.wsss.- • i .- - r.— wsrj *mw r»v >v» . • .w."*- *i3.yrgv»ir^^ ff^i wt w Hii , w>iiw>^-.«x. !.* •*> m *®/- •**c V^v 1 : • • • /..■ .V.v.-. . ■• ' V t l " &\/p,ir,\SK!> fWRW OA'-., li -‘ ; '*^:'-.''-' : \*.V:v?'c$!Msfr£. . i:»(iU6*A>.«s4si.j£9»r.- k k;. ^li^iw^TTrtw^MWMiiiWTliwi iii mi l Briir rl'innr—rr* ' 130 / 7 / / $ k Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2017 with funding from Getty Research Institute https://archive.org/details/recordofinternatOOIond WILLIAM MACKENZIE: HOWARD STREET, GLASGOW; SOUTH BRIDGE, EDINBURGH AND 22 PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON. ■kr Mi GLASGOW: PBIKTED DT WILLIAM MACKENZIE. 45 & 47 HOWARD STREET. \ INDEX T»AOT? Acoustical instruments, . . . 510 Acoustic vibrations, apparatus for, . 51‘2 Agate, clouded,.70 Agate ware, vases in, . . .421 Agave hair,.115 Agricultural implements,. . .121 Agricultural implements, Indian, . 139 Alkali trade,.120 Alloy, Wetterstedt’s, . . .82 Alpaca,.94 Alumina and its compounds, . .448 Aluminium bronze, . . . .70 Aluminium, mode of obtaining, . 174 Amber, Indian, . 75 Amputating instruments, . . 559 Anchors,.192 Aniline colours, .... 334, 579 Animal and vegetable products, new, 111 Anemometers,.510 Annexes, structural details, . . 36 Antimony, Indian, . . . .73 Apatite,.153 Architectural construction, . . 198 Architecture and engineering,. . 289 Armour plated vessels, . . . 181 Armour plates, manufacture of, . 373 Arsenic, production and value of, . 120 Arsenic, Rangoon, . . . .74 Artificial stone,.201 Artillery,.475 Artillery, breecli-loading,. . .482 Artillery, projectiles for, . . . 477 Artists’ colours,.436 Astronomical clocks,. . . 515 Astronomical instruments, . . 497 Axle-boxes,.281 Axles, cast-steel, Naylor’s, . . 375 Balances for chronometers, . . 516 Band saws,.216 Barrels, musket, .... 376 Barn machinery, .... 132 Barometers, , 508 Batteries, floating, .... 179 Baths,.428 Bavarian Exhibition, 1815, . . 3 Baryta, and its salts, manufacture, 447 Barytes,.120 Belgian Exhibition, 1841,. . . 4 Bells,.519 Bells, figures of,.521 Bells, table of celebrated,. . . 522 Bells, tone, loudness, and notes, . 520 Bells, india-rubber, .... 237 Benzene,.578 Birmingham Exhibition, 1839, 1849, 19 Bismuth,..70 Bisulphide of carbon, . . . 584 Blast furnaces,.167 Blende, modes of treating, . . 174 Boat-building,.193 Boat-lowering,.190 Bobbins, manufacture of, . . . 338 Boilers.207 Bolt and nut shaping machine, . 360 Borax, Thibet,. 76 Boring machines, .... 155 Boring and blasting,.... 154 Breakwaters,.252 Brick machines, .... 139 Bricks and pipes, . . . .77 Bricks, siliceous, . . . .78 Bridges,..250 Bronze aluminium, . . . .82 Bruising mills,. 137 Buckled plates. Mallet’s, . . . 291 Buhl and marqueterie, . . . 202 Building contrivances, . . . 204 Building, discussion on the, . . 57 Buildings, Exhibition, size of, . 57 Building materials, . . . .77 Buildings, models of important, . 198 Bullets, expanding, varieties of, . 456 Caissons,.262 Cameras, photographic, . . . 568 Cameras, stereoscopic, . . . 569 Candelabra, Osier’s, .... 410 Candle manufacture, . . 390,430 Carbolic acid,.581 Card-setting machine, . . . 326 Carpets, exposition of, 1797, . . 1 Carriages, road,.2S2 Castings, iron,.81 PAGE Carving machines, .... Carvings, ivory, .... Cements, British and foreign, . Chaff-cutting machines, . Chain-making machines, . . 290, Chemical manufactures, . Chimney-piece, Maw’s majolica, China, manufacture of, Chinoline blue,. Chromo-lithography, Chronometers,. Classes, division of the, 1862, . Classification, early French, . Clays,. Clay, manufactures in, Clays and pottery, .... Clay and stone, estimated value of,. Clocks, astronomical, Clocks, turret,. Closets,. Coal,. Coal, anthracite, .... Coal, distillation of, . Coal, Indian varieties, Coal mines, system of working, Coal, statistics of, ... Cobalt,. Coir,. Coles’ cupolas,. Colour printing, .... Columns, arrangement of, Columns and girders, number of, Concrete, blocks of, . Continental Exhibitions, . Contract for the building, 1862, Contractors’ engines, locomotive, Copper,.70, Copper, localities of Indian, Copper, statistics of, . Coquilla and vegetable ivory, . Cork, application of, to models, Corn elevator, Barrett’s, . Corn screen, Boby’s, .... Corundum,. Cost of building, 1862, Cost of French Exhibitions, Cotton, historical notice of, Cotton, Indian staples. Cotton machinery, .... Cotton plant,. Cotton plant, varieties of exhibited, Cotton plant, value of the manufac¬ ture, . Cow-milker,. Coprolites,. Crushing machines, .... Crystal vases, Indian, Cutlery,. Cutting machines, . Deck beams, manufacture. Decoration, details of the, 1862, Design of building, Fowke’s original, Dhaoo, iron earth, Gwalior, Dhobee’s earth, Indian, Disinfectants,. Disintegrator, Carr’s, Dislocations, apparatus, . Docks, dry, . Docks, floating,. Dock and harbour works, Docking ships, modes of, . Dockyards,. Dome of New York building, . Domes, scatfolding for, details of, Domes, structural details of the, Domes, vertical section of, Dovetailing machines, Downs, vegetable, . Drilling machines, .... Dublin Exhibitions, . Dyes,. Dyes, manufacture of new, Dyes, new colours, .... Effluvia traps,. Eggs,. Electric light for lighthouses, . Electric and telegraphic apparatus, Electric illumination, Electric cables, submarine, Electric insulators, . . . . Electric needle and acoustic, . Electric step by step instruments, . 314 111 80 136 313 440 415 412 581 452 516 62 61 71 414 76 120 515 514 426 68 165 395 74 157 117 177 112 182 452 37 55 79 4 56 278 176 73 119 113 199 135 135 75 56 4 83 87 321 84 86 88 142 152 136 75 172 369 371 42 56 72 77 426 151 561 257 258 250 257 251 21 50 47 47 295 115 295 16 112 578 301 427 111 269 529 399 531 531 533 533 PAGE Electro-deposition, .... 546 Electrograph,.305 Electro-magnetic engines, . . 206 Electrotyping apparatus, . . . 547 Emery, Indian,.75 Enamels, the collection of, . .419 Engines, passenger railway, . . 2S5 Engraving machine, .... 305 Essences, artificial, .... 437 Exhibition of 1851, English, . . 5 Exhibition of 1861, Florence, . . 32 Exhibition of 1855, French, . . 22 Exhibition of 1862, the International, 36 Expansion, effect of, on building of 1851,.59 Express locomotive engines, . .271 Eye instruments, .... 555 Fabrics, printing and dyeing, . . 356 Faenza and terra cotta, . . .80 Fats, oils, soaps, paints, varnishes, &c.,.428 Feathers,.Ill Felt, quantity used in roofing, 1862, 55 Felting machines, .... 352 Fibres, colonial,.115 Fibre machine, Sandford’s, . . 356 Field and boat guns,.... 485 File-cutting machines, . . • 296 Filters.426 Fire-clay,.78, 166 Fire cocks,.246 Fire engines,.249 Firearms,.466 Firearms, breech-loading, . . 469 Frearms, central fire, . . . 470 Firearms, needle guns, . . .470 Flax,.95 Flax, Belgian mode of scutching, . 100 Flax, cotton, Claussen’s, . . . 100 Flax, cultivation of, . . . .96 Flax fibres, modes of preparing, . 98 Flax hackling,.102 Flax and hemp machinery, . . 353 Flax manufacture, value of, . . 102 Flax scutching, Rowan’s machine, . 101 Flax, statistics of manufacture, . 102 Flax straw, modes of treating, . 98 Flooring, system of arrangement, . 44 Florence Exhibition of 1861, . . 32 Forceps,.556 Fortification,.463 French Exhibitions, ... 2 Fuel, ....... 165 Fuel, patent, export of, . . .116 Furnaces, glass, Siemens’, . . 400 Furniture,.490 Furnitures, block printed, . . 362 Furniture exhibitions and awards, 491 Furs, coloured,.115 Fuses, safety, for mining, . 155 Galena,.70 Galleries, details of. . . . .40 Galleries, picture, illumination of, . 54 Garancine, preparing of, . . . 357 Gas-burners,.399 Gas engines,.238 Gas-fittings,.202 Gas manufacture, .... 397 Gas meters,.428 Gems, Indian,.75 General plan, Exhibition, 1862, . 34 Giffard’s injector, . . . .270 Girders,.290 Glass,.203 Glass manufacture, .... 399 Glass, painted, exhibition of, . . 402 Gold,.70 Gold, exhibition of British, . .119 Gold from Rangoon, . . . .73 Goods locomotive engines, . . 275 Gorse-bruising machine, . . . 139 Graphite,.166 Granite,.78 Great Eastern,.184 Guano,.150 Guns, Clay’s breech-loader, . . 488 Gun, Mersey, Horsfall’s, . . . 489 Gun carriages,.481 Guns, exhibition of, . . . . 377 Gun platform, Armstrong’s new, . 4S0 Gun-rest, Whitworth’s, . . . 474 Gun-stock machine, .... 315 PAGE Guns, Swiss and Prussian, • . 486 Haematite,.167 Hair, . . '.Ill Hand tools,.320 Harmoniums,.528 Harrows, . . . ... . 128 Haymaking machines, . . . 132 Heating and ventilation, . . . 242 Heat as a source of power, . . 205 Heating buildings, Mallet’s system. 243 Heddle machines, .... 338 Ileliostats,.506 Hemp-dressing machinery, . . 356 Ilemp, treatment of, . . . . 103 History of Industrial Exhibitions, . 1 Hoes, horse,.129 Hoe’s printing machines, . . 378 Homogenous metal, .... 372 Hopbine, paper from the, . . . 109 Horology,.512 Horse-rakes,.132 Hydraulic lift, Clark’s, . . .258 Illumination, gas-making, . .390 Ilmenite,.169 India, mineral products of, . . 72 Indicators, steam engine, . . 237 Inhalers, chloroform, . . . 553 Insects, ornaments formed of, . .111 Iodine, manufacture, . . . 450 lion,.69, 172 Iron, applications of, ... 373 Iron castings,.199 Iron earth, Indian Dhaoo, . . 72 Iron for building purposes, . . 81 Iron, Indian ores, . . . .72 Iron sands,.73 Iron ships,.179 Iron, statistics of, .... 118 Ivory, egg-shell porcelain, . . 421 Jade vases, Indian, . . . .76 Jewel stand, Poole’s, . . . 494 Jute, treatment and preparation, . 103 Kamptulicon, .... 82,202 Kaolin, Indian,.76 Lamps,.394 Lamp, safety,.160 Land and marine engines, . . 205 Landing stages, .... 263 Lathes, copying, .... 293 Lead.70, 175 Lead ores, Indian, . . . .73 Lead, statistics of, . . .119 Leather and paper hanging, . . 82 Lenses,.502 Lenses, photographic, . . . 567 Lichens,.112 Lichen acids, . . ... 584 Life boats, ....... 195 Light, instruments connected with, 502 Lighting, system of, . . . .43 Lighthouse apparatus, . . . 267 Lighthouses and beacons, . . 263 Lignites,.69 Limbs, artificial, . 562 Lime and cement, . . . .79 Limoges enamels, process of working. 419 Linens, printed, .... 357 Locomotives, agricultural, . . 134 Locomotive engines, .... 270 Loom, for jute sacking and bagging, 355 Lubricators,.237 Machines for direct use, . . . 291 Magnesia and its salts, manufacture, 448 Magneto-electric instruments,. . 533 Magnetographs, .... 507 Majolica and Palissy wares, . . 416 Malachite and porphyry ware, . 417 Manchester Exhibition, 1S57, . . 30 Manganese ores, Indian, . . .74 Manures,.149 Maps, geological, . . . .66 Marbles,.79 Materials, quantities employed, . 55 Measurement of time, . . . 512 Medicine chests, army, . . . 562 Metallic salts,.449 Metals,.82 Metals, total value of, produced, . 120 Metallurgical operations. . . . 165 Meteorological instruments, . . 508 Micrometric measurer, . . . 302 Microscopes,.502 PAGE . 450 . 67 . 72 . 153 L- . 120 . 65 . 116 . 154 . 154 . 199 . 510 . 79 . 319 . 415 . 52 . 318 . 330 . 523 . 313 . 75 . 5S2 . 178 . 37 . 289 . 19 . 177 . 433 . 578 . 137 3, 394 . 284 . 554 . 401 . 168 . 583 . 523 . 525 . 524 . 5G0 . 559 . 583 . 434 . 112 . 666 . 370 . 371 . 367 . 202 . 110 . 364 . 368 . 109 . 104 . 106 i, 109 . 110 . 110 . 461 . 395 . 518 . 438 . 75 . 584 . 582 . 506 INDEX. PAGE PAGE 1 PAGE Phosphorus manufacture.. . 451 Rocks, Indian, .... . 75 Straw paper, manufacture, . 109,370 Photography, and apparatus, . 564 Roofing, the glazed, 1862, . 46 Sugar machinery, 224 Photography, application to Geodesy, 563 Roofs, best form of, for exhibitions, 60 Sulphuric acid manufacture, . 440 Photographic chemicals, . . 574 Rolling and casting metals, . 371 Sulphur, Indian, 75 Photographic engraving, . . 577 Rotatory and section engines, . . 234 Surgical and medical apparatus, 552 Photography, microscopic. . 572 Safety cages, .... . 163 Swing cradle, Salter’s, 561 Photographic pictures, . . 576 Sails,. 190 Syphon still, Barron’s, 439 Photographic tents, . . 573 Salt, Indian, .... 76 Table glass, specimens of. 407 Physical apparatus, . . 507 Salt, production and value, 120 Tartaric acid, .... 584 Pianofortes, . 526 Sandstones, .... 79 Telegraph, electric, apparatus, 529 Pianofortes, Broadwood’s metallic, . 526 Scaffold, Phillips’ travelling, . 41 Telegraph, Wheatstone’s private, 534 Picric acid,.... . 582 Schist, mode of treating, . 394 Telescopes, equatorial, 498 Pigments, Indian, . 75 Scutching machines,. 323 Tenon-cutting machines, . 319 Pipe and brick machines, . . 145 Seaweed, application of, . ui Terra cotta, . 80 Pipes, bituminized paper, . 110 Sevres porcelain, 421 Terra cotta, Blashfield’s, . 201 Pipes, earthenware, . . 78 Sewerage, deodorization, &c., . 424 Textile machinery, . 321 Pipes for water supply, . 247 Sewing, plaiting, and felting ma Textile materials, . . .83 293 Pistols, revolving, . 475 chines,. 341 Thermodynamics, . 205 Plaiting and braiding machines, . 352 Sextants, aluminium, 501 Thermometers,. 508 Planing machines, . 318 Shafting, arrangement of, 1862, 36 Thrashing machines, 134 Plasters and stuccos, . . 80 Shaping machines, . 296 Tiles and pipes, . 77 Plate glass, manufacture, . . 401 Sheathing slips,.... 187 Timber for shipbuilding, . 197 Platinum, .... . 177 Shells, Boxer’s diaphragm, 460 Timber, quantity used, 1862, . 55 Ploughs, hand, . . 128 Shells, segment, Armstrong’s, . 458 Tin,. 177 Ploughs, steam, . . 123 Shells, specimens of, . 112 Tin ores, Indian, . 73 Plumbago, Indian, . 75 Shipbuilding, .... 178 Tin, statistics of, ... 118 Polarizing instruments, . . 505 Shot, grape, and canister, . 459 Tincal, crude borax, Thibet, . 76 Porcelain, Copeland’s painted, . 418 Shot, Whitworth’s, . 484 Tires, railway,. 2S0 Porcelain, English examples of, . 416 Silica, beds of, . . ' • 78 Tonometer, the,. 511 Porcelain exposition, 1797, 1 Silicate of soda, application of, 361 Tools and materials, watchmaking, 518 Porcelain, pate tendre, . 422 Silk, culture and manufacture, 89 Tools, historical notice ot, 291 Porcelain. Pouyat's white, . 422 Silk, moths and cocoons, . 90 Tracheotomy tubes, . 556 Potash and its salts, manufacture, . 446 Silk printing and dyeing,. 362 Traction engines, . . . . 284 Potstone, Indian, . 75 Silver,. 70 Trephines,. 556 Pottery and ceramic art, . . 411 Silver ores, India, 74 Trusses,. 557 Pottery, antiquity of, . 411 Silver plating, process of,. 548 Type composing machines, 387 Presses, coining, . 304 Silver, returns and value of, 119 Ventilation of building, 1862, . 35 Presses, printing, . 382 Sirene, the,. 512 Ventilation, mining, . . . . 158 Printing blocks, copying, . 549 Sizing machine, Bertram’s, 369 Ventilating valves, Arnott’s, . 427 Printing and type machinery, . 377 Slate, ...... 71 Waggon, ammunition, 480 Projectiles, . 455 Slate-cutting machines, . 155 Warrior, the,. 179 Propellors, .... . 186 Smoke, consumption of, . 428 Watches,. 517 Propellors, cast-steel, . 376 Soapstone, Indian, 72 Water meters,. 247 Pulp engine, Kingsland's, . 366 Soils, Indian collection of, 72 Water pipes,. 427 Punching machines, . . 304 Soda and its salts, manufacture. 442 Water supply,. 244 Pyrites, .... . 70 Space allotted to each country. 64 Water supply, details of, 1862, 44 Pyrites, value of, produced. . 119 Speculum, Foucault’s silver, . 501 Water-works, public, 244 Pyroligneous acid, . 583 Spiegeleisen ore, 167 Wax candle manufacture. 430 Hags, collection and supply, . 109 Splints,. 560 Wax palm,. 113 Rags, treatment of, . . 365 Spooling machinery,. 336 Wax, vegetable, . 113 Railway carriages, . . 279 Spring railway, .... 279 Weaving machinery, 334 Railway chairs, . . 287 Stained glass, exhibition of, 403 Wheels, railway, . . . 280, 375 Railways, permament way of. . 285 Stearine candles, manufacture of, 391 Winches, steam, . 228 Railway rolling stock, . 279 Steel,. 169 Windlasses,. 192 Raw products, . 65 Steel, Bessemer’s, . . .72 376 Windows, Evans’ “ Robin llood,” . 405 Reaping machines, . 129 Steam engines, agricultural, . 133 Windows, Heaton’s “ Act of Mercy,” 405 Report, Fairbairn and Baker’s . 55 Steam engines, varieties of, 207 Wood carving,. 202 Retrospect, the future. . 685 Steam fire engine, 250 Woods, colonial, varieties, 81 Rewards, French Exhibition, 2 Steam hammers, 307 Wood-shaping machines, 318 Rhinoceros horn, carvings in, . Ill Steam pipes, arrangement of, , 36 Wool,. 90 Ribbons, cambric, Omerod’s, . 357 Steering apparatus, . 189 Wool machinery, . 339 Rice paper, . 110 Stereoscopes, , 503 Woollens, printed and dyed, . 359 Ribs, curved timber, details of . 41 Stone china, exhibition of, 416 Yucca plant,. 115 Rifled cannon, projectiles for, . 457 Stone, Indian lithographic, 75 Zinc,. 174 Rifling machines, . 299, 477 Stones, building, 79 Zinc, statistics of, 119 Rockets, military, . 461 Stoves, ..... 82 Zopissa, Szerelmey’s, 82 THE RECORD OF TIIE INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1802. PART I. UeiVVJAL IL1V> V/XVA -- tion thus early impressed by its Roman masters, was never lost to Gaul, as age by age it was transformed into modern France. Clovis and Ckildebert were building churches at Paris fourteen hundred years ago, while England was yet a half savage land. All the arts that minister to man’s comfort—civilization, luxury —had, now that the human race woke up again to intellectual life, become centered in the old cities of Italy, and thence rapidly found their way into France, and more slowly up through the ancient towns of Eastern Germany. From both directions we were long supplied with products such as the brass and clockwork of Nurem¬ berg, the watches, crystal, and carpets of Venice, that we were then too little advanced to produce for ourselves. France, however, from being the carrier, gradually became the producer. Fostered by successive monarcks, by the splendour of courts, by a richly endowed church, but most of all, at a later period, by the genius of Colbert, she became pre-eminent in almost every then known branch of manufacture, and especially of art manufac¬ ture. Pre-eminence in the latter, the peculiar genius of her people has enabled her to retain, over all the world to the present hour. manenuy im quui _ The earliest French exposition owed its suggestion and creation to the tremendous spasm of the Revolution. In the yec r V. of the Republic (1797) the three great governmental art manufactories (originated, or greatly developed by Colbert, and always afterwards maintained as an appanage of the monarchy), those of Tapestry, Carpets, and Porcelain, had fallen into utter disorganization; the hands dependant on them were starving; the Marquis d’Avise and his colleagues, by the authority of the Directory, organized a grand collection of their productions for exhibition and for disposal by lottery; the suite of unoccupied salons of the palace of St. Cloud was devoted to the display; and on the 18th Fructidor it was to have been opened, but by one of those sudden strokes of power then so common, its opening was foibidden on the very day before, and the military commandant, Augereau, put in possession of the place. What became of the collection we can only surmise; the Marquis d’Avise had to leave Paris instantly as a proscribed noble, and it is not improbable that the whole collection was turned into cash by the Directory. A iv INDEX. M ineral acids, .... Minerals, collections of, *AGE 450 Phosphorus manufacture.. PAGE . 