacquered are made. Wood of the pine tribe is used chiefly, and Hino-ki, or the wood of Retinispora obtusa, is considered far the best, as it is white, free from knots, and not very resinous. Sawara {Retinispora pisiferd), and Hiba {Thitjopsis do/abrata) stand second, and then follow firs, pines, and cryptomeria. The wood of the Hd-no-ki {Magnolia hypolencd) excels in fineness of grain and elasticity. The thin side-walls of the popular light oval bread-baskets, for example, made principally in Shidzuoka and Niigata, are of this wood. The light wood of the Kiri, too {Paulownia imperialis), is much used for lacquer wares. The wood of several other foliaceous trees distinguished for toughness and firmness, like Keyaki {Zelkowa Keaki), Sakura {Prumis psendo- cerasiis) and Buna {Fagus Sieboldi) are turned by the lathe into 356 ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. vessels and then lacquered. In Wakamatsu and Yonezavva, many of the Wan, or soup bowls of the Japanese, are made out of Buna. They are heavier and less durable than those made from Keaki or Katsura {Cercidiphyllum japonicum). Only the wood of the camphor laurel is entirely unsuitable for lacquering on account of its exuding camphor gum and its previously mentioned property of thinning the varnish. Other articles made from stiff paper pulp, e.g., from Ikkambari, a sort of papier mache, and Kami-kawa or paper leather, are lacquered, also some from Tsuno, horn, and Bekko, tortoise-shell, from bamboo cane or Take, whose outer skin must first be taken off, from Tetsu, iron and Aka-gane, copper, the various unglazed clay wares, especially porcelain (in Nagasaki and Nagoya chiefly), also Banko-yaki and common earthenware (in Ise and Nagoya). The following important rules are observed by the lacquerer : i. Every coat must be laid on evenly and then gone over cross- wise with the spatula or brush, first in one direction and then after- wards in the other. 2. No new coat must be put on before the last one is dry. 3. It can be best determined when a smooth surface is dry by the condensation and disappearance of moisture breathed upon it. 4. Only the groundwork can be dried in the open air or direct sunlight, and then only when the coating contains very little or no lac admixture. 5. The drying of all genuine lacquer coats must take place in the damp, unwarmed atmosphere of a chest, cupboard or chamber. In order to secure this the chest is laid on its side and washed with a wet cloth. Then the lacquered articles are put in, and the cover, which has been washed also, is closed. The drying cupboard with shelves is treated in the same way. 6. Such an arrangement serves to keep off draughts of air, dust, and light during the drying. 7. Every fine, finishing lacquer-varnish before it is laid on must be pressed once or twice through Yoshino-gami, (a fine porous but strong Broussonettia bast paper) by turning at both ends in an op- posite direction. Moderately warmed, it flows more freely, and hastens the process. 8. After almost every new coating, according to its nature, comes rubbing off, or polishing with polishing stone, with magnolia char- coal or burned hartshorn (in the first two cases of course with the addition of water), according as this operation follows ground- work or a later coating. 9. The carefully lacquered article when finished must not in any wise reveal the make or material of its framework, must be free from accidental unevennesses, cracks and spots, must have a mirror- like surface and not change in drying nor by heating with warm water. Finally, when breathed upon the moisture must disappear TOOLS USED IN LACQUER INDUSTRY. [Page 421. tic TOOLS USED IN LACQUER INDUSTRY. [Page 421. LACQUER WORK. 357 quickly and evenly from the outside toward the centre, as on polished steel. The Japanese lacquering process which I shall treat of in the following pages is as different from ours as the material employed, but still it is not always the same ; for instance, in what concerns the method or painting the groundwork, which can vary very greatly not only according to the nature of the material underneath but also the article. It appears to me necessary only to set forth the better, more careful manner of treatment, with wood as material, after which the more valuable old lacquer wares were made, as also the before-mentioned samples of the collection which I placed in the Royal Industrial Art Museum in Berlin. In conclusion, I shall briefly show the manufacture of the common market ware and the process of lacquering ceramic productions. We distinguish two classes of Japanese lacquerers, as has been said before — the Nushi-ya and the Makiye-shi. A. — Work of the Nushi-ya. a. Preparatory or Groundzvork, Jap. Shita-ji, also called Togi-tate and Naka-nuri-togi-tate. 1. The Kokuso-o-kau or luting process. After the article is placed in the hands of the lacquerer, completed and smoothed by the joiner, the lines of joining, the wooden pin-heads, knots, and other defective places are shaved off with knife and chisel, and the cracks or furrows filled up with a kind of putty. This lute or cement, Kokuso, is made as follows : equal quantities of rice-paste and Se-shime-urushi are mixed together, then reduced with finely scraped hemp bast, lint or cotton wadding as evenly as possible to a jelly. This is laid on with a pointed spatula (Take-bera). The putty, at first a greyish brown, turns to blackish brown very soon, and holds exceedingly fast, 2. The Ki-gatame, i.e. the sizing or staining of the wood (from Ki^wood, katameru = to size). The staining material is Se-shime- urushi with or without the addition of paste, and is applied with the spatula or flat brush. This process has a double purpose, viz. to fill up the cracks and pores in the wood which still exist, and to furnish a groundwork upon which the paper or covering (4) will stick better. 3. The Hi-komi (hiku = to cover, komu = to press in) is only used on the places already treated with Kokuso-o-kau, and serves to fill up, smooth off, and as an entire protection against the striking in of the following coats. The putty used is a mixture of Ji-no-ko (Ji = ground, ko = powder) — a yellowish brown or red powder, made from bricks or pieces of common pottery (Kawarake), with some water, paste and Se-shime-urushi. After this is dry follows rub- bing down of unevenness with Omura-do, a sandstone from Omura in Hizen. 358 ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. 4. The Nuno-kise or Kami-kise, i.e. covering (kiseru) with hemp canvas or paper. Paste and Se-shime-urushi are mixed thoroughly to a thin pulp, with which the article is thinly coated. A sheet of Mino-gami (strong Broussonetia bast paper from the province of Mino), or thin hempen cloth, is laid on and pressed down smooth and firm with the spatula. The edges are clipped off evenly with the shears, and a thin coat of lacquer is put on with the spatula or brush. The great importance of this whole process to the durability of the lacquer ware is obvious. On the one hand the cover forms a sort of partition, which prevents the exudations of the volatile oil and resin of the wood from penetrating the lacquer varnish out- side, and on the other gives to the wood also greater firmness, hindering especially its warping. Naturally, only the strong, long- fibred Japanese hand-made paper will answer this purpose, and not the chopped-up machine-made paper of the " rag engine." 5. The Kata-ji (Kata = firm, ji = ground), is a fairly thick coat of stiff putty, which is prepared like the Hi-kome (3) and applied with the spatula. It is often repeated after drying and smoothing off the inequalities by means of Omura-do. 6. The Kiri-ko, i.e. mixed powder. Pulverized ochre (To-no-ko), is mixed with water to a stiff paste and then tempered with Se-shime, a little Ji-no-ko (brick dust) and paste (Nori), and thoroughly mixed. It becomes thus a pulp which is easily laid on with the spatula or brush (Hake), and dries in the open air in from 1 to 2 days. Then follows again the polishing off the unevennesses. 7. The Ji-gatame (ji = ground, katameru = to make strong). For this process only Se-shime-urushi is used, worked beforehand with water into a thin paste. The article to be lacquered is painted over lightly with it and then rubbed quickly over with a cloth. When dry it shows a blackish brown colour. 8. The Sabi, derived from Sabi-iro, i.e. colour of iron-rust. The article treated with Ji-gatame, is now painted over with a tolerably stiff mixture prepared like that for the Kiri-ko (No. 6), with the exception of the paste, and sometimes of the brick-dust also. Rubbing (togi) again follows drying, this time with sandstone and water, till the surface is smooth and the colour a dark greyish brown. 9. The Sumi-bike, or coating (hiku) with India-ink. A poor quality of the ink is ground hard with water and then rubbed in with a little ball of cotton. 10. The Naka-nuri (naka = middle, inner; muri = lacquering). Naka-nuri-urushi a poor kind of Hana-urushi (see page 353) is a shiny, black, thick lacquer, which is mixed with from -^ to T \ of its bulk of Se-shime, and a few drops of Sake or rice-beer, and then pressed through a layer of several sheets of Yoshino paper. The application is made with a fiat brush, and the drying takes place in a closed, damp room. Then follows the Naka-nuri-togi, i.e. the rubbing down (togu) of LACQUER WORK. 359 the Naka-nuri coating. This work consumes a great deal of time, but is very important. It must be continued till all the lustre has disappeared and the surface is perfectly smooth. The workman uses for this process the fine-pored light Hd-no-ki-sumi, the char- coal of Magnolia hypoleuca, which he holds in the first three fingers of his right hand, and a wet cloth is held in the remaining part of the hand. Besides these, he has by his side ready for use a pail of fresh water, and a small polishing stone on which he rubs off and sharpens his charcoal from time to time. When the work is fin- ished, the article is perfectly smooth and of a dead black colour. The groundwork is now ended. It has served the purpose of making the wood more durable, and covering it so that nothing can be seen of its nature or the lacquering be influenced by it, and so that the further coatings will not strike in. The divergences from this very minute but thorough ground- work process, which was always formerly followed in making the best lacquer wares, are such as are calculated to save material, especially Se-shime-urushi, and time. They are as follows : — 1. In process 4, the article to be lacquered is not covered with canvas or Mino-gami, but it is considered enough to cover the joints, which have been smoothed over with Kokuso, with strips of cheap writing paper. 2. The Shita-ji (Shita = under, ji = ground) takes the place of the operations 3, 6, and 7. The lute used in making this groundwork contains no lacquer-varnish, but is a mixture of boiled glue, brick- dust, lampblack, and hot water. This is used to paint over the bottom of tea trays, but not the sides, nor dishes, boxes, etc. 3. The Sabi is applied twice. 4. Between the 9th and 10th process, there is a new one, a coating of Shibu, the juice of unripe fruits of the persimon (Diospyros kaki). 5. The Naka-nuri-togi is much more superficially done. In Wakamatsu, Yonezawa, Niigata and other northern cities where lacquer industry is a specialty, a mixture of Shibu and pulverized pine-charcoal or lampblack follows immediately after puttying (Kokuso-o-kau), and then comes rubbing off, which ends the groundwork process. Ceramics which are to be ornamented with lacquer must be un- glazed. Putty will not adhere to glazed clay wares, nor will lacquer, as is shown by three Chinese vases in the Royal Porcelain Collection at Dresden, whose lacquering on glaxe has pulled off in many places. The groundwork is done by Sabi (see process 8, above) and Naka-nuri. b. Final Work of the Niiri-mono-slii. Whatever may be the manner of groundwork, the process of rubbing till a smooth though not reflecting surface of dark grey to grey black is reached, is the final one. On this under layer are laid all the varied coats which impart to the finished Japanese wares 360 ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. their varied appearance. It is almost impossible to give here all the manipulations and artifices, still a short description of the most important categories of ordinary Japanese lacquer wares and their mode of preparation seems to me demanded. There will be con- sidered : a. Simple Lacquer Wares of One Colour. 1. Nuri-tate is not only the name for a finishing lacquer, but also of a particular process, viz. : the simple lacquer coating which is not followed by rubbing and polishing. It shows striation in one direction produced by the strokes of the brush, is finished with one coating on the groundwork after the Naka-nuri-togi, and after hanging or lying in the drying room from I to 2 days is perfectly firm. As I have said before concerning the several lacquer colours, black is obtained by a coat of Jd-hana or R6-iro, red by cinnabar lacquer, greenish yellow by orpiment lacquer, and green by adding Sei-shitsu to a transparent lacquer. By mixing black with cinnabar a brown of various shades is obtained, also clouds of light green by a larger quantity of orpiment, and dark green by the admixture of J6-hana or some other black lacquer with the green. 2. Shun-kei-urushi or Nojiro-Shun-kei is the name of a peculiarly lacquered, yellow wooden ware from Nojiro, a small town north of Akita, near the Japan Sea. Usually in the common lacquer wares the groundwork is made entirely to conceal the character of the wood beneath it, but in this variety the natural veining of the wood is well preserved. After a careful stain- ing of the wood with Se-shime lacquer, with or without the pore-filling admixture, follows a careful rubbing, then a lighter coat of solution of gamboge, or some other yellow liquid dye {e.g. from the fruit of Gardenia florida), and finally a thin coating of transparent lacquer, the Shun-kei-urushi. Generally the yellow vegetable dye is mixed with this last and put on at the same time. On account of the large proportion of oil in this lacquer, the usual rubbing and polishing cannot follow its application, and the article must be left as it is. There must therefore be greater care and cleanliness in the preparation and use of this lacquer than ordinarily, so that the finished product may be free from spots and brush strokes. In this way it shows a transparent yellow or brownish yellow colour, the veins and spots of the wood, and a high lustre. Nojiro-Shun-kei is, however, a rather expensive ware and is seldom exported. 1 1 I did not visit Nojiro, and only saw imitations in Tokio, which do not equal the beauty of the originals, of which the Royal Industrial Art Museum in Berlin has several fine samples. It is doubtful whether these are made exactly as' described above, for all who have mentioned Nojiro-Shun-kei say that its method of manufacture is a trade secret, and that the workmen do not all follow the same method. See K. Hagmeier, in "Mittheil. der deutschen Gesellsch. Ostasiens," 12 Heft, p. 65. LACQUER WORK. *6i 3. Tsuya-keshi (tsuya = lustre, kesu = to wash out, drive away), is a dull black lacquer coating, obtained by painting on the ground- work with R6-iro-urushi, and polishing after drying with R6-iro- dzumi (coal of the Lagerstromia indica), then a coating of Se-shime- urushi, and rubbing with soft paper. 4. The R6-iro. This lustrous black lacquer is accomplished very much as the preceding, only that at the end of the process it is further treated with Suri-urushi (polishing lacquer). Polishing is accomplished by three alternate rubbings of Se-shime-urushi and powder of burnt hartshorn. The fingers and ball of the left hand are used in rubbing instead of leather. /3. Coloured Lacquer Wares, with Marbled Surface. 1. Tsugaru-nuri, Tsugaru lacquer (see Plate V. Fig a). This variety takes its name from the district of Tsugaru (pronounced Tsungaru), in the north of Hondo, opposite the island of Yezo, in whose capital city, Hiro-saki, this method of lacquering is much employed, and reaches its greatest technical perfection. The peculiarity of Tsugaru-lacquer consists essentially in having four or more colours, black, red, yellow, and green, proceeding from R6-iro, cinnabar, orpiment, and Sei-shitsu lacquer mingled in several motley combinations. Sometimes it is in regular stripes, some- times with more or less irregular spots and indistinct figures, again in an utterly indiscriminate mixture of spots and points, that these colours appear. One of the colours is usually more prominent than the others, and often one is entirely wanting. Tsugaru-nuri is not frequently seen, at least in European collec- tions, as its manufacture demands much time, and its price is cor- respondingly high. The best older specimens of it, and of Wakasa- nuri (the following group), I saw at the Hague (Museum of Curiosities), and in the Ethnographical Museum at Munich. Tsugaru-nuri is made by going over the groundwork after the Naka-nuri-togi process, with a tough putty made of the white of eggs or some kindred substance {e.g. Tofu and R6-iro-urushi), to form an uneven surface, which is then painted with red, yellow and green lacquer, succeeding each other in any desired order, followed by a coat of transparent lacquer. The surface is then rubbed with charcoal and water till the desired marble appearance is obtained. Its character depends on the manner in which the putty is laid on, whether evenly on the groundwork with the figures and furrows pressed in, or transferred by a stippler to the ground coating, making an uneven surface from first to last. It also evidently depends on the order in which the several colours follow each other, and finally on the amount of polishing off. When this is finished, then follows the final work : first a coating of Se-shime mixed with Nashi-ji, again rubbing with charcoal and then polishing 362 ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. till a mirror-like appearance is produced, in which rape oil and bole or some other fine mineral powder are used with Seshime. 2. Wakasa-nuri, Wakasa lacquer (Plate V. Fig. if). The province of Wakasa, from which it derives its name, lies on the Japan Sea, north of the Biwa Lake. It is said that this kind of lacquer first came into vogue in its capital Obama, from Chinese samples. It is distinguished from Tsugaru-nuri especially in having gold-yellow, orange, and brown in addition in its colouring. These last pre- dominate largely also, often appearing alone or in connection with only a part of the Tsugaru colours. Gold-yellow, brown, and orange are generally produced from gold, and but seldom from silver foil. As in the process given for Tsugaru lacquering, an uneven surface is laid on the finished groundwork. Then come coats of several lacquer colours, one after the other. After the last colour, the gold foil is laid on, and made fast by the brush. It accommodates itself to the uneven surface and adheres firmly everywhere. The article is allowed to dry, then given a coat of transparent lacquer, which is repeated if necessary till the hollows are filled up, and a smooth surface is obtained. The usual rubbing with magnolia charcoal and water follows, by which process the necessary lustre is reached. Plate V. Fig. b shows an imitation of such a specimen of Wakasa-nuri with bronze colours, but does not equal the beauty and polish of the original in the Industrial Art Museum in Berlin. This specimen, now 180 years old, is a little box of great beauty, and of such lustre that it seems as if freshly polished. Neverthe- less the pictorial representation of a part of its upper surface serves to illustrate the manner of its accomplishment. It will be seen how, after the production of the uneven groundwork, twigs of Arbor-vitae (Retinispora) are pressed into the hollows of the albu- minous putty, and then when fully dry are taken away again. The succession of the lacquer coats is also easily observed, viz. black, greenish yellow, and red. Then came the laying on of the gold- foil, the filling of the unevennesses with transparent lacquer, the rubbing with magnolia charcoal and water, the repeated very thin coat of transparent lacquer, and then the process of polishing as has been given in other cases. In conformity to this, we see the gold foil stand out in its natural colour, wherever it lies on the ridges of the groundwork, and then in shading to brown where it has been placed in the hollows, and covered over with several thick layers of the transparent lacquer. Where the edges of the twigs pressed the putty upwards, red, greenish yellow, and black bands or rings or spots succeed the yellow of the gold foil in the order in which (counting backwards) the coats of lacquer were laid on. 3. Shi-tan-nuri, i.e. sandal-wood lacquer. Under this class are imitations of the red sandal-wood or Shi-tan (see p. 253). They are produced as follows : After the groundwork is finished, the article receives a coat of cinnabar lacquer. Before it is fully dry Rein , Japan K Plate V Verl. v Wdk Engdiruinn., Leipzig LWu Ans-t v Werner it Winter. Frankfurt *rM. LACOUER PATTERN a Ts ugaru- nuri, b.Wakasa-nuri. LACQUER WORK. 363 it is marked in interrupted parallel lines with a sharpened stick. After drying comes smoothing with charcoal as usual, and then laying on of India-ink in stripes, and a washing away of the edges, so that red and black stripes alternate, but not showing any resem- blance to wood. A thin coat of Se-shime and the polishing process follows. The effect is surprising, but it needs a great deal of prac- tice and a skilful hand, especially in rubbing with the magnolia charcoal. This kind of Japanese lacquer ware is seldom met with in the European collections. I found it in 1881, in the shop of Larkin, Grafton Street, London, on a wooden vase which was made in the shape of a blunted cone 1 meter in height, 56 centimeters in cir- cumference at the bottom, and a diameter at the top of 30 centi- meters. Its price was ^IOO. The ground showed the most beau- tiful imitation of red sandal-wood that I have ever seen. The decorations, original of their kind, were of raised gold lacquer work and inlaid with ivory and mother of pearl, and represented the Schichi-ken or seven wise men of China, 1 cranes and bamboo cane. 4. Suri-hegashi-nuri, i.e. lacquer work obtained by hegu = stripping off, and suri = to polish. To prepare this, a coat of black lacquer (R6-iro-urushi) follows the Naka-nuri-togi, or final process of the groundwork, then a slight rubbing with charcoal and water, a coating of red lacquer made from cinnabar and Nashi-ji-urushi, and then a second rubbing with charcoal and water. The dark figures are produced by continual rubbing with sharpened charcoal on particular places, even to piercing through the cinnabar lacquer. The articles are repeatedly rubbed over with balls of wadding and Se-shime-urushi, to fill up the hollows, and are finally polished as usual after the last drying. They are coarsely marbled, or show either single black spots on a red ground, or the reverse, red spots on black ground. There are many variations of this process, among them that in which gold-foil is spread out over a layer of black or brown lacquer, and symmetrical figures are engraved in it when dry, at the pleasure of the designer. Afterwards it is filled up and covered with transparent lacquer, and then follows polishing. 5. Same-gawa-nuri, i.e. " Shark-skin lacquer," or Same-dzaya, i.e. " shark sword-sheath," 3 We have now to consider a peculiar 1 These " Seven Wise Ones " (Schichi-ken) were the cynics of China, mis- anthropes who went so far as to not only rend their clothes and go about naked, but also to choose their place of abode in bamboo thickets, like the wild beasts. 2 Shark skin must not be here understood to mean the coarse shark skin called Shagreen, or the skin of the Hypolophus Sep/ien, Mull, and Henle, but the skin covered with bony tubercles from the back of several species of Rhinobatus or roaches of the coasts of Hither and Further India, also of Southern China, especially that of Rliinobatus armatus, Gray, and Rh. granulatus, Cuv. (See Miiller and Henle : " Systematische Beschreibung der Plagiostomen," Berlin, 1841, p. 1 17.) At any rate I saw in the French exhibition the skin of a Rhinobatus from Cochin China, marked "Pegu de Requin," and answering entirely to that used in Japan. 364 ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. method of lacquering which derives its name from the shark skin (Hai-haut), or the sword sheath (Saya), principally employed in its decoration. Usually the shark skin is firmly pressed, by means of a tailor's flat-iron, on the article to be lacquered, without previous groundwork, but after it has been coated with fresh rice paste. Its uneven surface is then filed down with an iron file, the hollows filled with applications of Sabi (p. 358), and then follow the rubbing with charcoal, coat of Rd-iro-urushi, repeated rubbing with mag- nolia charcoal, and finally the polishing with burnt hartshorn and Seshime-urushi three times repeated. The finished product now shows a black ground, sprinkled closely with tiny, white circles. In the Ducal Museum at Gotha, there is a small old box in this style of lacquer. Where the circles appear grey or bluish, the shark skin has been previously dyed with indigo. This shade of lacquer, which is generally found on old sword sheaths, is called Ai-dzame (Ai = indigo, and dzame = shark). Since the old swords and their sheaths have gone out of use, Same-no-kawa is but little employed in lacquering.i 7. Coloured Lacquer obtained by Dusting with Glistening Powder. 1. Ao-gai-nuri or Ao-gai-togi-dashi, mother-of-pearl lacquer, in making which the coarse or finely pulverized mother-of-pearl from varieties of Trochus and of Haliotus is used. If whole surfaces are to be strewn and evenly adorned, the work is quite analogous to that where metal powder is employed. If, on the contrary, definitely outlined decorations are intended, it is customary to paste stencil patterns of tin-foil on the surface of the groundwork, and giving the open spaces a coating of Rd-iro-urushi, to sprinkle them with Ao-gai or mother-of-pearl powder. When dry the patterns are removed, and the whole is coated with a mixture of R6-iro and Se-shime-urushi, and then the strewn mother-of-pearl is carefully rubbed with magnolia charcoal. A second coat of the same lacquer varnish follows, then the second rubbing, and finally polishing. The same course is pursued in the simpler work of strewing the whole surface evenly with mother-of-pearl. The beautiful green and violet iridescence of small mother-of-pearl pieces on the lacquer wares decorated with it depends on its varying position toward the light and the uneven coating of the transparent lacquer varnish. 2. Shari-nashi-ji, i.e. tin (dust) pear ground. The tin dust (or bronze powder instead) is strewn with a little sieve, evenly or in 1 The Paris manufacturer, Giraudon, some years since applied for a patent for the employment of the same kind of shark skin which the Chinese and Japanese formerly used in lacquering. At the Universal Exhibition in Antwerp his exhibit contained a magnificent collection of "Articles de luxe en Requin de Chine," such as cabinets, glove-boxes, bowls, etc., all covered with well-polished shark skin, and which were sold at enormously high prices. Rein, Japan H. Plate. n. m* "I'J;,:./..-;-^'; ' - .->,. . ' " ... . - .- 1 ; " ■ ■ ■ - ■ . ,,-.. - ■ - '. .. A "-' Kri.Y.W2h.EngeU!uaui, I - ;. ,,l-.:>r, Frankfort. LACQUER PATTERN a.Rin-ji, b.Mashi-ji, c.Aoku-me. LACQUER WORK. stripes and figures on the moist coat of Naka-nuri (see ioth process of groundwork), and when dry covered with a coat of Se-shime. With this it takes a brown colour, like the scattered powder of a precious metal. The gold ground becomes lighter yellow and more lustrous with age, the scattered tin or bronze dust on the con- trary grows darker and duller, as may be easily observed in many of the common Japanese lacquer wares. It is to be understood that the strewing of metal powder does not finish the work, but that a coat of transparent lacquer, and the polishing process must follow. 3. Simple lacquer wares, ornamented by inlaid work. I rank this group next to the preceding, because its execution, though demanding some skill, does not any more than the foregoing neces- sitate a real artistic talent. The precious metals also are either not at all, or at least only exceptionally, employed in this. The inlaid mother-of-pearl work, Ao-gai-zaiku, as cabinets, boxes, dishes, etc., which are brought in such numbers to Europe, and made chiefly at Nagasaki, belong principally to this class. It is customary, how- ever, to incrust even the finest lacquer wares with mother-of-pearl, ivory, and precious metals, and to form from them reliefs of flowers and other natural objects. This branch of lacquer industry is already old, as articles in the Dutch, Dresden and other collections testify. The common Ao-gai comes from the inside of the shell of the Haliotis, each shell yield- ing only one thin plate. The finer or Ma-gai Ao-gai, ie. Ao-gai imitation, is the product of the large Trochus, and comes princi- pally from the Riu-kiu islands. Both kinds (in Trochus, the last convolution), are scaled off in thin, transparent sheets, in a pains- taking primitive way. The mother-of-pearl sheets are laid on the design, which is pricked through with India-ink and brush. The painting colours (Prussian blue, gamboge, and a mixture of the two for green, also sienna, carmine, cartharmine, etc.) are rubbed together with hot glue-water and laid on with the brush according to the pattern, on the right places in the mother-of-pearl. When dry, their painted portions are covered with silver-foil laid on with glue-water, and again dried. Then the mother-of-pearl is cut with a sharp chisel into the shapes designated on its opposite side (leaves, flowers, etc.), with their corresponding transparent colours. They are glued on the dull groundwork of vases, plates, cabinets, etc., and all the hollow intervals of space are filled up with black lacquer. Then the whole surface, including the inlaid work, is covered with two coats of transparent varnish, and if necessary rubbed with charcoal and polished. The underlying silver-foil is used to protect the colours on the underside of the mother-of-pearl from the lacquer, and to bring them out more clearly ; but this is done only in the more valuable articles. Instead of mother-of-pearl an inlay of tin is sometimes used, which is treated of course differently, and then never loses its colour and polish. 366 ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. B. — Work of the Makiye-shi. This has for its object the artistic ornamentation of lacquer-wares in which the use of gold and silver dust plays an important part. The representation of a picture, or description of any other work of art, has its great difficulties, and it is moreover impossible to teach an art by description. The Makiye-shi or gold-lacquer painter practises a real art. He must combine a long apprenticeship, often from eight to ten years, with unmistakable natural talent, before he can succeed in working as a master in his department, and be able to create with skilled hand those artistic decorations whose perfect beauty we admire in many of the Japanese lacquered articles. On this account, the following can be but a brief statement of the universal method of his work, and of the principles recognised everywhere as governing it, notwithstanding its great variety. In addition to the rules already (p. 356) stated, which are the same for all workers, these principles are as follows : — 1. The Naka-nuri-togi or final process of the groundwork must be performed with the greatest care, and form a perfectly smooth surface. 2. On this base the design is sketched freehand with a fine brush and a thin paste of white lead or some other colour, and water, or — when the artist is less skilled — a pattern is pricked through and then put on with Shita-makiye, i.e. "drawing of the under ground." This is done in a brownish red thin colour, made by mixing red oxide of iron (Beni-gara) with Se-shime-urushi. 3. Gold, silver and other colours are almost all strewn in powder over the moist Shita-makiye, or at the side, and then swept on with a brush (Plate IV. figs. 5, 6, or 3). This is done especially in cases like wood imitation, when the colour is to shade away and diminish from a certain line. Polishing of course follows the drying of a coat of light-coloured varnish, usually Nashi-ji. 4. That which is to stand out in relief is at first sketched in out- line only, and not treated further till all is finished on the surface. The most notable and important decorative material of the Makiye-shi is gold. It is used in a powder in two principal shades, under the names Yaki-gane and Koban. Yaki-gane, i.e. burnt metal, or Yaki-kin, i.e. burnt gold, is a pure, deep yellow, so-called ducat gold ; Koban on the other hand is a green coin-gold, an alloy of 74. parts gold and 2'6 parts silver. Other alloys poorer in gold are also used. A large number of varieties of gold and silver filings are distinguished according to the grade of fineness, and are separated by a sieve, and called by particular names ; — Kin-pun or Keshi-ko is the finest gold, and Gin-pun the finest silver-dust. It is obtained by covering with glue the corresponding metal foil of the gold beater, pulverizing it when dry, and then separating the metal from the glue by washing. LACQUER WORK. 367 As some of these powders are more often used, the names of the most important are given, in the order of their fineness, so that the coarsest stand first, in order to be able to use the shorter numbers for their loner designations : Kiri-kane, small square leaves of gold-foil. Yaki-gane, hira-me tsune san. „ hira-me sho san. „ nashi-ji sho san. koma-ka-me tsune. These names are difficult to translate Mi-jin and also fun (pun) mean, fine mi-un tsune. k j * «. : L , J , ? dust ; tsune is common, ara = coarse, goku (koku) = thick, komaka = first powder. „ koma-ka-me mi-jin. „ maru ara-goku. 9. „ goku gashira dai. 10. ,, goku gashira shiu. 11. „ maru goku mi-jin. 12. Koban, ara-goku. 13. „ ara-mi-jin. 14. „ mi-jin tsune. 15. „ hana-ko. 16. Gin-pun, silver-dust. Besides these pure gold and silver powders and filings, there are several mixtures of these with colours for shading. To these belong : — 17. Aka-fun, red powder, a mixture of cinnabar with gold or silver dust. 18. Kuro-fun, black powder, a mixture of camellia charcoal and gold or silver dust. 19. Kuri-iro-fun, chestnut-brown powder, a mixture of gold dust, cinnabar, and camellia charcoal. 20. Nedzumi-iro-fun, grey rat colour, made of equal parts of silver dust and camellia charcoal with some cinnabar. 21. Shu-muki-gara, old scrapings of cinnabar lacquer, finely pulverized. 22. Matsu-no-sumi-no-ko, fir-charcoal powder. The decorations of the Makiye-shi may be classed in two groups, viz. — (a) Hira-makiye, i.e. flat gold lacquer work. (b) Taka-makiye, i.e. raised gold lacquer work. (a). — Hira-makiye, Flat Gold Lacquer Work. As the name indicates, these decorations remain fiat or smooth on the surface, while those of the second class stand out in bas relief. Hira-makiye embraces all the ornamentation of the finer Chinese wares, e.g. those of Canton and Foochow, and a large number of the most prized and most used of the Japanese. They are principally surface decorations with gold dust, as follows : — 368 ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. 1. Nashi-ji, pear ground (see p. 352). This designation is gene- rally understood to mean a ground of black lacquer on which coarse or fine gold dust is evenly strewn, and then varnished over with a transparent lacquer. We have here to treat of Nashi-ji in its first original meaning. The black groundwork, according to the quantity of gold dust scattered over it, either predominates or is more covered, indeed in the most valuable Nashi-ji disappears entirely. Its appearance then resembles in its fresh condition, Aventurine, so that Wagener's designation " Aventurine lacquer " {Dingl. PolytecJin. Joum., 1875, p. 366), appears very suitable. Plate VI. Fig. b, gives a sample in bronze. The original of this made from the powder of ducat-gold shows this colour only when fresh, but becomes much yellower and more lustrous with time. The production of Nashi-ji is simple. The moderately fine gold dust is strewn on the coating of Shita-makiye-urushi with a little hand sieve, usually similar to that mentioned in No. 4 of our list of implements used in lacquer work. After it is dry, the dust that does not adhere, is carefully swept away, and then a coat of Nashi- ji-urushi is given, which commonly takes from 6 to 7 days to dry. Then comes the usual rubbing with magnolia charcoal and water, and afterwards polishing. Both operations manifestly require great care and skill. Nashi-ji is one of the most frequent and popular modes of sur- face decoration. The fine particles of gold dust and foil have at first a brownish yellow colour, but always with age become brighter and more brilliant, because of the greater transparency of the lacquer varnish, so that one can judge of the age and quality of the lacquered articles by the evenness, fineness, and colouring of the coating. In many of these older gold lacquer wares, as bowls and boxes of various kinds, the inside is covered also very care- fully with Nashi-ji of the best kind. The work is as ancient as ornamentation with mother-of-pearl. Both may be traced back to the end of the eighth century, to the time when the Emperor Kuwammu-Tenno made the city of Tokio the permanent resi- dence of himself and his successors. The Nashi-ji, which is an imitation in ordinary lacquer ware with tin and bronze, has already been described. 2. Kin-ji, "Gold ground." The groundwork which is to be ornamented in this particular way is first given a coat of thin Shita-makiye-urushi, and then quickly and evenly strewn with a fine gold powder (No. 7, or some other on the list) by means of a sieve, till entirely covered. After drying and brushing off the non- adhering particles, comes a coat of Nashi-ji-urushi, then another drying, rubbing with magnolia charcoal, and a thorough polishing, in which Yoshino-urushi, or Se-shime, hartshorn, and other sub- stances are used to produce a perfectly even, mirror-like gold surface. Kin-ji, like Nashi-ji, also grows lighter and brighter with increasing age, while its imitations with tin dust or bronze, LACQUER WORK. 369 tarnish after a little while, lose their metallic lustre, and become a dull yellowish brown. Plate VI., fig. a, represents such an imitation. This costly decoration, Kin-ji, which looks like a thin covering of gold leaf, is found very often in old lacquer wares of great value, e.g.. on boxes, medicine chests, India-ink boxes, and other articles. Gin-ji, or silver-ground, is used much less often on larger surfaces, but is prepared with silver dust in much the same manner. In Plate VII. the moon and one chrysanthemum are imitations of Gin-ji. 3. Mokume, spotted texture (moku = veined or curled wood, kime = texture), or curled form (Plate VI., fig. c). The veins and speckling of the wood is sketched with white lead or colcothar, but the working out is done by degrees, perhaps beginning at the middle of the surface to be decorated, or from the centre of one of the spots. The Makiye-shi presses through Yoshino paper the brownish red colour, which is made by mixing red oxide of iron and Se-shime-urushi together, when necessary thinning it with camphor ; he then puts his little horn palette (Tsune-ban, see Plate III., fig. 8) over the thumb of his left hand, lays some of the colour upon it, and begins his work at the centre of one of the spots, going over the faint outlines with red on the point of a fine rat-hair brush, and then covering also the surface so outlined with the same colour. He next takes his little sieve (Plate IV., fig. I, or one similar), with a small amount of gold dust, and if, as in this case, an even, gold, mirror-like surface is desired, strews the little bit of surface freshly coated with Shita-makiye ; or, if the reflection is to decrease, grow- ing feebler towards the centre, the dry outer side lying next to the edge, in which case the powder is brushed on the moist figure, these girdling outlines, e.g., and then toward the centre of the spots. Deep yellow is obtained from a fine powder of Yaki-gane, yellowish green and light yellow from Koban. When the centre or eye of the spot is covered, the painter proceeds next to the first girdle, the second, and so on. When the whole ground has been treated in this way, and left in the damp drying-room for a day, superfluous particles of gold dust are brushed off, and the surface of the Mokume receives a thin coat of Nashi-ji-urushi, for which Se-shime can also be used. Then follows longer drying, rubbing with magnolia charcoal, another varnish of the same lacquer, another drying and rubbing with charcoal, and finally the work to produce the proper lustre. The effect of Mokume work is heightened by alternation of the so-called yellow, red, and green gold dust by other tints, and by strewing mother-of-pearl powder over it. This surpasses Nashi-ji and Kin-ji, and wherever it appears is a mark of costly lacquer- work. 4. Kara-kusa = arabesques, and kumo = clouds. 1 Besides the 1 The name Kara-kusa, China- weed, used for arabesques, indicates the Chinese origin of this manner of decoration, as it is there much more exten- sively employed, especially in ornamenting bronze vases, than in Japan. II. B B 37o ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. already mentioned employment of gold dust in wood imitations, silver dust, mother-of-pearl, and powder of old cinnabar lacquer are all used for the same purpose. After the whole design is outlined, strewed with these powders, dried and coated over with Nashi-ji-urushi, the first rubbing with charcoal, and then a varnish of Se-shime takes place. In order to bring up the deep, black interstices to the level, it receives now, as after the laying on of the flowers and other ornaments, a coat of R6-iro-urushi. After drying, follows the second rubbing, and then polishing. Veins of leaves, outlines of clouds, and other prominent lines during this last pro- cess are emphasized with the brush, Shita-makiye and gold dust, but must be rubbed off with charcoal before polishing. (The sample collection in Berlin possesses two tables of this kind of work.) 5. Monsha-nuri, named after a silk material having similar design, is a peculiar kind of lacquer ornamentation which may be classed here, though it properly does not belong to gold lacquer. But it is also worked by the Makiye-shi, and demands no less artistic skill than the before-mentioned varieties. After the figures (birds, flowers, etc.) are laid on with Shita-makiye, the still moist lacquer is strewn with finely powdered pine charcoal (other kinds of charcoal weaken the lacquer more or less and are not so suitable). This is done with a little sieve which is made by cutting a piece of bamboo cane diagonally across and then covering the end with fine muslin, gauze, or woven wire. When dry, the superfluous powder is swept away with a soft brush, and the entire article receives a coat of R6-iro-urushi. Then follows rubbing and polish- ing. The figures are thus made to have a dull appearance against the shining black surface. The effect is surprising. It is obtained by very simple means, and without the smallest use of metal dust. (There is a table in the Berlin collection, with the Howo, or Phoenix of the Chinese mythology, represented in several side and front positions in the above manner.) (£). — Taka-makiye — Raised Gold Lacquer Work. In addition to all that has been said in general concerning its production, I will only add that the Taka-makiye-urushi, or the putty which is used therein, has a brilliant black colour when dry. It is not applied directly to the ground reserved by the outlined design, but this is treated beforehand with a coat of Shita-makiye- urushi, which has been strewn with charcoal dust and some orpi- ment. The putty itself is a mixture of black lacquer, lampblack, a little white lead and camphor. The reliefs modelled in it adhere very strongly to the groundwork when dry and have the appear- ance of coats of Naka-nuri. Like these they are rubbed with a pointed piece of charcoal till all the small furrows are smooth. The further processes are much the same as those of plain surfaces, and follow in this order : coat of Shita-makiye, scattering metal dust, LACQUER WORK. 371 varnishing with Nashi-ji-urushi or Se-shime, rubbing with magnolia charcoal and water, and finally the several processes for obtaining the requisite polish. In cheap lacquer wares, wherever Taka-makiye is used, bronze powder and tin dust are substituted for precious metal, and the whole work is executed at low price and correspondingly small outlay of art or time. It is in the same relation to the exquisite accomplishments of the Makiye-shi, that the wall decoration of the house painter is to the frescoes of the eminent artist. A more comprehensive discussion of the many art fancies and methods of which the Japanese artist avails himself, including the inlaying of ivory, mother-of-pearl, and precious metals, is manifestly quite im- possible, and any further explanation in this direction would be neither of interest nor use. In the moonlight autumn scene (Plate VII.) the artist has em- ployed several of the decorations mentioned under Hira-makiye and Taka-makiye. In it we have night represented by means of the irregularly strewn Nashi-ji on the black lacquer, and by the moon behind a cloud. Autumn is indicated by the wild geese (Gan) flying down, and the two favourite flowers, Kiku-no-hana (CJirysantliemum sj>.) at the right, and Omina-meshi (Patrinia sp.) at the left. The geese, banks of the stream, and flowers are in relief, and are executed last. The flowing water is produced very much as the sample of spotted lacquering (Plate VI. fig. c), and Kin-ji (gold ground),Gin-ji(silver ground),and Nashi-ji (pear ground) may be recognised in different places. There is also noticeable in the feathers of the geese, the careful modelling and chasing of the relief before it has received the gold ornamentation. Only one other decorative form of raised lacquer work, the Giyo-bu-Nashi-ji, remains to be briefly noticed. It is often seen on tree-trunks and rocks, is always done in pure gold, and is an unmistakable token of careful labour. We see it on the raised banks of the stream, laid on with squares of gold leaf in rows like paving stones, decreasing in size in the distance, and gradually lost. These pieces of gold leaf, called Kiri-kane (see 1, p. s6y), are laid on one after the other with the point of the Hirame-fude (see 7, p. 355) on the places designed and still moist with lacquer. Tsui-shiu, Carved Cinnabar Lacquer, or Peking Lacquer. In our Industrial Art Museums, small tables are to be seen from China and Japan, and bearing the name Peking lacquer, or carved lacquer work. Some of these are made with open-work ornamentation, and there are dishes, boxes (Fig. 13), and other articles which differ widely from the earlier mentioned work in their beautiful and very peculiar modes of decoration. On the ground- work intended for this variety, cinnabar lacquer is applied partly 372 ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. pure and partly mixed v/ith R6-iro, and then several shades of brown in even layers, till finally a firm crust from I to 2 millimeters thick is formed. The varied ornamentation of arabesques, flowers, human and animal figures, life scenes and whole landscapes and battle pieces are then engraved upon it, or carved out with a sharp knife, so that the several layers of different coloured material are seen distinctly. This work of course is only possible when the lacquer was warm. •-— m ■%n.. ;:.-SV.-i;i '■. .r>--.„^v ? :.; ■■'■■,., -1?;^^ //-' "'■■:<: -mm m '« : mm Fig. 13. — cover of a box ornamented with tsui-shiu. This variety of lacquer work was very popular in China in earlier times. The Emperor Kenriu, for instance, in A.D. 1766, in honour of General Akui, who had successfully put down a great rebellion at Pasen in Western China, ordered a picture of the battle in red lacquer, and also a second picture of equal size to commemorate the entry of the victorious troops into the capital, and their re- ception. 1 The process was later introduced into Japan by one of the 1 See Wikowski ; "Erklarung zweier chinesischer Bilder aus rothem Lack," in 10 Heft d. deutschen Gesellschaft Ostasiens. Yokohama, 1876. LACQUER WORK. 373 Chinese, whose son so altered the method, that he employed varie- gated mixtures for the single layers between the black and red lacquer, and then engraved the ornamentation deeply, or more often cut it diagonally, so that the several colours appeared one after another in parallel bands. Such work is no longer in the market in Japan, and is only obtained occasionally from dealers in antiquities. Cheap imita- tions, however, are very frequently seen. According to one process, the ornaments are cut in wood and then the whole article is evenly varnished with a thin layer of lacquer, and after drying, the carved parts are gone over with a sharp knife. In the other, which is still followed to a small extent in Kioto, a brown or dark grey putty is prepared from boiled glue, ochre and Se-shime-urushi, with the addition of wheat flour (Ko-mugi-no-ko), which is rolled out in a thin sheet. This is spread out on a board which has been freshly coated with Se-shime-urushi to secure the adhesion of the putty. The desired ornamentation is pressed into, or engraved in the putty and then left to dry. In this way the Kata, or pattern, is obtained. A second sheet of this same dough is now rolled out, laid on and pressed into the hollow form obtained from the first one, so that the ornamentation remains raised when the form is lifted off. Such a sheet of putty with its figures in relief is then applied to the article which is to be decorated, and made fast to it by a layer of Se-shime. The design is afterward re-engraved so that it may be more sharply distinct. When the material has become fully dry, the article is varnished once or more times with liquid red or brown lacquer. Trays, vases, and other vessels of wood, burned clay and porcelain are decorated in this way. The artistic value and the demand for them are however very small. Historical Facts Concerning Japanese Lacquer Industry. Although the age of this industry can scarcely be known exactly, and the legendary history which dates its beginning centuries before the Christian era deserves little credence, it may be accepted as a fact that it did not exist before the campaign against Corea in the 3rd century A.D. The Japanese maintain that Urushi-no-ki, the lacquer-tree, was earlier known in the forests of the country, and that the industry which is founded upon the use of its sap was spon- taneously developed. But all proof of this is wanting, while a variety of facts point to China as its source. For one, Rhus vernicifera has not been found growing wild anywhere in Japan, but has sometimes been confused with Rhus sylvestris. Others show that the methods and utensils used in Japan are precisely the same as those which have been used for centuries in the lacquer in- dustry of China. This much may be certainly derived from several 374 ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS portions of the not very reliable history of Japan, that this branch of industry was little known during the first six hundred years. And as the Japanese owe all their other art industries to China and Corea, we may be safe in concluding that the lacquer art also, and probably the lacquer-tree with it, became known to the Japanese from their western neighbours just after the commencement of the third century, or, after their first expedition to Corea. Undoubtedly, lacquer as a protective and an ornamental covering of a variety of materials and articles did not attain great importance before the middle of the 7th century. Kotoku-Tenno, the 36th Mikado (645 to 654 A.D.) was the first to have the paper Kamuri, the peculiar ceremonial head covering of former times, covered with black lacquer. The ordinance also of a somewhat later time, which allowed those provinces in which lacquer industry prevailed to pay their taxes to the State in the form of lacquer wares, must be regarded as substantial encouragement to the further develop- ment and extension of the industry. The articles at that time were probably all lacquered in simple black, as is the case with the two oldest lacquered articles known, those preserved in the Todaiji temple at Nara. One of these, a Kesa-bako or scarf-box, so called because in it are kept the scarfs or sashes which the bonzes wore over their shoulders, belonged formerly to the priest Shotoku Taishi, who lived in the time of Kinmei Tenno (540 to 572 A.D.). The other is a Saya or sword-sheath which is said to have belonged to the Emperor Shomu, and so dates from the first half of the 8th century. Ornamentation of the lacquer coats with gold dust, and inlaying with mother-of-pearl, may be traced back likewise to the 8th century. With the rising luxury of the court and the Kuges, while the Fujiwara controlled the government, finer lacquer industry was developed in Kioto more and more. The increasing feudal power brought it also to the Daimio seats, but it flourished principally outside of Kioto, in Sakai and Kamakura. It was the custom at Kioto, in the nth and 12th centuries for the court nobles (Kuge) to have the ox-chariots, which they drove by special rights, ornamented with gold lacquer. A new impulse was given to this industry at Kioto in the beginning of the 15th century, when Ashikaga Yoshimitsu in the height of his power displayed a hitherto unknown splendour. Nevertheless, until the middle of the century (time of Ashikaga Yoshimasa), the Chinese method was faithfully followed, and all decorations, consisting mainly of the representation of blooming plants, were kept to a plain surface, Hira-makiye. Great progress was shown from this time, more freedom was developed in the choice of decorative themes ; landscapes were added to the representation of the varied forms of nature, and were enlivened by a new feature of great importance, viz. the introduc- tion of the Taka-makiye, in raised gold lacquer work. This LACQUER WORK. 375 decoration in relief, with several other specialties, even now essen- tially distinguishes Japanese lacquer wares beyond those of the Chinese, e.g., those of Canton. The period of greatest brilliancy in the old Japanese lacquer art was unquestionably the end of the 17th century, the time of the splendour-loving Shogun Tokugawa Tsunayoshi (1681 to 1709), or Jokenin according to his posthumous name. Gold lacquer articles (small chests, boxes, writing utensils, etc.) of this time are veritable masterpieces in the making of which a workman was often engaged for years, whose ornamentation was performed with surprising patience, care, fineness, and truth to nature, and whose price in our days is correspondingly high, for the great artistic perfection of many pieces is only equalled by the richness of the gold employed in the decorations. In order to understand this period and its industry correctly, we must call to mind how at this time the country was almost en- tirely shut up and thrown back upon itself ; how firmly grounded, fearing no foe, was the rule of the Tokugawa Shoguns. Thus Iyeyasu's successors in Yeddo were able to give themselves over undisturbed to the refined enjoyments of life, and as the treasures of the land were poured in upon them, and Sado's mines still yielded rich returns of gold and silver, the value of the former reaching four or five times that of the latter, it did not matter how much time nor how large a quantity of the precious metals were used which a fine lacquer work demanded, if only it was satis- factory in other regards. In proportion as Yeddo, the city of the Tokugawa, from the year 1600 grew in extent, power and appearance, it became more and more the rendezvous of the most skilful lacquer workers. The tomb of the Shogun Hidetada, in the Mausoleum at Shiba, a part of Tokio, which dates back to the second quarter of the 17th century, is undoubtedly one of the oldest and most beautiful of the large lacquered products of a high degree of perfection which have come down to us from this time. With the beginning of the 18th century the Giyo-bu Nashi-ji (see p. 371) was added to the former modes of decoration. It is named after Giyo-bu Taro, an influential lacquerer in Yeddo, whose method was largely followed. It consisted in laying small squares of gold-foil in places, e.g., on the pictured trunks of trees, a weari- some and costly mode of ornamentation, such as we often see on old Japanese lacquer work, but which we cannot appreciate as thoroughly as the Japanese themselves. Many of the fine gold lacquer wares of the time of the Tokugawa Shogun bear the simple arms of this family or of some Daimio who had ordered them. Among them are the many beautiful little chests, with box-like over-hanging covers. They were used at weddings and other festal occasions for sending presents, and were carried by heavy, elegant silk cords with tassels, which fastened 376 ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. the stiff silk cover which went around the chest and protected it. Highly prized as were the beautiful fabrics, bronzes and fine ceramics, the old prosperous families seem to have valued nothing so much, next to their swords, as a fine piece of lacquer work from the hand of a recognised master. As the old order of things in Japan was broken up, Shoguns and Daimios lost their power, and many beautiful specimens of industrial art which had hitherto been treated to a certain extent as heir-looms, and had been exhibited and admired with pride and pleasure, were neglected and trifled away, and a large number of the old and valuable lacquered articles came into the hands of traders and strangers. Their price at that time (1868-1870) is said to have been so low as to justify the often repeated expression of the seller, that it would be more profitable to burn them and to collect and sell the gold used in making them. In order to supply the export of Japanese lacquer wares, which has increased each year since then, and the home demand also, in which the much used vehicles, Jin-riki-shas, figure prominently, the increasing competition sought above all quick and cheap labour on the part of the lacquerer. His talent seemed directed only to this want, and the invention of new forms for knick-knacks and useful articles of all kinds, and to become educated in this direction only. The foreign friend and connoisseur of Japanese lacquer work, said rightly, in considering these indications, " Here disappears an illustrious feature from the past of Japan, for it will not be long before the last competent Makiye-shi of the country has passed away, the last who understood how to create with his brush, in the old way, real works of art. Then there will remain only the ordinary manufacture for the daily market, that is to say, only a weak copy of the former artistic ability and accomplishments. 1 It is high time therefore, to buy up and to save for our own collections the still remaining products of ancient art." 2 But lo, with this tendency and the impulse which the great International Exhibitions extended to Japan, the price of fine gold lacquer work rose anew. The really artistic lacquer productions were once more made to pay, and the result is that to-day there are Makiye-shi in Japan whose works may be placed side by side with the best of earlier times. 1 Wagener says appropriately, in the repeatedly quoted article on Japanese lacquer wares, that there are the same grades here as between a child's picture book and a miniature painting from a master hand, and that the more often a connoisseur beholds a really beautiful specimen of Japanese lacquer work, the greater will be his pleasure in the art. 2 The Frenchman Watlin remarked already in 1773, in his work on the lacquer art : " These Asiatic nations (Chinese and Japanese) no longer work so dili- gently and finely since, full of astonishment at our foolish fancies, they cannot furnish the ready made articles fast enough to satisfy our insatiable desires. They work more carelessly in order to increase the quantity. The amateurs therefore also make a great difference between the old and the new lacquer." LACQUER WORK. 377 At the last Paris Industrial Exhibition in 1878, one article, a lacquered three-winged screen (biobu), was prominent above all the other Japanese lacquer wares for the richness and elegance of its decorations — an exhibition piece, that even in the presence of the shields of Elkington, the bronzes of Barbedienne, and the beautiful Indian collection of the Prince of Wales, made a great impression on the lovers of art. This master piece, on which, I was told, workmen were employed two full years in Tokio, showed beyond a doubt, that the old lacquer art is still well under- stood, when time and means are richly furnished for carrying it out. A more beautiful ornamentation in raised gold lacquer work is scarcely conceivable than the magnificently executed red and white paeony blossoms in gold and silver, the several chrysanthe- mums and other flowers with their leaves, which adorned this screen. The Prize Commissioners rewarded the exhibitor, Minoda Chojiro, a merchant of Tokio, with the gold medal, and an English amateur paid the sum of 60,000 frcs. for it. Whoever has followed the progress of this industry since that time, and has noted its products in those shops in London, Paris, and Berlin, which have made it their specialty to collect and sell the better class of Japanese products of art industry, must indeed have been convinced that the endeavours and progress in this branch have not been limited to the great universal exhibitions, and cannot fail of receiving wider recognition on the part of pur- chasers. The lacquer industry of to-day is concentrated principally in and around Tokio, and the greatest export of its wares is by way of Yokohama. Most of the lacquer wares of Shidzuoka and the northern provincial cities, Wakamatsu, Yonezawa, Niigata and Noshiro are sent to this point. Shidzuoka and Niigata furnish among other things great part of the favourite oval bread baskets, made from magnolia wood, with or without the rattan covering. In Niigata not less than 200 families were supported, in 1S74, by the lacquer industry. In the valley of the upper Sai-gawa and of the Kiso-gawa, in the province of Shinano, along the Nakasendo, the towns Hirasawa, Nagai, Yabuhara and Fukushima manufacture a large amount of cheap wooden lacquer wares for the home market, chiefly soup bowls and other wooden dishes. Instead of using Kokuso-kau, the joints are painted over with a mixture of wheat flour and Se-shime-urushi. Wakayama and Kioto provide the market of Osaka and Hioga principally. At Nagoya the lacquer decoration is worked mainly upon pottery (porcelain and earthenware), in Kioto on bronze and copper. Nagasaki furnishes tortoise-shell work prin- cipally, and imitations, with some very fine gold lacquer decorations. Cabinets and other articles inlaid with mother-of-pearl are also sent largely from here, and the lacquered Arita vases with the wavy border. 378 ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. 4. Textile Industry. Hemp, Linen and Muslin. — Banana Fabrics. — Cotton Industry. — Principal Works, Places and Chief Notable Products of Silk Weaving. — Auxiliaries thereto. — Habutai, Crape; Kanoko, Brocade. — Use of Gold and Silver Paper in Brocade. — Velvet Weaving. — Embroidery. Literature. 1. E. von Bavier: "Japans Seidenzucht, Seidenhandel und Seiden-Industrie." Zurich, 1874. 2. "Officielle Berichte iiber die Textil-Industrie auf den grossen Weltaustel- lungen von 1873-1876-1878 zu Wien, Philadelphia, und Paris." 3. Prestl. : " Technologische Encylopadie, Bd. 14 und Bd. 20." 4. M. Moyret: " Traite de la Teinture des Soies, etc." Lyon, 1879. 5. E. Parant: "Etude sur la Fabrication des Tissus." Paris, 1883. 6. A. Rondot : " Essai sur le Commerce de la Soie en France." Lyon, 1883. 7. C. G. Gilroy : " The Art of Weaving by Hand and by Power." London, 1876. 8. M. M. : "The Industrial Arts. Historical Sketches." London, 1876. In this department the animal raw-material to be considered is chiefly silk ; in vegetable fibres, cotton principally, and hemp, be- sides Bohmeria bast. The last two are a substitute for flax. Their woven tissues are simple, without pattern, and some of them are very fine. Nara Jofu, hemp linen (Asa-nuno), from the old city of Nara in the province of Yamato has a high reputation. It has been already mentioned (p. 165) that hemp is the oldest culti- vated texile plant of Japan, and that the most common clothing of the country people is made of a coarse hemp fabric, coloured blue with indigo. Echigo Jofu is a sort of muslin, the linen made from the fibres of the Nettle hemp, Kara-mushi (Boehmeria nivea) from Echigo. It is bleached on the snow, and is not inferior in appearance to the finest hemp linen. A fabric is made by using a strong twisted thread for the woof, which under the influence of steam or a bath crinkles like crape silk (which see). This is called Echigo Jofu Chijimi, which when bleached to simple white or printed in indigo and other colours, furnishes a popular material for light and cool summer clothing, and is much more durable than calico. The Basho-fu or banana fabric of the Riukiu islands has been sufficiently described on p. 168. The manufacture and use of cotton materials (Jap. Momen-mono), as well as cotton cultivation, have been promoted since 1600 A.D., first under the Shogunate of Tokugawa. The summer clothing of the more prosperous classes and of the inhabitants of cities generally, has been from that time mainly of cotton. The spin- ning and weaving of cotton, however, has never advanced beyond TEXTILE INDUSTRY. 379 the stage of a house industry, and never supplied more than the domestic need. This is the case also in the cities of the pro- vinces of Kawachi and Harima, especially of Sakai and Himeji, which have the largest cotton industry. The Riukiu Islands furnish cotton materials, usually white checks on a blue ground, which are very popular on account of their strength and durability. The looms at Morioka in the North supply a considerable part of the demand, but get their raw material from the southern provinces. A cotton stuff from Narumi in the province of Owari, and called Narumi-shibori is very celebrated. The dyeing of this fabric is similar to that of Kanoko-shibori (which see), and many houses at Arimatsu, a pretty village on the Tokaidd, deal in it. The industry has accomplished all that was possible with the old looms and other appliances, but with the opening of the country to foreign competition, can scarcely keep its position. However notable the performances of the nations belonging to the Chinese system of civilization have been in the working up of the before-mentioned and other vegetable textile stuffs, they have never expended upon them any real art. It was in the nature of things that the silk manufacture should have reached a far higher degree of perfection. The excellence and remarkable fitness of the material for artistic treatment, and the many centuries of effort had so operated, that even in the Middle Ages, e.g., in Marco Polo's time, the Chinese could furnish silk velvet, brocade, and other fine fabrics at moderately cheap prices, not only to Western Asia, but also to the districts near thereto. We read for instance, in the work of Antonio de Morga, 1 that the Chinese junks which came in the spring with the then ruling north-western monsoon, from Macao, Canton, and other ports to Manila, brought " raw silk, velvet, plain and also embroidered in various patterns, silk brocade of many colours and patterns, and ornamented with gold and silver (all the gold threads, however, were of paper and spurious), damask, satin, taffetas, etc." Even more interesting is an item from Linschoten, 2 which ex- pressly states that the Portuguese got silver from Japan in exchange for silk wares, which they brought from Macao, although at the time of the conquest of Malacca (151 1 a.D.) by Albuquerque, ac- cording to a note made by the son of this Portuguese general, the Gores (Japanese ?) brought already silk and brocade among other things to Malacca. 3 The apparent discrepancy between these two statements is 1 "The Philippine Islands, Moluccas, Siam, Cambodia, Japan and China at the close of the sixteenth century, byA.de Morga." London: Hakluyt Soc. 1868, p. 337 ff. 2 " The voyage of J. H. van Linschoten to the East Indies, etc., from the old English translation of 1598, by A. Burnell.'"' Hakluyt Society, 1875, p. 147 ff. 3 Crawford : "Descriptive Dictionary of the Malay Archipelago," p. 164. 38o ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. not: difficult to reconcile. As appears from the previous observa- tions concerning silk culture in Japan (observations also true of silk industry), it is limited to Hondo, the principal island. It was so always, undoubtedly. It is therefore easy to believe that in the 1 2th century this island exported silk stuffs, while the island of Kiushiu, with which the Portuguese had to do, almost exclusively received them during the latter part of the 16th century from China via Macao, not to mention the fact that internal wars and dissensions in the capital Kioto might sometimes check the expor- tation of silk to the southern islands ; so that Nagasaki was pro- bably more easily supplied with stuff from China than from the manufacturing and commercial cities of Hondo. Be this as it may, however, the fact remains that those Europeans who were particu- larly interested, in 1859, when the export of Japanese silk began, had no idea of the high standard to which the Japanese silk industry had reached. Nevertheless, as in China, so also in Japan, silk weaving had been for several centuries one of the finest examples of artistic excellence. It shows to-day, also, what high develop- ment an industry can attain, even with imperfect working appliances, in the hands of an artistic, skilful, and persevering people. Up to 1859, the silk culture and silk manufacture of the country supplied nothing more than the domestic trade. Thunberg thinks the reason that the fabrics did not reach European markets, was solely owing to their narrow width. 