PRACTICAL KERAMICS FOR STUDENTS Post 8vo, cloth limp, with numerous Illustrations and a List of Marks, 4J-. 6d. A Handbook of Pottery and Porcelain ; or. History of those Arts from the Earliest Period. By HoDDER M. Westropp. "Collectors, amateurs, and all who take an interest in the potter's art, will find this work very instructive All the famous manufactories, whose works have become historical, are briefly dealt with, and their marks given, with accompanying descriptions, dates, Sfc. An immense amount of information has been most skilfully condensed, and the work is issued in tasteful form, with many admirable illustrations." — Daily Chronicle. "Mr. Westropp has spared no pains to make his handbook useful to the collector and ititeresting to the general reader. The book is tvell and copiously illustrated His list of manufactories is very complete, and his series of trade marks will be a great safeguard to buyers." — Graphic. CHATTO & WINDUS, PICCADILLY, W. PRACTICAL KERAMICS FOR STUDENTS CHARLES A. JANVIER DonUon CHATTO 6- WINDUS, PICCADILLY New York : HENRY HOLT AND CO. 1880 [A I! righis reserved] rp 2-01 C.2 BALLANTYNE AND HANSON, EDINBURGH CHANDOi STREET, LONUON PREFACE. In preparing this little book, the authorities prin- cipally consulted are Brongniart, Salvetat, Ebelmen, Roscoe, Jewett, Shaw, Binns, Stanislas Julien's tran- lation of a Chinese work, Zeigler, Jacquemart, Marryat, Birch, besides various reports and articles in technical and other reviews and journals. I am also indebted to several potters and decorators for valuable information. I have endeavored to give in as small a compass as possible a clear account of the manufacture and decoration of pottery of all kinds, and even at the risk of repetition have tried to be perfectly clear; always endeavoring to imagine myself explaining the various processes to persons utterly ignorant of the subject. Any such persons, if desirous of knowing more, will find the names given of the principal works on pottery. No illustrations of machinery, firing apparatus, etc., are given, because they could not be made thorough enough to be of use to potters, and few others could understand the working drawings which can be found in full in iv Preface. some of the works cited. I have endeavored most fully to describe the wares that seem to have the most general interest, and in regard to classification have sought to remove the confusion I have observed existing in the minds of many persons, trying to make all definitions so clear that any one can at once put any ware in its proper place, without regarding the utterly incorrect names often given by shop-keepers and others. As there are so many ex- cellent and easily obtained histories of pottery, I have only glanced at this part of the subject; as also at the very interesting part relating to ancient and mediseval pottery. I have not touched at all on marks and rules for collectors, a little information on this subject being useless. I have given fuller details in regard to modern pottery, particularly porcelains, the so-called Limoges wares, and Chinese and Japanese porcelains, trying to bring together in- formation that is scattered through many works, often difficult to obtain or consult. The chemical and other scientific terms, being intended for persons having little or no acquaintance with science, are those in every-day use, no attempt having been made to keep to the perfectly correct nomenclature. I think that persons intending to paint or other- wise decorate pottery will do well to read with at- tention all the first part of the book, as some slight knowledge of pastes, glazes and baking is requisite in order to do good work. To do the best work, par- ticularly in this country, a very thorough knowledge of Preface. V these is necessary, which knowledge can be obtained only by careful study, observation and comparison. In the chapter on keramic painting I have said much that may appear very trite to those well acquainted with the subject, but which will be of service to be- ginners, and above all to those living far from city facilities. It might indeed seem that an undue prominence has here been given to decoration, but besides the fact that this is usually considered the most interesting part of the subject, it should be borne in mind that decoration is not only aestheti- cally but commercially of great importance. Of two jugs, both equally well adapted to their purpose, the prettiest or the most agreeable will have by far the largest sale. Such things are generally bought by women, naturally the ultimate buyers of household ware, and women notice, often unconsciously, this difference, the ignorant wife of the poorest workman preferring the jug with the softest color and the brightest glaze to a jug perhaps better made but ugly and dull. CONTENTS. Preface. iii FART I.— INTRODUCTION. CHAPTER I, Nomenclature, definitions, descriptions . . . i CHAPTER II. HISTORICAL SKETCH. Probable origin of pottery ; Ancient, mediaeval, modern pottery ; Table of dates 6 CHAPTER III. POTTERY MATERIALS. Clays, constituents and fusibility, impurities ; Feldspar, albite, fluorspar, petrosilex, comish stone; Kaolin; Ball-clay ; Potter's clay ; Constituents of pastes and glazes ; Metals used in decorating ; Table of analyses of potter's materials, with notes 24 PART II.— PROCESSES OF MANUFAC- TURE. CHAPTER IV. MANUFACTURE — PASTES. Pastes, plasticity, shrinkage ; Preparation of pastes, clays, and rocky matters ; Treading, wedging ; Ripening ; Table of analyses of pastes, with notes and remarks. . 38 vii viii Contents. CHAPTER V. MANUFACTURE — SHAPING, pAtig Hand-made pottery ; Potter's wheel ; Throwing ; Press- ing ; Casting ; Plaster moulds ; Casting very thin ware ; Openwork and lace work ; Brick, tiles, etc.; Figures. . 51 CHAPTER VI. MANUFACTURE — GLAZING. Biscuit ; Glazing ; Ingredients of glazes ; Fritting ; Methods of putting on glazes 6^ CHAPTER VII. MANUFACTURE — KILNS AND BAKING, Kilns; Pyrometers; Table of temperatures and color of ware in kiln ; Measuring the heat ; Fuel ; Seggars ; Placing ; Time required for baking ; Placing glazed pottery in kilns or seggars ; Precautions, . . .66 CHAPTER VIII, DECORATION IN GENERAL, Keramic decoration ; Colors or paints ; Oxides ; Engobe or slip ; M^thode Laurin, Limoges style, slip-painting, enamelled oil-painting ; Limoges glaze ; Pate-sur-pate ; Fluxes ; Fluxed paints ; Enamels ; Vitrifiable paints, qualifications; Composition of fluxes; Medium; Classi- fication of paints ; Underglaze or gloss-oven colors, how used ; Hard kiln colors ; Methode Richard ; Regular kiln or muffle colors, degree of heat in firing ; Muffles ; Packing or placing ; Tests ; Table of temperature for muffle colors ; Cooling ; Soft porcelain ; Mocoing ; Gilding ; Lustres ; Etching ; Emaux ombrants ; Lithophanie 7^ Contents. ix PART HI.— DESCRIPTION OF WARES. CHAPTER IX. CLASSIFICATION. j.^^^ Brongniart's table; Salvetat's classification; Soft, hard, and very hard pottery ; Glazes ; Salvetat's tables, with notes and examples CHAPTER X. SOFT POTTERY— PASTE, OPAQUE, POROUS, AND MORE OR LESS COLORED. Essentially and accidentally soft pottery ; Primitive pot- tery ; European pottery ; Greek, Etruscan, Roman, etc. ; Lustrous pottery ; American pottery ; Asiatic and African pottery ; Modern pottery, unglazed and glazed ; Coarse earthenvi^ares, glazes ; Palissy ; Mezza- majolica ; Scraffito vi^are ; Modern slip-painted vi^ares, Limoges, etc ; Tin-glazed wares ; Kitchenware ; Deco- ration ; Majolicas, Lucca della Robbia, Delft, etc. ; Faience d'Oiron ; Hard pottery ; Cincinnati ware. . loS CHAPTER XL VERY HARD POTTERY, Essential characteristics ; Fine earthenwares ; Glazes ; De- finitions ; Pastes ; Decoration under and overglaze ; Tobacco pipes ; American earthenware ; Decorative ware. ......... 124 CHAPTER XII. VERY HARD POTTERY — STONEWARE. Characteristics ; Coarse stoneware, manufacture, baking, glaze ; Fine stoneware, paste, glazes, Wedgwood, Doulton, etc. ; Decoration ; BOttcher, Elers ; Gris de X Contents. PACK Flandre ; Japanese and Chinese stonewares ; Trenton stoneware. 131 CHAPTER XIII. VERY HARD POTTERY — PORCELAIN. Characteristics ; Nomenclature ; Hard and soft body porce- lain ; Hard porcelain ; Ingredients and manufacture ; Glaze ; Decoration ; Dresden, Vienna, Paris, etc. ; Hybrid or magnesite porcelain ; American porcelain. 138 CHAPTER XIV. VERY HARD POTTERY — CHINESE AND JAPANESE POR- CELAIN. Date of invention ; Paste, kaolin, petuntze ; Manufacture ; Glaze, fern-oil, lime-oil ; Japanese glaze ; Kilns ; Deco- ration, paints, fluxes, etc.; Feeling for color; King- te-chin, Nankin, Canton, Celadon ; Soft porcelain ; Japan ; Corea ; Persia ; India ; India ware. . . 147 CHAPTER XV. VERY HARD POTTERY — SOFT PORCELAIN. Old Sevres, paste, glaze, value, decoration ; Limoges porcelain ; Persian porcelain ; English or bone porce- lain, paste, glaze, decoration ; Worcester ; Pate-sur- pate ; Modern porcelains ; American bone porcelain. 165 FART IV.— FOR THE DECORATOR. CHAPTER XVI. KERAMIC PAINTING. Practical hints ; Tracing ; Painting on hard porcelain overglaze, essentials ; List of colors, with full notes and remarks ; English and German colors ; Directions for painting, first studies, monochrome, color studies, flowers, landscapes, heads ; Firing ; Powder col- Contents. xi ors, grinding, laying grounds ; Gilding, lining ; Hard kiln colors ; Soft porcelain ; Fine earthenware ; Un- derglaze painting ; Biscuit painting ; Color makers ; Painting on majolica or tin-glazed earthenware; Books. 173 CHAPTER XVII. A FEW ESTHETIC HINTS. Authors ; Rules ; Blanc ; South Kensington ; Owen Jones ; Construction ; Color-decoration ; Aims of painting and of decorative art ; Pictorial art on pottery, , .217 APPENDIX A. BOOK LIST. Book list 230 APPENDIX B. Notes _ INDEX PART I. IN TROD UCTOR Y. CHAPTER I. NOMENCLATURE. Pottery. — A pot is a vessel intended to hold something. A potter is a man who makes pots of clayey or rocky materials, which are afterwards either sun-dried or fire-baked. Pottery means all that is made by the potter, the term being extended to in- clude not only all kinds of pots, but even such things as ornaments, flat plaques, statuettes, or bas-reliefs. The term pottery is often used in a restricted sense, and applied only to common earthenware or crock- ery, and sometimes to crockery and fine earthenware together. Keramics or Ceramics.— The derivation of this word is essentially the same as that of pottery, being from the Greek for horn, the first drinking-vessel. Later, drinking-horns were made in clay or metal. The Keramicus was the potters* quarter in Athens. Brongniart and Salv6tat both suggest that the gen- eral term should be keramics, or the keramic arts, pottery then falling into its place as one of them. The whole nomenclature is unsettled, par- I 2 Keramics. ticularly in books written in English. Each author has his favorite set of terms, making it puzzUng for the novice. Leaving the settlement of this matter to wise men, it is only necessary to state that in this book the term pottery includes all terra- cottas, earthenwares (faiences), stonewares and por- celains. Further on, with the description of the different wares, are given Brongniart's full table of classification, which is the one generally used, and also Salvetat's, which is more complete, and which if adopted generally, would do away with the con- fusion at present existing. Potting. — When we speak of a vessel being well potied, we mean that the difficulties of manufacture are well overcome. By a potter is generally meant the man who does only the mechanical part of the work, which is subsequently ornamented by the dec- orator. The word Keramist would seem to include both these terms, and it is often very convenient. Such men as Deck and Haviland call themselves Ceramistes. Refractory. — Difficult to melt or fuse. Hard. — Means difficult to fuse; also that a piece of pottery cannot be scratched by a steel point. Soft. — Fusible — also, can be scratched by a knife or steel point. Flux. — Certain infusible substances can be made fusible by the addition of other substances, called fluxes, not necessarily fusible in themselves. Salve- tat says, "It is a priori difficult to forma perfectly Introduction, 3 clear idea of the causes of the fusibility which is often developed by the combination of infusible substances. Certain infusible clays become fusible enough to liquefy when mixed with lime, which in itself is very refractory." Craze. — Cracking of the glaze or paint. Biscuit. — ^Ware before it is glazed. China. — An indefinite name generally meaning porcelain. ' Terra-Cotta.— Baked or fired clay. Pitchers — Or ground pitchers — Baked ware finely pulverized (Fr. cimeni). Plumbiferous.— With lead. Stanniferous.— With tin. Gloss-oven. — Kiln in which glazes are baked. Medium. — Anything with which pigments are mixed for painting, such as turpentine, water, etc. Fat-oil. — Thick turpentine, often called oil. Slip. — Diluted paste — a thin layer of paste. Barbotine.— Thin sHp. Celadon. — A delicate greenish blue, also used as the name of a glaze on Eastern porcelain. Rouge fiamme— Or flambe.— A peculiar red, derived from copper and variegated with bluish tones. Pate-changeante.— A ware or rather glaze which is grey by daylight and rosy at night Camaieu. — (decoration) A monochrome — some- times a painting in only two colors. Marly.— The flat border of a plate. Engobe.— A thin layer of paste — a slip. 4 Keramics. Ciment. — Often incorrectly translated cement. See pitchers. The French words given above are often found in English books on pottery. For convenience, and in order fully to understand the following description of materials and manufac- tures, it is well to remember that all pottery can be divided into two classes; first. Earthenware (Fr., faience), which ranges from the common flower-pot to the fine white table-ware such as that miscalled porcelaine opaque; the characteristics of all ware of this first class being that the body of the ware is dull and opaque, porous, and adheres to the tongue. It is generally glazed for use, and in the coarse earthenwares the colored body either shows through the transparent glaze, or the glaze is colored, or else is rendered opaque so as to hide the coarse body, or else a layer of finer clay is placed on the body before the glaze is applied. The body itself can be made finer and whiter, and then the necessity of hiding it vanishes, and the glaze is made trans- parent. A common flower-pot, or a dish of the commonest crockery, and a piece of granite-ware, or of the porcelaine opaque made by Bridgwood, or of any other fine earthenware (Fr., faience fine), are easily procured examples of the two extremes of this ware. When the coarse body is covered by a glaze rendered opaque and white by tin, and orna- mented on that, it is generally known as Majolica. The second class is composed of Porcelain and Introduction, 5 Stoneware. In these the body of the ware is m- pervious, and does not cling to the tongue. The stoneware may vary in quahty from the common butter-pots to the fine Doulton ware. Porcelain has the same characteristics as stoneware, only it is translucent. Stoneware may be considered an in- ferior porcelain. Both wares when glazed have an intensely hard glaze, but being impervious to mois- ture could be used without any glaze at all. Porce- lain and stoneware are baked at a much greater heat than the earthenwares, though in some of the finer earthenwares now made the heat is great, and there is an almost imperceptible gradation from one kind of ware to the other. Some broken pieces of the above mentioned wares, and a careful com- parison of one with another, will teach any one far more than any description. In all ware belong- ing to the first class, the glaze will be seen to be entirely distinct from the body. In the second class it will seem to be incorporated with the body, par- ticularly in the case of French and Chinese porce- lains and all stoneware. No opaque ware can be a true porcelain. CHAPTER II. HISTORICAL SKETCH. It is impossible to assign the Origin of Pottery to any age or to any people. We can indeed study much of its development in our cotemporaries, for there are many savage tribes making now, and having in common use, much such pottery as is found in prehistoric mounds, and in the lake dwellings, and from them we can run up the scale to the richest ma- jolicas and to the delicate egg-shell porcelain of japan. Vessels of sun-dried pottery probably in most cases preceded those baked in the fire, though this is not necessarily the case. But if many men may be regarded as having had a part in the beginning of pottery, three countries may claim the honor in the East and in the West of raising a rude craft to an art. Whether the art originally began in one, and was communicated to the others, or whether it arose independently in the several centres, we know not as yet ; but 4000 years ago China, Babylonia, and Egypt were great keramic centres, and of these three it now seems prob- 6 Historical Sketch. 7 able that Babylonia may take the precedence. Many circumstances give reason to think that the art spread eastward and westward from this great centre, but this and analogous questions are not yet settled. It is positively known, however, that good pottery was made in these countries about the date mentioned, whence it must be inferred either that they had received the art from preceding nations, or else that in the course of time they had slowly ac- quired the knowledge. Chinese traditions affirm that pottery was so much of a science, and was so well reduced to a system, that there was an inspector or superintendent of pottery long before 2000 B. C. In 2255 B. C. pottery was manufactured in a place near the present district of Thing Thao. From that time until 202 B. C. only earthenware, not porcelain, was made. As far as porcelain is concerned, there seems no doubt at all of the claim of the Chinese to its invention. The Babylonians certainly made good pottery 4000 years ago, and we do not know how much longer beforehand. In later, but still very remote times, they and the Assyrians made excellent pottery with a fine colored silico-alkali glaze, often so thick as to seem an enamel. This knowledge was still later transmitted to the Persians, and from them to the Arabs, and thence in turn to the Europeans : so Lucca della Robbia may be a keramic descendant in an unbroken line of a potter cotemporaneous with Abraham, or even perhaps with Noah. 8 Keramics. On the other hand, although the Egyptians were not as good potters as the Babylonians, the art may have originated in Egypt, where, from the paintings on the Beni Hassan tombs, we know it was flourishing 4000 years ago. It may have been carried into Assyria and Phoenicia. In those remote times there was probably more communication among countries than we are accustomed to think, and in time the knowledge of various crafts most likely spread slowly in every direction from different centres, the waves crossing and intermingling, so that now it is often impossible to trace out their origin. The Egyptians also understood the making of fine colored glazes. Much of their work is very beautiful and shows great artistic feeling and good technical knowledge. As time went on, the influence of both Egypt and Assyria in all probability swamped and overwhelmed the aboriginal art of Asia Minor, though relics of it survived and often flourished in out-of-the-way corners. Much pottery is found in Asia Minor with the fine glazes in which both of the above-mentioned countries excelled. Greek potters, and the potters influenced by them in Magna Grsecia and elsewhere, seem to have felt the influence of both Egypt and Assyria, but in their best art pottery, the Greeks, with their usual good taste, borrowed what suited them, transformed what often was stiff or grotesque, and, adding it to their own con- ceptions, created pottery which, so far as concerns purity of form, grace and beauty of design and dec- Historical Sketch. 9 oration, is the finest the world has ever seen. Their technical knowledge, too, was excellent as far as it went; though they never made anything but what we call coarse earthenware, most of it being friable, very porous, and baked at a low temperature. Apparently they did not choose to do more, for it seems incred- ible that, with their intercourse with the Egyptains and Persians, they should not have known about their various colored glazes; but they certainly never adopted them, except perhaps in the case of the hard glaze on lustrous ware, which was also a silico-alkali glaze, and which they may have invented themselves. There is no trace of lead or tin in any of these very old glazes. The great period of Greek keramic art lasted nearly seven or eight centuries, its culmin- ating point being about 400 B. C. From that time it slowly declined, and was practically lost in Roman Art, which may be considered as an exten- sion and generally a degradation of Greek art. For a long time everything Greek was very fashionable in Rome. About the century preceding our era, the Romans arrived at the creation of an artistic pottery, distinc- tively their own: the Terra Sigillata, also called Samian ware, after the Greek ware formerly made at Samos. The finest of this was made at Arezzo in Etruria, and was the prototype of ware found wherever the Romans carried their power. And so the knowledge of making pottery after the Greco- Roman fashion spread all over the Roman Empire, lO Keramics. and in the early part of the Christian era, replaced, in Europe, the primitive potteries of the half-savage tribes of Gaul, Britain and other countries. With the fall of the Roman Empire, pottery as an art seemed to disappear, and through the dark ages succeeding languished with all other arts. To this dark time belong many rude potteries, utterly unin- teresting save as evidences of the constant existence of the instinctive ability to mould and fashion clay. Much of this pottery still shows faint traces of Ro- man influence, and the excellent Roman methods and traditions seem to have kept up a precarious ex- istence in some few places. Fine keramic art did not reappear for years, and then again came from the East through the Arabs or the Saracens, who had preserved many of the traditions of the old Persian potters. In this revival Spain and Majorca seem to have been the great centres, but sporadic potter- ies are found in various places which may have been either the survivors of old potteries or else places to which independent knowledge had been brought from the East; for with the East there seems always to have existed a certain amount of intercourse, even in the dark ages. It was probably through Spain, in the early time of the Moorish occupation, that the first new art ideas found their way into the rest of Europe, and these may have been strengthened by the few traditions left of Roman methods. The origin of the lead-glaze seems very uncertain, but no doubt it arose naturally Historical Sketch. II from the old silico-alkaline glaze, into which, first a little, and then more, lead, and afterwards tin, was introduced. The oldest tin-glazes seem to come from Persia through the Arabs, who were good chemists for those days. By the beginning of the eighth century the Spanish, or rather the Moorish wares of Spain, had grown famous, and offshoots of these potteries were flourishing in Majorca and other places. These potters were the first to show to Europe the beautiful opaque tin-glaze destined to work such a revolution in pottery, and which we have reason to think was used in Germany as early as 1283. Still later, the beautiful products brought from the East, both through Venice, and afterwards by the Portuguese, aroused the emulation of the Eu- ropean potters, who, struggling and striving, seem to have succeeded in many cases in obtaining the same results in several different and isolated places. Lucca della Robbia perfected the ware to which he gave his name, and which for a time was the art pottery of the world. About the same date Palissy was struggling blindly to obtain the white tin enamel, which at the very same time was being used by one of the della Robbias in Paris, and by Masseot d' Abaquesne at Rouen. About this time too, the deli- cate Oiron earthenware was created by a woman's taste. In Germany some time previous stoneware had made its appearance, and by the end of the 1 6th century had reached its perfection. During this time England had lagged behind the rest of 12 Keramics. Europe. In Staffordshire coarse pottery had been made from very early times. Beginning at Burslem with the Elers, and descending through Astbury and Wedgwood to the Mintons and Doultons of our own day, the improvement has been steady. While Europe was bringing earthenware and stoneware to perfection, Asia had long been in pos- session of the art of porcelain making. Ajccording to the Chinese tradition, porcelain was first made at Sin-Ping, in 185 B.C. The celebrated porcelain fac- tories at King-te-Chin were established 538 A. D. and from thai time were in full activity, while many less important places started up. India and Persia too, unquestionably made porcelain at a very early period. The Japanese, according to their own authorities, derived the art from the Chinese, making first a kind of stoneware (1223). In the i6th century porcelain was first made at Hizen under the direction of Gorodayu Shonsui, who went to China in order to learn, while about the same time several porcelain makers were brought over from the Corea by Prince Nabesshima Naoshige. Eastern porcelain certainly found its way into Europe about 1500, and it very probably was brought there even sooner. Many curious attempts were made by European potters to reproduce it, but for a long time their attempts were in vain. Some of these attempts bore important fruit. Soft porcelain was successfully made, and according to the latest discoveries, the very first porcelain made in Europe Historical Sketch, 13 was in Venice, there being in the archives a letter, dated 1470, from Uielmo da Bologna, that seems conclusively to prove this fact. Soft porcelain was next made in Tuscany, near the end of the i6th century, under the auspices of the Grand Duke, Francis I., but the art was lost; to be revived again in France about 1695, Then the chemist BotN' cher, after many trials, succeeded in producing a' true hard porcelain at Meissen, near Dresden, in 1709, and though great efforts were made to keep it secret, the art spread thence over Europe, and from Europe to America. In Eng^land for a time soft porcelain was made, differing but little from that made elsewhere, but about 1800 Josiah Spode created or rather perfected what was practically a new ware, the bone phosphate porcelain, the only kind now made in England. Since that time potters have been employed in im- proving the manufacture of all the different wares. Keramics. TABLE OF SOME KIND OF POTTERY. Earthenware. Earthenware. Earthenware. Earthenware. soft. China. China. China. Babylonia. Egypt. .. , I Greece. perhaps stoneware Earthenware soft . . Porcelain Porcelain Earthenware. Athens. China... Etruria. Gyrene . Italo-Greece. China. China. Japan. ■| Greece, Samoi ^ Italo-Greece Keramics. IMPORTANT DATES. 15 Rather apocryphal, even according to Chinese authorities According to the unanimous opinion of the best Chinese authority only earthenware was made until 202 B. c All these dates are only approximate. The quality of the ware proves previous experience Silico-alkali glazes, no lead nor tin Brogniart says the Egyptians were better glass- makers than potters, whence their fine colored glazes. The body is often very hard and in fusible, more like sandstone than pottery. . . Chcerebus is said to have invented pottery, and Talus the wheel. Such statements must never be taken literally without the most ample proof The Samian potters were very famous. The best Greek wares were lustrous— and this lustre was superior to the Egyptian glaze though much like it in composition. It was hard, and not affected by acids nor alkalies Thurianus— vase of the boar-hunt. Capua— Campanian, or Italo-Greek, sometimes incor- rectly called Etruscan Anacharsis, the Scythian, said to have perfected the potter's wheel Establishment of the great potteries at King-te- chin. No porcelain as yet It is said that Porsenna had a table service of pot- tery. The Etruscans certainly used pottery for many domestic purposes. Some Etruscan pot- tery seems to have imitated the Greek wares. The cup of Archesilaus, probably anterior to this date, found at Vulci, Etraria. The Cumean vase at St. Petersburg is also about this date, In this last the decoration is in relief, richly colored and gilded In Campania were made vases afterwards classed as Tyrian or Tyrio-Phenician. Many authorities think there were potteries on the Greek methods established in many places. Pottery more or less alike, and evidently made by the same recipes, extended from the sea of Azof to Cyrenaica in Africa, and Sicily in Europe, and was made during 1250 years, ceasing entirely about 350 a. d. No other fine pottery was made in Europe Chinese tradition says the first porcelain, prob- ably a fine stoneware, was made— Han dynasty Porcelain certainly was invented between this and 87 A. D Emperor Suiniu— clay figures burned in ovens. Tradition says pottery was invented in pre-his- toric times, by Ooseitsumi. In the reign of Jimnu, 660 B. c. pottery is said to have been m&de in Japan.. AUTHORITIES. From Stanislas Julien's Hist, et Fabrication de la Porcelaine. Smith's Assyria. Beni-Hassan tombs and relics. Greek tradition. Life of Homer, attri- buted to Herodotus. See Brogniart. d'Hancarville. See Bro- gniart. Jacquemart. Hist, et Fab. d'Hancarville. See Bro- fniart, also Birch, acquemart, etc. See Brogniart for full account. Hist, et Fab. Japanese Catalogue. i6 Keramics. TABLE OF SOME KIND OF POTTERY. COUNTRIES. Before 1 . the V. year i ) , No certain dates Earthenware, very soft. Earthenware, hard. J France, Germany. . 1 England, Denmark. ( America: ■< Mexico, Guatamala. Earthenware, lustrous, hard I Earthenware, soft and hard j ( Copan,and elsewhere Italy,Gaul and Britain 711 to 780. . . Earthenware. 960. 1000. 1074) to 1088 Porcelain, stoneware, earthen- ware Porcelain, fritted Arabia, Persia. . Japan, Yamato. China , Persia IIOO ) . to \. 1146 ) . Earthenware . Porcelain hard . Earthenware. . . Earthenware... ■j Italy, Pesaro. Persia Arabian . . Armenia . 1207. Earthenware. Leipsig . 1223-33. 1282 Porcelain, hard and fritted . Earthenware, soft India... Alsatia. 1279. 1290. , X300., Porcelain (crackled). Earthenware Earthenware China Breslau Silesia. Keramics. IMPORTANT 'D\T'S&.-Continuecl. 17 REMARKS. These potteries vary greatly in quality and decoration, but are the primitive potteries of the countries in which they are found. The list could be extended. No certain dates. A fine pottery with silico-alkali glaze, resem- bling the Roman and Greek lustre. The date is unknown. Remarkable pottery has been found in Peru and m Central America, some of it very fine. It must be remembered that pre-historic is not necessarily primitive nor rude pottery Terra-sigillata. Hard, red, lustrous, very well made, with ornaments in relief. Also a coarser ware. This, in Europe, gradually superseded the primitive potteries. For a long time after this, we nave no keramio records whatever Most dates uncertain. Little or no lead in glaze Glazed generally with a sort of silico-alkali glass, like the lustres Potter's wheel introduced by Giyoki. Specimens of ware of that epoch still exist in temple of Todaiji Lead-glaze in common use. May possibly have spread westward Jacquemart says the first Persian porcelains are of about this date Here seems to have been made the first lead flaze used in Europe. At first it seems to ave been used as an ornament. Probably derived from the East Jacquemart says about this date hard porcelain was made in Persia Glazed, see below. All these are tiles or pave ments. Found in various places Lead-glazes were used all through the East be-, fore this date. They seem gradually to have grown out of the silico-alkali glaze, the oldest known. A little lead seems to have been added, and afterwards a regular lead-glaze made, and this was followed Djr the tin-glaze The question will soon be definitel}' settled. . . Glazed frieze said to be of this date. May be an independent creation. There were good glass-makers in Germany Fine porcelains. Remarkably good in decora- tion. Dates very uncertain , Lead-glaze said to have been used by a Schlestad potter. Also before this at Jumidges. May have learned from the Italians AUTHOKITIKS. See Brogniart, Birch Jacquemart, etc. Japanese Catalogue. Jacquemart. Tomb of Henry IV. lead-glazed It is claimed that the above and much other German pottery was made antedating the French and Italian, and growing up as an independent centre. It is all, a little uncertain. C Jacquemart. Brogniart, See also Demmin, Salvetat, and others. Jacquemart and other authorities. Articles in Gazette des Beaux Arts, and in other perodicals. [No fur- ther authorities will be given, except for some especial ware.] i8 Ker amies. TABLE OF SOME Earthenware soft Spain. KIND OF POTTERY. COUNTRIES. " soft and hard i Persia Earthenware, soft .Italy, I'esaro. Earthenware (majolica). Earthenware (majolica). •| Porcelain (fritted) Porcelain, Chinese, hard.. Earthenware (majolica) . . . Stoneware (grfes de Flandre) . . . Stoneware Oiron earthenware or faience . Earthenware (Palissy) Porcelain (eggshell ware) . Porcelain Italy, Florence. Nuremberg Venice Europe Italy, Pesaro . Porcelain (fritted) . Porcelain jfioo Earthenware (faience). I Cologne, Nuremberg. Buntzlau, Creussen. . . France, Beauvais France France China Japan Tuscany Japan Holland, Delft.. Keramics. IMPORTANT DATES. -Co«if2««*rf. 19 Tin and lead-glazed. Made by Spanish Moors before this date. May have influenced the above Tin-glazes very fine. Also silico-alkali on pretty hard body Mezza-raajolica— scraffito ware— lead-glazed and often with lustres Lucca della Robbia introduced the tin-glazed ware now bearing his name Vcit Hirschvogel and son are said to have made fine ware at this date. Jacquemart does not think so First indication of porcelain in Europe, no doubt an imitation of Eastern porcelain. Letter from Uielmo da Bologna in Venetian archives. No results Benj. Fillon. About this time the Portuguese began bringing porcelain to Europe IOrazio and Flaminio Fontana. About 1560 artistic earthenware began to fall off ii beauty, and soon after became of little ar tistic value, though various efforts were made to revive it {Fine stonewares, often with ornaments in relief, generally salt-glazed. Lasted in full beauty until about 1615, then fell off. Said to have been invented before 1424 — doubtful Jacquemart thinks stoneware was made in the Beauvoisis long before 1540 Often called Faience Henri II. For description and history see Chapter X Bernard Palissy succeeded in making the ware called after him. His art died with him. The paste is hard, sometimes very hard. The enamel is never pure white, like Lucca L della Robbia's, nor like the Nevers majolica (Gorodayu Shonsui went to China and learned Japanese Catalogue, the art. About the beginning of the i6th cen-' tury raku ware (a black earthenware, lead- glazed), was introduced by Ameya from the Corea , Made for the Grand Duke Francis de Medici- Vasari says Bernardo Buontalenti was the potter. This porcelain still exists. It is not very fine in quality. It had no results. Corean porcelain-makers brought to Hizen by Prince Nabeshima Naoshige. Prince Shi- madzu Yoshihisa about the same date brought porcelain-makers to Satsuma.. It is claimed that the manufacture began about 1500. Very fine, both for tin-glaze and deco- ration AUTHORITIES. Gazette des Beaux Arts, 1879. Japanese Catalogue. Numerous authorities. Keramics. 21 IMPORTANT DATES.— a>«/z»«frf. REMARKS. AUTHORITIES. From this time until about 1688 the faience or tin-glazed earthenwares of Rouen, Nevers St. Cloud, and other places were very famous, as were many others. The artistic pottery ceased about 1700, though some little was still made. By Dr. Dwight, but it was not until 1740 that the business took root in England First fabric, tolerably fine. Effort to imitate hard porcelain Bbttscher and Tschirnhaus first discovered Icaolin hard porcelain. In spite of efforts to keep it secret, the knowledge gradually spread all over Europe. The proper clay was found in many places Astbury in England invented or perfected the use of calcined flints in the paste, making practically a new ware Porcelain was made with magnesite. Very tough. No important results At Vincennes, thence transferred to Sevres, 1756 Called second fabric. Very fine These porcelams were at first made by intro- ducing flint glass into a paste resembling that of fine earthenware. Afterwards calcined bones were used. Lead-glaze, at first very soft Wm. Cookworthy made genuine hard porce- lain. Commercially a failure About this date Wedgwood made his queens- ware and stoneware, and also then and after- wards introduced great improvements There seems to have been an attempt to start a bone porcelain pottery in Philadelphia, Pa. This porcelain was not perfected in England until'later f Good kaolin was discovered at St. Yrieix, near Limogss. Since that time hard porce- I lain has been made. At first the glaze had lime in it. Of late years it has been made [ of pegmatite It is difficult to find records of early potteries in the United States. Other potteries were probably in existence Josiah Spode perfected the process of making English porcelain, the peculiarity of which is the use of phosphate of lime from bones. Brogniart discontinued the manufacture of frit ted (soft) body porcelain Wm. Ellis Tucker first seriously attempted porcelain-making in this country. Body and glaze good and hard. Workmanship and dec- oration poor. Corner Schuylkill Front and Chestnut Sts. Ceased about 1837 Prime, Elliott. History of Norwich, by Miss Caulkins. Letter from Thomas Tucker. 22 Kerantics. TABLE OF SOME A. D 1830... 1847.... 1859. .. 1861 .... 1873 ••■ KIND OF POTTERY. COUNTRIES. Europe and America France, Sfevres France Earthenware fine. Porcelain fritted Porcelain (decoration) . Porcelain (decoration). Keramics. 23 IMPORTANT •DKi:'S&.— Continued. Dating from about this time great improvements have been made in paste and glaze. Kaolin, feldspar, etc., are used in the paste; borax, boric acid, and feldsjDar in glazes The manufacture of fritted or soft body porce- lain renewed at Sevres Peinture a demi-grand feu, mfethode Richard See Chapter VIII Invention of method of compressing paste in moulds by means of compressed air 4 Methode Laurin, still further developed by the Havilands at Limoges. First application on a large scale of slip-painting to decorative earthenware. Many experiments in much the same style of decoration had been previously made. Slip-painting on porcelain, (pSte-sur- pate) first tried by M. Riocreux, at Sevres, In imitation of Chinese and Japanese methods. . | AUTHORITIES. I CHAPTER JII. POTTERY MATERIALS. CLAYS. With but few exceptions all pottery is made of clay, either in its natural state or modified by man. Clays of various kinds are found all over the world. Several varieties soften in water, and be- come plastic, that is, will form a non-elastic, soft, tenacious paste that will retain any impression made on it, and that can also be made into moulds. The clays used by potters are of this nature, and are white, yellowish-white, grey, greenish, reddish, and occasionally black. This last color is generally pro- duced by organic matters which frequently burn out of the clay when baked, leaving* it perfectly white. The reddish and yellowish tints are caused by the oxides of iron. Many rocks contain a great deal of feldspar, of which the principal constituents are alumina and silica (also soda and potash, one or the other predominating.— See table, page 34). These rocks when worn down, disintegrated, and even de- composed by the action of the weather, and by other causes, make beds of clay more or less firm and 24 Pottery Materials. 25 compact. Sometimes this clay is washed away and settles down far from the original rock, gather- ing all sorts of impurities on the road; sometimes it remains associated with the rock, and then con- sists of a clay more or less pure, according to the nature of the primitive rock, and according to the circumstances which have accompanied its alteration. The chief and characteristic constituent of all clays is the hydrous silicate of alumina (called kao- linite), associated with which there is always a con- siderable quantity of quartz sand or alkaline sili- cate, and many other matters. In other and less scientific terms, the indispensable ingredients in the composition of clay, are silica and alumina combined together, and with water, and this may be taken as a typical clay, and all clays as they depart from this ideal standard become less pure. Silica and alumina alone are infusible at the highest heat of the potter's kiln, and in order to melt or soften must be mixed with a flux of some kind, such as the alkalies, soda, and potash, or with oxides. The principal Impurities of clays are the oxides of iron, lime, magnesia, the alkalies, and sometimes a small amount of iron pyrites (sulphur and iron), of titanic and of phosphoric acid. The presence of these in considerable quantities renders a clay in- capable of withstanding a high temperature with- 26 Keramics. out fusing; therefore some clays are very fusible, others refractory. By refractory, or infusible, is meant here that a clay will not melt in the extreme heat of the potter's kiln, say 1600° to 1800° Cent., 2912° to 3272° F., or about the melt- ing point of \vrought iron. All clay at a suffi- cient heat would melt into a sort of glassy sub- stance. The more alumina there is in a clay, the more refractory it is. At the same time, of two clays, both containing the same amount of alumina, one may be much more fusible than the other, owing to the proportions of the fluxes and of the silica in it. As a general rule, clays having the same proportions of aluminous and silicious elements possess an equal power of resisting extreme heat. Many substances are added by the potter to make the clay more or less fusible, or to produce certain results after baking. Alumina has a great affinity for water, of which clays absorb and retain a great deal, requiring a red heat to expel it entirely. When once thoroughly driven out in this way, the water will never again enter into combination with the clay. Baked clay is one of the most durable of substances. Feldspar. — This is found pure in various places, 'sometimes in crystals, and sometimes in large masses. It is found rubbed into pebbles in the beds of streams, and often under cliffs, and is one of the constituents of many rocks. At the heat of the porcelain kiln feldspar melts into a milky glass. Potters almost Pottery Materials. 