451 Rocks, Indian. PAGE . 75 Straw paper, manufacture, PAGE 109,370 87 Photography, and apparatus, . . 564 Roofing, the glazed, 1862, . 46 Sugar machinery, . 224 Minerals, Indian collection, 72 Photography, application to Geodesy, 563 Roofs, best form of, for exhibitions, 60 Sulphuric acid manufacture, . . 440 Minerals, pliosphatic, 153 Photographic chemicals, . . 574 Rolling and casting metals, . 371 Sulphur, Indian, . 75 Minerals, production, general sum- Photographic engraving, . . 577 Rotatory and section engines, . . 234 Surgical and medical apparatus, . 552 mary,. Mineral products, . 120 Photography, microscopic, . 572 Safety cages, .... . 163 Swing cradle, Salter’s, . 561 65 Photographic pictures, . 576 Sails,. . 190 Syphon still, Barron’s, . 439 Mineral statistics, 116 Photographic tents, . . 573 Salt, Indian, .... Salt, production and value, . 76 Table glass, specimens of, . 407 Mining,. 154 Physical apparatus, . . 507 . 120 Tartaric acid, .... . 584 Mining and colliery work. 154 Pianofortes, .... . 526 Sandstones, .... . 79 Telegraph, electric, apparatus, Telegraph, Wheatstone’s private . 529 Models, civil engineering. 199 Pianofortes, Broadwood’s metallic, . 526 Scaffold, Phillips’ travelling, . . 41 , . 534 Monochord. Griesbach’s, . 510 Picric acid,. . 582 Schist, mode of treating, . . 394 Telescopes, equatorial, . 498 Mortar, Keynsham's polished,. 79 Pigments, Indian, . 75 Scutching machines,. 323 Tenon-cutting machines, . . 319 Mortising machines, . 319 Pipe and brick machines, . . 145 Seaweed, application of, . . Ill Terra cotta, . Terra cotta, Blashfield’s, . . 80 Mosaic pavements, Wyatt’s, . 415 Pipes, bituminized paper, . 110 Sevres porcelain, 421 . 201 Mottoes on walls and domes, 52 Pipes, earthenware, . . 78 Sewerage, deodorization, &c., . 424 Textile machinery, . . 321 Moulding machines, . 318 Pipes for water supply, . 247 Sewing, plaiting, and felting ma Textile materials, 83, 293 Mules, self-acting, . 330 Pistols, revolving, . 475 chines,. 341 Thermodynamics, . 205 Musical instruments. 523 Plaiting and braiding machines. . 352 Sextants, aluminium, 501 Thermometers, .... . 508 Nail-making machine, 313 Planing machines, . 318 Shafting, arrangement of, 1862, 36 Thrashing machines. . 134 Naphtha, Indian, 75 Plasters and stuccos,. . 80 Shaping machines, . 296 Tiles and pipes, Timber for shipbuilding, . . 77 Naphthaline, .... 582 Plate glass, manufacture, . . 401 Sheathing slips. 187 . 197 Naval architecture, . 178 Platinum,. . 177 Shells, Boxer’s diaphragm, 460 Timber, quantity used, 1862, . . 55 Nave, the great, details of, 37 Ploughs, hand, .... Ploughs, steam, .... Plumbago, Indian, . 128 ' Shells, segment, Armstrong’s, . 458 Tin,. . 177 New engineering contrivances, 289 . 123 Shells, specimens of, . 112 Tin ores, Indian, . 73 New York Exhibition, 1853, . 19 . 75 Shipbuilding, .... 178 Tin, statistics of. . 118 Nickel and cobalt, 177 Polarizing instruments, . . 505 Shot, grape, and canister, . 459 Tincal, crude borax, Thibet, . . 76 Night lights, manufacture, 433 Porcelain, Copeland’s painted, . 418 Shot, Whitworth’s, . 484 Tires, railway, .... . 2SO Nitrobenzene, .... 57.8 Porcelain, English examnles of, . 416 Silica, beds of, . 78 T .17 1L ) French Exhibition of 1855, transverse section, ) III. International Exhibition of 1851, elevation, vertical section, and end view, • • • • * * * * , IV. International Exhibition of 1862, front and end elevations, Frontispiece V. International Exhibition of 1862, general plan, VI. Traction Engine, Aveling and Porter’s, ..•• VII. Safety Cage for Mines, Aytoun’s, • VIII. Iron-cased Ship, with Coles’ shields, vertical section, IX. Engines and Boilers of the Leinster and Connaught, sections, X. Marine Engines, 800 Horse-power, Penn’s, vertical section and plan, 209 33 134 163 183 206 PLATES. TO PA' XI. Marine Engines, Humphrey & Tennant’s, elevation and plan, XII. Horizontal Engine, the “ Allen,” elevation, plan, and details, XIII. Floating Dock at Ferrol, Rennie’s, end elevation, sections, a plan,.• • ‘ XIV. Locomotive Express, Ramsbottom’s, vertical section, XV. Marine Engines of the Imperial Yacht L’Aigle, Mazelines, XVI. Mule Spinning, Parr’s, self-acting, .... XVII. Paper-making Machine, Bertram’s, elevation and plan, . XVIII. Telegraph Instruments, Magneto-Electric, Siemens, Decorations for Walls and Floors, 2 plates; Lace —Intern Decoration, 2 plates, ...••• Metal Work and Candelabra, 4 plates, • Stained Glass Windows, 2 plates,. Furniture, 4 plates,. v»c s I I THE RECORD OF THE INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1862. PART I. In tracing the succession of those events that chiefly mark the progress of the whole human family, from the dawn of earliest civilization to its latest and best achievements, we shall find their march in time very much follows the great migrations of our race, spreading from its primary centres to replenish and subdue the earth. The descendants of those sires that dwelt in tents of skins, “with curtains hung round about,” in time built palaces of alabaster, the exhumed remains of which even we admire and wonder at. The sea was reached, and ships of Tarshish spread their sails to aid the great westward march of men, that tracked and peopled from point to point both shores of the Mediterranean, building pyramids and cities, harbours, temples, Parthenons, as it advanced. Greece, elastic in youthful power, found out the Western lands, and colonized from Etruria to Sicily, bringing with her the arts and lore that had been cradled in Mid-Asia, and planting the vine and the olive in her path. Rome was founded and gradually evolved that mighty system of military aggrandisement destined to push to “the farthest Thule” her power, her race, her civili¬ zation. Her earliest continental colonies were in Gaul, which was for long her possession and highway towards Northern and Western Europe. In our own island she built her military roads and fortress walls; but Gaul had been already enriched and adorned with her aqueducts and bridges, amphitheatres and temples. The old creeds and worships died out, and the dismal lethargy betwixt the old and new fell over Europe; but the stamp of civiliza¬ tion thus early impressed by its Roman masters, was never lost to Gaul, as age by age it was transformed into modern France. Clovis and Childebert were building churches at Paris fourteen hundred years ago, while England was yet a half savage land. All the arts that minister to man’s comfort—civilization, luxury —had, now that the human race woke up again to intellectual life, become centered in the old cities of Italy, and thence rapidly found their way into France, and more slowly up through the ancient towns of Eastern Germany. From both directions we were long supplied with products such as the brass and clockwork of Nurem¬ berg, the watches, crystal, and carpets of Venice, that we were then too little advanced to produce for ourselves. France, however, from being the carrier, gradually became the producer. Fostered by successive monarchs, by the splendour of courts, by a richly endowed church, but most of all, at a later period, by the geuius of Colbert, she became pre-eminent in almost every then known branch of manufacture, and especially of art manufac¬ ture. Pre-eminence in the latter, the peculiar genius of her people has enabled her to retain, over all the world to the present hour. The former she would not have so much (or so soon at least) sur¬ rendered to ourselves and others, had not bigotry and persecution driven forth her best artisan skill. France then has always had the start of us in time and tide of civilization and its train of arts, and there is little wonder that she was the first to evolve the idea of Industrial Exhibitions in Western Europe, the first glimmerings of which appear in Colbert’s time. Not but that Industrial Exhibitions in their actuality, though not with the idea of those of the present day, are greatly more ancient. Not to speak of the Olympic games which Grote has so well shown, had for eleven hundred years their industrial and artistic elements, the triennial or other periodic great fairs of Astrakan, of Novogorod, of Prague, of Leipsic, were (and are some of them yet) in truth vast exhibitions of products of every sort collected over vast areas; and there can be no question that although not primarily, if at all, intended for “taking stock” of industrial progress, they did in fact in remoter times powerfully promote it. It is not here our purpose, however, to pursue the History of Industrial Exhibitions themselves, which will properly fall within the scope of our Concluding Essays, but merely to indicate, by the briefest historical hints, what has been the nature of that antecedent train of events that placed France in the van of nations as respects her distinct recognition and establishment of National Industrial Exhibitions. Our concern now is with the buildings in which some of the chief of these exhibitions have been held, including those designed per¬ manently for such purposes in future. The earliest French exposition owed its suggestion and creation to the tremendous spasm of the Revolution. In the ye. r V. of the Republic (1797) the three great governmental art manufactories (originated, or greatly developed by Colbert, and ahvays afterwards maintained as an appanage of the monarchy), those of Tapestry, Carpets, and Porcelain, had fallen into utter disorganization; the hands dependant on them were starving ; the Marquis d’Avise and his colleagues, by the authority of the Directory, organized a grand collection of their productions for exhibition and for disposal by lottery; the suite of unoccupied salons of the palace of St. Cloud was devoted to the display; and on the 18th Fructidor it was to have been opened, but by one of those sudden strokes of power then so common, its opening was foibidden on the very day before, and the military commandant, Augereau, put in possession of the place. What became of the collection we can only surmise; the Marquis d’Avise had to leave Paris instantly as a proscribed noble, and it is not improbable that the whole collection was turned into cash by the Directory. A 2 RECORD OF THE INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1862. Only the next year after however, in 1798, this energetic and enlightened noble of the old regime was in some way enabled to return in safety to Paris, and almost directly after he succeeded in forming a highly important collection of art manufactures, in which most of the great manufactures of France, as well as those of the three ex-Royal manufactories were exhibited. This was opened (how far under the control of the existing government does not seem clear) in the Maison D’Orsay, and in the adjoining grounds, in the Rue de Varennes, and seems to have remained open to the public until events occurred that gave it a fresh development, and stamped for ever after with the importance of nationality, French Industrial Expositions. General Bonaparte, the future First Consul and Emperor of France, had just returned from his first brilliant Italian campaign, and laid its splendid spoils at the feet of the Directory. The fetes of the Republic and of liberty were to be celebrated in August. The Directory seized the occasion to unite into one impos¬ ing whole these, and the triumphal procession through Paris to the points of reunion, in the Champ de Mars—of the conqueror with his spoils. Everything that could add to the dazzling vanities of the moment was collected, and it was resolved to erect in this great amphitheatre a “ Temple of Industry,” and there exhibit the collec¬ tion of the Maison D’Orsay, with great additions. This Fair of Industry, as it was at first called, was opened by Francois de Neufchateau, as ministerially representing the Republic, attended by members of the learned bodies, the municipalities, and by a jury, and was in reality the first National Exposition of French Industry, one at which for the first time account was taken by nine competent men, with Chaptal at their head, of relative merits, and prizes awarded. The “ Temple of Industry,” so far as we can now judge from the newspapers of the time and one or two very poor prints, seems to have been no more than a rather humble, long wooden shed, with a number of somewhat mean porticos attached to it. Its importance, however, was not lost upon at least one eagle eye that regarded its contents. Three eventful years followed, and the General of the Republic became First Consul and practically its master. His far-seeing and politic brain had not forgotten this (but episode) of the 10th August, 1798, and in 1801 he caused to be opened, again upon the anniver¬ sary of the Republic, the second Industrial Exhibition, in the spacious chambers of the once Royal Lonvre. It was greatly larger than the preceding one. Everything that could be effectually done by Bona¬ parte, aided by such men as Monge, Chaptal, Berthollet, and De Prony, was done to stimulate French industry, which had so ter¬ ribly suffered in the Revolution. The national wealth and prosperity began to recover, and in 1802 the third French Exposition was opened by the First Consul in person. The number of exhibitors was more than fourfold that of the first, and it was obvious that the next would demand a special building to arrange and exhibit fully the growing splendour of the arts and manufactures of France. The master mind, however, was now called away to distant fields of warfare and destruction, for nearly four years, yet not before the establishment of the Societe d’Encouragement, due to the sagacity of Napoleon, had given permanence to the effect of those periodic shows in promoting industrial improvement. In 1806, the first and last Exposition of Industry under the Empire was held, and now for the first time a special building was provided for its accommodation. It consisted of a spacious timber shed erected upon the Esplanade of the Hotel des Invalides; no plan or view of it appears to be extant. Nor probably was there anything in its construction or appearance very worthy of record. Its contents, however, were remarkable; the printed muslins of Alsace then first appeared, the combined excellence of art and manufacture in which has since given them a world-wide fame, and the enormous advances that France had made in the preceding four years in the manufacture of iron and steel were evident. But before the peaceful rivalry of the Exhibition had well ceased, Bellona was again loose—thirteen years elapsed, the greater part filled with tears and blood to France and to Europe before another Exhibition of Industry appeared at Paris. In the interval the com¬ bination of art and manufacture, upon the steady promotion of which so much of French industrial success has depended, was in a great degree forgotten. Taste itself even in France had become depraved, a miserable and paltry classicality in decoration, furniture, and dress, had come to mark the epoch of the empire now at an end. Industry had been driven into new channels by the inexorable demands of the Emperor’s continental system, and the necessities of his continual wars waged, from 1811 up to 1814 especially; the country was turned into a barrack, and its workshops, after the dis¬ asters of 1812, into arsenals and armouries. It required more than three years’ rest after the final convulsion of Waterloo and the compulsory restoration of the Bourbons, before the industry of prostrate and exhausted France was again capable of an Exhibition. In 1819, on the anniversary of the fetes of St. Louis, the fifth National Exposition took place. It was now held in the great apart¬ ments of the Louvre, or, according to Mr. D. Wyatt, in galleries constructed in the court of the Louvre. Upon this occasion the Ordonuance of the King for the first time declared that such expositions were to become a permanent national institution, and to be held every fourth year. In 1823, the sixth French Exposition was again opened at the Louvre, and the display filled to overflowing the whole of the ground-floor, and a large por¬ tion of the principal one, of the palace. The growing progress of these shows is evidenced by the con¬ tinually increasing length of time, that it was found needful to keep them open. The very first in the Champ de Mars was open three days only ; this the sixth was open nearly nine weeks ; the number of exhibitors was smaller than had marked the new advent of the Bourbons ; but the number of rewards at least was liberal, nearly 1100 having been distributed. A model of the first Suspension Bridge proposed, being erected in France, was this year exhibit^ by Scguin Freres ; it was after¬ wards thrown across the Rhone. The name of Seguin will ever be celebrated amongst mechanics, as at a later date connected with one of the three great epochs of improvement, in the construction of the locomotive engine. Printed Reports of each Exposition from 1819 downwards, in bulky octavo volumes exist, from which a perfect conception can be formed of the general character of the things exhibited, and generally of the advances made from period to period; but it is impossible to gather from them, or from the Ordonnances that are printed at the end of each volume, any clear idea of the spaces occupied, or the modes of arrangement adopted. The classification we shall refer to hereafter. The seventh Exposition of 1827, was again held in the Palace ot the Louvre; and from the terms of the Ordonnance we are led to presume that great additions were on this occasion made to its capacity by temporary erections. Nearly 1800 exhibitors contri¬ buted to this the last display of France under the rule of the old line of the Bourbons ; and in a manufacturing point of view, perhaps its most striking characteristic was the visible impress made, by tho introduction since the peace ot 1815, of our own peculiar creation the steam-engine, upon the growth and improvement of the textile products of France, the first great stimulus to which was due to Chaptal’s efforts to bring in the breed of Merino sheep from Spain. Seven years now elapsed before under Louis Philippe in 1834, the eighth national exposition was organized; political convulsion jr i'TTT;f.i ! ; L i n ousts ■ rA r iona* \ i liii'vyjMiA j-; j'AVi/VriT 'EMBER (o) PARMENTiER iiAc'QlJARD SDECADS .VATT J FRANKLIN r~T«r~i I'WIhigps I—■ .S' CA LE RECORD OF THE INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1862. 