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JOS* M. Wll-SON. 
 
 NOV 23 
 
EDDIMENTARY TREATISE 
 
 ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES; 
 
 OR, THE 
 
 BUILDER'S COMPREHENSIYE DIRECTOR, 
 
 EXPLAINED BY 
 
 A PERSPECTIVE VIEW, PLANS, ELEVATIONS, AND 
 SECTIONS OF A PAIR OF SEMI-DETACHED VILLAS, 
 
 WITH EVERY REQUISITE DETAIL IN SEQUENCE FOR THEIR 
 CONSTRUCTION AND FINISHING ; 
 
 TO WHICH IS ADDED 
 
 COMBINED WITH NUMEEOUS PRACTICAL REMARKS AND OBSERVATIONS 
 OBTAINED FROM MANY YEARS' EXPERIENCE, AND WHICH IT IS 
 ASSUMED ARE CALCULATED TO RENDER ASSISTANCE TO 
 THE YOUNG ARTIZAN IN EVERY DEPARTMENT OF 
 THE BUILDING ART. 
 
 . S. BRpQES,^ Architect^ 
 
 Al'^RO^l OF SrVEivAL ABCHh^CXaPvAI WOEKS. 
 
 LONDON : 
 
 JOHN WEALE, 59, HIGH HOLBORN. 
 .1860. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 In our professional practice we have frequently been 
 applied to for a treatise on Buildings to which the 
 young student in Architecture, as well as the more 
 mechanical one in Buildings might refer and see^ 
 in an erection of simplicity or splendour^ the neces- 
 sity of studying all the details essential for such 
 erection. In the officeof the Architect, it frequently 
 occurs that Buildings, from the variableness of practice, 
 are only taken in detached parts as the work pro- 
 ceeds ; and in the workshop of the Builder {where they 
 have drawings and specifications to ivork froiin), the 
 workman, or pupil, is seldom allowed to see them, but 
 takes his instructions from the foreman for the portion 
 of work to be executed; consequently he has little 
 opportunity of acquiring the combined information 
 requisite for the artisan in the building department 
 to possess, 6/607 
 
 Under such considerations the present work w^as 
 
iv PREFACE. 
 
 projected by Mr. Weale, the publisher of the rudi- 
 mentary works on the Arts and Sciences. 
 
 We have^ in this sketch of a pair of dwellings, 
 endeavoured to show and describe the manner in which 
 a building, from the commencement of it to its com- 
 pletion, should be dissected and studied in its various 
 mechanical departments, and how they work and 
 combine with each other. 
 
 We first submit a set of probationary drawings, all 
 drawn to the same scale, and then show the requisite 
 details, as they would generally occur, for the completion 
 of the carcass, and, lastly, the finishings. We have also 
 divided the specification, quantities, and estimates, into 
 corresponding parts. It may not always be desirable to 
 make such a distinction, but this being a rudimentary 
 work, we have adopted this method in order to make 
 it as intelligible as possible to the student in the 
 Building art. We have also given as much attention to 
 the drainage, supply of water, ventilation, &c., as the 
 importance of such an erection demands. 
 
 It may be proper to observe, that we have not strictly 
 conformed to the Metropolitan Building Act, but have 
 endeavoured to show how to erect a substantial building 
 with every attention to the prevention of such casualties 
 as buildings of this class are frequently liable to. 
 
PREFACE. V 
 
 In submitting this as one of a series of designs with 
 their details^ allow ns to acknowledge the information 
 quoted from the rudimentary series of scientific works 
 before alluded to^ as we have freely referred to any of 
 them that would assist us in conveying our views in 
 the theoretical and practical construction of buildings. 
 Perhaps no one* is more liable to criticism than the 
 architect for domestic arrangements; consequently there 
 are few who devote their time to it. An architect 
 justly observes : to produce a building fit for its pur- 
 poses^ and substantially beautiful at the same time, is a 
 good step towards perfection. And probably the allusion 
 to street architecture might with benefit be here quoted. 
 
 It is stated that^ in alluding to the building at the 
 corner of Fleet-street and Chancery-lane : — ^'^ It is a 
 good step towards that perfection which the commercial 
 architecture of the metropolis may reach. Fleet-street 
 and the Strand^ transformed into a succession of such 
 edificeS; might become a worthy Corso for the trading 
 Home, and make a grand connecting point between the 
 region of docks and warehouses at one end^ and of 
 mansions and palaces at the other.^^ 
 
 The building referred to is an example of a commer- 
 cial edifice. It were better^ indeed^ that the elements 
 of mercantile life were exemplified in its habitations. 
 
Vi PREFACE. 
 
 We have surely had enough of doubtful objects in 
 stucco, &c. : sober and straightforward, not uncomely, are 
 the operations of upright tradesmen ; so let their offices, 
 warehouses, and shops, be truthful, substantial, cheerful, 
 ornamental piles. Thought is not thrown away, lavished 
 upon the improvement of our streets and mercantile 
 edifices. A man will carry on his affairs with a healthier 
 and clearer mind, surrounded by buildings of the class 
 we are now writing about, than in such dens of dark- 
 ness as some of the buildings in the neighbourhood of 
 Chancery-lane. 
 
 There is such correspondence between outward forms 
 and shows, and inner feelings and emotions, in all truth- 
 ful matters, that it is far from an affair of indiffer- 
 ence in what manner of form we transact our commerce, 
 wdth what impress of form we endow our churches, 
 or in what fashion of apartments we meet our friends 
 and children. Providence has arranged this world 
 upon these considerations {so to speak), and surrounded 
 parts of the earth with cheerfulness and healthful 
 beauties. 
 
 We, who in our offices and ledgers have often little 
 enough thought of Providence, shall we esteem it in- 
 different whether we follow His precepts here, where, 
 perhaps, we need their healthful influence most ? 
 
PREFACE, vii 
 
 To architects, at least, this question is not unim- 
 portant, in an architectural point of view ; for it is in 
 such we speak. As a sanitary question, these things 
 are happily decided. 
 
