mm 3ai4r Ids 2 - BYZANTINE AECHITECTUBE. --- iLkisTjyrrec) 68 TGXIGJl Lo/le) ok. yu b limbec) BYdpy* sojhi, LiTbo©jy*pbejTS to The queej-i ^Jkitkik; pj\iwcG of wfi.Lcs ILLUSTRATED UY EXAMPLES OF EDIFICES ERECTED IN THE EAST DURING TIIE EARLIEST AGES OF CHRISTIANITY. with HISTORICAL & AROHiEOLOGrIOAL DESCRIPTIONS. BY CHARLES TEXTER, MEMBER OF THE INSTITUTE OF FRANCE ; HONORARY FELLOW OP THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF BRITISH ARCHITECTS, AND OF THE 1IOYAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, MUNICH J R, POPPLEWELL PIJLLAN, ESQ., F.II.I.B.A ARCHITECT TO THE QUORUM EXPEDITION ; AOENT FOR THE DILETTANTI SOCIETY IN ASIA MINOR. LONDON: DAY & SON. LITHOGRAPHERS TO THE QUEEN ANI) TO H.R.H. THE PRINCE OF "'ALES. (!, GATE STREET, LINCOLN’S INN FIELDS, W.C. 18G4. PII E F A C E. T lias been known for some years in the archaeological world, that the portfolios of M. Texier contained many interesting documents relating to Byzantine art, in part the fruits of those travels in the East which have gained him a world-wide reputation. Antiquaries from Russia, from Germany, and from England, at various times, visited Paris for the purpose of consulting these collections. It was represented to him that it was a matter of regret that so much valuable information should remain accessible only to a few and not to the general public. Consequently, about a year and a half ago, lie determined to publish a volume on Byzantine Architecture, and thereupon confided some of these documents to me, in order that I might prepare them for publication, with the power of making any additions or alterations that I might think desirable. Three journeys in the East, made at various periods between 1854 and 18G2, and a visit to Thessalonica undertaken specially for the purpose of studying the Byzantine remains there, in some degree qualified me for the task. As my share in the work went beyond that of an editor, M. Texier required that my name should be associated with his as joint author, though I need hardly state that the principal part of the book is due to the labours and researches of my learned collaborateur. We have worked together with the object of rendering this work worthy of the attention of the literary public to whom it is addressed. We trust, moreover, that it will in some measure fill up a gap that exists in the history of early Christian Art. We believe also that its perusal will tend to modify certain preconceived notions regarding Byzantine Architecture. Some authors affirm that there was a school of Byzantine painting, hut not of architecture; we shall endeavour to show them that such a school existed. Others assert that the Gothic is the only veritable Christian architecture; we shall prove that Christianity did not last for twelve centuries without having discovered a monumental form of expression. In the chapter relating to the conversion of pagan temples into churches we have given a series of monuments of all periods and of all countries, the existence of which tends to show that the antipathy, or rather hatred, which Christians were supposed to entertain for pagan buildings, was not so violent as has been supposed. Many Greek or Homan buildings b PREFACE. have been preserved by their care, and most of those which adorn modern towns owe their state of preservation either to Christian love of art, or to their adaptation to Christian purposes. We leave our readers to determine how far the study of the churches of Thessalonica, Trebizond, and of the towns in the South of Asia Minor, throws light upon the progress of early Christian Art; we believe, however, that it will enable them to understand the various phases — not to call them styles — through which Ecclesiastical Architecture passed between the time of Constantine and the end of the Byzantine empire. This work contains specimens of several buildings erected during this long interval; but we have other documents in reserve which would enable us to complete the series. This we hope to do in case our present work should meet with general approbation. London, August, 1804. R. P. P. ERRATA. 9, 27 srmentra " 35, „ 17, sementron " “to reconcile'' GO, „ lOetseq. „ f “ semenlra " 137, „ 18, t, sementron “ cupolas " 161, „ 35, “ mearet " 1G2, „ 15, “ diagram ” 1G2, „ 42, “Plate LVTII. 1G2, „ 48, “ 82 ft.” 1G3, „ 8, r“ 63 ft.” 163, (“110 ft.” “Plate LVIII. 1G4, „ ", “Plate LVIII. Ezekiel semnnlrn semantron tended to reconcile semantra semantron cupola imarel diagrams Plato LVTJ. 55 ft. 43 ft. 72 ft. Plate LVJI. riate LVTI. BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE. COS T E N I S. Page Introduction to the Study of Byzantine Architecture . 1 Origin of Byzantine Architecture . 7 Works at Jerusalem. jj Round Churches. 13 Reign of Julian (A.D. 35G—362) ... 15 Reign of Theodosius (A D. 379—395) . 18 Reign of Justinian (A.D. 527 — 565) . 20 Military and Domestic Architecture . 23 Christian Edifices before the Reign of Constantine . 29 St. Paul in Asia Minor. 31 The Dwellings of the Anchorites . 34 Churches cut in the Rock .;. 38 The Christian Monuments of Urgub. 40 The Iconography of the Virgin . 42 Christian Burials . 43 Funeral Ceremonies . 44 Modes of Burial. 44 The Erection of the First Christian Churches . 49 Nisibis. 52 The Fortifications of Dara . 53 The Byzantine Church and its Ceremonies under Justinian and his Successors. 59 The Form and Construction of Byzantine Churches . 64 The Ceremonies of the Primitive Christian Church. 69 Pagan Temples converted into Churches. 75 The Sanctuary of Cavesus at Deir el Kala’ah, Syria.;. 81 The Temple of Bacchus at Laodicea (Lattakia) . 87 Temples in Asia converted into Churches. 88 The Temple of Venus at Aphrodisias. 88 The Temple of Rome and Augustus at Ancyra . 90 The Temples of Greece converted into Churches. 92 Temples in Italy and Gaul . 93 The Temple of Portumnus at Ostia . 94 Temples in Gaul Narbonnaise converted into Churches. 97 The Corinthian Temple at Riez . 98 The Pantheon at Riez . 98 CONTENTS. Page The Church of St. Peter at Auriol. 102 The Temple of Augustus at Vienne, converted into a Church under the title of Notre-Dame-de-Vie 103 Mosaic Pavements . 106 Thessalonica. HI The Origin of Thessalonica ... 112 Tombs . HI The Christian Period. 116 Thessalonica under the Turks. 118 Thessalonica after Modern Writers. 119 The Churches of Thessalonica. 121 The Church of St. Demetrius. 123 The Church of St. Demetrius in its actual state. 126 Plan and Situation of the Church . 128 The Fair of St. Demetrius—the Xcnodochia, or Caravanserai . 130 The Church of St. George . i32 Plan of the Church of St. George. 131 Decoration of the Dome . I 33 The Church of St. Sophia. U2 The Mosaics . 144 Eski Djouma . I 4 ' 15 The Church of the Holy Apostles (Soouk-sou Djami-si). 148 The Church of St. Bardias (Kazandjilar Djami-si) . 149 The Church of St. Elias (Sarali Djami-si). 150 The present state of Thessalonica . 151 Broussa . 155 The Church of St. Elias . !57 Byzantine and Turkish Baths. I 08 The Baths of Mahomet II. compared with the Baths of the Byzantines. 159 The Baths of Mahomet IL (now called Tchoucour Hammam). 161 Description of the Bath. I 32 The Church of St. Nicholas, Myra (Lycia). 107 The Church of Dana, near the Euphrates. 1/3 Edessa and its Monuments . ^' Topography of the Country.* ^ 79 The Corinthian Columns . ' 84 The Tombs of Edessa . 185 TkEBIZOND . . Foundation of the Kingdom of Trebizond. i91 The Byzantine and the Modem Town of Trebizond . 195 The Byzantine Buildings of Trebizond . I 08 The Church of the Golden-headed Virgin (davayi'a XpvaouiQaXn r).. 198 St. Sophia. 190 Panagia Theotocos. “91 205 Explanation of the Plates . “ LIST OF PLATES. Plate Page 1. Frontispiece. 1 2. Tomb of Ezekiel at Kefeli, near Bagdad. 2 3. Plan of the city of Perga—Tomb at Dana. 30 4. View of a Grotto at Urgub . 40 5. Fresco at Urgub—View of the Temple of Balinarcos at Caverns (now Deir el Kala’ah) . 42 G. View of the Temple of Bacchus at Laodicea (LattakLi) . 86 7. Elevation and Plan of the Columns of the Temple of Bacchus . 8G 8. Plans of the Temple of Portumnus at Ostia. : . 94 9. Temple of Portumnus at Ostia — Elevation and Section . 96 10. Baptistry at Riez. 98 11. The Baptistry of St. Maurice at Aix—Plan of Temple at VernSgue. 98 12. Temple at Vernegue—Elevations . 100 13. Temple at Vemiigue—Details of the Order. 100 14. View of the Temple of Augustus at Vienne. 104 15. Mosaic Pavements . 106 16. Mosaic Pavement. 108 17. The Church of St. Demetrius at Thessalonica—Plan. 124 18,19. The Church of St. Demetrius at Thessalonica—Longitudinal and transverse Sections. 124 20. The Church of St. Demetrius at Thessalonica—Elevation of a Bay of the Nave . 126 21. The Church of St. Demetrius at Thessalonica—Elevation of the Narthex. 126 22. The Church of St. Demetrius at Thessalonica—Capitals in the Nave . 128 23. The Church of St. Demetrius at Thessalonica—Capitals in the Nave . 128 24. The Church of St. Demetrius at Thessalonica—Various Capitals. 128 25. The Church of St. Demetrius at Thessalonica—Various Capitals. 128 26. Details from the Churches of St. Demetrius and St. Sophia, Thessalonica. 128 27. Caravanserai at Thessalonica . 132 28. The Church of St. George, Thessalonica—Plan and Section. 134 29. The Church of St. George, Thessalonica — Elevation—View of the East End . 134 30. The Church of St. George, Thessalonica—Mosaics of the Dome. 136 31. The Church of St. George, Thessalonica—Mosaics of the Dome. 136 32. The Church of St. George, Thessalonica—Mosaics of the Dome. 138 33. The Church of St. George, Thessalonica—Mosaics of the Dome. 138 34. The Church of St. George, Thessalonica—Mosaics of the Side Chapels. 140 35. The Church of St. Sophia, Thessalonica — Plan . 142 36. The Church of St. Sophia, Thessalonica—Plan of the Upper Story . 142 37. The Church of St. Sophia, Thessalonica—West Elevation—East Elevation . 142 38. The Church of St. Sophia, Thessalonica—Longitudinal Section — Transverse Section . 142 39. The Church of St. Sophia, Thessalonica—Capitals. 144 40. The Church of St. Sophia, Thessalonica—Mosaics of the Dome . 144 41. The Church of St. Sophia, Thessalonica — Mosaics of the Dome . 144 42. Eski Djouma, Thessalonica—Plan. 146 43. Eski Djouma, Thessalonica—Longitudinal Section—Transverse Section . 146 44. Eski Djouma, Thessalonica—Capitals . 146 45. The Church of the Holy Apostles, Thessalonica—North-east View . 148 46. The Church of the Holy Apostles, Thessalonica — South-east View. 148 47. The Church of the Holy Apostles, Thessalonica—Ground Plan . 148 48. The Church of the Holy Apostles, Thessalonica—Longitudinal Section. 148 49. The Church of the Holy Apostles, Thessalonica—Elevation. 148 LIST OF PLATES AND WOOD ENGRAVINGS. ^ Page ■'><). The Church of St. Bardias, Thessalonica—Plan—Longitudinal Section. 15 ij •51- The Church of St. Bardias, Thessalonica—West and South Elevations. 150 52. The Church of St. Elias, Thessalonica—Plan. j^q 53. The Church of St. Elias, Thessalonica—West Elevation—Transverse Section . 150 54. The Church of St. Elias, Thessalonica—Longitudinal Section. 150 •55. The Church of St. Elias, Thessalonica—Side Elevation. iqq • r »5. The Church of St. Elias, Broussa—Plan—Section. 57. The Baths of Mahomet II. at Constantinople—Plan—Section. 102 58. The Church of St, Nicholas at Myra . jgg 59. The Church of Dana—Plan—Transverse Section . j"4 GO. The Church of Dana—Longitudinal Section . GO a. The Church of St. Sophia at Trebizond—South-west View. jgg Gl. The Church of St. Sophia, Trebizond—Ground Plan . igg G2. The Church of St. Sophia, Trebizond—South Elevation—Longitudinal Section . igg G3. The Church .of St. Sophia, Trebizond — West Elevation—Plan of Trebizond . igg G4. The Church of St. Sophia, Trebizond—Details of Sculpture. igg G5. The Church of St. Sophia, Trebizond—Fresco in the Apse. igg 6G. Frescoes in a Monastery near Trebizond. 200 07. The Mosque of Orta Hissar, Trebizond—Plan . 202 G8. The Mosque of Orta Ilissar, Trebizond—Section . 202 59 & 70. Various Inscriptions... 202 LIST OF WOOD ENGRAVINGS. Head-piece, from a Christian Sarcophagus at Thessalonica .. l Church of St. Marcellinus and St. Peter . 14 Triumphal Arch at Reims . 17 Plan of Anazarbus . 20 Fortifications of Nictea. 23 View of Pergc . 34 Christian Tombstones at Sour Ghozlan (Auzia), Africa. 34 Church cut in the rock near Surp Garabed. 39 Tombs cut in the rock. 39 Christian Tomb cut in one of the pyramidal rocks of CTrgub .. 40 Fortifications of Dara . 54 Plan of the Temple of Baal at Cavesus, in Syria . 83 Plan of the Temple of Venus at Aphrodisias. 89 Plan of the Temple of Rome and Augustus . 91 Tail-piece, from a marble Bas-relief at Thessalonica . 108 Plan of Thessalonica. 120 The silver Ciborium in the Church of St. Demetrius. 124 Stamps on Bricks in the Church of St. George, Thessalonica .. 134 Ainbo, or Pulpit, of the Church of St. George, Thessalonica . 135 Plan of the Cathedral of Bozrah, in the Haouran... 135 Stamp on Bricks of the Church of St. Elias, Thessalonica . 150 Position of Dana . I73 Castle of Edessa . 183 Plan of the Castle of Edessa..... 183 Corinthian Columns . ]84 View of Modem Trebizond. 195 Tail-piece, from a Byzantine Bas-relief. 202 INTRODUCTION. N attentive study of the architecture of the various nations of antiquity leads us to the inevitable conclusion that what we term architectural style was not solely the result of popular taste, but that it was produced in a great measure by the nature of the country in which the architects practised their art. For instance, in Egypt the rectilinear character of the architecture, and the practice of employing innumerable columns to sustain the temples, were well suited to a country which furnished materials of unlimited size, as did the quarries of porphyry and grey granite. Here the builders had only to cut blocks from the mountain-side of the dimensions required for the erection and covering of their temples. These imposing masses, relieved by delicate and ingenious ornament, have ever remained characteristic features of the edifices of the valley of the Nile. But beyond the Euphrates the character of the country is entirely different; and we find that the inhabitants of Assyria and Babylonia, destitute of wood or building-stone, adopted a system of construction quite unlike that of their Egyptian contemporaries. Bricks, dried in the sun, were the only materials employed in their edifices, and on account of the frail nature of the bricks, the walls had to be constructed of great thickness. Arcades were substituted for the horizontal architraves that surmounted the Egyptian temples. The vault made its appearance in Assyria in times of the most remote antiquity. There is therefore no doubt of its Oriental origin; the fiat terrace, upheld by the trunks of palm-trees, was not then employed, and is now only used in private dwellings. In Nineveh, which was built upon a stratum of alabaster, that material was employed for the decoration of public buildings. There the column — the most elegant and varied feature of architecture — is entirely wanting; it is to be found only in Persepolis, a town situated at the foot of a high limestone mountain, which furnished blocks of every dimension. Although the symbolism and some of the arts practised by the Assyrians and Persians were somewhat similar, we find the greatest difference between the styles of architecture of these two nations. The Babylonians, although not so well furnished with constructive materials as the Assyrians, found in their territory an element which contributed greatly to the solidity of their buildings. The inexhaustible springs of bitumen which existed on the banks of the Euphrates, and in the north of the country, furnished an imperishable cement; and we may still see the bricks of Birs Nemroud lying upon bituminous beds between layers of matting made of reeds from the river-side. With such materials the construction of the vault was an extremely simple process. The most ancient domes of which we find examples in Babylonia are in reality only systems of corbels, like that of the edifice commonly called Treasury of Atreus, at Mycenae; — witness, for instance, the cupola, in the form of a beehive, over the tomb B INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE. of Ezechiel, at Kefeli, to the south of Babylon, 1 which is only an imitation of a more ancient structure. We may mention also the monument known by the name of the Tomb of Zobeide, at Bagdad. Both these edifices partake rather of the style of the monuments of India than of those of Persia. The founders of the town of Ctesiphon found the art of constructing vaults already spread throughout the country. The vast palace of Chosrocs, the ruins of which stand upon the borders of the Tigris, contains the most ancient known example of a vault with a pointed arch ; this form of arch was, however, used in times of the most remote antiquity in Egypt, 2 at Tiryns, and at Assos, but in every case under different conditions. The Sassanides, during their long dominion over the countries to the east of the Euphrates, erected numerous domed buildings; the Arabs and Berbers imitated them, and the koubba , or chapels covered by domes, were multiplied in Arabia and in Africa to such an extent that they have become to the moderns the types of Oriental architecture. The Greeks, not being of Semitic origin, and having had for many centuries no other inter¬ course with Asia than that arising from sanguinary wars with its inhabitants, preferred to seek the elements of their art in Egypt. The countries occupied by the Greek race — the Peloponnesus and Ionia — afforded all the elements for the continuation of the traditions derived from Egypt: the rocky mountains of Greece and Asia supplied the early Pclasgi with materials for the erection of their imperishable fortresses. The mode of constructing temples surrounded by columns was introduced into Greece from Egypt, and the Greeks, satisfied with a principle which was as well adapted to their climate, as to their state of civilization, strove to carry to perfection an art which they looked upon as indigenous. The quarries of Mount Pentelicus, the marbles and calcareous rocks of Thessaly and Thrace, furnished all the materials required for the erection of their edifices. When the Greek colonies were established on the coast of Asia, they found there also all the materials necessary for their temples. If in later times, after the conquests of Alexander, the Greeks became acquainted with the style and mode of building of the Persians, they disdained them as too barbarous. Rectilinear architecture was to them the type of perfection, and they only departed from it under unusual circumstances. It was the task of the Roman Empire, which embraced within its vast limits all the nations, whether barbarous or civilized, of the known world, to modify in an important manner the uniform architecture of the Greeks. It may be affirmed, nevertheless, that Roman architecture did not depart from the rules which we have regarded as fundamental; that is to say, that the stylo of architecture and mode of construction were modified according to the nature of the country. Thus, although we find Roman edifices from the North of Europe to the confines of the Sahara, and from Gibraltar to the mouths of the Euphrates, the character of Italian architecture is confined to its native country. In Italy alone we find that species of masonry which appears to have been an object of predilection to the Roman architects, — the opus reticula linn, —-representing the meshes of a net. It is rarely met with in Gaul, never in the East; we cannot mention a single example of it existing there, although Roman buildings abound. It was employed very generally in Italy, and that because the sort of volcanic tufa furnished by the Campagna of Rome was very suitable for this kind of masonry, when employed in conjunction with pumice-stone and cemented with pozzuolana, which was to the Romans what bitumen was to the Babylonians ; it also formed vaults of great lightness and strength. Thus the materials to be found on Roman soil only awaited an application. The Etruscans — those Asiatics transported to the shores of Italy — understood the use of the round arch: from them the Romans of the early time of the Republic learnt its con¬ struction. The semicircular vault of the Cloaca Maxima affords us the most ancient example of the application of the arch by the Romans. This method of construction became developed under the Republic, and reached perfection in the time of Augustus; the relieving-arch was then invented, and the first spherical vault, built upon a circular plan, was employed in the erection of the Pantheon of Agrippa. For a considerable time the Romans followed this first example, and confined their genius to the construction of circular temples covered by domes, imitations of the Tholus , a pyramidal covering of which we find an unique example in the monument of Lysicrates. 1 See Plate II. and, what is more singular, showing both circular and pointed 2 In Ethiopia, Mr. Hoskins found stone arches vaulting the arches.—Fergusson's Handbook of Architecture, 1855, 8vo, roofs of the porches of the pyramids, perfect in construction, part I. p. 252. TOMB OF EZEKIEL KEFELI NEAR BAGDAD. INTRODUCTION To THE STUDY OF BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE. 3 The science of masonry made a fresh start, when, under the first Caesars, the theatres, originally of wood, were reconstructed in stone. In the more ancient theatres of Greece and Asia Minor, we find no example of the vaulted passage; the doorway of the theatre of Iassus is covered by stones placed so as to form an angular head; the gateways of Assos have arches built of corbels on the horizontal principle, after the most ancient fashion of the Greeks. The necessity for having large covered halls for public assemblies stimulated the genius of the architects; but they were contented to use wooden roofs for their basilicas as well as for their temples. Although the use of baths was general in times of antiquity, as the paintings on vases clearly show, we are not acquainted with the arrangement or structure of the Greek or Asiatic bath. The construction of the Baths of Titus shows a great advance made by Roman architecture. The invention of the dome springing from pendentives, which may be regarded as the greatest improvement in the art of construction in brick and stone, appeared in all its perfection in. the Baths of Caracalla. The dome was employed in all the principal edifices of the ancient world. After it had been applied solely to civil structures, the Byzantines adopted it for their ecclesiastical edifices, and it ended by becoming typical of a Christian church in all the countries of the East. The idea of tracing the employment of the dome to the Sassanides (from the 2nd to the 4th centuries of the Christian era) is not new. Mr. Eergusson, a writer who has studied this subject, speaking of the Tact Kesrah, says: “ Taking it altogether, the building is interesting as containing the germs of much that followed, rather than for any intrinsic merit of its own;” . . . and further on: “If properly worked out and illustrated, it would probably explain nearly all the Eastern forms of the Byzantine style.” 1 The Romans, while adopting the principles of Greek art, did not copy the details in a servile manner. The Greek orders obtained a now character in passing under the Roman chisel. The severity of the Boric order did not suit the splendour and elegance of Rome. Its narrow intercolumniations, its short and massive columns, did not allow sufficient breadth to be given to the porticos, nor sufficient height to the architraves; therefore this order was almost entirely abandoned by the Romans, and seldom made its appearance in succeeding ages. The Ionic order, which the Greeks had carried to perfection, was adopted by the Romans; but it was the Corinthian that became the Roman order par excellence. The finest specimens of this order may be met with as frequently in the provinces, as in Rome itself. Architects were so familiar with its proportions, that in the most remote provinces it always rose above mediocrity. The temples and other edifices of the Corinthian order were erected on certain fundamental principles; they only differed from one another in some slight details. In Eastern territories the foliage of the capital Avas generally copied from the acanthus-leaf; but at Rome and in the rest of Italy the olive-leaf had the preference. The Attic base was everywhere employed; and at the present time only two or three examples of bases of a different character are to be found. The mode of fluting indicates also Roman workmanship. Amongst the Greeks the flute Avas but slightly hollowed out; it included only a third of the circumference of a circle. The flutes were seldom more or less than twenty in number. Amongst the Romans the fluting deepened to a half-circle; and this gave a greater play of light and shade, and increased the apparent lightness of the columns. In the latter days of the Empire, the architects, giving freer rein to their imagination, gave themselves up to neAV ideas, not quite so pure in taste, but which required greater skill to execute. In many theatres, and in some of the porticos of the Asiatic towns, we find columns fluted spirally. During the period of the Renaissance this peculiarity found great favour: Raphael introduced it in his pictures, and the columns of the baldaquin of St. Peter’s have spiral flutes. In their sacred edifices the Romans always placed architraves upon the columns; but in their public buildings, from the earliest times of the Empire, they began to surmount their columns with semicircular arches. The first instances of this mode of building exist in the Theatre of Marcellus, and in the amphitheatres erected in large towns. In later times porticos Avere erected with arcades supported by columns. . It is this kind of architecture Handbook of Archileclwre, 1855, part II. p. 379. INTRODUCTION TO THK STUDY OF BYZANTINK AKC'HITKCTUBE. that the Byzantines adopted and applied, with some slight modification, to edifices of every description. The column surmounted by a round arch did not always give sufficient height to the doorways; so the ltomans of the time of Trajan have left us some examples of the architrave profiled upon the impost. The height of the column was also occasionally increased by the addition of a pedestal. This latter feature was purely a Homan invention; it is not to he found in any edifices of the best period of Greek art, still less amongst the buildings of Egypt. The Byzantines frequently made use of the pedestal; but finding that it did not give their arcades the elevated effect which they wished to produce, they surmounted the capital of their column with a cubical block of stone, a supplementary abacus, or dosseret , the height of which is often greater than that of the capital itself. This abacus was decorated with monograms and leaves of acanthus and honeysuckle. The dosseret is the distinguishing mark of Byzantine times, and was never employed by Pagan Home. The successors of Constantine having completely abandoned horizontal architecture, in order to adopt a style more in accordance with the taste of the East, sought many means of giving greater elevation to the round arch. They invented the horse-shoe arch, which consists of a little more than a half-circle. The Sassanides, and other nations of the East, had already used in their buildings this kind of arch, which was derived probably from further Asia, perhaps from India. But the Byzantines employed it as early as the 4th century, as may be seen in the magnificent tomb of TJrgub, 1 which is cut in the rock, and decorated with two orders of pilasters surmounted by liorse-shoe arches. It is to be seen in the Church of Dana, in the region near the Euphrates, built by Justinian, the apse of which is formed by a horse-shoe vault; 2 also in the Church of Digoor, in Armenia, built in the 9tli century. 3 It is not, then, correct to say that the Mussulmans were the inventors of this sort ot arch ; they derived it from the Byzantines, whose buildings they imitated as they advanced by degrees towards the West. Under the Antonines, Homan architecture lost its severe simplicity, admitting much superfluous ornament. This taste for excessive decoration lasted till the fall ol the Empire. The relation which existed in Greek and Roman architecture between plain and enriched mouldings was changed. The noble projecting corona, which was formerly such a striking feature, disappeared, and the profile of the upper part of the entablature became simply a sloping line, cut up into numerous mouldings. The modillons of the Corinthian order were almost entirely banished. The frieze, which, in the best period, presented always a vertical face, took sometimes the form of a half-cylinder, and at other times was curved in the form of a console. This form of frieze is found in Roman buildings in the East of an early date, as, for instance, in the monument at Dana, the ancient Thanna. 4 As this bears a date, we give it as the type of the form of this sort of frieze. We ascertain from the date of this monument the fact that in the time of Titus the curved frieze was employed in certain buildings. The doorways of public buildings were but slightly altered: although the proportions were varied, the usual form was retained. In temples and other sacred edifices, the doorway had an architrave, which was profiled above the jambs: two consoles, placed to the right and left of the jambs, sustained the cornice. The Byzantines retained the same sort of doorways for their churches, but altered the mouldings and abolished the consoles. The architrave was generally of one stone, and, to lighten the pressure, a relieving arch was frequently turned over it. Byzantine windows were of two descriptions : they were either round-arched, like the windows of theatres and amphitheatres, or square-headed. Windows divided into two parts by a column or pilaster appeared only in the reign of Constantine. The mode of filling in the openings was imperfect in ancient times. In domestic buildings the windows were always open: this is the case now generally throughout the East; . in churches many methods of filling in were in use. The larger openings were divided by marble pilasters, between which were placed thin slabs of alabaster, or of a translucent stone which is still used in Persia for the windows of baths. In some churches less important, the opening was filled with slabs of marble pierced with circular apertures, which, without interfering with the ventilation, allowed the admission of sufficient light, and prevented the rain from penetrating into the interior of the church. When glass was fin^t introduced, the windows were filled with small pieces of it See Plate IV. 8 Description i/e VAmienie, vol. L * See Plate III. INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE. embedded in stucco. Examples of all these various methods are to he seen at Athens, and in the churches of Asia. The first churches in Gaul were also lighted in this manner. The science of construction acquired by the Romans descended to the Byzantines. Although the constant progress of political and religious ideas led the people to destroy those ancient pagan edifices that were not turned into churches; and although the rich materials employed in them especially the columns, which were often of the richest marble — were used in the erection and decoration of the new places of worship, the importation and sale of decorative materials, such as rare marbles, did not in the least decline. The laws contained in the Theodosian Code go to show that the imperial government encouraged this branch of trade and industry. The mode of ornamentation by means of coloured marbles was carried to a greater extent than ever before. The quarries opened by the Romans were carefully preserved, and the workmen employed in them, governed by imperial decrees issued especially for their guidance. But all these precious materials were generally reserved for decorative purposes. Brick was preferred in the construction of churches; it lent itself best to all the caprices of the architect; and as the interiors were always lined with marbles and mosaics, or decorated with paintings, brick walls were the most suitable for the reception of these kinds of ornamentation. The forms of the bricks varied infinitely in Byzantine times; but the form that was the most frequently used was that of the Roman brick, termed plinthos. These bricks were made of tempered clay pressed into moulds by the feet of the workmen: we frequently see upon their surface the prints of the feet of men and children. Moulds were used for the pieces forming cornices and mouldings. The shafts of columns were built of circular bricks, which, if the column was not above a foot in diameter, were divided into two semicircular parts; if, however, the column was of considerable size, the bricks took the form of segments. The Byzantine brick, like the Roman, was about an inch and a half in thickness, and was always laid upon a bed of mortar half an inch thick. Bricks were generally marked with a stamp which indicated their destination. Those for churches had a cross and monograms; in the church of St. Sojdiia they have entire inscriptions. This custom of stamping, which dates from the time of the Assyrians and Babylonians, was common in all succeeding ages. The bricks of a portico at Ostia have the legend: Be Olearia ; showing that the oil-market was situated there. Ciampini 1 gives representations of many sigus copied from those of the ancient churches of Rome. The churches of Thessalonica have similar symbols, all of a religious character. We do not so often find the name of the maker upon Byzantine as we do on Roman bricks. It is not surprising that the Byzantines took great pains with the fabrication of their brick, when we consider that it was employed in their military as Avell as in their ecclesiastical and domestic architecture. The walls of Constantinople and of Nicma are built of it. It was thought that brick walls were best able to withstand the effect of the battering-ram in attacks. Generally the core of the wall was of concrete. The manner in which the hricks were arranged contributed greatly to the decoration of buildings. They were laid not always horizontally, but sometimes obliquely, sometimes arranged in the form of the meander fret, sometimes in the chevron, or herring-bone pattern, and manv other forms of similar design, giving great richness and variety to the fagades. Interesting examples of this are to be seen in the absides of the church of Eski Djouma, at Thessalonica, and in the walls of Nicma, which present an infinite number of combinations. The manufacture of roof-tiles remained much the same as in the earliest times. The Byzantines generally made use of tiles two Greek feet in length hy one foot in breadth; they were placed alongside one another, and the joints covered with a hollowed tile; the ridges were decorated with ornamental ridge-tiles, and the eaves enriched by ornaments which modern architects improperly term antefixee. These ornaments were invented by a sculptor, Dibutades, who was the first to enrich the ends of the tiles with masks. This mode of decoration he called prolyper The universal use of brickwork made the Byzantines pay great attention to the composition of their mortar. It was so well made that it remains at the present day as hard as that in De jEdjiciis a Constantino Magno constructis. « Pliny, book xxxv. ch. 12. Dibutadis inventum est . h Primusque personas tegnlarura extremis imbricibus imposuit, quse inter initia protypa vocavit. INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE. the best buildings of ancient Rome. The lime was always well chosen, and the sand free from foreign particles. Like the Roman mortar, it was composed of one-third rich chalk, one-third sand, and one-third brick-dust. These proportions varied little in different countries; but where pozzuolana was abundant, it was used in preference. Where large masses of concrete were employed to form the foundations and cores of the walls, the courses of concrete were laid by means of larger wooden boxes, open at top and bottom, in which, in the case of walls, the bricks of the facing were first adjusted, and then the cement thrown in a body, and pressed down by means of a rammer; afterwards, when the cement was properly set, the plank sides and transverse supports were removed. The holes left upon the removal of the cross-pieces are frequently to be observed in the walls of ancient buildings. When concrete was used, the facing only was of brick. The walls were of great thickness, generally more than three feet; otherwise they would have been wanting in solidity. The mode of constructing in concrete inherited from the Romans was not applied solely for cores of walls, but was employed in vaults, bridges, and aqueducts. In the latter the surface of the concrete was covered with a bed of powdered charcoal mixed witli lime, and with a coating of very fine cement polished by means of an application of oil. The whole together constituted a mass impenetrable to water, which has resisted the attacks of time. Cisterns, in the construction of which the Byzantines surpassed the Romans, were all formed in this manner. The vaults of these cisterns were either simply arched, or had domes with pendentives almost always made of masses of concrete, which had the advantage of being lighter than stone for the purpose. From cisterns, the mode of vaulting in concrete alone, was applied to houses. Porous stone, but especially pumice-stone, was occasionally used; sometimes the domes were constructed of pottery; for instance, in St. Vitale, at Ravenna, where the dome is formed with urns and amphorae placed side by side, and grouted with mortar. An example of this was found at Rome: the Circus of Caracalla was vaulted with earthen vessels similarly arranged, forming a light yet solid system of vaulting. The Byzantines attached so much importance to the manufacture of their mortar, that they invented many stories relating to its use in celebrated buildings. Codinus mentions that the mortar for the church of St. Sophia, at Constantinople, was mixed with barley-water. The history of the bricks of the cupola, which were brought from Rhodes, and which were so light that they floated on the surface of water, seems to be equally apocrvplial: observations made in the present day have not confirmed this tradition. The formula for tho composition of mortar was the same amongst the Byzantines as amongst the Romans. The sand was always taken from the banks ot rivers, and not from the sea-sliore. In hydraulic works the sand was omitted. The bricks were laid on the bed of mortar after being damped. This is proved by the fact that the rough surface of the brick is always visible on the bed of cement. The joints were always carefully pointed, so as to leave a projecting fillet. The imposts upon which the arching was carried were generally of stone. The Byzantines also borrowed from the Arabs a kind ot mortar which is still used at Constantinople, and is known under the name of kliorasan. It is of a brown colour, and is composed of hydraulic lime and of fine sand, and is very similar in its qualities to Portland cement. It was by employing this mortar that the Byzantines were enabled to form so many domes at such a slight cost. THE ORIGIN OF BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE. THE ORIGIN OF BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE. HE terra Byzantine cannot properly be applied to any style that preceded the foundation of Constantinople; yet, after the reign of Diocletian, Roman art underwent great changes. The principles upon which the temples were constructed had fallen into disuse. The dome began to be introduced into sacred architecture; and if we may form a conjecture from the temples still existing in Syria, and in the Hauran, at Djerash and Bozrah, we may conclude that this feature was derived from the East. The temple of Jupiter, built by Diocletian, at Salona, has nothing in common with the temples of more ancient times. In it the ancient principles are modified, more perhaps in the arrangement of the plan than in the architectural details. Diocletian, who had erected at Nicomedia many frail edifices which were overturned by earthquakes, caused a palace to be built at Salona rather on the plan of the residences of the princes of the East than of those of the Caesars. Its vast inclosurc embraced temples, baths, and halls of reception, as did the palace of Persepolis. This palace became the model for those which the Byzantine emperors erected on the borders of the Bosphorus, which consisted of an assemblage of various edifices, instead of being a single royal residence. The oriental princes — the Seljouks, and also the Turks their successors'—preserved in their mansions the same arrangement, which was produced as much by the exigencies of the climate as by the security afforded by it to the inhabitants. In addition to the palaces of Byzantium, of which historians have left us so many descriptions, w r e may mention the palace of Sultan Mourad at Broussa, that at Adrianople built by Selim, and also that of Tchahar-Bagh at Ispahan. In all these we recognize the same type, which was adopted by the potentates of the East rather than by those of the West. The erection of the Baths of Diocletian at Rome (which have been converted into a church) may be said to have afforded the ‘point cle depart for the change in style we have mentioned. The architects of the time of Diocletian laid aside the tradition of their predecessors entirelv. For instance, they relinquished the regular form of entablature composed of three members,— architrave, frieze, and cornice. In the provinces, the columns frequently differed as to proportion from those of any known order. Especially amongst the architects of the East was there manifested a desire to quit the beaten paths of art. The accession of Constantine to the imperial throne was the signal for a notable departure from the traditions of ancient art, although at that time the emperor remained true to the pagan religion. The Arch of Constantine at Rome, and other edifices of the same epoch, do not bear manifest traces of the change; but as soon as the emperor had declared himself protector of the Christians, and had himself embraced Christianity, the necessity for the erection of edifices to be appropriated to the new worship arose, and the arch was adopted in them as the characteristic of a new style. The artistic genius of the people was stimulated, and the Christian world was soon covered with churches and convents. The vast edifice of the Roman forum, which was long regarded as the Basilica of Constantine, and which is, according to all appearance, a church of the 4th century — since we find in it the narthex of the early Christians — became a model for the new Christian temple. We shall now endeavour to show of what description were Christian edifices in the East before the reign of Constantine. It is certain that they were numerous, since at each period of persecution new edicts ordered their destruction. The great event in the life of Constantine, that which was, so to speak, the commencement of the era of Christian monuments, was the apparition of the luminous cross with the inscription : EN TOYTD NIKA (By this sign you shall conquer). Constantine made this his royal standard, placing the monogram of Christ in the middle of a crown; and Christians, from age to a°-e, perpetuated on their monuments this sign, which recalled the hour of the triumph of Christianity. Eusebius, 1 who had seen the labarum , describes it in these terms: — “It is life, of Constantine., book I. oh. 31. INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE. a spear covered with plates of gold, with a transverse branch which makes the cross. There is at the top of the spear a crown encircled with gold and precious stones. The name of the' Saviour is marked on this crown by the two first letters of it, the second of which is a little shortened. There is a purple banner attached to the transverse rod. This banner is square in form, and covered with pearls. The spear is very long. On the lower part of the banner are half-length portraits of the emperor and of his children, in gold.” TV e find from this description that the labarum differed but little from other Roman standards which are represented upon so many monuments. The emperor, moreover, placed in front of his palace a picture surmounted by the sign of the cross. lie was represented in it with his children; and beneath their feet there was a dragon pierced with arrows, falling into the sea. This picture was painted in wax, or encaustic. °In the year 316 1 Constantine abandoned paganism; still he tolerated it until the end of his reign, taking measures, moreover, which tended to annihilate its influence by degrees, lie for = a time allowed the temples of Byzantium to exist. This toleration did not last long; but he ended by causing them to be shut up, depriving them of their revenues, and forbidding the erection of new ones. 2 From this period the zeal of Constantino for the Christian religion was openly manifested. In the rear 316 lie abolished the punishment of crucifixion; lie also then authorized the Church to receive legaeies; a law of the 7th March, A.D. 321, ordained that Sunday should he made a day of rest, — a law observed for more than fifteen centuries by all Christian people. Magic,' oracles, and divinations had become the plague of the pagan world. The emperor interdicted all those who practised these superstitious customs to enter private houses, and he ordered the prefects not to make offerings in their name. 8 Lastly, he put an end to a cruel usa"-o which had descended from the Etruscans to the Romans, and which had become the dominant passion of the people, by interdicting the combats of gladiators, feeling that lie would lie supported in this measure by the Grmco-Roman population of Asia, amongst whom it is evident this passion never extended, from the fact that we only find three speemens oi amphitheatres existing throughout the whole of Asia. The criminals who formerly had been condemned to he thrown to wild beasts were sent to the quarries.* The amphitheatres were unoccupied; and those arenas, which so many Christians had moistened with their blood, became places of pilgrimage. Oratories were established near which the deacons preached to the unconverted. But if the combats of the arena were abolished without exciting discontent, it was not the case with the theatres, which, in spite or their paman ormin, and in spite of the religious character that scenic representations had in ancient times, resisted all the efforts which the new Church made to destroy them. Literary tastes had spread too widely amongst the Greek and Roman people to allow them to renounce easily so oreat a pleasure as that to he derived from theatrical performances. These edifices themselves were erected in an imperishable manner. The public were not put to any expense to maintain them, and in ordinary times they were made useful for popular assemblies. These •ire the principal reasons why the theatres, which we see in almost every Greek town, were preserved But no others were erected. Of all the theatres existing in the present day, we cannot cite a single one that was erected at a later date than the reign of Constantine. The games of the circus shared with the theatres, the public favour. Thus all tastes were gratified, —those of the educated, and those of the illiterate. Constantine took care to foster a passion so favourable for developing physical strength: thus, one of the first works which he executed in his new capital was the completion ol the circus commenced l.v Severus. 8 That prince, after having taken and almost destroyed ancient Byzantium, had commenced to rebuild it; lie had caused the plan of a vast hippodrome o be traced on a site parallel to the Propontis, which had a very steep descent on the side towards the sea; he had furnished this with steps, as far as tlie circular part which the Gieeks call Spliendon; 8 he rebuilt the Bath of Apollo-the Dorse Tamer-called the Bath of 1 Chronrcun Pascale, lib. x. p- 561. 2 Paul Orosius, book vil. fo, C, edit. 151 primus Constantinus justo online et pio vice Si quidem statuit citra ullam hoiuinum cajdeni paga templa claudi. And again, ch. 19 : Hie Constantinus M templa claudi. 3 Eusebius, book n. cb. 44. Turn deinde 4 Theod. Code , xv. 12, 1. ,-ertit edicto : 5 Chromcon Pascal?, lib. v. pp. 494 et 495. 0 C'odinus, de Ori/j. C. P. 10. Also, Dion Ca p. 298. THE ORKJIX OF BYZANTINE AK. 7. ibid. Codinus Ant. C. P. x. 5 Eusebius, Life of Constantine, book ii. cli. 39 — 41. WORKS AT JERUSALEM. 11 not know exactly the character of the edifice in which the assembly was held. The account given by Eusebius 1 leaves one in doubt about this. Was it held in a church or in the palace of Nicaea ? We are disposed to conclude the latter. Eusebius says, 1 speakin" of the prelates : “ They entered the great ball of the palace. When some one had brought him a low seat, which was of gold, and when the bishops made a sign to him to bo seated, he sat down, and they all sat down afterwards." It would appear, then, that it was in the palace. No edifice that could have held so large an assembly still exists at Nicaea. Some travellers have imagined the church of St. Sophia to have been the church of the Council; but that edifice is certainly later than the time of Justinian. WORKS AT .JERUSALEM. A MC «efST the ecclesiastical buildings erected by Constantine, we must not omit to mention those at Jerusalem. His great desire was to present the tomb of Christ to the Christian world,^ freed from all the impurities by which it had been defiled by the pagans. The narrative of Eusebius relating to this subject merits particular attention, as it contains the first description of a church of the fourth century left us by an eye-witness. Ho begins by station- what we have affirmed above; vis., that the principal churches erected during this period were of the basilican type. The roof of Constantine’s church was of wood, ornamented with coffers, and the chancel terminated in a semicircular apse. The town of Jerusalem had been rebuilt by the Emperor Hadrian, A.D. 132 under the name of iElia Capitolina. Over the tomb of Christ, which had been buried in rubbish, there was erected at that time a temple dedicated to Venus. 8 Constantine bad this destroyed; and when the debris were removed, the Holy Sepulchre was laid bare. The emperor then directed tile governors to employ the best workmen that were to be had, and to choose the most precious marbles for the work. The main part of the church that lie erected was of wrought stone, so well polished and jointed that it was not inferior to marble for beauty.* It is to be remarked that the remains of the porticos still to bo found near the present church of the Holy Sepulchre are of workmanship answering this description, and therefore it may be inferred that they are parts of the church of Constantine. The church was entered by throe doorways, as was generally the case in Byzantine times: the centre door of the three was called Porta Basilica (the Royal Gateway). Tile interior hail, “ 011 one P art ancl tlle ot I>er, two stages of columns, forming a nave and two aisles of the same length as the church, the roof was a ceiling decorated with coffers ( lacunaria ), which were covered with plates of gold.” The nave terminated in a hemicycle decorated with twelve columns, each surmounted by a crater, or cup of silver. The emperor presented these columns in honour of the Apostles. Before the church was an atrium, surrounded by colonnades. Eusebius does not mention the narthex which is attached to all Byzantine churches. Ho contents himself with stating that the porch was sustained by high columns. We perceive that the plan of this church was analogous to that of St. Paul at Rome, but it had high galleries, destined, without doubt, for the accommodation of women, which the basilica of St. Paul had not. This church was built opposite the Holy Sepulchre, and stood due east and west. The practice of orientation was generally followed in all other churches, and was, moreover, recommended in the ecclesiastical constitutions. But this custom was not universal; for in buildings both of Byzantine times and of the first periods of the Middle Ages, we find deviations which are to be accounted for in various ways. The church was not placed exactly over the tomb of Christ, but at a short distance from it. One proceeded from the sepulchre to an area of some extent, paved with stone and embellished by corridors erected on the three sides; this area separated the agora, or market- 8 Eusebius, Life, of Constantine, book m. ch. 25. 4 Id., ibid., ch. 3G. 1 Eusebius, Life of Constantine, book in. ch. 7. 2 Id., ibid., ch. 10. INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE. nlaco from the atrium of the church. This celebrated basilica was generally known in early times as the Martyrium, from the Greek word mwrtyr, meaning witness; because it was an evidence of the site of the Holy Sepulchre. 1 In the year 325 the Empress Helena traversed the whole of Asia Mmoi, markm 0 the nro"ress of her pilgrimage to Jerusalem by the foundation of institutions for the promotion of pietv, and for purposes of public utility. Her presence in the Holy City gave fresh impulse to the researches commenced by Constantine for the purpose of discovering the site of the Holy Sepulchre. ' Thc birthplace of‘our Saviour was not less an object of veneration to the empress than the Holv Sepulchre. The grotto where, according to tradition, Joseph and Mary lived, was converted into a chapel. She built also the church of the Nativity at Bethlehem, a magnificent basilica still existing, though disfigured by modern additions. We find that the. arrangements o this church correspond with the description given by Eusebius of the church of Constantine The columns of the nave are surmounted liy architraves, but the capitals have not the additional block which we have termed dosseret, which was invented in later times. There are four ranges of columns, forming a nave and four aisles. The walls of the nave, from the capitals to the roof, are adorned with pictures in mosaic, more modern additions, which, according to Ciampini, were the work of the Emperor Manuel Comnenus in the twelfth century.- The apse is separated from the nave by a modern wall, which occupies the place of the iconostasis or oancelli, separating the officiating priest from tlie public. This generally had three doors into the nave, which were closed by curtains. The became one of the most ornamental features in Byzantine churches, and was, in general, a screen of great height, decorated with columns of jasper, silver, or other precious material; between the columns were arched compartments, containing paintings of our Saviour, the Blessed A lrgin, St. John the Baptist, and the Saint to whom the church was dedicated. The doorways of the iconostasis in the church of Bethlehem, ns m all the primitive churches, were closed by curtains, which were let fall at the moment of consecration. Tins custom dates from the earliest period of Christianity, and Ciampini thinks it was borrowed by the Christians from the pagans. 5 These curtains bring to mind the hangings of the palace of Theodoric, king of the Goths, which arc to he seen represented in mosaic in lie church of St. Apollinaris at Kavenna. These hangings were guarded by the silentiaru, so called because they had to observe silence in the presence of the prince. ’ In the primitive Church the tabernacle was concealed from the eyes of the multitude liy curtains of this description, and was lighted by a lamp which burnt without ceasing. All contemporary writers state that all the larger churches built by Constantine were m the form of a stadium •*&*««). «-* * * “7. ° U « n * The church of the Holy Apostles, built at Constantinople by command of Constantine, was one of the most important works undertaken by that prince. The church was in the form of ‘ a long nave, dmded by a transept, which was surmounted by a dome. This is the first example of a church m form of a cross Eusebius thus speaks of it“The emperor erected a church m Constantinople in honour of the memory of the twelve Apostles. The walls were covered with marble from pavement to roof; the nave was ceiled; and the dome, as well as the roof was covered with plates of brass. Constantine caused his tomb to be erected in the centre of the church, m the midst of twelve other monuments, which he had erected in form of columns, in honour of the This^church was built in the middle of a great square, surrounded by colonnades and habitations for the priests. There were also near it baths and fountains. It was damaged by an earthquake soon after its erection, but was repaired by Justinian. In the present day its site is noeunied by the mosque of Mahomet II. We ought to mention that the Homan basilicas, or law-courts, remained devoted to civil purposes. Numerous examples of temples converted into churches may be el ed; but with the exception of the Licinian basilica at Home wc know of no other “law court that was used L 1,111 Th "works "that St. Helena executed at Jerusalem by order of Constantine were rendered 1 Etisebii 2 Ciampi p. 150. . , , ... , 00 Ofi 3 Morem hunc velis ornandi januas ex gentibus ad fiddes, Life of Constantine, book m. cli. - . , • trans ij sse collb'o ex nonnullarum ecclesiarum ROI'XI> ClirRCHES 13 remarkable by an event which became renowned throughout Christendom. When the ground in the neighbourhood of the tomb of Christ had been partly removed, St. Ilelena found the wood of the true cross. 1 The emperor immediately caused a cliapel to be erected upon the spot where this discovery was made; and afterwards many churches were erected in the West as well as in the East in commemoration of this great event. There is no part of the chapel now existing at Jerusalem of the date of the discovery of the true cross; the present building is of the 13th century, with short columns supporting pointed arches. The Greek inscriptions in it are of still more recent times, containing simply verses from Holy Scripture. If we examine the present church of the Holy Sepulchre we can easily comprehend the description of Eusebius. The tomb of Christ was hollowed out of a mass of rock which is still visible. In later times this mass of rock was cut round so as to leave the tomb isolated; and over it was erected still later the chapel which exists in the present day. The floor of the space enclosed is natural rock. Near the Holy Sepulchre another tomb is to be seen, also cut in the rock, level with the pavement: this is said to be that of Nicodemus. Not far from it is another sepulchre, also cut in the rock, in the form of a sarcophagus. It is not to be doubted, then, that in ancient times this was a burial-place. Constantine constructed on this site — become for ever sacred — a chapel, open to the sky, known by the name of The Anastasis. nadrian of Valois has devoted a chapter to the description of this edifice. 3 ROUND CHURCHES. 'TWIE Anastasis—which was circular in plan—was built by Constantine over the tomb of Christ, and became, like other buildings of this emperor, the prototype of a class of edifices of the same kind which were multiplied in the West as well as in the East. We allude to the round churches. Buildings on this plan, which are also to be found amongst those erected in pagan times, were generally covered with domes of wood or stone; they were sometimes lighted from the top, sometimes by means of side windows. It is evident that the Pantheon, at Rome, and the Temple of Portumna at Ostia, gave the first idea for churches of this description. The first church of similar plan was built by Constantine, in the metropolitan city of Antioch : this was octagonal, and was surrounded by two stories of colonnades, 3 and decorated with numerous ornaments of gold and bronze. Constantine had not the satisfaction of seeing this church completed: the work was continued by his successor, the Emperor Constantius, and was not finished until six years after the death of Constantine. The ceremony of consecration was performed with uiyprecedented splendour; no less than ninety bisliojis took part in it. An inscription, in Greek verse, was placed upon the front, stating the participation of the two emperors in its erection. It is in the following terms :_ “ Constantine has constructed and consecrated a brilliant temple of celestial splendour to Christ; the Count Gorgouius, in conformity with the orders of the Emperor Constantius, has finished this work.” 4 XpuTTcp Ka)vOYrA (literally the milk-nurse). In the 8th century the worship of the Mother of God was spread throughout the East. Bishop Alcuin had propagated it in the empire of Charlemagne also. The ancient representations of Christ have an Oriental character, which the Latin Church at first adopted, but afterwards renounced for the almost exclusive representation of Christ crucified. We see in the East enormous figures of the Saviour with a golden nimbus, the right hand being raised in the act of benediction. They are also to be found in some of the Roman or Lombard churches of Italy, but not in any other part of the West. In the tombs of Urgub, Christ is represented seated on a throne, having the right hand raised. He holds in his hand the book of the Gospel. The colours of the vestments are not the same in all the pictures, but the figure often has a blue mantle and a purple tunic; sometimes the tunic is white. The throne is almost always in the form of the bronze Byzantine chair. It is sustained by strange figures which represent either demons or the evil passions that Christ has vanquished. Similar pictures of the Saviour occupied the two most striking positions in the Byzantine Church,—the hack of the apse and the summit of the dome. Christ on the cross is the only figure carved in the round admitted into the Greek Church. It was generally placed on the top of the iconostasis. The Crucifixion appears in paintings of the modern period of Greek art only. luge, Colhjriila. Dual CHRISTIAN BURIALS. INCE the Christian religion has always rejected the tyrannical and super¬ stitious practices of other creeds — not only those of paganism hut also those of Judaism — it has ever been the more readily embraced by civilized nations. It sought not to perpetuate those rules having relation either to the living or the dead, which tended to arrest the progress of science amongst nations of antiquity. The great fact of the resurrection of Jesus Christ had invested with dignity the dead body, which amongst all nations of antiquity, even amongst the Greeks and Homans, — who prided themselves as being philosophers, — had ever been considered impure. The Egyptians alone did not partake of this prejudice; the practice of embalming had accustomed the priests to the sight of the dead body; hence the elements of anatomy and medicine had their origin amongst them. Galen visited Alexandria on purpose to inspect a skeleton made of bronze, as he had no opportunities in Greece of studying the internal structure of the human frame. 