3 and change of dynasty had prevented Charles X.’s Ordonnance from being fulfilled three years before this. Nearly 2500 exhibitors answered to the call of government, and obliged the erection of four great temporary sheds upon the Place de la Concorde for the reception of their products. These were mere timber erections, with little pretension to decoration, and no plan or design of them appears to be forthcoming now. This Exhibition is noteworthy in many points of view, which we shall refer to in our concluding essays. A more severe and just appreciation of the proportion between the number of exhibitors and those of the rewards, prevailed than on previous occasions. Twenty-three crosses of the Legion of Honour and about seven hundred medals were awarded. India-rubber elastic fabrics were here first shown, and the result of one of the most beautiful and brilliant discoveries of modern analytical chemistry, Guimet’s artificial ultramarine, that pure and sparkling blue that played so remarkable a part in the decoration of our building of 1851, and does also in that of the present year. Baron Dupin edited France, and that Prony had written an elaborate book in two folio volumes, describing and discussing the elements of the only great pumping-engine of Watt in the whole country, there were now about fifty foundries or engineers’ shops engaged more or less in the manufacture of steam-engines, and not a few of these had already attained a high degree of accuracy and excellence. Five years elapsed, and again in 1844 Louis Philippe inaugurated an exposition, the tenth of French ones, and the last destined to occur in his reign. The number of exhibitors was again about 4000; but the display was by far the most splendid and various that France had yet beheld. The building was an immense timber-shed designed by the architect Moreau, and erected again in the Carre Marigny of the Champs Elysees. Fig. 1, Plate 1, is an elevation of the building, showing the royal entrance, and Fig. 1 of the wood engravings is a ground plan showing the arrangement of the whole Exhibition. The building was erected complete within seventy days, and at a , cost which appears to be' little more than Is. 3d. per foot super Fig-1. the Report, which now assumed the bulk of three large octavo volumes, j and for the first time is preceded by a good resume of the past progress of French industry and the history of former Expositions. The next French Exposition, the ninth, was held in 1839, in a huge temporary wooden building placed in the Carre de Marigny, in the Champs Elysees. The demands of nearly 4400 exhibitors required a space to be roofed in for French producers alone, of nearly 178 thousand square feet, or above four statute acres, besides an annexe for the products of Mulhausen, &c. The building itself was a plain A-roofed shed of many spans connected by a long cross gallery, and, from its massive timbers of whole balk, is said by those who saw it to have had a striking effect enough, in its plain whitewash; but we have been able to collect no structural details, or external elevations of it, and probably none of these presented features of interest or peculiarity, as they have not been preserved. The great noticeable feature of this Exposition itself was, that while in 1802 there were not twenty steam-engines in all covered. The Report, in three volumes octavo, was presented to the King by Baron Thenard, and contains the decisions of no less than fifty-eight jurors. This Exposition was remarkable for the greatly-increased display of heavy moving machinery, and for the increased importance and attention with which this was regarded by all classes of the Parisians as a wealth-creating power. Nasmyth’s steam-hammer here first was shown abroad. Notwithstanding the new political stoim that in the interval swept over France, the new Republic succeeded in opening the eleventh French Exposition in 1849, the veiy fiist aftei Louis Philippe’s dethronement. Before this, however, the growth and interest attaching to the successive French Expositions, had attracted the serious considera¬ tion of the governments of other continental countries, though not of our own; and this is the proper place to notice, that the first permanent structure devoted to such national expositions was elected at Munich by the king of Bavaria as early as 1845 ; a noble and solid 4 RECORD OF THE INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1862. piece of architecture, adorned with sculpture by Schwanthaler, and covering more than 36,000 square feet of exhibition space. the year 1840, Austria, Spain, Piedmont, Portugal, the kingdom of the Two Sicilies, Prussia, Holland, Denmark, Sweden, and Russia, had had their occasional expositions. Amongst all these, those of Belgium were the most numerous and important. Thrice it had exhibited as a province of the French empire, and four times in connection with Holland. These were held at various places, at Ghent, Tournay, Haarlem, &c., and in buildings pre-existing. That of 1841, when Belgium had become a kingdom, was placed in the Musee de l’lndustrie at Brussels, filling the whole of that large building, where also subsequent exhibitions have been held. As there was nothing constructively remarkable or special in the habitations chosen for these many and distinct continental exhibi¬ tions, further notice of them is beyond our present purpose. The French Exposition of 1849, the eleventh, notwithstanding the depressed state of trade throughout the continent, was on a grander scale than any that had preceded it. Moreau was again the designer of the building which was again of timber, and placed in the Champs Elys^es. Fig. 2, Plate 1, gives an elevation of its exterior, and Fig. 2 of the wood cuts is a plan of the ground floor. The ground covered (exclusive of the annexe for agri¬ cultural implements) was more than 220,000 square feet, and the cost of the building, which was like all its predecessors quite temporary, was stated at about Is. 2d. per foot super. It was roofed with sheet zinc. A far more pretentious style of decoration was attempted than in the simple and much nobler white-washed sheds of former periods. The balk fir uprights were covered with oak- grained paper, and ornamental trusses produced in papier mad tee, with painted bas-reliefs, and much other sham ornament. No constructive details of the building have been published ; it was the last of the temporary buildings constructed in France, as well as the last of its exhibitions exclusively national. The following Table gives the chief particulars and cost of the three last and most important French buildings :— Date. Covered- Area sq. yards. Area in Acres. Total Cost. Cost per super, foot. Proportion of Exhibition Space to surface of Passages. 1839 13,538 a. r. p. 2 3 9 £ 14,551 s. d. 2 2 58 bo 1844 23,310 4 2 20 14,056 1 3 33 90 104 1819 27,214 5 2 20 16,000 1 2GG 97 12G About £2000 additional was expended in the last for the agricul¬ tural annexe, which is not included in the above. These sums appear extremely small beside our present notions of exhibition expenditure. It must be remetnbered, however, that all the materials of these temporary structures were merely hired, and went back to the contractor when the building was emptied. Mr. D. Wyatt considers, in his Report to the Society of Arts upon the Eleventh Exhibition of France, that “rlie expenditure, though small in actual amount, was really extravagant, as a recurrent out¬ lay, of which nothing in the end remained; and as compared with the interest only of capital devoted to the construction of a per¬ manent building it no doubt was so, as in fact the act of the French government in 1853-55 proved.” A new epoch was now to open in the career of industrial expo¬ sitions. We have seen in the preceding brief sketch that the recognition and first development of natioual expositions was due to the prescient mind of Napoleon in his early prime; of that great man, who, amidst national hatreds the most bitter, could mark his reverence for Davy the English chemist, whose chosen companions were such men as Volta, Cuvier, Chaptal, and La Place. The remembrance of this must have recurred to the President of the Republic with justifiable pride, when inaugurating the Exposition of 1849. RECORD OF THE INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 18G2. 5 The next great advance, however, was to come from another mind congenial in vigour, and in the thoughtful conception of the true paths that lead to industrial greatness, but in all other respects the happy opposite in attributes to that of Napoleon. To our own lamented Prince Consort belongs the origination of the idea of International Exhibitions. France had shown to herself and to Europe what she herself could accomplish, but she had shrunk from permitting other nations to show their achievements, in contrast with and beside her own.- Perhaps much of the favour with which Prince Albert’s proposal was received at length by the people of England, arose from the simple courage of the thought; but undoubtedly the immense suc¬ cess which the attempt to carry it out, at once attained, as well as the abiding advantages which, as a nation, we have already derived from its results, are due to the idea of international rivalry, as contra¬ distinguished from merely national display. It ministered not to our insular pride, but proved to us our own comparative shortcomings. Before taking leave of the olden Exhibitions then it will be of interest to place, in a tabular form, some of the chief facts, marking their rise and progress. TABULAR VIEW OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF FRENCH NATIONAL EXPOSITIONS. Order. Date. Government. Where Held. Time remaining Oi en. Number of Exhibitors. Number of Prizes. Character of Buildings. 1st. Year VI., 1798. The Directory. Champ de Mars. 3 dsys. 110 23 Temporary wood. 2nd Year IX., 1801. The Consulate. The Louvre. 6 days. 229 80 Pre-existing. 3rd. Year X., 1802. The Consulate. The Louvre. 7 days. 540 254 Pre-existing. 4th. 1806. The Empire. Esplanade of the Invalides. 24 days. 1422 610 Temporary wood. 5th. 1819. Louis XVIII. The Louvre. 35 days. 1632 862 Pre-existing. 6th. 1823. Louis XVIII, The Louvre. 50 days. 1642 1091 Pre-existing. 7 th. 1327. Charles X. The Louvre. 62 days. 1695 1254 Pre-existing. 8th. 1834. Louis Thilippe. Place de la Concorde. 60 days. 2447 1785 Temporary wood. 9th. 1839. Louis Philippe. Champs Elysdes. 60 days. 3281 2305 Temporary wood 10th. 1844. Louis Philippe. Champs Elysees. 60 days. 3960 3253 Temporary wood 11th. 1849. The Republic. Champs Elysees. 60 day's. 4494 3738 Temporary wood. It is not for us here to recount afresh, with what hesitation and doubt the first promulgation of the idea of the late Prince Consort was received, gradually opening into perception of its high import¬ ance, and soon into enthusiasm. How he pointed out the site, ultimately decided on, at one of the first private meetings held on the subject of the intended Exhibition, at Buckingham Palace on the 30th June, 1849 ; a site of 26 acres in nearly the form of a parallelogram, 2300 feet by 500, nearly fronting north and south, naturally well drained, with an almost uniform slope from east to west of 1 in 200, and nearly unencumbered, except by a few clumps of large timber trees, ultimately preserved, and forming conspicuous ornaments within the glass palace, a site as readily approachable as probably any that could be found within this metropolis. Nor need we more than glance at the disjointed councils that for a time prevented the decision upon any design for the building of 1851. The building committee invited suggestions, received no less than 240 distinct designs, deemed none of them suitable, proceeded to arrange a design of their own, which required about 16,000,000 bricks to be laid, and could never have been done in time, and which no one thought well of, and as matters stood in this unsatisfactory condition Sir J. Paxton, then Mr. Paxton, appeared, the deus ex macJdna, and said the right word (which everyone nearly at once responded to as the right one), “ Let the building be of glass and iron,” and upon which action was at once taken. Mr. Paxton is very widely held to have been the absolute origi¬ nator of the first idea of the Crystal Palace of 1851. This, how¬ ever, does not seem to be quite the fact. Mr. W. B. Adams, in the “ Westminster and Foreign Quarterly Review,” for April, 1850, after examining the objects of the Exhibi¬ tion, and the kinds of building suitable, suggested, that the structure should be like “ a great metropolitan conservatory, the materials of which should be chiefly iron and glass,” many of the details of which he gave; and he further suggested that the building should be permanent, and be used for the purposes of “ a conservatory and winter garden” when not required for industrial exhibitions. This appears to have been the first public suggestion for a structure of the kind; Mr. Paxton’s proposition was only brought forward in the month of July, 1850. But although not absolutely the first to promulgate the thought, there can be no doubt but that it was due to Mr. Paxton’s actual previous experience at Chatsworth, in the construction of structures of glass, having some peculiarities of design quite his own, and to the moral weight thence derived, with which his suggestions were received, that the fortunate decision was come to, of acting in accord¬ ance with them. No less certain is it that the admirable way in which Mr. Paxton’s broad general notions were carried out into practical realization, was due in a great degree to the mechanical and administrative skill of Sir Charles Fox, and his then partner the late Mr. Hen¬ derson. The story of their courage and enterprise as contractors, in push¬ ing forward the great work, upon faith only, for many weeks, in order to enable the Commission to keep its projected time for opening, has been told fully elsewhere, and well deserves to be kept in remembrance. It might have been assumed that the experience acquired abroad in the construction of several great temporary buildings, and in the RECORD OF THE INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1862. arrangement of other large existing ones, for exhibition purposes, would have evolved the great leading principles as to the requisites that must he combined in that now about to be constructed in Hyde Park. Yet it is a curious circumstance that in the end the great leading idea as to form—distribution of area—relative positions and elevations of parts, in the building of 1851, were derived from nothing new or modern, but from the Christian Cathedral, one of the oldest and most gradually evolved architectural conceptions of the last two thousand years. Yet it is obvious that nothing could have formed a more suitable and adequate type. The great rectangular cruciform structure, nave, and transepts, chancel, side aisles, chapels, cloisters, chapter house, slowly grown out of the more ancient and simple basilica, had more objects in common with a building suitable for industrial exhibitions, than appears at first glance. The Cathedral was a place for great cere¬ monials, for processions, for exhibitions; its walls covered with sculpture, painting, objects of devotion; with a grand central point of attraction ; and with such a disposition of space, that from many points of it the eye ranged undisturbed by intervening objects, over vast areas of its vacuous interior, from every point of which, con¬ versely, the grand central point was visible. Such was actually the primal notion, however got at, in accord¬ ance with which the skeleton form of the building of 1851 was arranged; and it has more or less fixed ihe plan and elevations of every building for analagous purposes erected since, with the exception of that of the present year, 1862, or the French build¬ ing of 1855, seems scarcely exceptional. Our account of the construction of the highly original structure of 1851 must neces¬ sarily be brief and incomplete as to many details. The reader who desires full professional details must consult the elaborate work of Mr. C. Downes, architect (Weale, London), 4to, and the excel¬ lent succinct descriptions by Mr. Digby Wyatt, in the Commissioners’ Reports (folio), and in the Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, London—to all of which, especially the last, we have been largely indebted.* The requisites finally assumed as indispensable in the building of 1851 were, first, that a main avenue of ample width should extend the whole length from east to west, as near the centre of the struc¬ ture as the trees would permit; that this avenue should be higher Secondly, that limiting the number of entrances to one at the eastern, one at the western, and one at the southern end of the main avenues, would be convenient to the public, and simplify the supervision of the money-taking, &c., hut that it would be desirable to provide numerous exits. That of these three entrances the southern would be the most important, and the one about which, it would be best to group the executive offices. Thirdly, that other longitudinal avenues should extend from north to south, and that transverse gangways between the stalls, numbered to correspond with the Catalogue, should connect them with the main longitudinal avenues, so that any visitor, by passing down one side of a gangway, and up another, or down the centre of one gang¬ way, and up the centre of another, and taking the gangways regu¬ larly one after another, might be enabled not to omit any portion of the Exhibition, and yet not to see any part of it twice over; or so that any visitor, desirous of proceeding directly to a particular object, might be able to pass along the main or central avenue, until he arrived at the gangway (marked to correspond with the indications of the Catalogue), which would be sure to lead him to the object he was in search of; and so that, in either case, the disposition of the building might rather direct than coerce, the motions of the visitors, and might insure the general movement of the public in regular currents. Fourthly, that round and about the three clumps of trees growing in the park, that were to be preserved, would be the most convenient spots for the refreshment rooms. Fifthly, that a fixed dimension of 24 feet should be adopted; which should serve as the basis or measuring unit of all rectangular lines parallel to the main avenues, in plan; and that the whole of the supports for the roofing should be placed either at this distance or at that of multiples of it; that the mistakes and consequent delay attending the adoption of irregular dimensions would be thus avoided; that the lines of the building would be thus rendered agreeable; and that uniform areas of roofing could be conveniently arranged for drainage through the hollow columns. • Sixthly, that omitting all internal enclosures or divisions, except¬ ing those formed by the stalls, would have the good effects of allowing the eye to range at liberty, and to appreciate the extent, and long vistas of the structure, and would leave future arrange- Fig. 3. Scale—300 feet = 1 inch. International Exhibition of 1851—plan of the ground floor. than any other parts of the building, with the exception of a transverse avenue ranging with it in height, leading from the southern entrance, and crossing the entire structure at right angles, as near the centre as possible. * We have also to acknowledge our being indebted to Mr. Forrest, C.E., Secretary, Institution of Civil Engineers, tor permission to make use of stereotyped reproductions of several of the illustrations of Mr. Digby Wyatt’s paper in the Proceedings of that body. ments of objects of exhibition and their classification without any trammels. The general distribution of the design recalls, as we have said, the system of a cathedral structure—a vast nave 72 feet wide, rose to a height of 64 feet above the surface. This was crossed by a transept 408 feet long, equally wide and lofty; but with the difference that it was crowned by a waggon vault, increasing its height to 104 feet at the centre. ' 0 . oranffiiMTQtraM w q®iq fat ' • --(■ • l%* * Wk t 'I <*- , ■ ' «’■:» -r* V v ' MHHUBhHmBI w vV * 'v40 1 *+. >* ■ - je■'■' *'**■ " * i. . -- ; ■ . <. •.. > ' fi f' .'