27 always use the species called Orthoclase, or potash- feldspar, in which potash predominates. All the varieties are often called spar. Albite. — Cleavelandite, soda-feldspar. In this the soda predominates. It is seldom used. Fluorspar— this is not a feldspar at all. It is used in glazes, particularly in Cxermany. It is very fusible. Petrosilex. — Compact orthoclase— compact feldspar — rock- flint, —petuntze. Cornish Stone. — China-stone— petuntze— pegmatite — cailloux — Different names used by potters for much the same rock. This is a rock resembling granite in appearance, and composed principally of feldspar and quartz. The composition of this rock varies considerably, so that it requires constant experiments to determine in what proportion the quartz and the more fusible parts stand to each other. The above rocky materials are used principally in the manufac- ture of porcelain, and also of fine earthenwares and stonewares. The purest natural clay is Kaolin — Kao-ling, (Chinese, high ridge.) In Europe this is the name given to any colorless refractory clay that can be used for making porcelain. "Ordinary kaolin is the result of the decomposition of aluminous min- erals, especially of the feldspars of granitic and gneissoid rocks and porphyries." — (JDana) Kaolin is generally found associated with the rock from which it is derived by decomposition. Kaolin often 28 Keramics. contains gravel, sand and other minerals, which have to be carefully removed before it can be used for fine wares. Kaolin is white, dull, and opaque. When kneaded with water it forms a ductile paste or dough; it is often mixed with potter's clay or with ball clay in making different wares. Kaolin is supposed to have been used for centuries in China, but its discovery and application in Europe only date from about the year 1700. It seems uncertain now whether the Chinese use in making porcelain what we call kaolin, for what they obtained from the place Kao-ling was a greenish rock as hard as feldspar, which was then made into powder.* Kaolins good for the potter's purposes are found in comparatively few places. Cornwall in England (whence Cornish clay), Aue in Saxony, St. Yrieix la Perche in France, are some of the principal Euro- pean beds, while in the United States it has been found in Delaware, Illinois, Missouri, Vermont, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, etc., for analyses and de- tails of which see reports of different state geologists. In Lawrence Co., Indiana, is found a kaolin for which wonderful qualities are claimed. The analysis of it is very like that of what is called halloysite.f ' *Am. Jour. Science^ March, 1871, p. 179. tSince writing the above, Mr. Shakespeare M. Laughlin has in- formed me that the Lawrence Co. kaolin or halloysite was thoroughly tested ia the pottery at East Liverpool. It did not at all equal the ex- Pottery Materials. 29 Ball Clay — often C2^&6. pipe-clay. — This is essen- tially the same as kaolin, but has, as a rule, a greater proportion of silica in it, and is less pure. It gen- erally has lime in it, and is usually of a yellowish or greyish hue, from the presence of iron. It is used in the making of fine pottery. Potter's Clay — Is a still more impure variety, often rendered fusible by the foreign substances it contains. Common potter's clay, or loam, such as is used in brick pits, is one of the most abundant sub- stances in nature, but is so impure that it can only be used for the commonest pottery. Other clay- like materials used by potters are marls or calcar- eous clays, composed of clay, carbonate of lime and sand in varying proportions, and ferruginous clays or ochres. The principal other constituents of paste and glazes are: Silica — as quartz, sand, flints. Lime — as gypsum (sulphate), chalk (carbonate) phosphate. Magnesite, or meerschaum. — In this magnesia takes the place of the alumina. Steatite — Soapstone, talc, potstone — is also used a little in porcelains. Hoa-chi, a kind of soapstone, and other materials as pectations to which it gave rise, on account of the impurities in it, and- also because there was so much water in ii that the shrinkage was un- usually great. Mr. Laughlin has given me the analysis of a very re- markable kaolin derived from the decomposition of chert or hornstone. —See table. No. 21, page 38. 30 Keramics. yet not very well known, are used in China andjapan. Asbestos and the sulphate or carbonate of Barytes are occasionally used. In glazes and also a little in pastes are used slag or blast f urnace cinders (common glazes). Nitre or saltpetre — (nitrate of potash). Salt. — Sea-salt, chloride of sodium. Albany Dip. — A common clay found near Albany, N. Y. It is used in this country as a black glaze for stoneware. Boric, or boracic acid. — This is principally derived from Borax — borate of soda — a compound of boric acid and soda. Up to the end of the seventeenth cen- tury nothing certain was known either of the source or of the composition of borax, which was used as a flux, and which was brought to the European market by the Venetians in the impure native state called tincal. The method of refining tincalwas long kept secret, but in 1747 Baron pointed out that borax consisted of a compound of boric acid (then called sedative salt) and soda. It is now found in a great many places, and has of late years been extensively used. Borax, or boric acid, adds greatly to the brilliancy and hardness of glazes, and also improves the color of the paste. ' The alkalies, potash and soda, are very seldom used alone. They are used in combination as above. The oxides of lead, of tin and of iron. The ochres — little used. Pottery Materials. 31 The oxides of manganese. These are said to im- part great toughness to common earthenwares when used in the glaze. Hot-cast Porcelain.— Cryolite — fluorid of soda. This was used in Pennsylvania for the manufacture of white glass, which was a very good imitation of por- celain, and which was called hot-cast porcelain, but was very brittle. It was very like soft porcelain — and the cryolite was used instead of the phosphate generally used in making milk glass. It is by understanding the chemical nature and the real constituents of clays and other matters that such great advances have of late years been made in the manufacture of pottery; and, judging from many chemical analyses, it seems as if there may be many more materials that can be used in making fine pottery. Nevertheless, all clays and minerals must be carefully tested in potteries before their value to the potter can be definitely ascertained. Clays and spars from different localities that seem alike as far as chemical analysis is concerned, will act very dif- ferently in the kiln. Potters generally judge clay by its appearance, by adhesion to the tongue, by smell, and by touch, and by its plasticity. They also fire it and judge it by its shades of color. Principal Metals used in decorating pottery, some of which are also used for glazes: 1. Arsenic — white. 2. Antimony — yellow, white. 3. Barium — yellow, white. 32 Keramics. 4. Copper— as metal, bluish-green and a jed. 5. Cobalt— blue. 6. Chromium — green, yellow, blue. 7. Gold — as metal, pink, purplish-grey; aso -witli tin in purple of Cassius — purple or crimson. 8. Iridium — black, grey. 9. Iron — red, yellow, brown. TO. Lead — yellows. 11. Manganese — brown, violet, 12. Nickel — used in preparation of colors 13. Platinum — as metal, grey, black. 14. Palladium — grey. 15. Silver — as metal, used in carmines, purples, yellows. 16. Tin — white, a sort of pink, also with gold in purple of Cassius. 17. Titanium — yellow. 18. Uranium — black, yellow. 19. Zinc — improves or modifies many colors. These metals are used as oxides, silicates, alumin- ates, chromates, chlorides, etc., and are comlined in various ways, so producing a great variety of colors, tints and hues. New pigments or combinations are discovered from time to time, but are generally kept secret as long as possible by the keramist who discovers them. Umbers, Sienna earths and ochres are earths naturally colored by iron and manganese. They are not now much used, the same colors being obtained by mixtures. Pottery Materials. 33' Calcium might perhaps be added to the above list of metals and metalloids, for its protoxide, lime, as phosphate, is now often used for white instead of the oxide of tin. When so used it must be chemi- cally pure. The phosphate or meta-phosphate of lime seems destined in future to play a more important part in the manufacture of pottery than it has done hereto- fore. It is usually made artificially from bones, but phosphorite and other natural phosphates of lime might be used in the preparation of the glaze, or even of the paste of much fine pottery besides Eng- lish porcelain. Salvetat gives the following analysis of a natural phosphate from the north of France: Clay and silica 25.66, lime 44.54, phosphoric acid 12,12, carbonic acid 7.33, water and volatile matters 10.33, and a trace of oxide of iron. It must be noted that the phosphate Very much increases the fusibility of feldspar. In one sense the assertion might be made that almost all the potter's materials are metals or metal- loids; alumina, for example being oxygen and alu- minium, or in other words is the oxide of aluminium. Potassium and sodium furnish the important alkalies, potash (hydrated protoxide of potassium) and soda (hydrated protoxide of sodium), while silicon and oxygen make silica (silicic acid), the absolutely es- sential element in all pottery. 34 Keramics. ANALYSIS OF SOME I. Feldspar (orthoclase) 8. Feldspar (albite) 3. Quartz. 4. Flint... 5. Fluorspar (Fluorid of Cal- cium) 6. Yeou-Ko (washed) greenish rock 6. Yeou-Ko (raw) 7. Chesterlite (orthoclase) 8. Steatite (soapstone) . . . . 9. Magnesite (Carbonate of Magnesia, Baudisserite) . . 10. Meerschaum, Sepiolite, hy- drated silicate of Mag- nesia (sometimes called Magnesite) 11. Spain(Vallecas)Meerschaum 12. Cryolite, Kryolite 13. Tsuji - chu - chi (porcelain stone) 14. Shiro-chu-chi _ ? washed 15. Sakaime-chu-chi } Japan 16. Terre d porcelaine du Japon 64.06 18.05 16.09 (Soda some- times replaces part of the potash.) 68.06 jig. 06 I .... I .. . |ii 08 I .... (A small part of the Soda is usually, if not always, replaced by potash and also by lime.) May be considered pure silica ; it is very hard, is infusible and insoluble. Principally silica, with a very little alumina and oxide of iron. 75-09 75.09 64.97 62.0 60.8 53-8 80.672 80 . 920 81 . 141 75.09 Fluor- ine. 48.07 14.02 traces 13.09 traces 17-65 0.27 33- 01 39.00 48.00 27. 1 . 1 .2 23-8 Alumi- num. 13.0 16.174 .102 15.822 . 100 14-542 .242 20,00 3-05 3.08 1.69 Oxide, 00.08 00.07 19.20 (Nearly alwavs has meerschaum in it. — Brogniart.) Sodium 32-8 ■569 •530 -999 3-05 1.799 1-530 1.789 •932 1 .060 Keramics, OF THE POTTER'S MATERIALS. 35 - a. . 2 o z o i: o 03 a n K y « •<<< ■< Analyst. Remarks oo.os 00.04 Com- Oined. 2.03 2.07 Fluor- ine. 54-2 .152 .195 .06 Mang. oxide. 0.03 traces Car. acid. 41.80 49.00 Sulph'r trace M. ox trace 0.014 .031 Dana. Dana. Dana. Dana. Dana. E.&S. Berthier. Brogniart. Dana. Berthier. Wurtz. Wurtz. Wurtz. Malaguti. I 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10, II, 12. — These are nearly all general formulae. Feldspars, as well as the other minerals here mentioned, generally contain a little ox. iron, lime, magnesia, etc., and more or less alkali. No. 6 is mentioned by Ebelman and Salvetat in their memoir * as a glaze ingredient. They say it is a greenish petro-silex. Compare with Baron Richtoffen's statement as to green stone. (Chap. 14, p. 149.) See also Wurtz's memoir, Reports and Awards, Group 2, Cent. Ex., 1876. No. 7. — This is feldspar from Chester Co., Pa. No. gtis from Baudissero, Italy, and was used in the porcelain made at Vineuf, near Turin. Magnesia por- celain, though not so white as the Kaolin porcelains, has great tough- ness and lightness. No. II. t A silicate of magnesia, much the same mineral as No. 8, is from Vallecas, near Madrid. This was used in Spain for porcelain. The magnesia paste is prepared with a little clay or kaolin in order to give it plasticity. All this is perhaps more curious than useful. No. 13. — See very interesting article in Reports and Awards, Group. 2, Cent. Ex., 1876, for analyses of other Jap- anese porcelain stones. No. 16. — This often has a little iron in it. There are silicious varieties. • Annates de Chymic et de Physique (3), vols. 31 and 35. ^ See note i , Appendix B. 36 Keramics. ANALYSIS OF SOME Kaolins. 17. St. Yrieix 18. China 19. Lawrence Co.,' Indiana ao. Golconda, 111 SI. Beauregard,MarbleHilI,Mo. aa. Near South Amboy, N. J. . . Clays. 23. Montereau (France) 24. Stourbridge (England) 25. Devon (England) a6. Woodbridge.N. J 37. Mt. Savage, Maryland »8. Ballclay, Mo 5° OS 45-9° 42.28 37-0 33-07 40.34 43-05 83-36 43.20 64.40 45-25 49.60 43.690 44 -.395 65.69 11.06 49-71 37 38.300 38.558 24.87 These clays con- •I tain a very littl: I potash and sodi. .310 .108 Keramics. OF THE POTTER'S MATERIALS.— 37 trace trace .480 trace 13.01 II .02 13.26 14.66 Zirco- nium . 1 .40 10 00 17 34 II 20 Titanic acid. IS 120 1 .000 14 575 1.53° Analyst. Salvetat. Salvetat. ( Chauvinet \ and Blair. Salvetat. Salvetat. Salvetat. Remarks. Kaolins are generally very refractory. Should they contain 2 or 3 per cent, of alkalis they become slightly fusible. Nos. 19 and ao.-These are rather halloy- sites than true kaolins, and are objec- tionable in several respects, princi- pally on account of the shrinkage. No. 21. — Snow-white clay, from decom- position of chert,which is a term often applied to hornstone and to any im- pure flinty rock. This is a remark- ably fine kaolin for potter's use. No. 23. — Very good — used in fine earth- enware. No. 24.— Refractory— used for crucibles, firebricks, etc. No. 25.— Fine earthenware, c. c. ware, etc. Compare with Montereau. Nos. 26, 27, 28.— American clays from State geological surveys. Many clays contain titanic and phosphoric acid in small quantities. . PART 11. FI^OCESSES OF MANUFACTURE. CHAPTER IV. MANUFACTURE. PASTES. The simplest method of using clay woild be to wet it with water and fashion it into vessils which when dried in the sun would answer fo: holding anything dry, such as grain. This is done in some parts of the world, but such vessels are useless for liquids, as they melt in water. Sun-dried Iricks are used extensively in Mexico, Egypt, parts of China, and other tropical countries, where there is not much rain, and answer well enough. Mounds of them still exist in Assyria, dating from veiy remote times. The next step, and a very great one, is to bake the clay; thus changing its composition, and rendering vessels made of it insoluble in water, and not easily affected by acids. Paste. * Body — day mass (Fr. pdte) — names given to clay either by itself or when mixed and prepared with other ingredients, paste, though dough would be more suitable, being the word generally used in books. For the very coarsest pottery, the chy is used as found, but for most wares the natural clay serves 38 ♦ See note 2 Aooendis B Manufacture. 39 as abase for the paste, and various matters are added producing combinations which are altered or modi- fied in baking. Upon the kind of clay used, upon the ingredients with which it is mixed, and upon the de- gree of heat to which it is subjected in baking, de- pend the product; and in short, paste may be re- garded as modified silica. A paste of siHca and alu- mina alone will stand any heat. When there is a very little iron, lime, etc., in it, it will still stand a high de- gree of heat without melting. Much iron, lime, and other impurities flux the paste at a very low heat, so that it melts into a shapeless mass. The alkalies which are generally in the paste, as feldspar powder or dust, have no influence at all at a low heat, but as soon as the heat is sufficient to melt the feld- spar, they often, with lime, act as very powerful fluxes. Roscoe classes pottery as an amorphous silicate. The following table gives in a rough or general way the ingredients in different kinds of ware. Any student interested in this part of the subject will find fuller tables of pastes, etc., page 46. TABLE OF PASTES. Silica Silica Silica Silica Silica Silica Silica Silica alutninr lime alumitu alumina ox-' alumina lime ox- alumina ox- alumina lime alumina lime alumina magnesia Baryta alkali potash potash soda Typical Clay. I Earthenwares and (stonewares. Stoneware. Hard porcelain. Soft porcelain. Piedmontese andSpanish porcelain These and other combinations, singly or together, 40 Keramics. are infinitely varied in different potteries, and de- pend, as a rule, more on experience and tradition than on chemical analysis or scientific rules. Plasticity is one of the important qualities of clay or paste. A Plastic substance is one that can be fashioned into any shape and will keep it. The plasticity of clay is in the first place owing to the presence of water, for which alumina has a great affinity, and also depends on the fineness of the par- ticles of clay. Too much or too little water takes away the plasticity, the clay being liquid in the one case, and a dry powder in the other, though the dryest clay still contains water. Some pastes, such as that of some soft porcelains, have no natural plas- ticity, and have to be mixed with gum, soap water, or something of the kind. Some clays, too, are natu- rally more plastic than others. Potters call the more plastic clays or pastes fat or long, the less plastic, short. If the clay is too plas- tic, the shrinkage is such that the ware is distorted, and even cracks in drying, and still more in baking This can be prevented by introducing various non- plastic and unshrinkable substances. Quartz, sand, calcined flints, calcined bones, chalk, baked clay or paste well pulverized (Fr., ciment), called "Pitchers" by potters, are all used. Sawdust is also used, especially in making water-coolers. It burns out, leaving spaces between the particles of clay. The more plastic a paste, the more it shrinks. In some fine wares great allowance must be made Manufacture. 4.1 for inevitable shrinkage, and the arrangement must be such as will assure contraction towards a com- mon centre. This is easy in the case of a simple article like a plate, but requires careful calculation in more complicated forms. Preparation. — For very fine wares the follow- ing operations are used to a greater or less ex- tent. The clay is dug up in large masses, which, if necessary, are dried, and then broken up and all fragments of stone or coloring matter are carefully removed. The clay is then put into a cylindrical or octagonal box (blunger) within which is a shaft armed with strong paddles. Water, which should be very pure, is added until the mixture is as thin as cream. This mixing was formerly done by hand with a kind of rake. After working it until clay and water are thoroughly in- corporated, (in the East this is often done by men or cattle treading the mixture in a tank), the liquid or Slip is drawn off through a series of strainers which retain all stones or coarse sand. The strain- ing is continued through sifters or sieves of closer and closer mesh, until the fineness required is ob- tained, in many cases the final straining being through the finest silk gauze. In other cases the same result is obtained by the clay being washed down through a succession of pits or tanks, the heavier parts sinking to the bottom, and only the finer particles of clay being carried on by the water. Any matters that are to be added to the clay, such 42 Kerainics. as calcined flints, spar, sand, or calcined bones, must be ground exceedingly fine. This is done by meth- ods varying from the excellent machinery used in England and America to the rough water mills of the Chinese and Japanese. An impalpable powder is the result in both cases, but in the former there is a great saving of labor and material. All these matters are generally ground in water, as the dust from them is very injurious to the workmen. This objection is obviated in Alsing's dry-grinding cylin- der mill, used in this country, and which grinds the materials to the finest powder. The potter gener- ally, tells if the powder be fine enough by crunch- ing it between his teeth, or by feeling it with his fingers. After all the clays and rocky matters are pre- pared, they are sometimes mixed together in a pow- dered state; the usual method, however, being to have each ingredient mixed with a certain propor- tion of water, so that a quart of one will be equal to a quart of the other, notwithstanding their varying densities. Then they are generally all mixed together in a machine similar to that already described, water being added until the mixture is like cream, and will go through the finest sieve or gauze. It will not do to leave the liquid paste or slip in this state, as the heavier parts would soon sink to the bottom ; and besides, in this state it has no plasticity. The slip must be dried until it makes a paste of the proper consistency. Manufacture. 43 Drying the Slip. — This was and is still done in many places either by exposing it to the air, by dry- ing it in absorbent plaster boxes, by running it through a kind of trough or Slip-Kiln, of which the bottom and sides are made of bricks, which are heated, or by pressing it in bags. But in large potteries in Europe and America these methods are almost en- tirely superseded by an ingenious method of Strain- ing-Bags invented by an English firm,and which can be found fully described and illustrated in any good encyclopedia. Much the same method, only imper- fectly managed, was formerly used at Sevres, and is still in use in China. The paste now undergoes various operations, the object, of which is to render it as homogeneous as possible in texture and to drive out all air-bubbles. In some few places in Europe, and all over the East, it is kneaded with hands or feet, generally the latter; a very old process, now hardly ever used for fine pastes, to which we fin(i many references in sacred and profane history. Treading. — The paste is placed in a circle on a level floor, generally tiled, and the workman walks with bare feet from the circumference to the centre in a spiral, until he judges the clay to be sufificiently tempered. The same effect is produced by putting the clay or the prepared paste into a mill, called a Wedging-Mill, a cylinder with knife-blades fixed in the sides and in an axis in the middle, so arranged ^ to cut up the paste and force it down in a 44 Keramics. spiral. By repeating this operation several times it is claimed that the same or a better effect is pro- duced than by treading. All this is not enough for very fine wares, porcelain for example. Just before using, the paste for this often undergoes the process of "slapping." A man of considerable strength takes a lump weighing some fifty or sixty pounds, and cuts it through with a brass wire. The piece cut off is dashed with the man's utmost strength on the rest of the mass, and this is repeated until the mass is perfectly smooth and close in appearance wherever it is cut. He then often pounds it with a mallet. If all this is done well, the incorporation of one part of the mass with the other is so thorough that coloring matter placed in one part will be equally diffused throughout the whole mass. It also drives out the air, which is of the utmost impor* tance, as a bubble would expand in the baking and ruin the ware. Wedging now generally takes the place of the picturesque operation of slapping, but still in the finest wares nothing seems entirely to take the place of hand work. The paste of hard por- celain is, after this, often made up into conical forms which are dried and then made into thin shav- ings on a lathe, and then put again through the same processes. It is claimed that this makes an excellent paste, less liable to crack or warp. A portion of old paste is also almost invariably mixed with the new. Ripening {Yt., pourrir, lit. rot). — The paste, and Manufacture. in some cases, the clay, is often put into pits or cel- lars to temper, or else it is allowed to lie for years in pits exposed to the weather to ripen. The paste is kept moist, and in some cases is mixed with very im- pure water, so as to ferment and putrefy; some pot- ters being of opinion that this tends materially to in- crease the homogeneousness of the mass. In China the paste is always kept for many years, a rather absurd etymology of porcelain being that it is de- rived from " pour cent annees," as the paste was kept for that length of time, and was often prepared by men for their remote descendants. Many wares do not go through all these processes, bricks and coarse earthenware and stoneware only having the stones and other impurities picked out, and being either kneaded or trodden, or else put through the wedging-mill, and then used. The finer the ware the more elaborate the preparation of the paste. 4^5 Keramics. TABLE OF PASTES. Kinds of Pottery. Soft Body or Paste. , Peruvian , Madagascaii 3. Campanian (Italo-Greek) 4. Etruscan 5. Roman (red) Luxembourg. 6. Roman (gray) 7. Black, Gallic 8. Spain, modern 9. Portugal, modern 10. Coarse Earthenware n. " " 13. Lucca dellaRobbia(majolica) 13. Delft Ware 14. Persian 15. Rouen Hard Body. 16. Palissy 17. Henri II (F. d' Oiron) .... 18. Lun^ville (terre de pipe) . . 67.04 44.00 63.00 54.39 61.58 62.22 S3 -04 54.02 39-5° 36.50 49.65 49.07 •54 47.96 67.50 59 10 67.39 Vtry Hard Body. {Fine Earth- enware.) 19. Creil (France) 20. Minton (England) 21. Wedgcwood (England). 66.10 72.60 76. lO l^ery Hard Body (Stonewares) 22. Vauxhall (whitish). , 23. Wedgewood (yellowish, un- glazed) ...[66.49 »4. Chinese, (reddish-brown,un- glazed) 62.00 15. Japanese(reddish-brown,un- glazed) 62.04 10.83 31 .20 24.24 25.78 18.36 19. II 20.00 12.00 10.50 15-50 16. 19 12.05 15.02 28.51 40.24 16.00 24. 10 20 -45 22 . 04 26.00 22.00 20.30 0.28 1.76 Eithernotpres ent.or if present they will liave no effect at all, the pottery bC' ing baked at too Inw a heat to aflect them. o. 14 o. 17 o.i6 traces traces 1 .06 0.20 i.oo traces Ker amies. 47 TABLE OF PASTES. Limb. Water. Carbonic Acio OR Carbon. 3.24 7.07 1. 00 1.25 15.24 1.26 525 3.00 8.4s t.55 9-25 t.68 2.17 0.99 1. 17 10.56 .78 14.01 2.06 S-77 4.76 5-97 4.04 20.00 7-30 17.50 25.00- 6.00 20.00 22.40 8.58 18.01 13.09 19.25 .... 16.72 12.27 1.52 13.16 • • M 0.14 0-7S ill 0.60 C.04 0.50 [.o3 Tin or lead Salt glaze. Analyses Principally from Salvbtat and Brogniart. Scarcely baked at all ; unusually low propor- tion of silica. Soft, marl-body lime, probably as silicate. This is the general composition of the finest pot- teries of this class, very old. Sometimes with lustrous glaze, now proved to be com- posed of silica and alkali with oxide of iron or lime, transparent glazes, sometimes black, probably iridium. Many analyses of this Etruscan pottery upon great similarity, probably all made by about same recipe. Not baked enough to drive out the carbon; very low heat. Very low heat. Very low heat. These were analyzed before baking; only well dried, which accounts for the water; all lime- body. Lime-body ; this takes tin glazes very well. Lime-body. Lime-body; often has a borax glaze from tincal. Lime-body. Pipe-clay or ball-clay paste. Most of his pot- tery had a tin glaze. Ball-clay paste, with a little kaolin in it, and there is probably a little iron, etc. Old-fashioned French ball-clay body earthen- ware ; often with tin glaze to make it harder. Modern French flint-body, fine earthenware, made on English recipes. Modern English flint-body, fine earthenware. Modern English flint-body, when glazed with a soft lead glaze, this is much like the old CO. ware. Iron-body. J Iron paste ; these soften in the heat of the ( hard porcelain kiln. 48 Keramics. TABLE OF PASTES.— Cow^/ViM^rf. Kinds of PotterV. Very Hard Body. (Porcelains.) 26. Nymphenburg (Bavaria) 87. Meissen (Dresden) 98. Limoges 29. Sfevres 30. China (first quality) 31. Japan (Eggshell ware) . . 32. Japan (thick body porcelain) 33. Piedmont (near Turin) 34. Worcester 35. Sfevres (old paste, about 1760) 36. Sevres (about 1S56). . . 37. Tournay 38. Persia Silica. Alumina. Magnesia. Potash. Soda. Iron. 72.80 18.40 -30 .05 1 .84 2.50 58.50 35- 10 traces 5 .00 0 80 alka- lies. 70 20 24.00 O.IO 4-30 0.70 58.03 33-94 2-97 69.00 26.60 0.02 3-3° 2.90 1 .30 78.763 17.847 .029 .203 '-97S .638 74 • 545 ^9-3^5 . 176 .566 2.832 X .916 69.80 10.40 17.60 82.00 9. 10 7.40 74-50 2.00 2.60 t.oo alka- lies. 76.00 2.00 5-25 0.75 76.45 7-35 traces 0.39 5.00 90.00 t.50 0.80 1.50 Ker amies. TABLE OF PASTES.— C S- ^ S Above-mentioned glass (which is fusible) 6» p y Feldspar (more alkali) '3 L^^.^** Ground quartz or flints • / 100 Some recipes are even more complicated. In some ^ a/ eases the desired result is obtained by mixing dif- ferent clays. It is interesting to observe in how many different ways pretty much the same result is ultimately reached. CHAPTER V. MANUFACTURE. SHAPING. Having undergone all this preparation, the paste or clay mass is now ready to be made into shape. The primitive way of doing this was by the hands alone, and to this day jars and other vessels are thus made in many countries. Very large jars are made in Spain, the largest being called iinajas. They are literally built up layer by layer, and the paste is then smoothed and shaped by the workman, who is com- pelled to mount on a little scaffold for this purpose. These jars take a long time to build, and at least seven months to dry, when they are solid enough to be rolled to the kilns and hoisted into place by about forty men. The largest tinajas are from three to four yards high, and wide in proportion, and in many ; places are used as cisterns, also for storing grain, and in smaller sizes, for washtubs or rather pots. The ' regularity of shape in pottery hand-made in savage tribes is often very remarkable. A good deal of very pretty Japanese ware is simply pinched into shape with the fingers, notably the celebrated Banko ware. 51 52 Ker amies. Most pottery, however, is made on the Potter's Wheel, which is of great antiquity, the figures on the Beni Hassan tombs in Egypt showing that it has been in use for at least 4000 years. Birch says: "The application of clay to the making of vessels probably caused the invention of the Potter's Wheel (Fr., tour h potier\ before which only vessels fashioned by the hand, and of rude, unsymmetrical shape, could have been made. But the application of a circular lathe, laid horizontally and revolving on a central pivot, on which the clay was placed, and to which it adhered, was in its day a truly wonder- ful advance in the art. As the wheel spun round, all combinations of oval, spherical, and cylindrical forms could be produced, and the vases became not only symmetrical in their proportions, but true m their capacity. " The invention of the wheel has been ascribed to all the great nations of antiquity. It is repre- sented in full activity in the Egyptian sculptures; it is mentioned in the Scriptures, and was certainly in use at an early period in Assyria. The Greeks and Romans attributed it to a Scythian philosopher, and to the states of Athens, Corinth and Sicyon, the three great rivals in the keramic art. The very oldest vases of Greece, some of which are supposed to have been made in the heroic ages, bear marks of having been turned on the wheel. Indeed it is not possible to find any Greek vases, except those made by the wheel or moulds, which latter process Manufacture. 53 was applied only at a late period to their production." — Birch's History of Ancient Pottery. Potter's Wheel. — The most common form of the potter's wheel consists of a spindle finished at its lower end in the form of a pointed pivot restinfj on a hard substance on which it can easily revolve; the upper end furnished with a head or small plat' foi'itiy on which the lump or ball of clay is placed. Between the head and the pivot is fixed a horizontal disk or wheel of large diameter, which acts as a fly- wheel, and keeps the spindle in motion for a long tirtie. The wheel is put in motion either by means of a treadle worked by the potter himself, or by another man, or else, as in most large potteries, steam power is used. The form of the wheel varies slightly according to the power used in driving it. Such wheels as that shown in the frontispiece, and which may be regarded as typical, may be found almost anywhere; this one is drawn directly from that of a working potter in Philadelphia. The processes for shaping articles vary with their form, and with the state of the paste, and principally consist of Throwing, Pressing, and Casting. Throwing is performed on such a wheel as just described, and is used for hollow vessels. The potter places a ball-shaped lump of paste on the little plat- form, and as it rapidly revolves, he, with his fingers and a wet sponge, and perhaps some simple tools, fashions it into the shape that he desires; first mak- ing the lump into a cone, then forcing it down into 54 Keramics. a heap again; then thrusting in his thumbs and hol- lowing it out, he runs it up into a sort of hollow cone; then by hands, sponge, and proper tools, shapes and finishes it off. The paste seems to take the desired forms by magic, and the work of the thrower looks very easy to do, but in reality it is very difficult to do well. Good throwers have to be trained, gener- ally from their boyhood, particularly for the making of delicate ware of any kind. When the piece is finished, the thrower cuts it from the top of the wheel by slipping beneath it a brass wire. Some- times, while the outside of the article is still rough, and only the inside smooth and finished, the thrower sets it aside to dry, and makes others like it. Then preparing a mass of paste as a mould on which he places his vessel upside down, he finishes off the out- side with a tool resembling those used in turning wood. The thrower in old times made and finished in this way all sorts of vessels, in fine as well as in coarse ware; and when, as was often the case, he was a man of true artistic feeling, he could impress his individuality upon his work from beginning to end. Now-a-days in fine wares the above operations are divided; the thrower only finishes off the inside, and another man does the finishing or lathing, on a horizontal lathe, very like the ordinary turning-lathe (potter's lathe, Fr. tour anglais). Small incised orna- ments are also made by lathes and tools such as are used by metal-workers. In some cases the paste, Manufacture. 55 after being dried until very hard, or even after baking, is entirely finished on the lathe. Old Sevres porcelain was made in this way, and the same finish is applied to the Chinese and Japanese pastes. The former nation certainly had the lathe in com- mon use as early as the thirteenth century. It is very difficult to make pieces exactly alike on the wheel, and the result depends on the skill of the potter; therefore to insure uniformity, other and more mechanical methods are used. Pressing. — In order to make fiat pieces, such as plates and dishes, the workman, called a presser^ takes a piece of paste, beats and slaps it to ex- pel the air, and rolls it out, or beats it into a thin layer. In some cases the paste is flattened out by means of much such a rolling-pin as a cook uses in making pie-crust; only instead of putting the flat- tened paste into the plate, the workman places it on a mould of the inside of the plate turned upside down. In fine wares great precaution must be used in lifting the paste, it being generally rolled out in a piece of soft leather. The mould with the paste on it is then placed on the head of the wheel, which in this case is called a Jigger, and consists simply of a spindle resting on its point, and provided with a head on which the moulds are placed. If the jigger is not moved by machinery the workman either keeps it in motion with his left hand, or more generally has a boy to turn it. He presses the bottom of the plate with an instrument called a profile, or rib, which ^6 Keramics. is sometimes permanently fixed in Its place, and which gives the exact profile of the outside of the plate, while the pressure reduces the layer of paste to the necessary thickness. The pressing is repeated at least twice. The plates are allowed to dry a little while, and then have consistency enough to be taken off the mould and smoothed off inside, and if neces- sary finished off more sharply and delicately. Casting. — Large pieces, and many small ones, are now generally made in moulds of plaster of Paris, giving the shape and sometimes the ornaments of the outside of one-half of the vessel. In making, say, a pitcher, the workman takes a piece of paste, spreads it out in a thin layer, then lays it in the hol- low mould, and with a wet sponge forces it into all the depressions thereof, being careful to keep it uniform in thickness. This process is repeated for the other half. The two halves, and often a piece for the bottom, are now put together and fastened strongly, the place where they join being wetted with slip, and pressed and smoothed over. The plaster mould soon absorbs the surplus water, and the paste is consistent enough to enable the pitcher to be lifted out and set away to dry. No matter how carefully the two parts are joined, and the seam smoothed over inside and out, the line of junction will show after baking; therefore, in fine ware, the position of this line is of considerable importance. Plaster moulds are a comparatively recent inven- tion, the manner in which this substance absorbs Manufacture. water rendering it peculiarly suitable. These moulds have almost entirely superseded those made of baked clay and metal; though bronze moulds are still used for some kinds of crucibles, and small metal moulds for ornaments. The Chinese use moulds of dried clay. Handles, spouts, and sometimes raised ornaments, are moulded separately, and are fastened on by slip. If the handles are oramented they are pressed in moulds, and the workman has to be very careful not to bend or distort them. Plain round or flat handles are made by the paste being forced in long strips through holes of the required shape, and are then cut to the proper length and stuck on with slip. Casting. — For very thin ware, plaster moulds are used, made in one, two, or many more pieces fitted very neatly together, and held firmly in place by an outer mould inclosing all. Paste in the form of very thin slip, is poured into this mould; the slip soon ad- heres to the absorbent plaster, and the deposit rap- idly increases in thickness. When the potter judges that the deposit is sufficiently thick, he pours out the extra slip; and when the layer of paste has dried and contracted, the mould is carefully removed. Compressed air is often forced into the mould in order to compress the paste, and give it sufficient consistency. Without this precaution very thin vases made in this way are apt to fall to pieces. This method is especially well adapted to the mak- ing of ware that requires very delicate and neat exe- 58 Keramics. cution, and is now used in making very thin cups; these are made in a mould, and the foot is afterwards put on. The handles, too, of the egg-shell ware are sometimes hollow, and are moulded in the same way by liquid slip. They must be stuck on with the greatest care. This same method is also used for very large and thick vessels, the thickness being obtained by repeated layers of slip. Moulds of the same nature as the above are used for figures, animals, etc., and are then often entirely closed up, except openings for the admissioi? of the slip, and for the escape of the air. Porcelain buttons are also made in moulds by machinery. Openwork or basket ware of any kind is generally moulded solid, and then the spaces are cut out with a knife in the hands of a very skillful work- man, or rather workwoman. When vessels, such as jugs and tea-pots, bowls, etc., are made double, and the outer case reticulated or cut into openwork patterns, the inner shape of the vessel is first made, then the outer shell is put in place, and slip is used on all the points of contact. This operation is very delicate, as both pastes must be of the same dryness or consistency, otherwise they will not contract equally. The outer shell is then cut into the wished-for pattern, without allowing the point of the knife to touch the inner shell. This does not apply to the delicate lacework and imitations of lace seen on porcelain or biscuit figures. In most cases, the production of this, difficult as it looks, is very easy. Manufacture. 