1 As with the body itself so with the ceremonies that accompanied its interment. Other creeds prescribed the ablution of the corpse, and the orientation of it in the ground, and also taught that those who assisted in funerals were to be held impure. Christianity abolished these regulations; it taught that the body was merely the envelope of the soul, which is in no way the slave of matter; and that the soul was not imperilled if the body were left unburied. Christians were allotved entire liberty as to the manner of sepulture—neither embalmment, after the manner of the Egyptians, nor the funeral pyre, after the mode of the Greeks and Romans, was forbidden to them : they were permitted to bury in the tomb cut out of the rock, in the simple roadside grave, or within the sacred precincts of the church. Let us remark what St. Augustine said to the faithful of his age in order to clear up their doubts upon this subject: 2 — “ It is true that the earth has not covered the bodies of many Christians;.as the Psalmist has said : ‘ The dead bodies of thy servants have they given to be meat unto the fowls of the heaven, and the flesh of thy saints unto the beasts of the earth; their blood have they shed like water round about Jerusalem; and there was none to bury them.’ As to all the rest, that is to say, the care of funerals, the choice of sepulchres, the pomp of obsequies,— all these are intended to console the survivor rather than to benefit the dead. If fine funerals benefit the impious, a common burial, or the absence of burial, is of advantage to the man of piety.” And again : “ There is no reason for abandoning the bodies of the dead, especially of the just and faithful.” St. Augustine draws a picture of funerals in ancient times; he repeats the order given by the patriarchs to their children for their interment, but mentions that the want of burial does not disturb the repose of the soul. Again he adds : “ When during the sack of this great town, or of other places, Christians were deprived of burial, it was not the fault of the living, as they could not help it, nor was it any injury to the dead, as they could not feel it.” 3 1 See Cuvier, I link* ire ties Sciences nalurelles, vol. 1. p. 47, in 8vo. 1841. - St. Augustine, Oily of God, book I. ch. 12. ;) Multa itaque corpora Christianorum terra non texit: see! nullum eorum quisquam a ccelo et terra separavit quam totam implet pnesentia sui, qui novit uncle resuscit et quod creavit. Dicitur quidern in Psalmo, Posuenmt mortalia servoram tuorum escas volatilibus cceli ; carnes sanctorum tuorum bestiis terrre : cflunderant sanguinem eorum sicut aquam iu circuitu Jeru¬ salem, et non erat qui sepeliret. Proinde omnia ista, id est curatio funeris, conditio sepultures, pompa exequiarum, magls sunt vivorum solatia quam subsidia mortuorum. Si aliquid prodest iinpio sepultura pretiosa, oberit provilis ac nulla.—St. Augustine, book i. ch. 12. ,'HBISTIAN BUBTAT.S. 44 As Christians were permitted hv law to adopt or reject the ceremonies of other creeds, they retained some that were for the honour of the remains of those they had loved or respected, without adopting vain practices at their funerals. Magnificent sepulchres only excited their disdain. Amongst the innumerable Christian tombs that exist, wo find none that are not of a sensible and modest character. FUNERAL CEREMONIES. The funeral ceremonies observed by the Christians differed lmt little from those, observed by the Homans and the Jews. Amongst the latter the mode of burial had not varied from that employed in the earliest times. Sepulchres in Palestine were of various descriptions - commonly they were in fields or in open ground - others were in cells cut in the sides of mountains—or in the gardens in the neighbourhood of towns. Samuel was interred in his house —the bones of Saul under a tree — and Rachel on the road to Bethlehem. Strangers who died at Jerusalem were buried iu the valley of Kedron. Amongst the Jews, those who touched, or were even in the same house with the body, or in the sepulchre, were considered impure for seven days, and could only ho cleansed by the following ceremony: — The ashes of a red cow, slain by the chief priest, were thrown, on the day of solemn expiation, into a vessel of water, and a man — not of the unclean — dipped hyssop into the water and sprinkled the chamber, furniture, and people that were unclean. The same ceremony was performed on the third and seventh days; afterwards those who were defiled went to the bath, and washed their clothes, and were thus purified. 1 In early Jewish times, bodies were buried either in the ground or in eaves in the rock. The body of King Asa was however burnt with aromatic spices. The custom of embalmment was not common. The hired female mourners, who were summoned to Boman and Jewish Innerals, wore also employed by Christians, and are still employed in the East in the present day. In Smyrna and other eastern towns, when the invited have assembled in the house where the body lies, these women begin by speaking quietly about the departed; by degrees their grief manifests itself in cries and tears, which at length become so loud that they resound through the whole quarter. They tear their hair and their garments. The extent to which garments are to lie rent is regulated by rules laid down by the Greek priests and rabbis ; for instance, the sleeve of the tunic may he torn ad libitum, but only a hand’s breadth may be rent from the skirt of the robe. The damage done may be repaired at the end of thirty days, except in the case of near relationship to the deceased ; then it must never be repaired. We have seen, also, in the cemeteries wives mourning over the tombs of their husbands, and mothers over those of their children, tearing their dishevelled hair, and chanting verses in honour of those they mourn. The early Christians, including the priests, before placing it in the coffin, kissed the body of the deceased. This practice was forbidden by the Council of Auxerre. The orientation of sepulchres which was common amongst Asiatic nations had been entirely abandoned by the Church. MODES OE B U BI A L. The liberty that Christian law allowed in everything relating to burials, permitted the Christians to continue, so to speak, the practices of the pagans. All the little inoffensive usages of the times of antiquity were practised at Christian funerals. There were hired mourners, vases of perfumes or lamps were deposited in the tombs, the trinkets which had been valued by the deceased, decked the corpse in the same manner they had adorned the living body. There was nothing remarkable in the form, decoration, or position of the sepulchre! This coincidence of matters relating to burial has puzzled the most experienced archaeologist to decide whether a certain tomb was that of a Christian or of a pagan. imo surgens, si tamen ab imo. Eteninx origo fundamenti hujus summitatem tenet: et quemadmodum fundamentum corporeie fabrica* in imo est, sic fundamentum spiritual is fabrica* in suinmo est. Si ad terram wdificaremur, in imo nobis ponendum est funda¬ mentum, quia crolestis fabrica est, ad ccelos pnecessit funda¬ mentum nostrum. Ipse ergo angularis lapis, montesque Apostoli, Prophetic magni, portantes fabricam civitatis, faeiunt vivum quoddam sedificiimi. Hoc sedificium modo clarnat de cordibus vestris, hoc agit artificiosa man us Dei etiam per linguam nostram, ut ad illius sedificii fabricam conquadremini Non ciiiiu frustra etiam de lignis quadratis tedificata est area Noe, quie nihilominus figuram gestabat Ecclesia*. Quid enim quadrari '! adtendite similitudinem quadrati lapidis: similis debet esse Christianus. In omni tentatione sua Christianus non cadit: et si impellitur, ct quasi vertetur, non cadit. Nam quadratum lapidem quoeumque vertens stat. See also Matthew, xxi. 42 ; Luke, xx. 17, 18 ; Mark, xu. 10. liun'aravnvias iraXala nai I'lwrtpa. In 8vo. 4 Sandouk a box or coffer, is a word common to I nib the Russian and Turkish languages.— Nott communicated hi/ Prince Gagarin. 5 Leo Allatius, ep. XI. p. 39. 'O ycip ruvroc vails tan rraggiyac, Kv\iicpiun)r tyun' n)v opoip^i’. Ill, p. 41. Meoov yap rahrijt 'iararai a yabv Kv\ivv), Avhicli AA r ere closed, and made the sign ol the cross Avith the censer. We read in the passage just cited, that in the thirty-seventh year of Justinian the impluvium of the great church called Garconostasis Avas destroyed by fire, and also tAVo convents near the church of St. Irene, and part of the narlhex of that church. Most churches had not only one narthex, but also a second. This place in toAvns Avas destined for women, and in the monasteries for monks avIio had not received holy orders, and Avho were forbidden to enter the interior of the church or to remain there during the performance of the divine office. UNDER JUSTINIAN AND HIS SUCCESSORS. GL The “Typic” charges the eedesiarch to vvatcli that this rule be observed, and orders the brethren who remain in the narthex not to impede the monks; and also the laics who come to pray, not to enter the church during the chanting in the choir, but to remain in the narthex until the office be concluded. The bodies of the defunct were also placed here during the prayers. The Euchology says, “ And afterwards the brethren, raising the body, carry it into the church ; if it be that of a priest, it is placed in the middle of the church ; if that of a laic, in the narthex .” All the orisons and prayers were said in the narthex. The Typic alludes to this fact in several places. St. Simeon of Thessalonica mentions it in the following terms : — “ Then the supplications take place outside, in the narthex, on Saturdays and other festivals. In time of plague or other visitation, as soon as a crowd of people assemble they offer up prayers in common in the midst of the town and outside the walls.” He continues — “ and then we made the following supplications in the narthex —that the Lord would have pity on our misery, and be merciful to us; and we stood praying before the gates of the holy church as though before the celestial gates.” Allatius says: “ The narthex is the portico situated outside the church, which has the oblong form of a plant called narthex (ferula).” It is possible that at first the narthex may have been outside the church ; but this means simply that it was separate from the body of the church itself. Gabriel of Corinth says, “ that place which contains the women in the church is called the narthex.” The words lv rtS hpto in this passage must be understood to mean adjoining rather than in the church. Those who were outside the church could not hear the Holy Scriptures, which were read from the bema. The pronaos is to be understood as not being part of the church. The narthex communicated with the church by means of three doors; that in the centre was very large and magnificently ornamented; the two others, situated one on each side, were small, and not remarkable. The central door was called the beautiful gate (to pa la i tok4\). Codinus says (eh. xvn.) : “ He did not enter by the side which is opposite the beautiful gates, but on the other side towards the raised part or platform (bema) and the holy tabernacle.” The naos (nave), then, where the emperor remained, was evidently situated between the beautiful gates and the gates of the tabernacle. The beautiful gates were also called the royal or basilican gates. We read in the Typic :—“And, preceded by two lighted candles, he carried the cross itself to the royal gates of the sacred edifice.” We find from the Typic that the basilican gates were the same as the beautiful gates; but they must be distinguished from the holy gates which gave access to the bema. The beautiful gate was closed by a curtain, which was moved on one side to give access to the worshippers, and which closed the opening when adjusted during the offices, vespers, hr litanies. According to Ciampini, the custom of hanging curtains before churches was derived by the Christians from the Gentiles. 1 The gateway was also closed during the office in the middle of the night, called Mesonyction, and the services held at the third, sixth, and ninth hours (the office of the first hour after matins is chanted in the choir); and also during the Apodipnon, or office after supper; these were all chanted with curtain down and doorways closed. What we term the nave, the Byzantines called the choir : in' most churches the circular part was covered with a vault; there were seats all round, made of walnut-wood or pine, placed close to the wall. Here the priests and assistants seated themselves, or remained standing leaning upon them. They presented, thus resting on these seats, a noble and venerable aspect. The stalls Avere to the right of the beautiful gate on entering : these scats and their arms were generally known under one common appellation, topoi (places). We read in the Typic: — “They seated themselves in their proper topoi” The more expressive word, stasidion , was also used; whence was derived the word stalls. The middle of the church was called the mesonaos. In the 74th canon of the Council of Constantinople, called in Trullo (because the hall in which it was held was vaulted in trullo ), it is said they placed couches in the mesonaos; they made also divans and balconies lor the accommodation of the assistants. Beyond the choir, which was surrounded by a vaulted gallery, there was another vault 1 Morera hanc velis ornandi januas ex Gentibus ad Fideles, virga per quam nonnulli excurrunt annuli 6 quibus vela nempe ad ecclesias transiisse, colligo ex nonnullarum eccle- pendebant.— Be sEdi/iciis a Const. Mag. constructs, p. 33, sq. siarurn propyla»is, ubi in columnarum summitatibus crenitur THE BYZANTINE CHURCH AND ITS CEREMONIES, of oblong form, which was divided by the tabulation (iconostasis ). From the choir to the tabulation, on each side, the singers, and those who were employed in the offices, had their seats. This part was called the diaconicum. The tabulation was pierced with two doorways, and sometimes with three; that in the centre was the largest and the most beautiful; it was decorated with fine carvings ; the side-doors were less ornamented, and were closed by curtains. The central doorway was closed by a low gate, which opened in two parts, the height of which did not exceed that of a man. Above the gate the opening was closed by a curtain during the greater part of the service; when the curtain was raised, it remained open; but the gate itself remained closed, being opened only for the priests and deacons to enter and go out whenever the ceremonial required it. By the 14th canon of the Council of Laodiceia, this entrance was forbidden to be used except by the priests for the Communion. It was lawful for priests only to ascend to the altar and communicate. According to Zonaras, the Canon commanded that the altar-gate should be opened only to men invested with holy orders. The Canon of the Council in Trullo forbade the laity to ascend to the altar; exception was made for the emperor only, when he went to present offerings. According to the 44th Canon of the Council of Laodiceia, women were forbidden to ascend to the altar or to enter the sanctuary. The Latin Church does not issue the same prohibition, nor did it in early times, according to Dionysius of Alexandria. The emperors could at any time enter the sanctuaries, and make signs with a triple candle, like the pontiff. The writers of the time do not in the least regard this permission as a mark of adulation. The courtiers believed that everything ought to be permitted to the emperors, on account of their superior dignity, reversing even the order of things ecclesiastical. They entered the sanctuary when they pleased, and remained seated during the moment of the accomplishment of the holy mysteries. St. Ambrose moderated this abuse, and assigned a place to the emperors before the barrier of the bema. This decision met with the approval of Theodosius and his successors. Sozomenus gives the tradition relating to this circumstance in his Ecclesiastical History, and says that it was in existence in the time of Theodosius the Younger. 1 It was the practice of the emperors to seat themselves in the sanctuary when they assisted at the offices. St. Ambrose, considering that the custom arose either from the ignorance or weak compliance of the clergy, assigned to the emperor a place before the gates of the sanctuary, so that the emperor preceded the people, and the priests preceded the emperor. Callistus Nicephorus" gives a more detailed account of the event mentioned by Sozomenus. “ When the time arrived for the emperor, according to custom, to carry the gifts to the holy table, he arose weeping, and having entered the divine sanctuary and offered the gifts, according to custom, he remained within the holy barriers instead of staying where the priests were, and where the emperors had been accustomed to place themselves apart from the people, on account of their supreme dignity.” Ambrose seeing in this arrangement a certain amount of adulation, determined that the emperor should station himself in front of the tabulatum or iconostasis. In this manner the emperor had a more honourable position than the people, and the priests had more distinguished positions than that of the emperor. Theodosius approved of this excellent arrangement, and it was confirmed by his successors. “ I myself,” says the Byzantine writer, “ have seen princes who loved God, enter the church of St.' Sophia during the great solemnities of Holy Saturday, when they carried the offerings to the holy table.” Theodosius observed with care the directions that St. Ambrose had given him. Having presented himself one feast-day in the great church of Byzantium, he carried his gifts to the holy table, and Avent out again, returning by the same uay that he had entered. He said, in answer to Nectarius, who beheld this circumstance with displeasure, and asked the cause of it, that he thereby acknowledged the difference of rank that existed between the emperor and the chief dignitary of the Church. Theodosius the Younger spoke on this subject at the Council of Ephesus. “We,” said he, “avIio are always surrounded by the arms of the Empire, and to whom it is not becoming to appear Avithout an escort of soldiers and armed people, leave our weapons outside A\ r hen we enter the temple of the Lord. We also take off the diadem — symbol of supreme power — and approach the altar only to present gifts; and Book VII. ch. 14. 2 Keel. IJut., book XII. ch. 01. UNDER JUSTINIAN AND IIIS SUCCESSORS, when our offering is made, we retire to the designated place at the extremity of the atrium .” 1 The reserved part of the church was entered through the “ holy gates.” This name, although used in the plural, refers to one gate only; like the beautiful gates of which we have spoken. The Greeks call them dyia (ktpla ; Sozomenus gives them the name of dryphacta." The cancell/i (xriyysXa) were the barriers of the tabernacle; they were moreover closed by curtains and gates, which were opened during the great vespers {p.eya’Koa ktnrspivov), when the priest censed the ground, and also during the introit and the reading of the Gospel. The curtain was called tZwpolivptov, that is to say, the gate of the altar. The interior of the tabulatum or iconostasis was sacred, and accessible only to the clergy, rarely to laics, and never to females. Here was what the Latins call the Holy of Holies, in order that it may not be confounded with the choir. Upon the platform {bema) there were two altars, sometimes three; when there were three, upon that to the left were deposited the books, vestments, and other accessories. In some churches the intermediate wall, screen, or iconostasis, was separated from the bema. When this division existed, the intervening space was called parabema, a place joined to the bema , in the same manner that a chapel annexed to the church was called paraclesium. The parabema was surrounded by seats, and there was in it a table for the use of the assistants, usually called deacons, who arranged the things necessary for worship; they were also called anagnostes, that is to say, readers. Nicepliorus Blemmida, in his Life of St. Paul of Latrun , 3 calls them neocores , or guardians of the temple; they walked before the book of the Gospels with lighted candles when it was carried to the pulpit to be read, and also before the sacred gifts when they were taken to the small altar, or table of protliesis. This precinct was afterwards termed the diaconicum; it was used by the minister and those who dressed the altar. In the parabema , the charcoal for the censers was lighted, and the water used for washing the holy vessels was kept. The diaconicum was not the same as the sacristy; this latter was the place where the minister placed the vestments necessary for the offices. In the Greek church there is no regular sacristy, but the priests and deacons robe themselves on the bema itself; when the ceremony is unusually solemn, the bishop or other dignitary robes himself in the ecclesiastical vestments, with the aid of the other celebrants, in the choir itself. The altar of protliesis was situated on the north side ; it is smaller than the principal altar. Upon it, the priest, with the aid of the assistants, prepared everything necessary for the Communion. The rules for the admission of women into churches depended upon the arrangement of the buildings themselves. In towns, when men and women went together to worship, the women remained in the narthex separated from the men. When there was only one door to the narthex , which was very rarely the case, both men and women entered by it; the men entered the body of the church by the beautiful gates ( porta speciosa), the women remained in the place assigned to them; when there was a wall dividing the church, the latter heard the service through the doorway in the wall; but when there was only a tabulatum, which did not reach to the vault of the church, but was only of the height of a man, they heard the service from the outside of this barrier. In large churches there was an upper gallery for the accommodation of women, called the gynceconitis. It was enclosed by grilles, and was reached by a staircase reserved for the use of women only, who could then enter and leave the church without being seen by the men. This arrangement is very ancient, — St. Augustine mentions it. 4 The room called slceuophylakion, used for the preservation of the holy vessels, was almost useless, as the priests were in the habit of carrying all precious objects to their own houses. 1 Work cited, p. 19. 2 Eccl. Hist., book vn. cli. 24. 3 Epistle i. p. 24. * City of God, book in. cli. 27 ; and Homilies of St. Chrysosto-m, book xxti. ck. 8. Tl| K HYZ \ vr I M: ('ll liI ‘CTI AN1J ITS CEUEMONIKS. TI1E POEM AND CONSTRUCTION’ OP BYZANTINE CHURCHES. Wil have stated above that the Byzantine church was generally divided into three parts,— the nartlc.r, the news, and the bema. The Latin church differed from it in having no separation between the worshippers. As wo sec from the churches of St. Clement and St. Athanasius at Rome, the women wove not in any way separated from the men. The various forms of the churches of the East may be classified under five separate heads, under the following appellations:— Tpou?vX(»Ta ( troullota ), domed ; K'A»Vlprora ( cylindrola ), with cylindrical vaults; ("ioArtira ( tholota), with pyramidal vaults; KuxXosiSSj (cycloide), circular; Apoy.ixa. ( clromicct-), elongated. The churches called xa/xapmra (camarota, vaulted) and a-Tavpcora (in the form of a cross) will come under the above heads. The churches rpouWwTa are those that have domical roofs. 1 The term is derived from trulla or trillion, signifying a vault or a centre; whence the large church built by Justinian was called Tndla. In this church was held the Council which takes its name from it — m Trullo. It may be mentioned that the dome fell down in the time of Justinian, and damaged the ciborium and altar; but it was shortly afterwards repaired. These domes were not always built of stone; some were formed of numerous pieces of wood meeting in the centre in the form of a buckler. The dome of this church, according to Allatius, was of cypress, — a wood that never decays. The roof of flic church of the Resurrection was of a similar description, and was vaulted with wood. Basil the Macedonian covered it with plates of gold. The church of St. Mark, on the hill of Taurus, at Constantinople, of immense size, was also covered with a vault of wood, erected by Theodosius the Great. It was overthrown by an earthquake, and repaired by the Roman, Lacapenus the Ancient. The churches called itmllota differed but little from the cylindrota, from the cycloidcs, or from the tholota {Jvt twv Go?,wt(op), in which rafters met in the centre of the root, giving it an elevated form. The Etymologicum Magnum says,—“A tholus is a round house, or circular edifice, so called from its form; it is built of stone. Wo say in the feminine also tholus." John I’hocas, the author of a manuscript entitled The Sites of Palestine, which was translated into Latin by Leo Allatius, but which is still in manuscript, describes the church of Sion in the following terms" There is a castle where is situated Holy Sion, the mother of churches The church is of remarkable grandeur. It is finished with a roof vaulted throughout its length. In the midst stands the temple, having a roof in the form of a vault, which is raised on a circular plan like a tholus} To the right there is another temple of the same form, but very small, which, according to tradition, was built in the, times of the Apostles. In the middle of the monastery there was a temple with a round roof. The. term tholota is also applied to smaller edifices and to chambers, such as those constructed by the anchorites, which we have mentioned in our account of Cappadocia. Leo Allatius cites a passage, taken probably from Pliocas, which is explicit on this subject. As John had remained five years in the monastery, ho retired alone to Mount Lycus, and upon the summit of the mountain ho made three Lhoii, and there shut himself up; one tholus was for the wants of the body; 3 the second was the place where he cooked and eat; the third, where he prayed.” And in the life of John the Eleemosynary, “he made the tholus contiguous. 1 T//i> <>po®T)v 2 l\v\ii'i'f>ioTi) £rp fitpei, vt rpov\\td-i/i’ t)(pv(Tt. opotpfii’. And rcui/ (TjuicpOTCiTli later: Xpormg, wc Uyeuti, roil' ’At u>tr-/i\iov avtyepdeig. 3 '() dXXos ti’J rite xptiag ri > s 0,1 THE FORM AND CONSTRUCTION OF BYZANTINE CHURCHES. The churches called camarota are those finished with a vault or arched-work, and are covered by a convex roof. In the MS, of John Phocas on temples, 1 we read, “ The temple has three vaults and a dome; the temple on Golgotha is covered with three vaults and a tliolus.” “ The tomb of Rachel is covered by four vaults like a tholus, and terminates in a construction.” 2 2rau^oe<6T)£ and (TTciupioTa. refer to churches in the form of a cross, with arms extending on eacli side, forming compartments which have doors. Justin the Younger added to the temple of Blacherme two vaults in such manner as to give it the form ol a cross. Apo[j.ixa (in the form of a stadium or road) is used with reference to churches built in the form of a parallelogram; the roof is formed ot planks that are supported by rafters, and covered with tiles in such a manner that the walls are shaded by the projections of the rafters of the roof. Codinus, in his unedited Origines , relates that the primitive church of St. Sophia was of an oblong form, and had more than four hundred and eighty-seven columns. The narthex outside the temple was also oblong. " Every apartment of an oblong form is called a narthex." ' We have still a few words to add about those parts of the church called the embolon , the bema, and the solea. The word embolon comes from because it is by this porch that one enters; others say because it envelops the church, or because people walk in the shelter of it. This name was given more especially to the portico of the church than to any other: the acts of the eighth Council were represented in the embolon of the great church. Theodora, wife of Justinian, caused the church of St. Pantelemon to he erected, because, when she arrived at Paphlagonia, she was in a state of poverty, and remained in the embolon, and spun wool for her support. Under this denomination arc comprehended the porches before the doors of the sacred edifices, that are roofed with wood and covered with tiles, to give shade from the sun and shelter from the rain. In some churches these porches surrounded the edifice, being not only in front but also at the sides. There was another lower sort of portico or enclosure which encompassed the edifice for defence. If the churches were low, the rafters and tiles of the main roof uerc continued to some distance from the side walls, resting on principals which were supported by piers of stone or brickwork. This enclosure was ornamented with marble tablets, or with pictures representing the principal events in the lives of the saints. And in order that those who walked in the embolon should the better understand these pictures, there were short legends explaining the events illustrated, so that no time was lost in idle thoughts, but the view of them at once afforded food for meditation. Such was the embolon of the great church in which, as we have said, all the acts of the eighth Council were represented. We may mention, also, that of Blacherme, built by the Emperor Maurice, in the fourth year of his reign, in which he caused the entire history of his life to be represented, from his infancy to his elevation to the imperial throne. In the interior of the church the solea was a raised part placed between the arnbo and the bema - witness this passage in Codinus The emperor descended from the ambo not from the side on which he mounted, but from the other side of the solea, opposite the holy tabernacle. And in The Origin of the Temple of St. Sophia: “Justinian the emperor caused the cibormm, the columns, the baldachin of the altar, to be formed of silver gilt ; the fruits and lilies, with the cross of the ciborium of gold; the solea and also the ambo of gold.” Wo read in Cedrenus : “ the vault of the great church in falling broke the ambo and the solea, which was of onyx, and reduced them to powder.” It appears from a rather confused passage in Leo Allatius that the throne ot the bishop was placed on the solea. All the historians who mention this part of the church Chapter xiv. '(.) ri/c 1 *«(x'/N Tfn/jot ('< -0 TerixtKtt/ittpuv DoKuitiw aKfirnfitfOS icria/iaruc. a lidi' Opofiiniif Xtytrut. 4 Chapter xvn. fiG THE RYZANTTNK CTTUIK'M AND [TK CEREMONIES. speak ol' it as being situated between the ambo and bond. “ Tlic emperor crossed the solea in order to reach the patriarch, who was placed before the barriers of the bona." All this part of the temple was paved with precious materials, and therefore Avas not to be trodden upon by every one. We shall gain a perfect idea of the parabema if A\ r e imagine an altar placed against the wall and Ioav seats around it. These seats were not the stalls of the choir, which were constructed with some degree of art, but simple benches for the lower ranks of clergy. The seats of the church were of two sorts — fixed and moveable — the latter were only to be used by those who belonged to the church. In some temples the altar of prothesis Avas separated by a barrier from the chief altar; but more frequently this Avas not the case. The Avomen were placed in the gynceconitis or in the narthex; in small churches, that did not possess these, they were placed to the left and the men to the right. The men entered by the principal doorway opposite the bona; and places of honour, reserved for the most distinguished noble families, were to the right on entering, facing the iconostasis. Such is the valuable information contained in the letters of Leo Allatius, entitled De Forma et Ambitu Yeteris Fcclesice. It is impossible to describe thoroughly the primitive Byzantine churches without having carefully studied them; and it is for the Avant of this study that the writers of the present day have made so many mistakes when writing about the character of Byzantine architecture. THE CEREMONIES OE THE PRIMITIVE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. THE CEREMONIES OF THE PRIMITIVE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. OW that we have explained the general arrangements of the Byzantine Church, we will endeavour to describe the ceremonies instituted by the primitive Christians, and the conditions imposed upon those who wished to enjoy the felicity promised to the elect, and to be admitted within the enclosure of the Christian temple. It will be neither unimportant nor uninteresting to investigate the rules and customs which in primitive times were common to the whole Church, hut which were soon abandoned in the West, though preserved in the East until an epoch comparatively modern; for they explain the arrangements of certain Eastern churches, which cannot be easily compre¬ hended by those who are only acquainted with the usages of the Latin Church. While pursuing this subject, we have added somewhat to the information obtained from Byzantine authors, by introducing facts that have been gleaned from conversations with the Greek priests of the East. Let us inquire into the mental and spiritual condition of the inhabitants of the Homan empire at the time that Christianity appeared. Pagan philosophy had no attractions for patricians satiated with power and wealth, nor could it afford hope to plebeians bent under the yoke of slavery. Both high and low in the social scale, there was a profound discouragement. The theatres and the games scarcely diverted the effete population; and intellectual pleasures appeared to them too insipid. Theatrical performances, both of tragedy and comedy, fell by degrees into complete discredit. Heathen divinities were made to appear upon the stage, for the purpose of exciting the ridicule of the populace. “Tell me, is it your actors or your gods that make you laugh ? ” asked Tertullian. 1 And Theophilus, Patriarch of Antioch in the 2nd century, says: — “It is not lawful for us to hear related the adulteries of men and of gods, which the comedians, allured by tbe hope of gain, make known with the greatest glee.” Theatrical performances were proscribed by the Eathers of the Church. The first anathema against actors is contained in the 62nd canon of the Council of Elvira, held in the year 305 : — “If the comedians wish to embrace the Christian faith, we ordain that they first renounce their course of life, and afterwards they may be admitted.” And in Canon 67: — “It is unlawful for the wives and daughters of the faithful to marry comedians; and if there be any who are married to such, let them be excommunicated.” Thus the state of theatrical performances at the commencement of our era was one of the strongest symptoms of the approaching fall of paganism. At that time the glorious sound of the Gospel proclaimed liberty to the slave and future happiness to the patrician satiated with riches: no wonder it produced such mighty results. Philosophers were stupefied to find obscure men from Judaea make known in simple language the promise of a future state, which they themselves had been unable to foresee. Christians acquired in a short time a singular 70 THE CEREMONIES OF THE PRIMITIVE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. influence throughout the Roman empire ; hut we never find them capitulating with conscience, nor tampering with the doctrine they had sworn to defend and to make triumphant. All this was a suhject° of fear and astonishment to the philosophers and the authorities: for they saw all that the people were habituated to respect, subverted. They would, perhaps, have pardoned the Christians for not sacrificing to Jupiter; but to refuse to burn incense before the statues of the deified emperors was in their eyes a capital crime. However, when the people cried out “The Christians to the lions!” we must not suppose it to have been solely the result of hatred to the Christian name: they wanted amusement, and sanguinary pleasures were so natural to them, that it did not appear to them to be anything very flagrant when thousands of innocent people were sent to the arena. Nero certainly caused the Christians to be burnt; but he also burnt Rome. Amongst a people to whom the word charity Avas devoid of sense, the most cruel punishments awaited those who rebelled in the slightest degree against the ferocious authority of the Caesars. Upon examining closely the reception that Christianity met Avith at the time of its first establishment, we are induced to see on the part of the pagans a certain amount ol acimiration for the virtues and pure morals of its first confessors. The name of Christ was found one day inscribed in the imperial Pantheon; hut Christians repulsed such an assimilation as insulting, for they believed that neither gods nor emperors, but Christ alone, had a right to their adoration. Then it was that the imperial authority A\ r as insulted and persecution commenced. The martyrs, radiant, triumphed over the stake, and every execution brought thousands of neophytes to the bosom of the Church. At the time that Constantine became a Christian, half his empire Avas already christianized. As spontaneous conversions were numerous, the Church wished to find in the neojdiytcs men repentant of their past crimes and Avell instructed in the duties they had to fulfil towards God and their neighbours. Hence originated the order of Catechumens. From the earliest times instructions emanating from the Apostles were observed by the bishops as well as by the Catechumens. The latter Avere admitted to hear the reading of the Holy Scriptures, but not allowed to participate in the holy mysteries before receiving baptism, which admitted them into the society of the faithful. The instructions of St. Dionysius the Areopagite, touching the duties of the new Christian, are still in existence. He had to go to the hierarch, and express to him his desire to enter into the Christian communion. After the first interrogatories, if the neophyte replied in a satisfactory manner, the pontiff placed his hand upon his head, signed him with the sign of the cross, and ordered the minister to enrol the name of the godson and sponsor. Catechumens were of several degrees, occupying different positions, not in the church for they had not the right to enter there — but in the narthex , and in the embolon , — a kind of portico by which the primitive church was surrounded. These different degrees were not acquired definitively; they could be forfeited through misconduct. There Avere two or three degrees of punishment intervening between forfeiture and excommunication, which was the most severe punishment the Church could inflict. Daptism Avas the reward- of the religious noviciate, Avhich lasted often several months, and Avhich could be prolonged if the converts retrograded. The Christian community Avas then divided into three classes: the first consisted of those who ministered in holy things, and had the power of conferring the ministry on others; the second, of those Avho had been baptized and admitted to communion; the third and last, of those who had been excluded from Christian communion, and had returned to the right path with tears of repentance, imploring forgiveness from God. Included in the last class Avere also those Avho, though dev'oted in spirit to Christ, had not yet received baptism, but were being taught the principles of the Christian faith. They bore the name of Catechumens. To the first order the most secret part of the temple (the sacrarium, bema , or sanctuary) was open. This part was separated from the rest of tlic temple by veils and barriers, in order that it might appear still more sacred, and that the sight of the service should be hidden from those Avho Avere not worthy to sec it. The second had access to the middle part of the temple, the nave, where the faithful assisted at the service. The third and last were admitted to the exterior portico, called the narthex, only, and did not enter into the church except when they were summoned, and went out the moment THE CEREMONIES OF THE PRIMITIVE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 71 when the deacon, mounted on a raised place, proclaimed with a loud voice that it was time for their exclusion. According to St. John Chrysostom, 1 the ceremony took place in this manner:—The deacon, standing upon an elevated place, raised his hands in the air, and pronounced that the time had come for withdrawal, with a high voice and a loud cry, like that of a herald. Then there being silence, he ordered the Catechumens to pray for themselves, and the rest of the congregation to pray for the Catechumens. These prayers having been said, the bishop blessed the Catechumens, who bent their heads to receive his blessing; then the deacon requested them to depart. These having departed, lie called the Euergumens, or Possessed; after the prayers for them were said, he assembled the Penitents; the prayers for them having been said, the office of the Holy Communion was continued. Dionysius the Areopagite, in his Ecclesiastical Hierarchy, eh. in., mentions that when the Holy Scriptures had been read, the Penitents, the Energumens, and the Catechumens were sent out of church. The Catechumens were placed nearest the door; then came the Energumens, and then the Penitents. There were two classes of Catechumens — the Auditors, those who wished to hear the Word of God, and who, though they desired to become Christians, were not yet initiated to the extent of being worthy of baptism {non tamen eopervenerant ut digni baptismo haberentur) — and the Competents, who, having been initiated into the articles of faith, waited the prescribed time for baptism. The 14th Canon of the Council of Nice speaks thus: — “As to the fallen Catechumens, it has pleased the great and sacred Council to look upon them as Auditors during three years only; afterwards they may pray with the Catechumens.” The Auditors were not yet Christians; they were only a class of Gentiles who, after having heard somewhat of Christian doctrine, desired to be more fully instructed in it. All that was required of them was to attend the assemblies punctually and to lead a life free from reproach. Tertullian, in his book on the Penitents, speaking of the Auditors, says “ that a person should not flatter himself that he will not again commit some fault, because he has been placed in a state of probation amongst the Auditors.” The Auditors remained in the lower part of the narthex , or in the exonarthex (exterior porch); the esonartliex (interior porch), when there were two porches, being reserved for the Catechumens. They had, also, places in the embolon of the church, and sometimes near the fountains of ablution, which stood at the entrances of the temples. We learn from Eusebius 2 that there were placed opposite to the entrance of the temple, fountains supplied with abundance of water, which served for those who entered into the holy portico to wash the dirt from their bodies. These fountains represented the holy waters of baptism. This custom of washing before prayers has been abandoned by the Eastern and Western Churches for the following reasons: the Eastern Church, seeing that the Mussulmans used complete ablutions before prayer, did not desire to maintain a custom common to the enemies of the faith; in the West, cold ablutions in all seasons were not good for the health; besides, the fountains were frozen a part of the year; therefore holy water was adopted as symbolical of ablution. Entrance to the church was not only forbidden to those who had not been baptized, but also, under certain circumstances, to women. There was also in the narthex of the church a place reserved for the cathceroumenoi , that is to say, those who were undergoing purification. They had not received the Christian faith, or, if they had received it, had contracted some defilement from the sins they had committed. They made expiation, and engaged to lead a regular life, in order to be delivered from the power of the demon. The narthex was so arranged that they could hear the services, and also that, upon hearing the voice of the deacon, they might retire from the church. The ecclesiastical hierarchy established three ranks in this class:— TeXsiouvreuv, those who had finished; T sXoufjLsvwv, those who approached the end; KaQaipoi>fj.svcuv, those who were purifying themselves. 1 Ejristle to tin' Hebrews, homily 17. - Ecclesiastical llistorjj, bonk cli. 4. TITE CEREMONIES OF THE PRIMITIVE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. There was another class of Penitents — that of Weepers ( Flentes ), who remained in it till the bishop, having judged their penitence sufficient, allowed them to enter the class of Auditors, that is to say, the second rank of Penitent Catechumens. The place of the Catechumens, whether Auditors or Competents, was in the nartliex. If a Catechumen had committed a fault, he heard the service on his knees; if he sinned again, lie was sent amongst the Auditors, and then could not be re-established without the consent of the priest. This regulation, which was ordained by the 5tli Canon of the Council of Neociesareia, requires an explanation. In the primitive Church the practice was not to pray kneeling, but standing, with hands extended: it is thus that worshippers are represented in the catacombs, and saints in all the ancient pictures, frescoes, and mosaics. Eusebius leaves no doubt in this respect, when he says: “The emperor caused himself to be painted with hands extended in the attitude oi prayer.” Kneeling during prayer, which was a punishment in the Eastern Church, was adopted by the Western as a sign of humiliation. We learn from the preceding that the catechuminate could not have had a fixed duration. This is why the 7th Council of Constantinople did not fix any term for it. Those who could acquire baptism in the short space of seven or eight months were called the Perfect. The Perfect and the Auditors were summoned into the church to hear the chanting of psalms and the reading of the Holy Scriptures. But the latter class were not permitted to be spectators of the holy mysteries. After the reading of the Gospel, as we have before stated, the priest sent away the Catechumens and those who were unfit to be present at the holy mysteries. It is from this dismissal ( demissio) that the Latins have derived the word mass {Heine Latini missam dixerunt, ut remissam pro remissione). It is necessary to state, however, that Leo Allatius contests the correctness of this tradition upon the subject of Catechumens, lie pretends they had a right to a place in the church. “ The Catechumens, or novices in the faith, and the Competent, had all a right to a place in the church; it was only the disobedient amongst them, and those who were sullied by crime, who, like the criminal amongst the faithful, were excluded from the church.” He is contradicted in this by all the Greek clergy of Constantinople, and even by the fact ot the construction of the churches of the East. Eor of what use was the nartliex , simple or double, that we remark in them, if it were not reserved for those who were not allowed to be present during the whole service. We often see in ecclesiastical recitals the term evspyo6[A£vot, — Energumens, or Possessed, applied to a class of Penitents. This term had not then exactly the same signification as it has at present. Some ecclesiastical writers believe them to have been the same as those whom the Council of Ancvra called the Hyemants, or tempest-tossed. According to Leo Allatius, Zonaras confounded the Hyemants with the arreptitii. He adds: “I am far from sharing this opinion. The arreptitii are altogether furious, and do not pray. The Hyemants are those who, tormented by the wicked spirit, have not permission to pray with the faithful, but have a place assigned to them when they say their prayers.” St. Maximus, in his commentary on Dionysius the Areopagite, 1 regards the Energumens and the Hyemants as the same. “ If it were permitted to me,” adds the author, “ to have an opinion on this grave matter, I should say that the Hyemants, tormented by the storms of passion, are not the Energumens, but those who are tossed about by the waves of voluptuousness and delight, and have turned their souls from the true wealth to devote themselves to vain and mortal pleasures. These are the true Hyemants, because they are in a perpetual winter and in a very dangerous tempest.” The nartliex of the church was thus peopled by a crowd anxious to assist in the mysteries, but who, before obtaining the privilege of doing so, had to accomplish many rigorous duties. In addition to this list of probationers, there was an order of Penitents often confounded with those who kneel, but who were designated by another name. These Avere the penitents who were in the state of liypoptosis. The state of lujpoptosis was one of great humiliation, which caused the person who was in it to be declared unworthy to enter the church. He remained outside, and could not pray for himself, but solicited the prayers of the faithful who entered. 1 EccWmslku! Hierarchy, ch. vi. THE CEREMONIES OF THE PRIMITIVE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 73 The Primitive Church had four grades of penitence, — those of proclaims, akr oasis, hypoptosis, and systasis. Crimes committed by the faithful were punished by the Church in a severe manner. The penitence for fornicators lasted four years: the first year they were excluded from prayers, and were obliged to weep at the doors of the church; the third year was passed in the state of hypoptosis, or humiliation; during the fourth they were admitted unto the congregation, but had to abstain from oblation; at last they were admitted to the Holy Communion. The perjured were excluded during eleven years from Communion ; during two years they wept; thiee years they were to be Auditors; four years in hypoptosis; a single year assisting in the service without offering, and at last were admitted to the Holy Communion. Adulterers were excluded fifteen years from the sacraments; they were to weep for four years, to be five years. Auditors, four years in hypoptosis , and two years assisting in worship but without Communion. These rules are still observed in certain Greek churches, and especially in convents, both of men and women. When a member of the community has committed some fault, he is placed kneeling at the entrance of the church, and when the monks or nuns arrive to perform service, he confesses publicly, and implores the faithful to pray for him. In the convents of Walachia this custom is strictly observed. In general the ceremonies of the Greek Church are the same as those observed in primitive times. According to Gregory of Nyssa, the weepers placed themselves at the door of the church, asking the faithful who entered to pray to God to pardon the crimes they had committed. Their place was with the excommunicated, the heretics, the Gentiles, the criminals, and the contumacious. Thus we see from the foregoing nomenclature of the various classes of penitents, of what sort was the population who surrounded the church in the first ages — all people anxious to arrive at Christian perfection, but at the same time willing to remain slaves to their passions. At last, all the religious instructions concluded, and the conduct of the neophyte beino* considered to be blameless, he was considered fit to receive baptism. Confession was not necessary in order to obtain baptism, but it was necessary that the Catechumen should possess a good heart, profoundly imbued with a horror for sin. Preparation for baptism was made with fasting and prayer: and although confession was not the rule before baptism, the Fathers exhorted the Catechumens to it. The women were given over into the hands of deaconesses, who finished their instruction and sent them to confession. It was thus that the deaconess Romana assisted the frail Thais. The name of deaconesses was given to devoted women who were attached to the service of the Church, and who assisted persons of their own sex in their exercises of piety, and in the performance of religious rites; for instance, in preparing for baptism, which was conferred by total immersion. They were placed at the doors of the church, by the side of the gallery destined for women ( gynceconitis ), and refused entrance to those who were excluded by discipline or who presented themselves in a state of impurity. The office of deaconess was suppressed in the year 441 by the Council of Laocliceia. At the time of Ileraclius there were forty deaconesses attached to the Church of Constantinople. The choice of Catechumens to be admitted to baptism was made by lot; the ceremony was preceded by prayers and exorcisms. This custom of drawing lots was perpetuated till the 7th century by the Latin Church. At that period paganism had nearly disappeared throughout the Empire; baptism was conferred on children at the moment of their birth, and preparatory instruction for the adults had entirely ceased. But the Eastern Church, which, without cessation, was always exposed to the attacks and persecutions of infidels, preserved this usage till the 12th century. It was at this epoch that doorkeepers were abolished in churches. Conversions were made much more rapidly amongst the Western than amongst the Eastern nations. The former went in crowds to be baptized — the pre¬ paratory instructions were never so serious in the countries of the North. Baptism bv total immersion, which was without inconvenience in the East, was not kept up in the West, for the same reason that ablutions there were so soon abandoned. Baptism by water, which is the base of the Christian institution, appeared a hardship to the inhabitants of the North. Pope Gregory having been asked by a priest of Norway whether, in default of water, he could not baptize the children with beer, he replied that the words of Jesus Christ were expressed in the Gospel, and that baptism performed with beer was void. For a long time the baptized were immersed three times, in commemoration of the three days of I' THE PRIMITIVE (’KRISTIAN riTURClH. 71 THE CEREMONIES <> the burial of Jesus Christ, and of the three persons of the Holy Trinity. In the 9th century, not only were children plunged into the basin, but water was thrown upon their heads. When the Catechumen had descended into the baptismal font, which was surrounded by curtains, the priest raised the curtains which concealed him, and plunged his head three times into the water. The baptized person received afterwards wine, honey, and milk, and was afterwards confirmed ; for in the primitive Church confirmation immediately followed baptism, of which it was, in some manner, the consummation. The bishop then spread the holy chrism on the forehead of the baptized, saying these words, “ I sign you with the sign of the cross, and 1 strengthen you with the oil of health.” The Holy Eucharist was administered to the neophytes a short time after baptism, and at first under the two kinds. The bread for the Holy Communion was prepared by the deaconesses: its preparation is now the business of the wives of the priests of the Greek Church. The neophyte sent what remained of the Communion-bread, cut into small pieces, to his relations: this was the Eulogy. The wine was not administered in a chalice, but with a spoon. The observance of the Holy Com¬ munion as it is practised in the West, is not of earlier date than the conquest of the Holy Land, that is to say the 11th century. Religious instructions were given to the neophytes by the bishops and the readers; hut the numbers of Christians increased without ceasing, and priests were ordained to preach in the churches. Saint Cyril was but a simple priest when he preached in the church of Jerusalem, in the year 349. These increased duties of the clergy obliged them to study the art of eloquence, which was chiefly cultivated in the school of Alexandria; and there Christian orators went to prepare for their apostleship. Philosophers of all sects there preached their doctrines in liberty. The tolerance, or, rather, the interest that polytheism exhibited towards the Christian philosophers, was, so to speak, reciprocal. The latter did not wish to become renovators of the civil world. All that did not touch upon dogma, and could be adopted by the new Church without danger to the faith, was adopted without hesitation. All the pagan usages which did not shock the new faith were continued in Christian society; and it must be owned that the language of the first Greek Christians exhibits this alliance in a remarkable manner. We have stated that in all relating to sepulture the Christians had not changed any of the ancient customs. Many usages which did not affect Christian doctrine were adopted by the Christians. The use of lustral water was of this number. The under-deacons, who were charged with the taking care and keeping clean the churches, retained the name of neocores. In fact, even the pagan temples, ruined or abandoned, were converted into churches. The religious centres of the abolished worship were consecrated to Christ; and there was hardly one pagan divinity wdiose purified sanctuary was not considered fit to receive Christian con¬ gregations. It has been justly remarked, that the consecration of new churches established in the pagan temples had some reference to their ancient heathen dedication. The Pantheon of Rome became the church of All Saints; the Parthenon became the St. Sophia of Athens — that is to say, the temple of Divine Wisdom; SS. Gervais and Protais were adored in the ancient temple of Romulus and Remus. But there were some pagan divinities whose names were utterly abhorrent to Christians. The ancient temple of Venus at Aphrodisias was not converted into a church until the name even of that proscribed deity had been done away with, and the city of Venus had received the name of Stauropolis, or the City of the Cross. We have in the adaptation of ancient sanctuaries to the Christian worship not only an evidence of toleration, but also of good policy. All the pagan festivals, which were always accompanied by a great commercial movement, as was afterwards the case with the Saints’ festivals in the Middle Ages, became, by degrees, Christian reunions; and thus the people were not forced to renounce their secular customs. Between the times of Constantine and Justinian the form of the church does not seem to have been settled; but under Justinian it received a definite form; and, up to the present time, the church of the East has retained, in a greater or less degree, some resemblance to the church of St. Sophia. In that noble temple all the ceremonies that we have described may at some future period receive their perfect development. PAGAN TEMPLES CONVERTED INTO CHURCHES, ERSECUTED and tolerated by turns, during the second and third centuries, the Christians could not give their entire attention to the development of architecture. They were content that their churches should be unpretending edifices, which symbolized the new faith and answered the modest wants of both clergy and people; but as the time of emancipation gradually approached, the Christian community of the East became more numerous and more bold, and majestic churches were raised in the midst of the principal towns, as at Smyrna, Antioch, and Alexandria. It is to be noticed that the writers who have left us documentary evidence relating to the churches constructed before the time of Constantine, rarely designate them as being placed under the invocation of a saint; they were dedicated more frequently to some celestial personage, such as the Archangel Michael. There is a reason for this in the fact that the Martyrology had not then been compiled. The usual dedication was to the Wisdom of the Word ('Ay/a Xocpta), literally the A ay os, according to Tertullian. 