1 When at the Vienna Exhibition of 1873, Japan for the first time displayed the variety, richness, and tasteful collection of its Kinu, or silk factories, not only were the ordinary visitors astonished at these unsuspected accomplishments, but even more the well- informed Prize Commissioners. There were simple, smooth stuffs, and surprisingly beautiful twilled fabrics full of softness and ele- gance, with heavy brocades and other figured materials of a beauty utterly unanticipated, besides some entirely new appliances and designs. Though, it is true, the Chinese were the teachers and models to the Japanese in silk manufactures, yet here, as in so many other instances, the pupil has outstripped the master. There is no better recognition of the work of Japanese silk weaving than the judgment of the competent Prize Commissioner of the Vienna Exhibition, Al. Heimendahl, the President of the Crefeld Chamber of Commerce. He writes in his Report on Silk and Silk Wares as follows : " However much one may be inclined to shake the head at much that is burlesque and bizarre in design, and at the peculiar tendencies of style, all that is not beautiful is ennobled by one com- mon feature, everywhere to be seen — pleasure and perseverance in work. But besides these noted eccentricities there is, on the other hand, such a fine sense of form and colour, whether it be manifest in 1 " Silkens handelen blomstrar val innom Riket, men for den smalhet, som tygerne har aga kunna de icke utforasoch af Europeerne nytjas." — Thunberg ; Resa uti Europa, Africa, Asia, iv. p. 105. Upsala, 1793. TEXTILE INDUSTRY. 381 materials of the softest shading, or the most spirited designs ; in or- naments of mingled gold and silver which do not so much imitate nature as use her suggestions for new and fantastic forms — that they excel anything brought to the Exhibition from European art looms." While the silk culture of Japan received a great impulse at the opening of the new commerce and the restoration of Mikado-rule, silk manufacture has been much and variously damaged thereby. The cheap cotton and wool stuffs thrown upon the market from foreign countries for several decades, compete constantly more strongly with silk materials. Most of the velvet looms were obliged fifteen years ago to suspend competition with the extraordinarily cheap cotton velvets of Manchester. And it has come about that the export of raw silk, beginning in 1859 and rapidly increasing in succeeding years, to which that of silkworm eggs was soon added, has had a great influence on the price of raw silk, which has risen within a few years to ten or sixteen-fold. Many of the Japanese, under such circumstances, found themselves obliged to give up their custom of wearing silk clothing, and to use the much cheaper wool- len and cotton material. Japanese silk industry on the other hand, with all its fine pro- ducts, could not gain new markets of any consequence, for the change from hand to machine weaving has not yet taken place with them. They still work after their old fashion with hand- looms, such as were used in Europe a hundred years ago. Even the change from narrow breadths, especially in smooth fabrics, of 34 to 45 centimeters, to the greater widths common in Europe has been accomplished but slowly, and is not even yet at all universal. After the steam loom had begun to revolutionize the silk industry in Europe, there could be no more Japanese competition. 1 Not until the example of Europe in this respect is followed will the cheaper labour power and greater skill and aptitude avail to put the Japanese on a new basis of competition with foreign coun- tries in its silk industry. And that, of course, opens to house industry no very inviting future. As the Filanda founded at To- mioka in 1872 with its steam power rendered the small reeling es- tablishments, which could no longer compete with it, gradually useless, hundreds of web looms and those dependent upon them will be concerned in the new manner of silk manufacture. Kioto takes now, as for many centuries past, the first place in Japanese silk industry, with her figured silks of all kinds, especially gold wrought brocades, rich with flowers and other ornaments, her figured damasks and crapes, reps, velvet, and other beautiful fabrics. The weaving and dyeing establishments are located in the western part of the city known as Nishi-jin, i.e., " West barracks," and are constantly increasing. According to Bavier, there are 1,800 silk 1 The Taiping Revolution gave silk weaving in China as well as art industry of all kinds a shock from which the country has never fully recovered. Since 1S54, the export has in no year reached its former amount. 332 ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. weavers in Kioto and vicinity, and about 6,000 looms with a pro- duct in raw silk of 6,000 bales of 50 kilogrammes each. The value of the fabric manufactured from this is placed at 20,000,000 yen, or over ^"3,921,568. The silk weavers form free corporations, according to their special employments, for improvement of their common concerns. There is for example a Moyo-sha, or picture- weaving guild, from which have branched off the Kin-ran-sha, or silk-brocade guild, and the Tsuzure-sha for inlaid brocade work. Kioto has also a Chirimen-sha, or crape guild ; and from it have separated the Kanoko-sha, also a Habutai-sha, a Shaori-sha or gauze-weavers' guild, a Natsu-gi-sha or guild for manufacturers of summer goods, a Birodo-sha or velvet-weavers' guild, and several more. Besides the old domestic dye-stuffs (see pages 175-182) the European aniline dyes are used more and more, also other pro- ducts of our chemical colour industry, and so successfully too that it is thought in Japan that Kioto water (of the Kamo-gawa) assimilates them as no others, therefore the Kioto dyers cannot be equalled. The sale of Kioto silk wares and those of other cities is carried on principally at Osaka, although in this as in trade generally Tokio competes with it very strongly. The most extensive silk warehouses are, however, in Osaka, old well-known houses that employ from 80-100 Bantos (clerks), and carry on a very large business. Kiriu, a little city in the province of Joshiu (Kodzuke) east of Mayebashi, near the boundary of Shimotzuke, has next to Kioto the most important silk manufacture. Like many other places in the province, particularly Mayebashi, TakasakJ, and Isesaki, Kiriu, is distinguished mainly for its Shusu (satin), and other simple, light silk fabrics and half-silk materials, of which it manufactures more than Kioto. It has also an important crape manufacture, and furnishes besides several sorts of Obi, or ladies' sashes. Chirimen or crape silk is made principally, besides here and at Kioto, — At Tanabe and Miatsu in the province of Tango. ,, Nagahama on the Biwa Lake „ „ „ Omi. „ Kano and Gifu „ „ „ Mino. The broad Obi, or sashes for women and girls, are woven in specially fine qualities — At Hakata in the province of Chikuzen on Kiushiu. „ Yonezawa „ „ „ Uzen. and in the before-mentioned Kiriu. Besides these, Fukushima in Iwashiro, Sendai in Rikuzen, Akita in Ugo, Kofu in Koshiu, Kana- zawa in Kaga, Hachioji in Musashi, and even Tokio the capital, carry on silk industries of a particular kind ; Akita for instance, a many-striped Tsumugi, a strong fabric from spun silk waste, whose full name is Kudzu-ito-tsumugri. TEXTILE INDUSTRY. 3S3 Between silk culture, which properly ends with the delivery of the dead cocoons at the reeling establishment (when the cultivator does not himself manage the reeling), and the manufacture, is the silk spinner. He works up the silk waste into flurt or floss silk, which is of great importance in the manufacture of velvet, and the grege or reeled silk into organsin and trame, warp and woof threads. In this the doubling and twisting machines are used, which the French call moidins and therefore designate often the entire pre- paration of reeled silk for its several purposes, moulinage, by which the thread acquires the necessary evenness, strength and dura- bility. In reeling off the thread of the cocoons, from 3 to 15 (in Japan usually 8 to 13) threads are spun together in a grege thread according to the size (the titre) of the Ki-ito or raw silk that may be desired. To make the strong Yama-mai thread from 5 to 6 cocoons are generally taken in reeling. Usually the organsine threads, for which the best reeled silk is used, have a double twisting, and are therefore dull compared with the woof threads, as in all smooth lustrous fabrics. With crape it is just the reverse. Here the warp, Jap. Tate, is smooth and less twisted and the cross threads, Jap. Yoko-ito, or woof threads, Jap. Naki-ito on the other hand are doubly twisted and dull. In weaving smooth, even or twilled fabrics like Shusu (satin), Nanako (taffeta), Sha and R6 (varieties of floss silk), Tsumugi (waste material), the old handlooms or Hata are used in Japan and the simbolt loom in making figured silks or Mon-ginu. This latter has essentially the same arrangement as was universal in Europe before the introduction of the Jacquard looms in damask weaving. The double facing or the interchange (raising and dropping) of the groups of warp threads known as bobbins, is managed by a draw- boy sitting overhead on a board. Many sorts of figures are wrought with this variety of the common handloom. Bavier gives a very good representation of it in Plate IV. fig. 2 of his book, but it is especially adapted to the manufacture of figured satin, crape and brocade. It remains still to discuss more minutely those products of Japanese silk industry which differ essentially from the European, or are distinguished by remarkable beauty and quality. Habutaye (pronounced Habutai) or Kabe-habutai, a peculiar ribbed white silk fabric is one of the most magnificent plain silks that Japan can show. It is wavy in texture, a medium between crape and reps. Both warp and woof are much thicker than in smooth and twilled stuffs, and the woof threads are loose and peculiarly twisted. One thin thread of two strands winds in long spirals about a thicker thread consisting of 6 raw-silk strands. This produces not only the peculiar wavy ribbing of the silk, but also its greater fulness and pliancy. In its thickness and softness Habutai resembles velvet, from which it is entirely different in other respects. 384 ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. This fabric has always been popular for the festal clothing of the nobles, and the court used often to make gifts of it. Japanese reports say that the Mikado in his excursion through Middle and Northern Hondo presented many ells of Habutai to his hosts. Kabe Habutai is always woven in broader widths than the common smooth or twilled silks. In 1875, a piece of 1&6 meters, 70 centi- meters broad, cost in Kioto, 13 yen, or a little more than £2 10s. The most popular rough, lustreless silk of Japan, both plain and figured, undoubtedly is Chirimen or crape. While the manufacture of the several kinds, as well as their appearance, is considerably different, there is one trait common to them all. It consists in this, that both threads are made quite strong, but the woof thread is twisted on the twisting machine, part to the right and part to the left. In the weft the double twisted warp thread alternates with the two different kinds. When the piece (Tan or I'tan) is finished it is placed in a bath, undergoes a considerable shrinkage, especially in breadth, is then washed in water, and before drying is stretched and rolled on a wooden cylinder, then perfectly dried in the sun. Crape of this kind, for the making of which the so-called crape machine is unknown, can only be dyed in the piece. The crimping of the fabric in the bath, narrows the width from 20 to 30 per cent., but the length, only about 10 per cent. It will be evident that this shrinkage and the uneven surface are due to the peculiar twisting of the weft. Crape, when it comes from the loom is light and porous, but the meshes close during the bath and drying. Its durability is much greater and its price correspond- ingly higher than that of smooth fabrics. Bavier, in Plate II. fig. 2 of his above-mentioned work, gives an excellent illustration of the twisting machine used in Japan, which prepares the woof threads for Chirimen. By it, from 24 to 48 woof threads are strongly twisted at the same time, half to the right, and half to the left. The apparatus is called in Japan O-guruma — the great wheel — after the most prominent feature, a great thread wheel turned by the hand, which sets all the spools and reels on both sides in motion. Plain Chirimen weaving is carried on extensively in Nagahama, on the north-east shore of the Biwa Lake. Usually two or three looms are to be found in a house, one for O-haba, the widest breadth of 84 centimeters, one for Ko-haba, narrow width of 45 to 60 centimeters, and one for Kinu-chijimi, a wrinkled-looking fabric, that becomes wavy after the bath, but still differs from crape. For crape fabrics warp and woof are made from six or seven simple strands of reeled silk, and the woof thread twisted very hard. In weaving, the shuttle with the left twisted thread goes in and out, and then a second follows with the one twisted to the right. Thus two threads with a left torsion are followed by two having a right torsion. The finished web is boiled in an iron kettle for some hours with straw ashes and water, and a bluish shade is often given TEXTILE INDUSTRY. 3 S: it by a small addition of indigo. After the bath it is washed, stretched on the cylinder and then dried. A Tan, or piece, 60 Japanese feet (iS'iS m.) long and 19-J inches (59 cm.) broad, after coming from the bath had shrunk to 54 feet (i6"377 m -) m length and 14! inches (44 cm.) in breadth, or about 10 per cent, in the former and 25*4 per cent, in the latter direction. A very excellent Mon-Chirimen or figured crape is woven at Kano on the Nakasendo. In order to raise the pattern sufficiently from the dull crape ground, it must be formed by lustrous un- twisted threads, therefore, either in the warp, or also with the aid of special woof threads. In the first case, and that is the common kind, the Mon-Chirimen resembles damask, and differs from figured satin principally in its dull ground. In other cases, the pattern lies upon the surface and the work resembles broche or brocade. The Yama-mai threads are used in a very interesting way for both kinds of Mon-Chirimen. In common Yama-mai-non-Chirimen or figured Yama-mai' crape, the threads of the oak-spinner (9 to 10 cocoon threads are twisted into one warp thread) are taken and with these or the common warp threads figures are formed which are defined by their different colours. When the web is dyed, which is usually done in Kioto, the Yama-mai' threads are still bright and lustrous, as they do not take up the colour. The Yama-mai silk is often used in the Shima-chirimen or striped crape for yellowish green, lustrous stripes, and for the figures also of Kudzu-ito-tsumugi or fabrics made from silk waste. But I have never seen fabrics made exclusively from the silk of the Japanese oak-spinners. For all remaining observations I refer to what I have said on this subject on pp. 208-213. Kanoko, Kanoko-shibori or Kanoko-sha-chirimen, 1 is the name of a peculiar, light, deeply wrinkled silk stuff which is used by Japanese women as a hair ornament or neck band, made into the form of a roll with tassels at the ends. Kanoko is the best material for both these purposes. It is usually dyed a beautiful red or violet colour, with larger or smaller round white spots, regularly scattered over it in reticular form at intervals of one centimeter or more. It is made only in Kioto, and in the following manner. Two breadths of a very light crape made in the province of Tango are taken just as they come from the loom, stiffened and pasted together with Funori (sea-weed paste). When dry, the pattern is drawn, usually straight lines crossing each other at right angles, then the material is rubbed thoroughly with the hands to make it soft and pliant again. When this is done, the under-bind- ing follows. For this process, a frame on which a brass hook is fastened is commonly used. The fabric is caught on this hook and pulled out, at each crossing of the lines in the design, and then 1 Kanoko : a. a young deer ; b. spotted like a young deer ; Shibori : bound, buttoned ; Sha : silk flower fabric, or gauze with simple warp ; Chirimen : crape. II. C C 386 ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. bound fast underneath with several windings of hemp thread. This knotting of Kanoko-chirimen is a tedious, unpaying process, falling usually to old women and children. When the under-bind- ing is finished, then follows the bath, and dyeing, drying and stretching of the deeply wrinkled material. The threads used for under-binding become free and are pulled out, and the under- bound spots make a white pattern on the Turkish red, peach- blossom or violet ground. The Obi, or girdles with which Japanese ladies fasten their long garments (Kimono) at the waist, are made on particular looms, from the finest silk. They are varied in appearance ; sometimes smooth, sometimes ribbed figured fabrics 16 to 24 centimeters broad, and 3 or 4.5 meters in length, so that they may be tied in bows at the back. The finest are the Hakata-obi, but the Koyanagi-obi also in thick satin from Kiriu, the ribbed Donsu-obi from Yonezawa and several others are highly prized. Garments of brocade, Jap. Nishiki, i.e. heavy fringed silk in- wrought with gold and silver, the richest and costliest which textile industry in general can furnish, have always been used for ceremonial garments by Chinese and Japanese princes, and for the furnishings of the richer theatres and temples. In Kioto the brocade manufacture has stood from the beginning under the special protection of the reigning Mikado, and that it has main- tained itself in full strength to this time, in spite of unfavourable conditions, is due at least in part to the constant imperial protection and encouragement. When in 1868 Prince Arisugavva undertook the chief command against the " Eastern Rebels " (adherents of the Tokugawa dynasty), he received from the Mikado the brocade banner and sword, as tokens of the imperial power and cause. After the entry into Yeddo, every Samurai sewed a brocade stripe on his Kimono (coat), over which the inhabitants of the capital of the Tokugawa made merry, calling them the imperial Kingire or brocade rags. The high estimation of brocade is manifested also in several proverbial expressions, e.g. : " Kokio ye Nishiki," i.e., " Clothe yourself in brocade when you return home ; " the sense of which is ; " Return not homeward till you have gained something for your- self in the foreign land." This is more beautiful : " Tzuzure wo kite mo kokoro wa Nishiki," or " He wears rags, it is true, but his heart is of brocade." There are two kinds of brocade in Kioto — Ito-nishike, gold- thread brocade, and Aya-nishiki, silk damask brocade, or brocade inwrought with flowers. A beautiful piece of the former, 44 centi- meters broad, and 5454 meters long, designed for the Mikado, was said to cost 30 yen or over £6 ; another of the same width and 1 1 "5 meters long, 45 yen, about £g ; and for a third, 71 centimeters long and 8'5 centimeters broad, 50 yen, or £\o, was offered. The use of gold and silver paper in the Japanese brocades has Rein, Japan. II. Plate VIII. Brocade Pattern from Kioto. Wilhelm Eugelmann, Leipzig. TEXTILE INDUSTRY. awakened great interest with European silk manufacturers. The paper is cut into narrow strips and is then either spun around silk thread or is itself twisted into a thread, and woven in. The fabrics in this way look just as if they were inwrought with genuine gold and silver threads, but differ in that they are cheaper and more flexible. To make Kin-gami or gold paper, Usude-Torinoko-gami, a Gampi or Kodzo paper (see Paper Industry) is painted over on one side with a mixture of raw lacquer (Ki-urushi) and sulphur (I wo), and rubbed smooth with paper balls or pillows, when it is overlaid with genuine gold-foil (Kin-paku) and then the entire gold covering is rubbed over with loose cotton balls. The Hon-kin-gami, or genuine gold paper, so prepared, can be used immediately after drying. In making Gin-gami or silver paper, the sulphur must of course be left out. This is prepared with Shorn or wheat-flour paste instead of lacquer, and then overlaid with Gin-paku, or silver-foil. An imita- tion is made with tin-foil (Shari or Sudzu-haku) which is fastened to the paper with Shofu. Silver and tin-foil are also used to imitate genuine gold paper, receiving a coating of colour for this purpose. Such a coating is prepared by the aid of a yellow solution and glue- water, through which the white metal underneath appears of a greenish yellow colour with a bright lustre. Other gold-yellow shades are obtained by coating the white metal-foil with a mixture of Shofu and Beni (carthamine) or Beni-gara (red oxide of iron). The real and the imitated gold and silver paper prepared in one way or the other, are cut by a machine into narrow strips, Kin-shi and Gin-shi, or gold and silver threads, which are spun with silk or cotton threads. Of course only the real gold or silver paper is used in valuable brocades. In spinning it with silk the thread runs from the little reel of a hanging spindle over a frame. The strip of gold or silver paper is held with the paper side towards the thread and the spindle set in motion, whereby the narrow strip winds itself around the thread and is bound tightly to it. When one strip is wound, another is taken, and so on. 1 Tzudzu-re-no-nishiki or brocading with short threads. In 1875 Yasuda Mosaburo manufactured in Kioto a kind of brocade bearing this name, after a peculiar process. Warp and woof consisted of strong, twisted silk and gold-paper threads. The case of the loom was wanting, therefore there was no proper fastening and the cross threads were laid in with the fingers and pushed in with a comb by hand, as was done universally in olden times. The pattern 1 It may be of interest to know that the Industrial Art Museum in Berlin has not only samples of the several brocades, but also these paper metal threads. The collection contains : Hon-kin-gami, genuine gold paper, and Usu-kin-gami, thin gold paper, Shari-gin-gami, tin-silver paper. Shari-kin- gami, tin-gold paper, also the same with a greenish appearance, and Hon-kin- shi, real gold-paper thread over silk, Iro-hon-kin-shi, gold-silver threads on silk, Iro-kin-shi, tin-foil gold on cotton, Kiri-kin-shi cut tin-gold paper strips, and other samples. 388 ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. on paper laid under the warp, and the coloured woof threads were chosen accordingly, but did not extend across the entire breadth but only so far as needed by the figure, and the next figures were filled out with other colours before or after. Beautiful table cloths and Fukusa, i.e. fabrics for wrapping up and covering presents, for example, fine lacquer-wares and other articles, were manufactured in this way, as well as material for little bags — especially Tabako- ire, for preserving cut tobacco. Their value and price were of course far behind that of the genuine brocades. We have also to mention the Yuzen-somi. A peculiar art, practised by Hata Zenshiki and others in Kioto, consisting in painting the pattern on the finished silk fabric. For this purpose, the interstices between the figures of the design are covered with Nori (paste) to protect from capillary attraction and the running of the colours at the edges. The rest of the process is very much like painting on silk in general. In the manufacture of Birodo or velvet, nothing was formerly attempted but the plain and the ribbed fabric. 1 The apparatus for making it resembles our earlier velvet looms. The pile of the upper part of the warp is wound around parallel copper sticks or needles. When the fabric is finished, the nap or meshes are cut by a knife running between two jacks, and the needles are taken out. The Japanese velvet manufacture has its seat in Kioto and Nagahama. In 1874 it was entirely abandoned at Ishida, a place east of the Biwa Lake and not far from Nagahama, because, as one manu- facturer told me, the import had so run down the price, and on the other hand the export of raw silk had so increased its value, that it was impossible to manufacture with profit. Nui-mono or Nui-haku, embroidery, especially with silk on silk or woollen material, is closely connected with silk weaving. It is a highly developed branch of Japanese art industry, in which the ruling traits of Japanese workmen, pleasure and satisfaction in the product of their labour, combined with carefulness, great skill, and admirable taste, are again displayed. By an ingenious alternation and combination of flat embroidery and feather-stitch, sewing on cords and the like, and a wise choice, association, and shading of colours, surprising effects are produced, and a considerable degree of life is communicated to the flowers, birds, butterflies, and other subjects copied by the needle. Embroidery has been an employment in Japanese houses from ancient times till now. Mothers teach their daughters at an early age to form a pleasing mosaic with different coloured patches, from which they make covers for chopsticks and tooth-picks, battle- dores for a kind of shuttle-cock game, and other articles. When older, making and adorning of dolls' clothes furnish a large oppor- 1 During the last few years, they have, however, succeeded in covering ribbed velvet with pictures in different colours and shades, which are real works of art, and at least equal to anything of the kind woven in France. Rein, JapanR Flak IX. Eigelmanii, Leipzig LWlAiiX. v Werner Sc Winter. Frankfurt ". EMBROIDERY PATTERN PAPER INDUSTRY. 3S9 tunity for further cultivation of skill and taste. Embroidery, how- ever, has not become a means of livelihood among the female population, but in its finest forms has been long the work of men. The ceremonial silk garments, theatre costumes, rich robes of the priests, Fukusa or silk materials for wrapping presents and other articles, all ornamented with Nui-haku, and many other fabrics, are all from the hands of men. In Kioto, Nagoya and several other cities, they embroider the beautiful panels of screens, pillow covers, table cloths, etc., which have been exported for some time past, and are so justly appreciated in Europe. If one walks through certain streets of these cities on a summer day, he will see men and boys at work at their embroidery in front of the houses. The silk or woollen material to be embroidered is stretched over a frame, both ends of which are laid on two wooden blocks or some other supports, some 50 or 60 centimeters high, so that the needle may be easily put through from both sides. Birds, flowers, and other things to be copied are designed on a pattern or stitched free hand on the material. Oftentimes this silk em- broidery is connected very skilfully with the painting or printing of the material and also with the designs of figured silks, including brocades, and in such case appears as a further decoration in relief. (Plate VIII. p. 386 represents a brocade pattern, and Plate IX. p. ^S8 a piece of Japanese embroidery.) 5. Paper Industry. General Properties of Japanese Paper. — Materials for its Manu- facture, and how obtained. — Making and Employment of the Principal Kinds of Japanese Bast-Paper. — Couched Board : Ita-mc-gami and Hari-uuki. — Paper Hangings — Chirimen- gami, or Crape Paper. — Leather Paper, or Kami-kawa. — Shi-fu, or Paper Fabric. — Oil Paper, Waterproof Cloaks, Screens, Lan- terns and Fans. — Appendix : Sumi-ire, the Japanese Writing Box and its contents : Brush, Indian Ink, and Ink Dish. Literature. 1. Kaempfer : " History of Japan." Appendix. 1S27. 2. Savatier : Usages et Fabrication du Papier Japonais, in " Bull, de la Soc. de Ge'ogr. de Rochefort."' 1SS1. p. 20. 3. "Report on the Manufacture of Paper in Japan" (English Consul's Report). 1 87 1. 4. " K6 yeki koku san ko" (pronounced Koekikosdnko), i.e. " Observations on the Extension of the Useful Productions of the Country." Vol. viii. By Okura Nagatsume. Osaka, 1884. Vols. v. and viii. 5. St. Julien: " Industries de l'Empire Chinois." Paris, 1869. pp. 140-150. 39o ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. 6. " Wiener Ausstellungsberichte iiber die XI. Gruppe." By R. Weber, E. Twerdy und Andern. 1873. 1 7. M. Jametel : " L'encre de Chine d'apres des documents Chinois." Paris, 1882. The manifold uses of paper 2 in Japan have been repeatedly- mentioned in the old accounts of the country. E. Kaempfer especi- ally, nearly two hundred years ago, observed and described the making and use of this paper so well, that he has not found his equal during the long period of the Dutch trade privilege, and still less in the preceding time of the Portuguese trade with this Orient of the Chinese. If much that he has written is un- reliable, it must be attributed chiefly to the circumstances under which he passed two years in Japan, the strict commercial limitations, and the lack of opportunity to enter and inspect the interior of the country. In modern times, not only every foreigner in Japan, but every visitor at the Universal Exhibitions of Vienna, Philadelphia, and Paris, could easily observe how manifold are the uses of this peculiar material. It serves all the purposes for which we use paper : for book printing and making of wall papers, for writing and packing material, — and in addition to these, it is a substitute for string and cloth, oilcloth and leather, and even wood, iron, and glass. Many of its uses sprang from the lack of proper material, ' or its light, cheap nature — as for window panes and handkerchiefs, umbrellas and parasols — and will surely, though gradually, pass away under foreign influence. Others are founded on some of its properties, especially the great pliability, firmness, and durability which distinguishes Japanese hand-made paper over our machine- made, and even over our firmer rag-paper, and thus will last as long as it maintains these excellent qualities. These advantages are based on the material and the manner of manufacture, for the Japanese hand-made paper is made of the very tough and pliant inner bark of from three to six species of deciduous trees, which have long, tough fibre cells, and in transforming this into paper pulp it is not cut and hacked, but by pounding and beating is only softened and separated, so that the long cells remain whole. In this way the Japanese bark paper evinces a surprising tough- ness and flexibility, and combines the softness of silk paper with the firmness of a woven texture. Like its kindred Tapa of the Polynesians, it occupies a middle place between our smooth, brittle machine paper and a woven fabric, and can in many cases be em- ployed like the latter, but will not withstand moisture. As the felting and twisting of the long, tender fibres is excluded by the 1 The foundation of the treatise now in hand has been chiefly the Report of the Prussian Minister of Trade, of the 25th of January, 1875, which is based on personal studies and observations. 2 The Japanese name for paper is Kami, and as an affix to the proper name it is changed into garni, for which the Chinese word shi is often used. PAPER INDUSTRY. . 391 manner of making, and the slimy or gum-like vegetable cements are dissolved in water, its firmness and toughness disappear when it is wet, that is in all cases when the contact with water is not excluded by saturating it with oil or lac. In the manufacture of the Japanese tub or hand-made paper, the workman holds the form or scoop-net so that the parallel bam- boo splinters or threads run from right to left. He lifts and lowers the form in front of him and at right angles to that direction, caus- ing the fibres of the material to move toward this side and lie there. The consequence is that each sheet of Japanese bark paper is torn easily and straight in this one direction, but with difficulty and crooked and with a fuzzy edge in the other. The Japanese knows and observes this fact whenever he tears a strip off for a string, making the rent in the direction of the parallel fibres. The smoothness, evenness, and firmness of Japanese paper is not effected by special sizing and glazing. Nevertheless each sheet has usually a rough and a smooth side, which are designated Omote and Ura, i.e. outer and inner side. 1 These names relate to the pro- cess of book printing, in which only the smooth side is printed. The sheet is then so arranged in the middle that the fold comes on the outside, the parallel ends lying one above another in the back, the rough side of both half sheets facing inward, and the printed, smooth side facing outward. The one side becomes smooth, however, in comparison with the other in the drying pro- cess. After the prepared and shaped sheet is firm enough, it is pasted up with a large brush against a smooth, planed board, and placed in the air to dry. The side next to the board will naturally be much smoother than the outside, so that in this respect the de- signations Omote and Ura must be changed in order to make them harmonize with the fact. The porosity of Japanese paper unfits it, save in exceptional in- stances, for writing on with pen and ink ; but it is well adapted to the Japanese mode of writing with brush and Indian ink, from the top of the page downward and in rows from right to left. The smooth, firm, machine-made paper, so advantageous for our way of writing, would not absorb the Indian ink so well, and so fail in its purpose. In consequence of its porous nature, the pure bark paper absorbs moisture and holds dust more easily than our stiff, smoothed machine paper, with its mineral substances. It is also more open to the depredation of insects. The hygroscopic ab- sorption of water is, however, with ordinary dry keeping never so great as to appreciably injure it. There is no peculiar process of bleaching in Japan, nor anywhere 1 German drawing-paper is generally smooth on one side and granulated on the other, as is the beautiful hand-made paper of J. W. Zanders in Bergisch- Gladbach. The English drawing-paper is like German writing-paper, smooth on both sides, while the French Torchon on the other hand is particularly thick, and granulated on both sides. 392 ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. else in Eastern Asia, or in the Himalayas, where bark-paper is made. It has always therefore a yellow tint, varying according as the raw material may be whitened or not by the water and other ingredients used in the manufacture for softening it. According to Grosier, 1 Chinese historians report that the art of paper-making was invented in China about 105 A.D., by Tsai-lun. Previous to this, the Chinese wrote on tissues of hemp and silk, on bamboo tablets and palm leaves ; and in Farther India palm leaves are still used in this way. The leaves of the palmyra palm (Borassus flabelliformis) especially serve this purpose in the Malay Archipelago, where, as in the South Sea Islands, the manufacture of paper, says Crawford, 2 remains unknown even to the latest times. The Chinese make paper out of the pith of the Aralia papyri- fera from Formosa, which is the so-called rice-paper, and from young bamboo cane, rice and wheat straw, rushes, cotton, hemp, and the inner bark of several plants, especially the paper mulberry. They also work up old paper into new of an inferior kind, as do also the Japanese. It is said by Grosier that the people of a whole village in the vicinity of Peking support themselves by collecting and cleaning waste paper. In Southern China, the brittle paper made from bamboo, the pith of Aralia, and straw is most manu- factured and used ; in the North principally the stronger bark- paper, although the production does not suffice for the great demand for window panes, packing paper, and other things, so that much is imported from Corea. The art of making paper from the bark of different trees was brought from Corea to Japan about 610 A.D., and some say still earlier. Owing to the manifold uses of paper in Japan, the manu- facture gradually became one of the most important and extended branches of industry, with which the cultivation of shrubs which furnished raw material, the paper mulberry and three-forks (Edge- wort hia) went hand-in-hand. Paper and its manufactured products have been used in the countries of Chinese civilization, and especially in Japan, since the earliest times, not only for writing, painting, printing, packing, handkerchiefs, and other detersives, but also for fans, screens, umbrellas and parasols, lanterns, doll's clothes, waterproof cloaks and head coverings, tobacco bags, cases and boxes, and for window- panes instead of glass, the beautifully made lattices of the sliding doors being covered with it. It serves also for making a strong thread which is used for binding instead of cord and straw rope, as well as for the woof of light cool fabrics, and, covered with gold and silver, for the fine ornamentation of costly brocades. The 1 Grosier: "La Chine." Vol. vii. p. 120. 2 " The art of making a true paper from fibrous matter reduced to a pulp in water, has never been known in, or introduced into, any of the Indian Islands." — Crawford : Descriptive Dictionary of the Indian Islands. London, 1856, p. 327. PAPER INDUSTRY. 393 hat of the Samurai was made of black lacquered paper, the water- proof cloak of his servant and companion of oiled paper, and the hair ornament substituted by poor girls for the silk kanoko, was a paper made to look like crape. 1 Raw Materials for Japanese Paper Making. For hand-made or tub paper are used : (1) the inner bark of Broussonetia papyrifera ; (2) of Edgeworthia papyrifera ; (3) of Wickstroemia cauescens ; (4) of Morus alba; (5) of AphanantJie aspera ; (6) exceptionally of Cannabis sativa, Boehmeria platani- folia, Wistaria chinensis and several other plants, also cotton ; (7) straw ; (8) old paper. As cement was used : (1) the mucilaginous root of Hibiscus Manihot ; (2) the bast mucilage of Hydrangea panicidata ; (3) of Katsnra japonica ; (4) Rice paste. 3 1. Broussonetia papyrifera, Vent. {Moms papyrifera, L.) Family Moreae, the paper mulberry tree, Jap. Kodzo (also K6zo-no-ki, Kozo, Kago, Kaji, Kaji-no-ki, according to the district). This most important plant in the paper industry, since the strongest and greatest amount of paper is made from its bark, 3 comes from China, 4 but has been cultivated for a long time in all the provinces of Japan south of the Tsugaru Straits, except on the fertile plains. It is found in mountain valleys, along the roads, on the narrow ridges which separate the terraced rice-fields from each other, on river dams, where its bushes, as willows with us, help to make them firm, it is also cultivated in dry fields, not seldom alternating in rows with the white mulberry or tea bush. In Iyo, on the island of Shikoku, where the paper mulberry, just as in the neighbouring province of Tosa, is raised frequently on the hill sides, it appears as an undergrowth between the rows of sumachs. Only rarely does one find a piece of good arable land exclusively devoted to a plantation of Broussonetia bushes. I speak here of bushes, and 1 Kublai Khan had paper money made in Peking about, 1260 a.d., the time when paper was first known in Europe. 2 In the paper industry of Europe, the use of vegetable pasting materials has been more and more adopted during the last fifteen years, superseding the animal glue. In Eastern Asia and India it is as old as the industry itself. 3 Although this great importance of the paper mulberry in the paper industry of Japan has been thoroughly emphasized by Kaempfer and Thunberg, we find in the otherwise very readable official report of the Vienna Exhibition (Group XL), the opinion of the engineer and paper manufacturer, E. Twerdy, that the fibre of the China grass {Urtica nivea) is most likely chiefly used in the manu- facture of Japanese bark paper. 4 It is well known that this plant is extensively found in Polynesia also. Its bark furnishes still the clothing material of the people in the Fiji Islands, Samoa, Tonga, Tahiti, Hawaii, etc., viz. the Tapa, which can only be worn in dry weather. " The measured noise of the Tapa clapper is as characteristic and as tuneful in the Fiji villages, as the noise of the threshing in ours in the autumn." — M. Buchner, " Reise durch den Stillen Ocean," 187S. 394 ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. emphasize the fact that I met the plant as a tree in Japan only in the rarest instance, e.g. in the Botanical Garden. Its cultivation for the paper industry resembles our treatment of basket willows. Its propagation is by means of slips. Every autumn, after the leaves have fallen, the young shoots near the ground are cut off, and in this way, after three or four years, bushes with from 4 to 7 one-year shoots are obtained. From the fourth year after planting, onward, these reach a height of from I to 3 meters and a circum- ference of 4 centimeters, and are now ready to be used for paper. The bark does not entirely ripen till after the leaves have fallen, the harvest, therefore, does not usually come before November, after that of rice and other field products. The collected shoots of the paper mulberry are cut into lengths of 1 meter, and bound together in small fagots, then placed in a covered iron kettle of boiling water, to which some ashes have been added, and left till the bark is easily loosened. When it is separated from the wood, the bark is washed in running water, then dried in the air and brought to market. In many cases, the operation is carried a step further, and the epidermis with the still green parts of the bark is removed and serves, together with the unripe bark of the tips of the shoot, to make an inferior paper, the Chiri-gami (rubbish paper). The outer skin and green parts of the bark loosen themselves first, and with a blunt knife are easily scraped away from the white fibre, if the bark has had a thorough maceration in running water. A longer or shorter bleaching of the bast in the sun is often added, but is not at all universally practised. The provinces of Iyo and Tosa on the island of Shikoku furnish the greatest amount of Kozo bark, for which the city of Osaka is the chief market. One hundred kilogrammes of raw Broussonetia bark yield 45 kg. of white bast. The Japanese, according to the colour and thickness of the bark and form of the leaves, distinguish many varieties of Kodzo, to which those classified in Miquel's " Prolusio Florae Japonicae" and in the " Enumeratio Plantarum " of Franchet and Savatier as independent species belong, viz. Broussonetia Kasinoki, Sieb., and B. Kaempferi, Sieb. The typical and most widely distributed form has generally symmetrical three or five-lobed leaves whose underside is covered, like the stems of 5 or 6 centimeters length and the young branches, with a thick, greyish white down, and whose edges are serrated. The bark of the one-year old shoot is reddish brown. Plate X. has a well outlined picture of such a paper-mulberry bush, as it appears in midsummer. The illustration is taken from the fifth part of the Japanese work K6-yeki-koku sanok, and is only un- reliable in this, that it does not show the serration of the leaves. In Plate XL, is a wood-cut prepared in Tokio of a variety of the paper mulberry on pure bast paper of the dioecious plant. On the left is a twig and on the right a catkin not fully developed. BROUSSONETIA PAPYRIFERA VENT. FROM A JAPANESE WOODCUT. [Page 470. TEXTILE INDUSTRY. 395 This illustration together with Plate X. shows great difference in the leaves, concerning which a Japanese proverb says, that no two are just alike. The transformation from the three or five-lobed leaf-form of the younger shoots into the unsymmetrical one-sided and lobed, and then into the undivided oval leaves of the older plants, is but faintly delineated in this plate. The paper-mulberry tree was introduced into Europe as early as the middle of the last century, and has found a moderately extensive cultivation as an ornamental plant, especially in Mediterranean countries. In the milder parts of Germany, e.g., on the Rhine and Main, it has been long domesticated. It does not endure the cold of a severe winter. A plantation which I made on a piece of good fertile land near Marburg, throve excellently. The tallest shoots by the second summer (1877) reached a height of i"5 to 16 meters, and a circumference of 7 centimeters. Then came the severe cold of the winter of 1879-80 and killed the bushes down to the roots. Attempts at planting the paper mulberry on some railroad embankments around Frankfort on the Main failed, because of the poor quality and dryness of the soil. 2. Edgeworthia papyrifer, S. and Z. (E. cJirysantha, Lindl.), family Thymelaeacese. The Japanese name for this plant (see Plate XII.) Mitsu-mata, i.e. "the three forks," is very descriptive. It has reference to the characteristic trichotomous articulation of the branches, a division which is seen even in the tips of the stronger one-year old seedlings, but is not fully developed till during the second season. According to the rule of the Japanese peasant, the seeds should be kept dry for a summer and winter, and planted at the beginning of April, or ten days after Higan (the spring equinox). It is sown in rows and the young trees are treated, like most other field growths, with liquid manure. They reach a height of one-third to a half meter by the end of summer, and are transplanted the following spring, and cultivated from that time like the common paper-mulberry bush. The bushes of the Mitsu-mata have more branches however than the former, although the shoots never grow more than two meters high, usually falling far behind this, and are not so thick ; they differ from Kodzo bushes also at first glance in the prettier light green colour of their laurel-shaped, undivided leaves. The same is true of Edgeworthia as of the Lycoris belonging to the family of Amaryllideas, of which the Japanese say, " Ha mizu hana miru," i.e. "The flowers do not see the leaves." The flowering season falls in March in Middle Hondo, but in the South a month earlier. The seeds ripen during the beginning of May, before the leaves have come fully forth. The cultivation and use of this Indian plant are much more limited than those of the Broussonetia. If the soil is good and well tilled, the year-old shoots can be used for bast and paper within 396 ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. three or four years after sowing. They are cut in November or December and further treated like those of Broussonetia. Mitsu-mata is found mostly in the provinces of Suruga, Kai, and Idzu, and within a wide circle around Fuji-san, where a great deal of paper is manufactured ; and at Ishikawa in Kai, Karasawa, and other places on the Tokaido ; at Atami in Idzu, e.g., the celebrated Suruga-banshi, a sample of which is shown in Plate XII. Here high mountains protect the Mitsu-mata plantations from the rough winds of winter. In other parts of the country they are more scattered, and appear also as ornamental plants in gardens. In colder districts the young plants must be covered to protect them from the cold of the nights. When von Siebold said that the Edgeworthia is of spontaneous growth in Japan, he was as surely deceived as when he stated that it will accommodate itself to our climate. 3. Wickstroemia canescens, Meisn. (Passerina Gampi, S. and Z.), family of the Thymelaeaceae. The Gampi plant is a small bush, related to our spurge laurel {Daphne Mezereum, L.). It is widely distributed in the mountain forests of the middle and southern parts of the country, though not often meeting the eye, and here in June develops its insignificant reddish brown flowers on the tips of the branches, as appears in the woodcut in Plate XIII. I found it usually from 300 to 600 meters elevation above the sea, as in M ino and Ise. Gampi is not cultivated. In preparing it for paper the bark is stripped off from the slender branches during the summer, just where it grows, is dried and brought to market, or used in the vicinity. In Makidani-mura, province of Mino, the prices of Gampi and Kodzo were as follows in the summer of 1874: 3 Kuwanme or 1 1*193 kg. clean Gampi bark, 1 yen or 4 shillings. 2 „ or 7462 „ „ Kodzo „ 2 „ or 8 „ The bark of the paper mulberry, which grows also in the neigh- bourhood, was three times as dear as the Gampi. 1 This last is used by itself (for Gampi paper or Gampi-shi, Plate XIII.), or mixed with Kodzo, bark material in making paper. 2 4. Morns alba, L., Fam. Moreae. The white mulberry tree (seep. 193), Jap. Kuwa, furnishes a bark, the Kuwa-no-kawa from which the Kuwa-shi or mulberry paper in Ichikawa, (province of Koshiu), 1 Dry Mitsu-mata bark is still cheaper than Gampi. During the same summer 30 Kuwanme or ni'93 kg. (a common horse-load) of the former was sold for 7 - 5 yen, or 30 shillings, so that its price is to that of the paper mul- berry as 1:4. 2 Several of the bushes of the Himalayan countries are nearly related to the Gampi, and likewise supply the inhabitants with paper. The art of making it is said to have come from Lhassa, to which the Chinese brought the process. A well-known paper in Hindustan called " the Nepalese," is made in Nepal from the bast of the " Sitabharua " {Daphne catiabitia, Wall.). Daphne oleoides, Wall., and D. papyracea, Wall., serve the same purpose. Plate XI. Btoussonetia Papyrifera, Vent. Japanese Woodcut Printed on Bast Paper made from the same In Japan. * ■ Plate XU. Edgewoithia Papyrifeia, S. 8c L. Japanese Woodcut Printed on Bast Paper made from the same in Japan. AVI. *n\<\ J si 2 sistii^qeS 6•> Echigo . Iyo . . Tosa Iyo . . Echizen Musashi I waki . from Kodzu I 48X25-5 31X27-5 39x27 39X27 40X28 40-5X28 32x24-5 26X20 52X39 47-5X35"5 S3 - 5X4i 44*33'5 42x29-5 56x39 44x32 25 x 19-4 52x39 57X44 60x42 66x46 fibre. 50 35 So 25 48 56 48 — 5° 137 So 125 40 67 50 87 So 200 5o 254 5o 256 20 240 20 200 20 250 20 220 48 72 48 372 48 852 20 600 20 800 b. Edgeworthia papers, Mitsu-mata-sei, i.e. from Mitsu-mata only. 21. Suruga-ban-shi K. 22. Han-kire, K. . . 23. Nori-ire N. . . Kurasawa Ichikawa Suruga . Koshiu . 62x48 55Xi6 43-5X32 So 250 53 84 53 237-5 5 3 12 14-4 14 18 8 7'2 8 20 25 20 15 18 16 5 21 100 34 5o 8 4-5 iS 1 The size and weight given in these tables I verified myself from a large number of the varieties in question. They relate to the best qualities unless otherwise specified. The weight of the Mon-Tengu-jo, or figured Tengu-jo, is not given because it varies too much owing to the manner of pressing with slaked lime. The prices are such as I found among the paper makers of Nibu, Makidani-mura, Ino, Ichikawa, Umadzu, and Kurasawa, or among the dealers in Tokio. 4°4 ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. ' One Quire, or Jo. Si 7 e of Sheets Name of Paper. Origin. Province. in Centimeters. 2 6 g Weight in Cost 1 m £ Vi grammes 1 y en - c. Mixture of Kodzu and Mitsu-mata bast pulp. 24. Han-shi K. . . . Ichikawa . . Koshiu . 34x24 50 75 8 7 parts Kodzu 3 „ Mitsu-mata 25. Shqji-gami K. . . 8 parts Kodzu 2 ,, Mitsu-mata j) 55 40-5X277 50 135 10 26. Take-naga-gami K. 7 parts Kodzu 3 ., Mitzu-mata ;> 55 67X26 50 j 325 30 8 parts Kodzu 2 „ Mitsu-mata 55 )J 47X34 - 5 50 375 40 d. Wickstroemia papers, Gampi-sei, i.e. only from Gampi-fibre. 28. Gampi-shi \ I. quality ./ Makidani-mura Mino . 38X28 48 52 9 29. Usego, uncut Gampi j> 55 50X36 48 , 96 18 e. Kuwa-kami, paper from the bast of Morns alba, L. 30. Kuwa-kami \ I. quality ./ Ichikawa . . Koshiu . 48X34-5 20 135 15 31. Kuwa-kami ) II. quality .) 55 " • 41x27-5 5o 164 15 f. Suki-gae-shi paper, made from old used paper, or H6-gu. 32. Chiri-gami, grey \ paper ... .J 2,2,- Suka-gae-shi, best\ quality, grey-white J Tokio . . . Musashi 40X26-5 5o 150 3 „ ... 55 31-5X26-5 5o 75 5 The most notable kinds of Japanese paper are given in the fore- going table. The detailed description is as follows : — 1. Yoshino-gami, named after the town Yoshino, in Yamato (see vol. i. p. 471), is not made there, however, but in Nibu, 4 ri distant. This last is the collective name of six little villages in a tributary- valley of the Yoshino-gawa. In Nibu and vicinity this fine paper, celebrated throughout all Japan, and so much used in the lacquer in- dustry, is called Urushi-koshi, i.e. lacquer filter, lacquer press. The Broussonetia, whose bark fibre is most carefully worked up, is much cultivated in the neighbourhood. The expressed bast-mucilage of Hydrangea paniculata, here called Tororo (glue), and Nori-no-ki (paste tree), serves as the cement. The mould is a net made of finely wrought bamboo sticks (taken from the sections between two knots of bamboo cane), bound with silk thread. The size and weight of the paper are given in the table. It is so fine that 50 sheets (1 J6), or 6'i2 square meters, weigh only 35 grammes, but PAPER INDUSTRY. 405 so firm that the two or three layers used to filter thick lacquer are not only not injured by the wringing and pressing through of the lacquer, but are afterwards smoothed out, dried, and used several times over for the same purpose. 2. Mo-gami paper is similar, but not so fine. It is made at Takamatsu, in the district of Mogami (Mogami-gori), province of Uzen, and is used, like Yoshino-gami, in the Northern lacquer manufacturing cities. 3. Tengu-jd, a name 1 which may be translated " prize-crowned labour," designates a class of papers which resemble the foregoing mostly. They excel in fineness and pliancy the thinnest silk papers, and are also much stronger. They are manufactured principally in Mino, are yellowish white, and are sometimes tinted with some colour. They are oftener printed with Gofun or chalk powder in various figures. These so-called Mon-tengu-jo papers are extremely well adapted for pasting on common window panes to make them opaque. 4. Mino-gami. By this term is understood pure Broussonetia paper, which is made in the province of Mino, and is noted for its great firmness. It is preferred on this account for covering wooden wares in the process of lacquering (see Kami-kise, p. 358), and for cord. Besides, it so transparent that it is also much used as a covering of the lattice of sliding doors, or Sho-ji. The towns Hirose and Sakamoto, east of the Ibuki-gama, were named to me as furnishing good Mino-gami ; but Makidani-mura is without doubt the most important paper district of the province. This embraces a tributary valley of the Gujo-gawa, whose mouth is 6h ri from Gifu, the capital, at the town of Nagase. In passing through the eight villages which make up Makidana-muria, one sees the tokens of paper industry in the sheets spread out and drying on the Sugi planks before the houses. I was told by the burgomaster of Mitarai, the chief place, that this industry had been carried on here for more than five hundred years. Besides Mino-gami and Mon-shi, with its regularly separated transparent lines and figures resembling water-lines, Campi-shi is also manu- factured in considerable quantities. The glue used is the root- mucilage of Hibiscus Manihot. Han-ski, i.e. half paper, in combinations called also Ban-shi, is the commonest Japanese paper, used for writing, printing, handker- chiefs, and other purposes, and is made in several parts of the. country. Like the two following varieties, it is inferior to Mino- gami in quality and price. Sugi-hara should be mentioned here — also a common variety, manufactured in many places, and which, like many other kinds, is carried, instead of handkerchiefs, in the wide sleeve of the Kimono or overcoat. The name Ko-ban- shi, i.e. small Han-shi, is given to a similar and still smaller paper used for the same purposes. 1 From Tengu = proud ; jo = distinguished, best. 406 ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. Han-kire, i.e. " half cut " is also a paper much resembling Han- shi. The large scooped sheet is usually cut to half its length. It is on this paper that the Japanese keep their accounts and write their letters. Nishi-no-achi is the name of one of the best kinds of Ki-gami, made from Broussonetia bark. It was first made in large sheets in Nasu-gori, in the province of Shimotsuke, and later was imi- tated in many other towns. One of these imitations is called Magai'-Nishi (no-uchi), i.e. false, imitated Nishi. Forty sheets of the best quality from Shimotsuke cost 28 sen in Tokio. An excellent, strong, pure Broussonetia paper is the SJii~fii-gami, also furnished in many of the towns of the province of Iwaki, and is used for the peculiar Shi-fu fabric (which see). A strong Kodzo paper, made at Ichikawa, is called Atsu-gavii, i.e. " thick paper." The paper industry of this town, situated in the province of Koshiu, on the Fuji-kawa, is very remarkable, furnishing a great number of beautiful sorts, as noted in the catalogue. Senka is the name of a yet stouter paper, which is used in making leather-paper and oil-paper. Of the starched papers (Nori- gami), the commonest and cheapest sort is perhaps Ko-sitgi. It is made not only at Ino in Tosa, but also in the prison of Kochi, the capital city, and elsewhere. It is used for cleansing purposes. Iyo-masa is a soft paper, of which there are several varieties. It is well adapted for wrapping dried plants. One of the most valuable and expensive Japanese papers is called Hosho. It is thick, very strong, of even texture and gloss, rich in starch, and often contains alum. It is used as the legal paper for all important government acts, as wrapping paper for presents, and in other ways. Paper-money was formerly made of it. The celebrated manufacturing district for Hosho is called Goka-mura, " the five villages," and lies in the province of Echizen, seven ri south-east of the capital, Fukui. The industry is prose- cuted here mostly in winter. Genuine Hosho is made from Kodzo, and largely imitated elsewhere. A beautiful and interesting imi- tation is the Hosho of Ichikawa (No. 27 of the table), which contains 20 per cent of Mitzu-mata bast. It is made smaller and costs much less. The JA-men-ji or Otaka-gami, and the Jidzuki Otaka-gami are large sheets of very thick, stout paper, used principally in the preparation of leather-paper. After these come Nos. 21, 22, and 23 of the table, which are made from Mitsu-mata bast. The best known kind is the Stiruga-ban-shi, a thin, slight writing paper. This is made in great sheets, not only in the province of Suruga, but also in other parts. It is employed for various cleansing purposes, and for writing and printing. Of the mixture of Kodzo pulp and Mitzu-mata pulp which are made at Ichikawa, the former always predominating, SJwji-gami PAPER INDUSTRY. 407 is most notable, after the beautiful Hosho. It, too, contains 20 per cent, of Edgeworthia pulp, but is free from starch, and serves prin- cipally, as its name indicates, to cover the lattices of Shoji, or sliding-doors, thus taking the place of window-panes. Usitgo is a thin Gampi-shi or Gampi-paper which appears in commerce in large sheets. Like the smaller Gampi-paper, it is manufactured from Wickstroemia bark without Nori, and is excellently suited for pricking patterns, for writing, and for making statistical tables. It is much used as copying-paper in foreign business houses in Japan, and will probably find further use in Europe also, on account of its pliancy, smoothness, strength, fine- ness and lightness. The finer pliant Japanese papers, such as Yoshino-gami, Tengu- jo, and Gampi, and Senka (which is made soft and delicate as the finest chamois-skin by means of the crimping process), are ex- cellent substitutes for old linen and lint in bandages. Chinese bast-paper, not so fine and soft, has long been used for surgical purposes in the hospitals of Hongkong and Shanghai. In recent times it has often been successfuly attempted to use the stronger, smooth Nori papers, such as Hdsho, in colour printing and map making. Taking up the colours, as they do, without being first moistened, the lines of the drawing are per- fectly retained in printing, whereas in printing with colours on our papers the moistening produces an irregular expansion or distor- tion. Pasteboard or Ita-mc-gami, i.e. " Board paper," is made in Japan, by fastening together, with Shofu-nori, or wheat-starch paste, sheets of common paper, the process being therefore similar to that employed in Europe for the so-called glued pasteboard. Thus very beautiful, stout Ita-me-gami is obtained if 10 to 20 sheets of Hosokawa, a Broussonetia-bast paper from Iyo, are pasted to- gether. A great deal of pasteboard is made directly, by this process, from the better sort of Suki-gae, or waste paper, and even from old business documents, and other paper already used (H6-gu). When covered with a coating of nice, fresh paper, the Ita-me- gami looks handsome enough. Hari-nuki is Japanese papier-mache. 1 The preparation of papier-mache, however, differs from the last mentioned process, in that the paper is pressed in forms after being softened in water and reduced to a pulp (pate), while Hari-nuki is made like paste- board. All Hari-nuki products consist, therefore, of so-called " couched boards." The couching is done over wooden forms. The light H6n-gu, already written on or printed, is used, in case the objects are to be lacquered afterward ; or better, unused paper, under other circumstances. Sheet after sheet is stuck on with wheat-starch paste, and smoothed out over the wet Kata, or form, 1 The word is derived from Hari, -ru = to stretch out, to spread ; and Nuki, -ku = to draw out. 4o8 ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. until the required thickness is obtained. Then the articles are dried, cut, and lacquered. In this way hundreds of small, light, and yet durable articles are made, which find ready acceptance'. Thus, not only dolls' heads and other toys, but also pretty little plates and saucers, tea- caddies, and pipe-cases are produced ; and they look as if made of lacquered tin-plate or wood. They answer all purposes of strength and durability, are surprisingly light, and cheap in price, being similar in this respect to papier mache, but far exceeding it in firmness and elegance. Paper hangings or Kara-kami, i.e. China paper, also are made and used in Japan, not in long rolls, but in sheet size, and not to a large extent. Many of the printed patterns are not less beauti- ful than our finer papers, and are far superior to them in durability. As the name indicates, this industry also originated in China, where paper was first used for hangings. Manufacture of Chirimen-gami, or Crape Paper. By a very simple mechanical process, the smooth surface of several bark papers, and of picture sheets made by the colour press, are twilled, and stiff cardboard paper is made soft and pliant as chamois skin, and given also an elasticity which surprises us, especially in certain kinds of leather-paper. The tools which are used in the manufacture of Chirimen-gami, are the Momi-dai, 1 a kind of lever press, and the Katas, or moulds, large brown sheets of thick paper which are grooved in parallel furrows, either all to one side, or in several directions, and on being moistened show con- siderable elasticity. The press (Momi-dai, Fig. 14) is usually made of Kashi, the wood of an evergreen oak, or some other hard wood. It stands on a foundation consisting of a large, heavy board, through which two perforated posts are fastened as tenon-bearers, between which lies the fulcrum of a lever ad. b c is a wooden cylinder of 2 to 3 centimeters diameter, and length varying according to need, i.e. whether the sheet rolled around it is large or small. This also determines the height to which the tenon for the fulcrum of the lever is raised. The cylinder b c rests at c in a pan-like hollow of the board, in order to prevent change of position, and goes through an elliptical hole in the arm of the lever. As a d the long arm of the power {2\ to 3 meters long) is considerably longer than that portion from the cylinder to the end of the lever d, a great pressure on the paper sheets rolled around the cylinder can be applied. The sheets are moistened by sprinkling with a wet brush, or by piling them up in alternate layers with wet paste- boards, and subjecting them in this way for an hour, to a mild 1 Momu = to rub, to make soft ; dai = table. PAPER INDUSTRY. 409 pressure. Then a large brown Kata sheet is spread out on a wooden slab, and a sheet of the moistened paper is laid over it, and then another Kata, and another sheet of the wet paper till they lie ten and more, closing with a sheet of Kata. In this arrangement of layers, the single sheets must lie even with the separating sheets, and thus have their edges parallel, or inclined to those of the larger Katas. When the pile is made up in this way, it is laid on the cylinder b c, and the whole is Fig. 14. — APPARATUS FOR THE PREPARATION OF CRAPE PAPER. rolled tightly around it, making it some 10 to 12 centimeters in diameter. The cylinder is then diagonally and fixedly wound around with a strip of hemp canvas, about 30 cm. wide, and 2 or 3 meters long. In doing this the workman generally uses his feet. He then places the cylinder on the press, fixing one end on c, and put- ting the other through the hole of the lever. He presses the lever at d with all his might, by jerks, from six to ten times down on the roll, which is by this means considerably compressed in the direction of its axis. It is now taken out of the press, the workman removes the canvas band and the cylinder, unrolls it, takes the strongly 4io. ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. pressed Kata sheets again apart, and builds another pile from them and the paper sheets, only with the difference that this time they must be laid in another position relative to each-other. Trren follows another rolling and binding jrn the damfT~canvas ar/tf~ . pressing as in the first instance. After this k has been done eigjft • J or ten times, each time with a \diffeYent position of the sheets from that of the Katas, the work is complete. The sheets haVe*^Jy become considerably smaller in both~"d"irections. Then they.are * stretched a little, and -can now be put to further use. JThe trans- formation into, this twilled, soft elastic condition is a gradual rings, a distinct -huckaback texture. With e"ach new operation* » %• as they are successively placed in the positions g c, hi, mn, op, t. ±* '• qr, and s t, this marking laectimes constantly finer and more/^T*" regular, and the shrinking of the sheets and increasing, softness ana pliancy go hand in hand with this»transformation. The process of making figured sheets with coloured prints, soft and twilled, is similar to the foregoing, save that in this two such sheets with their printed sides turned toward eachr other are enclosed between two Katas, and separated by a sheet of Han- shi lying between. Aft<*r the seventh' arrangement and pressing* of the piles, the Han-shi sheets are removed, the t^o contracted picture-sheets are laid together and pressed twice more. The mechanism*"a?nd , processes already mentioned have been described and illustrated by' Herr von Brandt (who so kindly aided me in my studies in Japan) in the" Fifth Book of the German/ < East Asiatic Society, just as we observed them together in several workshops. Figure 14 is borrowed from his sketch given there. As we were told in answer £0 purinquiries concerning the manu- v facture of the Katas that it was a trade secret, Herr von Brandty at my suggestion, bought several used and worn-out sheets, an-pr divided them between myself and^our deceased friend, Dr. Ff. Ritter, for further investigatrpn. Two days later each of us, in \LJJ spite of the fact that we had followed wholly different paths, could report to the surprise of Herr von Brandt, as a- result of our chemi- cal and microscopic examinations, that these brown Katas were made up of pieces of old used-up Broussonetia-bast paper (in my case they consisted of old receipts), pasted on each other and together ; that these had been strongly compressed and ringed in several directions with the wrapping sheets and the press, and finally had been saturated and coloured with Shibu (p. 183). I then betook myself with this result and the old receipts Kein, Japan. II. Plate XIV. Japanese leather-paper. PAPER INDUSTRY. 411 obtained from the Katas and made legible, to one of the manu- facturers of Chirimen-gami, whose place we had visited, and my interpreter displayed the results of our investigation. The answer, reduced to one sentence, was, that it was useless to hide anything any longer from the Sen-sei. 1 This had the desired effect. The man led us into a room and showed us his Oya-kata (matrix) or Ki-gata (wooden mould). It was a board 5 to 6 cm. thick, 90 cm. long, and 30 cm. broad, of hard Sakura wood {Prunus psendo- cerasus), resting on two supports. This board was most carefully grooved lengthwise with regular furrows 2 millimeters deep and about the same distance apart. In using it, a large sheet of cardboard is saturated with a paste solution, and then laid lengthwise on this form, and with a bone folder pressed into every furrow of the foundation, a work which demands a great deal of time and patience. When dry the form is firmly imprinted and the sheet is furrowed in parallel lines. It is painted with Shibu on both sides, and then serves for com- mon Katas of the kind I have mentioned. The moistened sheets destined for this purpose are wrapped in these grooved sheets and put once or twice under the press, like sheets which are to be transformed into crape paper. The coating with Shibu which follows makes them firmer and more durable. Leather Papers, or Kami-kawa. These are brought to market in different colours, twilled and smooth, simple or sometimes printed and gorgeously ornamented in raised arabesques, flowers, and other decorations. A beautiful appearance, surprising elasticity, and a softness that reminds one of calf-leather, especially on the under side, are the prominent characteristics of this kind of paper. (See the sample, Plate XIV.) It combines with these considerable firmness which exceeds that of our oilcloth in many cases. Out of it are made letter port- folios, tobacco bags, pipe cases, boxes, small chests, and other articles. It is also used as a floor-covering, like oilcloth, and instead of paper hangings. The simple twilled black-lacquered leather-paper serves also for the Saki-kake or Saki-kawa, with which the feet are protected from rain by drawing them over the Getas or wooden shoes. Kami-kawa is manufactured generally in sheets, but also in large pieces. Such a one, 36 feet long and 3 feet wide, with red lilies and green leaves, cost in Tokio 5| yen. It was eminently adapted for the hangings of a salon. A great deal of leather-paper is made in Tokio (in the quarters Honjo and Fukagawa, on the right of the Sumida-gawa). The 1 The Sinico-Japanese word, " Sen-sei," is the honourable title of a learned man. 4T2 ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. province of Ise also furnishes a considerable quantity, as I myself can testify of the towns Matsuzaka, Inagi, Omada, and Tamura in the vicinity of Yamada. The same maybe said also of Harima and Mita. Otaka-, Jidzuki- or Jumonji-gamia, strong Broussonetia papers, are used in manufacturing it. In Tokio the process is in essentials as follows : i. The paper is spread out on a board so that the smooth side lies upward. It is coated by means of a broad hair brush with a thin rice-paste to which lampblack has been added, and then hung on horizontal poles to dry, which takes from one to two days. 2. It is generally twilled by the process given on page 408, during which the sheets shrink considerably in both directions. 