 The importance of domestic architecture must be 
 held in a very different estimation to what it has been, 
 by any one who hopes to assist in the revival of all 
 architecture, dead since the sixteenth century in our 
 country. 
 
 We are a commercial people, and a common sense 
 trading race ; he who can find a brotherhood in archi- 
 tecture with the great republics of mediaeval Italy, the 
 commercial communities of Florence, Genoa, Sienna, 
 will perceive nothing but a source for the highest 
 gratulations. We shall have our San Michele, 
 Sansovino, &c. We, too, may become, amid this 
 Kaleidoscope Europe, a stand-point of light for the 
 after-times to reckon from ; but, to achieve this we 
 must recognise and know ourselves. We must develop 
 and not conceal our nationality, in arts as in all things 
 else. From the streets of our cities and manufacturing 
 towns, our wealth and power proceed. Let these 
 become the stepping-stones to our temples ; as they 
 must do, if our temples and our worship are to be sin- 
 cere. It is not by forgetting, but remembering, our 
 
Viii PREFACE. 
 
 commercial street-life that we stall become a people 
 great in wisdom as in wealth. 
 
 And^ indeed, Avhy should words be multiplied about 
 the matter ? It is from these things that we are growing 
 a wise, and, so much as there is of it, a holy people. 
 Erom counting-houses, offices, warehouses, and cham- 
 bers, come the schemes for baths and wash-houses, and 
 model dwellings, ragged schools, and reformatory 
 asylums. There on one side the genius of the shop- 
 keeping people make them ; beyond them burns the 
 glory of future England. What if, on the other side, 
 those who have no work to do, embroider medi8evai 
 patterns and multiply Gothic churches over the land ? 
 Let us be grateful that they do so much. 
 
 But meanwhile the architects have work to do ; the 
 public demands its streets and warehouses. Let us 
 bear in mind how great these things are in their desti- 
 nations — not, truly, all cheating and adulteration — 
 let us remember that we are erecting buildings to- 
 day through which the future contemplate, and the 
 dwellers therein are preparing the paths of trnth by 
 their duties and their charities. 
 
 Let us then look upon those buildings and streets in 
 their proper light, and build as if building for honour- 
 able men : to give our minds tone, let us discipline 
 
PREFACE. ix 
 
 tliem to see in this shop-keeping what promise of gi^eat- 
 ness it encloses ; and^ recognising the nature of the 
 times^ perceive that it is in these very streets that the 
 way is opened for ns to commence our stone daguerreo- 
 type of the nineteenth century. 
 
 Architects are the limners for the future ; to them 
 is perhaps entrusted the verdict which remotest times 
 will form. All else will go^ as it has gone^ of Art 
 and man^s production. But Architecture^ that substi- 
 tute for Nature^ is nourished by time as the i^ossil his- 
 tory of mankind ; and^ as the shells which the nautilus 
 and ammonite of the primaeval world have formed^ 
 become to us the sure records and interpreters of 
 their far-departed times; so these shells under which 
 animal life has dwelt^ which religion has formed and 
 inhabited, will become, may-be, to future races the only 
 and fossil records whence the epoch of man shall be 
 clearly read. For us, then, who have to mould these 
 latest medals of creation, there is the responsibility that 
 we rightly represent our race — our age ; it is not surely 
 all untruthful. We forge the long chain of antique 
 history link by link — almost from architectural remains : 
 from these we deduce a people and a history for our edifi- 
 cation, instruction, and example. Regarded in this light, 
 study will soon disclose to us what valuable and unique 
 
X PREFACE. 
 
 opportunity domestic architecture affords in our time. 
 There are yet higher views, under whose radiance the 
 architect begins to perceive the great influence and 
 responsibihty of his work. But the consideration 
 of what^ and how great effect upon the mind, external 
 objects exert, may be explained on another occasion. 
 
 After thus adverting to street and mercantile architec- 
 ture, we would soHcit some little attention to that style 
 suitable and applicable for domestic purposes or dwell- 
 ings, that may be proposed to be erected in the suburbs 
 or environs of such as Cities, Towns, or Boroughs, 
 before alluded to. For wherever our places of busi- 
 ness assume a different and more healthy character for 
 their various purposes, and in their erection a more 
 permanent and architectural feature, the dwellings, 
 cottages, villas, mansions, &c., of the surrounding 
 country approximate, in a corresponding extent, with 
 such improvements, and, consequently, the buildings 
 for domestic purposes become equally, combined with 
 other classes of architecture, a reflection and monu- 
 ment of the people, and a key to the date of their 
 erection. It was by witnessing this laudable improve- 
 ment that is daily taking place in this City and other 
 parts of the country, and in acquiescence with numerous 
 applications for a series of designs suitable for the 
 
PREFACE. xi 
 
 domestic arrangement and social comfort of all grades 
 of society^ the present works were projected. It is ad- 
 mitted that much ignorance exists as to the necessary 
 knowledge in the erection of aig. edifice, however simple : 
 and this is a powerful drawback to the execution of such 
 undertakings. It is also proverbial that false estimates^ 
 which are frequently tendered, dishearten many from 
 the prosecution of their plans, in the well-founded suspi- 
 cion that the expenditure will exceed the means appro- 
 priated for that purpose. 
 
 In the erection of an edifice, much depends on the 
 choice of materials, whether for fitness or durability ; 
 and a correct guide in the selection of them, on the 
 most cheap and economical principles, cannot there- 
 fore but be regarded as a desideratum by every one 
 connected with or concerned in building, whether for 
 profit or private purposes. An elaborate and ex- 
 planatory specification, with the quantities of the 
 various materials required in each department, their 
 prices, the amount of labour and price required for 
 working them, with accompanying design, so that 
 any one about to build may arrive at the total expense 
 before commencing; the most approved and efficient 
 methods of water supply, drainage, warming, venti- 
 lating, according with the magnitude of the design, 
 
Xll PREFACE. 
 
 will form an important feature of the work. We have 
 commenced our series with a design for a pair of semi- 
 detached dwellings^ the estimated expense of each of 
 which would be about £400, or £800 the pair; thereby- 
 giving a selection for the retired tradesman, or the 
 gentleman of moderate wealth who may wish to build 
 over his own demesne, f^Uy detailing the most approved 
 and efficient methods of construction, as well as finish- 
 ings^ as a guide to the various trades employed in the 
 building art. 
 