1 On the same subject see Nicephorus Callistus, 8 (cited by Leo Allatius 3 ), who designates in these terms the great church of Constantinople: — “In the great house of the Word of God.” 1 The custom of designating by the name of St. Sophia the churches placed under invocation of the Divine Wisdom became general amongst Western writers, notwithstanding the confusion which might have arisen from the fact that there was a saint of that name. It is impossible to enumerate all the Greek churches dedicated to St. Sophia. The emperors erected such in all the principal towns of the Empire. There were churches with the dedication of St. Sophia at Nicma, Trebizond, Pergamus, Athens, Thessalonica, and Tarsus. Of all the cities of the East, Antioch was the most renowned as a Christian town before the foundation of Constantinople. Writers who have related the history of the establishment of Christianity, estimate the population of this place at more than a hundred thousand souls in the time of Decius. These people, when they found themselves freed by the laws of Constantine, were filled with a zeal for proselytism, and by degrees all the pagan temples were destroyed, shut up, or converted into Christian churches. Yet the policy of the emperor was not to declare a war of extermination ; persuasion and gentle administrative measures were generally preferred to violence. An edict published at Nicomedia, by order of Constantine, in the year 313, freed Christians from all restraint in the public exercise of their worship, yet contained nothing hostile to the dominant religion. 6 The government of the provinces was given in preference to those who professed Christianity; but this was not absolutely the case,— many governors remained attached to the pagan superstition—they were simply forbidden to make use of any public pagan ceremony ; c 1 Advers. Praxeam. 2 Ecclesiastical History, book xii. ch. 41. Constantine built a church to St. Peter and St. Paul. Rabulus, bishop of Edessa in 412, built a church to St. Stephen ; in 395 Theodosius con¬ structed the church of Antioch. »Ep.i.p.l9. 1 'Er to) fxtyioTO) cuji(j) t ijg too Oiuu Auyov —.ojiiuc. 5 Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History, book x. ch. 5. 6 Id., ibid., book ii. ch. 44. 'ACAN TEMPLES CONVERTED INTO ITU'ROH'ES- 70 and, as lias been well remarked by Strotb, 1 this prohibition had no reference to them personally; only when they appeared as representatives of the emperor they were not to offer sacrifices to idols. The sons of Constantine did not show themselves as tolerant as their father, and the laws against idolatry were applied by them with rigour. Pagan temples were still open in the West. In the provinces of the north of Gaul the Druidical altars had still their frequenters, in' spite of the edict which ordered their destruction. The edicts of Constantius were not executed, notwithstanding the menaces with which they were accompanied. The edict of Constans — “ That superstition cease; that the folly of superstition be abolished,” — has, however, frequently been cited. This edict was issued in the year 341. The temples, closed for the time, were opened to the followers of paganism. In the year 356 Constantius thought to put an end to pagan worship by ordering the closing of the temples under pain of death; but on the acces¬ sion of Julian all the sacred edifices still existed, and lie had only to cause them to be reopened when be attempted to restore the ancient worship; but after the death of that prince, Valens deprived the temples of all the property which Julian had given up to them. In spite of the rigour with which the imperial edicts were executed, the reign ot Theodosius did not see the end of pagan ceremonies. In vain the emperor issued an edict forbidding any sort of sacrifice, and also the least act ot homage to idols." All the ancient sacerdotal organization still existed. 3 The emperor again prohibited public worship to be offered to idols; he protected secretly those who demolished the temples, in order to employ the materials for civil purposes, and ended by issuing an edict which authorized the destruction of the last sanctuaries of superstition. 4 Then the zeal of the Christians manifested itself by a terrible reaction, which resulted in provoking the armed resistance of the pagans (A.D. 391). Eight, years afterwards (A.D. 399), at the instance of St. John Chrysostom, Theodosius ordered the demolition of temples con¬ structed in the outskirts of towns. Syria, which from time immemorial had been one of the principal strongholds of paganism, beheld its most revered temples closed by order of the emperor. The priests and monks clamoured for the demolition of the temples ot Phoenicia. Those of Apamea, Petra, and Balbeck were purified, and the altars of idols replaced by those of Christianity. When the conversions, whether sincere or brought about by policy, became so numerous that the clergy were in want of church-room for the neophytes, many churches were erected; but these were found insufficient. Then the Christians first entertained the thought of con¬ secrating the ancient temples of idols to the new faith. They were encouraged and supported in this by the imperial authority. The form of the Roman temples was not ill adapted to the requirements of Christian worship. With some slight adaptations, the temple could be made to resemble the church constructed by the early Christians, which consisted of a large oblong room with an apse for the altar. We can still trace the ingenious transformations which some temples have undergone; others have been consecrated to Christian worship without any change. These changes took place but slowly, as the vis inertias of paganism rendered the ordinances frequently ineffectual. During the reign of Theodosius II., in the year 435, appeared a new edict, still more pressing than the first, 5 which prescribed the destruction of all pagan sanctuaries still in existence, — “ That the defilement of idolatry might be effaced by the erection of the venerated sign of the Christian religion.” In the middle of Gaul, in Provence and the Narbonnaise— the reaction against paganism was the more vigorous because it was the more resisted. Several temples converted into churches still exist iu Provence and the Lvonnaise, at Vienne, Rimes, and Vcrnegue, formerly a small Greek town belonging to Marseilles. At the commencement of the 5th century, towards the year 415, John Cassien settled in Provence. lie had in his youth shown great zeal for the propagation of the faith, and had passed many years in. the midst of the solitudes of the Thebaid. Cassien was 1 Ail II. L., p. 257, note 4. Der Kayser ... verbot ihnen liir sonst als Reprasentanten des Kaysers in (lessen Nalmieu ver- ihre Person nicht, dem Heidentlmme anzuhangen ; nur die- riditeten. 2 Theod. Code, xvi. 10, 1. 12. jenigen bffentliehen Opfer warden ihnen verboten, welehe sie 3 Id., ibid, 4 Id., xv. 1. 36, 1. 5 Id., xvi. 10, 1. 25. if PAGAN TEMPLES CONVERTED INTO CHURCHES. 77 a disciple of St. John Chrysostom, one of the bishops most ardent for the destruction of temples, and who had obtained from Theodosius the edict of the year 399, which ordered the demolition of those situated in the country. Cassien founded at Marseilles the celebrated abbey of St. Victor, where he assembled under his rule a considerable number of monks, who went to preach in the country villages, com structed churches, and worked with energy for the overthrow of paganism. It was doubtless at this epoch that the last pagan temples were converted into churches. The name of Cassien is still revered in Provence as that of a saint. There is near the town of Grasse a vast tumulus, evidently the work of men’s hands, crowned by secular pines. This place is called the Roum&rage de St. Cassien: the people of the neighbourhood assemble there for their annual fetes. The followers of Cassien spread through the Narbonnaise as well as through Provence; and to them is due the foundation of the oldest churches. The barbarians, on arriving in Gaul, had, in their character of Christians, annihilated the greater part of the temples which existed in the chief towns. We owe the preservation of those which still exist to their transformation into churches. We may affirm this to be the case in Asia Minor also. The Byzantine historian Malala has remarked the fact, and we found it verified by the observations we made when following the route of St. Paul. TJnder the influence of the preaching of the Apostle, the Church of Ephesus had gained an importance not less than that of Antioch. We know of the determined resistance offered by the frequenters of the shrine of Diana, and that the men who practised magic arts, spontaneously brought their hooks to be burnt in the public square; yet we find no mention in any history of the conversion of the Temple of Diana into a church when the Christian religion became dominant. Justinian built the church of St. John at Ephesus on the model of that of the Holy Apostles at Constantinople, which he had restored. The entire destruction of the Temple of Diana ajipears to be owing to this circumstance. It is to be remarked, in following in the footsteps of St. Paul through Asia, that along the whole course of his route we do not find a single ancient temple standing, though to the right and left of the line of his progress there are the ruins of many, which do not exhibit marks of having been purposely demolished. This fact could not be the result of mere chance. There are no appreciable remains of the Temple of Diana at Perga, yet it was situated on the top of a hill, and consequently less exposed to the attacks of the destroyers than if it had been placed in the centre of the town. There is no longer one stone upon another in situ; a few drums of columns, some remains of capitals, are the only vestiges of it that exist. In the town itself there is not a single column standing that belonged to a temple, although there are many other edifices. Lystra and Derhe are two small towns too little known for us to expect to find remains of them. At Antioch in Pisidia, the capital of a large province, we find no traces of temples. The case is the same at Attalia, and at Laodicea, which possesses the ruins of a vast hippodrome and of numerous other edifices. At Hierapolis, there are enormous baths, a theatre, porticos, and a remarkable necropolis; but there is no temple. At Alexandria, in the Troad, which, as it is situated upon the sea-coast, has been visited by a crowd of travellers, no one has discovered any vestige of a temple. At Assos a modest church, built by Anthimus, bishop of Scamandria, in the 5tli century, has been raised upon the ruins of a colossal temple. Einally, at Ephesus, the active researches of travellers have not as yet thrown any light upon even the site of the Temple of Diana, still less are there any remains to be found of that edifice, which was built to be the object of the eternal admiration of posterity. To those who do not know Asia Minor, perhaps these observations on the destruction of temples may appear to be almost incredible; but they are nevertheless true. It is also a fact, that to the right and left of the route of St. Paul the temples still exist. The temples of Mylasa were preserved entire until lately, when they were demolished by a pasha, for the purpose of building a mosque with the materials. At Euromus there is a magnificent Corinthian temple with fifteen columns still standing; the temple of Branchidm, those of Priene, JEzani, Sardis, and Aphrodisias, still exist, ruined it is true, but evidently by the ravages of time alone. We are far from believing that when St. Paul visited these countries all the pagan temples fell to the ground under the influence of his preaching; we do not forget that Laodicea was amongst the number of those towns which agreed to erect a temple to Tiberius, precisely at the period when the Apostle commenced preaching. Still we cannot help considering what has been just stated about the destruction of temples as a palpable fact, which cannot be denied by any one who has travelled in Asia Minor; and we can only explain it by supposing that religious zeal was much stronger in the regions visited by St. Paul than in the neighbouring provinces. In order to gain some idea of the authority that St. Paul acquired in Asia, it will be sufficient to read his Epistles to the Galatians and Colossians. His words resounded from one side of the peninsula to the other, and the Word of the Lord was published throughout the whole region. 1 Again, what terror possessed the priests of Diana in the powerful and splendid city of Ephesus—they trembled not only for the temple but for the goddess herself, lest her rule should be overthrown. In provinces where the Roman yoke was the object of a hatred hardly concealed, the new Christians exhibited their abhorrence of the gods of their oppressors by the destruction of their temples. To the Asiatic towns before enumerated we must add one — the town of Nymplneum, now Nymphi, near Smyrna, which had some reputation as a Christian town. The Byzantine emperors built a summer palace near it (the ruins of which still exist), where they went to repose in the shade of the forests of Mount Tmolus. Nymphseum, like the other towns mentioned, has no vestiges of a temple, but there are to be found there numerous traces of Christian edifices. During all his wanderings through Asia Minor, the Apostle addressed himself to the people with an authority which showed how his preaching had fructified. When he reached Pamphylia, he visited all the towns where he had founded churches, and confirmed and strengthened the faithful in the right way. 2 There is no documentary evidence showing how long the temples of Laodicea were preserved; but it is certain that, after the preaching of St. Paul, they were razed to the ground. The first temples that fell under the hammer of the Christians were without doubt those of Byzantium. There was there a plausible pretext for making room for new structures: many temples were employed for civil purposes, but no rigorous measures were carried out against the adherents of polytheism — even the statues of the heathen deities were allowed to be honoured under the title of emblematical figures. Constantine had deprived the temples of their revenues, and they were finally closed. 3 But he remembered that he himself had been a pagan — indeed he had not yet been baptized; so he sought to induce his subjects to embrace the new religion by means of moderate measures. He caused the statues of the ancient worship to be replaced by Christian figures, such as those of the Good Shepherd and Daniel in the lions’ den. It may be here remarked that at this period the lion entered into Christian iconography. St. Mark the Evangelist had a lion for his emblem. Some writers attribute the invention of the evangelistic symbols to St. Irenmus (A.D. 129). The lion is to be seen in the most ancient sculptures ; it sustains the bases of the ambo, and it is also found in the porticos of many ancient churches. Notwithstanding all his tolerance, Constantine permitted the destruction of some of the ancient temples, in order to erect churches on their sites. Thus, the first church of St. Sophia and the churches of Menas and Mocius, were constructed upon the sites of ancient pagan temples. 4 In the provinces of Asia the religious enthusiasm was greater still than at Constantinople. The Seven Churches were triumphant, and the apocalyptic menaces had terrors for the more timid amongst the converts. The ancient worship declined day by day. The greater part of the property of the temples had been confiscated for the benefit of the Church. The pagan priests no longer beheld worshippers loaded with offerings arrive at the temenos; and as the State no longer paid for the repairs of the temples, they fell into a state of decay. Constantine, says Eusebius, 5 laboured indefatigably for the establishment of Christian 1 Acts, xiu. 49. tinopolitana sacris pecuniis usum, id est reditibus et donaiiis 2 Ac's, xv. 41. 'E7rurrripi£tjjv tciq i^Kijoiac. teiuplorum gentilitiorum : adde e simulacris.—Libanius, ed. 3 Chronicon Pascals, p. 561. Reiske. Zosimus, boob n. * Gyllius, book ii. ch. 24. Anonymi ap. Banduri, vol. i. 5 Life of Constantine, book hi. ch. 54. book ii. p. 51. Constantinus M. in condenda urbe Constan- PAGAN TEMPLES CONVERTED INTO CHURCHES. 79 worship and the extinction of idolatry. He had the doors of some of the temples removed, and others he caused to be unroofed, so that, being exposed to the weather, they soon fell into ruin. All this was not effected without clamour. Still, we do not find that there was any open resistance on the part of the pagans until later, in the time of Theodosius. Eusebius did not allow the zeal of Constantine to abate. “ You suppose,” said he, 1 “ that the Gentiles dare say, He is dead; He is not risen. I pay no attention to what they say, but to what they suffer. If in effect their temples are still erect, He is not risen; if their idols are not melted behind the cross, He who says that their idols do not live, is not risen.” In effect, the statues of bronze or marble were transported to Constantinople, to be exposed to the ridicule of the mob. During this time the churches increased their wealth at the expense of declining paganism. Protenduntur autem ecclesice bona et quotidie crescunt . s The agents of the emperor went into the provinces furnished with secret orders, but without military support, and required the pagan priests to render up the most precious objects that belonged to the temples; for at this period it was still the custom to preserve in the opis- thodomos all the splendid offerings which were made by towns and private persons. The treasure, accumulated during centuries, went to increase the imperial store, and contributed, to a certain extent, towards the enormous outlay required for the erection of the new capital. It is impossible to estimate the amount collected in this manner from the pagan treasuries. It was by means of this fecund mine of wealth that Constantine was enabled to afford his court and army high emolument, even although the cost of public works, under¬ taken in every direction, absorbed immense sums. The statues of bronze of Apollo Smintheus 3 and of the Muses, were taken to Constantinople for the gratification of the people. But all statues of gold and silver, and the offerings in the form of vases, bucklers, and tripods of gold enriched with stones, were melted down to be coined into money. When we consider that every town in Asia Minor had many temples containing similar treasures, without counting the great places of pilgrimage which for many ages had escaped the rapacity of conquerors, we may well be astonished at the mass of riches which were swallowed up in the construction of the edifices of Constantinople. All these treasures were expended in the course of two years. Every temple had beneath it a cellar of large dimensions, defended from the approach of the profane. It was generally reached by a staircase placed behind the sanctuary, sometimes situated in the pedestal of the figure itself. The arrangements, which we can still trace in the ruins of these edifices, leave no doubt of the stratagems of the priests who delivered the oracles. We can conceive the stupefaction of the poor pagans when the agents of the emperor made manifest all the priestly frauds, and when they exhibited to their gaze the concealed treasures of which the priests had the sole custody. The unfortunate priests were unable to defend a worship the fraudulent nature of which was visible to every one. The Christians, rapidly increasing in numbers, were still in want of churches; and upon the confiscation of the goods belonging to these temples, the lands and valuables with which they had been endowed were transferred to a newly constituted synod, 4 and the converts were permitted to take possession of the edifices themselves for the purposes of their worship. Let us examine the truth of the statement that they also raised their altars in the Basilica_ Gerousia —or court of justice. We know of but one instance in which the Homan basilica (the prototype of the churches of Constantine) was transformed into a church; this was in the case of the Licinian basilica at Home, in which the Christians were accustomed to assemble; it was converted into a church in the year 370 by Pope Simplicius; but we can mention numerous temples still existing that were appropriated to Christian worship. The Byzantine historians cite many examples of such temples, and many edifices thus converted still exist; but we know of no existing basilica that has been thus employed. Had the Ulpian basilica at Rome been converted into a church, it probably would have been preserved to the present day. 1 Sermon n. on the Resurrection. 4 Eusebius, loc. cit. were not numerous, they were extremely interesting, as they 3 The site of the temple of this deity was visited by Mr. afforded an example of Ionic, of unique character. Pullau in the year 1861. He found that, although the remains 4 Eusebius, Life oj Constantine, book n. ch. 21, pp. 36—39. PAGAN TEMPLES CONVERTED INTO CHURCHES. 80 The name basilica given to the churches after the time ot Constantine did not have reference solely to the resemblance these edifices had to the courts of justice. Prom the earliest times the church was approached through an outer hall or narthesc , which opened into the nave through three doorways, which had their destination in the ceremonies of worship. The middle doorway was termed the basilican or royal gate (3a’ tepa £vXa (ftepovree, Kill XiOovg cat tnctjpov, oi ct cat ai 'tv riiuTuiy yi.lpag cat irodag' irreira M va&v Xeia KuOaipov- fiii'iov unoijilyi', Kara aKannipivio r roi-^ior, KaraoKair-optriov ityaX- fxanov , di'a(T7rwp£i’(i)i' fthipwi' . . .—Libanius Yircp 'lepaiv. Reiske, t. ii. p. 160. a Procopius, cle Bello persico, book i. cli. 17. THE SANCTUARY OF ('.WEST'S, IN SYRTA. 81 offspring — were proscribed without mercy by the bishops, preachers, and deacons of the new Church. These objects of past superstition were collected and cast out at the gates of the towns, forming heaps which have remained for ages. Thus at the gates of Tarsus, the native place of St. Paul, and on the site of Halicarnassus, 1 were found collections of terracotta figures, vases, and innumerable ex-votos, broken and buried under the surface of the ground. During all these changes the clergy took the most suitable measures to induce the pagans to enter the fold of Christianity. The dedication of the temples newly transformed into churches was associated as nearly as possible to the attributes of the ancient divinities. Some writers see in these substitutions a subject of criticism; we believe it to have been the effect of the tolerance of the new religion, which sought to lead the pagans by the easiest road to the way of truth ; inasmuch as the bishops were unflinching in doctrine, although at the same time desirous of smoothing the path to the newly converted. THE SANCTUARY OP CAVESUS AT DEIR EL KALA’AH, SYRIA. We have remarked the effect of the ordinances of Constantine relating to the temples of Asia Minor; the solicitude of the emperor did not, however, allow him to neglect that country which was the cradle of the Christian religion — Palestine — nor its neighbour Phoenicia. The mountains of Lebanon possessed numerous celebrated sanctuaries where the worship of the Phoenician divinities Baal and Astarte attracted crowds of worshippers. Heliopolis was soon converted, and a Christian church was erected on the ruins of a temple of Venus. Another temple of the same goddess existed in a desert place high up on Lebanon, named Aplieca; the site of this sanctuary is indicated by Eusebius as being on the chief ridge of the mountain which separates the plain of Balbek from the sea; Byzantine ruins upon the foundation of a Phoenician temple are still to be seen there. When returning from Balbek to Beyrout, in the autumn of 18G2, Mr. Pullan found the ruins of two temples situated in a deep ravine at the foot of Mount Lebanon, six or seven miles north of the town of Zaklch. On account of their concealed position, these ruins seem to have escaped the attention of most travellers. Dr. Robinson does not mention them; they were, however, visited by Burckhardt and Colonel Chesney. There are but few remains of the lower temple. The plan, as far as it can he traced from the ruins, appears to have been that of an oblong cella, with two columns in antis. Two consoles and a portion of the enriched architecture of the doorway are the only ornamented members of the building that remain. A winding path, ascending the side of the ravine, leads to a barren valley enclosed by a wall of sombre rocks. Here, at the distance of half an hour’s walk from the lower temple, is situated another and larger edifice of the same description. It stands upon a podium, built on the side of the valley, and ornamented with a hold cornice and base mould. A broad flight of steps leads up to the pronaos , where are to be seen bases of columns in position. The temple appears to have been tetrastyle; the columns were 3 ft. 6 in. in diameter at the base, the order being a rude Ionic. The interior Avail of the cella had six engaged columns on each side. This wall exists to a height of ten or twelve feet above the level of the pavement. At the end of the building was a platform for the altar, extending its full width, approached by three or four steps; beneath it Avas a small vaulted chamber. On each side of the principal doorway were traces of a staircase which led to the upper part of the building. The loAver temple is called that of Niha; the upper temple, Kalaat el Hussein (the Castle of Hussein). There is a temple on a hill at Medjdel, near the site of the ancient Chalcis, where there are also engaged columns in the interior; they are also to he seen in the temple of Jupiter at Balbek. See Newton’s Halicarnassus, Cnidus, and Branchidoi , vol. ii. PAGAN TEMPLES CONVERTED INTO CHURCHES. The inhabitants of the valley of the Nahr el Kelb show, on the right bank of the river, some localities where ancient remains still exist. During our sojoui’n at Beyrout, in June, 1840, we were informed of the existence of an ancient town on one of the plateaux of Lebanon, two hours’ journey to the east of Beyrout. We started two days afterwards, under the guidance of a monk belonging to the convent which exists on the site itself, and which bore the name in the country of Deir el Kala’ali (F CAVESUS, IN SYRIA. 83 The ground around the building is much raised above its former level, reaching as high as the top of the bases; the substruction is entirely buried. There is little hope of ever finding any remains of the upper part of the building, since the materials which were taken 1’I.AN from it during the attacks of the Christians, were employed in the erection of the church and monastery of St. Anthony. The columns are of black limestone; their diameter at the base is 5 ft. 4 in., which would give a height of from fifty to sixty feet for the entire order. The columns were a diameter and a half apart, according to the system termed pycnostyle by Vitruvius. The centre intercolumniation was rather wider than the others. The intercolumniations at the sides of the temple are rather narrower than those of the front: as there were no passages at the side, this arrangement gave greater solidity to the work. The church is built within the enclosure of the naos, and its facade ranges with those columns of the peristyle that have remained in situ. To the left of the church are the conventual buildings. All these buildings are of such a simple character, that they afford no evidence of date. (See Plate V.) "VVe have no doubt but that these temples were suppressed by the edicts of Constantine when his vigilant policy caused Lebanon — which contained so many pagan sanctuaries, and amongst them so many dedicated to the god Baal — to be thoroughly ransacked. The purpose for which the ruins on the north of the temple were applied is not easily ascertained. The materials used in the construction of this edifice were of ordinary dimensions; the stone of a common sort. As far as we can at present perceive, the building was a paralle¬ logram in form. A great number of shafts of columns, scattered amongst the ruins, show that it had been surrounded by a colonnade. Under the heap of ruins the basement may be seen in places, and also a large terrace upon which the edifice was erected. All these evidences go to show that a temple of moderate dimensions had stood upon this site. The other ruins have all the character of edifices devoted to religious purposes. We should have been left in a state of great uncertainty about the name of this sanc¬ tuary had not inscriptions been in existence which throw a light upon its dedication, and also upon the date of its construction. As we found here no trace of a town, we must suppose that this group of temples formed a Ilieron such as we find in other localities in Asia. Let us see what light the inscriptions throw upon the historical question. The inscription No. 1 is built into the wall of the monastery near the entrance gateway. This we may suppose to have been found in the ancient temple, as the builders of the monastery would not have gone to a distance for materials when they had so many at hand. This is also the case with the Latin inscription, No. 4; it was cut upon a stone in the form of a pedestal, which has also been built into the court of the monastery. The lettering of the inscriptions is fine and perfectly legible, leaving no doubt about their meaning. The copies published latterly are incorrect. PAfiAN TEMPLES CONVERTED INTO CHURCHES. The votive inscription to Jupiter JBalmarcos reads thus:— MOKTAOVIOCIAAPOC €V^AM€NOCAN€0HKA Vn€PCUJTHPIAC KA €VTVXOVC KAIT6KNWN 6AA0IMOI BAAMAPKWC KOIPAN6 KCUMtUN KAI KAV €COV A€CnOTA NVN IAAPOV COI (XAPICT6IA) I Marcus Octavius Ililarius having made a vote : Have dedicated [this altar] for the welfare of Cains Eutijches and of my children. Hearken to me, JBalmarcos, master of towns and of Cavesus ! Then to thee (the thanks) of Ililarius. The last word ya.pia-rsia is wanting, hut it may be supplied from a great number of other inscriptions. The inscription is upon a votive altar 1 that had been dedicated by Ililarius to the god Balmarcos, a Grecianized name, in which we recognize that of the god Baal Melcarth, mentioned by Selden ( de Hiis Syria, p. 200), and also by Gesenius. K olpavs xco[j.(ov (master of towns) indicates that the sanctuary of Baal was the religious centre of many towns of Lebanon; xa) Qsmrora Kauetrou (lord of Cavesus), here, is no doubt the name of the sanctuary, which was of great renown in the country, as we may gather from the following inscriptions. The inscription just cited would he incomplete, and almost unintelligible, if we had not found another in the neighbourhood, from which we learn that the ltomans had given to the god Baal the attributes of Jupiter. This latter is in Latin, and is in these terms:— P • POSTVMIYS PL- AYCTVS JOYI BALMABCODI V • S • L • M • Publius Postumius Auctus, freedman of Publius, to Jupiter Balmarcos, has accomplished his voluntary vow. These two inscriptions, belonging to the temple of Deir el Ivala’ah, prove that it was dedicated to Jupiter Balmarcos, or Baal Melcarth; secondly that this sanctuary bore the name of Cavesus, and held under its jurisdiction the towns and villages of this part of Mount Lebanon. Another inscription proves that the colony of Berytus (Beyrout) was comprehended in ths jurisdiction. According to Boeckh, Jupiter Balmarcos was the same as Zeus Helios, whose temples were always situated upon a mountain. In the group of ruins which is to the east we observed the following inscription:— IVNONI BEGINAE I • GAVINVS V • L • A • S ■ To the Queen Juno, Julius Gavinus has accomplished his vow with energy. The characters of these inscriptions, like the architecture of the secondary temples, which are evidently Boman works, resemble those of the 2nd century of the Christian era; the form of the M, and the use of the letter to, leave no doubt of the date. 1 l’lato of Inscriptions. INSCRIPTIONS AT CAVESUS. Two other inscriptions — one in honour of Marcus Aurelius, the other of Septimius Severus — prove that these emperors visited Cavesus. Not far from the Temple of Juno a mass of ruins may be remarked, the walls of which lie one upon another, as though they had been overthrown by an earthquake. This has been a small temple ; a part of the cella is still standing; and on a fragment of the architrave we find the following inscription:— [Lucio Septimio Severo Pcr]TINACI AVG P • P • ET COLONIAE BERITO AEDICYLAM ET SIMVLACRA DE SVO E • To the Emperor Lucius Septimius Severus Eertinax Augustus , Father of the Country, and of the Colony of Berytus, [such an one] has raised this little temple and these statues at his own cost. We know that Tyre and Laodicea declared for Severus; while Berytus and Antioch embraced the cause of Niger. When the former of these two aspirants to the empire obtained the victory, he punished cruelly the town of Antioch by withdrawing its privileges, and Berytus shared the same fate. We may see in this inscription, upon a monument erected after the death of Niger, a token of reconciliation with the rebellious town. The name of the person who made the dedication is wanting. Whatever was the cause of the erection of this edifice, it shows that there was in this sacred enclosure a third temple, the date of the erection of which was not anterior to A.D. 135. There is near the large temple another votive inscription:— MYMMEIVS INGENVVS PRO • SALVTE SVA ET FRATRVM ET EILIORVM V • S • L M • Mummevus Ingenuus, for his health, and for that of his brothers and children , has dedicated this of liis own accord. All these offerings, which had for their object the establishment of health, were addressed to the god Baal. There is nothing to lead us to suppose that there occurred in this /Heron those orgies which Eusebius records to have taken place in the principal sanctuaries of Lebanon. Near the church of St. Anthony is a stele of stone with a votive inscription, the text of which has already been the object of learned commentaries; but the copies that have been taken of it have been either incorrect or incomplete. The true meaning of this inscription has escaped those scholars who have attempted to explain it. The upper part of the stele is destroyed, but it may be restored after the stele of ITilarius, which is complete. The inscription is in Greek verse, of the following manner:— [Kui’ay.svos x\sivwv xopuo^ptou avsSrjxa TtjAo^sv sx Ni)N VERT HD 1 XT' H URCHKS, I'Ao.W TEMPLES ( TEMPLES IN ASIA CONVERTED INTO CHURCHES. rp IIE progress of the .Christian religion made itself felt throughout the whole Roman JL territory from the time of the conversion of Constantine, whom the zeal of the bishops constantly stimulated to labour for the extinction of paganism. The towns of Palestine and Syria were the first to experience the consequences of Christian reaction. In Antioch and the neighbouring provinces the Christians had suffered most from the attempts of Julian. Not only had the edict, which had remained to a certain extent unobserved, been enforced, but violence of every sort, even torture, had been employed by the pagans to bring hack the new converts to the ancient worship. Therefore, when the free exercise of the Christian religion was proclaimed by Valens, through a very natural reaction, the temples of Antioch were for ever closed. The great basilica of Constantine had been completed by Constantius; but this church was considered insufficient for the town in which Christianity had been proclaimed for the first time, in the year 43 of our Lord. St. Ignatius, bishop of Antioch, had been thrown to wild beasts in the amphitheatre of Rome, in the reign of Trajan. His relics, carefully gathered by his disciples, had been conveyed to Antioch and deposited in a tomb situated near the Gate of Daphne, where for three centuries they had been the object of veneration to the faithful. Theodosius the Younger, on his accession to the throne, was desirous of giving the patriarch of Antioch a sepulchre more worthy of his renown. He caused the Temple of Eortune, which had been closed for many years, to be purified, and converted it into a church under the patronage of St. Ignatius; 1 and an annual festival was established in commemoration of the translation of his relics. The church of St. Ignatius was destroyed in one of the great fires that devastated Antioch, and there are now no traces of it. Rufinius, prefect of the prsetorium under Arcadius, had demolished the Temple of Mercury and employed the materials in the construction of the great basilica which bore his name. These splendid edifices perished in the fires and sieges from which the town suffered. THE TEMPLE OE VENUS AT API1RODISIAS. One of the most ingenious adaptations of an ancient temple to Christian worship was certainly that which the Temple of Venus at Aphrodisias underwent. It is strange that this building should have been so appropriated; for of all the deities of paganism, Venus was, without doubt, the most abhorred by Christians, on account of the licentious ceremonies of which she was the object. Eusebius never pronounces her name without a malediction — “ the demon adored under the name of Venus. 5 ’ 2 Whatever related to purity of morals was considered of the first importance by the early Christians, and we can understand the light that Christian virtue shed upon nations sunk in the mire of sensuality, and with what satisfaction the imperial orders, which had for their object the dispersion of the infamous pagan priests and the destruction of the altars of libertinism, were obeyed. Respect for woman, which Christianity placed in relief, in contradistinction to all the ancient creeds, had been recognized as of superhuman origin, and it helped in some degree to annihilate paganism. It was one of the virtues of the barbarians of the North who menaced the Empire, and was one of the most powerful reasons that induced them to embrace Christianity. , Lift of Const"' is. Look i. ch. 1<). THE TEMPLE OF VENUS AT APHKODJSIAS. 89 We will not allude to the horrors that were perpetrated in this sanctuary of Venus, which the pen of Eusebius paints in such sombre colours. 1 The active surveillance of Constantine was employed in the suppression of these sanctuaries, so notorious throughout Asia; but they were not all demolished, the town of Venus (Aphrodisias) preserved its temple. This was the edifice which the Christians converted into a church at some period between the reigns of Constantine and Theodosius. The name of the town was changed from Aphrodisias to Tauropolis, the Town of Taurus, in the time of Constantius, and later into Stauropolis, the Town of the Cross. The walls of the town were rebuilt by Constantius of materials taken from the ancient edifices. An inscription placed over the north gate, on the side facing the town, proves that in the 4th century the name of Aphrodisias was already abolished; that Christian emblems were openly exhibited upon public buildings; 2 and that the Christian community was then flourishing in the province. • The Temple of Venus, which the Greeks had adorned with all the elegance and grace of ancient art, was octostyle and pseudo-dipteral; many of the columns had been presented by eminent citizens, and tablets sculptured upon them mention that they were dedicated to the divinity of the place. When the Christians converted this edifice into a church, they made a remarkable change in it. The cclla was entirely demolished, the columns of the postictm were removed and placed in a line with the lateral columns, the number of which Avas thus increased to eighteen on each side. This vast Ionic colonnade was then enclosed by walls, in such a manner that a large space was left between the walls and the columns, so as to form a nave and two aisles. At the end a semicircular apse, which still exists, was erected. The entrance to the temple was formed into a narthex, where the new converts were received. In short, the wdiole physiognomy of the Greek building was transformed, and it became a basilica; probably one of the first appropriated to Christian worship. The colonnade of the peribolus, which formerly had contained the residences of the pagan priests, was preserved. Thus the town was not deprived of an edifice which was one of the principal Avorks of antiquity. The name of Aphrodisias was not even effaced from the tablets. We can still admire the noble order of the Greek temple, and trace the alterations it has undergone in the hands of Christians. The frieze of the lateral colonnade was removed, and upon the architrave, which is still in place, was raised a wall, which was pierced with a window above each intercolumniation : upon this Avail w'ere placed the timbers of the roof. I bus ‘ Life of Constantine, l.ook m. cli. 55. 2 See Plate of Inscriptions. 2 A PA (JAN TEMPLES CONVERTED INT< 'III - HCITES. the general character of the edifice very much resembled that of the basilica of Sta Maria Maggiore and the church of Bethlehem. 1 There is no documentary evidence informing us how long this venerable structure survived the invasion of the Seldjouks, who ravaged Caria and destroyed the town of Stauropolis (or Aphrodisias). Gheira is now the name of the village that stands upon the site of the ancient city. THE TEMPLE OE POME AND AUGUSTUS AT AN CYRA. The Galatians of Ancyra, to whom St. Paul dedicated his epistle, showed themselves disposed to receive the Christian faith during the first century. Amongst these people, who had carried with them into Asia the austere manners of the Gauls, their ancestors, polytheism had a more severe, we might almost say a more honest character, than amongst the Asiatics. They had adopted the gods of Rome; the first families amongst them aspired to the priesthood, which led to political honours; but we do not find amongst them those deities whose worship occasioned such frightful orgies as those mentioned by Eusebius. Ancyra was renowned for its temple of Rome and Augustus, upon the walls of which was inscribed the testament of the successor of Ctesar. Here the worship possessed a political character — it was an incessant commemoration of the great actions of the reign of the emperor. Yet the altars of these conventional gods were the first to fall before the reasoning of the Gospel. The temple of Augustus had been erected scarcely half a century before St. Paul undermined its foundations by preaching the unknown God. The mission of St. Paul was continued in Galatia by St. Clement of Alexandria, who went to live in Cappadocia; and St. Clement of Ancyra, tlie apostle and great patriarch of the Galatians, finished, in the 4th century, the work of regeneration, and then suffered martyrdom. The name of St. Clement is still held in veneration by the inhabitants of this town, and they show the ruins of a Byzantine church that was dedicated to him. The Emperor Basil, the Macedonian, built in Pera, a suburb of Con¬ stantinople, a church in which was placed the head of St. Clement. It is supposed that this relic was conveyed to Prance when Constantinople was taken by the Latins. 3 Probably the temple of Rome and Augustus was finally closed at the time of the promul¬ gation of the edicts of Constantine. We know that the goddess Rome and the god Augustus ceased to be of importance when Byzantium became the seat of the Empire. As we find it in the present day, the temple of Ancyra, deprived of its porticos and of its finest ornaments, has suffered to a great extent at the hands of unknown depredators. Perhaps no part of it would have been still extant if Christianity had not placed it under protection of the Cross. It is not known how many years elapsed between the time when the temple was closed and the time when it was converted into a church; but it was during this period that the porticos were removed, and that the Greek and Latin inscriptions that existed were mutilated by greedy hands, eagerly searching for the bronze cramps that held the stones together. When the Caliphs took possession of Ancyra, the site of the ancient church was devoted to the worship of Islam; but the orientation of the ancient temple did not answer for the Mahomedan rites; so they built close to it a mosque, still existing, the vicinity of which protected the ancient edifice. 1 An inscription engraved upon one of the pilasters still standing leads us to believe that the temple of Aphrodisias became the church of the Ascension. A medallion (which we give in the Plate of Inscriptions) encloses a cross, and there is round it the inscription ’ArdXip/ac tuv Kujx'oo (the Ascension of the Lord). The first churches were built in commemoration of the Resurrection and Ascension of Christ. On one of the imposts of the doorway, there is a medallion of the same form as the preceding, but a little larger ; it also contains a cross, the aims of which are ornamented with a moulding. Above the medallion is the inscription : Kupit /Toijdi} r V a '? cou\y MnaJapj/ (Lord, afford succour to thy servant Masdares). The name Masdares is doubtless that of a Cappadocian converted to Christianity, who occupied an eminent rank in the new church. 2 Baillet, Vies des Saints, vol. n. p. 307. THE TEMPLE OF ROME AND AUOUSTUW AT ANCYRA. 91 The temple of Augustus was hexastyle and peripteral; the order is Corinthian, and is one of the best examples of the work of the Augustan age. We remark, in the adaptation of this building to the purposes of Christian worship, an arrangement entirely different from that which we have noticed at Aplirodisias. The external colonnades have disappeared,—the cellct alone remains; and as it was not sufficiently large, the wall of the postiewm was pulled down, and the side walls of the cella prolonged. The iconostasis replaced the ancient wall of the opisthoclomos , the choir being established in the additional part of the building. The doorway of the temple, with all its decorations, was preserved, and the pronaos became the narthex. In order to light the building, three windows were cut in the wall; there are still to bo seen in them grooves arranged to receive glass or slabs of translucent alabaster. This fact helps to solve the question, which has been so much dis¬ cussed, respecting the manner in which the ancient temples were lighted. It is evident that il the Christians had found the temples lighted in any other manner than through the doorway, they would not have taken the trouble to cut through the marble wall. The usual custom in Greek churches was to make the apse circular on plan. Since the reign ot Justinian this rule had been departed from but little. The apse was generally lighted by three windows, in honour of the Holy Trinity. 1 Here, however, the chancel has a square instead of a semicircular termination, and this is the most ancient example known of the square east end, of which it is difficult to cite a single example in Italy, but which became common in Normandy and England in the 11th and 12th centuries. The Byzantine historians mention numerous temples in Asia that were transformed into churches, but we do not find remains of any of them. Cedrenus 2 cites the temple of Cybele at Cyzicus, which was dedicated to the Virgin, and beoame the church of Theotocos. Procopius mentions the two temples of Comana, which have also disappeared, and in which Christian worship was established without any change being made in their primitive arrangements. 3 St. Porpliyrus, Bishop of Gaza, went to Constantinople in order to obtain authority to destroy eight temples which still existed in his time. Upon the site of one of these edifices, Eudoxia, wife of the Emperor Arcadius, who died A.D. 404, founded a church, which still exists, and which has been converted into a mosque. Amongst the numerous ancient edifices that have been dedicated to Christian worship, we find but one (the Basilica of Pergamus, which is believed by some to be the church of St. John the Evangelist— Agios Theologos) that was originally destined for civil purposes. What leads us to believo that this building was not originally erected for a church is that it has no narthex or exonarthex, which are both indispensable for the different classes of catechumens and penitents in the Greek Church. Secondly, as the staircases which lead to the tribunes are placed to the right and left of the hemicycle representing the bema, the public, and amongst them the women, would have been obliged to cross the choir, access to which is so strictly 1 Codinus, Description of Saint Sophia. * Yol. i. ]). 209. 3 Procopius, i/e Bello persico, book I. ch. 12. I’AliAN TEMPJ_.ES CUNVEUTED INTO CHURCHES. interdicted to the Latter. In short, the ceremonies of divine worship, as prescribed by the rules of the ancient Church, could not have been practised in this basilica; different arrangements would have been made, had divine worship been celebrated there. Again, of what use would have been the two circular buildings situated to the right and left of the basilica, had it been a church ? We may also add that if the Turks, when they took possession of Pergamus, found the ancient basilica converted into a church, they would immediately have turned it into a mosque, as this was a right of conquest they never neglected. Notwithstanding the activity of the magistrates appointed by the emperors to suppress pagan ceremonies, many temples remained standing, and up to the 6th century the worship of the gods of Pome was still practised in remote towns. The temple of Phikc, in Egypt, rebuilt by Diocletian, and dedicated to the gods Isis and Osiris, existed until the time of Justinian. It was destroyed by the Persian Narses, according to the orders of the emperor; he put the priests in prison and sent the idols to Constantinople. 1 Under the Emperor Zeno, the temple of Sorapis, at Alexandria, was destroyed, not without lively opposition on the part of the pagans. THE TEMPLES OF GREECE CONVERTED INTO C1IFRCHES. I T is not astonishing that at Athens the worship of Minerva, the goddess and protectress of the city, was continued for two centuries after Christian Byzantium was founded. The Parthenon was at the commencement of the 6th century still open to the adherents of poly¬ theism. Justinian, by an edict dated A.D. 529, ordered that it should he closed, and that the statue of Minerva should be transported to Constantinople. The temple was converted into a church, and dedicated to the Divine Wisdom, under the name of St. Sophia. This trans¬ formation was the means of preserving the edifice, which, as a Christian church, lasted for centuries. Of the Byzantine work little now remains; recent excavations have, however, brought to light the primitive form of the building. We have mentioned many temples the orientation of which was not changed when they were appropriated as churches. The Christians of Athens were more exacting; the ancient entrance, which was to the cast, was built up, and another made in the Avail of the posticum to the west. Perhaps the desire for exact orientation was not the only thing that produced the change; a narthex was absolutely required, and probably the opisthodomos Avas used as such. Prom tins apartment the nave, which Avas but little modified, Avas entered; however, the Avails of the pronaos, in which. Avas the principal door, had been demolished to admit of the construction of an apse pierced with AvindoAVS, through which the light penetrated to the nave. Prom this Are can understand the course taken by Wheler and Spon, who, when they visited the Parthenon, entered at once the narthex of the church and from there Avent into the nave — the cella of the former temple. When the Turks took possession of Athens, they turned the Parthenon into a mosque, demolished the mosaics that decorated the apse, and erected a minaret; for it is to be remarked that at this period churches did not possess either bell-towers or bells; the offices Avere announced by the sound of the semantra. The exact method by which the ancient church was lighted is unknown. It is certain, nevertheless, that windows Avere made for this purpose in the new apse, and in the pediment. This plan Avas the same as that adopted at Ancyra, and AA r e shall quote other similar examples Procopius, de Bello //crsico, 1 k>i >k i. cli. 19. TEMPLES IN ITALY AND GAUL. 03 of tliis mode of lighting the ancient temples. We call attention to this point, for it is our opinion that, with the exception of those that were hypsethral, having an impluvium or small central court, all Greek and Homan temples were lighted by the doorway only. The people were not admitted into the interiors of temples; the priest and the servitors alone entered; on the occasion of certain ceremonies, such as initiations, or when offerings were presented to the god, the people entered the porticos only. The manner of lighting adopted by the Byzantines of Athens is the only thing doubtful as regards the adaptation of the temple to their worship. As regards decoration, we may be assured that in point of richness the church differed but little from the temple. The temple of Minerva Polias was also converted into a church; the naos was divided by two parallel walls, which formed three distinct chapels. All the other small temples or aedicules which were within the enclosure of the Acropolis, and which were not sanctified by a Christian destination, were destroyed. We ought then to be grateful to the Athenians of the 7th century, who caused the preservation of the Parthenon by placing it under the protection of religion. 1 The little temple on the Ilissus, which Leake and Gell consider to have been that of Triptolemus, became a church dedicated to Holy Priday ('Ay/a napao-xeu^). This building no longer exists. The temple of Theseus was transformed into a church dedicated to St. George; the opist/iodomos was demolished; but this appears to have been done in comparatively modern times. The other temples of Greece — those of Simium, JEgina, Corinth, and Bassee, which had never been adapted to ecclesiastical uses, were allowed to fall into decay. TEMPLES IN ITALY AN1) GAUL. I N the Empire of the West paganism resisted firmly the edicts of the emperors, and the temples of Rome were still frequented by pagans when those of the East were almost all closed. In Europe, as in Asia, the Christians showed no repugnance to establish their worship in the ancient sanctuaries of paganism. At Salona, the town of Diocletian, there were two temples, consecrated one to Jupiter and the other to Aesculapius ; the former was dedicated to the Virgin, and is still the cathedral of Spalatro; the latter was converted into the church of St. John. Yet a great many new churches were erected: amongst them may be mentioned that of St. Vitale, at Ravenna, which introduced into Italy the Byzantine style in all its purity. Its date is A.D. 545. The magnificent mosaics which decorate it, and which represent Justinian and Theodora surrounded by their court, have been so often described and engraved, that it is unnecessary to mention them at length. The church of Sta Maria in Cosmedin, which was erected A.D. 553, is one of those rare edifices attributed to the Arians, who built but little, but who took possession of the churches of the orthodox. This church was built upon the site of a fountain into which neophytes were plunged at baptism. It is supposed to have been founded in the reign of Theodoric and completed after the death of that prince. The dome is ornamented with a mosaic representing cur Saviour being baptized by St. John. The figures of the twelve Apostles are ranged round, separated by bunches of flowers placed in large vases. These mosaics are attributed to Agnellus, who was created archbishop A.D. 555, after he had banished the Arians. 3 It is evident that this arrangement of the figures was i See Stuart, ■ Antiquities of Athens; Spon & Wlieler, Travels Beul6, t'Acropole t Juno. The columns of its portico are of the Greek Doric order, fluted: they have been connected hy a wall. We are not able to give other details respecting this edifice. The case is the same with the temple of Diana Tifatina 8 at Capua, which iu the 7th century was converted into the church of St. Michael the Archangel. The pronaos and the cella still exist. The columns of the interior of the nave have been taken from the peribolus. ' See Rosini, Roman Antiquities, Rook n. ch. 13, p. 79. - Mount Tifata is in Campania, on the Samnian frontier, not. far from the confluence of the Vulturous and the Sohatus. TEMPLES IN GAUL N A RP.ONXAISE. TEMPLES IX GAUL XARBONXAISE CONVERTED INTO CHURCHES, r I^IIE rapidity with which Christianity spread through Gaul Narbonnaise would appear surprising, if we did not perceive in it a violent reaction against the government of the emperors. All the region comprised between the Rhone and the western slope of the Alps was inhabited by valiant and warlike tribes, who resisted the Roman invasion with energy, and became so powerful that it was found difficult to pass through their country even with large armies. All that the Romans gained after a war of eighty years was the right to carry a road through their territory. 1 2 Yet in the end they were subjugated—they paid tribute and received a regular form of government. lhe worship of the Roman deities did not take root amongst these people, who adored abstract divinities, such as the great Zeus of the Pelasgi; and we may therefore conclude that when the first breath of Christianity reached this country, the pagan shrines trembled to their base. Wo find it recorded in history, that the tribune Victor overthrew the statue of Jupiter at Marseilles. Although the tradition that St. Mary Magdalen abode in Provence shortly after the death of our Saviour is doubtful, it is, however, certain that a female anchorite lived in one of the grottos of the mountains there, and that after death she received the rites of Christian burial. The tradition that this female was St. Mary Magdalen is still believed in Provence, and to it art owes a debt of gratitude for the erection of one of the finest basilicas of the South of Prance,—that of St. Maximin. The destruction of the pagan altars, and the almost immediate substitution of Christianity for the religion of Rome, had one result, for the preservation of many ancient temples, which now exist almost entire. All those that were not adapted to the new worship were destroyed. In no other country do we find so many ancient edifices appropriated as churches, within such a small extent of territory, as in the South of Prance. The mountainous district situated between the left bank of the Rhone and the Alps was inhabited by many Gaulish, tribes—the Vocontii, the Salii, and to the north of the latter the Albienses or Albiceci. The first were governed by their own laws, the others' submitted to the prefects sent from Rome. 3 Pliny 8 classes under the head of Latin towns, the capital of this latter tribe, hearing the name of Alehece of the Reii Apollinares. Cmsar, in his recital of the wars of the Gauls, often mentions the Albici. Albici Reiorum became Reii, through the custom which the Romans had of giving the name of the people of the district to the towns. More recently the town of the Reii became that of Riez, in the department of the Basses-Alpes. 4 The silence of the ancient historians about most of the towns of Gaul becomes occasionally an insurmountable barrier to those who study ancient edifices. Pew cities were sufficiently celebrated to be mentioned in history. The capital of the Reii was not one of these few; we know nothing about it until it became a Christian town. A council was held here in the 5th century. The modern town is situated on the slope of a hill which rises in the form of an amphi¬ theatre. 