3. Then follows a coating of Yegoma-no-abura on the same side, and a thorough drying in the sun, occupying from 5 to 20 days, according to the time of year. 4. Upon this follows a coat of paste-solution in which is mixed the dye which the leather-paper is to receive (red oxide of iron, orpiment, indigo, india-ink, or a mixture of such colours). 5. After the paper is dry again it is impregnated with lacquer, using Se-shime-urushi for light colours and Hana-urushi for black. Two workmen sit opposite each other, smear their hands with lacquer, and beat them quickly on the sheet spread out between them. Then drying takes place, the sheet being spread out on a frame covered with paper. 6. If the leather-paper is to be figured, carved wooden moulds are pressed in at the close of the crape-process, and the different colours are put on through paper stencil plates. A metallic re- flecting surface is obtained after the figures are made by fixing bronze powder with lacquer, and polishing when dry. There are leather-papers also which contain no lacquer, but are dried in the smoke of a fire of rice straw, and then rubbed. A quite peculiar leather-paper, resembling parchment, is the semi- transparent Yogan-gami, whose method of manufacture I was unable to learn. The Englishman Gaine some years ago de- scribed a process (the product was investigated by Prof. Hofmann) whereby he transformed paper into a kind of parchment by dipping it for a few seconds in sulphuric acid reduced one-half with water. But sulphuric acid can scarcely be concerned in the manufacture of Yogan-gami, as it was not known in Japan in former times. Paper-fabric, or Shi-fu. 1 The word Shi-fu in Japan is the name of a peculiar fabric which is now manufactured only in Shiroi'shi, a small town on the Oshiu- kaido, 13 ri south of the city of Sendai. The warp consists of silk 1 Shi = Kami, paper; Fu = Ori-mono, fabric; as in Basho-fu, Manilla-hemp fabrics ; Kudzu-fu, fabrics made of Pueraria Thunbergiana. PAPER INDUSTRY. \\\ and the woof of paper threads. The paper used in its manufacture, called Shi-fu-gami in Shiroi'shi, is made of Broussonetia fibre in several places in the province of Iwaki. One J6 of it, or a quire consisting of 50 sheets, the size of our common writing paper, costs 25 sen, or one shilling. Half a Jo of this paper is often folded lengthwise, and laid to- gether so that the two parallel edges are over one another and project 3 or 4 centimeters over the edges. The paper is laid length- wise over the one narrow side of a thick board provided with feet for firmness, and fastened at both ends with iron bent clamps, so that the two projecting edges of the paper form a right-angle with the principal part of the sheets, and hang down. Then the folded part of the paper parallel to the width of the sheet is cut with a broad, hatchet-like, very sharp knife into narrow strips of scarcely 2 millimeters' breadth, which hang together by the projecting edge which has not been touched by the knife. Now follows the rolling of these strips of connected paper ribbons on a smooth stone slab, with the flat of the hand, a work which is continued, with frequent twisting, till every ribbon has become a slack thread. The connect- ing edges are then cut on both sides so far through that the single threads hang together by a width of only two millimeters broad, and then the connecting places are twisted also. In this way con- tinuous threads are obtained. The finished fabric made from such entwined paper threads for woof and silk warp, is called Fukusa-ji, i.e. " ground for Fukusa." Fukusa otherwise denotes the silk covers for fine presents, such as lacquer-ware and the like, but here quadrangular pieces which are printed with flowers or landscapes, and serve for covering presents. In making Shi-fu fabric for clothing, the paper threads are twisted beforehand, right and left, similarly to those of the silk woof for Chirimen or crape-silk, and run in the fabric alternately once in and out, i.e. two right-twisted woof-threads follow two left- twisted threads, and so on. When the Shi-fu fabric is finished it is placed in boiling lye made of straw ashes, then washed, dried, and stretched. It acquires in this process a twilled appearance, and is considerably shrunken. It is now given to the dyer before being worked up, and is printed in various patterns. This peculiar branch of industry which I have described was introduced in Shiroi'shi 90 or 100 years ago, and was carried on by Samurai families. It is said to have been at its height 50 years ago, when the Shi-fu material, which can also be washed, was very popular for women's summer clothing. Later, when, in consequence of the commercial treaties, the incomparably finer and more durable English cotton fabrics were brought in such quantity and at such low prices into the country, this industry declined rapidly, so that twelve years ago it was carried on in six or eight houses only. 414 art industry and related occupations. Oil-paper and Water-proof Cloaks. (Japanese : Abiira-gami and Toyu.) The oiling of certain Japanese papers is intended either to make them transparent, e.g., for lanterns, or as a protection against water, as for umbrellas and the regular oil and leather-paper. The Yego- mano-abura (see p. 155) is always used for this purpose, while the paper employed is a stout Broussonetia paper ; in Niigata, e.g., the Senka from Oyachi, in Tokio a similar one from Tosa and Iyo. In the first-named place the sheets are pasted together by rolling and kneading before they are made soft, and in the latter after this is done. In Tokio it has been the custom to make the paper pliant by means of the crape process (see Fig. 14). The gluing together of the sheets is done with a mixture of paste made from the flour of the common brake (p. 6S) and Shibu (p. 183). After the sheets are glued together to form large pieces, made soft, and again smoothed out with the hands, they are painted with a broad brush on one side with a mixture of lampblack (Matsu-susu) and Shibu, and then laid in the sun to dry. This takes at least five days. Then follows a coating of Yegoma-no-abura (Perilla oil) mixed with Shibu, another drying, and a new coat of this cold mixture, the oil of which must have been previously boiled, and at last the final drying. The entire process takes at least 15 days in good weather. Lampblack, of course, is only used for black oiled paper and waterproof cloaks ; for lighter varieties, gamboge or some other light colour is used. These oil papers cannot compete in Europe with oil-cloth and india-rubber textures, as they are far inferior in appearance and durability. Their manufacture in Japan does not date back much before the opening of the country. In earlier times people wore common coarse cloaks or mats of rushes and grass, eg., Mino (page 172), as a protection from rain. To protect the head from rain and sun the Japanese began very early not only to wear large hats made of willow and other materials, but also to make clumsy paper umbrellas and parasols, which were in general use. But the oiled Karakasa could not be used in the sun, nor the unoiled parasol (Hi-gasa) in the rain, therefore the quick acceptance of the European silk umbrella by the well-to-do classes is easy to understand, as these were not only lighter and handier, but had the preference, especially in that they could be used " en tous cas " in every sense of this expression. It was very much the same with hats. In fact, fifteen years ago the felt hat and silk or cotton umbrella were the foreign articles (now they are manufactured, in the country in sufficient quantity and quality) which, next to the petroleum lamp, had pushed farthest into the interior of the countrv. Soon there will be no more PAPER INDUSTRY. 415 umbrella makers who do not go to the silk mercer rather than the paper dealer for material to cover their frames. In Eastern Asia, bast paper has till now been a substitute for glass in windows and in lanterns also. The paper lantern, Japa- nese Chochin, plays its part still in Japan. No house is without it. The houses and verandahs are lighted with them at night, and with their help one picks his way afoot or in Jinrikishas on the street. They illuminate the water on the evening boat ride. Tea houses, theatres, and other pleasure resorts are distinguished by rows of variegated paper lanterns, and in the great temple feasts, occurring every year in honour of the popular gods, the Chochin are a feature in the parades, which somewhat resemble those of the Carnival. Often a whole street, even an entire quarter, in the vicinity of the temple is adorned in this way with paper lanterns. Like the green fir-tree of the modern via triumphalis, here on both sides of the streets are rows of bamboo canes, hung with beautiful lanterns, and sometimes canopied with a large umbrella frame, whose long beams are trimmed with alternating white and red paper flowers. The best known articles made of Japanese bast paper 1 which have found great popularity in Europe, and still more in America, are fans. They are called Ogi, i.e. those that shut up, and Uchiwa, the simple round stiff fans. Both kinds have been made for cen- turies for the home market, chiefly in the three capitals or Fu (Kioto, Osaka, and Tokio), and likewise for foreign countries in later years. Other cities, such as Nagoya and Fushimi, also take more or less part in the manufacture. The export of fans has given a new impulse to the industry, and effected moreover a division of labour as in a factory, as was not formerly the case to such a degree. There are pattern designers whose sketches fashion the work, houses which furnish only the bamboo frames, and others in which the handles are lacquered and ornamented. Another group of persons undertakes the painting or printing of the paper, upon which the foreign customer often exercises an influence, though not always with good taste. Frames and decorated sheets for covering both sides of the fan are then given into the hands of other workmen, who are again divided into several groups, and whose first work consists in folding the paper to correspond with the bamboo ribs. A sheet of paper is pasted on one side of the frame and the corresponding second painted sheet is bound on to the other side in the same way. When this is done, the fan must be opened and shut repeatedly, and fixed here and there in imperfect places so that the paper will lie easy in the folds and spread without difficulty, as occasion demands, and as only such a tough and pliant material as bast paper will permit. This is the manner of proceeding with the Ogi or folding 1 This is in many cases superseded by a light cotton or silk fabric. 416 ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. fans, while the Uchiwa give far less work owing to their simpler form. Of the former, the finest manufactured in former times for home demands cost scarcely 5 yen, while now they are made for foreign customers with mother of pearl and ivory decorations to cost three or four times that amount. The large majority of foreign customers care principally, however, for the cheapness of these wares, and the market is greatly influenced thereby. A hundred of the common sort of Uchiwa may be purchased in Osaka for from 1 to 2 yen, and singly, for from a halfpenny to a penny. During the decade 1 874-1 884, the export in Hiogo in 1879 reached its highest, with a value of 163,730 yen, and two years later in Yokohama with 176,666 yen. The following table shows how it has wavered in both places since then, and later has fallen everywhere : — Hiogo. Yokohama, Pieces. Value. Pieces. Value. 1881. 3,631,067 88,991 yen. 10,076,118 176,666 yen. 1882. 2,735,120 67,513 „ 5,5i3,79t H2,430 ,. 1883. 2,647,966 66,393 ,, !, 9 1 9,840 40,812 „ Appendix: Japanese Writing Materials. What they consist of: — Brush, India Ink, and Ink Dish. Among the manifold uses of East- Asiatic bast papers, the most important is after all the employment of it in the fixation and communication of thought. Next to the paper, and even more than pen and ink with us, the most necessary articles of a Chinese or Japanese escritoire are the brush and India ink. Besides these, there must be moreover an ink dish and water, for rubbing the India ink. The Yatate, or portable writing-case, which the business man always carries with him, includes a holder for fluid India ink and a brush in a copper case. For household use, there is a handy shallow box called Sumi-ire, with several compartments — one for the brush, a second for the stick of India ink, and the third for the dish. On an upper tray of the outfit is a copper or silver vessel for water. In Industrial Art Collections one may often see speci- mens of Japanese writing apparatus in the shape of flat, square boxes, decorated most richly and beautifully with gold lacquer. These are among the most prominent productions of Japanese lacquer industry. The Fude, or brush, used for writing, most nearly resembles Fig. 10 on Plate IV., though the hair of the rabbit or deer of which it is usually made generally forms a thicker, blunter end. After the PAPER INDUSTRY. 417 hair has been rubbed with the ashes of rice straw, rich in silicic acid, and purified, it is brought into parallel layers with a fine brass comb and sorted according to length. It is then glued with Fu-nori or seaweed paste (see p. 82) to a piece of linen or cotton stuff, three or four centimeters wide, whose thickness is governed by the size of the brush. This is now rolled up into a cone, its lower end enclosed in a paper cover, and the handle end glued into a piece of bamboo cane of the length and thick- ness of a lead pencil. The brush is now ready for use. The use of India ink, Jap. Sumi, dates back further than that of our writing ink ; in Eastern Asia it is at least as old as the use of paper, if not older, for it is believed that it was invented in China about 260-220 B.C. The province of Kiang-si, and especially the city of Jaotscheu, south-east of the Lake Poyang, was celebrated for centuries for its excellent India ink. It had the valuable property of becoming harder and blacker with increasing age. The industry spread later over several other provinces, chiefly Nganhwui — where the city of Hwuichau has a high reputation for its ink — and the province of Kwang-tung. The English name " India ink " indicates the way by which this fine Chinese preparation first came into Europe. Although Japan manufactures for itself the largest part of the Sumi used in the country, the Chinese product is even here regarded as better, and commands a higher price. Lamp black and animal glue form the essential constituents of India ink. The glue only serves to unite the fine particles of carbon which are produced by imperfect combustion, and to fix the ink on the paper by the use of the brush. Musk, camphor, or some other aromatic materials, are used in small proportions with the ink, to hide the unpleasant odour of the glue, but are not essential. Pine-soot (Susu) which was formerly used, was superseded by lampblack, Jap. Yu-yen, which can be obtained by burning any kind of fat or fatty oil. In Japan, however, and still more in China, it is made best and with preference from the Dokuye-no-abura, or oil of the ElcBococca cordata, Bl. (Drya?idra cordata, Thunb., see p. 155), 100 Catties of which (600 grammes) will yield 8 Catties of pure lampblack. The lamps used for this purpose are small crucibles or dishes of stoneware, about 14 centimeters in diameter, with wicks of rush- pith. A cone-shaped soot catcher of burnt clay is placed over each lamp, and from hour to hour a new one is substituted, and the soot is carefully brushed off and swept together by the beard of a quill, and is then sifted through a fine hair-sieve. The glue (Japanese Ni-kawa) made from ox-hides and isinglass, must be very bright, and acts as a cement. To ten Catties of lampblack from the oil of Dryandra cordata, Thunb., four Catties of old ox-hide glue, and one half-Catty of old isinglass are reckoned. These ingredients, after the glue has been boiled in the necessary amount II. E E 418 ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. of water, are thoroughly mixed in a porcelain dish, a wearisome labour, as the lampblack does not readily unite with water. When this is finished, the mass, which now may be kneaded and formed like bread dough, is shaped into round balls, which are wrapped in linen, and placed in a stone-ware vase perforated at the bottom, and here subjected to steam for fifteen minutes. Then the material is taken out from its coverings and worked in a mortar with a pestle for at least four hours, till it is entirely homogeneous and plastic. It is now formed into large prismatic bars, which are placed for a moment in a jar having a temperature of about 50 , then stretched into longer sticks, more nearly the size of the India-ink sticks. These are then placed on a kind of anvil, and beaten with wooden hammers, and constantly turned till they have acquired not only the proper form, but also the desired lustre. They are once more kneaded on a smooth table, with an admixture of musk or some other fragrant substance, and then the sticks are formed by hand, and put into a wooden press. For drying of the sticks rice-straw ashes are used, which are first sifted and thoroughly dried in the sun. In the drying box a layer of ashes, three centimeters deep, is followed by a layer of India-ink sticks, then ashes again, and a second layer of ink sticks, and then ashes at the last. The length of the drying process depends on the amount of water they contain and accessory circumstances. When it is satisfactorily finished, the sticks are taken from the ashes, brushed off, laid in a small sieve, and placed for one or two days in a shady place, where the process is completed. They are then polished by rubbing with a brush, and printed with several Chinese characters. They should not be used for several years after making, as their hardness, dark colour, and lustre, in use, increase with age, though apart from this, the quality depends largely on the fineness and lightness of the lampblack, the purity of the glue, and carefulness in manu- facture. The best pieces of Indian ink are recognised not only by the marks already mentioned, but by the sound, and by a tinge of brown colour. The Sudzuri or India-ink dishes used by the Chinese and Japanese, are not the poorly adapted porcelain or stone-ware dishes which we use, but are always better suited to the purpose, made of a fine-grained dark stone, chiefly of old slate, serpentine, or coloured marble. In Japan an old, dark blue slate is especially prized for this, and generally used. It is called the Amabata-ishi, known throughout the country and named after a small town, Amabata, in the Province of Kiushiu, in whose neighbourhood it is chiefly found. Many of these Amabata stones are worked up where they are found, but some are brought to Kofu, where I saw them prepared. The outline and hollows of the stone are wrought out with a chisel-like nail, having a long wooden handle. A hollow is made on one side for holding the water, and for collecting the ink afterwards. Rubbing and polishing follow the chiselling, and WOOD, IVORY, AND BONE CARVING, ETC. 419 then the stone is given a coating of India-ink and washed over with R6, or vegetable tallow. When using India ink, a few drops of water are poured into the hollow before mentioned, the stick is just dipped in, and the water is brought by it to the upper part of the dish, the process being repeated again and again till the greatest part of the water is brought up. Then comes the rubbing off of the ink, which gradually runs back again into the hollowed place. 6. Wood, Ivory, and Bone Carving. Tortoise-shell, Horn, and Mother-of-Pearl Work. Polishing of Stones. Many of the productions of Japanese art industry enumerated here, belong to the very wide classification of petty wares and jewelry, while others are works of genuine glyptic art. The skilful hands of the Japanese artist enable him to impart to even a hard, brittle substance, wonderful life and action. But even here this art is seen and practised, not so much in great monumental creations, as in little petty forms, which must be closely observed before their character and artistic worth can be really known and appreciated. Of such a character, more than all others, are the so-called Netsukes, generally carvings of wood, ivory, or bone, which seldom surpass 2 to 5 centimeters in height, and twice this size in circumference. The Netsuke are used as a sort of button, especially for hanging the tobacco pouch to the girdle. When used for this purpose they have holes bored through on the under side, through which a cord usually connecting them passes, with the hanging pocket. The Netsuke is pushed through between the clothing and the girdle which confines it at the waist, and shows above the girdle, the pocket hanging from it. Men and animals, especially monkeys, rats, and mice, either singly or in groups, and in various positions, as well as other creatures, and flowers, are copied in the Netsukes. The comic element is largely represented. It is brought out in such con- densed and expressive manner, that the artist's meaning is grasped at once, and its humorous effect is not lost. The artistic con- ception of these Netsukes is as much admired as the ease and life of the expression and position, the care and skill of execution which is able so happily to overcome technical difficulties. " Who- ever wishes to study Japanese art, must not fail to devote par- ticular attention to these Netsukes." l It is no wonder, then, that Netsukes, especially those of ivory, are the most sought for and the dearest in price of all the petty wares of the Japanese curiosity dealers, and that those European collectors 1 Carl Senft, in Official Report of the Vienna Exhibition. Group 10, Petty Wares. 420 ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. who succeeded in securing a fine collection of them at a time when the demand was small, the choice large, and the price low, look upon the same with great pride. Wood carving, or Ki-no-hori-mono, was first practised in Buddhist Asia, as in Christian Europe, for the adornment of temples, and has received thereby much inspiration and encourage- ment. From the beginning of the sixth century, when the first statue of an Indian saint came from Corea to Japan, till now, the making of Moku-butsu or wooden idols, has been the chief work of Japanese wood-carvers. The largest and most effective products of their art are undoubtedly the two gatekeepers usually stationed at the two sides of the tall outer doors (Sam-mon) of a Buddhist temple ; tall, naked athletic figures, three or four meters high, with grim expression of face, and a muscular development that is represented often with wonderful power and truth. They are called Ni-6 (Niwo-sama) " the venerable kings." The two Ni-6 in the southern golden hall (Nan-yen-do) in the vicinity of the formerly celebrated temple K6-fuku-ji at Nara, 1 are especially noteworthy. It is customary also to represent in wood various personages, prominent in Japanese history. Among the smaller sculptures of this sort, a statue of Hitomaro (Kaki-no-moto-no- Hito-maro), a celebrated poet who lived 1200 years ago, is very frequent and well executed. 3 It is a typical, noble, intelligent figure, always represented in a sitting posture. On the bent knee of the extended right foot rests the right hand holding the brush (Fude), on the left knee a small tablet which supports the left arm. He wears black lacquered wooden shoes (Kutsu) on his feet, and on his head, the black, stiff hat (Yeboshi). An imperial completes the characteristic appearance of this old Japanese figure. The figure of Hitomaro, usually carved in Koku-tan or Shi-tan (ebony or sapan-wood, see pages 250 and 253), is always artistically and carefully treated. This appears mostly in the folds of the garments and in the noble features of the countenance ; and the work differs in this from the more artisan-like making of many of the idols. Nikko exhibits in wood carving as in many other branches of industrial Art, superior productions, among which the Nemuri-no- Neko, or " sleeping cat," over a door near to the tomb of Iyeyasu, is most prominent. Beautiful wood sculptures, which are not much its inferior in artistic value, are still to be found, some as reliefs on columns, doors and roofs, some in the open work above the inner walls of several temples and buildings belonging to them. Most of them represent the animals of the zodiac, or paeonies, and 1 " Among a crowd of miscellaneous images are an excellent pair of Ni-6, the anatomy of which is perfect. They are the best examples of sculpture in wood to be seen in Japan." — See Satow and Hawes, " A Handbook for Travellers in Japan." Second edition, p. 389. London, 18S4. 2 See " Handbook," etc., page 401. WOOD, IVORY, AND BONE CARVING, ETC. 421 other favourite flowers. The wood ornaments on the portal of the Higashi Hon-gwan-ji, the metropolis of the eastern branch of the Monto sect at Asakusa in Tokio, are admirably beautiful and care- fully executed, consisting of the leaves of flowers of the pseony and chrysanthemum. Besides these, the Japanese armorial ani- mals are often carved in wood with great skill and artistic force. Europeans in modern times have done much to promote this branch of industry by ordering hunting, and other animal pieces, to hang in dining rooms. ZOGE-NO-HORI-MONO, OR IVORY CARVING. 1 The ivory work of Canton, e.g. the ornamental balls of open work one within the other, and many landscapes, stand unrivalled as evidences of surprising skill combined with astonishing patience and perseverance. But many Japanese works of this description, especially their Netsukes (Z6ge-no-netsuke) show a much more developed artistic talent. Kioto, which in former times was the chief seat of ivory carving, has been long surpassed by Tokio, which furnishes besides Netsukes, jewel cabinets for ladies, chests and boxes, card cases, chessmen, buttons, brooches, and many other articles, partly for the domestic market but mostly for foreign countries. The articles are in general made with extraordinary care, and ornamented, not only by engraving and carving, but often by well designed lacquer-work besides. On the other hand, ivory, like mother of pearl, is inlaid in fine lacquered articles. Connected closely with this work is that of Hone, or bone carving, for which the thigh bone only of the larger domestic animals is used. But owing to the limitations of the material, in view of its smaller size and more difficult working, and its much inferior ap- pearance to that of ivory, it plays but a modest part in Japanese industry and is very little used for Netsukes. Those many small articles which with us are turned by the lathe out of bone, are either not used, or some other material is employed in making them. Agriculture and the branches of chemical industry have up to this time made even less use of bones. Bekko-zaiku, tortoise-shell work and its horn ornamentations, are executed mainly in Nagasaki and Osaka. The two substances here regarded are closely related in quality and in the purposes which they serve. Both are made soft by warm water and also by dry heat, and are then easily stretched and bent, pressed and formed, split apart and welded together, properties on which the art of working them up is founded. Bekko, tortoise-shell, comes principally from Chelonia imbricata, L., the genuine loggerhead turtle, which is found in all tropical seas, but especially in the Malay Archipelago and Indian Ocean. Singapore in Asia, and London in Europe, are the principal mar- 1 Zoge = ivory ; hori = to dig, to carve ; mono = work. 4^2 ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. kets for its thirteen yellow and brown glowing plates. From the former, Chinese junks carry the material to the dealers in China and Japan, but the best comes to the ports of Japan from London. When it has a light gold-yellow colour and is very transparent, it is used in Japan especially for Kanzashi, or fork-shaped hair-pins for young ladies, highly appreciated and dear in price, some of them 16 centimeters long. Besides these, girls of the wealthier classes wear a straight four-cornered little wand of the same material, and from 21 to 26 centimeters long, horizontally through the carefully twisted hair on the top of the head, so that the ends project on both sides. The Japanese manufacture also for the foreign market, in Naga- saki particularly, all sorts of articles, as round table-tops, baskets, dishes and plates, bracelets and napkin rings, cigar cases, and various others from the real and factitious tortoise-shell, and adorn them besides with gold lacquer painting, in which of course the long ground-work process of common lacquering is omitted. Inlaid work of tortoise-shell, the so-called Bottle- (Buhl- or Bool-) work, which for last two centuries had been so conspicuous in the finer furniture of Europe, is little known in Japan, and it is some- what striking that neither here nor in China have horn or tortoise- shell been used for combs. In working up the tortoise shell in Nagasaki, the file, small saw and chisel are used, and especially iron pincers with smooth broad jaws. Each workman sits before his little charcoal furnace in which he heats the tongs. He cools them somewhat in water be- fore using, and welds the two plates of tortoise-shell, which are sharpened at the edges, heated and laid one over the other, fast together. Rings, plates and other articles are pressed in wooden moulds after the material has been heated. Steam seems not to be used in the process. Factitious tortoise-shell is much used. It is made of bright- coloured horn or Tsuno from China. The tortoise-shell-like etch- ing of horn seems to have been known and practised here much earlier than in Europe. Ao-gai-zaiku, Mother-of-Pearl Work. Pearls and mother-of-pearl consist of thin laminae of lime with little organic substance. But while they are found in concentric layers in the pearls, in the latter they follow the horizontal direction or trend of the shell, yet in such a way that even in fiat mussel and snail shells they lie somewhat inclined to the surface. The lustre proceeds from the reflection of light, the iridescence or play of colour from the interference of the rays which are reflected from the pro- jecting edges of the laminae or blades and the somewhat deeper parts. The colour-change or iridescence of mother-of-pearl con- sequently is a phenomenon of interference which inheres in the structure. WOOD, IVORY, AND BONE CARVING, ETC. 423 Furniture inlaid with mother-of-pearl is very popular in Turkey, and throughout the entire Orient, but particularly in Further India and China. In Japan it is used mostly for decorating lacquer wares. It is a product of the country, called Ao-gai (Awo-gai), is used in thin sheets, is distinguished by its magnificent iridescence in all the colours of the rainbow, and is obtained mainly from the smooth inside of the larger varieties of Ear-shell {Haliotis japonica, Reeve, H. gigantea, Chemn.), called Awabi. A still more valuable sort goes by the name of Ao-gai-Magai, i.e. imitation Ao-gai. It is formed of laminae scarcely three centimeters broad, and is said to come from the Riu-kiu islands, from a kind of Nautilus. The shell of the Sazaye {Turbo cornutus, Chemn.) also yields mother-of-pearl. The polishing of the mother-of-pearl, as I observed it in Nagasaki, is not scientifically conducted, since there is no facilitation of the work such as is afforded by the heavy grindstone, revolving ver- tically round its axis. The thick, curved outer edge of the Hali- otis shell is first removed up to the row of holes by means of pincers, hammer and chisel ; then the remaining part is ground on a fine grained sandstone, sprinkled with water, till only a thin transparent lamina remains. It is a very wearisome work, and one man can polish only eighteen pieces in a day. Each sheet costs from 2 to 6 sen, according to the size and fineness. These thin sheets or plates, as well as the mother-of-pearl dust of various de- grees of fineness obtained from the waste, are now used by the Ao-gai-shi or mother-of-pearl workman, for decorating lacquer wares, as has been partly described on pp. 364, 365, the trans- parent laminae are laid on the pattern, and the design or a part of it, is traced through with the India-ink brush. In painting flowers, leaves and other coloured parts, the rubbed colours are laid on the sheets with hot glue-water. When dry, it is coated with a weak solution of glue, and then covered with silver-foil. After again drying, the figures (flowers, leaves, or whatever may be the design) are cut out with a hollow chisel. They are then glued on the coloured side to the lacquered articles, such as cabinets, little chests, plates, vases, etc. The rather rough ground was previously treated with ochre and lampblack. When the whole design is completed by gluing on of the many- coloured mother-of-pearl leaves, the interstices are filled up with black lacquer, and in conclusion the whole is varnished with a trans- parent lacquer, and polished, as has been described in treating of other lacquer wares, and the Ao-gai-zaiku or mother-of-pearl work, demanding so much time and patience, is finished. The under layer of silver-foil seems to bring out the figures, for which purpose tin-foil cannot be substituted. Besides this Ra-den or Mosaic work with thin sheets of mother- of-pearl, thicker pieces are ground and engraved as a flower, an egg or some other design, and made to serve, like ivory, as an inlay in raised gold lacquer work. The making of brooches out of this 424 ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. material, however, and of turning buttons and other articles of jewelry on the lathe, is scarcely known. The Japanese designated Kin (gold), Gin (silver), Ruri (lapis lazuli), 1 Sangoju (coral), Meno (agate), Sui-sho (rock crystal), and Shin-ju (pearl), after the precedent of Buddhism in China and Corea, by the Sinico-Japanese expression Shippo (Jap. Nanatsu-no-ta- kara), i.e., " the seven costly things." Of these seven, lapis lazuli, fine coral and pearls are as little found in Japan as most of the prominent precious stones. They are also very little imported, for Japanese taste is distinguished from that of the Aryan orientals and the Turks essentially in this, that it places little stress on precious stones generally, and quite as little on finger rings, bracelets, brooches, and other ornaments in which these precious stones are used. Jewelry was neither made nor worn in Japan. The principal ornamentation of the Japanese girl, apart from the dress and broad girdle, is concentrated on the head. It shows itself besides, in the paint on the lips, throat and cheeks, especially in the careful dressing and ornamentation of the lustrous black hair with pins (Kanzashi and Kogai) and Kanoko-chirimen. The most valuable stone which Japan furnishes has always been the rock crystal or Sui-sho (Seki-ye), i.e. "crystallized water." The appearance of the Sui-sho-tama or Sui-shorin, i.e. balls of rock crystal, which are cut out of colourless crystals reflecting beautifully the forms of objects around, is an especial delight. Their price increases with the purity and size of the stone, so that those having an average diameter of from 6 to 10 centimeters, cost from 300 to 600 yen. The European imitations of these costly rock-crystal balls in glass (Biidoro), are easy to distinguish by their more or less strong bluish coruscation, their small conduct- ibility of heat — in consequence of this, they feel less cold — and by their greater softness. Nevertheless they have much influenced the esteem and lowered the price of the genuine, and on this account have set back very much the importance of the whole industry. Therefore, it has happened as in Europe, since the de- velopment of the glass industry and evidently through it, that the polishing of costly vessels of rock crystal, such as are found frequently in old collections, and which in the Middle Ages formed an important branch of art industry, has been almost en- tirely given up. The Japanese appear to have employed hollow-grinding only in the softer marbles, but not in rock crystals. They still principally make balls out of these (also for the valuable Buddhist rosaries or Jii-dzu), lenses and dice, as well as beautiful watch charms of various forms, buttons and other little articles, which can be bought, not only in the factories, but also in Yokohama, Kioto and other cities. 1 Ruri is sometimes translated emerald. It signifies, however, "ultramarine blue," and points decidedly to the amorphous lapis lazuli. WOOD, IVORY, AND BONE CARVING, ETC. 425 Beautiful little tufts of hair-like amianth are often found in Japan- ese rock crystals. These are then called Kusa-iri-sui-sho, i.e. grass-holding crystals, and the tuft of earth-flax itself is called Kusa, grass, designations occasioned by the form and colour of the enclosure ; for these resemble strongly tufts of grass which have been enclosed by clear ice. Murasaki-sui-sho, i.e. violet rock crystal, or amethyst, is seldom found in Japan of so great beauty as to warrant its use as an inferior precious stone. Cha-sui-sho, i.e. tea-coloured rock crystal (smoked topaz), appears very often. The Japanese rock crystal excels the Chinese in clearness and transparency. It is found in many provinces, but Koshiu with the Kimpuzan, Mii-take, Komaga-take and other mountains have an old reputation as the chief depositories. Sui-sho, and Amabata-ishi belong, like grapes, to the Mei-butsu or celebrated products of Koshiu. Garnet-sand (Almandin) is used for polishing Japanese precious stones (rock crystal and agate), also spectacles. It is found in several places in Japan, but especially in a long extended mountain ridge, the Kongo-san in the province of Kawachi near the boundary of Yamato. 1 This reddish brown garnet bears the name Kongo-sha, i.e. " very hard sand," or " diamond sand," and comes in the form of little round grains, which under the micro- scope show more or less distinctly the garnet structure. It is brought to market by way of Osaka. In Kofu, the capital of the province of Koshiu or Kai, I found in the autumn of 1874, two establishments for polishing rock crystals. Most of these, however, are said ~ (according to A. Schenck) to be at the foot of the Mii-take at Kurobara, a day's journey farther north. The apparatus for polishing in Kofu was of a primitive, simple kind. Bent and hardened iron rods in the shape of longi- tudinal sections of hollow cylinders, together with garnet-sand and water, served for polishing the balls. The garnet-sand and water were spread over the iron spout, and the piece of rock crystal was rubbed backwards and forwards in it. The garnet-sand was separated into seven kinds according to the fineness, by sieves. The polishing began naturally with the employment of the coarsest, and finished with the finest sand. Meno or Meno-seki, the agate, is the best known of the other precious stones of the quartz family, and is polished in the same manner as the rock crystal. I have not seen these in the places where they are found and polished. Lyman, on the other hand, mentioned such at Oniu in Echiu, Tamatsukuri and Yumachi in Idzumo. He found in both the last-named places, agate, 1 The Orographical and Hydrographical map in the first volume of this work gives the situation of the Kongo-san westward from the Yoshino-gawa. a " Reise von Kofu nach den Quarz- und Bergkrystallgruben bei Kurobara." " Mittheilungen der deutschen gesellschaft Ostasiens," 8 Heft. Yokohama, 1S75. 426 ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. chalcedony, cornelian, green jasper, and smoked topaz, which were worked up into pretty little ornaments. 1 Soapstone, Jap. Roseki (wax-stone), and In-seki (seal-stone), is found principally in Bizen, in simple greyish white and also coloured varieties. It is much worked up into seals (Ingio or In) but for this purpose the Chinese Agalmatolite (To-R6seki) 2 is preferred. 7. Metal Industry. 3 Prefatory Remarks. — The Working up of Iron into Szvords, Armour and Objects of Art. — Embossing of Cast Iron. — The use of Copper. — The most important Alloys of Copper. — Japanese Bronze. — Patina. — The use of Bronze in the HouseJwld, and the Buddhist Religion. — Magic Mirrors. — Gold and Silver in Japanese Industrial Art. — Bronze Analysis. Numerous indications and historic statements which cannot be doubted, tell us that the Japanese people were acquainted with the most important metals in very early times, and have made great progress, especially with their preparation, since the 6th century of our era. The finding of pre-historic bronze weapons, like arrow- heads and swords, copper rattles and bells, and iron articles of various kinds, we must leave to the further study of the anti- quarian. Japanese art industry in all its branches, including that of metal industry, was not really developed until Buddhism pushed hither from the continent, with its new ideas. In the first half of the 8th century, at the time of Shomu- Tenno, the ability to work skilfully in metals generally, and especially in bronze, had already reached a high stage. This is seen in the idols, vases, censers, and other articles which the old celebrated temples at Nara, Kioto and other places have preserved from that time. The influence of China and Corea, and the ad- vancement of industry by Buddhism, are here also unmistakable. This stimulus on the part of religion to metal industry de- creased with the imperial power and the development of military despotism and feudalism. (See vol. i. p. 226). In the civil wars which the parties of the Taira and Minamoto carried on in the 1 2th century, as well as others which followed later, the forging of iron weapons and armour, became of greater importance than the casting of idols and vessels of bronze. Whoever could make good 1 Lyman : "Geological Survey of Japan. Reports of Progress for 1878 and 1879." Pp. 35 and 58. 2 Their external similarity to variegated soapstone, in colour and veining, is evidently the reason why the Japanese apply the name R6-seki to serpentine, and also to coloured marble (p. 313). 3 Kane = the metal; Kane-mono = the metal- ware : Kane-dzaiku = the metal- work. METAL INDUSTRY. 427 swords stood at once higher in the general estimation than any other tradesman ; his industry flourished when all others were laid low. When the dynasty of the Tokugawa-Shoguns was firmly founded by Iyeyasu and his next successors, and the land was assured of peace, the other branches of metal industry, as well as of industrial art in general, became once more important. The disturbance which it suffered twenty years ago, through the setting aside of feudalism and the restoration of the Mikado government, has had no lasting effect except upon the forging of weapons. On the other hand, metal industry has made new openings for itself in many of its artistic branches, and shows in these remarkable progress, as will appear hereafter more especially in the instances mentioned. There is scarcely any kind of metal ornamentation or decoration, with the exception of galvanizing, which the Japanese had not known and practised before the opening of the country. In their more eminent accomplishments they had already won the admi- ration of European connoisseurs. Precious metals, copper, bronze, and cast-iron, however different their properties may be, all yield to the skilful hand of the Japanese, and to his manifold little art- conceptions, which effectively supplement the simplicity of the tools. His decorations of iron and bronze belong notably to the most costly that can be accomplished in this direction. The wonderful skill with which apparently insurmountable difficulties in damascening, chasing and other work are overcome, surprises us no less than the great ability to work effective colour combinations, and the means of their representation. Before I proceed now to the description of the chief accomplish- ments in the several divisions of Japanese metal industry, I will explain them briefly in the interest of such readers chiefly who may not understand the customary art expressions. The most common working utensils which are used by the Japanese in the various kinds of metal decoration are the following : 1st, the anvil, Kana-shiki or Kana-toko ; 2nd, the tongs, namely: a. Yattoko, the pincers ; b. Kana-hibashi, the fire tongs for holding hot metals ; c. Kugi-nuki, the nail tongs ; 3rd, the iron hammer, Kana-dzuchi (Sai-dzuchi is the wooden hammer which is used in the chiselling of wood, and other softer substances) ; 4th, the file or Yasuri ; 5th, the chisel or Nomi, in many forms and sizes ; 6th, the burin, bent graver or Tagane, a little piece of iron from a finger's to a hand's length, generally in the shape of a nail ; the upper end a little enlarged like a head, the lower either pointed or sharpened like a chisel, and always edged with steel. The burin is used in en- graving, chasing and inlaying, and is one of the simplest but most important of the tools of this industry. The punch is a kind of burin whose steel end has other forms and is often provided with figures. It is used in the chasing of metals ; 7th, Ko-gatana, a small knife. The various forms of decoration which the Japanese employ with 42S ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. metals are called casting - , embossing, beating, turning, chasing, engraving, inlaying, damascening, encrusting, plating, enamelling, and colouring. Casting, Jap. Iru. (I-mono, the casting). Plate XV. shows in b the lower cross-section of the common, small, smelting furnace ; in a that of the box bellows. The air of the latter is forced in six places into the fire-box in which charcoal is brought to a glowing heat. These places surround the smelting furnace, which is made of fire clay. Figure e shows the cross-section of the clay mould of vase with its interior, which has been beforehand turned on the patterns c and d. Such moulds are, of course, duly prepared before each casting. The results in iron, and especially in bronze casting are astonishing when one considers these simple arrange- ments. At the Vienna Exhibition was seen for instance, a group of flying birds, which appeared separate from each other, and still were formed at one casting. Embossing, Jap. Uchi-dashi or Uchi-age. The decoration of bronze in relief is accomplished either in the casting of the subject, or by turning and chiselling, or finally by embossing, French Repousse-work. The last consists in forcing the metal from the inside outward, generally with the aid of the punch. Embossed work can, of course, be executed only in sheet metal. In Japan it is made principally in Hiroshima and the three capital cities, but is far less important than other modes of decoration. Beating, Jap. Tataku or Utsu is the name given to the hammer- ing of cold metal into sheet form on the anvil. The skilfulness is shown in the finished products (for example, a silver or copper vessel), chiefly in the even distribution and conformity of the marks of the hammer or Tsutchi-me (hammer eyes). The well-known silversmith, Tiffany of New York, furnishes beautiful beaten work of this kind which excels even the finest of Kidto. Turned work or the Rokuro-saiku is generally done on the turning lathe in cast bronze. It has become more and more the custom in modern times to produce the decorations in relief, not in the casting, but by sculpture (Horu). The article, a vase for in- stance, is cast smooth but with very thick walls. The bronze sculptor, or Hori-mono-shi, draws the ornamentations which are to protrude above the ground, and next cuts away to the required depth the superfluous metal around the outlines by means of chiselling and turning. He then applies himself to the projecting parts, and forms them just as the sculptor or the wood-carver forms his rough block. What he loses by this in time he spares himself in the preparation and simplifying of the casting. Chasing, Jap. Horu and Hori-age, is the name given to the afterwork with the chisel, burin, and file applied to the relief ob- tained by casting, embossing or sculpturing. By chasing, the seams of the casting and other accidental unevennesses are removed. Folds, furrows and angles are developed, or better brought out Rciit, Japan H. Plate AT V/i! vWilh EngebnaJin,Liq>2if liAAnsUWirntr&.WulUr.Fr2nki~art "rN APPARATUS FOR CASTING METAL. a Box- bellows, b. Cross- section of a smelting-furnace, c. d. Model, e.Mould. METAL INDUSTRY. 429 and in general, the imperfections of the first, coarse work are over- come. Engraving, to carve in, to incise, is called in Japan also Horu, but likewise Kiri-tsuke, and is nearly related to chasing. It is done with the knife (O-gatane) and the bent graver (Tagane), and usually serves for the decoration of flat surfaces, not of raised work. Hori-mono is the name given to every kind of graven or chased work, and the article thus decorated is called Hori-mono-zaiku. Damascening, Japanese Zogan (German Tauschirung, French Damasquinure), is the name given to the inlaying of wires and fine strips of gold and silver in the furrows of baser metals. Iron, steel, bronze and copper especially are damascened. The orna- mentation stretched out beforehand must be engraved according to the pattern with the burin, or hollowed with the chisel. The furrows which are produced with the former, have in the cross section the form of a swallow's tail, or are made " under cut " as the bent graver is held in receiving the blows of the hammer, first vertically, then inclined, once to the right and once to the left. In this way both the outer edges of the furrow, which grows larger towards the inside, are beaten back, welt fashion. They are then filed off smooth, and the prepared piece of precious metal (wire or plate) is laid in the furrow and driven in with a hammer. The Japanese distinguish three kinds of work according to the manner in which this is done, as they do in gold lacquer work, as follows : a. Taka-zogan, i.e. raised damascene work in which the gold and silver, like the ajour precious stone in its setting, for the most part projects over the furrow. b. Hira-zogan, flat damascening in which the inlaid precious metal does not project over the surface of that metal decorated with it. c. Nuno-me-zogan, i.e. damascening in meshes. That variety of Hira-zogan which is used chiefly as a universal surface decoration, such as plate XVII. shows on both sides of the vine border, as well as the clouds in fig. 17, receives this designation. The cobweb on the bronze vase, plate XVIII., and the handle ornament on fig. 15, are specimens of simple Hira-zogan, while raised damas- cening is what we see in the girls' figures, and other forms in plate XVII., as well as in several of the following illustrations. The expression damascening is now used generally as a synonym for inlaying. In its secondary significance, the etched mirror-like decorations of silky lustre on steel and iron are understood. 1 1 In Europe, the beginning of the art of inlaying is traced back by anti- quarians generally to the Celts. I do not share this opinion, and think the artistic sense and ability of this people was too little developed, and that the discovered works attributed to them do not originate with them, but with the Romans. These latter certainly understood and practised the inlaying of iron weapons and armour when they came into contact with the Celts. Proofs 43o ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. Incrusting, or incrustation, is the name given in art industry to the decoration inlaid in the surface or crust of an article. Thus, intarsia work, enamelling and damascening are all varieties of in- crustation. Plating, Jap. Kin-kise and Gin-kise. The covering of a common metal with gold or silver in sheet form, where the precious metal is made fast to the foundation by hammering, pressing or rolling, is called by this name. The inside of the copper-box (fig. 16) was silvered by plating. The last chapter of this section will give all necessary details concerning the metal decorations of the Japanese by means of enamel (Shippo), i.e. opaque coloured glassy flux, while the equally important subject of patina-work or of colouring (Iro-tsuke) will be explained in the section concerning bronze work. Iron, Tetsu or Kurogane. The consumption of iron of all kinds has grown so enormously since the opening of Japan, that the home production has not been able to keep pace with it, and the average yearly importation, since 1868, mounts up to nearly two millions of yen. But even in earlier times, during the long rule of the Tokugawa, the iron produced in the country itself did not suffice for the demand, so that China and Holland were obliged to contribute to its supply. The Japanese smithing has been developed chiefly in making weapons and armour, also in casting and decorating cast-iron water kettles, whereas its accomplishments (apart from the hardening of steel) in the manufacture of all those, little tools and utensils used in daily life and handicraft, cannot be very highly valued. Among the nations of Eastern Asia the Japanese were known as skilful workers of iron, which their celebrated Katana-kaji, or armourers, transformed into famous weapons of excellent steel. They produced swords by which one could cut through iron nails without nicking the blades in the slightest. These swords were as celebrated in Eastern Asia during the Middle Ages as those of Indian steel, o-lSepos "IvSikos (Arrian), and the polished weapons made out of this material in the Persian Empire of former times. 1 Magnetic iron, in the form of ferruginous sand, was the raw material in both cases. Its reduction is carried on even now in Japan, in small smelting furnaces with charcoal, occupying three of this exist in many collections of Roman antiquities. I remember, for in- stance, one — a Roman sword, inlaid with silver, at the Museum at Mayence, that was found in the Rhine. 1 On the plateau of the Deccan, especially in Hyderabad near Dundurti and eastward from Nimal, magnetic iron was obtained, from which the Indian steel was made which furnished the celebrated Indian and Persian cut and thrust weapons, as well as the Damascus blades. METAL INDUSTRY. 431 days in the process, as for example, at Anegawa in Idzumo. Steel and iron are obtained in this way at the same time. l The sword, the most beautiful, most valuable, and the most dreaded weapon of Japan during the feudal times, was, according to the expression of the Iyeyasu, " the living soul of the Samurai." To wear the sword was his greatest privilege. He was trusted with it even when a boy, and carried it with him on his way to school (see vol. i. p. 327). The oldest Japanese sword, Tsu- rugi, or Ken. was carried crosswise over the back, and brandished with both hands. It was a straight, heavy weapon, with sharp edges on both sides, nearly a meter long, and from six to seven centimeters broad. As these were later made half the length and somewhat shortened, another weapon, the Katana or common sword of the Japanese, was devised, with an edge which is slightly curved toward the end. The Samurai carried this either alone or with a second smaller, dagger-like sword, on the left side of his girdle. These smaller weapons were known by the names Wakizashi, and were in later times shortened to 29 centimeters (nine and a half inches) and used in the Harakiri, or disembowelling. The forging and polishing of swords was a wearisome work, demanding much skill and practice. Hiitterott especially gives particular details concerning the various methods of combining the hard steel with the soft, elastic iron. The tempering (Yakiba, from Yaki, to burn, and Ha, edge) of the edge is carefully done in the charcoal furnace, the softer backs (Mune) and the sides being surrounded up to a certain point with fire clay, so that only the edge remains outside. The cooling takes place in cold water. It is in this way that the steeled edge may be distinguished clearly from the back, by its colour and lustre. The backs of knives, axes and other weapons are united to the steel edge either by welding on one side, or by fitting the edge into a fluted groove of the back blade, and welding on both sides. Toward the end of the 15th century the occupation of the artist was united to that of the smith. Then they commenced to pay great attention to the mounting of the blade. In this work Tsuka, the hilt, Tsuba, the guard on the hilt, and Saya, the sheath, are brought especially into consideration. The wooden hilt of a Japanese sword is about 15 centimeters long, in the cross section a long oval, covered with grained shark- skin or other decorations, and furnished further with the Me-nuki, two little metal ornaments, each one of which is fastened nearly in the middle of one side. At one end of the handle toward the blade is an oval copper or bronze plate, the Habaki or throat ; on the other end is the Kashira, the head, or Tsuka-gashira, a metal cap. Lengthwise in the handle are two slots through which a strong silk cord, almost a centimeter broad, is threaded. This is wound around the whole handle in such a way that its two halves connect 1 See Lyman : "Geological Survey of Japan, 1878 and 1879," P- °3- 433 ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. closely on the two sharply arched sides, but cross each other over the broad sides so that rhomboid meshes are formed, through which the decorations of the handle, including the Me-nuke, appear. The sword-shell, or guard, Tsuba, is as old as the sword. It is an oval metal plate from one to two millimeters thick and about six centimeters in diameter, with an opening in the middle to admit the blade of the sword. A second opening at the side serves for the fitting in of a straight knife, the Ko-dzuka, whose blade has been made to lie in an outside furrow of the sheath, with a groove for the point. There is often a third perforation in the opposite side of the guard, through which the K6-gai, or " hair- pin " was put. Saya, the sword sheath, was usually made out of the wood of the H6-no-ki {Magnolia Jiypolencd) protected and decorated by coats of lacquer varnish. The greatest luxury in the metal decoration of sword guards, hilts, and ends of the Ko-dzuka, was developed in the 15th century, the time of the Ashikaga Shoguns. This branch of art-industry " has given to Japan its thousands of skilled workmen and its scores of famous masters." l As has been said on p. 426 the iron industry, in so far as the equipment of warriors was concerned, received its great impulse during the struggles of the Taira and Minamoto (see vol. i. p. 228). Skilful sword-cutlers gained for themselves high social position, and won immortal glory and fame with their swords. Kioto, Osaka and Kamakura were their chief seats ; in later centuries also Okayama in Bizen, Sakai in Idzurni, Seki in Mino, and Tokio. Masamune, who lived in Kamakura, about the year 1290, was especially highly esteemed. 3 His name became an appellative in the sense of most perfect workmanship, and was later bestowed on the celebrated sculptor Jocho, at Nara in Yamato, a distinction enjoyed by his descendants for six generations. 3 Many smiths acquired great skill also in making the Gusoku or armour, especially the Kabuto (helmets), Kusari-katabira (chain coats or mail) and the Oke-gawa or breast armour, which super- seded them later. Among these Yoroi-shi or armour-smiths, the family Miyochin has especially distinguished itself for many 1 See W. Anderson, in Murray's " Hand-book of Japan," 2nd ed., p. 115. 2 Whoever wishes to learn more of the history of Japanese swords is referred to the following treatises. 1. "The Sword of Japan," by Thomas McClatchie, in Transactions of the As. Soc. of Japan. Vol. ii. 1874, p. 63 ff. 2. " Die Japanischen Schwerter," von G. Miiller-Beeck, Zeitschrift fiir Ethno- logie, 15. Bd. 1882, p. 30 ff. 3. " Das Japanische Schwert," von G. Hiitterott. " Mittheil. der deutsch. Gesellschaft Ostasiens," 33 Heft, 1885. 3 See W. Anderson, in Satow and Hawes : "A Hand-book for Travellers in Japan." 2nd ed. London, 1884, p. 103. METAL INDUSTRY. 433 generations, from the 15th to the 18th century. The eagle in the Kensington Museum, which is said to have been forged by Miyo- chin Muneharu in the 16th century, and of which a woodcut after a photograph appears on plate XVI., belongs to the most admirable products of their art. A large label attached to the work contains the following ' Model of an eagle. The bird stands with outspread a rock, and is made of numerous bits of iron, some others carved or hammered and chased. It is the work of statement, wings upon cast, Miyochin Muneharu, a celebrated Japanese metal-worker of the Fig. 15.— CAST-IRON KETTLE, WITH INLAID WORK. [Original in Royal Industrial Art Museum, Berlin.) 16th century. The width of the wings measures four feet four and a half inches (133 centimeters). Bought from Mitford's collection for ;£ 1,000." x The Tetsu-bin or cast-iron kettle, which is to be found in every Japanese house for boiling the water for tea, is the only one 1 In the year 1881, in company with a learned Japanese, I visited the Ken- sington Museum in London, and with the permission of the directors undertook II. F F 434 ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. among all the iron house utensils which is often artistically orna- mented. The cover is usually made of bronze, rich in copper, and sometimes the handle also. Most of the Tetsu-bin are cast in the three capitals, and are sometimes ornamented with inlaid work or with enamel. Among the older, richly decorated kettles, those of Kin-ju-do in Kioto and of Riobundo in Osaka are most generally found in collections. Fig. 15, p. 433, represents such an iron kettle. It shows above the out-jutting rim for holding it on the tripod, a rough surface, which looks as if hewn out of a rock. Tablets of copper plate sur- rounded by thick silver wire are inlaid in this surface. These copper tablets were previously inlaid with gold and silver. The forged iron handie is decorated also with inlaid work, likewise the dark copper cover. On the copper plate in front, resembling an out-spread fan, is the blooming Sakura with the Uguisu, i.e. the Japanese wild cherry-tree with the Japanese nightingale, in silver and gold. A narrow gold plate encircles the spout in the form of a ring. Zogan, or Inlaid Work on Iron. Although inlaying in iron was known even at the time of the Kuwammu Tenno (782 to 807 A.D.), still it was not generally employed till the 16th century, when, under Ota Nobunaga (1542 to 1582), the iron breast armour, Jap. Oke-gawa (literally, tub- bark), the armour shirt or Kusari-katabira, of woven wire, had become a part of the warrior's armour. It then grew to be more and more the custom to decorate these pieces of breast armour and the helmet also with silver and gold inlay; just as in Europe and especially in Spain, during the Middle Ages, armour and weapons were often made very costly by this inlaid work. The finest Japanese armour was made in the time of Taiko-sama, that is, during the second half of the 16th century. More surprising than the inlaid work on the forged iron armour and weapons, is its direct employment on cast iron Tetsu-bin, vases and other articles. As is well known, the cast iron cannot, on account of its hardness and brittleness, be worked with the hammer, chisel and burin. The way in which these properties are lessened by the reduction of the carboniferous contents has been an examination of the origin and age of the Japanese metal articles. The glass case which covered this masterpiece, the eagle, was opened, the bird taken down from its pedestal, a rock of strong sheet iron, and thoroughly examined in all its parts ; but we found no inscription, name, or sign, which would in- dicate its origin. We have also not been able to trace the history of this remarkable piece of art-industry, which Mitford, the former English Secretary of Legation in Japan, had brought with him. We then turned to the bronzes. Scarcely the third part of these bore name and date. But from them it was apparent that almost all these vases and other articles designated as " old Japanese bronze :) were made in this century. METAL INDUSTRY. 435 observed by Lehmann and Wagener in Kioto. l It is a peculiar decarburising process, by which the surface of the kettle or pot receives a structure like to that of soft iron or steel, and can then be treated in the same way as in the Zogan-work on forged iron. The process of decarburisation of the surface is called Yakeru (to burn), and is performed with primitive apparatus. Old damaged rice kettles out of which the bottom has been knocked serve as ovens. These are plastered over on the inside with a fire clay (Oka-saki-tsuchi and sand mixed in equal parts), so that a cylin- drical space of the size of the hole in the bottom, remains open. The Kama or kettle thus prepared, is turned over upon a thick plate or slab, three or four centimeters thick, made out of the same fire-proof material, which serves as a grate, and is perforated like a sieve for this purpose. In order to give this plate greater firm- ness, it is bound around with an iron band. The holes have a width of about 1*5 centimeters. In order to give the air free play, several stones are laid under the edge of the slab. Then the Tetsu-bin to be burned, whose outside has been carefully cleaned beforehand from dust and sand, is placed in the Kama, directly on the grate. The difference in size between the Kama and Tetsu-bin must be such that a space of at least five centimeters remains open around the latter. This open space is then filled with the best charcoal in pieces the size of a nut, till the Kama is filled to the rim, when the coal is kindled. In order to increase the draught, two or three Kamas filled in the same way are set one over the other, forming a kind of chimney. When the coals have ceased glowing, others are put in, and when the second instalment is burned out, the Tetsu-bin are taken out and turned upside down (with the opening under- neath), set again in the Kama and burned twice in this position. Under favourable circumstances, the surface is now sufficiently soft and tough, as is ascertained with a file. It is often the case that the furnace must be heated ten times. After the cooling the decorations are then carved as in forged iron, without danger of breaking the edges, or recoil of the burin. Until some twenty years ago, the decoration with such inlaid work was limited to places on iron kettles. At that time several skilful workmen, formerly armourers of Kioto, especially Komai and Iyenori, turned their attention to the work, and have developed since then this branch of art industry in" an astonishing manner, decorating large vases, smoking utensils, plates, dishes, and other articles of cast-iron with remarkable artistic skill, hitherto unknown The heliotype of plate XVII. represents a cast-iron vase of Komai in Kioto, adorned with such Zogan work. In the summer of 1875 I obtained from a dealer in Kioto the 1 I am indebted to the kind communications of these gentlemen (Engineer Lehmann and Dr. Wagener, both now in Tokio) for the items given here. 436 ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. first pair of such vases — a work which at that time, in Tokio, at- tracted great attention among Japanese and foreign connoisseurs. They are now in the Royal Industrial Art Museum in Berlin. Later on a second pair with similar work was sent to Germany, acquired by Dr. von Brlining, of Frankfort on the Main, and pre- sented to the Industrial Art Museum at that place. These vases are designated by the authors as "the united work of Komai Yoshitaka and Komai Yoshihiro, inhabitants of Kioto, province of Yamashiro." They are among the most beautiful works of this description, although they are the first of the above-named masters. The four fields, two on each vase, represent silk culture. The picture before us shows the end of the process. One girl is busy with the hurdles upon which the worms have been grown ; a second collects the finished cocoons ; a third brings them away ; a fourth sits at the old simple reeling apparatus, a little stove with a coal fire, on which the water is being heated in the iron pan placed above it. She has thrown in a handful of cocoons and is about to reel off the silk threads. A fifth girl is busy hanging up the strands of reeled silk to dry. The fineness of the embossing goes so far as to give the pattern of the clothing, which is recognis- able even in the small scale of the picture. Many of these newer Zogan-works on cast iron are rendered more prominent through the steel blue or dead-black groundwork, a peculiar kind of " Niello," which is made of lacquer putty, or Shakudo, and pro- duces an effect like the works of Zuloaga of Madrid, whose name is known to every friend of art industry and visitor at the great exhibitions, by its magnificent inlaying of iron. Copper (Aka-gane, Do), the most widely distributed, and next to iron the most important metal of Japan, is said to have been found here first in 708 A.D. But without doubt it was known to the inhabitants much earlier, as is indicated by prehistoric dis- coveries. Among these and side by side with stone weapons and coarse earthen vessels, are also copper swords and small round bells (Suzu) of copper plate, and other bells (Tsuri-gane) of con- siderable size. 1 Copper probably came first with Buddhism from China and Corea to Japan. It is certain that it has served for the ornamentation and outfitting of Buddhist temples and pagodas, as in India and China, in manifold forms, from the first introduction of Buddhist teaching till the present time. If it does not play in Japanese religion and in the household so prominent a part as in India, where copper and brass vessels have served for ages the manifold purposes for which we, generally, use wooden, clay and glass ware, it is nevertheless in Japan often substituted for the earthen vessel as well as for iron, zinc and tin. Among other useful copper utensils, I mention only the Yatate or portable writing-case, in which the Japanese business man carries 1 See Kanda Takahira ; " On some Copper Bells." " Transact. As. Soc. of Japan," vol. iv. p. 29 to 33. PHOTOTYPE BY STRUMPER & CO., HAMBUI INLAID VASE OF CAST-IRON. Original in the ROYAL KUNSTGEWERBE MUSEUM Berlin. METAL INDUSTRY. 