• * RECORD OF THE INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1862. On each side of the nave and transept, a series of aisles, 24 feet wide, by 44 feet and 24 feet high, spread out to a total width of 456 feet. The entire length of the building was 1850 feet; it provided an area, upon the ground floor, equal to 772,784 square feet, and upon the level of the galleries, 23 feet from the floor, an area equal to 217,100 square feet, making a total area of available space of 989,884 square feet. There were but three public entrances, as stated above ; but in the circuit of the whole building there were fifteen exits, symmetrically disposed; where they occurred a pair of doors, 8 feet in width, occupied the centre of the space, and the two bays of 8 feet each on either side of the doors, were glazed instead of being boarded. The building consisted of three stories ; and its general construction might be described as a cancellated rectangular combination of columns and girders of cast-iron, braced at intervals by diagonal wrought-iron stay bars in vertical planes attached to both—the columns varying in height from 16 to 19 feet or thereabouts, and the girders or trusses all upon the trellis arrangement—being either 24, 48, or 72 feet long. The general appearance of the building, both externally and internally, will be seen from Plate 3, in which, divided in each case at the centre line, is given a half internal section, in each of the two planes of symmetry, viz. north and south, and east and west. In Fig. 3 of the woodcuts is given a plan of the building upon the ground level only. The flooring consisted of boards 1J inch thick, laid half an inch apart, upon joists 7 inches by 2^ inches, bearing upon sleepers 13 inches by 3£ inches, at intervals of 8 feet apart. The interstices were left between the boards to permit the pas¬ sage of dust and dirt. This method of flooring had been found to answer well at Chatsworth and in other localities. TIIE FOUNDATION AND BASE-PLATES (Figs. 4 and 5). Fig. 4. Elevation of base-plate, showing connection with column above It. Fig. 5 It would have been difficult to have found a better foundation than that which extended over nearly the whole area of the building. In digging out the foundations for the columns which rested on footings of concrete, the area of each excavation was determined by this rule, that the gravel should not be exposed to a greater load than 2^- tons per superficial foot. The cavities thus formed were, in all cases, filled up with solid concrete, finished with fine mortar. On the surface of this mortar were bedded “ base-plates,” or foundaton pieces (Figs. 4and 5), consisting of a horizontal bed-plate, at right angles to the vertical lines of the building, strengthened by shoulders, uniting the horizontal plates to the portion of the base plate, the section of which corresponded with that of the columns. The exact height, from the top of the concrete foundation to the plane of the junction between the base-plate and the column, was so precisely calculated, and the casting of the base-plate in all cases so perfectly performed, that the snugs, cast on the upper portion of the base-plates, exactly met and corresponded with those on the lower portion of the superincumbent columns, without leaving any interstice, or requiring any packing. From the vertical portion of the foundation pieces, which carried columns through which the roof-water passed, sockets branched out, into which were fixed the ends of the cast-iron pipes, for conveying the water descending from the roofs to the transverse drains. The arrangements for carrying off rapidly the entire roof-water of 17J acres, involved considerable preparation. Six rows of cast- iron pipes, each 6 inches diameter, communicating with the hollow columns supporting the roof, followed the fall of the ground from west to east, and conveyed the water to three drains running north and south. The latter, communicating with sewers running east and west, outside the building, conveyed the water to the lowest points, at the east end of the site, from which it was discharged into the main sewer in the Kensington Road, by an egg-shaped culvert of 4 feet 8 inches sectional area. THE COLUMNS AND CONNECTING FIECES (Figs. 6, 7, and 8). Fig. 6. Elevation of lower portion of connecting piece, showing its attachment to a column below, and to the girders at the sides. Fig. 7. The form of the supporting columns(Figs.6,7, and 8) was suggested by Sir Charles Barry. The horizontal section was a ring, of which the external diameter was uniformly 8 inches, and the substance of metal was proportioned to the various areas of roofing, &c., to be supported at each point on the plan. The minimum thickness of the columns thus varied from £ inch to 1 J inch; but the sectional area was increased by the addition of what would be equivalent to four fillets 31 inches by 5-32nds of an inch, cast upon the opposite portions of the ring, and facing, when fixed in situ, north, south, east, and west. Four snugs were cast on the top, and four on the bottom of the RECORD OF THE INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1862. columns between these fillets. Corresponding snugs were cast on to connecting pieces; the snugs alternating upon the same plane with the projections on the connecting piece which served to carry the girders. Bolt-holes were cast in the snags of the columns, and in Fig. 8. Elevation of upper portion of connecting piece, &c* those of the connecting pieces. All the bedding surfaces were accurately faced in a lathe, and were then fitted together so as to enable four holts to pass through the holes in the snugs of the columns and connecting pieces, which exactly corresponded to one another. Bolts and nuts then secured them in their places. By these arrangements, connecting pieces might be placed on and attached to columns ; and columns might in turn he placed on and attached to connecting pieces; the rigidity of the whole being secured by fixing girders at right angles to one another on to the projecting snugs cast on the connecting pieces. The main arms of the cross on plan, that is, the avenues 72 feet in width, or the nave and transept, together with their aisles of 24 feet wide, rose three stories in height; an avenue 48 feet wide, and an aisle 24 feet wide on each side of the three story building, rose two stories in height, and the whole of the remainder of the covered area was one story only in height. The gutter level of the three-story portion was 62 feet 2 inches from the floor; that of the two-story, 42 feet 2 inches; and that of the one-story, 22 feet 2 inches. These constituted in effect so many different horizontal planes or strata of the building, and from the ground-floor upwards to the roof in the three -story work consisted, first, of base-plates, the upper bearing surface of which rose 3J inches above the ground-floor; secondly, of columns 18 feet 54 inches long, fixed on the base¬ plates ; thirdly, of connecting pieces, 3 feet 4| inches deep, to which were attached cast-iron girders 24 feet long, serving to support a gallery floor at the height of 23 feet from the ground-floor ; fourthly, of columns 16 feet 7J inches long; fifthly, of connecting pieces 3 feet 4f inches deep, to which were attached transversely in one direction, and longitudinally in two directions, cast-iron girders 24 feet long of similar form and scantling to the roof girders, in order to retain all the columns in their places ; sixthly, of columns 16 feet inches long; and lastly, of connecting pieces 3 feet 4J inches deep, to which were attached the roof trusses and girders (Fig. 9). Fig. 9. The corresponding horizontal strata of the two-story portion of the building consisted, first, of base-plates, the upper bearing surface of which rose 3f inches above the ground floor; secondly, of columns 18 feet 5^ inches long, fixed on the base-plates; thirdly, of connecting pieces 3 feet 4f inches deep, to which were attached cast-iron girders 24 feet long, serving to support a gallery floor, at the height of 23 feet from the ground-floor; fourthly, of columns 16 feet 7J inches long; and fifthly, of connecting pieces 3 feet 4} inches deep, to which were attached the roof trusses and girders. The horizontal strata of the one-story portion consisted, first, of base-plates, the upper bearing surface of which rose 3| inches above the ground-floor; secondly, of columns 18 feet 5| inches long, fixed on the base-plates; and lastly, of connecting pieces 3 feet 4J inches deep, to which were attached the roof trusses and girders. From these dimensions it will be apparent, that at 23 feet above the floor level the galleries(Fig.lO) were inserted, which formed such striking features of both the two and the three story buildings. These galleiies, in two widths of 24 feet each, with frequent connecting galleries, extended entirely round the upper portion of the building^ and were supported by cast-iron girders 23 feet long, similar in form to those which supported the roof, but of somewhat heavier scantling. THE GALLERIES (Figs. 10 and 11). Fig. 10. 1 D x ! 5 0 ...a. o — i — -8.0 K 1 CO i i i i .| ” l 'C C . 1 | -1 ! j i 1 j i _J J . I i i j .. J Plan of half of a 24-feet bay of the gallery floor. Fig. 11. Details of elevation of truss of gallery fi„or These, as were all the girders, were single castings 3 feet deep, and divided into three parallelograms of 3 feet by 8 feet, by vertical struts, connected at the top and the bottom by d’agonal ties and struts (Fig. 11). The sectional areas of their top and bottom flanges in the centre of the length of thegirder, equalled respectively 5 31 inches, and 7‘64 inches; those of the diagonal struts and ties averaged 3 50 inches. All these girders were proved, in the building, in the way shown in the figure, to a strain of 15 tons, and in ex¬ ceptional cases, with extra scantlings, to 22 tons. Their breaking weight as calculated and proved by experiment, was not less than 30 tons. The binders, which served to support the floor of these galleries, were so arranged by under- RECORD OF THE INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1862. trussing by means of cast-iron shoes, suspending rods, and struts, as to take their bearing upon four instead of upon two girders; and thus any accumulated load, or vibration on a portion of the gallery, would be transferred to double the number of points of support that would have been available, had it been constructed in the ordinary manner. Joists of 7 feet 9 inches clear bearing, bridged these binders; and on them were laid a floor of boards l£ inch thick, with hoop iron tonguing to prevent the passage of dust, &c. Ten double staircases, each 8 feet wide, with iron railing, designed by Mr. Owen Jones, afforded access to these galleries. The strength of the gallery flooring was also effectually tested, by packing one experimental bay, safely arranged for the men, with labourers as thick as they could stand together. Three hun¬ dred at once ran over or jumped upon it, and a column of sappers filling its surface marched and ran over it in step; finally, a set of frames in chequers containing round shot of 68 lbs. each was dragged over the surface, and thus confined to a small area, a load of nearly 20 tons was rolled over the flooring without its showing any symptoms of weakness. The external inclosures or walls present themselves next for con¬ sideration. It is obvious that the north and south elevations, with the exception of the transept front, must consist of three stories, set back at various distances from each other. These three stories were, the first, or ground floor; the second, or gallery floor; and the third, or clerestory floor. On the ground floor, the cast-iron columns which carried the transverse roof-girders of the one-story building, constituted vertical divisions, at 24 feet from centre to centre ; two wooden columns or posts of precisely similar form, placed between the cast-iron ones, divided the 24 feet space into three bays of 8 feet each. The first horizontal line above the ground was a sill 9 inches by 3 inches, and 1 ^- inch above the floor level; beneath this sill, an inclosure of boards formed a plinth, against which rested a slope of turf, at an average level of 2 feet above that of the adjacent ground line. A second sill, 9 inches by 4 inches, was placed at a clear height of 4 feet 3J inches from the lower one, the space between forming a kind of dado, and being filled in with louvres (to be described under the head of ventilation); at 10 feet 6 inches from the upper surface of the second sill was the springing line of a light cast-iron arch, which spanned from column to column, and assisted in supporting the “ filling-in frames.” These were sufficiently deep to supply the idea of an entablature, and yet so light and open as not to appear to overload the slender proportions of the columns, and were backed with louvres similar to those in the plinth. The parallelogram, bounded by the sides of the columns, the top of the dado, and the underside of the “ filling- in frame ” was filled in on an inner plane, behind the arch pieces, with ploughed, torigued, and beaded boarding, stiffened by stout ledges on the inside. Small castings, spanning the inner face of the column, screwed to these ledges, connected them together, and were themselves fixed to the columns by bolts passing completely through. On the top of the “filling-in frame” ran a boxing, with external mouldings, and behind the boxing a small gutter; the whole sur mounted by a cast-iron ornamental cresting, 1 foot 6 inches high, attached to the boxing (see Figs. 14 and 15). On the gallery floor the upper parts of the columns pi g . 14 . supporting the two-story roof, constituted the main vertical lines. The space between was divided and filled up in a similar manner to that of the ground floor, with the exception that there was no dado, and that for the vertical boarding of the ground floor a glazed sash was substituted. The frame of the sash was fixed to the columns by castings similar to those which secured the ledges. THE SASHES formed an important portion of the building, no fewer than 1500 of them being required. The sash- frames were inches thick, with seven bars in their width; the sash-bars were 2 §ths inches deep, double- grooved for the glass; three bolts, gths inch diameter, passed completely through the bars and frames, at the points where they were attached to the columns, and thus a chain tie was kept up all round the building, in order to prevent the displacement of the sashes, either bodily or in portions, by the pressure of the wind. To further guard against the same action, timber bridges, 3.J inches by 1£ inch in the centre, were fixed across the middle of the length of the sash; and at the internal angles, where the wind would exert its greatest force, iron rods J-inch diameter, were fastened from column to column, pressing against the wooden bridge, and converting it into a continuous strut, bearing up against any force applied to the exterior of the sash. In order to glaze the sashes the glass was slipped down between the bars, and provision was made for the repairs by causing one groove to be cut deeper than the other, so that the glass might be slipped in from either side, and puttied into its exact place. Similar provision was made for mending the roof- glass. On the third, or clerestory floor, the external main vertical divisions were formed by the upper portion of the three-story columns, and the filling-in between them corresponded exactly with that of the gallery floor. The east and west elevations, as our Plate No. 3 indicates, were simply vertical sections through the main building, filled in with facework similar to, and ranging with, that of the three stories of the north and south elevations. The elevations of the transept ends corresponded with those of the east and west, with the exception of the addition of a semicircular head filled with concentric and radiating tracery. Vertical section of the facework of the lower tier. TIIE ROOF GIRDERS AND TRUSSES (FigS. 16 to 21). We proceed to the net-work of girders and trusses immediately supporting the roof. The main gutters, upon which the “ Paxton gutters” were fixed, ran transversely, spanning the various avenues leading from end to end of the building, except wher' it was crossed by the transept. These avenues were all either 24 feet, 48 feet, or 72 feet wide ; B RECORD OF THE INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1862. of these avenues there were six 24 feet wide, five 48 feet wide, and one (the central) 72 feet wide. To span these widths at least three kinds of trusses were necessary. All the trusses, with the exception of four, were 3 feet deep, and had perpendicular struts of cast-iron, fixed at dis¬ tances of 8 feet from centre to centre, connecting the top and bottom bars. The whole parallelo¬ gram, formed by the length and width of the trusses, was thus divided into smaller parallelograms of 8 feet by 3 feet, the four angles of which were diagonally connected by various materials, but of uniform width on the face, and thus regularity of form was obtained. The trusses of 72 feet and 48 feet span consisted of cast-iron standards and vertical struts, an upper portion formed of two pieces of angle iron, set 1 inch apart, a bottom portion of two bars, increasing in sectional area as they approached the centre of the bearing and tie-bars, which, passing diagonally between the two pieces of angle iron in the upper portion and the two bars in the lower, were rivetted to them, and formed a complete suspension truss. The remaining diagonals in the opposite direction, which would, if in action, be under compression, were constructed of wood, and only inserted for appearance, it being thought better to resist the diagonal strains by tension alone, rather than partly by diagonal suspension bars, and partly by diagonal struts. Fig. 13. '<- 9 -> Section of l>ox- gutters on trusses. The trusses and girders were submitted to the following proof¬ loads :— 72 foot truss. —Weight, 35 cwts. ; Camber, inches. Sectional area of top weh = 5'71 square Inches. Do. “ bottom web = G'75 square inches. Do. “ largest diagonal tye = 3-38 square inches. r roof-loads and deflf.ctions. 