1 Strabo, book iv. p. 203. ^ p - Id., ibid. Aquis Sestis 8 Book hi. ch. 4. Tegulata. xv 4 The Peutinger table places the town of Riez on a branch Reis Apollinares. xvi of the Aurelian way, which began at Aqure Sextke (Aix), and Anteis. xxxu skii’ted the coast, passing by Forum .Tulii (Frejus) in the Fovo Voconii. xvm following manner : — Foro Julii. xvn 2 c PA CAN TEMPLES CONVERTED INTO CHURCHES. Part of the ancient town was situated in the plain. It was skirted by two torrents, which unite to form the little river Colostre, which flows into the Yerdon. The ancient walls of the town were rebuilt in the 12th century by one of the bishops. The extent of the town has considerably diminished, all that part situated in the plain has been abandoned, and it is in this deserted quarter that the principal ancient edifices are found. Near the ancient citadel which crowns the hill stands the church of St. Maximus, first bishop of Frcjus (Forum Julii); it is orna¬ mented with granite columns taken from ancient edifices. The white marble capitals are of the Corinthian order, but they indicate the epoch of the decline of art. The old quarries on the southern ranges of the Alps were worked for many years by the Romans. All the columns in R-iez arc granite. THE CO It IN T H IAN TEMP LE. At the entrance of the town, not far from the torrent, stand four columns, the shafts of which are single pieces of granite; the bases and capitals are of white marble; they are connected by a stone architrave, the ends of which are mortised, the return sides having mouldings on them, showing that there were never more than four columns. This, then, is evidently the facade of a prostyle temple, the foundations of which exist under the soil; the shafts are 19 ft. 2 in. high, the lower diameter is 2 ft. 5 : } in., the upper diameter 2 ft. H in.; they begin to diminish at a distance of a fourth of their height from the ground. The inter- columniation is diastyle, that is, equal to three diameters; that in the centre is rather wider than the others. The capitals are single blocks of white marble, and are ornamented with olive-leaves. The character of the sculpture indicates the epoch of the Antonines. The architrave is of limestone; it has three fascias, separated by enriched beads. The solidity of the construction of this building would have defied the ravages of time for centuries; but as it was not conse¬ crated to Christian worship, it has been destroyed, although another pagan building in the neighbourhood, built less substantially, has been preserved until the present day under the protection of the Cross. THE PANTHEON. On the right bank of the river Colostre, and not far from the four columns, stands a small temple, the interior of which is ornamented with eight granite columns of the Corinthian order, arranged on an octagonal plan, and united by semicircular arches. The temple is covered by a dome. The bases and capitals of the columns are of white marble, ornamented with acanthus-leaves; there are masks of deities and fauns in the middle of the volutes; these have given rise to the name which the building bears to this day. The structure which surrounds the columns is built of stone, and has been restored of late years, so that we can learn nothing from it. The form of the temple, as well as the character of the orders, was so arbitrary amongst the Romans, that probably this little building was a souvenir of the Pantheon of Rome, .and had in the centre an altar dedicated to the twelve gods, like that preserved in the Museum of the Louvre. It is certain that, in the sculpture of the capitals, there are no traces of Christian emblems. We can determine approximately the period when this edifice was converted into a bap¬ tistry. St. Houoratus established himself in the isle of Lerins at the end of the 4-tli century, and from that place sent his disciples to preach the word of Christ. St. Maximus came at a later period, and the establishments which he founded have protected the remains of ancient Riez. A convent was founded in the vicinity of the Pantheon, and the land upon which it was built is still called “ the Field of the Chapter.” We may attribute the baptistry to the time of the latter saint. Baptistries were from the earliest period circular or octagonal in plan: hence this little temple was well adapted to its new destination. The diameter of the building between the TEMPLES IN GAUL N.\KUONNAISE. yy columns is 1(5 ft. (5 in., the height of the columns 16 ft. 9 in. ; the proportion being very much that indicated by various authors for buildings of tin's description. (See Plate X.) Vitruvius, for instance, recommends, that in a circular temple the internal diameter should be equal to the height of the internal columns. There is no external ornament to the building. A souvenir of Greek art may be noticed in the sculpture of the capitals. This is an evidence of the influence of the metropolitan city Marseilles, Which possessed many small towns that were lost to it, when it helped the Romans against the aborigines. We also find traces of Greek art in another edifice in this district, which we shall describe next in order. It is to be remarked, that in many ancient towns in this region, there arc to be seen ancient baptistries built on a circular plan; these we do not hesitate to affirm are copies of this little Pantheon. We may mention the baptistry of Frdjus, a town not far from Ricz, built A.D. 810, by Bishop Riculfe, and that of the church of St. Maurice at Aix, built in 1101 : they are both circular, and both have granite columns, but they have not the same marks of antiquity as that of Riez. (See Plate XI.) THE TEMPLE OF ERNAGINUM (VERNEGUE). The community of Marseilles, in the time of its power, possessed a certain number of towns, almost all colonized by Greeks, which were situated along the coast from Nice as far as the mouth of the Rhone. Many of these colonies, such as Agatha and Antipolis, were celebrated as ports. Amongst them there was a little town, which is mentioned only in the intineraries, but which still possesses a pure Greek edifice, a certain indication of the race that inhabited it. The small town of Vernegue, situated in a mountainous group which separates the course of the Durance from that of the Rhone, may with certainty be identified as much by the sound of its name as by its position, with the ancient Ernaginum; 1 ’Epvayiva., which became corrupted into Vernagina, and then into Vernegue. The root Em, which begins the word, comes from the same word in Indo - Germanic, which means solid, strong; whence also comes the name Ernest. According to Orelli, the word Em is also found in the Sabine language. The position of Vernegue confirms this derivation: the village is situ¬ ated on the summit of a rocky hill, and might form a fortress easy to be defended. In the valley which extends at the foot of the village arc the ruins of a temple. The general position accords to such an extent with that of a Greek town, that a traveller suddenly transported to this place, surrounded by olive-trees, might imagine himself to he in some district of Ionia. Here Christianity was established, and hence diffused light through the whole of Provence. There is a temple full of the sentiment of pure Greek art, hut little known even in France. Unfortunately, its history rests in obscurity. The dictionary of Lamartiniere, under the word Vernegue, contains the following information: — “There was formerly in this place a fine mausoleum, 2 with some other monuments and inscriptions of Roman times; it is believed by some to be the Ernaginum of the ancients.” Upon leaving the principal road from Avignon to Aix, at the village of Port Royal, the mountains that enclose the river Durance are soon reached; a distance of three miles is then traversed without coming to any habitation. The country here is exactly like that of Attica: the soil is composed of limestone rocks ctf a grey tint, enlivened here and there by groves of olive-trees. The presence of vineyards announces the proximity of the village of Vernegue, ’ The town of Ernaginum is marked in the Peutitiger table on the route from Nimes to Marseilles, to the south of Avignon and north of Arles : — Nemuso Giano. iv. p.).\ii Ugerno. (.it. p.) xv Fossis Marianis Arelato. „ viu Calcoria. „ xxxm - This monument was known to the antiquary Peyrese. A drawing of it was found amongst his papers ; it was desig¬ nated there The Sepulchre. The drawing was made when the monument was in a better state of preservation than at present. — See Insm'jilions antiques, vol. i. MS. No. 1 of the Latin Supplement, B. i. loo TWO AX TENURES CONVERTED INTO rHURf'H'ES. which is situated on a scarped rock to the left of the road. The castle, situated in the neighbouring valley, and which is called La Maison basse de Yernbgue, was probably an ancient monastery. The temple stands in the neighbourhood. It is situated in the centre of a semicircle of rock, cut by the hand of man. The podium still exists entire, and also a great part of the wall of the cella, which ends in a pilaster, in front of which stands a Corinthian column. The cella is surmounted by a portion of the architrave. Excavations made by M. Texier in the month of January, 1828, uncovered the whole of the podium, and as the ground upon which the temple stands is sloping, the front part of the cella was entirely free. He found the base of the acroterium , and a cistern which w r as iii the midst of the area. The channel which conveyed the water existed, but was blocked up with rubbish. Within the boundary of the semicircle of rocks he found many stone sarcophagi, evidently of Christian times. When the Homans had subdued the Salii, who occupied this territory, all the small Greek towns were comprehended in the territory of the second Narbonnaise. Ernaginum remained inhabited until the decline of the Empire, and the remains which are found in the modern village arc of much later date than the foundation of the temple. It is not known, with any certainty, to what divinity the temple was dedicated; but an inscription, bearin'* the words IOVI TONANTI only, would lead us to believe that it was dedicated to Jupiter. The wall of the cella stands upon a podium (see Plates XI. and XII.), which terminates in two low walls, between which is the staircase. The total breadth oi the podium is 26 ft. 4 in. There were four columns in front. The column that is still standing is two diameters distant from the pilaster. The edifice was a tetrastyle, prostyle, systylo temple. 1 The depth of the cella is equal to three times that of the pronaos; its breadth is a seventh part shorter than its length. Towards the middle of the cella, there are two holes cut in the cornice of the podium, which appear to have held a barrier, and a pier of masonry which supported a statue destroyed by the Christians. The podium is built of three equal courses; the base moulding is a large reversed cyma. This kind of moulding, which is found in edifices of an early period, is a guide to the date of the temple. The cornice of the podium is composed of a cavetto above a scotia. The course forming the base of the cella wall projects a little beyond the face of the podium: this peculiarity is to be observed in many of the buildings of Greece; amongst others, in the temple of Jupiter Olympius at Athens. The wall of the cella is composed of fifteen courses of limestone, of heights varying from 1 ft. to 1 ft. 6 in., relieved by narrow sinkings at the joints, worked with the greatest nicety and put together without mortar. It is surmounted by a piece of architrave, ornamented bv mouldings on both sides. There were four pilasters at the angles, with Corinthian capitals: one only is in situ; but the bases of the others were found built into the wall of the enclosure of the temple. These pilasters were smooth, although the columns were fluted : the bases have the same mouldings as those of the columns. The columu which still remains is in a perfect state of preservation; it affords, more than any other part of the building, evidence of the race who erected this edifice: there is no building in Attica itself upon which the chisel has left a more manifest trace of its origin. The proportions of the entire column, which are excellent, and the foliage of the capital, which seems to have been inspired by that of the monument of Lysicrates, prove that this little building, concealed amongst the mountains of Provence, was the work of a Greek artist of the colony of Massilia. We know that at a certain period Marseilles became celebrated amongst Greek towns, as much for the culture of art as of literature. The capital is ornamented with acanthus-leaves; the astragal is formed of an enriched bead moulding. There is nothing lloman in the whole of this work: the capital is but small; its height is rather more than the diameter of the column, and the volutes are replaced by caulicoli in very good taste, which rest upon the principal leaves. The shaft is composed of five blocks of stone; it has twenty flutes, which die out in the apophyge. 1 A itruvius, Rook in. eh. Systyle,— that is to say, having the columus arranged in such a manner that the intercolum- niation is only two diameters of the column. —- TEMPLES IN GAUL NARB0NNA1SE. The base is very peculiar. Amongst all the Corinthian temples with which we are acquainted, we only know one that at all resembles it; that is the base of the temple of Vesta at tivoli. These bases are both composed of two large tori placed one upon the other, and separated only by a small fillet; in both cases the larger torus does not rest upon the stylobate, but is separated from it by a plinth. The capital resembles that at Tivoli, in the absence of the two volutes. Lastly, the mouldings of the podium appear to have been copied the one from the other. There are no remains of the entablature; but it may be safely concluded that the cornices were without modillions, like that of the temple of Vesta at Tivoli. Ancient Tibur was a colony of Argos. “ Fratl in Tilnirti (lictam eognomine gentcin, Oatillusque, acerque (Joras, Argiva jnventus,” 1 And Martial:— “ Tibur in Herculeum migravit nigra Lycoris.” 2 Ovid 3 mentions also that the Argian origin of Tibur was anterior to that of Lome itself/ It is not impossible that Etruscan colonists established, themselves near Massilia. Ionia was the cradle of both the Etruscans and Massilians. Such are the characteristics of this edifice, which has never before, that we are aware of, been illustrated. At some unknown epoch, but which is comprised between the 5th and 6th centuries, at the time when Theodosius closed the last temples, this edifice was converted into a church. The Abbe Barges, author of valuable works on Christian antiquities, proves that the Cassianites were established at Marseilles in the first part of the 5th century, a time when that city, illustrious through the sanctity of its bishop and clergy, was yet in its era of splendour; and. when the traditions of Greek art, under the nurture of Christianity, produced fine works of sculpture. 5 In order to adapt this edifice to their worship, the Christians opened a window in the side of the cella: from this work we sec that the sentiment of art was not entirely obliterated. The window had a semicircular archivolt resting upon two small fluted pilasters, the capitals of which are copied from those of the large pilasters. This alteration proves that there is no doubt but that the cella of the temple was quite dark, and to a certain extent solves the question regarding the mode in which temples were lighted, to which we have alluded in the description of that of Ancyra. 8 On the right side of the temple has been added a chapel, consisting of a square room, terminated by a semicircular apse, covered with stone tiles, which give the exterior the form of a tliolus. On the left face w r as a large quadrilateral apartment, serving no doubt as a sacristy, and an apartment for the guardian of the church: the sacred vessels were placed here. The posticum does not appear to have been altered in order to make an apse. The fagade of the temple is exactly in the same state that it was in pagan times. It was doubtless during the Christian period that the circular enclosure was converted into a cemetery the place of sleep), for pagan burial-grounds were far removed from sacred places. This building then is another remarkable work of art that Christianity has preserved from destruction. 1 Virgil, jEnei'l, book vu. C71. habent.—Pliny, Nat. Iliet., book xvi. ch. 44. 3 Book iv. epig. Lxn. 1. 5 The Abbe Barges, professor at the Sorbonne, Notice sur im 3 Amor., book nr. cleg. vi. 43. Autel chrelicn antique, etc. Paris, 1861. 4to. 4 Tiburtes quoque originem multo ante urbem Romam 6 See pp. 90-91. 2 i) 101 PA*}AN TEMPLES CONVERTED INTO CHURCHES. and colonics manifest itself so strongly as at this period. Seven towns ot Asia contended before the Senate for the honour of constructing a temple to Tiberius, and at the same epoch the Gaulish communities united to raise an altar to Augustus at the confluence of the Rhone and the Saonc. The temple of Vienne, as it exists in the present day, has lost a great deal of its former beauty — surrounded by a mass of modern houses, it can only be seen from a near point of view, so that its fine proportion, in which its beauty chiefly consists (for the details are coarsely executed), is entirely lost upon the spectator. It consists of a fagade of six fluted columns of the Corinthian order. The entablature and the pediment which surmount it are preserved entire. The frieze is without ornament, but it is pierced, as we have mentioned, by a line of holes which formerly served to hold an inscription in bronze letters. And in the midst is another set of holes, which have certainly been used for the purpose of securing a bronze eagle. The side of the peristyle has eight isolated columns; the cella was comprised in the width of a single intercolumniatiou; thus the plan of this edifice differed Rom that of other known temples. The statue of the emperor placed at the end of the cella was always visible to the assembled people. The temple was liexastyle and monoptcral; it stands upon a continuous stylobate, which terminated in front in two piers, between which are the steps leading up to the portico. Excavations made in the front brought to light vaults which supported the steps. The lower moulding of the stylobate is composed of a reversed cyma, as at the temple of Vernegue. The cella has two fluted pilasters of the Corinthian order; the foliage of their capital differs in style from that of the capitals of the columns. The wall of the posticum is rusticated. The masonry generally is rudely executed, the beds not being equal, and the rustications not following the lines of the joints. The column is 3 ft. 3 in. in diameter at its base; its height is nine diameters and a half; the capital is one diameter in height; the shaft has twenty-four flutes; the base, which is half a diameter high, is Attic. The length of the cella is (58 ft. G in., its width GO ft. G iu. The entablature is of almost rustic simplicity; neither the soffits nor the mouldings are ornamented with foliage, or with rosettes; it appears as though the building had never been finished. Still we have noticed that edifices of the time of Augustus, erected in Gaul, have but little ornament. The pediment, the height of which is about G ft. G in., is well preserved at both ends of the building. Time has scarcely at all injured this edifice; the slight damage it has received lias been produced by the hand of man. When the edicts of Theodosius, rigorously enforced even to the confines of the Empire, put an end to pagan ceremonies, the statue of Augustus was carried aw r ay and destroyed. The temple, on account of the peculiarity of its construction, that is to say, on account of its being all portico, was not immediately consecrated to Christian worship; but in the 9th century Bishop Burcard caused the intercolumniat.ions to be walled up, and converted it into a church dedicated to Notre-Dame-de-Vie. In order to conform to the ecclesiastical prescriptions, the doorway of the new church was pierced in the posticum, in order that the altar might be placed in the east; the flutes that were visible on the inside of the wall were broken off, and the columns worked into pilasters. At the end of the 11th century, when bells were in general use, a clock-turret was raised on the facade, and in later times pointed windows were cut in the side-walls. In the 16th century the church again underwent an alteration; the entrance was placed on the side facing cast, where it is at present. Thus this old Roman temple, though it has experienced many vicissitudes, has existed for ten centuries, owing to the protection afforded it by the presence of the cross, which has preserved it from the attack of fanaticism and of barbarism. In this short chapter we have only given such existing buildings as we have ourselves seen and sketched; there are many others still existing in Greece and Italy, well worth the attention of archeologists. We here wish to say a few words in contradiction to the widely-spread opinion that Christianity was inimical to the arts of pagan times. It, on the contrary, adopted them; and it is owing to the fact that Christianity protected them that so many temples have come dowui to us. »»« 0 TUBria mmm\ crpss \UtUM' ie*aia !** h Kpf'fiiilv M r umg ■ - . - [■' '■'! !•' wts 1 It is calumnious to the Christian religion to assume that it was the enemy of the fine arts. The civil life of the Homans was accepted in every respect by the first Christians. There is not in the writings of the Apostles a single word against the literature, the arts, or the poetry of the pagans, and the Fathers of the Church condemned those works only which tended to corrupt public and private morality. The chefs-d’cevre of antiquity were as much admired by Christians as by pagans, and the statues of the gods, deprived, it is true, of their religious character, were sought for by emperors and patricians for the purpose of adorning their palaces. The materials of which the temples were constructed were certainly used for building churches, but that was because the churches were erected in haste. If many temples were demolished, it was on account of some popular emotion, which soon subsided. The amphitheatres in which Christians had been thrown to wild beasts were allowed to exist after the combats had been abolished. The theatres in which pagans ridiculed the Christian religion still continued to serve as places of popular assembly . 1 It is a mistake to apply the term Christian architecture to any particular style exclusively. Every Christian nation had its own mode of expressing its faith, and the nature of its ritual in the plans and decorations of its ecclesiastical edifices. The Byzantines retained to the last some of the traditions of the classical school of art, yet they produced a style of architecture different from all others, and one that was distinctively and emphatically Christian. 1 In the theatre of Ephesus there was a performance in pronounced the words: “ I baptize thee in the name of the which the mysteries of Christianity were travestied, in order Father, of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost.” At these words to excite the ridicule of the populace. An actor, named Per- Porphyrus felt himself suddenly enlightened, and declared phyrus, played the part of a neophyte; a bishop made his himself a Christian. This declaration procured him the crown appearance to administer baptism, with pantomimic gestures; of martyrdom. Such is the legend of St. Porphyrus. — See a vessel was brought, into which the neophyte descended ; the Menologivm Gracorum jussu Basilii Im/peratoris grace ulim false bishop approached, and, according to the Christian rule, editum. Pars i. p. 165. Folio. mosaic pavements. HE taste lor pavements in mosaic which prevailed amongst the Homans in the century before the Christian era, became a passion in succeeding centuries, as the numerous pavements dug up amongst the ruins of ancient towns in Europe, Asia, and Africa, clearly show. But in the times of pagan Borne, mosaic pictures and Avail-decorations were but little employed. The Byzantines adopted and propagated this mode of decoration, which became, so to speak, exclusively a Christian art. The first churches were decorated with it in profusion; and so many magnificent fragments of pictures in mosaic have been preserved to our days, that in order to give an adequate idea of their number and variety, it would be necessary to devote a book specially to them. In the present chapter, Ave have to speak of some mosaic pavements that date only from the period of the transition,—that is to say, that are works of the 2nd or 3rd century. Many mosaics, exclusively of a Christian character, which appear to have been decorations of churches, have been discovered in the ancient towns of the three continents. In Africa, Carthage has afforded several beautiful examples: a church near Orleansvillc, in Cmsarian Mauritania, Avas ornamented by a mosaic executed by Bishop Januarius. Ancient Gaul was rich in monuments of this kind. We give two examples of mosaics discovered at Nimes : the first, executed with cubes of marble, black and Avhite, represents the enclosure of a fortified toAvn, and the drawing much resembles fortifications dating from the 2nd to the 5th century, which still exist. The field of the mosaic represents the enclosure of a town, and the border is composed of a row of embattled towers, which represent the rampart of the mcenimn; the smaller towers belong to the agger. This mosaic is carefully executed, and is in a perfect state of preservation. (See Plate XV.) Usually, ancient mosaics were formed with natural stones; the introduction of coloured enamels on glass dates only from Byzantine times. These materials were employed in preference to pictures upon walls and vaults. The second example, also discovered at Nimes, represents a subject that requires a longer explanation. The ornaments on it differ from those on all other works of this kind. The design consists of a large square, in the midst of which is a rose, and round Avhich is represented a portico, with circular arches, with a symbol in each,— sometimes a vase, some¬ times a bird or a fish. (See Plate XV.) In the centre of each side is a larger arcade projecting beyond the margin: this must have formed the pavement of a niche. The picture in the centre represents two horned and Avinged monsters apparently disputing for the possession of a dove, which bears a cross on its breast. These symbols belong to a sect of heretical Christians of the period of trans¬ ition from paganism to Christianity, when the minds of people were imbued with belief in supernatural beings. MOSAIC PAVEMENTS. mosaic pavements, 107 Jlic most celebrated of (he sects of those times was that of the Gnostics. The faith of these sectarians in amulets was extreme. It is astonishing how many engraved stones bearing nioshc emblems are dug up in various places. This superstition of Eastern nations extended even to Gaul. An author who has written on ancient coins as illustrating the progress of Christianity, gives an interesting notice of the different early seels, and gives several represen¬ tations of engraved stones with Gnostic symbols. It is chiefly from the information collected by tins antiquary that we are induced to consider this mosaic a relic of the Gnostics Probably the pavement of one of their places of assembly. At tin time that Christianity was revealed to tile world, pagan society was more than ever delivered over to the superstition of Magism, which had been introduced into the Roman erntory by Oriental sects. The followers of this school, instead of being disquieted at the spread of the new religion, imagined they could turn the doctrines of revelation to their own pvoht It was against them chiefly that St. Paul strove during his sojourn at Ephesus; they had dared to adopt the ceremony of Christian baptism, and to introduce it amongst their other rites; tins was a time of danger for the new faith, which the Apostles and their disciples perceived and tried to remedy. 2 We know that in apostolic times many soi-dumnt Christians openly practised marie; the most celebrated of these was Simon the magician. The preaching of a spiritualist named cion also troubled the faithful; she propagated a belief in a sort of transmigration of souls, and stated that she herself had come to earth a second time. Dillerent sects arose, which took the names of their founders: the Nieliolaites for instance, infected the church of Pergamus: Nicholas, their chief, thought that pleasure was tile end and aim of existence, and his doctrine tended to the subversion of matrimony; lie also went, so far as to eat the moats offered to idols, and finally, lie admitted numerous subaltern divinities, to which lie gave strange names. Basilidus, a native of Alexandria, surpassed his predecessors in the extravagance of his doctrines, which were kept secret liy his disciples, who professed the utmost contempt for all other Christians. Saturnellus, who lived in the time of Hadrian, introduced amongst ids disciples tile doctrine of tiie two great principles which lie derived from the Magi, and which form the ground for the belief of the Manicliceans. lie taught that the world was created by the Father, with the help of seven angels, and that the angels formed two races of men, the one good and tile other wicked. There was also tile sect of the Carpocratians, who preached openly the transmigration of sonls, and taught that happiness was achieved by obedience to all the passions; that oppo¬ sition to their influence was punished liy transmigration of the soul into another body, but that those who obeyed were made angels. During the second half of the second century arose the Valentiniaiis, whose doctrine was based upon the Gospel of St. John, intermingled with Pythagorean tenets oil the met- empsychosis. They propagated the belief that mail was composed of three distinct parts, —spiritual, animal, and carnal: they taught their disciples to trample under foot all the principles of moral law, to neglect the ties of family and of marriage, and to eat the offerings to idols. The Valentinians enjoined the utmost secrecy upon their disciples. Their assemblies were held in closed apartments, and in profound silence. The Fathers of the Church have strongly anathematized their principles; but as our information with regard to-Gnostic doctrines is gained only from the writings of the orthodox, it is possible the picture may be too highly coloured. The mosaics which we give appear to us to have belonged to a hall of assembly of these last-mentioned heretics of the 2nd century. We see in the central niche, which was without doubt the place of the Chief of the mysteries, a picture representing a dove, with a white cross on its wing, representing the human being, between two horned and winged creatures, — the spirits of good and evil, ' An Essay on Ancient Coins , 1830. Svo. illustrating the jrrogress of Christianity in the early ages. By the Rev. R. Walsh. London, 2 1 Tim. vi. 20. MOSAIC I'A VK.MKNTS which appear to be fighting for the possession of it. The other compartments have various emblems, such as birds, the trident of Neptune, vases, dolphins, which may represent the various stations of the neophyte at various epochs of his life. We see pagan emblems side by side with those that belong to Christianity. The mosaic is unfortunately incomplete, but such as it is we cannot but regard it as a work belonging to the time of transition, when Christianity had not altogether freed itself from pagan superstition. — - Ill Til ESS A LONICA, T is sometimes said that the existence of a town depends more upon its commercial prosperity than its political power. This is true in the case ot Thessalonica, which ranks amongst the first cities of the East, in spite of the numerous vicissitudes it has undergone during a period of fifteen centuries. Under the Romans it was reduced from the rank of the capital ot Macedonia to that of a simple provincial town subject to Roman praetors. In Byzantine times it was again made the capital and raised to a very pros¬ perous condition; but towards the end of the Eastern empire it became subject to the attacks of the Saracens and of the Normans, and finally fell into the power of the followers of Mahomet, who deprived it of its character of a Christian town, turned its churches into mosques, and reduced its Greek population to the condition ol rayahs. Notwithstanding these events, it still retains numerous traces of its once flourishing condition. Owing to its fortunate position as the centre of the commerce of Macedonia, Thessalonica has always been one of the most prosperous towns of the Ottoman empire. “ It is one of the most venerable towns in the East,” says a modem writer. 1 Notwithstanding the havoc caused by war and fire, it contains so many works of art that there is no city in the East, with the exception of Athens, that can be compared with it. Our opinion in this respect is that of all travellers who since the time of Paul Lucas have visited it; amongst whom Pococke, Clarke, Leake, and Cousincry devoted much time to the study of those interesting edifices which give it a claim to the title of the Christian Athens. In other towns that fell into the hands of the Sultans, Christian churches that were turned into mosques underwent great alteration. Here the destructive zeal of the Mussulman seems to have abated; and though everywhere else he effaced the figures of saints, at Thessalonica he respected and preserved them. The town may pride itself upon having twice resisted the attacks of iconoclasts. Some time ago, the Abbe Belley collected materials for a history of Thessalonica. Tafel making use of those as a basis, has published a useful volume, in which is to be found all that has been written about the history of Thessalonica and its monuments. 8 But as the extracts in this book are in six various languages, its contents are accessible to but few. Tafel had never been at Thessalonica, or he would without doubt have corrected the mistakes of Ins predecessors, who, struck with the solid manner in which the principal churches are erected, have not hesitated to attribute their construction to the Homans, and have considered them to be ancient pagan temples. Although much has been written about these edifices during the last hundred years, we may safely assert that the buildings of Thessalonica arc almost unknown to the archaeological world. We hope to he able to correct some of the errors of our predecessors, who did not carry to their examination of these churches a knowledge of architectural style and construction, or they would not have attributed to the Romans the execution of those edifices which were manifestly reared by Christian bands. Felix (le Beaujour, Voyage militaire dans 1!Empire ottoman, 1*29, vol. i. |>. 2<>0. lie Thessa’onicii ejusqne agro Dissertatio ycoyraphica. Script. Tli. Luc. fali-l. 1 TH KSSAI.uNK'A We give an outline only of the history of Thessalonica, leaving to others the task of filling it up. A description of the triumphal arch supposed to have been erected by Constantine ought perhaps to be included in a work of this description. But the churches have formed the chief object of our studies. The drawings and descriptions which we place before our readers are the results of two journeys made at different periods by two persons accustomed to the observation and practice of architecture, and therefore we think they may be considered as affording sufficient authority for the correction of those errors to which we have alluded. A few fragments of inscriptions have been our guides in the obscurity that surrounds the history of the buildings of Thessalonica, but Ave have been generally guided, in attributing dates, by the style of construction and ornamentation, and the character of the plans, Avhich in most cases leave no doubt about the period to which the buildings belong. THE OK I GIN OE THESSALONICA. It may be broadly affirmed that the Greeks never chose a site for a city unless there Avas near it a hill or rocky eminence, upon which Avas erected an acropolis for the defence of the town and for the shelter of the inhabitants during war. At Thessalonica the town Avas from the first protected by a castle situated upon a hill, at the foot of which some Thracian fishermen built a village, which they called Ilalia , 1 because it Avas situated on the sea-shore. According to Scylax and other historians, 2 Ilalia Avas not of Greek origin. The population of this part of the country Avas composed of colonists from all nations; of the Bebryci from the borders of the Strymon, the Brygi, and many other tribes. Hot springs, which abound to such a degree in the East, issued from the ground near the territory of Halia. On account of this circumstance, when the Greeks arrived there, they changed its name to that of Therma. These springs have been noticed by many travellers. Pococke places them four miles from the modern toAvn, on the road to Pallene. “ There are baths the water of which is only tepid, and which appear to contain sulphur and salt.” It was these baths without doubt Avhich gave to ancient Thessalonica the name of Therma, and to the neighbouring gulf the name of the Thermaic Gulf. This name marks the second period of Thessalonica. 3 Tzetzes, in his Cliiliades, recounts the origin of Thessalonica in the folloAving terms; he had doubtless under his eyes some documents hoav lost (Stephen of Byzantium cites the historian Lucillus, Avho had written a book upon Thessalonica). “ This celebrated town Avas at first a village, called Therma, and to the present day the Sea of Thessalonica is called the Thermaic Gulf. This toAvn Avas built by Cassander, the son-in-law of Philip, avIio called it Thessalonica, from his Avife Thessalonica, daughter of the deceased Philip; he built Cassandria, to which be gave his own name. Others say that Philip built Thessalonica, and gave it the name of his beloved daughter Thessalonica, as Ave have said. Others say that it is in memory of a victory that he obtained over the Thessalians.” Stephen of Byzantium adopted the latter tradition. The name Therma appears in history for the first time in the recital of the expedition of Xerxes against Greece by Herodotus. The Persian monarch made this town his centre of operations, and gave his sea forces orders to pass Mount Athos and assemble in the Thermaic gulf, to anchor before the toAvn of Therma. Xerxes remained there some time and took possession of the flat territory which surrounds the toAvn, and Avhich is Avatered by the rivers Axius and Gallicus. Beyond the town Avas a marshy plain, which still exists. According to a tradition related by Herodotus, 1 Thessaly was formerly a large lake closed in on all sides by mountains. The town of Therma in the time of Xerxes extended on the plain at the foot of the castle, occupying about the same extent of ground as the modern toAvn; but the lower part had not been fortified. During the expedition of Xerxes intrcnchments Avere raised. 1 Stephen of Byzantium, ' Thessalonica. ■' See Pococke * Travel*. ORIGIN OF TH ESS A LON I f'A. 11:? Thessaly had been under the Persian rule before the arrival of Xerxes; it was subdued by Megabyzus in the year 514 B.C., and afterwards by Mardonius in the year 492 13.C. Writers give no account of the state of Macedonia at these periods. After the expedition of Xerxes, Therma fell again into the possession of the kings of Macedonia. Cassander, son of Antigonus, made it a more important place by removing to it the inhabitants of neighbouring towns, especially those of Chalestra, which was situated between Therma and the mouth of the river Axius, and of iEnea, a small town upon the east bank of the river, said to have been founded by ./Eneas after bis night from Troy. This happened in the year 315 B.C. No town founded by the Macedonian princes was more favourably situated for commercial purposes; yet until the time of Constantine it had no artificial harbour. A sure anchorage iu the bay sufficed for the security of the Greek and Roman fleets, as it does now for trading vessels and ships of war, for the port constructed by Constantine has long been destroyed. Constantine, when in search of a favourable site for a new capital, chose Thessalonica, A.D. 320, and according to Cedrenus he spent two years there, and built churches, baths, aqueducts, and a harbour; but an epidemic having broken out, lie abandoned his project and directed his course towards Clialcedon. 1 Zosimus 2 gives full particulars relating to the construction of the harbour:—“ Constantine collected at Thessalonica the Goths who had become his prisoners, and employed them in the construction of a port, which did not exist before. He immediately made preparations to carry on war against Licinius; he caused two hundred vessels of thirty oars to be constructed, and more than two thousand store boats; his infantry consisted of a hundred and twenty thousand men, his sea forces and bis cavalry of ten thousand.” During the whole period of the Macedonian monarchy, Thessalonica enjoyed the privileges of a metropolis. When Perseus, the last of these kings, was vanquished by Paulus Emilius, 1G8 B.C., Macedonia was divided into four parts. Perseus, when conquered by the Romans at Pydna, was made prisoner, and taken to Rome, and from thence to Alba, where he died in captivity. Macedonia was, however, treated with moderation : some towns were allowed to retain their laws, on the condition of electing annual magistrates; the taxes formerly paid to the kings were diminished, and the entire province was divided into four parts, each having a capital. Thessalonica was that of the second division. This partition of their country dissatisfied the Macedonians, who considered that it tended to weaken them as a nation. At this time arose the pretender Andriscus, who affirmed that he was of royal descent, and fomented a rebellion against the authority of Rome; the Macedonians rose in a body for the defence of their rights, but they were subdued by Metellus, and their country was reduced to the state of a Roman province, and placed under the government of prmtors. In the time of Tiberius, Thessalonica was better peopled than any other Macedonian city, and its prosperity continued until the end of the Empire. 3 During the whole of this period the government was administered by magisti*ates whose titles were the same in all towns of the East subject to the Romans: there was the senate, which was apparently, to a certain extent, independent; the proconsul, who was sent from Rome; the queestor, who received taxes; the municipal magistrates, citizens who were elected annually : they presided at all festivals and religious ceremonies, especially at the public games, which were in great favour amongst the Thessalonians. The politarclis, whose titles are found upon some of the public buildings, had functions similar to those performed by the eediles at Rome; such as the surveillance of public edifices and the direction of the police. It was for this reason that the crowd, when they rose against SS. Paul and Silas, dragged Christians accused of disturbing the public peace before the politarclis. The judges, whose office was honorary, presided at the public games, and saw the prizes, consisting of statues and crowns of gold, or of roses, 4 distributed to the victors. Every great event was celebrated by commemorative games — there were the Olympic, the Actiac, the Pythic games, and the Cabiric games in honour of the two Cabiri. On these occasions the entire population assembled in the theatre and hippodrome. After the gods of Rome had been abolished, the passion for the games of the circus was as intense as formerly ; and the Christian emperors fostered it by their presence on great occasions. 1 Oodinus, de Forind el Ambitn C. I 1 ., pp. 24-25. • History, it. 22. 3 Strabo, book vn. 74. 1 IVf'i/auw fwcivor, says a fragment 2 G TIIKSSA l-( 'XI' A It is lo be remarked of Thessalonica, as of most Greek towns after their submission to the Romans, that there is no mention of an amphitheatre, nor of the combats of gladiators. All the gods of Rome and Greece were worshipped in the capital of Macedonia, but it is only from coins that we ascertain which of them were chiefly adored; for there are no remains of pagan temples, and, contrary to what was the case in most other cities, no ancient temple was consecrated to Christian worship. The divinities represented on coins of Thessalonica arc Hercules, Jupiter, Apollo, and Diana; but the two Cabiri appear to have been the most honoured of all. Philip, the father of Alexander, was initiated into the mysteries of these latter divinities, which had been introduced into the isle of Samotbrace from Phoenicia. Cousinery 1 has published several coins representing the god Cabirus; be was led to the conclusion that a temple of this divinity ought to be found at Thessalonica, and erroneously supposed that he had discovered it in the church of St. George or the Rotonda. The same mistake has been made by almost all who have observed this ancient edifice. We shall show presently that it was constructed by Christians from the foundation. e can affirm the same of the mosque of Eski Djouma, which another writer believed to be the temple of the Thermean Venus. TOMBS. I here are no vestiges of tombs in the form of metusolea , which arc so common in the neighbourhood ot other Greek and Roman towns, amongst the ruins that exist in the neighbourhood of Thessalonica. The nature of the soil did not admit of grottos or subterranean chambers cut in the rock. The only tombs that exist arc the marble sarcophagi, ornamented with sculptures and inscriptions, that are to he found scattered about in the courtyards of houses and near the public fountains. The subjects represented on them are all relating to the heroic age of Greece, although most of these tombs are of the Roman period. Prom this we see that the Greek school of art lingered here longer than at most other places. Upon most of these sarcophagi the family of the deceased took care to have inscribed the pains and penalties to which the violaters of tombs rendered themselves liable. We know that these monuments, which belonged to the heirs of the defunct, were placed under the protection of the chreophylax. We give an example of the terms in which these inscriptions generally run :_ AYPgf MAPKEAAEINATnKPATICTnAIAin NEIKOCTPATQr AYKYTATHANAPI EKTnNKOIN.QNKOnnNMNIACXAPIN ElAETICTOAMHEIANOI ? EAnCITOIC EMOICKAHPONOMOIC )^AnAAC The character and orthography of the inscription show that it belongs to the 2nd century! It should be restored thus: — X’jpr^ia. MapxsWsTvu rai «oar v rou Kvpllu xa\ ojpTvoS (the Mother of our Lord and of Heaven). It is not easy to perceive what relation there is between the monogram and the griffin. 1 THE CHRISTIAN PERIOD The history of Thessalonica, in the course of which there are great gaps, has one epoch of great brilliancy; this was that in which St. Paul and his companion St. Silas, having traversed Asia, came to deliver their divine mission to the Roman world in Europe. The inhabitants lived in peace, given up to an easy life, and there was nothing to arrest the general corruption of the public morals. In the midst of a splendid town, with a prosperous commerce, the rich amongst them encouraged licentious literature and the public games. The romances of Lucian and Apuleius show to what low degree the public taste had fallen at the time. These were the people that St. Paul came to convert, and his Epistles show the difficulty of the task he had undertaken. He, however, founded a church, which became celebrated for fidelity and good example, composed of Jews, many Gentiles, and many women of rank. 5 The sojourn of St. Paul at Thessalonica appears to have been between the years 49 and 56. An insurrection having been raised against SS. Paul and Silas, some of the converts were dragged before the politarchs. These events caused St. Paul to retire to Bei •cea, a town not far off; whence he embarked for Athens. He was accompanied in his travels by his faithful friend Aristarchus, the Macedonian, a native of Thessalonica. St. Paul, writing to the inhabitants of Colossm, sends them tin; salutations of Aristarchus, his companion in captivity. 1 Before leaving Thessalonica, the Apostle conferred on Aristarchus the episcopal dignity. He was the first bishop of Thessalonica, and he suffered martyrdom under Nero. History says little about the early progress of Christianity here. Between the time of St. Paul and the Council of Nice, Thessalonica had several bishops, whose names are unknown. Alexander was the first whose name is authenticated by the fact of his presence at the Council of Nice. He had under his jurisdiction the first and second Macedonia, Greece, the two Scytliias, Illyria, Thessaly, and Achaia. This proves that between the 1st and 4th centuries Christianity had made immense progress in the provinces. Thessalonica did not forget the important rank amongst Christian cities that had been conferred upon her by the sojourn of St. Paul within her walls, but gave herself the title of the Glory of Orthodoxy. When the fanaticism of the iconoclast emperors covered the East with ruins, Thessalonica resisted with firmness, and defended with energy the images in her churches. It is to this defence that we owe the preservation of those edifices, so valuable for the history of Christianity. 1 See Woodcut at the head of the Introduction. ;i Wunn, Ztiteehrifl fur T/ieologir, 1833. 2 Acte, xvn. 4. -i Acte, xx. I. HO THKSSA LONTCA. The worship of images Avas openly re-established in the year 842 by the patriarch Methodius, conformably to the statutes of the second Council of Nice. The bishops remained faithful to the principle established by the Church, that the images of saints in churches were only commemorative of their lives and acts. This resistance brought down upon one of them all the rigours of imperial power. Joseph, bishop of Thessalonica, in the 9th century, died in chains for having obstinately defended the worship of images. 1 The bishops of Thessalonica were no less opposed to the Arian doctrines, and they took care to preserve all their churches for the use of the orthodox alone. In the 1st century of our era there were many Jews at Thessalonica, and they possessed a synagogue. 2 At Philippi also there were many Jews who had synagogues established Avithout the walls. Mistory does not mention Avliat was the condition of the Jewish commu¬ nities in these places after the first century. The Christians lived in the midst of the pagans unnoticed, and propagated their doctrines Avithout exciting the suspicion of the authorities. Thus three centuries passed in profound peace for the Church; but at the beginning of the 4tli, in the year 305, according to Cornelius Bymus, 15 the persecution ordered by the Emperor Galerius took place. Demetrius, a man of senatorian family, 4 had nevertheless served in the army as a common soldier; he had afterwards received the insignia of the consular dignity at the hands of the Emperor Maximianus. He became a convert to Christianity, and an ardent disseminator of the faith, and Avas therefore arrested by order of Galerius and cast into prison, Avhere he was killed by the thrust of a spear. His body having been obtained by his disciples, Avas interred in a secret place known only to themselves. The Abbe Bclley gives the date of this event as A.D. 303, in the reign of Maximianus Hercules. He further states that Demetrius Avas stabbed with a lance in the amphitheatre of Thessalonica. But according to Tafel, 5 the defeat of the Goths and Sarmatians is mentioned in the Acts of St. Demetrius. This took place in the time of the Emperor Galerius Maximianus, who reigned from the year 292 to 30G, and Avho was a great persecutor of Christians. Again, AA r e may conclude that there never was an amphitheatre at Thessalonica, as no traces of it are to be found, and, therefore, that St. Demetrius Avas put to death in prison. The relics of this martyr began to be honoured in the 4th century. Leontius, prefect of Illyria, having been cured of a dangerous disease through the invocation of St. Demetrius, erected in his memory the basilica, which became the Christian centre, not only of Thessalonica, but of all Macedonia. “ The martyrdom,” says Tafel, 6 “ is not only an authenticated historical fact, but it sIioavs in what condition Avere the Christians during this period of the Roman empire.” The festival of the martyr is not observed on the same day in the Greek and Latin churches; the former celebrates it on the 2Gth October, the latter on the 8th October. 7 The decree of Constantine against pagan sacrifices, promulgated A.D. 337, was very welcome to the Christians of Macedonia, who had suffered many annoyances from them. The silver ciborium, containing the relics of St. Demetrius, Avhicli had been'buried, Avas exhumed, and the saint publicly honoured. The date of the first church dedicated to him was of the early part of the same century. Erom the time of Justinian, this saint became very popular. In the year 527, Eusebius, bishop of Thessalonica, when asked by the Emperor Mauricius to give up some of the relics of St. Demetrius for Constantinople, refused, on the ground that his predecessors had refused the same favour to the Emperor Justinian. In the following centuries, the renoAvn of St. Demetrius increased; he Avas believed to make his appearance in the town in all times of peril; in time of war he appeared on the Avails to repulse the enemy, and in time of famine he led the ships loaded with grain into the port. Erom his body, AAdiicli was deposited in a chapel attached to the splendid church built in his honour, there issued streams of holy oil, which had the power of curing diseases; hence he received the title of Myrobletos , which he shares with St. Nicholas of Myra. Even the Turks believed in this miracle, for Avhen they destroyed the tomb, at the taking of the town, they took away the miraculous oil for their OAvn use. 1 Le Qiiien, Oriens C/rrislianus, p. +3, ap. Tafel, Tlwssih lonica, p. 54. - Acts, xvii. 1. 3 A A. SS., p. 65. 4 Act. Sand., 1. c., p. 90. 5 Tafel, l. c., xun. 6 Thessalonica Proletjomena, p. XLin. et setj. 7 Cornelius Byseus, AA. SS pp. 65-66. THE CHRISTIAN PERTOD. 117 The massacre of citizens in the circus of Thessalonica by the order of the Emperor Theodosius, is a fact too well known to require lengthened notice. During an insurrection, excited by the imprisonment of a chariot-driver of the circus, Buterichus, commander of the armies of Illyria, was killed. Theodosius dissimulated his resentment, and invited the inhabitants to the public games. As soon as they had assembled in the circus, the soldiers, bursting in, massacred seven thousand people, without distinction of age or sex. The repentance of Theodosius, and the punishment imposed upon him by St. Ambrose, bishop of Milan, are amongst the most well-known facts of Byzantine times. The circus in which this event took place stood in the square then called the Hippodrome; but all remains of it have disappeared. Towards the middle of the 7th century, Macedonia was the theatre of successive invasions of northern nations; the Avari and the Sclaves strove hard to take Thessalonica, but without success. The latter made six incursions successively, and finally settled amongst the mountains of Macedonia, embraced Christianity, and in later times became the faithful allies of the Greeks in their resistance to the attacks of the Mussulmans. Between the fourth and fifth Sclavic war, a great earthquake and a fire damaged the church of St. Demetrius to a great extent. The former of these catastrophes took place in the month that followed the death of Archbishop John II., who lived in the latter part of the 7th century. The earthquake lasted several days, and was so violent, that many of the inhabitants, having abandoned the town, took refuge in the country. But the miraculous protection of the saint manifested itself amidst all these terrors. lie was in fact seen riding through the town with many other saints, guarding the citizens during the time of the most violent shocks. The inhabitants having escaped the danger, re-entered their city; but a still greater danger threatened. The Sclaves, who were encamped not far from the town, seeing from the neighbouring hills all the public edifices fall down, thought that the entire population had been buried in the ruins, and therefore advanced for the purpose of occupying the place. But upon approaching they found, to their utter astonishment, that the walls which had been thrown down were miraculously restored to their original state, and they beheld large bodies of troops .assembled for the defence of the town ; though in reality there were comparatively few inhabitants remaining in it. 1 2 These miracles of St. Demetrius were commemorated annually in his church. 3 The writers of these times say but little about the origin of these wars. The Sclaves were part ol the hordes of Attila, who in the year 453 occupied Dacia. The position of Thessalonica as the centre of the commerce of the continent and of the Cyclades caused the possession of it to be coveted by all those bodies of adventurers who in times of general disorder undertook expeditions for the surprise of maritime towns. At the beginning of the 10th century, in the reign of the Emperor Leo, an expedition of Saracens from the Cyrenaica laid siege to Thessalonica. The town was not prepared for resistance. On the side adjoining the harbour it was only defended by a simple wall. The inhabitants endeavoured to prevent the fleet of the enemy anchoring near shore by throwing into the sea the stones from ancient buildings which were demolished for the purpose; marble sarcophagi collected from the outskirts of the town were also cast into the water; the port was closed by an iron chain, and all the citizens were called to arms. The Sclaves, formerly the enemies of Thessalonica, but who had now embraced Christianity, flew to the succour of the town. Details of the siege are given by the Abbe Belley. The town was finally taken and sacked by the Saracens, the public buildings were destroyed, and when the enemy retired, they carried away an enormous quantity of booty, and a great many of the inhabitants into slavery. In the year 1185 an expedition of Normans under the leadership of William, king of Sicily, took possession of Thessalonica, and committed excesses more terrible than those of the Saracens. Not even churches were exempt from their outrages •— they entered them during the celebration of worship, singing infamous songs.® In the year 1204 Baldwin, conqueror of Constantinople, conferred the kingdom of Thessalonica upon the Marquis de Montferrat. But this principality was not of long duration; the Byzantine emperors again took possession of Thessalonica, and retained it until the Mahometans dispossessed them. 1 AA. SS., cap. c’lxxxii. sqq. * A A. SS ., cap. clxxxii.—clxxxiii. ; Extract from Com. Byseus, p. 17.'5 ; Tafel, l c., lxxxv. a A/e,noire of AbbG Belley, p. 139. 2 U TH KS.SALON ICA. THESSALONICA UNDER THE TURKS. The death of Sultan Bajazet Ildirim gave tranquillity to Macedonia; but after the reign of Amurath II. the Turks had resumed the offensive, and compelled the princes of Hungary and Servia to sue for peace. Amurath did not forget that Thessalonica had already been in the power of Mahometans. He looked upon the town as belonging to his empire. But the treaties he had signed with the Christian powers prevented him from taking possession of it. But having learned that the inhabitants of Thessalonica, finding that the Byzantine government did not afford them sufficient protection, had deposed the despot who governed them in the name of the emperor, and were inclined to sell their town to the Venetians, the most active enemies of the Mussulmans, he summoned from Asia, Hamsa Bey, his best general, and ordered him to invest the town. Amurath himself left Adrianople and entered Macedonia. Upon his arrival in the neighbourhood of Thessalonica, he demanded the surrender of the town, engaging to allow the inhabitants tlieir liberty, and to spare the public buildings; but the Venetians, who reigned supreme there, rejected all idea of capitulation. Upon this Amurath ordered the assault, proclaiming to his soldiers, that the inhabitants and their goods should be their prey. The Greeks, although they were disposed to surrender, were overruled by the Venetians, and a desperate resistance was resolved upon. On the 26th February, 1430, an earthquake terrified the inhabitants and made them believe that they were already in the hands of the enemy. The general assault took place a few days afterwards, on May 1st. The Turks approached the town on the side nearest the sea, and directed their attack against the east wall, which seemed to be the weakest. All attempts at resistance were overcome. The Turks had undermined the walls in some places, and having scaled them in others, entered the town, and commenced the work of carnage and destruction. All the inhabitants who escaped the sword were made slaves; the palace and other public buildings were burnt. The church and tomb of St. Demetrius presented a rich booty to the captors, as the rich amongst the inhabitants had placed their treasures under the protection of the patron of the town. The body of the saint was taken out of the tomb and hacked in pieces. The Turks tried to discover the source from whence the miraculous oil flowed, but were unable to find it; they took the oil away, as it cured many diseases. 1 The church was, however, spared; it had before been converted into a mosque by Bajazet; Amurath II. re-established it as such. But the silver ciborium , the iconostasis, enriched with precious stones, and all the treasures accumulated in the edifice, became the prey of the Turks. The relics of the saint were collected by pious hands, and having been placed in a shrine, the miracle of the oil was renewed. Amurath retired to his camp during the massacre, and endeavoured to save some of the unhappy people, lie allowed the prisoners to ransom themselves, and restored to them those houses which had not been destroyed; but he converted the church of the Holy Mother of God, which was a basilica much venerated in the town, into a mosque. He went there to say his Friday prayer, and had an inscription, which still remains, placed on the foot of the minaret. This church received the name of Eski Djouma (ancient assembly), 2 because the Mussulmans held their first assemblies in it. After a short time the Mahometan residents claimed the other Greek churches for their worship; St. Sophia and the round church of St. George were turned into mosques; the smaller churches only were left in the hands of Christians. Out of a certain regard for the brave defence ot Thessalonica, the Turks did not efface the religious subjects in mosaic which adorned the domes, but many celebrated buildings were demolished for the construction of baths; the cloisters were transformed into caravanserais. 