59 A piece of lace, of the desired shape and pattern, is dipped in slip, and fastened in place upon the ware previous to baking. The lace itself burns away in the baking, leaving the design on the ware; and owing to the shrinkage, even more delicate than the original lace. In some other cases the work- woman, for women almost invariably do this sort of work, makes the patterns by dropping or dragging paste of the right consistency in the same way that confectioners make patterns on icing for cakes. The making of moulds is an important item in the expenses of a pottery. In large ones, moulds are generally made by men employed for this purpose. Those for finely decorated ware must be made by good artists, and famous sculptors are often em- ployed for this purpose. Bricks — Tiles. — All such articles as drain- pipes, bricks, tiles and ornaments for buildings are also moulded or cast, generally by machinery. Buttons and other articles, such as door-knobs, are often made from powdered paste, very slightly moistened, and then pressed by steel dies in a hydraulic press. The process is very curious. Tiles are also made from clay reduced to a powder, which being submitted in metalic moulds ^ to a strong pressure becomes so compact that it^ can be handled. Encaustic tiles are made from ' plastic clay, in which the different portions of the designs are sunk below the surface so as to form recesses in which slips of different colors are 6o Keramics. poured; when these become as hard as the body of the tiles, the surface is made smooth and level with a steel scraper, which removes all the superfluous material, till the colors are shown stand- ing neatly side by side with the greatest precision (Arnoux). The making of Architectural Ornaments, Figures, and Bas-reliefs has always been and is now an important branch of the potter's art. Figures, large and small, are modelled by hand in clay, and baked, being either glazed or left plain. The value of these consists in the beauty of the workmanship, and of the design, which may raise them into the region of the highest art. In modelling figures destined to be baked, it is necessary to add pounded baked clay, sand, or some other short substance to the clay; this lessens the plasticity of the clay, but renders it more difficult to model. Such figures, when well done, have a great charm, coming as they do directly from the artist's hands, without going through any intermediate processes. In an ele- mentary work like this, it is not possible more than to glance at the above mentioned wonders of keramic art, some of which indeed seem hardly to come under the head of pottery. All of the processes described, and many more, vary in different countries, according to the different wares, and also according as machinery is more or less used. Each potter has his own methods. The Manufacture. 6t perfection of all the mechanical part of the work is found in England and America, where there are all kinds of ingenious lathes and other machines for shaping, turning, ornamenting, and smoothing off the wares. At Sevres and at the other great porcelain potteries, wonderfully ingenious contrivances, which at the same time 'are usually very simple, are em- ployed for shaping the inside and outside of vessels and figures, and for applying ornaments of various kinds. The best way thoroughly to understand all of the above, is to visit a large pottery, such as those at Trenton, N. J., Greenpoin't, N. Y., East Liverpool, Ohio, or others. Once seeing the various processes stamps them on the mind as no descrip- tion can possibly do. If this is not practicable, any common pottery where flower-pots or crockery are made, will be found very picturesque and interest- ing to see. To return to the ware: After it has left the pot- ter's hands, the articles, if moist, are taken to the drying stove or closet. Here they are placed on shelves, generally of plaster, in a temperature of about 125° F., until they are hard enough to be easily handled; then they are either baked and finished without any glaze, or else first slightly baked, "soft or easy biscuit" (Yr., faible degourdi), and then glazed; or thoroughly baked, "biscuit or bisque- ware" (Fr., biscuit), and then glazed; or they are baked and glazed at the same time. CHAPTER VI. MANUFACTURE. GLAZING. Biscuit. — The baked but unglazed ware is called biscuit or bisque-ware, a singularly inappropriate term, meaning, as it does, twice baked. All earthen- ware biscuits are porous and absorbent, as is also the soft or easy biscuit of porcelain. Thoroughly baked porcelain biscuit and unglazed stoneware are im- pervious to liquids; but, except in a few cases, are glazed. Glazing — or (glassing, is simply covering the ware with a thin coat of natural or artificial glass, so ren- dering it impervious to liquids. It is difficult to make a good glaze, as one that seems good at first may crack after months or even years have elapsed. Glazes must vary so that their fusibility may be more or less, according to that of the ware on which they are placed. They must also dilate and contract in the same proportion as the ware, or else they will crack, or as it is technically called "craze." As a rule, very siliceous wares are easier to glaze than those with a large proportion of alumina. 62 Manufacture, The substances most used for glazes are feld- spar, kaolin, quartz, sand, lime in various forms, borax, and boric acid, sea-salt, potash and soda, fluorspar, ochres, the oxides of lead, of man- ganese, and of iron, and the oxide of tin. The oxides of all metals will combine with silica and alkali to form glass, but few will answer on ac- count of their imparting color to the glass made from them. Minium and litharge, both oxides of lead, are powerful fluxes at a comparatively low temperature, and make a colorless glass, which on account of its cheapness, is much used in glaz- ing. When there is an excess of lead, the glass is yellowish, and the lead is also easily dissolved out of it. Flint glass or crystal is composed of silica (siliceous or flint sand), minium (red lead), and car- bonate of potash, and when well made is hard and brilliant, and has only a small proportion of lead in it. This, with often the addition of borax, is essen- tially the composition of the glaze for the finer earthenwares and some porcelains. The coarse earthenwares are often glazed with a glass contain- ing an excess of lead, which melts easily, and is therefore used on wares baking at a low temperature. It is very unwholesome, and is easily scratched. Glass can be made without lead; crown glass is made of silica, the carbonates of potash and soda and quick-lime. The pegmatite or Cornish stone, and the feldspar used as the glaze of hard porcelain, may be considered a natural glass, formed by silica, 64 Kcramics. alumina, potash, and soda. It requires a great hea'i, to melt into a glass, which is never perfectly clear. Lime augments the fusibility of feldspar, and is some- times added to it on that account. Fluorspar, which is nearly all lime, and is very fusible, is also used. Borax and boric acid are comparatively modern ad- ditions to the list of glaze materials, and greatly in- crease the lustre and the hardness of the glaze, be- sides improving the colors placed on it, and also im- proving the color of the paste. Sea-salt is used in glazing stoneware. The proportions of the different ingredients vary with every manufacturer, and many make a great secret of their particular glaze. (See Chap. IX., page 107.) For all ordinary glazes the materials are ground to a fine powder, the finer the powder the more lus- trous the glaze, and are mixed with water to a cream-like consistency, a little vinegar being gener- ally added to prevent the precipitation of the heavier matters. This mixture is used without any further preparation. Fritting. — If, however, any salt, soluble in water, such as borax, nitre or soda, be used, then all or part of the ingredients are first melted together into glass, which is run into cold water, breaking it up into fragments. This is called a fritt. The fritt is then pulverized, and, if necessary, the insoluble ma- terials are added. The ware, when absorbent or porous, is simply dipped into this glaze-liqnid. The water is rapidly absorbed, and a thin coat of Manufacture, 65 powder is left on the surface, looking as if the ware was covered with powdered sugar. Any places remaining bare are coated with a brush, and the glaze is wiped off the pieces where they came in contact with the seggars. When the paste is not porous other methods must be used. The glaze- liquid is sometimes made very thick, and a little is dipped up inside the vessel. The vessel is then moved in different directions till it is covered. The outside is sometimes coated in the same way, or else, the vessel being of a suitable shape, is dipped into the glaze-liquid so that it just reaches the rim with- out flowing into the inside. This is often done when the inside is to be glazed a different color from the outside, and some dexterity is required to ob- tain an even coating.* The glaze is also put on with a brush, or by blowing through a tube, the end of which is covered with fine gauze, or the glaze materials in powder are dusted over the ware. This latter process is also used for very coarse earthenwares in which glaze and paste are only baked once. For classification of glazes see Chap. IX. The ware, being glazed, is taken to the kilns. In many cases after dipping in the glaze-liquid, and before the second baking, entire dryness is assured by subjecting the pieces for a while to a gentle heat. * See note 3, Appendix B. CHAPTER VII. MANUFACTURE. KILNS AND BAKING. Kilns. — The main essential of a pottery kiln is that the heat be equally distributed all over. It is also essential that the smallest possible amount of fuel be used. In these, and in other respects, great improvements have been made of late years. The kilns often are somewhat the shape of the old-fash- ioned bee-hives, or else have cone-shaped stacks. They are often in two stories. Others, again, have straight sides and arched tops, while in England they are generally a low, vaulted chamber, with a cone-shaped stack. In very rough pottery baking there is no regular kiln at all, the pots themselves being piled up on a sort of floor and arranged to let the flames play over and through them.* Pyrometers. — Heat-measuring instrume?tts. One O! the great difficulties in baking is in estimating correctly the degree of heat. So far, no instrument irvented has been completely satisfactory, the py- rometers of Wedgwood and Brongniart being the oaes most quoted. Both are good in some respects, but 66 * See note 4, Appendix B, Manufacture. 67 fail in others. For a full description of all py- rometers, see any good encyclopedia. Practically the potter generally judges of the heat by means of the color of the ware in the kiln, which varies from dull red to cherry red, orange red, white-heat, and dazzling or blue-white heat, seggars or ware being often lost to sight in one brilliantly white or even bluish-white mass. The following table gives some of the principal temperatures by means of the melting points of metals, which afford a standard of comparison: COLOR OF WARE. CENT. FAHR. MELTING POINT OF Bright cherry red Very deep orange red Vi^hitish The heat is sometimes even greater, being equal to.. . 525 700 800 goo 1000 1050 HOC 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1800 1292 1472 1652 1832 1922 2012 2192 2372 2552 2732 2912 3272 Silver White cast-iron Grey cast-iron Gold j- Steel j- Wrought-iroa To Measure the Heat the potter also often places in dilferent parts of the kiln small pieces of paste made in various forms, and glazed or unglazed, and which pieces are so arranged as to be easily taken out and examined. By such means the ex- perienced potter can tell the degree of heat with great exactness. He can see into the kiln by means of small holes left for the purpose, and which are 68 Ker amies. carefully stopped up when not in use so as not to allow any cold air to enter. Fuel. — In old timeswood, well dried, but not too dry, was always used, but charcoal, coal, coire, lignite, peat and gas have been and are used in different countries. Coal is now generally used in Europe and America, and wood in China and Japan.* Seggars. {Fr. cazettes.) — Valuable wares, when ready to bake, are generally placed in seggars, boxes of hard pottery, fusible only at a higher temperature than the objects they contain, and oval, cylindrical or square in shape. The manufacture of seggars is an especial and important branch of pottery. Very large potteries, however, often make their own seg- gars. The seggar for some wares, porcelain, for ex- ample, must be able to stand intense heat, and must not have anything in its composition, such as sand, which would burst with the heat and fall on the ware, nor must it evolve injurious vapors. The in- side of the seggar is sometimes partially glazed to avoid dust, but above all to avoid sucking or absorb- ing the glaze from the ware. Old seggars are the best, and even after they are broken, the pieces are fastened together for use. After the seggars are properly packed, they are piled up, the bottom of one forming the top of the other ; a roll or wad of clay being placed where they meet, so that no vapor can pene- trate. Each seggar is practically a small oven. The piles of seggars, called bungs, must be far enough apart to allow the free circulation of the heat, so that * See note 5, Appendix B. Manufacture. 69 all are equally heated; nevertheless, there are always some parts of the kiln hotter than others, and here are placed the pieces requiring the greatest heat. Some kilns are so arranged that two bakings can go on at the same time, one requiring less heat than the other, such kilns being generally in two stories. Plates and all flat pieces require less heat than hollow ware. The length of time required in baking depends en- tirely on the kind of ware, fine earthenwares taking about 60 to 75 hours for biscuit, and 20 to 35 glaze ; English or bone porcelain about the same ; artificial or fritted porcelain from Soto 100 biscuit, 30 glaze ; hard porcelain 20 to 50 hours for paste and glaze ; stoneware from 48 hours to a week. Care must be taken to cool the ware very gradually, and to admit the cold air with great precaution, or , the pottery will crack or break in pieces — dunt or shiver. Bricks, tiles, and some kinds of common earth- enware and stoneware, are often merely piled up in the kilns, and the fire plays directly on them. If necessary to prevent the upper pieces from crushing or distorting the lower by their weight, little supports of fire-clay are used, or else a kind of shelves. This same method of supporting is often used in the first baking or soft biscuit of porcelain and other fine wares; only then the pieces are very carefully propped up. The wares, and what they rest on, and the inside of the seggars, are generally sprinkled with flint sand, or with powdered baked 70 Kcr amies. clay, to prevent the pieces sticking, just as a cook uses flour. Pottery when glazed must be packed or placed with the greatest care in seggars or kilns, which are then called Gloss-ovens. The pieces are sup- ported and held apart by little fireclay instru- ments or props, which from their shape derive such names as pins or thimbles, watches, cock-spurs^ triangles or stilts. Formerly, the workmen pinched these into shape with their fingers; now, they are much better made from steel dies by machinery, the edges and points in all cases being made as sharp as possible. Sometimes they project from the sides of the seggars, and the plates hang or are slmig upon them; sometimes they are little tripods supporting the pieces on three sharp points. Care is taken to have the point of contact as small as possible; never- theless, three small un glazed points can always be found on the under side or on the extreme border of plates and other articles supported in this way. In old-fashioned, and in Chinese wares, these points are often large and rough, but in the best factories of to-day they are ground off and the place often polished by machinery. Hard porcelain, even when glazed, generally stands on its base, or else upside , down, and the glaze is wiped off the rims before put- ting it in the oven. Earthenware, fine and coarse, as well as some fine biscuits, is almost always slung from thimbles or pins from the sides of the seggars. The above methods only apply to wares that do Manufacture. 71 not soften or soften very little in the last baking. It is evident that only a stiff plate could have its whole weight supported on three slender points without bending. Wares that soften require the most minute precautions, and have supports or set- ters of the same shape, or are held in shape by other ingenious contrivances. When glazed, the difficulty, naturally, is still greater. The old Sevres soft por- celain was a most difficult ware to bake; the paste was very expensive, and yet had to be used for the supports, which could only be used once. All ware requiring such precautions must necessarily be very costly. The packing of kilns, gloss-ovens, orseggars, and the piling into bungs of the latter, is of the greatest importance in all cases, as, if there is any defect in the work, the whole batch may be spoiled. Skilful and experienced workmen are required, and the man who is a good placer, that is, who can pack seggars very full with safety, is a valuable man in a pottery. CHAPTER VIII. DECORATION IN GENERAL. Decoration. — Some pottery is so beautiful and pure in form, and so delicate in texture that it seems superfluous to decorate it at all. Neverthe- less, after being made into forms more or less good, pottery generally is decorated. The decoration may be effected by applying plain or colored ornaments in relief, or by stamping, inlaying, or incising, and may be either glazed or unglazed. These methods have been used by nearly all nations, and from the earliest times. Man is so fond of color that he uses it on almost everything, and to the operation of this general law pottery is no exception. Even among savage races, the effort is made to add to the value of the vessel by ornamenting it with colored sub- stances. When actual colors are not used, light and dark tints or shades are employed, so as to give play and variety to the surface. Pottery may be decorated by colors mixed with oil or varnish, but this is not true keramic decora- tion, and would be utterly destroyed by a very low 72 Decoration in General. 73 (degree of heat, and also by many oils, acids and other agents. The colors or paints used in decorating pottery are especially prepared, and are practically indes- tructible. The fact that all such colors must be able to bear a high temperature, effectually ex- cludes all animal and vegetable pigments, and only allows the use of metals or of colors derived from them. (For list see Chap. III., page 34-) These are generally spoken of simply as the Oxides of the various metals. The oxides are sometimes mixed with the paste of fine ware, such as porcelain or fine stoneware.* Much pottery is colored by the pres- ence of oxides of iron in the clay. The coloring matter is also combined with earthy or with glassy • materials. In all cases it is necessary that the colors used, whether incorporated with the paste, or laid on the surface, should, when baked, remain un- changed in hue, or else should change in a manner definite and predetermined. Also, that when ap- plied on the surface, they should adhere firmly to the body of the ware, and that when applied on the glaze they should in most cases be as glossy as the glaze. Engobe or When colors are mixed with earthy matters this name is given to them. Some slips, such as the ochres, are natural mixtures, and require little preparation. In others the color is mixed with a white clay. The same name is given to a coating of white clay laid over coarse or colored * See notes 5, 7, 8, Appendix B. 74 Ke ramies. pastes to conceal them, and to give a good surface for decoration, and sometimes in order to econo- mize the tin-glaze, which is not a slip, but an en- amel glaze (see majolica). Slips of various colors can be used on the same article, and a slip can be either glazed or left unglazed. Slips or engobes, generally without a glaze over them, have been used at all times, and on almost all potteries; at present, however, owing to the great improvements in the texture and whiteness of pastes, they are not needed to hide the color of the paste of fine pot- teries. Much of the Wedgwood ware has a colored slip laid over a white body. This is oftener seen in later specimens of the ware, as the earlier ones are almost invariably of one color throughout the paste. The term slip (diluted paste) can also be used to designate all applications of clays or pastes to the body of the ware, such, for example, as the m^thode Laurin, and pate-sur-pate — Methode Laurin — peinture emaillce (lit. glazed painting), Limoges Style. (For origin see Chap. X., mezza majolica.) In this the decoration is done by means of coloring matter* mixed with thin paste. This gives a good body to the paints, so that they can be used with bristle brushes, and the painting, is done much as in oil painting. Slip-painting would seem to be a good English name for this method and its various modifications, the terms • Which may be either with or without a fiux. D. cor at ion in General. 75 enamelled oil-painting, or even glazed painting, giving a false impression to the student. This method seems capable of great development, and new applications are made of it every day, the resources it offers to the decorator being very great. The slip can be made thick enough to be actually modelled with the brush, fingers, or tools. It can also be etched upon, scraped, stamped, and other- wise manipulated. Slip paints and body must cor- respond exactly in composition, particularly when, as at Limoges, the paints are used on the unbaked or green ware, and consequently the risk of crack- ing is very great. The number of colors available naturally corresponds to the degree of heat required in baking. A soft flint glass, or, as it is often called, an alkaline glaze, is usually put over the whole, said at Limoges to be the same as that used on old Sevres.* This was : litharge, 38; sand, 27; calcined flints, 11; carbonate of potash, 15; carbonate of soda, 9; which bakes at about 1000° Cent., 1832° F., or a pretty fair red heat. This glaze softens at 600° to 700° Cent. Another glaze is sand, 34; minium (lead), 56; borax, 8; nitre, 2; and is harder than the preceding. The transparent glaze in all cases gives great beauty and richness to the colors. The composition of both slip colors and glazes differs in the different potteries, and there is generally great secrecy preserved in regard to it. Much the same style of decoration is used on baked or biscuit ware, but the results are not always so fine. * See note 7, Appendix B, 76 Keramics. In this country people generally speak of all slip- painting as Limoges style, or decoration, although the style as now used at Limoges really originated at Bourg-la-Reine (See Chap. X.). The best work of this kind is done in France by good artists, and the colors, no matter how much fused or run together by the baking or glazing, must be harmonious. Many people seem to imagine that the beauty of such work consists of the jumbling up of a mass of color without any sense in it. On the contrary, in the best work the painting is done with the greatest nicety, with especial reference to the after effect de- sired. Much poor work is sent over here and sold at large prices. Attempts that, it is to be hoped, will be successful, are being made to introduce this or analogous methods of decoration in several places in this country. (See Chap. XVI.) Pdte-Sur-Pdte (lit, pasfe on paste) is the name by which slip painting on porcelain is best known in this country. Crti-sicr-cru and pates d' application dxt other French names for this, which has no distinc- tive English name. At Sevres, about 1847, M. Rio- creux was struck by the decoration on a Chinese porcelain vase. This was decorated with raised ornaments in translucent paste. He showed it to M. Ebelmen, the chemist, who discovered a method for its reproduction. M. Robert, director at Sevres, hao still further improved on this process, and most beautiful work is done, in both hard and soft por- celain. In most cases, in hard porcelain, the ground Decoration in General. 77 alone is colored and the figures or ornaments are in very translucent white, but sometimes both are colored. Only a very few colors are available, on account of the high degree of heat required in firing. The effects caused by the translucent paste are won- derfully beautiful. In soft porcelain the range of color is naturally much greater. This method has been transmitted to the English by M. Solon Miles. M. Solon had some work at our Centennial Exhibi- tion, in which the decoration, consisting for the most part of floating figures modelled or rather painted in thin, white, highly-fluxed paste or slip on the colored body gave rise to very delicate aerial effects. All work of this nature, when it comes directly from the artist's hands, must always be very precious. The other method of applying color to the sur- face of pottery is by mixing it with a transparent glass or flux; which may be either natural or arti- ficial, and when baked melts and firmly fastens the color to the ware. The principal ingredients for fluxes used either singly or mixed, are very much the same as those for glazes, and are quartz, feldspar, borax, nitre, the carbonates of potash and of soda, minium, litharge and the oxide of bismuth, making a glass which should be more or less fusible accord- ing to the fusibility of the color, and of the surface to which it is to be applied. As the pigments used vary in their chemical nature and combinations, the adjustment of the proper flux to its color is a matter 78 Keramics. of great delicacy, and requires knowledge, skill and experience. In many cases it is impossible to tell why a flux made with a particular sand or feldspar should be better than one made with materials apparently chemically identical, but so it is. For clearness and convenience we will call all colors so prepared fluxed paints. Fluxed Paints may be subdivided into Enam- els and Vitrifiable Paints. This distinction is not generally observed in speaking of them, the terms being used indiscriminately; and although the distinction may not be of much practical value, it is well to bear it in mind, as the differences between certain styles of decoration are then more easily un- derstood. The term fluxed paint covers both classes, and will be so used here. Enamels. — These differ from the vitrifiable colors, properly so-called, in that the coloring matter maybe said to be dissolved'm the glass (in this case a true flux), not mixed with it; and chemically speaking, enamels are silicates, borosil-icates, or phosphosilicates, col- ored by oxides in solution. Only a small portion of coloring matter can be dissolved in this way, and in transparent enamels or glasses depth of color can only be obtained by the thickness of the enamel, which is generally, when used as a paint, percepti- bly raised above the surface of the ware. Colored glazes and most of the colors called gloss-oven or iinderglaze (Fr., couleurs de grand feu), are enam- Decoration ifi General. 79 els. Enamels may either first be prepared with the color and placed on the pottery, or else the ingre- dients for the enamel may be placed on it, and in melting combine together. The lower the tem- perature at which the pottery bakes, the greater the variety of colors that can be employed, and the more fusible the enamel, those used on coarse earthenwares being very fusible. The beautiful ground colors used in Sevres and other soft por- celains are enamels, and in many cases are placed over a colored slip, giving effects of color unat- tainable by any other method. When the enamel used as a ground color is hard enough, other more fusible decorations in color or metal can be placed on it. In painting on the glaze, enamels can only be used under cetain conditions, else they will crack off. Enamels may be more or less transparent, or they may be rendered entirely opaque by the addi- tion of very carefully prepared phosphate of lime, or by the oxides of tin or of antimony. (The enamel used on metal is the same as the above, and such enamel is now used in Europe in various methods of decorating pottery, and has always been used in China.) * Vitrifiable Paints. — When the coloring matter is mixed with the flux, instead of being chemically dissolved in it, we have true vitrifiable paints of which most of the colors used in painting on the * Annales de Chimie et de Physique (3) XXXI. 257, and XXXV. 312. 8o Keramics. glaze of hard porcelain are a good example. In these the flux melts and envelops the coloring mat- ter, and fastens or glues it firmly to the ware. Such paints must possess the following qualifications : i. They must melt at a certain known temperature without changing ; consequently, any volatile or organic pigment is absolutely excluded. 2. They must adhere firmly to the body on which they are applied ; and in order to be sure of this it is neces- sary to know the chemical nature of the body, so as to judge of its influence on the color. 3. They must, as a rule, be glossy after they are fired ; an excep- tion to this is in the case of flat or unglazed colors. 4. They must not be liable to injury from Avater, from damp or dry air, or from gases in the atmos- phere. 5. They must dilate or contract in the same proportion as the surfaces on which they are applied. As a rule also, the tone or shade of the color after firing, should as nearly as possible be the same as before firing ; and in many cases the colors must be so composed that they can be mixed together with- out destroying each other. These rules also apply to enamels when used in painting. All fluxed paints are generally more fusible than the surface on which they are applied. Sometimes, as in the case of those used in painting on the glaze of hard porcelain, the difference is very great, and the paint, melting at a low temperature, while the glaze remains hard, will always have distinct and rather hard outlines, and if not well compounded may crack or even scale off. Decoration in General. 8i With a more fusible glaze, such as that of soft porce- lain, and some fine earthenwares (faiences), which softens enough to allow the paint to sink a little into it, the effect is much more rich, and paint and glaze are so thoroughly incorporated that there is no dan- ger of scaling. In some cases, as in majolica, color and glaze melt and mingle together, giving great richness and softness of effect. The substances generally used for fluxes have already been named. In a work like this it would be impossible, and, in- deed, useless to give recipes for the making of colors and fluxes, which vary slightly with each maker. As an example, however, it may be interesting to know that at Sevres the flux for greys {fondant aux gris) used in overglaze porcelain painting, and which is also used for blacks, reds, blues, and yellows, is com- posed of six parts of minium (red-lead) to two of quartz sand, and one of borax. A German flux used in much the same way is 60 minium, 15 silica, 25 boracic acid (cryst). Both flux and coloring oxides, with the greatest care, are ground to an impal- pable power ; on the fineness of which depends to a great extent, the brilliancy of hue, and glossiness of surface. They are then mixed in proportions aver- aging three parts of flux to two of color, but these proportions vary according to the hue or shade de- sired, and also according to the Avare on which the paint is to be used. In some cases — such as the copper greens and cobalt blues, when in order to develop the full tone of the color it has to be sub- G 82 Ker amies. jected to a greater heat than when used as a paint- color and flux are melted together first, then cooled and ground to a fine powder. It is as a fine powder that fluxed paints are usually put in the market. In order to use them, they may be mixed with water, gum-water, honey, or any like liquid ; more generally with turpentine, both in its liquid or thin state, and in the thick and sticky state, caused by exposure to the air, technically called fat, or fat oil. Oil of lavender can also be used fat and thin, and presents many advantages, but is expensive. Other essential oils are used either alone or added to the above, almost every decorator having recipes of his own. The great attention given by eminent chemists in France, Germany, and elsewhere to the manufacture of fluxed paints of late years has enriched the palette of the European decorator by the addition of many Taew and beautiful colors. Pottery paints of all kinds are divided into three classes, according to their power of resisting heat, as — 1. Underglaze — hard — high — refractory or Gloss-Oven Colors (Fr. couleurs de grand feu). 2. Hard Kiln— or medium heat (Fr. couleurs de demi-grand feu, or de mouffle dures). 3. Regular Kiln— ^f// or ordinary muffle heat (Fr couleurs de mouffle ordinaires). Underglaze Colors. — This term, as the equiva- lent of the French name, is not perfectly satisfactory, as much decoration is done in the glaze, or by means Decoration in General. 83 of colored glazes, but is the expression generally employed. Gloss (glaze) oven seems a better ex- pression, as the above names are given to all colors that bake at the same temperature, and at the same time as the glaze of the ware on which they are used, and consequently are baked in the potter's kiln. All colors that can bear the temperature ne- cessary to bake the glazes on the different wares being classed as gloss-oven^ or in many books as underglaze colors for those wares. As colors are often used on the biscuit, and the glaze put over them, underglaze paints would seem to make a good subordinate division of Gloss-oven Colors. Most gloss-oven colors are enamels, not vitrifiable paints. This distinction is, as a rule, not observed in speaking of them. Gloss-oven colors require a special preparation for each kind of ware, so that they shall not be injured by any of the ingredients used in the paste or the glaze. The slip or engobe painting before described is naturally done with gloss-oven colors. The higher the temperature, the fewer the colors. In the case of hard porcelain or stoneware with feldspar or salt glazes, the colors must undergo the most intense heat used in pottery baking; conse- quently the list of colors for these wares is small, and no explicit direction need be given for their use, as they can only be fired in the kiln used for baking the wares. Gloss-oven colors for hard porcelain are, 84 Keramics. in Europe, generally fluxed with feldspar, and are generally used on slightly baked or easy biscuit por- celain, which is porous and absorbent. When so used a thin layer of varnish or gum is first put on, and then the painting done on this, blue being the color most used; the varnish is then burned away by baking at a moderate heat, after which the por- celain is glazed and has its final baking. In China the paint is used on the unbaked or green body. (See Chap. XIV.) Formerly in Europe porcelain gloss-oven colors were but little used except as grounding colors, in which case the color was simply mixed with the glaze. Of late years much attention is given to painting in underglaze colors on porcelain, and magnificent results are obtained, most of the potteries keeping their methods secret. The feldspar glaze of hard porcelain is never perfectly clear, and this gives great softness to the colors. Soft porcelain has a larger range of colors, owing to the less degree of heat required, and for wares and glazes baking at still lower temperatures, the list is much larger. In some cases (tin-glazed earthenwares and some fine earthenwares) the painting is done on the un- baked glaze {Fr. sur cru), which is much like dried flour and water; very absorbent and easily rubbed off. No corrections can be made, but in the hands of a good artist beautiful effects can be obtained, color and glaze melting together in the baking and becoming thoroughly incorporated. Sometimes the Decoration in General. 85 painting, particularly on tin-glazed earthenware, is done on the baked glaze, and color and glaze are then melted together. This is much easier to do than the first method, but the effect is not nearly so fine. Sometimes the ware is glazed, and then painted, and afterwards glazed again, so that the color is between two sheets of glazing. Gloss-oven colors are used on the biscuit of fine earthenwares, and are then spoken of as Underglaze colors. (For details see Chap. XVI.) Much decoration is also printed or stamped under the glaze. The methods used in printing on pottery do not essentially differ from those used in printing on paper, being ef- fected by transfer papers from engraved copper plates. Sheets of gelatine, or of glue, are also used, this being the more common method. Various new methods are continually invented, a sort of photo- gravure being also used. Printing Underglaze is much used in earthenwares, porcelain being printed overglaze often only in outline, which is then filled up by hand. A species of chromo-lithography has successfully been transferred to porcelain in gloss- oven colors, but it is a question if this can be re- garded as much of an acquisition. The finest work is always done by hand. Printing on pottery was invented by Dr. Wall, of Worcester. After decorating, if turpentines or oils of any kind have been used, the ware undergoes a preliminary baking, before the glaze is put on. This is called Jiardening on^ and requires at least red heat. The 86 Keramics. glaze is then put on over the painted or printed dec- oration (generally by a dip), and hides them en- tirely until it is baked, when it melts into a more or less clear glass. All the above methods of using the gloss-oven colors, except perhaps the painting on the biscuit of fine earthenware, require skill and es- pecial training, and should not be attempted by amateurs. These colors of which we have been speaking may be considered as the Potter's Hard Colors. Decorators when speaking of high or hard fire colors mean those of the second class, gener- ally known as Hard-Kiln, or medium heat colors, and sometimes as hard or high muflfie colors. These and those of the third class, the regular or ordinary kiln colors, are applied on the baked glaze, never under it, and the two kinds differ very little in com- position, the principal difference being that the hard- kiln colors have less flux than the regular kiln colors, and consequently can bear a much greater degree of heat. A background of these colors, therefore, can be treated almost as the glaze itself in regard to the regular colors, which can be used on it with impunity. A certain kind of gilding can also be used. The late Fran9ois Richard, of Sevres, invented a method of using hard-kiln colors on hard porcelain which is called after him {Mdthode F. Richard), and for which he received numerous medals. The mechanism of this method consists in making a sort of trinity of fusibility for all the principal colors, such as red, yellow, green, etc., each color being Decoration in General. 87 made up by the chemist into little packets marked D {dur^ for the hardest, O for the ordinary fusibility, and T {tendre) for the softest colors of all. The painter is guided by this classification in the choice and use of the colors which, properly mixed or else combined by placing one over the other, give, after a baking special to this kind of work, effects equal to the finest soft paste porcelain decoration. In the use of the iron colors the artist has an advantage over the worker on soft paste, where they cannot be used. The firing of paintings done in this style re- quires great knowledge and experience. The glaze of the porcelain is not fused, although such is the effect produced. Some very beautiful pieces painted in this style excited great admiration at the exhibi- tion that has just closed in Paris. The colors of the third class, called Regular, or Ordinary Kiln Colors, and sometimes soft muffle colors, are those sold in tubes, or in powder for paint- ing on the glaze of porcelain or of fine earthenware, and are variously called in the shops enamel colors, mineral paints, porcelain paints, etc. It may be noted that Lacroix, who makes the tube colors so much used here, calls them " couleurs vitrifiables" which in the catalogues and on his boxes is trans- lated enamel colors. Both regular and hard-kiln colors are nearly all true vitrifiable paints, not enamels. The degree of heat required for the regular colors being only cherry-red heat, or less, the number of 88 Keramtcs. them is very great. When used on tin-glazed earth- enware they are called couleurs de riverbere, and differ slightly in preparation. All the great keramists, and indeed many good decorators, have methods of varying their colors and the effects derived from them, both over and underglaze. Most of these methods are kept secret, some have been discovered by accident, some by persistent endeavor. It is possible for the decorator to fire or fuse some of the softer glazes in his oven, or muffle, but such work would require knowledge, care, and experience. Much of the beauty of a painting on porcelain depends on the way in which it is baked ; the more delicate the painting the more care is required. The term Muffle Colors is sometimes given to the regular kiln paints, because they are baked in a small oven or kiln called a Muffle ; fire-clay boxes, with fire underneath, or at the side, and with flues so ar- ranged that the heat circulates around the box and heats it as evenly as possible. It is essential that neither the fire nor any vapors from it nmst be able to get access to the painted ware, as the colors would be damaged, particularly by sulphur, which blackens them. These fireclay boxes, or muffles, may either be all in one piece, as is the case with very small ones, or be built up to a large size. The top is generally arched, and the muffles are generally longer than they are high. There is a door in front, and a hole is left with a fireclay tube in it through which a long wire can be introduced with a bit of Decoration in General. 