 Each desigi» is exemplified with a perspective view 
 of the building, accompanied with all requisite plans, 
 elevations, sections, and details, drawn to a large scale ; 
 thereby making this Volume a work of instruction to 
 the student and builder, and one of reference to the 
 professional practitioner in all his requirements. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Expenditure, choice of situation, drainage, and general 
 
 healthiness 1 
 
 Locality, prospect, and adjoining grounds , , . . 2 
 
 The aspect and roads 3 
 
 Sewerage, drainage, &c. . . . . . . , . 4 
 
 Traps, siphons, &c. , . . 5 
 
 Supply of water 6 
 
 Rain water tanks, and filters 10 
 
 BRICKLAYING. 
 
 Materials and tools used by the bricklayers . . , . 11 
 Weight of different kinds of earths with other tables suitable 
 
 and in reference to bricklaying 14 
 
 Table for paving 15 
 
 5, for tiling . . .16 
 
 „ of the sizes and weights of various articles . . .16 
 The necessity of the bricklayer having some knowledge of 
 
 scale and geometrical drawing 17 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 The principal tools used in carpentry, with their application, 
 and general occupation of the carpenter, with a description 
 
 of wood and iron bond 18 
 
 Floors with single and double joisting, &c. . . . . 19 
 Various partitions explained . . . . . . .20 
 
 Roofing 21 
 
 Classification of ditto ..... . . 22 
 
 Scarfing and joining timbers .... . , 23 
 
 Wall-plates, &c . .24 
 
XIV CONTENTS. 
 
 The usual method of measuring carpenter* :j work, with the 
 
 tables of lineal, superficial, and cubic measure . . .25 
 A table explaining the quantities of timber making one load. 26 
 „ „ „ on average weighing one ton 26 
 
 The number of cubic feet in every square of flooring, roofing, 
 or quarter partitions of different dimensions . . .27 
 „ „ of naked floors without girder . . . . 27 
 
 MASOX. 
 
 The trade of the mason explained ; stone cutting, ditto. . . 28 
 The application of steam power to the same . . . .29 
 
 1 he various tools used by the mason 29 
 
 The construction of scaffolds 30 
 
 The moveable derrick crane explained 31 
 
 The lewis, ditto, ditto 32 
 
 The method of working stones generally 33 
 
 Terms generally used by quarry men; joggle, joints, and 
 
 dowels explained 34 
 
 Iron cramps and their uses 35 
 
 The usual custom of measuring mason's work . . . . 35 
 
 A table of the weights of the different kinds of stone . . 36 
 
 PLUMBING. 
 
 The work of the plumber with his necessary tools explained . 36 
 The manufacture of milled and sheet lead-pipes, &c., and the 
 
 laying of sheet-lead 37 
 
 The fitting-up of cisterns, water-closets, pumps, &c. . . . 38 
 A table of the weight of lead pipes per yard . . . .38 
 
 ZINC-WORKER. 
 
 The applicability of sheet zinc for building purposes . .39 
 
 SMITH AND IRONFOUNDER. 
 
 The various uses of wrought and cast iron as applied to 
 
 builder's purposes . . 39 
 
 The methods adopted for smelting iron 39 
 
 Steam power as applied to the blast furnaces for working the 
 
 forge hammers and rolling mills 40 
 
 The method of casting iron . . . . . . . 40 
 
 The hot-blast furnace explained , . . . • .41 
 
CONTENTS. XV 
 
 PAGE 
 
 A description of various castings applied for different pur- 
 poses ........... 42 
 
 The conversion of forge-pig into bar iron 43 
 
 A table of the weight of metal; coppersmith and warming 
 
 apparatus 44 
 
 . SLATER. 
 
 The operations which pertain to building 45 
 
 Table of the sizes of roof, slating, &c 47 
 
 PLASTERER. 
 
 Description of tools used 48 
 
 Materials, &c 48 
 
 Operations for plastering . . . . . . .50 
 
 Setting, stucco, rough cast, puzzolan, See 51 
 
 Memoranda applicable to plasterer's work . . . .53 
 
 JOINERY. 
 
 An endeavour to explain joiner's work, with the application of 
 
 their tools, &c. 54 
 
 The mechanical operations of the joiner, &c 58 
 
 Glue. Its component parts 4^^60 
 
 Tables for joiners . . . . . . . . . 61 
 
 Sawing 62 
 
 IRONMONGERY. 
 
 Description of hinges 63 
 
 Locks, bolts, &c 64 
 
 GLAZIER. 
 
 The tools used, the material required, and the glazier's 
 
 business ..... ..... 65 
 
 A table applicable to glazing 66 
 
 PAINTER, PAPER-HANGER, AND DECORATOR . . . 67 
 
 Painting 68 
 
 Graining 69 
 
xvi 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 THE APPLICATION OF SCALES AND THE ELEMENTARY 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF GEOMETRY 72 
 
 Its uses, &c 73 
 
 DIMENSIONS OF DRAWING-PAPER 74 
 
 Hints on the management of drawing-paper . . . . 75 
 
 Mounting paper on canvas 76 
 
 In choice of pencils 77 
 
 DRAWING INSTRUMENTS. 
 