4 tons, ... 1-250 inches at cent G “ ... 2 500 “ “ 8 “ ... 3-375 “ “ 10 “ ... 4-125 “ 12 “ ... 5-000 “ “ 14 “ ... 5-625 “ “ 1G “ ... G-500 “ 48 foot truss. —Weight, 13 cwts.; Camber, 4 inches. Sectional area of top web = S'OO square inches. Do. “ bottom web = 3 38 square inches. Do. “ largest diagonal tye = 2’75 square inches. PROOF-LOADS ASD DEFLECTION’S. 2'50 tons, 5-00 “ 7-50 “ 875 “ 10 00 “ 0 500 inches. 1- 500 “ 2- 125 “ 2- 375 “ 3- 000 “ Fig.1G : ~j o r\ The girders of 24 feet long were single castings, corresponding in form to those which supported the galleries, the arrange¬ ment and scantlings oi the various partsof which were elaborately studied and balanced. Every one of these trusses was proved, in the building, with a strain of nine tons. The proportioning the parts of the girders and of all other parts of the , structure to their precise ' and respective strains, was committed to the late Mr. C. H.Wild,C.E., and the accuracy with which a perfect balance of strength was obtained in all parts of the cast girders, was remarkable. It was obtained no doubt to a great extent by trial and error, adding to or taking from the pattern, until uniform strength was obtained. In several of the girders that were broken purposely or otherwise in proof, fracture almost always took place simultaneously at many different points. To the late Sir William Cubitt, then president of the Institution, was committed the final responsibility as to strength of all the parts of the structure, and his advice and great practical experience were no doubt of great value, and enabled the commissioners to repose in confidence upon his veto being put upon any thing hazardous or unsafe The 24-foot cast-iron heavy girder, weight 11 cwt. 3 qrs., sustained 30 tons, but broke with 30 5 tons into many fragments at the same instant. The 24-foot roof girders only weighed 9 cwt. 2 qrs. There were throughout the whole building nine varieties of these girders, in 24-foot wooden trusses, 24-foot cast-iron girders of three different strengths, 24- foot wrought-iron trusses, 48-foot wrought-iron do., and 72-foot wrought-iron trusses in three strengths. The proof loads of which the deflections are given above, were all uniformly distributed along the top webs. The proofs applied to the cast-iron girders were rather different. The girder, grasped on edge between cast-iron jaws at each end, was exposed to the pressures produced by two hydraulic cylinders, applied at points 8 feet apart, and therefore dividing the length of the girder into three equal segments. The load thus applied, though giving less effective stress than the same uniformly diffused, was applied at the points of actual strain in use. The pressure of the hydraulic cylinders was measured, by another loaded ram of known area. Four of the 72-foot girders differ from the others in depth, and Klevation of ordinary 72 feet truss. Fisr. 17. Front and side elevations Front and side elevations of cast-iron girder. of vertical struts, or inter- of end standards to 72 feet mediate standards to 72 and 48 feet trusses. and 48 trusses. RECORD OF THE INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 18G2. performed such important functions as to warrant a separate notice. They supported the lead flat, covering two bays (each 24 feet by 72 feet) of the main avenue, where it abutted upon the eastern and western sides of the transept, and a pair of them carried, in addition, the two semicircular ribs, which, at 24 feet from centre to centre, formed the main beams on which the semi-cylindrical roofing rested, over the square where the transept roof crossed the main longi¬ tudinal avenue. These trusses were twice the depth of all the others, and the scantlings considerably increased. In this extra depth the vertical struts remaining at 8 feet from centre to centre, and the tension bars continuing the same in number, and being set at the same angle as 11 those in the ordinary trusses of 72 feet span, the lines arranged themselves into a lattice-form two diamonds in depth, the inter¬ secting diagonal bars passing through slots cast in the middle of the cast-iron struts. Although the form thus appeared that of a com¬ pound truss, these were suspension trusses only. In order to relieve the ordinary columns of much of the weight insistent upon these trusses, additional columns were placed beneath their two ends, secured, at frequent intervals, to the ordinary columns by wrought- iron clips. THE EXTRA-STRONG TRUSSES. (Figs. 22 to 20). Fig. 22. THE TRANSEPT (ROOFING) OF SEMICIRCULAR RIDS. (Figs. 30 to 33). These great curved ribs were made in three thicknesses of timber, each 9 feet 6 inches long, cut into segments of a circle 74 feet extreme diameter, the central thickness being 4 inches by 13J inches, and the outer flitches, breaking joint with the centre, being 2 inches by 13j inches. The flitches were nailed to the centre thickness, and bolts § of an inch in diameter, and about 4 feet apart, passed through and bound together the three thicknesses; on the extrados of the wooden arch thus formed, two planks, serving as the gutter- board, each 11 inches by 1 inch, and a bar of iron 2 inches by gths of an inch, were bent to the curve ; and on the intrados a piece of timber, 7 inches by 2 inches, moulded to correspond with the half form of the columns, and a bar of iron 3£ inches by gths of an inch, were also bent to the curve; bolts passed through the depth of the rib, at intervals of 2 feet from centre to centre, united these all to each other and to the main rib, which thus measured, when com¬ plete, 8 inches by 1 foot 6 inches. The ends were stepped down upon a plate 9 inches by 6 inches, bearing on the top of the two trusses, on each side of the transept. In order to steady the ribs, purlins 4) inches by 9 inches to 13 inches, and 9 feet 2 inches apart, were introduced between them ; and on the top, from end to end, a narrow path of lead flat ran the whole length of the transept, for the purpose of affording convenient access for any repairs necessary. Diagonal rods, intersecting each other in planes parallel to a tangent to the curve, also connected the ribs, and presented any end on sway, while, at the same time, their lines formed reticulations over the surface of the vault, pro¬ ducing an agreeable effect in perspective. The flat roofed parts of the building, and especially of the great 12 RECORD OF THE INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1862. centre aisle supported wholly upon parallel trusses, upon the tops of the highest columns, demanded that lateral stability should be conferred upon the trusses themselves, so that they could not topple over. This was effected partly by the ingenious modification of the connecting pieces over the columns, for the full description of which ment of the ridge and furrow roof, and particularly that ingenious modification of it with diagonal sash bars to suit a bent or curved surface of roof, belongs as author entirely to Sir J. Paxton. The semicircular ribs of the transept are 72 feet span, placed 24 feet apart from centre to centre, and are crossed by rectangular wood purlins at distances of 9 feet 2 inches, and between these, at dis- Fig. 32. llfilf section of arched roof to transept, with the lead flat Detail of the foot of arched rib on column, and the adjoining parts. we must refer to Mr. C. Downes’s large work; but much lateral stability was produced by the crossing over the girders at intervals of 8 feet apart of the Paxton gutters which were secured to the girders at every intersection. The roofing in of every part of the building, with the exception of the small portion covered with head flats, was executed in the Paxton ridge and furrow. In the figures already given of the semi¬ circular vault of the transept, it will be observed that its external glass surface is not a plain curved one, but is in fact a bent ridge and furrow; the alternate ridges and valleys being in the line of the axis of the vault, and the outer edges of the great semicircular ribs forming, in fact, the gutters between. In the Crystal Palace roof at Sydenham some departure was made from this last; galvan¬ ized iron gutters, with certain light cast appendages, having been superimposed upon the exterior of the semicircular ribs, or sub¬ stituted for them altogether. The area of the transept, 29,376 square feet, thus covered, presents a general similarity to that adopted by Mr. Paxton for the great conservatory at Chatsworth ; and unquestionably this peculiarity of detail in the whole of the great building of 1851, viz., the arrange- tances of 8 feet, are framed the smaller ribs, which form the water course or gutters, as well as the extrados of the great libs, as already described; the rain-water fiually passing on to the lead flats at either side of the springing level of the ribs, and thence down the columns, and away as already mentioned. MODE OF RAISING THE TRANSEPT RIBS (Fig. 34). No operation about the erection of the building was viewed with more anxiety by all entrusted with its progress, than was the difficult and hazardous one of elevating and hoisting into their places those vast and ponderous transept ribs. Nor was there any one of the many interesting parts of the work in which the general public appeared to evince so much curiosity. Visible at a distance as the more elevated portions of the operations were, the gradual, steady, and safe ascent of those heavy and most awkwardly- shaped pieces was view d from day to day by hundreds of persons collected in crowds upon the roads near the building. The operation was conducted in person, as we ourselves recol¬ lect, by Mr. (now Sir Charles) Fox, and we believe the method of procedure was contrived altogether by himself. The ribs were constructed and put together horizontally on the ground ; and when completed with all their bolts, two of them were reared on end, and maintained in a vertical position, at a distance of 24 feet from each other, by guy-ropes. As the ribs possessed little lateral stiffness, they were framed together with the purlins, intermediate small ribs, and diagonal tie-rods, forming a complete bay of the roof, 24 feet long. Two complete sets of temporary ties were also introduced, to provide for the strains incident to the varia¬ tions in the position of the ribs, during the hoisting. the feet of the ribs were bolted on to a stout sill, and the lower purlins were strutted up from it. The whole framework was then moved on rollers to the centre of the square formed by the intersection of the transept, and the main avenue, whence it was hoisted, all the ribs were landed over this square, and were afterwards moved, parallel to their Fig. 33. RECORD OF THE INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1862. 13 own plane, on a tramway to their permanent positions. This tram¬ way, formed of half balks, was constructed over the columns on each side of the transept, at a height of about 4 feet above the lead flat. Fig. 34. Section through the transept, showing the arrangements for hoisting the semi¬ circular ribs. The dotted lines indicate the various positions of the ribs during the hoisting. The hoisting tackle consisted of four crabs, each one being placed on the side of the transept, opposite to the part of the ribs to be lifted by it, so that the men at the crabs might watch the effect of their own operations with greater convenience. The hoisting-shears were placed on the lead flat, immediately over the deep trusses of 72 feet span ; each set consisted of three stout scaffold-poles, lashed together at the top, bearing on planks laid across the flat, and secured by the necessary guy-ropes. The hoisting rope passed from each of the crabs, across the transept to a leading block attached to the foot of the column in the opposite angle of the square ; it then passed up to a treble block attached to the shears, and from thence down to a double block, secured by chains, to the bottom part of the ribs. The extreme width of the frame¬ work to be hoisted was 74 feet, and as the clear width apart of the trusses, above which it had to be hoisted, was only 71 feet 4 inches, it was necessary to raise one side to a height of 35 feet before lifting the other, so as to diminish the horizontal width. The The foot of the set of ribs was then passed over the tram¬ way, high enough to allow the other side of the ribs to clear the opposite truss, after which the whole was hoisted to the full height, and rested on rollers of hard wood, placed between the sills attached to the framework and the tramway, by means of which it was moved to its permanent position. There it was again raised by another set of shears, while the sill and tramway were removed, and the ribs were then lowered into the sockets prepared for them, which, in fact, formed a continuation of the columns above the level of the lead flat. Each successive pair of ribs was fixed at a distance of 24 feet, or one bay from the preceding one, and the purlins, &c., were placed in this space by means of jointed ladders, which were adjusted to the curved form of the roof, and thus all scaffolding was avoided. The first pair of ribs was hoisted the 4th of December, 1850, and the eighth pair on the 12th of the same month. It took about one hour to raise each pair from the ground to the level of the lead flat, and the whole was completed without the occurrence of any accident. About sixty men were employed in hoisting, there being eleven men to each crab, and the remainder engaged on the lead flats. The greatest difficulty to be apprehended was from windy weather. One of the combined ribs, we believe, owing to some single piece of the united system of tackle giving way, did fall a few feet, but with¬ out sustaining material damage; and the whole of this arduous part of the work was completed in safety. THE “ PAXTON” ROOFING fFigS. 35 to 41). No description, however slight, of the building of 1851 can omit Fig. 35 Fig. 36. Fig 37. Fig. 38. Fig. 39. diameter of the semicircle being maintained at this angle, the whole was then hoisted, until the highest end could clear the tramway. m Section of u Paxton-gutter” ‘ through the centre. Section of Paxton-gntter*' at the end. a preference to the peculiar form of wood framed and glass roofing, which has received from its inventor the name of Paxton’s Roofing. RECORD OF THE INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1802. Its cheapness and facility of execution contributed much to the rapid and successful completion of the undertaking. In order to convey the rain-water to the hollow columns, transverse gutters 24 feet apart extended the entire width of the building. These transverse gutters were capacious wooden boxes, strongly framed and attached to the upper flange of the main trusses, which crossed the building, false bottoms being, in some cases, inserted to assist the flow of the water. At intervals of 8 feet from centre to centre, with their ends resting on the box-gutters, were fixed the triple- channeled “ Paxton-gutters” for conveying away simultaneously the rain-water falling on the roof, and the condensed vapour formed inside the glass, and of which a length of 24 miles and upwards was laid. Each length of these consisted of a piece of the best Memel timber, 5 inches by 6 inches and 24 feet long. The form was given by passing it through an ingenious machine with several revolving cutters, which at once reduced the piece of square timber to the finished section. At one operation this machine scooped from the middle of the upper surface of the timber, and throughout its whole length, a nearly semicircular groove about If inch radius, and at the same time cut two smaller grooves downwards at an oblique angle to its sides; the object of the larger groove being to receive and convey to the box-gutters the roof-water, and that of the smaller grooves to receive the moisture, which, condensing upon the inside of the roof, trickled down, adhering by capillary attrac¬ tion, and finally deposited itself in the smaller grooves, by which it was conducted to the box-gutters. On leaving the machine, the “ Paxton-gutter” was too slight for a bearing of 24 feet, and was straight, so that the water in it would not have any fall; both these defects were remedied by trussing it into a curve, by means of a wrought-iron bolt, 13-16ths of an inch diameter, screwed at both ends, and bent so as to pass under and press up, to the underside of the wood, two cast-iron struts 9 inches long; the ends of tl e bolt being passed through holes in the two cast-iron shoes, fixed at the ends of the gutters, and the nuts on the ends of the bolts being screwed up, the bolt was tightened, and a camber of 2^ inches given to the gutter, so that the whole became a suspension truss, requiring a weight of 1J tons to break it. A semicircular jaw was then cut out of the depth of the gutter at each end, so that when two were placed end to end, the water flowed down into the box-gutter through a circular cavity; two oblique cuts were also made to connect tbe condensed water with this cavity, and twenty-seven notches marked from a template, were worked on each side of the upper edge of the “ Paxton-gutters,” whose ends were then attached to a flanged plate, bolted on to the edges of the box-gutters. Of the notches on each side of the “ Paxton-gutter,” three were larger than the others, and on them bars of wood 2 inches by 1J inches, grooved for glass on both sides, were notched down; these bars formed principal rafters, and being set at a pitch of two and a-half to one, were fixed to a ridge 3 inches by 3 inches grooved for glass on both sides; the long edge of a sheet of glass 4 feet 1 inch by 10 inches was then inserted in the groove of the principal rafter, and a sash bar 1 inch by 1J inch, also double grooved, was then put on to the other long edge of the glass, bedding on putty about inch wide; a little force applied at the