89 porcelain having the test color on it. There are also generally holes for the escape of noxious vapors from the paints, or rather from the oils, etc., with which the paints are mixed. The placing or filling the mufifle requires great care, as the pieces must be so arranged as not to injure each other. Paintings, particularly if delicate, should never be baked in the muffle with much gilding, as this latter is apt to injure the colors. Old muffles are always the best; indeed, a new muffle should never be used until it has been brought to red heat two or three times^ so as to drive out every particle of moisture, or else the colors will be injured very much. As long as a muffle will hold together and keep the smoke out it is used, the broken parts being held together by wire, and the holes or cracks stopped with clay. The pieces to be baked, and the muffle itself, should be heated while this latter is being packed. The placing requires very great care. It is impor- tant to fill the muffle as full as possible, and it is difficult to do so without either letting the pieces rest too much one on the other, or else placing them so that the circulation of the heat is interfered with. All kinds of little props and supports are used. There is always danger of a little dust in the best muffles, and plates and other flat pieces should be arranged with great care so as to avoid this. Very fine paintings should have a cover arranged over them. Sometimes pieces of fireclay or other ma- terials are arranged to shelter the pieces to be 90 Keramics. baked from the heat from the sides of the muffle, where it is always most intense; but in regard to such arrangement no rules can be given. In this country very delicate precautions seldom if ever are used, as few of the firers have any idea of the use or necessity of any such precautions; and, indeed, to tell the truth, they are not necessary for most of the work done. After the muffle is properly filled, all cracks are stopped up with clay, and this should be very thoroughly done, particularly towards the bottom. The fire should be clear, with no smoke, and the heat should be so arranged as to heat the ware slowly at first, and then very rapidly at the end; this is very importajit, for if the heat is about the same all the time, the colors will not glaze well. Decorators judge of the degree of heat either by the color of the fire, or the color of the ware, but this can only be done by a man having a long ex- perience in the matter. More generally "tests" are used: small pieces of ware, painted with a brush- mark of color, almost always carmine, and having a wire twisted round them by which they can be easily hooked out ; they are placed in different parts of the muffle and are brought out and ex- amined from time to time.* The annexed table of the principal temperatures may be useful * See note 9, Appendix B. Keramics. 91 o 31 S 5 o* 11 5 * CfQ ^ tT *n i-r rt 2 E= p 0.0 " O <» 5-S (? ■ ■ S"™ 3- cT* ^ era ^3 Wb3 5-3 w 2 •a 3 p O 3-1 2 o. 92 Keramics. Paintings on porcelain often require three or even more firings; and, as these should be very carefully graded for fine work, it is impossible to have them done properly except by a firer of experience. In this country it is better to prepare the work, if pos- sible, for only one, or at the most two, firings, figure- subjects, on account of the delicate iron-reds em- ployed, should have their first firing at a lower tem- perature than that for flowers, and the second should be at a still lower temperature, or else the flesh reds either lose their freshness, or entirely disappear. For ordinary decorations such precautions are not neces- sary. The baking usually lasts from three to four hours, and the muffle should be allowed to cool very gradu- ally. When taken out, the pieces should never be placed on marble, stone, or any other cold substance, but on wood, as any sudden change of temperature is apt to cause them to crack. A current of cold air will be apt to have the same effect. It is better to have the paintings thoroughly dry before they are put in the muffle. Paintings on the glaze of earthenwaris are treated in much the same way. Those on soft por- celain (fritted paste) admit of more firings, sometimes as many as five or six, which must be conducted with the greatest care, by a very experienced firer, 700° Cent, being the greatest heat allowed. See table. Coarse potteries are sometimes decorated by drop- ping paint or slip on them while very moist, and so Decoration in General. 93 obtaining peculiar tree-like forms and mottled effects. The slip is generally very liquid, and is put on by a thing looking very like a tea-pot, which process is called moco-ing. Pottery is also decorated by metals in their natural states, used either in gilding or as lustres. Gilding. — Gold, platina, silver, and occasionally copper, are used for this purpose, being either finely pulverized, or else dissolved in acid, and then pre^ cipitated. * In either case, the powder thus obtained is mixed with its flux, oxide of bismuth, and used as a paint over the glaze. When fired it is dull, and has to be burnished. At the French Exhibition of 1878, there were some remarkable decorations in a sort of transparent gilding, in golds of different colors on colored backgrounds. The pattern in this is first put on with oxide of aluminium, and then the gold put over it. Underglaze gold backgrounds of a peculiarly magnificent effect were shown by Deck, and also underglaze patterns in gold by Parvillee. The glaze in these two last must, of course, melt at a lower point than the melting point of gold. Lustres are films of metal so thin that they often become iridescent. For gold lustre the metal is dissolved, precipitated, and mixed with turpentine without any flux. It is applied with a brush over the glaze. When fired it shines with a bright me- tallic lustre, but does not wear well. Platina lustre is nearly the same, only giving the silvery shine pecu- liar to that metal. Silver is not much used, as it is * See note 10, Appendix B. 94 Keramics. apt to blacken. Other lustres are the Burgos, or Burgau, or mother o' pearl lustre, made from sulphur, gold and potash. The copper lustre on Moorish wares, and on some majolicas, is much the same in appearance, only rather more purple. It has been reproduced successfully of late, as have also the magnificent ruby and other lustres formerly used. The Cantharis, or cantharides lustre was very bril- liant, but is now seldom made, owing to the diffi- culty of its manufacture. It was made from lead- glaze, bismuth and silver, and the difficult part of the process was the exposing of the hot ware to the smoke of burning animal and vegetable substances giving green, reddish, yellow, and blue tints. A common ware, made principally in Germany, has a lead-lustre, yellow, blue and green. Very beautiful iridescent or firework lustres, for both glass and por- celain, are now made, and the iridescent effect can be produced on or in different colors. The processes are too long and too complicated to be described here. Jules Brianchon, of Paris, is particularly noted for these. A porcelain from Belleek, Ireland, has a very pretty silvery, or pearly iridescent lustre. Very beautiful effects are produced by Etching on the Glaze; done either with hydrofluoric acid ^which is also used to remove desperate errors in porcelain painting), or else with a wheel such as is used by engravers on glass. The Wedgwoods do par- ticularly fine work with the acid, producing very delicate and beautiful effects peculiar to themselves. Decoration in General* 95 Hmaux OmbrantS. — This name is given to wares in which the pattern is impressed or hollowed out so that the deepest hollows represent the darkest shades, while the lightest parts are in high relief. The whole design is then filled up evenly with a trans- parent colored glaze, which being thicker in the hol- lows is naturally darker there, while the reliefs hav- ing only a thin coat of glaze on them are much lighter in tone. When well done the effect is soft and pretty. Lithophanie. — Brongniart gives this name to the porcelain biscuit transparencies so often seen as lamp-shades, etc. In these the pattern is so arranged that the dark parts are the thickest and the light the thinnest, thus being exactly the opposite of the emaux ombrants. They are made of a very translu- cent biscuit, and when the light is behind them, the thickest parts intercept it, and so form the shadows, while the thin, allowing the light to pass through, form the high lights of the design. PART III. DESCRIPTION OF WARES. CHAPTER IX. CLASSIFICATION. To M. Brongniart's classification, which regards as primarily essential the characteristics derived from the paste, and as secondary those derived from the glaze, there are a good many objections. These are obvia- ted in the following table by Salvetat. In Brong- niart's table moderately soft potteries, such is some ball clays, have to be classed among hard potteries. Stonewares, too, have all kinds of glazes, which should not be confounded in one and the smie or- der. There seems to be no place for new products; such, for example, as lead-glazed porcelains, parian, feldspar pastes, etc. M. Salvetat makes two grand divisions, one, unglazed or simple pottery, the other glazed or composite pottery. Each of these classes is subdivided into opaque and translucent. All Trans- lucent potteries have certain common characteris- tics, inasmuch as they are always very hard, md are, almost always perfectly white. On the contrary,* Opaque potteries present very considerable differ- ences. The color varies very much; some are soft; some are hard, and some are very hard; thise last 98 Classification. 99 forming the grade between soft pottery and translu- cent pottery. In some cases the difference between potteries is only one of temperature, so that one and the same composition of paste may at different de- grees of heat present the characteristics of all the different potteries. The paste of Hard Porcelain, when very slightly baked {faible degourdi) is soft, when more baked {tres fort degourdi) it is like some earthenware, a hard pottery; when the tem^ perature is just below that necessary to soften peg' matite, it is stoneware; and, finally, at a temperature of 1500° to 1600° Cent, (blue-white heat), it is Porcelain, the hardest pottery of all. Moreover, very different ingredients, such as those used for hard and for soft porcelains, may result in biscuits very much alike in appearance. In order accurately to classify these, it is necessary to have qualifying the hardness of the paste, and genera, to which the principal or necessary ingredient of the paste gives its name. The first class stops here, as it only refers to biscuits or unglazed wares. Per- sons unwilling to study these tables, should read carefully what is said about composite pottery and glazes. In the second class, Composite or Glazed pottery, each genus, that is each kind of paste, has five or more species, according to the composition of the glaze. New species can be added when re- quired. Some of the examples given of glazes have only been experiments that have not had any com'* mercial success. 100 Keramics. It will be noticed that this table is very elastic, allowing the admittance of new genera and species as needed, and naming each genus and species ac- cording to its distinguishing characteristic. It also coincides well with the usual division of pottery into earthenware, stoneware, and porcelain; and the ex- pressions coarse and fine can, when needed, retain their place as characterizing the preparation of the paste. When for any reason it is necessary exactly to identify any particular ware, it is very easy to do so. Majolica, for example, is coarse lime-body, tin- glazed earthenware. To characterize a ware often confounded with this, we simply change the name of the glaze to "colored lead-glazed." Iron paste, salt- glazed stoneware, with the prefix fine or coarse, de- scribes kitchen ware, or else some of the fine orna- mental ware made in England, another variety of which would be feldspar-body, borax-glazed. When necessary, bone phosphate body, borax-glazed por- celain is easily distinguished from either feldspar body, feldspar-glazed, or fritted body, lead-alkali- glazed porcelain. Certain Eastern wares are coarse sand body, lime-glass-glazed earthenware. Flint- body, lead-glazed earthenware describes the old c. c. ware; and if great exactness should be needed, /^•/^i'/'^zr-flint-body, borax-glazed, would describe the ware oddly called opaque porcelain. Semi-porce- lain is a term that might perhaps be used instead of fine earthenware in speaking of the wares intermedi- ate between opaque and translucent ware, when such Classification^ lOi wares are slightly translucent. Such questions settle themselves in practice, but with our convenient lan- guage we have no excuse for ambiguity in such matters. Glazes are made either with or without lead. Both borax and tin glazes have a little lead in them, but are never classed as lead-glazes. Glazes in gen- eral can be classed under the following heads, which, when necessary, can be sub-divided as needed. (The list of bodies and glazes — genera and species — could be made much larger and fuller than that given here, but would take up too much room, while it would only be of use to the manufacturer or dealer). I. Lead-Glaze. — This includes a large number of glazes, from the unwholesome glaze, with a very large proportion of lead, used on some very coarse pot- teries, to the glaze of old Sevres, and the first Wedg- wood ware. This last has nearly the same composition as the well-known intensely brilliant flint-glass or crystal (potash-lead-siHcate). The ttrn\ flint should not be understood as meaning hard, for this is really a soft and fusible glass : the silica for it was formerly obtained from flints, whence the name. Flint-glass, with still more lead, isstrass, the composition used in making artificial gems. The name Alkaline-Glaze is often given to lead-glass, or flint-glass glaze, but is hardly distinctive enough. If used, it would be better to add the prefix lead— all glazes being more or less alkaline. Zinc, thallium, and other metals will make a very brilliant glass. 102 Keramics. Boracic Glaze.— Much the same in composition as flint-glass glaze, only with borax, or boric-acid added, which greatly increases the hardness and the brilliancy. Boric-acid is touch used now in glazes, instead of borax. , Tin-Glaze.— This may be considered a lead- glaze, made opaque and white by the addition of oxide of tin, which also renders it harder and less fusible. Silica-Alkali.— The salt-glaze used on stone- wares is the principal glaze of this nature. It is a soda-glass. The lustre on some ancient potteries would come in here, as analysis proves it a potash- glass. Earth-Alkali.— This includes feldspar and other natural glazes, besides artificial ones that might be classed as lime-glass-glazes. Feldspar may be con- sidered as a natural glass, rendered very tough and strong by the alumina in it. Lime, sand (silica), and other ingredients are added to feldspar as needed. At Sevres a rock (pegmatite) consisting of a natural mixture of quartz (silica) and feldspar is used with- out any addition. In China a petro-silex (uncrystal- ized or compact feldspar), mixed with pure lime is used. A very thin transparent glaze is often called a lustre. Kcramics. 105 CLASS II.— Glazed or Composite Pottery ORDER I.— Opaque Body. Sub-order i. — Soft Body. Genera. Bodies. Lead-glaze (Plombiftre.) 2. Boracic-glazed. (Boracique.) Tin-glaze (Stanniftre.) Silica-alkali (Silico-alcaline.) Earth alkali. (Alcalino terreuse.) 1. Lead-glaze . . . 2. Boracic-glaze . Species. Glazes. Examples and Notes. 3. Tin-glaze . . . 4. Silica-alkali . 5. Earth alkali. 1. Lead-glaze ... 2. Boracic-glaze. 3. Tin-glaze No. 5. Lime body. (At least 10 per cent, of lime.) Silica-alkali Earth-alkal I. Lead-glaze . . . 3. Boracic-glaze. 3. Tin-glaze 4. Silica-alkali \ 5. Earth-alkali \ Also called plumbiferous, plum- beous, alkaline. Also called stanniferous.' Salt-glaze or saline-glaze. Lead glazed bricks — coarse earth- enwares. Coarse earthenwares. Some Per- sian potteries in which tincal is used. Arabian and Persian earthen- wares. Some of these, with sufficient heat, make porcelain. Small Egyptian figures, also many lustrous Roman potteries with iron in glaze. Some Arabian potteries, and some modern potteries with lime-glass glazes. Coarse glazed earthenwares. Coarse glazed earthenware. Much of this is of very good quality. Tiles for stoves and some decora- tive work. Not so good for this glaze as lime-body. Nearly all the fine ancient Roman and Greek potteries belong to 4 and s and have a very thin glaze or lustre that sometimes seems potash and silica (the silica very likely from the body of the ware), or else a glaze with a little lime or even iron, never any lead. Coarse glazed earthenwares. The glaze is often colored. Common crockery, etc. The paste has often to be modified for this glaze. Earthenwares. Persian, Delft- ware, Majolica, ancient and modern. These glazes do not answer on this body unless it is modified. ro6 Ker amies. CLASS II. — Glazed or Composite Pottery. ORDER I.— Opaque Body. Sub-order a.— Hard body. Sub-order ^—^ery hard boiy. Genera. Bodies. Species. Glazes. E^camples and Notes. (No. I. Charcoal paste, is never glazed.) No. 2. Ball-clay body. Sub-order 2. — Hard body. [. Lead-glaze Boracic-glaze, Tin-glaze Silica-alkali. Earth-alkali.. Faience d'Oiron. Some Palissy ware. This was the first fine earthenware, and hac sand, not flint, in it. Decorative potteries. Ware made by Regal and Sanejouand. Some Palissy ware. Palissy used but little tin in his glaze. Tiles, bricks, etc., with either lime-glass glaze, or glazes from slag, basalt, etc. Sub-order 3. — Very hard body. ' I. Lead-glaze 2. Boracic-glaze . 3- Tin-glaze 4- Silica-alkali. . . 5- Earth-alkali... 'i. Lead -glaze 2. Boracic-glaze. . 3- 4- Silica-alkali. . . 5. Earth-alkali.. 1. Lead-glaze... 2. Boracic-glaze. 3. Tin-glaze 4. Silica-alkali.., 5. Earth-alkali... Original Wedgwood creim-col- ored ware. Fine earthenwares, modern c. c. ware, granite-ware, etc. Fine Lundville earthenware. Decorative wares. Some Elers ware, glazed by vola- tilization. Some fine modern wares, with lime-glass glaze. Decorative stonewares in Eu- rope. Some coarse stonewares. Good domestic stonewares,which often have baryta in the glaze. Chinese and Japanese stone- wares. Nearly all coarse stonewares. Some Doulton ware, salt- glazed. Stonewares, glazed with slag. Mostly decorative stoneware, glazed by volatilization. English stonewares. Chinese stonewares. These are almost porcelains. Fine stonewares. Doulton ware, salt-glaze. Fine stonewares. Sometimes a good deal of lime is used. Keramics. 107 CLASS II.— Glazed or Composite Pottsry. ORDER II.— Translucent Body. No Sub-orders. — Very hard body. Genera. Bodies, No. I. Kaolin body. Species. Glazes. I. Lead-glaze . 2. Boracic-glaze. 3. Tin-glaze. . . . 4. Silica-alkali . 5. Earth-alkali. I. Lead-glaze (Flint-glass glaze.) Boracic-glaze 3. Tin-glaze. 4. Silico-.alkali EartTi-alkali...... 1. Lead-glaze (Flint-glass glaze.) 2, Boracic-^laze 3. Tin -glaze. 4. SilicD-alkali . 5. £arth-alkali. I. Xead-^laze . . a. Horacic-glaze . 3. Tin-glaze. 4. Silico-alkali. 5. Earth-alkali.. 1. Xicad -glaze ... 2. Boracic-glaze. 3. Tin-glaze 4. Silico-alkali . . 5. Earth-alkali. Earth-alkali ... Examples and Notes. Some decorative porcelains. Some Chinese porcelains — (if they belong to this genus). Sfevreshard porcelain in imitation of Palissy ware. Some fine dec- orative porcelains. Some decorative wares, also some Chinese porcelains. The salt glaze does not answer well on porcelain. Sfevres, Dresden, American hard porcelain. Feldspar or lime- glaze-. Old English porcelains — now generally have borax glaze. English porcelains. This may be applied by volatiH» zation. Lime-glass glaze. Very hard. Old Slvres porcelain. Limoges porcelain. Much modern porcelain, gen- erally household ware. Chantilly porcelain was covered with a tin glaze to 'tide the colored paste. Some Persian porcelains are glazed with sand and the alkali from the ashes of a plant. Parian. This is very like bone- phosphate porcelain. Parian made into all sorts of arti- cleSv decorative and useful. Some Parians have a glossy sur- face from the fused feldspar. Chinese and Japanese porcelains. It is not yet certain whether these porcelain* belong to this genus. Some tlecorative work. ' ■ Some Chinese porcelains. Porcelain buttons. Some are made of pure feldspar, others of feldspar ^nd bone phosphate. Chinese porcelains are glazed with a petro-silex mixed with more or less lime. Nymphenburg porcelain. Earth-«Ikali Spanish and Piedmonte.se porce- J lains. CHAPTER X. SOFT POTTERY. PASTE OPAQUE, POROUS, AND MORE OR LESS COLORED, Soft Pottery may be divided into essentially soft and accidentally soft, the former being made of clays which from their constitution will only admit of a small degree of heat without fusing into a shapeless mass, while the latter would include all potteries that are soft from insufficient baking. Ac- cording to Brongniart's table as usually given, soft potteries are rather difficult to classify specifically; though all kinds are fully described in the course of his work. Soft pottery maybe either Glazed or Unglazed. —All primitive potteries belong to this class, and many of them were decorated by colored clays fixed to the body or to the glaze by means of a slight degree of heat. Ware of this nature has been made at all times and in all countries, even among the most barbarous tribes. Much of this primitive pottery is good in form and pleasingly decorated. Some of it is so slightly baked that all the water is not driven out Io8 Soft Pottery. 109 of the clay and the paste is very soft and friable. (See table, Chap. IV., Nos. i, 2, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9.) Others are well baked. Fired-clay is one of the most indestructible substances known, and the remains of pottery are found in good condition in the oldest and most dilapidated ruins, and also in the lake dwellings in Switzerland and elsewhere. European Pottery— Ancient— G^/aW and unglazed. Greek Pottery.— This term generally includes not only pottery made in Greece, but all potteries made under Greek influence. It now seems pretty well proved that the Greeks themselves received their knowledge from Egypt and from the East. The Greeks were excellent potters, thor- oughly understanding the composition of good paste, and also the use of the wheel and of moulds. They paid particular attention to the form of their vases, and in their finest pottery the curves have that de- lightful balance and sobriety that this nation shows in all its best art work. A number of beautiful and spirited figures or statuettes have lately been found at Tanagra, which were made in moulds and afterwards touched up by hand, particular attention being paid to the head. Little accessories, such as hats, etc., were modelled and added afterwards. Some seem to have been glazed, and many colored. There is a whole literature on the subject of Greek vases, and the different vessels are classed as follows by Dennis : no Keramics. Class I. — Vases for holding oil, wine or waer— amphora, pelice, stamnos. Class 2. — Vases for carrying water — hydria, calpis. Class 3. — Vases for mixing wine and water — crater, celebe, oxybaphon. Class 4, — Vases for pouring wine, etc. — ugs, oenochoe, olpe, prochoiis. Class 5. — For drinking cups and goblets — cartha- rus, cyathus, carchesion, holcion, cyphus, cylix, lepaste, phiale, ceras, rhyton. Class 6. — For ointment or perfumes — lecylhus, alabastron, ascus, bombylios, aryballos, cotylisos. Note — The names are often written Mix, . keras, etc. Etruscan Ware. — From the circumstance that ancient vases were first found in Etruria, the rame Etruscan was given to all vases found in Ma^na- Graecia and other colonies in Italy, Most of tiese vases are clearly of Greek manufacture, being nade by Greeks settled in Italy, and are now corrtctly called Italo-Greek. The finest Greek or Italo-G eek vases were polished or lustrous, the decorations /ery- siniple in color, but very fine in design and ex;cu- tion. The colors were principally a dull brick red, a black, and a brownish black, produced by the red body showing though the thin coat of black ova: it. The Greeks occasionally used a few slips, brght brick red, purplish red, yellow and white; and yet, with dull colors and a coarse kind of paste, Ihey Soft Pottery. Ill made some of the most beautiful pottery the world has ever seen. Some Greek vases are brightly col- ored, but these are very rare. The Greeks used terra- cotta a great deal for bas-reliefs, etc. The Etruscans proper had a style of their own, and made very large pieces of pottery, some of it very curious and of very queer shapes. They also, like many other nations, used pottery for their cof- ^ fins. Many analyses have been made of the Italo- Greek, and of Etruscan pottery, the regularity of the results in both cases showing that the potters had regular recipes to work from. In much of the ware, owing to both iron and lime being present, the paste would be too fusible to allow of much heat being used in the baking. The Romans were very good potters, but never equalled the Greeks, as regards the decorative part of the potter's art. They, however, encouraged good keramic art and obtained their best pottery from Et- ruria, Magna-Grsecia and other places. The finest Roman ware was the so-called Samian Ware of bright red color, with fine, close, rather hard paste, and thin clear glaze, generally ornamented with in- cised or relief patterns or mouldings. Terra-cotta was used for many architectural purposes. Lustrous Potteries. — Some of the Greek and Roman ware is remarkable for the fine, thin, hard transparent glaze or varnish, called a lustre, that covers it in part or entirely, the composition of which was unknown for a long time. (See table, Chap. IX.) 112 Keraniics. This lustre glaze must not be confounded with the metallic lustres used on some wares. In Roman pottery it generally covers the whole surface. In the Greek it often is used decoratively only in parts. The color varies from black to bronze, and even bright red, this latter proving the presence of iron (sulphuret). All of the above pottery may be classed as marl or sand body, and some of it is both fine and hard. The glaze is silica-alkali. (See table. Chap. IX.) All the other nations of Europe made pottery more or less good, most it being made under Roman influence, and following the same methods. America. — Very good pottery has been found in aboriginal America, and some of it seems to have a glaze analagous to the lustrous ware just described. Much ancient American pottery shows great skill in the workmen, as there are no traces at all of the use of either wheel or moulds, and many of the shapes, some of which are good, others grotesque, are very difficult to make. According to Germaine de Poligny, there is a strong resemblance between Mexican keramic art and that of the borders of the Mediterranean, so much so that he thinks it gives us reason to suppose the races are nearly allied. Asiatic and African pottery. — The Fhoenicians, Egyptians, Babylonians, and Assyrians were all good potters, particularly the last three, who understood the composition of colored glazes or enamels of fine quality. From them, through the Persians, the Soft Pottery. 113 Arabians probably derived their knowledge, which afterwards was brought to Europe either by Spain or by Majorca. The Egyptians had a peculiar fashion of glazing or enamelling soapstone (steatite), and also a very gritty, hard paste which Salvetat thinks may have been a natural sandstone {gres) and not a made paste. This last has been erroneously called porcelain — the Egyptians made no true porcelaiti. The discoveries of late years of the numerous early potteries in Cyprus, Asia Minor, and elsewhere have completely upset the old ideas of the genesis and development of Greek and other ancient pottery, and have made, particularly as re- gards the influence of nations on each other, a com- plete revolution in the history of pottery. History in general has also been aided in determining many disputed points in chronology. The whole subject is intensely interesting, but can only be glanced at here. It can be studied to a certain extent in Birch, Jacquemart, Brogniart and other writers, and to a less degree in any good general history of pottery. Prime and Young both have interesting chapters on early American pottery. — See also " The Scientific Ameri- can," for an interesting series of articles, beginning March 29th, 1879. Modern Pottery. — Common unglazed ware, as flower-pots, is made of clay compounded with sand, or with the same pottery pounded fine. The paste has but little preparation, though for the better quality of ware it is washed and ground in a mill, and I 114 Keramics. generally made on the wheel. As it does net soften in baking, and has no glaze, the pieces can be piled up in any way in the kilns. Although this pottery is made almost everywhere, it is not good for most household uses on account of its porosity; but this very quality renders it valuable in many warn coun- tries where porous vases, named alcarazzas \\ Spain, and in India called monkeys by the English, ere used to cool water by evaporation. In some countries sawdust is mixed with the clay and burned out in the baking, thus leaving the vessels very porous. Slightly baked porcelain makes an excellent alcar- azza, and has the advantage of not commuiicating to the water the clayey taste given by the earthen- ware ones. Very pretty fine pottery of this class is now made for ornamental purposes, generally ii imita- tion of Greek forms. In this the paste, vhich is usually reddish or yellowish, is carefully piepared, and being very plastic can be fashioned on the wheel, cast or modelled. The same earthenware as just described, oily with a transparent lead-glaze, is the Coarse Earthen- ware or crockery made almost everywhere. The coarsest wares of this kind, those which are gen- erally found in country districts, bake at a very low temperature, and have a very fusible glaze. Owing to the large proportion of lead, and to the fict that it is easily affected by acids, or even by hot grease, this glaze is exceedingly unwholesome. When, how- ever, the paste is well compounded and well baked. Soft Pottery. 115 and is an agreeable color, and the glaze has only a small proportion of lead; a handsome and useful household ware is the result. Borax, and even feld- spar, are now extensively used in glazing the best coarse wares, thus rendering them perfectly whole- some. The glaze is often colored, generally yel- low or brown, and sometimes a slip of finer clay is put on under the glaze, so disguising the ugly tints, of the paste. For the better class of wares the paste has often finer clay put in it, and is washed, run through sieves, and dried in a slip-kiln; that is run through a trough of heated bricks. This ware has usually two bakings, one for the paste, and one for the glaze, and is often packed in seggars. In some very common wares, one baking suffices, the glaze, which is almost all lead, being dusted on as a powder. This whole class of ware is generally known as coarse or common earthenware (Fr., faiences com- munes^ and when not further specified is under- stood to have a transparent glaze. Most of this pot- tery is marl body, more or less fine and hard, though some of it approaches in composition the fine earthenwares. Owing to the recent great improve- ment in manufacture, many wares, such as c. c. ware, that in old times would be classed as fine earthen- ware, are now relegated to the coarse ones. Much of the ware made by Palissy and his imi- tators belongs to this class, though in some of it the body is almost as hard as that of the fine earthen- wares. Bricks, tiles, and various kinds of architec- ii6 Keramics. tural ornaments are made in this ware, and are often glazed. Eastern nations make a variety of lead-glazed earthenwares, in many of which the paste is white, and only belongs to the soft potteries on account of its insufficient baking. Some glazes without any lead in them have been used on this pottery by the Arabs and Persians. Other wares are covered with trans- parent or translucent colored enamels. These are sometimes used on incised or on raised patterns and the effect is very good [Fr. emaux ombrants). Mezza-Majolica. — Littie body— lead-glaze. — In Italy this ware preceded the true majolicas, and is of importance from an artistic point of view, and also because it is a good example of deco- ration by a slip or engobe. The earthenwares with transparent lead-glaze, just described, though a great advance on unglazed pottery, were unsuited to fine painted decoration of any kind, because of the ugly color and coarse texture of the paste. This objection was first obviated in Europe by the use of a slip, which was dried or baked, then painted, and afterwards covered with a lead-glaze. The principal colors used were yellow, blue, black, and green. The slip itself was sometimes colored, and the painting was done by means of various col- ored slips. In still another style of decoration the pattern was scratched or etched on the slip, so that the darker color of the body showed through the glaze, which in the Italian wares was generally col- Soft Pottery. 1 1/ ored. This style was called Scraffito (lit. scratched) ware. Both of these often were enriched by metal- lic lustres. A revival and development of these methods is shown in the potteries made by M. Bouvier, and decorated with slips of different colors, in which the design is scratched or etched. Many decorative earthenwares made principally at Limoges and at Bourg-la-Reine, in France, can also properly be de- scribed here, as they are lead-glazed earthenwares of more or less hard body, and in decoration are really a revival of and an improvement on slip-painting, which is one of the very oldest methods of decora- ting pottery, slips or engobes having been em- ployed from very early times. The modern method* originated with Messrs. Laurin, Chaplet and Lafond in 1873, at Bourg-la-Reine, where it is still carried on by M. Laurin. Messrs. Chaplet and Lafond were employed by the Havilands at Limoges, who are now particularly famous for their use of this style of decoration done at Auteuil under the supervision of M. Braquemond. Beautiful effects are produced in various ways, the transparent lead-glaze giving great depth and beauty to the colors, which are also often improved by the use of borax, particularly the blues. Figures are carved or modelled in unglazed paste, and used on glazed and colored vases. All such work, when not perfectly well done, is very dis- agreeable. This slip-painting, and other processes * See Chap. VIII., page 78. ii8 Keramics. more or less resembling it, are used by mmy famous French potters, the details of paste and glaze being naturally kept secret. The pottery varies in color, and very much in hardness, and the decoration hides the body. The most noted French potters for the new decorative ware, besides those mentioned, are Deck, who shows gold underglaze backgrounds, very^ rich in effect, CoUinot and Parvillee, nearly all of which potters also make the tin-glazed pottery des- cribed in the next chapter. Attempts at slip paint- ing are being made in this country, but as yet most of it is only groping in the dark. A peculiar style of slip painting has also been used for some time in Switzerland, and much curious work similar in character is done in Russia. Eastern nations use both this and the following methods of decoration: Tin-Glazed or Enamelled Earthenwares. — Coarse earthenware^ with a stanniferous, or opaque tin- glaze, is esentially the same ware as the Italiart majolica and the Delft ware made in Holland, and at Rouen and Nevers in France, and many other places. It has a whitish or colored porous soft paste, which being coarse in quality requires but little preparation. It is plastic, and can be thrown, pressed, cast, or modelled by hand. The opaque tin-glaze, or rather enamel, is generally made of cal- cine, that is, lead and tin intimately mixed and cal- cined 47, sand 47, carbonate of soda 3, sea-salt 3; these proportions as usual varying with the dif- ferent potters, and other matters being sometimes Soft Pottery. i 19 added. The tin renders the glaze opaque and hard. The more tin there is in the glaze, the harder, the whiter, and the more expensive it is; the more lead, the softer, cheaper, and more unwholesome it is. This glaze may be either white or colored, but in either case completely hides the coarse body of the ware. The composition of both paste and glaze varies slightly in different countries, but includes always a good deal of lime in the paste. The paste does not soften in baking, and so can be supported in the kiln or seg- gars by cock-spurs and the like. Owing to the diffi- culty of making the glaze adhere to the raw paste, this is generally first baked at a temperature vary- ing from cherry red to whitish red. The tin-glaze is then applied, and, in the old majolicas and wares similarly compounded and arranged in the kilns, the glaze was baked at a higher temperature than the body. In such household ware as is generally made now, the reverse is the case. Some of the better kinds of kitchen ware belong to this class, dishes and bowls often being white on the inside and colored on the outside.* The outer color in American ware generally is buff or brown. Jugs, pitchers, tea-pots, and the like can be seen in any crockery shop, and a broken piece will show the coarse body and thick opaque glaze. In France and Germany tiles and plaques for stoves and chim- ney pieces are made of this ware, and handsomely decorated with patterns in relief, or incised, which, when covered with a white or colored tin-glaze, have * See note 12, Appendix B. 120 Keramics. an excellent effect. In fact, all kinds of ngures and ornaments can be made. This ware readily lends itself to the most artistic decoration. When the tin-glaze is hard enough, almost all the regular kiln colors can be used over it, but the effect is apt to be harsh. When the colors are made expressly for this ware they differ sHghtly in composition :rom those used on procelain. Painting in the gloss-oven colors on the unbaked glaze is extremely difficult to do, and reqaires great skill and experience, the powdery glaze very easily rubbing off and being excessively absorbent. But the effect of the work when well done is very fine, glaze and color being thoroughly incorporated. (See Chap. VIII.) The most famous enamelled earthenware is that known as Majolica or Maiolica (the pronuncia- tion is the same in Italian), which is tlie Italian name given to tin-glazed earthenware. This ware probably was first used by the Arabs or Persians, and was introduced by them into Italy through the Balearic islands, of which Majorca is ona, whence the name, Majorica, subsequently softened into majolica. To this day there are potteries in Majorca, lineal descendants of these old ones, still 'making wares decorated very much in the Arabian style. At one time the term majolica was only applied to the lustred wares of Spain md Ital)\ but now it is used for decorated tin-glazed earthen- ware dishes, ewers, and other articles mace in Italy Soft Pottery. 121 during the renaissance period, and also to modern wares reproducing or imitating them. The most famous majolicas were made at Urbino, Gubbio, Castel-Durante, Pesaro, and other places in Italy. Lucca della Robbia. whose name is often given to this ware, takes precedence of all other decorators, as, though he does not seem to have in- vented the tin-glaze, he was the first to bring it to perfection in Europe. His majolicas and others owe their great value to their beautiful decorations, both in colors and in metallic lustres, which last have never been equalled. During the rime when majolica was at its height, great arUsts were employed to decorate it, copies also were made of many of the most famous paintings by Raffael and others. It was even said that Raffael himself painted on majolica, but there is no proof of this. Raffael Ware, or Raffael majolica, is not that decorated with copies of the great master's pictures, but that which is ornamented with arabesques, scrolls, and similar designs. Delft Ware.