437 with him his brush and fluid India ink, the Kana-darai, the wash- dish of brass or copper, and the Yuwakashi or copper kettle for boiling water. Copper cannot be cast like iron and bronze, because it makes bubbles and forms holes in stiffening'. It is therefore worked up into wire and sheet form. It is very much used in this form for mounting fine boxes and cabinets, with holds and cramps, which are most tastefully decorated by engraving of arabesques, flowers, birds, and other things. 1 I will give here another method of treating copper, which has not yet been mentioned anywhere else. I first became acquainted with it through the celebrated bronze manufacturer, Kanaya Goro- saburo, in Kioto. Besides many sorts of bronze ware, he makes also small copper water-kettles, holding from a half to a whole liter, in which only the revolving knob of the cover and the two soldered handle-ears, are made of a brass-like bronze. The forms of these kettles are extraordinarily pleasing, including the handle, whose upper part is finished with a beautiful plaiting of rattan. The ornamentation of the simplest kettles consists of a lustrous dark coffee-brown patina, after whose preparation vine decorations and other light and pleasing designs are engraved upon it. The reddish brown copper colour which appears in the engraved leaves and flowers and also in the lustrous dark brown ground colour is very effective. The richer ornamentation consists of inlaying and encrusting with silver and gold. The inside of the kettle also generally receives a silver plating, as a protection against acids. The dark coffee-brown colour of copper and bronze, as I saw it on a copper Yuwakashi, is obtained in the following manner. Equal weights of green vitriol (Roha), copper vitriol (Tampan), and sul- phur (Iwo), are respectively mixed with water. The copper article is then dipped in this bath, which must be often stirred on account of the finely distributed sulphur, and then rinsed in a second bath prepared in the same way, but very much thinner. This process is repeated till the necessary corrosion is attained, which is recog- nised by long practice. The vessel is then brought to the Hibachi or fire-pan, and heated here on an iron grate, whose bars are from eight to twelve centimeters distant from each other, and with fre- quent turning. In order not to endanger the soldering, these bars are sprinkled from time to time with water in which Kariyasu (Calaniagrostis Hakonensis, Franch. and Sav.) has been boiled. The vessel is now rubbed with a cloth, then painted lightly with Ki- (or Seshime-) urushi, rubbed again with the cloth, painted once more and now heated until the sprinkled Kari-yasu water rolling 1 I have never observed in Japan the Indian and Persian method of decorat- ing copper vessels, by giving them a coating of tin in which the ornamentation is engraved or carved down to the copper ground. On the other hand, the enameling borrowed from the Chinese is well known and practised. Fuller details in regard to this will be found in the last chapter of this section. 438 ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. away in balls, indicates the amount of heat. The copper article is then taken from the grate with a pair of tongs and coated with a mixture of raw lac (Ki-urushi) or Seshime and lamp-black (Yuyen- sumi). It is then heated again up to the point where the water rolls away in balls, brushed over and painted anew with the lac mixture, and so on, till colour and lustre have the desired shade, whereupon the work is finished and the article is set aside for a second cooling. Kanaya Gorosaburo told me that he obtained the same patina with bronze by a quite similar process. He maintained further that many workmen used vegetable wax instead of lac, but that such an Iro-tsuke (process of colouring) could not be recommended. It is striking, however, that the lac or its substitute is not car- bonized by the heat. Fig. 1 6 is a woodcut showing a copper box ; and fig. 17 (p. 439) shows its cover. The box is plated on the inside with thick silver Fig. l6. — COPPER BOX WITH INLAID WORK. [Property of the Royal Industrial Art Museum, Berlin) plate, and the outside coloured a dull greyish brown. Its inlaying of the clouds on the sides is done in gold. The most beautiful part is the ornamentation of the cover in surface-relief, showing a hill with a rivulet winding around it. The prominent figure well placed, chased and represented for raised inlaid work (in which both the gold and silver alloys, Shaku- do and Shibuichi are used) is the cock ; his comb and the short tail-feathers which are seen on the wings and back are of natural copper colour ; the copper tail is bronzed in blackish brown. Wings, cheek and throat are of several shades of gold-yellow, also the legs ; the feathers of the back arranged like a row of tiles, are coloured silver-grey by means of Shibuichi, likewise the little chicken hurrying to the water, all except the gold-coloured legs. The artist, in order to represent the sun shining upon its head and throat, has used pure glistening silver. The Wistaria, which gives the picture a beautiful finish, has its stems and under leaves METAL INDUSTRY. 439 covered with light yellow gold ; the rest of the leaves and tendrils with dark yellow, the blossoms with silver, Shibu-ichi and copper. On one side of the rivulet may be seen a blooming dandelion whose leaves are inlaid with light gold and the blossoms of dark gold. The whole has a wonderful effect, full of life and force. The following are the most prominent of the numerous copper alloys (Maze-gane), which have to be considered in Japanese Art Industry. 1. Shin-chiu, brass. This contains usually thirty per cent, of zinc to seventy per cent, of copper. 2. Kara-kane (literally China-metal), bronze. Bronze is under- Fig. 17. — COVER OF THE BOX, WITH INLAID WORK AND CHASING. stood no\v-a-days to indicate the many different alloys of copper with tin, with tin and zinc, with tin, zinc, and lead, to which anti- mony may sometimes be added, but in all of which copper is predominant. These bronzes serve many different purposes, and are employed both in art and for practical objects. 3. Shibu-ichi, an alloy of copper and silver, in which the latter varies from 6 to 32 per cent. 4. Shaku-dq, copper, in which from 2 to 5 per cent, of gold is mixed. Besides the common brass that is used for wash-dishes, fire-pans, hoops around large rice bowls, bindings of chests and several other purposes, an alloy is prepared, by the name of K6-do, of both 440 ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. metals, with 35 per cent, of zinc, and is worked up in a similar manner. The Japanese do not share the predilection of the Indian people for brass utensils, but they nevertheless employ great skill and care in ornamenting the few they do use. Alloys which are made up in the manner of the Indian Bidri wares, in which zinc amounts to 90 or 95 per cent, and copper forms but a small constitutent, are not known in Japan. Here, for ages past, the most various metallurgic skill and ornamentation is concen- trated upon — Kara-kane. Bronze. This alloy has an old history. Besides serving manifold technical purposes, it has been for ages the favourite of artists, the material in which art made her first attempts and obtained her highest triumphs. Weapons and working utensils of bronze, made very hard by repeated hammering, were preferred by many nations to those of iron. So also in Japan. The oldest prehistoric metal dis- coveries in this country are bronze bells and arrow heads, concern- ing whose origin and age we can only speculate. Bronze shares with iron and brass the great advantage of being much more fluid in a molten state than copper, and in casting to perfectly fill out the mould, and therefore to reproduce it exactly, besides presenting on cooling a close homogeneous texture. Most of the bronze alloys shrink much less than cast iron ; the decrease of volume, however, which accompanies gradual cooling has no such great influence upon the clear outline of the casting, as that shrinking which takes place in the sudden solidifying of many metals. A further advantage of bronze lies in the fact that it is so easy to be worked upon with hammer, chisel and burin. . Its hardness is similar to that of antimony and lies in most cases, as also in brass, and especially in the old copper bronzes of Japan, between 3 and 3 - 5. The hardness is therefore greater than that of the single constituents of the alloy, including copper. The colour, ductility, texture and hardness are all dependent on the compo- sition of the bronze. Among all the Japanese bronzes (the old copper bronzes not excepted) which I have been able to examine I found none whose hardness equalled that of fiuor spar, while (according to E. Reyer 1 ) the hard bronzes of the ancient nations, which were free from zinc and lead, had a hardness of between 5 and 6. The cause of the greater density and hardness of these old bronze pieces, as axes, chisels, arrow heads, swords and other weapons, is doubtless to be found in the fact that they were made with the hammer, as castings of a similar composition do not show 1 E. Reyer: " Hartbronze der alten Volker." Journal f.prakt. Chemie. Bd. 25, 1882, p. 258. METAL INDUSTRY. 441 these qualities. 1 Nevertheless, the closeness, hardness, toughness and other internal properties of the Japanese bronze are not the ones by which they are especially distinguished and excel those of the Chinese, but rather their colour and ornamentation. The colours range through all the shades of brown and grey from light yellow to the finest and most effective dead black, and are dis- tinguished by great uniformity, such as is possible only when this proceeds from a natural chemical re-action, which is dependent on the composition and not on painting. When one considers the small technical aids which the Japanese can rely upon in his bronze work, his remarkable accomplishments in patina-work are the more surprising. 2 The dead-black bronze articles which have come in ever increasing numbers within the last few years to Europe, have especially attracted the attention of interested circles, because of their novelty and striking beauty, and have led also to thorough analyses and experiments. This has been done principally in Paris, the city which for three centuries has rejoiced in the well-founded reputation of being able to execute in bronze industry the best that Europe could offer. The re- searches of H. Morin, 3 Christofle and Bouilhet, 4 and E. J. Maumene 3 were particularly notable. In Germany, the unsatisfactory state of many public bronze monuments led to thorough investigations of the formation of patina, among which those of R. Weber 6 are especially noteworthy. The collective result of all these studies may be summed up as follows : — By the terms patina, antique patina or "noble rust " (ALrugo nobilis), formerly only the malachite green or blue-green efflores- cence of carbonate of copper was understood, as it is often found on old bronze and copper works. This patina is always smooth, but does not cover the article evenly, as the metal always gleams through it. It is also found in modern bronze monuments, for instance in the statue of the Great Elector at Berlin, in the equestrian statue of Elector Johann Wilhelm in the market place at Diisseldorf, and in the monuments of Louis XIV. and Louis XV. in Paris. 1 This proves at least their greater density, while another molecular arrange- ment must account for the greater hardness, though I do not know that this can be effected by simple hammering. - G. Bousquet remarked upon this in his very interesting article, " L'Art Japonais," Revue des Deux Mondes, 1877, tome xxi. p. 323, as follows : "On ne saurait s'imaginer dans quelles miserables echoppes et par quels moyens primitifs ils obtiennent ces resultats." 3 " Sur quelques bronzes de la Chine et du Japon a patine fonce." Compt. Rendus, t. "]■}>, 1874, p. 811. 4 " Notes sur des reactifs permettant d'obtenir des patines de divers couleurs a la surface des bronzes." Coinpt. Rend., t. 72, 1874, p. 1019. 5 " Notes sur les Bronzes du Japon." Compt. Rend., 1875, t. 80, p. 1009. 6 " Ueber Patinabildung," von Prof. R. Weber, Dingl. Polyt. Journ., Bd. 245, 18S2, p. 86. 4-P ART INDUSTRY AXD RELATED OCCUPATIONS. This patina formation is due partly to the composition of the bronze and partly to the atmosphere. Precious copper bronze consisting of copper and tin only, is marked by it more than other kinds. A large amount of dampness in the atmosphere, and salt, together with rain and frequent washing, favour its production, while coal-dust, sulphide of hydrogen and sewer gases hinder it. The black coating of many bronze monuments, which so often takes the place of the beautiful colour of the fresh casting, is not due usually to sulphide of copper, but to particles of coal and dust, with a small mixture of oxides. A watery solution of carbonate of ammonia put on with a brush, is excellent for removing this, 1 while the artistic production of the patina is best done by means of acetic ammonia of copper-potassium. Zinc alloys, especially brass, blacken easier than those without zinc. Copper containing arsenic also shows greater inclination to blacken. Xow-a-days patina is understood to include every accidental or intentional colouring of a metal or an alloy which differs from the original. Chemical analysis has shown that the beautiful dead- black colouring of many of the Japanese bronzes, which sets off so finely its decoration of inlaid work, incrustation and other orna- mentation, is due to the lead in the alloy, which usually amounts to something over io per cent, and in single instances sometimes to 20 per cent, as shown in table B at the end of this chapter. Of the old bronzes only the small Egyptian idols, of which table A 5 gives an analysis, exhibit as high and still higher percentage of lead. When the alloy contains so large a mixture of lead it becomes very brittle, while the Japanese bronzes with 9 to 14 per cent, of lead, 7 to 2 per cent, of tin, and a corresponding amount of zinc, satisfy all claims, as they are easily cast, form a homogeneous mass, and by this means, as well as by their even hardness, are easy to work, which is not possible when the zinc is left out. The fine dead-black patina is produced by simple heating in a close furnace, and is caused in part by the formation of a sub-oxide of lead. Christofie and Bouilhet have shown, how- ever, by their investigations, that a fine black patina may be obtained without lead. Their process amounted to the same thing as forming a sulphide of copper on the surface of the bronze. Brown, red and orange-yellow tints were also produced, which answered every purpose. The Japanese have an expedient for shading according to taste the colour obtained in the tempering of the bronze, which has not been known nor tried elsewhere. This is by a kind of grass, called Kari-yasu {Calamagrostis Hakonensis, Fr. and Sav.), a corrosive sub- stance of astonishing effectiveness. By boiling its roots and apply- ing the liquid to the bronze, they obtain the said effect. An exact chemical analysis of this substance has not yet been made, but very possibly it may have some importance for our bronze industry. 1 According to Briihl in Dingl. Polyt. Journ. 1882, p. 256. METAL INDUSTRY. 443 We recognise in the artistic treatment of Japanese bronze vases at least three periods, which naturally are less sharply distin- guished in time than in fashions, following close upon each other. The alloys of the old bronze vases and bronze castings generally are almost always rich in copper, while lead and antimony appear as only accidental constituents. Among their manifold forms the broad long-necked flasks with cone-shaped bodies seem to rule, also the shape of a mortar, among the forms of handles the imitation of elephant's trunk. Generally the very tasteful decora- tion is simple, and executed mostly in surface relief by chasing and engraving. Arabesques and the elements of the Meander in manifold combinations are the ruling designs ; clouds and waves and small landscapes also appear. The principal effect is wrought by well designed alternation and symmetrical arrange- ment. Inlaying and enamel are entirely wanting. 1 A second tendency of taste, which likewise originated in China, ruled in Japan during the last century, and is still powerful there. It is distinguishable from the first, not so much in the composition and figure of the vases as in their ornamentation. A high relief ob- tained by casting and chasing, with which the vases are often over- grown and overloaded in wild confusion, something like the flowers of our porcelain vases, which singly often show great artistic skill, and which are often beautifully raised up on the well designed dark background, but which confuse by their own fulness of deco- ration and entirely conceal the character and form of the vase. The latest period, whose beginning does not date very far back of the time when the country was opened by Commodore Perry, indicates unmistakably great progress in Japanese bronze industry. This is especially found in the tasteful arrangement of colours and in a better sense of the right amount of ornamentation. The high reliefs do not play such a prominent part, while inlaying and in- crustation are combined very effectively with chasing and engrav- ing. Such decorations on dark bronze containing lead have been brought from the towns Kanazawa and Takaoka in Kaga and Echiu, but are now also made considerably in Tokio. Kioto, the old seat of Japanese industry, has not stopped behind ; here too, the effort to accomplish a shading of the colours and choice 1 These characteristics of the old Japanese bronze vases agree entirely with those of the Chinese, in the Middle Ages. I have such a one in my posses- sion made in the 15th century. It is only i8'5 centimeters high, has in general a four-sided prismatic figure with a rectangle as cross section; it increases in width from the middle toward the top and still more toward the bottom, where it is provided with rounded corners and ends with. a small foot. Elephant trunks as handles cover two-thirds of the narrow side from top to bottom. The decoration consists of two sorts of Meander figures (IIJIJIJI), which are separated by a smooth band at the narrowest place. The inscription runs in Sinico-Japanese : " Dai-Min Sen-Tok-Nen-Sei," i e. manufactured in the Sen-tok period (1426- 1435 a.d.) of the great Ming dynasty. 444 ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. arrangement has found new ways and means. This is shown by the vase on Plate XVIII. 1 The flowers (Camellia Sasanqua) and leaves are raised from the dark brown ground in lighter colours ; the bird and the spider-web inlaid with silver wire are well re- presented. The work is new and wrought entirely in the Kioto style. Here bronze containing lead is less used, but there is much relief-inlaying and incrustation. Among the useful bronze articles seen in the homes of well- to-do Japanese, are the flower vases (Hana-ike), the censers (Ko-ro), braziers (Hibachi) and mirrors (Kaga-mi), while common people must content themselves with the much cheaper earthen and other substitutes. Artistic bronze work finds its most important and many-sided employment in the manifold decorations of Buddhist temples. Here various Buddhas and other idols astonish and im-. press the beholder chiefly by their colossal and exceedingly fine casting, which is even more notable in a number of gigantic bells. The monuments of the Shoguns at Nikko and at Shiba in Tokio, lanterns and a number of smaller articles of bronze, as vases, can- dlesticks, censers and several others, also attract the attention and furnish proof that bronze industry has reached its highest development, principally in the service of the Buddhist religion, and that a considerable amount of copper has been used in its • alloys. Many of these prominent monuments were ordered to be cast by princes who wished thereby to make themselves acceptable to gods and men ; others are presents of private persons, or the results of public collections, which the priest stimulated as much through ambition as pious feeling. So long as these last were common among the higher classes of society, the gifts for the maintenance and adorning of the temple and cloisters flowed in abundantly, while since the political revolution, the greatest indifference to all these things has been manifest. Among the Dai-Butsu or "large Buddhas" of bronze, those of Nara in Yamato and of Kamakura in Sagami are most prominent of all because of their enormous dimensions. The Nara-no-Dai- Butsu is in a spacious temple hall, 88*4 meters long, 51*8 meters broad, and 48^2 meters high, whose roof is supported by 176 pillars. It represents Rochana (Vairochana), sitting with legs crossed under him, upon an open lotus flower. The left hand of the idol rests upon the corresponding knee, the right is raised with its back turned towards the upper arm, in such a way, that the points of the three out-stretched fingers reach almost to the height of the shoulders, while the thumb and index finger are bent toward each other. Buddha is represented in this manner as a teacher. The idol was cast between 741 and 749 A.D., by the order of Shomu 1 This was most kindly lent me for the illustration by Herr Paechter (R. Wagner, Kunst- und Verlags-handlung, Berlin, Dessauerstrasse 2), from his rich and choice collection. Rein, Japan. II. Plate XVIII. Bronze Vase from Kioto. Wilhelm Engelmann, Leipzig. METAL INDUSTRY. 445 Tennd. In 11 80 a fire destroyed the head. The present ugly one was cast in 1570, at a time when art industry was in a very low- state. The oldest part of the body and the lotus flower consist of plates from 18 to 30 centimeters thick, having a surface of 30 to 36 centimeters, which are soldered together at the edges with Handaro (tin-solder). The entire height of this Buddha is 1605 meters (5 3 '5'), the length of the face 4-80 meters (16'), the width, 2-35 meters (9'5')» the width of the shoulders 8'6i meters (287'), the length of the middle finger 1*5 meters (5'), that of one ear 2*55 meters (8 - 5'). The halo which surrounds the head has a diameter of 23*4 meters (78') and each of the 16 figures which appear in it, a length of 24 meters (8'). The total weight of this Buddha is estimated at 450 tons. In its casting, which did not succeed until after several vain attempts, copper, tin, quicksilver and gold are said to have been used. 1 If the quantity of these metals be reckoned as they are given, in kilogrammes and per centage, the alloy will be found as follows : Copper 447,273 kg. == 98-06 per centage Tin 7,633 „ - r68 Quicksilver 977 „ = o - 2i Gold 227 „ = 005 456,IIO = IOO'OO and therefore 456 tons as the weight of the metal used. The great Buddha of Kamakura which is so often copied (see vol. i. p. 460) is not so large as that of Nara, but far excels it in artistic execution. This bronze figure represents Amida sitting on a lotus flower, but without the aureole. The nobly formed head is most symmetrically built and well proportioned in all its parts. The artist has succeeded in lending to the expression of counten- ance, and to the whole bearing, the blessed peacefulness of Nirvana. The hands lying in the lap with the fingertips touching each other, heighten the indications of restfulness, which are unmistakable. This Buddha also, which was cast in 1252 A.D. by Ono Goroye- mon, does not consist of one piece only but was put together from many plates of about three centimeters thickness, with such care and skill, that those seams only can be recognised which have been exposed by the weather during the course of time. Many of the foundation stones of the great building which formerly enclosed this monument are still preserved, and on these stood the sixty- three massive columns of Keaki wood, which supported the roof. This Buddha also consists mainly of copper. Its height is 1 5 1 1 meters, the circumference at the base 29-6 meters, and the distance 1 I do not know the chemical analysis. As Japan furnishes no quicksilver and does not use it in other bronzes, its employment in this case is doubly striking. 446 ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. from ear to ear 54. meters. It is said that the eyes are of pure gold, and that the knob on the forehead contains thirty pounds of silver. The statue which is found in the temple Yaku-shi-ji at Nara is much smaller than the preceding, but is nevertheless one of the finest and most interesting bronze statues of Japan. It represents Yaku-shi (Bhaishagyaguru) and originated at the close of the 7th century. In design and execution it belongs to the most notable productions of bronze casting in Japan. To these also belong the great Tsuri-gane or hanging temple bells, of which several of the finest (as for example, that of the Zozo-ji at Shiva in Tokio), have perished in the flames within the last twenty years with the temples and many other art treasures. The largest of the still existing bells (Kane) is to be found in the temple San-jiu-san-gen-do in Kioto. This is 4*27 meters high, and 274 meters wide, with walls 27*4 centimeters thick. Its weight is estimated at 63 tons. 1 Several other old bells are about 3 meters high and correspondingly wide. The most beautiful and interesting of these belongs to the finely situated old monastery of the Tendai sect, in the wood not far from Mii-dera at Otsu on Lake Biwa. This great bell is said to have been made by Hidesato, a celebrated hero of the 10th century, and is the subject of many stories and legends of the vicinity. Its beautiful tones belong to the eight wonders (attractions) of the Biwa Lake. When heard on a summer evening, sounding far over the lake through the peaceful country, they make a never-to-be-forgotten impression upon the mind of a stranger. These colossal temple bells, and a number of smaller ones, are usually decorated on the outside with Chinese proverbs, and with Ten-nin (angels in Nirvana), in rows of regular knobs, and in many other ways. Usually several dragon heads form the ears on which they are hung very low, under a scaffold and roof in the temple court. They have no clappers but are struck from the out- side by a beam hanging and swinging from two ropes, in a place which was raised up in the casting for this purpose. While some of these very old Tsuri-gane astonish the beholder by their remarkable casting and size, there are 16 smaller bells (Kane) in a neighbouring building of the temple at Nikko which no less awaken our surprise. These are just alike externally in form and size, but when rung yield distinctly and with finest effect all the tones of two octaves. Mirrors, Japanese Kagami, have been from olden times cast from bronze in the countries of Chinese civilization, owing to the lack of proper glass. On the back they are decorated with reliefs 1 This bell has almost the same dimensions as the big one in Peking, which the emperor Yungloh ordered to be cast in 1406. This is said to weigh 60 tons, to be 4*27 meters high and 10-30 meters in circumference at the rim. Its sur- face is covered with Chinese characters. METAL INDUSTRY. 447 representing mythological persons, birds, flowers, weapons and pithy expressions. This is done after the front of the casting has been polished off till from 0*5 to 2 - 5 millimeters thick, and finally coated with an amalgam which is composed of from one to two parts tin, and one part of quicksilver. These metal mirrors are generally circular in form with a diameter of 1 5*5 to 16 centimeters. There is at one side a staff-shaped handle, with which they are held. It was known to the Chinese many centuries ago, that some of these mirrors when they reflected the sunlight on the wall, mirrored at the same time the raised figures on their backs, more or less distinctly. These mirrors are found also in Japan. The property mentioned was long ago discovered accidentally by Japanese ladies, as Muraoka 1 has pointed out. Atkinson, 2 however, was the first to call general attention to this phenomenon, while Brewster 3 pub- lished a work on the magic mirrors of China in 1883. In modern times these mirrors have been investigated by several physicists. We are indebted especially to the larger works of Ayrton and Perry, 4 Govi, 5 and Bertin, all of whom agree in the explanation of the phenomena. It was thought formerly that the pictures and decorations at the back of the mirror plate were inlaid with some other metal, or that by beating the mirror with a hammer at these figured places a greater density was produced, or the peculiar property was at- tributed to the composition of the alloy itself. All these explana- tions have proved false on closer investigation. The analyses show that the mirror bronzes have often a very different composition, as is seen in table C. The Italian Govi has pointed out convincingly that the peculiar property of the magic mirror proceeds from the polishing, and is accidental, but can be easily produced. It is due to the uneven- ness in the convex arching which the reflecting surface receives in polishing, in consequence of the uneven pressure from the back, and is entirely independent of the chemical composition. Later on Muraoka and others proved experimentally that mirrors can be made not only of bronze and brass, but also of simple metals which will exhibit these magic properties in like manner. They are shown even more beautifully than in the sunlight, when a 1 " Erklarung der magischen Eigenschaften des japanischen Bronzespiegels und seiner Herstellung." " Mittheil. der deutsch. Gesellsch. Ostasiens," Heft 31, 1884. 2 Nature, vol. xvi. 1877, p. 62. 3 Philosopliical Magazine, vol. 1. 4 "On the Magic Mirrors of Japan." " Proc. Roy. Soc." xxviii. pp. 127-142. 5 " Les Miroirs magiques des Chinois." "Ann. de Chim. et de Phys." 5 Serie. T. xx. 18S0, pp. 99-1 10. G " Etude sur les Miroirs magiques." " Ann. de Chim. et de Phys." 5 Serie. T. xxii. 1881, pp. 472-513. 448 ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. number of divergent rays fall on the mirror and are projected upon a white wall. In this way the forms of the figures and designs are seen sharply outlined in a bright light, while they are not to be found on the surface of the mirror. Shiro-kane-dzaiku, 1 i.e. white metal work, is the collective name for the many small metallic ornaments which were used formerly for the decoration of swords, Netsukes, and many other purposes ; but in modern times are exported and highly prized in Europe as brooches, medallions, cuff-buttons, ear-rings, bracelets, etc. ; for they belong at least in part to the finest works of Japanese art. The care and skill with which these articles are chased and en- graved, incrusted and inlaid, is astonishing and pleasing, and no less the extremely tasteful and effective combination and shading of colours, which our jewellers have not been able to obtain till quite recently. SHIKO-KANE MEDALLION. In these Japanese works, the before-mentioned alloys, Shaku-do and Shibu-ichi, are employed chiefly. The dark blue to dead black of the first, is very uniform and is especially effective as ground work, likewise the silver-grey of the Shibu-ichi. The shading in this work, as in bronze, is best done by a decoction of Kari-yasu. Besides the two mentioned gold and silver alloys, precious metals also in their pure state are used in this work. Goto Yu-jo, who died in 15 13 at the age of seventy-eight, is re- garded as the founder of this school. For a long time the art was employed principally on Menuki and Tsuba for the decoration of sword handles. Shiuraku and Temmin are regarded as the 1 We sometimes confuse this word with Oki-mono. The Japanese give this name, however, to knicknacks of all kinds, such as little carved figures, larger than Netsukes and not bored through ; also to the lacquered In-ro, or medicine boxes, and many other things. METAL INDUSTRY. 449 great masters in this art, as well as in making of fine metal Netsukes. Pure silver or gold wares, or a combination of the two, were formerly seldom manufactured. This has changed, however, since the Japanese have visited the great International Industrial Ex- hibitions. Lately the exhibitions in Nuremberg and other places have shown in an astonishing manner how skilful the gold and silversmiths of Kioto and Tokio are in treating these easily worked and most responding of all metals, and in the effect which they are able to lend to their artistic workmanship. As an Appendix to this Section, the following analyses of Japanese and Chinese bronzes are given, together with those of other bronze castings, for the sake of comparison. I call attention to the following explanation of the tables : — Table A. Nos. 1,2,3,4, are analyses of old bronzes from the Japan- ese temples, by Maumene in " Notes sur les bronzes du Japon," par M. E. J. Maumene. Compies Rendus, t. 80, 1875, pp. 1009 and 1010. No. 5 is the analysis of a small Egyptian figure of Isis, by W. Flight in the Journ. Client. Soc, 41, p. 134. Nos. 6, 7, 8. These analyses were published by E. Reyer in the Journal fur praktische Chemie, Bd. 25, 1882, p. 258, under the title, " Hartbronze der Alten Volker." No. 6 refers to bronze of Cyprus in the time of Alexander the Great. No. 7 is the analysis of an axe found at Limburg, a reddish, gold-yellow alloy, that was coated firmly and toughly with thick, green patina. It could be scarcely scratched with fluor spar. No. 8 is the composition of a chisel of Peschiera, a mixture of deep yellow colour, and having a hardness like the preceding. All the bronzes mentioned here, show a very complicated com- position. It would be a great error to assume that they originated purposely from the weighing and smelting together of the con- stituent parts. The opinion of Maumene, that they have been obtained by mixtures of the ores of copper pyrites, galena contain- ing antimony, and blend found in them, seems to me equally erroneous. The metallurgic process of the ancient nations, Japanese included, was not adapted to furnishing chemically pure metals ; and thus we have the small proportions of iron, nickel, cobalt, antimony, sulphur, etc., simply as impurities of copper, tin, zinc, and lead. The same is true of the exceptions in which bronze analyses show traces of precious metals. Table B. Nos. 1-7, are analyses of Japanese bronzes with dark patina, published by H. Morin. Comptes Rend., tome y8, 1874, p. 811. u Sur quelques bronzes de la Chine et du Japon a patine fonce." The large proportion of lead which distinguishes nearly all these beautiful alloys, approaches in No. 5 to the little old Egyptian bronze figure, as given in Table A, No. 5. It is not surprising also that Morin found traces of arsenic and sulphur in II. G G 45° ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. most of the before-mentioned analyses, and in two of them, gold and nickel also. Table C give the relative amounts of the metals which are used in bronze mirrors. No. I is the analysis of such an alloy, accord- ing to Champion and Pettet, Nos. 2 and 3 the composition of the mirror-bronzes of Kioto, and No. 4 an analysis by Atkinson. The rest are taken from the "Annales de Chimie et Physique," t. xx., 1880, p. 136. Iyo-shirome and Tori-shirome = Antimony from Iyo and from Tori. Table D needs no explanation. Concerning Table E, I note that most of the analyses taken from Dingier s Polyt. Journal are chiefly the work of Prof. R. Weber. No. 1 is a natural bronze by Elster ; 2, the composi- tion of the "Grosser Kurfurst"; 3, Friedrich Wilhelm ; 4, the Horse Tamer ; 5, the Statue of Brandenburg in Berlin ; 6, gives the analysis of the equestrian statue of the Kurfurst Johann Wil- helm in the market place at Diisseldorf; while 7 and 8 show the composition of two bronze statues in Paris, of Louis XIV. and Louis XV. A. Analyses of Old Bronzes. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Copper . . . 86-38 80-91 8870 92-07 68-42 8176 83-65 88 -06 Tin . . 1 '94 7'55 2-58 1*04 0.94 10-90 1 5 '99 1 1 76 Zinc . . 3*36 3'o8 37i 2 "65 — — — — Lead . . 5-68 5 "33 3'54 — 2276 5-25 — — Antimony r6i 0-44 O'lO — 0-67 — — — Iron . . 0*67 i'34 I -07 3'64 4-69 0-15 traces traces Nickel . — — — 078 traces 0-63 traces Cobalt . — — — — — I"22 — — Sulphur . — 0-31 Arsenic . — — — — 1.48 — — — Phosphorus . 0-05 0-03 Silicic Acid . O'lO o'i6 0*09 0*04 - — — — Loss .... 026 079 0'2I 0-56 0*26 072 — 0-15 IOO'OO ioo - oo IOO'OO IOO'OO IOO'OO IOO'OO IOO'32 IOO'OO B. Analyses of Chinese and Japanese Bronzes, with Blackish Patina. 1 2 3 4 S 6 7 8272 82^90 8r 3 o 83-09 72-09 7232 71-46 Tin 4'36 2-64 3'27 3'23 5-52 7-27 6'02 r86 274 3-27 0-50 0-67 6 - oo 5"94 9'9° 10-46 1 1 -05 11-50 20-31 I4'59 16-34 o55 C64 0-67 0'22 1-73 0-28 0-25 99'39 99'38 99-56 98-54 100-32 100-46 IOO'OI METAL INDUSTRY. 45i C. Mixtures for Chinese and Japanese Bronze Mirrors. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Copper . . Tin . . . Zinc . . . Lead . . . Iyo-shirome Tori-shirome 50-8 16-5 2 '2 SO 15 5 80 10 10 76-3 23-6 13-1 75 -2 22 - 6 Si-3 i6'3 870 87 Si-3 16-3 71-5 28-5 ioo - o IOO'O IOO'O 1130 97-8 97 '6 957 97-6 IOO'O D. Metal Mixtures of Kanaya Gorosaburo in Kioto. Japanse Names of Bronzes. K6-dd. T6-d6. Sei-do. Kio-do. K6-to- do. Kin-shi- do. Kuro-do. Sento- ku-do- mo. Kara- kane. Sento- ku. Copper . . . Tin ... . Zinc .... Lead .... Antimony . . 65 35 80 20 20 70 IO 60 15 25 So 6 H 48 IO 32 IO 60 30 IO 35 17 48 100 loo IOO IOO IOO IOO IOO IOO E. Mixtures of German and French Bronze for Statues. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Copper . . . Tin ... . Zinc .... Lead. . . . 86'6 6'6 3'3 3-3 8779 8'20 177 2 '20 §7-44 3'20 8-89 C65 84-55 0*14 J 5 '63 o"i6 89-15 1-76 8-59 0-32 7174 2-37 25-58 0-91 91-40 1 '70 5-35 i"37 82-45 4*io 10-30 315 99'8 99'96 ioo - i8 100-48 99-S2 ioo - 6o 9982 ioo-oo 452 ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. 8. — Ceramics. Prefatory Remarks. — Classification of Clay-wares with special regard to the Japanese. — Historical Survey. — Beginnings and Accomplishments of the Industry of Japan till tlie Introductioji of the Potters Wheel. — Progress. — Influence of Cha-no-yu. — The Invention and Manufacture of Porcelain in China. — Introduction of the Manufacture in Japan. — Its centres, also of the Sto?ie- ware Industry. — Arita, Nayeshirogawa, Kagoshima, Kioto, Seto, Ota, Hongo, Kaga. — Stone-ware. — Banko-yaki and Imbe-yaki. Literature. i. A. Brogniart : " Traite des arts ceramiques et des poteries." Paris, 1844. 2. B. Kerl : " Handbuch der gesammten Thonwaaren-Industrie." 2 Aufl. Braunschweig, 1879. 3. Leger, Hoffmann u. Biedermann : " Thonindustrie-Zeitung." 4. Dingler's " Polyt. Journal." Bd. 198 and 227, with Analyses of Bischof and von Gumbel. Bd. 246. " Ueber Glas, Glasuren, Porzellane, Steinzeuge, und feuerfeste Thone," von G. Wagener. 5. " Zeitschrift der deutschen geologischen Gesellschaft." 32 Band, i860, with W. Pabst : " Untersuchungen von chinesischen und japanischen Gesteinen zur Porzellanfabrication." 6. "Transactions of the Asiat. Soc. of Japan," 1878. E. Satow : "The Corean Potters in Satzuma," 1880. B. W. Atkinson : " Notes on the Porcelain Industry of Japan." 7. A. W. Franks : "Japanese Pottery." London, 1880. 8. A. W. Franks : " Catalogue of a Collection of Oriental Porcelain and Pottery." London, 1876. 9. " Katalog der Oriental, keram. Ausstellung im orientalischen Museum zu Wien." 1884. 10. Ninagawa Noritane : " Kwan-ko-dzu-setsu, or History and Description of Ceramic Art." Tokio, 1876-77. 11. Capt. Brinkley : A History of Japanese Ceramics. The Chrysanthemum and the Phcenix." Vol. iii. No. 1-6. Yokohama, 1886. 12. La Ceramique, par M. J. Bing, in the magnificent work of L. Gonse : "L'Art Japonais." Paris, 1883. 13. G. Audsley and James Bowes : "Ceramic Art of Japan." London, 1881. Pottery industry derives its name, Ceramics, from a Greek word — a designation which is used on account of its brevity, as it embraces everything that is formed out of clay by the hands of men and baked, from the common bricks to the finest porcelain. The old Greeks and Romans knew of clay (/eepaytio? 1 ) that when it was wet it would stick to the feet, and when dry to the tongue ; also that it had a peculiar smell when breathed upon, which cannot be described and yet cannot be mistaken. They knew also its plastic character, and its resistance to the influence of water and 1 Kepaiias signified originally a drinking-horn, and then also the earthen vessel and the clay from which it was made. CERAMICS. 453 fire, and utilized these exceedingly valuable qualities in the manu- facture of their very durable brick and of many sorts of vessels, as do we also. The nature of potter's clay, its origin, and the manner of its transformation when burned, so far as they could not be apprehended at a glance, also the geological and chemical properties, were as hidden from them as from the Chinese and Japanese, although these nations brought ceramic industry to its highest perfection, and for a long time excelled all others in the variety of raw materials employed, of the products,, and of their modes of ornamentation. No other branch of industry is of older origin, and no other is better adapted in its gradual development, and in the manner of treating the raw material, to a people of intelligence, artistic sense, and progress, than Ceramics. Its products enable us to judge of the limited civilization of the Trojans, and to recognise and admire the developed artistic sense and love of beauty of the Greeks and Etruscans. Buried for thousands of years in ruins and dust, they still preserve their form and decoration, and have become, as they have been excavated in modern times, not only a rich field of antiquarian investigation, but also often the patterns most worthy to be imitated in our modern industry. In face of the fact that the clay-ware industry of many countries and peoples reaches back into pre-historic times, that its productions were almost indispensable to human beings, we can scarcely imagine in our own minds the civilization in the time of our ancestors without them. And yet there was a time in Ger- many when the people lived in caves, and supported life by hunting reindeer, bears, and other quadrupeds ; when, like the South Sea islanders at their first contact with Europeans, they were unacquainted with metals and clay-wares, and prepared their food on heated slate and sandstones, instead of in pots and pans. But to return to the Ceramic Art of Japan. For its better comprehension I give in advance a survey of the products con- cerned. Following the precedent of Brogniart, the various kinds of pottery are usually divided into two large groups, and dis- tinguished as soft and hard, corresponding to the Japanese designations, Tsuchi-yaki and Ishi-yaki, i.e. " Burned Earth " and " Burned Stone." The soft clay-wares are burned generally with a smaller degree of heat, as in the fire of a porcelain furnace they would fuse together or smelt. The material is opaque, shows an earthen fracture, is easily scratched with a knife, is porous, and generally permits the filtering through of liquids. The glazing which is used to prevent this, and at the same time as a foundation for further decoration, is either alkali- or lead-glaze. In both cases it unites with a part of the silicic acid of the ware, producing a thin transparent glaze, or it is a tin-glaze which lies pretty thick upon the surface and forms an opaque milk-white enamel. All earthenwares, from brick to the finest Faience, belong to 454 ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. this large division. In most of the subdivisions, clays (Tsuchi) are used. In consequence of mineral impurities, these burn to a grey, yellow, red, brown, or black, so that the colour of the fracture contrasts sharply with that of the glazing. The less careful pre- paration of the clay mass, by means of selection and pulverizing, corresponds to the smaller value of such wares. This group em- braces : (a) Unglazed earthenware, Japanese Kawarake, brick or Renga- seki, and tiles, Kawara. The simplest and cheapest clay-wares of Japan are made of brick-red burned Kawarake ; they consist of dishes for baking beans, of small flat plates on which rice and other food is offered to the Shinto gods, and of vessels for pre- paring certain medicines. Most of the tiles, at least those burned in a suburb of Tokio, have a blackish grey colour. (b) Terra-cotta and other antique dishes, having a thin glazing which is produced by incipient smelting on the surface. These products of the Greeks and Romans are distinguished from those of other nations by the careful pulverizing and preparation of the raw material, and by their fine forms and decorations. The largest earthen vessels of Mediterranean countries must be reckoned under this head ; for example, the urn-shaped Tinajas of the Spaniards, which are used for keeping olive oil, and often hold one hundred Arobas of 25 liters each. In the Crimea and in Asia Minor, similar urns are used for wine, and in Japan the Tsubo formed in the same way are used as receptacles for closets. According to Thunberg, Swota on the bay of Shimabara furnishes very large urns, that are used instead of casks for the reception of faecal matter. (t) Common pottery with lead or salt glazing. A large part of the earthen dishes of Japan belong, like our own, to this class. The so-called Toyosuke-yaki of Nagoya also, which is beautifully ornamented with lacquer painting, is made of this kind of earthen- ware. (d) Common enamelled Faience and Majolica. This has a porous earthy fracture, of different colours from that of the opaque glazing or the thick coating of tin enamel, which forms a sharply defined white crust. Many of the common table dishes, having the appearance of porcelain, but opaque, the Delft ware with it? blue cobalt decorations, so celebrated in the 17th century, and the enamelled Faience of the Middle Ages, and Majolica belong to this class. Japan can point to but few wares which may be catalogued here. The grey, brown, and green plates and vases, with raised enamel decorations, manufactured in the province of Ise, and often designated with stone-ware as Banko-yaki, must be classed as Majolica wares. (e) Delft-ware, half porcelain or fine Faience, was for a long time called Henry II. It ranks between hard burned porcelain and porous, soft earthenware. Delft-ware is made of pure, carefully CERAMICS. 455 prepared paste, very much like porcelain, and, like it, receives a transparent glazing. The fragment is white or yellow, close, hard, opaque, and of earthy fracture. Fai'ence 1 in Japan, as with us, plays a large part in art pottery. The celebrated Satsuma wares, Awata-yaki, Awaji, Ota crockery, and other kinds belong to this group of pottery. As they are not exposed to so great a heat as porcelain, they offer a wide field for artistic polychrome decoration. The second large division of ceramic productions embraces the hard, compact clay-wares. In burning they are subjected to such great heat that the clay mass is thereby fused or verfrittet^ with- out being smelted. In cooling it becomes so hard that it cannot be scratched with a knife, and has a clear sound. The fragments show a smooth, conchoidal fracture. The confused mass of small crystalline needles, which may be seen with a microscope on the glazed crack, or the embedding of such needles in the amorphous, glassy mass is so close, that the article, even without glazing, would be impervious to water. Porcelain, stone-ware, and jasper or Wedgewood-ware, belong to the dense, hard clay-ware. Stone-ware (see note) is made of ordinary material, and with less care than porcelain. It is greyish white, often yellow, red, and brown, even to black in colour, dense, highly vitrified, hard and resonant and transparent only at the edges. The glaze is a genuine glass, and is usually produced in the furnace by allow- ing the steam of the salt to operate upon the hot earthenware, whereby the muriatic acid thus engendered escapes. Germany was especially distinguished among European countries in the 16th century for its stone-ware or flint-ware industry. The towns of Hohr and Grenzhausen in the " Kannenbackerland," near Monta- baur, still carry on the industry extensively. Mineral-water jugs and drainage pipes also belong to flint-ware. In England it in- cludes the celebrated Wedgewood-ware, especially jasper and Egyptian black or basalt-ware, likewise the larger part of the so- called jasper or red porcelain which Bottger manufactured at Meissen in 1707-17 12, after Chinese patterns. In Japan, the Banko-yaki in Ise and the Imbe-yaki of Bizen are the chief pro- 1 In many German collections and books we find a remarkable confusion of naming in regard to Faience, stone-ware, and flint-ware, though the chief Faience manufacturers in Germany, such as Boch in Metlach, Guillaume in Bonn, and Wessel in Poppelsdorf, are clear enough in their distinctions. They call their goods " Steingut," knowing that there is no difference between it and fine Faience, while the word " Steinzeug," or stone-ware, should be con- fined to the productions of the "Kannenbackerland" (the pottery district of Hohr and Grenzhausen, near Coblenz), and similar hard-burnt crockery, which strike fire with steel. Steingut, or Delft-ware, has not been known in Japan longer than porcelain. But the origin of stone-ware is almost as ancient as that of ceramics in general. 2 Vey-fritten is derived from the Italian fritta (roasted). Fritle means the mixture, e.g., of the components of the glass in the preliminary smelting. Fritta colours. Fritta porcelain. 456 ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. ductions of this class. Chinese jasper-ware and open-work flint- ware are said to come from the province of Shantung. The Moritz House in The Hague, and Leyden, have particularly fine specimens of it. Porcelain stands at the head, as the noblest member of the numerous family of ceramics. To it belong all the dense, hard, trans- parent and resonant white clay -wares with or without glaze. Wher- ever glazing is employed, it is always transparent and very closely united with the porcelain, from which it differs only in its easier fusibility. The porcelain itself is usually made of the purest material and baked, after careful preparation, with a high degree of heat. In spite of the properties already mentioned, the defini- tion of porcelain is much more difficult than might at first sight appear. For the differences in the elements and the composition by which it is conditioned, are so great, that on the one side, it approaches milk glass, on the other the stone-ware designated as mock-China, and the white flint-ware also so named. Unglazed porcelain is called biscuit or statue porcelain. The glazed porce- lain is distinguished as hard and soft. The hard genuine stone porcelain cannot be scratched with a knife, has a clear sound, and sometimes shows sparks when struck with steel. Felspar or fel- spathic rock, together with kaolin is always used in its paste, which is burned in a very great heat (from 3000 to 4500 C). Hard porcelain excels all other clay-wares in value for household use and that of the chemical laboratory, but it is not so good for decorative purposes as the soft porcelain and Delft-ware, offering many difficulties to polychromatic ornamentation. The soft or fritted porcelain has a lead glazing, which may be scratched with the knife, produced by lead oxide with the addition of the flux. The paste which is prepared from Tertiary clay and Kaolin 1 flint receives an addition of plaster of Paris, or bone ashes for a flux. Soft porcelain, whether it resembles Delft-ware like the English, or, like French porcelain, more nearly approaches glass in its constituents and properties, melts at the temperature required for baking the common hard variety. The latter is there- fore chiefly manufactured and used, and is always meant when porcelain is spoken of without distinction. We shall learn, how- ever, that it has many grades, and that the Japanese particularly exhibits many peculiarities, as will be seen from a description of its manufacture. For a better understanding of the subject some historical facts will now be given. The Japanese, like other nations, began in pre-historic times to form earthenware with but inferior tools and material, and only gradually reached a higher degree of artistic ability. When and where common earth was formed by the hand into coarse pots and other vessels, and burned like bricks by inappropriate method 1 For the beautiful Seger-porcelain of modern times, no Kaolin is used, but Mikroklin from Ytterby, and fat, brown-coal clay. CERAMICS. 457 of firing, can scarcely be ascertained, and is indifferent to our purposes. The chief sources of information are the discoveries in old tombs and other excavations. They show that the pottery of Japan, during the third century, and before the Corean immigra- tion, 1 was still in swaddling clothes, and centuries later had not distinguished itself above the accomplishments of many other nations, until the introduction of the potter's wheel. The coarse, round forms with rough surface and without decoration, corre- sponded to the common material and its careless preparation. They were brick red, brown and black, unglazed terra-cottas, whose colour was often different on one side from that of the other, owing to an unequal degree of heat to which they had been exposed. Brick roof tiles were burnt as early as 660 A.D. Flint-ware seems also to have been early discovered by accident. Pieces of this with a salt glazing are sometimes found. 2 But all of these probably originated after the introduction of the Rokuro or potter's wheel. This happened in 724 A.D., and is attributed to the cele- brated Buddhist priest Giogi (670-749 A.D.), with whose name several of the oldest monuments of art in the temples and cloisters at Nara are connected. That he must have exercised a great influence on the clay-ware industry of his country may be seen in the fact that its older products have the collective name, Giogi- yaki. Among the treasures of the pagoda Tddaiji at Nara, there is a collection of black, ihard, earthen articles, principally pots and vases, which apparently were made in the time of Giogi, and show distinct traces of the potter's wheel. One of the most interesting antique pieces, indicating even at this time great skill in using this important apparatus, is a vase, which was found in a tomb at Hano, in Kotsuke, together with valuable stones, bronze and iron. Plate XXXIII. at the beginning of the before-men- tioned works of Ninegawa, gives a beautiful illustration of it. It is hard burned, of a blackish blue colour on the outside, and reddish in the fracture. Its form resembles that of the glass chalices known as " Roman," if we conceive of a cover above its vault, completing its spherical shape. This cover is formed to- ward the top into a rather wide cylindrical throat. The pro- portions are well chosen and the disposition of the simple curved and line ornamentation shows a fine taste. The introduction of a glassy transparent glaze contributed in the 8th century to the progress already obtained through the potter's wheel. The salt glazing on stone-ware was evidently the oldest employed, as it has been also in our German pottery, and 1 This began with the conquest of a part of Corea by Jingu Kogo, in 202 A.D. (See vol. i. p. 217). 2 The Ethnographical Museum at Berlin possesses a piece said to come from Awa, the gift of Dr. Hilgendorf. It is a cylinder standing on broad feet with three window-like openings in its walls. 458 ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. especially in baking stone-ware for household purposes, has been used for many centuries. Coloured opaque glazing was introduced gradually, but the white tin enamel has never become really do- mesticated, not even in Cloisonne ware. In the centuries following, the introduction and general adoption of tea and the so-called Cha- no-yu, or ceremonial tea parties (in which ladies, however, took no part), proved a peculiar stimulus to the manufacture of pottery. Tea-pots, tea-cups, and urn-like covered vases for preserving tea, were much in demand. But the taste of the time had a peculiar tendency, as the coarse hand-made vessels were preferred if they could only show the black glazing, which was especially valued for the preservation of the tea. These properties were found notably in the kind of pottery known by the name of Raku-yaki. This was brought to Kioto about 1570, by a Corean named Amenya, and called at first Juraku-yaki, after a quarter of the city in which the furnace was located. But after it had met with the approva' of the mighty Taiko-sama (Hideyoshi), who distinguished its maker by bestowing on him a golden seal, bearing the inscription Raku, " delight," this word became universal as the designation of these wares. The fancy for Raku-yaki and similar vessels for the preservation and preparation of tea, as well as the high price which was paid for such black jars in the second half of the 16th century, is mentioned by several authors of that time, Jan Huygen van Lin- schoten l and Antonio de Morga, 3 among others. Page 287 of the English edition of Morga has this paragraph : — " In this island of Luzon . . . there are to be found amongst the natives some large jars of very ancient earthenware, of a dark colour, and not very sightly. . . . The Japanese seek for them and value them because they have found out that the root of a herb which they call Cha (tea), which is drunk hot, as a great dainty and a medicine among the kings and lords of Japan, does not keep or last except in these jars." It may indeed be doubted whether the peculiar tendency of taste which originated with the Cha-no-yu, was not more of a hindrance than a means of advancement, in ceramics. Toward the end of the 16th century, this art succeeded in gaining a new foundation, upon which it soon attained a freer and more powerful position. This was the introduction of porcelain industry from China, to which the expedition of the Hideyoshi to Corea, was the stimulating impulse (see vol. i. p. 266). Before we take up minutely the introduction and development of higher ceramic art in Japan, let us glance first at its products generally, and their origin in China. 1 "The voyage of J. H. Van Linschoten to the East Indies." From the old English translation of 1598, by A. Burnell. London, Hakluyt Society, 1875. 2 "The Philippine Islands, Moluccas, Siam, Cambodia, Japan and China, at the close of the 1 6th century, by A. de Morga." London, Hakluyt Society, 1868 CERAMICS. 459 A white-burning paste which is usually prepared from two kinds of substances finely mixed and pulverized, namely, kaolin 1 (porce- lain or pipeclay), and some other mineral rich in silicic acid, the so-called flux — usually felspar or pegmatite, porcelain stone, 2 or some other white-burning form of quartz, is used in the finer cer- amics. Kaolin is distinguished by its plastic character and fire- proof quality ; the other constituent of the paste is called flux because it is fusible, and melts in the heat of the porcelain furnace to a glassy mass. The relative proportions of the two ingredients of the paste, and the degree of heat to which the articles must be subjected in burning, depends on whether they are to have an earthy or glassy fracture, and whether they are to be opaque or trans- parent, and consequently whether they will be called porcelain or Faience. Kaolin is formed by the decomposition of felspar and kindred minerals. It is found as a product of the disintegration of felspar rock, especially of granite, porphyry and gneiss, always in situ, and frequently so mingled with the solid quartz of these rocks, that one can follow all the steps of the disintegration. Common potter's clay, however, for example the fatty, brown-coal clay (and also the loam of our fields) is a sediment formation, which is pro- duced by water carrying off the original products of the decom- position of the rocks rich in alumina, and finally depositing them in layers, so that their origin is no longer recognisable. Porcelain, like glass, is really a bi-silicate of alumina with alkali. But while in glass the proportion of silicic acid is at least 95 per cent., it varies in porcelain between 58 and 82 per cent. The pro- portion of alumina varies between 9 and 38 per cent. The amount of the alkali, in which potash usually predominates largely, amounts only exceptionally to 5 or 6 per cent. The lime present is seldom more than a fraction of one per cent. A higher per centage of silicic acid in the porcelain paste diminishes its plastic character (makes it dry), but renders the baking process easier, and furnishes a fine translucent porcelain more like glass, though not so hard. On the other hand, the quantity of alumina increases the plasticity, hardness and infusible quality. The paste, which is rich in alumina, however, requires more heat in baking, and furnishes a porcelain less transparent and more difficult to be treated by the decorator. 1 The name comes from Kao-ling, i.e. " high back." This is the name of a hill, east of the Chinese porcelain city, King-te-chin, which hill, however, does not yield the product of decomposition which we in Europe call kaolin, but a phyllite, whose chemical composition resembles that of the Swedish Hcille- flmta (.?). It approaches that of the Japanese porcelain stone and of peg- matite, as is shown by a collection of analyses at the close of this chapter. 2 We shall see further on that these porcelain stones, which are wanting in our pottery industry, contribute greatly to that of China and Japan. 460 ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. G. Wagener 1 classifies the common or hard porcelain according to the amount and relation of silicic acid contained, as follows : a. Clay porcelain, like that of Meissen and Sevres. It contains 30 to 36 per cent, of alumina, and may be considered as a mixture of infusible bi-silicate of alumina (Al 3 3 , 2 Si 2 ) with glass free from argillaceous material. b. Flint porcelain. This contains a surplus of silicic acid, and can be baked in a lower temperature than the two other groups. It approaches glass porcelain most nearly. By far the greatest amount of the porcelain brought to the market belongs to this class, especially the Chinese, Japanese, and Bohemian. c. Silicate porcelain, a group formed chiefly of the porcelain product of Berlin, which, as is well known, requires a high degree of heat for baking, and excels all others in hardness and fireproof quality. Under the microscope, it appears as a glass-like, amor- phous, homogeneous mass, corresponding to the qualities above named, and likewise in its chemical composition, consisting as it does of over 70 per cent, of tri-silicate of alumina (Al 2 3 , 3S1 2 ) with about 24 per cent, of glass free from clay. It is well known that the Chinese invented porcelain. Six hundred years ago they manufactured many kinds of vessels from it, and decorated some of them with beautiful colours, which we are not yet able to imitate. Whoever wishes to see and study their great accomplishments, even at a time when the most of our clay-ware was still very rough and coarse, needs only to examine the fine Royal collection at Dresden. It has been arranged chrono- logically as far as possible, but the question as to the time of the manufacture of the first porcelain is as little answered there as elsewhere. Much has been written and argued concerning it, but still opinions are as divergent to-day as ever. This much is agreed upon, however, that the invention is not to be referred to a period before the Christian era. In the district of Jaotscheu, province of Kiang-si, east of Lake Poyang, is situated the celebrated King-te-tschin, which supplies all China with porcelain. It is said to have employed in former times over 3,000 furnaces for burning porcelain, and a million of workmen. The Tai-ping Rebellion, which dealt such a heavy blow to Chinese art industry some thirty years ago, from which it has not yet fully recovered, destroyed also the furnaces of King-te-tschin, together with the closely connected flourishing industry of the inhabitants. Although much has been done since then to revive it, it has not yet attained its former capabilities. King-te-tschin is situated about 54 kilometers north-east of the capital Jaotscheu, and was named about 1004 A.D., after an emperor of the Sung dynasty, who established the first porcelain 1 " Ueber Glas, Glasuren, Porzellan, Steinzeuge und feuerfeste Thone," by Dr. G. Wagener in Tokio, Dingl. Pol. Journal, Ed. 246 (1882), p. 33. CERAMICS. 461 furnaces there. Burning establishments for earthenware, however, had been in existence there since 583 A.D., according to Salvetat, as the necessary raw material was found in the neighbourhood. St. Julien states that porcelain was manufactured much earlier, and places its invention between 185 B.C. and 83 A.D. It has been objected to this, with justice, that the Chinese statements on which he bases his theory, are like those of Marco Polo, 1 very superficial and indefinite, and most probably relate to quite other clay-wares. The conception of porcelain 2 in Europe also, as late as the 17th century, was oftentimes a false one, as the Netherlanders often called their opaque Faience, porcelain, just as Bottger later made the same mistake with his red and brown stone-ware. Names signify little in this connection, but the meaning is everything. The Chinese at this time used the name Thao for their glazed opaque earthenware, says Sartel, 3 while the designation Yao, for porcelain, is said to appear first in the 9th century. It is to be presumed, therefore, that the hard, shell-like white and transparent wares which we call porcelain, were first manufactured at the be- ginning of the 9th century. The first unequivocal mention of porcelain, made by the Arab Soleiman, who visited China about the middle of the 9th century, agrees with this opinion. W. Wil- liams, 4 who is well acquainted with China, mentions prominently that King-te-tschin did not furnish a better sort of porcelain till after 1000 A.D. This was the time when the cobalt decorations under glaze were first employed, which from then till now have played such an important part in the ornamentation of Chinese porcelain, especially for domestic use among the Chinese them- selves. I must not omit to mention here, that the late Sir Harry Parkes, during his long residence in China and Japan, was always of the opinion that porcelain was not known till the twelfth or the be- ginning of the thirteenth century. The fact that Chinese porce- lain was not known in Japan till the 13th century, harmonizes with this opinion. Captain Brinkley, in his work on the history of Japanese Ceramics, calls attention to this, pointing to the fact that Japan, from its earliest connection with China, either in direct communication, or by way of Corea, has prized and imported the manifold productions of Chinese art industry, and it seems doubly striking, therefore, that porcelain did not appear earlier, if existing at that time. 1 " Histoire et Fabrication de la Porcelaine Chinoise," par S. Julien. Preface de M. Salvetat. Paris, 1856. 2 The name porcelain was introduced by the Portuguese, who were the first to bring large quantities of Chinese products to Europe. It refers to the ex- terior appearance, resembling the shiny white of the Cyprasa or porcelain shell (Port. Porcellana). 3 O. du Sartel, " Zur Geschichte der chin. Keramik," in the catalogue of the Orientalische-Keramischen Ausstellung in Vienna, 1884. 4 "The Middle Kingdom." Vol. ii. p. 23. London, 1S83. 462 ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. The beautiful coloured ground tints, chalcedony, dull violet, yel- low, and Turkish blue, so much valued by collectors, began to be used in the 13th century. The most flourishing period of Chinese porcelain making, however, like that of most other branches of its art industry, was during the Ming dynasty, especially in the second half of the 15th century. During this period its manu- facture occupied a new position, owing to the employment of many coloured decorations upon glaze. The so-called five principal Chinese colours were used for these, viz., green (east), red (south), white (west), black (north), and yellow (earth), to which the blue of heaven was added as a sixth. Gold, and gold-purple, were not used till the )>ear 1690. Single pieces of Chinese porcelain were introduced gradually into the countries of Southern and Western Asia, and even into Egypt, by the Arabs and Persians. Its distribution in Europe devolved on the Portuguese after the sea-passage to India was discovered, and later upon their successors in trade with Eastern Asia — the Dutch and English. During the first half of the 18th century, as has been remarked on page 335, Chinese patterns were borrowed for the new direction in artistic pottery, not only at Meissen (Bottger), but also at Sevres, Stoke-upon-Trent (Wedgewood), and elsewhere. The porcelain and pottery collection, founded by Augustus the Strong, king of Saxony, operated as a powerful and active stimulus to the works of Bottger and his associates, so that it is easy to point out how directly the old Meissen style was formed by it. The languages of Japan and China have no word which dis- tinguishes porcelain sharply and unequivocally from all other clay- wares ; but there are enough other evidences that Japanese porce- lain manufacture is not yet three hundred years old, and that its introduction is closely connected with the expedition of Hideyoshi to Corea in 1 592-1 598 a.d. Documents of this date, and the written and orally communicated history of porcelain and Faience manufacture in the several provinces, as well as its existing pro- ductions whose origin is well known, corroborate the belief that it began at this time with the forced importation of Corean potters by the Daimios of Satsuma, Hizen, Choshiu, and several others, in their dominions, in 1598. The founding of artistic pottery by these Coreans in Arita, Naeshirogawa, Kagoshima, Hagi, and other places, was one of the most important consequence of this expe- dition for the conquest of Corea and China. 