lower end brought the upper edge of the glass home into the groove in the ridge. The glass having been then pressed down, the putty was made good in the grooves externally, and thus simply and rapidly was this system of roofing put together. Light¬ ness is one of its qualities, since the entire weight of one superficial foot averages only 3£ lbs., glazed with sheet-glass of about 1 -13th of an inch in thickness, and weighing 16 ounces to the square foot; however, in this respect the “ Paxton-roof” is not materially, if it all exceeded (taking a large area of roof together) by the lightness that can be obtained from light iron rafter roofing, with wood purlins and sash-bars, of say 30 to 50 feet span, the whole surface being covered with glass only. The rapidity with which this “ Paxton-roofing” was glazed was greatly due to the glazing machines contrived by Sir Charles Fox, by means of which, without any scaffolding, the operation of glaz¬ ing was carried on independently of weather. THE GLAZING MACHINE (Fig, 42). By means of seventy-six of these machines nearly the whole of the work was executed. The stage was about 8 feet square, and it rested on four small wheels, which travel in the “ Paxton-gutters.” It thus embraced one bay of a span of 8 feet of the roof, or one ridge and two sloping sides ; each bay in width required a separate stage. The stage, occupied by two workmen, was covered by an awning of canvass, stretched over hoops to protect them in bad weather, and was provided with two boxes, to contain a store of glass. The sash-bars and other materials were piled upon the stage itself, the centre of the platform being left open for the convenience of hoisting up materials. Travelling stage for glazing tlie roofs. A. Box for glass. B. Trussed girder. C. Frame to support the covering used in wet weather. Whilst working, the men sat at one end of the platform (the ridge having been previously placed in position by means of the extra-strong sasli-bars), and fixed the glass in front of them, pushing the stage backwards as they completed each pane. On coming to the strong sash-bars which were previously fixed, they temporarily removed them to allow the stage to pass, and thus each stage travelled uninterruptedly from the transept to the east and west ends of the building. The average amount of glazing done by one man per day was fifty-eight squares, or about 200 superficial feet, and the largest amount done by any one man in a working day. THE PAINTING MACHINE (Fig. 43). An ingenious machine was contrived by Mr. E. A. Cowper for painting the sash-bars. A trough being filled with liquid colour, the sash-bars were plunged into it, and were taken out, by being passed through a series of brushes set at such angles to each other as to entirely remove the superfluous paint, and to leave the sash- bar as neatly finished as it could have been by hand ; thus invert¬ ing the usual process of painting, the paint being in fact not brushed on, but brushed off RECORD OF THE INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 18C2. 15 We regret that space will not enable us to produce engravings of the several other extremely ingenious and effective machines for Fig. 43 Machine for painting the sam-hars. A. Trough for holding paint. 13. The brushes. C. Spout for Taste paint. wood-cutting, and other purposes, that were employed. Many of these are to be found in the official Catalogue and Reports of the Juries. THE PROVISIONS FOR STIFFENING THE BUILDING. In order to maintain the stiffness and steadiness of the building necting pieces above the galleries, in the direction from east to west, and were attached to them in a manner similar to the other girders. Of these there were eighteen rows on the various levels of the building. The Paxton-gutters and the facewoik added considerably to the good results obtained by the insertion of these longitudina’ girders. In thus providing for the rigidity of the connections of the various portions of the building, care was taken, bv the sub¬ stitution in certain places of oak for iron keys, to provide for the play of the metal by expansion and contraction produced by variations of temperature. keys should be of iron; for two reasons, first, because the length, divided into two portions by the nave, was not sufficiently great to ren¬ der the probable amount of expansion or contraction of anj 7 practical importance, and secondly, because it was upon the side of the build¬ ing that the currents of wind would impinge with the greatest force. In the longitudinal direction, iron keys were inserted for six bays from the extreme east and west ends, and for six bays east and west of the transept, the intervening girders being keyed up with oak keys ; and thus rigidity was supposed to be maintained in those parts exposed to strain, whilst elasticity was presumed to have been provided in the portions of the building least subject to strain from without. Twenty-two sets of horizontal, and two hundred and twenty sets of vertical diagonal bracing, consisting of wrought-iron rods secured by wrought-iron links to the columns and connecting pieces, and meeting in adjustment plates, were inserted as a measure of extra precaution, tying the main masses of the structure together; and to these, which converted the building considered as a whole, from a mere cancellated mass of rectangular framing, and, with slight lateral rigidity, iuto true diagonal framing, much of its stability must be ascribed. hie ventilation (Figs. 44 and 45), This was obtained bj 7 means of louvres set in boxings, inserted behind the “ filling-in” frames of each of the three stories of the building—and in the dado, between the loVer and upper sills on the ground floor. At the springing of the transept roof, a line of louvres was inserted on both sides, 3 feet 8 inches high, running the whole length of the transept; and at the very summit of the curved roof, ventilation was obtained in the gables of the roofing, where interrupted by the narrow path of upper lead flat. The total quantity of ventilating area in the louvres was about 45,000 feet, in addition to which large volumes of air were necessarily introduced at the numerous doorways. The louvre frames on the ground floor con¬ sisted of boxes, in which eight louvre blades of galvanized iron G£ inches wide, were fixed on pivots at 6 inches from centre to centre, and so curved as to offer the minimum interruption to the ingress, or egress of air (when open), compatible with keeping them weather- tight. Small iron brackets, attached to the centre of each blade, were furnished with eyes, through which were inserted pins, passing also through holes bored at equal distances from one another, in a species of rack; by drawing these racks up and down, the opening and closing of the ventilators was effected. A number of these racks attached to levers were set in motion by rods and cranks, producing the simultaneous action of a considerable number, and at the same time securing the uniform position of the louvre blades at any desired angle. For the details of these arrangements, we must refer to Mr. C. Downes’ work. Large as were the means of ventilation, the temperature at times upon some of the hottest sunny days, and at their most crowded Fig. 44. [ «= \ c 1 \ 1 c: ] ... 1 'l_ .... .... .... ^ < - - --- — --- : - u ■ - ■■■■ — ■■ — - Fig. 45. ft -'ii Part elevation and section ot one of the louvre frames. periods, became oppressive. We have not been able to find in any of the official documents registries of the daily temperature during the Exhibition; but such were no doubt kept, and would be valu¬ able, if discussed in relation to the building. Great surfaces of calico were spread outside the glass roofing upon the sides most exposed to the sun, to intercept part of his rays. The effect in mitigating the temperature did not appear very marked, and certainly the appearance of such fluttering bands of dirty white cloth outside, was anything but good, nor quite free from danger. THE WATER SUPPLY. The water was supplied by the Chelsea Water-works Company, through a main pipe 9 inches in diameter, branching into three pipes 6 inches in diameter, at the centre of the building. 16 RECORD OF THE INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 18G2. These latter pipes passed entirely round the building, and across the centre ; twenty cocks of 3 inches diameter were attached to these pipes externally; eight pipes, 4 inches diameter, branched from the pipe of 6 inches diameter, at eight points on each side of the building, and ran inwards to a distance equal to one-fourth the width of the building. On the ends of these pipes fire-cocks, with water-ways 3 inches diameter, were fixed in such situations, that circles drawn from them as centres, with a radius of 120 feet, would intersect one another, and pass considerably without the limits of the building. From the pipes, 6 inches in diameter, crossing the building, the principal supply for the fountains distributed along the central nave and line of the transept was obtained ; as also for the steam-boilers, which were fixed in a detached building at the north-west angle, and for the refreshment-rooms, &c., which were placed in immediate proximity to the elm trees beneath the transept. The decoration of the building of 1851 was intrusted to Mr. Owen Jones. The prevailing colours adopted were the three pri¬ mary ones in alternation ; and the soundness of Mr. Jones’ artistic judgment, at first so much distrusted, was fully justified in the result. About 2300 men was the largest number employed at the building during any period of its progress; but allowing for those directly or indirectly engaged in connection with it, either in prepa¬ rations or in transport, 5000 hands must have been simultaneously employed at times upon it. The tender of Fox, Henderson, & Co., was only accepted by the Commissioners on the 26th July, 1850, and the Exhibition was opened on the day fixed, the 1st May, 1851; much work, however, then still remaining to be completed. The actual work of erection on the ground began about the first week in September, 1850; so that up to the period of opening, it scarcely occupied 190 working days. The tender for the original design given by Fox, Henderson, & Co., was £79,800 for the use of the building only, or £150,000 for the complete purchase of it. Large additions were subsequently made to its size, and many unforeseen works had to be provided as extras; so that the final cost (stated as actual prime cost) amounted to nearly £200,000. This would give a cost of no less than five shillings per square foot of surface covered. As compared with this rate, that of the old French temporary buildings will not sustain the charge of extravagant cost made against them, by Mr. D. Wyatt. However, that a greatly better return in value for the money spent was obtained in the beautiful building of 1851, is undeniable. For a time it appeared doubtful whether it should remain standing where it then was; be removed elsewhere to some fitting site, or torn to pieces, should have its delicate net-work of iron framing broken up and consigned back to the furnace. Its genuine beauty and constructive merits, the great money success that had attended its use, and the delightful remembrances of all that belonged to it, that then floated in the public mind throughout the empire, fortunately preserved the building, which, modified and in many respects greatly improved, now stands as the Crystal Palace at Sydenham—perhaps, the most remarkable and beautiful of our permanent exhibitions, and in most senses a national one ; yet, as being in no worthy sense an industrial exhibi¬ tion, national or international, it does not come within our proper range here to give any account of its interesting structural pecu¬ liarities. Following the chronological order of production, we now pass to the Dublin exhibition of 1853. The Royal Dublin Society, incorporated during the last century, had very early recognized the value of industrial exhibitions; long before, indeed, they had been so recognized in England, Its earliest attempt at a national display of industry was in 1834, and the fol¬ lowing Table, for which we are indebted to Dr. W. E. Steele, Secretary to the Royal Dublin Society, comprises the dates aud such other statistical information as the records of the society admit:— Order. Date. No. of Exhibiters. Sold Medals. Rewards. Certificates 1st Silver Medal. 2nd Silver Medal. 1. 1834. No return. i 14 37 0 2. 1835. do. i 35 45 0 3. 1838. do. i 41 86 0 4. 1841. do. 3 not known. 11 5. 1814. do. 4 72 59 78 6. 18-17. do. 6 50 68 86 7. 1850. 350. 27 0 0 80 No medals or rewards were bestowed at the Exhibition of 1853. These exhibitions had become triennial, and arrangements were in progress for holding that of 1853, when Mr. William Dargan, the well-known contractor, proposed to the Royal Dublin Society to connect himself personally with the matter by a formal letter, dated June, 1852, addressed to the society, of which the following is an extract — “ Mr. Dargan, understanding that the year 1853 will be that for holding the trienunial exhibition of manufactures of the Royal Dublin Society, and being desirous to give such exhibition a character of more than usual prominence, and to render it available for manufactures of the three kingdoms, proposes to place the sum of £20,000 in the hands of a special executive committee, upon the-following conditions:—1. A suitable building shall be erected upon the lawn of the Royal Dublin Society. 2. The exhibition to open in June, 1853. 3. The executive committee to be named by three persons nominated by Mr. Dargan, and three nominated by the society. 4. Mr. Dargan to nominate the chairman, deputy-chairman, and secretary of the committee. 5. At the close of the exhibition the building shall be taken by Mr. Dargan and become his property on a competent valuation. 6. If the proceeds of exhibition, clear of expenses, do not amount to £20,000, with interest at 5 per cent., Mr. Dargan shall receive the proceeds after payment of expenses. If the proceeds, less expenses, shall amount to £20,000, with 5 per cent, interest, they shall also be handed over to Mr. Dargan. If they shall exceed, after payment of expenses, £20,000, and interest as before, the executive committee is to have the disposal of the surplus. The amount of valuation of the building to be held as cash paid Mr. Dargan.” This proposition of Mr. Dargan’s was at once accepted by the society, and he was placed immediately in a position to carry out the undertaking. Competitive designs for the building were taken, and three small prizes awarded, the first of which was given to Mr. Benson, C.E., county surveyor of Cork (now Sir John Benson), and his designs were those carried out and completed under his own eye. The site available was the somewhat irregular plot of about 5C0 feet by 400, forming the Lawn to the south of the premises of the Royal Dublin Society (once the Irish city residence of the Dukes of Leinster), upon which the special Exhibition Building, consisting of five large parallel-arched and dome-roofed halls, was erected. In addition to this, however, the fore court and other parts of the premises were shedded over, and the whole of its fine suite of apart¬ ments of a permanent class put into requisition for the time. The block ground plan, Fig. 46, shows the site and the outlines of the building, and our Plate, No. 2, gives half transverse section and half end elevation of the building, Fig. 47, gives a transverse section, showing in more detail the principle of construction of idDEBLOKI [EM 0 © QI 0 ® K1 END Dublin Exhibition. 1853—partial transverse section. Scale, 30 feet = 1 inch. Dublin Exhibition. 1853—vertical section of one end. Scale. 30 feet = 1 inch. RECORD OF THE INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1862. the nave or central hall, and Fig. 48 gives a longitudinal section ment Fig. 46. CtKERALhfiflDWnat t-—' — —a 17 . Dublin Exhibition, 1853—General plan. of same at one of the domed ends, also showing constructive detail. The work of erecting the building was commenced on the 18th August, 1852, and the Exhibition was opened on the 12th May, 1853. Deducting Christmas holidays, &c., the work occu¬ pied about 200 days. During the interval the executive committee published its code of regulations, making the Exhibition in all its departments interna¬ tional, and adding to it a special depart- the exhibition of the fine arts. It is deserving of record that hence, from the Royal Dublin Society, emanated not only the earliest British idea of a National Industrial Exhibition, but the earliest British idea of collecting into one, a vast gallery of Fine Art, free to the artists of all ages and countries. This society thus, in the latter respect, anticipated what was so nobly carried out upon an enlarged scale at Manchester in 1857, and will be upon a still larger scale now again at London in 1862. The general idea of this building was—a great central hall, longer, as lofty, and more than a fourth wider than the transept of the Crystal Palace of 1851, with vaulted roof and semicircular domed roofed ends, flanked at each side by two similar but narrower galleries, and with numerous minor attached buildings, as the ground, &e., admitted. The whole thing was of timber except the gallery girders, which were of wrought-iron; the cast-iron pillars of the central hall; and various diagonal tye bars. The skylights were glazed with thick rough (i.e. finely cor¬ rugated) plate glass; and the subdued light transmitted through this material was deemed to have proved extremely favourable for the exhibition of objects of fine art and the fine art manufactures. The great hall was 425 feet long, 100 feet broad, and 105 feet high. The roof was formed of semicircular main ribs 25 feet apart, resting on trusses which formed the roof of the adjoining gallery, and upon a trussed wall plate, which also formed the support of the intermediate ribs. The inner portion of the main arched rib was supported by the higher of two cast-iron columns five feet apart, which fitted with turned bearings into cast-iron bases bedded on blocks of masonry. Thus, the roof of the gallery adjoining acted as a buttress, and transmitted the thrust of the main roof to the other portions of the build¬ ing, and by their combination effectually sustained it. The use of circular arches, or rather of curved ribs of timber to roof construction on the largest scale, was by means novel. been employed tects in France, Germany, and no They had by archi- 18 RECORD OF THE INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1862. Russia, and various modifications will be found in the pages and plates of Krafft, Wiebeking, Emy, and other systematic authors of carpentry. Large examples have existed, as