— This enamelled earthenware was celebrated for the beauty of its bluish-white tin- glaze, and for its good decoration. Formeriy there were in Delft from 150 to 200 potteries making this ware, and now there is not one. Tin-glazed earthenwares were made in Europe, Asia, and in many other places than those men- rioned here, all the wares presenting more or less the same characteristics. For a long time, such 122 Keramics. ware, either plain or decorated, was the best table- ware known, but it has been almost entirely super- seded by fine earthenware, and by porcelain, both being more suitable for this purpose. After the in- vention of porcelain, the manufacture of artistic earthenwares of all kinds ceased almost • entirely. An attempt has been made to revive them in our day, but with what permanent success remains to be seen. Tin-glazed is also called enamelled earthmware in many works {faience ^maill^e). Henri II. Ware— Faience d'Oiron.— This re- markable ware, of which there are only abDut 67 pieces in existence, deserves an especial mention. Though utterly unconnected with the invention of them, it may be regarded as the precursor of the fine earthenwares. The body is of ball cla^, and perhaps a little kaolin. This is covered by a thin layer of a finer and whiter clay, in which the decor- ation is cut out or engraved, and is then filled in with colored clays, the whole being glazed with a trans- parent lead-glaze. Both potting and decoration are perfect of their kind. The origin of this ware long remained unknown. The fact is now ascertained that it was made under the direction of Helene de Hangest, widow of Arthur Gouffier, at the chateau d'Oiron, about 1524. The best was made during her life, and that of her son ; after that it deteriorated. Fac-similes of some of this ware were to be seen at the Centennial in the English Exhibit. A full and interesting account is given by Jacquemart, both Soft Pottery. 123 in his History and in his Merveilles de laCeramique, and it has been made the object of many special studies. It forms a curious and instructive episode in the history of pottery. See also Chaffers. Faience d'Oiron ware can neither be classed as soft nor as very hard, but with some Palissy ware, and some other ball-clay, often called pipe-clay wares, takes an intermediate place as hard {demi-dur) hall-clay-body, lead-glazed earthenware. Some of the Palissy is the same body, tin-glaze, while some modern decorative wares are borax-glazed. Note. — A very pretty ware made and decorated by Miss McLaughlin ef Cincinnati is now attracting inuch attention. In general effect it re- sembles the slip-painted Limoges ware, being decorated in much the same style, but is said to have a harder body and glaze. CHAPTER XL VERY HARD POTTERY. Hard or Very Hard Pottery is so named from the fact that the paste is very hard, and, expect in some stonewares, is eithc perfectly white, or nearly so. This pottery :s dvided into Fine Earthenware, Stoneware and Porcelain. In the last two there is a commencement Df vitrifica- ation which renders the body dense or inpervious to liquids. It must be noted that the modern eathenwares, the stonewares, and porcelains run into ea:h other by almost imperceptible gradations, the porcdains being the most distinct group, owing to their fanslucence. The distinctions between the wares wer? formerly much more evident, but of late years suci great im- provements have been made, both in p;ste and in glaze, that much of the accepted classific;tion is very arbitrary, and more a matter of convenience than of fact. When, however, the main ingredieits of paste and glaze are known, each ware can bi definitely classed, and if needed new genera and .pecies can be added. It would save trouble if maiufacturers 124 Very Hard Pottery. 125 would adopt some system, instead of adhering to names that often mislead as to the character of the ware. Nearly all of the wares described so far have been, for table and other domestic use, entirely superseded by the Fine Earthenwares {faiences fines), the paste of which is white, opaque, son- orous, or ringing, more or less porous, and con- sequently adheres more or less to the tongue. These wares all spring from improvements upon the ori- ginal ware made of ball or pipe- clay alone, and which has been hardened by the addition of flint {silex), and later of feldspar and kaolin to the paste, making it white and able to stand a high temperature in baking, while the original soft lead-glaze has been hardened and also rendered more brilliant by the use of borax and boric-acid. The principal difficulty in the manufacture of this ware is not so much in ob- taining a good body as to find a glaze suitable to it, and which shall never craze. When well made this is, next to porcelain, the best ware yet made for domestic use. The principal objection to it, is that when cracked or nicked, the paste, being porous, ab- sorbs grease, and is easily discolored. In many wares now made this objection is obviated to a great extent by the introduction of feldspar, which, partly melting, makes the body more dense. The glaze is now almost always boracic, but in some few cases a tin-glaze was used. A lime-glass glaze can also be used, as can a feldspar glaze, 126 Keramics. when the body is hard enough to stand the neces- sary heat. All kinds of articles for various sanitary and manufacturing purposes are now made of this ware, and new applications of it are made every day. The best wares of this class were invented and brought to perfection in England, beginning with Astbury and Wedgwood, and coming down to our own day. By French writers the title ordinarily applied to fine earthenware is faience fine or faience ajiglaise. Sometimes the word cailloutage is used. The first title is always given, however, if there is danger of ambiguity. The opaque tin-glazed earthenware, or majolica, is called either Faience or Faience Em- aillee, while the coarse transparejit glazed earthen- wares are called faiences communes. In many English works of good standing, these wares are confounded together in a very bewildering manner, it being some- times stated that the opaque tin-glaze is always used on faie?ice, fine or coarse. This confusion probably arises from the apparent similarity of the names in French, sufficient attention not being paid to the qual- ifying words. In English there seem to be no generally accepted names among authors, faience sometimes meaning faience fine, and sometimes meaning tin- glazed ware or majolica. The historical c. c. {cream color) ware, made by Wedgwood, and afterwards named Queensware in honor of Queen Charlotte, was formerly classed among the fine earthenwares, but c. c. ware is now placed among the better kinds of coarse earthen- Very Hard Pottery. 127 ware. The fine earthenwares now made have various names, such as granite-ware, iron-stone, semi- porcelain, stone-porcelain, opaque-porcelain; some of these having kaolin, Cornish clay, and often feld- spar in the paste, lead the way to English porcelain. The distinguishing characteristic of fine earthenware is the introduction into the paste of flints, the best of which are found in chalk-pits; these are cal- cined, and ground to an impalpable powder, which is very white. The proportion of flint is about one- fifth — say, eighty clay, twenty flints. Part of the clay may be replaced by carefully washed kaolin, and feldspar may partly take the place of the flints. The recipes vary very much in the different potteries. These wares will generally class as Flint-Body Borax-Glazed Earthenware. The paste, according to its quality, goes through some or all of the processes described in the chapters on manufacture,and being very plastic can be pressed, thrown, or cast. It is baked twice, first in biscuit, and then for the glaze. As the paste does not soften in baking, the articles can be piled up, one on another in the seggars. The biscuit is generally absorbent enough to be glazed by a dip. In the glaze baking, which is at a much lower temperature than the paste baking, the pieces are suspended on thimbles and pins, cock-spurs, stilts, or other contrivances. The points of contact are made as small as possible, but can almost always be found. The bottom rims are generally glazed. The French for some time 128 Keramics. made a ware of this kind, which though fine and white was much softer than the English, both in paste and glaze. This being objectionable, a tin- glaze was tried, which made a handsome but expen- sive ware. This was practically given up, and the English methods and compositions adopted. Ex- cellent ware is made at Montereau or Creil, Choisy-le-Roi, Bourg-la-Reine, Chantilly, and other places. When French clays alone are used, both paste and glaze are apt to be softer than the Eng- lish. Decoration. — Being very plastic, the paste of fine earthenware can be moulded or pressed into any ornamental forms, and will also admit of the richest color decorations by all the methods used in decorating porcelain both over and underglaze, the latter being particularly good in effect. The colors for the last must be prepared especially for the ware on which they are intended to be used, so as to suit the fusibility and composition of the glaze which varies considerably. (See Chap. VIII.) All the regular kiln colors can be used on the harder glazes, as such glazes do not soften at all at the low heat required for firing these colors. Beau- tiful effects are produced by painting on or in the glaze before it is baked, color and glaze then melt- ing together. For ordinary use this ware is orna- mented by patterns printed either under or over the glaze; sometimes only the outlines are printed, and the patterns then filled up by hand. Decoration on Very Hard Pottery. i2g fine earthenware should be bold and striking in style. The color of the ordinary Ware is apt to be spoiled by too much blue in the glaze, this being de- signed to correct the yellowish tint of the paste ; a tint that is very agreeable in itself, and that needs, no disguise. Common Tob^lCCO Pipes are made of much the same paste as that of fine earthenware, but are baked at a lower temperature, and are not glazed. They are baked in kilns very ingeniously arranged. Excellent pottery of this kind is made in this country where all the materials are found in abun- dance. Some of these potteries are remarkably fine in texture, and are capable of delicate finish. The deco- ration with a very few exceptions ib poor in design and crude in color. A visit to any of the large pot- teries, such as those at Trenton, or at East Liver- pool, Ohio, will show all the modern improvements. Within a comparatively short time, there has arisen a whole class of beautiful decorative pottery, rather difficult to classify, which comes more or less under this head. The paste is generally z/^-ry /lard, but not always very white, with a transparent lead, borax, or even feldspar glaze, in this last case the sulphates of lime and baryta being used in con- junction with pulverized flint glass. All of these glazes are sometimes colored, producing effects re- sembling those very often found in Eastern ware. Wares of this sort are made at Limoges and else- where in France,by the potters mentioned on page 1 1 7, K Keramics. and also by Boulenger at Choisy, who has discovered the hitherto hidden secret of rouge flamm^ or flamb^; by Massier, and by O. Milet (Sevres). There also are famous potteries at Creil, Montereau, Longwy, Gien, Sarreguemines, all having styles of their own, and all worth careful study and com- parison; a remark applying also to the English wares of this class, some of which are wonderfully fine, being bold and original in treatment. The Minton and Lambeth or Doulton earthenwares or faiences are well known, also the Wedgwood. Some of these deserve most careful study. A little ware something in this style is made in this country, but as yet calls for no very particular mention, though there is hope for the future. All this ware is gener- ally spoken of as faience, and called after the various potters who make it, or after the places in which it is made, the names being often mixed up in the most remarkable way by dealers. Tiles and Plaques are also made of fine earthen- ware and decorated by hand or by printing, offer- ing great resources to the keramic artist. CHAPTER XII. VERY HARD POTTERY. STONEWARE. Stoneware (Fr. grh c&ame), sometimes called grey ware, has a compact, hard, vitreous, dense, sonorous paste, often hard enough to strike fire like flint. The paste is generally colored, and is composed of a fusible and an infusible element. When baked together at a great heat, the fusible element melts and envelops the infusible, forming a mass with no porosity at all; thus differing essentially from all the pottery before described. Stonewares are divided into coarse and fine^ having characteristics in common, and only differing in, quality. Coarse Stoneware — such as butter-pots and vinegar- jugs — is made by the wheel or in moulds from very plastic clay. There is a good deal of sand in it, and the flux is iron or lime, or both. The paste goes through but little preparation: stones and other impurities are picked out; it is then wedged. In parts of Europe and the East, it is trodden. In this country, both the good quality and the cheap- ness of stonewares have much increased since 131 132 Keramics. adoption of an endless rack mill, in which the paste is ground and riddled ready for use. Sometimes the clay as found has all the necessary properties: sometimes clays from different localities, one refractory, the other fusible, are used. More lime and sand are often added. When the paste is too plastic, ground pitchers (Fr. cimeni), that is, the baked ware pounded fine, is used, though sand generally answers this purpose. No particular precautions are necessary in ar- ranging the wares for baking. The coarser sorts are generally placed on shelves, or in divisions of the kilns, or are even piled up, only separated by ''slugs"— or pieces of sandy clay— while the finer sorts are more carefully arranged. The baking requires a high temperature and a great deal of fuel and may last from two days to a week. The paste when baked is so compact that it really needs no glaze; nevertheless it is glazed, both for appearance sake and also because in coarse or badly-made ware the body is full of little holes and cracks caused by the irregular contraction of the pastes in baking. All stoneware, from butter-pots up to fine Doulton ware, can be glazed in a way peculiar to itself. During the first and only firing, when at white heat, sea- salt is thrown into the kiln (many potters claim that the salt from salted cod-fish is the best, which may be so on account of the phosphate). The intense heat decomposes the salt {chloride of sodium), and the chlorine escapes as vapor, but Very Hard Pottery. 133 the soda, meeting the white-hot ware* takes from it a portion of its silica and makes a silicate of soda or soda glass. This is the perfection of glaze, being thin, transparent, and intensely hard. A method somewhat analagous to this consists of smearing the inside of the seggars with a mixture of salt, soda, and minium, which is volatilized by the intense heat, and with the silica from the ware itself forms a thin glaze. Other methods, used in Europe, of glazing common wares are: i. By dipping it into ochre and water before baking, which gives a sort of glaze more or less yellow or brown, according to the degree of heat and the quantity of ochre. 2. By pulverized slag from iron works, either refining cinders or blast furnace cinders, the latter being very fusible on account of the large proportion of lime, while the former are composed almost entirely of silica and iron {protoxide). Lime, sand or clay is added if necessary. The dried ware is dipped in water, and then dusted over with the mixture, after which glaze and ware are baked and are generally of a rich chest- nut brown. Drain pipes are sometimes made of stoneware, which seems to possess all the qualities essential for such a purpose. Coarse stoneware of excellent quality is now made in this country, and is ofteni given a black glaze in whole or in part, by means of the Albany dip. (See page 30.) It is very interesting to watch the making of stoneware on a common * Which must be very silicious in order to glaze well. 134 Reramics. wheel. All coarse stonewares, and some fine, are classed as iron-body, and generally salt-glaze. Fine Stoneware is simply stoneware made with great care, and is excellent in every way. The com- position of the paste varies. Feldspar is often added, rendering the ware more fusible, so that it bakes at a lower temperature. The feldspar then takes the place of sand as anti-plastic. Kaolin is also used — impure kaolins containing iron serving the required purpose, making a ware that in many respects resembles porcelain. In fact there is a great variety of ware, that runs into porcelain at one end, and into the hard earthenwares at the other. It generally can be classed as feldspar body. The clay and other materials go through nearly all the operations described in the chapters treating of manufacture. The glaze is generally a salt-glaze like that used for common stonewares, and this is so thin that it does not interfere with the most delicate ornament, either sunken or in relief. The feldspar stonewares really require no additional glaze. The feldspar fusing in baking gives them a sufficient gloss; nevertheless they are often glazed with glazes such as those used on the fine earthenwares, and even with the feldspar glaze of hard porcelain, either with or without lime. Fine stonewares are often first baked a soft biscuit, and then glazed by a dip. The unglazed fully baked stoneware is called dry- body by potters. The paste is so plastic that it can be fashioned in any style, and all impressed or Very Hard Pottery, 135 embossed ornamentation can be made very sharp and clear. It is to Wedgwood that we owe the .perfection, and almost the invention, of much of the beautiful modern stonewares to which he gave the name of basalt, Jasper, onyx, and the like. In some cases it is difficult to distinguish the pastes from porcelain biscuit, the only difference being in opacity. These pastes are colored with various oxides, the number being limited on account of the heat required in baking; blue, orange, green, black, brown, and their combinations are the principal colors available, These oxides augment the fusibility of the paste, and as this extra fusibility must be corrected by- some other ingredient, the compounding of fine pastes requires the greatest care and skill. Most of the original moulds for Wedgwood's delicate wares were made by Flaxman, the ground being often of a different color from the ornament. Much of this kind is left unglazed. It is impossible to attempt any great amount of detailed description, owing to the great variety, both of ornamentation and of the composition of the paste. Remarkably fine stoneware is now made at Lambeth, England, and is known as Doulton ware, from the name of the makers. This is generally salt-glazed. Besides the usual styles of ornamentation, some of it is dec- orated by spirited designs scratched or etched in the unbaked paste, which is then glazed. The Doul- tons have added several colors to the old list, and. 136 Keramics* are continually improving the character of the ware. The kaolin or feldspar stonewares, and all those with softer glazes than the salt-glaze, admit of a large range of color decoration. This can be put on very thickly, in the style of the Japanese and Chinese stonewares, which are often ornamented with raised enamels on brown or yellowish bodies, or on a slip either white or colored. Sometimes the whole vase is covered with a tin-glaze and then painted. Bottcher's first attempts at porcelain really resulted in a fine reddish-brown stoneware, and as he did not know how to glaze it, it was simply polished. The Elers made an almost similar ware in England; first red, like Bottcher's ware, then yel- lowish white, but with a genuine salt-glaze. This ware was very fine in texture, and had delicate em- bossed ornaments made in copper moulds. The old stoneware known in a general way as Gr^S de Flandre was very beautiful in form, decoration, and color of paste, which varied from whitish to brown and light grey; this last being sometimes decorated with embossed ornaments, and colored in blue and purple. Much of the finest ware was made at Cologne, and in other German cities; at Creussen, in Bavaria, and at Beauvais, France. Very fine stonewares, mostly iron-body, are made in Japan and China, and decorated with enamels. Stoneware is often covered with a layer of porce- lain and then decorated. There is also a most deli- cate stoneware, called Buccaro, or boccaro, which Very Hard Pottery I37 is superior to any European stoneware, and is decor- ated with colored enamels raised a good deal above the surface. The fine Japanese stonewares known as Satsuma and Awata are made of a very refrac- tory porcelain clay which undergoes hardly any fusion. The glaze is composed of feldspathic materials, and lixiviated wood ashes (potash), and when cooled always presents a net-work of fine cracks. At Awadje is made a stoneware remarka- ble because it is glazed with a soft lead glass. Banko ware, called after its inventor, is made in the province of Ise, and resembles Wedgwood. It is made of extremely tough and plastic brown clay, in all sorts of fantastic forms, and is decorated by paintings in opaque enamels. Some of it is light in color, and some wares are mottled by mixing the two colors. A good fine stoneware is made at Trenton, N. J., the coloring of the paste being particularly agree- able in many cases. CHAPTER XIII. VERY HARD POTTERY. PORCELAIN. Porcelain differs from all the before-described potteries in being translucent. The paste is dense, vitreous, intensely hard, and white. The deriva' tion of the word seems uncertain. It is supposed to be derived from a bright shining shell [cowrie) called porcellana by the Portuguese; but it is found in use in Europe before the introduction of porce- lain, and then seems always to signify some very precious substance. Marryatt suggests a species of agate, perhaps chalcedony, which resembles porce- lain in its milky hue and semi-translucent charac- ter, and from which the name porcelain may have been transferred to the new substance introduced by the Portuguese. Pure white porcelain of the best quality, has a wonderful charm in its milky translu- cence, and in the East the white porcelains, when per- feet, are prized over all others. Fine earthenwares do not possess this beauty, and they, as well as the tin- glazed earthenwares, are suited to rich, magnificent decoration hiding the surface of the ware. It looks 138 Very Hard Pottery. 139 too often as if the worker on porcelain forgot this, and tried to compete with the gorgeous effects in- stead of endeavoring to adorn and develop the pe- culiar gem-like beauty of the translucent porcelain, not covering it up by opaque masses of color, but rather putting translucence on translucence. Both French and* English porcelains have, of late years, imitated or copied Eastern and particularly Japanese work, and the result has been good. In almost all works on pottery this ware is divi- ded into Hard- and into Soft-Body Porcelain, which, though looking much the same, differ in com- position of both paste and glaze. The hard has more alumina and less silica, and owing to the great heat required for baking is more dense in texture. The soft bakes at a lower temperature, and its alkaline fluxes (potash and soda), with an excess of silica, render it much more fusible. The use of the terms soft and hard is rather bewildering here, and it is a pity some other expression is not used. The term soft is used in two senses, first as meaning more fusible, secondly, as meaning that the ware or rather the glaze, is more tender, and can be scratched by a steel point. Soft Porcelain is hard pottery because the paste or body cannot be scratched. It is soft porcelain because both paste and glaze are much more fusible than those of hard porcelain; and also because the glaze can easily be scratched with a file or a steel point, which will make little or no impression on that of hard porcelain. lAO ' Ker amies. When this test cannot be applied, it is often difficult to distinguish between the two kinds. Marryatt re- lates how the learned M. Brogniart, being presented with a choice specimen of old Worcester, affirmed it to be oriental porcelain, till he tested the glaze with a steel point, and found it would scratch easily. The glaze, moreover, of soft porcelain seems more vel- vety to the touch, and looks oily. It is very lustrous, also it usually covers the bottoms and bottom rims, which in hard are almost always left unglazed. Old Sevres gives a good type of the softest por- celain; next come the English porcelains, then the Chinese, and the hardest of all are the German and the French hard porcelains. In date of in- vention, however, they range as follows: i. Chinese; 2. European soft porcelain; 3. European hard por- celain. Hard Porcelain is the household ware with which we are all familiar, and which, no matter where made, is commonly sold in shops as French porce- lain, or French china. Like stoneware, it is com- posed of a fusible and an infusible element; this last, which is opaque, enabling the porcelain to stand the heat necessary to vitrify the fusible ele- ment which is transparent, or nearly so. Kaolin makes the plastic, opaque, and infusible part of the paste to which it gives its name, and for ordinary porcelain is often used as found; but for delicate wares much of the sand found in it must be washed out. The fusible and nearly transparent substance Very Hard Pottery. 141 is either pure Feldspar or pegmatite, often called petuntze, or a mixture of sand, chalk and feldspar, which, melting and enveloping the kaolin, gives the porcelain the translucence that is its distinguishing characteristic. The preparation of these materials requires all the precautions possible, and varies ac- cording to the quality of the kaolin. They first, and the paste afterwards, go through all the operations described in the chapters treating of manufacture, many of them being repeated several times. The paste is not very plastic, but is enough so to be thrown, pressed and moulded by skilful workmen, large ar- ticles being usually made in several pieces. The ware is first slightly baked orbiscuited, so that being still porous, it can be glazed by a dip. As it does not soften in this first or biscuit baking, it can be piled up in the oven or seggars without any unusual precautions being taken. Glaze.— This is almost invariably made of feld- spar or pegmatite (Cornish stone). It is used either alone, as at Sevres, or with the addition of a little kaolin quartz, or carbonate of lime, or an artificial lime-glass may be used. Glaze and paste are baked together at the highest temperature used in pottery baking: equal to the melting point of wrought iron, or from 1500° or i6oo« Cent. (2700° to 2980 «F.), to sometimes 1800° Cent. (3272° F.) After baking, the glaze should be perfectly even and brilliant, in- tensely hard, and with no spots. The paste, soften- ing slightly in the final baking, has to be supported 142 Keramics, propped and placed with the greatest care, and all kinds of ingenious contrivances are used for this purpose, it being generally necessary that support and piece shall be of the same paste, so as to contract equally. The articles scarcely ever rest on the bottom of the seggar, but stand on setters of paste or clay, the glaze being wiped off of any points of contact with seggar or supports, which are sprinkled with an infusible powder in order to prevent the parts sticking together. The rough edges left in this way are now always ground off, and even polished on a lathe. In old porcelains they were left on rough. Attempts have been made to apply other than feldspar or earthy glazes to hard porce- lain. The salt-glaze of stoneware does not answer well, owing probably to a want of silica. Good ef- fects are produced by the use of soft lead-glazes, or of different soft enamels applied on the hard biscuit, all of which, on account of the lead, are ob- jectionable, except for purely decorative purposes. Statuettes and figures of all kinds are made of a porcelain biscuit, differing slightly in composition from that of the ordinary ware. Such figures are usually cast by means of slip in closed moulds, and are very difficult to support and bake without dis- tortion. In their manufacture very careful calcula- tion is required as to contraction, the paste shrinking a good deal in drying.and still more in baking. They are sometimes glazed, but the effect is seldom good. The unglazed figures, and also vases, are occasionally Very Hard Pottery. 143 decorated with colors without any gloss which is accomplished either by putting very little flux in the paint, or by mixing finely-pulverized porcelain biscuit with it. Decoration. — Porcelain can be decorated by all kinds of color-ornament, by gilding and by lustres. Owing to the intense heat required for the baking, the gloss-oven colors are few in number, consisting of cobalt blues, chrome greens, iron browns, manganese browns, titanium yellows, uranium blacks and yel- lows, platina greys, and a red or rose from gold, be- sides a few other substances that have hardly yet taken a definite place in decoration. It may be noted that the chrome colors when mixed with the paste utterly destroy the translucence of the por- celain, thereby converting it into fine stoneware. The above colors and their combinations are necessarily the underglaze colors for hard porcelain. They are seldom used except for backgrounds, but most lovely effects can be produced by their use as paints on the white porcelain biscuit, the milky glaze giving a wonderful softness and tenderness to the effect, which can be strengthened by overglaze touches or by gilding. All of the regular, and also the hard kiln colors, can be used either on the glaze or on the underglaze colors, as also gilding of all kinds, and some of the lustres, Lustred porcelains are often very pretty, particularly those with the nacreous or pearl lustre, but it is a style of decoration that is apt to be overdone, and is then meretricious in effect. 144 Keramics. Very beautiful effects are obtained with hard kiln colors by the methode Richard, and also by pdte- sur-pdte, or slip painting. (See pages 74 and 86.) Very fine specimens in both styles were shown at the French Exhibition of 1878, where also were to be seen porcelain from Limoges, which in whiteness and delicacy of paste rivalled the Sevres wares. From Sevres were sent cups with the paste pierced in patterns, and the holes filled up with colored enamels. Wonderful applications of slip-painting, both in white and in colored paste, were also shown, as well as some remarkable effects obtained by the use of tin-glaze over the body, somewhat in the Chinese style. For interesting reports of all this seethe " Gazette des Beaux Arts," for 1878; also the "Art Journal," and " I'Art," for the same year. The Saxony hard porcelains are very famous, both for fine quality of paste and of decoration. Meissen and Dresden are other names for the same ware, the latter being perhaps the best known name in this country. This ware has deteriorated, but vieux Saxe, or Old Dresden, is as famous in its way as vieux Shres. It must be remembered that it is a hard porcelain, and so is decorated in an entirely different way from the old Sevres, which was soft. Hard porcelain of the finest quality and decoration is made at Sevres, Paris, Limoges, Vienna, Berlin, Capo di Monte, and many less noted places, and experiments of all kinds are con- ducted with more or less happy results. A porce- Very Hard Pottery. lain which deserves an especial mention on account of the materials employed was made in some parts of Italy and in Spain. In this the infusible element, instead of kaolin, is a magnesite. Brogniart calls this Hybrid, or mixed porcelain. Paste made in this way is very refractory, but has little plasticity, and is difficult to work; it also shrinks very much. In Spain magnesite was used, in Italy {Piedmont) giobertite, both being much the same mineral. At Nymphenburg, Bavaria, a lime porcelain is made, in which gypsum and quartz are used instead of feldspar. (See table of pastes). Hard porcelain is made in this country, where ali the necessary materials can be found. So far the ware has been good in quality, but very poor as re- gards decoration. The first serious attempt at mak- ing it was in Philadelphia, by William Ellis Tucker, about 1825, a fact still commemorated by the name of a little street. Since then hard porce- lain has been made in various parts of the United States, principally at Greenpoint, N. Y.* Mr. Smith of the Union Porcelain Works at that place, writes : "Our glazes differ from those generally used (in Europe). * * As far as I have been able to learn, they almost universally use feldspar in their glaze ; I do not use it, for the reason that I get a harder and more durable glaze without it, and I burn at a higher heat than they do, in fact a stronger fire than * While 1 write, a project is on fool for establisiiing a large porcelain potterj' in Philadelphia. L 146 Keramics. is good for a feldspar glaze." He adds: "We use no metallic oxides to flux the glaze. We use nothing but simple earths. If our potters can be convinced that it is the ar- tistic element that gives its highest value to pottery, and will procure the services of artists of talent, there seems no reason why in time to come we should not have good and well-decorated porcelain made in this country. * * la Miss Young's book there is an interesting, well written, and well illustrated, but not at all critical article on American pottery, and es- pecially porcelain. See also Prime and Elliott. CHAPTER XIV. VERY HARD POTTERY. CHINESE AND JAPANESE HARD PORCELAIN. Chinese authorities state that the art of mak- ing porcelain was invented in China, about 185 B. C, in Sin-Ping, under the Han dynasty, and thence through the Corea it seems to have been transmitted to Japan, about 1592 A. D. The Chinese in their catalogues and technical works make no distinction between stoneware and porcelain, considering the former as an inferior quality of the latter. Their best porcelains appear much the same in texture as the European hard porcelains, differing however, in the composition of both paste and glaze. Chinese porcelain paste, having a much greater proportion of silica, is more fusible than the fine European pastes, which are very aluminous, and consequently very hard. (See table, page 52.) The Chinese paste, and still more the glaze, will melt in the greatest heat of the European porcelain kiln; and this greater fusibility — allowing color effects denied to us by the great heat to which our hard porcelain is subjected — makes it worth while 147 148 Keramics. considering whether such intense heat in all cases is necessary. The finer Chinese and Japanese porce- lains are wonderfully beautiful, are of the most deli- cate texture, and are very translucent. The Japanese porcelains seem to vary in hardness of body, while the glaze is not so closely incorporated with the body as in the best European wares. Paste. — Chinese and Japanese, like European porcelain, is composed of a fusible and trans- parent and an opaque and infusible substance: the first is supposed to be petuntze (petrosilex*), the second kaolin. Pe-tun-tze (lit., white brick, tze diminutive.) This name, as used in Europe, is applied only to feldspar in various forms, and is not strictly correct. In China it is given to any porcelain materials when put up in the forms of little bricks or blocks {tun), and is also given to porcelain paste or glaze ingredients, when mixed, dried and put up in this shape. The two terms, however, kaolin — meaning porcelain clay, and petuntze meaning feldspar, etc. — have definitely taken their place in keramic nomenclature in Europe. According to careful investigations made at the time of the Centennial Exhibition, the finest Japanese porcelain seems to be made without the use of any * Petrosilex, compact feldspar— felsite. A petrosilex is not necessarily pure feldspar, but generally has quartz, and often other elements in it. In a pestrosilex or petrosilicious rock, the elements composing it are not Crj'stalized or distinct, but arc in invisible particles. In pegmatite these particles are distinct. Very Hard Pottery, 149 kaolin at all, or of any equivalent therefor, being compounded as to its body solely of petuntze-like or petrosilicious materials. The same thing has been suspected in Chinese porcelain, and it now seems a fair inference that most Chinese porcelains also have a strictly petrosilicious basis, and that the word kaolin is applied by the Chinese to a washed and pulverized petrosilex, and not to the clay we call kaolin. Baron von Richtofen, in a letter in the "American Journal of Science" for March, 187 1, says: "The material from which the porcelain of King- te-Chin, is, or rather was, made, is a rock of the hard- ness of feldspar, and of a green color, like jade. [See table Chap. III., No. 6.] (The inferior kinds are not so hard.) This rock is reduced by stamping to a fine powder of which the finest portion is ingeniously and repeatedly separated; this is then moulded into small bricks. The Chinese distinguish two kinds of this material, both sold in this form. They are made at different places in the same manner, but the aspect of the rock is nearly alike in both cases. Formerly the best of these came from Kao-ling (high-ridge), but this place has lost its prestige for centuries: nevertheless the Chinese still call the best of these earths Kao-ling. The application of the name by Berzelius to porcelain earth was made on the erro- neous supposition that the white earth he received from a member of one of the embassies, I think Lord Amherst, occurred naturally in this state. The same kind of material is called pe-tun-tze. ' 150 Ke ramies. The above statements open the way to much interest- ing investigation which would be out of place here; only it may be suggested that doubtless our potters can find in this country minerals suitable for making just such porcelains. Should the above investigations be proved correct, our kaolin clay porcelain would seem to be a new invention, which must be classed by itself as kaolin body, while the Japanese and Chinese porcelains would then be classed as either feldspar or petrosilex body as seen^ed most cor- rect. In this connection it may be mentioned that much surprise was expressed by M. Paul Gasnault, Sec. Museum Dec. Arts, in the "Gazette des Beaux Arts," that the Japanese, in their exhibit in Paris (1878), stated that no kaolin was used in their por- celain, but only in faience. M. Gasnault took for granted that the Japanese report must be incorrectly written or translated. The first efforts in Europe to make porcelain from some Chinese materials brought there were un- successful, as only a fusible element, perhaps a block of glaze material, had been sent over by some mis- sionaries, and as Father Ly, a Chinese Christian, quaintly says: "Some matters make the bones, others the flesh of porcelain. If kaolin (?) alone should be used for vases they would crack in the furnace; if on the contrary they were made of other matters without kaolin (?), being too weak to support the heat during twenty-four hours, they would dis- solve in the fire, as flowers fade under the heat of Very Hard Pottery. I51 the ardent sun." In the Histoire et Fabrication de la Porcelaine Chinoise, we have a clear and interest- ing account of all the processes connected with the manufacture of porcelain in China, which processes are essentially the same as those used in Europe, ex- cept that neither Chinese nor Japanese use steam power nor complicated machinery of any kind. In Japan, "the rock-like materials, quartz, kaolin, felsite, feldspar, or the peculiar porcelain stone of Arita, are pulverized by balancing pounders much the same as those used in China, a long horizontal beam with a perpendicular iron-shod piece like a hammer at one end and a water-trough at the other. These are worked by a stream of water, which running into the trough raises the pounder by overweight and running out at the end in conse- quence of the incline, allows it to fall down again with the iron-shod cross-piece dropping into a stone mortar in which the materials are reduced to powder." The Chinese also use little waterwheels, arranged on the banks of streams, and they recom- mend the Spring as the best season for grinding or pulverizing, as then the streams are strongest, and the pounding is better done. The waste is very great by this process. Both countries use the Potter's Wheel, both with and without a flywheel. The potter generally sits with the head of the wheel coming up between his legs, while the motion is given by an attendant. In Japan the pivot on which the wheel turns rests on a 152 Ker amies. piece of porcelain, thereby reducing the friction very much. They also use the Potter's Lathe, which in China was certainly in common use as early as 1368 A. D., and probably long before. Both coun- tries also use clay moulds for paste (in Japan they are now adopting the use of the plaster mould), but not the closed moulds for slip, making, however, by other means, and by more difficult processes, vases and cups as thin as those made in Europe by this easy method. Chinese and Japanese potters succeed in the most delicate effects of slip-painting, and of moulding or modeling on the body of the vase, and in carving patterns thereon with tools, also in all kinds of open or reticulated work, seeming to take pleasure in over- coming great difficulties of potting, and in spite of inferior tools, obtaining with apparent ease effects never yet reached by the European potter. A very delicate style of ornamentation is obtained by punching out the pattern in the paste, the holes, thus made being filled in by the glaze; this is called grains of rice. Cloisonne enamel, in imitation of enamels on copper, the knowledge of which the Chinese derived from the Arabs, is also done on porcelain. The brass wire is fastened to the porce- lain by means of melted glaze, and the enamels then applied as in metal work. In many cases the body is covered with a slip or layer of fine white clay or paste, which takes the color well. This method is also used iu making the best crackled ware; in this Very Hard Pottery. 