 The use of the compasses or divider . . . . .78 
 
 Hair compasses 79 
 
 Compasses with moveable points 80 
 
 Bow compasses . . . 81 
 
 Tubular compasses 83 
 
 Portable or turniag compasses . . . . . . . 85 
 
 Large screw dividers 87 
 
 Spring dividers 88 
 
 Wholes and halves . . . . 89 
 
 Proportional compasses . 91 
 
 Triangular compasses 94 
 
 Beam compasses 96 
 
 Knife-file, screw-driver 98 
 
 %)rawing pens 99 
 
 Road pens 100 
 
 Dotting pens 101 
 
 Pricking or tracing point . . . . . . . 102 
 
 Drawing pins 103 
 
 SPECIFICATIONS OF CARCASS OF BUILDING . . , 104 
 
 „ Excavator 104 
 
 „ Bricklayer 105 
 
 „ Carpentry 109 
 
 „ Smith and Iron-founder . . . ,116 
 
 „ Stone Mason . . . . . . 118 
 
 „ Plumber 119 
 
 „ Slater and Zinc-worker . . . . 120 
 
 „ Finishings, joinery . . .» 121 — 130 
 
 Plasterers 130 
 
 „ Mason's work 133 
 
 yy Furnishing ironmonger . . . . 134 
 
CONTENTS, 
 
 xvii 
 
 PAGE 
 
 SPECIFICATIONS. Bell-hanger, Plumber . . . .137 
 „ Glazier, Painter, Paper-hanger; . .139 
 J, General conditions 140 
 
 QUANTITIES OF THE VARIOUS MATERIALS REQUIRED . 141 
 „ Excavator, Bricklayer . . . .141 
 
 „ Carpenter, Smith and Iron-founder, and 
 
 Plumber 142 
 
 „ Mason, Slater « 143 
 
 „ Zinc -worker 143 
 
 „ Requisite materials for the finishings . 144 
 
 „ Joiner's work .... 144 — 148 
 
 „ Plasterer's work 149 
 
 „ Mason, Furnishing ironmonger . . . 150 
 
 „ Bell-hanger and Plumber . . .151 
 
 „ Glazier, Painter, and Paper-hanger . .152 
 
 ENGRAVINGS. See list of Plates .... 153—179 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF INSTRUMENTS .... 181—206 
 
DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Perspective view of the proposed pair of semi-detached cottages 
 or dwellings .153 
 
 Block-plan of ground, showing position of rain-water tank, drains, 
 traps, siphons, &c., with a section describing their fall, current, &c., 
 to and from the said tank to principal sewers . . . .154 
 
 Block-plan, showing position of buildings, gardens, yard, &c., and 
 the situation of the gully-traps, siphons, &c. . . . .155 
 
 Basement-plan, comprising breakfast-room, kitchen, back kit- 
 chen, cellars, store-closets, water ditto, coal-cellars, pantries, with 
 the position of their sinks, dressers, &c. 156 
 
 Plans of ground-floor, comprising porticos, entrance halls, dining- 
 rooms, parlors, lobbies, &c., with stairs to front and back entrances, 
 and roofs over offices 157 
 
 Plans of chamber-floor, arranged for front and back, bed-rooms, 
 front" dressing-rooms, water-closets, roofs over offices, &c., &c. . 158 
 
 Plan of attics, consisting of two front and two back bed-rooms, 
 with a portion of principal roof, gutters, &c 159 
 
 Plan of roofs, showing chimney flues, roof of dormer lights, ridge, 
 flashings, hips, gutters, &c., &c 160, 161 
 
 Entrance elevation 162 
 
 Back elevation 163 
 
 Longitudinal section of carcass, showing flues, &c., with eleva- 
 tion of kitchen, offices, &c., and ground line of front and back of 
 huilding . . * 164 
 
 Transverse section of carcass, showing flues and position of stairs, 
 with the height of story figured thereon, and the ground lines of 
 back and front of building 165 
 
 Traps for drain, &c., exemplified in six figures. Fig. 1. The sec- 
 tion of drain that can be easily cleaned without the necessity of 
 
DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. xix 
 
 PAGE 
 
 removing any portion of the earth, &c. Fig. 2. A simple sort of 
 trap applicable to this form of drain. Fig. 3. A section and plan 
 of a drain trap to be formed of iron or earthen ware. Figs, i, 5, 
 6. A similar description exemplified for various purposes. See 
 
 Description, page 51 . .166 
 
 Plan and section of rain-water tank, with slate filtering machine, 
 so applied as to be taken out for cleaning, &c 167 
 
 Plan of brick piers, sleepers, and joists, consisting of six figures, 
 viz. Fig. 1. Plan of pier. Fig. 2. Section of pier sleepers and joists. 
 Fig. 3. Transverse section of the same. Fig. 4. Plan of pier, sleepers, 
 and floor-joists. Fig. 5. Method of notching sleepers for receiving 
 floor-joists, &c. Fig. 6. Floor joists, bridged for fixing upon sleepers 168 
 
 Details of brickwork, exemplified in six figures. Fig. 1. Footings 
 of external and party walls. Fig. 2. Footings, showing projections 
 for sleepers, &c. Fig. 3. Chimney breast, brick and wood trim- 
 mers, with herring-bone trussing. Fig. 4. Floor joists, with ditto. 
 Fig. 5. The elliptical arch, with its radii for brickwork. Fig. 6. 
 The segment of a circle for the same 16^ 
 
 Details of brickwork for chimneys. Fig. 1. Plan of foundation. 
 Fig. 2. Shows a different method with fenders. Fig. 3. Elevation 
 of chimney breast, with chimney bars. Fig. 4. Section of the same 
 
 and back. Fig. 5. Brick corbels 170 
 
 Plan and section of chimney breast and trimmers. Fig. 1. Plan. 
 Fig 2. Section of the same 171 
 
 Details of floor-joists for first, second, and third floors, &c., 
 with the application of their tension rods. Fig. 1 . Plan of walls, 
 wall-plates, floor-joists, tension-rods, &c. Section of end of the 
 same. Fig. 3. A perspective sketch, showing their combination. 
 Fig. 4. Transverse trusses to floor-joists. Fig. 5. Floor-joists, with 
 sound boarding applied 172 
 
 Plan and section of a portion of roof. Fig. 1. Section showing 
 the whole principal rafters at each hip. Fig. 2. Plan of the same, 
 showing the position of whole and half principles, &c. . . .173 
 
 Details of roof. Fig 1. Part of principal rafter, with all auxi- 
 liaries, &c. Fig. 2. Elevation of bracket. Fig 3. Head and foot 
 of queen-posts, &c., with their clips and ties. Fig. 4. Side eleva- 
 tion of the same. Fig. 5. King-posts, tie-beams, rafters, &c. . . 174 
 