1 Von Hammer, Wstoire de VEmpire ottoman , book x. 2 Some travellers translate thus, Ancient Friday ; but the word Djouma or Djemda, which is Arabic, means brotherhood, or assembly. The same name is given to Friday, because it is the day of assembly in the mosque, as Sunday is called Buzar- cjun, because it is the day on which markets are held .—Id Art de verijicr ten Dates, tom. i., fol., 1783, p. 21. MODERN WRITERS ON THESSALONIOA. 119 TIIESSALONICA AFTER MODERN WRITE Rs! The oldest description of Thessalonica extant is that of Hadji Haifa, a Turkish traveller of the 17th century. He estimates justly its advantages of situation. From his time to ours it has constantly increased in prosperity. He says : — “ Saloniki is situated at the head of a gulf which extends about a hundred miles from north to south ; the walls of the town have a circuit of three miles, and have five gates • viz. the Harbour gate, Yardar gate, Tower gate, Kelemdjze gate, and New gate. Its distance from Constantinople is two hundred and eighty-seven and a half miles. The longest day there lasts fifteen hours and a minute, the shortest eight hours and fourteen minutes. Bajazet Ildirim took the town in the year 796 of the Hegira ; but it fell again into the hands of the infidels until Sultan Amurath II. retook it in the year 801. The citadel is situated on the slope of a hill. The longest part of the wall is that bordering the sea on the west, where is the Harbour gate. “ Ne.ar this spot is a spacious harbour, in which three hundred ships could anchor in safety. “ The first judge (cadi) of Saloniki was Arabzade Abdornuh Effendi, who constructed a mosque. “ On leaving the south-west angle, and ascending towards the mountain, we find a well- fortified castle. “ The caravanserais, the inhabited districts, and the mosques, are all within the walls; outside there are gardens only. The stream that supplies the town with water comes from a mountain called Hortash, half a day’s journey distant, to the north-west of Saloniki. Upon its summit are several lakes, which are frozen in winter, and supply the town with ice. There is there a Christian village called Hortash. There is also another stream called Yeni-Sou (new water). “Near the Yardar and Kelemdjze gates there are two large towers; the first called the Vardar Tower, the second the Kelemdjze Tower. “ The town possesses ten principal and some smaller mosques, and nine baths. The most celebrated mosques are: 1st, the Kassimyc, an ancient church turned into a mosque in 831 (of the Hegira); 2nd, the Old Mosque; 3rd, the mosque of Agliia Sofia, near which Ibrahim Pasha has built a minaret; 4th, the mosque of Kassirn Pasha Djeseri; 5th, the mosque of Yakoub Pasha; 6th, the mosque of the Serai, which, in the time of the Christians, was the Church of the Court; 7th, the mosque of Sinam Pasha, taken from the Christians in the year 1004 by Sinam Pasha. All these were originally churches. The newly-erected mosques arc those of—8th, Isak Pasha Pischimanji; 9tli, Hamsa Bey; 10th, Acksed. “ The town possesses fine streets and public buildings. Near the market-place called Londja, where cloth is sold, there is a Bezestein and some caravanserais or khans. The most important are the khans of Sulidji, Mustafa Pasha, and Milta-klian. Most of the houses belong to Jews, who, having quitted the Christian states to assemble at Saloniki, let houses and magazines for long periods. They manufacture chiefly carpets of various colours, which are very celebrated and quite unequalled, and also excellent cloth. “ One of the great curiosities of Saloniki is the Jewish school called Hora, which contains a large library of books on the upper story. More than two hundred scholars receive instruction there, from the first rudiments up to history. The scholars vary in age from children of four or five to men of between thirty and forty. Altogether there are a thousand of them ; according to their grade, they study their sacred writings or logic. The Jews spend considerable sums in good works and charitable establishments, and every year they distribute money and clothes to poor children; then is there a veritable festival for the town. “ Saloniki in many respects may be considered a quarter of Constantinople. It has pro¬ duced many distinguished men.” THESSAT.ONh'A. 120 Von Hammer, the historian of the Ottoman Empire, makes the following observations about Thessalonica. “ Thessalonica was placed under the protection of the Cabiri and the Thermeau Aphrodite, wliose temples, converted in later times into churches, still exist under the names of the Botonda and the Ancient Mosque. Favoured by the gods, it was the object of the especial care of the Macedonian monarchs, who appreciated the advantages of its situation for commerce and navigation. It appeared no less important to the Homan emperors, who adorned it with architectural monuments. The gate which leads to the Yenidje-Vardar, — ancient Pella,— is still ornamented by the triumphal arch which the inhabitants raised to Octavius and Antony after the battle of Philippi, which took place in the vicinity. “ Nero built a long colonnade of the Corinthian order, which supported two rows of statues executed in the best Greek style; the admirable groups of Ganymede, Leda, Paris and Helen, Bacchus and Ariadne, and of the goddess of Victory arrested in her course by Pleasure, still in their ruined state, are so admirable, that they are considered supernatural. “ Trajan built the Botonda of the Cabiri upon the model of the Pantheon. “ Under Marcus Aurelius, a triumphal arch was erected, still existing, in honour of Antoninus Pius and his wife Faustina. There is also the triumphal arch of Constantine at the end of the town, dedicated to the conqueror of Licinius and Maxentius. “ In the time of the Emperor Leo (A.D. 903), a Syrian renegade from Tripoli arrived before Thessalonica with fifty-four galleys, then the second town of the Byzantine empire in Europe; he took it without resistance, and received a ransom of one hundred golden livres to spare the edifices from complete destruction. Pasha Khair-ed-deen, in the time of Araurath I., took Thessalonica; it was given up to the Greeks when peace was established. Bajazet took it again in the year 797 of the Hegira (A.D. 1395). Lost by the Mussulmans, reconquered by Mahomet I., then again abandoned to the Greeks, who sold it to the Venetians, it fell for the third time under the yoke of the Turks, and was definitively incorporated into the Ottoman empire by Amurath II.” 1. Port. 2. Citailel. 3. Triumphal Arch. I . Church of St. George. 5. Church of St. Sophia. 0. Church of the* Holy Apostles. 7. Church of St. Barilias. 8. Church of St. Elina. 9. Caravanserai. Thessalonica preserved its activity in the midst of the disorders of the Middle Ages, but its population did not increase. Its new masters erected no public edifice, with the exception ot a few mosques, and frequent fires destroyed what remained of the ancient Byzantine palaces. Parallel to the harbour there is a long- wide street, a continuation of the Via Egnatia, which commences at the town of Apollonia, in Illyria, traverses Epirus and Macedonia, and is prolonged as far as the confines of Thrace. This road, entering the town on the west side, passes under a THE CHURCHES OF THESSALONICA. 121 triumphal arch built with blocks of marble; it consists of a single arch of the simple architectural character of the first period of the Empire. Upon each of the external pedestals is a bas-relief, representing a Roman cavalier on foot, holding his horse by the reins. The entablature is of the Doric order, and the frieze is ornamented with garlands. An inscrip¬ tion upon the internal face of the left pilaster contains the names of the seven politarchs or town magistrates; it is imperfect, and throws no light upon the date of work, nor upon the motives for its construction. M. Letronne, who has commented upon this inscription, considers it to be of the time of the Empire. At the eastern end of the same street stand the remains of an imposing triumphal arch; as it was built of bricks, covered with slabs of marble, it has not resisted the effects of time. Originally, it had three arches, and must have been very effective. The bas-reliefs which still remain at the level of the impost represent, without doubt, a triumphal march, similar in character to that represented on the Arch of Titus at Rome. The figures are rather less than half life-size. There are to he seen legions with their ensigns, dromedaries, and war chariots, but all mediocre in execution, and much damaged by the effects of time. The smaller arches are engaged in the neighbouring houses, and at present it is impossible to ascertain the exact height of the monument, as the level of the ground is far above what it was originally; we can see, however, that it was more than 80 feet high. Popular opinion attributes this arch to the time of Constantius, the conqueror of Licinius, and of the barbarous nations of the East who rose in arms against him. The other domestic edifices of Thessalonica are of inferior interest, with the exception of the great caravanserai built by Amurath II., which we shall give as an example of the xenodochia, or hostelries, so common in Byzantine towns. THE CHURCHES OF THESSALONICA. r I UIESSALONICA has three principal churches; viz., that of St. Sophia, that of the Virgin Mother of God, and that of St. Demetrius, Martyr, patron of Russia, and of the inhabitants of Thessalonica. John Comeniata mentions them in the year 903, according to their importance or ecclesiastical rank. “ The town possesses some churches as remarkable for their sanctity as for the multitude of precious ornaments they contain. We ought to mention first the beautiful church of the Divine Wisdom, and that of the Most Holy Virgin Mother of God; afterwards that of the most illustrious martyr Demetrius, who gained the palm in his glorious conflicts.” 1 Eustathius observes the same order 2 in his account of the expedition of the Normans. “ The Church of the Wisdom of the Word of God, that of the Mother of God, and that of our most illustrious martyr the Myroblete.” But after the time of Justinian, the churches, due to the imperial liberality, to voluntary donations, or that were erected by religious confraternities, considerably increased in number, and, the capital excepted, there was no Byzantine town that contained so many churches. During M. Texicr’s sojourn at Thessalonica, with the assistance of a dervish, he made a list of all the mosques and churches in the town: we extract from it the names of all those mosques which have been converted into churches. They are as follows : — 1. Eski Djouma ; a church ornamented with twenty-four columns in the quarter of Tcharchi- bachi, converted into a mosque by Sultan Amurath-Eettctmich in 832 of the Hegira. The esta¬ blishment consists of a cljami- imaum, two m/cetf-imaums, and two muezzins. Ibrahim Pasha built a bath, which he gave in valcoof (endowment) to this church. The revenues of the mosque are 5,000 piastres per annum. The Government supplies it with oil and wax. 2. Aya Sofia; formerly the cathedral, converted into a mosque by Raktoub Ibrahim Pasha, in the year 993 of the Hegira. It is the principal mosque of the town. It has for vakoof - Opusc., cli. vi. s. 2, jt. 153. 2 i Narration do VExpedition des Sarrar.ins, cli. xi. Til KSSA LON I ('A {22 15,000 piastres a year. It lias three imaums, two kaims who look after the lamps, ten softas or students in theology, who arc instructed in the medrece. It is situated in the quarter called Tcharclii, near the sea. 3. Kassoumiliie; formerly the church of St. Demetrius, adorned with more than sixty marble columns, situated near the pasha’s palace, in the quarter of Eski Accapousi; turned into a mosque by Sultan Bajazet, in the year S9S of the Hegira. Its revenue is 7,500 piastres. •I. Orta Sultan Osman djamisi, commonly called Ortaji Efifendi; formerly the church of St. George, and called by travellers the Rotonda. It was converted into a mosque by Ortaji Etfendi, a dervish belonging to the confraternity of Halveti dervishes. 5. Sankie djamisi; formerly the church of St. Pauteleimonos, now in ruins. It was converted into a mosque by Sultan Amurath Eethi. G. Aktcha Medjed djamisi; an ancient Greek church, in the quarter of the same name; converted by Sultan Amurath Eethi. 7. Ivarali djamisi; an old church in the same quarter as the preceding. 8. Satti djamisi; converted by Selim Pasha. 9. Aldja-Imaret, in the quarter of Yeni Ilammam, formerly a church ; converted into a mosque hv Sultan Amurath Ectlii. The interior was covered with paintings, hut they are now whitewashed over. 10. Sarali djamisi; formerly the church of St. Elias. It is situated in the highest part of the town, near the quarter called Eski Serai. This mosque, though small, is very rich. It has for vakoof a village called Orta Ichkcni. There is a medrece 'for twenty softas attached to it. 11. Soouk sou djamisi; formerly the church of the Holy Apostles; converted into a mosque at the taking of the town. It has five cupolas, which give it a very picturesque effect. 12. Sofo Etfendi djamisi; an ancient Greek church in the upper part of the town; not very remarkable. 13. Iki-eherifeh djamisi; a gallery with minarets, situated in the quarter with the same name; anciently a church. 14. lvnsandjilar djamisi (kcttlemakers’ mosque); formerly the church of St. Bardias and St. Mary, converted into a mosque by Amurath Eethi, in the year 832 of the Hegira; built in September, A.D. 987. This mosque, one of the oldest in the town, has considerable vakoof property, but it is nevertheless in a ruinous state. 15. Eattayeh djamisi; ancient church of Panagia; converted into a mosque by Sultan Amurath. In addition to these, there are twenty-three other mosques in the toAvn, many of them small, and comparatively of modern date. T\ r e may add to this list the names of twenty-six churches built before the year 1430, of which the sites have not been ascertained, that are mentioned in the Lives of the Saints, and in the Menology of the Emperor Basil. 1. St. Andrew the Apostle. 14. St. Alphcus. 2. St. Maria Odoglictria. 15. St. Alexander. 3. St. Nicholas. 16. St. Anysia. 4. St. Menas. 17. St. Ambrose. 5. St. John Prodromus. 18. SS. Ananias and Azarins. 6. St. Chumnus. 19. St. David 7. St. Acatonius. 20. St. Dominus. 8. St. Philocalius. 21. St. Eantinus. 9. SS. Agathope and Theodule. 22. St. Elorentius. 10. St. Helicon. 23. St. Nicephorus. 11. St. Joseph. 24. St. Paul. 12. St. Mark. 25. St. Porphyrus. 13. St. Matrona. 26. St. Thessalonica. Eour of these no doubt still exist, and have been converted into mosques; but they have not been identified. 1 1 Sec Nos. G, 7, 8, 9, 12, and 14 in the list. See also Tafel, Thcssalonica, p. 150, at, seq. the CHURCH OF ST. DEMETRIUS. 123 All the property belonging to these churches was seized by the Turks at the time of the taking of the town, and the edifices suffered in consequence; for before the time of Saltan Mahmoud the State did not charge itself with the repair of the mosques nor with the payment of the imaums. Sometimes by particular favour the Government gave oil and wax; but all the revenues of the mosque, the subsistence of the sol’tas or sacristans, and repairs, came from property appropriated for the purpose, generally that left by pious Mussulmans. This is what is called vakool property, and it is administered by the ulemas of every town in an independent manner. The mosques of Salonica, less poweriul than those of Constantinople, have long been deprived of their privileges, and their revenues are frequently applied by the pashas for their own purposes. In the present day the Turkish government follows the same plan. In this state of things, the ulemas, seeing the time approaching when the property now in their hands will pass into the possession of the Porte, take no care to repair the public buildings, but allow the baths and khans to fall into ruins, and neglect to let the shops in the bazaars. This struggle between the Government and the ulemas has lasted several years, and unless it is decided, ancient edifices throughout the empire will suffer irreparable damages. THE CHURCH OE ST. DEMETRIUS. The martyrdom of St. Demetrius took place in the reign of Galerius Maximianus, A.D. 30G, 1 * during the sojourn of the emperor at Thessalonica. It was this prince, and not Maximianus Herculius, who was one of the most cruel persecutors of the Christians. Devoted disciples rescued the body of Demetrius, which had been exposed as that of a criminal, aud gave it burial in a place of sepulture known only to themselves. From this period the tomb of the saint became the object of especial veneration, and as by degrees Christians enjoyed freedom of worship, the concourse of visitors to the tomb became more numerous. A century had not elapsed after the death ot Demetrius before his memory became publicly venerated, and a chapel was erected on the site of his tomb. lafel proves that the saint did not suffer martyrdom in the amphitheatre, for no such an edifice existed at Thessalonica; but in the prison in which he Avas confined, that is to say, in a vault of the baths, not far from the hippodrome. The merits of the saint were manifested by the marvellous cures operated upon those who visited his tomb. Leontius, prefect of Illyria, who had recovered his health after such a visit, repaired the primitive chapel, which Avas enclosed between the colonnades of the public baths and those of the stadium ; he levelled the buildings in its vicinity, and erected an oratory on the tomb. The first church erected in honour of St. Demetrius was therefore achieved A.D. 112-13 for the fasti mention that Leontius was prefect of Illyria at that time. 3 Tlie second and more magnificent church was erected at the commencement of the 5th century, at which time St. Demetrius was venerated throughout the province. The wonder of this church Avas the silver chdsse that contained the relics of the saint. The Acts of the Saints 3 contain the folloAving references to this chef-d'oeuvre of Byzantine metal-work:—“The silver ciborium of this renowned martyr. It is said that the body of the saint is interred beneath.” The same author (Pseudo Joannes) adds the following description :_ “This Avork, as holy as it is remarkable, stands in the midst of the temple on the left side. It is hexagonal in form, upheld by six columns, with a like number of walls of fine silver, and ornamented with incised work, and its cover stands circular upon the six sides, and supports, as upon a base, a silver sphere, not insignificant in dimensions, upon which run, as it were stalks of admirable lilies, and above shines forth the sign of lile, the adorable cross of our 1 And not A.D. 303, as is generally stated.—Tafcl, Thessalonica, )>. Il l * Anastas., Tibi., e. x. ; A A. .S',S'., c. x. p. SO, op. cit. 3 A A. SS., c. xn. ]». 111. TIT ESS A l.ONICA. 124 divine Saviour,” 1 and a little further on the same author speaks of the silver gates of the ciborium. Mention is also made of the silver litter upon which the body of the saint reposes. The accompanying restoration is made from the above description, which is sufficiently precise. The ciborium of St. Demetrius was about twelve feet in height, and was placed in the square atrium to the left of the choir. As the description of the shrine given by the Byzantine author is so exact, it was an easv matter to restore the elevation of this monument, valuable as a specimen of silversmith’s work of the 5th century, and one that has served as a model for many shrines of saints in churches both in the East and West. It was destroyed by fire on the night of October 26, during the feast of St. Demetrius. Prom this fact we may infer its construction. It must evidently have been formed of plates of silver repoussee, attached to a wooden frame. It is probable that, according to the custom of the time, the openings were closed by curtains, and that there were other hangings around the ciborium, which on feast days would be lighted by hundreds of candles. Thus the hangings might easily have caught fire first, and afterwards the wooden structure of the shrine. 1 To tEpotTKtvov iiceivo ml ircptmXXtg Sjjptovpytjpa, Kara ptaov rou vaov irpng role XutoTg irXtvpulc ityiZpvpivov i^ayuytp ayt part, doaiv ml rolypis laapiOpotg «£ apyupov cmci/iov ml ttayeyXup- utvov /.upop(f>ti>pivoy lcni rijv apatbi))' ottmurwg airu run' tt,ayuytov irXtvpiiiv micXotpopiKuic aritrxpvaav , ml tic ptay trrpoyyuXijy the ii: iroSiic uiroXi'iyovoav auydemv, otpaipuv re upyuptay ptyeOove ou pt kudu tpipovtruv ut’tolhr, vij> ijy the Kpti'ou pXaorot duvpaaiot rreci- iypvrai’ i3r iruvruiv iirurw ... o ^uiuirtHog tjnifu ml Tiptoe rov Oeov ml aurrjpoc i/puiy trravpuQ. — Tafcl, 2'hessalonicct, pp. 11 7-18. ST DEMETRIUS' THESSALONICA THE OTTUROH <>F ST. DEM ETERIS. I lie feast of St. Demetrius lasted three days and nights; it was celebrated in the night as well as in the day, and was one of the great festivals of Thessalonica. The ceremony was opened by the duke or governor, who went in grand procession to the church, where a great concourse of people were assembled. lie seated himself in the place of honour in the nave, in the presence of the archbishop, and the feast commenced with hymns chanted in honour of the saint; the Byzantine author adds, “ It took place in the night, and terminated by the light of lamps and torches.” 1 Tafel is inclined to believe that it was from the ciborium that the oil to which such marvellous effects were attributed, flowed. I he relics of St. Nicholas oi Myra, who was also a Myroblete, were contained in a somewhat similar shrine. Prom what precedes, it is evident that the term ciborium here means a chasse or shrine, and not the receptacle for the Holy Eucharist. Amongst the numerous miracles attributed to St. Demetrius, we may mention the following, which has relation to the silver ciborium. While the inhabitants of Thessalonica were celebrating the anniversary of the feast of St. Demetrius, on 26th October, A.D. 581, they had no apprehension of attack from their enemies. On the second day of the feast, the silver ciborium which was in the church was destroyed by fire. . The news of this event spread rapidly through the town, and the entire population ran in haste to the church, so that the doors were blocked up. The silver with which the ciborium was plated, melted through the intensity of the heat, and ran upon the pavement like water. The anxiety of the crowd increased when they beheld the flames extend to the edifice itself, for it was a difficult matter to throw water on the roofs. It also became impossible to expel the citizens from the temple, as they remained wonder-struck at the rich¬ ness of its treasures. In this dilemma, a nobleman, who was the secretary of the prefect of Illyria, inspired by St. Demetrius, cried out that the enemy was at the gates of the town. On this the assembled people rushed from the church to their homes, armed themselves, and went to defend the ramparts. The Sclavcs were approaching; the inhabitants beheld from the walls a troop of the enemy in the plain, in which stood the church of St. Matrona; it consisted of more than five thousand Sclavcs, the 6lite of the enemy’s army, as much to he dreaded for their courage and ferocity as for their number. At daybreak, when the barbarians approached the church of the.holy martyrs Chionie, Irene, and Agape, which was situated not far from the walls of the town, the citizens opened the gates of the city and made a sortie; under the protection of the Saviour and of St. Demetrius, they engaged the enemy in a combat, which lasted the whole day, and ended in the flight of the enemy. 2 Tim chroniclers state that this event took place in tile third year of the reign of the Emperor Maurice, A.D. 584. At this period the Avari made excursions into Macedonia. In the year 1185, the town of Thessalonica was taken by the Normans under the leadership of 'William, king of Sicily, and tile church of St. Demetrius was the chief object of their depredations; the images of the saint were destroyed, and the inhabitants who had sought refuge in the church were unmercifully massacred. The historian Nicetas relates, in thelife of Andronicus Comncnus,” that the Normans used the oil of the tomb to grease their boots, and to fry fish Avitli. A similar calamity happened in the year 1430, when the toAvn was taken by Sultan Amurath II. All historians, however, agree in acknowledging that the Turks conducted themselves with more propriety than the Christians ; they Avere content to dip their hands into the sacred well, and to carry the oil home to be used for remedial purposes. The name of St. Demetrius is still respected by the Mussulmans; it is therefore not surprising to find his church preserved with the greatest care. Notwithstanding these attacks on the shrine of the saint, the secret source oi the miraculous oil has never been discovered. De arlificio machinaque hujus miraculi silent, says Tafel. 1 This is the more surprising, considering all that has been Avntten about St. Demetrius. The same author, avIio has collected with the greatest care all passages bearing upon the history of Thessalonica, mentions an inscription upon a silver vase 1 Tiinarion, Greek author of the 13th century , Notices and 2 Anonym., AA. SS., ch. XCIII.— cv., pp. 137 141 ■ a) , Extracts from Manuscripts, vol. ix. ch. fi, p. 174 ; ap. Tafel, l. c., Tafel, l. c., lxix. 1 P* 23L 3 Nicetas, vol. 1 . p. 9. * Op. cit., ]>. 120. TI TESSA LON I (A. recorded by Angelo Mai, 1 which proves that this oil was sometimes exported: — "This vase contains the holy myrrli which comes from the well in which is deposited the body of the divine Mvroblete Demetrius. 2 Outside the church, upon the wall that faces the stadium, was to be seen a portrait of St. Demetrius in mosaic. After the destruction of the ciborium by fire in the year 597, this work of art was restored by means of the donations of the faithful; but historians are silent upon the circumstances connected with its final destruction. It is not mentioned in the accounts of the taking of Thessalonica in the year 1130. The chronicles of the invasion by the Sclavcs, collected by Tafel, show that the second church of St. Demetrius suffered again from the ravages of a fire in the year 090; but this fire was only partial. The remarkable edifice of which we give the plans is the second church. The building as it stands is a chef-cVoeuvre of Byzantine architecture, and shows that the traditions of ancient art had not completely been forgotten by the artists of Thessalonica. We here find very few capitals having great projection, as in the church of St. Sophia. On the contrary, the capitals in St. Demetrius’ are but little altered from the ancient model. The fire of the 7tli century seems to have damaged chiefly the exterior; it probably injured only the monastery adjoining, and the facade of the church which still remains, engaged in the midst of buildings that possess no architectural character. The atrium accords but little with the richness of the interior. The fountain of ablution in the centre of the atrium has, however, been preserved. There is no longer an entrance by the central doorway, which is walled up, but by a side door to the right, above which, is an inscription put up by order of Bajazet, but after his death. TIIE CHURCH OE ST. DEMETRIUS IN ITS ACTUAL STATE. When the town of Thessalonica was taken by Sultan Bajazet in the year 1397, the cathedral church of the Greeks was converted into a mosque under the name of Cassoumihie Djamasi, or mosque of Cassim. On the side door on the right the Mussulmans placed an Arabic inscription, stating the dedication of the building to the worship of Islam. It is in the following terms“ Sultan Bajazet Eetethi (victorious) has given this house of God to the Mussulmans. Study and meditate on the greatness of God. Pray and humble yourselves, for God loves prayer. The year 898." This inscription must have been restored, for the year 898 of the Hegira corresponds with A.D. 1495, and Bajazet died in 1403. When the town was ceded to the Greek emperor, the church was consecrated anew to Christian worship. Sultan Amurath took Thessalonica A.D. 1430 — it may be conjectured from an inscription that we give further on, that the church remained in the hands of the Greeks until A.D. 14S0 and some years later. At the time of the taking of the town, the church was exposed to the ravages of the conquering Turks — its furniture, the iconostasis, and the amho, were destroyed; and it was in a damaged state when the Greeks retook it. The church of St. Demetrius is situated in the western part of the town, and overlooks the site still called that of the Hippodrome. It stands due east and west, according to ancient usage, and the doors are at the west end. The exterior of the edifice is concealed by a block of modern buildings, erected no doubt on the ruins of the burnt monastery. The church is entered by a side door on the left, which leads immediately into the church. The nave is preceded by a small square court or atrium, in the midst of which stands a Byzantine fountain. The existence of this fountain is a proof of the great antiquity of the church, for we know that it was only in the earliest times that Christians practised ablution before entering their churches. This fountain has eight columns supporting arches. In the midst is a basin of sculptured marble. The atrium formerly led into the narthex; it was, no doubt, originally ornamented with sculpture, and had a colonnade. On a fragment of marble is seen the following inscription:— EniSKOnOSKnNZTANTINOnOAEQZ (Bishop of Constantinople). To the right and left of the atrium there are two smaller courts; that on the right gives access to the nartliex. 1 Scri/ilorum Yelerum Nona Colleclio, vnl. m 2 The author remarks that the word “well - ' (tpptap) is used loetically. S T DEMETRIUS' THESSALONICA DETAILS OF BAY OF NAVE Soak of 10 Day & Son. LitM* to the Queen R P Pullan, di: THE CHURCH OF ST. DEMETRIUS. The nartliex is very simple in construction. It consists of a transverse passage, the ceiling of which is formed by the floor of the gynccconitis, and it is separated from the nave, only by three columns. The nave is on the same level as the nartliex —it is 145 ft. 6 in. long and 37 feet wide. There are double aisles, with two ranges of columns: these aisles are 1(1 feet and 12 feet wide respectively. (See the Plan, Plate XVII.) The tomb of St. Demetrius is situated in a crypt at the north side of the nartliex. The crypt is preceded by a dark semicircular chamber built of brick, 20 ft. 6 in. in diameter. The sepulchral chamber itself is square, with domical covering; it measures 10 ft. 9 in. each way. In the midst is a brick tomb deprived of all ornament, round which the Greeks still assemble to burn wax tapers, which are sold to them by the Turkish keeper of the mosque. It was here that the miracle of the oil was performed; the ground and the walls are quite saturated with it. But in the time of the Christian dominion, this holy place shone with the richest ornaments. The historian John Anagnosta 1 mentions the tomb of his compatriot the celebrated martyr. The monument was covered with gold and silver ornaments, with pearls and precious stones, and the walls were lined with marble. When the ancient eiborimn was destroyed by fire, it is probable that the relics were removed to this crypt: this is the reason why historians, after the period of the fire, do not mention the chdsse." At the entrance of the nave, on the first pillar, is an inscription in hexameter verse, in honour of a Greek of Constantinople, who had retired to Thessalonica, and who, perhaps, rendered some service to the church of St. Demetrius. 3 This is the translation of it after M. Letronne: —- “ Having become the glory of the. Greek nation By the union of all virtues, Deprived of thy country, alas! Thou hast not partaken of the stain Imprinted on her by barbarians. Attached to the virtues of thy ancestors, Thou hast shone by means of splendid virtues Like gold or the star of dawn; Devoted to the culture of wisdom and courage, Thou tookest for a foundation these sublime perfections : Prudence and equality before the law. All beholding in thee a divine image, Were as much captivated by the insinuating eloquence of thy words, And by the graceful splendour of thy beauty, As they were struck by the greatness of thy actions. Alas! it is in midst of the brightest hopes That I lose thee, O light. 0 glory of my life, 0 glory of thy country, golden ring in the chain of thy noble nice ! Masterpiece of partial Nature, I lament my misfortune, which is also a public misfortune: Thy death is a thunderclap. Cherished head, my hope, my life, my light, my delight, Scion of Byzantines and Greeks ! Lucas Spantouna, servant of God, fell asleep in the year 0989, in the month of January.” This date corresponds with the year 1480 of our era. It would appear from the expressions of tenderness contained in it, that this inscription was due to the affection of the wife of Spantouna, and was not a public token of the gratitude of the inhabitants of Thessalonica. It possesses a certain historical interest, as it shows that, fifty years after the taking of the town, the church was still in the possession of the Greeks. According to the Arab inscription placed over the door, the church was not finally converted into a mosque until the year 898 of the Hegira, that is to say A.D. 1495. Tafel, op. ci/., p. 132. 2 Cf. Tafel, ibid., p. 133. 3 See Plate of Inscriptions. TTTESSA LuNK'A. Plan and Situation of the Church. Tlie plan of the church of St. Demetrius is of that form which the Latins called Basilica, and which Greek writers designated under the term Ayriy.txov a stadium or oblong. It is remarkable, that amongst the numerous definitions of churches given by Leo Allatius (see p. 64), he never makes use of the word basilica. We, however, prefer to use this word, as it is employed by modern architects, though it was never used by either the writers or architects of Byzantine times. The church of St. Demetrius then is a basilica, with a nave and double aisles. To the east oi the aisles are two square compartments, surrounded by columns: these atria are the full height of the nave; they were reserved for the deacons and other ministers. No similar arrangement is known to exist in any other church. Each atrium is separated from the nave by a pointed brick arch, sustained in the centre by a square pier: this is evidently a modern addition ;—the round arch is employed in every other part of the church. The nave is divided lengthways into three large bays by massive square piers; the centre bay has four columns, the other three each, all supporting semicircular arches. The columns of the central bay have pedestals, two of them square and two octagonal. The same arrange¬ ment is followed in the gallery of the first story, or triforium; in the third, or clere-story, are ranges of arched windows separated by short massive columns. The columns of the aisles are half the length of those in the nave; they support a wooden gallery which runs at the height of the imposts of the nave. At the end of the south aisle is a small chapel, ornamented with columns; this is the slceuophylakion, used for containing the sacred vessels; it is an indispensable adjunct to a Byzantine church; it measures 20 feet by 18 feet. It is to be remarked that all the internal decoration is composed of slabs of marble of different colours; there are neither mouldings, nor cornices, nor modillions. The entablature of the ground-floor is ornamented with marble mosaics, representing modillions, with a decoration of beads, dentils, and flowers. The archivolts of the arches of both stories are composed of voussoirs, of marbles of different colours. The piers are covered with white marble slabs, and the spandrils between the arches have panels of inlaid marbles of various colours. (See Plates XVIII. and XIX.) The capitals of the columns on the ground-floor are all varieties of the Corinthian order, carefully executed. They are surmounted by dosserets of marble, which receive the arches. The columns of the triforium are of the Ionic order, the capitals being surmounted by very high dosserets. These columns are separated by a low marble parapet, ornamented with panels bearing the cross or the laharum. The dosserets are, without exception, decorated with the cross, sculptured in the midst of foliage. All these crosses have been respected by the Mussulmans. The semicircular apse is lighted by five large windows, separated by columns, which rest upon a surbase. The pavement of the church is of white marble. At the east end of the nave there is a step, marking the position of the iconostasis, or choir-screen. The atria are marked by a difference in the level of the floor: their height, as we have said before, is the full height of the nave, and there is a triforium gallery, forming a tribune, no doubt reserved for a particular class of worshippers. The upper gallery, called gijnceconitis, or cdtechumcne for women, passes all round the church, over the narthex, and terminates at the two atria. The semicircular apse is covered with a hemispherical vault. This part of the church is at present deprived of all decoration; originally it must have been ornamented with mosaic pictures. The nave has an open oak roof, of very simple construction. The character of the carpentry resembles that of the church of St. Paul without the Walls, at Borne. The height of the lower order is 17 ft. 8 in.; that of the Ionic order is 12 feet. The general proportions of the whole are excellent. The capitals of the nave are executed with remarkable precision. They are not inferior in style to lloman capitals of the times of the Antonines. This circumstance is a proof — THE CHURCH OF ST. DEMETRIUS. 129 °f tllc antiquity of the edifice, and shows that the church of the Gth century was not destroyed by the fire, but that the conflagration was partial only. An eagle with outspread wings is sculptured on most of the capitals; it supports the volutes, or occasionally replaces them. One capital is formed by four eagles resting on a crown of foliage, deeply undercut. (See Plate XXII.) This is a great departure from the pure Corinthian style. At the ends of the nave are two capitals in the form of corbels, also much under-cut. Similar ones are to be seen in the church of SS. Sergius and Bacchus at Constantinople. These are the only marks of declining art to be seen. The composition of one of the capitals is very remarkable; the leaves are those of the acanthus, which, instead of being folded over upon themselves, are turned on one side, as though the foliage were agitated by a breeze. (See Plate XXIII.) The order of the triforium is a simple Ionic, without anything remarkable about it. The capitals of the columns in the atria are Corinthian, of less defined character than the rest. The church is lighted by means of small pieces of glass set in cement, in the form of lozenges and circles. This mode of lighting does not appear to have been altered in modern times. The general construction of the edifice is of brickwork, cased with marble. The plans and details of the building will enable the reader to perceive that the traditions of ancient art are better preserved and of greater purity here than in the chef-d’centre of Justinian,—the church of St. Sophia at Constantinople. (See Plates XVII.— XXVI.) The bases of the columns are for the most part very high, according to Byzantine custom. Ihcy consist of a plinth, a torus, a scotia, and a broad fillet. We do not remember to have seen on Byzantine bases that enrichment which we find on Homan bases, and also on those of St. Mark’s at Venice. In the central bay of the nave the bases and pedestals are of a single block of marble. All the shafts of the columns are also of a single block. They are for the most part white, but there are some that are green veined Cipolino, or marble of Carystus. The columns of the atria are red granite, doubtless taken from some more ancient building. Ihc columns of the narthex are of the Composite order; the shafts up to the astragal are 1G ft. 9 in. high ; the capitals are exact copies from the antique. The capitals of the antce to the right and left of the narthex are ornamented with acanthus-leaves, in the centre of which are sculptured birds in the act of drinking. If we compare this edifice with other Byzantine buildings, we shall at once perceive that it is anterior to the reign of Justinian. All travellers who have visited Salonica are unanimous in their admiration of the grand effect of this church. Their descriptions, however, are brief, and are wanting in exactitude and in detail. 1 aul Lucas, the first of these,—one who always deals in the marvellous,—imagines a second church as existing below the principal one:— “ That which the Christians before the dominion of the Turks called the church of St. Demetrius, is above all remarkable. It is an extremely beautiful structure (vaisseau), everywhere sustained by fine columns of jasper and porphyry. “ This magnificent building has also below it another of equal beauty. Por the rest I am assured, that in these two bodies of the church, which are one upon the other, there are more than a thousand of these beautiful columns. The pavement of the upper church was formerly mosaic; its choir of the finest architecture.” Pococke also describes this church:— “ The finest mosque in the town was a church dedicated to St. Demetrius. It is 71 paces long and 41 broad, and on each side there is a double range of white marble columns, which support a gallery with columns. The gallery which rests upon the interior range of columns is underneath the gallery of columns which adjoins the great nave. All the church is com¬ pletely lined with slabs of marble.” Pelix de Beaujour, in his Tableau du Commerce de la Grece, says: — “ It is a Greek cross with two aisles, which sustain vast galleries. The nave of the middle is a beautiful structure (vaisseau), sustained by two rows of columns of verde antique, with Ionic capitals. The building is of brick, but the interior is lined with marble. Its form proves that it was erected in the earliest times of the Lower Empire.” 2 L TH F.SSA LON IOA. 130 Cousinery, full of admiration for this edifice, thus describes it: — “Amongst the mosques that adorn the town, there are two, the construction of which belongs to the Middle Ages, and which deserve attention; one is dedicated to St. Demetrius, and the other to St. Sophia. The former is the larger and the more rich; it is divided into three [five] naves, the principal of which is formed by sixteen columns of verde antique. Above the columns is a large gallery, the full width of the two lateral naves, ornamented with columns of the same sort of marble as those of the ground-floor. These smaller columns number sixteen on each side: four other large columns are placed near the sanctuary ; they are of the red granite of Egypt, and have a fine polish. The ceiling is formed by an oak roof, without painting or other ornament: against the gallery wall are placed medallions of various precious marbles, such as porphyry and serpentine; but most of them were destroyed or lost by the imaums or priests, who, being constantly in the temple, had opportunities for taking them away and selling them in fragments to Europeans.” Clarke gives a short notice of this church: — “ The mosque of St. Demetrius, which I also visited, was formerly the metropolitan church. Its form is that of a cross.” Poeocke regards-it as the most remarkable mosque in the town:— “ It has on each side a double row of columns of verde antique, with Ionic capitals, and all the interior was lined with marble, of which a great part still exists. It is about 70 yards long and 40 broad.” 1 T II E F AI It O F S T. D E M E T It I U S. T n E XENODOCni A, O It C A It AYANSE It A I S. Tiie commemoration of the feast of St. Demetrius was celebrated at Thessalonica by a great market, to which came merchants from all parts of the Mediterranean. Timarion, a Greek writer of the 13th century, has left behind a description of this fair, which he compares, not without some reason, to the Panathcnaic or Panioniariic festivals. These panegyrics of the Greeks afforded opportunities for great fairs, where commercial transactions were carried on in the intervals between the religious ceremonies. This custom has been per¬ petuated until our own day in the West of Europe. We still find the principal fairs held on saints’ days. The Byzantine author, portions of whose writings have been reproduced by Tafel,' speaks as an eyewitness; he gives a most lively picture of those great markets, which still take place in some countries in the East. The movements of the crowd, and even the plan and arrangement of the fair, are described with striking veracity: he describes the position ol the tents; in long parallel lines, with secondary lines ranged obliquely; which made him compare the whole to a grand arena. 3 We give the description, as we consider it interesting and pertinent as that of a grand Byzantine fair. “ The feast of St. Demetrius may be compared with the Panathenma of Athens or the Panion ima of the Milesians. It is, in fact, the greatest of the feasts or panegyrics of the Macedonians. It attracts not only a great crowd of Autochthones and indigenous inhabitants, but also people from all parts of Greece and Mysia. Those also who inhabit the country from the Ister unto Scythia; the Campanians of Italy; the Iberians; the Lusitanians, and the Celts who are on the other side of the Alps; in one word, all those bordering on the ocean send deputies and suppliants to the great martyr, whose glory is spread through Europe. “ As to myself, I had mounted to a height which overlooked the fair, and having seated myself, I inspected it at my leisure. This is what I saw: The tents of the merchants were placed in parallel lines, facing one another. The ranges of tents, widely spread and placed face 1 Voyage de Paul Lucas, t. i. p. 203 ; Poeocke, Description 2 Locus memorabiiis Timarionis, says Tafel.—Timarion, ,\. 174 ; ap. Tafel, vol. i. p. 42 ; Felix NT I <' A. There is certainly no document by which the date of this church can he ascertained; still its character of antiquity has struck all observers, and it is a remarkable fact, that the portraits of saints represented in the mosaics of the dome are all those of saints who lived before the time of Constantine. One of them, however, is a St. Porphyrus. It is true that a saint of this name lived under Arcadius, but the first St. Porphyrus was contemporary with St. Paul; there is, therefore, no contradiction in the existence of this figure to the date to which we assign this church, which probably was built by Constantine during his first sojourn in Thessalonica. Flan of the Church of St. George. This church is circular in plan, and is internally 80 feet in diameter. The external wall is IS feet thick. It is built entirely of bricks about three inches thick, laid in cement formed of lime and sand. The joints are carefully pointed, and are less than an inch in depth. The building is entered by two doorways, one at the west, facing the apse, the other at the south. These doorways are simple openings, and appear to have had no decoration. In the interior of the Rotonda there arc eight chapels formed in the thickness of the wall, at equal distances from one another ; they are quadrilateral in plan, and have waggon-headed vaults, formed by triple arches of brick, which are visible on the exterior, and which give great solidity to the structure. The foregoing considerations are perhaps insufficient to prove a Christian origin; but upon examining the bricks used in the walls, as well as those in the pavement of the chapels, we find that most of them are stamped with signs of Christian origin. We give two of them. The meaning of these signs is not very evident; perhaps we ought to see in them an abbreviation of the word NIKA ; but tbe cross, which occurs on both, leaves no doubt of their origin. We saw no trace of the circular opening mentioned by Pelix de Beaujour as existing in the centre of the dome; the mode of construction is evidently opposed to his supposition, for had there been an opening, there must have been a ring of brick or stone, which does not exist. The chapel situated opposite the west door is no wider than the others, but it has an apse, which gives it altogether a length of 63 feet; externally it forms a projection, supported at the sides by buttresses. The church is lighted bv two ranges of windows, one placed above the chapels, the other above the wall between the chapels: the windows in the upper range are simple semicircular openings. In order to enable the light to enter better through the latter, the wall is reduced in thickness externally, from a point a little below them: this arrangement made Colonel Leake suppose the upper part of the church to be of more recent date than the lower. In tbe thickness of the wall there is a circular staircase, which leads to a passage commu¬ nicating with the space between the dome and the roof; the space is lighted by the small loopholes seen in the elevation; the Rotonda is covered by a tliolus , or hemispherical vault, constructed of bricks; but it is not a perfect hemisphere, but rather flattened at the top. There have been either columns or cornices in the interior : all the decoration was obtained by mosaics. The exterior of the building is of the greatest simplicity. It has two stages, the upper one being set back about a yard. The cornice is a single stone cymatium, upon which rest the tiles of the roof: the apse is also covered with tiles. THE CHURCH (IF ST. GEOROE. 1M Cypress-trees planted around the mosque, which stands in the midst of an enclosure care¬ fully kept, give it an imposing aspect. Near the fountain of ablution is an ancient ambo, or pulpit, of white marble, ornamented with sculpture. This the Greeks hold in great veneration, as they believe that St. Paul, when at Thcssalonica, preached from it. The style of the pulpit quite refutes this tradition. The name of Orta Sultan Osman Djamisi shows that this mosque was destined for the Orta or cohort of janissaries of Sultan Osman. Wo were not able to obtain any information respecting this building from the clergy of Saloniki. When once a type for ecclesiastical edifices was fixed by the Eastern Church, it was copied in all the towns of the Empire. The plan of St. George’s, like that of St. Sophia’s, became a model for the erection of other churohes. We give here the plan of the cathedral of Bostra, now Bozrali, m the Haouran, taken by M. lley. 1 A glance at this plan will put an end to the doubts of those who arc not inclined to believe that St. George's is of Christian origin. The dimensions of these edifices are somewhat similar; one is 91 feet, the other 78 feet in diameter; the chapels arc arranged round the circumference of the circle, and lastly tile apsides are so identical in form that we could believe one to be copied from the other. 1 Voyatje dans le Haouran vt anx fiords de In mer Morte, p. 170, Plate TV. 8v<>. 13 c THESSALONIOA. M. Rey describes the building, which ought to have an important place in a history of art, in the following terms :— “ We then visited a large Christian church now in ruins; it is a rectangle, in which is iuscribed a circle, the angles of which are occupied by large niches; at the side there are three apsides; above the principal door we read a long Greek inscription (the author does not give this inscription), which tells us that the church was erected in honour of the blessed martyrs Sergius and Leontius, by Julianus, Archishop of Bozrah.” We are indebted to Mr. Waddington for an exact copy of the inscription placed upon the gate of the church. It confirms the information obtained by former travellers, who have neglected to copy the text. €niTOV0€OIA€CTATOVKAI©€IOTATOVIOVAIANOVAPXI €niCKOnOYU)KOAOMH0HKAI€T€AltOeHOAriOCNAOCCGPriOY BAXKOVA€ONTIOYTONA0AOOPWNKAIKAAAI NIKtONMAPTYPlON€N€TIYZINAIK c. ►£< 'toD fJsotpjXstrraTou xai dsiorarou ’louXia vou ap%i?xiiTXOTrrM toxoftoftriQri xa) ETEXsKuSy b ayiog vao$ Sepy/ou, liayxov, Asovrloo tcuv ub\o$c>p(uy xa) xcOChivtxcov [xapTvpwv ev srf YZ \v6ixtiovos s'. Under the authority of the most holy and most pious Archbishop Julian, the sacred temple of the martyrs combating for the faith, and victorious, Sergius, Bacchus, and Leontius, has been erected and completed in the year 407, sixth indiction. The cycle of indictions having commenced A.L. 313, this church was finished in the fourth year of the sixth indiction. The year 407 relates to the era of Bozrah, and corresponds to the year 505 of our era; that is to say, the 14th year of the reign of the Emperor Anastasius. In the list of Bishops of Bozrah given by Lequien in Oriens Christianus, Bishop Antioehus is mentioned as having accompanied John of Antioch to the Council of Ephesus in A.L. 431. Constantinus, his successor, assisted at the General Council of Chalcedon; after came Antipar, and then Julianus, who was a contemporary of the Emperor Anastasius (491 581). 1 It is to be regretted that the edifice is now in such a ruinous state that it is impossible to ascertain how it was covered. The walls are too thin to have supported a dome of masonry; we therefore must suppose that it had a wooden roof, like the church of the Resurrection and that of St. Mark upon Taurus, at Constantinople. The two side chapels and small sacristies are probably modern additions; they are wanting in the church of Thessalonica. The resemblance of these two churches to one another is also perfect in the absence of the narthex, and in their having entrances at the west and south, which is not the case in most other Byzantine churches. Decoration of the Dome. The vast cupola, the circumference of which is more than seventy-two yards, is divided into eight compartments, ornamented with pictures. There are represented in them, rich palaces, in a fantastic style, resembling those painted on the walls of Pompeii; columns ornamented with precious stones; pavilions closed by purple curtains floating in the wind, upheld by rods and rings; arcades without number; friezes decorated ivith dolphins, birds, palm-trees; and modillions supporting cornices of azure and emerald. In the centre of each of these compositions is a little octagonal or circular house, surrounded by columns and covered by a cupola; it is screened off by low barriers, and veils conceal the interior. A lamp suspended from the ceiling indicates its character; it is the new tabernacle, or sanctum Oriens Christianus, p, 190. THE CHURCH OF ST. GEORGE. sanctorum of the Christians. Although the architectural composition of these pictures is varied, the subject is always the same; that is to say, a small temple in the centre of a splendid colonnade ; to the right and left of each of these temples is the figiye of a man clad in the toga or the chlumys, his hands raised in the attitude of adoration. This we have before men¬ tioned was the position of the early Christians at the time of prayer; it was in this position that Constantine caused himself to he depicted in one of the halls of his palace. These eight pictures are regularly arranged, one above each of the chapels. The architectonic style of their composition accords well with the severe and simple character of the church, and the complete absence of mouldings, or any other projections, gives the interior an air of simple grandeur that at once strikes the spectator. The colossal figures of saints, all clad in a similar manner, their hands stretched towards heaven, were doubtless well calculated to make an impression upon the Christians assembled beneath the dome. By the side of each saint is inscribed his name and the month of the year consecrated to him. These mosaics are the best specimens of the Byzantine school remaining. e may gain some idea of the prodigious labour employed in their execution from the following calculation :—The diameter of the cupolas is 78‘72 feet; the circumference, 247'259 feet. The surface contains 9,732 square feet, eacli cube being ’010 foot square. Thus there would he 3,718 cubes in every square foot, or more than 36,000,000 on the whole surface of the dome. The tints employed in the cubes are infinite; hut there are ten principal colours. The gilt cubes are composed of glass slightly coloured yellow. They seem to have been submitted to a second burning after the application of the gold. The blue is a real enamel, that is to say, glass coloured with oxide of tin. In the present day, the mosaic-workers at Home and Venice prepare their enamels in slabs, which are broken into small pieces; the Byzantines prepared theirs in masses or cakes of varying thickness, which could be cut up into cubes. The blues are composed of cobalt and blue oxide of copper, a colouring composition described by Vitruvius. The reds are of two sorts: one is obtained by means of oxide of iron; the other, which is principally employed in the flesh-tints, is formed by an enamel, the composition of which was discovered in 1775 by the Boman chemist Mattioli, and is known in Rome by the name of purpurino: it is composed of silica, potass, and protoxide of copper: the mosaicists of Rome often employ this enamel to fix their mosaics. But the purple is far from being as beautiful as the ancient purpurine, in the composition of which there was no doubt realgar or red arsenic. Amongst the ruins of Rome were found little caskets of purpurine. The yellow enamels are obtained by the employment of antimony, the whites by means of oxide of tin : we have never observed a single natural stone used in these mosaics. The violets are derived from manganese: they are employed chiefly in vestments. The intense blacks were obtained by a process with which we are unacquainted. The cnaracllers of Constantinople have lost the art of making it. The green enamel is an oxide of copper, which gives tones of varied intensity. The outline of each figure is marked by a dark shade, and the middle is filled with cubes, which are arranged so as to follow the outline. The cement used to unite the cubes is no doubt the same that is still used by the mosaic-workers of our own day, — a paste made of powdered travertine and linsecd-oil. It is needless to remark that if the surface of the dome were washed, the colours of these magnificent pictures would be as brilliant as they were on the day they were executed. It is to be regretted that the Turks are careless about their preservation. When Mr. Pullan visited the mosque, which is generally shut up, the boy who had been sent by the imaum as a guide, amused himself by throwing stones at the mosaics of the dome, for the purpose of detaching some of the coloured cubes to sell to strangers. Plates XXX. to XXXIII. contain representations of the four most important and best- preserved of these pictures from careful drawings coloured on the spot. The pictures are arranged in the following manner:— vio INHW s LVdJ-D AO>l3ldU AOIV IdUVlNHW S Vd-LDAO* SIVI3V9 o*V .o ^ ° ^ : -< H □ 2 ^ o "o o £ > -< s •< i ■0 m > -< °/V\ 4 > ®\o VI* V ONHCI OPOY CTP MHN AYrSTS nopoi PIOY MHNI AYTSTb % The festivals of the saints represented do not exactly accord with those in the Menology of the Emperor Basil II., which was composed between the years 976 and 102S, and which is posterior by many centuries to the foundation of the church. All these saints lived in times anterior to the reign of Constantine; and this fact tends to support our theory about the date of the church. The qualification of soldier ( XrpariwTou) given to some of these saints, is preserved in the Menology; that of IJpeo-GsuTou, which may perhaps be translated by the word legate, is used in the Menology under that of II pea-^ureqou, which signifies really priest. Damian is indicated as physician, and Philemon as flute-player, conformably to tradition. St. ltomanus suffered martyrdom in the reign of Diocletian, lie was a native of Antioch, and a deacon of the church of Caesarea in Palestine. Being at his native town one day, when the judge ordered some Christians to be tortured, he com¬ forted them and rebuked the judge; for this he was thrown into prison and there strangled, November 17th, A.D. 303. 1 In the cupola he is called priest (xpSIAin services he rendered to the rising Church. His disciples, amongst whom Ave may nOYE' 1 reckon the priest Severus, Avere distinguished amongst the confessors of the faith. CKMH Bassus being governor of Thrace, sent the procurator Aristomachus to close the NHOKTW church and seize the treasure. Philip still persisted in performing service under the portico, and in exhorting Christians to remain steadfast in the faith: for this he Avas sent to the stake, and became classed amongst the most celebrated confessors of the faith. 