153 the glaze is not crackled at all, but the slip being more or less contractile than the body or core of the vase, breaks into coarser or finer cracks. Color- ing matter is rubbed into these, and the glaze is fin- ally put over all. Hoa-chi — a sort of soapstone or steatite— is also used in this process. At the French exhibition there were some Japanese wares in which the decoration was delicately inlaid in the style of the Oiron faience. The Glaze used in China differs in composition from that generally used in Europe, which is almost invariably made of pegmatite or feldspar alone, and very seldom with a large amount of lime, while in China and Japan glazes with a large proportion, often as much as one -fourth lime, are the rule. In China khi-men or else yeou-ko,* a petrosilex chosen with as little iron in it as possible, and which is gen- erally sold washed, crushed and put up in the form of pe-tun-tze, or little white bricks, is finely pul- verized and mixed with water. This is added to lime which has been elaborately prepared by burning limestone and fern leaves in alternate layers. Salvetat does not think that the fern leaves have any very great effect, because in the first place so little of the fern ashes get into the glaze liquid, and in the second these ashes only contain a little silica, and a trace of phosphoric acid. Before adding it to the petrosilex, the mixture of lime and ashes i-; burned over several times, is carefully washed and allowed * See analysis No. 6, table, Chap. HI. 154 Ker amies. to settle, and in the end the ashes are thrown away; so that the object of the whole process seems only to be to obtain the purest lime possible. A fibrous gypsum {chy-kao) is also added, but the action of this seems to be merely to precipitate the mineral matters. The proportions vary, but for the best glaze are about ten of petrosilex and water (stone-oil) to one of lime and water (fern oil, lime oil). It may be well to mention here that in most of the works treating of Chinese pottery the technical term oil used in China for glaze or glaze fluids is literally translated oil, thereby making the descriptions wholly unintelligible to European readers, no oil being used either in the preparation of the glaze, or of its ingredients. It is said that in old times carnelian was used in glazes, carnelian being almost pure silica, and burning white, this might well be the case. After the ware is thoroughly dried, but not baked zX. all, it is painted, and then glazed. The Chinese put on the glaze so as not to soften or break the ware, dipping it into the glaze liquid with great care, or else pouring the liquid over or into it. Very fine and thin wares will not stand these processes, and they have to be glazed by blowing the liquid through a tube covered with gauze. The bottom of the cup or va.se is not finished, until the glaze and the paint- ing are put on, but is left as a handle several inches long. This is then taken off, the bottom of the foot of the vessel is hollowed out, and a name or mark is Very Hard Pottery. 155 often placed thereon. Certain cups or vases are often ground to a wonderful thinness on the lathe by means of iron tools, and some Chinese cups are ap- parently made only of the glaze, and are exquisitely thin. In the Histoire et Fabrication, it is said that in the finest of these, the paste is turned as thin as possible on the wheel, the glaze is put on thickly on the inside, and baked, and then the paste is ground away, leaving only the glaze or enamel as the cup. As a rule the Chinese leave the bases of their vessels rough, and m many cases take little pains to finish them off, differing in this respect from the Japanese, who are perhaps the best potters in the world. The Japanese porcelains differ slightly from the Chinese; the best are very deli- cate, and are very carefully finished off. They are also very translucent, owing to the fact that they have more silica and less alumina than any other hard porcelain. In Japan the glaze is always composed of a feldspathic material, either natural or produced by the mixture of different minerals, to which is added a certain quantity of lixiviated wood ashes, (potash lye,) the proportion depending on the place the pieces have to occupy in the kiln, the heat of which is not quite even. This glaze is put on by a dip, as ' in Europe, the ware being first slightly baked and then glazed. It seems strange that the Chinese should not have thought of this simple and easy method. It is just possible, however, that with such good pot- ters as the Chinese, this may be intentional, and in 156 Keramics. order to obtain certain effects, and not the result o? ignorance. This view is supported by the fact that in one part of China (see Histoire et Fabrication, book V. Page 128) it seems as if glazing was done as in Europe. In this connection an article in the "Lon- don Builder," by G. J. Morrison, M. Inst., M. E., copied into "Van Nostrand's Magazine," for May, 1879, is interesting, for it expressly states that the or- namental brickwork made at Lien li Ku, near Pekin, is first baked and then glazed. He also states that this brick will rank with the highest class of building material. This is valuable if the writer understands keramic processes, and has made no mistake. The article is also interesting in its de- scription of the material — hard blue shale, as hard as slate, which is crushed by granite rollers and then used. The Japanese Kilns are built on the slope of a hill, in a line of from four to twenty, the base of each kiln lying about three feet higher than that of the foregoing, so that if all the kilns were uncovered the whole of them would present the aspect of ter- races formed by a series of platforms each three feet high, the kilns growing wider and wider as they ex- tend up the hill. A draught is established through the whole line of kilns, which ends in a range of short chimneys corresponding to the draught-holes of the last kiln. There are no separate furnaces or fire- places, but the fuel is thrown directly into the kiln, this being so arranged that the flame does not strike the Very Hard Pottery. 157 porcelain directly, and is, besides, forced to take a circular or whirling motion. The kilns are fired in succession, beginning with the lowest; by the time this is finished the next one is red hot, and so on, thus effecting great economy in fuel. The placing and setting of pieces in the kiln is done in much the same way as in Europe, but comparatively few pieces are baked in seggars. The Chinese kilns ap- pear to be constructed on much the same principle, only in China all the ware is packed in seggars, which has to be done with the greatest care, as the unbaked ware is extremely fragile. In both coun- tries the firing is an especial branch of pottery, and the kilns are tended by men who do nothing else, and who consequently become very expert in this branch. The kilns are rented to the different man- ufacturers. The list of colors used for Decoration is small compared to those vised in Europe, as so far the Chinese and Japanese have not had the chemical knowledge necessary to produce many of our colors. They have some beautiful gloss-oven colors, among the most famous of which are the celadon and the rouge flamm^ or flarnbe', this last from the native protoxide of copper, requiring most careful man- agement of the heat. They also have colors that re- semble our hard-kiln colors in composition, such as violet, turquoise blue, yellow, and green. In China all underglaze painting is necessarily done on the dried unbaked paste, this requiring great skill and much 158 Ker amies. practice. Both nations use gilding, and thoroughly understand all effects produced by more or less flux, or by a greater or less degree of heat applied to the color. Their regular kiln colors are nearly all en- amels, and in composition and fusibility are very like the enamels used on metals. They are really lead-alka- line glasses, colored by a few hundredths of coloring matter dissolved in the glass. Salvetat and Ebel- men in their Memoir* give the composition of this flux or glass as silica, oxide of lead in slightly vary- ing proportion (6 of minium, 2 of silicious sand, and I of borax), and a greater or less quantity of soda and potash. Japanese colors have much the same flux. The colors are few in number, consist- ing of copper for greens and blue-greens, gold for reds, cobalt for blues, antimony for yellow, arsenic and tin for white. Iron reds and manganese- black, are also used ; these last are not enamels, but vitrifiable paints. Black is usually obtained by bringing a color to its utmost intensity, or by placing two very deep colors over each other, as deep red over deep blue. The colors are not mixed with turpentine, but with water or thin glue, as used to be the custom in Eu- rope. The artist adds a little lime or white lead, as he judges proper. Owing to the difference of paste and glaze, these Chinese over-glaze paints will not adhere on European hard porcelain, but crack off. The European vitrifiable paints, however, will gener- ally answer well on Chinese ware. * Annales de Chymie et de Physique (3) XXXI. 257, and XXXV. 31a. Very Hard Pottery. 159 Before 1780 hard porcelain at Sevres had a glaze somewhat resembling the Chinese, that is with a good deal of lime in it. Silica, 71.62; alumina, 17. 50; lime, 9.38; potash and soda, 1.50. The colors in use at that epoch were really enamels, and consequently very like the Chinese colors. Since 1780 the glaze has been purely feldspathic, and potash takes the placCj' of lime. Of late years at Limoges and at Sevres, ( in France, porcelain has been made, which, owing to the composition of paste and glaze, can be decora- ted with enamels as Chinese porcelain is. Being enamels the Chinese colors are not at all intense in hue, for it must be remembered that the Composi- tion of Enamels only allows a very small percen- tage of coloring mailer. In their best work the Chi- nese do not shade their colors with other tints mixed with them as we do, but use them pure and gener- ally fl;'\t. When they wish to produce a darker shade, it is usually done by increasing the thickness of the transparent enamel, or else by hatching, or going over the color with darker lines of the same. It may be mentioned here that both nations use opaque and transparent enamels on stonewares, pro- ducing in many cases very beautiful and curious effects. They also use soft lead-glazes and others on porcelain and stoneware biscuits, and color them. Lead-glazes were in common use in China in the tenth century. In fact they use all the resources of the potter's art. According to the Japanese catalogue of the Centen- i6o Keramics. nial Exhibition, the Flux for Japanese colors consists of silica, litharge (red lead), and nitre (potash), form- ing a glass which is powdered, and to which is added either white lead or powdered silex, in order to in- crease or to diminish its fusibility. The coloring oxides consist of copper, manganese, antimon5\ red oxide of iron, impure oxide of cobalt (black), a sort smalt (blue) from China, gold reds, and gold for gilding, this last mixed with white lead or borax. All the ingredients are mixed by the painter him- self and used directly. The whole design is traced in black lines, and the shades, if used, are only in- dicated by strokes. The colored enamels are put on in a thin layer when opaque, or in a thick layer when they are to produce, after melting, the effect of Colored glass through which the black tracing of the design is visible. Sometimes relief paintings are pro- duced by first coating the porcelain with a white opaque enamel, which contains no oxide of tin, but is merely a mixture of glass, white lead, and powdered stone, and on which the other colors are then applied. The Japanese also use lacquer in the decoration of porcelain, this substance is almost as imperishable as the vitrifiable paints, and so perhaps may be consid- ered a legitimate keramic decoration. . The Japanese and Chinese, in common with all Eastern nations, are very fond of Blue, and much of their most beautiful ware is decorated with this color, generally under the glaze, which is apt to be slightly bluish. The Japanese get a very beautiful effect Very Hard Pottery. j6i with underglaze blue, heightened with an overglaze blue. In many instances Chinese overglaze colors, par- ticularly blacks and reds, do not glaze at all, and the colors also often run into each other; but the Chinese do not regard this, as we should regard it, as a defect. For that matter much of the harmonious effect of Chinese, and, indeed, of much Eastern ware, is due to just such accidents. Salvetat, who on this subject is entitled to be heard with respect, suggests that much of the beauty of coloring in Chinese and Japanese porcelains is owing to their small list of colors, ard to the fact that these being nearly all enamels, can- not be made very intense or glaring, so that the harmony results from necessity rather than from choice. However this may be, good color seems to belong to the Eastern nations. All through the East perfect knowledge of, and feeling for beauty of color seems instinctive; at least it has been so here- tofore. In the various branches of the potter's art in Japan, and above all in China, the division of labor is carried to a great extent, and traditions and methods of potting, and of using the comparatively small list of colors, descend from father to son, each family devoting itself to some particular branch. The skilfulness and precision both of eye and of hand must be enormously developed by inheritance, so that in time it may be that this skill and precision become an instinct; and with his usual environment, it may be as impossible for the Eastern potter or M Keramics. colorist to make a mistake in his work as for a bird to build its nest wrongly. But it is quite possible, and unfortunately probable, that with the great changes going on in our day, and which seem to disturb the hitherto immovable East, breaking into its quietude with our steam-driven civilization, that the workman will lose his old and accustomed envi- ronment, and with it his instinct. After that it will be a very long time, if ever, before he will be able to reproduce his lovely harmonies by reasoning them out. Already we can see a change in the art-work of India and of Japan, both of which countries, and particularly the latter, seem to offer peculiar advan- tages for study and comparison. In spite of our boasted advantages, our influence in the East is un- doubtedly bad as regards art, for our vaunted civili- zation does not flower out into splendid art, but develops more like the useful but ugly potato. The great porcelain factory in China was at King- te-Chin; it was destroyed some time ago. Most of the porcelain from there was decorated at Nankin and at Canton. The oldest Chinese pottery is very like stoneware, being hard, and covered with a thick and almost translucent enamel. The term celadon was origin- ally given to wares of this kind, in which the glaze . was colored a delicate sea-green, but has smce been given to other shades. These are often decorated with raised or depressed patterns on the body, or with flowers {ciladon fimri). In the best celadon the Very Hard Pottery. 163 glaze has a most delightful softness and smoothness, both to hand and eye, which as yet has never been equalled in Europe. Although Chinese porcelain is always classed as hard, there area few rare pieces in pure white, which seem more like the Persian soft fritted paste, and which are made with an alkaline fritt and silico-alkaline, not lead-glaze. The Chinese themselves place the highest possible value on white porcelains decorated with white, either as a paint, in which case there is a slight difference in tone between ground and decora- tion, or else the porcelain is ornamented with raised and carved designs in slip painting. The Japanese have surpassed their teachers, the Chinese, and are now the best potters and decorators in the world. In delicacy of finish, in perfection and harmony of color and design, they are unsur- passed. The white of the Japanese porcelain is purer than that of the Chinese, and the blue is not so transparent. The paste is rather more fusible than the Chinese. Hizen, Owari, Kioto, Tokio, and Kaga, are the principal places for porcelain. Corea. — Both China and Japan acknowledge Wli^t obligations to this country in the matter of ddBelain. Genuine Corean porcelains have a re- ^(iSflPkably pure white surface, and are very thin and delicate; the decoration is delicate and sober in color. The Chinese value them highly, particularly those shaped like lions and like gourds. No por- celain is made in the Corea now. Some of the por- 164 Keramics. celains attributed to the Corea by Jacquemart have since proved to be Japanese. Porcelain, both hard and soft, was also made in Persia. Dates and authorities are in great con- fusion; but as new discoveries are made every day the whole subject may soon be settled. An effort was made to revive this industry in Persia not very long ago, but failed. Genuine hard porcelain of fine quality was also made in India, but there are no very certain dates. The decoration on India porcelains is characterized by wonderful delicacy and minuteness of finish, both in figure and flower painting. All the details are worked out as in the finest miniature painting, while gold is employed with great skill and taste. The term India Ware does not mean porcelain from Hin- dustan, but was applied to Chinese porcelains brought from the East by the East India Companies. almost Vigin- CHAPTER XV. VERY HARD POTTERY. SOFT PORCELAIN. Soft Body Porcelain is generally divided into Natural or Bone, and Fritted or Artificial Porcelain, the latter being almost entirely an arti- ficial product, with no natural clay in it. Old Sevres — this being the most famous soft porcelain — can be taken as a type of the artificial paste. It was the result of the efforts made in France to imitate Chinese porcelain. These efforts failed from the want of proper materials, but resulted in the making of a beautiful ware, which for purposes of color- decoration has never been surpassed. The manu- facture began at St, Cloud, about 1695, and was transferred to Vincennes, and thence to Sevres, where vas carried on until 1804, and then aban- dont i.'his is what is generally called Vieux Sevrt After 1804, for a time, only hard paste was made at Sevres ; but about 1847 the manufac- ture of the soft was revived, and since then both kinds have been made. The manufacture of old Sevres was exceedingly troublesome, requiring great 165 Keramics. care and vigilance. The paste was composed of a clay-like marl, with a good deal of lime in it, and of a frit composed of sand, 60.0; nitre (potash), 22.0; salt (soda), 7.2; alum 3.6; dry carbonate of soda, 3.6; gypsum, 3.6; the whole was melted together into a kind of glass, then pulverized, and mixed with marl and chalk. This paste was ground in water for a long time, then dried, then broken up again, then mixed with water, with two parts of old paste to one of new. The glaze was a crystal or flint- glass, with a good deal of lead in it, fusible and easily scratched. (See Chap. VIII., page 75.) The paste not being plastic at all, had to be mixed with gum or soft-soap. The pieces were moulded roughly, and very much thicker than they were to be when finished. They were then dried, and afterwards shaped and thinned on a turning lathe with iron tools. The dust caused by this was very unwhole- some, and was one of the principal reasons for aban- doning the manufacture. The baking was very slow; it lasted for seven or eight days, and had to be conducted with the greatest care, with a clear flame with no smoke. The paste softened and shrunk very much, nearly a seventh, and it had not only to be carefully propped, but in some cases sup- ported on moulds of the same paste, contracting at the same rate, and powdered over with infusible sand to prevent adhesion. This involved great waste, as the moulds could only be used raw or green, and consequently were useless after one baking. As Very Hard Pottery. 167 this first baking was complete, the paste had no porosity, and the glaze had to be poured over it, or put on in powder, this being sometimes done twice in succession, and baked each time at a con- siderably lower temperature than the paste. The glaze had a richness, and a velvety softness to the touch, never obtained on hard porcelain. In the glaze bakings the ware not softening did not require supports, but each flat piece had its own seggar. The great value of old Sevres is due in part to its scarcity, but above all to the beauty of its painted decoration, often done by eminent artists. In all soft porcelain of this class, the overglaze paints, owing to the great fusibility of the glaze, sink into it, and incorporate themselves with it, producing incomparably lovely effects. The paste, too, is easily colored, and on account of the low heat em- ployed there is a large number of gloss-oven colors. These are often employed to tint the glazes. In the case of old Sevres, the colors of paste and glaze were often very beautiful.* Genuine pieces with authentic decorations are now very valuable, though much of the modern ware is as beautiful as the old. No perfect pieces of white ware are ever sold at Sevres, but when the manufacture of soft porcelain was abandoned by Brogniart, about the year 1800, the stock on hand was sold, and pieces may still be picked up at times. Much of this stock was bought and decorated in imitation of that done in the fac- * For regular kiln colors see Chap. XVI. i68 Keramics, tory. An expensive fancy was imitating natural flowers in porcelain; an imitation generally very well done. Since 1875 beautiful soft porcelain has been made at Limoges. A commoner sort of soft porcelain is also made, which in France is in great request for household ware, and also for decorative purposes. Precautions are now taken in all the potteries to prevent the workmen from being in- jured by the dust. These porcelains all come under the head of fritted body with various glazes, generally flint-glass, and Fritted Body Porcelain certainly seems a better name than the one generally used. The paste of the Persian Soft Porcelain is very much the same as of the old Sevres, but with a different glaze; this having no lead in it, being made of silica and the ashes of a plant that grows in salt lands, and which furnishes the alkali neces- sary to make the glass. As can be seen by the table, page 48, old Sevres is a very silicious ware, even more so than the Japanese porcelains — being, indeed, in many respects more like glass than porce- lain. At the last Paris exhibition (1878) some soft body porcelains were shown in which the colors, no doubt enamels, were put on in powder, and fused at a low temperature, producing a very beautiful effect. The modern English porcelains are the type of natural soft porcelain, and, indeed, are the only kind made in England. All the materials necessary for the manufacture of hard porcelain are found in Very Hard Pottery. 1 69 England, nevertheless only bone porcelain is made. The English potters generally explain this by assert- ing that no clay is found there, refractory enough for seggars in which hard porcelain may be baked. Kao- lin is the base of the paste, to which is added a great deal of phosphate of lime obtained from calcined bones, those of sheep being thought the very best; horse and pig bones color the paste. This phosphate of lime is the distinguishing characteristic of the paste of Eng- lish porcelains, which are classed as Bone Phos- phate Body Porcelains. At first the composition of the paste was almost identical with that of fine ball- clay earthenware, and flint-glass was added in order to secure translucence. In the place of this glass, Josiah Spode substituted phosphate of lime from bones, the phosphoric acid of this being found to produce with the other materials the necessary trans- lucence. Next kaolin was substituted for ball-clay, and feldspar was added. Borax, soda, and even oxide of tin, are sometimes added to the paste, which is much more fusible than that of hard porcelain. The paste being moderately plastic can be thrown or moulded. The porcelain biscuit (clay feldspar body) called parian, which is so much used for statuettes, is slightly different in composition from the above. It has an agreeable warm yellowish tint, and is suffi- ciently glazed by the action of the fire. It must, how- ever, be cast, the paste not being plastic enough to be modelled by hand. Some of the Wedgwood colored 170 Keramics. wares were in reality porcelain biscuits; it is often hard to distinguish them from fine stoneware. A boracic glaze, harder than that of Sevres soft porce- lain, is generally used now. It is not easily scratched, is not affected by acids, and gives great brilliancy to the colors used. It is usually put on by a dip. English porcelain is of a soft creamy white color, very agreeable to the eye, and is a good ware for table use. It seems to take a place between hard porcelain and fritted porcelain, while it is much easier to make than this latter, and consequently is cheaper. Nearly all the regular kiln colors can be used on it, and owing to the fusibiUty of the glaze, which softens at a moderate red heat, the colors sink a little into it, and so acquire a glossiness and brilliancy approaching that of the old Sevres. For the same reason the list of gloss-oven and underglaze colors is large, and much decoration is either painted or printed under the glaze; this last, like all other mechanical work in England, being perfectly well done. As a rule, the decorations on ordinary table ware are rather crude in color and common-place in design. Of late years there has been a wonderful change in the artistic character of expensive EngUsh por- celain. Most beautiful wares of all kinds are made, some showing great originality, but the most of them being but literal copies or close imitations of Eastern and particularly of Japanese ware. These Very Hard Pottery. 171 wares show remarkable skill in potting and manipula- tion of all kinds. The paste being plastic can be used in almost any way. Some delicate Worcester por- celains at the French exhibition, 1878, had open- work spaces filled in with colored enamels, while other wares had patterns etche'd on the glaze by means of hydrofluoric acid; others again had black grounds with transparent figures on them. The most celebrated English firms, with characteristic English good sense, employ distinguished foreign as well as native artists, and are continually invent- ing new and beautiful effects, the slip- painting on English porcelain called pate-sur-pate being now almost a specialty of M. Solon Miles. The dec- orations here considered especially English in style, and which are fashionable at present, are apt to have either a sort of conventionaHty run wild, or else a disagreeable odd stiffness of drawing and crudity of color, these being the prevailing faults indeed of English art work of all kinds. The old English soft porcelains, many of which are much prized by collectors, were very like the artificial soft, and were made principally at Bow, Chelsea, Derby, and Worcester. The most famous modern potteries are the Royal Worcester, Minton, the Coalbrookdale works, Copeland, and Brownfield. Wares similar in composition to the English are now made at Creil and Bordeaux, in France, and else- where. According to Prime (page 402), China 172 Keramics. works were established in Philadelphia before 1770, and judging from the advertisement for shank- bones in an old paper, and the fact that the porcelain is promised to be like that made at Bow, this por- celain must have been like English bone porcelain. PART IV. FOR THE DECORA TOR. CHAPTER XVI. KERAMIC PAINTING. Practical Hints. — In order to make good paint- ings on any kind of pottery a knowledge of drawing and painting in general is absolutely necessary. In order to do the best work the decorator should have a thorough artistic training. Almost all the diffi- culties experienced by would-be decorators are owing to the fact that they attempt work for which they have not had the slightest preparation. Before at- tempting any keramic painting a person should be able to make a correct and accurate copy on paper of a drawing or painting. If it can be done in color, so much the better. Without at least this slight degree of preliminary training it is useless to expect to do any good work. Good effects of a very simple kind may possibly be produced by persons ignorant of drawing, if they will be satisfied with simple effects, but the trouble almost invariably is that persons who cannot draw at all wish to do the most difficult work. Unfor- tunately, too, such people, after doing abominable work, have not the knowledge of its badness, 173 1/4 Keramics. and so are satisfied with the abomination. The characteristic of most work done in this country is crudeness, and utter absence of finish, caused by want of proper training. Many persons think that by means of tracing they can obviate this difficulty. Tracing is of use only as a guide, and even in the simplest patterns the hand requires training in order to make good and pleasing lines. It is rather curi- ous that persons who would acknowledge them- selves incapable of making a good water-color draw- ing will, without any hesitation, attempt the most difficult work on porcelain. Painting on Hard Porcelain (Over-glaze). — This is done with the regular kiln or muffle colors. Read over carefully what is said about them Chap. VIII., page 72. Never attempt to decorate ware that has been used. Choose the best quality of French ware. That marked --^^ is always excellent; it is made by Haviland and Co., at Limoges. See that the pieces are regular and even in shape, and free from spots or places where the glaze seems rubbed off. Hold each piece so that the light comes across the surface, and if the glaze seems full of little depressions like an egg-shell, reject it. Thi^ defect is generally caused by the excessive thinnesfi of the glaze. Turn it over and see if there is a de- pressed mark across the name; if so it is a defective piece, rejected by the factory for decoration.- Nearly all the plates sent to this country are thus marked, lu many cases, however, they can be used. Most Keramic Painting. 175 shop-keepers know nothing about these matters from the decorator's point of view, and some do not even know the difference between fine faience or earthen- ware and porcelain. So the purchaser must know exactly what he wants. English porcelain has many- excellent qualities, but the French is best for first attempts. For ordinary work the student requires: A large bottle spirits of turpentine; a large bottle ninety-eight per cent, alchohol; small bottle oil of cloves; small bottle oil of lavender; these last two must be the essential oils, with no alcohol in them, or else the work will be ruined ; one small bottle oil of turpentine or fat oil. (When Oil alone is spoken of in books that is what is meant, not linseed- oil. Fat oil is made by exposing turpentine to the sun and air without allowing any dust to get into it. It is very thick and sticky). The student also requires a cake or pan of water-color carmine, a good many camel-hair brushes of different sizes, flat and round, such as are used for water- colors, will do, either in quills, or mounted in german silver. The handles should be at least as long as an ordinary pencil; it is impossible to do good work with short brushes. Besides these there should be several putois, or dab- bers, a thick round brush, which seems to have the top cut off either straight or slanting, sometimes called a blender. These brushes should vary in size from about a ten-cent piece to very small ones. The straight top ones should be chosen; they are expen- sive brushes, and are apt to be very unsatisfactory; 176 Kcramics. a good one is a treasure. One or two tracers or liners^ brushes with very long fine hairs, are useful. One or two hard lead pencils, and some lithographic crayons. A horn or ivory palette-knife and one of •steel, both as flexible as possible. A needle set in a handle. A china-painter's palette, which is a porce- lain slab full of holes-for the colors, and which should have a cover. A small glass muUer for using with powder colors. This should be chosen with great care, and should be of a very hard glass, a; a muller made of a soft lead glass may injure t lem perceptibly. Two or three slabs or pieces of ground glass; generally called glass pa/ei^es in the books. For very fine work a large slab should be obtained, bedded in plaster so as to be per- fectly flat and even. The under surface of the muller should also be perfectly flat, so that the two surfaces are completely in contact. Tracing and impression paper, a little modelling wax, plenty of fine linen rags, some if possible of very fine old linen, such as is used for the finest handkerchiefs. It is well to have a table arranged expressly for this work. Such a table should have one or more small drawers for brushes, colors, etc., and one large one for designs, plaques, etc. There should also be a piece of wood about two feet or less long, and about six inches wide, arranged so that it can be put at right angles to the table; this can either be done by means of a screw and nut fastening to the top of the table, or it can be arranged so as to slip in a Keramic Painting. 177 groove under the top, like a drawer. Many persons work without this rest or support, but it is a great advantage in many cases. The whole table should have a high edge or border except in the front; it is convenient to have this higher than the little bottles used. This edge supports a cover which must always ; be put over the table when not in use. Such a table is very convenient; nevertheless, the ingenious student can supply its place by pasteboard boxes and other contrivances. A rest for the hand is necessary, which can either be a flat ruler supported on two small blocks, or a strip of wood about an inch and a half wide, and as long as is needed, supported on feet at each end. Large plaques can be painted on an easel. In all cases great care must be taken to cover the work so as to keep out the dust or fluff, which is the great enemy of the keramic painter. There are many excellent color makers; but the most convenient paints for beginners are those prepared with turpentine, etc., and put up in tubes ready for use by A. Lacroix, of Paris.* In buying these the student is certain of ob- taining good colors. All the colors in the following list, and many more, can be obtained in powder or in the Lacroix tube colors, though some of them are a little difficult to find in this country. A list of the principal colors used is here given, with rough indi- cations of their ingredients, so as to prevent im- proper mixtures. These indications apply to all fluxed colors. The convenient classification in- * See note 13, Appendix B. 178 Keramics, vented by Lacroix is followed. This classes them in regard to their containing more or less oxuo iron. The student will do well to learn the heads of this classification by heart. These Lacroix colors and the other articles mentioned can be obtained at any good store for artists' materials. The colors marked with a star are enough for a beginner. Until otherwise mentioned, the Lacroix tube colors are meant. These paints are manufactured for use on the glaze of porcelain and of fine earthenwares ^faiences fines) only. Their use on other wares, though oc- casionally successful, is, nevertheless, attended with great risks, and the baker cannot be blamed for failure. Never use over glaze the Lacroix colors marked G. F. {grand feu) in one corner of the label, as they are underglaze colors. In ordering the Lacroix colors always give the French name in full, as the English name differs with different dealers. Be careful to mention all the letters or numbers. Those under the column marked Sevres should always be put in brackets in sending to Paris for colors ; but it is not necessary to do so in sending to dealers here, except where the Sevres number is repeated in the first column, as for example, " Jaune M. a meler, 41 de Sevres — Lacroix color in tubes." ' Should powder color be desired, state that fact. If the grounding colors are wanted, state distinctly that the "couleurs pour fonds, or grounding colors" are wanted. Mention also that the colors are to be Keramic Painting. 179 the ones used on porcelain. See that the tubes have Lacroix's name on them, as other colors are put up in tubes. Most of these are inferior, and at any rate colors by different makers should not be used together. So many disappointments , arise from carelessness in these small matters, that the above precautions cannot be too strongly urged. Most of the colors used in porcelain painting change very little in firing, only becoming glossy instead of dull; except, indeed, in the case of in- judicious mixtures. Carmines change very much, being a very dull muddy color when applied, chang- ing to bright pink when properly baked. Owing to the danger of thick colors scaling off, it is better to shade by a succession of tints,increasing in darkness, than by putting on any one color or mixture of colors thick and thin. All these remarks apply both to powder and to tube colors. If the sample plates mentioned further on have been carefully made and studied, the student will have but little trouble. It is impossible to be quite certain of effect without careful trials. Tube colors should be kept in a cool place, and the tops screwed on tight; it is also well frequently to change their position so that the paint may not settle. Should the paints get dry in the tubes, these can be opened at the bottom, the paint taken out, and before using it can be ground on the slab with the muUer with a little turpentine. i8o Ker amies. GROUP I.— CoLons WITHOUT Iron which are Whites, Uranium-Yellow, Platina- French Names. Blanc Chinois Blanc fixe *Bleu ciel azur *Bleu ciel clair ou tendre Bleu fonc^ •Bleu outremer riche ... *Bleu Victoria ou ordinaire Bleu vert Bleu turquoise... •Bleu riche. •Carmin tendre A Carmin tendre No. i. Carmin No. 2. *Carmin No. 3 fonc6 . *Laque carmin^e . . . . Pourpre cramoisi , . . . ♦Pourpre riche Pourpre ordinaire. ♦Violet d'or clair. ♦Violet d'or fonc6. Jaune d'urane. Gris de platine. Noir d'iridium. 28T 24 Pourpre ruhis , , , Pourpre No. 2 60 60 English Names. Chinese ■white . . . Permanent white. . Sky blue Light sky blue . . . . Dark blue Deep ultramarine. Victoria or ordinary or common blue.. Blue green ) Turquoise j Very pale blue. Deep blue. Light carmine A . . " _ " No. I. Carmine No. 2. . . . Deep carmineNo.3. Crimson lake Crimson purple. . . . Deep purple Ruby purple. Purple No. 2. Purple Light violet of gold, Deep " " " Uranium yellow . . 9 Platinagrey. Colors. Bright, but not very dark Very deep rich blue Greenish blues .... Dark and deep in tone and something like indigo Very light pink. . . . Pale rosy pink Pink, a little blueish Rich pink More like deep rose color Superb dark claret. Rather light, more like solferino or crimson Darker . . . . \ Rich purples . . . . | Iridium black. Dark yellow Soft neutral grey . Keramics. I8i Bluhs, Gold Colors (that is the Colors made with Gold), Grey and Iridium-Black. Ingredients. Remarks. Tin, arsenic, phosphate of lime Cobalt modified by 1 zinc Cobalt modified by zinc alumina, arsen ic, etc Principally cobalt. Purple of Cassius with a little chloride of silver and more or less flux to lighten or darken the colors Purples are the same as carmines, modified by oxide of gold and dif- ferent fluxes Purple of Cassius — very little silver Uranium Platina — metal Ox. iridium. White is very little used in porcelain painting, as it is apt to crack off. Blues can be shaded or mixed with each other or with purples and jonquil, and mixing yel- lows. With, carmines they make fine violets. Great care must be taken in mixing them with ochres or brown, as they do not work well with the iron colors ; nevertheless, fine flesh tones can often be obtained from green-blue and other blues and purplish red mixed, also from the violets of iron and blues. Blue and capu- cine make a warm black. Blues should be put on thinly, as they are apt to scale off. All gold colors, which are the carmines, purples, gold violets and laque carminde must be used thin and with but little fat turpentine. They mix well with yellows, greens, blues and browns. Never use carmines for flesh on hard porcelain. The carmines can be put over yel- low in a second baking, and then give a color like Vermillion. The English carmines are the best, but must be tested before using. They do not come in tubes. If carmines are fired at too low a temperature, they are yellowish, if at too high they have a lilac tinge. If applied too thickly they are apt to be yellowish also. These must be used carefully on fine earthen- ware, as they are often spoiled by the glaze — should be tested for delicate work. Mix well with blues, yellows and greens. Does not mix well. An excellent grey that can be mixed with any color and will not injure it as do the iron greys (group 3). Very expensive. Excellent black that can be mixed with all col- ors without injury. Very expensive. Keramics. GROUP II. — Colors With little French Names. Jaune pale fixe •Jaune M. k meler 41 de Sevres Jaune 43 C Jaune 46 ♦Jaune d'ivoire 47 de Sevres ♦Jaune d'argent ♦Jaune orangd ♦Jaune jonquille Jaune d'urane ♦Vert No. 5 pr^ ♦Vert No. 6, brun ou olive ♦Vert No. 7,noir Vert 36, T Vert 36, D Vert bleu, riche ♦Vert chrome 3, B Vert chrome., nche ♦Vert bleuitre' Vert ^meraude Vert pomme Vert russe ♦Vert de vessie English Names. Permanent yellow. Mixing yellow Ivory yellow. Silver yellow. Orange yellow... Jonquil yellow... Uranium yellow. . GreeJis. Grass green . . Brown green. Dark green.. Green No. 36, T.... Green No. 36, D. . . . Deep blue green . . . Chrome green 3, B. Deep Chrome green Bluish green Emerald stone green Apple green Deep green Sap green Colors. Bright, cool yellow.. Darker yellow Still darker A very bright yellow, not in the least like ivory Very bright and warm Not very deep in tone Bright canary yellow See group i Dull, soft, rich yel- low green. Very cold and dark more like green- ish grey Like grass green, only darker. . . > . Like 36 T., only darker Rich blue green .... A rich blue green.. Deep yellow green Intense crude green Rich dark blue green Ker amies. 