 Plan and elevation of portion of bay window, showing external 
 finishing 175 
 
 Details of entrance porch. Fig. 1. Plan of side and pilaster. 
 Fig. 2. Plan of spandrel. Fig. 3. Elevation of the same, with steps, 
 
XX 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 &c. Fig. 4. Section of cornice, frieze, &c. Fig. 5. Elevation of the 
 same. Fig. 6. Ditto of the base 176 
 
 Transverse section, showing partitions. Fig. 1. Partition for 
 ground and chamber floors. Fig. 2. Heads and sills of the same. 
 Fig. 3. Struts and braces. Fig. 4. Plan, of a portion of cistern in 
 roof. Fig. 5. Section of the same, &c. • . . . . .177 
 
 Longitudinal section, showing partitions. Fig. 1. Partition for 
 ground and chamber floors. Fig, 2. Head and braces. Fig. 3. 
 Door heads 178 
 
 Details of finishing for the various floors. Fig. 1. For doors, 
 windows, &c., attic floor. Fig. 2. Grounds and skirting chamber 
 floor. Fig. 3. Windows, doors, &c., chamber floor. Fig. 4. Win- 
 dows and doors, back parlor and breakfast room . , . .179 
 
 Finishings for bay windows. Fig. 1. Portion of plan, showing 
 sash frame ; angular metal bar groove for revolving shutters, &c. 
 Fig. 2. Section of the same, showing box for machinery of revolv- 
 ing shutters, &c 180 
 
ON THE 
 
 EEECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 • CHAPTER I, 
 
 When it is determined to erect an edifice of any 
 description^ the first and primary consideration should 
 be the money intended to be expended; the next^ 
 when possible^ the choice of situation^ not only as 
 respects its efficient drainages^ dryness^ and general 
 healthiness^ but also as regards its relative position 
 with other buildings^ and; when a number are proposed 
 to be erected on a new site^ to their being so placed as 
 not to interfere with or injure the effect of the sur- 
 rounding scenery. Consequently, it is desirable, after 
 a space of ground has been appropriated for building 
 purposes, surveyed, levelled, plotted, &c., that a per- 
 spective bird^s-eye view should accompany the plans, 
 not so much that the design there exhibited should be 
 carried into execution, but that they shall not interfere 
 with the principal prospect, and as little as possible 
 intercept the view or prospect of each other."^ 
 * Mr. Bruce Allen, 20tli volume of this series. 
 
 B 
 
2 
 
 ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 The lamentable way in wliicli the beauty and 
 loveliness of the finest landscape may be injured or 
 destroyed by buildings and grounds is exemplified 
 by the far-famed view from the top of Richmond 
 Hill. What it was when Thomson wrote it would 
 perhaps be difficult to say ; but now — instead of the 
 houses and villas^ and the gardens about them^ har- 
 monising with and forming a part of the general view 
 to be examined in detail — after the eye is satiated with 
 the wliole^ it is first struck with the glaring newness 
 [for they all seem as if they were painted and pointed 
 regularly once every year) of first one and then another 
 of these regularly built boxes placed in the middle of a 
 large square garden or lawn, and surrounded by a high 
 fence^ and the country round being thickly wooded 
 close up to the wall^ the formality of the grounds is 
 rendered truly distressing/^ 
 
 A landscape made up of a collection of square fields, 
 surrounded by regular hedge-rows, and dotted here 
 and there with cubical, newly-painted boxes and 
 straight roads, may satisfy, as it commonly does, the 
 owners of the several lots, but can never be otherwise 
 than painful to the eye of an artist. But what is called 
 landscape scenery in England is mostly of this descrip- 
 tion, and appears to be admired on the ground of its 
 cultivation and plenty, qualities perfectly distinct from 
 it, considered as a beautiful object. 
 
 If any general rule could be given for the laying out 
 of building grounds, it would be to avoid everything 
 considered essential — long rows of houses all of the 
 
ON SITUATION; &C. 
 
 3 
 
 same height^ semi-circular rows with a tall house 
 in the centre^ &c. The unsightliness of the common 
 plan will be seen by contrasting the picturesque cities 
 of York or Lincoln with the formal and uninteresting 
 appearance of Bath or Cheltenham^ or they may be 
 seen side by side in the old town of Hastings and the 
 modern triumphal- arched town of St. Leonards. From 
 this cause^ London, though the largest, is probably the 
 least picturesque city in Europe. Mr. Disraeli, in his 
 
 Tancred/^ has ably contrasted the old part of London 
 with the new, and has pointed out the absence of all 
 interest of character in the modern portions. Strange 
 that he should have been able to see so clearly that 
 which professors of the art have not only been blind to, 
 but are continually helping to increase. 
 
 If the building is proposed to be placed by the side 
 of a public road, it would be desirable to erect the 
 principal front in direction of as near south-east or 
 south-west as possible. The principal front, therefore, 
 can only in certain situations be parallel to the public 
 road, but the preference should be given to the south- 
 east. The complete drainage of a house is a point of 
 the utmost importance, as upon it mainly depends the 
 health and ^comfort of its inmates — and not only is it 
 requisite that the drainage be perfect ; but it must be 
 as little liable as possible to get out of order, and w^ien 
 disturbed for the purpose of cleaning, should be 
 capable of reinstatement with the materials at first 
 used. The most essential points to be attended to in 
 the drainage of buildings generally, where main sewers 
 
 B 2 
 
4 
 
 ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 are formed, are the following : — Assuming in this plate 
 that the main sewer is constructed in the front or 
 principal road — and we desire to convey all our 
 soil, waste water, fee, into it. On the block 
 plan in Plate III., upon which are shown the grounds, 
 buildings, &c., mark the most accessible places for 
 fixing the tank, guUeys, traps, siphons, &c. ; and then 
 upon a skeleton block-plan and section, Plate II. ; show 
 the principal pipes for the conveyance of water to the 
 tank, and the waste and soil drains, into the principal 
 sewer, with the necessary falls, traps, and guUeys 
 required. 
 