0EPINOY The legend of this saint is very obscure; Ave have not met with his name CTPAT in the menologies of the Greek or Latin churches. His position, with regard MHNHIOY of St. Philip, Avho Avas a martyr of Macedonia, gives us reason to suppose ^IOY that j lc j lac i ma d e himself illustrious in this province. The appellation of strciliotes indicates that he belonged to the legion stationed in the country. nPICKOY CTPAT S MHNH OKTWBPIB St. Leo of Patara, in Lycia, Avas the friend of Paregorius, martyr for the faith. Leo raised a monument to him, and called the Christians together at certain times to honour the 1 Menologium Griecorum jussn Basilii imperatoris Gra?ci olim nology places his festival in December, editum studio et opera Anuibalis Tit. S. dementis Presbyteri 3 See the same work, vol. n. p. 30. Cardinalis Albani; 3 volumes. In folio. 4 For further details of his life see Bail let, Vies ties Saints, - "A6\iiHAH MONOC XOPAY AOY MHNH MAPTI8 Onesiphorus and Porphyrius, whose figures are shown, one on each side of an altar, were honoured at Thessalonica in the month of August. They suffered martyrdom on the same day. ONHCI Onesiphorus was a native of Iconium, and a relative of the empress Tryphsene. He OPOY lived at Iconium, and having received there the Apostle Paul, he was instructed CTPMHNI by him, and baptized with his whole household. Having become a Christian, he AYrs quitted Iconium and went to dwell at Paros, where he preached the Christian doctrine; but having been seized by the order of the archon at the same time as his servant Porphyrius, he was tortured, and afterwards put to death by being tied to the tail of a spirited horse, and dragged over a stony road. Porphyrius suffered the same torture, and died with his master. According to the Menology, their festival is on 6th September. 2 nopoi PIOY MHNIAYrs Bollandus, Acta Sanctorum, Martii 703, A. : 'O mu XjiioroD fiaprue 'Ovriaupopoc v~npx c P> iviou, avyytyi)c <0r —i/C BaffiX/ffffijc T pvifainr.' k 7 -6\et ’Ucoviov. ”E vOa rat l&afitvOQ ror fiiyav 'AkuotoXov 1 r-vs TtiXtoii icici\\6q vtt' ictirov ruv \uyov riic aXijOtimj' sal /nnr-tudflc Kti li iv TO klipvTTt ror XptoTuv. — Menologium Basil. M. Auyusti THE CHURCH OK ST. fi ROUGE. Ml NOYIAT POYMH NIC€n T€MBPI8 Damian, and Cosmas his friend, natives of Arabia, martyrs in the reign of Carinus, AAMIA A.D. 283-84', practised medicine in the town of iEgas, in Cilicia; they traversed the country curing diseases, and demanded no other recompense from those whom they cured than that they should embrace the Christian faith. But the partisans of idolatry, believing that they worked by magic, denounced them to the emperor. When arrested, they were ordered to deny Christ; upon their refusal, they were about to be conducted to execution, when through Divine inspiration the emperor was KOCMOY convinced of his error by means of a cure effected by these two Christians. The IATPOY emperor and all his servants thenceforth believed in Christ; but the honours MHNIC€n rendered to the two physicians excited the jealousy of the courtiers, and one day T€MBPI« when Damian and Cosmas were gathering plants upon a mountain, they were surprised and put to death. Their feast is held in the month of September. The vaults of the five chapels which are situated in the angles of the octagon, arc ornamented with mosaics, the patterns of which are altogether Roman in character; they have square and octagonal compartments, in the midst of which are represented birds and baskets of fruit; amongst the birds there are partridges, herons, ducks; amongst the fruits, the pomegranate and apples. (See Plate XXXIV.) Prom this it is evident that the ancient school of art was in existence when this church was built. Christian art borrowed its style of decoration from the Romans. If the figures of the dome had not Christian inscriptions near them, the style of the palaces behind them would easily have deceived a careless observer. The decorations of the apse are at present concealed beneath a coat of plaster; we did not perceive that figure of the Deity that Colonel Leake remarked here. In its present state, the church of St. George, consecrated to the worship of Islam, is well preserved, and seems likely to exist for many more years. In the enclosure court surrounding it, the Turks have erected a fountain for ablutions, as before mentioned. A body of softas or students are attached to the edifice. Pococke writes at greater length about this mosque than about others: — “ There are several mosques in the city which were formerly churches; that which carries the greatest marks of antiquity is the Rotonda; and if it was not an ancient temple, it certainly was built when Christianity was first publicly established, though I imagine it to have been a heathen temple, and probably a pantheon. The walls are very thick, and built of good bricks; the chapels round it are arched over with double arches of brick, excepting the two entrances to the west and south; there are in them oblong square niches which appear like windows, and are now filled up; above them the wall is not, I suppose, so thick by twelve feet, and over every one of these apartments there is an arched niche. The cupola is adorned with mosaic-work appearing like eight frontispieces of very fine buildings, the perspective of which seemed to be very good; the apartment opposite to the entrance is lengthened out to twenty- seven paces, and ends in a semicircle, which, if it was a temple, must, I suppose, have been added by the Christians for the altar.” TII E CHURCH OE ST. SOPHIA. 142 The idea of consecrating a church to the Divine Wisdom does not appear to have been realized before the reign of Justinian ; but after the 6th century all the large towns of the empire emulated the example of the capital, and churches with this dedication were every¬ where erected. Several churches dedicated to St. Sophia still exist, and amongst the number the cathedral of Thessalonica, on account of its good state of preservation and its fine construction, deserves to be classed in the first rank. In default of historical information about the date of its foun¬ dation, we may infer from its plan, and from the details of the sculpture, that the St. Sophia ol Thessalonica is contemporary with that of Constantinople, and certainly of the school of Anthemius, the celebrated architect and engineer who accompanied Justinian in all his expeditions. WTien we find in Byzantine authors so many and such interesting details about the church of St. Demetrius, we are surprised to find that the cathedral of Thessalonica is mentioned in their recitals only incidentally. Procopius, who has written six books upon the edifices constructed by Justinian, does not even mention the church of Thessalonica, but it may be remembered that Justinian lived ten years after the book on his buildings was finished. Procopius finished his book about the year 555 ; Justinian died A.D. 5G5. 1 This explains why the erection of the castle and aqueduct of Trebizond, also the work of Justinian, 2 is not mentioned by Procopius. This church, though it held the first rank in the town, is but little mentioned by historians. If we except the documents given by Eustathius and Coineniata, in other authors we find only a few short sentences relating to it. Eor instance : in the letter of the Roman pontiff, Innocent III., bishop of Neopatras, 3 in which there is mention made of the canons of Thessalonica; it is mentioned a second time in the same letters' 1 to which allusion has been made in the history of St. Demetrius; and also in the narrative of the taking of Thessalonica by the Turks in the year 1430.® During the time that the Normans were masters of the town, the priests of St. Sophia’s one day summoned the faithful to prayer by striking redoubled blows upon the semantron placed in the tower, and the Normans mistook this noise for the signal of revolt. Tradition, whether it be that of the Greek clergy of Thessalonica, or that of the authors who have described this church, is unanimous in attributing the erection of St. Sophia’s to Justinian; and the accordance that exists between this church and that of Constantinople goes far to confirm this opinion. Pococke 0 remarks the resemblance of this church to that of St. Sophia at Constantinople, which was the prototype of all churches with the same dedication in the Greek empire. He makes the folio-wing observations about it “Another mosque was the church of St. Sophia, built something on the model of St. Sophia’s at Constantinople, having a cupola adorned with beautiful mosaic-work: there arc some fine verde antique pillars in the church and portico, and in the church there is a verde antique throne or pulpit, with two or three steps up to it, the whole being of one piece of marble.” Paul Lucas says on the same subject: 7 — “ I also visited the mosque which is still called St. Sophia; it is very beautiful and also of great extent. The bell-tower is still in existence ; it is built of ashlar and brickwork, like the rest of the building.” Eustathius in his Norman narrative s mentions this tower in the following passage :— “ A few days after, before the celebration of the eve of the feast, the choristers mounted to the summit of our Catholic church, to give, according to custom, the signal by striking the plank .... and when they had given the signal for the feast by striking the plank in a startling manner, soon the barbarians, &c.” 1 See Asie-mineure, p. 88. 8vo. 4 Letter xv. 8(1. fl Jolin Anagnosta, eh. xx. 2 According to an ancient inscription still extant at Trebi- n Description of the East, vol. in. p. 215. «>nd. 7 Voyage, vol. i. p. 201. Amsterdam, 1720. ;l Letters of Innocent, xm. 13. 8 Ch. exxu. pp. 301—350. SOPHIA'S. THESSALONICA SOPHIA. (SALONIKIJ THESSALONICA SS THK ClfUItCH oi’ ST. SOTF1A. Felix de Beaujour, in his Tableau du Commerce G € IC A4» V M CO N € IC TONOVNONOVTt0C€A€VC€TAIONTPOrON€O€ACAC 0€AVT0Nr0P€V0M€N0N€ICT0N0VN0N ’At 'Opsg Ta'kiXaAOi rt BfTTTjXfXTB sg.€xixovT£g dig tov oupavov ; oitTog o T ^troug b avaXrjtpQdig alp' ug.wv dig rbv ohpavov, o’jTcug sT^sbcrsTai ov Tpoxov sQsa(ra.(r(l£ cd/rov xopsuojxsvov dig tov oupavovd Ye men of Galilee, why stand ye gazing up into heaven ? this same Jesus, which is taken up from you into heaven , shall so come in like manner as ye have seen him go into heaven. All these figures have their heads ornamented with nimbi. Bound the dome are the twelve Apostles assisting at the Ascension. They are all to be distinguished by their attributes: the Evangelists hold books richly hound; the others hold rolls or diplomas in their hands. They are all represented in attitudes appropriate to the grand scene of which they are witnesses. Some support their heads with their hands; others have their eyes raised to heaven. They are all clothed in the Koman toga, of a blue colour, with dark shadows. The ground on which they stand does not resemble the earth, but is a curious collection of rocks of various colours. Acts, i. 11. KSKI DJoUMA. Tins vast composition, which covers about six hundred square yards, the figures bei.K- more than twelve feet high, is executed in a superior manner to many of the works of the Middle Ages tl.at we observe in the West. We see that the traditions of the Itoman school of art wore not yet forgotten. The pictures of the churches of Thessalonica, too lone ne-lected ought to throw some light upon our knowledge of the Byzantine school. We have a few words to add about the apse. The hemispheres of the Byzantine absides are invariably adorned either with a colossal figure of Jesus Christ, or with a representation of the Virgin seated, holding in her hand the infant Jesus. Tile latter decorates the apse 111 the church of St. Sophia. The walls of the apse are ornamented bv a mosaic representing a design composed of alternate squares; in one is a silver cross, in the other a vine-leaf (See Plate XXVI.) The lower frieze lias several monograms; thus:_ V P K 0 H (K ripiB Qsoe 6(xsrsp(ov (dlcov, — Great God of our lives.) D 8 The other monogram K C N is explained by the words Kthus Xarip (O Loyd our Saviour). CO Between these monograms is the invocation XE BWH0H (Xpurrl 0a )rjQfj, O Christ, aid us). Underneath the frieze is the following inscription, also in mosaic: — * K€O0CTU)NYPLUNBIIjUNCT€P€OCONTONOIKONMOY K Upis O 060J Ttbv U[XST£p(OV 010)1/ (TTSpioa-OV TOV olxov [J.OU. O God, Master of our lives, strengthen my house. All the mosaics are executed with a finish rarely seen in works of the same kind. We ought to render this justice to the Turkish ministers of religion at Thessalonica, that, notwith¬ standing the great number of Christian figures in this edifice, it is still the object of their most assiduous attention. In the pavement of the women’s gallery, which is almost entirely composed of Byzantine brick, we find stamps like those which we mentioned as existing in the church of St. George. ESKI DJOUMA. Tradition, which has in general faithfully preserved amongst the Greeks the names of the saints to whom the churches converted into mosques were dedicated, is completely in default in the case of this building. We could find no document throwing any light upon the subject, nor do our predecessors at Thessalonica seem to have been more fortunate than ourselves. It was the first church taken possession of by the Turks, when they became masters of the town. An inscription engraved upon the base of the minaret fixes the date of this event at 1430; it reads thus:— “ Sultan Amurath Fetid took possession of Thessalonica. in the year 832.” The edifice goes by the name of Eski Djouma, the Ancient Mosque. 1 For some reason, difficult to understand, all travellers who have described this edifice, have regarded it as an ancient temple of the Thermean Venus, although neither tradition nor history, nor the character of the building, justifies such a supposition. That those who are not antiquaries should make such a mistake is not surprising, but that an author so judicious as Colonel Leake (whose archaeological writings are of great authority) should assert such a thing, is more difficult to comprehend. ' The Turks distinguish certain days of the week by the names of the business transacted upon them. For instance, Sunday is called Bazar-gun (Market-day), Monday, Bazar- erlesi (the day after the market) ; Friday, being their sabbath, or day of assembly in the mosque ( Djami), is called Djoumai- ffun (the day of assembly). Eski Djouma means Ancient assembly. TITRSSA f,( )N ICA. Felix de Beaujour 1 was the first person who believed that he saw in this church the vestiges of an ancient temple of Venus. “The mosque Eski Djouma, or Ancient Friday,” says he, “ was originally a temple consecrated to Venus Thermea. The Greeks spoiled it by endeavouring to give it the form of a cross. It was a perfect parallelogram, 70 feet long by 35 feet wide, and was supported on the sides by twelve columns of the Ionic order, of the most elegant form.. The six columns of the portico are now built into the Avails of the mosque. If the country belonged to an intelligent people, the temple of the Thermean Venus might be disencumbered of the Gothic buildings which disfigure it; it would then he, after the temple of Theseus, the best-preserved monument in Greece; but in the present day it is only to be seen half concealed by a covering of plaster.” A glance at the plan will show how great were the illusions of the author. Cousinery, who also lived at Saloniki for many years, did not perceive that Eski Djouma was of Christian origin. “ The Botonda is not the only ancient temple of which Thessalonica has preserved the remains. A mosque that bears the name of Eski Djouma, Ancient Friday, appears to be an edifice much more ancient. It passes among the Franks as having been consecrated to A enus, but the Greeks, when they became Christians, consecrated it to I don’t remember what saint, and the Turks having, in their turn, transformed it into a mosque, disfigured it in such a manner that both the interior and the exterior have lost their form and elegance.” 2 Leake, avIio travelled many years after the work of Cousinery had been published, seems to have adopted his opinions. “ Eski Djouma, or Old Friday, is the name of another mosque the masonry and form of a great part of which show that it was once a building of the same age as Eski Metropoli, or perhaps older. It is supposed to have been a temple of Venus.” s AVe completely partake of the opinion of our predecessors about the majesty and noble effect of this building, but avo shall find it an easy matter to restore to the Christian architects of the 5th century the merit of having designed and executed it. The Mussulmans altered it but little Avhen they adapted it to their Avorship. Eski Djouma is situated in the loAver quarter of the toAvn, not far from one of the bazaars. Tt is completely shut in by the houses that surround it. The fagade, Avhich is towards the principal street, presents only a Avhite Avail without windows, Avith only a doorway in it, having an architrave supported by marble jambs. AA T e enter into a transverse corridor, 23 ft. 9 in. Avide, Avliere is placed the fountain of ablution, no doubt that used by the Christians. This corridor is the ancient exo-narthex; it has a lean-to roof, and appears to have had no ornamentation originally. Its north end gives access to a small garden Avhich belonged to the cloisters. The minaret of the mosque constructed by Amurath lias upon its base, in addition to the inscription that avc have quoted, another inscription commemorative of the visit that the Sultan Mohammed III. made to the mosque A.D. 1594; it reads thus: — I • cUjU- y y\ The Sultan Mohammed , son of Ibrahim, came to this mosque in the year 10S3. The exo-narthex is wanting in most churches of the second period, which were erected Avlien Christianity had extended to all the principal toAvns of the Empire. From the exo-narthex we pass into a second passage parallel to the first, the size of which is 93 ft. G in. by 18 ft. 7 in.; this is the eso- or internal narthex, which communicates directly with the nave. The large basilicas of Italy — those of St. Peter and St. John Lateran — are entered through a similar corridor, in imitation of the churches of the East; the cathedrals of the AVest offer but few examples, since all the porticos for catechumens had fallen into desuetude. These vestibules, for one thing, tended to keep the churches clean, as they intervened between them and the street. Formerly the internal narthex Avas separated from the nave by four columns, ouly united by a balustrade of marble; now the columns are engaged in a thick Avail built by the Turks, through which the nave is entered by a square-headed doorway. 1 Tableau du Commerce de la Grice, vol. i. p. 44. - Voyaye en Macedoine, vol. i. p. 35. * Travels in North Greece , vol. in. p. 241. MOSQUE OF ESKI DJOUMA. THESSALONICA saUg* KSK1 DJulJMA. 147 The interior of the clmrch consists of a rare 119 feet long, terminating in a semicircular apse; to the right and left are colonnades of twelve columns, separating the aisles from the nave. (See Plates XLII. to XLIV.) The same arrangement is repeated upon the upper story, where is the gallery for women. Evidently the plan is that of the Christian basilica, and has‘a striking resemblance in its leading features to that built at Jerusalem by Constantine, of which Eusebius has left a description. Those who would, in spite of the evidence afforded by the plan, still doubt the fact of this building from the time of its foundation being intended for a Christian church, need only look at the capitals (upon the dosserets of which the labarur,i of Constantine is sculptured within a wreath of leaves), to be convinced of their error. Tlie semicircular apse of Eski Djouma is lighted by three windows: this was the mode adopted long before the dream of Justinian, in which an angel directed him to light the apse of his church by three windows, in honour of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost. One of the marks of antiquity of this church lies in the fact that the side chapels, in which the sacred vessels were deposited, at the east end, are wanting: in the earliest times these were confided to the neocoros, ancl taken to the residence of the bishop. At the end of the south aisle of the church there is a niche or credence, ornamented with the short Ionic columns, which served as the receptaculum for the holy vessels. The columns of the nave are of the Composite order, the shafts arc monolithic, of white marble; the bases are Attic and without ornament. The carving of the capitals is remarkable for its finish; the leaves are those of the acanthus, which the Byzantines always preferred to those of the olive for the decoration of capitals. The abacus is supported by volutes at the four angles; the torus that separates them is ornamented with palm-leaves. The use of the drill, an instrument unknowm in the best times of Greek art, is to be noticed here. Each capital is surmounted by a marble dosseret, bearing the name XPIXTOX. These dosserets support round arches, without arcliivolts; — at least there are none now visible, for the whole church has been covered with a coat of plaster by the Turks, upon which are painted large medallions, the names of the Prophet and the Mahometan chiefs, Mohammed — Abou-Bekir— Osman — Ali — Amar. A wooden staircase leads to the upper gallery (gynceconitis). Twelve Ionic columns support the arcade, dividing it from the nave: these columns are now surrounded with masonry, but they all exist in position. On those parts of the arches which are not concealed by the plaster, mosaic decorations of excellent execution are to be seen; the subjects are, flowers, birds, and other ornaments on a gold ground. All the interior of the church was decorated, from the springing of the arches upwards, in the same manner. The few mouldings that exist are very simple; they consist of fillets, cavettos, and quarter-rounds, without enrichments. The roof of the nave is visible; it is constructed in the simplest fashion, like that of St. Paul without the Walls at Borne. A side entrance opens into the aisle of the church, through a long passage of the same date as the church. In the church of St. George we have also noticed a side-door on the south. We have already stated that there is no document that throws light upon the date of this church; however, it is certain that it is later than the reign of Constantine. At that period the internal colonnades of basilicas were surmounted by architraves and not by arches : the dosseret had not then made its appearance. We do not believe that the church is anterior to the reign of Theodosius; but we may safely affirm that it dates from the beginning of the 5th century. I'll KSSALON H'A. THE CHURCH OE THE HOLY APOSTLES ( Sooulc-sou Djamisi). This remarkable church, which is in a perfect state of preservation, is situated in the quarter called Soouk-sou (Cold Water), from a neighbouring reservoir. It possesses all the elegance of the Byzantine architecture of the 7th century: it is built of brick and stone in combination. The plan of it differs from that usually adopted, in the fact that the aisle corresponding to the internal narthex goes all round the nave, forming a perfect square. The exo-narthex is composed of an open gallery, having to the right and left two coupled columns, supporting arches, and in the middle a square-headed doorway between two pilasters. The arches above these columns are unequal in span. There is a somewhat similar arrangement in the church of Constantinople, called Theotokos ton libou, which is of the time of Justinian. A single doorway leads from the narthex into the interior. The nave, as it may be called, is quite square; it is terminated towards the east by three absides, and is covered by a dome supported by four columns. As there is no upper gallery for women, it is probable that the aisles were used to accommodate them. In the church called Kangaria, situated in the middle of the principal street of Athens, there is a similar arrangement. At the cast end of the north aisle is a square chamber for the sacred vessels. There are no traces of the iconostasis, nor of painted decorations or mosaics. The four columns of the dome support large brick arches, through which the nave is lighted by windows on the north and south sides. The cupola is carried to a considerable height; on the exterior of it there are ten arches, separated from one another by small columns. At the four corners of the square over the angles of the nave are four smaller cupolas, constructed in the same manner as that in the centre. But little marble is used in the building; the cornices are formed of bricks, placed anglewise, forming a sort of triangular dentils. The three absides are polygonal externally; the whole of the exterior is relieved by ornamented brickwork arranged in squares, lozenges, and other patterns. (See Plates XLV.— XLVIII.) There arc few inscriptions existing in the church ; the little sculpture that existed has been damaged by the Turks. Above the doorway arc these words:-—HATPIAPXHZKAIKTHT.QP (Patriarch and Constructor). The closserets of the columns have monograms on them, in which these words are repeated. N A third monogram is as follows: — 4> U) N ; containing probably the name of the founder. I The capitals of the columns are of two sorts; some, composed of two rows of acanthus- leaves, and having four volutes, had on each face a disc, upon which were sculptured the cross and figures of saints; but they are now mutilated. The astragals are composed of leaves placed close together, with their points downwards. The other capitals have three equal rows of acanthus-leaves, and an abacus like the Corinthian. All the leaves of the capitals are adopted from the antique. There is no similarity between these and those employed in the West during the Middle Ages. Most likely this church was converted into a mosque in the 9th century of the Hegira. VIEW OF THE CHURCH OF THE HOLY APOSTLES. THESSALONICA CHURCH OF THE HOLY APOSTLES. THESSALONICA CHURCH OF THE HOLY APOSTLES CHURCH OF THE HOLY APOSTLES- TH E S S A LO N IC A . THE UHUKC'H OK ST. 15A KUIAS. TIIE CHURCH OF ST. EAR DIAS (Kazan djUar Djami-si). Under the Emperor Bnsil II. (963—1025), ecclesiastical architecture, although following the principles that had been in favour from the time of Justinian, underwent some modifi¬ cation in details, of which wc find examples in several buildings now in existence. Bvzantine architecture has been so little studied, that there is rather a lack of expressions for archi¬ tectural descriptions. Of the KwTuvfyxosi&js, or churches with cylindrical vaults, described by Leo Allatius, there are examples at Constantinople in the monastery of the village M uA t% yjopag, and in the ancient church now called Gul Djamisi (the mosque of the Rose), and also in a little church at Thessalonica, noxv concealed by the erection of a bazaar. This last is an interesting example of edifices of this description, since it bears an inscription giving the precise date of its erection. The fa§ade is rendered peculiar by the arches of the vault appearing externally without horizontal courses above them,— as in St. Mark’s at Venice, a building of about the same date as this. In the middle of the bazaar of the Kettlemakers (Kazandjilar), stands a small mosque, abandoned, and falling into ruin. This is to be recognized at the first glance as an early Byzantine church. The edifice is built entirely of bricks. In plan there is a narthex, 26 ft. 11 in. long, and the full width of the church; and a square nave with four columns in the centre supporting the pendentives of the central dome. At the four angles are four smaller domes. The church ends in a semicircular apse, and on each side are the chapels for the books and sacred vessels. At this period there was but one altar in a church,— there was no place for others. The front elevation has three arches of equal height ; in the middle of the central arch is a square door with white marble jambs. Upon the architrave is the following inscription in interlaced characters :— * Al€POOHOPPHNB€BHAOCTOPOCEICNAONP€PIBA€PTONTHCOKOY PAPAXPICTt04>OT8€NA<»ZOTAT8BACIAIK8ACPAOAPIOVKATArONOAn8 BAPAIACKTHCCVNBI8AVT8MAPIACKTWNTEKNWNAYTWNNIKH OANNHCKKATAKAAICMHNIC€PT€MBPIOINAIKTHCIB€TOYCr«l)AZ * A(plSprB; and upon another stone the date si,'B, the year 6562 of the world, corresponding to A.D. 1012. A large piece of white marble, apparently an architrave, bears the following inscription in large characters. It appears to have been one of those invocations so frequently met with in Byzantine churches: — €IC AOZAN TOY 060Y €nOIHX€ AYNAMIN It derives its strength from the glory of God. The characters are of the 10th century. This fragment comes, no doubt, from a porch that has been destroyed. Many of the bricks bear the following impression, similar to those which we have already described. We must not conclude from this fact that the different churches in which they occur were erected all at the same period, but rather that these signs, when once adopted, have been repeated upon all bricks used for the construction of churches. 1 Ciampini, de sacris /Edificiis a Constantino M. constructis. ELIAS'. THESSALONICA THESSALONICA Scale ELIAS. TH ESSA LO NICA . TJIK PRESENT STATE OK THESSALONICA. 151 Tlie plan of the church of St. Elias is in the form of a Latin cross, three arms of which are terminated by semicircular absides of equal diameter. The narthex occupies the lower part of the cross. It is composed of a square apartment, and has Ionic columns and a vaulted roof. Above tlie narthex is a tribune, which occupies only half the room below. It is reached by a staircase in the thickness of the wall. This tribune communicates with the nave by three arches, supported by Ionic columns. The centre of the nave is surmounted by a dome, 64 ft. 7 in. in height from the floor, lighted by twelve high narrow windows. The pendentive on the west side rests upon two Corinthian columns, which appear to have been taken from some ancient edifice. Apparently similar ones could not be found to correspond with them on the east side; so pieces of masonry have been employed there. This church differs from others in not having chapels on each side of the iconostasis. There is, indeed, no place at all resembling a sacristy; and it is therefore difficult to conceive bow tlie Greek rite, which consists of so many different ceremonies, could be performed there. In the present day the interior of the church is whitewashed, so that no trace of internal decoration is visible. Hie style ot the building, which is built of bricks, reminds one of the edifices of Manuel and of the Basils. The bricks are arranged in patterns of lozenges, and meanders of original character. Ibis mode of building is to be seen in the walls of Nictea, and also in the church of the Apostles just described, which apparently was taken as an example by the builders of St. Elias. Externally the cupola has twelve small engaged columns. The roofs of the absides die against its base in a manner that gives a certain degree of elegance to the structure. The front elevation has three arches, -with a door in that in the middle. There are windows to light the narthex in the other two. THE PRESENT STATE OF THESSALONICA. nHHE buildings which we have described, which form the finest collection of ecclesiastical edifices erected by the Greeks between the 5th and 10th centuries, are not the only vestiges of antiquity that the ancient metropolis of Macedonia presents. There are other small churches, of which we have only had glimpses in passing, existing in many quarters of tlie town ; hut they possess no peculiar interest, as they resemble in some degree one or other of the churches that we have given. The citadel commanding Thessalonica was a collection of buildings which resembled a small town. Its erection was contemporary, if not anterior, to that of the walls built by Cassandra. The Byzantine Emperors, Justinian and Zeno, executed important works there. As a reminiscence of tlie celebrated fortress of Constantinople, the Greeks gave it the name of TIeptapyrgion (the Castle of the Seven Towers). Nowadays the Turks call it Yedi Kouleler Kalessi. Within tlie circuit of the Avails of tlie citadel is a quarter formerly occupied by the Janissaries. At the foot of the castle, by the side of the present Greek church, is a monastery, which is the residence of the Metropolitan. The Homan remains of Thessalonica consist of a portion of a fine colonnade of a rich Corinthian order. The columns rest on pedestals, and the frieze is carved; both these sIioav that the building Avas erected in a late period; and above the entablature is an attic adorned with statues. This colonnade AA'as published in Stuart’s Athens. It goes by the name of the Incantada. The entablature and attic are finished, and the figures exist on both sides. Many conjectures have been made about these ruins, but no one seems yet to have satisfactorily explained what the edifice originally was used for. A triumphal arch in a tolerable state of preservation spans the principal street, and there are the remains of another in the citadel. TTTESSALOXTC'A. It. is not only in its monuments that Thessalonica retains souvenirs of its past days. Its inhabitants bear the stamp of tlieir origin, more distinctly marked than those of any other town. The Christians, who are very numerous, are divided into two principal classes;—the Greeks, who still have the sea for their domain, being chiefly mariners and fishermen; and the Bulgarians, who were formerly the enemies of Thessalonica, but were afterwards converted to Christianity, and became strenuous supporters of the faith. The latter devote themselves chiefly to agriculture, and to the rearing and training of horses, for which they are celebrated. There are still to be seen in .Macedonia those Thessalian horses, with short necks, rounded flanks, and vigorous legs, the type of which is to be seen in the friezes of the Parthenon. The Bulgarians' have had from time immemorial the management of the stud of the Sultqn. Every spring, the Turks are in the habit of sending their horses to grass for a month. At this period, the Bulgarians descend from their mountain abodes, and, wandering through the country, seek employment as horse-keepers. In the summer, it is the turn of the women, who descend into the plain to harvest. They are often to be seen in the towns, in bauds of twenty or thirty, holding one another by the hand, and walking through the bazaars, singing their native ditties. Their costume is singularly picturesque, but barbarous. They wear their hair long, and hanging loose, ornamented here and there with coins; a robe of thick cloth, embroidered with bright colours, girt with a long- sasli, made of green wool, netted. Until they are engaged for the harvest, they live in the various caravanserai, in a most frugal manner. Amongst the inhabitants of the vicinity, there are also some Wallacliian families, but they are less wandering in their habits. They are of a better race. The women are more prepossess¬ ing, and they have a more attractive costume, which reminds one of that of the Neapolitan peasants. The Jewish inhabitants of Thessalonica belong to one of two bodies of Israelites, who were sent out of Spain by Eerdinand and Isabella; the other body became established at Constantinople. The Spanish language is still used by both. The Jews are generally tanners or dyers; the morocco they make is noted for its good quality. They manufacture also cloths of cotton, mixed with silk, much used in the baths. Thessalonica is the most flourishing commercial town in Macedonia, but the marshes near it render it very unhealthy in summer. When communication with the interior is rendered more easy, no doubt this celebrated town of antiquity will see some of its former prosperity. We should be glad to hear, for one thing, that the successor of Amurath II. had imitated the generous conduct of his ancestor, who gave up to the vanquished Greeks the most venerated of their churches, that of St. Demetrius, for the exercise of their worship. 155 BR OTIS 8 A. ROUSSA, the ancient Prusa, was founded by Prusias, king of Bithynia, when Hannibal earae, a fugitive, to seek a refuge near that prince: its origin then dates from two centuries before the Christian era. Although admirably situated, and abundantly provided with excellent water, by streams which descend the sides of Mount Olympus, Broussa was but a second-rate town during the Roman dominion. Having fallen into the power of the Romans after the defeat of Mithridates, it was made subject to Nicomedia, which was the metropolis of Bithynia, and which bad constantly to defend its title against the competition of its rival Nicaea. Nevertheless, in spite of its rank of only a second-rate town, Prusa was embellished with remarkable edifices, due to the care of Pliny the Younger — governor of Bithynia — whose intelligent policy induced the Emperor Trajan to take an interest in the welfare of the Asiatic towns recently incorporated into the empire. Pliny caused to be erected in Prusa most of those public edifices which were the usual orna¬ ments of Roman cities — many temples, an agora, baths, and a library, in the midst of which stood a statue of Trajan. When the numerous and zealous Christians of Bithynia began to disquiet the Roman government, Prusa played only a secondary part. The movement was stronger in Nicomedia, the capital; there the Christians held their meetings, and there they built one of the first churches raised for the new worship. The renown of the Christians of Prusa is obscured by that of the martyrs of Nicomedia ; yet in the midst of the last terrible struggle between Christianity and expiring paganism, if there was one person encircled with a brighter halo than the rest, it was St. Patricius or Patrick, bishop of Prusa, who suffered martyrdom in the time of Diocletian. The legend of this saint, so dramatic and yet so natural, makes us acquainted with some details connected with this town, which historians seem to have forgotten. We learn that the hot springs, which from the time of Pliny appear to have been entirely neglected, had, at the commencement of the 3rd century, acquired considerable reputation, and that the patricians often resorted to Prusa for the sake of their health. A temple of yEsculapius and Hygieia had been erected in the neighbourhood of the principal spring. The legend goes on to say that a certain proconsul of Bithynia, Julian by name, had been cured by means of these waters, and wishing to honour the two protecting divinities by some startling and brilliant act of homage, he resolved to compel the Christians to pay their adoration to them. While remaining in the town administering justice, he summoned St. Patrick, bishop of Prusa, and after having described in glowing terms the miracle worked by this healing water, he told the bishop that it was folly to pray to Christ, as his power was not to be compared to that of the gods, especially of the god iEsculapius. St. Patrick, being of the contrary opinion, explained, in a calm and simple discourse, that the curative property of these waters was the result of their heat and their natural composition, which the one God, Creator of the universe, alone had power to confer upon them. Whereupon the consul begged the pious bishop to make known the virtue of these waters. “ Let the people be admitted to the tribunal,” said be, “and I will explain the doctrine of the Christians about the physical phenomena of nature.” The auditorium being filled, St. Patrick delivered a discourse upon the doctrine established by Holy Writ, relating to the creation of water, fire, and light. Julian, irritated by the constancy with which the bishop denied the power of the heathen gods, ordered his agents to seize the bishop and cast him into the basin of boiling water, at the same time making use of words often found in the mouths of the executioners of martyrs: — BHOUSSA .. If your God bo so powerful, lot Him save you and preserve you.” According to the legend, when St Patrick was precipitated into the basin full of boiling water, which scalded the soldiers who threw him in.-lie stood up in it, confessing Christ in a still louder voice. Julian in the height of his fury commanded that he should be taken out, and immediately decapitated. Amongst the companions of St. Patrick executed at the same time were Oracms and Menander. Many monasteries were founded in the valleys of Mount Olympus, and the emperors made them many donations. Constantine Porphyrogenitus performed a pilgrimage to Pmsa. In the reign of Constantino Copronymns, the abbey of Medice was founded by St. Nicephorus, dedicated to St. Sergius, and placed under the rule of the Acoimetoi (those who take no rest). When the Latins became possessed of Constantinople in the year 1203, Theodore Lascaris, despot of Romania, assembled an army for the purpose of preserving to the falling empire those provinces which it still possessed in Asia. Ho began to chase the Latins from the pro¬ vinces of Lydia and Bitliynia; ho formed an alliance with tile Sultan of Iconium, and was crowned Emperor of Nicaea in the year 1206. Prusa, or Broussa, from the time it was threatened by the Turkish tribes, began to be of some importance. Theodore Lascaris rebuilt its walls aud put the town into a good state of defence. The Latins besieged the town ; hut it resisted all their attacks, and remained in the power of the Greeks until the peace, A.D. 1214. John Yataces, son-in-law and successor of Lascaris, ascended the throne of Nicaea in the year 1222, and continued the policy of his father-in-law, by defending the small extent of territory still possessed by the Byzantines in Asia Minor, against the Latins. The victory of Pacmaninus made the Emperor of Nicaea master of all the provinces of Lydia and Bithyma, from the Meander to the Sea of Marmora. Cyzicus remained in the hands of the Greeks, and the Latins were expelled from Nicomedia, their last place of refuge. During the years that followed this contest between the Greeks and the Latins (who were still masters of Constantinople), — Vataces endeavoured to induce his subjects to forget the horrors of war. Most of the towns were fortified ; treaties of alliance with the oriental princes were signed, and much attention was devoted to ecclesiastical affairs during the reign of this prince. Overtures were made to the court of Rome for the union of the two churches, but without result. Vataces caused many churches to be erected at Nicaea and Broussa. The church of St. Elias, which still exists, is one of those that were founded by him. It was annexed to the monastery of David, and as the Turks deposited in it the ashes of Osman, the founder of their dynasty, 'they have maintained it under the title of Daoud Monastic. This church was one of the last ecclesiastical buildings built in the town of Broussa. The bishop of Broussa believes that it was erected between the years 1250 and 1254. Vataces died at Nymplii, near Smyrna, A.D. 1255. During the following reigns, Broussa became more and more closely surrounded by the Moslem armies, and the inhabitants were compelled to fight, in order to obtain means of sustenance Two forts were constructed by the lieutenant of Erthogrul, in order to intercept communication between the town and the sea. In the year 1290, during the reign ofAndro- nicus II., Broussa repelled an attack made by the Turks; still the emperor, vexed at the supineness shown by the inhabitants in their defence, punished the chief of them, by delivering up the property of some of them to pillage, and by sending others into exile. In tile year 1317, Osman, the successor of Erthogrul, took the town of Edrenos, dismantled it, and afterwards established his camp on the heights which commanded Broussa. In these enterprises the Mahometans proceeded with a deliberation which insured success. Many years passed before Broussa was seriously attacked. Osman had designated as Ins successor Ins son Orkhan, who received from Ala-eddyn the title of Sultan of the Turks. In the year 1326 lie renewed the attack on Broussa;—the commandant of the town was preparing lor a vigorous resistance when he received an order from the Emperor Andronicus to capitulate. The inhabitants obtained permission to retire to Cius, a port on the neighbouring sea-coast. Orkhan then made his entry into the town, converted all the churches into mosques, and took possession of the monasteries. Less fortunate than their brethren of Mount Atlios, the monks of Olympus were extermi¬ nated or expelled by the Turks; however, a memento of their existence remains in the name given to Olympus by tile Turks, which is Chcchieh Dagh, or the Mountain ot the Monk. THE K ST. El,I AS. THE CHUECII OE ST. ELIAS. The only Byzantine building still remaining in Broussa was made the burial-place of the first Ottoman Sultan; and to this circumstance is owing its preservation. It is natural to suppose that at the time of Osman’s death, this was the most important building in the town, and that it was therefore selected for the purpose of receiving the bones of the conqueror. The church of St. Elias is built upon the summit of a hill that commands the plain. The founder conformed to the tradition directing that churches dedicated to the prophet should be built on an elevated site. Another condition, which has been equally observed, is that the church should be circular in plan. The Christians seem to have followed in the construction of edifices of this description the usage observed by the pagans, of giving a round form to temples dedicated to astronomical divinities; as for instance to Vesta and Neptune. Manifestly the name of Elias, and the miraculous end of that prophet, influenced the active imagination of the Greeks, and this souvenir of antiquity was not damaging to Christianity. The church of Broussa, like that of Thessalonica, is surmounted by a high cupola in the form of a tholus , supported by four columns of white marble. (Sec Plate LVI.) The apse is lighted by three mullioned windows, the small pilasters of which all bear crosses on their capitals. The walls up to the height of the springing are lined with slabs of veined marble; the upper walls also have similar slabs divided by bands of marble ornamented with dentils. This kind of ornament is everywhere employed in the interior of St. Sophia’s. There is no trace of an iconostasis in this church. We have already stated that churches dedicated to St. Elias are wanting in the arrangements necessary for the celebration of Byzantine ceremonies, and above all in the gallery for women. We are inclined to consider this edifice as having been annexed to the monastery, from which the name of Daoud Monastir was derived. However, it possesses a narthex, which would seem to show that it was open to a certain number of the faithful, — probably only to men. When the remains of Sultan Osman were deposited in this church, the dome was covered with plates of silver; whence was derived the name of Gumish-lu Ivubbe (the Silver Cupola), also given to it. Other Mahometan princes and princesses were buried in the ncirtliex. Amongst the treasures preserved here were a drum and a chaplet, symbolical of the investiture of the first sultan, — presents from Ala-Eddyn, the Sultan of Iconium. A great fire which destroyed Broussa in 1804 damaged this church considerably; the dome then fell down. It was subsequently repaired; but the silver plates that had lined it disappeared, and now it is lined with marble and covered with cement. Thus the building now possesses simply an historical interest. BYZANTINE AND TURKISH BATHS. HE use of vapour-baths does not appear to have been earlier than the time of the Romans. All documents, as well as all paintings on vases, show that the Greeks made use of either plunge-baths or running streams only. Still the use of natural hot baths was popular from times of the greatest antiquity; hut it was the Romans only who constructed those splendid edifices known to us under the name of Thcrmce, in which steam was employed together with warm water for the purpose of ablution. It was not the passion for bathing alone, though so powerful amongst the Romans, that induced them to frequent the Thcv»i(B every day. The baths were the rendezvous of the idle as well as of the industrious. Philosophers and literary men assembled to talk over the questions of the day in a hall oalled scholar the young men took exercise in the xystus and paleestra, necessary adjuncts to these baths. The women, on their part, assembled on certain days and devoted long hours to their toilette. All classes had access to the baths at certain fixed times, and the custom of taking the bath contributed not a little to the public health. In independent Greece, the usage, not originally popular, spread under the influence of Roman manners. Athens, although she possessed so many noble edifices, never boasted any magnificent baths. Rut during the reign of the first emperors, the use of baths extended rapidly through the principal towns. The great number of hot mineral springs on the coast of Asia and on the continent of Greece, gave rise to the erection of edifices, to which the municipal magistrates contributed, and which were placed under the protection of the reigning emperor, as inscriptions attest. The use of vapour-baths, so beneficial to the health, remained popular under the Byzantine emperors, who raised the repute of these establishments in no slight degree. I lie baths of Constantinople, as numerous as they were magnificent, were reckoned amongst the wonders of that capital. Amongst them were renowned above all the baths ot Apollo, the tamer of horses, and of Xeuxippe, which were frequently burnt down and rebuilt. On the Asiatic coast almost all the hot springs were surrounded by apartments for vapour-baths. Alexandria Troas still possesses, by the side of the gymnasium, the ruins of hot baths. Near Lebedus we found the ruins of extensive baths in the Roman style adjoining, hot springs. We should have to enumerate most of the cities of Asia, if we were to mention all those in which buildings of this kind were erected for the use of the people. It is astonishing that amongst all the public works undertaken for towns possessing mineral waters, nothing should have been done for Broussa until Constantine founded his new capital. At least no ancient author mentions the erection of baths there, and we see, by a letter from Pliny to Trajan, 1 that the Prusians had only an old bath in bad condition, and that the governor asked permission to rebuild it on the site of a house which had been left to the Emperor Claudius, intending to build a temple surrounded by colonnades in honour of that prince. 1 Book x. ].. THIS BATHS UK MAHOMET II. The hot springs of Broussa were, however, frequented, towards the beginning of the 4th century, and placed under the patronage of JEsculapius. We have no other information than that derived from the legend of St. Patrick, os to the manner in which the baths were arranged, nor as to what sort of a building covered the basin. The waters of Broussa began to acquire a great reputation in the reign of Constantine. That prince fell sick during his sojourn at Broussa; he was transported thence to the town of Ancyra, where he died. Prom this time the waters of Broussa became celebrated at Byzantium ; Justinian caused a splendid bathing establishment to be erected there: there was a palace and there were all other edifices necessary tor strangers; he caused cold water to be conveyed in a canal, in order to temper the heat of the hot springs. Upon reference to Procopius, we find that the spot whence the hot springs of Broussa issued bore the name of Pithya, and under Constantine Porphyrogenitus, this name was changed into that of Soteropolis (the town of the Saviour), in gratitude for the numerous cures that had been effected there. Byzantine authors give us striking pictures of the grandeur of the equipages that accom¬ panied the patricians of Byzantium when they went to the baths of Broussa. The empress Theodora, wife of Justinian, proceeded in the year 525 to the waters of Broussa, with a cortege composed of four thousand attendants, in litters resplendent with gold. The rheda, or covered carriages containing the waiting women, formed a procession, of the nature of which we can form some faint idea when we see that of the sultanas, who occasionally make the same pilgrimage. In the present day all the edifices that cover the hot springs arc the Avork of the Turks, but the arrangements and usages of the Romans and Byzantines have been retained. Those who examine the details of a Turkish bath may imagine that they are looking at one of Roman times, the arrangements are so similar. We give in the folloAving chapter a comparison between the baths of Mahomet II. at Constantinople and the thernue described by Vitruvius, from which this striking conformity will be perceived. THE BATHS OF MAHOMET II. COMPARED WITH THE BATHS OP THE BYZANTINES. ELISARIUS having been sent into Mauritania by Justinian to declare war against Gelimer, the latter, being attacked by Pharanus, and reduced for want ot corn, wrote thus to the emperor:—“Send me some bread, a sponge, and a guitar (xtiapcLv). ’ The emperor, astonished, demanded from his secretary the explanation of so singular a despatch. “ lie asks fora guitar,” said the scribe, “to console him under his misfortunes; a sponge to dry his tears, and some bread to eat; for in the country of Mauritania they do not cultivate corn; the inha¬ bitants only live upon olyra, prepared for food.” Whoever has eaten kous-kous with the Arabs of Mauritania will understand this passage. Olyra is the hard corn (Triticum Spelta) of the Arabs, when made into kous-kous. Thus a close observation of the inhabitants of eastern countries will enable us to under¬ stand many facts relating to antiquity which commentators have but little explained. The Biblical stories have ever living illustrations amongst the Arabs. Travellers are often struck with the resemblance of the negresses of Bornou selling bread in the market-place ot Algiers, to certain Egyptian statues preserved in the museums. Their attitudes are identical; the head¬ dress is the same; and their necklaces of glass, blue and white beads, slipped into the case of a mummy, might deceive the practised eye of an antiquary. If we look at Turkey, we find there a great many customs purely Byzantine adopted by the Turks after their invasion. The name even of Constantinople—Istamboul — is a corruption BYXANTINK A NO TUI! KISH BATHS. , Greck words sis rJ|» *•&.». The use of the xenodochia, or hostolries for travellers, was General at Constantinople before the Turks had established the khaos; and the “ mmswnes leredunorum ” preceded the caravanserais, which border all the prmcpal roads throughout ‘ he Though this unchangeableness is the striking characteristic of the people of Islam, they have not failed to borrow numerous customs from nations more civilized than themselves: many of these we find in use amongst them now. For instance the Koran itself borrowed from Christians the custom of ablutions before nraver a perpetuation of which we find in our own days in the holy water of the Latin church. That the custom of ablution was of Christian origin, might be proved by many passages from old writers ; but the inscription before quoted, as existing on one of the fountains in St. Sophia s, is a sufficient proof of tbe fact. History observes, says Banduri, that there was there a great vase of water, in which the faithful usually washed their faces, or at least, their eyes. IVc must render this justice to the Turks, that they have adopted with seal all those customs of the ancients that tended to the preservation of the purity of the body and of the dwellin''. Thus the usage of never entering either a place of worship or a house with the shoes on that were worn out of doors, was general in times of antiquity amongst we 1-bred people rcieo autem, smnptis calceis, exrit e cubiculo et deamb,davit m portion).- It is only natural to suppose that tbe beautiful mosaics of the Homans were not intended to bo exposed to be soiled by tbe impurities of the streets. . . Tlie legislator of tbe Arabs, horn in a burning country, and having experienced from bis youth aU the benefits there afforded by a fine spring of water, imposed ablution not only for health's sake, but also as a mark of gratitude to the Creator; following the principle of Sedi Khrclil that man should not disdain the benefits that Providence affords him. When the Turks quitted Broussa, so celebrated for its waters, for Constantinople, they found no reason to regret their first capital, for the Greeks had furnished tlie latter city wit, everythin" that tended to make it a healthy and agreeable place of residence, with hatlis and fountains, and with aqueducts that conveyed a good supply of the purest water from the environs. The Turks took possession of all these, and maintained them in a more or less perfect condition up to tlie present day. They have preserved not only the buildings themselves, but have also retained many details connected with tlie administration of tho water supply. When Mahomet II. arrived at Constantinople, many of the magnificent buildings that are described in the Notice of Constantinople, 5 no longer existed, or if they did. they were in a lamentable state of ruin, through the effects of the numerous earthquakes from which citv had suffered. .,,11 i ' The mother church of Byzantium, St. Sophia’s, had suffered from these violent shocks, and apart of the great dome had fallen. In the year 733, the primitive church of St. Irene had been destroyed; and the statue of Arcadius, placed on a column in tlie A rroloplm, had fa . In tlie year 1011, tbe earth shook for forty days, and some thousands of people perished m Constantinople by the falling of churches. Another earthquake, not less terrible took pla« AD 1038- it was at this period that the church of tho Holy Apostles suffered the a ieatest damage. The earthquake which took place A.D. 1390 shook the edifice to tlie foundation; how¬ ever it was repaired, and service was performed there up to the time of the taking ol the town. Tho baths, which were not so large, and which had thicker walls than the churches, suffered less- hut many of them were rendered useless, and wore afterwards demolished. The Greeks of Byzantium had preserved in their baths all the arrangements and customs of tho ancients, but they had much simplified the buildings themselves. There were not then, as formerly, to be found in them the xysta, the poUestrc, the gymnasia, where the bathers, before or after the bath, tried the suppleness of their limbs. People went to t le ia is ess for the purpose of bathing than for the pleasure of gossiping with the loungers wlio frequen ed them ■ this fashion still prevails at Constantinople. The Byzantine baths retained only those parts of the building that were absolutely ncces- sarv • -the waiting-room, or cvpodyterwm ; the tepid chamber, or tepiclarkm ; and tlie hot chain er, ■ Bauduri, vol. t. " Ouaw, A Ilepublict 1. Ang. Mail. 3 Do quatuordecim vegioiiibus urbis Constantinopolitaua '.—Notice of the hmyxre, p. THE BATHS OF MAHOMET IT. 161 or caldarinm. In tlio hot chamber there were various closets for those who wished for intense heat. There does not exist now in Constantinople a single edifice of this description the erection of which dates from the time of the Byzantine emperors. The Patriarch who occupied the see of Constantinople in 1833, wrote a hook, under the title of Ktova-ravTivlag xahaia xal vsmripa, YjToi 7 repiypa$r) K(ov BYZANTINK AND TURKISH BATHS. 