183 OR NO Iron, Yellows and Greens. Practically no iron. Practically no iron. Practically no iron. Ingredients. A mixture of jaune jon quille and jaune oran- ge — -no silver at all in it All yellows are made of potash, zinc, iron, and occasionally a little uranium Chrome, cobalt, zinc, sometimes iron, par- ticularly for the dark- er greens — sometimes alumina Very difficult to use, almost invariably a failure. Destroys the iron colors, but mixes well with the gold colors, with greys and with blues. Excellent colors, same as 41 only darker. Par- ticularly fine with gold colors and greens._ This is also called jaune pale pour les chairs, a much better name than jaune d'ivoire. It is the opposite of No. 41. It mixes with the iron colors, but is not good for the gold colors. Mixes well with blues and gold colors. Yellows intensify in baking, so must be used carefully. When used in centre of flowers always place the yellow directly on the por- celain. Mixing yellow and jonquil yellow have practically no iron in them, and are to lie used with blues for fresh bright greens. Greens all work well, but are apt to become too bright or crude when fired. They can be modified by carmines or purples or by grey No. I. Bright tints must not be placed over dark ones or they will be destroyed in the firing. Greens can also be modified with yel- lows, blues and the iron colors. Deep blue green can be used instead of this if it cannot be obtained. _ Keramics. GROUP III.— In which Iron is either the Base or the Coloring As A RULE THESE CoLORS MUST NOT French Names. ♦Rouge chair i ♦Rouge chair 2 Rouge chair 3 ♦Rouge carmine ♦Rouge laqueux ..... Rouge violatre pale. . ♦Violet de fer fonc^ .. ♦Violet de fer teinte grise ♦Brun Rouge Rouse Sanguin Rouge orang^ ♦Rouge capucine ♦Brun, 3 bitume ♦Brun 4,fonc^, 17...,. Brun mordor^ Brun clair Brun fonc6 ♦Brun de bois Brun M. ou 108 ♦Brun sdpia ♦Brun jaune.. .. .. .. ♦Ocre % vert A. V ♦Ocre Ocre fonc6 ♦Oris No. I ♦Oris No. 2 •Gris noir ou fonc^ . . . Oris roux ou roussatre Gfis rositre 69 English Names. Flesh red or carna- tion I Flesh red or carna- tion 2 Flesh red or carna- tion 3 Carmine red Laky red . Purplish red Dark violet of iron. Gray violet of iron. Red brown. Blood red , . . , Orange red Capucine red . Brown No. 3 Brown No. 4 or 17. Golden brown. Light brown.. Dark brown . . . Wood brown. . Brown M. or 108. . Sepia Yellow brown.... Ochre for greens. Ochre Dark ochre Grey No. i . . Grey No. 2 . . Neutral grey. Warm grey . . Rosy grey . . . Colors. Cool greyish red . Very like light red in oils Very like light red in oils, darker Rich red maroon . . . More a rich purplish brown than violet More red than brown Deep orange Brilliant, rather bricky red Bright yellowish brown Rich dark neutral brown Reddish brown.... Very yellow brown.. Very like raw sienna. Dark salmon color.. Much the same as brun jaune. Bluish grey . . Warmer grey . Like light flesh color Same as rouge chair No. 1. Ker amies. 185 Matter: Reds, Red-Browns, Browns, Ochres, Greys, Blacks. BE Mixed with those of Group I. Ingredients. Remarks. All the iron reds are made from the red oxide of iron varied by the method of preparation, not by mixtures of other colors. Browns and ochres are made from brown oxide of iron, modified by cobalt and zinc. Very valuable colors alone or with yellow No. 47. Do not mix well with blacks, greys or blues. They disappear entirely when glazed with yellow, but yellows can be glazed by them. None of the lighter reds will stand much heat. Must not be confounded with laque carmin^e (a gold color). Can be made from rouge laqueux and a little yellow 47 (ivory yellow). This is a hard color and does not glaze well. Is improved by a little ivory yellow. Good in flesh (see blues). When mixed with blues these colors dull them a little. Mixed with yellow ochre, give beautiful warm browns. Rouge violatre pale is sometimes called light violet of iron. Excellent color, sometimes does not glaze well, then mix with a little ivory yellow. With blue make blacks. All good, intensify in firing, so dark touches or tints should be reserved for the second bak- ing. As a rule do not mix well with colors of group I. Excellent for retouching, also for shading blues in conjunction with certain greys, carmines and yellows. Excellent color, can be mixed with all colors. Mixes well with reds. To mix with greens, purples and carmines. Mixes with ivory yellows and the flesh reds for dark flesh tints, does not mix well with green, but is good to glaze green. Ochres and iroa reds mix well. Greys are made of iron, cobalt and zinc in dif- ferent proportions. Apt to injure reds. An excellent color, mixes with all others; dark* ens very much in firing. ( Very fusible ; good in flesh tints ; also for glaz- \ ing— must be used thin. 186 Keramics. GROUP III.— In which Iron is either the Base or thb Coloring As A RULE THESE CoLORS MUST NOT BK French Names. English Names. Colors. *Gris 6 ou perle . Pearl gray Light yellowish gray Oris BleuStre.., Gris de Platine. Blue gray . . .. Platina gray See group i Noir corbeau . . Noir d' ivoire. . Noir fonc^ Noir d' iridium Raven black . Ivory black . . Iridium black Ker amies. 187 Matter: Reds, Rkd-Browns, Browns, Ochres, Greys, Blacks. Mixed with those of Group I. — Continued. Ingredients. >^ gris noir (12) X blue tendre (28 T.) .... - Cobalt and iron . See group i Remarks. Very fusible ; dangerous with the iron colors, sometimes causing them to disappear when baked. These fusible greys when mixed in too large quantities with other colors are apt to make spots that look oily after firing. They are also apt to spoil or dull delicate tints of any kind, particularly the flesh-colors. They must be used with great caution. A very useful color, but apt to injure reds. All of these ^reys have cobalt and iron in them which mixture tends to produce black. Del- icate greys, without iron, can be made by mix- ing greens with carmines and purples, or yel- lows with gold violets; such greys can be used with impunity with colors of ^roup No. i, but no rules can be given for making them._ Pla- tina grey, group i, is perfectly safe with all colors. Blacks must be used very carefully, as when used thick they are apt to crack off. When used thin, they should have a little blue added. Very good blacks are obtained by using deep red and deep blue, one over the other ; when thus used, it is better to have a separate bak- ing for each color. See also rouge capucine. It is always a risk to mix these blacks with other colors. Iridium black is safe. See group i. There is no color resembling vermillion, except coral, and this is very dangerous to use and cannot be mixed. Capucine red, and a little flesh red mixed and put on thin, give a tint like French vermillion. The above remarks apply to all porcelain, or rather regular kiln colors (coulcurs de mouflSe tendres); English, French or German, in tubes or in powder. The colors marked with a star are all and more than are necessary for a be- ginner. i88 Keramics. LIST OF GROUNDING OR BACKGROUND COLORS. These colors and, above all, those marked P F, must not be mixed either with each other or with those in the first list. French Names. English Names Bleu celeste.. Bleu Indien.. Bleu lavande. Bleu marin. Brun mordor6. Cafe au lait. . . Carm61ite C61adon Corail Oris d' acier Oris tourterelle. Isabelle Jaune Chinois. .. Lilas fusible Mais Mauve Rose Pompadour. Saumon Turquoise bleu. . . Turquoise vert Vert pour fonds Vert d' eau au cuivre. Vert d' eau au chrome. Celestial blue. . Indian blue Lavender blue. Marine blue. . . Reddish brown . . . Light coffee color. Carmelite Celadon Coral red Steel gray Turtle dove gray. Isabelle Chinese yellow. . . . Fusible lilac Maize Mauve Rose Pompadour. . Salmon Turquoise blue. . . . Turquoise green. . . . Grounding green . . . Copper water green. Chrome water green Remarks. A strong rich blue. Much the same only deeper. What we should call laven- der, not blue at all. Much the same as bleu cel- este only greener. Also comes for painting. Color of coffee with milk in it. A rich deep red or maroon. A peculiar greenish or blu' ish gray, very delicate. More like a brown gray or drab, very soft and pretty. A sort of fawn color. A very bright clear yellow. Corn colors A bright soft pink. A very rich rather light blue; also comes for painting. A very rich greenish blue; also comes for painting. A very brilliant rather crude green. A very delicate beautiful bluish green, very light in tone. Much the same as the above, only greener and darker. Kcramic Painting. English and German colors have about the same power as pigments as the French, but the names given them vary somewhat. (See powder colors.) No colors made in this country have as yet been worth much. The first thing is thoroughly to understand the colors and the effect they produce after they are fired. For this purpose take two plates, or else broken pieces, of the same kind of ware as that to be decorated. If a plate, draw lines running from the circumference to the centre, so dividing the edge of the plate into as many compartments as there are colors to be used. Squeeze out a little of each color on the glass slab, and rub it down well with the palette-knife, using a horn or ivory knife for the first and second group of colors. If the color is too thick, add turpentine; if it dries too quickly, add a drop or two of lavender, which also often makes the colors more easy to manage. Either use the colors di- rectly from the slab, or lift them into the holes in the porcelain palette, where, if well covered, they will keep a day or two. Then fill each compartment of the plate with a color, putting it on very thick at the one end, and letting it grow thinner at the other, un- til it fades into the white of the porcelain. Some colors will be easy to manage, others very difficult. Mis- takes can be wiped out with either a dry rag, or one moistened with a little turpentine. Persevere till all are as well graded as possible on both plates or slabs. After the paint is perfectly dry, which will 190 Ker amies. probably require at least twenty-four hours, and which can be known by its looking dull, put all around the plate, going over each color, a band of carmine, one of purple, one of pearl grey, and one of dark grey. These bands must be very narrow so as not entirely to cover the colors under them. The middle of the plate should be left clean, for experi- ments in obtaining greys by various mixtures, such as greens and carmines, greens and purple or gold violets, iron violets with green and blue, etc. All such mixtures should be carefully noted down. When all is finished and quite dry, one plate is baked and the other is kept, and so the difference between the baked and the unbaked colors can be learned better than in any other way. For careful or elaborate work of any kind tests of this nature should always be made; there is no other way of thoroughly learning the qualities or values of the colors. When baked, the carmine (on porcelain) should be of a bright rose color. If not sufficiendy baked, it is brick red; if too much baked, it has a violet tinge. It is best to make the first attempt at painting with a single color. Take broken plates, or any flat bits of porcelain, or even earthenware tiles, and trace circles with water-color carmine, then try to fill up these circles with color, endeavoring to make it as flat and even as possible. Try not to go beyond the outline of the circle ; if this is done by mistake, the color should be scratched off when dry. It will soon be discovered that some colors are much Keramic Painting. 191 harder to manage than others, particularly blues, pur- ple, carmines, and greys. It is sometimes necessary to add a little fat turpentine to these colors, but this must be done cautiously, as too much will make the paint crack and boil up, as it is called, when baked. The best way is just to take up a little on the tip of the brush. Turpentine can be used freely, very much as water is used in water-color, still it is not well to have the paints too wet. Should the paint dry too quickly, a very little oil of lavender will correct this fault. After trying to lay these tints as flat as possible with an ordinary paint brush, they can be wiped out and a new set can be done with the Putois. It is almost impossible to describe the use of this brush in words, while, if the process be once seen, it is perfectly easy to understand. Add a little fat turpentine and lavender to the color, and grind in well with the muUer or knife. Take a flat brush and go all over the surface that is to be colored, no matter if the tint be rather uneven, and the brush-marks visible. Let the color alone a little while, and when it feels sticky, go all over it with the putois, holding it perpendicular to the plate, and striking short rapid strokes, turning the brush in the fingers. If well done a perfectly even surface will be produced. The brush should never strike twice in succession the same place. Should the brush take up any color, it must be laid aside, and a new one taken up. In all cases the brush must be dry, clean, and free from dust. The student must not 192 Ker amies. be discouraged if it takes him some time to learn to lay a good flat tint. This is the method generally used for laying flat grounds of all colors. It will soon be found that dark grounds are much harder to manage than light ones. It is much better to learn this process from a teacher, or from seeing it done by a decorator. There is another method with powder colors much used for grounds or flat tints, which will be described in its place. As soon as the student can make good flat tints, he should try imi- tating an object in relief, such as a ball or an egg. For the former, circles can be traced as before, and the ball should be shaded with great care, still using only one color for each ball, different methods being tried in order to have facility in working. It may all be done by the putois ; this will be found diffi- cult, but the knowledge and the freedom of hand obtained by repeated attempts will be found very useful. Other balls should be shaded by hatching (crossed lines such as are seen in copper-plate en- gravings), and stippling (dotting or filling up small spaces by dots), or by combining both methods. When the student can make a good ball in all of these methods, he will have acquired a great deal of control over his tools. It will be well next to practice grading one color into another, say blue into yellow. Take light blue, and making it dark at the top of the plate or tile, grade it until it is lost in the white of the porcelain; then try the same process with the yellow, only re- Keramic Painting. 193 versing it, so that the light parts of both colors come together. This method is often used for graded skies, but in actual practice it is best to have the first color baked before the next is put on, as otherwise the work is apt to be spoiled in the baking. It is hardly worth while to have the above studies baked. They can be wiped off, and the porcelain used for finer work intended to be kept. When persons are not willing to go through so thorough a preliminary training, perhaps the best things to take are conventional patterns in solid colors with good clear outlines. Good subjects of this class, with directions for coloring, can be found in Piton's first album for painting on China. Such work can be done on the white Minion tiles sold for decorating. The colored tiles should be avoided by beginners. The next step had better be a Monochrome (Fr. camaieu), that is, a subject painted all in one color, say a group of figures. There are pretty lithographs sold, that are very suitable for this pur- pose; but anything will do, especially as the first at- tempts should be regarded only as studies. It may be remarked that, even for persons never expecting to paint figures on pottery, it is well to do them for prac- tice, because they are the most difficult things to do well. There are different methods of putting the de- sign on the plate. It can be drawn at once, using for this purpose lithographic crayon, which marks perfectly well on the unprepared porcelain, or else o 194 Keramics. a lead pencil can be used; for this last the plate must be prepared by wiping it over with turpentine or with alcohol. The design is generally put on by Tracing it, which is the best way, as then everything can at once be put in the right place. The tracing is made and is then fastened to the plate by means of small pieces of modelling wax or of gummed paper. The impression paper is slipped underneath, and the design gone over with a point, or a hard lead pencil; on lifting olf the paper the design will be faintly marked in red lines. The outline should then be carefully gone over and corrected in water- color carmine, which will disappear in the firing. The lines must be made as delicate as possible, and the fewer the better. The tracing paper lines, and the marks left by the wax should always be wiped with a fine rag, as otherwise these marks often affect delicate colors. The design could be drawn in at once with the carmine if desired. Deep red brown is a very easy color to manage, and looks well when burnt; still, if the student has faithfully worked at his balls and eggs, he can use any color with facility. The carmine outline being in water- color, is not affected by the turpentine color; thus making it very convenient to put in a background with the putois. In this case, after the back- ground is dry, the carmine outline can be distinctly seen through it, and the color can be scraped off the pattern with a knife, leaving the white porcelain. Another way is to take a very little clove oil and Keramic Painting, 195 go carefully all round the outline with a fine brush. Then with a fine rag wipe away the oil, which will bring the color with it, leaving the design clearly outlined. Be sure the paint is perfectly dry before doing this; it is better to wait a day. Still another way is to paint all over the parts of the pattern covered by the ground with oil-color lake mixed with a little lavender, and in about a quarter of an hour the whole can be wiped off. This should be first tried on something of no importance. When easily managed it is very quick work. Beginners generally spoil their first attempts. Color Studies. — If the monochrome is successful, a study in a variety of colors can next be tried. For any elaborate work it is absolutely necessary to make double samples of the mixtures of tints desired and have them fired. There is no other method of find- ing out how they will look. For ordinary work this is hardly necessary. A little practice soon teaches what to expect. Before beginning the study, read over carefully the column of remarks in the table of colors, paying particular attention to what is said about the colors to be used in the study. White should not be used by beginners, the white I of the porcelain taking its place. The method of putting on the outline is the same as that just des- , cribed for monochrome. Certain colors, of which ' there is a large variety, are sold especially for back- grounds. They must not be mixed with the other colors (see list). Any color, however, can be used Keramics. for backgrounds; some working much better than others. Flowers are perhaps the best subjects to begin with in colors, as the tints are generally pure. If a good painting on porcelain can be procured to work from, so much the better. Every good decorator is apt to have a color- method of his own. All methods which succeed are good, and a skillful painter will get fine effects from mixtures of colors utterly forbidden in books. The student must remember that colors are affected by Juxtaposition, as well as by their actual tint. In copying make as exact a copy as possible. Let there be no slurred nor imperfect work. Wipe it all out a dozen times, if necessary. Nothing can take the place of careful practice, and the knowledge gained by patient endeavor is very valuable. The only way to obtain freedom and breadth in after work is by elaborate painstaking at first. Even good artists are bewildered and annoyed by the tricks played by the ungrateful medium. A second wash of color should not be put on until the first is perfectly dry, or it will come off. When necessary, tints can be blended with a small putois; but it is better to do without it if possible and get the effect by means of the ordinary brush. Do not tease or torment the colors. Try to get the right color in the right place and then leave it alone. The following hints may be useful: Colored Flowers. — Blackberries. — Purple put on thin, when dry Keramic Painting. 197 glaze lights with sky-blue, shadows with sap green {ijert de vessie) or brown green. Buttercups. — Orange yellow, thin for the lights, ochre in the shades. Campanulas. — Lights sky-blue, purple and blue in shadows. Corn-Poppies, Red. — Two firings: first firing, lights orange-red, shadows lakey red, heart iridium black; second firing, touch up the shadows with car- mine No. 3. Periwinkles. — Lights sky-blue, shades ultra- marine with a touch of purple, centre silver yellow, touched up with carmine red {rouge- carmine). Roses, Pink. — Carmine No. i, thin in high lights. Carmine No. 3 for shadows, and the same thicker for the heart of the flower. When perfectly dry, glaze with sky-blue where needed in the light, and with green in the shadows. (To glaze is to put a thin wash of color.) Roses, Red, require two firings to be well done, so should not be tried without a good firer. First fire, carmine red (lakey red will do with a touch of ivory yellow). After this firing use carmine No. 3 to finish with. Glaze shadows with ultramarine. Do not confound rouge carmine (iron) with laque carminee (gold), they belong to differen. groups. Roses, Yellow.— Silver yellow in the light, yellow ochre in shadows. Deepest shades in orange yellow. Violets. — Sky-blue mixed with gold violet, shad- ows pure gold violet. 198 Keramics. White Flowers should have a dark background of leaves, etc. White of the porcelain shaded with blueish, greenish or pinkish greys, which are made from light greys by adding blue, ochre, or pur- ple. Sometimes these four colors, or the three last alone, mixed in different proportions, will give beau- tiful tones of grey. It is better to use no white paint. In putting yellow in the centres of flowers, always clean off any color, so that the yellow will rest directly on the white porcelain. Foliage. — Use greenish blues for high lights, chrome green thin for the shades, chrome and ochre for deep shadows. For yellowish greens in high light, silver yellow mixed with chrome; shadows sap green. Dark greens, silver yellow and chrome mixed with brown, or even with dark green No. 7. For young shoots, carmine and silver yellow. For distant flowers, same tints as near, only much thinner. For distant leaves, silver yellow, chrome green, purple, and light grey, mixed in different proportions, as the tints desired are more yellow, more pink, or more grey. Landscape— Skies. — Sky-blue put on with pu- tois. The clouds can be gently wiped out with a fine rag, and the shadows put on with delicate greys like those for flowers. Another way: sky-blue, violet of iron, ivory yellow, put on side by side in decided flat touches. Then blend with putois. Distances. — Purple, chrome green, silver yellow, black. These four colors are mixed to the desired Keramic Painting. 199 shades, or else bluish greys can be used with a little carmine. Nearer the foreground, ochres and blue greens can be used. Foregrounds — Earth, etc. — Greyish and red- dish tones must be put on boldly, never using the putois. Strengthen with violet of iron, with browns, greys, greens, according to what is to be represented. Trees. — Near : Bluish-green and carmine. — Dis- tant — Yellow greens made of ochre and ultramarine. Most of the greens sold answer for foliage, but they are all crude, and must have purple or carmine mixed with them. The reddish or warm tones are obtained by the various browns, and by iron violet mixed with sky-blue. Houses, walls, etc. — Ivory-yellow, ochre; shadows bluish grey, touched up with bitumen. Water. — This takes its tones from its surround- ings — sometimes sky-blue where it reflects the sky, sometimes greenish, and brownish. Ocean. — Greenish-blue— blue with a little mixing- yellow. Brown touches for reflections, etc. Let all the brush strokes be horizontal. Can be retouched after firing. Excellent effects in foregrounds, trees, etc., can be obtained by scraping out lines or spots with a sharpened stick. After firing the colors are apt to be hard and rather glaring. They can be toned down by glazing shadows and distances with the same mixtures as described for white flowers, and firing a second time. Though the gold colors may not be mixed 200 Keramics. with the iron colors, in many cases they may be put over them in a second baking. Heads. — The general tint is ivory-yellow and flesh-red No, i, about one-third red to two-thirds yellow. Before putting this on, the eyes, nostrils, corners of the mouth, etc., can be sketched in with the flesh-red pure, and this may also be used for the shadows. When dry, put a thin wash of the general tint; while still wet, the lips, cheeks, etc., can be strengthened in color with the red. Ochre is used for reflected lights. All are then blended with the putois. Violet of iron and greenish-blue can be used for shadows, with sometimes a little grey. The darker flesh colors can be used to finish with. Blue eyes can be painted with sky-blue, greenish-blue, and grey. Brown eyes, yellow, brown, and sepia. Pupils bJack, and leave or pick out spot of light. Light hair, ivory yellow, shadows yellow-brown and brown io8, grey and bitumen. Darker complexions are made of the darker tones of the same colors — for example, iron violet and ochre for a man's dark, ruddy complexion. In small heads the needle can be used to pick out any little lumps of color, and to soften the general effects. The painting can be stippled and strengthened, grading the color carefully towards the high lights. Delicate grey tones can be used in the half-tints, but must be managed with great care, as they are apt to injure the reds. Do not use sky-blue for this purpose, but a good grey that has been tested. Keramic Painting. 201 Platina grey is perfectly safe, and does not injure the reds at all. It is very expensive. Other com- binations answer very well in the hands of skilful artists, but the above are those generally used. Ivory yellow or pale yellow for flesh tints is made expressly for this purpose. Too much yellow will spoil the work. The flesh colors will not bear as high a degree of heat as the colors for flowers (see table, Chap. VIII.), so must be fired carefully. Firing. — In all cases when a painting is to be fired more than once, make the first painting light and sketchy, as though easy to darken tints, it is impossi- ble to Hghten them. In this country two, or at the extreme, three firings, should suffice, as few firers here grade the heat. The first firing should be the hottest. If possible finish for one firing. The more delicate the work the more precautions must be taken. For coarse or bold wOrk many of the above directions are superfluous. Sometimes after the painting is fired, it looks well, but has no glaze, or is only glazed in spots. This is remedied by putting all over it a thin wash of either pearl grey, warm grey, light carmine A, light sky- blue or ivory yellow; according to the tones of color used in the painting. It must then be fired again. In some cases it will be found that by mix- ing these colors, which are very fusible, with the col- ors that do not glaze well, the effect will be im- proved. Purple, for example, hardly ever glazes well, and a little pearl grey mixed with it will have 202 Keramics. a good effect, and will not sensibly affect the color. The above colors also answer for toning down. As for white, it is very little used in porcelain painting, the white of the porcelain taking its place. It is only used to heighten the effect in small spots of light. For this purpose blanc fixe, is employed. It can be mixed with colors for these high lights, but is very dangerous to use, as it almost invariably either scales off or boils up, if the firer is not very skillful. For any important work careful preliminary experiments should be made with it. There is no iron in it. Chinese white can in some cases be mixed with color, and used in painting, but is very difficult to manage. In using white it should be put on for the second firing, as it does not require much heat. Always use the colors of the same maker on the same peice of work. This may not always be necessary; but proof that it is unnecessary is only to be had by careful experiment. Care must, be taken not to pile on color too thick, as it may scale off. After the day's work is over, brushes must be care- fully washed in turpentine, and dried; never strok- ing them against the hairs, but drawing them to a point. Once in a while they must be washed in brown or soft-soap lather, and carefully rinsed. Brushes must not be left with turpentine in them for more than a day or two. When very dirty, alcohol will clean them at once, as also palettes, slabs, etc. Never let the alcohol be near any painting, as ^ Keramic Painting. 203 drop may spoil all; as will also moisture from the breath, or drops of water. Dampness of any kind, particularly that from an open window on a rainy day, is bad for keramic painting, and often prevents a good glaze. Putois backgrounds should always be put on in a warm, dry room. The regular kiln-colors just described are also sold in powder, and many decorators prefer them in this form. Except for professional workers, however, the tube colors are much more convenient. The Lacroix colors are also sold in powder, and those called couleurs surbroyees No. 3 (extra finely ground colors) can be generally used without any further preparation than mixing with the turpentines. All other powder colors, and also the No. 3 Lacroix, if at all gritty, must be prepared as follows: Take a ferfecily clean ground glass slab, one bedded in plaster is best; take as much powder as will be re- quired for the work, too much rather than too little; add a few drops of lavender; take the rauller and grind carefully, going round and round, trying to bring the color from the sides of the slab towards the centre, always pressing pretty hard. The oil and powder will soon form a shiny liquid about as thick as molasses. A little thin turpentine can be added at times, if necessary, and all should be ground until it is perfectly smooth and shiny; then some fat turpentine, generally a little less than the amount of color, should be added, and ground into the mass. This mixture should be ground until it is a little 204 Keramics. thicker than the oil paints usually sold, and is used in the same way as the tube colors. It will have to be prepared each time for nice work. Should powder colors when bought be extremely gritty, they must first be ground with water on a glass slab, and then when dry, ground with turpentine as described. In this case a quantity can be ground in water at a time, and put away for use. In grinding different colors, it is absolutely necessary to see that the slab is perfectly clean each time; it is better to have separate slabs for delicate colors. Badly ground colors can never produce good effects in painting, and it requires a good deal of practice to grind well, and to know how much fat turpentine to use. Some decorators do not use lavender, but only the two turpentines; some also simply mix or rub down the powders with a palette-knife instead of a muller. This is dangerous, as with an iron knife the little particles of iron are scratched off by the ground glass, and mix with the colors, and in the case of light yellows, for example, the injury is great. With a horn or ivory knife, enough lime may be scratched off to dull the colors considerably. For merely lifting little heaps of color from one place to an- other, it does not matter what knife is used; though it is safer not to use the iron knife with the non-iron colors. Color for a number of pieces that are to be alike should all be prepared at once, as otherwise the tints are apt to vary. For grounds, more fat turpentine may be used than for painting, particu- Keramic Painting. 205 larly in purples, carmines, and blues, as otherwise it is difficult to manage the putois. Laying Grounds With Powder Colors.— It is very difficult to put on dark grounds with the putois, and the method generally used is as fol- lows: TakQ grounding oil which is generally linseed, or still better nut oil, prepared much as drying oil; that is, boiled with a little litharge. In old times garlic and onion were used boiled in vinegar until a sticky syrup was made (this is good for gold on soft porcelain). Thin, if necessary, with turpen- tine, and put it all over the surface of the piece, say of a plate, then with a dabber, made of cotton wool tied in a piece of soft raw silk, go all over the sur- face, tapping it lightly till the oil is evenly spread. Take a large blender, as full of coloring powder as it will hold, and dust it all over the surface; if there is too much powder anywhere, brush it off lightly. It is better to learn this method from a decorator. The backgrounds produced in this way are so per- fectly flat and smooth as to be inartistic; besides which the powders are often very unwholesome, and should not be inhaled. This is the method al- most universally employed for tea services, etc., decorated in bands, or masses of solid color. The Lacroix powder colors {surbroyee No. 3) are excellent for the above purpose. Besides the powder colors of Lacroix there are those of Dubois-Morteleque (very good for blues and Brun Mordore), Guyonnet, Colleville (some of 206 Keramics. his blues are very fine), Pinard, Bunel, Chapelle, Chalmel, and others in France. All French colors, and also all materials needed by the keramic painter, can be obtained in Paris at the sign of the " Bon Broyeur," Carre St. Martin. The English powder colors, when by good makers, are excellent, partic- ularly the carmines. The yellows sometimes have silver in them, and must be used carefully in mix- ing. Emery's are the English colors most used here. Stevenson is noted for greens. Colclough, Massey's successor, is also well known, as are Harri- son, and others. Many German colors are also very good. Those of C. Seidel & Son, Dresden, are re- commended by G. W. Nichols. Other well-known German color makers, are Schuhardt, Bidtel, and Geitner & Sons. The German coral red is the finest made. Un- fortunately German colors are nearly always badly ground, and when used for any fine work should be ground over again with the greatest care. The Ger- man regular kiln colors are also harde}- than the French and English, and in some respects are more like the hard kiln colors of those countries. Owing to this want of fusibiHty they must be used very cautiously on soft glazed wares. The firer, too, should be told that they require a good deal of heat, or else the baking may be imperfect. Never mix' colors by different makers without experimenting carefully beforehand. It is better to use French colors on French ware, English on English, and so on* Keramic Painting. 50/ nevertheless, the Lacroix and other French colors work very well on English bone porcelain^ giving soft and beautiful effects. All hard porcelain colors can be generally used on fine earthenware, the only case in which they would not answer would be if the glaze were too fusible, and had too much lead in it. In using German colors, owing to their hardness, very great care would be necessary. All of the regular kiln colors will entirely disappear in too high a temperature. There are colors made and prepared in this country, but so far nothing is to be said of them. The best Gilding is done on the glaze of porcelain before any colors are put on, and is baked at a tem- perature from 900° to 1000° Cent. (1652° to 1832° F.), which would destroy or injure most colors; besides which the emanations from the gold are apt to pre- vent the colors from glazing well. The gold is dull when baked, and has to be polished with burnishers, the proper use of which must be learned from a teacher. Burnishing is generally done by women, and requires a good deal of practice. A band of gold is first polished, and the strokes of the burnisher must always be in the same direction; a little vinegar and whiting, or Paris-white, is rubbed over the work, and then it is polished a second time. Various beautiful effects are produced by leaving part of the gold dull and part bright. For ordinary work gold can be obtained from the decorators, and if moist can be used with the addition of a little turpentine. 208 Keramics. If in powder it is rubbed down with fat and thin turpentine and then used. A little practice is re- quired to know the right degree of thickness. When mixed with the medium, gold looks brown, or even black. Gold and colors must not be laid over one another, nor must the edges of the gold and the color touch, as the effect will be bad when fired. The or Lacroix (Lacroix gold), in powder or paste, is the safest to buy. Many professional decorators furnish excellent preparations of gold. It is always expensive, as to be good it must be pure. Or en coquille can be used over the painting after it has been fired. A similar gold is also prepared by Lacroix and sold in little bottles, and called or liquide, or liquid gold. Very pretty effects can be obtained by its use, but it will not bear much use or rubbing. It is really a lustre. It is best to put the gilding directly on the white porcelain, if possible. When vessels of any kind are to be finished off with lines, either around their edges or between any bands of color, it is done upon a whirling table, or table-wheel something like a potter's wheel — a horizontal circular slab, so placed on a pointed iron rod as to spin or whirl easily and truly when turned by the hand, standing firmly on a base or foot, and solid so as to be steady when used. These, when good, are expensive ; poor ones are worthless. The dec- orator, steadying his arm on his painting-rest, applies a brush full of color to any circular piece of ware, Keramic Painting. 209 and moves the wheel round with his other hand — making as fine or as thick aline as may be required. The lines on pieces of any other shape must be done by hand, requiring great skill and practice. — all good professional decorators will do this work so well that it is better to trust it to them, Hard-Kiln or Medium Heat Colors (read Chap. VIII., page 86). — These procelain colors are what decorators here call hard or high fire colors, baking at about 950° or more Cent., 1742° F., and are used overglaze. They must not be confounded with gloss-oven colors. Owing to their comparative infusibility, gilding and painting with the softer colors can be done on them as on a colored glaze. The colors are much the same, only fewer in number than the regular kiln colors. These colors, which ordi- narily are used only for backgrounds, are not sold here prepared for amateurs, nor is there but a small choice of them to be obtained in this country. They can be obtained from professional decorators. The method of using them is the same as that for the regular kiln colors or ordinary porcelain paints. It is better to let the professional decorator put them on. For full details of the mahode Richard, see Chap. VIII. This method, which gives most lovely effects, cannot be used here, owing to the want of proper firers, and also because it can be success- ful only in the hands of very experienced painters. Soft Porcelain— Artificial.