 Soilage-drains are found to be of sufficient dimen- 
 sions, and the soil and water find panple room to pass 
 along in a tube, equal in capacity to a cylinder of 6 
 inches diameter. They should have a fall of not less 
 than 6 inches in every 100 feet, and more where 
 possible. 
 
 They should be made water-tight, that the portions 
 of the soilage may not escape and leave the solid 
 matters in the drain. 
 
 They should have as much waste water pass through 
 as possible, to carry the soilage onward, and to prevent 
 any solid matters from being deposited vvithin them. 
 To prevent the foul air generated in, or returning by 
 the drains, the wdste-ways should be double-trapped 
 by a bell-trap at the sink where the waste water enters, 
 and by a well-trap short of the inlet to the drain. 
 
 All drains should be so constructed as to admit of 
 being opened for the purpose of cleansing without 
 
DrvAINxiGE, TRAPS, SYPHON, &C. 
 
 5 
 
 breaking them, and of the displaced portion being 
 afterwards replaced. A great defect in the common 
 soilage drains, whether built in brickwork or of earthen- 
 ware pipes, is, that they have to be broken up whenever 
 they require cleansing; this might be obviated bynsing 
 drains of the form represented on Plate XIII., fig. 1. 
 
 The upper tile a, in the diagram, could at any time 
 be lifted off, and the drain cleansed, without the neces- 
 sity of breaking the drain, or of removing any por- 
 tion of the earth, except that immediately covering it. 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 A simple kind of trap, applicable to this form of 
 drain [its transverse section being the same), and 
 equally effective as regards its capability of being 
 readily cleansed, is shown in fig. 2. 
 
 A section and plan of a drain-trap, to be formed of 
 iron or earthenware, is shown in the same plate, figure 
 3, the tile a should not be fixed down, but be left 
 loose, so as to allow of its ready removal, and the 
 cleansing of the trap. It would, perhaps, be as w^ell to 
 leave the whole of the trap loose, which would allow of 
 its being lifted out, and any obstruction removed. This 
 form of drain-trap is suitable for yards, 'areas, &c., and, 
 slightly modified, for streets. Figs. 4 and 5. 
 
 The waste water from sinks does not seem to be 
 sufficient to cleanse thoroughly these drains ; but this 
 may be effected, and at little expense, by simply short- 
 ening by one or two inches or more the waste-pipes of 
 the cistern in each case. For as the water runs off by 
 the waste-pipe, the cistern would continue to fill from 
 
G ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 the main faster than it runs off, till the rate of its 
 coming in (which is always regulated by the ball-cock, 
 and becomes gradually less as the ball rises), became 
 exactly equal to the quantity running off ; and this it 
 would continue to do until stopped at the main, the 
 quantity of water running off being regulated by the 
 length of the waste-pipe. 
 
 By this plan every house-drain might be daily 
 cleansed with water, and kept at a low temperature at 
 a trifling expense, that is, at merely the cost of water 
 from each cistern ; though small^ it would in each street 
 amount to a considerable body ; it would serve to 
 cleanse the main sewers themselves without the neces- 
 sity of any separate apparatus as proposed above. As 
 before remarked, the air of a house can never be kept 
 pure unless the bell and water-traps act perfectly, which 
 they seldom or ever do as at present constructed ; for 
 the bells of the traps in common use for sinks and 
 other places are usually left loose for the convenience 
 of cleansing them, as various matters find their way 
 into the trap, and the escape becomes choked; and 
 unless the bell is immediately replaced after the 
 foreign matter is removed, the trap becomes, of course, 
 useless. To remedy this defect, the bell is sometimes 
 soldered down, when the trap, after a time, becomes 
 filled up, and the bell is forcibly moved and laid aside. 
 A simple apparatus for cleansing the traps when the 
 bells are soldered down has been contrived which 
 would be perfectly effective if its careful preservation and 
 
 * By Mr. Hosking. 
 
SUPPLY OF WATER. 
 
 7 
 
 use by servants and others could be relied on. But the 
 bell-traps in common use may be much improved, and 
 made to answer all the uses required of them ; be always 
 certain of action, and yet admit of occasional cleaning, 
 by fixing the bell to the trap by a hinge, as shown at 
 Plate XIII., fig. 5, with a projecting piece of metal to 
 prevent its being but partially raised ; so that the bell, 
 being held up while the trap is cleaned by the knob 
 as indicated by the dotted lines, falls into its place by 
 its own weight, and can consequently never fail. The 
 use of the metal top is to prevent the bell being 
 thrown back and left so ; it is on this plate shown in 
 section, fig. 5. The sink may be of wood, lined with 
 lead, of stone, or slate ; or, perhaps, better than those, 
 of earthenware, which, among other advantages, would 
 allow of the trap being made with it, and forming a 
 part of itself, as shown in fig. 6. 
 
 Supply of Water. 
 
 The arrangements for distributing a supply of water 
 over the difi*erent parts of a building will depend very 
 materially on the nature of the supply, whether con- 
 stant or intermittent. The most common method of 
 supply is from water-works, by pipes which communi- 
 cate with private cisterns, into which the water is turned 
 at stated intervals. 
 