1 As has been said before, Japanese clay-wares are not desig- nated according to their character, but their origin. Awata- yaki, Kutani-yaki, Seto-mono, Banko-yaki, and numerous other names, show this. The designations Ishi-yaki for hard- burned 1 Corea, which now appears so poor in comparison with China and Japan, and whose art industry has degenerated so much, once manufactured many articles of high artistic value, especially in porcelain and bronze. CERAMICS. 463 resonant porcelain and stone-ware, and Tsuchi-yaki for softer earthenwares, however, are known and accepted everywhere. Porcelain decorated under glaze with cobalt is called Some-tsuke, and as it has been manufactured in quantities for household pur- poses for several centuries at Seto in Owari, Seto-mono has be- come the name not only for this special kind, but also for all blue decorated porcelain. This blue cobalt colour is the oldest in Japan as in China, and the most popular, as a glance in any porcelain shop will show. (Concerning its production at Seto, see p. 308.) The finer ceramics of Japan present many very interesting features. The manufacture is not limited, as in China, to a single district, but has a number of centres, corresponding to the distri- tribution of the valuable and various raw materials, each of which is distinguished by peculiarities of material and production. More- over, while it is very meagrely furnished with apparatus and proper mechanical aids, its wonderful products show an astonishing de- velopment. It furnishes egg-shell porcelain of unexcelled fineness and purity, and oftentimes vases and flower-pots so large and strong, that the largest European specimens of the kind seem mere dwarfs in comparison. The manufacture of stone-ware is not so remarkable in its work. It may be generally understood that the Japanese potter as a rule does not lay so much stress on the careful preparation and formation of the material as on the adornment of his wares. Quality, as has been said by M. Bing, is a matter of secondary importance. 1 He therefore employs not only the usual modes of decoration both over and under glaze, but has successfully brought lacquer painting and cell-enamelling to bear upon porcelain and crockery. In the polychromatic ornamentation of his wares, his great talents and sense of harmonious and pleasing colour-com- binations are especially conspicuous ; they surpass those of other nations. In this respect, his former masters, the Chinese, fall far behind him. The Chinese have more brilliant and lively colours at their command in porcelain painting, but they do not often understand how to combine them effectively, and their efforts in ceramics, as in other departments, have declined, during the last few decades, with their taste for the fine arts. The Japanese, on the contrary, has not rested and rusted. The great amount of incitement and instruction which he has had during the last twenty years in the International Exhibitions and from educated foreigners in Japan, have not been lost upon him. His progress, which has been already noted in Metal Industry, is unmistakable in ceramics also. And in remarking upon this, it seems but fair also to mention the name of Dr. G. Wagener as one who, more than any other foreigner, has been able to promote art industry in Japan by his knowledge and practical advice. I found the traces of his 1 In "L'Art Japonais," par L. Gonse, chap. ix. La Ceramique, vol. ii. p. 242. 464 ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. beneficent and unselfish activity in the porcelain painting of Arita, in the metal and enamel work of Kioto, in the cabinet-making of Tokio, and elsewhere. Compared with our European porcelain and stone-ware factories, those of the Japanese seem small, a business employing forty or fifty labourers being one of the largest. The lighter labours, such as rubbing the colours, glazing, etc., are often performed by women, while the working of the material, shaping, and burning, is always done by men. In order to form an idea of the extremely simple and primitive working apparatus, we must throw ourselves back a hundred years or more, into the time when in our own country porcelain was burned in low kilns, and the entire preparation of the material was effected without machines, or with only the help of the simplest possible water-power works. In Japan, too, the materials needed are not all usually found in the place of manufacture, and nowhere are they prepared and then brought to market, as in China, for instance, or as the "China clay" in England, but every factory provides them for itself, in raw condition, sometimes from great distances, and in the most inconvenient ways. The constituents are separately broken up, washed, sifted, etc., before they are weighed, measured, and mixed together. In break- ing up the hard porcelain stones, felspar, or quartz, the primitive stamping-mill is used universally, as in rice husking described on page 45. These automatic stamping-mills are found generally on the little water courses long before the factory is reached. Their slow work lasts for several days usually, before the small quantity of stone is broken up finely enough, in the iron-bound troughs, to be carried to the washing process. These old-fashioned stamp mills, with their slow movement, were formerly used very generally in Europe, — for example, in the mining districts of the Harz and Saxon Mountains. They are still used in Asia Minor, Armenia, and Persia, to pulverize various substances, among them oak tan-bark, as was lately observed by the correspondent of the Cologne Gazette at Niksar." 1 The washing of the pulverized material (porcelain stone, kaolin, felspar, quartz) is done by hand after the old fashion, in discon- nected tubes, barrels, or mortar-beds, and stirred about in water with paddles, and then left to rest for a short time that the coarser and heavier particles may settle to the bottom. The separation of the fine floating paste is effected by opening one or the other of the tap-holes, of which there are usually four placed irregularly one above the other. Finally, the whole pulpy mass is passed through a fine cloth sieve, which separates all the coarse grains and other impurities. Funnel-shaped boxes are used in place of our filter presses. The walls are made of staves. On the bottom is a layer of gravel 1 " Ein Ausfiug ins Armenische," Kolti. Zeitung, 21/2, 1886. CERAMICS. 465 or perfectly fine washed material with a straw mat laid over it. When the pasty substance is poured in, the water filters partly through, while the clay paste is deposited gradually. The water which collects upon it is drained off through a side opening, and the material is dried in a red-hot furnace and finally worked up and kneaded with the feet and hands. When this is done, it is Fig. 19. — TEAPOT OF GREY-BROWN STONE-WARE : FROM KUWANA, IN ISE. left to ferment in a pit or damp chest, not for a year, as was formerly the case in China, it is said, but for a few weeks or months, before using in the factory. By far the largest part of the clay-wares of Japan are shaped on the Rokuro or potter's wheel. The apparatus employed for this II. H H 466 ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. purpose is mostly of the simplest form, the shaping board serving at the same time as the swinging-wheel. It has a hole near the edge in which a rod, 20 centimeters long, is placed, by which it is set in motion. In a more developed state, as at Arita, for instance, the larger wheel is bound firmly to the shaping board, some 20 to 30 centimeters apart, by four rods, and is turned with the feet. Plaster of Paris moulds and castings of the material are as un- common as the employment of patterns and models. These are indeed striking wants, but the Japanese substitutes for them his great skill in the handling of his machine and of the remarkably plastic material. Articles having an elliptical or polygonal cross- section cannot of course be turned on the wheel, but are shaped in moulds of burnt clay or wood. In the latter case, the Kata or mould is separated into smaller parts. (See Banko-yaki.) The handle, cover and its knob, sieve and spout of teapots, etc., are each formed separately and fastened to the body of the vessel. For example, the spout with its sieve on the inside, the foot, handle, cover, and chain, as well as the applied decoration (pate sur pate) of the pot of grey stone-ware, 16 centimeters high, from Kuwana in Ise (Fig. 19) were all shaped separately and then fitted to the pot itself. The handle and cover represent branches of the popular Matsu or pine, which divide and lie with their needles close upon the foundation. The bamboo decoration is also shaped by itself and pressed on, and the circle of Kiku-no-hana, or Chrys- anthemum flowers at the base. All the figures are of the same material, a rough, lustreless biscuit on the outside, and trans- parently enamelled within. Porcelain firing is done with pine-wood as fuel, and in the so- called low furnace, the Kama, like , other clay-wares. A quick drying of the ware in the biscuit kiln goes before the hard burning of the porcelain. This furnace, a simple vault of moderate size, is almost always placed in the courtyard of the factory. The interior is divided lengthwise into a narrow passage for the fire, and a wider space for an oven, by a wall 60 centimeters high, made of upright, thick slabs of fire clay. The articles to be burned are generally placed in the oven without covering. There is an opening at one end of the fire passage for putting in wood, and a place is made for the draft at the sill and through a row of holes high at the back. When the fire is lighted, the flame mounts over the fire-proof partition wall away to the top of the arch, follows it up over the porcelain chamber, and then falls on the steeper side, and operates by its heat on the porcelain from above, the same as on the other side. The length of time necessary for burning the biscuit varies greatly, depending on the material, the construction of the furnace, etc., and can only be determined by experience. After cooling the porcelain, comes painting under glaze with cobalt, and other decoration, then immersion in the glazing material, and drying, just as with us. CERAMICS. 467 The glaze, Jap. Kusuri, is prepared from the argillaceous flux (felspar, pegmatite, porcelain stone) used in the factory, by careful sorting and working into a fine paste together wood ashes cleared from their lye. For porcelain, common Isu-bai, the ashes from the bark of Distylium racemosum, S. and Z. (see page 251) is used, following the example of Arita ; for stone-ware, usually Nara-no- hai, oak-wood ashes from Quercus glandulifera, Bl., or Kuri-no-hai, from the wood of Castanca vulgaris, Lamk. (see page 244). Dr. Sarnow, to whom I gave a sample of Isu-bai which I had brought with me for analysis, found in it the following proportions : S^' 2 7 parts lime, 3*90 magnesia, 066 manganous carbonate, 0^24 iron oxide, 8^23 potash, IC65 silicic acid, 3'6i phosphoric acid, V2J sulphuric acid, 04.5 chlorine, 26-85 carbonic acid, 3-59 parts sand and 2 - 6i water. As the ashes of oak and chestnut woods are also rich in lime, it follows that the glazes used in Japan for porcelain and stone-ware form a transparent glass, rich in lime, whose com- position varies, but is closely related to that of the material to be glazed, with which it must unite perfectly. The porcelain furnaces used for the chief or second firing consist of a row of vaults of no regular number or size, but governed by requirements. There are usually, however, five to ten of them, placed behind and somewhat above each other on an inclined plane, so that the sill of each lies about 80 or 90 centimeters higher than the one before it. In large establishments, each vault is 2 Ken (3*64 meters) long, 3 Ken (5 '46 meters) broad, and 8 Shaku (2-43 meters) high. The fire boxes are narrow passages, as in the biscuit kiln, near the boundary between the two arches, each of which has a special draft hole in the upper part of the arch, and on the same side with the opening where the fire is fed. The floor of the porce- lain chamber is covered with sand, and in the final firing of the wares, part of them are placed in fire-proof cases, and part without, the article being placed only on a fire tile. When all is ready for the burning, the principal fire is lighted in the lowest arch and kept up from 6 to 12 hours. The other fires are now lighted gradually at intervals of one or two hours, so that really the firing lasts fully 24 hours, and then follows cooling, for which from 3 to 6 days must be allowed. The flames of the lowest fire circulate as in the biscuit furnace, the hot gases pass through the draft holes 80 to 90 centimeters high up on the wall, into the second arch at its floor, conformably to its higher position, and so on through the series of arches. When the fire in one arch goes out, the outward openings are all closed up. The necessary degree of heat for burning the wares is learned by practice ; it must be so great in the upper arches, that a billet of wood held in one of the testing places is at once kindled. A large well-constructed furnace of fire clay can be built for from about £15 to £20, and lasts twelve or fifteen years. It is covered with a light roof for protection from rain and violent winds. In 468 ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. the larger centres of industry, twelve and even twenty or more parallel furnaces are ranged at short distances along the same hill- sides, and not unfrequently one such furnace is used by several manufacturers alternately, like the bake-houses of German villages. Although the loss in these low furnaces is not nearly so great as might be thought, the gallery furnaces of Europe, with their stages of fire-boxes and convenient arrangements for determining and regulating the heat, afford extraordinary advantages. That which is accomplished by the Chinese and Japanese by slow empirical processes, often the result of accident, is put to the test with us by the well directed aid of chemistry in the shortest possible time, as is the case in experiments with new materials and combinations, glazes and colours. The colours used in Japan for decorating pottery are the same as with us, and are for the most part now imported from Europe. If some of them, however, e.g., the blue of cobalt oxide and the red of iron, appear deeper, brighter, and more effective than with us, this is due in part to the different composition of the ground- work, the manner of applying them, and the heat of burning them in ; but mainly to this fact, that they are longer, more carefully and finely ground, before using. The most common vessels in Japanese ceramics are : Wan, cup ; Cha-wan, tea dish, tea bowl ; Temmoku, large cup ; Choku, small, hemispherical cup for drinking Sake ; Sake-dzuki, flat Sake dish ; Domburi, large, hemispherical or cylindrical bowl ; Hachi, bowl, porringer ; Shiu-ro, brazier for warming the hands ; Midzu- bachi, water basin for gold fish ; Koro, censer ; Hana-ike, flower vase ; Uye-ki-bachi, flower pot ; Tokkuri, flask ; Cha-bin, Cha-dashi, tea-pot ; Kibisho and Kiusu, small teapot of porcelain or stone- ware, with straight hollow handle of the same material placed op- posite the spout ; Do-bin, an earthen teapot, with bamboo or rattan handle ; Kuwashi-ire, sugar bowl, bonbonniere ; Tsubo, egg or urn- shaped covered jar ; Cha-tsubo or Cha-ire, tea caddy or covered jar for preserving tea ; Kame, larger Tsubo ; Tane-tsubo, jar for preserving seeds of different kinds ; Shita-tsuki, saucer ; Sara, plate, dish. Artistic pottery also furnishes Oki-mono or knick-knacks of all sorts, birds, cocks and hens, and other animals, human figures, and, above all, hosts of Ningio or dolls. One quarter of Kioto, on the south side toward Fushimi, is especially notable for its large manu- factories of dolls. For building purposes bricks have, during the last twenty years, been added to the long known and used tiles, owing to foreign influence. Their employment is constantly in- creasing, as brick houses are steadily replacing the combustible wooden buildings. The chief manufactories of the finer Japanese ceramics, are at Arita, Kioto, Seto, Kanazawa and Hongo for porcelain ; Kagoshi- ma, Kioto and Ota for Faience, and Yokkaichi for stone-ware. I Rein, Japan. II. Plate XIX. Ancient Vase of Arita Porcelain. Wilhelm Engelmann, Leipzig. CERAMICS. 469 visited all of them in 1874 and 1875, and studied their methods, the character and occurrence of the raw materials used, and other matters connected therewith, so far as time permitted, making me- moranda which serve as basis for much that is written here. A map is attached to this work, illustrative of the chapter on Mining Industry, and giving nearly all the above places as well as the most notable deposits of various porcelain stones. A rita Porcelain, Imari or Hizen. All the porcelain which was brought into Europe previous to 1854 by the Dutch from Japan by way of Nagasaki, and which has been reckoned for a long time among the most valuable portion of ceramic collections, is known by one of the three above names, and also as " Old Hizen." The first of these names (formerly little used), de- notes the place of manufacture ; the second, the small neighbouring harbour and shipping port ; the third, the province in which the two, together with Nagasaki, are situated. Arita lies very nearly in the middle of the most divided pro- vince of Japan, 15 Ri (about 36 miles) north of Nagasaki, on the farther side of the bay of Omura, and 11 Ri west of Saga in 33° 10' N. latitude and 129° 50' E. of Greenwich. It is a small city of 1,200 dwelling-houses, and 6,000 inhabitants, most of whom have supported themselves for nearly 300 years as is the case in neighbouring towns, by the flourishing porcelain industry. Though it is not the central point of Japanese porcelain manufacture, as it has been repeatedly asserted, its industry is at any rate the most highly developed and most conspicuous of all the potteries in Japan. The small town is situated at an elevation of 90 meters above the sea, in a hilly region, covered mainly with pine forests. One of these ranges of hills lying to the eastward, furnishes Arita immense and inexhaustible quantities of porcelain stone of incomparable quality. It is a peculiar material, from which pottery of the most varying forms is made, from the light and finest egg-shell porcelain to the imposing vases of two meters height. 1 The volcanic origin of Arita-ishi (Arita stone) has been recognised unanimously by those who have examined it in the place where it is found, as von Richt- hofen, Wagener, Rein and Lyman, or from specimens, as by Giim- bel, Pabst and vom Rath. 3 1 The original of the coloured heliotype of Plate XIX. is in the collection of Wagner & Co., 2, Dessauer Street, Berlin, and belongs, on account of its cylin- drical form and peculiar decoration (coloured butterflies raised on a white ground), without doubt to the rare specimens of Arita-yaki. 3 Differing from his former opinion that it belongs to the tertiary unstratified rock, a formation full of silicic acid like Rhyolithic tufa (Zeitschrift der dcutschen geol. Gesellschaft, 32 Bd. § 255). F. von Richthofen. in his latest work(" Fiihrer fiir Forschungsreisende," 1886, p. 9, 590), which has just come from the press, expresses himself as follows : " The large deposits at Imari in Japan are pro- 4?o ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. Lyman 1 agrees with me in considering it to be a product of the transformation of the old volcanic rock, which is found close by in an unchanged state as perlite breccia and trachyte. This is indicated by its unstratified occurrence, its appearance, and the chemical analysis. It is a compact rock, as hard as tiles, and having 2'^-Tj specific gravity. Its colour is a greyish white or soft yellow, strik- ingly resembling trachyte or felsite clay-stone, according to Giimbel. 2 The chemical analysis also agrees in this (see Appendix, table A). The best kind is almost pure kaolin, while in other places the rock is conglomerate, and intersected by numerous small quartz veins, which, according to Mr. G. vom Rath's careful examination at my request, are filled partly with very small quartz crystals, and in other portions with crystals of iron pyrites, which under the microscope appear distinctly in the form of dice and pyritohedrons. This porcelain stone is obtained in quarries, extending over a range of about 1,000 meters. There are three principal kinds ; one, white and entirely kaolinized, which also possesses the earthy character of kaolin ; a second, blue and rich in quartz ; and a third, yellow, and containing iron. The quarrying is entirely unsystem- atic, the material being followed up as deeply and widely as may be, without any great clearing away of other valueless materials. Eleven years ago, no one had any idea of the extensive character of the deposit, nor of its depth. Any citizen, by making a small payment to the town, can take away as much Arita-ishi as he needs, but is not allowed to send any into other porcelain manufacturing districts, nor to foreign countries. The water power of small streams is used for stamping the material, and long before reaching Arita, the preparations and arrangements for this work may be seen along the roads leading to the town. The preparation of the paste is very much simplified, in com- parison to that necessary in other porcelain factories, as the Arita stone, in its several stages of decomposition, furnishes in itself the materials for making it plastic and fusible. Mention has already been made of the fact that the potter's wheel is not here as in other places the simple form moved by the hand and rod, but much oftener a combination of two wheels, the thick lower one being turned with the foot. The axis of the wheel is not of steel, but a hard-wood pointed tenon fastened to the floor. Some of the fac- tories are very large for Japan, and manufacture, besides common articles for domestic needs, a great many vases, some of them of duced by the action of solfataras upon soft, clayey sandstone." The latter, however, appear in the immediate neighbourhood of the porcelain stone, with the same proportion of argillaceous earth, and little less silicic acid ; but show no trace of a transformation into porcelain stone, or any other generic relation with it. I agree with him, however, in regard to the action of the solfataras. (See page 316). 1 " Geological Survey of Japan. Reports of Progress." Tokio, 1879, p. 122. 2 Dingl. Pol. Journal, 227 Bd., p. 501. CERAMICS. 471= great size. A pair which I saw, were six feet eleven inches high (I "995 m.), and were of faultless burning, richly decorated with cobalt blue under glaze, and valued at 500 yen or about ^"ioo. Such pieces are made up of several parts, which must be dried for four or five days in the air after being shaped. They are then taken to the wheel again, and placed on a dish-like hollowed mass of soft material, when their edges are so trimmed off, like wood, with a piece of sharpened sheet-iron twice bent at right angles, that the parts fit together exactly, or dove-tail, in box-fashion. They are then softened at these points by long submersion in water, and put together, closely uniting at the points of contact, by means of the plastic paste. In the burning, which follows, they are placed on plates of fire-proof tile, without cases. Egg-shell porcelain, Usu-de-yaki, i.e. "thin burned," is now made principally at Mikawaji, a place 3 Ri from Arita. A workman in Arita, however, showed us the process. The best, most finely pulverized and purified material is used in its manufacture. The dishes and cups are turned quite thin on a sharpened wooden gauging-rod, and then left upon it several days to dry in the open air, when, like the pieces of vases, they are further turned on the wheel, though much more thoroughly, and then burned in cases. I saw a dozen large porcelain furnaces in Arita. The low vaults are larger than any others I observed in Japan, each one consisting of 12 to 16 arches, about 25 feet deep (7*5 8 m.), 15 feet (4*5 5 m.) broad, and from 10 to 12 (3'03 to 3*64 m.) high, all arranged in rows one above the other on an inclined plane. They are built of fire- proof clay and mud, on a floor covered with quartz sand, with an opening from two-thirds of a meter to one meter broad, and the fire boxes and testing places on one long side of the row, while the other long side is entirely closed. Each partition wall has a row of square openings about 25 to 30 centimeters above the floor, allowing the hot air to pass through from one vault to the next higher. The lowest and principal fire is kept burning for almost a whole day and the side fires are kindled about six hours after the first has been lighted. C. Giimbel analysed the raw material and the beautiful white porcelain of Arita also, with the following result: 7074 per cent. Si 2 , 2175 per cent. Al 2 3 , 2'02 per cent. Fe 3 , 072 per cent. Ca O, 0*02 per cent. Mg O, 3^23 per cent. Ka O, and 243 per cent. Na 2 O. The manufacture at Arita is generally traced back to Gorodayu Shonsui, a potter of the province of Ise, who lived at the beginning of the 1 6th century. Moved by the beauty and value of Chinese porcelain, which began to reach Japan at this time, he undertook a journey to King-te-tschin by way of Foochow, and remained there for five years for the purpose of learning the trade. After his return, in the 10th year of Yeisho (15 14), he settled in the then insignificant town of Arita and prepared from the materials he had brought from King-te-tschin a number of coarse porcelain wares, 472 ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. decorated under glaze with blue cobalt. When his stock of Chinese porcelain material was exhausted, however, and he found himself obliged to depend on domestic clay, he could make nothing but Faience, as did his successors up to the close of the century, with cobalt decoration under glaze. Ceramics, however, received a new impulse here, and in many other parts of Japan, with the return of the army from Corea (1598 A.D.). Nabeshima Naoshige, the Daimio of Hizen, and one of the commanders of the Japanese troops in Corea, brought back with him several Corean potters, who settled first in the bathing resort Ureshimo, but later in Arita. One of them, Ri-sampei by name, in 1599, discovered porcelain stone on the Idzumi-yama to the east of Arita, and at once inaugurated the porcelain manu- facture of Japan. The use of Benigara (red oxide of iron) followed some years after that of cobalt decoration under glaze — some say it was introduced by the Dutch in Deshima — and two years later decoration on glaze was introduced by Higashidori Tokuzayemon, a potter of Arita, after he had learned the process from the captain of a Chinese junk, at Nagasaki. This was a great step forward, for at this time the notable skill and artistic talent of the Japanese began to develop. The Dutch, as early as 1680, imported "Old Hizen " from Nagasaki. The rich collection at Dresden offers greater advantages than any other in Europe to one who wishes to study the condition of the porcelain industry in that period. It is made up mainly of large, urn-shaped, covered jars, or Tsubo, called tea-urns, because they served originally for preserving tea ; also of hemispherical dishes (Domburi), and round, flat plates, Jap. Sara. They are decorated with flowers (paeonies and chrysanthe- mums especially), small landscapes, human figures, in red and gold, with sometimes a little green, but the use of blue, violet, yellow, and black muffle colours belongs to a later period. This " Old Hizen," which preserved its essential character up to the close of the 1 8th century, is now much sought for. A few plates, 61 centi- meters in diameter, with fine landscape decorations, were considered cheaply bought, even in Japan, some twelve years ago, at 25 yen (£5), and could scarcely be purchased in Europe, in view of the great risk of transportation, for less than four or five times this amount. Porcelain still stands at the head of all the celebrated products (known as Meibutsu) of the province of Hizen. It is said to be made altogether in about thirty-six places, although Arita far excels all the rest, and furnishes now, as 200 years ago, the most highly-valued wares of all Japan. Its porcelain is perfectly uniform, and adds considerable translucence to a pure white colour, besides being hard enough for all the purposes of ordinary life. It burns so easily that decorative art has in its surface, as in that of Faience, a fine field, and is aided also by the very plastic character of the excellent material. Eein, Japan. II. Plate XX. a. Arita Porcelain Box. b. Old Satsuma Stonewase Bowl. Wilhelm Engelmann, Leipzig. CERAMICS. 473 Its forms have greatly altered during the last few decades, owing to the influence of foreign customers, and have become better adapted to European tastes and uses. All kinds of plates, with tea and coffee services, are exported. The urn-shaped covered jars, without handles, have almost entirely disappeared from the number of larger decorative pieces, and open flower- vases of various forms and sizes have taken their place. The wavy and bent-edged vases without handles, which were never made in former times, are now especially numerous. I have already described some (page 377) which are decorated with lacquer-painting ; these of course cannot be glazed. Boiled glue with iron ochre (Tonoko) ground to a paste forms the material of the ground-work in these cases. When it is dry, and smoothly polished, Naka-nuri, Togi, and Makiyeshi work follow, as has been described in detail under lacquer industry. The Amakusa-ishi, or Stone of Amakusa. A small group of islands, named Amakusa, after the largest and most western of the number, lies south of the province of Hizen and its volcanic peninsula Shimabara, in 32° to 32^-° N. Latitude, and from 130 to 130^° E. of Greenwich. 1 The north-western part of the island of Amakusa can be reached from Nagasaki by the southerly road, which leads to the beautifully situated little port of Mogi, 2 ri distant, and then by a three hours' sail over the Chijiwa- nada, landing in Tomioka. Desirous of becoming acquainted with the places where porcelain stone is quarried, which I had seen designated as Amakusa-ishi in Ota near Yokohama, Kioto, and elsewhere, I undertook this journey in the spring of 1875. This remarkable material is obtained at several places on the western coast, from 2 to 6 ri south-west from Tomioka, not far from the post stations Shimotsuke-Fukei, Kodakoro, and Takahama. It is used in the last-named place also for making a common porce- lain, but is chiefly sent into other parts of the country. The best comes from the Iguchi-yama, I ri east of Takahama, in whose vicinity there is also an antimony mine (see page 309). Porcelain stone appears on this sterile island, with its slate and sandstone rock, partly in great masses, standing often alone, but generally surrounded with yellowish or grey-white clay sand- stone. It is a metamorphic, volcanic rock, white, grey-white or yellowish in colour, similar to Arita-ishi but firmer, harder and heavier, and is partly silicated and partly kaolinized. The body presents a fine-grained mass of kaolin and quartz, and contains single quartz grains as well as crystalline hollow spaces from 1 The excellent map of B. Hassenstein, in his large Atlas of Japan, serves best for finding these places; but the maps belonging to the first volume of this work will also suffice. 474 ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. which common felspar or plagioklas crystals have crumbled away. G. vom Rath found on the walls of these spaces and on small clefts and corners, infinitesimally small splinters of iron mica and ap- parently new-formed little quartz crystals. These little crystal- shaped cavities are seen in every specimen and are therefore the most striking marks for the recognition and distinction of the Amakusa stone. This rock contains a large proportion of potash, as may be seen in the analysis of C. Sarnow, I. Table B. A com- parison of the chemical composition of other stones given there, shows that in this respect Amakusa-ishi stands next to the peg- matite (VIII.) of Yiikan in China. Amakusa belongs to the province of Higo, situated to the east, on the island of Kiushiu, where a clay-ware manufacture was established at Yatsushiro, after the Corean expedition, which is more notable for the peculiar treatment and ornamentation of its productions than for their extent and high character. Kato Kiyomasa, 1 the great antagonist of Konishi Yukinaga and bitter enemy of the Christians (see vol. i. p. 284), is said to have brought about their introduction through the Corean Kizo. It is a kind of stone-ware or hard porcelain, of a grey or greyish brown colour, in which the decorations are of inlaying or incrustations of white porcelain material, similar to that of Banko-Yaki. (See Plate XXIII., figure 2, on the right at the top of the page). Satsuma Faience of Kagoshima and Nayeshirogawa. The province of Satsuma, which bounds Higo on the south, is known to collectors as furnishing the most beautiful and most valuable Faience of Fastern Asia. Satsuma-Yaki, the designation given it in the country, is distinguished less by its composition than by its decoration. Whatever can be conceived by inventive genius, taste and perseverance, is here accomplished in form and decor- ations. 2 A glaze adapted to the ware, varying in its soft yellow colour from that of old ivory to cream, is the fitting groundwork of this ornamentation, that consists of fine hairlike cracks (craquele) of the glaze, and in open work and relief decorations of the material 1 A remarkable equestrian statue in bronze, representing this hero, may be seen in the Industrial Art Museum at Kensington. - The heliotype (Plate XXI.) representing an urn of cream white Faience of Kagoshima shows the character of the decoration of Satsuma-Yaki in one of its most original forms, which Japan has borrowed from China, and often employs for censers, but in such case, in metal. The two winglike handles, with their grotesque decoration, are specially striking. The vessel rests on three feet and terminates at the top in a Botan blossom (Pcsonia Moutan), forming a knob on the cover. It is painted with gold and muffle colours. The principal pattern of the ornaments, the leaves and blossoms of the chrysan- themum and patrinia (Kiku-no-hana and Omina-meshi, p. 274) are distinctly seen in the illustration. '*H*k. PHOTOTYPE BY STRUMPER & CO., HAMBURG SATSUMA STONEWARE URN. Original in the ROYAL KUNSTGEWERBE Museum Berlin. Rein, Japan. II. Plate XXII. Sake Flask of Eaga-Porcelain. Wilhelm Engelmann, Leipzig. Rein, Japan. H. w Plate XXIII. vV^ -^Sr^. } Banko-yaki from Yokkaichi. Wilhelm Engelraann, Leipzig. CERAMICS. 475 itself. This is often made to imitate basket ware. The orna- mentation, however, consists in a rich, soft and harmonious tone of polychromatic painting. The formation of the hairlike cracks (in our artistic pottery the s*ign of a great miscalculation of the small amount of shrinkage after the biscuit burning and of a quick and very contractile glaze) is produced intentionally by the Chinese and Japanese, and when well done, is much admired. Satsuma crackleware and all its imitations, like Awata-yaki, Awaji-yaki, Ota-yaki, has a narrow meshed net of such fine cracks, while in the older Chinese crackle porcelain, the meshes and cracks are much wider and coarser. The Japanese call this crackled clay- ware Hibi-yaki or Hibi-de. They employ in its manufacture a glaze of felspar with leached wood ashes, which assimilate with the glazing material, making it more easily fusible. The decorations in gold, red and green, re- present flowers, principally chrysanthemums, paeonies, maples ; fowls, peacocks and other birds are also subjects most frequently taken. Censers, tea-pots, bowls and dishes, and in later times, vases, urns and other larger articles, are the main productions of this industry. Its introduction is connected with the expedition to Corea. Shimadzu Yoshihisa, Daimio of Satsuma, on his return to his own country in 1598, brought with him a large number of Corean potters and their families, gave them the rank of Samurai, and settled them in Kagoshima and several other places. Five years later he gathered the most of them (seventeen families) in the " Corean village," Nayeshirogawa, 6 ri distant. Their descendants live there still and continue the manufacture of pottery. They have adopted the Japanese dress, mode of living and language, but hold themselves otherwise aloof, and corporately preserve their Corean character. They are a stronger type of men than the Japanese, with intelligent features, very prominent cheek-bones and pointed chin, resembling in this respect more the inhabitants of Riukiu. The first generation manufactured only Raku-yaki, a black glazed ware having no artistic quality and which had already been made in Kioto by other Coreans under Hideyoshi. Tea-pots, bowls and cups, and a quantity of other earthenware of this kind, are still manufactured. Others produced crackle stone-ware, as in the factory at Kagoshima; still others genuine porcelain of Amakusaishi, and domestic kaolin, using Isu-bai as a glaze. The products, how r ever, are designed exclusively for the domestic market, and none of them are in any way remarkable. The products which come to the European market under the names Satsuma, Satsuma Faience, Satsuma ware, are not from the Corean village, but were formerly manufactured in Tatsuno, near Kagoshima. About twenty years ago the factory passed into the hands of a company of Samurai, the Toki-gaisha, which established 476 ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. itself at Tano-ura, beautifully situated about 2 miles from the capital city Kagoshima on the bay. The white porcelain stone Kaseda or Kaseda-ishi was discovered between 1624 and 1644 A.D., and took its name from the place of discovery in the neighbourhood of the little town of Kaseda, south- west of Kagoshima. An analysis of this material, with which I am not further acquainted, is given in Table B, IV. The discovery of the kaolin of Ibusuki 1 occurred also at this time. The art of polychromatic painting was introduced at the close of the 18th century by two Coreans who had learned it in Kioto. At present the material is prepared in Tano-ura of 13 parts Kaseda, 18 parts Ibusuki and 3 parts of Kirishima-tsuchi, the glaze of 10 parts of white Kaseda (Shira-ishi) and 5 parts of Nara-bai, i.e. oak-wood ashes. Imitations of the fine Faience of Satsuma, more or less success- ful, have been made for many years in several Japanese towns, and are exported to foreign countries in large quantities and at low prices, some under the name of Satsuma and some by the rightful designation Awata-yaki, Awai-yaki, Ota-yaki. The durability of the most of them is much less, and the colouring in many cases somewhat different, now more yellow as in Awata-yaki, and again changing in tint to grey or white. It needs, however, a practised eye to distinguish many of these products from genuine Satsuma ware. The Pottery in Kioto. As the silk and metal industry is concentrated on the right side of the Kamo-gawa, in the principal part of the old Japanese capital, the ceramic manufacture has established itself upon the left side, in the eastern part of the city. It furnishes, besides ordinary pottery, Faience and porcelain in large quantities and excellent quality. The beginning of this industry dates back to the middle of the 17th century. Ninsei, an amateur potter of the family Nonomura, which was numbered with the Fujiwara, gave a new impulse and higher aim to the manufacture of pottery in Kioto in the second half of the above-named century, by the introduction of transparent glaze into several factories in the suburbs, and by the manufacture of a kind of Faience and half-porcelain. The productions, Ninsei-yaki, created by his art from Shigaraki and other clays of the vicinity, 1 Ibusuki is made out of a mixture of three kinds of kaolin, viz : 10 parts Neba, 3 parts Bara, and 5 parts Matsuyakubo. Nara-bai, the oak-wood ashes of the glaze, is analyzed by Atkinson as follows : 3*33 P er cent, water, 8 '405 per cent, silicic acid, 4785 per cent, alumina, 3*300 per cent, iron oxide, 42765 per cent, lime, 2*415 percent. (?), potash 074 percent., soda, 0*215 percent, carbonic acid 34*145 per cent. The high percentage of carbonic acid and lime shows that Atkinson could not have had a pure specimen of wood ashes for examination, but one mixed with carbonate of lime. CERAMICS. 477 are distinguished not only by a more careful treatment of the material, but especially by their beautiful and boldly designed decorations, and now-a-days are much sought after. The same is true of the Kenzan-yaki, which was made by his most celebrated pupil in the first half of the 18th century. It has a yellowish colour (Ki-iro). The manufacturer, Ogata Shinsei, was called Shisui Kenzan {i.e. beautiful blue north-west mountain), after the factory located in the north-western part of Kioto, at the foot of the Atago-yama (Ken-zan). The present Faience industry in the suburb Awata has been developed from the Kenzan-yaki and Ninsei-yaki, and also the porcelain manufacture at Kiyomidzu. Awata-yaki is manufactured in the eastern part of Kioto, on both sides of the road which leads to Otsu in Omi. For the material of this kind of crockery three or four kinds of kaolin or clays, viz. Shigaraki-tsuchi l and Kagami-yama-tsuchi from Omi, Okazaki-tsuchi and Dainichi-yama-tsuchi from the vicinity of Kioto, are mixed in equal parts after previous preparation. It burns to a grey white with a touch of red in the first fire (biscuit burning), but appears almost white after the principal burning. The yellowish crackle glaze is said to be obtained by mixing equal parts of Seki (stone, probably Amakusa-ishi) and Aku, the ashes from the waste of the indigo plant (see p. 177). 2 The porcelain industry of Kioto has its seat in the Kiyomidzu quarter, at the foot of the Higashi-yama, south of Awata (see vol. i. map of Kioto). In Gojo-dori or Gojo-saka, the street leading from the temple Kiyomidzu to the Kamo-gawa is a continuous row of porcelain shops. Many sell the wares manufactured by themselves. The predominance of the blue cobalt decoration is already recognised from a distance, and shows that the industry serves Japanese households principally ; nevertheless, in modern times, the most important houses, such as Dd-hachi and Roku- bai, have adapted themselves likewise to the tastes of foreign customers. This is even more true of Ken-zan, whose factory is situated between Gojo-zaka and Yasaka. Many of the most beautiful pieces of Kiyomidzu-yaki which are seen in the In- dustrial Art Museum in Berlin are of his manufacture ; they are distinguished by their great hardness, purity, transparency, and a beautiful white colour, which sets off the cobalt blue particularly well. The material of these valuable wares is made of 7 parts Amakusa-ishi and 3 parts Shigaraki-tsuchi ; the glaze of Amakusa- ishi and Isu-bai. Awaji-yaki or Mimpei-yaki. At the Universal Exhibition in Vienna, a sort of Faience by this name, similar to the Awata-yaki, attracted much attention on account of its fine crackled glaze and extraordinarily careful and delicate painting. It originated in the 1 An analysis of this kaolin may be found in Table C, No. I. 2 The ware is called Tamago-yaki (egg-burned), probably on account of this yellowish colour. 478 ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. town of Igano-mura, on the island of Awaji in Idzumi-nada (Bay of Osaka), from a small factory erected in 1838 by Kashiu Mimpei, whose son Sanpei now carries on the manufacture. The pottery industry of Owari, Mino, and Mikawa embraces the border territory of these three provinces, and has developed itself mostly at Seto, in north-eastern Owari, 5 ri from the capital city Nagoya, so that this, like Arita in Hizen, may be considered in age and the influence of its industry as the central point of this second important pottery district of Japan. It is a hilly country, extending to the passage of the Nakasendo from Shinano to Mino, and to the boundary of Owari and Mikawa toward the sea over the T6kai-do. The decomposition products of granite and slate mountains, principally quartzitic rubble, and white or mud-coloured bald spots of clay, and a meagre vegetation of pine and bush forest, cover the long extended, low range of hills, scarcely 2CO meters high. Only here and there are seen granite rocks and old slate of blackish grey colour, which appear much oftener on the larger stretches, and less soft as one draws near to the higher ridges on the frontier. On the other hand, fossiliferous Neo-tertiary strata are seen along the sides of these hills. Every stage of transition may be seen, from the well-preserved granite, 7 miles and a half from Seto onwards, to the decomposi- tion, kaolinising, and further transformation of felspar into many clay deposits which appear on the hill slopes and in the valleys, or are covered with boulders. Granite and kaolin, richly sprinkled with quartz grains, form the principal groundwork of the ceramics of this district. In Owari the industry is concentrated around Seto, the manufacture having been carried on here for five hun- dred years. Among its manifold products are various small household articles, such as dishes and bowls for Sake, tea and rice, teapots, Sake bottles, small flower-vases and flower-pots of milk-white porcelain, tastefully decorated with blue cobalt paint- ing both under and upon glaze. Fine large flower-pots are among the largest and most beautiful articles which Seto furnishes. The Royal Industrial Art Museum in Berlin has one of these. On the outside a grape vine, with leaves and clusters, is raised in white bas-relief on a deep blue ground, a piece of decoration of fine effect. Seto-mono, as this beautiful ware is called, is well known throughout the whole of Japan ; indeed, the expression is often used as a generic name for all porcelain decorated in this way, signifying the same as Some-tsuke. Fine Seto-mono and Kiyomidzu-yaki approach each other so nearly that it is almost impossible to distinguish between them. 1 Seto porcelain is of a more glassy nature than Arita ware, is also less tough, and more easily broken. The porcelain biscuit is prepared in Seto of 10 parts Kairome-tsuchi, 8 parts Hon-ishi, 2 parts Chikura-ishi, and 2 parts Giyaman-ishi, the glaze of Hon-ishi, Giyaman-ishi, and 1 The analyses of their materials may be compared in Table D, III. and IV. CERAMICS. 479 Isu-bai. The names Kairome-tsuchi and Seto-tsuchi signify the kaolin of the vicinity, a greyish white, granulated material, in which the felspar of the granite is perfectly decomposed, but the numerous bright quartz grains appear in their original state, and are held together by kaolin. Hon-ishi or Cho-seki, i.e. chief stone, is the grey-white felspar of granite. It is obtained on the boundary of Owari and Mino, three hours distant from Seto, and pulverized at Akadzu, an hour's distance from Seto, by three days' stamping with water power in the manner before described, then washed and brought to Seto. The Chikura-ishi and Hiromi-ishi, the latter from Mikawa, seem to be very similar. Dr. Sarnow analysed a sample of Hon-ishi which I gave him, and found its contents as follows : 6578 per cent, silicic acid, 20'22 per cent, alumina, C43 per cent, iron oxide, 077 per cent, lime, io - 33 per cent, potash, 1*24 per cent, soda, and 0*51 per cent, water, so that it approaches very nearly to the Swedish and Norwegian felspar (Mikroline), so much used in our German porcelain factories. It is easily smelted to a transparent, colourless glass. Giyaman-ishi, i.e. glass-stone, is the name given to light grey or blue-white quartz, which is found in the vicinity of Seto, and is used in the Seto paste as a flux. The principal item to be observed in the composition of this paste is that it is made in the European manner, and resembles very closely the Bohemian porcelain paste. Seto porcelain is burned partly in cases, but generally entirely uncovered, resting on fire-proof supports. In order to prevent the porcelain fastening to this stand by fusing, there is used a thin plate of grey talc, which is called Yori-tsuchi in Seto, and which must be pulverized and washed before shaping. There are from 700 to 1,000 labourers employed in the porcelain industry of Seto itself. Owari. furnishes much earthenware, be- sides Seto-mono, as for instance the Tokoname-yaki in Chid agon", 10 ri from Nagoya, the Inu-yama-yaki in Nuira-gori, and the Toyoske-yaki in Nagoya itself, which the Toyoske family finishes on the inside with coloured lead glaze, but on the outside with lacquer painting. The foundation of the pottery industry in Owari is attributed to Kato-Shirosayemon, called Toshiro, who, after spending five years in China to learn pottery work, returned in 1223, and settled down to its manufacture in Seto. He furnished glazed stone-ware, and, like Gorodayu Shonsui in Arita, used for his first efforts clay which he brought with him from China. Later he followed a common custom and changed his name again into Shunkei, so that Shunkei-yaki followed Toshiro-yaki. Several of his successors distinguished themselves in the manufacture of tea- jars (Tsubo), and several other articles, which were highly prized during the time that the Cha-no-yu (tea parties) flourished. An inferior Faience, with coloured enamel, was soon added to stone- ware, but the art of manufacturing porcelain was not learnt or 480 ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. practised till later, when a younger member of the Toshiro family of potters, Kato-Tamikachi by name, discovered by stratagem the secret of the Arita potters. Mino-yaki. The Mino wares, made up almost entirely of small useful articles, like teapots, plates, dishes, and rice-bowls, Sake- flasks, etc., are generally not so finely decorated as those of Seto, and are more adapted to the means and needs of the common people. Many sorts of earthen dishes are found among them ; some of such excellent material and careful workmanship, that they might serve as a pattern for many of our common potters. The porcelain industry followed that of Seto, and was not intro- duced until 1810. It extends as far northward as the village of Nakatsugawa on the Nakasendo. It is carried on in a number of villages near to Owari, especially in Takayama, Tajimi, and Ichi- nokura. The most beautiful workmanship is to be found in small tea and Sake dishes of the finest porcelain, whose thin walls are produced by turning the air-dried form on the wheel, as in Hizen, and decorated, either in the above-named places or in Tdkio, with muffle colours. 6ta-yaki, Makudzu-yaki. In 1872 a merchant, Suzuki of Yokohama, established a factory in the neighbouring town of Ota, with the intention to manufacture Satsuma and other Faience, as well as porcelain, and especially to meet the demand of the foreign market for decorative pieces. He secured a potter by the name of Miyakawa Kozan, from Kioto, as director. Vases were manufactured principally, and Amakusa- ishi and several clays from the neighbouring Musashi were used as raw materials. Later, the business is said to have passed to Miyakawa, and the products have often been designated after his former residence, Makudzu-ga-hara, in Kioto. Miyakawa dis- played an uncommon activity, and was inexhaustible in the in- vention and employment of new designs of decoration, especially in high relief. His productions, which during the last fifteen years have been exported in large quantities and attracted much atten- tion at the great International Industrial Exhibitions, betray many departures from good taste, together with some very original and beautiful designs. There were, for instance, at the Paris Exhibi- tion large vases of long, cigar shape, with a striped glaze having the colouring of the Awata-yaki, around which large rusty anchors were represented in high relief, and on them little goblins sitting. There were other vases which were made with a lumpy or knobby surface in the lower part, resembling that of a wall which has been plastered with pasty cement mixed with little gravel stones. Open-work basket and bamboo weaving was also imitated with great exactness. All this impressed the judges in such a manner, that they added to the distinctions already received in Vienna CERAMICS. 48 1 and Philadelphia, the gold medal, as a recognition of the work of the exhibitor. The Faience of Ota resembles porcelain very closely, and excels all other Japanese Delft-ware in hardness and firmness. Its colouring is somewhat between that of Satsuma and Awata-yaki ; the factory, however, has produced no articles which are distin- guished by polychromatic painting or which eclipse the better products of Kagoshima and Awata. HONGO-YAKL The town of Hongo, which gives its name to this porcelain, is situated in the Aidzu-taira (Plain of Aidzu), in the province df Iwashiro on the way from Sanno-toge to the capital Wakamatsu, and about 5 miles distant from the latter. On the south side of the village rises a hill, on which at least a dozen low furnaces with their vaults following one upon another are ranged. Hard por- celain is manufactured here and decorated with cobalt colour under glaze ; the ware, however, cannot compare favourably with that of Seto and Kiyomidzu in respect to fineness and decorative art. The industry is limited almost exclusively to common, useful articles. It uses neither felspar nor quartz, but finds a rich and valuable material in the volcanic, old crystalline products of decomposition at greater or less distance. Table B III. gives the composition of one of these materials, the Tonokuchi-ishi, which I saw in the neighbourhood of the Inawashiro Lake. The kaolins are found generally in the vicinity of Hongo. In one of the factories the material consists of 5 parts Shirojari, 3 parts Haguro, 3 parts Dobiyama-tsuchi, and 2 parts Tonokuchi. It has a tint of yellow, but burns to a pure white. KUTANI-YAKI, OR KAGA PORCELAIN. Although it is not known exactly in what year (the date 1650 A.D. is commonly accepted) the manufacture of this peculiar por- celain, so highly prized on account of its decoration, began, its history is nevertheless much older than that of most of the porce- lains which Japan has furnished. Mayeda Toshiharu, the first Daimio of Daishoji in Kaga, soon after coming into power in 1639 A.D., brought a potter from Kioto and commissioned him to seek for materials for fine clay-wares. The industry began after such materials had been found in Kutani-mura and elsewhere. The successor of the prince, Mayeda Toshiaki, in order to advance the work, sent a workman named Tamura Gonzayemon to Hizen, that he might learn there the manufacture of porcelain. After his return he erected the first porcelain furnace at Kutani-mura, 8 ri south-east of Daishoji, in the neighbourhood of the place where Kutani-ishi is found, of which we shall speak further on. Ac- II. I I 482 ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. cording to another version, it was not Tamura Gonzayemon but a certain Goto Saijiro who founded this first porcelain factory at Kaga in 1650, aided by a very talented painter, who settled in Kaga, Kuzumi Morikage by name. His wares met with great approbation, not only with the prince of Kaga, but also with the Shogun Tsunayoshi in Yeddo. Later the works of this fac- tory declined in value, and toward the end of the 18th century the business was given up entirely. In June, 1810, the manufacture was again begun by a merchant in Kutani. As Kutani, however, lies high up in the mountains, and the long, severe winters hin- dered the workmen very much, the owner removed his factory in 1814 to the bathing-place Yamashiro-mura, 1 ri east of Daishoji. It was still in operation when I visited it in 1874, but two larger furnaces had been established since then, 8 cho (about a mile) outside of the place, which manufactured Kutani-yaki and common pottery with a kind of Faience also. The porcelain is sent for the most part to Kanazawa, the capital of the province, and there decor- ated. The Kaga porcelain is made from a paste which consists of 8 parts of Kutani-ishi, 2 parts Nabetani-ishi, 6 parts Gokoji-tsuchi, and 4 parts of Yamashiro-tsuchi. 1 The last of these materials is a common potter's clay ; the Gokoji-tsuchi is a kaolin, similar to that of Seto, sprinkled with many quartz grains. The Nabetani- ishi, more rightly Nabetani-tsuchi, of Nabeya-mura is found 8 ri from Yamashiro-mura on the way to Kanazawa, and is likewise a white-grained kaolin. Most interest centres on Kutani-ishi, an analysis of which is given in Table B II. This is a quartz por- phyry, very much decomposed in its transformation into kaolin. It is greyish white when freshly broken, and reddish brown from the iron in its clefts and fissures. Small quartz crystals, isolated crystals of orthoclase, and little decomposed particles of biotite may be distinctly recognised in it and leave no doubt as to the character of the rock. The preparation of the paste for Kutani-yaki is not so careful as with most other porcelain. Nor does it bake so white and smooth ; the potsherd shows a much stronger inclination to red or grey and a granulated structure. If, nevertheless, the plates, vases, teapots, bowls, cups, etc. manufactured from it have a very high reputation throughout Japan, and range higher in price than the same articles made in other porcelain districts, it is due entirely to the peculiar rich and careful decoration with gold, gold purple and iron-red, to which in many cases sub-acetate of copper, but seldom a fifth colour, is added. This mode of decoration on glaze was introduced in 18 14; before this, blue cobalt decoration under glaze was used, as in Seto and Kioto porcelain. The most promi- nent works of Kaga porcelain painting in the last fifteen years are referable to a company of Samurai in Kanazawa, with Abe at the head. The decoration of the Kaga-yaki is so strikingly peculiar 1 The glazing consists of 6 parts Kutani-ishi and 4 parts Isu-bai. CERAMICS. 483 that, usually, it does not require much practice to recognise it. Generally a conventional ornamental space in gold and red, in many cases a meander, divides the surface to be decorated into separate fields, on which the paintings proper, human figures, flowers, birds, clouds consisting of single points of iron-red, are represented. Sometimes, too, these pictures are executed in enamel colours, although this is much less frequent than in Seto-mono. Many articles of Kutani-yaki are among the most beautiful that ceramic industry in general has ever furnished, because of their extremely careful and effective decoration. The character of this decoration may be distinctly seen in the heliotype on Plate XXII. Banko-yaki. The province of Ise yields, under this name, in the cities Yokkaichi and Kuwana, on the T6kai-do, as well as in several towns between them, partly flint-ware and partly a kind of glazed earthenware with beautiful enamel decorations, which has been called very aptly Japanese Majolica. In a narrower sense, how- ever, Banko-yaki consists of clay-wares having a red to dark brown, yellowish, or white colour, either plain, marbled or painted. They are extremely tasteful, but thin, light, and not very durable, burning very hard, and exhibiting in the potsherd quite the character of stone-ware. They are generally smaller articles, tea- pots, jugs, small vases and several others which are formed neither on the wheel nor by the hand, but in adjustable katas or moulds. The ferruginous clay which is used for the coloured ware is ob- tained in several places on a neighbouring hill near Obuke ; the white ware is from the porcelain material of Seto. When the two kinds have been finely pulverized and washed, pressed through cloths and transformed to plastic paste, they are separated for the plain wares and mixed for the marbled ; i.e. in the latter case they are superficially kneaded together, and then rolled to a thin paste like cake dough. The adjustable wooden moulds, having a long prismatic or cylindrical piece as a handle in the middle, are made wet and covered with strips of oiled or Shibu-saturated paper. The sheets of doughy paste are then pressed firmly on all parts of the mould. That which lies over the edges is trimmed off. Special strips of the material are laid on and pressed close together to form the neck ; the bottom also is cut out by itself and pressed on. The same is done with the handle and spout, which must be ready made beforehand. When the pot is thus modelled on the kata and somewhat dried, the form is taken apart and out from the centre, and the article placed to dry, after which the strips of Shibu-gami may be easily removed. The cover is formed separately also. The burning lasts twenty-four hours and the articles are not glazed. The four pots on Plate XXIII. are decorated each in a different fashion. The rings and knobs of the covers of the two upper pots may be turned easily. The vertical striping of both is effected by a 484 ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. pressure of the material upon the form. The white pot (upper left) is decorated with birds and blooming branches ; the greyish brown at the right, with the white botan blossom (pseony), laid in with a corresponding material. The third pot (lower left) shows the places where the thumb pressed the thin dough on the form. The little house with which it is decorated is made of paste applied to the paste of the pot. In the fourth a peculiar marbling may be noticed, produced by a mixture of several coloured pastes. Wares of this kind are called Momi-kome, or Kamo-gata. Banko Kichibei, after whom this flint-ware or " Gres de Banco " is named, erected a furnace at Yeddo, between 1652 and 1660, which was intended as a branch of the factory in Kutani, but was given up later. Forty years ago, a porcelain potter, by the name of Yiusetsu, built a furnace in the village of Obuke, near Kuwana, changed his name into Banko, and laid the foundation of the present peculiar industry which bears his adopted name. Its principal seat is Yokkaichi, on the Tokai-do, where the manu- facturer Kawahara-ya employs about eighty workmen. The fac- tory in Obuke is still in operation, but furnishes more majolica, with beautiful enamelled decorations in relief. Several potters from Yokkaichi transplanted the industry to Onko in Mino, and are now producing many durable wares. It remains still to mention Imbe-yaki, a peculiar stone-ware from the province of Bizen, which, when burned in an intense fire, is distinguished by a beautiful brownish red colour, and resembles certain Chinese wares of a similar character. A. — Analyses of the Porcelain Materials of Arita, in Hizen. 1 I. Tsuji- tsuchi. II. Arita- stone. III. Arita- stone. IV. Tsuji- tsuchi. V. Sakai- me- tsuchi. VI. Uwa- kusuri. VII. Shiro- tsuchi. VIII. Tsuji- tsuchi. IX. Sakai- me- tsuchi. X. Uwa- kusuri. Silicic acid . . Alumina . . . Ferric oxide Manganic oxide Lime .... Magnesia . . Potash . . . Sodium oxide . Water. . . . 7870 14-27 no 0-45 traces 2*24 3-29 77-35 14-27 2. 1 1 traces 0-15 029 178 032 2-76 83-00 ir6o 0-70 traces 0-18 traces 1-90 0-09 2-49 78-18 IS70 o-66 traces O'lO 0-55 174 2-52 78-07 13-99 ro2 003 19 0-23 0-96 1-72 3'32 78-21 14-41 1-41 O'lO 0-14 i-38 372 77-68 15-19 0-90 001 1-46 O'lO 0-51 1 '47 3'33 78-27 14-69 0-44 4^3 2-99 77-88 14-78 o'33 3-55 2-84 77-05 15-28 0-40 3-93 2-91 IOO'II 99"°3 99-96 99 - 45 99"53 99'37 100-65 IOQ'62 99-38 99-62 1 These Japanese names are not terms for the Arita porcelain- stones them- selves, but for material made from them. CERAMICS. 485 B. — Analyses of Porcelain Materials from various sources. I. Ama- kusa- ishi. II. III. IV. Kaseda V. VI. VII. VIII. IX. X. Kutani- ishi. Tono- kuchi- ishi. Porcelain-stones from the quarries of Ki- monnhsien, at Kingte- tschin, in China. Pegmatite from Yiikan, in China. Pegma- tite from St Yrieix. Silicic acid . . Alumina . . . P'erric oxide Manganic oxide Lime .... Magnesia . . Potash . . . Sodium oxide . Water .... 73 37 15-25 o - 73 o'43 5-46 1 '07 2-23 7660 1475 o-S6 CT29 3*9« 65 2-68 7872 14-51 traces >» i> 0-42 039 5 '34 77-15 I3-50 O-94 0-83 0-62 3'34 1 -85 1-64 7477 16-29 2'6l 281 2-05 2'42 75*42 16-45 074 2-45 2j4 2-74 7775 I5-3S 1-26 3'3 2 2-51 74-70 15-70 O'lO O'lO 0'20 1 6-4O 2-40 77-00 15-00 0'20 4-70 2-40 74-99 14'So o-37 1-09 0-36 f 4'3I \3'49 0-65 99-04 99-74 99-38 99-87 IOO-95 100*14 100.22 99 - 6o 99-30 iioo'o6 Explanations of the foregoing tables. A contains several analyses of Arita-ishi, the basis of the cele- brated porcelain industry in Hizen ; and B contains analyses of porcelain stones of varying origin and character. A I., B I., III. and IV. were made by Dr. C. Sarnow, in the Royal Porcelain Factory at Charlottenburg, and published in the Thonindustrieseitung, 1S78, No. 28. I myself collected the material in Japan. Sarnow makes the following notes : A I., Arita-ishi. " White, stony substance, with numerous black spots in it ; almost capable of resisting the porcelain-fire." B L, Ama- kusa-ishi. " White, stony substance, yielding, when broken to pieces, a white powder, which, mixed to consistency with water, melts at the temperature in which the porcelain of the Royal Porcelain Factory of Berlin is burned." B II., Kutani-ishi. "Stone of a yellow colour, or yellowish white, threaded with yellow veins, and showing indications of melting in the porcelain-fire." B III., Tonokuchi-ishi, kaolin, from the vicinity of Lake Inawashiro. " The pieces are of a yellowish white colour, very resistible to fire, and burning quite white." ^4 II. and III. are analyses of Arita-stone, published by Giimbel in Ding/. Polyt. Journ., Bd. 227, p. 501. He obtained the ma- terial through Dr. G. Wagener, from the Vienna Exhibition. The analyses A IV., V., VI., VII., were made by H. Wurtz, and are reproduced by Atkinson in Vol. VIII., p. 273, of the " Transac- tions As. Soc. of Japan," 1880. In the same article, R. W. Atkinson 486 ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. gives a number of his own investigations of the materials employed in Japanese ceramics, and B IV. is taken from these. The last three analyses of table A, as well as B V., VI., and VII., were taken from the " Untersuchung von Chinesischen und Japanischen zur Porzellanfabrikation verwandten Gesteinvorkomm- nissen," von W. Pabst in the " Zeitschrift der deutsch. geol. Gesellschaft," Bd. 32 (1880). F. von Richthofen furnished the samples, besides notes on occurrence in Japan and at Arita. According to these, von Richthofen regarded Arita-ishi as a ter- tiary, unstratified rock, rich in silicic acid, and resembling rhyolith- tufa, while the porcelain-stones of Kingte-tschin have great similarity to " Hallefiinta" and Petrosilex. The porcelain-stone of Yiikan, of which B VIII. and IX. are two analyses by Salvetat, are called by him pegmatite, and by von Richthofen porphyroid. B X. is an analysis of the pegmatite of Yrieix, in France, published by Seger, and placed here for pur- poses of comparison. C. — Analyses of various Japanese Kaolins and Clays, com- pared WITH SOME OF OTHER COUNTRIES. Washed Normal-kaolins. 'M S 3 . .— in si >. c < -S m _; V M 5~ .si > aj"5 3 "3 C/3 — Silicic Acid Alumina . . Ferric Oxide . FeOandMnO Magnesia . . Sodium Oxide Water . . . 56-87 28-56 0-98 0-69 0-47 ?/o8 o'o6 io'i6 54-65 32.35 0-90 0-37 2*22 6-30 64-65 22-56 1-46 0"22 0-03 0-30 10-34 59*42 27-90 0-13 0*26 o - 6i roi 11-55 49'25 38-89 I'M 0-15 0-36 2"OI 0-39 5-90 50-64 3274 0-95 2-52 0-50 0'27 2-52 traces io - oo 45-68 38-54 0-18 - 02 0-15 jo-66 13-00 54'40 49-30 }o-6 5 2-35 48-35 36-00 075 traces 0-96 13-00 99-87 ioo - o6 99'56 IOO-88 98*09 ioo'i4 98-23 '10670 99 "06 CERAMICS. 487 D. — Analyses of various Porcelain Pastes, I. Arita. II. Arita. III. Seto. IV. Kiyo- midzu (Kioto). V. Berlin. VI. Sevres (Paste for Plates.) VII. Sevres (Paste for Sculp- turing.) IX. Limo- ges. X. China. Silicic Acid Alumina. . Ferric Acid Lime . . . Magnesia . Potash . . Sodium Oxide Water . . 74-53 16-09 I-03 o'o6 0-25 4-37 1*10 2-8 3 7r3I 1974 0-73 o - i7 4-04 O'lO 4'oi 64-70 22 -O I 074 0-57 4"95 o'36 6-o6 67-17 21-50 o-68 0-56 4 - 97 5-85 63-07 24.67 0-59 0-42 J4-25 7-00 58.OO 24-40 4-50 3'°° 64-23 30-05 2-89 2-79 6671 21-58 0-47 o - 6[ 0-37 2 '93 1-62 5'54 68 -oo I2'00 traces 14-00 \ 6 00 IOQ-26 lOO'IO 99'39 100-73 1 0000 89-90 99-96 99'S3 1 00 '00 C. Analyses of various Kaolins and Clays. Of these R. W. Atkinson published Nos. I.-IV., in " Trans- actions As. Soc. of Japan," vol. viii. pp. 274, 275 ; Giimbel, V., Dingl. Pol. J. Bd. 227, p. 501 ; Kalmann, VI., in Dingl. Pol. J. Bd. 220, p. 445 ; and K. Bischof, VII., VIIL, and IX., in Dingl. Pol. J. Bd. 198, p. 396. As can be seen by comparing them, the Arita-kaolin, which is found in company with the Arita porcelain-stone, and must be regarded as only a further developed form of this, comes next to the normal kaolin from St. Austell, in Cornwall. Its burning is facilitated by its high amount of alkali, which is of great value for the porcelain industry of Arita. Of the other Japanese porcelain clays in the table, Shiga-raki is used not only for Kioto Faience, but for porcelain ; and the kaolin of Kirishima-yama is used for the Faience of Satsuma. That of Seto supplies the porcelain factories of Owari and Mino, which employ, besides, many other clays. The clay which is used for the lighter Banko-yaki is found at Kuwana in Ise ; and a reddish clay with over 5 per cent, of ferric oxide, from which, for example, the vessel in Fig. 19 was made, is also found here in Ise as a valuable material for its own peculiar industry. Table D, " Analyses of various Porcelain Pastes," offers matter for interesting comparisons. The first two, of Arita-substances, are especially notable for their large amount of silicic acid. They, like No. VIII., were published by Seger and Aron, in the "Thon- industriezeitung." The director of the experiment-station at Char- lottenburg, so well known for his notable labours in the subject of ceramics, remarks upon these as follows : " The Japanese paste I. 488 ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. exhibits the highest degree of plasticity, so that, in view of the small amount of argillaceous cement, it is hard to believe that a real plastic clay has been employed." And indeed this is not the case. The substance, like the porcelain-stone that yields it, is unique in the porcelain industry. For analyses III. and IV., I am indebted to Dr. Sarnow. He remarks of paste III. that it is yellowish grey, tolerably plastic, and that it burned white, and is of nearly the same resistibility to heat as the Berlin pulp. The paste of Kiyomidzu shows the same pro- perties. In chemical composition these three materials approach one another, though the Berlin paste is richer in alumina, and correspondingly more resistible in firing. The porcelains of both districts correspond to the near relationship of the Seto substances to that of Kioto. Analyses VI. and VII. are by Laurent, and were, like IX. taken from Kerl's " Handbuch der Thonwaaren- industrie." The large amount of lime and alkali in the Chinese paste IX. renders the porcelain obtained from it very easy to melt, approaching the English paste for soft porcelain substance. 