in the case of the first roof of the Halle au Ble at Paris, &c. Two principal forms were to be found in these continental examples, namely, 1st. the arched rib made up of superimposed bent planks of lamina at right angles to the transverse plane of the arch ; 2nd, the arched rib made up of lamina secured together, and all in vertical planes, and parallel to that transverse to the arch. A third form of much more modern date appears to have origi¬ nated in the United States, and consisted in the formation of the curved rib, of an outer and an inner bent rib, each solid and formed of plies laminated as in the first case above. A space of some feet between these was filled in with diagonal framing, all the diagonals being of square timber, and all acting as struts, while radial bolts of iron connected the inner and outer ribs, and took all the tensions. Mr. Benson’s curved ribs borrowed something from each arrange¬ ment, but the combination had, we believe, some claim to originality in design. It consisted of two concentric vertically laminated ribs, with intermediate diagonal framing, in which both struts and ties are all formed of timber and connected with each other by suitable adaptations of the principle of lamination only. The upper or outer ribs consisted of 10 laminae, 1^ inches to 2 inches in thickness, and 4 inches to 18 inches in depth. The breadth of the rib at top was 18 inches, and at bottom it was only 3 inches, each ply being stepped back from the lower edge of the preceding. The inner rib was formed of six 1J inch and 2 inch laminae, and was 12 inches deep and 10 inches wide. The principal connecting struts at 25 feet apart were also laminated, each separate piece being connected by a splayed dove-tailed joint to the inner and outer ribs. To increase the stiffness of connection, a blade of plate-iron £ inch thick was interposed in the centre, through which bolts passed connecting all the laminae. The compound ribs were framed on the ground-laying flat, and cast-iron sockets were screwed on the outer rib at 8 feet 3 inches apart to secure the purlins. Each rib was then ready for hoisting and fixing in place, having occupied about 20 carpenters, sawyers, and labourers about four days ; containing about 7 tons of 40 cubic feet each of timber, 1 cwt. of plate-iron, and about 1500 screws; and weighing, with the purlin sockets, nails, &c., nearly 9 tons. The purlins were 12 inches deep and 4 inches thick, with an additional piece 4 inches square applied on each side at the upper edges, making it T-shaped. Each purlin 25 feet long weighed about G.j cwts., and was crossed by the secondary curved ribs which were laminated in eight thicknesses like the main ribs. Having little to bear they were built up hollow; their most important functions were affording nail holds for the covering sheeting, and forming the internal arched surface of the roof into bold panels. It is one of the disadvantages of the form of these buildings, especially of their quarter sphere domed ends, that the construction involved some rather nice problems of curved carpentry, the correct execution of which was of the very last importance, as the effect of the interior of the several halls would have been seriously damaged by the slightest mistake or want of symmetry, which would have remained a permanent eyesore. Except the difference of dimensions, the various portions of the roofs of the minor halls were similar to those of the centre hall, and the mode of erecting and fitting the different parts to their places did not differ from that which has been already described. The operation of raising these great ribs into place consisted of two stages; 1st, getting the arch to stand vertically; 2nd, hoisting it to its position on the building. Each was executed by special and distinct machinery. For raising the arch from the horizontal to the vertical position, there was placed a pair of “ sheer legs” in the centre of the chord of the arch, from the top of which a rope was attached to the crown and to other points of the arch, which being hauled, and the feet simultaneously kept in their position, the arch was gradually brought into the vertical, having been previously stiffened laterally by bolting timbers to it temporarily, the ends of the arch being fixed by a chord line. By the adoption of these and other expedients, about twenty minutes sufficed to raise each rib from the horizontal to the vertical position. For hoisting the ribs then into place, travelling cranes were erected on the roof over the adjoining side galleries, the tackle from which was adjusted a little above the point where a line drawn horizontally through the centre of gravity of the rib intersected its curve; guy ropes, made fast to crab winches on the ground, were slackened as the rib ascended. When the rib had been raised to a little above its proper position, the travelling cranes were slowly moved endways until they arrived where it was to rest; it was then lowered and secured; the guy ropes stayed it in position until the next rib was in place, and the first permanently secured to it. The purlins and intermediate ribs were next hoisted and secured, each part becoming the scaffold or ladder for fixing its successor. The nailing on of the timber sheeting then commenced, after which the roof was ready for its final coating of paper, tarred on the top side, and tarred canvass outside and paint inside. The roof of the great hall consisted of 14 semicircular, 8 quadrant, and 26 intermediate ribs, and 322 straight and 160 curved purlins, at the ends. This description of the roof of the centre hall applies to that of all the others. Upon all the timber sheeting was covered with canvass, steeped in coal tar. A layer of brown paper was inter¬ posed to prevent the tar appearing anywhere inside; the external surface was then covered once more with boiled tar, and finally lime-washed. Anxiety was expressed about the combustible nature of this covering material; paradoxical as it may seem it was found extremely hard to ignite it experimentally; the flame was soon extinguished by the excessive supply of smoky vapour from the coal tar. The coating of lime, also, was a considerable protection against ignition by any cause from without. The system of construction of the galleries will be readily under¬ stood by regarding each gallery in plan as a line of squares, the angles being the cast-iron columns, and the sides wrought-iron girders; the columns were 25 feet apart. The girders, as will be seen in the transverse section, consisted of top and bottom flanges, formed of angle iron 3£ inches by half inch, having a piece of deal bolted on the upper web for convenience in fixing the flooring boards. Each girder was 3 feet in depth, and formed of three latticed bays, each rather more than 8 feet in length. The upright struts consisted of two pieces of T-iron 3 inches by half an inch, placed back to back; the diagonal flat bars, 3 inches by half an inch; the weight of the whole about 9 cwt. These girders were carefully tested before they were fixed; with eight tons each girder deflected 5-16ths of an inch; with fourteen tonsa deflection of rather less than 7-8ths of an inch took place, which increased at the rate of about l-16th inch per ton up to the twenty-second ton, when the further loading was discontinued. The load remained on for several days, without producing any per¬ ceptible increase of deflection. The ultimate breaking weight was found to exceed 32 tons. The above loads are all presumed to have been uniformly diffused. Prior to the opening of the building, the impression was general that the light would be deficient. This proved otherwise; and although direct sunshine was to a great extent excluded by the nature of the glass employed, the light was sufficient to examine the most delicate textures. In the picture gallery especially, the light thrown upon the walls was deemed peculiarly advantageous for the display of paintings; and the Prince Consort is stated by Sir John Benson—in his only published account of his building, a very brief and imperfect one in the general account of the Exhibition by Mr. J. Sproule, royal 8vo, RECORD OF THE INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1802. 19 Dublin, 1854—to have said, that he, the architect, “ had solved the problem of lighting a picture gallery.” We shall make some remarks on this subject farther on. The dimensions of the other principal portions of the Exhibition building were as follows :—Each of the galleries, 325 feet long and 25 feet broad, each story being 18 feet high. The northern and southern halls, 375 feet long, 50 feet broad, and 38 feet high to the springing of the arches, making the total height about 05 feet. The hall for the Fine Arts, 325 feet long, 40 feet broad, and 18 feet high to the springing of the arches, or 38 feet in all. The hall for machinery in motion, the same externally as that for the Fine Arts, 450 feet long, 40 feet broad, and 46 feet high. The remaining halls follow generally the proportions of that for the Fine Arts. The building covered a space of about 205,000 superficial feet, or above one-third of the area of the Crystal Palace, and nearly twice that of the Exhibition building at New York. For the purpose of generating steam for the fixed engines driving the machinery in motion, two large tubular boilers were placed in a detached building. There were two engines, each of 25 horse power, supplied by Fairbairn, actuating a shaft above 300 feet long, from which motion was conveyed by bands to the various machines. The shafting was carried along the centre of the machinery court on the tops of cast-iron pillars fixed on stone foundations. A principal water tank was excavated at the western end of the machinery court; water mains intersected the building in com¬ munication with large tanks placed at a height of 54 feet from the floor, which also supplied the several fountains. The water was conveyed to the premises by a 6-inch main from the streets. Fire mains passed externally quite round the building, and lateral branches were carried across from north to south, on which there were fourteen fire-plugs and four stand-cocks. The overflow of the fountains ran back to the underground cistern, thence to be pumped up again to the elevated tanks. There were about two miles in length of water pipes laid down altogether. As to the style of decoration adopted by Sir John Benson, but little can be said here. The skeleton frame of the whole building was marked out and emphasized by heavier tones of colour ; the prevailing ones being light blues, delicate buffs, and deep ultramarine blue, with a sparing use of white and red. The great pillars of the ccutral hall were a rich deep blue. Though very little money could be spared for decoration, the effectiveness of that which was employed was very generally acknowledged. The architect regretted that the limitation of funds prevented his giving a more imposing character to the exterior elevation. The front external gallery at the base of the central dome end, which formed a fair-weather com¬ munication from one side of the gallery to the other, had a very beautiful effect, obtained by the simplest and cheapest means. Financially, as is well-known, this exhibition was far from a suc¬ cess. The cost of the building (the items and particulars of which will be found at p. 26 of Mr. Sproule’s work, before noticed) proved to be nearly £60,000. It was valued back to Mr. Dargan, includ¬ ing the engines and shafting, various fixtures, water closets, and sundries, at £16,000, and a large proportion of its parts was dis¬ posed of by auction upon the site, and they are understood not to have realized much more than one fourth of the amount of the valuation. Nor was this at all strange; Mr. Dargan, no doubt, at the outset anticipated that the building when valued back to him would be convertible into numerous smaller, railway terminus and other buildings on the several lines in which he was concerned in Ireland, and would hence prove a source of profit. The awkward and unwieldy forms of the curved parts, the timbers nail-sick, shaken by a summer’s heat without prior seasoning, and shattered in rapidly taking asunder, were found of such a character that very few por¬ tions were ever re-erected. Part of the largest hall forms an erecting shed in a foundry in Dublin; the northern terminus ot the Belfast and Ballymena Railway is constructed from some of the minor halls; but vast masses of the structure were disposed of at prices not much exceeding that of fire-wood. To this other causes conspired—causes upon which in part the ill financial success of the undertaking rested. Ireland had not yet recovered from the tremendous effects of the famine and social revolution of 1847 to 1850, nor had the old feeling with respect to the (Cinderella) sister isle, “Can anything good come out of Galilee,’’ though since that greatly dissipated, then lost anything of its ancient force. The English and foreign visitors to the Exhibition were much fewer than had been anticipated, trade was bad, and hence the mass of material of the building suddenly presented for sale was sold to great disadvantage. The result, however, sufficiently teaches two great practical lessons of construction — the expensiveness of temporary buildings for such purposes, and the great increase in their cost produced by the introduction of curvilinear work. The whole building covered a surface of 265,000 superficial feet, and assuming it to have finally stood at a net cost of £56,000, the cost per foot superficial was about 4s. 2d., nearly double that of the most costly of the old French temporary rectilineal buildings, and within 8d. per foot, or 5-6ths, of the alleged prime cost of the Exhibition building of 1851. Before passing on to the next great Exhibition in order of time, we may notice that as early as 1839, and again in 1849, upon occasions of meetings of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Birmingham had organized exhibitions of its multifarious manufac¬ tures. The first was held in a hired building ; the next, requiring a catalogue of about sixty pages (the first having been comprised in twelve), was housed in larger temporary buildings, for which a per¬ manent one was subsequent!}’ substituted. None of these buildings, however, require special notice. The New York Exhibition originated with a few influential citizens of the United States, and “was designed to draw forth such a representation of the world’s industry and resources as would enable America to measure the strength and value of her own, while it indicated new aims for her enterprise and skill;” the promoters modestly acknowledging that America had more to gain by such a comparison than any other nation of Christendom. It was organized as a joint-stock speculation, and sufficient powers for carrying out effectually all its objects were conferred upon “ The Association for the Exhibition of the Industry of all Nations,” by the American legislature, in 1852; and upon the 14th July, 1853, the Exhibition was formally opened by the President of the United States, in the presence of the six commissioners of Great Britain, those of many foreign governments, and of all the heads of state departments, &c., in America. A site had been granted upon a five years’ lease to the Associa¬ tion, of a piece of ground, Reservoir Square, in the best quarter of New York. Competitive designs for the building were received and exhibited, and finally that of Messrs. Carstensen and Gildmeister was chosen. Mr. C. E. Detmold, Mr. Horatio Allen, and Mr. Edmund Henry were appointed the consulting and executive engineers and architects to carry out the design. The site adopted for the building was unfavourable to architectural display, surrounded as it was by mere broad thoroughfares of houses, in that respect being nearly as unfortunate as this ot the current year, with this difference in favour of the former, however, that ample and easy access was secured to it. The building of glass and iron presenting the general structural characteristics of the Hvde Park building of 1851, was at one side literally built up against the enormous masonry revetment wall of the Croton Waterworks distri¬ buting Reservoir, the contrast being peculiarly disadvantageous to its appearance. The ground of Reservoir Square, is in form, as it is named ; it was a plot of 445 by 455 feet; and the building, which completely occupied it, had to be adapted to this lumpy figure. 