— In Paris various soft porcelains are sold for decorative purposes, and 210 Keramics. occasionally a piece of old white Sevres can be found in a curiosity shop, but the Sevres manufac- tory does not make any ware for sale. The colors used in decorating soft porcelain are prepared es- pecially for the purpose, and should be bought for the particular make of ware on which they are to be used. They are much the same as those used in hard porcelain, only fewer in number, the lead-glaze preventing the use of many colors. The flesh-reds cannot be used at all, and carmines have to be mixed with yellows and whites, to obtain such tints. White is much used in mixing, so it is important to have a good white. Bright, gay tints are easily ob- tained on soft porcelain; the difficulty is in obtaining rich sober tones. Both colors and porcelain can be obtained in Paris at the "Bon Broyeur," and also from most of the color makers mentioned on page 205 Their proper use can only be learned from a good teacher, and the firing must be conducted with the utmost care by a very good baker. When these con- ditions are fulfilled there is no particular difficulty in their use and the effect is very beautiful. It must be understood that these remarks do not apply at all to the painting in Lacroix or other colors on English soft or bone porcelain, of which the glaze is hard enough to bear any of the regular colors, but only to the French and other soft porcelains with very soft glazes. Painting on Fine Earthenware aver glaze. —All the directions given for the use of paints on por- Keramic Painting. 211 celain apply equally well to their use on this ware, ex- cept that the carmines may not be very bright. Be very careful in choosing this ware. Large plaques are sold which are excellent for bold decorative work. The best are marked " H. B. Choisy," but , are difficult to obtain here. Those from Montereau, also good, but having a bluer glaze, have various marks, the name Creil or Montereau being generally visible. These have a rather soft glaze, giving good effects when baked. It is better to have only one baking, though they will generally stand two very well. The Lacroix colors work perfectly well on both of the above, as will also the English colors. Good plaques and other pieces for decorative purposes are made at Trenton and elsewhere in this country, A certain cream-colored ware, sold only by Bedell in New York, is pretty, and is guaranteed not to craze; which was the fault of the first ware of that kind made here. It is safer to make experiments with all wares before beginning any important work. In the shops all these wares are often called faience, and all sorts of shapes can be procured. In speaking of Plaques, the French decorators refer only to per- fectly flat or slightly curved surfaces of any shape, ! and without a bottom rim or base. The round, shal- low, somewhat saucer-shaped dishes here called plaques they call coupes. Underglaze painting on the biscuit of earthen- ware, either fine or common.-— In Europe amateurs do a good deal of this work, which offers no parti- .212 Keramics. cular difficulties to any one knowing how to paint well. It is generally spoken of here in rather a vague way as Painting on Biscuit. The colors should suit the biscuit, and the glaze must suit the colors, or all will be ruined. The biscuit most easily managed is that of fine white ware. The granite has a fine grain, but takes too hard a glaze for many colors. If the biscuit is very porous, it is generally sized with gum-water or something of that nature; though sometimes this is not done, thereby enhanc- ing the difficulty of the process. The colors, which must be obtained especially for this work, are mixed with water or gum- water, or with turpentine; if the latter, the ware must be brought to a red heat, in order to drive out the turpentine or oils, otherwise the glaze will not answer. This is called hardenmg on, and can be done in a decorator's muffle. It must be remembered that the colors cannot be rubbed out, as in overglaze painting. The colors as used look very unlike what they will appear when fired, so a good deal of practice is required, and a suffi- ciently accurate knowledge of drawing, to prevent mistakes. The colors, of course, are all gloss-oven, and in this case are really underglaze colors. The I.acroix colors sold in tubes and powder, and marked G. F. {s:rand feu) are intended for underglaze paint- ing, and generally answer well enough. The English, French and German firms spoken of, page 206, also make underglaze colors. Those most used in this country are prepared by Emery. They Keramic Painting. 213 generally must be ground over before using. It must be remembered that these colors are useless for painting on porcelain, either biscuit or overglaze. After glazing, the work may be finished with over- glaze colors or gilding. Experiments must be made in order to test the colors on the desired ware ; such a test plate as that described for hard porcelain being the safest way. Other biscuits besides those mentioned may be used with good effect. A red biscuit is used successfully in England, but in this country as yet there are practically no facilities for firing and glazing such work. Almost any of the large potteries will furnish biscuit and colors, the latter wholesale, and are willing to bake the ware, subject to all sorts of risks on the part of the decor- ator. A sort of keramic crayons, made of coloring matter mixed with enough fatty or sticky substance to give them consistency, can also be used for decor- ating biscuit. The fatty matter is burnt away before glazing. These crayons were invented by a German, Mr. Miiller. The drawing done by means of them should be in a very bold and sketchy style, either in large strokes or by hatching. The decorated ware should be properly ^''hardened on" as described, before being sent to the potter to glaze, or the painting will probably be spoiled. No doubt in time, perhaps even by next winter, there may be kilns in all the great cities where such work can be done, though the risk is always much greater than in overglaze work. 214 Keramics. It may be of use to mention here that in many of the French works on pottery, and particularly in the smaller ones treating of decoration, the term Faience when used alone means Majolica, or tin- glazed earthenwares, and the directions of any kind given in such works for painting or decoration on faience apply only to this particular ware. In speak- ing of what in the shops here is generally called faience, they call it faience fine, faience anglaise, cailloutage, or porcelaine opaque. As many of these works are translated without any clear definitions being given as to the wares and their English names, it is very puzzling for the beginner who has not a clear knowledge of the different kinds of pottery, and so cannot make out what is meant from the context. So far, the tin-glazed earthenwares have not been decorated to any extent in this country, and probably will not be for some time to come. The faiences fines, also called opaque porcelain, granite, ironstone ware, semi-porcelain, etc., are much used here, as nearly all the mufile colors can be used on them over the glaze. Painting Over the Glaze of Tin-Glazed Earthenware is easy enough, and should be done in a bold and sketchy style. The colors used are much the same as the regular kiln colors. In Paris colors can be bought especially suited to the different makes of the earthenware; here it would be necessary carefully to test the colors first, and there would also probably be a difficulty in having Keramic Painting. 215 the baking done properly. All the gold colors can be used, also many greens, yellows, and blues. For painting on, or rather in, the glaze, seepage 88, Chap. VIII. Email.— In French works this refers to paintings on little plaques of metal, covered with white enamel. They are baked in special ovens, and require special colors, also a thorough knowledge of painting and drawing. There are small oval plaques of porcelain sold here, and many people imagine they are the enamel plaques referred to in the books; hence some confusion. The porcelain plaques are to be treated as any hard porcelain, only, as a rule, the glaze on them is thicker than that on table ware. No books whatever will take the place of a com- petent teacher, but after a student can do good work in his line all good books on the subject become a great assistance. There are a number of little manuals for keramic painters, which are nearly all good; those written by professional decorators al- ways having useful recipes, and the others being gen- erally compiled from good works. When read with understanding much can be gained from them, the principal difficulties of comprehension arising either from want of clearness in author or translator, or from the fact that many readers do not understand the qualities of the different wares and of the colors to which the writer refers. I hope that this little book will help to obviate such difficulties. Among the best of these manuals are those by Mme. Delam- 2i6 Ker amies. ardelle, M. Goupil, John C. L. Sparkes, Miss Mc- Laughlin (only for porcelain), and Mr. Camille Piton. The two latter, being written expressly for American students, are very good. The series of plates ac- companying Mr. Piton's make excellent studies for beginners, particularly if they will condescend to follow the directions given by the author. CHAPTER XVII. A FEW ESTHETIC HINTS. It is difficult, almost impossible, to tell any one just how to do good decorative work. The best that can be done is to give people some idea of what they may not do, and so warn them against things positively ugly. Owen Jones's *' Grammar of Ornament" is considered an authority on decorative work, and it can be found in any large public library. The reader must beware of the coloring of the plates, this being glaring and crude, and not at all reproducing the harmonious tones of many of the objects represented. Racinet's " I'Ornement Poly- chrome" is good, but is not easily seen. M. Charles Blanc, one of the greatest of living writers on art, promises a " Grammar of Decorative Art" which if reproduced in full in English will be very valuable to keramic decorators. The introduction to Charles Blanc's " Art and Ornament in Dress:" (Scribner, 1877,) will also be found very suggestive, and should be read carefully. It is a pity it is not published in a separate pamphlet. This book is part of the above-mentioned work which is not yet completed 217 2l8 Keramics. Many of the Kensington Museum handbooks may be read with advantage. Zeiglefs "£^udes Ceramiqiies" is a mine of valuable suggestions to the keramist. It is the work of a historical painter who became a keramist, and made wares noted for excellence of quality and beauty of decoration. As far as I know it can only be seen at the Astor library, New York. I subjoin a set of rules, or rather remarks by M. Charles Blanc, published in the " Gazette des Beaux Arts" (beginning March ist, 1875), in an article de- voted to the decoration of vases which follows one on "The Form of Vases," or perhaps, we should say, of pottery. These rules are excellent, being brief and simple, and in many respects are broader in scope than the better-known ones of Owen Jones. Many of Owen Jones's precepts are puzzling, and some are very arbitrary, and even useless, particularly for the keramic artist, who is not troubled with any considerations of construction in his homogeneous and plastic material. I also give some excellent rules used in the South Kensington Schools, in London. Blanc "On the Decoration of Vases."— [Keramic Decoration.] 1. In keramic art, as in all other arts, decoration should be subordinate to the form of the object decorated. 2. Perspective effects are out of place in the deco- ration of vases [or of any rounded surfaces.] 3. Picture painting should not be imitated in vase A Few Esthetic Hints. 219 painting, as this last, contrary to the rules of the former, delights especially in pure clear colors and unbroken tones. 4, Instead of the exact imitation of nature, kei- amic decoration, even in the copying of natural ob- jects, subordinates imitation to the laws of harmony, and to the delight of the eye and of the mind. 5, Keramic decoration instead of striving after ab- ' solute unity of tone and the perfect evenness of sur- faces [or color], should try to break these, either by vibration of color, or by one of the numerous means at the service of art, in order to bring play (/\.z.\, Jlint glass, 63, loi. Cyprus, pottery of, 113. D Dates, tables of, 14 to 22. Deck, 93. Decoration, 72 to 95, 116, 117, 120, 128, 130, 136, 143, 144, 152, 157, 158, 160 to 164, 169, 170, 173 to 229; camaieu or monochrome, 3, 193; Chinese, 152, 157, 158, 160, 161 ; cru-sur-cru, 76 ; East- ern, 224 ; enamels, 78 ; en- ameled oil-painting, 74 to 76 (see enameled oil painting) ; on English or bone porcelain, 170; etching, 94; on fine earthenware, 85, 128 (see earthenware, fine) ; fluxed paints, 78 ; gilding, 93, 207 ; gloss-oven or underglaze col- ors {de grand feu), 82 to 85 ; gold underglaze back- grounds, 93 ; Greek pottery, 8, 109, 110 ; hard kiln colors {de demi-grand feti), 82, 86, 157 ; of hard porcelain, 143, 178 to 210; Japanese, 152, 157, 158, 160, 161 ; Limoges style, 74, 75, 76, 117 ; lustres, 93, 94 ; metals used in, 31, 93 ; methode Laurin, 74, 75, 76 ; methode Richard, 86, 87 ; 248 Index and Glossary, pate-sur-pate, 75, 76 ; pates d'application, 74, 75, 76 ; peinture emaillee, 74, 75, 76; regular kiln or muffle col- ors, 82, 87, 172, 180 to 188 ; rules for, 218, 221, 222, 225 ; slip-painting, 74, 75, 76 ; of soft (or fritted) porcelain, 167, 168, 210 ; of stone-ware, 135, 136 ; of tin-glazed earth- enware (majolica), 120 ; un- derglaze colors, 82, 83, 84, 85 ; vitrifiable paints, 79 ; of modern earthenwares, 117. Decorative ware, 129, 130. Delft ware, description, 121 ; analysis, 46. Devonshire clay, analysis, 36. Doulton ware, 135. Dresden porcelain, 13, 144 ; analysis, 48. Dry body, fully baked unglazed stoneware, 134. Drying slip, methods of (see slip, drying of). Dunt, to break or burst, 69. E Earth-alkali-glaze, 102, see ta- bles, pp. 105, 106, 107. Earthenware, 4, 69, 70, 85, 92, 108 to 130, 178, 210 to 215; see also tables pp. 14, 16, i3, 20, 22, 46, 103 to 106 ; bak- ing, 69, 70, 127 ; decoration of, 84, 88, 92, 178, 210 to 215; Ciring colors on the glaze of, 92 ; coarse, soft body, defini- tion and description of, 114, 108 to 123; see also tables pp. 14,16, 18, 46, 103, 105; analy- ses, 46 ; ancient, principal factories, 109 to 113 ; lead- glazed, 114, 115, 116, 117 ; see tables pp. 16, 18, 105 ;. modern, principal factories, 117, 118, 121 ; tin glazed or enameled (majolica), 118, 119 ; see tables pp. 18, 20, 46, 105 ; fine, hard body, 122, 123; see also tables pp. 46, 103, 106 ; analyses of, 46 ; decoration of, 85, 128 ; principal factories, 122 ; fine, very hard body, definition and description of, 124 to 130 ; see also tables pp. 20, 22,46, 104, 106, 129 ; Ameri- can, 129 ; decoration, 128, 178, 210, 211 ; principal fac- tories, 129, 130 ; underglaze colors used on, 85, 211. Eggshell ware, manufacture of, 58. Egyptian glazes, 8, 113; see also tables pp. 14, 105; pottery, 6, 8, 113; see also tables 14, 103, 105. Elers, 12, 136. Email, 215 ; cloisonne, 152. Emaux ombrants, 95, 1 16. Enameled oil painting, 75. {Paintings in oil colors on earthenware, japanned or var- nished, well dried in a Idhv degree of heat, then varnished again and polished, are some- times called by the above name. Oil-colors cannot be baked or fired ; they would burn up at the lowest heat used in pottery baking of any kifid.) Enamel paintings, definition of, 215. Enamels, 78, 158, 159, 160, 161 ; on metal, 79. English colors, 206 ; see table pp. 180 to 188; see also ap- pendix B, note 13. English porcelain, 168 to 172, Index and Glossary. 207 (see bone - phosphate body) ; decoration, 170, 207 ; principal factories, 171, Engobe, a slip, 3, 73. Etching on the glaze, 94. Etruria, pottery of, g, iii ; analyses, 46. Etruscan ware, no; see Italo- Greek ware. European pottery, ancient, 109 to 113 ; see also tables pp. 14, 105 ; mediasval, 116, 120 to 123, 136 ; see also tables pp. 16, 18, 20, 105, 106 ; modern, 114, 115, 117, 118, 119, 124 to 146, 165 to 172 ; see also tables pp. 16, 18, 22, 105, 106, 107. F Faience, definition, 126, 213 ; Oiron, 11,122 ; see also tables pp. 18, 46, 106 ; analysis, 46. Faiences communes, coarse earthenware, 115 (see earth- enware, coarse). Faiences emaillees, enameled ^earthenwares, 122 (see earth- enware, coarse, tin-glazed). Faiences fines, fine earthen- ware, 125. Fat, or long, plastic,. 40. Fat-oil, thick turpentine, 3, 82, ^ 175- Feldspar, 24, 26, 34 ; analyses, 34 ; body or paste, opaque, (stonewares), 134 to 137 ; see also tables pp. 104, 106 ; translucent {some porcelains), 150 ; see also tables pp. 104, 107 ; clay body, translucent, {patiati), 104, 107, 169 ; com- pact, petro-silex, 27, 148 ; orthoclase, or potash field- \ spar, 27, 34 ; albite, or soda fieldspar, 27, 34. Ferruginous, %vith iron. Firing of paintings, 201 (see also baking of colors) ; un- derglaze paintings, 212. Flambe, or flamme, rouge, 3, 157- Flandre, gres de, see gres de Flandre. Flint-body {fime earthenware), 124 to 130 ; sec also tables pp. 20, 22, 45, 104, 106. Flint-glass, or crystal, 63, 75, loi ; glaze, 75, loi. Flint-rock, 27. Flints, 127 ; analyses, 34. Flowers, coloring, 196. Flux, a substance that causes other substances to tnelt, 2, 81 ; Chinese, 158; Japanese, 160; ingredients, 77. Fluxed paints, Regular and hard kiln colors, 78. Fluor-spar, 27 ; see table p. 34. French colors, or paints, 205. F"rench names for colors, see table pp. 180 to 188 ; porce- lains, analyses, 48 ; words, definitions, 4. Frit, a sort ofi glassy matter imperfectly melted, 64. Fritted body, 1&5 to 168 ; see also tables pp. 48, 104, 107. Fritted porcelain, 48, 92, 165 to 168, 209 ; see also tables pp. 48, 104, 107 ; baking, 71 ; baking or firing colors on, 92 ; see table p. 91 ; Chinese, 163 ; decoration of, 167, 168, 210 ; French, 165 to 168 ; Persian, 168. Fritting, 64. Fuel, 68 ; see also appendix B, note 5, 250 Index and GCossary. Fusibility, 2 ; clay, 25, 26 ; glazes, 64 ; pastes, 39 ; see also appendix B, note 8. G Gallic pottery, analysis of, 46. German colors, or fluxed paints, 206. Gilding, 93, 207. Glassing, 62. Glaze, alkaline, see alkaline glaze ; of Chinese porcelain, 153, 154, 159, tables pp. 106, 107 ; of coai-se earthenware, 63, 115, 118, table p. 105 ; of fine earthenware, 63, 125, table p. 106 ; of hard porce- lain, 63, 141, 142, table p. 107 ; of Japanese porcelain, 155, table p. 107 ; lime of Sevres and Limoges porce- lain, 159 ; of majolica, 118, table p. 105 ; of soft porce- lain, bone, 170, table p. 107 ; fritted, 166, table p. 107 ; stone-ware, 64, 132, 133, 134, table p. 106. Glazed bodies, or pastes, 105, 106, 107 ; pottery, 105, 106, 107; see also pottery, glazed. Glazes, 11, 75, loi, 105, 106, 107, III, 114, 115, 118,, 125, 132, I37> 141, 145, 153, 155, 166, 168, 170 ; ancient, 8, 9, ilii, 112 ; see tables pp. 14, 47, 105 ; blast furnace cin- ders used in, 30, 133 ; classifi- cation of, loi, 102 ; fusibility of, 64 ; materials or ingredi- ents used in, 63 ; mediaeval, 10, 116, 118, 120, 121, 122, 136, tables pp. 16, 46, 105 ; metals used in, 31, 35 ; meth- ods of putting on, 65 ; see also appendix B, note 3 ; modern, II, I17, 119, 124 to 172, see tables pp. 18, 20, 22, 46, 48, 105, 106, 107 ; slag used in, 30, 133. Glazing, or glassing, 62. Gloss-oven, kibi in uhich glazes are baked, JO. Gloss-oven colors, description of, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 211 ; for porcelain, 84. Golconda, 111., kaolin, analysis of, 46. Gold backgrounds, underglaze, 93. Gorodayu Shonsui, 12, see ta- ble p. 19. Grading color, 192. Greco-Roman pottery, 9, 105, 109 ; see also Hist, table pp. 14 to 18. Greek glazes, 9, 105, 109 ;kera- mic art, 9, 109, no; pot- tery, 8, 105, 109, no ; vases, decoration of, no ; classifi- cation of, no. Greens, I^r. verts, 182. Gres de Flandre, a fine stone- ware, II, 136. Greys, Fr. gris, 180, 184, 186, Gypsum, sulphate of lime, 29. H Handles, 57. Hard, infusible, refractory, can- not be scratched, 2. Hard-body, or hard pottery, certain fine earthenwares, 122, 123; see also tables pp. 46, 103, 106 ; analysis, 46. Hard colors, hard kiln or hard fire colors (over-glaze), 82, 87, 157, 209. Hardening on, 85, 212. Index and Glossary. 251 Hard porcelain, translucent body, 9, 12, 140 to 164 ; see tables pp. 16, 18, 20, 22, 48, 104, 107 ; also appendix B, notes 2, 5, 6, 8 ; balcing of, 69, 70, 141, see also appen- dix B, note 5 ; glaze of, 141, 153. 155 ; preparation of paste, 44 ; principal factories, 144, 145- Hard pottery, see hard body pottery. In many books, both hard and very hard pottery are included under the term hard pottery. Hatching, shading by means of crossed lines. Heads, coloring of, 199. Henri H. ware, or faience d'Oiron, see faience d'Oiron. High fire colors, see colors, high fire. Historical sketch, 6 ; tables with notes, 14 to 22. Hizen, 12. Hoa-chi, or hoa-chy, 29, 153. Hot-cast porcelain, 31. Hydrated-charcoal body, 103, 105. I India, porcelain and ware, 164. Iron-body, (stoneware), 104, 106, 134. Italo-Greek ware, no; analy- sis, 46. J Japanese porcelain, 12, 153 to 164 ; analysis of, 48 ; baking of, 156 ; glaze of, 155 ; prin- cipal factories, 163 ; regular kiln or muffle colors, 160 ; fluxes, 160 ; stoneware, 12, 136 ; analysis, 46. Jigger (wheel on which flat pieces are made), description of, 55. Jones, Owen, rules for decora- tion, 222. Josiah Spode, 13, i6g. K Kaolin, porcelain clay, 27, 28 ; American, 28 ; analyses, 36 ; Beauregard, 36 ; body, 104, 107 ; European, 28 ; Laur- ence Co., 28. Kaolinite, silicate of alumina, 25- Kilns, 66. King-te-chin, 12, 162. L Lacework, manufacture of, 58. Lacroix colors, 177, 178, 179. Lakes, Fr. laques, 180. Laky red, rouge laqueux (iron color), 184. Landscape, coloring of, 198. Laque carminee, crimson lake (gold color), 180. Lathe, potter's, Fr. tour anglais, 44, 54, 152. Lavender, oil of, 82, 175, 191. Lawrence Co., Ind., kaolin, analysis of, 36. Lead-glaze, 9, 10, 63, 67, 75, loi, 114, 116, 122, 137, 157, 166 ; see tables pp. 16, 18, 20, 105, 106, 107 ; Chinese, 157 ingredients of, 63. Lime, 29, 35 ; body, opaque, principally tin-glazed earthen- wares, 116 ; see tables pp. 18, 46, 103, 105 ; transparent, some porcelains, 145 ; see tables pp. 48, 104, 107 ; glass glaze, 102; see tables pp. 105, 252 Index a7id 106, 107 ; oil, an erroneous term for lime and water, 1 54 ; porcelain, see lime-body, transparent. Limoges porcelain, analysis, 48 ; style, 74 ; ware, probably lime or flint body, flint glass or boracic glaze, 117 ; other decorative ware, 129. Lining, 208. Lists of books, 215, 218, 230. Litharge, protoxide of lead, 63. Lithocerame, a name for flne feldspar-body earthenware. Lithography (chromo) on por- celain, 85. Lithophanie, 95. Long, or fat, plastic, 40. Lucca della Robbia, 7, 11, I2i ; ware, analysis of, 46. Luneville, terre de pipe, a hard ball-clay pottery, analysis of, 46. Lustre (glaze), see lustrous pot- tery ; (decoration), 93, 121. Lustrous pottery, 9, iii ; see tables pp. 14, 16, 46, 105- M Madagascan pottery, analysis of, 46. Magnesia-body, 145 ; see tables pp. 34, 48, 104, 107 ; see ap- pendix B, note I. qMagnesite, 29, 34 ; analysis of, Majolica, lime-body tin-glazed earthenware, 118 to 122. Manufacture, 38 to 71 ; hand- made pottery, 51-; processes, Si- Marl, a calcareous or lime clay, 29 ; body,ii2, 115 ; see tables pp. 47, 103, 105. Marly, the border of a plate , 3. Glossary. Materials, potter's, 24 to 37 ; decorator's, see keramic painting, 173 to 216. McLaughlin, Miss, ware made by, 123 (foot-note), 216. Measuring heat, ways of, 67. Mediteval glazes, see glazes, mediceval ; pottery, 116, 118, 120, 121, 122, 136 ; see table p. 16. Medium heat, 82. Medium, -ivhat paints are mix- ed with, 3. Meerschaum, analysis, 34. Meissen, see Dresden. Meissen porcelain, analysis of, 48. Metals, 31, 32, 33. Methode Laurin, 74 ; Richard, 86, 87. Mezza-Majolica, a lime body lead-glazed earthenware, 116. Mill, Alsings' dry grinding, 42 ; wedging, 43, often called a pug-mill. Minium, deutoxide of lead, 63. Minton, 12, 46, 130 ; fine earth- enware, very hard body, an- alysis, 46. Mo-coing, a decoration for coarse ware, 93. Modern decorative earthen- wares, 117 ; glazes, see table pp. 18, 20, 22 ; see glazes, modern ; pottery, see pottery, modern. Monkey, a water-cooler. Monochrome, Fr. cama'ieu, 3, 193- Montereau clay, analysis, 36. Moulds, for figures and ani- mals, 58 ; metal, 57 ; plaster, 56, 152. , . Mt. Savage (Md.)clay, analysis, 36. Index and Glossary. 253 Muffle colors, see colors, regu- lar kiln. Muffles, descrip- tion, 88 ; heating or firing, 89 ; placing or packing, 89 ; see also appendix B, note 9 ; table of muffle heat, giving color of ware and of carmine tests, 90, 91. N Nabesshima Naoshige, 12 ; see table p. 19. Nankin, 162. Nitrate of potash, azotate of potash, see nitre. Nitre, saltpetre, nitrate of pot- ash, 30. Nomenclature, and definitions of some terms, i, 2. Non-plastic or short substances, 40. Nymphenburg, Bavaria, porce- lain, analysis of, 48. O Ochre, a ferruginous clay, 29, Ochres (paints), 30, 186. Old Sevres, 165 ; see tables pp, 20, 48, 107. Openwork, manufacture of, 58. Origin of pottery, 6. Orthoclase, compact, 27 ; feld- spar, 27, 34. Oxides, coloring, 73 ; of lead, tin and iron, 30 ; manganese, 33- Opaque bodies or pastes, earth- enware and stoneware, see bodies, opaque. P Painting, Chinese, 159; Japa- nese, 160 ; keramic, 173 to 216 ; keramic, books on, 215, 216 ; biscuit, 212 ; fine earthenware or faience, 178, 211 ; hard porcelain or fine earthenware, 189 to 200 ; materials necessary for, 175, 176, 178 ; porcelain with hard kiln colors, 86, 209 ; soft porcelain, 210 ; tin- glazed earthenware or ma- jolica, 88, 120, 213. Palissy, see 11, table p. ig ; ware, a soft or occasionally hard earthenware, either lead or tin glazed. The name is often given to modern imita- tions of it, 46, 115 ; analysis of, 46. Parian, feldspar-clay body, 169, see table p. 107. Parvillee, 93. Paste or body, description of, 38 ; fluxes of, 39 ; impuri- ties of, 39 ; ripening or tem- pering of, 44 ; slapping of, 44 ; treading or wedging of, 43. Pastes, preparations of, 41 ; rough table of, 39 ; table of analyses with notes, 46. Pate-changeante, 3 ; see also appendix B, note 6. Pates d'application, 76. Pate-sur-pate on hard and soft porcelain, 76, 144, 171 ; see appendix B, note 8. Pegmatite, 27. Persian earthenware, 116, 164 ; analysis, 46 ; porcelain, 164 ; analysis, 48 ; pottery, glaze, 168 ; Peruvian pottery, analysis of, 46. Petro-silex, 27, 148 ; body, 103, 107, 150 ; base of Chi- nese and Japanese porce- lain, 28, 148, 149, 150. 1254 Index and Glossary. Pe-tun-tze, sometimes spelled pih-tun-tz, 27, 149. Petunze or petuntse, Fr. caillou, feldspar. Phenician pottery, 78, 112. Phosphate of lime, 33, 169. Phosphorite, 33. Pictorial art, differs from dec- orative, 225 ; on pottery, 228. Piedmont, porcelain of {magne- sia body), 151, see table p. 37, No. 9 ; analysis of, 48. Pipe-clay, same as ball-clay. 29. Pitchers, ground, powdered ware, 3, 132. Plaques, definition of, 211. Plasticity of clay, 40. Plumbiferous, with lead, 3, 102, 105. Porcelain, 4, 7, 12, 13, 144 to 178 ; see tables pp. 14 to 23, 34, 48, 96, 104, 107 ; see Appendix B, notes i, 5, 6, 8, 9 ; American, see American analyses, 48 ; baking, 141, 156 ; see appendix B, notes 5, 8 ; baking or firing of col- ors on, 92 ; see appendix B, note 9 ; bone-phosphate, or natural soft, see bone-phos- phate; Chinese, see Chinese ; Japanese, see Japanese ; pe- tro-siliceous base of Chinese and Japanese, 149 ; Corean, 163 ; difference between hard and soft, 139 ; description of, 138 ; English, see bone- phosphate ; etymology, 138 ; feldspar-body, 104, 107 ; fritted, see fritted porcelain ; glaze of, 147, 153, 154, ^155, 160, 170 ; see also Salvetat's tables ; gloss-oven and under- glaze colors, 83 ; hard, see hard porcelain ; decoration, 143, 178 ; hard kiln, or medium heat, colors for, 209 ; hot cast, 31 ; imitating Chi- nese porcelain, 159 ; Indian, 12, 164 ; Japanese, see Japanese ; kaolin-body, 35, 140 ; lime-body, 35, 145 ; magnesia-body, 35, 145 J ori- gin of, 12 ; painting on, 174 ; paints, description of, 87, 177 to 188 ; full table of, with notes, 180 to 188 ; Piedmont, see Piedmont ; petro-silex- body, 148, 149, 150, see tables pp. 104, 107 ; regular kiln, colors for, see colors, regular kiln ; soft, natural and artificial, 12, 165 to 172 ; fritted, 12, 165, 166, 167, 168 ; decoration, 167, l63, 170, 171, 209 ; Persian, 12, 48, 116, 164 ; tin-glazed; see table p. 107 ; Venetian, 13 ; see table p. 20. Portuguese pottery, analysis of, 46. Potash, hydrated protoxide of potassium, 33. Potstone, talc, 29. Potter's clay, 29 ; hard colors, 86 ; lathe, Fr, tour anglais, 44, 54, 152; lathe, Chinese, 152 ; materials, 24 ; analyses of, 34- Potter's wheel, Fr. tour a. po- ller, description of, 52, 53, 151 ; Chinese and Japanese, 151. Pottery, 1,2; see tables pp. 16, 34, 46, 96, 103 to 107 ; an- alyses, 46 to 49 ; ancient, 110 to 113, see table p. 14 ; hard body, see hard body pottery; glazed, 114 to 172, hidex and Glossary. 255 see tables 105, 106, 107 ; medijeval, 116, 120, 122 ; see table p. 16 ; modern, 11, 113, 117, 119, 124 to 172 ; see table pp. 18, 20, 22, 46, 47, 104 to 107 ; soft body, see soft body pottery ; very hard body, see very hard body pottery. Potting, 2. Powder colors, 203, 205. Preparation of clays or pastes, 41-. Pressing, fashioning ware on a jigger, 55. Primitive pottery, 10, 108 ; see table pp. 14 and 16. Printing underglaze, 85. Profile, see rib, 55. Purity of clay, 25. Purples, Fr. pourpres, 180. Putois, or dabbler, use of, 191, 203, 205, 206. Pyrometers, heat measuring in- struments, 66. Q Quartz, 27 ; analysis, 34 ; body, 103, 105. Queens- ware, 126. R Reds, Fr. roitges, 184. Refractory, hard to melt or soften, 2, 26, 82. Regular kiln or muffle colors, (overglaze), 82, 88 to 92, 128, 143, 158, 160, 167, 178 to 279 ; see colors, regular kiln ; Chinese, 15S ; Japanese, 158. Rib, or profile, instrument for shaping ware when made on a jigger, 55- Richtofen, Baron von, 149. Ripening, or tempering, 44. Rock-flint, 27, Roman keramic art, g, in ; pottery, g, in ; see tables pp. 46, 103, 105 ; analyses of, 46. Rouen ware, 113 ; analysis of, see table p. 46. Rouge carmine, carmine red {iron color), 184 ; flamme, 3, 130. 157 ; laqueux, laky red {iron color), 184. Rules for decoration, 218, 221, 222, 225. S Sakaime-chu-chi, analysis of, 34; Samian ware, also called terra sigillata, g, 16, in. Sand-body, 103, 105, 112. Salt, chloride of soda, 30 ; glaze, a silica-alkali glaze, 133, 134 ; -petre, nitrate of potash, 30. Salvetat's table, brought down to date with additional notes and examples, 103 to 107 ; description of, g8, gg, 100 ; see appendix B, note 11. Scraffito ware, description of, 117. Seggars or saggars, Fr. cazettes, called lanternes by Palissy, 68, Setters, supports or stands for porcelain when baking, 142. Sevres, old, glaze of, 102 ; see also table p. 108 ; paste, 48, 166 ; porcelain, analyses of, 48. Shaping, methods of, 53. - Shiro-chu-chi, analysis of, 34. Shiver, to break or burst, 6g. Short, not plastic, 40. Shrinkage, 41. Sieves, 41. Index and Glossary. Silica, silicic acid, 29, 33. Silico-alkali-glaze, 7, 9- 11. ^02, 112 ; see also tables pp. 106, 107, 108. Slapping, a process for render- ing clay homogeneous, 44. Slip, Fr. barbotine, diluted paste, 3, 41 ; Fr. engobe, a thin layer of clay or paste, 73, 116; drying, 43 -kiln, 43 I paint- ing, 74, 76, "8. Slug, a role or piece of sandy clay used in baking stoneware, 132. Slushing, dipping in glaze- liquid, 65. Smalt, blue glass finely pulver- ized, and used as a paint, 160. Soapstone, steatite, 29, 153. Soda, hydrated protoxide of so- dium, 33. Soft body earthenwares, see earthenwares, coarse, soft body. Soft, will scratch easily, 2 ; fu- sible, 2 ; or easy biscuit, in- completely baked paste ; or fritted porcelain, 12, 165 to 172, see fritted porcelain ; porcelain decoration of, 167, 168 ; or ordinary muffle heat, see muffles ; porcelain, bak- ing colors on, 92 ; Chinese, 163 ; porcelain, painting on, 210 ; pottery or soft body pot- tery, 108 to 122, see also tables pp. 46, 103, 105 ; anal- yses, 46 ; description, 108. South Kensington rules, 221. Spanish pottery, 10. Spar, 27. Staffordshire, 12. Stanniferous, luith tin, 3 ; glaze, 102, 118. Steatite, soapstone, 29, 34. itippling, shading by means of dots, stoneware, Fr. gres ce'rame, 5, II, 131 to 137 ; see also tables pp. 46, 104, 106; an- alysis of, 46 ; baking, 69, 132 ; Chinese, 46, 136, 137 ; coarse, very hard, iron-body generally salt-glaze, 131 ; see tables pp. 46, 104, 106 ; English, Doulton ware, 135 ; fine, very hard, opaque feld- spar - body with different glazes, 134 ; see tables pp. 46, 106 ; decoration of, 135 ; Japanese, 12, 136,^ 137 ; an- alysis, 46 ; old, gres de Flan- dre, 135, 136, 137; tin-glazed, 136 ; see table p. 106 ; Tren- ton, 137. Stone-oil, erroneous term for petro-silex and water, 159. Stourbridge clay, Eng., analy- sis of, 36. Suck, Fr. sucer, to absorb the glaze, 68. Supporting or propping, 69, 70. Sur-cru. To paint on the raw or unbaked glaze, 84. T Tables— analyses of pastes, with notes and remarks, 46 ; potter's materials, with notes and remarks, 34 I Brongni- art's, 96 ; fluxed paints and their attributes, 180 to 188 ; dates, 14 to 22 ; muffle heat, giving color of ware and of carmine tests, 91 ; Salvetat's, brought down to date, with additional notes and exam- ples, 103 to 107 ; see appen- dix B, note II ; temperatures, Index and Glossary. 257 67 ; classification, 96, 103 ; historical, 14 to 22. Talc, 29. Tanagra figurines, 109. Tanks, 41. Temperatures, table of, 67. Tempering, ripening, 45. Terra-cotta, baked clay, 3, 60, III ; -invitriata, a name for majolica ; -sigillata, 9, 17, see Samian ware. Terre k porcelaine du Japon, analysis of, 34. Tests for muffle or regular kiln colors, gi. Test plates for painters, 189. Throwing, fashioning on the wheel, 53. Tinajas, Sp. very large jars, 51. Tincal, native borax, 30, Tin-glaze, 9, 11, 102, 118 ; see tables pp. 46, 105, 106, 107 ; earthenwares, see earthen- wares, tin-glazed ; painting on, 84, 120, 121, 213 ; porce- lain, see porcelain, tin-glaz- ed ; stoneware, see stone- ware, tin-glazed. Tiles, 59, 69, 115, 193. Tobacco pipes, 129. Tour anglais, see potter's lathe ; a potier, see potter's wheel. Tournay soft fritted porcelain, analysis, 48. Tracing, use of, 194, Translucent bodies or pastes, porcelains, 98, 104, 107, 138. Transparencies, lithophanie, 95. Treading, 43. Tsuji-chu-chi, analysis, 341 Tube colors, 177, 179. Turpentine, 82, 175 ; fat, 82, 175. Tuscan soft fritted porcelain, 13 ; see table. p. 18. U Underglaze colors, 82 ; see gloss-oven colors ; Chinese, 157 ; for earthenware, 85 ; for porcelain, 84. Underglaze painting, firing of, 212 ; for earthenware, 211. Unglazed bodies or pastes, 104, 105. Uielmo da Bologna, Umbers, 32. V Vauxhall stoneware, analysis of, 46. Venetian porcelain, 13, 18. Very hard body pottery, fine earthenwares, stone-wares, and porcelains, q.v. ; analyses, 46, 48; o^2,Q^t\fine earthenwares and stonewares), 124 to 137, see tables 18, 20, 22, 46, 103, 104, 106 ; translucent {porcelains), 138 to 142 ; see tables pp. 16, 18, 20, 22, 48, 107. Violet {color), 180, 192. Violets, coloring of, 197. Vitrifiable paints, definition, 79 ; flux for, 81, W Wad, a roll of clay placed be- tween seggars to keep out va- pors, 68. Washing brushes, 202. Water, coloring of, 198. Water coolers, 114. Wedging, treading or kneading, 43 ; -mill, called pug-tnill in England, 43. S Index and Glossary. Wedgewood, 94, 135; stone- ware, analysis, 46. Wheel, potter's, 52 ; see potter's wheel. Whirling table for putting lines on ware, 208. Whites, Fr. blancs, 180. Woodbridge (N. J.) clay, an- alysis of, 36. Worcester porcelain, analysis of, 48. Y Yellows, Fr.jaunes, 180, 182. Yeou-ko, 153 ; analysis of, 34. Yrieix, St. , kaolin, analysis of, 46. miNTKD BY BALLANTYNK AND HANSON LONDON ANU EDINBURGH THE EXHIBITION OF PAINTINGS ON CHINA BY LADY AMATEURS AND ARTISTS. PATRONS : Tsf.J^^'^ Highnesses the Prince and Princess of Wales Her Roval and Imperial Highness the Crown Princess of Germanv- Princess Royal. Their Royal Highnesses the Duke and Duchess of Edinburgh Their Royal Hioh.ess^ Duke and Duchess of Conna" h" His Royal Highness Prince Leopold. H.^p'^'''' HIGHNESS Princess Christian of Schleswig-Holstein Her Rnv^r^"- ''"'^""'^ Louise-Marchioness of LorJe H.^ P Highness the Grand Duchess of MecklenburgTs^eLitz Her royal Highness princess Mary Adelaide-Duchessof Teck His Royal Highness the Grand Duke of Hesse Her .vOyal Highness the Countess of Flanders. JUDGES : F GOODALL. ESQ.. R.A. R. NoRMAN ShAW, EsQ., R.A. . ■♦■ THE EXHIBITION OF PAINTINGS ON CHINA, §U f abg Amateurs mh ^xtkts in €mptithix for ^ri^^s tC^ princess MARY ADELAtD^-SstorTE^™^ Hesse, and the Countess of Flanders, Grand Duke of Is held ANNUALLY during MAY. JUNE, and JULY, at Messrs. HOWELL & JAMES' ART-POTTERY GALLERIES, 5, REGENT STREET, PALL MALL, LONDON. These ANNUAL EXHIBITIONS founrlpH in th^ o occupation, among the ele/«ed clasSs S tteefLXn?""""'''"' , f>,*.c;p "Fxhibitions is attributable to the The ut>paralleled success of these txh^^^^^^ ROYAL continued and powerful support which rt^ va^^^^^^^ graciously accorded FAMILY have, from their earlie t ^"^^^^^^^J^fespecti^^ of the Annual tothem-a support, not l^^^^^^ed to tt^^e P^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^1 fo the which Art Culture is now ^^.^'^'j ^^^2n^^ Exhibitions have already exeeSrSS'^rSt'oVEjE^^^^^^ «» send no. nrore than •'""^^P^esare^ajdedh^^^^^^^^^^ of a forgotten ^^V^l ri^t fortunate in being favoured and encouraged OYArP^TS^^^^^^^^ oxne, in its usefulness, one o? A?7nrportant Art industries of the country .art^tla^K^^^-A^^^ ?o Jhis'pecial work by kindly acting as judges. HANDBOOKS ON ART-POTTERY PAINTING. ..xcK.rvKSH:.uKOS. C.OXH o:.. x..~.. ,usx .ubushk.. . THE AMATKUK POTTKRV AND G.ASS PAZKTEK." by E. C HANCOCK. -THE BEST WORK YET WRITTEN ON THE SUBJECT." -pr^TTPxw Fdition, Revised and Enlarged. Post-free, Sevenpence. Fourth i^dition, l-OST rK , jjj^^s POTTERY PAINTING. THE NEW HANDBOOK ON TAPESTRY PAINTING. «TB P r1cTIC»L directions FOR BEGINNERS. BV LEWIS F. DAY. TO BE OBTAINED ONLV OF MESSRS. HOWELL & JAMES, THE Art-Pottery Galleries, 5, Regent Street, Pall Mall, London. UNDER ROYAL PATRONAGE. MESSRS. HOWELL & JAMES' ART-POTTERY CLASSES FOR LADIES, UNDER THE DIRECTION OF MISS FLORENCE JUDD, OF "MINTON'S" LATE ART-POTTERY STUDIO, KENSINGTON GORE. "^^^ MESSRS. HOWELL & JAMES- TAPESTRY- PAINTING CLASSES FOR LADIES, UNDER THE DIRECTION OF MR. J. STUART DONLEVY. THE ABOVE CLASSES ARE HELD DAILY-SATURDAYS EXCEPTED-IN SEPARATE AND SPECIALLY-ARRANGED STUDIOS AT MESSRS. HOWELL AND JAMES- ART-POTTERY GALLERIES, 5, REGENT STREET, PALL MALL, LONDON TERMS (PAYABLE L\ ADVANCE) ART-POTTERY. TAPESTRV. T",--, ^ _ , ART-POTTER' THE COURSE OF Ten Lessons OF Two Hours EACH 3 o Six „ of Two „ 220330 Three ,, of Two ,, i i o The Classes are of Two Hours' duration-from ii a.m to i p m AND 3 P.M. to 5 P.M., AND TICKETS ARE ISSUED WITH THE DAY AND Hour Reserved for each Student. PRIVATE LESSONS FOR LADIES OR GENTLEMEN CAN BE ARRANGED FOR IN TERRA-COTTA, STAINED GLASS, WATER-COLOUR, AND OIL PAINTING, AT THE STUDIOS, OR AT PUPILS' OWN RESIDENCES. Ladies desirous of joining the Classes are requested to apply to Messrs. HOWELL & JAMES, The Art-Pottery Galleries, 5, Regent Street, Pall Mall, London. 3 ART POTTERY PAINTING. THE "WORCESTER" CERAMIC COLOURS 3Por ipotter^ ipaintlno ©ver anb m^ct 0la3e» The A. of Painting on China „ . ^^^"^^^^^^^ in England. Messrs. HowEL.& jAMES^ h- the whole of the requirements of /^"^^^^ public that they may of all. They ! ^^^.^ ^^^^^^^^ Mall. Over and Under now obtain at *eir Art-Galleries, s^eg ^ ^.^^^ ^^^^^^^^ students are referred to the following Ltst of No. x.-Handso.e French-P^ished sol.d Wood Ca^^^^^^^^^^ lock and key, containing 30 NO. ^, f l^ff Jette, with fired specimens 1*50 16 bottles of under-glaze colours ch^"* W^jj^^ of mediums : f ^ S of enamel colours ; glass mi^^^^^^^^^ set orbrushes, and pamphlet of No . -Similar Bo.x to No. i. fitted with 30 colours for enamel painting only. J ^ , , No. 3 Sized bottles ... ; -. - a r,riav lid Box with lock and key, fitted similar to No. 1,1 4 ^ ^ ^°-^«?epftraTh?cS^^^^^^^^ .-. No 4 Isililar Box to No. 3. fitted with 30 colours for enamel painting only. | 3 3 , Wo. 1 sized bottles ^ No 5 LndsomeCaddy^id Box, with lock and key, fitted similar to No. X. I 3 3 „ TTo 1 sized bottles ... . No 6 -Similar box to No. 5, fitted with 30 colours for enamel painting only. I , , , ■ Wo. 1 sized bottles •" No , A Cheap B„,con»ining ,8 c.l.»», pal.u. krnt., P«„U. J , , , colours palette knife, and brushes. Mess.. HOW... lTJ~oft ^oS .0 J™, but .he. cannot hoM the.- selves responsible for any risk ^ Z?.^..-M and Price List post free on application to Messr... Howell & James. Art Galleries. 5. Regent Street, Pall Mall. S. W. October, 1880. ChaTTO & WiNDUS'S List of^ooks. rnTTS'''S^^'^-r'?,''^7^°^'^^^'"^=- half-morocco, 36.. THE EARLY TEUTONIC, ITALIAN AND FRENCH MASTERS ' M A T wlt!^ ^""^ ^^^^""^ ^""o™ the Dohme Series by A H Kp-avp M.A.I. With numerous Illustrations. ^ Keanb, ^^^°'J":^L'l_^l^L'tl^^!^^ "-Times Second Edition Revised^ Crown 8vo, x.300 pages, half-r^heT^;:^ n^.rr™^ READER'S HANDBOOK OF ALLUSIONS. REFERENCES, PLOTS, AND STORIES , By the Rev. Dr. Brewer. -writers generally ^iU have reJon^%ZlVat7fZtotZ TI,"' T^^^^^^ volume, supplemeniins in a hundred iZvf ill ft i t '^'^^f-^f"'' « ^nost handy the case mafhe. . . . /t iTstmf/l^-^i J, A ''"■"^^''^ge or ignorance, as tions, thouA a ^ost us^/uU^JSt'^^ ^^^^ I'^'ota- of most of the allusions, references i>loU ^ZJif. Vj'^^i'^ind, iemg a dictionary the classical Poems, plays, Ztdsrhmar^^^^^^ '^^''^ "^'^^ in of most nations, an^eZ kZmodeZ"-4llts- """" ""'^''^y- -^^^ 'nceiZlrToZi^i^^^^^^^^ handy refer- clopc^dia, interspersed Jith items Je Mlv l/ot^^^^^^ condensed ency. appendices contain the dates oflelebr^Tlnd ZHZ Z"'^^'' andn^els, ^ith the names oMet^utiVsl'-k"'^^^^^ operas, poems, Dr.S^Zer'sZlL^^^^^^^ and, considering the ma^Lde of 11:^^1* lll'.lT^^^ compilation, ^■uerzes which appear in our M^es cmildh^LH^? T^ Y • • ^^ny to 'The Readei^s Hn«JhZ,b^'^ . 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