9. Enamel Industry. The Nature and Varieties of Enamel. — Historical Glance at the Development of the Industry in different Countries. — Character of the Chinese and fapanese Cloisonne. — Method of Cellidar Lacquer-tvork Mam if a dure in fapan on Copper, Porcelain, and Stone-ware. — Free Enamel. — Composition and Preparation of fapanese Vitreous Colours. Literature. 1. Theophilus Presbiter : "Schedula diversarum artium." Published by H. Hagen in " Ouellenschriften fur Kunstgeschichte." 7 Band. Wien, 1874. 2. Popelin : " L'art de l'email." Paris, 1868. 3. Burty : " Les Emaux cloisonnes." Paris, 1868. 4. v. Brandt : " Ueber Japanisches email cloisonne." " Mittheil d. deutsch. Ges. Ostasiens." 5 Heft, pp. 1-3, 1874. 5. Bucher : " Geschichte der technischen Kiinste." Stuttgart, 1875. 6. J. L. Bowes: " Japanese Enamels." Liverpool, 1884. 7. G. Audslev : "The Ornamental Arts of Japan." Part III. London, 1885. Enamel, Japanese Shippo, is the name given, first, to an easily fusible glass material coloured by a metal oxide, produced princi- pally on metals, less frequently on clay-wares and glass, either as a protecting covering or for mere decoration, second, the article decorated with enamel. Under the first head the base (the ex- cipient) is evenly covered with enamel of one colour, e.g., in modern times many household articles of cast-iron. Such an enamel cor- responds to the glaze of earthenware, from which it is also difficult to distinguish it in the composition and use. ENAMEL INDUSTRY If the enamel is to serve as decoration merely, it is treated like painting colours. The pulverized mixture of its constituents is ground to a fine paste with water and laid upon the groundwork with a little stick or brush, and then fused at a moderate heat in a small furnace. This enamel decoration is usually executed in several colours, like the polychromatic painting of clay-wares. As the enamel colours may be both opaque and transparent, they furnish a very rich palette which makes it possible to imitate the appearance of several ornamental stones, thus giving rise to the Japanese name Shippo, for enamel, and Shippo-yaki for enamelled metallic vessels. 1 Enamel decoration is an art which has been practised by many civilized people in ancient as well as in modern times, and in which the Japanese especially show marvellous skill. While other nations, especially the Chinese, have contented themselves with decorating metals only in this way, the Japanese have succeeded with equally good results in using it on hard-burned clay-ware (porcelain and Faience). But before I describe more closely the manner in which the Japanese produce their enamel, I will make some general observations on the varieties of enamel and its introduction. The several processes of enamel decoration are grouped in two classes : I. Bound enamel, also called incrusted or imbedded enamel. This is a mosaic work in which the single enamel colours and con- stituents of the decoration are separated from each other by a narrow metal band. In its manufacture a network of metallic cells is made on the foundation, either by casting, hollowing out or soldering, which corresponds to the contour of the single parts of the picture. The cells are then filled, either entirely or partly, with the several enamel colours, and then comes the fusing or burning, in which the thin cell walls prevent the overflow of the different enamel colours ; and after being rubbed down make the contour of the different parts of the enamel picture sharply dis- tinct. This bound enamel is again divided into : a. Cell enamel, or cloisonne enamel (incrusted enamel), in which the cells are formed separately of narrow metal bands correspond- ing to the pattern of the decoration, and then soldered to the foundation. b. Pit enamel, or enamel champleve (embedded enamel). In this variety the cell walls are parts of the groundwork itself, and are produced, like the enclosed hollows, by casting or carving out. In both these varieties of enamel the fused colours fill up the cells completely after the rubbing and polishing, so that the deco- 1 Shippo-yaki signifies "The Lurried ware of the seven costly things" (Shippo, see p. 424), because gold, silver, lapis-lazuli, coral, agate, rock crystal, and pearls are imitated to a certain degree and can be combined in this kind of cell-enamellinsr. 49° ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. rations lie in an even surface. On this account it is also called surface or smooth enamel, an expression which is employed by the Russians especially for this kind of product. Another kind of cell enamel is made in Moscow, and there only, viz. : — c. The so-called filigree enamel is called by the Russians Filo- granuije enamel or Soskanju enamel, i.e. literally "enamel with twisted thread." It differs from the smooth enamel in this, that only the bottom of the cells is covered with the enamel colours and the cloisons or cell walls stand out in relief. 2. Free enamel is laid on with the brush, not in cells but upon the smooth metallic surface. It is distinguished as painted enamel (email de peintre) or Limoges, after the city in which it was principally employed in the 15th and 16th centuries with remark- able effect, and as translucent (email translucide), raised, or high enamel (opera di basso rilievo). The ornamentation, which is formed by the embossing and cutting of the metal foundation itself, or by means of a putty in surface relief, is painted with transparent enamel colours, so that the lustrous metallic ground- work is seen through the crust of enamel. The origin of fiat enamel, with which we have principally to do, belongs to a period before the Christian era. The old Egyptians filled gold cells with polished costly stones or glass, and I saw in 1878, in the Musee de Cluny at Paris, a piece of bronze bearing the number 3510 (a clasp) which was similarly treated. It was about five or six centimeters long and broad, with dice-shaped hollows filled out with polished coloured stones. Whether it was really of Celtic origin, as the label stated, or was made rather by the Romans, is of no consequence here. It is certain that the next step was to fill these cells with enamel colours instead of coloured stones or pieces of glass. Articles decorated with Cloisonne enamel in ancient times are infrequent and usually small. The groundwork was almost always of embossed gold or silver. The cells were small strips of gold soldered in. Pit enamel soon followed. In the flourishing period of the Eastern Empire, especially at the time of Justinian, who was able to use his great wealth to gratify his taste for magnificence in churches and castles, weapons and armours, Byzantine enamel (cell and pit enamel) was brought to its highest development in Con- stantinople. It is not known whether the Byzantines discovered the art or learned it from the orientals ; the assumption that it came from the Chinese, on the other hand, is entirely unfounded and erroneous. It gained entrance to Western Europe and firm foundation undoubtedly by means of the crusades. Its greatest display was in the 13th and 14th centuries, as can be readily seen by its products in the art collections of many old Catholic churches, for example, in the cathedral at Aix-la-Chapelle. De- coration with precious stones, some of which stand out above the enamel, was combined with the electrum, as enamel was called ENAMEL INDUSTRY. during the middle ages, as Theophilus 1 has stated and is shown by numerous examples. Enamelled reliquary shrines were especially popular, and not only these but coffins, altars, crucifixes, censers, and other ecclesiastical vessels were decorated with pit enamel, also weapons, girdles, and all kinds of ornamental articles. Instead of precious metals for the foundation, they gradually employed the cheaper copper, on whose polished surface the decorations were sketched and then hollowed out with the graver's burin. It was not till some time later that this work was materially lightened by first casting and then engraving. Pit enamel on copper, like cell enamel on precious metal, made the decoration of large surfaces possible in an entirely different manner, and was predominant in Europe, while Cloisonne enamel found its chief employment in China and Japan. German inhabitants of Lorraine introduced pit enamel into Paris. Thence it passed down in the 12th century to Limoges, where it had an extremely flourishing existence. But as in the 15th century the art declined in the favour of the public, the Limoges enamel, or enamel painting of Limoges, in which the art of enamelling in general has shown its greatest accomplishments, began to be developed. In the 17th century the still flourishing Faience industry succeeded this enamel painting in Limoges, and was joined in the iSth century by the porcelain industry. The art of decorating metallic objects with surface enamel, and especially pit enamel, gradually disappeared in Europe towards the end of the Middle Ages, without entirely dying out. Its first revival occurred in the 17th century at the "time of the Patriarchs and Czars," in Moscow, through the influence of Greek masters. Bishops' caps, crucifixes, sceptres, imperial globes with their crosses, shields, swords, quivers, and many other articles were decorated with stones and enamel. But this enamel shows, like modern European cell enamel generally, much more brilliant colours. The cause lies undoubtedly in a difference in process. While in former times, and in Japan and China until within a very few years, the colours were mixed with the other constituents of the cell enamel and combined in the cells or pits by heat to a glassy paste, pieces of coloured glass are now employed. They are thoroughly pulverized and then ground with water to a fine paste with which the cells are filled and again fused. This produces the easier and more perfect filling of the cells, and no less the higher brilliancy of the modern work. They are manufactured in Moscow principally, by the firms Hlebnikow, Ovtschinnekow and Sazikow, though in St. Petersburg also. These Russian productions, with all their magnificence, however, lack often the correct taste in com- bination of the colours which so distinguishes the works of Ravene 1 Theophilus, or Rugerus, who lived during the middle of the nth century, gives in his manuscripts " Diversarum artium schedula," the first description of the manufacture of Cloisonne enamel. 492 ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. in Berlin, and Barbedienne in Paris. These costly articles with pit enamel are seldom seen in Germany. The deceased L. Ravene was the first and only one who endeavoured to found this industry in Germany. His manufacture of smaller articles, like brooches and cuff buttons, was all that found sufficient support, while for larger productions, in spite of their marvellous execution, there was no sufficient appreciation, and on the other hand facilities for making them were wanting. Barbedienne in Paris had a much better field for his work. Twenty years ago, when the first larger articles of Cloisonne enamel came from Japan, he endeavoured to imitate them. Several other bronze manufacturers, like Christofle, followed his example. They soon succeeded in decorating vases, plate, and other articles, with cell enamel as beautifully as the Chinese and Japanese, but with such an expenditure of time and money as made competition with Eastern Asia impossible. It has never been exactly determined how long the art of enamelling was practised by the Chinese, nor when it was com- municated by them to the Japanese, but it seems scarcely doubtful that it was not known in either of these countries before the inven- tion or introduction of the porcelain industry. After the sacking of the treasures in the Summer Palace at Pekin in 1859, tne French brought to Paris, among other art treasures, some Cloisonne enamel on copper, consisting of pieces with inscriptions and marks which left no doubt as to their origin in the time of the Ming dynasty ( 1 368-1645 A.D.). No older specimens of enamel have been received irom China. According to Japanese statements whose correctness we have no reason to doubt, the art of manufacturing Shippo-yaki was introduced into Japan near the close of the 16th century by Hirato Hikoshiro, and established itself at Nagoya in Owari, where it still has its principal seat. The industry is carried on there and in several neighbouring places, among them in Toshima, 3 ri west of Nagoya, in about thirty houses, generally as a small trade. About twenty or thirty years ago it was also established in Kioto, Osaka, Tokio, and Yokohama. Here they have not stopped with enamelling copper vessels, but the process has been successfully extended to porcelain (Toki). Nagoya consequently furnishes now- a-days Toki-shippo, as well as Shippo-yaki, i.e. Cloisonne enamel on porcelain and copper. Still another peculiar kind of decoration is seen in the products from Seto, especially on flower vases, bearing the name Shippo-urushi. The surface to be decorated is covered with a network of brass cells, which are filled not with enamel colours but with the groundwork material of the lacquer industry, and finally painted over with lacquer colours. Thirty years ago Japanese enamel was not at all known in Europe and was not to be found in any of the old collections with the Japanese lacquer ware, bronzes, and porcelain. The reason of ENAMEL INDUSTRY. 493 this may be that Shippo-yaki was not manufactured on the island of Kiushiu and even in these days is seldom to be had there, even in Nagasaki. Although the Chinese also make email champleve, the Japan- ese have not followed them. Their older Cloisonne enamel is quite as dull in colour as the Chinese, but amateurs of both give the Japanese the credit of a bolder design and better execution. The Chinese began also earlier to give brighter colours to their cell enamel. Do the duller enamel colours of both nations correspond to the taste — a better taste in the opinion of many — and did they have their origin in this, or were these colours only a natural con- sequence of the process of manufacture? European connoisseurs and collectors of these old enamels are generally inclined to take the first view, but on closer investigation of the earlier processes of manufacture the cause seems to be found in that alone. The older Japanese Shippo-yaki has a foundation of thin em- bossed copper, and for cloisons it has thin brass bands like those used at present, some of which were made probably by beating or by the rolling of brass wire. Azure blue, yellowish green, and a dirty white are its most common colours, but a Turkish blue ground is generally used. In the newer work the groundwork is thicker and the colours used seem far more abundant and brilliant, besides filling up the cells much more evenly and perfectly. The process of the manufacture of Japanese Cloisonne enamel is, as I had the opportunity to observe, everywhere essentially the same. That of a factory at Ota, near Yokohama, where fifteen years ago fifty persons were employed to apply the cell enamel to vases, tea boxes, fiat plates, dishes, and several other copper articles, will serve as an example for all. The prepared dishes are provided with a brass edge folding over the top towards the inner and outer side, and with a brass rim soldered on at the foot. The decorations are sketched, generally after patterns, with a white-lead varnish. The workman then covers the pattern with a transparent pane of glass and places on it the cells, which represent the contours of parts of flowers, leaves, feathers, etc., or even of figures. These cells are to serve as the ornament for the entire surface, and correspond exactly to the picture pattern, with their narrow strips of brass, which are either cast or bent by the workman, as he requires them, with a pair of wire pincers. In the latter case, they must have been heated beforehand, in order to take off their elasticity. When he has placed the figures — e.g. a flower or a net of meshes — together in this way, the metal strips naturally stand upon their narrow edge, and are then applied to the corresponding design on the article to be enamelled. The Biyaku-gu, or bulb of an orchid called Shuran l (Bletia hyacintJiina, R. Br.), furnishes the cement for 1 I found this species of orchid, known by its splendid red flowers, in great abundance in Southern Japan on a bare hillside. It was introduced in 1S02 494 ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. fastening them, a sort of salep-glue. It is ground down upon a rough sharkskin (Same-no-kawa), and made into a thick pasty fluid with boiling water. It is then laid on with a brush in the designated places, and the cell walls are placed upon it. When dry they adhere so firmly to the groundwork that the workmen can now proceed to the melting of the solder. This R6 (solder) is a grey substance made by melting together 8 parts of brass, 7 parts of tin, and 10 parts of zinc. When it is to be used, 10 parts of this pulverized alloy are taken with 3 parts of borax, and enough water is added to make a pulpy paste, with which the groundwork is coated at the places where the cloisons come in contact with it. The article is then heated over a moderate coal fire, so that the solder soon melts. When cooled, the cell walls are firmly fixed, and are now ready for the soft enamel colours. 1 The solder (R6) which is used for Awata ware in Kioto con- tains 6 parts of brass (Shinshiu), 3 parts of zinc (Totan), and 10 parts of borax (Hosha). When the metals have melted together, the still hot alloy is placed in a stone mortar, pulverized, mixed with borax, and then ground with water to a paste which can be laid on with the brush. The article designed for enamelling, and provided with firmly adhering cells, passes now into the hands of the painters. These are generally women, who sit in a circle around their pots contain- ing different colours. There is usually a thorough division of labour in this work, of such a kind that each person represents one colour. She dips a little staff in the prepared coloured pulp paste and fills one cell with it ; then the second, which should receive the same colour ; and so on. Thereupon the article goes to the hands of the second painter, who proceeds in like manner with her colour ; and thus the work goes on, till all the colours are laid on and all the cells are filled. When the enamel has become as dry as is possible in the open air, its burning follows. The colours shrink considerably, and holes are formed in the enamel, so that there must be a continual filling up of the cells. Then comes the second burning, and afterwards the first rubbing and polishing. The cracks and other hollows in the cells are again filled up and improved, then burnt for the third time, and often a fourth, and once more rubbed and polished. Cracks and holes which still appear are often filled and painted over with R6 (vegetable tallow), a deceit which should be avoided. The older Chinese and Japanese enamels show these imperfections in great number, especially the into England, and appears to be identical with Epidendrum tuberosum, Lour. (Lour. " Flora cochin-chinensis," p. 639), concerning which the author states that it is cultivated in the gardens of China and Cochin China. 1 Enamel workmen in Nagoya assured me that they did not use any R6, but filled in the enamel colours as soon as the cells had been fastened down with Biyaku-gu. ENAMEL INDUSTRY. 495 holes. They appear almost as a necessary attribute of the entire character of the work. The burning in of the enamel colour is accomplished in a manner similar to that of the colours on clay-ware, in a simple apparatus not very well suited to the purpose, which may be described as a muffle without a furnace. Fig. 20 gives an illustra- tion of such a one as was used at Awata in Kioto some fifteen years ago. The muffle is made of Kawarake, or brick-paste. Its size depends on that of the objects to be enamelled. In this case it was only \$\ Japanese inches (50 centimeters) high, and \2\ inches (38 centimeters) broad. The hole in the cover, 5 or 6 centimeters wide, is used for testing. The muffle usually admits only one article decorated with enamel colours. There are no special conditions in regard to fuel ; charcoal or carbonized wood is placed around the muffle, and heaped up to the top, and then kept tight together with iron wire. The cover is put on with a long pair of tongs when the flames have reached the upper edge. The fire is generally kept up for two hours, and removed quickly as soon as the test shows a perfect fusing of the enamel colours. The cover, however, for reasons easily understood, must not be taken off till after a sufficient cooling. The same substances which are used for the purpose in the lacquer industry serve for rubbing and polishing the cell enamel-work, viz., coarse and fine sandstone, slate, and magnolia charcoal, after the second, third, or fourth burning, with ashes of hartshorn and rape oil for polishing. 1 Substantially the same process is followed in the manufacture of Toki-shippo, or email cloisonne on porcelain, in Nagoya and Kioto, and of Awata- shippo or on Awata-yaki in Kioto, as in Shippo-yaki. Those parts of the clay-wares under consideration which are to be decorated with cloisonne enamel must remain unglazed. The others are treated in the usual way, i.e. with strong fire colours under glaze and with muffle colours on the glaze. When this is done, the net of brass cells, i.e. the contour of the leaves, flowers, and fruits, of animals, and the other several constituent parts of the meander and other figures — in short, of all the single elements Fig. 20. — MUFFLE FOR BURNING IN OF ENAiMEL COLOURS. 1 The order in which the above-mentioned polishing materials are usually- employed is as follows : 1. Ara-to, a coarse-grained grey sandstone from Shinano ; 2. Iyo-to, a sandstone from Iyo ; 3. Omura-do, a fine-grained white sandstone from Omura in Hizen ; 4. Joken-ji, a yellowish clay sandstone ; 5. Tsu-shima-ishi, a slate whetstone from the island of Tsu ; 6. H6-no-ai-sumi, magnolia charcoal. ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. which are to make the whole enamel decoration, is then placed in the same as upon copper. The contour of these cloisons is sketched beforehand with Indian ink. For fastening the thick pasty glue made from the butbs of Bletia hyacinthina is used, but no solder or Ro. When the cement is dry the cells are filled with the pulpy enamel colours, as in other cases. In this case also the single air-dried colours are not fused separately, but all at one time, and practice and experience have shown how to prepare the mixtures by a number of different fluxes, so that the fusing of all becomes possible in the same degree of heat On account of the shrinkage of the enamel in burning and the escape of air bubbles, cracks, holes and hollows appear, which must be filled up. Then follows a second burning, then the first polishing, another filling up, and a third burning, to which often a fourth is In Awata-yaki polychromatic painting is combined in a very effective manner with the decoration by means of many-coloured cell enameL Those parts of the article which are destined for the latter form sharply defined medallions of various figure and size, which lie usually about one millimeter below the surface. This kind of decoration is copied on the copper basin seen in Plate XXIV., but changed as required by the composition of the ground- work. We see there a medallion which is surrounded or framed in by a large, thick-walled brass cell, and filled with white enamel. The decorator has then applied green and blue muffle colours and gold to the coloured picture on this enamelled groundwork, and the whole has been burned in. Here too the application of the enamel must have preceded the ornamentation of the medallion with the pseony and flying butterfly. Nagoya was not only the first to develop the cell enamel on copper, but some twenty years ago was in advance of Kioto in transferring the process to crockery. Porcelain vases from Seto were here decorated in another peculiar way which is known as Muri-shippo or Shippd-urushi. It is a peculiar form of ornament- ing clay-wares by lacquer painting. A net of brass cells is placed on the surface, the same as in Toki-shippo, but the cement used is not Biyaku-gu, but rather a mixture of paste with Seshime-urushi. Instead of enamel colours for filling the cells, the well-known groundwork materials of lacquer work are used, a paste made of Tonoko and water ; and then the Sabi or Tonoko is mixed with Seshime. When dry, the article is polished with sandstone, the Omura-do, and then receives a coating of Seshime and Ro-iro- urushi as the final process of the groundwork. The further deco- ration and treatment answers entirely to that of the lacquering of other articles. Naturally the polishing must be continued each time till the brass cells appear on the surface, which excludes the employment of raised lacquer work. A free enamel painting is also employed in Japan with the best Rein, Japan. II. Plate XXIV Copper Vessel with Email cloissonne' and painting. Wilhelm Engelmann, Leipzig. ENAMEL INDUSTRY. 497 results. In clay-wares this is often combined with the common decoration, and thereby pictures of flowers, butterflies, birds, and other objects are produced, which are burned in with the muffle colours, and then appear as surface reliefs. This fine addition to the porcelain and Faience painting has been employed for a long time with cobalt enamel on Seto-mono, and with several other enamel colours on Banko-yaki and Awata-yaki. In Awatashippo it heightens the charm of the many-coloured pictures which adorn the above mentioned sunken medallions. Cast-iron vessels also, particularly water-kettles, have been painted for the last fifteen years with opaque enamel colours at Kanazawa, the industrial capital of Kaga. The Royal Industrial Art Museum at Berlin has several fine specimens of this peculiar and highly pleasing relief decoration. They are cast-iron kettles and pans made by the Sano Nobuteri in Kanazawa, the inventor of this peculiar kind of enamelling. Since 1875, Japan has made great technical progress in enamel industry, as well as in the working and decoration of metals, and has successfully overcome a number of difficulties with astonishing skill. While the enamel colours were formerly used together in the cells with their accessories, they are now treated more and more after the European manner, and coloured glass flux is used instead of pulverized mineral colours. This coloured glass is stamped fine and, with the addition of water, ground to a fine paste; the cells are then filled and it is again fused. In this way much purer and more brilliant colours are obtained than was possible formerly. In order to preserve the lustre it is necessary that the last enamel colour, applied as a thin coating after the burning, should not be further polished. The employment and shading of transparent enamel, and the gradual toning of one enamel colour into another, e.g. from sky blue to evening red, are undoubtedly among the most progressive steps in this department. As in the inlaying of cast-iron vases and plates, so also in this enamel work, the decoration of the open spaces which surround the many- coloured pictures of cell enamel on the medallions, geometrical figures, the Buddhist cross cramponee, the Greek fret, and other straight-lined elements of decoration which are formed with thin brass strips and filled with an enamel colour, are used in pre- ference. Enamel pictures of uniform enamel covering and blue or white colour are seen much oftener without a framing of all the cells. The criticisms on the new works differ very widely in regard to their artistic quality. Wherever the taste has been formed by the dull but harmonious colouring of the older Japanese cell enamel a departure from the old methods is observed with regret, and the modern efforts are held in smaller estimation. They are regarded as degenerate specimens, and one misses the old force in the com- position, the delicacy in colour, and the care in execution. On the II. K K 498 ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. other hand, and especially in Germany, the modern enamel works of the Japanese, such as were brought forward in the Exhibition at Nuremberg, in 1885, have met with the greatest approval among those no less competent to judge. The drawing, grouping, and colouring, and especially the perfect harmony in the many colours of the enamel, are particularly admired. 1 Supplement. Composition and Preparation of Japanese Colours. The enamel colours which are used by the Japanese are the same as those employed in the painting of clay-wares. With the excep- tion of red oxide of iron, white-lead, verdigris, and blue vitriol, and several fluxes, all these colours are imported from Europe. Beni- gara, ferric oxide, is used to produce red, brown, and dark shades of colour. Murasaki, i.e. violet, is obtained from peroxide of man- ganese ; Kon-jo or blue, from T6-gosu, cobalt oxide, and from Gosu (an impure cobalt oxide containing manganese, from Asbolan), Kuro-gosu, or Ao-gosu (mixture of cobalt oxide and peroxide of manganese), or Hana-kon-jo (smalt blue). Roku-sho (Do-sei or verdigris) is used for the green colour, also chloritic oxide of copper and malachite, which bear the same names, and oxide of copper, while chromic oxide was, at least formerly, un- known, and was used as little as other chromic compositions. Those already mentioned, and other copper combinations in pow- der form were called also Awo-ko, green (blue) powder, and Daikon (radish green). Yellow is obtained from T6-shirome or antimony, likewise brown. Bowes 2 had the colourless ground material of Japanese cell enamel analyzed by Dupre. The composition was found to be as follows : — Lead oxide ... Lime ... Magnesia Soda ... Silicic acid ... Therefore, essentially, it would be a lead-glaze, — not an un- common thing in glazes. And from this we see why they use Y6-no-tsuchi (white-lead), called also Haku-fun, white powder ; and Shiratama, or pulverized lead-glaze, in almost all their vitrifi- 1 See L. Gmelin : " Internationale Ausstellung von Arbeiten aus edlen Metallen und Legierungen in Niirnberg in Jahre 1885." " Zeitschrift des Kunst- gewerbevereins zu Miinchen," 1885, p. 91. 3 See Bowes : "Japanese Enamels," p. 15. • •• 37'i5 per cent. ... 4'92 >) 0*90 ;■> ... 5-19 i> ... 51-84 jj ioo - oo per cent ENAMEL IXD US TR Y. 499 able pigments. Hino-oka or Keisan, a silicic earth, is also often used, besides, but more seldom, Hosha or borax, and Yd-tsuchi, a sort of kaolin. Dupre analysed red and green enamel pastes also, and found them composed of the following materials : — Green. Red. Copper oxide 6"i4 per cent. Ferric oxide 8-62 pei cent Lead oxide •• 34^9 „ Lead oxide 33'93 >? Lime 4 '62 „ Lime ... 4-49 >5 Magnesia... •• 0-84 „ .Magnesia ... 0-82 J) Soda ... 4-82 „ Soda ... 478 )> Silicic acid ... 48-69 „ Silicic acid ••• 47 - 36 >1 icxroo per cent. IOO'OO pCi cent The following recipes were formerly used in Nagoya for making dull enamel colours : — 1. White (Shiro) 2. Dark blue (Konjo) ... 3. Light blue (Awo) ... 4. Light blue (Usu-awo) 5. Rape-green (Na-iro) 6. Yellow (Ki-iro) 7. Dark violet (Usu-kon) 8. Red (Aka) 9. Brown (Cha-iro) Shiratama .. 5 p T6-no-tsuchi ... 3 Hino-oka 3 Shiratama ... 5 T6-no-tsuchi ... 3 Hino-oka ... iA Kon-jd ... 4 (Cobalt oxide) Shiratama ... S T6-no-tsuchi ... ... 12 Daikon .. 25 Awo-ko .. 30 Shiratama .. 20 T6-no-tsuchi ... 12 Hino-oka .. 8 Awo-ko •• 7 Shiratama .. 12 T6-no-tsuchi ... •• 5 Hino-oka 2 Awo-ko 2 Daikon .. 20 Shiratama .. 6 T6-no-tsuchi ... .. 4 Hino-oka 2 T6-shirome .. 0-15 Shiratama .. 100 T6-no-tsuchi ... .. 30 Kon-jo 12 Shiratama .. 40 T6-no-tsuchi ... .. 20 Hino-oka .. 25 Benigara .. 10 Shiratama .. 6 T6-no-tsuchi ... T6-shirome ... o - r Kei-san •• °'5 ART INDUSTRY AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS. 10. Grey (Xedzumi) ... Shiratama ... 47 parts. T6-no-tsuchi ... 5 » Murasaki-ko ... ... 5 -8 , ; ii. Black (Kuro) ... Shiratama • •• 5 Awo • •• 5 Kon-jo • •• 3 Keisan ... rq „ TRADE AND COMMERCE. IV. TRADE AND COMMERCE. Literature. i. E. Kaempfer: " Geschichte unci Beschreibung von Japan." Herausgegeben von Dohm. II. Band. Lemgo, 1779. 2. C. P. Thunberg : " Resa uti Europa, Africa, Asia. 1770-1779." Tredje- delen, pp. 47-129. Upsala, 1788. 3. P. v. Siebold : " Nippon," Archiv, etc. VI. p. 36. 4. G. F. Meijlan : " Geschiedkundig Overzigt van den Handel der Europezen op Japan." Batav. Genootsch. van Kunsten en Wetensch. Bd. 14. Batavia, 1832. 5. Antonio de Morga : " The Philippine Islands, Moluccas, Siam, Cambodia, Japan, and China at the close of the sixteenth century." Translated by the Hakluyt Society. London, 1869. 6. " Memorials of the Empire of Japan." By Th. Rundal. Hakluyt Soc. Lond., 1850. 7. " Diary of R. Cocks." By E. M. Thompson. Hakluyt Soc. London, 1883. 8. E. Satow : "Notes on the Intercourse between Japan and Siam in the Seventeenth Century." Transact. As. Soc. of Japan. Vol. XIII. p. 139. 9. G. Wagencr : " Geschichtliches iiber Maass- und Gewichtssysteme in China und Japan." Mitth. d. deutschen Gesellsch. Ostasiens. 12 Heft, p. 35. to. J. Scriba : " Bemerkungen iiber japanische Gold- und Silbermiinzen." Mitth. d. deutsch. Ges. Ostasiens. 29 Heft, p. 392. 11. German, English, and United States Consular Reports. 12. Commercial Reports, published by the Board of Trade. Tokio, 1S83, 1884, 1SS5. i. Coins, Measures, and Weights. a. — Money, Kane or Kinsu ; Paper money, Shi-hei and Kin-sats?i ; Bank Notes, Satsu or Gin-ko-satsu. Since 1 871, Japan has had a new system of coinage, whose unit is the Yen, of the same value as a Mexican dollar, or about four shillings. 1 Yen = 100 Sen, 1 Sen = 10 Rin. The following kinds of money are coined : — a. Copper Coins (Aka gane). 1. Ichi Rin, 1 Rin piece. 2. Go „ 5 „ „ 3. Ichi Sen, 1 Sen „ 4- Ni „ 2 „ „ b. Silver Coins. 5- 6. 7. a. 9- Go Sen, 5 Sen piece. Ju „ 10 „ „ Ni-ju „ 20 „ „ Go-ju„ 50 „ „ Ichi Yen, 1 Yen „ 504 TRADE AND COMMERCE. c. Gold Coins. io. Ichi Yen, i Yen piece. 11. Ni „ 2 „ 12. Yo „ 5 „ „ 13. Ju „ IO ,, „ 14. Mi-ju „ 20 „ „ The Imperial mint in Osaka, from which this money is issued, was among the first and best innovations which were made .soon after the deposition of the Shogunate. It was built under the very- capable direction of an Englishman, Major T. W. Kinder, arranged after English model, and opened on the 4th of August, 1871. The European patterns were closely followed in the circular form of the new coins. The impressions are not at all behind those of the best European coins in respect to clearness and other requirements. They are bordered and milled, and show on both sides the various emblems and arms of the country, viz., the rising sun, the chrysan- themum blossom, the Kiri- and the Awoi-mon (see vol. i. p. 317), the dragon, and the legends in Chinese characters, together with the value, generally in Roman letters and Arabic figures. During the five years, 1870-1875, in which Major Kinder had charge of the institution, 136,885,541 coins, with a value of 62,421,744 Yen, were stamped at the Mint. Kinder conducted also the analysis and refining processes, and united with the Mint a sulphuric acid and nitric acid factory, whereby the further importation of two important requirements of the chemical industry became un- necessary. Paper money, or Kin-satsu, which has been known in Japan since the 14th century, is now issued of the respective values of 10, 20, and 50 Sen, as well as of 1, 2, 5, and more Yen, corre- sponding to the several gold coins. This was effected by means of lithographs from Dondorf's establishment in Frankfort-on-the-Main, which had for a while turned out satisfactorily the new Kin-satsu. Besides the national treasury notes, the Government allowed paper money to be issued by many of the banks that sprang into existence about this time. Until 1870, there were in use Zeni (Sen), or small coins made of iron, copper, bronze ; Gin-su or silver pieces, and Kin-ka or gold pieces, besides various paper bills ; all differing in shape and ap- pearance from one another, and from the coins used at the present time. There were pieces : — a. Of Iron (Tetsu). 1. Ichi Mon, 1 Mon = 001 Sen or about 0*004 pence. 2. Shi „ 4 „ = 0-04 „ „ 0-008 „ b. Of Bronze (Kara-kane) or Copper (Aka-gane). 3. Ju Mon, 10 Mon = o - io Sen, or about 0*04 pence. 4- Ju-go „ 15 ?> = 0-15 15 11 o"o6 5. Ni-ju „ 20 >> = 0'20 11 11 0-08 COINS, MEASURES, AND WEIGHTS. 505 c. Of Bronze (Kara-kane). 6. Ichi Tempo, 80 Mon = ySo Sen, or about 032 pence. All these small coins had a square hole in the centre, through which a cord could be drawn, so that large numbers, according to trade requirements, could be easily strung together, packed, and carried. They were circular, except the Tempo, 1 which was oval. The iron pieces were withdrawn from circulation in 1873 ; the oval Tempo not till 1885. The government had them melted for canon. Some of the round bronze and copper coins, however, are still in circulation. Of special frequency among these round bronze coins are the co-called Nami-sen or wave-coins, worth 20 Mon or 2 Rin, and the Bun-kiju-sen, of the period 186 1-63, worth 15 Mon or i-J- Rin. Most of the iron 10 Mon pieces now in existence date from the period Kuwan-yei (1624-1643). The silver pieces that were coined in different periods (Nengo) of the Tokugawa dynasty (1600-186S), mostly containing but little copper, and of very unequal weight, have the shape of little rectangular tablets or bars. These are pieces of: — 1. I'-shu (Ishu-gin), 1 Shu, worth 7 - 4-i7 - 4 Sen. 2. Ni-shu (Ni-shu-gin), 1 Bu, worth 2c/6-46 - 5 Sen. 3. Ichi-bu (Ichi-bu-gin), 1 Bu, worth 3177-347 Sen. Towards the end of the Shogunate the relations of weight and values were more regular. These were : — 1. I'-shu, 1 Shu pieces, at 6*25 Sen. 2. Ni-shu, 2 Shu „ „ i2 - 5o ,, 3. Ichi-bu, 1 Bu, „ „ 25-00 „ To these were added, as money of account : — 4. Ni-bu, 2 Bu, at 50^00 Sen. 5. lchi-riu,- 1 Rio, „ 100 „ Besides the three first-mentioned old stamped silver coins, for which there were corresponding paper notes, silver pieces were also in circulation of divers shapes and sizes, named Ita-gin, Cho- gin, etc., according as they had the form of little bars, rounded lumps, etc. They bore the stamp of the Nengo in which they were minted. They contained only a little copper, and were weighed in the presence of the purchaser and reckoned according to an established scale of value. The older gold pieces are especially interesting. The larger ones were in the shape of oval tablets, known as O-ban, Ko-ban, and Nibu-ban, while the smaller had the rectangular form of the silver 1 The name Tem-po refers to the period of 1S30-1843, in which the larger and heavy coins were struck. - Rio (Riyo), Bu (Bun), and Shu are originally Chinese terms of weight (see apothecaries' weight). One Rio (Riyo) is a weight of 4 Momme or 13,026,084 grammes. 506 TRADE AND COMMERCE. Shu and Bu. An Oban should weigh about 44 Mon-me (pro- nounce Momme), and contain 10 Rio, =40 M on me, of pure gold. The Koban should have the tenth part of this weight and amount of gold, and the Ni-bu-ban the twentieth part. As a matter of fact, however, these coins from the different periods of the Shogunate of the Tokugawa are of extraordinary diversity in weight, value, and amount of gold contained ; to such an extent, indeed, that an Oban of the period Keicho (1596-1614), for instance, contained 67*2 per cent, of gold and only 294 per cent, of silver, and while weighing 44*059 Momme, was worth 75 Yen ; while the Genroku-Oban (Oban from the period Genroku, 1695-1716), which is almost as heavy (its weight being 43'95 Momme), is worth only 59*27 Yen, with 52*11 percent, of gold and 44'84 per cent, of silver, and the Ansei-Oban from the period 1 859-1 862, weighing 30 Momme, has a value of only 28*266 Yen, with 34*35 per cent, of gold and 63*92 per cent, of silver, corre- sponding to 41*46 Yen for the same weight of 44 Momme. The same thing is true of the Ko-ban of different Nengo. Their weight varied between 473 Momme and 2*293 Momme ; their proportion of gold between 86 7 per cent, and 55*94 per cent. ; their value between 10*115 Yen and 1*30 Yen. In order to free the gold from the large quantities of silver generally united to it, the Japanese always used to employ common salt, with which they melted up the alloy obtained in working the ore. The gold thus purified was called Yaki-kin, i.e. burnt or roasted gold (see p. 370). It corresponds very nearly to our ducat- gold. The supposition being that an Oban of such Yaki-kin was 44 Momme of pure gold, the number 44 was written on the coins with bright black lacquer colour, and they were regarded as the standard for the Oban that were richer in silver. They were marked with the numbers succeeding 44, beside the proper Nengo, in such a way that, for example, the number 45 indicated 44 parts of gold to one part silver ; the number 46 showing 44 parts gold and two parts silver, etc. The estimation of gold as shown by its value compared with silver during the long period when the country was closed is very noticeable. According to a decree of the Nobunaga, about the 15th century, 44 Momme of gold should be given for 420 Momme of silver, i.e. one part gold for 9^ parts silver. In 1765 this pro- portion was changed to 1 : 11*35. On the other hand, according to Scherzer, 1 when the country was opened to commerce, in 1855-60, the price was based upon a valuation of the two metals in the relation of 1 : 4*6, since the above-mentioned gold-piece was worth \%\ shillings in London, while in Japan, e.g., at Kanagawa (Yoko- hama), it could be exchanged for 4 Bu of silver as late as the year 1858. The natural consequence was that gold coins became an extremely profitable, and hence much sought, article of ex- 1 Scherzer : "Deutsch-CEsterr. Expedition," etc., p. 456. COINS, MEASURES, AND WEIGHTS. 507 portation, and in the case of the Ko-ban the price gradually ran up to 8 Bu. In order now to prevent the rapid withdrawal of gold, the government fixed the value of the Ko-ban at 14 Bu, i.e. above its real worth in Europe. A return of O-ban and Ko-ban to the national treasury now took place, in so far as they were not melted down in foreign countries ; hence there was a further loss for Japan. To prevent this, new Ko-ban were at last issued, in i860, corresponding to the current relative value of gold and silver. b. — Measures and Weights. 1. Measure of length. Its unit is the foot, Shaku or Kane-shaku = 0-30303™ 1 J6=io Shaku=ioo Sun (inches) = 1000 Bu (lines) = 1,000 Riu (strokes) = 100,000 Mo. 6 Shaku =1 Ken = r8i8i8 m = 1 fathom (about), (1 m. = 3' 3" Jap.). 2. Measure of distance. The unit is the Japanese mile or 1 Ri = 3927'27 m - (1 geogr. mile =r886 Ri; 28-29 Ri=i degree; 1 Ri = 244 English miles). The Chinese mile or Li contains only 447"i9 m = 0*06 geogr. miles. Accordingly 1 Ri = 8782 Li. 1 Ri=36 Ch6=2i6o Ken= 12,960 Shaku. I „ = 60 „ = 360 „ l . ". = 6 " 1 Shaku=ii"9 English inches. 3. Cloth measure. The unit Shaku or Kujira-shoku, i.e. fishbone- foot^ ij- Kane Shaku = o - 3787878 m ; accordingly 1 m. = 2 - 74 Kujira-shaku. The smaller denominations are the same as in the common measure of length. One Tan or piece is 26 and more Shaku long. One Hiki = 2 tan of silk stuff", measures 52 Shaku. 4. Field measure. The unit is called Tsubo and is equal to 3*305785 square metres. I Ch6=io Tan=ioo Se=3,ooo Tsubo=i 10,800 sq. Shaku. ; „ = 10 „ = 300 „ = 10,800 „ „ I m = 3° „ = 1,080 „ „ 1 „ = 36 ,, 1 Cho=:99i7'355 sq. m.=i Hectare nearly ; more exactly 120 Cho=H9 Ha. 1 Are=30'25 Tsubo. 1 Ha=3025 Tsubo. 1 Tatami or Japanese foot-mat=3 x6 Shaku=i Tsubo. A single rice-field is generally 1 Tan=i5 X20 Tsubo. 5. Measure of Capacity. For its unit is taken the Sho= 1 '803907 liters. 1 Koku=io To=ioo Sho= 1,000 Go= 10,000 Shaku. I » = 10 „ = 100 „ = 1,000 „ I » = 10 „ = 100 „ 1 „ = 10 „ Hence 5 Sho=9 liters. 1 Because it was made from fish-bone. 5o8 TRADE AND COMMERCE. The Go contains therefore 180 cm. ; the Koku, which is mostly used in measuring grain, while Sho and Go are used for liquids, equals 180 hi. = 5 bushels, reckoning the bushel at 36 liters. The Sho was introduced in the year 1623. Its inner dimensions are 4" o/ / 'x4" 9'" x 2" 7'" Japanese measure. The government ordains that the Go shall be a stout wooden box with a square bottom, its upper edges covered with sheet iron and its cubic con- tents to be 2' 1 x 2*1 X 1 '47 Sun. Only such measures are allowed in business as bear the legal stamp burned into each of their four visible outer faces. 6. Weight. The unit of weight is called Momme (Monme), i.e. the Mon-weight, so designated because the smallest iron coin, Mon, 1 used to be taken as the basis of weight. One Mon-me (pro- nounce Momme) = 37565 12 grammes; hence 1 gr.=0"266204 Momme. The Japanese system of weights based hereupon is as follows : — 1 Kwam-me 2 =io Hiyaku-me=:ioo Ju-me=i,ooo Mon-me= 10,000 Fun= 100,000 Rin=i, 000,000 Mo. 1 Hiyaku-me=io Ju-me=ioo Mon-me=i,ooo Fun=io,ooo Rin=ioo,ooo Mo. 1 Ju-me=io Mon-me=ioo Fun=i,ooo Rin = 10,000 Mo. 1 Mon-me=io Fun=ioo Rin=i,ooo Mo. 1 Fun=io Rin= 100 Mo. 1 Rin=io Mo. The Chinese Pikul=ioo Catties or 1 Hiyak'kin (100 Kin)=6o - io4 kg. ; 10 Pikuls=i Sen-gin (1,000 Kin) =601 "04 kg. 6j Kin=i Kwam-me, 1 Kwam-me=37565i2 kg. A Japanese pound or Kin=i6o Momme=6oi '04336 gr. 10 Kin = 6 - oio4 kg., so that 5 Japanese pounds are to be taken to equal 6 German pounds. The old Chinese subdivision of the pound has kept its place in the apothecaries' weight of Japan. According to it, I Kin = 16 Rio or Riyo, 1 Riyo = 4 Bun or Bu, 1 Bu = 4 Shu. The word Shu designates among the Chinese a sort of Sorghum (Sorghum rubrum), Jap. Kuro-kibi, i.e. "black millet," whose dark brown seeds are somewhat pointed on both sides, and are dis- tinguished for singular uniformity. Such a Shu-grain became, 4,500 years ago in China, the basis not merely of weight, but of all measures in general, even measures of sound. 3 2. Further Means of Intercourse. All kinds of limitations were added to the natural hindrances of commerce under the long dynasty of the Tokugawa. These were imposed by the system of government upon the people, and were 1 To the Mon corresponds the Chinese Tsien, called Mace by foreigners, ioMace=i Tael, 10 Tael=i Catty, 10 Catties=i Pikul. The Chinese Kin or pound went over to the Japanese unaltered, though the latter have another pound of 1 So Momme besides. - Properly Kuwan-me, pronounced Kamme. 3 For further information on this point, see the above cited treatise by G. Wagener, in the " Mittheilungen der deutschen Gesellschaft Ostasiens." FURTHER MEANS OF INTERCOURSE. 509 by no means confined to separation from the outside world. The natural hindrances to commerce are occasioned by the long ex- tended form of the Japanese Empire, and its being split up into many islands, also by its dominating mountainous character and the swelling and overflowing of its numerous rivers during the frequent long rains. The highways, or Do, each one of which connects the provinces of a generally long extent of territory, as e.g. the T6-kai-d6 and the Naka-sen-do, served almost exclusively military and adminis- trative purposes. We must not think of them as well-made high- ways laid out like our own, according to a comprehensive plan, and provided with similar means of conveyance. There are no stretches of macadamized road, and paving is seldom seen, and only in places where the steepness of a particularly important mountain pass makes it necessary, as e.g. on the Hakone pass. For this reason most of the Japanese country highways are utterly useless for heavy conveyances in rainy weather. They are not intended for this purpose. Since heavy wagons were not used — indeed, were wholly unknown — and even the Chinese wheelbarrow was only exceptionally seen, people either walked or rode in sedan- chairs, luggage and merchandise was carried almost exclusively by bearers or beasts of burden (horses or oxen) 1 till modern times, the requirements for a solid foundation and greater weight did not exist. Even now, except the numerous Jin-riki-shas, 3 a few coaches which travel the better roads from Tokio to Odawara, Takasaki and Utsunomiya, and some heavy carts, no conveyances are to be seen on the Japanese roads. The road has a varying width ; is sometimes narrowed to a simple path, and at others ten or more meters broad. The cross- ing of the rivers is provided for by bridges and ferries, but at the time of long, heavy rains the road is often obstructed for days. The oldest and best known country roads of Japan are those which connect Kioto with Tokio, the T6-kai-do, i.e. " East Sea Road/' which passes along in the vicinity of the sea, and the Naka-sen-do, " the street between the mountains," through the interior of Hondo. The former is 125 Ri long, the latter 132 Ri. There is also an Oshiu-kai-do, which leads from Tokio toward the north to Awomori, 191 \ Ri distant, and the San-yo-do, from Kioto to Shimonoseki, which passes along the Inland Sea ; and several others of those old country roads of the principal islands, upon which in former times 1 40 Kam-me (=1 50*26 kilograms) are counted a fair horse-load on a good even road, but upon the worst mountain paths only 18 Kam-me, or 67'62 kilo- grams. The load for a man is a weight of 7 Kam-me (=25*3 kilograms). 2 Jin-riki-sha, i.e. "Man-power wagon," is a modern very popular vehicle, introduced into Japan some twenty years ago, and now as universal as the cabs of our cities. The Jin-riki-sha, or Kuruma (wagon), is a two-wheeled light cart with a seat over the axle, and a pair of shafts in which the Ninsoku, or man, places himself. He grasps the two poles, and then rushes forward at a rapid rate with his load of one or two persons. 510 TRADE AND COMMERCE. the great Daimio-processions travelled, and which in other ways afforded a regular commercial intercourse such as has been already described by E. Kaempfer. 1 The conifers, principally pines, which form the avenues along the roads, have been already (page 276) specially mentioned. River navigation has many obstacles in Japan, as stated in vol. i. p. 89. Of course large river-systems could not be developed, but also many difficulties are placed in the way of navigation by the rapid fall of the upper courses of the great rivers, and the shallows of the lower parts, produced by shifting deposits of sand and other detritus. These difficulties can be only partly overcome. 3 Never- theless, on many of the larger rivers traffic used to be very lively, and is so still to a certain extent, especially on the chief island ; but this is due to the insufficiency of the roads and land con- veyances. In this respect Kiushiu was especially ill-situated. Its industrial and commercial development was far behind that of Hondo during the Tokugavva Shogunate (1600-1 868 A.D.). Be- sides its ceramics, it had no notable industry. Silk culture was not practised at all, and tea raising with but little care. There were no good roads or means of communication in the interior, with the exception of those which several rivers (the Chikugo-gawa chiefly) afforded in the lower part of their courses. This is to be attributed partly to the mountainous character of the island ; more, however, to the isolation of the country and the lack of co-operation between the several Daimids. A central power was lacking, for the Bakufu (the government of the Shogun in Yeddo) either did not concern itself at all in these matters, or had an interest in preventing the co-operation of two powerful neighbours. It came to pass in this way that not only on Kiushiu, but also on the two neighbouring islands, the highways from one province to another remained in the worst possible condition ; and it seemed better to make long roundabout journeys and long junk voyages at sea rather than give up the strained relations and the separation from one's nearest neighbour, and thus bring about the benefit of an easier inter- course. The great sea expeditions which the Japanese had carried on in early times were placed under inextricable bonds by Iyeyasu at the beginning of the 17th century. For more than 250 years, up to the restoration of Mikado dynasty, Japanese navigation had been con- fined to the coasting service along its own shores, and, like its com- merce in general, placed in a straight jacket, to throw off which re- quired a foreign impulse. Commodore Perry accomplished in 1854, however, what the repeated efforts of English and Russians had not 1 See also Rein : " Der Nakasendo," Erganzungsheft 59 zu Petermann's Mittheilungen. 2 The rapidly changing depth of the rivers has even given rise to a proverbial expression : '" Kino-no-fuchi kio-no se : Yesterday a deep place in the river, to- day a shallow." FURTHER MEANS OF INTERCOURSE. succeeded in doing, viz., to peacefully wrest the country from its seclusion and bring it into friendly intercourse with the great sea- faring powers. At the time of the first landing of Mendez Pinto and his com- panions, in 1542, nothing excited the attention and amazement of the Japanese like the long firelocks which the explorers carried with them, and they soon succeeded in making them, and gunpowder also. So it was now. Commodore Perry impressed them much more by setting up a little telegraph line and a miniature railroad than by his stately squadron. These things aroused the greatest interest, and the desire to become possessed of them as a means of intercourse. It is no wonder then that, after the opening of commerce with Christian nations, and the overthrow of the Shogu- nate, the building of steamboats and the establishment of telegraph lines and railroads became the first care of the new government under the Mikado. For the most influential adherents of the latter and protectors of his old rights against the Shogunate, had, even before the decisive battles of 1868 (see vol. i. p. 357), laid aside their prejudice against the incoming barbarians, and recognised that only by accepting and carrying on all the newly introduced improvements on the new basis established by the Bakufu (Yeddo Government) could Japan become strong again and steadily de- velop. But it was not until the year 1870 that this new govern- ment, after overcoming the first great difficulties of the interior organization, entered on the most varied departments of business, and especially of open commerce, with a spirit of enterprise and reform, which to many of the lookers on seemed going too far, and awakened many fears as to the outcome. Fortunately, these fears have not been fulfilled. To-day, whoever glances without preju- dice over what has been accomplished in the commercial life of Japan on land and water since that time, cannot withhold his admiration of the men who stood at the head of these enterprises. In other departments, especially in that of education, the reforms and their achievements have been no less important. The establishment of an arsenal, and the erection of lighthouses and many other institutions for promoting navigation, went hand in hand with the foundation of the navy, begun by the Shogunate. The arsenal at Yokosuka, south of Yokohama, was soon developed into a model institution and school for Japanese machinists under the long-continued careful direction of the Frenchman Verni and his associates. The Englishman Brunton directed the erection of lighthouses and other protective arrangements for navigation, so that fifteen years ago the most important or dangerous points along the coast had been provided with good signals, and the danger of commerce in Japanese waters greatly diminished. Japanese war- ships have undertaken many soundings, harbour measurements, and other labours, whose results have been made permanent in valuable charts, so that in this respect also the Hi-no-maru, 512 TRADE AND COMMERCE. or " Circle of the Sun," i.e. the national flag, with a red sun in a white field, need not hide its folds. Enterprising merchants of Kochi, the capital of Tosa, on Shi- koku, with some considerable help from the government, estab- lished in 1874 the first Steamship Navigation Company, the Mitsu-bishi-guwai-sha, a name founded on its choice of a flag. 1 A second company, the Kiyodounyu-guwai-sha, was established some years later, and soon united with the first. The company is now called Nipon Yu-sen-guwai-sha, or " Japanese Post Steamship Company." Its boats have regular connection with all the im- portant ports of the country, as well as with Shanghai, Fusan, Wonsan (Gensan), and Wladiwostok. They have a monopoly of Japanese coast navigation, and fifteen years ago had driven out the previous foreign competition on the lines of Yokohama, Kobe, Nagasaki and Shanghai. In order to advance inland commerce four merchants founded, in 1872, the Nai-koku-tsii-un-guwai-sha or Inland Transportation Company, with a capital of 150,000 Yen or about ^"30,000. It has its chief office in Tokio and its agents in every large town, forward- ing not only merchandise and freight of all kinds, but money also, and has established a reliable, well organized service, as I was re- peatedly able to observe. I know nothing of its present condition. The government decided in February, 1871, to undertake the entire postal service of the country. Two months later this was begun experimentally between the three capital cities, Tokio, Kioto and Osaka, and has been gradually developed and increased with the best success so far as the inland service is concerned, and now also with foreign countries. In 1879 the English and French post offices, which had existed up to that time, were superseded by the Japanese post office. The first telegraph line of the country was built in January, 1870, between Tokio and Yokohama. Others followed soon after, and the network which now binds all the larger towns of the empire together, and all with the capital city of Tokio, grows constantly thicker and closer. Even in the use of the telegraph for weather reports to the Central Meteorological Office at the capital, the Japanese have followed the example of progressive Christian countries. A very special interest centres also in the development of the Railroads, or Tetsu-do. At the close of the year 1885 Japan had the following railroads in operation : — 1 This flag has three (Mitsu) red parallelograms in a white field, which are intended to represent the figure of a water nut (Trapa bicomis, Hishi or Bishi), which is said to be very common in Tosa. Guwai-sha=Kuwai-sha, pronounced Kaischa, is " company." FURTHER MEANS OF INTERCOURSE. 513 I. Tokio-Yokohama 7 Ri 11 Cho. 2. Hiogo-Osaka-Kioto-Otsu • 24 „ 3- Nagahama-Tsuruga . ■ 11 „ 4- Nagahama-Ogaki • 23 „ 5. Tokio-Takasaki . 25 „ 20 Cho. In all 90 Ri 31 Cho. or 356'84 kilometers. At present in process of construction : — 6. Takasaki-Ogaki ...... 275 km. Besides which the following are projected : — 7. Osaka-Sakai 11 km. 8. Ogaki-Yokkaichi 53 „ 8. Uyeda-Niigata 235 „ 10. Tokio- Awomori ...... 705 „ 1 1. Fukuoka-Kumamoto. 12. Miike-Kumamoto. After the completion of No. 6, the principal line along the Naka-sen-do from Yokohama to Hiogo via Tokio, Takasaki, Uyeda, Ogaki, Otsu, Kioto and Osaka, will build branch lines to Sakai, Tsuruga, Yokkaichi and Niigata. All the roads now in operation were built by English engineers commissioned by the government, and were provided with English rolling stock, but came then under administration and service of the Japanese, who proved themselves fully equal to their new tasks, so that no great accidents are reported up to this time. The first line, from Tokio to Yokohama, was opened on the 12th of June, 1872. All classes of inhabitants were soon delighted with it and patronized it so extensively that a desire for the benefits of the new means of communication was excited in other parts of the country. The second road, from Osaka to Hiogo, was opened on the 11th of May, 1874, and in the following years was extended from Osaka to Kioto, until on the 15th of July, 1880, the track from Kidto to Otsu on Lake Bivva was added. Then followed railway lines from Nagahama to Tsuruga and Ogaki, on which, as on the track from Kioto to Otsu, pupils of the School of Engineers received their practical training, under English direction. The junction between Otsu and Nagahama was temporarily effected by steamboat, but the time seems not far distant when a railway will girdle the lake and supersede the steamer. Of a more recent date among the railroads at present in operation is the one from Tokio to Takasaki, opened in May, 1884, by the Mikado. It is the first one planned, built and worked by the Japanese without foreign help. Although rolling stock is still imported from a foreign country (America), rails are now being manufactured or cast at Ikuno, near Kobe, and II. L L 514 TRADE AND COMMERCE. cars are being made in Tokio. Surely this is much progress in a very short space of time. It is no wonder that they are moving about new enterprises in the same direction, and have planned a large number of projects whose execution may well be delayed for some time yet on account of the great expense. 3. The Foreign Trade of Japan up to the Time of the Opening of the Country under Commodore Perry in 1854. a. — From the Discovery of the Country by Mendez Pinto in ISA 2 to 1639. " The history of Japanese expeditions to foreign lands is yet to be written " is the observation of E. Satow, who remarks further that the materials for this work are widely scattered and must first be collected. It exceeds my power, as well as my purpose, to form such a collection, but it has seemed to me of interest, to group to- gether here the most prominent dates which I have met with in read- ing the works quoted, as well as many others, regarding the foreign trade of the Japanese in former times, because they will show the change which has taken place here, as well as in many other de- partments, by comparing the ways and means of those days with the present foreign commerce. We see in this that the articles of export formerly of high value have either fallen back very largely or disappeared entirely, while others which were scarcely regarded at all thirty years ago now occupy the first place. Formerly the " marrow of the country," as Kaempfer expresses it, was its mining productions ; gold, silver and copper. In modern times agri- cultural products, such as silk, tea, and rice (the latter only in favourable years) exceed all the other numerous articles of export in importance. In the first three decades of the 17th century the Dutch were able to drive out the Portuguese, Spanish, and English in the commerce with Japan, but they have been obliged to give way to the powerful competition of the larger commercial and indus- trial States since the time of the opening of the country thirty years ago. The trade of Holland declined far below that of most of the larger countries, England and North America at the head, to a point corresponding to the small extent of its own industry and its own consumption. The trade with Yokohama and Kobe was developed in a similar way at the expense of Nagasaki and Osaka. There is a great lack of direct information concerning the old relations of Japan in trade with its Western neighbours, China and Corea, before the first landing of the Portuguese. Hakata in Chikuzen appears to have been one of the Japanese ports from which a lively intercourse with China was maintained. FOREIGN TRADE UP TO OPENING OF COUNTRY. 515 It is mentioned also in Taketori Monogatari, " The Maid from the Moon." x Osaka also, formerly called Naniwa, and Sakai, were im- portant ports, having large commercial relations with China during the Middle Ages. Marco Polo does not mention this intercourse, nor does Barros in his work " Da Asia " make any statement of this kind ; he does not once name the Japanese. On the other hand, according to Crawford, 2 in a commentary on Albuquerque, written by his son, according to information which the great Albu- querque received upon taking possession of Malacca in 15 10, the Japanese (there called Gore) are said to have arrived every year with two or three ships. They were a silent, truth-loving people, who usually left their country in January and returned in August or September. Their wares were raw and prepared silk, brocade, porcelain, a great deal of wheat, copper, alum, and quantities of gold bearing the king's seal. The mention of silk and porcelain as export articles of Japan at that time, creates the suspicion that the writer perhaps confused the Japanese with the Coreans. Evidences are not wanting that greatly feared pirates came from Japan, especially from the island of Kiushiu, who not only made the coasts of China unsafe, but extended their depredations to the Philippine Islands and the Malay Archipelago. 3 These occurred principally at a time when civil wars in Japan had desolated the country and relaxed all the restrictions of law and order, as for example, at the end of the 14th century (see vol. i. pp. 259, 260), and finally in the year 1600 A.D., before Iyeyasu had gathered the imperial power of the entire country in his own firm hands, and shortly after put an end not only to pirates, but also to the direct intercourse of Japan with other countries. It is certainly remarkable that the three most notable sea voyages of great discovery in ancient times, were undertaken with the view of securing for Spain and Portugal the most valuable productions of Asiatic countries at the least expense. Columbus discovered America as he was endeavouring by sailing westward to reach the countries of Eastern Asia, especially the golden Zipangu (Japan) and Cathay (China), with its abundance of silks. For according to the descriptions of his countryman, Marco Polo, and Arab geographers, the former was the El Dorado of the Chinese and Arabs (see p. 295), while the latter has for ages enjoyed the reputation of a rich country because of its silk. Vasco de Gama led the Portuguese around South Africa to India, and thereby turned the previous trade with this productive, highly civilized country, into entirely different lines. Fernao de Magalhaes, a 1 Translated by R. Lange, 17 Heft der Mitth. d. d. Ges. Ostasiens. 2 Crawford : " Descriptive Diet, of the Mai. Archipelago," p. 164. 3 "The men of Japan have done much mischief unto the men of China, and many times fallen upon their coasts and put all to fire and sword." — The voyage of John Huyghen van Linschoten to the East Indies, p. 155. Hakluyt Soc, London, 1875. 516 TRADE AND COMMERCE. countryman of Vasco de Gama, may be called the third promi- nent navigator of this period. He devoted himself, after the con- quest of Malacca, out of spite towards his king, to the service of Charles V. (Charles I.), in order to furnish the Spaniards with the highly prized cloves of the Moluccas, while avoiding the Portuguese route. He accomplished in this effort, as is well known, the first circumnavigation of the globe, a few years after the Portuguese had sailed round tropical Asia, and obtained in Macao a new basis of operations for their trade. Japan was finally discovered by the Portuguese, and the ship- wreck which brought Mendez Pinto and his companions on its southern shore in 1542 A.D. was the beginning of a notable period for Japan, in which the spread of Christianity during the second half of the sixteenth century kept equal pace with an extremely profitable trade, with Nagasaki as its chief point. The trade of Japan with China also flourished in this period ; for according to Thunberg some 200 Chinese ships arrived every year up to 1684, each with an average manning of fifty persons. They brought silk, silk handkerchiefs, sugar, turpentine, incense, agates, Baros camphor, ginseng and several other medicinal wares, besides medical books, taking away copper in bars, lacquer work, and other productions of Japan. Portuguese trade between Goa, Malacca, Macao, and Nagasaki (or Hirado) was regulated by the monsoons and the king of Por- tugal. Linschoten states that the latter allowed but one ship to sail each year from Macao to Japan. This was a very large, good ship of 1,600 tons, the command of which for three years was given in reward for services rendered, as the captain made between 150,000 and 200,000 ducats on each voyage to Japan. He brought various wares from Macao, especially silks. The return trade was of silver and gold, which paid an immense profit, of 100 per cent, according to Kaempfer. Meijlan states that at the period when this Portu- guese trade was at its highest point, the average annual value of this exportation of precious metals from Japan amounted to from eight to nine millions of Dutch gulden (.£765,000). Thunberg, in- deed, estimates it at the enormous quantity of 300 tons of gold, and remarks further, that even after the Portuguese had made them- selves objects of hatred by their conduct in Nagasaki and else- where, and their trade had fallen into complete decadence, they still exported considerable quantities of silver — thus in 1636 A.D. 2,360 chests or 2,350,000 Japanese taels at 2s. gd., in 1637 A - D - 2,142,365 taels, and in 1638 A.D. 1,259,023 taels. 1 With this, as is well known, the trade of the Portuguese in Japan came to an end ; for their complete exclusion soon followed (1639), and when in 1640 they had again separated from Spain and attained their former independence, they saw themselves robbed of their profitable commerce and rich possessions in Asia, down to a few 1 A Japanese tael is reckoned at 33 stiver=r65 Dutch florins=2j. y\d. FOREIGN TRADE UP TO OPENING OF COUNTRY. 