20 RECORD OF THE INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 18G2. Fig. 49 gives a ground plan of the street level of the building, and Fig. 50 one of the galleries floors, and Fig. 51 an interior perspective view, looking along the great nave from the front in Sixth Avenue, towards the end or side adjoining the Croton Reservoir. The general idea of the New York building was that of a Greek cross, surmounted by a dome at the intersection. The length of each diameter of the cross was 365 feet 5 inches, and the width of the arms 149 feet 5 inches. This did not include the three entrance halls projecting towards Sixth Avenue, Fortieth, and Forty- second Streets, which were each 27 feet wide, and approached by flights of steps. By referring to the annexed engravings it will be seen that, although the edifice was cruciform, the outline of the ground plan was nearly a regular octagon, whose diameter was the same as that of the arms of the cross. This form was given to it by filling up the triangular intervals between the arms of the cross with a lean-to, of only one story, and of 24 feet in height. This was neces¬ sary in order to provide space for the Exhibition, it being impossible within the narrow limits of the site to enlarge the dimensions of the cross in the way of length; and the substantial advantage thus gained was productive of only very little architectural injury to the appearance of the interior. The arrangement of the columns is seen upon figs. 49 and 50. They divide the interior into two principal avenues or naves, each 41 feet 5 inches wide, with aisles 54 feet wide upon either side; the intersection of the naves leaving in the centre a free octagonal space 100 feet in diameter. The columns still further subdivided the aisles, and the triangular intervals between the arms of the cross, into square and half-square compartments of 27 feet on the side. Over the aisles were placed galleries of the same width, which were united to each other by broad connections at the extremities of the naves. The naves were carried above the roof of the galleries to admit light, and were spanned by 16 semicircular arches of cast-iron 40 feet 9 inches in diameter, and placed at a distance of 27 feet apart to carry the covering. The number of cast-iron columns upon the ground floor was 190. They were 21 feet high above the floor, octagonal in section, and 8 inches in diameter. The thickness of the sides varied from half an inch to one inch; the lines of the cast-iron girders 3 feet in depth, of which the longest was 26 feet 4 inches, while those of wrought-iron were 40 feet 9 inches long, are indicated by the dotted lines. The first tier of girders sustained the floors of the galleries, and braced the structure laterally in all directions. They were united to the columns by connecting pieces 3 feet 4 inches high, which had the same octagonal shape as the columns, and provided with flanges and lugs to bolt to the columns. The number of girders in the first tier was 252. The second story contained 148 columns, 17 feet 7 inches high, which rested on those below, and having the same shape. These received a second series of gil ders, 160 in number, which sup¬ ported the roof of the aisles. They also received the semicircular arches of the naves. The covering surfaces of the roofs were sup¬ ported upon the arches or upon the girders by means of wrought-iron suspension trusses which gave stiffness to the angle iron purlins upon which the rafters rested. The latter were made of strips of wood flitched between thin iron plate sides. The roofs were all covered with boards matched together and covered alternately with tin plates. The dome, which was, by Americans at least, deemed beautiful in its proportions, was the chief architectural feature of the building. Its diameter was 100 feet, and its height from the ground to the springing line nearly 70 feet, and that to the crown of the arch 123 feet. It was the largest, indeed almost the only dome, then erected in the United States. With the exception of some clerestory lights at the sides and others half way up, this dome was opaque throughout. It was supported by 24 columns, rising beyond the second story, and to a height of 62 feet above the principal floor. The system of wrought-iron trusses which connected them together at the top, and was supported by the columns, formed two concentric polygons, each of 16 sides. Upon the caps of these a cast-iron bed-plate was laid, RECORD OF THE INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 18G2. to wliicli cast-iron shoes for the reception of the ribs of the dome were bolted. The latter were 32 in number. They were con¬ structed of an inner and outer web of double angle iron, securely connected together by trellis work between. The requisite steadi¬ ness was secured by tie rods, which braced them diagonally in both vertical and horizontal directions. The ribs were bolted at the upper part to a horizontal ring of wrought and cast iron of 20 feet diameter, and surmounted by the lantern. As in the other roofs of the building, the dome was covered in with matched deal boarding and tin-plate sheathing. Light reached the interior through the lantern, and also in part from the sides, which were pierced by 32 ornamental windows. These were glazed with stained glass, showing the arms of the Union and of its several States, and formed a con¬ spicuous part of the interior decoration. belongs to the North American climate, was indispensable, and by it the dangerous and objectionable use of calico, as in the Hyde Park building of 1851, was avoided. It may be greatly doubted, how¬ ever, whether the sleepy, dull, stupifying effect of muffed glass was not the same in this, as in all instances in which it is architecturally employed. At each angle of the building there was an octagonal tower 8 feet in diameter, and 7G feet in height. These contained geometrical staircases which led to the galleries and roofs, and were intended for the use of the officers and employees of the association. Twelve broad staircases, one on either side of each entrance, and four beneath the dome, connected the ground floor with the galleries. The staircases beneath the dome were circular in part, and con¬ sisted of two flights of steps with two landing places. The flooring 51. New York Exhibition, 1853—lute: lor The external walls of the building were constructed of cast-iron framing and panel work, into which were inserted the sashes of the windows and the louvres for ventilation. The glass was one-eighth of an inch thick, or 2!bs. per superficial foot, and was manufactured at the Jackson Glass Works, U.S., and afterwards enamelled in a pecu¬ liar manner to produce a muffed effect and reduce the transmitted sun-light and heat. This enamel was laid upon the glass with the brush, and after drying, was subjected to the heat of the enameller’s oven, by which the coating became vitrified, and rendered as dur¬ able as the glass itself. Its effect was similar to that of ground glass, translucent, but not transparent. This precaution, by which the sunlight was deprived of that intensity of heat and glare which of the galleries was of closely matched planks, while those forming the floor of the ground story were separaied by narrow intervals, as in the building of 1851. Over each of the principal entrances, the galleries opened upon balconies, with space for placing flowers, vases, and sculpture. Above these balconies the ends or gables of the naves were filled in with large fan-lights, corresponding to the semicircular arched ribs within. The ticket offices, rooms for the officers of the association, telegraph, &c., were at either sides of the entrances. The increased applications of exhibitors for space, induced the association to erect the annexe to the building already alluded to. It consisted of two parts, of one and of two stories respectively, and 22 RECORD OF THE INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 18G2. occupied the entire space between the main building and the Croton Reservoir. It was 451 feet long, its extreme width 75 feet. It was occupied by machinery in motion, the collections of mining and mineralogy, and the refreshment rooms with other necessary offices. The second story of the same length and 21 feet wide, was entirely devoted to the exhibition of pictures and sculpture. It was lighted by a sky-light the entire length, and 8 feet 6 inches wide. The decoration of the building was intrusted to Mr. Henry Gree- nough, brother of the American sculptor, who had made this branch of art his study, and had resided and studied long in Italy. In the pages 84 and 85 of Messrs. Silliman and Goodrich’s account of the New York Exhibition, folio, Putman & Co., New York, 1854, to which we are indebted for the present account of the building, Mr. Greenough lias given a clear and, in the main, true and valuable statement of the principles that ought to guide the decoration of such buildings. The leading idea in the decoration adopted was, to bring out the constructive merits of the building—to decorate construction, rather than to construct decoration. The result of Mr. Greenougli’s attempt to do this, and at same time to preserve a general harmony of effect, was admitted to have been well attained. Oil colours w T ere employed on the exterior and interior, the base being white-lead. The exterior was painted of a light coloured bronze, all the features purely ornamental being relieved with gold. The interior had a prevailing tone of “ diluted orange,” as the artist called it, or rich cream colour, which was that given to all the cast- iron constructive work. This was relieved by a moderate and judicious use of the three primary colours, red, blue, and yellow, in their several tints of Vermillion, garnet, sky-blue, and orange, cer¬ tain parts of the internal ornamental work being gilded. The only exceptions to the use of oil colours were the ceiling of one of the leans-to, and that of the dome—these were executed in tempera on canvass. The effect of the interior of the dome (the decoration of which was designed by Signor Monte Lilia) was thought very good. The rays from a golden sun at the centre descended between the pro¬ jecting latticed ribs, and arabesques of •white and blue relieved by gold and silver stars upon a pure light sky-blue ground, sprung from the base of the dome, and rose with many graceful curves upwards. All the higher ceilings of the interior were coloured a pure light sky-blue, and great loftiness of appearance is stated to have been conferred by the use of this cool and light tint. The building was supplied with gas, and water at high pressure, in every part. The gas was intended primarily for the use of the police in protecting the property by night; but eventually tbe building was illuminated on certain evenings, and the effect of the interior expanse of the dome when lighted by a coronal ot gas lights all round, is said to have been extremely fine and noble. Eighteen hundred tons of iron were employed in the construc¬ tion, of which 300 tons were wrought, and 1500 tons cast iron. The surface of glass was 55,000 square feet, and the timber used amounted to 750,000 feet, board measure. PRINCIPAL DIMENSIONS. From principal floor to gallery floor, . . . 24 ft. 0 in. “ “ to top of second tier of girders, 44 4§ “ “ to top of third tier of girders, 59 10 “ “ to ridge of nave, . . 67 4 “ to top of bed-plate, . . 69 11 “ ‘ to top of upper ring of dome, 123 6 “ sixth avenue curb-stone to top of lantern, . 151 0 “ “ “ to top of towers, . 76 9 Area of first floor, . . 157,195 sq. feet. “ second floor, . . 92,496 “ Total area, . 249,692 Its area was heretofore 5j acres; that of the Dublin Exhibition, open at the same period at the opposite side of the Atlantic, having been 6j acres. The building of 1851 being 174, or, in round num¬ bers, more than thrice the surface area. The United States legislature empowered the Exhibition Associa¬ tion to raise a capital stock, finally amounting to 500,000 dollars, or about £125,000. No account of the cost of the building is given by Silliman and Goodrich, nor does any trustworthy account of its cost appear to have been published, from which the element of comparative cost per superficial foot might be deduced. The following references apply to the Figs. 49 and 50. TIIE GROUND FLOOR PLAN. —(Fig. 49.) 1. Entrance halls. 2. Ticket offices. 3. Officers’ apartments. 4. Staircases to galleries. 5. Naves or central avenues. 6. Central area under dome. 7. Machinery in motion. 8. Mineral collection. 9. Refreshment rooms. 10. Flower garden. TIIE PLAN ON GALLERY COURT.— (Fig. 50.) 1. Connections between the galleries. 2. Galleries. 3. Fine Arts gallery. 4. Open nave. 5. Balcony over entrance, 0. Roof over triangular areas. The classification was substantially the same as that adopted at London in 1851. Whatever may have been the character of the coloured decora¬ tion of the New York structure, the style of construction adopted for much of the iron framing, and more especially for the large curved ribs of the nave and transepts, the most conspicuous parts of the building, was execrable. Of all possible modes of arrangement of the ribs and cross-ribs of cast-iron framing, that of a vile, bald, attenuated “ carpenters’ gothic,” is the most offensive to good taste, as well as, constructively, one of the most ineffective and weak. In the general arrangement of the masses of the building, both in plan and in elevation, there resulted from the necessities of the site this at least to commend—that stability and permanence were secured to a large extent, against some of the causes most operative in producing injury, breakage, and decay, in glass and iron structures, namely, change of dimensions by variability of temperature, and change of form by the flexibility of the materials under varying external forces. The linear dimensions in one uninterrupted line, in any one direc¬ tion, was small enough to guard sufficiently against the first, and the buttressed form of the whole very well met the second. Had the external covering been of more permanent material than tin plates over wood sheathing, a long period of durability might have been assigned to this American building. We must now pass on to the last and grandest display made by France, to the Exposition of 1855. As early as March, 1852, the Emperor decreed the construction of a great permanent building in the grand square of the Champs Elysees, “ destined to receive the national expositions, and to serve for great public ceremonies, and for civil or military fetes.” In July of that year the site was authorized to be given over to the state by the prefect of the Seine, and in August a public company, with M. Ardoin at its head, became “ concessionaires’’ for the erection of the building, the concession lasting for thirty-five years, and the return RECORD OF THE INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 18G2. 23 for the capital to be derivable from the expositions. For the precise terms, the Report addressed to the Emperor by Prince Napoleon, the President of the Commission for the Exposition, Paris, royal 8vo, 1827, may he consulted. To this work; to the great Report of the mixed International Juries, Paris, 1856; to the beautiful work of MM. Barrault and Bridel, descriptive of the constructive details of the buildings, folio, Nobl£t, Paris, 1857 ; and to the concise and lucid little work of M. Tresca, “ Visite a l’Exposition,” forming one 8vovolume of the “Bibliotlieque descheminsde fer,”Paris,Hachette, 1855—we are indebted for such information as we are enabled to con¬ dense within our limits. A first project for the great building to be constructed, was designed by MM. Viel and Desjardins, which has been reproduced by M. Barrault, and which bears a general resemblance to that finally adopted. This design, however, when brought before contractors for actual tender, was found to involve great expense, and masses of one of the authors of the original design, having the conduct of the masonry. The work appears to have commenced upon the site almost immediately after the signing of this somewhat loose contract. Nine French foundries were employed upon the iron work, the first portions of which were delivered on the ground in June, 1853. Very little work, however, appears to have been accomplished before February, 1854. The Exposition, in accordance with the imperial decree, was to have opened on the 1st May, 1855, and was to have closed on the 30th September of the same year—(see Rapport, &c., p. 3). The opening, however, was postponed to the 15th May, and the time of closing was extended to the 31st October, and finally to the 15th November, 1855. It was, for the first time, to extend in an important manner to the exposition of works of fine art. The Exhibition space originally deemed sufficient was 87,000 Fig 52. French Exhibition, 1855 masonry so large that it could not be expected to be complete in time. Ultimately a contract was signed in December, 1852, by MM. York et Cie, under penalties as to time, &c., of completion, with M. Ardoin and his company, for the construction of the building. The conditions were that the contractors were to execute all the works of the “ Palais de l’lndustrie,” except the decorative painting and sculpture, by a fixed day and for a fixed sum, “reserving to them¬ selves the power to make any alteration in the design they might think proper, provided that they neither altered the dimensions, the solidity, nor the artistic aspect of the building considered as a national monument.” M. Barrault, chief engineer to the Palace, and M. Cendrier, archi¬ tect to the Lyons railway, assisted by MM. Bridel and Villain, were appointed by the contractors to prepare the modified design, which was acted on and carried out under their directions; M. Viel, -Plan showing its position. square metres, viz., 75,000 for the Palace of Industrial products and 12,000 for that of Fine Arts. This was extended in January, 1854, to a total of 105,000 metres. At this stage the English commissioners arrived in Paris, to confer, as to the space English exhibitors might require, with the Imperial Commissioners. With a little sly humour Prince Napoleon says of our countrymen in his report to the Emperor—“ Interrogated as to the space that they would require, they replied that England would want the whole area provided for the Exposition.” This reply, as he well says, “ un peu exageree,” served at least to show that more than they then had would be necessary, and the construction of the enormous annexe upon the Quai Billy was at once decided upon. Soon after a separate building, in the garden formed around the original palace, was settled for the display of agricultural implements; and finally the Panorama—a circular building between the Palace and the Annexe, 24 RECORD OF THE INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1862. and connected with both by bridges passing over the intervening thoroughfares. This Panorama was the darling child of Prince Napoleon personally, and ultimately became one of the most attrac¬ tive spots in the whole vast and almost bewildering display. In it the “ Buffet” was established, and the products amongst others, of the French Imperial manufactories adorned it Fig. 52 shows the general and relative disposition of these several great buildings. That for the Fine Art Exposition is on the extreme right, at the junction of the Avenue de Matignon with the Quai Billy—the Great Palace of Industry, parallel with the great central avenue of the Champs Elysees—the Panorama, between it and the Annexe, the latter stretching along the whole length of the Quai from the Place de la Concorde to the Pont d’Alma—and in the garden of the Palace, the Agricultural Gallery; that of Domestic Economy, suggested by Mr. Twining; and many minor offices. Thus grown to colossal dimensions, the ground and buildings of 1855 covered the following surfaces. Looking at these Prince Napoleon might indeed with reason observe in his Report—“ At London, in 1851, 75,000 square metres was deemed an enormous space; the Crystal Palace was a marvel in its colossal propor¬ tions ; yet at Paris, 117,000 square metres were found insufficient. Who shall foresee the dimensions that will be demanded of a building to accommodate the next Exposition, should it take place under conditions like the preceding ones ?” France, which had for long shrunk from permitting other nations to exhibit and compete for her civic crowns upon her own soil—although she somewhat inconsistently laid claim to having originated the idea of Inter¬ national Expositions, on the ground that she had said “ No ” to such a proposition when put before her by the President of the Republic —now that at last she had fairly become committed to the tourna¬ ment, put forth all her power arid magnificence, and nobly justified the expression of her Prince President, that the hospitalities of France must not on that occasion be measured by money. The surfaces covered were as follows:— Square Metres. Statute Acres. Palace of Industry, ... ... 50,737 = 12* Annexe (Quai Billy), ... 41,540 = i