 A cistern in a dwelling-house is always more or less 
 an evil, it takes up a great deal of space, costs a great 
 deal of money in the first instance, and often causes 
 
8 
 
 ErxECTiox or dwelling-houses. 
 
 inconvenience from leakage, from the bursting of the 
 service pipes in frosty weather, and from the liability 
 of self-acting cocks to get out of order. The common 
 material for the cistern itself is wood lined with sheet 
 lead ; but slate cisterns have been much used of late. 
 The service or feed-pipe for a cistern, in the case of an 
 intermittent supply, must be sufficiently large to allow 
 of its filling during the time the water is turned on 
 from the main. The Aotv of water into the cistern is 
 regulated by a ball-cock, so called from its being opened 
 and shut by a lever with a copper or zinc ball v/hich floats 
 on the surface of the water. The service pipes to the 
 different parts of the building are laid into the bottom 
 of the cistern, but should not come Avithin an inch of 
 the actual bottom, in order that the sediment, which is 
 always deposited in a greater or less degree, may not 
 be disturbed ; the mouth of each pipe should be covered 
 by a rose, to prevent any foreign substance being 
 washed into the pipes and choking the taps. To afford 
 a ready means of clearing out the cistern, a waste-pipe 
 is inserted quite at the bottom, sufficiently large to 
 draw off the whole contents in a short time when re- 
 quired, into this waste-pipe is fitted a standing waste 
 which reaches nearly to the top of the cistern and 
 carries off the waste water, when from any disarrange- 
 ment in the working of the ball-cock the water con- 
 tinues running after the cistern is full. To prevent 
 any leakage at the bottom of the standing waste, the 
 latter terminates in a brass plug which is ground to fit 
 a washer inserted at the top of the waste-pipe. 
 
SUPPLY OF WATER. 
 
 9 
 
 Where the supply of water is constant^ instead of 
 being intermittent^ private cisterns may be altogether 
 dispensed with, the main pipes not being required to 
 discharge a large quantity of water in a short time 
 may be of smaller bore, and consequently cheaper, and 
 a considerable length of pipe is saved, as the water can 
 be laid on directly to the several taps, instead of having 
 to be taken up to the cistern and then brought back 
 again. The constant flow of water through the pipes 
 also much diminishes the risk of their bursting iu 
 fi'osty weather from freezing of their contents, when 
 there is not a regular supply of water from the mains 
 of water works, if any, as it frequently occurs. In new 
 localities, wells are sunk, and the water raised by means 
 of pumps, and conveyed by pipes to its required des- 
 tination; and as rain-water is considered the purest of 
 all water, it may be considered desirable to construct a 
 filtering tank for its reception ; and where there is a 
 want of wholesome water, a tank might be constructed 
 krge enough to receive the rain-water from the roofs of 
 a number of houses. This would insure a constant 
 supply of soft and pure water for all domestic pur- 
 poses. 
 
 The same would apply where there is no complete 
 system of sewerage ; a large manure tank might be 
 constructed. 
 
 It is calculated that the average quantity of water 
 which falls on a square yard of surface in Britain, in a 
 year, amounts to about 120 gallons, which, for a building 
 containing 100 square yards of roof, gives 12,000 
 
 B 3 
 
10 
 
 ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 gallons^ an ample quantity for all purposes. Eain- 
 water tanks are generally constructed in the following 
 manner : The ground being excavated^ the bottom is 
 laid with one or two courses of bricks, upon which two 
 or three courses of tiles are laid in cement, and the 
 sides and ends are formed with brickwork in cement, 
 and the v/hole is then rendered with cement about an 
 inch in thickness. The top is either domed or covered 
 with a flat stone. To filter water into a tank of this 
 kind a small w^ell or cistern is constructed, the bottom 
 of which is perforated to admit the water upon which 
 the charcoal is laid, and then covered over wdth 
 another perforated plate, as shown and described on 
 Plate XIV. ; a pump is then applied to the smaller cistern 
 or filter for the supply. This, as will be perceived on 
 inspection, would admit of ready cleaning, as the filter 
 could at any time be lifted out. Plate XIV., fig. 1, is 
 a section of the rain-water tank ; h the cistern ; a the 
 stone ^ cover to the same; e e the portion for the fil- 
 tered w^ater ; r filtering medium ; c c the perforated 
 portion for allowing the water to force itself through 
 the filtering medium f ; j rod for lifting the filters out 
 of cistern when it requires cleaning; c the supply pipe ; 
 B waste ditto. Fig. 3 is a plan of the same tank ; 
 A cistern ; b slate or earthenware filter. A modification 
 of this arrangement may be adopted for smaller build- 
 ings, and a bucket may be applied for dipping the 
 water from the filter. 
 
BRICKLAYING. 
 
 11 
 
 CHAPTER ir. 
 
 BRICKLAYER. 
 
 Our drainage, water supply, &c., having been con- 
 sidered as far as relates to our design, perhaps the next 
 consideration would be for the erection of the carcass of 
 the building, and probably we cannot do better than com- 
 mence with the bricklayer.'^^ The business of a brick- 
 layer consists in the execution of all kinds of work in 
 which brick is the principal material ; and in London 
 it always includes tiling, and paving with bricks or 
 tiles, Where undressed stone is much used as a building 
 material, the bricklayer executes this kind of work also ; 
 and in the country the business of the plasterer is 
 sometimes connected with the above-named branches. 
 And here, perhaps, we cannot do better for the 
 instruction of the young bricklayer than state the list 
 of tools required by him, and the classification of them^ 
 necessary for their various purposes. 
 
 The tools of the bricklayer are the troioel, to take up 
 and spread the mortar, and to cut bricks to the requisite 
 size; the brick-axe for shaping them to the required 
 bevel; the tin-saiv for making incisions in them to be 
 cut with the axe ; and a rubbing-stone to rub the bricks 
 
 * Mr. E. Dobson, 22nd volume of this series. 
 
12 
 
 ERECTION or DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 smooth after being roughly axed into shape. The 
 jointer and the jointing-rule are used for raiining the 
 centers of the mortar joints; the ?y/^c^?' for raking out 
 the joints of old brickwork^ previous to repointing; the 
 hammer for cutting chases and splays ; the hanker, 
 which is a piece of timber about six feet long, raised on 
 supports to a convenient height, to form a table on 
 which to cut the bricks to any gauge for which moulds 
 and bevels are required. The croiv-har, pick-axe^ and 
 shovel are used in digging out the foundation ; and 
 the rammer in punning the ground round the footings, 
 and in rendering the foundation firm where it is soft, 
 by beating or ramming. 
 
 To set out the work and keep it true, the bricklayer 
 uses the square, the level, and the plumb-rule. For 
 circular work he uses templets and b attermg -rules ; lines, 
 and pins are used to lay the courses by, and measuring- 
 rods to take dimensions when brickwork has to be 
 carried vup in conjunction with stonework; the height 
 of each course must be marked on a gauge-rod, that the 
 joints of each may coincide. 
 