517 inconsiderable remnants. Several attempts that were made from Macao to regain the commercial ground lost in Japan met only with the greatest misfortune. Their former paradise remained closed to them. After the union of Portugal with Spain, through Philip II., in 1580 A.D., an occurrence from which the Portuguese date the decline and eventual loss of their commanding position and of their con- siderable Asiatic commerce, Manila was also included in this de- privation. The commerce of this city with Macao and Japan, in regard to which the work of A. de Morga cited above gives interesting information, was very active. Towards the end of October and during March the ships used to sail with northerly winds from Nagasaki to Manila. They brought to the Philippines chiefly flour of very good quality, and also much valued salt meat, salt tunny-fish, very good (?) fresh pears, iron tools and weapons, among them fine swords, besides beautiful screens, artistically lacquered jewel cases of rare woods, and other trifles attractive and handsome, — cages, a little silver, patterned silks. There were also horses from Japan, of which de Morga gives an excellent description. The ships returned to Nagasaki in June or July, under the influence of the southern monsoon winds ; their freight from Manila consisted of raw silk (from China), hart- shorn-shavings (?) and brazil-wood for dyeing, honey, wax, wine (from Spain), Thibetian cats, great jars (Tibor) for keeping tea, and also glass and clothing material. The first disturbance of these amicable relations was made by "Taiko-sama, the Lord of all Japan," in a letter to the Governor, 1 wherein he arrogantly ordered him to recognise his superior rank and to send tribute in recognition of it, or he would come with a fleet and destroy the land. The tone of this letter corresponds exactly to that in which Hideyoshi addressed the king of Corea when he desired him to enter into an alliance against China (see vol. i. p. 282). The correspondence lasted several years according to de Morga, and then Taiko-sama died. From this it is seen that this insolent letter must have been written about the year 1595. 3 It occasioned great anxiety in Manila. Through fear of an in- vasion all the Japanese, who were there in considerable number, were sent back to their country. In the year 1596 Don Francisco Tello, the new governor of the Philippines, came into office. One year later the ship San Felipe, 1 Gomez Perez Dasmarihas, who had arrived at his post in 1590, by the route then common — via Acapulco. 2 According to Dutch sources (" Memorables Embassies," etc.), Taiko-sama had stated in this document that the civil wars in Japan were over, and that he himself was a pledge of internal peace. He now wished to make war upon China, and desired to this end the good-will of the governors, as signs of this demanding subjection and tribute. From this we might conclude that the state paper dates from the year 1 591, as the expedition to Corea, for the above- mentioned purpose, took place in 1592. 5i8 TRADE AND COMMERCE. which had been driven out of its course by contrary winds on a voyage from Manila to New Spain (Mexico), touched at the coast of Tosa on the island Shikoku. The head quartermaster, Fran- cisco de Landa, declared to the confidential adviser and pleni- potentiary of Taiko-sama l that Spain was conquering the world, with the help of Spanish priests. This contributed not a little to the increasing aversion of the governing classes to Christianity, a feeling which soon resulted in the bloody persecution of its missionaries, and later in its complete extirpation. Iyeyasu 2 was at that time still inclined to trade with the Spanish and Portuguese, even going so far as to negotiate with Father Geronymo (who had concealed himself during the first persecution of the Christians by Taiko-sama in 1597) for the importation of Spanish carpenters from Manila to build ships, in order that he himself might establish direct commercial relations with New Spain. Chiquiro (?), the ambassador of Iyeyasu, who carried his presents and good wishes with letters of Father Geronymo to the Governor of the Philippines, found a friendly enough reception, but did not obtain the desired ship carpenters, because the Japanese were not wanted as competitors for the trade oi Nueva Espana. In vain did Iyeyasu and Geronymo wait for the vessel's return. It had been wrecked on the coast of Formosa and sank with all on board. Later Fray Geronymo himself went to Manila, return- ing thence in 1601 with excuses and gifts for Iyeyasu. These gifts were a large, richly decorated mirror and other glass-wares, Castilian cloths, honey, several large Chinese porcelain jars, and Spanish Tibor, or vases and jars of Faience. Meanwhile Iyeyasu had succeeded to the Shogunate, with prac- tical supremacy over the whole of Japan. The struggles of the year 1600, in which he overcame his adversaries, had tempted the coast population of Kiushiu once more to piracy. Not less than six corsair ships had sailed out from Satsuma to ravage the coasts of China and the Philippines. Upon the complaints of the governor of Manila, Iyeyasu promised assistance, demanding, however, in return, that fugitive Japanese should not receive protection, and still less assistance in effecting secret landings on Japanese coasts. It seems, however, that this wish was not fulfilled. With reference to this, as in many another respect, peculiar interest attaches to a letter of the mighty Shogun to the Governor Don Pedro de Acuna in the year 1605. In it Iyeyasu first thanks the governor for his presents, of which the wine especially had given him great pleasure. But then he begs the governor to hinder fugitive Japanese from 1 He is called Ximonojo, Yemonojo, and Gibunoxa. He seems to have been Ishida Mitsunari, one of the later five governors. (See vol. i. p. 494.) 2 » Yeyasu dono, Lord of Ouanto," as he is called in the English translation of the book by A. de Morga, p. 143. Compare vol. i. pp. 11, 282, and p. 311 of this work. FOREIGN TRADE UP TO OPENING OF COUNTRY. 519 finding support in Manila and returning to Japan with Spanish ships without his (Iyeyasu's) permission. To the numerous re- presentations with respect to the Christian sect which the governor and others had made to him, he could not agree. " It is in no wise agreeable to our best interests that your faith be preached and disseminated in Japan, and if your Highness desires to main- tain friendship with the rulers of Japan and with me, I beg you to agree to my wishes and to do nothing displeasing to me." It is plainly seen from this energetic language that Iyeyasu was already firmly determined to strenuously oppose the spread of Christianity. Only once, as is seen in what follows, do we find him friendly dis- posed towards Christianity, but this might have been expected from his earlier expressions. In the year 1608 — the " Memorials of the Empire of Japan " tell us, according to Th. Rundall — the ship was wrecked in which the Governor General of the Philippines, Rodrigo de Vivero y Velasco, was returning from Manila to Spain, via Acapulco. This was on the east coast of Hondo, in latitude 35 \° N. The crew and Don Rodrigo saved only their lives, but were hospitably received by the Japanese, and provided with every necessity. The Governor General in particular received on all sides a great friendliness cor- responding to his rank, especially at the court in Yeddo, and also at Shidzuoka in Suruga, whither Iyeyasu had withdrawn in 1605, although still retaining the guidance of national affairs. Everything was restored to the Spaniards that could be saved from the wreck, although according to law and custom the Japan- ese government possessed full jurisdiction over stranded goods. In Shidzuoka Don Rodrigo laid three requests before the ex- Shogun, viz. : — 1. That Iyeyasu would extend his protection to foreign priests and their missions. 2. That he would continue in maintaining friendly relations with the king of Spain. 3. That he would forbid the Dutch, being rebels and pirates, to sojourn in his country. Iyeyasu expressed to Don Rodrigo his satisfaction that, although stripped of all his possessions, he had sought nothing for himself, but everything for his king and his religion. He was prepared to grant the first two petitions, not the third, having pledged his word to the Dutch and allowed them to trade in his country under the same conditions as other foreigners. Iyeyasu requested from the king of Spain, through Don Rodrigo, fifty miners experienced in the silver mining of New Spain, his own being unable to extract half the precious metal existing in the mines. He dismissed him in the friendliest manner. The object of Don Rodrigo's next journey was "Meako" (Kioto), where the governor, by order of his master, made him acquainted with every- thing worthy of notice. Thus Don Rodrigo saw among other 520 TRADE AND COMMERCE. things the Daibutsu, of which he remarks that it should be reckoned among the wonders of the world. From Kioto he betook himself by way of Fushimi to Osaka, and then in a boat to Nagasaki. But the ship which was to have brought him back to Manila not being ready, he returned to Suruga and did not leave Japan until August, 1610, departing with rich gifts. Hence he had full knowledge of the landing of the Dutch on Hirado, 1 and their entrance into the competition, which was soon so fateful for the Portuguese and Spanish, as well as for the Catholic Japanese. The trade between Japan and the Philippines lasted over fifty years, from 1580. During this time Japanese enterprise developed itself also in other directions. Japanese seamen not only took service on foreign ships and made long journeys in them, but, in conjunction with merchants, fitted out junks themselves. At times they ran in friendly commerce along the coasts of China and Farther India, and again as bold corsairs they preyed upon trade in these parts. In the above-mentioned memoir by E. Satow, on the trade between Japan and Siam, we perceive how active it was in the first three decades of the 17th century. In Ayuthia, at that time the capital of Siam, and in Patani, the most important com- mercial point on the Gulf of Siam, there was a Japanese colony, which sometimes played a part even in politics. The first three Shoguns maintained direct friendly commercial relations with the king of Siam for twenty-four years. Both courts repeatedly inter- changed letters and presents, these being in several cases conveyed by Siamese embassies. Iyeyasu began these direct relations in 1606, sending to the King of Siam a letter, with several swords and suits of armour, and begging from him a few muskets and some fragrant calambac (Santalinum album, L.). We discover from the correspondence which followed that the King of Siam and his first minister repeatedly sent such white sandalwood, be- sides Borneo camphor, elephant tusks, and costly silks, as presents for the Shogun and his chief dignitaries, not to mention various European products, such as sarsenet, calico, gauze, and other fabrics, besides muskets and powder. The Japanese gifts in return were in particular horses with costly saddles, weapons and suits of mail, beautiful screens, festival garments of wadded silk, bleached cotton stuffs, and silver. With the year 1630 this official intercourse suddenly ceased. In Ayuthia, Phra-Chao Phrasa-thong had taken possession of the throne, and when he thereupon, following the example of his pre- decessor, sent an embassy to Japan with letters and presents, these were refused. The same happened to several other Siamese em- bassies which followed. But even after 1636, when the Japanese 1 The city and island of Hirado, geneially called Firado, Firato, and Firando in older writings, lie on the west side of Kiushiu, and belong to the province of Hizen. (See vol. i. p. 523.) FOREIGN TRADE UP TO OPENING OF COUNTRY. 521 were forbidden by law to leave the country and to trade with foreigners, commercial relations with Siam did not fully cease. The Chinese, to whom, with the Dutch, trade with Nagasaki was permitted, became the middlemen. Siamese junks, as Satow states, following Japanese authorities, came in six different cases, viz., in the years 1680, 1687, 1693, 1716, 17 18, and 1745, though with what success is not said. Before the closing up of Japan under the third Shogun (Iyemitsu) Siamese ships brought away gold and silver, copper in small bars, goldsmiths' work, umbrellas and parasols, lacquer wares, porcelain and tea. The various occurrences that led to the closing up of Japan and the extirpation of Christianity were dealt with in detail in vol. i. of this work. From the short account here given of the rela- tions of the Shogunate to the Spaniards in Manila and to the Siamese, it is evident that these measures are not to be looked upon as immediate consequences of the battle of Sekijahara in the year 1600, but that the political and religious motives in which they originated were only of gradual growth. The conclusion of commercial relations with the Dutch and English had great in- fluence upon this change in opinion and feelings. These powers at the beginning of the 17th century extended their struggles against Catholic Spain and therewith annexed Portugal, even to the dis- tant stations of the world's market, and with success. The struggles of the Protestant Dutch for their civil and religious liberty had fostered in them an irreconcileable enmity against the Spaniards and Roman Catholicism, had developed their courage and enterprise, and prepared them for further deeds of prowess. Scarcely had they thrown off the Spanish yoke when Dutch ships, impelled by commercial interests, cruised through every sea. In Amsterdam the nautical school of Peter Plancius gave the incipient seafarer a better education, and the atlas of L. J. Waghenaer of Leyden furnished him with more reliable maps. Thus the general demand received effective support, — the demand to become wholly independent of Spain even in commerce, now that her power was enlarged by the addition of Portugal and its colonies. Narrow- minded decrees of Philip II. of Spain closing Lisbon, the former world-market, to the Dutch, did the rest. The enterprises of the Dutch led to important geographical discoveries — I mention only those of Barents and Tasman — as well as to their acquisition of most of the Portuguese possessions, with their Asiatic trade. Upon the first Dutch circumnavigation of the globe (in the years 1 598-1601) under Oliver van Noort, who followed the route of Magelhaes and inflicted heavy losses on the Spanish in a sea fight off Manila, there followed, in 1602, the establishment of the Dutch East India Company. Batavia became its chief point of support and of the trade it carried on in South-eastern Asia, while Goa, Malacca, and Macao lost their commercial significance. In April of the year 1600 the Dutch flag appeared for the first time 522 TRADE AND COMMERCE. on the Japanese coast, at Funai, in Bungo. The ship that carried it had, with four others, formed a small commercial flotilla of the Dutch house van der Veek, which had left the harbour of Texel in June, 1598, to carry on trade on the Pacific coast of South America. The expedition was sent out too late in the year, and suffered great losses in consequence of bad steering, heavy storms, and hostile attacks, so that at last only one ship, the Erasmus, re- mained, with but a small crew. They directed her course from the Peruvian coast to Japan, in the hope of finding there a market for her cargo of cloths. When they landed in Funai, only five men were fit for duty, among them William Adams, an Englishman and first-mate of the Erasmus. These and the sick as well were given a friendly reception by the native population, though repre- sented as pirates by the Portuguese. The latter contrived to have Adams sent as a prisoner to Iyeyasu, who was then in Osaka. Iyeyasu received him kindly, questioned him, and sent him to Yedo, where he was set at liberty, and lived for the most part till his death, in 1620. William Adams won a position of respect among the Japanese, serving at first the interests of the Dutch, and later of the English ; and he probably contributed towards feeding the feeling of envy towards the Catholic Spaniards and Portuguese, and bringing about the well-known crisis (see vol. i. p. 330 ff.). In June, 1609, the Dutch ship Roode Loeuvv (Red Lion) ap- peared in the harbour of Hirado, and was hospitably received by the Daimio of the island. In the following year, Jacques Spexx (Jacob Spex), the commercial representative of the Dutch East India Company, and M. Sandvoort, betook themselves to Suruga, to negotiate a commercial treaty with Iyeyasu, and then to Yedo, to treat with his son, the Shogun. William Adams acted as in- terpreter. The Dutch obtained permission to erect a factory in Hirado, and to trade with Japan under similar conditions to the Portuguese and Spaniards in Nagasaki. The latter had done all they could to keep away the incoming heretics, whom they repre- sented to Iyeyasu as sea-robbers, and rebels against their lord, the King of Spain — men to whom he could not possibly lend atten- tion. But the wise and mighty prince had no intention of letting slip the opportunity of encouraging a competing foreign influence. He answered, in effect, that European affairs did not concern him, and that he was mindful only of the peace and welfare of his own land and people. Every foreigner who obeyed the laws and would trade honestly, and to the advantage of his subjects, was welcome ; "yea, even if devils came from hell, they should be treated like angels from heaven," as long as they heartily submitted to the rules he had established. Induced by letters from William Adams, the English East India Company soon thereafter determined to enter into trade with Japan. To this end they sent three ships under the command of Captain John Saris, which cast anchor before Hirado, on the nth FOREIGN TRADE UP TO OPENING OF COUNTRY. 523 of June, 16 1 3. The old Daimio appreciated the commercial ad- vantages which the foreigners brought to this little island, and received the English kindly. After Adams had joined them and Captain Saris had rented a house to be used as a factory, the latter, with Adams to interpret, and the necessary credentials, and pre- sents from King James I., departed for the court in a boat which the Daimio placed at his disposal. The embassy was amicably received both by Iyeyasu in Sumpu (Shidzuoka), and by his son, Hidetada, the reigning Shogun in Yedo. After brief negotiations, conducted by Adams, who was favourably known at court, it secured a general commercial privilege. This was, however, by an amendment of the year 1616, restricted to Hirado, like that of the Dutch. Richard Cocks acted as director of the factory, from its establishment to the dissolution, which the company ordered in 1623. A competition of ten years with the Dutch had cost it a total loss of over ^"40,000. But even though the commercial enter- prises of the English in Japan were unsuccessful, they departed with honour from a well-contested field. They had made the attempt at a very unfavourable time and an unsuitable place, a small, non-productive island, in direct competition with the Dutch, and with the Portuguese and Spaniards, who still retained great influence in Nagasaki. Their hope that the Chinese market would open to them was not fulfilled, and in Japan the Dutch possessed more experience and practice. These scorned no means of crowd- ing the English out, even selling many of their wares below cost, as, for example, cloths manufactured in England. Their conduct, as Cocks in many parts of his journal remarks, was unendurable, even when, by higher command, the English took sides with them against Spaniards and Portuguese. For such extraordinary difficulties the intelligence and activity of the director Richard Cocks were insufficient. It is easily seen from his tedious journal that he was uneducated, weak, and slow, though good-natured and honest enough ; and that there must have been great disorder in his conduct of business. All this we learn, too, from the bitter censure with which his "loving friends" and superiors at Batavia recalled him in May, 1623. Subsequently the Dutch were successful in frustrating all attempts of the English, as well as of other nations, to renew commercial relations with Japan. Stories about the over-crowding of the market with imported goods, and a fall in prices, remind one of many an occurrence in the Japanese trade of modern times, except that formerly it was not customary to sell at public auction. White raw-silk from China and Siam, which used to be sold in Nagasaki and Hirado for 500, 400, and 300 Ts. (Taels at 6 shillings), were offered at 130 Ts. in the year 1620. The market was as much flooded via Patani with Siamese velvet and flowered silks, red and white sandal-wood, deer-skins, and ivory, as with Spanish cloths, imported from New Spain (Mexico), and English, brought by Dutch and English vessels. 524 TRADE AND COMMERCE. Cotton stuffs were less in demand, and so were spices. In these articles also, the supply far exceeded the demand, and so it did in the case of steel, tin, and lead, mirrors, Danzig bottle-glass, amber, patterned linen, and plain Dutch linen. Of the rich exportation of metal (gold, silver, and copper), only a very modest share seems to have passed through English hands. It is easy to see from Cocks' journal how the difficulties and limitations of Japanese foreign commerce grew with the increasing hostility towards Christianity during the reign of the Shogun Hidetada. The Shogun Iyemitsu, the energetic grandson of Iyeyasu, had scarce grasped the reins of government, in 1623, when the last great outburst against foreigners occurred. Spaniards and Portuguese were banished from the country ; the Christians were persecuted, tortured, and slain ; Japanese subjects were for- bidden on pain of death to leave the land, and commerce was restricted to the Dutch and Chinese. Herewith begins a new period in the trade with Japan, namely : b. — The time of trade with the Dutch and Chinese in Nagasaki, from 1 641 -1854. When the English had withdrawn from the Japanese market, and the trade of the Iberian Catholics had been destroyed with those last annihilating blows at Christianity which were de- scribed in vol. i. pp. 304-311, the Dutch found themselves alone, masters of the field indeed, but in no enviable position among the Japanese. Obedient to the Shogun's decree of May II, 1641, to give up immediately their factory at Hirado and remove to the little, artificial island (De-shima) formerly intended for the Portu- guese, close to Nagasaki, they made the change ten days later. It was with unclean hands that the Dutch took possession of De-shima. Excluding all criticism except from their own side, and disregarding the prejudiced opinions of the Jesuits, and judging many of their actions in the spirit of that age, and with an under- standing of the mutual enmity and calumniation between them and the Iberian Catholics — making all these allowances, one still cannot acquit them of complicity in those frightful massacres through which Christianity was extirpated in Japan. Nor can we refrain from the no less heavy charge that they denied their own religion in Nagasaki and sacrificed their honour in order to retain a profitable trade. They proclaimed their subjection to the will of the Japanese and humbled themselves before them on so many occasions, that these — accustomed to regard their own commercial classes rather as a necessary evil, and to put them after the farmer and artisan, like the old Romans — could not but form a bad opinion of their character and their sense of honour. On De-shima lived sixteen to twenty Dutchmen in the East India Company's service, restricted in their movements, and FOREIGN TRADE UP TO OPENING OF COUNTRY. 525 watched like prisoners. In regard to their position, Kaempfer writes as follows : " In this servile spirit we have had to put up with many insulting restrictions from these haughty heathens. We dare not celebrate any Sunday or feast-day, we dare not be heard in hymn or prayer, nor name the name of Christ, nor possess any representation of the cross or any other outward mark of Christianity. Moreover we have to endure many other insolent assumptions, against wiiich a noble heart always rebels. The single reason that induces the Dutch to endure all these ills so patiently is merely love of gain and of the rich marrow of the Japanese mountains." l Beginning at page 97 of his work here cited, Kaempfer gives a detailed description of the way in which this trade in Nagasaki was regulated, down to the smallest minutiae, and controlled by a crowd of officials. Direct expenditures did not depend on these rules, but presents to those officials and to the court, which the Opperhoofd, or director of the factory, had to take every spring at his presentation in Yedo, swallowed up a great part of their profits, which were considerable. "No sooner had our ships reached the harbour than they were taken possession of by the Japanese and surrounded by police- boats ; powder, lead, swords, and all the paraphernalia of the vessel were carried ashore and guarded until its departure. Even the heaviest cannon and the rudder itself had to be taken out and brought to land ; but later they gave this up, on account of the great and unnecessary labour involved. At the same time, im- mediately on arrival all persons on board were carefully scrutinized, according to a list they had to furnish, and the name, age, and duties of each were written down. Those who went to the island on business were examined with great exactness, being relieved of their swords and all saleable objects by the Ottona ; - and without permission and escort from the Japanese absolutely no one dared approach or depart from the ship, which usually lay at anchor about 300 paces from the island. The goods we brought with us were taken by their servants to our own warehouses and put away under their seals." Nevertheless Kaempfer speaks in another place of a " hitherto perfectly free trade," which was not " remarkably re- stricted" till 1672. The new limitation was that a specimen of every kind of imported goods had to be taken to the governor's house to be inspected and taxed by experts. Then the merchants came and selected what they needed. If the Dutchmen were not contented with the price fixed by the governor, they could keep the goods. The Chinese enjoyed much greater liberties. They were allowed to live in Nagasaki, were less watched and hemmed in their move- ments, required no director of trade, and did not have to send 1 Kaempfer's " Geschichte von Japan," vol. ii. p. 72. 2 Ottona means in old writings the plenipotentiary, a sort of police com- missary. 526 TRADE AND COMMERCE. embassies and presents to the court. They paid no taxes either, but were, like the Dutch, compelled to hand over their goods at a price fixed by the " Chamber of Commerce of the Shogun." They brought much more merchandize than the Dutch ; but we have only estimates of its total value. Up to the year 1684 there came, according to Thunberg, 200 Chinese junks annually to Nagasaki, each with a crew of 50 men. From thence, the number fell away to 70 and the crews to 30 men apiece. According to the same source, their imports had a total value of only 600,000 Taels (= about ;£ 1 80,000) annually. They consisted chiefly in raw silk and silken cloths, besides sugar, turpentine, myrrh, aloe-wood, 1 Baros camphor, ginseng, and other drugs, and medical books. In addition to these there were various other products of their in- dustry, such as porcelain, soap-stone, goat-skins, and other things, some of which they sold to the Dutch. In this list the reader will perceive that part of the drugs came from tropical Asia. In the first period of the Dutch trade with Japan (1611-1641), i.e. as long as its centre was the factory at Hirado, it never suffered any considerable falling off, either in the number of ships that arrived, or otherwise. This was its most flourishing and profitable era, despite the low prices of many imported articles occasioned by competition. The total value of exported precious metals, copper, and camphor, the most profitable articles in those thirty years, is estimated at £15,000,000. This agrees with Thun- berg's figures, who places the yearly export trade of the Dutch at 6,000,000 gulden (£510,000). Of this, 4,000,000 fl. (£590,000) are for silver alone. The transition year, 1641, was still very favourable to the Dutch trade. The Dutch sold wares worth 80 tons of gold, besides exporting 1,400 chests of silver, each contain- ing 1 Pikul (60 kg.). The Dutch, and also Kaempfer and others, call the time of their monopoly in Nagasaki, 1641-1859, the second period. In the early part of it, the Dutch could still regulate prices, and made great profits. But in 1672, that ceased to be the case, as has been said. Hence Kaempfer, with much discrimination, says in refer- ence to this year and the poor ones that followed : " Our golden fleece, which we carried off annually from this Colchis, changed into an ordinary skin." Nevertheless, the profit on imported wares, after deducting all costs, was still 40-45 per cent., and that on the copper taken in exchange was just as great. It formerly amounted to 90-95 per cent. The annual exportation of this metal, which for a while (1637-1646) was forbidden, amounted to 20,000 to 25,000 Pikul (24-30,000 cwt.). From the year 1640 forward, coined gold was again allowed t© be exported. In the course of two years, 100,000 pieces of Koban 1 Aloe-wood, Jap. Kiyara, named after a Sanskrit word, came from India and Siam ; the Dutch and Portuguese called it Calumbak and Kalambak. It is the fragrant wood of Aloexylon Aquilaria, Roxb. FOREIGN TRADE UP TO OPENING OF COUNTRY. 527 were exported, on which a profit of 1,000,000 fl. was realised. In 1 67 1, the exportation of silver was prohibited, but that did not much concern the Dutch, as it brought them little gain, and the exportation of copper seemed all the more considerable. In fact it rose to 30,000 Pikul, a height that it has never reached again. In 1696, it was limited to 25,000 Pikul ; but, as Meijlan states, they managed to get 6-7,000 Pikul more by bribery. The greatest part of this copper was still brought to India, as in the time of the Portuguese. The trade suffered further noteworthy restrictions from the year 1700, in which it was decreed that only four or five Dutch ships should come to Nagasaki annually. In 17 14, the exporta- tion of copper was reduced to 1,500 Pikul, and in 17 17 the entire Dutch trade was limited to two ships. In 1721 the Japanese fixed the exportation of copper at 10,000 Pikul, but reduced it again, in 1743, to 5-6,000 Pikul. In this year it was also decreed that for the future only one ship should come to Nagasaki annually, though in 1759 the law was changed, and three ships annually were allowed. According to a statement of the Opperhoofd of the year 1760, the total yield of the country in copper amounted to 36-40,000 Pikul (44,000 to 48,000 cwt.), of which the Netherlanders ex- ported 11,000 Pikul, the Japanese governors and officials in Nagasaki received 900 Pikul, the Chinese 15.000 Pikul, and 10,000 to 13,000 covered the domestic demand. This increase of exportation to 11,000 Pikul, however, did not take place till 1820, after a period of ten years, during which only an annual expor- tation of 8,000 Pikul had been allowed. It would lead us too far to mention here all the other vicissitudes and restrictions which the Dutch trade suffered in the course of that long period, or to mention the figures which represent its total value. More interesting, per- haps, will be, in conclusion, a brief glance at the various wares with which it was concerned. The most notable import and export articles of Japan during the great commercial movement in the first decades of the 17th century have been already mentioned. Thunberg's lists refer to a much later period, namely the last decades of the 18th century. 1 According to these, the Dutch imported to Nagasaki, raw silk, silken and half-silken fabrics, cottpns and wools, cordovan, raw sugar, and spices, such as ginger, pepper, saffron, cloves, nutmegs, drugs, especially turpentine, Baros camphor, musk, benzoin-gum, storax, myrrh, catechu, China-root, 2 costus Arabicus, 3 licorice, 1 " Resa," etc , vol. iii. pp. 47, 48, and vol. iv. p. 106. - China-root (Sinilax China, L.), the oriental small-pox, or sweat-root, viz., the rhizoma of a scrambling under-shrub which also grows wild in Japan. It was brought from India, and is also called Chinese Sarsaparilla. 3 This is the root of a composite from India, whose botanical name is Aploiaxis auriculata, U.C. 528 TRADE AND COMMERCE. amber, calumbak, 1 Lignum colubrinum, 2 gum lac, sapan-wood, saltpetre, borax, alum, ivory, narwhal tusks (of Monodon mono- ceros, L.), buffalo horns, ray-skin, corals, tortoise-shell, glass, glass- eyes, files, nails, bar-iron, lead, tin, quicksilver. The silk came from China, Tonquin, Siam, Bengal and Persia ; sapan-wood, buffalo horns, and ray-skins (shark-skins), stag and buffalo skins were brought from Siam and Cambodia ; pepper and sugar from India and Persia; most of the spices from India and the Moluccas ; Cordovan or Spanish leather, from India and Persia ; the Baros camphor from Sumatra. Besides the company's trade, the captain and crew were per- mitted to exchange saffron, licorice-root, rattan, glass-eyes, looking- glasses, clocks, tusks, and certain other articles. And through the crew various rarities came into the land, such as living parrots, trained monkeys, shells, etc. As the most notable export articles, Thunberg mentions copper and camphor, and then, secondarily, lacquer-wares, porcelain, silk cloths, rice, sake and soy. This last was more highly prized than the Chinese. It was carried to Batavia, the East Indies and Europe. On the other hand, porcelain (the Tsubo or covered jars are here mostly meant) was in Thunberg's opinion far behind that of China in beauty, being thick, awkward and not well-painted. The shining sticks of copper, of the thickness of a finger, were packed in chests, each holding one Pikul, or 60 kg. Each ship carried off 6-7,000 of these chests. 4. Japan in the Commerce of the World. The commercial monopoly of the Dutch had gradually lost most of its former significance for the parties concerned, being now as much out of date as was the governmental system of the Shoguns of the Tokugawa house, a dynasty founded on terror. It only needed an energetic impulse from without to put an end to both and effect a thorough change in the state of things. The United States expedition under Commodore Perry, in 1854, brought this impulse. It was the yeast which set the educated class of the Japanese nation fermenting from one end to the other of their long string of islands — a fermentation which culminated in the downfall of the Shogunate and the re-establishment of the Mikado's power in 1868. How this restoration came to pass, and what struggles and rectifications the new rule had to experience before it could be considered to be the firm basis of a new era in commercial and social life, was narrated in detail in pp. 339-382 of vol. i. It only 1 Calumbak, Columbac, or Columbak is said to be a corruption of the word Colombo. The name was given to the aromatic eagle-wood (Aqiiilaria Agallocha, Roxb. ; vide note, p. 526). 3 Snake-wood (Strychnos colubriua> L.). JAPAN IN THE COMMERCE OF THE WORLD. 529 remains to recount briefly the development of foreign commerce that has taken place under this new system. According to the "Treaty of Kanagawa," which Commodore Perry concluded with the government of the Shogun, March 31, 1 85 4, in the name of the United States of America, and which was put in force the following spring, the ports Shimoda in Idzu and Hakodate on Yezo, were to be open to trade with North American ships. But Shimoda soon proved unsuitable, and Hakodate too far from the centre of national life to serve the chief purpose of the treaty, so that Consul-General Harris insisted on its revision, and at last successfully. The American pioneers were soon followed by the Russians, French, and English, and in i860 by Prussians, Dutch, and other nations. They secured the same rights. The treaties were con- cluded with the government of the Shogun in Yedo, at a time when its relation to the Mikado in Kioto was not clearly known, but in 1865 they were confirmed by him. Their principal pro- visions are as follows : — 1. Diplomatic agents of the governments concerned obtain the right to dwell in Yedo, are under the protection of the Shogun, and may travel in the country unmolested. 2. The treaty-powers may also establish consulates in the ports open to commerce. 3. Kanagawa (Yokohama), Nagasaki, and Hakodate are opened on July 1st, 1859, Niigata, i860 ; Hiogo (Kobe) and Osaka, 1863. 4. In each of these places a fixed territory is given over to foreigners, upon which they may build, after paying a regulation tax. 5. These districts remain under the jurisdiction of their own consular officials. 6. They enjoy freedom of religion and trade ; the latter, how- ever, only with the payment of a fixed tariff of 5 per cent, of the value of exported and imported goods. 7. The foreigners have freedom of locomotion within a circle of 10 Ri from the settlement, but must have special permission (which was always most willingly accorded for scientific and sanitary purposes) to cross the treaty-limits. Kanagawa, after which the treaties were named, and whose name still appears in English consular reports, was soon exchanged for Yokohama, hard by. Here the deep, spacious, and accessible bay, with its good anchorage, offered far more favourable conditions for shipping, while the nearness of the capital, Tokio, and of the principal silk and tea districts, afford greater advantages to com- merce than any of the other harbours. Under these circumstances the fishing village Yokohama developed rapidly into a large city, numbering now about 80,000 inhabitants. The foreign colony at its side, a city by itself, with gas and all other European comforts, contained 4,000 souls in 1883, including 2,68 1 Chinese, with 180 II. M M 53o TRADE AND COMMERCE. firms; 595 English, with 55 firms; 253 North Americans, with 27 firms; 160 Germans, with 22 firms; and 109 French, with 15 firms. In that year there arrived 313 foreign vessels, with 556,024 tons of cargo; and 319 vessels sailed with 560,756 tons. Since that summer the German mail steamers of the Bremen Lloyd have been running, in addition to the English, French, and North American mail steamers, which have long been in regular service with Yokohama from Southampton, Marseilles, and San Francisco, contributing largely to the advancement of commerce with their respective countries. It is to be hoped that in the case of the German line the saying of the well-known Englishman, Forster, may prove true : " Trade always follows the flag." The business of Yokohama has increased continuously, if not steadily. It amounted to : — Vessels. Tons. Exports. 1 Imports. 1865. 168 74,088 17,467,728 yen. 5,443.594 yen, 1875. 330 435,613 12,466,730 „ 21,953,909 » 1885. 364 495,77-* 23,850,398 ,, 18,630,379 „ From Table I. it is seen that during the last five years (1881 to 1885) the foreign commerce in the four treaty-ports which are there taken account of is divided as follows, in per-centage : — Yoko/iama. Kobe-Osaka. Nagasaki. Hakodate. Exports 69 per cent. 20 per cent. 9*3 per cent. 17 percent. Imports 67-5 „ 28-8 „ 3-4 „ 0-3 Yokohama exports almost all the silk, the greater part of the tea, next to Kobe the most copper, a considerable part of the fishery products, and most of the works of industrial art. Kobe-Osaka. — Kioto was for over 1050 years the heart of Japan, whence proceeded the pulsations of national life. Osaka, however, was a great antechamber, at least for the material side of this life. The establishment by the Tokugawa of a second business centre in Yedo did little to change this relation. By its central position, its proximity to Kioto, its accessibility by land and water, Osaka was peculiarly adapted to be an emporium of the domestic trade of Japan. Indeed it still plays this part to a certain extent, especially in the rice business, although, since the opening of the country, the overthrow of the feudal system, and the re- moval of the imperial residence to Tokio (Yedo), it has lost con- siderably. Most of the Toiyas, or whojesale dealers, often with great businesses and store-houses, were at 6saka. Here each Daimio had his Kura-yashiki, or official business-house, which represented him and attended to his business. The same was the case in Kioto. 1 The large sum for exports in T865, in connection with the small tonnage, is explained by the enormously advanced price of silk at that time. JAPAN IN THE COMMERCE OF THE WORLD. 531 With, business proper there developed a lively money-business, or banking. Osaka possessed not only the greatest and richest dealers in rice, tea, and silk, but also the most banking-houses. On account of the shallowness of its harbour, it is almost as ill- suited for direct foreign commerce as Tokio. Just as Yokohama, with its excellent harbour, is reached from Tokio by one hour's railway journey, so Kiota and Osaka have near them Kobe (Hiogo) for their foreign commerce by water and rail — a place whose foreign business has largely increased. The exchanges of Osaka in direct trade with foreign countries are about one-seventh as much as those of Kobe, and are made mostly in native and Chinese junks. Kobe is the foreign settle- ment, a new city, close to Hiogo, beautifully situated on the Inland Sea. Its harbour is commodious, like that of Yokohama, and accessible to all ships. In consular reports Hiogo, the older town, is always named in its stead ; not so in the yearly reports of the Japanese custom-house. The trade of Kobe, indeed, is far behind that of Yokohama, but it exceeds by more than threefold that of Nagasaki, aqd will probably increase considerably through the new railway connec- tions with the interior via Kioto. Kobe exports most of the copper, sumach-tallow, and camphor, as well as rice. In its ship- ments of tea it comes next to Yokohama. Among its principal imports are gold and silver bars for the mint in Osaka, besides cotton and woollen goods, sugar, and petroleum. The tax-reports for the commerce of Kobe-Osaka for each of the last nine years show a marked deficiency of exports as compared with imports, since the latter always far exceeded the former in value. Accord- ingly, during the last five years, 28 - 8 per cent, of Japan's total imports came through Kobe-Osaka, while only 20 per cent, of its exports were shipped thence. The foreign population of Kobe was composed, in 1883, of 610 Chinese, 232 British subjects, 48 Germans, 33 North Americans, 17 Portuguese, 14 French, 12 Dutch, 6 Scandinavians, 5 Danes, 1 Swiss, and 1 Austrian. There were 84 business firms, namely, 33 Chinese, 30 British, 11 German, 9 American, and I Portuguese. Nagasaki. — The relation between imports and exports of this place is the reverse of that at Kobe. It has not populous cities behind it as purchasers, while its exports have increased notably, owing to several favourable circumstances. One of these is the greater proximity of the continent of Asia. Another is the regular steamer service with Shanghai, Fusan, and Wonsan (Gensan) in Corea, and Wladiwostok ; another the increasing output of the neighbouring coal-mines, especially those of Takashima. Coal, dried marine animals, rice, camphor, tea, and sumach-tallow, are the chief articles of export ; while tobacco is now shipped in greater quantities via Yokohama and Kobe. As in the other treaty-ports, the clean and spacious European 532 TRADE AND COMMERCE. quarter lies along the harbour, while the Chinese live in the back-ground. In 1883 there were altogether 892 foreigners, of whom 642 were Chinese, 95 British subjects, 42 North Americans, 34 French, 19 Austrians, 17 Germans, and 41 persons of other nationalities. There were 19 Chinese business firms, 7 British, 4 German, 3 American, 2 French, 1 Austrian, but no Dutch. Hakodate. — The foreign trade of this well-known port on the island of Yezo has not acquired large dimensions. The direct importation of foreign wares is especially small, as is seen in Table I. The exportation there given according to value embraces principally algae and various marine animals, besides wood, sulphur, deer-skins and antlers. The marine products go mostly to China, likewise the wood ; the others to North America and England. The foreign trade of Hakodate was carried on in 1883 by two English firms and one Danish. Among its 93 foreigners were 39 Chinese, 15 English, 8 Americans, 8 Frenchmen, 2 Danes, and I German. The commerce between Hakodate and several smaller ports on the island of Yezo, with Hondo and other Japanese islands, is much more important. According to the English consular report of the year 1883, the two government districts, Hakodate and Sapporo (there are no returns for Nemuro, the third), in 1S82 exported products worth 5,072,635 yen, and imported others worth 7,918,936 yen. Among the exports we find 1,735,853 yen-worth of fish, especially salmon and herring, besides algae and inferior marine animals, and 2,588,483 yen worth of fish-guano, i.e. more than half the total exportation of Yezo. The principal articles of import are rice, sake, and cotton goods. Niigata, the capital of the province of Echigo, on the left bank of the Shinano-gawa, shortly before its union with the Japan Sea, has been already described in vol. i. p. 502, as a treaty-port that has by no means met the expectations of foreigners. The bar before the river mouth is covered at low tide by only two meters of water. Moreover, the coast forms an open roadstead without protection from the heavy northerly winds in the long winter. At that season, therefore, navigation comes for the most part to a standstill. The chief exports are rice and tea ; the direct imports are scarcely worth mentioning, since the few foreign merchants, like the natives, supply their needs through business friends at Yokohama. For these reasons the port of Niigata is no longer mentioned in commercial reports from Japan. It finds no place, therefore, in the business statistics given as a supplement to this chapter. Figures demonstrate. I took them partly from the publications of the Japanese customs department, partly from the English con- sular reports, and arranged them in the different tables, so that a comprehensive picture of the total foreign commerce of Japan could be obtained. These statistics are made in yen, the cus- tomary coin of the realm, and embrace : — JAPAN IN THE COMMERCE OF THE WORLD. 533 I. Value of exports and imports of Japan from 1868-1885 through the several treaty ports. II. Foreign commerce of Japan during the last five years, ar- ranged by countries. III. Survey of the principal articles of export since 1S68, ac- cording to groups and value. IV. Principal articles of export with their values during the years 1881-1885. V. Review of exportation in 1885, according to articles, coun- tries, and value. VI. Comparative table of the importation and exportation of gold and silver in coins and bars. VII. Review of the principal articles of import since 1868, and of their value. VI II. Importation of prominent articles in 1885, according to countries and value. Trade reports during the transition period from the conclusion of the first treaties till 1868 are incomplete, and had to be left out. Those of the first five years Meiji (1 868-1 872) are inaccurate. But that is not to say that the later customs registers agree every- where. In general there is a notable increase of exportation and importation, though without steadiness, which was not to be ex- pected, since the same general causes here as elsewhere caused great fluctuations in trade. Large purchases, whatever their causes, always occasion an unnatural swelling of the import figures, and are generally soon followed by a reaction, just as extraordinary advances in prices for any article are as a rule only transitory. War and preparations for war raise the price of war materials and the necessaries of life. Rich harvests, which greatly increase exportation, raise the import figures for clothing stuff and other comforts and necessities of life. All these phenomena are seen in the commercial statistics of Japan. But as the consular reports dwell upon them sufficiently, I prefer to emphasize certain other points. Raw silk with its by-products has stood far in advance of the other articles of export in value, ever since the country was opened. It is likely, moreover, to maintain this supremacy. When its exportation began, in 1859, and for the next ten years, the silk- worm disease in Europe made the greatest depredations on Euro- pean sericulture, so that the demand for oriental silk advanced enormously, and consequently the price also. A further increase of price was occasioned by the high cost of cotton during the Ameri- can civil war. On account of both these causes raw silk reached in 1865 more than double its price in 1863 ; and the exportation of silk from Yokohama amounted to 17,467,728 yen, despite a small falling off in quantity, whereas in 1863 it was only 8,997,484 yen. Considerable transient advances in the price of silk have occurred several times since, as in the spring of 1876 and 1879, though none 534 TRADE AND COMMERCE. to equal those earlier rises. The raw silk is exported in bales of 80 Catties or four-fifths Pikul (about 100 English pounds). The largest quantity, 56,432 Pikul, was shipped in 1883 — but in this figure the refuse is included. In 1882 the shipments of all the products of silk culture reached the largest sum, 19,146,223 yen. The highest price for the best Mayebashi silk was paid in 1868-69, when the Pikul was worth 900-1070 yen. Since then prices have much sunk ; and yet increased production has sufficed to cover not only this fall in price, but also the decrease in sales of silkworm eggs. The products of silk-culture were 4571 per cent, of the total exports in the last five years, as opposed to 4.646 per cent, in the period 1 87 1-1 875, although then 9*03 per cent, stood for silkworm eg^s. This branch of the business, which in 1868 reached a value for exports of 3,700,000 yen, is now nearly extinct. Some information as to tea, the second export article, which reached its highest value in 1874, is to be found in the map at the end of this book. The exportation of coal, given in Table III A, embraces also the supplies to foreign ships. The exportation of rice is, of course, subject to great fluctuations. Considerable advance is shown in the exportation of industrial art products. Under this title all art products are not included, but only lacquer- wares, clay-wares, wall-screens, fans, bamboo-wares, bronze, and enamelled articles. Especially interesting is the exportation of mushrooms and marine products, 7*82 per cent, of the total export of objects that go almost exclusively to China, forming nowhere else such a con- siderable factor in trade. Moreover, this line of exports is con- tinually increasing. The following may serve as supplementary matter to what has been already said on pp. 77-82, and pp. 109, 1 10 and 532 :— Under the term Kai-san-rui, i.e. marine products, the Japanese customs-register embraces algae and marine animals. The ship- ments of Kanten — according to Table IV. averaging about 300,000 yen annually — take place mostly from Kobe and Osaka ; those of dried algae largely from Hakodate. The cold waters of the coast of Yezo are the home of the kelp-weeds, so much in request with the Chinese, and among which Konbu (pronounced Kombu), the sweet tangle {Laminaria sacchariua), ranks highest. It is shipped in two forms — as Ha-kombu in whole leaves, and as Kisami-kombu or cut Kombu. The average export from Hakodate to China during the last five years amounted to 375,401 yen of Ha-kombu and 26,193 yen of Kisami-kombu, or both together 401,596 yen. Eesides this, considerable quantities of this article came directly from Yezo, via. Yokohama, Kobe, and Osaka, to the Chinese. The average exportation of algae from Japan (not including Kanten) had reached lately a value of 546,396 yen. The various sea animals which constitute valuable articles of export to China deserve especial mention. The English consular JAPAN IN THE COMMERCE OF THE WORLD. 535 reports frequently include them all under the title " dried fish." Following their order in the Japanese customs-register, where they are usually designated with the epithet Hoshi, "dried," we find first : — (a) Iriko, Trepang, 1 sea-cucumber, sea-slug. Beche de Mer {Holo- thuria edulis). English consular reports mention this article either by its Japanese or French name. Iriko is found on all Japanese coasts. The value of the yearly exportation during the last five years averaged 216,973 yen. (b) Surume (OnycJwteutJiis Banksii). All cephalopods which are used in Japan and China for food are embraced in trade lists under the name ink-fish, Jap. Ika, and cuttlefish, Jap. Tako {Octo- pus). Surume heads the list in Japan ; Ika-surume {0>nmast replies), Tako, Shi-dako (Eledone), and Tachi-ika {Loligo and Loligopsis) are much used. Most of these creatures move about in shoals, coming and going often with arrow-like rapidity, and in some years appearing frequently on certain coasts, in others only in small numbers, changing their course, like other wandering marine animals. The average value of the shipments of these cephalo- pods from all Japanese ports during 1881-1885 was 705,110 yen. Besides these, quantities are eaten in the country itself. (c) Hoshi- Awabi, dried mussel of the ear-shell (Haliotis gigantea and H. japonica). The annual value of exports of these the most important Japanese mussels, amounts to 378,000 yen. To this must be added shells that bear mother of pearl, with a value of 18,000 to 20,000 yen. By far the greatest amount of Hoshi-Awabi is shipped from Yokohama. All other mussels that are exported are usually embraced in the term Hoshi-gai-rui, dried mussels. To these belong Hamaguri {Cytherea mereirix, Lin., C. lusoria, Chann.), Kaibashi-rui (species of arks), Aka-gai (Scapharca inflata, Reeve), and many others. (d) Hoshi-ebi, dried crabs. The English consular reports mention this article by the name of shrimps (Jap. Shiba-ebi) ; but there are many varieties. The amount exported annually is con- siderable (see Table IV.). (e) Fuka-no-hire, shark's-fins, a well-known delicacy of the Chinese. The mean value of the annual exportation of 1 881-188 5 was 57,107 yen. (_/") Shiwo-shake, salted salmon, chiefly from Yezo, where the Shake (Oncorhynchus Haberi, Hlgd.) and the Masu (0. Perryi, Brevoort) occur in great numbers, especially in the lower Ishi- kari. 1 The edible Holothuria, known by the Chinese name Trepang, are also gathered on the shores of the Malay Archipelago, and of many South Sea Islands, where they lie apparently motionless on sandy ground. Out of water, they die immediately and become a slimy mass. They must therefore be cut up at once, the digestive canal being taken out, and then they are dipped in boil- intr water and dried in the air. 536 TRADE AND COMMERCE. (g) Shiwo-tara, salted haddock {Gadus Brandtii, Hilgdf.) from Yezo. Numberless varieties of the herring family furnish fish-oil, Gioto or Uwo-no-abura, of which for about 146,000 yen goes annually to foreign countries, and the highly prized fish-guano, Jap. Ko- washi, also called Shime-kasu, i.e. pressed refuse. The outward trade of Japan is for the most part in foreign hands. Of its total exchanges in 1885, with a value, in round numbers, of G\\ million yen, only 574 million, i.e. about one-eleventh, passed through Japanese houses, and this small fraction refers almost wholly to the trade with China and Corea. In steamer communication with Japan, as in shipping generally, England stands far ahead of all other countries. It is followed by France, Germany, and the United States. As may be seen from Table II., the United States, France, and China consume more of the chief export articles than the British Empire. Germany ranks only sixth, but in importation has lately passed France and reached the fifth place. Table V. furnishes a view of the division of the chief export articles according to coun- tries. The value of the foremost purchaser of each article is printed in italics. The same has been done concerning importation, as re- presented in Table VIII. The lion's share here falls to England. Together with India (Bombay) it furnishes in the first instance the vast quantity of cotton yarn which Japan takes for weaving, as well as cotton fabrics themselves. It also far precedes all other countries in woollen cloths and blankets, and half- wool Italian cloth. Its competitor in woollen stuffs, Germany, furnishes the most flannel and half-silk stuffs. One of the favourite woollen articles, for women's chemises, is cochineal-red muslin. France sends most of this, from Rouen. Germany follows as a good second. Metal importation is mostly from England. China provides sugar, from Canton, Swatau, Amoy, and Formosa. Petroleum comes from North America. After insufficient harvests, India and Siam supply most of the demand for rice ; and great part of the tortoise- shell is sent by them, via Singapore. That the United States furnish the most leather, France the most wine, Belgium the most glass and glass-ware, Switzerland the largest number of watches, Italy the coral, is likewise to be seen from Table VIII. Of drugs and dye-stuffs England furnishes more than China and Germany, although the latter ships aniline dyes of the value of 93,000 yen to Japan. Spain is first in quicksilver and saffron ; Australia sends the wool which has been worked up since October, 1879, when the first cloth manufactory was established. It is situated at Senju near Tokio, having been set up by the Hartmann machine factory of Chemnitz at the instance of the government. It is under German management. When Japan was opened to foreign commerce, people in Christ- ian, industrial and commercial states indulged in golden ex- JAPAN IN THE COMMERCE OF THE WORLD. 537 pectations about this new field. They hoped that the efforts of the Japanese to appropriate occidental means of education, intercourse, and defence would soon extend to their manner of life, house- keeping, and clothing. In this confidence they ventured upon daring speculations, without remembering that the multitude possessed neither inclination nor means to forsake their old cus- toms. Side by side with highly respectable houses, in the treaty ports, many persons without resources or experience, or with elastic consciences, established themselves. As agents, they received, held, and stored all sorts of European and American manufactures on commission, with very little prospect of speedy sale. The storage charges grew to be enormous ; the manufacturer pressed them to sell ; and consequently the goods were often disposed of at public auction, with scarcely enough profit to cover their cost. In consequence of these unsound relations, many things, such as umbrellas, hats, and flannels, could be purchased cheaper from Japanese shopkeepers than in the land of their production. And it often happened, too, that the worst sort of goods came in this way into Japan, e.g. wretched shoes, which went to pieces after being worn a few times. These and various other obstacles long stood in the way of a healthy development of the import trade. And to exportation also there were many hindrances. In its foreign commerce Japan appears like a young colony going through a rapid transition in its economics. In the three decades of its freer development it has conquered many extra- ordinary difficulties in a most surprising manner, and has ex- hibited a vitality that is astounding. On several occasions there was cause to fear political and economical bankruptcy. Instead of this, the body politic has grown stronger and healthier, and the prospects of a flourishing development of intellectual and material life are greater than ever before. The financial difficulties culmi- nated at the time of the Satsuma rebellion (1877), when the national treasury was empty, and the negative exchanges of many years had caused a dangerous scarcity of cash. The government was compelled to issue a large amount of paper money, or Kin- satsu. This, in consequence of its incalculable sudden fluctuations, became a universal obstacle to trade. Cash had become so scarce that, for example, Enslie, the English consul at Niigata, expressed the opinion, in his report for October, 1878, that there were not twenty-five gold and silver yen pieces in circulation in the great Niigata-ken, with a population of i| millions. 1 Kinsatsu formerly stood at par — nay, was in the home trade even preferred to real money. Now its worth sank so much that one had to allow for the constant fluctuation of a considerable agio, which occasionally amounted to 180 per cent. Not until of late 1 " The only currency used here is paper money, gold and silver are never met with nowadays, and I think I may safely say that there are not twenty-five gold and silver yen in circulation throughout the whole Ken." 53S TRADE AND COMMERCE, years has the government succeeded in raising its credit again and making an end of this great burden to commerce. The most successful of the means employed lay near at hand, and consisted in putting a stop to the negative balances. The government had this in its own hands, in so far as it diminished its requirements, and therewith did away with a considerable part of the importation necessary to meet them. Those who, in reports from Japan, condemned the government for endeavouring to prevent the excess of importation over ex- portation, and pointed to England and other European countries, showed ignorance of the circumstances. It is true that under- balances are the rule in England, without causing disturbances and apprehension. But in her case the balances are made up by immense investments of capital in other countries, as can be seen in the statistics of commerce. For a country like Japan, on the contrary, where this is not the case, the relation of imports to exports furnishes the best measure of economic prosperity. Negative balances must here be covered by exportations of cash or by loans ; and if they continue to occur, must be regarded as a sign of impoverishment and decreasing productiveness. In the Table I. D, the under-balances are given with — , the positive annual balances with + . It is to be observed in this list that in the eighteen years of Meiji (peace, the designation of the very remarkable reign of Tennd Mutsu Hito) the sum of negative balances was 8y,yig,8y/ yen, but of positive only 36,370,757 yen. Of the latter, 27,763,507 yen fall to the last four years. To these favourable balances since 1882 corresponds the balance between the importation and exportation of precious metals, as given in Table VI., where it is shown that in the same period, 1882-1885, there was an excess of 7,822,545' yen of importation over ex- portation. It consisted chiefly in the importation of silver dollars, and served in part to equalize the excess of exported over im- ported goods. The foreign trade of Japan had become more and more obstructed under the Tokugawa Shogunate, so that the country's resources could not be symmetrically and vigorously developed. Since the restoration of Mikado rule, the country has become astonishingly more productive, and consequently consumes more, although the mining of gold and silver — formerly the principal source of business with foreign lands — yields but light returns. In the period of five years 1871-1875 (see Table III. B), the average annual value of exports was 18,577,056 yen. Ten years later, in the same interval, between 1880 and 1886, it had risen to 34,454,812 yen, almost double what it was before. Countries which export one article almost exclusively are placed in a bad position when this fails or sinks in value, as has been abundantly proved recently by Nevada with its mining, the Canary Islands with their cochineal-raising, and many tropical colonies JAPAN IN THE COMMERCE OF THE WORLD. 539 with their chief product, raw sugar. In Japan, the products of silk-culture and tea-raising in the five years 1871-1875 furnished not less than 77*90 per cent, in value, that is, over three-fourths of the total exportation ; but in the period 1881-1885, despite an absolute increase, only 6466 per cent. This proportionate decrease, as compared with the almost doubled total, falls to tea. Japanese tea has only one purchaser, so that it would be altogether market- less in case of a, change in the American taste. The decrease, from 3 1 '44 per cent, to 18 '05 per cent, in its share of the total ex- portation, and the corresponding increase on the part of other articles, are therefore favourable signs. Further increase and strengthening of Japan's exporting capa- bility may be expected from the improvement of waste lands and forests by good farming and greater transportation facilities, as well as from the continued development of industrial art and branches of labour. Many obstacles remain yet to be surmounted ; but a government which works together with the people for an acknowledged end, and has already overcome greater difficulties, will gain its purpose here also. During recent years the hope has often been expressed in mercantile circles that the opening of new ports and the repeal of existing restraints to intercourse would bring about a new revival of the foreign trade of Japan ; but I do not at all agree with this. The country does not possess an unknown background with concealed treasures, for raising which the advent of foreign mer- chants are alone necessary; nor a population which does not buy imported articles simply because of its distance from the treaty ports. Goods go easily and cheaply, by means of Japanese steamers, to all ports, and from them to the interior, wherever they arc in demand. As was pointed out in vol. i., the question of completely opening Japan has often been weighed by the representatives of foreign powers and the Mikado's government. Political and material considerations of an important character which are con- nected with the work of consular jurisdiction have hitherto stood in the way. The Japanese government demands, first of all, the abolition of this system and the subjection of foreigners to the laws of the country. Not only judiciousness, but also its dignity and self-respect, demand that this point be insisted upon ; and there is scarcely any doubt but that this view will be universally recognised and admitted in the approaching revision of the treaties. STATISTICS. 542 STATISTICS. I. Value of the Exports and Imports of Japan, Exports IM- Yokohama. Kobe-Osaka. Nagasaki. Hakodate. Yokohama. Kobe-Osaka. Year. Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen. 1S6S 17,698.406 388,096 1,988,190 360,441 12,397,149 821,904 1S69 9,083,302 815,674 1,323,268 263,401 12,617,174 2,087,052 1S70 11,331,482 2,399,567 1,325,539 86,658 23,428,965 5,133,605 1871 14,431,486 2,081,790 2,379,946 291,583 14,445,231 1,739,342 1S72 15,095,218 5.678,224 2,742,786 416,717 20,063,125 4.246,779 1873 15,335,249 3,355,776 2,002,815 447,610 19,387,052 6,263,129 1874 13,062,984 3,621,889 1,816,276 278,874 16,390.822 4.958,433 1875 12,466,654 2,987,378 2,117,487 395,997 22,035,450 5,870,307 1876 21,431,741 3,492,305 1,824,711 476,401 18,537,643 4,136,663 1877 15,628,337 4,7S6,i7i 2,054.925 483,047 20.754.757 4,727,512 1878 15,226,592 6,594,048 2,398,503 721,542 24,619,142 6,448,624 1879 18,870,273 5,801,594 1,976,766 692,524 23,226,010 7,571,494 18S0 18,573,577 5,791,792 2,298,467 749,262 25,940,356 8.736,292 1881 21,135,376 5,876,047 2,381,605 826,374 21,291,958 8,393,185 1S82 26,659,807 6,757,624 3,313,390 504,953 20,119,061 7,884,481 1883 25,685,064 6,464,835 3,106,767 436,75o 18,844,810 8,255,327 18S4 21,416,961 7.325,491 3,772,513 378,913 19.039,991 8,841,126 1S85 23,850,398 8,059,091 3,496,261 681,294 18,630,379 8,525,147 II. The Foreign Trade of Japan A. Exports to 1881. 1882. ;88 3 . 1884. 1885. Total. Average. Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen. United States 11,056,465 14.253,292 13,247.840 13,107,233 15,613,869 67,278,339 13,455,668 France . . 8,332,562 10,313,970 9,713.222 6,778,097! 6,735,912 41,974,441 8,394,888 China. . . 5,558,4S3 5,301,399 5,482,936 6,o45,357[ 7,655,469 30,043,644 6,008,729 England . . 3,5*4,477 4,981,546 4,832,008 3,801,731 2,411,979 19,541,741 3,908,348 India and Siam . . 122,971 360,291 410,263 527,681 482.084 1,913,290 382,658 Germany 177.407 458,627 245,765 511,565 463,933 1,857,297 371,459 Australia. . 148,933 160,333 434,6i8 245,185 284,236 1,273,305 254,661 Italy . . . 403, 1 38 3S J .7i3 140,558 65,740 120,594 1,081,743 216,349 Russia . . 73,835 99,492 169,226 144,557 246,292 733,786 146,757 Corea . . . 126,981 64,085 47,369 174,452 229,600 640,397 128,097 Austria . . 96,080 121,049 23,767 76,129 21,607 338,632 67,726 Belgium . . 3,806 793 6,950 3,362 68,270 83,181 16,636 Switzerland . 729 21,708 i,9i4 44,060 68,411 13,682 Holland . . 5,837 8,985 3,434 2,409 42,526 63,191 12,638 OtherExports 597,829 738,513 913,653 1,532,932 1,688,450 5,471,377 1,094,275 Total . . 30,219,443 37,235,776 35,693,523 33,016,430 36,108,886 172,162,77534,472,555 STATISTICS. 543 FROM 1868-1SS5, AT THE SEPARATE TREATY PORTS. FORTS. Total Value of Difference between Imports and Exports. Nagasaki. Hakodate. Exports. Imports. Trade. Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen. 1,774,998 2,609,465 2,499,857 1,545-432 1,856,549 1,927,761 1,550,063 1,368,569 782,444 1,565,838 1,474,954 1,706,078 ',277,396 983,164 1,156,782 867,617 855,742 i,i3Q,324 6.320 4o24 58,214 1 5,600 24,988 32,247 16,419 37,762 20,088 14,628 13,334 4,187 221,704 128,273 7,4-7 4,378 5.004 6,765 15,553-473 12,908,978 14,543,013 17,968,609 17.026,647 21,142,015 18,780,079 1 7,967,93o 27.225,157 22,976,416 25,524.571 27,388,961 27.413,160 30,219,443 37,235,776 35,693-523 33,016,430 36,108,886 10,693,072 20,783,633 33.741,637 21.916,728 26,174,815 27,617,264 22,924,587 29,332.447 23.4/8,308 27,062,797 32,563,265 32,508,369 36,176,087 30,797,470 29,168,041 27,973,532 28,821,027 28,328,50s 26,246.545 33,692,611 48,284,650 39,885,337 43,201,462 48,759,279 41,704,666 47,300,377 50,703,465 50,039,213 58.087,836 59,897,330 63,589,247 61,016,913 66,403,817 63,667,055 61,837,457 64,437,394 - - - + 4,860,401 — 7,874,655 — 19,198,625 — 3,948,119 — 9.148,168 — 6,475,249 — 4.l44,5o8 — II. 364.517 + 3,746.849 — 4,086,381 — 7,039,294 — 5,119,408 — 8,762,926 — 578,027 + 8,067,735 + 7,719,991 + 4,l95-402 + 7,78o,379 DURING THE LAST FIVE YEARS. B. Imports fkom 1881. 1882. 1883. 1884. 1885. Total. Average. Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen. England . . 16,364,741 13,956,049 12,744.944 12,729,853 12,415,422 68,211,009 13,642,202 China. . . 5,205,584 6,35°o8l 5,425.440 6,5 '7,742 5,763,050 29,262,197 5,852,439 United States i,7S5,ioS 3,106,758 3,187,114 2,466,279 2,726,185 I3,27L444 2,654,289 India and Siam . . 2,209,158 2,304,506 2,453,283 2,342,427 3,396,965 12,706,339 2,581,268 France . . 