162 Considerable sums were employed on the works of the mosque itself, but the expenses stopped there, and the medrece and the hath were walled up, and in this state M. Texier found them at the time of his visit. In order to penetrate into the ancient Mussulman school, it was necessary to make a breach in the wall. He found the interior occupied by a vigorous vege- tatfon _ a virgin forest had grown in the middle of the enclosure; he made the plan of this curious edifice, which had not been disfigured by restorations. The richness of the materials employed in its construction astonished him. The columns were of the purest marble, and of the finest jasper, brought no doubt from the church of the Apostles, and from the sepulchral chapels of the emperors. Peter Gyllius, in his Topography of Constantinople, mentions the hath of Mahomet II. as the most magnificent monument of this kind which exists in Constantinople. lie gives a description sufficiently minute and very intelligible when one has the plan of the building under one’s eyes, hut simply confusing to those who might desire to translate it into drawing. People are apt to forget that architecture is a mathematical science, and that it is very difficult to understand geometrical problems, unless one has the diagram before one’s eyes. The description of Peter Gyllius induced M. Texier to search for this edifice; and every¬ where in the environs of the mosque he inquired for the baths of the Sultan Mahomet. No one could give him a satisfactory answer; all were absolutely ignorant of what he asked for. He had visited without success all the baths in operation in the quarter, and not one answered to the description his predecessor had drawn of them. M. Texier had given up his researches, when, two years after, passing near a building the doors and windows of which were walled up, and which he had seen many times without remarking it, he found an ingress between some rough stones which were broken away; he stepped through the gap, and was agreeably surprised to see, notwithstanding the obscurity that existed, that he had entered the edifice so vainly sought for during so long a time. He had the windows opened, and examined in detail all the arrangements of the building. The great cupolas were split through their centre, and the marble of the pavements had been carried away; but the decoration of the interior was sufficiently preserved to give an idea of the original plan of the building. The Turks have completely forgotten that this edifice was constructed by Mahomet II.; this is why no inhabitant could point out the situation; it is only known under the common appellation, Tchoucour llammam. To describe this edifice, we need only adopt the description that Vitruvius gives of the ancient Iloman baths. We have put together the details, which have escaped all commentators; and if our readers compare the plans composed by the various editors of Vitruvius with those of the Turkish building, they will see how the idea of Vitruvius is elucidated by the latter in- a manner at once simple and practical. Description of the Bath. The baths of Mahomet II. are amongst those called by the Turks cliifte (double), because they have apartments for men and for women, with one furnace or hjjpocaust, common to the two sets of baths. The two buildings, united by a wall, form externally a large square building, measuring about 40 by 50 yards. (See Plate LVIII.) The men’s bath is situated to the left and the women’s to the right of the front. The latter is narrower than the men’s, because the furnaces are on that side. The general elevation of the building is very simple, consisting of a plain stone wall with two doors in it, without any ornament. At the level of the imposts there are some small windows admitting light and air to the first apartment, or apodyterium. The entrance leads into a large room S2 feet square, covered by a dome with pendentives. The side walls were decorated with glazed tiles; in the centre was a large vase of marble, standing upon a pedestal, from which issued numerous streams of fresh water. The vase of Pergamus, now in the Louvre, was applied to a like purpose for more than a century. Around the hall was a marble platform, upon which were stretched mattresses with curtains round them; here the bathers undressed — they were then prepared by the servants of the establishment to enter the tepidarmm , by being covered with towels of various sizes, Plate lA'II SECTION ON THE LINE A B. GROUND PLAN. 20 30 40 50 60 70 r-xjcr w I !< Son. die Qurrji THE BATHS OF MAHOMET If. 103 which had each a different name. Their feet were then inserted into high wooden clogs, varying in height and ornamentation, according to the rank of the bather. The women of the seraglio wore clogs more than a foot in height, encrusted with silver ornaments. The bathers reposed upon the same mattresses upon their return from the bath. The dome of this apartment is built of brick, and adorned internally with sculptured and painted ornaments. It has in the centre a circular aperture with a ring of masonry round it: this was for the purpose of lighting the room. 1 The height of this room is 03 feet to the springing of the dome and 110 feet to the top. “ The laconicum ,” says Vitruvius, “ and the stoves ought to be near the tepid room, and their width ought to be equal to the height of the springing of the hemispherical vault.” Vitruvius also recommends that it should he lighted from above, in order that the shadows of the bathers should not darken it. "We must here allude to the brass shield, which Vitruvius calls the laconicum , and which is employed by the Turks to stop the circulation of air or to moderate the heat of the hath. Vitruvius says: “ Near the middle of the vault hangs a brazen buckler, intended to diminish or increase the heat by being raised or lowered; it ought to he circular, in order that the movement of the vapour and heat may be regular round the room.” 2 Most writers who have commented upon the passage have supposed the laconicum to have been a sort of cover placed upon the furnace to prevent the smoke from reaching the bath-rooms. Hut, though we have seen in ancient cities, in Rome and Ostia especially, many Roman baths in a good state of preservation, we have never found any with the least communication between the rooms used by the bathers and those occupied by the warming apparatus. Vitruvius clearly explains that the mode of heating was by carrying pipes or flues under the floor and up the sides of the walls. We give (Plate LVIII.) details of the hypocaust at Ostia; from which it will be seen that the floor of the bath is supported by brick piers. The section of the walls shows the system used for the circulation of hot air. A similar arrangement is employed in Turkish baths. If we go into a Turkish bath in the present day, we shall see the laconicum used exactly as Vitruvius describes it. Wc have stated that the dome of the apodyterinm was lighted from above. Prom the circular opening was suspended, by a bronze chain, a large copper disc, exactly the size of the opening; when it was desirable to increase the heat, the disc was pulled up so as to close the opening. All the other parts of the Roman bath are to be seen in the Turkish bath. The platform answers to the schola, where the bathers discussed the news of the day. The tepidarium was entered from the apodyterium; it was octagonal, with seats all round it, where the bather seated himself before entering the caldarium, which was heated by steam introduced by means of pipes under the floor and in the walls. The marble floor slopes slightly towards the side where the furnace is situated. Vitruvius thus speaks of the floprs of baths“ The floor of the caldarium , which ought to he hollow, should be made thus : in the first place, the pavement must bo laid with squares of a foot and a half, sloping towards the furnace in such a manner that if you throw a ball upon it, it will not rest but roll towards the furnace.” Although the bronze strigil is not used by the Turks, hair brushes serve for the same purpose. At the four angles of the octagon are smaller chambers, where the heat is more intense : they are lighted from above by means of discs of glass let into the dome. In the Roman baths there was a basin of tepid water, which is not to he found generally in Turkish baths, but which exists at Broussa, in the magnificent thermce which were erected in the time of the Byzantine emperors, and which have been kept in repair by the Sultans. The furnaces, which are situated at the side of the building, extend the full length of the 1 Petri Gyllii de Topographia Constnntinopoleos, lib. iv. p. 409, aj>. Banduri. 2 Ad imam curvatuvam liemisphrerii: inediumque lumen in hemispheric) relinquantur ex eocpie clypeum leneum eaten is pendeat, per cujus recluctiones et demissiones perfieietur suda- tionis temperatura : ipsninque ad circinum fieri oportere vide- tur, ut iequaliter a medio, flammse vaporisque vis per curvatime rotund i tat is pervagetur.—Vitruvius, book v. cli. x. -r^r-- 1G4 BYZANTINE AND TURKISH BATITS. building, and warm both sets of baths. The water from the reservoir runs into the boiler, in which the steam that heats the building is generated. The use of the three bronze basins containing cold, tepid, and hot water, that Vitruvius mentions, is of so little service that it has been abandoned in practice. Peter Gyllius, who travelled in the East in the beginning of the 16th century, saw the baths of Mahomet in all their magnificence, and describes them in detail. 1 We refer our readers, for a thorough comprehension of these arrangements, to Plate LVIII., where a plan and section of these baths arc given. We also give a plan and section of the taconicum ol the baths at Erejus, restored from that at Pompeii. peter Gyllius, de Topogmplua Constantinopoleos et tie illius Antiguilatibus, hook iv. Lyons, 15G1. THE CHURCH OF ST. NICHOLAS, MYRA (LYCIA). 2 u — THE CHURCH OF ST. NICHOLAS, MYRA (LYCIA). N the last division of the provinces of Asia that was made by Theodosius II., Myra was declared the capital of Lycia. All the maritime towns of that coast had acquired great importance before the Roman period. The ports, which were more numerous and safer than those of Syria, monopolized the commerce of that part of the Mediterranean, and vast warehouses were established for the trade with Italy. The magnificent buildings that still exist—the stadia, the theatres, the gymnasia — show that the inhabitants knew how to combine the refinement of ancient civilization with the more serious occupations of life. Moreover, the population of these ports, a medley of Greeks, Romans, Syrians, together with a few Jews, devoted their attention to all questions relating to religious worship, from whatever quarters they came. The landing of St. Paul at Perga, and his sojourn at Myra, had caused amongst the pagans — who were already weary of a religion that was falling into disrepute — a strong- movement towards Christianity. In Lycia, as in the neighbouring province of Pisidia, the assemblies of the newly-converted formed, wherever they existed, so many rallying-points for the new faith. There is no town in Lycia that does not contain some church or monastery belonging to the early Christian period. During the 3rd and 4th centuries, ecclesiastical edifices rapidly increased in number, and were almost all consecrated to the memory of some saint or martyr of the new faith. After the reign of Constantine, Lycia acquired a renown for sanctity due to the celebrity of its former confessors, and sumptuous cathedrals were erected, around which were raised large monasteries and hospitia. The towns in the interior, like those on the coast, became filled with Christian edifices; Arnsea, Tlos, Pinara, still show many vestiges of these. The large cathedral which still remains almost intact on the plain of Cassaba, shows what degree of development Christian architecture had reached in these countries. By one of those vicissitudes to which buildings as well as nations are exposed, no inscription, no document exists to show by whom this edifice was erected. It is, however, certain that a numerous Christian population was established in this place. The name of the nearest ancient town, built upon a mountain at the entrance oi the defile of the river of Myra, has not yet been ascertained. Judging from the style of the cathedral, we conclude that it was not erected belore the time of Justinian. The central part of the nave is covered by a dome pierced with windows. The walls were lined with slabs of marble, which have disappeared. On each side of the edifice stand two chapels or baptistries, circular in plan, and covered with domes. Jhese two buildings arc not placed in a line. This arrangement is quite unique. The town of Antiphellus again has no legend connected with it, but it possesses numerous traces of ecclesiastical buildings. We may mention amongst others a round church, placed below the great terrace : the plan of this differs but little from those we have already cited. Churches of this description have no narllicx : the circular Avail of the temple is supported on the outside by square buttresses. In these Ave see the rudimentary form of the buttresses which play such Tl-I K ('ll I'UCH OF ST. NICHOLAS, MYKA (LYCIA) an important, part in the oditices of the Middle Ages. Notwithstanding the existence of buttresses, it is evident that the church had a wooden roof, as the walls are not sufficiently strong to have sustained a cupola of stone or brick. We must not omit from this brief notice of the Lycian churches that of Akyali, which is extremely interesting. This edifice belonged to a Christian district, situated on the west side of Taurus, near Selefke. The ruins that remain, consist of a great khan or caravanserai,—one of the hospitia which generally were annexed to monasteries;—it is, in fact, the xenoclochium, where the poor and pilgrims were received. This khan is situated at the base of a large terrace on which stood a colonnade. At each end of the terrace stood a church : one of them is still in an almost entire state. The richness of the ornamentation is astonishing; the numerous medallions and cartouches are filled with betssi rilievi of religious emblems, — those of the Evangelists are sculptured in the pendentives;—angels with six ivings, like those in the church of St. Sophia, sustain the figure of Christ, and the capitals of the columns also bear emblematical sculptures. St. Michael is represented in the act of treading a crowd of demons under foot. It is evident from its decorations, that this edifice differed from most known Byzan¬ tine churches, in which sculpture is not usually employed, or only sparingly used, and then only in foliage and such-like ornaments. The plan of the church consists of a nave covered by a dome, sustained by four pendentives, in the form of shells, reminding one of the palace at Constantinople, called Triconchus. To the right and left are two aisles, separated from the nave by three arches, supported by columns and pilasters. The apse has a horse-shoe arch, which is characteristic of the time of Justinian. The apse is lighted by a double window, with a small column in the centre; the general character of the architecture very much resembles that of the church of Dana. 1 The tribune of the gynceconitis is formed by a triple arcade. The chapels, called the gazophylalcion and skeuophy- lalcion, are placed right and left of the apse. 2 No inscription exists to show the date of this church, except the epitaph of a priest, named Tararius, who lived during the consulate of Gadaelaiphe, which leads us to attribute the erection of this edifice to the Oth century. The town of Myra, in its quality of ecclesiastical metropolis of the province, united under its jurisdiction most of the ecclesiastical districts of the coast. The most celebrated ot its bishops, one whose renown has spread throughout the Christian world, — St. Nicholas, was a native ot Patara, in Lycia. lie was ordained priest by the Bishop of Myra of the same name, and he himself was consecrated bishop in the reign of Diocletian, about A.D. 310. He was perse¬ cuted and finally poisoned about the year 342. Many miracles are attributed to this saint. It is supposed by some that St. Nicholas was not anterior to the 5th century, although his name does not appear in the list of bishops who lived between A.D. 420 to 450, nor did he appear at the Council of Chalcedon. At the commencement of the Oth century, the memory of Nicholas began to be venerated as that of a saint throughout the East. Justinian consecrated a church to him in the quarter of Blachernes. St. Nicholas was honoured in the West in the Oth century, before his relics were transported to Italy. The Emperor Theodosius caused a church to be erected at Myra, which is styled by the chroniclers the church of Syon: the body of the saint was deposited in the midst of the choir, in a shrine that had four columns, supporting a baldaquin ; the relics were placed in a crypt, within a marble sarcophagus. St. Nicholas, after his death, acquired the reputation of being a Myroblete, 3 like St. Demetrius at Thessalonica. When Myra was taken by the Arabs under Achmet,—general of the Caliph llaroun el Rescind, — in the sixth year of the reign of Nicephorus, the tomb of the saint was menaced with complete destruction ; but the monks of the neighbouring monastery deceived the Mussulmans as to the position of the relics, and they were preserved. The plan of the church of St. Nicholas has rather the character of the edifices of Justinian than of those of Theodosius. It belongs to that class of churches with which Christian Asia was covered during the first three centuries, when the Church was at peace with the pagans;—we say at peace with the pagans, because the sects of Allans, Paulicians, and other dissenters, were constantly raising tumults amongst the believers. 1 Sec Plates LTX., LX. - Comte do Labonlo, Revue. A rcheuluij iq ue, 18t7. 3 From fiv(tpa, myrrh, and fiaWui, I throw. ' Mjjujvj nop rr JJtluTMJUU CHURCH OF ST NICHOLAS MYRA. THE CHTJRCH OF ST. NICHOLAS, MYRA (LYCTA 1C9 There is at Constantinople a clinreli on tile same plan, which appears to have been designed by the same architect,—that of St. Theodore, now called Vafa Sultan Djamasi. St. Nicholas of Myra, as the typo of a particular class of churches, merits the attention of architects. The church of St. Clement of Ancyra appears also to have belonged to the same class of buildings. The church of St. Nicholas is built of bricks, although there is much building- stone in the vicinity. It is situated at some distance from the ancient Lycian town, and near a quadrangular enclosure belonging to the Byzantine town. A monastery, which from its style appears to be contemporaneous with the church, stands in the vicinity, and is inhabited by a few poor caloyers, who appear to be quite ignorant of the history of the place. In the interior of the convent there is a chapel, with some mediocre paintings. The church is placed due east and west; it is preceded by a narthex, which was in ruins when we visited it. The nave is terminated by a semicircular apse, and at the end of the aisles are chapels for the sacred vessels and books. The nave is surmounted by a dome, pierced with twelve windows. Cornices of marble, running round at the level of the top of the impost, still exist; they are ornamented with leaves and fruit of the pine-tree, artistically sculptured. The internal decorations consist of paintings in fresco, which have, without doubt, been renewed often since the 6th century ; those that remain, represent scenes from the Passion of our Lord, executed in a very ordinary manner. We could not ascertain from the monks, at what period the church fell into a state of ruin. Prom its present state, it would appear to have gradually fallen into a state of decay, rather than to have been ruined by the hand of man. The dome has half-fallen; the nartliex is filled with rubbish: probably this is the effect of earthquakes. The church of St. Nicholas, although in ruins, is still a place of pilgrimage for the Greeks. In the present day it is rising from its dilapidated state, as the Russian Government has bought the church and monastery, and an architect has been commissioned to restore it to its ancient condition. There are few relics of saints that have more excited the covetousness of Christians firm in the faith, but unscrupulous in their practice, than those of St. Nicholas. In the lltli century, a sort of conspiracy was hatched by the Venetians and the inhabitants of Bari, to seize the relics of the saint, and convey them to Europe; the avowed object of this species of depre¬ dation being their removal from the danger of destruction by the Mahometans. Two hundred and eighty years had elapsed since the forces of the caliph had taken possession of Myra, and the shrine of the saint had been preserved during that period, by the vigilance of the monks, from all attempts made for its destruction or seizure; but at last they fell into a snare laid by the Christians of Italy, and yielded up their charge, in consideration of a large sum of money, adroitly distributed amongst them. The legend thus recounts the circumstances of the seizure; and the recital appears to bear all the characteristics of truth :— Porty citizens of Bari went into Syria for the purpose of trading at Antioch. Having put into the port of Myra during their voyage, they visited the shrine and afterwards conceived the project of carrying off the celebrated relics. They secretly reconnoitred the localities, and took measures to carry out the project on their return. Whilst at Antioch, some of them revealed the project to some Venetians who were staying there, who on their part declared that they had entertained the same idea. This was sufficient to induce the citizens of Bari to expedite the business, as they feared lest it should be interrupted. Putting to sea again, they anchored in the roads of Lycia, and were assured by their spies that the diocese of Lycia was deserted, and that hardly any one was to be found either in the monastery or in the church of Syon, where the body of St. Nicholas lay; in fact, there were but three monks who guarded the holy deposit, the rest being dispersed by the hostility of the Mussulmans. The citizens of Bari induced these monks to believe that they were commissioned by the Pope to provide for the safety and honour of the holy relics, by providing them an asylum in Italy, and they gained them over by presenting to each of them a hundred golden crowns. After certain prayers, they burst open the marble tomb by blows of a hammer, aud within it found a marble urn: this they believed to be a vase of perfumes; they found, however, that it was full of a wonderfully pure sort of oil, which, according to the monks, proceeded from the body of the saint, and oozed through the marble. It appeared to these pilgrims that THE OHITIK’H OF ST. NICHOLAS, MYRA (LYOTA). some one had already disturbed the body of the saint for the purpose of taking some part of it away, for the bones were not lying in their natural positions, and the head was sepa- rate "g th ooUeld the relies and placed them in a chest, they took them away on the noth April A.D. 10S7. The ships reached Ban in eighteen days. The mural of these re cs created an immense sensation throughout Christendom; the miraculous ml was distributed amongst various monasteries. ....... T In the year 1100, the Bishop of Amiens wont to Ban, m order to obtain a phial of it. In the year 1000 it attracted a vast concourse of pilgrims to Worms, in the Palatinate. In the year 1089, processions and festivals were, established in honour of the new saint, and the faithful laid the foundations of a church that still exists at Ban. The Normans took possession of the town A.D. 1073; they joined the inhabitants in the erection of a new cathedral which has much resemblance to contemporary edifices in Normandy. In the year 1103, sixteen years after the arrival of the relics, the church of Bari was inaugurated by the Duke of Apulia, the first Norman king of Sicily. . The Venetians, who had been anticipated by the inhabitants of Ban, found, however, means of transporting the relics of a St. Nicholas to Venice; they pretend they were those of the saint of Myra. . In the following centuries, churches dedicated to St. Nicholas became so numerous, that there is hardly a province where there is not one to bo found. 1 ; Lucius, Vila.' Sand., II. (in folio). THE CHURCH OF DANA, NEAR THE EUPHRATES. HE country in the vicinity of the Euphrates, between Antioch and Bir, abounds with ruins of places now completely deserted. Most of these remains are those of ancient monasteries built in the most substantial manner, with walls composed of blocks of wrought stone put together without cement. There is a certain rustic character about the architecture ; still the extent and number of these buildings show that there once existed here a population full of zeal for religion. Those who visit the district for the purpose of studying Byzantine architecture will find there a vast field for observation. The village of Dana is not marked on the maps of the country. It is composed of a dozen Arab houses occupying the site of a town which was formerly of great importance. It is situated in a rocky valley, watered by a rivulet which is crossed by a bridge. The ruins arc divided into several groups, as though the town had been divided into separate quarters. These various groups of buildings are not of the same date, yet they are all built ot large stones, for the limestone rocks in the neighbourhood, being easy to work, furnished materials for these structures, built without cement, like those of Hellenic times which have so much astonished European travellers. 1. The village and church of Dana 2. Monastery. 3. Farm-houses. 4. Byzantine ruins. 5 & (5. Ancient tombs. 7. Bridge. In the middle of the village stands an edifice in a better state of preservation than the rest, although it has been converted into a stable. This was formerly the church of Dana. The interior is composed of a double colonnade supporting arches. The choir and apse are still intact. 1 plan Is quadrilateral. There is an aisle on each side, separated from the nave by three columns. 174 THE CHURCH OF DANA. The springing-line of the arches is raised three courses above the capitals. The Byzantines often employed this form of arch, which was unknown to the Homans. The arch of the apse is of the horse-shoe form, and the vault follows the same curve. (See Plate LIX.) The invention of this form of arch is often attributed to the Mussulmans; but this example proves its prior existence. We have noticed a church in Armenia which has the horse-shoe arch, and which is evidently a Christian work of the 7th century. The church of Dana bears an inscription which fixes indubitably the date of its foundation, and we are therefore certain that in the middle of the 6th century this style of architecture prevailed in the provinces of the East. The side walls of the church are executed with great precision, and the mouldings throughout are arranged so as to produce an agreeable effect. The capitals of the pilasters arc of the Corinthian order ; those of the columns arc somewhat similar, but they are adorned with wreaths sculptured with great delicacy. To the right and left of the apse are two small chambers,—the gazophylakion and the skeuophylalcion. (See Plates LIX. and LX.) The church was not vaulted, but had a wooden roof resting on the side walls. The church does not appear to have been ever decorated with paintings. This building would have been of only secondary interest, had it not possessed the following inscription over the entrance : — EIC0EOCKAIOXPICTOCAYTOYKAITOAriONriNEYMABOH©EI ETOYCBNWMHNrOPniE«KZINAK s z' * Eli,' @so£ xa'i o Xparrof a utou xai to " Aytov YIv£I€PU)CEN "Fjtouc TptaxorrTOu oy’iorjxoirToO toit’ou Mt]V 0£ A'JITTpOU TpiTYjV TlXuoOopa Iui/ij/xyg yfpiv afydpcurrsv 1 The era of the Seleucidie begins with tin- taking of Babylon by Seleucus, B.U 312. TRANSVERSE SECTION Hay & Sun. Lith 13 10 the Queen \ °> if s 1 u , : ■ - k- THE CHURCH OF DANA. Which may bo translated thus:— The year CCCLXXXIII * * * the 3rd of the month Systran « » « Ileliodoru* * * * in memory * * * ] ias consecrated. The year 383 of the Seleucidae corresponds to the year of our Lord 71.-that in which litus triumphed at Rome. Th, S ^te again affords us valuable information as to the character of certain ancient monuments. The frieze of this little tomb is curved in the form of a console. (See Plate III ) Most of the Homan edifices in Asia - the theatres at Perga, Myra-the temples of Patara and of Euromus have also curved friezes. We may therefore consider them to he of the same date as this tomb. The inscription of the theatre ofVelia at Patara nearly agrees in date with this. We are thus led to attribute those various edifices to the period that intervened between the rei ll ^, (tin rhoa), near to which they live. The word rhoa in the mouth of an Arab becomes, with the article, errhoa; errhoa becomes in the Greek tongue orrlioa. The country was called by the Greeks 'Opporjvy, and for euphony, ’O (rgoyurj, Orrhobne and Osrhoene. Ammianus Marcellinus calls it Osdroene. All these indecisions oi historians show that the name was not precisely determined in the time of the Greeks. It is not easy to find in the Arab period a king of the name Orrhoes, who, according to the Chronicle of Edessa, lived 130 years B.C., who could have founded the town of Edessa, and given his name to the Osrhoene; ' Procojiins, do. Hello ju rsir.o, - Travels in Mesopotamia, vo liook ii. cli. 12. Book xxm. di. 12. J Book xvi. 730. THE TOPOGRAPHY OF ED ESS A. but we know that, the Greeks were never at. a loss for apocryphal heroes to account for the names of different Asiatic tribes. (According, to them, lias not Medea given her name to the Modes, and Perseus to the Persians?) This observation was made by Bayer, who says, on this subject: “Nam frequens hoc est, ut diversa regnorum initia consignentur a diversis re«ibus.” There is no evidence to show that Klioa became a fortified town before the rei"n of Seleucus Nicanor, who placed there a Macedonian colony, and who gave the town the name of Antioch, and later of Edessa. Trajan took and burnt Edessa, establishing a lloman colony there, and giving to the town the name of Trajanopolis. It resumed its Greek name several years after, and retained it until the Byzantine epoch. The emperor Justin, when he repaired its walls, o-ave it the name of Justinopolis. Under the princes of the house of Courtenay, it resumed its name Edessa, and now is known under the name of Orfa. Commanded by its fortress, surrounded by solid walls and numerous gardens, Edessa is not now less important than it was in former times. We recognize at the first glance the constructions of the Byzantine epoch in the walls, the castle, the fountains near that river which was so fatal to the walls of the ancient city. All remains now as in the days of Justinian. Let us follow the recital of Procopius, in order to see what remains of the works of that prince. The Greek author expresses himself in these terms : — “ It is now time to speak of what Justinian did in Mesopotamia. I must then mention Edessa, Carrara, Callinica, and other places of that kind, seeing they are all situated between the Tigris and the Euphrates. The town of Edessa is crossed by the current of a river, the course of which is of no great length ; it is called the Scirtus. Beceiving the waters from several neighbouring places, it passes through the middle of the town ; then, after leaving the walls, it follows its natural course. An ancient channel dug by the hand of man, receives it in its passage; sluices have been contrived in the walls for the ingress and egress of the water. Sometimes swollen by the rains, it becomes impetuous, and appears to threaten the city with entire destruction. Once having thrown down a greater part of the rampart, and of the covered way (Trpors/^/o-^aro^ xa) Trspi&oMu), it spread over all the town, and there did great damage — it destroyed the finest edifices, and drowned a third of the inhabitants. The Emperor Justinian not only caused all the buildings which had been destroyed (amongst which was the church of the Christians, and that which was called there the Antiphorus) to be rebuilt, but he ordered that means should be taken to prevent the recurrence of a similar catastrophe. lie caused a new bed to be dug for the river the full length of the walls, and arranged it in the following manner :—Formerly, on the right side, there extended a very low plain, to the left a precipitous mountain, which confined the river to its course on that side, and caused the whole of the' water to enter the town ; for there was nothing to the right which could stop it. Having entirely levelled the mountain, and having formed a ditch, the length of the left bank of the river, to a greater depth than the river-bed, on the right he made a great embankment of hewn stone. In this manner the river maintained its usual body of water, and the town was not deprived of the advantages it derived from it. If it overflowed, a part only of the water entered the town, and the rest went into the canal designed by Justinian, and passed behind the Hippodrome. Thus subdued by human intelligence, and by the foresight of the emperor, the part of the river which entered the town flowed into a straight canal lined on each side by a bank of stones, which prevented it from overflowing its bed. The town did not lose any of its benefits, and all fear was dissipated. “ It also happened that the curtain and parapet (rsi^s xai TrpoTei'/j$, the wall of the curtain, on the face of which stand the towers: in front of this wall rises the wall of the parapet, the first defence of the curtain (xpoTe/;£iog). The agger, which is composed, as Ave know, of the earth from the moat, and is sustained by a Avail, sometimes flanked by toAvers,—the av-nrs/^cqua (wall of the avant rampart). There are towers (irupyoi) attached to both Avails. The curtain is surmounted by a parapet: this is the part of the rampart which bears the name of the superior Avail (sTm-e/^urpca). On this Avail are placed the battle¬ ments (e7 rah^sig), Avhicli are sometimes united by a Avail above, and form a scries of barbicans (Quotiou), to shoot arrows from. The battlements are sometimes surmounted by small pyramids, at other times furnished Avith notches to rest the arrows upon. One cannot doubt but that the toAvn of Edessa had been provided Avith a double rampart, for these two parts (wpoTeiyiAIOYCTINIANOCAAAMANIKOC ro0iKOC«t>PANriKOcrePMANiKOcnAP 01KOCAAANIKOCOYAN AAAI KOCA4>PI KOC €YC€BHC€YTYXHC€NAO?OCNIKHTHC TPO n €OYXOC»AC I C€ B ACTOC A YTOYCTOC AN€N€WC€N4>IAOTIMIATAAHMOCIA KTICMATATHCnOA€(jOCCnOYAHKAI €n IM6AIAOYPAN IOYTOY0€OI ACCTATOY € n ICKOnOYIN AST €T OYCYfi f 4 Tn the name of our Lord Jesus Christ, our God. The Emperor Ccesar Flavins Justinian, conqueror of the Alemans, the Goths, the Franks, the Germans, the Farthians, the Alcini, the Vandals, the Africans, the pious, happy, illustrious, victorious, triumphant, ever pious Augustus, has through his -munificence, renewed the public edifices of the town, by the care and under the superintendence of On rani us, the bishop beloved by God, the third indiction of the year 4S3. The year 483 of the era of Trebizond corresponds to the year of our Lord 545. Justinian was at that period fifty-two years old. The text of this important inscription was published by Tournefort without a translation. It shows that it would be useless to expect to find in Trebizond any building of an earlier date than the time of Justinian. The walls of the fortifications have solely a Byzantine character. This total transformation of ancient Trapezunte is passed over in silence by Procopius, which is a proof that the historian of edifices of Justinian does not mention all those that were erected by that prince. 5 Under Constantine Porphyrogenitus, Trapezunte became the chief place of the Theme of Chaldaca. In the 8th century, a new enemy threatened the town of Trapezunte. The Arabs became 1 Notilia Dignitatis utriusque Imperii Orient.., p. 233. 4 See Bocckh, Corpus, vol. iv. part 40, pp. 207-29S. 2 Procopius, tie jEdijiciis, book in. ch. 3. 5 For instance, the church of St. Sophia at Thessalonica. 3 This word is faulty ; it ought to he written Tpojraioi>x°c- FOUNDATION OF THK KINUDOM (IF TREBIZOND. 191 menacing, and the inhabitants of the neighbouring towns anil villages were driven to take lefuge within its walls. Tile power of the court of Constantinople became more and more feeble, and the dukes of Chaldma began to declare themselves independent of the empire. In the reign of the Emperor Eomanus Diogenes, the Seljouks invaded the north of Anatolia, and sacked most of the large towns. Trapezunte alone escaped a similar fate; owing its preservation to the solidity of its walls and its position; for it had ihe sea on one side and inaccessible mountains oil the other. Theodore Gabras, then Prince of Trapezunte, marched at the head of his army, and dispersed the vanguard of the Arabs. But the invaders, though they retreated, left behind them tribes of nomad Turcomans, who established themselves in the desert steppes, and were the ancestors of the Yoorooks, who still inhabit the country. In the year 1U89, David, Prince of Georgia, ascended the throne. At that period, the Seljoukian hordes were in possession of the country as far as the coast. David repulsed them, and freed the vicinity of the capital from their presence. Trapezunte at that time became the capital of a duchy which was independent until the end of the 11th century. FOUNDATION OF THE KINGDOM OF TREBIZOND. Trapezunte, better known in the West by the name of Trebizond, was, nominally, a dependence of the Byzantine empire when the family of the Comneni mounted the throne. Manuel Comnenus, emperor of Constantinople, died A.D. 1181, leaving the crown to his son Alexis, who was then but thirteen years old. The empress-mother, Irene, held the reins of government, but she was, in truth, in the hands of llie officers of the court. Discontent became general. Andronicus, the uncle of the young emperor, was leading a life of retirement at (Eneum, on the shores of the Euxine, when he bethought himself of profiting by these intestine dissensions to take possession of the empire, lie collected his partisans and landed at Constantinople. A revolu¬ tion at once took place in the palace; the empress and her courtiers were strangled, and Andronicus was proclaimed joint emperor with the young Alexis, A.D. 1182. However, before a year had elapsed, Alexis suffered the same fate as his mother, and Andronicus became sole possessor of the throne. He endeavoured to stifle the memory of his crimes by judicious government, but was eventually dethroned by a revolution, similar to that which he himself had raised. Isaac, the successor of Andronicus, continued the severe measures adopted by his predecessor against the legitimate heirs to the crown. He proscribed the whole family of the Comneni and their followers: amongst them, those whom he most dreaded were John Comnenus, the second son of Alexis, who was then with the army in Macedonia, and Manuel, who was then in prison. The Princess Thamar, daughter of Andronicus, had two children, Alexis and David Comnenus, the sons of Manuel, who became, after the death of their father and their uncle, the natural heirs to the imperial dignity. In order to save them from the peril that threatened them, Thamar, having collected her partisans, and gathered together her valuables, fled with them into Colchis. Alexis Comnenus was at that time four years old. Eallmerayer, the historian of Trebizond, during his researches amongst manuscripts relating to the period, found no document relative to these events, which happened in the 13th century. Trebizond was at this time almost detached from the empire; so when Alexis had grown up, and had been acknowledged by his followers as emperor, he left Colchis, and established his new kingdom in that place. This occurred A. D. 1206. Gregory, the grandson of Queen Thamar, reigned in the Caucasus; Theodore Lascaris was emperor at Nicaea, and Baldwin of Elanders was master of Constantinople. 1 The kingdom of Alexis extended from Sinope to Phasus, hut all the southern provinces were in the power of the Seljouks, against whom the new principality had to contend during the whole period of its existence, until at length it was annihilated by the victorious arms of Islam. Fallmerayer, Op. cit., ji. 48. TRKBIZOkD. Sinope, the port and arsenal of the now kingdom, did not long remain in the power of the Comneni; the Seljoukian princes took possession of it A.D. 1223. In the year 611 of the Hegira, Sultan Az Eddin Kei Kaous took possession of the coast from the mouth of the Ilalys to the promontory Oarambis, and the whole of this territory was for ever lost to the kingdom of Trebizond. Few events that happened during the reigns of the successors of Alexis I., up to the time of .John Ooranenus, A.D. 1280, have been recorded in history. Ducange states that the kingdom of Trebizond lasted two hundred and fifty-eight years, during which it was governed by twelve princes ; but he gives the names of only nine of them. Andronicus I. formed an alliance with the Sultan of Iconium, for the purpose of re-conquer¬ ing Colchis; but this province remained separate from the empire, which constantly diminished in size. In tlie year 1253, Manuel I. despatched an embassy to the French monarch St. Louis, who was then at Sidon, asking his daughter in marriage. In the year 1295 there arose a new subject of contention with the court of Constantinople : the Emperor John II. had joined the Church of Rome. These various events had little influence upon the fine arts. The taste of the Byzantines tor brilliant decoration prevailed, but the edifices erected at this period were not substantially built, and none of them remain in the present day: sieges and insurrections have swept them all away. During the fourth year of the reign of Michael Comnenus, A.D. 1347, Trebizond suffered terribly from the scourge of a pestilence, which was so fatal, that not above one man in five survived: the neighbouring villages became deserted. At the same time an earthquake destroyed most of the public buildings. Eor a period of twelve years, Trebizond was overwhelmed with misfortunes; commerce by land with the interior was suspended, and that by sea would have ceased also, liad not the emperor made a grant to the Genoese settlers of a tract of land upon the isthmus, where they could erect warehouses, and land their merchandise in security. The reign of Alexis III., who ascended the throne in the year 1349, commenced under unfavourable auspices; the patricians had formed a league for opposing, at the same time, the democracy and the sovereign power: they were overjoyed at beholding the crown descend to a mere child, whose character exhibited extreme religious tendencies and a taste for pacific pursuits. Alexis was the son of Basil I., and of Irene of Byzantium. Ou the feast of Epiphany, the young emperor was conducted by his mother to he crowned in the church of St. Eugenius. Two years afterwards, he married the young Princess Theodora Cantacuzenus, of Constantinople. The patricians ( archontes ) did not wish for the overthrow of the monarch, but they wished to govern him. The opposition of Irene, upon which they had not calculated, produced insurrection amongst the vassals, which spread from castle to castle, and produced geneial confusion and • dismay. This state of things lasted till the year 1350, and the Mussulmans profited by it to make incursions into the territory of Trebizond. The feeble monarch had thus to resist the attacks of enemies from within and from without. Guided by his court, he decided upon a campaign against the Turks. At first he gained some advantages, but was finally defeated by a corps of Turcomans, losing four hundred men and many horses, and only escaped falling into the hands of the enemy by a precipitous flight. The Duke of Ckaldsea, who commanded under the emperor, was made prisoner, and the Turcomans, taking advantage of their victory, advanced to the coast, and took possession of Limnia. Like most of the princes of the house of the Comneni, Alexis liberally encouraged the fine arts. He embellished the town of Trebizond, and, animated by religious zeal, built churches, and lounded monasteries in the town and its environs. Artists were summoned from Constantinople to decorate his palaces with paintings and mosaics. He caused also to be built at Mount Athos, the convent and cloister of St. Dionysius, in which was painted his portrait, crowned with the inrperial diadem. The convent stands upon a height overlooking the sea. In it is preserved the Chrysobullos, written in Greek, enumerating the various donations made by the emperor to the monastery. The latter part of the reign of Alexis was disturbed by the incursions ot Turcomans and Tartars, who encamped within forty miles of Trebizond. The alliances which the emperor formed with some of the emirs checked the victorious Mussulmans on their march; hut the mountain tribes still refused to pay tribute, and pillaged the caravans. In the year 1382 Alexis undertook a campaign against the Tzanes, who originally paid tribute to the Comneni. Alexis III. died A.D. 1389, leaving the throne to his son Manuel III., who was born in 1364, and had married FOUNDATION OF THE KINGDOM OF TREBIZOND. 19.-J Eudoxia, a daughter of David, King of Georgia, by whom he had a son, Basil, who succeeded his father on the throne. The reigns of the successors of Alexis were not distinguished by any notable event. The hordes of Timour, who made their appearance in Anatolia about the year 1387, had taken and sacked Erzeroum, and marched to the west: they had also defeated Kara Youssuf, the chief of the Turcoman tribe of the Black Sheep. Notwithstanding these circumstances, Trebizond flourished as a place of commerce, on account of its proximity to the sea, and was tolerably free from enemies, on account of the great influence the Genoese had acquired in the Levant. The reign of the Emperor John II., called Kalo-Jolm, was the last time of prosperity the empire of Trebizond (which was declining to its fall) enjoyed. That prince had a daughter, Despina Khatoum, or Catherine, by name, whose beauty was celebrated throughout the East. Her hand was sought by many of the emirs, amongst whom the most renowned was Uzan Hassan, King of Persia. That prince sent an ambassador to Kalo-Jolm, asking the hand of his daughter, and promising to place his army and treasures at the disposal of his father-in-law, for the defence of Trebizond against the Mussulmans. The marriage was celebrated, and the beautiful Catherine became a Mussulman princess. Her fame, which extended even to Italy, through the Genoese merchants, was the source of inspiration to poets, by whom she was celebrated, under the title of the Princess of Trebizond. After the death of Ivalo-Jobn, in the year 1458, the crown descended to his son, Alexis Y.; but David, brother of the deceased, taking as a pretext the precarious state in which the kingdom would be if governed by an infant of four years old, seized the reins of government, but did not succeed in saving the empire. David Comncnus was the brother of Kalo-Jolm : historians accuse him of having caused the death of his nephew, the young Alexis, whose right to the throne was incontestable. He had for his first wife Maria Theodora, of the house of the Theodores, princes of the Crimea ; his second wife was Irene, daughter of Matthew Cantacuzenus, and granddaughter of John VI., Emperor of Constantinople: by this wife he had seven children. At this period the Turks had been masters of Constantinople for five years; all Anatolia was in their power, and Mahomet II. was not desirous of leaving this little Christian kingdom on the Black Sea quite independent. The reign of David, therefore, commenced under sinister auspices. He despatched envoys to demand help at the hands of all Christian princes, and at the same time addressed himself to the King of Persia, Uzan llassan, who was his nephew by marriage, and who had promised him succour. Mahomet II., hearing of this promise, threatened the Persian monarch, and thus put an end to the alliance. The Christian princes turned a deaf ear to the entreaties of David, who was then left to combat alone the colossal power of the Osmanlis. In the spring of 1461 Mahomet II. determined upon seizing Trebizond, and assembled a numerous army in the plain of Broussa, and a fleet of a hundred ships in the ports of the Propontis, for this purpose. The sultan himself went to the camp to hasten the preparations, though no one at the time knew against whom the expedition was to be directed, lhe news of it spread to the Crimea and the Archipelago. David suspected the truth, and set to work to place his kingdom in a state of defence. To those who asked the sultan what his intentions were, he responded: “ If a hair of ray beard knew my thoughts, I would pluck it out and throw it into the fire.” Tidings of the expedition having reached the heart of Asia Minor, the troops at Sivas and Tocat, which had become Mussulman towns, intercepted all the succour that could have come from the East. Meanwhile, the sultan had information from Trebizond. Mahmoud, one of his generals, demanded an interview with the protovestarius, and described the power of his master in such glowing terms, that David, being alarmed, consented to deliver up his states, on condition that the sultan would marry his eldest daughter, Anne Comnenus. Historians look upon the treaty that followed as the result of the treason of the protoves¬ tarius, George, and, according to Marini, II Turco acquistb Vimperio cli Trabisonda piU con frode die colV anne 1 The Ottoman army made its entrance into Trebizond in the summer of the year 1402. The lower part of the town, near the Genoese depdts, had suffered from the attack of the fleet, 3 l> Fallmerayer, Op. ell., j». 27!i. 'IT! RUT/ON I I!) 4 but the town remained intact. The citadel and the palace Avere occupied by the chiefs ot the army. As soon as Mahomet had Prince David and his family in his power, he forgot all his promises. The prince was transported to Constantinople, and shortly after imprisoned at Adrianople. George, bis youngest son, was taken from his family, and made a Mussulman. Put the ferocious hatred of Mahomet could only be satisfied by the extermination of the unhappy family. David was accused of carrying on a correspondence Avith the Christian princes. Despina Khatoum had, on her part, wi’itten a letter, promising him deliverance: this Avas fatal to David, Avho was offered the alternative of the turban or death. The Christian prince refused to become a Mahometan: some of his children also refused, and they were all led to the stake, and put to death before the eyes of the Empress Irene. Eallmerayer gives the date of his execution, A.D. 1466; other historians give it as A.D. 1462 : the former is the more probable. All the children of David did not suffer; one was saved, avIio Avas the ancestor of the Comneni of the Morca. Mahomet II. married the Princess Anne, and made her a Mahometan. Thus ended, without resistance, this empire, which had lasted tAVO hundred and fifty-eight years, under twenty princes, who succeeded one another in the following manner :— A.D. a.d. Alexis Comnenus . . . 1204 Basil. . . . 1332 Andronieus I. . . . . 1222 Irene . . . . 1310 John I. Anna. . . . 1311 Manuel I. . . . 1238 John III. Andronieus II. . . . 1263 Michael. . . . 1350 Alexis III. . . . 1364 John II. . . . 1280 Manuel III. . . . . 1390 Alexis II. . . . 1298 Alexis IV. . . . 1412 Andronieus III. . . . . . 1330 John IV. Manuel II. . . . . . . 1332 David. . . . 1458 After the occupation of the town, the inhabitants, being Christians, Avere in the most deplorable state; all their goods were confiscated, and they were forbidden to reside any longer within the walls of the town ; and this order is still observed, after a lapse of four centuries. They built houses on the east suburb, now more extensive than the town itself. A third of the inhabitants Avere carried to Constantinople; the Avomen were distributed amongst the harems of the Turkish officers, and eight hundred of the young men were formed into a body-guard for the sultan ; others were sent to the army as baggage-keepers, and some to the galleys: the Pasha of Gallipoli was named governor of Trebizond. Thus were the inhabitants of a town that had capitulated treated by the Turks. T the commencement of the 13th century, when Alexis I. laid the first foundations of the empire of Trebizond, the town differed but little from what it had been in the earliest times. The walls did not extend beyond the quadrilateral platform which reaches half-way up the hill. The ground comprises, between this platform and the shore, the port, where the sailors of those times used to draw their boats to shore, a custom which is still doubled the extent of the town. The whole of the town was commanded by the ancient Greek acropolis, so that the first form of the town very little resembled that of a table, trapeza ; it is clear, as we have said, that this etymology is but a play of words, invented by origin. The moats cut in a rock and reveted with thick masonry are, without doubt, of the time of Justinian; but most of the edifices built by this prince were already destroyed, and the materials of which they were constructed had been employed to build the sea Avail, in which we find a quantity of Byzantine fragments. The inferior region of the town was destined for citizens and for the merchants of the country ; the patricians inhabited the superior quarter, where Alexis had his palace erected, and the principal edifices, churches, and tribunals. The foreign merchants occupied the eastern suburb, and the principal commercial houses are still established there; in later times, when the Genoese had obtained from the princes ol Trebizond a concession of ground, they established themselves upon a promontory of volcanic rocks, on which had been built the palace of Guzel Serai. On the west side the walls stretched almost in a straight line, running north and south, and joined the upper acropolis. The walls throughout their extent are defended by round and square toAvers, built with large blocks of stone, amongst which are to be seen many ancient fragments. The suburb on the west is, in the present day, almost uninhabited, and is occupied by gardens, formerly several monasteries stood there, and at the extremity of the hill that adjoins the sea, stands the royal church of St. Sophia, built by Alexis Comnenus III. 1 .. i i • i ■ j. _ ... i .i:,i -- The sky-line of the mountain in the background is remarkably beautiful, and the enclosure ol TRBBIZnXn. residences of the European consuls. The vessels .are moored in the small harbour near the Guzel Serai A few lm’ge stones forming a jetty are the sole remains of the mole of Hadrian. The beach is bounded by a range of low hills, ascended by zigzag paths. Erom the plateau on their summit a magnificent prospect is visible. To the north is the Black Sea; to the cast are the mountains of Lazist.an and Colchis; and on the adjoining plain are the ancient walls of the town, appearing here and there between the orange groves. Trebizond was"situated at the confines of the Greek world; beyond it commenced the district of barbarous tribes, which had no communication with civilized countries, except through it. Bor thirty centuries it has been to the Asiatic nations beyond, the representative of commerce ami civilization. In the present day wo find in its bazaars silks from the mountains of Aderbaijan; woollen stuffs embroidered with gold from the borders of the Euphrates; goat-skins from Angora; honey, wax, morocco, and leather from Amasia and Tocat. Europe is represented in them by calicoes and cutlery from England and Brance. The town, being built on ground sloping to the sea, is often damaged now, as it was in former times, by torrents from the mountains, which, in rainy seasons, convert the streets into rivulets. Two natural valleys receive the surplus water. They are crossed by bridges of single arches. The inner castle (Juch ICaleh), which is built upon the plateau, is commanded by the upper acropolis, which also commands the approach from the sea. The imperial palace, which occupied the m-eater part of the esplanade, included, in addition to the royal apartments, guest-chambers, and rooms for the royal treasure and for the archives. It was surrounded by wide and deep ditches, and the entrance to it was defended by iron gates. A magnificent staircase led to the Golden Palace of the Oomneni, which was surrounded by galleries and balconies, so that the inmates could enjoy the fresh air and the magnificent prospect of the sea and mountains. The floor of the great hall was paved with white marble, the vaulted roofs glittered with gold and arabesques. Upon the walls of the great hall were painted the portraits of the Comneni, ranged according to their hereditary rank, and short inscriptions related their illustrious deeds. Above this hall was the chamber of council, where the affairs of government were despatched, and where audience was given to ambassadors. The roof of this splendid building rose in the form of a pyramid, supported by four columns, each of a single piece of marble.' The banqueting-liall, otherwise called the Triclinium, adjoined the council chamber; beyond was the library. Panaretos, a Greek, who wrote the Chronicles of the Palace, speaks at length about this library. It fell into the hands of the Turks A.D. 1462, and appears to have been long neglected; finally it seems to have been transferred to the Seraglio at Constantinople.' AVe may add that recent researches made in that library have led to no satisfactory results on that subject. From the arrangement of the Palace of the Comneni, it evidently resembled the Palace of Mangana at Constantinople. The usages of the two courts were the same, and the officers bore the same titles. As wo have before stated, Trebizond suffered from the plague; once in the year 1347, and again from a more terrible visitation of it in the year 1382. It also suffered from another scourge common in Eastern towns, which are chiefly built of wood; viz., fire. In the year 1341 the town was almost entirely reduced to ashes, during an insurrection in the time of Irene; the lower town, all the suburbs, and the lower acropolis (the ancient Trapezunte), were completely destroyed. The Imperial Palace, which was protected by thick walls, escaped the disaster. Several monasteries and other public buildings were uninjured, for the same reason. Amongst others the monastery of the Virgin with the Golden Head, and the adjoining church, which we shall mention presently. The houses were, however, soon rebuilt, and the town resumed its wonted prosperity. The religious establishments of Trebizond were numerous and remarkable. Near the 1 Bessarion, Venetian manuscript, folio 162, apud Fall- merayer, Op. cit. Cardinal Bessarion was born at Trebizond, A.D. 1395, and died in 1472. He has left, besides other manuscripts, a book having the title of -enl Tpa-t^oui'rnc, con¬ taining valuable information about his native town. He was sent on several embassies, and he formed a fine library, which he left by will to the Senate of Venice. For many centuries the precious collection was kept secret and the manuscripts not allowed to be seen; at present there is greater liberality in this respect. 2 Carl Ritter, Klein-Asiea, vol. ix. p. 808. THE BYZANTINE AND MODERN TOWN OF TREBIZOND. Cathedral of St. Philip there was a magnificent monastery; near it were the churches of Manganon, St. Eugenius, and Cllrysokephalos. In the suburb of Acanthus were the church and cloister of St. Mary, where was the tomb of Alexis IV. The town is surrounded with well-wooded valleys, watered by fountains and numerous brooks. The gardens produce an abundance of all sorts of fruit: vines, olives, oranges, are plentiful in this temperate climate; for these reasons, those writers who have described it, from mediaeval times until the present day, have dwelt upon the charms of the spot, and have given it the name of an earthly paradise. The renown of Trebizond was made known in the West* by the Crusaders, and by the Genoese and Venetian merchants. The beauty of its women, who had a mixture of Circassian and Greek blood in their veins, was an inexhaustible theme for the trouba¬ dours. The princes of the East, the emirs of Persia, and the khans of the Caucasus, sought the princesses of Trebizond in marriage. Eudoxia, the daughter of Alexis IV., although the widow of a Turcoman chief, made such an impression on the Emperor John Palgeologus, that he took her to wife, although she was intended for his son Manuel. The mildness of the climate and the facility of obtaining the means of subsistence were particularly favourable for the monastic life, which had always been in favour amongst the Greek Christians. All the valleys in the neighbourhood contained the cells of coenobites. In the interior of the country were to be seen vast monasteries, for the most part royal foundations. One of the largest of these Avas that of St. John, distant a day’s march from the town. A convent for women Avas also founded in a shady valley in the neighbourhood of Trebizond. These two establishments still exist. Those travellers who have visited Trebizond — Tournefort, Hamilton, and especially Fall- merayer —one and all deplore the ruinous state in Avliieh they found its ancient edifices, which are almost all in the possession of the Turks. The most important ruins are comprehended Avithin the Avails of the upper castle—on the central plateau called Orta Hissar, the quadri¬ lateral plot of ground on which stood the primitive town. From the extreme point two lines of wall, defended by ditches cut in the rock, descend towards the sea. The line of Avail on the north side, which runs parallel to the sea, is separated from it by a narrow strip of sandy beach, upon Avhich the sailors beach their vessels. The angle adjoining the hill being most exposed to attacks from Avithout, had a Avail thicker and higher than the others: this still remains quite perfect. 1 he imperial palace was apparently built upon the site of the ancient acropolis, of the time of Xenophon aud Justinian. Its precinct was defended by fosses, and Avas supplied Avitli numerous excellent springs. The loAA'er wall, which borders the sea, was built by Alexis II., according to an inscription copied by Tournefort, mentioning the name of the Emperor, his mother Irene, and his Avife Theodora. 'ihe general aspect of the town is that of three fortified divisions, rising one above the other. 