3,191,050 1,461,085 1,865,665 1,564,480 1,329,866 9,412,146 1,882,429 Germany. . 857,731 1,193,395 1,416,510 2,310,492 1,665,653 7,443,781 1,488,756 Switzerland. 376,590 32l,98l 253,023 287,772 306,255 1,545,621 309,124 Corea . . . 225,325 514,652 189,281 244,787 239,515 1,413,560 282,712 Belgium . . 389,588 128,932 268,913 202,653 317,683 I.307,779 261,554 Italy . . . 176,933 111,785 155,405 88,879 95,998 629.OOO 125,800 Australia. . 71,327 74,302 87,170 25,589 71,322 329,710 65,942 Spain . . . 17.079 18,063 17,385 17,705 29,901 100,133 20,027 Denmark 10,814 13,408 I4.S44 15,961 23,286 78,313 15,663 Holland . . 8,468 12,415 15,056 17,397 20,105 73,441 14,688 Other coun- tries . , 133,299 114,981 68,780 233,898 166,817 717,775 143,555 Total . . 31,022,795 29,682,693 28,162, S13 29,065,814 28,568,023 146,502,138 29,340,448 544 ST A TISTICS. III. a. Summary of the most Important Articles of Silk Refuse Year. Raw Silk. of all Kinds. Silkworms' Eggs. Total Silk Industry. Tea. Copper. Coals. Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen. 1885 13,033,872 1,393,577 SS^Sj 1 14,460,780 6,815,295 1,825,065 2,000,000 1884 11,007,172 2,216,323 40,708 13,264,203 5,794,159 I ,386,799 1,828,264 18S3 16,183,550 2,285,325 55,287 18,524,162 6,074,312 724,819 1,373,570 1882 16,232,148 2,791,590 122,485 19,146,223 6,983,920 827,181 1,197,053 1881 10,647,310 2,456,904 311,14013,415,354 7,020,859 709,846 1,084,345 1880 8,606,866 1,467,277 991,021 11,065,164 7,497,922 853,717 1,085,537 1879 9,734,534 1,411,856 582,62311,729,013 7,445,489 508,842 754,669 1878 7,889,446 896,458 650,101 9,436,005 4,248,173 852,157 833,516 1877 9,626,331 423,107 346,99810,396,506 4,409,320 828,111 717,819 1876 13,257,742 1,111,559 1,902,271 16,271,372 5,427,218 289,708 765,726 1875 5,424,916 563,264 474,921 6,463,101 6,915,692 425,160 871,795 1874 5,3oi,755 318,560 731,275 6,351,590 7,792,244 559,397 551,360 1873 7,150,605 362,438 3,032,460:10,545,503 4,398,711 765,815 489,278 1872 7,227,287 911,856 ^963,159 9,152,302 5,445,438 1,353,545 324,000 1S71 8,168,735 288,905 2,184,688:10,642,328 4,651,292 416,630 470,600 1870 4,929,800 388,573 3,473,150 8,591,523 1,088,863 461,093 144,860 1869 4,603,510 65,077 2,019,130 6,687,717 2,019,130 168,202 79,610 1868 6,253,472 407,590 3,712,35110,373,413 3,084,580 28,226 84,279 III. B. (a.) Totals, (b.) Avi lRage Value and (V.) Pi iRCENTA GE OF THE FlV e-year Periods 1871-75 AND 18 81-85, a. 1881—85 67,104,052 H,I43,7I9 573,521 78,810,72232,688,545 5,473,7io 7,483,232 1871—75 b. 33,323,298 2,445,023 8,386,503 43,154,824 29,203,177 3,520,547 2,707,033 1881—85 13,420,810 2,228,745 114,650 15,762,144 6,537,709 1,094,742 1,496,646 1871—75 6,664,659 489,005 1,677,301 8,630,965 5,840,635 704,109 541,407 1881—85 38-91 % 6-46 % 0-33 % 4571 % 18-95 % 3-29 % 4'34 % 1871—75 35-88 % 2-63 % 9-03 % 46-46 % 31-44 % 379 % 2-91 % STATISTICS. 545 Export since 1868 — according to Class and Value. Tobacco Vegetable Tallow. Camphor. Rice. Mush- rooms. Algns and Kan ten. Sea Animals. Objects of Art Industry. Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen. 389,287 371,878 558,646 766,759 334,292 998,507 2,070,777 1,706,680 239,306 136,633 549,503 2,169,942 321,245 672,518 1,436,821 1,769,044 121,988 39,089 707,993 1,000,941 337,797 588,160 1.556,323 1,566,285 76,217 326,364 869,126 1,652,040 332,103 741,389 1,441,504 607,529 237,616 301,148 706,135 261,735 381,468 1,172,899 1,104,438 1,918,678 204,168 245,968 596,628 210,405 340,700 802,478 1,358,186 1,427,287 UI,653 329,974 455,289 375,943 245,581 483,934 1,194,650 1,097,724 106,538 99,909 390,044 4,644,280 194,506 685,381 1,062,695 470,317 229,288 164,977 240,065 2,260,936 337,o6i 641,336 857,811 476,937 83,496 177,398 182,477 810,760 343,231 977,699 952,975 328,811 201,148 186,244 136,073 17,031 222,700 536,373 683,007 558,422 259,687 215,642 119,812 839,619 226,937 449,233 903,773 445,224 274,529 377,6/0 71,026 521,709 141,250 727,472 770,581 608,782 669,340 347,542 152,879 3,122,9.31 82,030 447,391 625,778 517,923 269,359 161,834 138,575 — H9,544 510,200 332,215 79,590 94,112 64,190 228,889 — 185,123 341,320 405,027 uncertain 21,806 98,402 168,202 — 131,556 426,176 183,941 j. 41,357 308,468 77P97 1 16,017 276,979 280,491 „ THE I 'XPORT ( 3F ABOVE ARTIC LES ON THE TO r rAL Exp ORT OF AND ( "ALCULA TED FROM ABOVI : Statements. 1,064,414 1,175,112 3,391,403 5,851,417 1 1,706,905 4,173,473 7,609,863 7,568,216 2,574,o63 1,288,932 618,365 4,501,290 832,461 2,670,659 3,315,354 2,209,941 212,883 235,022 678,281 1,170,283 341,381 834,695 1,521,973 1,513,643 5I4,8i3 257,786 123,673 900,258 164,492 534,132 663,071 441,988 0-62 % o-68 % I - 97 % 3"39 % 0-99 % 2-42 % 441 % 4'39 % 277 % 1 '39 % 0-67 % 4-85 % o-8 9 % 2-8 7 % 3 - 57 % 2-38 % II. N N 546 STATISTICS. Chief Articles of Export, and their Value, during the Years 1881-85. Articles. Silk Silkworms' Eggs . Tea Copper . . . . Antimony . . . Sulphur .... Sulphuric Acid Coals 1 Wood Tobacco . . . . Vegetable Tallow . Camphor .... Ginseng . . . . Rice Wheat and Flour . Mushrooms . . . Alga? Kanten .... Cuttle-fish . . . Molluscs .... Trepang .... Prawns .... Fish Shark's-fins . . . Fish Oil ... . Skins and Furs Rags Cotton Goods . . Silk Goods . . . Clay-wares . . . Lacquered Goods . Fans Screens .... Paper Bronze Bamboo-wares . . 1885. 1884. 1883. 1882. 1881. Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen. 14,427,449 13,223,495 18,468,875 19,023,738 13,104,214 33,331 40,708 55,287 122,485 311,140 6,815,295 5,794,159 6,074,312 6,983,902 7,020,859 1,825,065 1,386,799 724,819 827,181 709,846 183,290 73,847 140,245 IOI,llO 48,842 J 37,932 66,645 "9,765 31,224 65,931 66,306 65,969 25,474 40,359 "1,391 2,000,000 1,828,264 1,373,570 1,197,053 1,084,345 86,483 48,003 7-2,737 195,396 127,660 389,287 239,306 121,988 76,217 237,616 371,878 136,633 39,089 326,364 301,148 558,646 549, 5°3 707,993 869,126 706,135 94,661 66,318 87,069 94,909 36,558 766,759 2,169,942 1,000,94 r 1,652,040 261,735 356,391 246,245 593,6n 54,576 6,097 334,292 321,245 337,797 332,103 381,468 652,787 363,434 345,755 530,154 839,852 345,720 309,084 242,405 211,235 333,047 903,742 789,103 802,986 648,681 381,037 387,731 369,293 300,578 285,920 235,523 177,286 150,048 205,199 271,883 280,448 73,967 44,76o 39,124 35,052 15,951 84,633 84,893 59,49i 48,865 39,219 63,284 70,052 50,063 51,972 50, 1 S4 99,667 312,984 153,782 105,782 58,354 220,142 134,656 48,676 uncertain uncertain 243,077 192,374 40,682 22,606 6,089 176,814 104,617 61,910 32,002 30,458 54,547 24,02 1 22,727 68,560 81,909 695,269 525,927 543,763 578,636 772,127 467,521 451,662 519,720 555,299 525,382 107,945 94=992 89,060 156,854 267,433 148,640 143,496 102,216 87,463 100,979 102,329 130,372 235,935 173,329 126,276 125,535 129,163 99,254 87,157 92,903 105,986 78,352 126,816 82,369 80,227 1 Export and Supply of Foreign Vessels included. STATISTICS. £ 3 >< NO n CO f>i O 3*T 1 1 1 1 1 oo <^ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 O l-O i 2-1 i i r i i iounco>-rvO>-o Ot-^ CO ON co coco On O "-o | N N« 0\f)tO | ^^ CO ON LO o oi p 3 U c o > O O O -3- | O CO OnCO 1 1 oo" o" -T 1 1 M 01 1 m On O lo I $3 1 l I l CO 1 " 1 01 CO On co co co 1 i-T 1 i-T ~" CO CTiNtJ-CvOMn 01 ■3- _, _, _, o r>. 1 01^ "»_ co co 0„ I O, ! Tp oP oP 1 o" CO O O o ON 01 01 'in c >< r^oo OI CO 01 O 01 N ON 01 1 IK-J-" 1 1 O O "i -4" 153 II CO O o o 1 - 1 nO 00 1 1 1 l§" uoOO NO O 01 01 OO 01 u-iO uo «h u-1 CO 1 ~ -T 1 co CO 0) On 01 vo" 01 c > CO 00 lO — VO coco On. 1 1^1 •"$"] 1 ill 1 1 1 1 s Pl 1 ^t 1 o NO Mill" 1 1 1 1 1 N mOO "l M lOCO O On — O -*■ -+ — "^ 1 -T oCno" M rf 1 1 O" O oo 01 *£ oo 01 o f I O O f 1 OMfl O lo ^00 O co 1 c i "in ^k -T oo'co" CO M ' 01 CO -3- z 2\ \h i ON 1 ON 1 CO 01 On O ro 1 1 ^°- 1 1 1 ON i- 1 1 01 Tj-^LO^-ONt^OO— •1 m M N m LOCO -3" lo 01 | 0>. t\CO t^ 01 0_ lo CO 01__ 1 O fC oP O* OO OO w 0"no" M N IflM Tf ^ - CO CO On CO o India and Siam. 3 > *+CO LOO M "*, 1 lo m" oP oP 1 CO 1 1 r 1 1 1 CO 01 1 rl 1 u-i O 1 1 s i r 01 0V 01 ►- O LOO LO O co oi loco O r^ i coco n inNO | | O0^ 1 co lo On co 1 1 ON CO O oP ON England. c 1) > On 00 OO \0 ro Tf m On M -< o^"* "IN On qo 01 loo On O 1 "t t£ lo --p lo 00 ■ i- 01 ON lo 1 c\) o lo oi =o O oi ■*■ ^8 1 1*1 r n- 1 O O NO Iff 1 M iv, nO -t t< <~l « t\ 01 1 Op O" 1 1 1 CO \J. 1 CO s CONOOO^O 01 ts» — CO o KNO^Q n OnCO On co n c^o o^ q,^ m m on 1 WClM >ji ^ O LO cv, « oo ON oP o a S pc- a m > Tf — CO 00 -*\o 01 co lo rf >j->co "^ COCO O ON -f -to" | s w co 1 1 1 II 1 1 1 1 1 1 01 — 01 NO O - . . o"m | CO oiloO'-inOp^coOOn On 0O PI "t C^ N t t> M locoCnoolocJn OO o" -f co~co~ o" oo o" o UO f] CO 1-11-1 *1 "H i-i 01 0J ON LO CO NO" .3 U > />* CSts. O <\ Os Pq K> S S Oo 01 ^ Ov Os On l O..> -t^O^fN s ONOo W-J Sj On. "V \0, o' co «l<\ S 1 ** o~ ex pP pT,£o °^ ■£ '"o s" £> t-C 1 jC 1 s" NO i^. t^ Cn[^ On Oj ^. s °0 °1^00_ *0 1 rX.°0 1 1 1 Oo'Cq oq — S ON ON o LO LO o. S 2 Dr. d u > > O -. SNO O M J« O -c (\,\o cn — ^ O t^NO ^ on O Q lr> Ov CO ? ! 0^ — ^1- 01 vO 01 1 1 1 *f 1 1 'tvO VO ON Cn 00 ** C7N •* ^ 01 NO « ro ^ 1 * 1 1 z 1 4 — oo on°o m O r^ t^ _ co ^O *" — lo i-O N 'OON co oi 1 1 oC -T <> cn ^f 1 t£ o" 1 1 N in fl \ N ' lo On a o o a OJ "c3 > o wS . ."§ .=2 . . .1 . ^« -S3 S *m . . . T3 ...... ^ • • § p • ■ • ■ £ 548 STATISTICS. Comparative Table of the Import and Export of Gold and Silver in Coin and Bars. Export. Import. Balance. Year. Gold. Silver. Total. Gold. Silver. Total. — Export. + Import. 1872 2,684,786 1,796,109 4,480,896 3,691,510 3,691,510 — 798,386 1873 2,614,055 2,508,872 5,122,927 2,013,907 1,066,635 3,080,542 — 2,042,386 1874 8,126,290 5,868,912 13,995,202 2,700 1,069,031 1,071,731 — 12,923,471 1875 10,603,345 4,060,626 14,663,971 26,515 271,807 298.322 — 14,365,649 1876 5,872,356 4,803,345 10,675,701 721,465 7,545,776 8,267,241 — 2,408,460 1877 6,221,777 3,219,494 9,441,271 162,281 2,OII,2i8 2,173,499 — 7,267,772 1878 4,601,083 3,727,570 8,328,653 243 2,188,858 2,189,101 — 6,139,551 1879 4,749,635 8,029,229 12,778,864 731,666 2,403,138 3,134,804 — 9,644,060 1880 5,888,174 7,334,819 13,222,993 20,618 3,617,612 3,638,230 — 9,584,763 1881 2,246,889 5,243,658 7,490,547 150 1,855,997 1,856,147 — 5,634,401 1882 1,251,035 3,179,162 4,430,198 500 6,160,224 6,160,724 + 1,730,527 1883 1,009,570 2,146,995 3,156,565 559 5,450,942 5,451,501 + 2,294,935 1884 1,423,654 3,581,418 5,005,072 299,202 5,312,557 5,6n,759 + 606,687 1885 492,636 3,763,809 4,256,446 608,813 6,938,028 7,546,841 + 3,290,396 Total 57,785,285 59,264,018 177,049,306 4,588,619 49,583,333 54,171,952 — 62,886,454 Average 4,127,520 4,233,144 8,360,665 327,758 3,541,667 3,869,425 — 449 1 , 890 Summary of the most Important Articles of Import since 1868, and their value in yen. Arms Various Cotton Half- Woollen and Petro- European Various Year. Yarn and Woollen Goods. Metals. Ammuni- leum. Sugar. and Asiatic Stuffs. Goods. tion. American Goods. Goods. Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen. 1868 4,722,583 2,610,838 693,780 2,730,651 345,267 1,491,045 2,751,476 1869 5,251,324 — 2,010,553 632,255 1,857,635 — 1,597,944 1,776,690 5,828,485 1870 7,274,453 — 1,995,364 320,681 206,908 — 2,482,293 3,231,007 2,083,460 1871 8,011,478 — 2,056,789 536,291 293,120 — 3,308,549 2,398,433 312,415 1872 10,065,155 1,237,166 6,335,014 416,642 83,617 89,694 2,266,880 1,600,233 1,026,666 1873 9,793,488 2,425,867 4,879,140 451,202 577,645 323,374 2,108,855 5,332,H5 574,226 1874 9,108,750 1,730,525 1,588,896 1,131,185 20,885 292,646 2,579,4o6 3,642,626 1,155,656 1875 8,974,037 2,026,532 3,846,636 1,043,382 44,576 590,032 3,482,588 4,441,537 999,903 1876 9,052,708 840,561 3,444,494 948,652 5 ',959 455,792 2,743,820 4,021,959 947,953 1877 8,353,675 1,302,923 4,071,155 1,620,712 461,729 602,725 2,872,148 4,698,436 846,722 1878 12,739,219 1,156,906 4,636,752 1,888,006 296,878 1,856,881 3,073,242 6,144,012 759,049 1879 12,111,886 1,307,478 4,172,513 1,644,307 45,494 2,185,2233,422,051 5,958,610 1,400,296 1880 13,443,808 1,881,770 4,212,377 2,153,872 191,378 1,400,378 3,619,001 3,787,162 5,638,017 l88l 12,511,287 1,237,921 3,344,79o 2,042,424 50,659 978,933 3,816,8074,900,291 1,764,700 1882 10,852,742 1,011,225 1,838,588 !, 949, 903 178,660 2,330,905 4,529,6396,146,332 954,248 1883 9,037,504 1,086,480 2,478,306 2,033,263 97,020 2,456,261 4,381,303 4,803,271 1,764,700 1884 8,200,745 534,3H2,966,7o6 2,054,689 201,749 I,773,36l 5,953,466 5,330,067 971,587 1885 8,881,706 954,536,2,023,612 2,628,449 357,444 1,667,722 4,654,168 ? ? STATISTICS. 549 > w D > Q CO w D O U O H O ^ 5. CO £ CO co O fi CO N- Cl 1-1 O co O t^ o o O O CI M — t^ « coO M - O O N 00 CI WKN w cxT >* b oo rh -vt- "~> . O co "i — • 'j-.co -^J- {■*» ON i °0 co co ^" O ►* CI O t^ OO CI co unco -ti^-tOM i-" ^-^00 — NtO N O O iniOKflO n co | O^^o^-^i-^r^tscxcicico — i_o — lo O ISO OO Cv. n co r^ iriK - - -t io ci ci — mm isoo ri ioo O COO ■<*■ — ^ d I -3" M_ op ncc ' cP oo rOOvO C) \fc U-> ex loO lo -i ri w ri ri o) n loo Is — O Ooc O 'rO lo m 00 O "--fciOOscOi-iOOLo *0 ONO tONCOO lAM CI O C! 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Lo r o ^~ >• ■* -"" s " l ^ c ^3" coci) io^K CxOq e> CK io Ck O C\ O fsNi Ki °o OO^N^ -^- S ^1 CX^c^Q oo" cCco" s"v^~ >f iA~ s ^cT \S >-0 Ov S Co W-nCV; Or) ~~> C\| CVj' s ' ^ -1- Ix. r^.co mO 'o O CX ^o io -t > c- ii W-j O CO co Ov O coO io t\ ij-v c\P t\i co i- " U fi fi c^:^ 5 > — — ^ ci S C ci tf) S o S3 in in S rt o rt Uh ^ K " -Sir "5 p u 5 S " ri °^ ri M w 8is ci ci bo — nd TEA CULTURE. Geograph. Anstall von c U<>02rapl\. Anstali van 138 140 JAPAN: MAP SHOWING MINING DISTRICTS Srale]:8.500noo I.— ENGLISH AND LATIN INDEX. Abies Alcockiana, 235. bicolor, 235. firma, 214, 235. Jesoensis, 236. Menziesii, 236. polita, 235. Tsuga, 214. Veitchii, 235. Abietinea?, 235-238. Acanthopax ricinifolia, 248. Acclimatisation, 274. Acer cratregifolium, 285. japonicum, 252. palmatum, 251. polymorphum, 45, 272. Acerinece, 251. Aconitum Fischeri, 135. Actinidia, 257. arguta. 92, 258. polygama, 92, 258. volubilis, 217, 258, 336. Actinodaphne lancifolia, 245. yErugo nobilis, 441. ^Esculus turbinata, 179, 218, 252, 285. Agalmatolith, 426. Agar- Agar, 81, 109. Agaricus, 78. Agate, 314. Ailanthus glandulifera, 254. glandulosa, 160. Akebia lobata, 91. quinata, 91. Alaria esculenta, St. Albizzia Julibrissin, 250. Alder, 239, 335. Aleurites cordata, 156, 244. Alga?, 77, S0-S2. jelly, 81. glue, St. Alimenta composita, 94. Allium ascalonicum, 77- cepa, 76. porrum, 77. sativum, 76. Almandin, 425. Alnus firma, 336. incana, 336. japonica, 239. maiitima, 239. Alocasia macrorrhiza, 67. Aloe wood, 526. Aloexylon aquilaria, 526. Alum, 312. Amaksa stone, 312, 473, 474, 485- Amethyst, 425. Amygdalus Persica, 85, 265. Anacardiacea;, 251. Analyses of : Ame, 105 ; bronze, 450, 451 ; coals, 309 ; lac, 347 ; Mirin, 102 ; Miso, 107 ; oil seeds, 157, 162; pulse, 63 ; raw ma- terials of the porce- lain industry, 4S4- 488 ; Sake, 102 ; Shochu, 102 ; Shoyu (soy), 105 ; tea, 130. Angel, 446. Angelica anomala, 135. refracta, 135. Animals, fabulous, 323. of good fortune, 423. Anise, 72. Annual i, 192. Antherea Yama-mai, 205, 206, 209. Anthistiria arguens, 272. Antimonite, 305. grey, 305. Antimony, 305. Anvil, 427. Ape, the, 1S5. Aphananthe aspera, 243, 297. Aphis chinense, 180. Apios Fortunei, 64. Apium graveolens, 72. Apple, apple tree, 84. Arabesques, 321, 369. Arable land, 212. Aracese, 67. Arachis hypogsea, 56, 153. Aralia cordata, 73- japonica, 273, 2S4. Araliacere, 248. Arks, 5 3 5. 551 Architecture, 318. Arita-Porcelain, 469, 473. Armorial animals, 323. Armour, 432. Armourer, 430. Arrow-head, 64. Arsenal, 511. Artemisia vulgaris, 135. Artisan, 7. Arum esculentum, 67. Arundinaria japonica, 22S. Arundo Bambos, 227. Asbolan, 304, 49S. Astragalus lotoides, 42. Aucuba japonica, 2S2-284. Autumn plants, the seven, 272. Avena sativa, 50. Aventurine lacquer, 36S. Avenue trees (umbrageous), 273- Ayuthia, 520. Azalea indica, 263, 270. Bamboo cane, 77, 172, 227, 231, 356. mats, 171. uses of, 230. grass, 218. groves, 216. square, 228. Bambusa agrestis, 227. arundinacea, 227. aurea, 288. Fortunei, 288. Kumasasa, 288. nigra, 2S8. puberula, 228. pygmaea, 288. quadrangularis, 22S. spinosa, 227. viridis, 28S. Bambusacea?, 227. Banana, 168. fabric, 37S. Bark paper, 352, 356. manufacture of, 399. peeler, 343. silk, 203. 552 ENGLISH AND LATIN INDEX. Barley, 6, 37, 50. Broussonetia papyrifera, 165, Celastrus articulata, 253. malt, 104. 393. 401. orixa, 255. naked, 37. paper, 401, 403. Celery, 72. Baros camphor, 145. Brush, 354, 416. Celtia cantans, 268. Basins, 468. Buckwheat, 37, 55. Celtis sinensis, 243. Batata (sweet potato), 65. Buddhas, 444. Cement (putty, lute), 357. Batavia, 521. Buhl work, 422. Cephalopods, 535. Bean, common, 61. Burin, 427. Cephalotaxusdrupeacea, 157, curd, 107. Buxaceae, 244. . 2 3 1 -: Egyptian, 271. Buxus japonica, 225, 244, Cera japonica, 158. Pythagoras, 271. 399- Ceramics, 452-488. sauce (soy), 105. sempervirens, 244. Cercidiphyllum japonicum, Bear, 185. 260, 285, 356. Beating metal, 428. Cabinet work, 335, 336. Cereals, 37. Beche de mer, 535. Caesalpinia Sappan, 177. Cervus Sika, 185. Beech tree, 242. Cakes, 36. Chain armour, 432. oil, 157. Calabash, or flask melon, Chalk powder, 405. Beet root, 75. 72. Chamaecyparis obtusa, 215, Bellows, box, 295, 428. Caladium, 61. 216, 232, 355. Bells, 436, 446. Calamagrostis Hakonensis, pisifera, 216, 232, 355. temple, 436. 179, 437, 442. Chamaarops excelsa, 1 70, Benni-seed, 154. Caligula japonica, 210. 231, 2S8. Benzoin sericeum, 245. Calopanax ricinifolia, 248. Change of fields in rice land, Thunbergii, 245. Calumbak, 526. 44. Berries, 88. Camellia japonica, 152, 225, Charcoal, 215, 354. Beta vulgaris, 75. 256, 273, 276, 277, magnolia wood, 354. Betula alba, 239. 279= 337- Chasing, 429. nlmifolia, 239. charcoal, 454. Chestnut, 93. Betulacese, 239. in Europe, 278. -brown lacquer, 353. Bignonia catalpa, 246. oil, 152. spinner, 210, 211. tomentosa, 245. Sasanqua, 153, 256. Chilies, 74. Biota orientalis, 232. the'ifera, III, 257. Chimney, 294. Birch, 239. Camphor, 143-150. China grass, 167. Birds, 185. laurel, 225. Chisel, 427. Biscuit, 543. manner of extraction of, Chrysanthemum indicum, Bivoltini, 192. 147. . 272,277, 371. Blaze, 203. tree, 225. sinense, 272. Bletia hyacinthina, 588. Canavalia incurva, D. C, 61. Cichorium endivia, L., 73. Boehmeria nivea, 167, 378, lineata, D. G, 61. Cinnabar, 353. 395- Cannabis sativa, 75, 165, lacquer, 352, 371. tenacissima, 167, 166. Cinnamomum camphora, Bowl, 468, 472. Cantharellus cibarius, 79- 143, 150, 225, 276. Bombyx mori, 186, 1 90. Capacity, Measures of, 9, pedunculatum, 244. Bonbonniere, 468. 5°7- zeylanicum, 75- Bonin islands, 14. Capea elongata, 81. Citron, 90. Borax, 494, 499. flabelliformis, 81. Citrullus edulis, "Ji. Borneo camphor, 145. Caprifoliacece, 247. Citrus aurantium, 89. Bottles, 468. Capsicum annuum, 74. decumana, 90. Bonrre, 198. Carpinus japonica, 240. japonica, 90. Brake fern, 68, 77. Carriages, 509. medica, 90. Branch lac, 344. Carrot, 73- nobilis, 89. Brasenia peltata, 70. Carthamin, 177, 182, 354. sinensis, 89. Brass, 439. Carthamus tinctorius, 176. trifoliata, 255, 262. Brassica chinensis, 70, 152. Castanea vulgaris, 93, 179, Clavaria Botrytis, 79. oleracea, 70. 210, 215, 241, 467. flava, 79. rapa, 70. Casting, metal, 428. Clay, 454. Braziers, 444. Catalpa Kaempferi, 246. porcelain, 460. Bread, 36. Cathay, 515. wares, 453. Breakfast, 47. Cats, 185. Clay-ware industry, 452-4S8. Breastplate, 432. Cattle, 184. in Kioto, 476. Bricks, 454. raising, 183. in Owari, 478. Brocade, 379, 381, 386, 388. Catty, 508. Cleyera japonica, 216, 256. banner, 386. Cedrela chinensis, 254. Cloaks, waterproof, 414. Bronze, 440. Celastiineae, 253. Closet manure, 27-29. ENGLISH AND LATIN INDEX. 553 Clothing, 386, 405. Cup, 468. Earthenware, 454-463. Clouds (ornamentation), 369. Cupressinese, 232. Earths, 312. Clupea harengus, 29. Cupulifereae, 240. Ebenacea?, 247. Coal, 305-309. Curcuma longa, 76, 179- Edgeworthia chrysantha, Cobalt, 304. Cuttle fish, 535. 402. earthy, 304. Cycas revoluta, 231, 335. paper, 402, 403. glaze, 304. Cynosurus coracanus, L., 51. papyrifera, 395, 396. oxide, 49S. Cypress, 216, 221, 232. Edible fruits, 82-94. Coccus Pelah, 164. Cytherea lusoria, 535. Egg mushroom, 79. Cock, 185. meretrix, 535. plant, 69, 73. Cocons perces, 203. -shell porcelain, 471. Cocoon, 193. Damascening, 429. Elseagnus latifolia, 276. double, 198, 203. in meshes, 429. radicans, 2S7. Coinage, 503-507. raised and flat, 429. reflexa, 287. Coix lachryma Jobi, 5 2 - on iron, 434. umbellata, 287. Colcothar, 304. Damascus blades, 430. Elasococca cordata, Bl., 156. Colle du Japon, 109. Daphnidiumlancifolium,243. Eleasine coracana, 51. Colocasia antiquorum, 67. Date plum (persimon), 88, Electrum, 490. Colonial office, 18. 179. Eledone, 355. Colouring, process of, 43S. Dates, Chinese, 87. Embossing, 428. Comb, 33. Daucus carota, 73. Embroidery, 388. Comb-cutting, 337. Day and night, equal, 395. Emerald, 424. Commerce, 503, 549. Decoration, patterns for, Enamel, 430, 4SS. Compost, 29. 323. 324- bound, 489. Condiments, 76. method of, 321. Byzantine, 490. Conifers, 220-222, 231, 239, Desmodium, 272. cell, 489. 284. Dianthus japonicus, 276. champleve, 489. Conophallus konjak, 67. Dinner, 47. cloisonne, 489. Convallaria japonica, 285. Dioscorea japonica, 67. colours, 498-500. Convolvulus Batatas, 65. quinqueloba, 6S. de peintre, 490. Cooking-pots, 435. saliva, 68. free, 490. Copper, 301, 436. Diospyros ebenum, 247. high (raised), 490. mines, 301, 302. Kaki, 179, 247, 265, imbedded, 489. ores, 301. 277, 335. 354> 355- incrusted, 4S9. vitriol, 437. Dish, 46S, 472. industry, 488-500. Coral, 424. Distance, measure of, 507. painted, 490. Corchorus capsularis, 169. Distylium racemosum, 225, pit, 489. Coriandrum sativum, 73. 249. 337, 467. raised, 490. Corneoe, 247. Dolichos cultratus, 62. surface, 490. Cornus brachypoda, 247. ensiformis, 62. transparent, 490. officinalis, 87, 247. incurvus, 61. Engraulis japonicus, 29. Corpuscula, 200. lineatus, 61. Engraving, 429. Corylaceae, 240. soja, 6, 56. Enkianthus japonicus, 268. Corylus heterophylla, 94,240. umbellatus, 61. Epidendrum tuberosum, 494. Cotton, 166. Dolls, 468. Epigaaa asiatica, 93. -seed oil, 153- Dog days, 352. Epilobium angustifolium, stuffs, 379. Dogs, 185. 218. Crabs, 535. Doublier machines, 3S3. Erianthus japonica, 172. Crackle ware, 475. Douppions, 198. Ericaceae, 247. Crape, or silk crape, 382, Dragon, 323. Eriobotrya japonica, 83, 85, 3S4, 385- Dried fish, 535. . 2 77- paper, 408-41 1. Drugs, 134. Eulalia japonica, 172, 272. patterned, 385. Dry land, II, 37. Euonymus japonica, 265, Craqudc, 474. Dryandra cordata, 156, 244, 2S6. Crataegus glabra, 286. 417. Sieboldianus, 253. Croton siraki, 244. Ducat gold, 506. Eupatorium chinense, 272. Cryptomeria japonica, 214, Durrah, 51. japonicum, 272. 226, 233. Dust sieve, 355. Euphorbia lathyris, 156. Cucumber, 72. Dwarf bean, ray-fruited, 60. Eurya japonica, 256. Cucumis conomon, J2. pine, 220, 222. var. sulfurea, 2S6. flexuosus, 72. Dwarfing of plants, 265. Eutrema Wasabi, 70. melo, 72. Dye plants, 173. Evening meal, 47. sativus, 72. Dyers' knotweed, 45. Evodia glauca, 178, 255. Cucmbita pepo, 71. Eagle-wood, 528. rutwcarpa, 135, 176. 554 ENGLISH AND LATIN INDEX. Exchange, means of, 503- Fruit culture, 82. Half-porcelain, 454. 5I4-. Fuel, 215. Haliotis, 26, 423. Exccecaria japonica, 244. Funkia ovata, 264. gigantea, 535. Furnace, roasting, 295. japonica, 535. Faeces, 29. Fusan, 531. Halleflinta, 459. as manure, 27-29. Hamamelideae, 249. Fagaria piperita, 255. Gadus Brandtii, 536. Hammer, 427. Fagopyrum esculentum, 55. Galleries, mine, 294. eyes, 428. Fagus Sieboldi, 157, 241, Gamboge, 352, 354. Handloom, 383. 356. Gammadion, 322. Hard bronzes, 440. Faience, 454. Gampi paper, 401, 404, 407. Hare, 185. of Ota, 481. Garden, ornamental or Harrow, 32. Fans, 415. pleasure, 261, 263. Hartshorn, 354. export of, 416. Gardinia florida, 178, 276, Hashish, 165. Fatsia japonica, 284. 35 2 - Hay, 183. Felspar, 459. Garnet sand, 314, 425. kashira, 431. Fennel, 72. Gensan, 531. Hedges, 262. Fermentation of pottery Giant trees, 225, 226. Hedysarum esculentum, 64. materials, 465. Gingeli, 154. Helmet, 432. Ferruginous sand, 430. Ginger, 75. Hemp, 75, 157, 165. Ficus carica, 90. Ginkgo biloba, 94, 226, 231. bast, 354. Field measure, 507- Ginseng, 136-143. linen, 354, 378. Fig tree, 90. Girdles, 382. oil, 157. Figured crape, 385. Glaze, 454, 467. Hens, 185. Fil de Florence, 196. Gleditschia japonica, 250. Herrings, kinds of, 29, 164. Filanda, 197, 205. Gleopeltis cotiformis, 183. Hibiscus Manihot, 276, 39S. File, 427. Glue, 354, 417. mutabilis, 272. Filigree enamel, 490. Glycine chinensis, 279. syriacus, 272. Filter press, 464. hispida, 56. Hoe, 32. Finger millet, 42, 51. Goats, 184. Holcus Sorghum, 51- Fir tree, 221, 235, 236. Gold, 300, 366, 424. Holothuria edulis, 535. Firing, process of, 435, beetle, 238. Homoioceltis aspera, 243, 466. dust, 354, 366, 367. 397- Firmiana platanifolia, 256. ground, 368, 371. Honey bees, 185. Fish guano, 29, 165, 536. lacquer wares, 374. Hooked cross, 321. oil, 29, 164, 536. lacquer worker, 366- Hordeum, 6, 50. Flag, Japanese, 5 1 1. 377- Horn, 356, 422. Flail, 33, leaf, 354. Horse, 183, 184. Flint, porcelain, 460. mines, 300. beans, 62. Floret silk, 198, 383. paper, 386, 387. load, 509. Floridese, 81. Gore, 515. Hortensia opuloldes, 2§ 1. Floss silk, 197, 203. Gossypium herbaceum, 153, Horticulture, 261. Flower market, 267. 166. Hovenia dulcis, 87, 253 pot, 468. Gouge, 343, 354. Hydrangea hortensis, 277> vase, 444, 468. Gourds, 71. 281. Fluxes, 459. Grain, 37. paniculata, 282, 398. Fceniculum vulgare, 72, 135. Graines, 203. Foot (measure), 507. Gramineae, 227. Ibota wax, 164. Foreign trade, 514-549. Granatum, 90. Ichigo, 92. Forest, cultivated, 211-214. Grapes, 91. Idols, wooden, 420. distribution of, 211. Grass land, II. Ilex crenata, 253. wild, 213, 217, 260. linen, 168. integra, 253. Forests in Yezo, 218 ; in- Grassy plains, 212. lati folia, 253. fluence on the climate, Graver, 427. Ilicinae, 253. 222. Greek fret (meander), 322. lllicium religiosum, S. and Forestry, 211. Green spinner, 193. Z., 135, 258. Fork hoe, 32. Grege, 203, 383. Imperata arundinacea, 172. Forms (patterns), 373. Ground nut, 56. Incrusting, 430. Forsythia suspensa, 268. oil, 153. Inch, 507. Fossil wood, 260. Groundwork of lacquer- India ink, 417. Fowl, 185. wares, 357. saucers, 332, 418. Fragaria vesca, 92. Guinea-corn, 37, 51. Indigo, 173, 354. Fraxinus longicuspis, 246. Industrial arts, 317— 5°° Frisons, 203. Hakone work, 335. Inlaid work, in lacquer '363- ENGLISH AND LATIN INDEX. 555 Inuus speciosus, 185. Lacquer work, 338-377. Macleya cordata, 282. Iris laevigata, 271. materials for, 353. Magnesia, peroxide of, 49S. setosa, 271. Lacquerers, 350. Magnolia hypoleuca, 218, sibirica, 271. Lacquering, of clay-wares, 219, 258-260, 285, Iron, 303, 430. 359- 355- ochre, 354. utensils for, 355. Kobus, 260, 269. ore, magnetic, 303, 430. Lactuca sativa, 73. Yulan, 269, 271. Isinglass, 109. Lagenaria vulgaris, 72. Magnoliaceae, 258. Ivory, 421. Lagerstrcemia indica, 248, Maize, 37, 52. carving, 421. 354- Majolica, 454, 483. Laminaria saccharina, 81, Manila, 517. Japan in the commerce of 534- hemp, 169. the world, 528-549. Lampblack, 354, 417. Manures, 26. Japanese lacquering process, Lancet, forester's, 343. green, 42. 357- Lapis lazuli, 424. Maple, 251. ornamental and useful Lappa, Major, 73. Marble, 313. plants in Europe, 274. Larch, 221, 235, 238. Marlea platanifolia, 247. Jasper ware, 455. Larix leptolepis, 214, 238. Matrices, 183. Job's tears, 37, 51. Lathe turning, 336. Mats, 171. Juglandacese, 239. Lauiacece, 244, 245. Mayebashi hanks, 204. Juglans mandschurica, 239. Laurineaa, 244. grappes, 204. regia, 94, 239. Laurus camphora, 143-150, Meal times, 47. Juncus effusus, 170. 221, 244. Meander (Greek fret), 322. Juniper, 220, 232. indica, 245. Measure, cloth, 507. Juniperus cliinensis, 232. umbellata, 245. Measures, 507, 508. Lead, 303. Medicine chests, 44S. Kaga porcelain, 481-483. Leather, 179. Melia Azedarach, 164, 254. Kalambak, 526. paper, 155,411-413. japonica, 253. Kaolin, 312, 313, 456, 459, Leeks, order of, 76. T6-sendan, 254. 487. Leguminosa?, 55, 250. Meliaceje, 253. Kao-Ling, 459. Length, measures of, 507. Melon, 72. Katsura japunica, 260, 39S. Lespedeza, 1S3, 272. Merchant, 7. Kernel fruit, S3. Lettuce, 73. Mesogloia decipiens, 81. Kettle, 434. Leucocasia gigantea, 67. Metal, 426. Kidney bean, 62. Li, 5°7- mirror, 446. King-te-tschin, 459, 460. Ligustrum ibota, 164, 246. work, 426-451. Knife, 354, 427. japonicum, 246, 286. Metallic ornaments, 448. Koelreuteria paniculata, 252. Lilium auratum, 68. Mikado rule, restoration of, cordifolium, 68. 528. Lablab cultratus, D. C, 62. Thunbergianum, 68. Mikroline, 456. Lac acid, 349. Lime as manure, 30-34. Mile, 507. constituents of, 346, Limestone, 313. Millet, 51. 347- Limoges, 490. barbarian, 51. raw, 343, 346. Lindera sericea, 245. club, 37, 51. tapsters, 343. Line (measure), 507. common, 37, 51. Lacquer, 339. Listere glauca, 164. crowfoot, 37, 51. black, 352. Thunbergii, 164, 245. Italian, 104. colours, 353, 354. Lithospermumeiythrorhizon, Mimosa arborea, 350. districts, 345. 179. Mines, produce of the, 297- extraction of, 342-345. Loligo, 535. 299. filter, 404. Loliopsis, 535. Mining, 291. green, 353. Loquat, 85. office, superior, 256. industry, history of the Lotus, 64, 94, 271. Mint in Osaka, 504. Japanese, 373. flower, 64, 94, 271. Mirror, 444, 446. painters, 339; work of Luffa petala, 72. magic, 447-449. the, 366. Luting process, 357. Mitten, 343. poisoning, 349. Lycoperdon tuber, 79- Moras alba, 91. price list, 351. Lycopersicum esculentum, multicaulis, 19 1. sickness, 349. 74- papyrifera, 393. transparent, 352. Lythrariea?, 248. Mosaic wood, marquetrie, tree, 158, 342. 335- wares, coloured, 361. Macaroni, 108. work, 423. wares, superiority of Mace (Chinese measure), 5°7- Moth, silkworm, 198. the, 339. Machilus Thunbergii, 245. Mother-of-pearl, 354. 556 EXGLISH AND LATIN INDEX. Mother-of-pearl lacquer, 364. work, 365, 422. Mould, casting, 373, 428. Moulinage, 383. Mountain forest, 218, 219. forests, 211, 212. meadows, 18. rice, 38, 46. Mouse, 185. Muffle, 495. Mulberry, 91. tree, 188, 190, 242. Musa basjoo, 168. paradisiaca, 168. textilis, 168. Muscardine, 200. Mushrooms, 69, 534. Mussels, 533. Mustard, 70, 152. Myrica rubra, 177. Nandina domestica, 261. Nautilus, 423. Navigation, river, 510. Needle woods (pines, firs, etc.), 220-222, 231- 239, 284, 355. forest, 217. Nelumbium speciosum, 64, 277. Nelumbo nucifera, 64, 94, 270, 277. Nemalion vermiculare, 81. Net, 195. Nettle hemp, 378. cloth, 168, 378. Nickel, 304. Nicotiana tabacum, 131. Nightingale, 268. Nikko work, 336. Nirwana, 271. Nispero de Japon, 85. " Noble rust," 441, 442. Nuphar japonicum, 70. Nuts, 93. Oak, 225, 240, 241, 356. spinner, 205, 206. -wood ashes, 467. Oats, 50. Oil-cake, 29. mustard, 152. paper, 155, 414. plants and fats, 150-165. sesame, 154. Olea aquifolium, 246, 273. fragrans, 246, 286. Oleaceee, 246. Olive, 87, 287. Ommastrephes, 535. Oncorhynchus Haberi, 535. Onions, 70, 76. Onychoteuthis Banksii, 535. Ophiopogon japonicus, 285. Jaburan, 285. Orange, 89. Mandarin, 83. Organsin, 283. Onxa japonica, 255. Orpiment, 353. lac, 352. Oryza glutinosa, 46. montana, 38, 46. sativa, 6, 38. Osaka, 47, 530. Oshiu silk, 204. Oxen, 184. Oxide, red (Colcothar), 304, 35 2 > 354, 472, 498. Pachyrhiza angulatus, 61. Paeonia albiflora, 135, 281. Moutan, 135, 270, 277, 281. Palette, 355. Palm-leaf work, 170. Palms, 231. Panax Ginseng, 136. Panes, window, 335. Panicum corvi, 51. crus-galli, 51. italicum, 51. miliaceum, 51. verticillatum, 51. Papaver somniferum, 70. Paper, 390-416. Chinese, 392. fabric, 412. hangings, 408. industry, 389-419. kinds of, 403, 404. lanterns, 415. leather, 356, 411, 412. -mache, 356, 407. machine-made, 397. money, 504, 536. mulberry, 393-395. preparation of, 399. pulp, 390, 400. raw materials for, 393- 401. tub, 391. Yoshino, 356. Parasol, 414. Passerina Gampi, 396. Paste, 69, 354. Pasteboard, 407. Pastinaca sativa, L., 73. Patani, 520, 523. Patina, 73, 441. work, 430. Patlitdschan, 73. Patrina scabiosaefolia, 272, 37 1 - . Faulownia imperialis, 224, 245, 270, 280, 281, 355- Paulownia tomentosa, 280, 281. Peach, 86, 179, 269. Pear, 83-85. ground, 352, 368. Pearls, 424. Peasant, 8, 29. Peat, 62. Pebrine, 200. Pegmatite, 459. Peking lacquer, 371. Pelah-Wa, 164. Pepper, Spanish, 74- Peppermint, 135. Perilla arguta, 75, 177- ocymoides, L., 155, 352, 414. Perry, 511, 514. expedition, 529. Persicaria, 175. Petasites japonicus, 73. Petroleum, 309. Petroselinum sativum, 72. Phaseolus multiflorus, 61. Mungo, 61. radiatus, L., 6, 60. vulgaris, 61. Phellodendron amurense, .255- Phoenix, 323. Photinia serrulata, 286. Phragmites communis, 172. Roxburgh, 172. Phyllit, 459. Phyllitis debilis, 81. Phyllostachys bambusoides, 218. nigra, 228. Physalis Alkekengi, 74. Picrasma ailanthoides, 254. Picul, 508. Piece, a fabric, 384. measure, 507. Pimpinella anisum, 72. Pincers, 427. Pine charcoal, 354. tree, 216, 220, 235, 273- Pinto, Mendez, 514. Pinus densiflora, 236-238, 265, 273. Koraiensis, 94, 237. Massoniana, 236, 239, 265, 273. parviflora, 220, 237. Pisum sativum, 62. Pittosporum sinense, 287. Tobira, 286. undulatum, 287. Planera acuminata, 242, 243. Plants of commerce, no. Japanese ornamental, in Europe, 274. Plates, 468. ENGLISH AND LATIN INDEX. 557 Plating, 430. Platycaria strobilacea, 240. Platycodon grandiflorum, 272. Plough, 31. Fodocarpus macrophylla, 216, 232. Nageia, 183, 216, 232. Polishing lacquer, 361. materials, 495. Polygonum fagopyrum, 55. orientale, 75. tinctorium, 45, 173, 354. Pongee silk, 206. Populus tremula, 239. Porcelain, 455, 456, 459, 461, 462, 468. colours of the Chinese, 461. fritted, 456. oven, 459, 466. paste, 487. stone, 312, 459, 475, 484, 485. Portulacca oleracea, 71. Potato, 63. common, 66. sweet, 65. Potter's clay, 312. wheel, 457, 465. Pound (weight), 508. Precious things, Seven, 424. Primus armeniaca, 86. insititia, 86. japonica, 86. mume, 86, 179, 247, 268. pseudo-cerasus, 249, 411. subhirtella, 269. tomentosa, S7. Pteris aquilina, 68, 77. Pterocarpus indicus, 251. marsupium, 251. santalinus, 251. Pterocarya rhoifolia, 240. Pueraria Thunbergiana, 65, 169, 184. Pulse, 55. Pumpkins, 71. Punica granatum, 90. Pyrethrum indicum, 272. Pyrus aucuparia, 250. Cydonia, 85. japonica, 277, 279. mains, 84. sambucifolia, 250. sinensis, 85. Quartz, 459, 479. Quercus acuta, 78, 241. crispula, 240. cuspidata, 78, 94, 226, 241. Quercus dentata, 179, 180, 215, 241. glandulifera, 241, 467. glauca, 241. serrata, 179, 207, 215, 241. Quicklime, 31. Quince, 84. bush, Japanese, 279. Quire (of paper), 401. Rabbit, 185. Radish, 69. Railways, 512-514. Raised lacquer, 375. Rake, 32. Ramee, 167. Rape oil, 151. Raphanus sativus, 70. Raphis flabelliformis, 261. Rat, 185. Rattan work, 173. Realism, 218, 321, 325. Ream of paper, 401. Reel silk, 203. Reeling (silk) establishment, 205. Relinispora, 214, 232-234, 355- Rheea-Faser, 167. Rheum, 75, 135. Rhododendron Metternichii, 247, 250. Rhubarb, 75, 135. Rhus Osbeckii, 180. semialata, 179, 180,277 succedanea, 160, 251. vernicifera, 158, 251. Rice, 6, 37, 46. analysis of, 48, 49. beer, 95. districts, 48. early, 46. exports of, 534. ferment, 96. glutinous, 46, 50, 108. grains, 46. harvest, 45, 46. husking of, 45. land, II, 37. late, 46. middle, 47. paste, 183. plants, 6, 37. straw, 30, 171. Ricinus communis, 135, 156, oil, 156. spinner, 206. Rippler, flax, 33. Rock crystal, 314, 424. polishing of, 425. Root crops, 83. Rosa Eanksia, 28S. rugosa, 92. Rosacea:, 249. Rose, Japanese, 278. Rubbish paper, 393, 397. Rubia chinensis, 177. cordifolia, 177. Rules for lacquering, 356. for gold lacquering, 366. Rutaceae, 254. Rye, 50. Safflower, 176, 182, 183. Sagittaria sagittsefolia, L., 64. Sake, preparation of, 96. Salep paste, 494. Salicina?, 239. Salisburia adianlhifolia, 45, 94, 226, 231, 277. Salix Babylonica, 239. japonica, 239. Salmon, 535. Salt, 310, 311. evaporation, coast for, 11. Sandal wood, 251. lac, 363. Santalinum album, 520. Sapindacea?, 252. Sapindus chinensis, 252. Mukuroshi, 252. Sapium sebiferum, 244. Sardine, 165. Satin, 382. Satsuma faience, 474-476. stone-ware, 474-476. Saturnia Arindia, 206. Cynthia, 206. Mylitta, 206. Saucers, 468. Saw-worta, 176. Saxifraga cortusasfolia, 263. Scapharca inflata, 535. Scarlet runner, 61. Schlaftsucht, 200. School, agricultural, at Lap- poro, 19. Sciadopitys verticillata, 216, 227, 238, 265. Scirpus maritima, 172. Scoop net, 400. Screen fir, 215, 216. Scrophularinea?, 245. Sculpture, 428. Scutellaria macrantha, 135. Sea cucumber, 535. lettuce, 81. products of the, 534. salt, method of obtain- ing, 511- Seaweed glue, 183. Secale cereale, 50. Sedum Sieboldi, 272. Seeds, 193. Seger porcelain, 456. 553 ENGLISH AND LATIN INDEX. Sesamum indicum, 154. Spinacea inermis, Mcench., Tapes Philippinarum, 535. orientale, 154. . 75- Taxaceae, 231. Shanghai, 531. Spiraea Thunbergi, 262. Taxus cuspidata, 214, 231. Shark skin, 363, 494. Spoon, 355. Tea, 110, 458, 539; colour- lacquer, 363. Spotted texture, 369. ing and scenting of, Shark's fins, 535. Spring time, 268. 123 ; method of pre- Shears, 354. Stachyurus praecox, 257. paration, 117 ; sorts Sheep, 184. Stag, 185. of, 1 19-122. Shell fish, 536. Stalk and pod fruits (cereals box, 468. Shizophragma hydrangeoi- and pulse), 6, y]. colour, 179. des, 288. Stamping mills, 464. dish, 468. Shoots, setting of, 215. trough, 33. drinkingcompanies, 1 19, Shrimps, 535. Starch paste, 183. 458, 479- Sickle, 32. producing bulbs, 63. pot, 468. Silicate porcelain, 460. Statue, equestrian of Kato, saucer, 468. Silk, 192, 203, 533. Kiyomasa, 474. -seed oil, 152. districts, 204. porcelain, 456. urns, 468, 472, 480. dying, 182. Steel, hardening of, 432. Ternstrcemia japonica, 256, fabrics, 3S0, 385. Sterculia platanifolia, 256. 337- floss, 383. Sterculiaceae, 256. Ternstrcemiaceae, 256. flurt or floss, 383. Stillingia sebifera, 244. Terra cotta, 454. industry, 379-389. Stone, 312. Tetranthera japonica, 245. raising, 185. fruit, 86. Textile industry, 37S— 389. raw, 383. ware, 454, 459, 469, plants, 165. reeling from cocoons, 477, 484. Thao, 461. 383. Straw mosaic, 336. Thea assamica, III. spinning, 382, 383. Strawberry 7 , 92. Bohea, in. weavers' society, 382. Stroke, measure, 5°7- viridis, in. weaving, 382. Strong drink, statistics of, Three forks, 395. web, breadth of, 384. 103. Thuja orientalis, 232. Silkworm, 185, 186, 193. Stuartia monadelpha, 218, Thujopsis dolabrata, 216, changes of, 196. 257. 232, 355- eggs, I93> 203. Styraceae, 246. lastevirens, 233. gut, 196, 211. Styrax crataagoides, 247. Til, 154. sickness, 201. japonicum, 246. Tile, or brick tea, 125. Silver, 300, 424. lancifolia, 247. Tiles, 454. dust, 354, 366, 367. Obassia, 247. Tilia cordata, 170, 255. ground, 370, 371. Sugar, 109. mandschurica, 255. foil, 387. bowl, 468. Tiliaceae, 255. leaf, 354. Sulphur, 310, 437. Tin, 303. ore, 300. Sumach, 158. dust, 345. Simarubeae, 254. galls, 180. foil, 3S7. Sinapis, 70. lacquer, 342. Tobacco, 131. Slate, 313, 418. tallow, 160. Tomato, or love apple, 74. Smelting hearth, 295. Sun goddess, 6. Tom ex japonica, 245. Snow, protection from, 215. Sus leucomystax, 185. Tongs, 427. Soapstone, 426. Swine, 185. Tooth brush, 355. Soil, analyses of the, 23-25. wild, 185. Topaz, smoked, 425. Soja hispida, Mich., 56, Sword, 431, 432. Tops, 338. 105. back of a, 431. Torreya nucifera, 94, 157, Solanum melongena, 73. bean, 61. 231. tuberosum, 66. guard, 431, 432. Tortoise shell, 356, 421. Solder, 494. hilt, 432. work, 421. Solfatara, 312. sheath, 364, 374, 431, Toys, 338. Sophora japonica, 250, 277. 432. Trade and commerce, 503. Sorghum vulgare, Pers., 37, Symplocos lancifolia, 247. Train oil, 164. 5*- Trame, 383. Soy bean, black, 58. Tael, 508. Trapa bispinosa, Roxb., 94. blue-green, 58. Taffetas, 384. Treaty of Kanagawa, 529. brown, 58. Tallow tree, 160. ports, 529-532. white, 58. vegetable, 150, 158. Tree nursery, 215- Spade, 32. Tangle leaves, 534. Trepang, 535. Spatula, 343, 355. Tannic acids, 179. Trichosanthes, 72. Spices, 69. Tapa, 390, 393. Trinkets, 448, 468. ENGLISH AND LATIN INDEX. 559 Triticum, 6, 50. Triton subcristatus, 263. Tsien, 508. Tsugaru lacquer, 361. Tubs, 3^4. wooden, 97. Turbo cornutus, 423. Turned work, 428. Turtle, 323. Tussah silk, 206. Twisting machines, 383. Typha japonica, 171. Udschi fly, 199. Udschimya sericaria, 199. Ulmaceae, 242. Ulmus campestris, 243. montana, 169. parvifolia, 243. Umbrellas, 414. Unicorn, 323. Urine, 28. Urns, 468. Ursus japonicus, 185. Urtica nivea, 167. Thunbergiana, 167. Useful woods, 224-260. Uvaria japonica, 260. Vaccinium, 92. Variegation in plants, 266. Vats, fermenting, 99. Vegetables, 69. Velvet, 379, 3SS. Venus' ear, 26, 423, 535. Verdigris, 498. Vernis au/apon, 160, 254. Viburnum opulus, 247. Vicia faba, 62. Vigna Catjang, 61. Villages, Corean, 475. Vinegar, 109. Vitis vinifera, 91. Vitriol, green, 437. Wagons, 32, 184. Wakasa lacquer, 362. Walnuts, 94, 239. Warp, 383. Washing of ceramic ma- terials, 464. Waste land, 212, 213. Water basins, 468. chestnut, 93. melon, 72. Wax, 149. tree, 160. Wedgewood, 453. Weeping willow, 239. Weights, 50S. Whale oil, 164. Wheat, 6, 37, 50. -starch paste, 407. Wheelbarrow, 32. Whetstone, 354. Whirlwinds, 13. White lead, 354, 499. metal work, 448. spinner, 193. Wholesale dealers, 530. Wickstrcemia canescens, 396. Willow, 239. galls, 218. plaited, 173. Wistaria chinensis, 169, 226, 263, 267, 270, 279, 280. Wonsan, 531. Wood ashes, 467. carving, 420. industry, 334. of foliaceous trees, 217, 221. oil, 156. Wooden shoes, 411. Woods 224-260. Woof threads, 3S3. Writing materials, 416, 436. Yama-ma'i silk, 210. Yams, 67. Yao, 461. Yellow spinner, 193. Yew tribe, 231. Zanthoxylon piperitum, 71, 2 55j 335- Zea Mais, 52 ; history of its cultivation, 52-55. Zelkowa Keaki, 214, 225, 242, 285, 335, 355. Zinc, 304. Zingiber officinale, 75. Mioga, 76, Zipangu (Japan), 515. Zizyphus vulgaris, 87. Zodiac, 323. Zones of vegetation, 220- 222. Zoysia pungens, 172. II. INDEX OF JAPANESE NAMES. In writing Japanese names the prevailing phonetic method, as given in Hepburn's Dictionary, has been generally followed. According to this the vowels are pronounced clear — as in German — like at. Further, ei as e, ch as tsch, j as dsch, s sharp, s/t as sch, is as z, z as s, y as/, at, ei and 6 from a precedent contraction are long. On account of the accent many compound words are divided by hyphens, which are often written without them. As a rule the accent falls on the first syllable — as well on the first as the concluding word, with a somewhat stronger accent on the first full-toned syllable. The commonly joining particle " no " is half-tone. A declination of the accent is marked with an acute. Ho-no-ki is read as Honoki, Tsubaki-no-abura as Tsubaki-noabura, Hasu-no-hana as Hasunohanna, Nikkei as Nikke, Mei-butsu as Mebutsu. Abu, 354. Abura, 150-164. -giri, 156, 244. -kami, 155, 414. -kasu, 30. -na, 152. -no-ki, 156, 244. Aburato, 307. Adzuki, 60, 108. Ai, 173- -dzame, 364. Aidzu, 342. -ro, 160. -ro-soku, 160. -taira, 46, 171, 481. Ai-tama, 175. Ajisai, 281. Aka, red, 182. Akadami, 307. Aka-fun, 367. -gane, 301, 356, 504. -gashi, 241. -mame, 59. -matsu, 74, 216, 236. -megashi, 286. -momo, 93. Akana, 176. Aka-nasu, 74. Akasaka, 313. Aka-shiso, 177. -tamo, 243. Akebi, 91. Akindo, 7. Aki-nire, 243. -no-gi, 398. -no-nana-kusa, 272. Akita, 47. Aku, 175, 477. II. Akune, 311. Amabata-ishi, 313, 41S, 425. Amai, Sweet, 103. Amakusa (pron. Amaksa), 312. 473- -ishi, 312,473, 474, 4S0, 485- Amaterasu, 6. Ame, 103. -no-mochi, 108. Amerika bofu, 73. Ami, 195. Amida, 445. Andzu. 86. Ani, 301. Ao-gai, 342, 354, 365. -gai-Magai, 423. -gai-nuri, 364. -gai-shi, 340, 342. -gai-togi-dashi, 364. -gai-ziiku, 365, 422, 423- -giri, 256. -gosu,- 498. A6-ki, 282-284. -kuba, 282. -mame, 56. Arakawa, 302. Arame, 81. Araragi, 231. Arita, 469-473, 486, 487. Arita-ishi, 312, 469. Asa, 75, 165, 166. Asa-gozen, 47. -ki, 217. Asakusa-nori, 82. Asa-no-abura, 157. -no-mi, 75. 561 Asari, 7. Ashio, 302. At, 169. Asu-gami, 403, 406. Awa, 37, 51, 104. Awabi, 423, 535. Awaji, 455. -yaki, 475, 476. Awata-shippo, 495. -yaki, 455, 462, 475, 476, 477, 496. Awo (light blue, also green), 498. -uri, 72. -urushi, 353. Ayame, 270. Aya-nishiki, 386. Azatsuki, 77. Azi-mame, 62. Bai, 86, 249. Bakufu (pron. : Bakfu), 510, Banko Kichibei, 484. -yaki, 454, 455, 462, 474, 483- Ban-seki, 312. -shi, 405. Basho, 168. -fu, 168, 378. Bekko, 356, 421. -zaiku, 421. Beni, 176, 354. -biyakushiu, 232. Beni-gara, 304, 352, 354, 472, 498. -kadzura, 177. -no-hana, 176. O O 562 INDEX OF JAPANESE NAMES. Beshi, 302. Daki, 99. Gin-baku, 354. Binan-katsura, 398. Daimio-jiso, 263. -garni, 387. Bingo-omote, 171. Damo, 243. - ir °. 353- Birodo, 388. Date-ishi, 313. ji, 369, 372. -sha, 382. Degara, 203. -kise, 430. Biwa, 83, 85. Do, 301, 436, 509. Ginkiyo, 94, 226, 231. Biyaku-gu, 493. Do-bin, 468. Ginko, 45. Biyakushi, 135. Dobin-shi, 259. Gin-ko-satsu, 503. Bobura, 71. Dodan, 268, 273. Ginnan, 94. Bodaijiu, 252, 255. Dokuye, 156, 244. Gin-paku, 387. Boke, 279. -no-abura, 156, 417. -pun, 354, 363, 366. Botankio, 86. Domburi, 468, 472. -san-machi, 301. Botan-na, 70. Donsu-obi, 386. -shi, 304. Bu, 505. Dorofu, 239. -su, 504. Budo, 91. D6-san, 302. Giogi-yaki, 457. •nedzumi, 179. -sei, 498. Gioko-seki-rui, 313. Bukku-yusu, 256. Doyo, 352. Gioto, 165, 536. Buna, 241, 356. Dzudzu-dama, 37, 52. Giyaman-ishi, 478. -no-abura, 150, 157. Dzumi, 179. Giyo-bu-Nashi-ji, 372, 375. Bun kiju-sen, 505. Giyokuro, 119. Bun-kiyoku, 296. Echigo, 47, 51, 363. Go, 508. Bushin-kan, 90. -Jofu, 378. Gobaishi, 180. Buta, 184. -Jofu Chijimi, 378. Gobo, 73. Butan, 135, 269, 281. Echizen, 342. Gofun, 405. Endo-mame, 62. Go-ju Sen, 503. Cha (tscha), ill, 257, 458. E-no-abura, 347. -koku, 6. -bin, 468. Goma, 75. -dashi, 468. Fu, 108, 413, 415. -dake, 228. -ire, 468. Fude, 355, 416. -no-abura, 150, 154. -iro (brown), 179, 500. Fude-tate, 355. Go Rin, -Sen, -Yen, 503. -no-abura, 152. Fuki-doko, 295. Gorodayu, 471. -no-ki, 257. Fuji, 169, 226, 268, 270, Go-sekku, 272. -no-yu, 119, 458, 479. 279. -shin, 76. Champagiku, 282. -bakama, 272. Goshin-yu, 135. Cha-suisho, 425. -mame, 62. Goshu, 304, 593. -tsubo, 468. -no-yama, 16. Goyo-no-matsu, 94, 237. -wan, 468. -nuno, 169. Goza, 171. Chian-chim, 254. -san, 16. -gusa, 171. Chide, 250. Fukano-hire, 535. Gozen, 47. Chijimi, 378. Fukasawa, 310. Gumi, 87, 287. Chi-kaya, 172. Fuki, 73. Gusoku, 272. Chimpi, 75. Fuku-sa, 388, 389, 413. Guwai-sha (pron. Kaisha), Chiri-gami, 394, 404. Fukusa-ji, 413. 5.12. Chirimen, 384, 385. Fun, 601. Guwan-jilsu (pron. Gan- Chirimen-gami, 40S. Funai, 312, 618, 621. shitzu), 268. -sha, 382. Fune, 399. Guwa-sho-sei, 304. Chisa, 73. Fu-nori, 81, 183, 338, 385. Chisha-no-ki, 246. Fuiri-mame, 58. Habaki, 431. Chiu (between), 354. Fushi, 179, 180. Haba-nori, 81. -hana, 354. -kaiko, 200. Habutai-sha, 382. Cho, 507. -no-ki, 158, 180, 181. Habiitaye (pron. Habutai), Chochin, 415. Fuyo, 272. 383- Chocho, 198. Hachi, 468. Chodzu-ba, 27. Gama, 171. Ha-chiku, 227. Cho-gin, 505. -mushiro, 171. Hachiman, 302. Choku, 468. Garni, 390. Hadaka-mugi, 37, 5c. Chosen- matsu, 237. Gampi, 396, 399, 401, 404, Hadankio, 86. 407. Hagi, 184, 251, 272. Daiben, 28. -shi, 404, 407. Haguro, 181, 352. Dai-Butsu, 444-446. Gan-seki, 401. Hakata, 382, 386, 514. Daidai, 89. Geta, 246. -obi, 386. Daidzu, 6, 56.' Genziki-mushi, 210. Haka-shita, 353, Daikon, 69, 70. Giboshi, 264. Hake, 354. Daio, 75, 135. Gin, 300, 424, 503. Hak ka, 135. INDEX OF JAPANESE NAMES. 563 Hakodate, 529, 534. Ha-kombu, 534. Hakone, 336. -zaiku, 335. Haku-daidzu, 58. Hakumai, 46. Hakuren, 269, 271. Hama-biwa, 245, Hamaguri, 635. Hama-nashi, 92. -nata-mame, 61. Hamda, 301. Hana-ichi, 267. -ike, 444, 468. -konjiyo, 498. -no-ki, 285. -shobu, 270. Han-chiku, 228. -kire, 403, 406. -kiri, 98. -no-ki, 179, 239. -seki, 312. -shi, 403, 404, 405. Hara, 11, 18, 73, 212. Haratoku, 244. Hari-giri, 248. -no-ki, 179, 239, 336. -nuki, 407. Haru, 268. -ko, 192. -nire, 243. Hasami, 354. Hashibami, 94, 240. Hasu, 64, 94, 270. -imo, 67. -no-hana, 270. -no-ike, 270. -no-mi, 94, 270. Hata, ii, 37, 212, 336, 383- Ilatsu-take, 79. Haya-gawa, 300. Hayashi, 211. Haze, 251. -no-ki, 160, 251. Heinen, 7. Hera, 354. Hiba, 179, 213, 216, 232, , 355- Hibachi, 444. Hibi-de, 475. -yaki, 475. Hichima, 72. Hidesato, 446. Hidetada, 619. Higan, 395. -sakura, 269. Higasa, 414. Higashidori, 472. Higashi Hon-gwan-ji, 421. Higo, 47. Hiki, 597. -cha, 119. Ili-komi, 357. Hiku-kabu, 191. Himashi, 135, 156. -no-abura, 156. Hime-bishi, 94. Hi-no-ki, 5, 214, 216, 218, 232-234, 273, 355. -no maru, 51 1. Hino-oka, 499. Hiogo, 531. Hirado, 520, 522. Hiragi, 246, 273. Hira-makiye, 367, 374. -mame, 62. Hirame-fude, 355. Hira-take, 79. Hirata-yuri, 68. Hirato Hikoshiro, 492. Hira-Zogan, 429. Hirosaki, 361. Hiru-gozen, 47. Hishi, 96. Hitomaro, 420. Hitsuji, 184. Hitsuji-gusa, 70. Hiiiga, 47. Hiyaku-me, 508. Hiyakusho, 7, 29. Hiya-meshi, 46. Hiye, 37, 5»- Hiyotan, 72. Hizen, 469, 472, 4S6. Ho, 323. Ho-chiku, 228. Hocho, 343, 354. Hodo, 64. -imo, 64. Hodzuki, 74. Hogu, 397. -garni, 397. Home-nori, 82. Honan-chiku, 277. Hondawara, So. Hondo, 16, 47. Hongo, 368, 4S1. -yaki, 481. Hon-kin-gami, 387. H6-no-ishi, 354. Ho-no-ki, 183, 25S, 259, 285, 355; -no-ki-sumi, 354. Hono-sumi, 354. Honshiki, 307. Honshiu, 16, 47. Horai-yuri, 68. Horenso, 75. Hori-age, 42S. -kiri, 270. Horimono, 429. Horimono-shi, 42S. -zaiku, 429. Horutoso, 157. Horu, 428. Horumui, 307. Hoaha, 495, 499. Hoshi-ebi, 535. -gai-rui, 535. Hoshii, 200. Hosho, 403, 406. Hosokawa, 407. Howo, 323. I, 170. Ibota, 246. -ro, 164. Ibuki, 232. Ibusuki, 476. Ichibi, 169. Ichi-bu, 505. Ichigo, 92. Ichii, 214. Ichinokura, 4S0. Ichinowatari, 303. Ichio, 93, 226. Ichijiku, 90. Ichi Rin, 503. Ichirin-sha, 32. Ichi Sen, 503. Yen, 503. Icho, 45. Idzumi-yama, 472. Igano-mura, 478. Iguchi-yama, 473. I-gusa, 170. Ika, 535. -surume, 535- Ikkambari, 356. Ikono-shiba, 247. Ikuno, 301. Ikunobei, 513. Imari, 469. Imbe-yaki, 456, 484. Imo, 63, 67. Imori, 263. In, 426. Ine, 36, 37. -kogi, 33. -(Inii-)kusu, 245. Ingen-mame, 59. Ingio, 426. Innai, 301. In-ro, 448. In-seki, 426. Inu (dog), 185. -gaya, 231. -gaya-no-abura, 157- -kaya, 157. ■maki, 232. -tsuge, 253. Inuyama-yaki, 479. Ira-momi, 235. Iriko, 535. Iro-tsuke, 438. Iru, 428. Isaza, 29. Ise, 47. -na, 70. Ishi (stone), 321. ■bai, 31, 313- 564 INDEX OF JAPANESE NAMES. Ishi-dzumi, 305. Ishikari, 307. Ishi-yaki, 453, 462. Ishiyama, 313. I'-shu, 505. Isora-mume, 87. Isu, 249, 337. -bai, 249, 467. -no-ki, 249. ftadori, 282. Itadziiri, 218, 231. Ita-gin, 505. Itame-gami, 407. I'tan, 384. I'taya, 252. Ito (thread), 203. Iwa-haze, 93. Iwaki-taira, 47. Iwa-momo, 93. Iwanai, 310, 312. Iwa-nashi, 93. Iwashi, 29, 165. Iwa-shiba, 172. Iwashiro, 204. Iwa-yanagi, 262. I wo, 310, 437. Iyemitsu, 524. Iyeyasu, 518-520. Iyo, 305- -masa, 403, 406. -shirome-ko, 305. Jagatara-imo, 66, 67. Jidzuki, 403, 406, 412. Ji-gatame, 358. Jigoku, 312. Jin-dai-boku, 260. -dai-sugi, 234. Ji-nen-han, 312. Jinen-jo, 67. Ji-no-ko-ishi, 354. Jin-riki-sha (pron. Tsin- rikscha), 509. Jo, 401, 507. -ban, 355. -chiu-hana, 353. Jofu, 166. Jo-hana, 353. -tame, 352. Ju, 5°3- -me, 508. Ju-mon-ji, 406, 412. Junsai, 70. Juraku-yaki, 458. Ka, 29. Kaba, 239. Kabe-habutai, 383. Kabocha, 71. Kabu, 70. Kabura, 70. Kabu to, 432. Kachi-ki, 180. Kaga, 51, 481. Kaga-mi, 444, 446. -yaki, 482. Kago, 393. Kagoshima, 15, 468, 474. Kai, 300. Kaibashi-rei, 535. Kaide, 300. Kaiko, 193. Kai-san-rui, 534. _ -so, Si. Kaitakushi, 18-20. Kaji, 393. -no-ki, 393. Kaki, 83, 88, 89, 251, 261, 265, 335- -no-shibu, 181. -gama, 343. Kaku-dake, 228. Kakuso, 354. Kama, 32, 435. Kamaishi, 303. Kamba, 239. Kame, 323. Kami, 354, 390. -is-soku, 401. -kawa, 155, 356, 411. -kise, 358. -no-ki, 398. Kamioka, 300. Kamoashi, 51. Kamo-gata, 484. -mata-kibi, 37, 51. Kamuri, 374. Kanabi-kiyo, 169. Kana-darai, 437. -dzuchi, 427. Kanagawa, 529-530. Kana-hibashi, 427. -mono, 426. -shiki, 427. -toko, 427. Kanazavva, 15, 311, 468. Kan-chiku, 227. Kane, 181, 426, 446, 503. -dzaiku, 426. -matsu, 238. -shaku, 507. Kanoko, 385. -sha, 382. -sha-chirimen, 385. -shibori, 385. Kanten, 81, 109, 534. Kanzashi, 422. Kappa-na, 70. Kara, China. -kami, 408. -kane, 440, 504, 505. -kasa, 414. -kaya, 272. -kusa, 321, 369. -matsu, 214, 238. -mushi, 167, 378. ,-sao, 33. Karashi-no-abura, 150. Karasuki, 31. Karasu-mugi, 50. -uri, 72. Karatachi, 255, 262. Karatzu, 309. Kariyasu, 179, 437, 438, 442, 448. Kasa, 173. Kaseda, 476, 485. -ishi, 476. Kashi, 78, 240. Kashira, 431. Kashi wa, 78, 179, 215, 240. Kasutera, 36. Kata, 182, 373, 408, 483. Kata-ji, 358. Kataba, 431. -kaji, 430. Kato-Shirosayemon, 479. Katsu-daidzu, 58. Katsumi, 81. Katsura, 260, 285. Katzuki, 307. Kawa, 179, 180. Kawabata, 336. Kawahara-ya, 484. Kawa-hone, 70. -muki, 343. Kawara, 454. Kawarake, 454- Kawa-yuri, 68. Kaya, 94, 157-158,172,231. Kayama, 480. Kaya-no-abura, 150, 157. Kayanoma, 307. Kayede, 252. Ke-bo, 355. Kek'kai, 82. Kempo-nashi, 87, 252. Kemuri-dashi, 294. Ken, 431, 507. Kenzan-yaki, 477- Kesa-bako, 374- Keshi, 70, 77. -ko, 366. Keyaki (Keaki), 214, 225, 242, 285, 335, 355- . Ki (tree, wood, forest), generally as affix. Ki (turtle), 323. Kibi, 36, 37, 51. Kibisho, 468. Ki-gami, 398, 401, 403. -gata, 411. -gatame, 357- -iro (yellow), 178, 499. -ito, 383. _ -karasu-uri, 72. Kikiyo, 272. Kiku, 272. Kikubaba-dokoro, 68. Kiku-jisa, 73- Kiku-no-hana, 272, 372, 466. INDEX OF JAPANESE NAMES. 565 Kiku-no-hana-mon, 272. -no-sekku, 272. Kikurage, 79. Ki-lin, 323. Kimpu-zan, 314, 425. Kin, 300, 424, 503, 508. Kin-baku, 354. -garni, 387. Kingire, 386. Kin-iro, 353. -ji, 368, 372. -ka, 504. Kinkan, 90. Kin-kise, 430. Kinko, 192. Ki-no-horimono, 420. Kinoko, 78. Kin-pun, 366. -ran-sha, 3S2. -satsu, 503, 504, 537. -shi, 387. Kinsu, 503. Kinu, 192, 203, 380. -chijimi, 3S4. Kioto, 468, 469, 476, 520, 530. Kiri, 220, 224, 245, 270, 280, 338, 355- -kane, 367. -ko, 358. Ki-rin, 323. Kiri-no-ki, 245. Kisami-kombu, 534. Kiseru, 131. -gai, 132. Kiso-gawa, 47. Ki-sho-mi, 346, 347, 350. Kimono, 386, 405. Kiuri, 72. Ki-urushi, 343-345. 34 6 >438- Kiiishiu, 47. Kiwada, 178, 255. Ki-\vata, 166. Kiwo, 353. -urushi, 353. Kiyara, 526. Kiyodo - unyu - guwai - sha (pron. Kijodounju Kaischa), 512. Kiyo-midzu, 477, 487. Kizo, 474. ko (small), 50. Koban, 354, 448, 449, 505. -shi, 403. Kobe, 531. Kobi-cha, 179. Kobu-nire, 243. Kobushi, 260, 269. Kdbushd, 296. Kochi, 47. -ken, 345. K6-do, 439. K8dzu(o), 165, 393, 397, 401. Kodzuka, 432. K6-gai, 432. Ko-gane, 300. Koga-no-ki, 245. -gashi, 245. Kogashi, 26. -tsuchi, 29. Kogatana, 354, 427. K6-hone, 71. Koji, 96. Koke-momo, 93. Koku, 9, 47. Kokubu, 132. Koku daidzu, 58. Koku-motsu, 36. Ko-kuri, 215. Kokurui, 6. Kokusa, 51. Kokusa-gi, 255. Kokuso-o-kau, 357. Koku-tan, 247. Ko-kuwa, 258. Koma, 338. Komadzu, 171. Komagatake, 16. Kombu, 81, 534. Kome, 6, 37, 46. -no-ko, 262. Komo, 171. Ko-mugi, 6, 37, 50. -no-ko, 51. Ko-nara, 240. Konbu, 526. Kongosan, 314, 425. -sha, 314,425. Kon-jo, 498, 499. Konniyaku, 67. Konote, 232. Kori, 173. K6ri-tofu, 108. Ko-ro, 444, 46S. Kosaka, 300. K6-sakura, 269. Koshari, 200. K6shiu-no-buda, 91. Kosho, 75. Ko-sugi, 403, 407. Kotoi, 184. Ko-ushi, 184. Kowashi, 536. Koya-maki, 215, 216, 227. 238, 266. Koyanagi-obi, 386. Koya-san, 216. Koye, 26. K6-yen, 261, Koyendoro, 73. Koye-tori, 29. -tsuchi, 29, Ko-yoji, 245. Ko-zan-kitoku, 296. Kozo, 393. -no-ki, 393. Kuchi-nashi, 178, 3s 2 - Kudzu, 65, 160, 184. -ito-tsumugi, 382, 385. Kugi-nuki, 427. Kujira-abura, 164. -shaku, 507. Kuma, 185. Kumade, 32. Kumamoto, 47. Kumo, 369. Kunembo, 89. Kunugi, 179, 207, 215, 241. -nara, 215, 241. Kuratoko, 301. Kiirenomo, 72. Kuri, 93, 179, 210, 215, Kuri-iro-unishi, 353. Kuri-no-hai, 467. Kuro (black), 500. Kurobe-sugi, 234. Kuro-dake, 228, 288. -fun, 367, -gaki, 247. Kurogane, 303, 430. -modoshi, 260. Kurogoma, 154. Kuro-gosu, 498. Kuioiro, 179. Kuro-ki, 217, 219, 247. -kibi, 508. Kuromai, 46. Kuromame, 58. Kuromatsu, 216, 236. Kurome-urushi, 350. Kuro-moji, 245. Kuro-uriishi, 352. Kuruma, 32, 184, 509. Kurumi, 94, 239. Kururi, 32. Kusa (pi on. Ksa), (herb, r grass) 425. Kusabira, 78. Kusa-iri-suisho, 425. Kusakura, 302. Kusa-maki, 232. -mao, 167. Kusari-katabira 433, 434. Kusawara, 272. Kushi, ^^. Kusu, 244. -no-ki, I43-I5 . 22 5> 244. Kusiiri, 467. Kutani-ishi, 312, 482, 485. -yaki, 462, 482. Kuwa, 32, 91, 190, 242, 396. Kuwai, 64. Kuwa-kami, 404. Kuwana, 483, 486. Kuwan-me(pron. Kwamme), 508. Kuwa-no-kawa, 396. Kuwanto, 47. Kuwarin, 85. 566 INDEX OF JAPANESE NAMES. Kuwa-shi, 397. Mirin, 101. Na, 152. Kuwashiire, 468. Miru, 81. Nabeshima, 472. Kuzumi Morikage, 482. Mi-sasagi, 256. Nabetane-ishi, 312. Miso, 107. Naga-dokoro, 68. Magai Aogai, 365. Mito, 313. Naga-imo, 68. Maguwa, 32. Mitsuba-akebi, 91. Nagasaki, 14, 630. Magusa, 183. Mitsubishi-guwaisha, 512. Nagi, 232, 265. Majumi, 253. Mitsu-mata, 395, 402, 404, Nai,- kokti - tsuun - guwaisha, Maki, 232, 238. 406. 512. Makiyeshi 339, 366. Mitsu-ro, 158. Naka (between), 353. Makko, 259. Mitzu-bachi, 185. Nakade, 46. Makudzuyaki, 480. Miyanoshita, 336. Nakakosaka, 304. Makuwa-uri, 72. Miyasaki, 15. Naka-nuri, 358. Mame, 55. Mo, 508. -togi, 358, 366. -gaki, 247. Mochi-gome, 46, 50, 108. Naka-sen-do, 509. Manji, 321. -no-ki, 253. Nakaso, 302. Manshiu-imo, 67. Modzuku, 81. Naka-urushi, 353. Man-tse, 321. Mogami-gami, 403, 405. Namari, 302. -zaku, 87. Mokkoku, 337. Nambu, 342. Mao, 167. Mokoko, 288. Namisen, 598. Manimero, 85. Moku-butsu, 420. Nan, 245. Masaki, 265, 2S6. -kenjiu, 252. Nana-kamedo, 250. Masu, 535. Mokume, 369. Nanatsu-no-takara, 424. Matake, 227. Mokusei, 246, 286. Nanako, 383. Matatabi, 92, 258. Momenmono, 378. Nanban kibi, 51, 52, 55. Matsu, 214, 235, 273. Momi, 46, 214, 235. Naniwa, 515. Matsubagaki, 32. Momiji, 45, 251, 272, 273. Nanking-haze, 244. Matsu-dake, 78. Momi-kome, 484. Nara 215, 240, 241, 378, Matsumoto-Gumi, 207. Mominai, 46. 449- Matsu - no - suminoko, 354, Momo, 179, 265, 269. Nara Jofu, 378. 367- Momo-iro, 182. -no-hai, 467. Ma-wata, 197, 203. Momo-no-kawa, 179. Narude, 180. Mayu, 193. Mon, 504. Narumi-shibori, 379. Medetai, 79. -chirimen, 385. Nashi, 83. Megane-sasagi, 62. Mongami, 47. Nashiji, 352, 368, 372. Meibutsu, 425, 472. Mon-ginu, 383. Nashiji-tsutsu, 355. Me-matsu, 236. Monme(pron. Momme 1 , 508. Nasu, 70, 73. Men-dori, 185. Mono (labour), 339. Nasubi, 73. Meno, 424, 425. Monsha-niiri, 370. Natamame, 61. -seki, 314, 425. Mon-shi, 400, 403, 405. Natane, 151. Menuki, 431, 448. Mon-Tengu.jo, 403, 405. Natsu-bera, 343. Menyo, 184. Morokoshi, 37, 51. -gi-sha, 382. Meshi, 46. Moso, 228. -go, 192, 199. Me-take, 228. -chiku, 228. Natsume, 87, 252. -ushi, 184. Moto, 96, 98. Natsu-sukushi-yuri, 68. Midzu-ame, 103. Moyashi, 104. Naye (pron- Nae), 46, 215. -bachi 468. Moyo-sha, 382. Nayeshirogawa, 474, 475. Midzuhiki, 401. Mugi, 50. Nebari, 398. Midzuki, 277. ;kogi, 33. Nedjuko, 233. Midziime, 239. Mukojima, 269. Nedzumi (grey rat), 185, -na, 70. Muku, 243, 397. 500. -nara, 241. Mukubi, 397. Nedzumiiro-fun, 367. nuki, 302. Mukiige, 262. Nedzumi-mochi, 246, 2S6, Mikage-ishi, 313. Mukuroshi, 252. -take, 79. Mikan, 89. Muku-no-ki, 243, 397. Negi, 76. Miike, 307. Mume, 86, 249, 265, 268, -rui, 69, 76. Miki, 95. 269. Neko (cat), 185. Mimpei-yaki, 477. -fuji, 257. Nemu, 250. Minebari, 239. Mune, 431. -no ki, 250. Mino, 47, 172, 414. Murasaki, 177, 498. Nemuri-no-Neko, 420. Minogami, 358, 402, 405. -kusa, 177. Nemuro, 532. Mino-yaki, 4S0. -suisho, 425. Nengo, 505. Mioban (Miyoban), 312. Mushiro, 171. Neri, 398. Mioga, 76. Mutsu, 342. Netzuke, 132, 419. INDEX OF JAPANESE NAMES. 567 Ni, 503. Nibeshi, 170. Ni-bu, 505. Niga-uri, 72. Niigata, 532. Ni-ju, 5°3- Nikawa, 354, 417. Nikkei, 75. Nikko, 336. -zaiku, 336. Ningio, 46S, Ninjin, 73, 136-143. Ninniku, 76. Ninsei, 476. Ninseiyaki, 476. Nin-soku, 509. jN'i-o, 420. Nippon - Yusen - guwaisha, 512. Nira, 77. Nire, 244. Nishijin, 381. Nishiki, 3s". Nishin, 29, 165. Nishi-no-uchi, 403, 406. Ni-shu, 598. Niwa, 261. -sakura, So, 269. Nobiru, 15. No-gurumi, 240. Nojiro-Shunkei, 360. Nomi, 427. Nora-hiye. 51. -mame, 62. Nori, 81, 183, 35s, 398. -garni, 398, 401, 403. Xnriire, 403. Nori-kusa, 398. -no-ki, 282, 398. Noshi, 197. -ito, 203. Nubeshi, 398, Nui-haku, 388. -mi i] Nuka, 1S3. Nuki-ito, 383. Nuno, 166, 354. -kise, 35S. -me-Zogan, 429. Nuri-mono, 339. -mono-shi, 339, 359. -shippo, 496. ■tate, 353, 360. Nunifle, 158. Nushi-ya, 339, 357, (great), 50. Oarata, 310. Obaku, 180, 255. Qbama, 362. O-ban, 505-507. Oba-no-cliisa, 247. Obi, 382, 386. Ochi, 254. O-cha-dzuke, 472. 6-doko, 295. -fuigo, 295. -garashi, 70, 152. Ogi, 64, 415. Ogiri, 294. Ogo, 82. .gon, 135, 300. O-guruma, 384. -haba, 384. Ohaguro, 179, 181. Ohaku, 391, Ohashi, 303. Ohio-no-ki, 169, 243. Jiira-tetsu-san, 303. Qji, 269. Ojoin-mura, 305. Okabo, 38, 46. ( (kasaki-tsuchi, 435. Oke, 99. -gawa, 432, 434. Oki-mono, 44S, 468. O-kinuta-so, 177. Oka, 47. ( i-mame, 56. O-mamma, 46. -matsu, 236. O Miki, 95. Omina-meslii, 272, 372, Omocha, 338. Omodani, 301. Omori, 338. Omote, 391, 401. O-mugi, 6, 37, 50. O-nara, 241. On-dori, 185. Oniki, 30S. Oranda-jisa, 73. Osarusawa, 302. Oshiu-kai-do, 509. 155, 469. O-tade, 75. Otaka-gami, 403, 406, 412. Ota-yaki, 480. O-ushi, 184. Owari, 47. Oya-kata, 411. Oyaku-yen, 134. Osaka, 47, 515, 530. Pan, 36. Poronai, 307. Ra-den, 423. Kaiden-giri, 246. Rakkasho-no-abura, 153. Rakkuwasho, 56. Raku, 458. Rakuyaki, 458, 475. Rashamen, 184, Rei-ki, 323. Rcishi, 79. Rengas^ki, 454. Renge, 64, 270. Rengijo, 268. Renkon, 64, 270. Rin, 323, 503, 508. Ringo, 84. Riu-kiu, 65. Riukiu-imo, 65. Ri-sampei, 472. Riyo, 323. R6, 150-165, 383, 494. Roha, 437. Roiro, 361. -dsumi, 354. -urushi, 352, 497, Rokuro, 457, 465. -saiku, 428. Rokushiyo, 498. R6-no-ki, 160, 251. Roseki, 313, 426. Run, 424. -kon, 175. Sabi, 358, 364. Sado, 300, Sagara, 310. Sagi-ito, 203. Saidzuchi, 427, Saikachi, 250. Saiku, 340. Sainai, 303. Sai-yen, 261. Saji, 355- Sakai, 609. Sakaki. 216, 256. Sakaki-no-hashi, 256. Sake, 49, 95. -dzuki, 468. Saki-kake, 411. -kawa, 41 1. Sakura, 183, 249, 265, 269, 355- Same-dzaya, t^t,. Samegawa-nuri, 363. Same-no-kawa, 364, 494» Sanebuto-natsume, 87, 252. San-dai-ka, 47. Sanekatsura, 260, 398. Sangoju, 424. Sankaku-hiye, 51. Sano Nobuteri, 497. Sanshio-nayu, 87. Sanshiu, 247. -yu, 247. Sansho, 71, 75, 255, 335. Sanuki, 47. San-yo-do, 509. Sapporo, 15, 19, 532. Sara, 468, 472. Sarai, 32. Sarasa-ishi, 313. Saru, 185. -name, 257. -nashi, 92. -no koshikake, 79. Sarusuberi, 218, 225, 257. 568 INDEX OF JAPANESE NAMES. Sasa, 228. Sasage, 61. Sasagi, 61. Sasankuwa, 257, 273. Sasank'wa-no-abura, 152. Sato, 109. Sato-imo, 67. Sato-kibi, 109. Satsu, 503. Satsuma, 455, 474, 475. Satsuma-imo, 65. -yaki, 474, 475. Sawa-gurumi, 240. -mura, 337, Sawara, 216, 232, 233, 355. Saya, 364, 375, 431, 432. -hana, 353. Saya-shi, 340. Sazaye, 423. Se, 507. Sei-shitsu, 353, 361. Seishu, 95. Seki, 477. Seki-ban, 313. Sekigahara, 521. Seki-gusa, 171. Sekitan, 305. Seki-yei, 424. Sembei, 108. Sen, 503. Sencha, 120. Sendai, 47. Sendai-no-umuregi-zaiku, 260 Sendan, 253. Sengoku-mame, 62. Senka, 403, 406. Senkiyu, 135, Sennari-hodziiki, 74. Se-no-ki, 248. Sen-sei, 411. Seshime, 344, 350, 548. Serigano, 300. Seto, 305, 551, 559, 562- 57} ; 580- -konjo, 304. Seto-mono, 463, 478. Setzu, 27. Sha, 383, 385. Shake, 535. Shaku, 303, 507. ( -do, 439, 448. Shakunage, 246. Shakunagi, 337. Shakuyaku, 135, 281. Shaori-sha, 382. Shari, 52. -kaganai, 354. Shari-Nashiji, 354, 364. Shi (paper), 390. Shiba, 172. -ebi, 535. -take, 79. Shibori, 385. Shibu, 69, 88, 100, 179, 181, 182, 354, 359, 400. -gaki, 181, 247. -ichi, 439, 448. Shibuki, 177. Shi-dako, 535. Shidare-yanagi, 239. Shifu, 412. -garni, 403, 406, 412. Shigaraki, 476, 466. -tsuchi, 477. Shii, 94. -noki, 78. -no-mi, 94. -take, 78. Shika, 185. Shike-ito, 203. Shikimi, 258. -no-kawa, 258. Shikoku, 47. Shikon, 177. Shikotan, 22S, 249. Shi-kusa, 167. Shima-chirimen, 385. Shimeshi, 79. Shime-urushi, 344. Shimoda, 529. Shin, 76. Shinano, 50. .gaki, 89, 181, 247. Shinanogawa, 47. Shina-no-ki, 170, 255. Shin-ju, 424. Shii-no-ki, 215, 216, 226, 241. Shin-ro, 468. Shio (salt), 310, 352. Shio-gama, 311. Shio-hama, 11, 411. Shioji, 248 Shippo, 424, 430, 489. Shippo-urushi, 492, 496. -yaki, 489, 493, 495. Shira (white). Shirabe, 235. Shira-cha, 179. Shiraga-mushi, 210. -non, 82. Shiragiri, 246. Shira-kaba, 239. -kamba, 239. -kashi, 241. Shiraki, 244, 256. Shira-kuchi, 258. -katsura, 92, 258. Shiramo, 82. Shira-shibori, 152. -shime, 152. Shi-rei, 323. Shiribeshi, 307. Shiro, 170, 231, 288, 499. Shiro-gane, 300. Shiro-goma, 154. Shiro-hana-azimame, 62. Shiro-kane-dsaiku, 448. Shiro-ko, 193. -mame, 57. Shirome-ko, 305. Shiro-moji, 245. Shiro-saiku, 170. Shiro-sake, 10 1. Shiro-tzudzu, 245. -tsuta-no-ki, 28S. -uri, 72. -utsugi, 282, 398. Shishi-biye, 51. Shiso, 75. Shisui, 477. -Kenzan, 477. Shitaji, 358. Shita-makiye, 366. Shitan, 251. -nuri, 362. Shitatsuki, 46S. Shu (cinnabar), 353. ^-chiu, 439. Shiu-mukigara, 367. Shiiisu, 468. Shiu-urushi, 352. Shiwa, 310. Shiwo-shake, 535. -tara, 536. Shiyiin-kei, 352, 360. Sho, 601. Shoben, 28. Shochu, 101. Shofu-nori, 407. Shoga, 75. Shoji, 233, 335. -gami, 404, 406. Shokunin, 7. Shono, 143-15°. 354- Sho-ro, 79. Shoyu, 105. Shu, 505. Shunkei, 352, 360. -yaki, 479. Shuran, 493. Shurku, 136. Shuro, 170. Shuro-gi, 23 r. Shuro-no-ki, 170, 231. Shusu, 382, 383. Sikimi, 135. Sinshiu, 494. Soba, 37, 55. Soku, 401. Somen, 108. Some-tsuke, 463, 478. Sone, 261. Sorachi, 307. Sora-mame, 62. Sotetsu, 231, 335. Soye, 99. Su, 109. Suberi-hiyu, 71. Sudzu, 303. Sudzuhaku, 387. INDEX OF JAPANESE NAMES. 569 Sudzuri, 41S. Takidani, 302. T6-kinkan, 90. Suge, 172. Tako, 535. Toki-shippo, 492, 495. Sugegawa, 310. Tama-gusu, 245. Tokkiiri, 468. Sugi, 215, 226, 233. -ito, 198. Toko, 171. Sui-kuwa, 71. -mayu, 203. Tokoname-yakL, 479. Suisho, 314, 424, 425. -moku, 243. Tokonoma, 79. -rin, 424. -no-keaki, 243. Tokoroten, 109. Suisho-tama, 424. Tamano-o, 272. -gusa, 82. Sukari, 210. Tamo-Osho-gi, 398. T6-ku\va, 191. Suki, 32. Tampan, 437^ Tokugawa Shogun, 48. Suki-gaeshi, 317, 404. Tamura Gonzayemon, 4S1. Tomicka, 205. -urushi, 352. Tan, 384, 385, 507. T6-morokoshi, 37, 52, 54, Sumi, 354, 417. Tane, 193, 203. Tomushiro, 173. -bike, 416. -abura, 151, 354. T6-na, 152. -ire, 41. -gami, 193. -nasu, 71, Sumomo, 86. -koji, 96, 97. Tonebetsu, 310. Sumpu, 523. -tsubo, 46S. Tone-gawa, 47. Sun, 507. Tanichi-tamo, 243. Toneriko, 246. Sunoko, 40a Tani-yama, 303. Tonokiichi, 481. Suri-hegashi-nuri, 363. Tankiri-mame, 62. -ishi, 481, 485. -urushi, 361. Tano-ura, 476. To-no-ko, 354. Siiruga-banshi, 396, 403, Taru, 344. T6-no-tsuchi, 354, 499. 406. Tataku, 42S. Tora-momi, 235. Surmae, 535. Tatami, 171, 507. "Torayo, 253. Susu, 417. Susuki, 172, 272. SUWO, 177, 23 L. Suzu, 436. Ta, 11, 37, 212. Tabako, 131. Tabu, 245. -no-ki, 245. Tachi ika, 535. Tade, 75. Tadzu, 398. Ta-funo, 245. Tagane, 427- Tai,3 5S . Taifun, 15. Tai-heishi, 401. Tai-ki, 355. Tajima, 338. Tajimi, 480. Takagi, 192. Takahama, 305, 473. Taka-kabu, 192. -kibi, 51- -makiye, 367, 371, -na, 70, 152. Takenaga-gami, 404. Takasaki, 513. Takishima, 306, 30S. Takatomari, 307. Takayama, 480. Taka zdgan, 429, Take, 69, 77, 78, 172, 35 6 - Takebera, 354. Take-mono, 23a Takeni-gusa, 282. Take-no-ki, 229. -no-ko, 77. -yabu, 216- II. 374- 227, Tate, 383. Tatesato, 302. ; Tatsuno, 475. Tatsuta-gawa, 273. -roomiji, 273. Te-bukuro, 343. Tebiishiukan, 90. Temmoki, 46S. Tempo, 505. Tengu-jo, 403, 405. Tengusu, 196, 211. Tennin, 446. . Tensei, 75. Teshima-ishi, 313. Tensho D&ijin, 6. Tetsu (iron), 303, 356, 430. ; Tetsubi'n, 433. Tctsudo, 512-513. To, S6. Tobira, 286. J Tochi, *8i, 252, 285. -no-ki, 252. Tofu, 107. Tofutsu, 31a Togan, 72. Togarashi, 74. To-goma, 156. -gosu, 498. -gurumi, 239. -gnwa, 72. -haze, 244. Tuhi, 235. To-ishi, 354. Toiya, 530. Tojin-mame, 56, 153. To-kai-do, 509. -kaki, 90. Toki, 492. Tuki-gaisha, 475. TC-kibi, 52, 55. Tori, 1S5. Tori-kabuto, 135. Tori-mochi, 253. Tororo, 398, 404. T6-R6-sek, 426. Tosaka-nori, 82. T6-sei, 286. -sendan, 254. To-shiro, 352, 480. Toshiro-yaki, 479. Toso, 101, 171. Toso-shu, 101. Totan, 304, 494. Toyu, 414. Toyosuke (pron. Toyoske)- yaki, 454, 479. Tsien, 508. Tsuba, 431, 432, 448. Tsubaki, 152, 225, 256, 273^ 277, 279, 337. -no-abura, 152. -no-sumi, 354. Tsiibo 454, 468, 472, 479,. 5°7- Tsuchi (earth), 312, 454. ■me, 428. -yaki, 453, 463. Tsudzure-no-nishiki, 387. Tsuga, 214, 219, 236. Tsugaru-nuri, 36 z. Tsuga-take, 79. Tsuge, 224, 244, 337. Tsui-shiu, 372. Tsuka, 431. -gashira, 431. Tsuke-raono, 69. Tsukigome, 46. Tsumugi, 383. Tsunagi, 398. 1 TsunasOj 169. P P 57o INDEX OF JAPANESE NAMES. Tsuno, 356, 422. -ban, 355. -ko, 354. Tsiino-mata, 82. Tsuri-gane, 436, 437. Tsuru (to entwine). Tsurugi, 431. Tsuru-masaki, 287. Tsuru-mume-modoki, 253- Tsuru-reishi, 72. Tsuta (a climbing plant), 336- -no-ki, 218, 258, 31a Tsutsu-furui, 355. Tsutsiiji, 263, 270. Tsusure-sha, 382. Tsuya-keshi, 361. Tsubetagi, 247. Uba-yuri, 68. Ube, 307. Uchi-age, 42S. -dashi, 428* Ucbivra, 415. Udo, 73- Udshi, 199. Udzu, 136. Udzura-mame, 59. Ugo, 342. Uikiyo, 135. Uji, 113, 116, 117, 126. Ukon, 76, 179, 1S2, 337. Uma (M'ma), 183. Umedzu, 109, 182. Ume-kawa, 179. Umi-kusa, 82. Umuregi, 260. Undon, 10S. Uguisu (pron. Unguisu), 268. Unoke-hake, 354. Ura, 391, 401. Uri-no-ki, 247. -rui, 69. Urushi, 339. -kabure, 349. -koshi, 4Q4. Urushine, 37, 46, 96, 104, 251. L rushi-no-ki, 15S, 251, 342. -saiku, 339. -shokunin, 343. Unishiya, 350. Usagi (rabbit, hare), 185. Usu, 33. Usude-Torinoko-gami. -yaki, 471. U sego, 404, 407. Ushi, 184, Uwo-no-abura, 536. Uye-gomi, 261. Uye-ki-bachi, 46S. Uyeno, 269. Wakame, 81. Wakasa nuri, 362. Wakayama, 15. Wakegi, 77. Wakizashi, 431. Wan, 356, 46S. Wara, 30, 171. Warabi, 68, 77. -no-ko, 69. Wara-kise-zaiku, 337. Wasabi, 70. Wase, 46. Wata, 166. -no-abura, 153. -no-ki, 166. Yabu, 217, 245. Yabuhara, 337. Yabu-kusu, 245. -ran, 285. Ya-gire, 243. Yakeru, 435. Yaki (the burnt), 435, 4S9. -ba, 435. -gama, 295. -gane, 354, 366, 367. -kin, 366, 506. Yakumi, 69. Yaku-shi, 446 -sugi, 234. Yama (moiintain), 207. -boke, 279. -budo, 91. -buki, 269. Yamagano, 300. Yamahari-no-ki, 239. Yama-imo, 67. Yamagata, 342. Yama-giri, 156, 244. -guranii, 240. Yama-ko, 207. Yamamai - rnon - chirimen 3S5- \amamayu, 205, 206, 209. Yama-momo, 177. -narashi, 239. Yama-nashi, 250. -rak 'kiyo, 77. -sakura, 249. -shiba, 252. Yamashiro-mura, 482. Yamato, 16. Yama-tsubaki, 277-279. -urushi, 15S. Yanagi, 239. -gori, 173. -yoji. 355- \ano-hiye, 2S5. Yasai, 69. -mono. 69, 26 1. Yashiki, II, 19. Yasdri, 427. Yatate, 416, 436. Yatsude, 273, 284. Yatsushiro, 474. Yattoko, 427. Yedo, 48, 519, 530. Yego, 246. Yegoma-no-abura, 155, 414. Yeguri, 343, 354. Yegusiiri, 304. Yehime ken, 345. Yen, 10, 303, 503. Yenbuju, 180. Yendo, 62. Yenju, 250. Ye-no-abiira, 155, 352. -no-ki, 243. Yezo, iS. Yezo-matsu, 236. Yoba, 27. Yodo-gawa, 44. Yogan-gami, 412. Yo-ji, 239. Yokka-ichi, 483. Yokohama, 530. Yoko-ito, 383. Yokosuka, 511. Yokui-nin, 51. Yomogi, 135. j Yonezawa, 34 2 - Yoroi-shi, 432. Yoshi, 172. -dzu, 172. Yoshini, 248. Yoshino, 342, 343. -garni, 356, 403. Yu, 243. Yu-gozen, 47. Yuki-oi, 215. Yunonai, 313. Yusu, 224, 249, 256, 337. Yu-wakashi, 437- Yuwo, 310. Yuyen, 418. Yuzen-some 3S8. Zabon, 90. Zai-buri, 250. Zakuro, 91. Zeni, 504 Zogan, 429, 434. Zoge, 421. -no-horimono, 421. Zokudzui, 157. Zokudzu-shi, 157. Zomeki, 302. Z6zo-ji, 446. Butler &* Tanner, T!ie Selviood Printing Works, Frotne, and Lotidon. ^c&* • ■ I ■ ■ I I ^H ,TT A\<* ■ ■ ■ ■ 625 \ I *