1 he valley on the cast side bears the name of Kouzoun JDeresi (the Valley of the Crow); that on the west is called Tchgeleboz. In the southern quarter, which is the narrowest, at the top of the town, is the gate of Koule Kapousi (the gate of the Tower). This quarter is called Yukari Hissar (the lligli Castle). There are two mosques and some Turkish houses in it. On the north, descending to the sea, is the gate of Yeni Djami Kapousi (the gate of the New Mosque); this leads into the quarter of Orta Hissar. The east gate, which leads to the great suburb, is called Tabalc-hane Kapousi (the Tanners’ Gate), because the tanners have their establishments in the neighbouring valley of Kouzoun Berest, Avatered by a rapid stream. This gate communicates with the suburb by means of a bridge. Next comes the Zendan Kapousi , or gate of the Prison; so called from an adjoining gaol. Near it stands the old church of the Virgin with the Golden Head, which was converted into a mosque by Mahomet II. Baths for men and Avomen ( Tchijte Uammam) appear to have been established in an old church in the neighbourhood. Not far from this spot is the palace, called Eski Serai, remarkable only for its size. In the lower tOAvn (Aschaghy Hissar) there are to be found no traces of Byzantine buildings; there are a fevv mosques in it, the minarets of which arc visible above the roofs of the houses. The Sea-gate ( Moloz Kapousi ) leads to the landing-place. On the sea-sliore is the palace of a pasha, with a mosque and minaret. 3 E TltF.liTZl )N1 Another mosque, called Imaret Djamisi, is situated in the west side; it comprehends a medrece or school, and a kitchen for the poor. Beneath its dome are deposited the remains of the mother of Selim I. The eastern suburb is now the active commercial quarter. The houses here are generally surrounded by gardens, and the street of the Bazaars is planted with trees. ITcrc are situated the houses of the consuls, the quarantine establishment, and the Custom-house. Upon a rocky eminence near the landing-place are the ruins of the extensive palace, called the Guzel Serai. The inhabitants state that this building was erected in 1740, by Achmet Oglou Pasha, in the reign of Mahmoud T. Through an intrigue, common at that period, the enemies of the pasha denounced the erection of this edifice to the Porte, as an attempt at independence: a Capidji bashi, or executioner, was immediately despatched to put the rebel pasha to death, and to burn his palace. Since that time it has never been repaired. The palace also suffered during the bombardment of Trebizond by the Russian fleet in 1807. Vessels are generally moored at the foot of the rock on the east side. The landing-place here bears the name of Maloz Iskelesi. Near it may be seen, under the water, large blocks of stone, which appear to be the remains of the Mole of Hadrian. An edifice with two domes, seen from this point in the distance, is the Armeniau church, which the inhabitants say is the tomb of Prince David. History, however, docs not state that his remains were transported to Trebizond. The population of this ancient capital is now composed of the inhabitants of various countries, who follow different pursuits. The rich Turks chiefly hold official appointments; the Armenians are for the most part bankers and merchants. Most of the branches of industry are in the hands of the Greeks. The Lazes and natives of the country arc sailors and fishermen. THE BYZANTINE BUILDINGS OF TREBIZOND. THEN the Turks had taken possession of the town, most of the public buildings not ' * devoted to ecclesiastical purposes were distributed amongst the principal chiefs. The imperial palace became the residence of the governor; but in consequence of successive alterations and additions, there is little of the original work to be seen in the present day. The churches which had been dedicated to the Mahometan worship, have, on the contrary, been carefully preserved, and are now in a satisfactory state of repair. Those churches were for the most part erected by the Emperor Alexis III. (whose religious zeal led him to build many churches and monasteries in his capital and its vicinity), and are therefore works of the middle of the 14th century. They are interesting, as exhibiting the transformation that ecclesiastical architecture had undergone since the time of Justinian. The principal divisions of the ancient church are maintained in their integrity; the ritual itself had not been altered: we find the narlliex and exo-nartliex; but the nave is longer, and the whole plan resembles that of the Latin church. The central dome still remains the distinguishing characteristic. THE CHURCH OF THE GOLDEN-HEADED VIRGIN (n A N A r I A XPTSOKE4>AAOS). The singular name of this church is derived, no doubt, from a representation of the Virgin with golden ornaments on her head. We know that the Byzantines never admitted figures sculptured in the round into their churches; but their altars are ornamented with pictures of the Virgin, the face only of which is painted; the drapery being represented by plates of gold or silver, embossed Avith repoussee work. We see in the plan of the church certain principles of the school of Constantinople, ST SOPHIA'S. TREBIZOND • • LONGITUDINAL SECTION ELEVATION —1—“ "j.'—1 r, . i i ill'*.! Til v( dr dfP ? • 5 T_izz5vizr fry TT ® 7 '/I 1 —1- , ‘ _r ; 1 1 1 J- -77?r ■ bj’-cc ILS OF SCULPTUR ST. SOPHIA. lmt remark an almost total absence of columns. The dome, which is lighted by twelve windows, is of a more elevated form than ordinary. It is supported by lour brick piers, upon which rest the pendcntives. On each side of the apse are the two chapels, the gasophylakion and the skeuophylakion, which communicate immediately with the apse by means of side doors. The iconostasis, which was taken away by the Turks, was situated between the great piers, making the choir about 4-0 ft. G in. in depth. The aisles are very narrow, and communicate with the narthex and exo-narthex. We remark in this church an arrangement which we have before noticed in St. Elias, at Thessalonica: the women’s gallery extends only over the narthex. There is no part of the internal decoration, which consisted of mosaic pictures, visible as the Turks have whitewashed all the walls of the church. The tomb of Alexis, erected by Ivalo-John, forms the chief ornament of the edifice. It consists of a marble mausoleum, adorned with bas-reliefs: it was executed between the years 1445—1449. As the side of the church faces Mecca, the apse was of no use to the Turks, and they were obliged to place their mihrab, or prayer-niche, in one of the side walls; thus blocking up one of the doorways. There were two side entrances, with two porches, each having three arches. The west front has a porch of live arches, giving access to the exo-narthex; on the first story are five windows, which light the women’s gallery. The length of the church is 13G ft. 10 in.; its width, 61 ft. 9 in. (Sec Plates LXVII., LXVIII.) Carl Hitter gives the following description of this edifice: 1 — “ In the vicinity of the Zendan Kapousi stands the most important mediaeval building,— the celebrated clmrcli of the Virgin with the Golden Head, which is 150 feet long and 50 feet broad; it is of the basilican form, with a high central dome: the three stories stand upon a double row of galleries. Under the new coating that the Turks have given it, are to he seen some traces of ancient decoration, which consists of a mosaic, representing the Annunciation. This is placed behind the principal altar.” Round the court surrounding the mosque, are apartments for the students, or softas, who are educated by means of the revenues of the mosque. ST. SOPHIA. At the western extremity of the plain, called Kapon Meidan, stands the most remarkable monument of the city of the Comneni, — the church of St. Sophia, the peculiar aspect of which attracts the attention of all travellers who arrive at Trebizond by sea. The church stands upon an esplanade, which on the side towards the sea is sustained by substructures; the plan is that of the churches of the time of Justinian. In the centre, four white marble columns support pendcntives, from which spring a dome, pierced by twelve windows: the diameter of the dome is 20 ft. 4- in. The apse lias three windows, and at the extremity of each aisle is a chapel for the sacred vessels and hooks. (See Plates LX. to LXIV.) The total length of the nave is G9 feet, and the width, including the aisle, 36 feet. There is a narthex in front, the full width of the fagade. The exo-narthex stands out beyond this, and is entered by three archways. The gynceionitis, or gallery for the women, extends over the narthex, hut not over the aisles. We may conclude from this circumstance, that this church is of the same date as that of the Virgin, and belongs to the same epoch. On the north and south sides there are porches resembling the exo-narthex. On all sides there are steps leading to the church. There is no inscription recording the date of the erection of the church, but certain evidences in the internal decoration lead us to attribute its erection to the Emperor Alexis III. The interior was decorated with mosaic pictures, which were covered with a thick coat of plaster at the time it was converted into a mosque; but a part of this plastering fell down ‘ Carl Ritter, TllEBIZOND. 200 in 1836, and several figures were in this manner revealed. Between the windows of the apse were figures of stoled saiuts, bearing the nimbus. (See Plate LXY.) Above one of the doors are three large figures, one representing the Emperor Alexis Comnenus III., surrounded by his court: he hears in his hand the imperial orb, and his head is encircled with a diadem. The other personages are, without doubt, meant to represent the protospatharius , the vestarius , and other chamberlains. This composition resembles in every respect the mosaic of the church of Bavenna, representing Justinian and his court; we may therefore believe that similar subjects decorated the principal churches in Byzantine times. The pendentives are supported by four white marble columns, the capitals of which arc cubical in form, without the dosseret. The springing of the arches is 6 ft. 8 in. above the impost. The pavement that decorates the centre of the church is perhaps the finest specimen now in existence of Byzantine mosaic of a similar description. It consists of meanders and interlacings of precious marble, amongst which may be seen red and green porphyry, jasper, and many rare Asiatic marbles. (See Plate XYI.) The large medallions are of marble and porphyry : upon one of them is engraved a falcon seizing a hare. Almost all the subjects in Byzantine marquetry represent animals and hunting scenes. The lateral porches arc interesting, as affording subjects of study for the history of art. In the 14th century, though the Pointed style flourished in the West, it never prevailed amongst the Greeks. We cannot doubt that Pointed architecture had its origin in the East, when we find the ruins of a church of that style in one of the royal cities of Asia, bearing the date of the year 1010. 1 The church to which we allude was built by Armenians. But in the porches of St. Sophia we find the pointed arch appearing for the first time in a purely Byzantine building, solely, however, in an accidental manner, for it has a round arch on each side. Two composite columns, 14 feet high, spring from archivolts, composed of various mouldings. The imposts show, in some degree, the inlluence of Arab art, as they are composed of a number of those little polygonal niches, placed one above the other, that are so common in Mahometan ornamentation. The tympanum of the principal arch has in the centre a quatrefoil opening, and at the sides are sculptures taken from the Old Testament. To the right we see Adam asleep ; the Temptation of Eve by the Serpent on the left; Adam and Eve expelled from Paradise by the Angel. A fillet above these sculptures hears the following inscription :— €A€H0ONM€AnOTHNAMAPTIANMOY Pardon my sins. KeOe€OC€A€H0ONKeBOH0HAriOCAriOC O Lord God, have pity upon me, Lord, come to my aid. Holy, Holy. The symbols of the Evangelists are placed at the angles, and outside the arch are the figures of two angels in the attitude of adoration. The other porch is less remarkable: we see in the niches the Avork of Arab artists. The Prince of Trehizond had for a long time been in alliance with the Emirs, and this fact accounts for the introduction of oriental ornamentation. The church is built of wrought stone: it is placed on a sort of terrace, terminating in a half-circle, and upon the side nearest the sea stands an octagonal baptistry. In front of the church stands a high square tower, resembling a hell-tower : it has an apartment in it decorated with frescoes. Eallmcrayer found in it the dates 1427 and 1433. 2 Hamilton thus speaks of the church of St. Sophia :—“ A few days after my return I visited the ruins of the Greek church of St. Sophia; we left the toAvn by the western gate, having passed the two picturesque bridges over the ravine already described. A narrow road, between high Avails and gardens, soon brought us to a green plain, called the Capu Meidfin, surrounded by 1 Texier, I’Armenie, la Perse et la Mesopotaviie, vol. i. 2 Audi iu einem zurSeite erbauten, abgesonderten Glockeu- thurmc i'anden sick solche Malereien mit Insehriften aus dei Jahre 1433, und eine andere vom Jalire 1427. SOPHIAS TREBIZOND. FRESCO IN APSE FRESCO OF COMNENI AT AG IA THEOTOKOS. NEAR TREBIZOND PAN ACT A THEOTOCOS. gardens and fields, opening to the sea on the right hand, and on the left rising up towards the hills. In front we had a distant view of the hold range of heights which terminate in Cape Yoros, the Hieron Oros of the ancients. “ The church of St. Sophia, close to the sea-shore, has been converted into a mosque by the Turks, and is in a sad state of decay. On the south side is an open porch in the Byzantine style, supported by two high slender columns, from which spring three round arches, contained within a larger one, springing from each end; a small frieze representing angels, saints, and other figures, much mutilated by the Turks, extends in a continuous line over the smaller arches. Above the centre of the large arch is a carved figure of a double-headed eagle . 1 A similar figure is let into the outer wall at the east end of the church, which is circular, as well as the two sides. The centre is octagonal, and built in a style very superior to the rest of the building. A neat border of echinus pattern runs round it immediately below the roof, and another still more ornamental lower down. “ The walls within are stuccoed, and have been painted in fresco, but the Turks have almost entirely destroyed the paintings. The once beautiful mosaic floor is also sadly injured; but in one of the compartments I found the representation of an eagle destroying a hare. The roof is supported by four handsome marble columns. Immediately adjoining is either a belfry or baptistry, in which there have been some fresco paintings with Greek inscriptions, stating whom they represented, and when and by whom they were executed, hut so much injured that I could not make out the artist’s name, or the date of any one of them.” * PAN AGIA THEO TOCOS. The convent of the Mother of God is now occupied by a few nuns. The Turks know it by the name of Kizlar Monmtir (the Convent of the Girls). This religious establishment is situated about a mile and a half from Trebizond. It is built at the bottom of a valley at the foot of the mountain of Booz Tepesi. Externally it has the appearance of a fortress. At the end of the first court is a high rock in which a chapel has been excavated, having a porch in front of it also cut in the rock. The surface of the rock is covered with stucco, upon which various religious subjects are painted in fresco. The walls to the left are covered with scenes from the New Testament; the pictures reach up to the vault, which is also covered with figures. Below the pictures are full-length portraits of saints, with their names and attributes: a line of medallions surmounts the whole composition. That wall of the porch which serves lor an iconostasis in front of the chapel is decorated with six large full-length figures: they are those of Christ, the Virgin, and St. John. The three other attract attention from the inscriptions that accompany them : they are the portraits of Alexis III., his wife Theodora, and his mother Irene. These pictures are blackened by the smoke of tapers, still it is easy to make out the splendid costume of the royal personages of Trebizond. In order to reproduce those historical portraits, we have ventured to restore the three persons by borrowing some details from contemporary works at Mount Athos and Irom manuscripts. (See Plate LXVI.) The figure in the centre is that of the Emperor Alexis, clad in a jewelled cope, wearing on his head a rich tiara, and bearing a sceptre in his hand. The inscription on the walls is as follows: AA€ZIOC€NXUmoetO niCTOCBACIA€YC KAIAYTOKPATWP flACHCANATOAHC OM€f ACKOMNHNOC Alexius, a believer in the Lord Christ, King and Emperor of the whole of Anatolia,— the great Comnenns. On his right is the figure of a princess wearing a diadem, still worn by the Russian princesses, called Kacochnik . She bears in her hands a model of a church. This circumstance seems to The eagle has only one head. The large eagle of the has also only one head, perors, which is to be seen in the bazaar of Constantinople, In fol. See the Travels of llovvniaire de llal. 2 Hamilton, vol. I. p. 242. 3 F TR KBTZOND. distinguish her as the foundress of the monastery: her dress is of the greatest richness. By her side is the following inscription: HPHNHXV MHTHPA€TOY €Y€CB€CTATOY BACIA€OCKI POYAAEHIOY TOYM6TAAOY KOMNHNOY Irene, by the Grace of God, Mother of the Eagle, the very pious King Lord Alexis, the Great Comnenus. Another inscription is placed by the third figure: — 06OAWPA XVXAPITI€V C€B€CTATH A€CniNA KAIAYTOKPA TOPICCAnACIC ANATOAHC Theodora, by the Grace of God, the very pious Ruler and Empress of all Anatolia. Theodora hears the sceptre in one hand, and a disc in the other. Her head-dress and her robe are as rich as those of Irene. The character of these inscriptions resembles that of Spandoni at Thessalonica, which is of the same century. MOSQUE OF ORTA HISSAR DJAMASI. TREBIZOND MOSQUE OF ORTA HISSAR. TREBIZOND H OKTAOYI OCIAAPOC €Y 5 A H 6 NOCA N 6 6 HKA yn epcwTKPi ac k-. € YTYX 0 YCK A\ T£ KNuJN 6 IAA 0 IKOI BAAHAPK 6 JC KOI PAN€ KCJMCON KAIKAY avxHMdZseixeeicTovT?x K&.|THHriPWP ONHClNKAITHh draAMtxeeioHToicnac KAlTHrAa$VPc\TOV Kd/\' £NTH dKMH^eVT^NHe TOKOIHOH KACOCHCGIPd dldlTHCCM HCKdl KOIHI ct-1 Ah K£4>aAh eAnicsa: 6Koimh0hoAoyAoct( 6COYAC C (IOTA NYN lAAPOYCOI. f XAPICTE 1 A . 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Fig ]] EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. Plate I. FRONTISPIECE. The Frontispiece is composed of fragments from the church of St. Sophia at Constanti¬ nople. The columns are banded with iron, as they wore before the restoration of the church. The pilasters are ornamented in the same style as the great bronze doors, and the lower part is copied from the front of the women’s gallery. The genii are from the column of Marcian. Plate II. TEE TOMB OF EZEKIEL AT KEFELI, NEAR BAGDAD. In the lower part of Mesopotamia there are to be seen many buildings, the construction of which differs from that of all other known edifices. They have domes composed of little cells formed in cement and artistically arranged. These may be regarded as imitations of the cupolas which crown certain Assyrian monuments, the form of which was derived from India. This tomb stands near the walls of the little village of Kefeli ; the view was taken at the time of the inundation of the Euphrates. Plate III. PLAN OF THE CITY OF PERGA. A few years ago the site of Perga was quite unknown, although it contains the remains of many important edifices. This town will always be renowned as the place where St. Paul landed in Asia Minor. TOMB AT DANA. This little monument, a detailed description of which will be found in the historical notice of Dana, merits especial mention, from the fact that the basement gives the precise date of its erection. Plate IY. VIEW OF A GROTTO AT URGUB. The custom of hewing sepulchres out of the rock was very general in countries ot volcanic formation. Most of the tombs of Urgub date from Christian times. We give the view of this grotto or tomb, in order to show that the horse-shoe arch is ot Byzantine, and not ot Mussulman origin, as some writers have asserted. The figures give some idea of the height ot the tomb. 3 G EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES Plate V. FRESCO AT URGUB. Amongst the numerous Christian pictures that adorn the sepulchral chapels of Urgub, we have chosen one that possesses a particular interest, on account of the representation of the Virgin and the infant Jesus in it. The subject seems to he the presentation of a holy hook to the Saviour by a coenobite. VIEW OF THE TEMPLE OF BALMARCOS AT CAVESTJS (NOW DEIR EL KALA’AH). This temple is situated in an isolated spot on Mount Lebanon, occupied only by the monastery of St. Anthony. The church of the monastery stands upon the ancient cella of the Temple of Baal. The columns of the portico, a third of their original height only, occupy the foreground of the view. No traces of the capitals were found in the vicinity. Plate VI. VIEW OF THE TEMPLE OF BACCHUS AT LAODICEA (LATTAKIA). This fine specimen of Roman architecture was erected in the first or second century. It is picturesquely situated in the lower part of the modern town. The few columns remaining do not afford sufficient evidence to enable us to ascertain the exact plan of the building. The Christians erected an oratory between the columns, and afterwards the Mahomedans placed there the tomb of a santon. For these reasons we have given this building a place amongst Pagan temples converted into ecclesiastical edifices. Plate VII. ELEVATION AND PLAN OF THE COLUMNS OF THE TEMPLE OF BACCHUS. There is no documentary evidence existing to show to what divinity this temple was dedicated; but the vine branches and grapes sculptured on the frieze seem to indicate that it was dedicated to Bacchus ; and this is the more probable, since Laodicea was renowned for the produce of its vines. The proportions of the intercolumniation and entablature, and of the height of the columns with respect to their diameter, are those of the best period of art : and this example will bear comparison with the finest ruins of Rome. Plate VIII. PLANS OF THE TEMPLE OF PORTUMNUS AT OSTIA. From the system of construction followed in this temple, we should not suppose it to he anterior to the third century. It is interesting to the student of Christian art, from the fact of its being the prototype of many of the round churches built by Constantine and his suc¬ cessors. It is interesting to compare the plan with that of St. Marcellinus’ and St. Peter’s at Rome (see p. 14), and with that of St. George’s at Thessalonica (see Plate XXVIII). The basement plan differs from that of other temples of this description in containing circular passages, which form a sort of labyrinth, no doubt used for initiations and such-like ceremonies. Plate IX. TEMPLE OF PORTUMNUS AT OSTIA—ELEVATION AND SECTION. The section shows the state in which the building was in the year 1825, when M. Texier measured it. The dome, which was built of brick, was partly in existence. Many capitals, fragments of entablatures, and columns of cipolino marble, lay around, and afforded sufficient EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 207 information for the restoration of the temple. Had this building been erected during the best period of Koman art, the portico would have had a ceiling of caissons instead of one formed by brick arches. Plate X. BAPTISTRY AT RIEZ. This building is another example of a circular pagan temple dedicated to Christian worship. The wall enclosing the columns is a work of the Middle Ages. Plate XI. THE BAPTISTRY OP ST. MAURICE AT AIX. This part of the church of St. Maurice is regarded by most antiquaries as being of a period long anterior to the rest of the building. The columns are of granite, and the capitals of white marble. The analogy between this edihee and that of Riez is so remarkable, that we are justified in considering them to he contemporaneous. TEMPLE AT VERNEGUE—PLAN. The plan of this temple, which can be traced throughout, is tetrastyle and prostyle, and in antis. The side wall of the cella, one column, and a pilaster, are still remaining in situ. The little building with an apex added at the time of the conversion of the building into a church, was probably used as a chapel. The square addition is of rough masonry, and may have been built for a school. Plate XII. TEMPLE AT VERNEGUE—ELEVATIONS. The window mentioned in the description of this building as having been inserted by Christians for the purpose of lighting the cella, is seen in the side-elevation : the capitals of the pilasters at the sides were evidently copied from those of the large pilasters of the temple. The construction of this edifice indicates a fine period of art. Plate XIII. TEMPLE AT VERNEGUE—DETAILS OF THE ORDER. The sculptured foliage of this capital resembles that of the best period of Greek art, and reminds one to a certain extent of the capitals of the monument of Lysicrates. We may therefore safely consider this temple to be the work of the Greek colonists of Marseilles. The base, which resembles that of the Temple of Vesta at Tivoli, differs from every other example, the Attic base being almost always employed in the Corinthian order. Plate XIV. VIEW OF THE TEMPLE OF AUGUSTUS AT VIENNE. This building is not of such fine workmanship as that just described. Its conversion into a church is of a comparatively recent date, 'flic only change it thus underwent was that walls were erected between the columns, and a door opened into the posticum. Plates XV. XVI. MOSAIC PAVEMENTS. The art of working in mosaic, which reached so great a degree of perfection amongst the Romans, was cultivated with equal success by the Dyzantines. We give in this plate specimens of pavements which Ave consider to have been executed in the second and third centuries. EXPLANATION OF THF, PLATES. Eii?. 1 is a fragment of a pavement still remaining in the basilica of Perga. Although this may he considered to be of the Christian period, the little crosses to be observed in it are not proofs of t his fact, as their presence is simply incidental to the design. This mosaic is executed with black, red, and white stones. Pig. 2. This mosaic, in marble of three colours, was to be seen in the town of Nimes some years ago. The border contains a curious series of representations ot animals and vessels, the signification of which we have endeavoured to explain. (See p. 107.) Fig. 3. This mosaic still exists entire in the town of Nimes. It has a peculiar border, representing the fortifications and gates of a town. Flute XVI.—This pavement, which is of rare beauty, is to be found in the centre of the naA r e of St. Sophia’s at Trebizond; it may therefore be regarded as a work of the 12th century. The materials employed in it ai*e red and green jasper, porphyry, rosso-antico, black and red-veined marbles. The circle in the centre formerly contained some sacred subject, now destroyed. In one of the other circles is to be seen the representation of an eagle devouring a hare. (See Plate LXIV.) Flute XVII. THE CHURCH OF ST. DEMETRIUS, TIIESSALONICA—PLAN. This vast edifice, one of the most magnificent examples of Byzantine art, is completely surrounded by buildings belonging to a monastery in such a manner that it is not visible from the street. Formerly the entrance was immediately through the atrium , in the midst of which stands the fountain for ablutions. Three doorways led into the nartliex; they are now built up, and the entrance is in the aisle. The nartliex communicates with the body of the church by an open portico having two Corinthian columns. At the northern end of it is situated the tomb of St. Demetrius, a small square vaulted chamber ; it is approached through another chamber, which is semicircular in form and quite dark. There are ten columns on each side of the nave, ranged in three divisions, separated from one another by square piers. There are four columns standing upon octagonal pedestals in the central division, and three with plinths only in each of the others. The walls, which are probably of brick, are entirely covered with slabs of marble. The chancel has a semicircular apse lighted by live windows, separated by columns. To the right and left of the apse are two square divisions, of the full height of the church, comprising the two stories. These atria were destined for the clergy. The ciborium or shrine of St. Demetrius stood in the north atrium. The iconostasis stood between the massive piers which stand at the end of the colonnades. The smaller galleries in the aisles are lower than those in the nave, and were used by the assistants at the office. The small chapel situated to the south of the church was used for the purpose of depositing the sacred vessels. A dark passage running through cloisters communicated with a side street. In the present day the upper galleries are reached by means of wooden staircases: this seems to have been the original arrangement. Flutes XVIII. XIX. CHURCH OF ST. DEMETRIUS—LONGITUDINAL AND TRANSVERSE SECTIONS. In the transverse section looking east is shown the arrangement of the atria , which do not exist in any other known church. The gynceconitis is reached by means of a few steps from the tower. The transverse section looking west shows the entrance to the nartliex and the women’s gallery, which runs round the nave. The windows of the clerestory are filled with glass imbedded in stucco. EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 209 The two blank doors seen in the angles are simply slabs of marble : their introduction is flue to a caprice of the architect. The longitudinal section gives a better idea of this magnificent church than can he con¬ voyed by any description. Notwithstanding the fact that there are double aisles, and no windows in the aisle-walls, there is an abundance of light in the church, proceeding from twenty-six clerestory windows. The ,vjnmconith is largo, and quite open to the nave. The destination of the smaller gallery beneath it is doubtful, but it may have been reserved for a particular class of worshippers. The columns on the ground-floor are all of rich marble ; those of the central hay have pedestals, some square and some round, apparently employed for the sake of variety. The cornice above the lower arcade of the nave is composed of modillions and other ornaments in inlaid marbles, of which we give a detailed drawing. The brick supports placed in the bay near the bema are modern restorations. Plate XX. CHURCH OF ST. DEMETRIUS, THESSALONICA—ELEVATION OF A BAY OF THE NAVE. This plate gives an elevation of the central bay of the nave on a larger scale. Plate XXI. CHURCH OF ST. DEMETRIUS, THESSALONICA—ELEVATION OF THE NARTIIEX. The arrangement of the voussoirs in zigzag has been imitated by the Turks and Arabs in their architecture. Plates XXII. XXIII. THE CHURCH OF ST. DEMETRIUS, THESSALONICA—CAPITALS IN THE NAVE. Although the capitals are all varied in design, it is easy to perceive that they have been executed expressly for this edifice, and that they were not taken from more ancient buildings. Each capital is surmounted by a dosseret ornamented with the labarum. The dosseret is, as we have before stated, one of the most characteristic features of Byzantine architecture. The abaci arc sustained by four eagles with outspread wings, resting upon a row of acanthus-leaves; the heads of the eagles occupy the places of the volutes. We may remark in the composition of these capitals a souvenir of the Roman school, while the execution of the acanthus-leaves resembles Greek work. In the centre of the bell there are three hearts, apparently emblematical of the Holy Trinity ; a proof that the capital was destined for an ecclesiastical edifice. The second capital has also four eagles in the place of volutes; but, instead of the row of acanthus-leaves, there is a garland of branches undercut, a mode of treatment common in after-times. The astragals of the columns are ornamented with leaves. We find similar decorations employed in good examples of Greek architecture. The first capital in Plate XXII. presents a very uncommon arrangement of acanthus-leaves : they are twisted as though blown by the wind. There are ten rows of these leaves turned in opposite directions. The sculpture is well executed : the use of the drill in it indicates, to a certain extent, the date of the work ; for we know that it was not employed in sculpture until the second century. These capitals may be called Composite. The heavy volutes, however, and other peculi¬ arities, give them a decided character, different from that of any regular order. The forms of the smaller leaves in the second capital are very good ; they are encircled below by a band ; the astragal is ornamented with vine-leaves. The cross occurs here also; showing the Christian origin of the work. The dosseret is unusually rich ; the ornaments consist of a cross surrounded by palm-leaves. 3 H 210 i:\ri ,anattox of the plates Plates XXIV. XXV. THE CHURCH OF ST. DEMETRIUS—VARIOUS CAPITALS. We give capitals from other parts of the church in these two plates, — one in the form of basket-work, like those of St. Sophia’s at Constantinople ; the Ionic capitals of the upper storv; and pilaster capitals, with sculptures representing two birds drinking out of the same cup,—a common subject in Byzantine times. Plate XXVI. DETAILS FROM THE CHURCHES OF ST. DEMETRIUS AND ST. SOPHIA, THESSALONICA. The arcades of the nave have a sort of entablature above them, representing modillions, executed in marble of three colours. (See fig. 4.) Above the centre of each column there is a square compartment also inlaid with different coloured marbles. (See fig. 2.) On the right of the plate the bases and pedestals of the central columns of the nave are given to one-tenth full size. (See fig. 3.) The mosaic is from the apse of the church of St. Sophia at Thessalonica. We have given an explanation of the inscriptions in the text. (See fig. 1.) Plate XXVII. CARAVANSERAI AT THESSALONICA. The Byzantines erected in the towns and on the public roads hostelries for the use of travellers, called xenodochia. Buildings of this sort were adopted by the Turks, who made but few changes in their general arrangements. This particular caravanserai consists of a large court surrounded by a corridor communicating with rooms for travellers. Each apartment has a small fireplace; but none of the rooms arc furnished. Stables for horses and camels occupy one side of the court. The upper story is arranged exactly like the ground-floor. All round the building there are small shops, let to merchants who are strangers; so that the traveller from the most distant countries can find here a lodging and a place where he can stow his goods. The edifice is entirely built of stone and brick, so that there is never any danger of fire. Plate XXVIII. PLAN AND SECTION OF THE CHURCH OF ST. GEORGE, THESSALONICA. It is not surprising that a superficial observer should regard this building as having been a Roman temple, as it lias all the solidity of the constructions of imperial Rome. This massiveness is one of the principal reasons why we attribute its erection to Constantine. We omitted to mention in the description of the church that there is another fact beyond those mentioned, which shows that it could never have been a temple; viz., the position of the door is at the west end. The dome of this church is the third in point of size of those in the East. The diameter of St. Sophia’s is 109 feet; that of the mosque of Suleiman, 96 feet; that of St. George is 79 feet. In order to support a dome of this diameter, it was necessary that the walls should be of great thickness. The thrust of the conch of the apse is counteracted by two large buttresses. The chancel stands due east. Near the south door there is a staircase conducting into the space above the dome. The majestic simplicity of the dome and the hall-obscurity that reigns in the interior of this edifice combine to make the building appear larger than it really is. There is a repose about it that does not exist in the interior of St. Sophia’s at Constantinople, where one is dazzled by the richness of the marble, and by the light admitted by innumerable windows. EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. When the eye is raised to the dome, it is arrested by the beauty of the mosaics. The contrast between the walls and the vault is surprising; they are of extreme simplicity, the brick construction being visible throughout. We should be inclined to suppose that originally the walls were adorned with slabs of marble, if there were any traces of them, or of the cramps that originally held them; but there are none, nor are there signs of stucco or of mosaics; therefore it is evident that this striking contrast always existed. The smooth wall is separated from the dome by an enriched band. The semicircular vaults over the chapels are richly decorated with mosaics no less magnificent than those of the dome; but the designs of these are rather Pa "an than Christian. The general character of the edifice in the interior shows an effort at originality, and proves that at the period at which it was built the form of the future church was not thoroughly established. The reader will doubtless agree with us that this building has always been a Christian church, and was never a temple dedicated to the Cabiri. Plate XXIX. ELEVATION OE THE CHURCn OE ST. GEORGE, THESSALONICA— VIEW OE THE EAST END. The elevation appears to have been preserved in its original state. There are no traces of external decoration to be seen. The immense mass of the building is extremely striking on account of its simplicity. The upper part of the building is set back in order to lighten the construction below the dome: this fact has led some to suppose that the upper part was a later work. The only ornament is a stepped moulding running round the upper stage. This view is the most picturesque that can be gained of the building. The old cypress- trees that encircle it add much to the effect of the church when seen from this point. Plates XXX. XXXI. MOSAICS OE THE DOME. The dome is divided into eight compartments, each of which is occupied by a separate picture. The subjects of the pictures are all alike, though the composition of the architectural backgrounds is varied. The pictures in every case represent the interior of a church having a tabernacle in the centre, with the figures of two saints in the attitude of prayer, one to the right, the other to the left of the tabernacle. In the mosaics the little cubes follow the forms of the figures and vestments. It would be impossible on a small scale to give the exact position of every cube, so we have adopted the plan of indicating the mosaic by means of small squares, which give the general effect of the pictures, and are sufficiently accurate for the purpose of ordinary representation. We have also rectified the effect of amorphosis which is produced by a picture on a spherical surface, in order to give an accurate idea of the design. As these pictures are on so large a scale, the distortion is hardly perceptible. Plate XXX. represents a hemicycle supported by six columns, with a lamp suspended under each arcade. The capitals are Ionic. The cupola is ornamented with rosettes, and the archivolt is enriched with emeralds, sapphires, and rubies. The precious stones imitated in these pictures are ordinarily the same as those that composed the breastplate of the Jewish high priest. The portico surrounding the hemicycle is of the Corinthian order, with an entablature ornamented with ovolo mouldings and dentils. All these ornaments were abandoned by the successors of Constantine. The upper stage of these porticos has other columns and balconies closed by curtains. Altogether the style of ornamentation resembles that of the frescoes of Pompeii. 91 o EXPLANATION OF TIIE PLATES. St. Romanus and St. Eucarpion are represented to the right and left of the tabernacle, which is partitioned off by cancelli or barriers to shut out the profane. Plate XXXI. represents the mosaic situated above the side doorway. The porticos in it are less ornamental than those in the preceding; they are guarded by St. Therinus, honoured in the month of July; St. Basil, honoured in the month of April; and St. Philip, honoured in the month of October. The costume of these personages is almost identical with the Roman toga or the ciliria of the anchorites. Plates XXXII. XXXIII. MOSAICS OF THE DOME. The pictures represented in these plates are situated above the side chapels. The first tabernacle has a portico supported by four Corinthian columns, and crowned by a conical roof covered with golden tiles. A lamp is suspended from the vault. The smaller porticos are sur¬ mounted by domed pavilions. St. Onesiphorus and St. Porphyrus stand to the right and left. The decoration of the latter picture is more elaborate than any of the others. In front of a Corinthian temple supported by columns stands an edicule, the dome of which rests on four pilasters. A staircase covered with carpet leads up to it. The architrave is blue, the frieze red, and the cornice and cupola arc gold. A bar attached to each pilaster bears a green curtain, which is let down : this is the veil, which is lowered in the Greek church at the moment of consecration. SS. Damian and Cosmas, clothed in the chlamys, stand with their hands extended in the attitude of prayer : this position is also that of the celebrant during certain parts of the mass. Above the temple there is a hemicycle, supported by four columns and flanked by two pediments ; and as in the other pictures, the whole is bordered by porticos high and low ,—uirspwwv xa) xa.raya.lcov (rrotov , according- to the description of Eusebius. The peacocks, doves, and swans perched upon the tops of the various buildings do not appear to have any symbolical signification, but to be placed there simply as ornaments. Plate XXXIV. MOSAICS OF THE SIDE CHAPELS. Figs. 1 & 2.—-These fragments of the mosaics of the vaults of the chapels are given to a fifth the full size. The Roman character of the ornaments is remarkable. The larger scale enables us to give the real position of the cubes, which we could not do in the former plates. Fig. 3.—The band of the cupola to one-tenth full size. Plate XXXV. PLAN OF THE CHURCH OF ST. SOPHIA, THESSALONICA. The porch in front of the narthex is a modern Turkish work. Probably the primitive facade was very simple in character. We may remark from this plan, that the architect had above all things studied to give that solidity to his building which is so necessary in a country subject to severe shocks of earthquakes. There was no exonarthex here, as in the church of St. Sophia at Constantinople, although the designer of this building evidently took that building as his model. At the end of the narthex there is a staircase leading to the turret and to the women’s gallery. Plate XXXVI. CHURCH OF ST. SOPHIA, THESSALONICA—PLAN OF THE UPPER STORY. The gallery here shown wtis reserved exclusively for women, and was so arranged that they could walk round the nave. The plan is the same at Constantinople. EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. Pluto 213 XXXVII. CHURCH OF ST. SOPHIA—WEST ELEVATION—EAST ELEVATION. Plate XXXVIII. CHURCH OF ST. SOPHIA—LONGITUDINAL SECTION—TRANSVERSE SECTION. This edifice is an excellent example of the architecture of the time of Justinian, both in plan and elevation, and it lias become the type of most of the churches subsequently built in the East. A uniform principle is found to prevail in these churches. All those on the continent of Greece have a family likeness to one another—in every case there is a central dome. As Byzantine art approached its decline, the domes were raised higher above the roof of the nave, as in'the church of St. Elias at Tkessalonica. (See Plates LII. to LV.) The facade of St. Sophia’s was always very simple in character, and it resembled in that respect that of St. Sophia’s at Constantinople. The Byzantines generally reserved their orna¬ mentation for the interior. Masonry has been employed in the place of brick for the greater part of the building. Tbe dome rests upon a massive square basement, which we do not meet with in other cases. Upon this there arc heavy buttresses, which tend to obstruct the windows and give a rather clumsy effect to the composition. These have been evidently employed to coun¬ teract the effect of earthquakes. The dome of St. Sophia’s at Constantinople has been often damaged by them, while that of Thessalonica has not suffered at all. The interior of the church is in accordance with the severe style of the facade. We see that the designer aimed at solidity in every part of his work. The piers which bear the cupola are well calculated to resist the thrust. The numerous columns, and, above all, the brilliant ornamentation, give a very imposing aspect to the interior. Plate XXXIX. CHURCH OF ST. SOPHIA—CAPITALS. We may observe in these capitals a greater departure from the classical style than in those in the church of St. Demetrius. These capitals are executed in better style than even those of St. Sophia’s at Constantinople. The art of sculpture prevailed longer in the capital of Macedonia than in Byzantium, and we can perceive in the foliage of the cubical capital from the nave a treatment resembling that of good Greek art. The Ionic order, when used by the Byzantines was, as we have before stated, always stunted and without elegance, but it was the most difficult to execute. Plates XL. XLI. THE CHURCH OF ST. SOPHIA—MOSAICS OF THE DOME. The grand scene of the Ascension, which forms the subject of the decoration of the dome, is one of the best specimens of Byzantine mosaic extant. In the centre was the figure of Christ clad in a tunic: of this the feet and the skirts of the robe only are now visible. Two angels support the auriole which surrounds the Saviour. The inscription beneath contains the passage from the Acts of the Apostles relative to the Ascension. The base of the cupola has a line of cones of various colours representing rocks, upon which stand the Apostles. Above the centre of the apse, and thus facing those who enter at the west end, is a figure of the Virgin in the conventional dress. Her robe is purple ; she has scarlet sandals on her feet; her head is encircled by a nimbus. Two trees, representing possibly pines, stand on each side. Then come two angels clad in white garments, who appear to announce the accomplishment of the great event to the world. The remainder of the pictures consists of portraits of the twelve Apostles, the most ancient without doubt that have come down to us. It is interesting to remark how 3 i EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. exactly their conventional costume lias been perpetuated in more recent times. Each figure is separated from the others by an olive-tree, indicating the place where the event happened. These mosaics are executed with the greatest care, but we can see that the drawing has not that character of antiquity which we have remarked in the figures of the church of St. George. The apse of St. Sophia’s is decorated with the mosaics given in Plate XXVI. Plate XLII. ESKI DJOUMA, THESSALONICA—PLAN. The simplicity of this plan induces us to class this building amongst the earliest at Thessalonica. We believe it to be contemporary with the church of St. Demetrius, judging from the character of the sculpture in the capitals. We have given reasons in the text why it cannot be considered of the time of Constantine. The arches which surmount the columns and the dosserels of the capitals are all later than that period. The form of the plan, which is that called dromical by the Byzantines, and basilican by others, proves without doubt that the church was erected before the time of Justinian. We may therefore safely consider it to be of the first half of the 5th century, or about the reign of Theodosius II. The outer narihex in the present day forms an oblong court, in which stands the minaret. The level of the ground on the exterior being higher than that of the pavement of the church, there is a descent of three steps. A single doorway leads to the inner nartliex , which is separated from the nave by four columns only. We have seen that in primitive times the nartliex was carefully separated from the church. We may conclude, then, that at the time of the erection of this church the separation between the catechumens and the initiated was less rigorous than formerly. A wooden staircase leads to the women’s gallery. It is now in the aisle, but it was formerly at the end of the nartliex. The nave has a row of columns on each side. In the middle of the north aisle there is a dark passage leading into a neighbouring street; this is what has been called the subterranean passage of Eski Djouma. The church is entirely surrounded by buildings formerly belonging to the monastery attached to it, but now used as dwellings. Plate XLIII. ESKI DJOUMA—LONGITUDINAL SECTION—TRANSVERSE SECTION. In its actual state the Ionic order of the upper story is engaged in a modern stone wall, which blocks up the arcades, though they still exist; it was placed there probably to shut oil the women who go to the mosque. The reveals of the arches are ornamented with mosaic, which gives some idea of the primitive richness of the building. The archivolts on the ground-floor have no traces of moulding,—a proof that they also were covered with mosaics. The proportions of the two orders are excellent. The circles placed over the columns had formerly sacred emblems, now effaced. The Mussulmans have inscribed the names of their great imaums upon them. The whole of the church is covered with a thick coat of plaster. Plate XLIV. ESKI DJOUMA—CAPITAL. These capitals resemble those of St. Demetrius’ as far as regards good proportion and good workmanship. The volutes are larger than in the regular Corinthian order, but smaller than in the Composite. Plate XLV. NORTH-EAST VIEW OE THE CHURCH OE TIIE HOLY APOSTLES, THESSALONICA. When this church was converted into a mosque, an enclosure was formed round it for the purpose of interment. The wall in the foreground and the porch attached to it were then erected EXPLANATION uF THE PLATES. by the Turks. They hide the building to a certain extent in this view. The domes of this most picturesque church have a very fine effect when seen above the wall surrounded by the cypress- trees of the cemetery. Plate XLVI. SOUTH-EAST VIEW OE THE APSE OE THE CHURCH OE THE HOLY APOSTLES. We have supposed a portion of the wall of the cemetery to be removed in order to show the whole of the apse. The mode of employing bricks arranged in patterns as seen here is not earlier than the beginning of the 7th century. It was much used in the walls of Nicaea. Many edifices in Thessalonica afford examples of it. Plate XLYII. CIIURCn OE THE HOLY APOSTLES—GROUND PLAN. What distinguishes this building from other known churches is the arrangement of the exonarlhex, which is entered by two arcades, each of three arches. Erom it the esonarthex is entered, which communicates with the body of the church by three openings. As there is no gallery for women here, we may suppose that the women remained in the aisles. The architect of this church evidently based his plan upon that of the church of St. Sophia; but lie modified it to suit the altered ritual of his period. Plates XLVIII. XLIX. CHURCH OE THE HOLY APOSTLES—LONGITUDINAL SECTION AND ELEVATION. After the 10th century a change began to manifest itself in the Byzantine style. Domes were multiplied, and the circular walls which supported them were increased in height and pierced with windows. The cupolas were also decorated with engaged colonnettes supporting double arches. The church of the Holy Apostles is a remarkable example of the style, which was after¬ wards adopted in all the small churches of Greece. To the right and left of the west door are two porches, each of three arcades. The springing line of the arches is above the capitals of the columns. The window above which lights the nave is also divided into three parts by colonnettes. The church is built entirely of brick, the columns, architrave of the door, and mouldings only being of marble. The principal dome is supported in the interior by four columns and arches. There is no trace of the ancient internal decoration. Plates L. LI. THE CIIURCII OE ST. BARD IAS, THESSALONICA—PLAN—ELEVATION- WEST ELEVATION—SOUTH ELEVATION. This church has five domes, and is in the same style as the preceding, but the architecture is more massive and the columns are less ornamented. The narthex is not separated from the church by ft wall, but communicates directly with the nave, showing that this church is more modern than that of the Apostles perhaps a century later. It has not aisles for women, like the former, but there is an upper gallery for them, approached by a staircase formed in tire thickness ol the wall. The west front shows much originality in its composition : without the domes the building would bo cubical in form. There is no decoration on the ground-floor. An inscription which we have given exists upon the architrave of the door. On the upper story there are three windows which light the narthex, separated by four brick pilasters, supporting arches and projecting considerably beyond the face of the wall. EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. The side elevation is equally simple,—it has no relief but that gained by the projections surrounding the windows. Plates LI I. LIII. THE CIIURCH OE ST. ELIAS, THESSALONICA—PLAN—WEST ELEVATION— TRANSVERSE SECTION. We know of no other Byzantine church the plan of which resembles that of St. Elias, which has three semicircular absides, one at the east end and the others at the north and south. The narthex is so large as to be out of proportion to the nave; the vault of it is sustained by four Ionic columns. V hat again distinguishes this building from others is the extreme height of the cupola. The arrangement of the bricks in the apse indicates with tolerable certainty the date of this building. Plates LIV. LV. CHURCH OF ST. ELIAS-LONGITUDINAL SECTION—SIDE ELEVATION. Plate LVI. CHURCH OF ST. ELIAS, BllOUSSA—PLAN—SECTION. There must always be a certain degree of resemblance to one another in all round churches, as there can be no great variety in the plan. It will be seen that this edifice very much resembles the temple of Portumnus at Ostia. A rectangular narthex is attached to the building. The interior was decorated with slabs of marble, which were in existence in 1834; but the building suffered to such an extent from the effects of the earthquake of 1854, that it had to be almost entirely rebuilt. Plate LVII. THE BATHS OF MAHOMET II. AT CONSTANTINOPLE—PLAN—SECTION. This plan of a Turkish bath contains all the arrangements used in the Roman and Byzan¬ tine baths. The building is divided into two parts—one for men, the other for women. The first apartment, the apodytermm, is that in which the bathers leave their clothes. They are then led into the tepidarium, where they remain exposed for some time to an atmosphere of moderate temperature. They are finally conducted into the caldarium, where the temperature is about from 95° to 104° Fahrenheit: here they are placed in the hands of attendants to be shampooed. The closets are for those bathers who prefer being by themselves. The section shows the manner in which the hot air is distributed throughout the building. It passes under the pavement and then behind the walls in pipes placed close together. Ventilation is effected by means of an opening at the crown, the degree of heat being regu¬ lated by means of a disc of bronze, which closes the opening partially or entirely. In the caldarium and tepidarium the spaces which are left white are closed by curtains. We give a plan and section of the laconicum at Frejus on a small scale. Plate LVIII. CHURCH OF ST. NICHOLAS AT MYRA. Those buildings, the dates of which are fixed, are the most interesting to those who study architectural style; for this reason we give the church of St. Nicholas at Myra, which is a work ot the emperor Theodosius. The importance given in it to the narlheces and their accessories is accounted for by the fact that numerous pilgrims resorted to this spot to visit the reliques of this celebrated saint. This church appears to have been never converted into a mosque, lor we find in it the four columns of the iconostasis, and those which sustained the shrine of the saint. The section shows the arrangement of the gyneeconitis, which extended above the narthex. EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. The interior was decorated with paintings, which arc now almost entirely effaced, lhe sculptured frieze runs round at the height of the impost, forming the entablature to a lower story. Plates LIX. LX. THE CHURCH OP DANA—PLAN—LONGITUDINAL SECTION—TRANSVERSE SECTION. This church belongs to the small number of those which bear (late of the reign of Justinian, and are of the basilican plan without domes. This may be accounted for by the circumstance that it is situated near the Euphrates, and therefore very far from the Byzantine capital. It is also remarkable from having a horse-shoe vault over the apse, proving that this form of arch was used long before the time of the Saracens. Plate LX'/. VIEW OF THE CHURCH OP ST. SOPHIA, TREBIZOND. This building, erected by the Comneni, is situated upon an esplanade which overlooks the Black Sea, and is visible to all those who arrive at Trebizond by sea. The existence of a bell-tower, which we see to the right, shows that this church is the most modern of those we have described, being of the iinal period of Byzantine architecture, when the pointed arch first made its appearance in buildings of that style. Plates LXI. LXII. CHURCH OP ST. SOPHIA, TREBIZOND—GROUND PLAN—SOUTH ELEVATION- LONGITUDINAL SECTION. The extensive platform upon which the church stands is cut in the side of a high plateau. It is supported on the north side by solid foundations. On the same side, a little lower down, stands an octagonal baptistry. The plan is remarkable for a certain degree of simplicity and uniformity, which we do not find in other earlier edifices. In the centre of this church, between the four columns, is the inlaid pavement, which we give in Plate XVI. The section shows the same simplicity which we perceive in the plan. The church owed its chief decoration to painting. The south elevation exhibits a mixture of the pointed and round arch, which indicates a period of transition. Plate LXIII. CHURCH OP ST. SOPHIA, TREBIZOND—WEST ELEVATION—PLAN OP TREBIZOND. The principal elevation has certain Saracenic details, which, as they do not seem to be recent, are evidences of some intercourse between the Christians and the Mahomedans. For a description of the plan of Trebizond see p. 197. Plate LXIV. CHURCH OP ST. SOPHIA—DETAILS OP SCULPTURE. The tympanum of the south porch has a bas-relici representing subjects lrom the Old Testament. This is another innovation in Byzantine art; for up to this period paintings only were used. The subjects are—the Creation of Woman and the Expulsion from Paradise. To the right and left of the porch there are two figures of angels with scrolls. The church is built entirely of ashlar, and is still in a good state oi preservation. 3 K f J KXPL A NATION OF THK PLATES. Plate LXY. CHURCH OF ST. SOPHIA, TREBIZOND—FRESCO IN THE APSE. Ecclesiastical decorative paintings were made the subjects of general rules, so that we find almost always the same subjects in the same parts of churches. For instance, figures of the Apostles were generally painted on the piers dividing the windows of the choir. Here these figures are in a good state of preservation. According to the legends, the two figures on the sides are those of St. Philip and St. James. The legend of the central figure has been effaced; but it was probably the name of St. Paul. There are many other vestiges of paintings in the church which offer interesting subjects of study. Plate LXVI. FRESCOES IN A MONASTERY NEAR TREBIZOND. We have given an explanation of these interesting paintings in the body of the work. We must state that these figures are not placed close together, but at some distance apart. We have also restored the draperies, instead of showing them in their actual state, blackened by the smoke of tapers. We have also given the inscription at length. It may be remarked that there are one or two slight errors in the inscription on the plate, arising out of the similarity of the letters ; for instance, A is put in the place of A, and C in the place of €. Plates LXYII. LXVIII. THE MOSQUE OF ORTA HISSAR—PLAN AND SECTION. This ancient Byzantine church was dedicated to the golden-headed Virgin, and was the cathedral of Trebizond. The nave is of the basilican form, and is surmounted by a cupola. The extent given to the narthex and exonarthex is remarkable. This edifice was erected by Alexis Comnenus, and it is one of the last w'orks of the By zant i ne emperors. Plates LXIX. LXX. INSCRIPTIONS RELATING TO THE DIFFERENT BUILDINGS DESCRIBED IN THE TEXT. Kg. 1. 2. Inscript on from the Temple of Jupiter Balmarcos. Fig. 3. Inscription from the church of St. Demetrius. Fig. I, 5. Inscription from the Temple of Aphrodisias. Fig. (J. Inscription from the church of St. Bardias, Thessalonica. Fig. 7. Inscription from the gate of Aphrodisias. Fig. 8. Insciiption from the altar at Auriol. Fig. 9. Altar at Auriol. Fig. 10 & 11. Details of altar at Auriol. >X A WYMAN. HUNTERS, GREAT QUEEN STREET. LONDON. W.C. ■