 The bricklayer is supplied with bricks and mortar 
 by a labourer, who carries them in a hod ; the labourer 
 also makes the mortar, and builds and strikes the scaf- 
 folding. 
 
 The bricklayer^s scaffold is constructed with staiid- 
 ards, ledgers, mid putlogs. 
 
 The standards are fir poles, from forty to fifty feet 
 long, and six or seven inches in diameter at the butt 
 ends, which are firmly bedded in the ground. When 
 
BiilCKLAYINO. 
 
 13 
 
 one pole is not sufficiently long^ two are lashed together, 
 top and butt, the lashings being tightened with wedges. 
 The ledgers are horizontal poles, placed parallel to 
 the walls and lashed to the standard for the support 
 of the putlogs. The putlogs are cross pieces, usually- 
 made of birch, and about six feet long, one end resting 
 in the wall, the other on a ledger. On the putlogs are 
 placed the scaffold-boards, which are stout boards hooped 
 y/ith iron at the ends, to prevent them from splitting. 
 
 A bricklayer and his labourer will lay in a day about 
 1900 bricks, or about two cubic yards. 
 
 The tools required for tiling are the kithing -hammer, 
 with two gauge marks on it, one at 7 and the other at 
 71- inches; the iron lathing-staff, to clinch the nails ; 
 the trowel, which is longer and narrower than that used 
 for brick-work; the hosse, for holding mortar and tiles, 
 with an iron hook to hang it to the tiles or to a ladder; 
 and the striker, a piece of lath about 10 inches long, for 
 clearing off the superfluous mortar at the foot of the tiles. 
 
 Brickwork is measured and valued by the rod or by 
 the cubic yard, the price including the erection and 
 use of scaffolding, but not centering to arches, Avhich 
 is an extra charge. 
 
 Bricknogging pavings and facings by the superficial 
 yard. 
 
 Digging and steining of wells and cesspools by the 
 foot in depth according to size, the price increasing 
 with the depth. 
 
 Plain tiling and pantiling are valued per square of 
 100 feet superficial. 
 
ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES, 
 
 A journeyman bricklayer receives from 4^. to 5^. 6 d. 
 and a labourer from 2^. 6d, to 3^. 6d. per day. 
 The following memoranda may be useful ; — 
 
 Weights op different kinds op Earth. 
 
 13 cubic feet of clialk weigh . . one ton. 
 
 17 clay ,, . . 
 
 18 night soil . . I one ton 
 21 f gravel . • • f 
 
 283 J, sand . .J 
 
 Night soil is removed in carts containing 45 cubic 
 feet or 2^ tons. 
 
 Twenty-seven cubic feet^ or 1 cubic yard^ is called a 
 single load^ and 3 cubic yards a double load. 
 
 A measure of lime is 37 cubic feet, and contains 21 
 strike bushels. 
 
 A bricklayer^s hod measures 1 ft. 4 in. x 9 x 9, 
 and contains 20 bricks. 
 
 A rod of brickwork measures 16 J square, 1| brick 
 thick -{which is called the 7'educed or standard thickness) 
 or 272 ft. 3 in. superficial or 306 cubic feet, or 11 J 
 cubic yards. 
 
 A rod of brickwork, laid four courses to a foot in 
 height, requires 4353 stock bricks. 
 
 Ditto Hi inches to 4 courses, 4533 stock bricks. 
 
 These calculations are made without allowing for 
 waste, which is necessary, because the space occupied 
 by flues, bond-timber, &c., and for which no deduc- 
 tion is made, more than compensates for any waste ; 
 and in building dwelling-houses, 4540 stocks to a rod 
 is sufficient. 
 
BRICKLAYING. 
 
 15 
 
 if laid dry, 5370 to the rod. 
 
 4900 ditto in wells and circular cesspools. 
 
 A rod of brick Avork, laid 4 courses to gauge 12 
 in., contains 235 cubic feet of bricks and 71 cubic feet 
 of mortar, and weighs about 15 tons. 
 
 A rod of brickwork requires 1^ cubic yards of chalk 
 lime,, and 3 single loads of sand, or 1 cubic yard of 
 stone lime, and 3| loads of sand or 36 bushels of 
 cement, and an equal quantity of sharp sand. 
 
 A cubic yard of mortar requires 9 bushels of lime and 
 1 load of sand. 
 
 Lime and sand, and likewise cement and sand, lose 
 one-third of their bulk when made into mortar. 
 
 The proportion of mortar or cement, when made 
 up, to the lime or cement and sand before made up 
 is as 2 to 3. 
 
 Lime or cement and sand to make mortar require as 
 much water as is equal to one-third of their bulk. 
 
 A cubic yard of concrete requires 34 cubic feet of 
 material ; or if the gravel is to the lime as 6 to 1, a 
 concrete will require 1*1 cubic yard of gravel and sand, 
 and 3 bushels of lime. 
 
 Facing requires 7 bricks per foot superficial. • 
 
 Gauged arches 10 ditto, ditto. 
 
 Bricknogging, per yard superficial, requires SO 
 bricks on edge, or 45 laid flat. 
 
 PAYING. 
 
 Stock bricks laid flat require 36 per yard superficial. 
 Paving ditto on edge 52 
 Paving ditto laid flat 86 
 Pit to on edge 82 
 
IS 
 
 ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 Dutch clinkers require 140 per yard superficial. 
 12-incli paving tiles 9 
 10-incli ditto 13 
 
 Description. 
 "With pantiles 
 Ditto . 
 Ditto 
 Ditto . 
 Ditto 
 Ditto . 
 
 TILING. 
 
 Gauge ia 
 Inches. 
 
 12 . 
 
 11 
 
 10 . 
 
 4 
 
 3.^ . 
 
 No. required 
 per Square. 
 
 150 
 
 164 
 
 180 - 
 
 600 
 700 
 800 
 
 ^.B. — A square of pantiling requires one l)uuJle of laths, and one 
 <3wt. and a quarter of sixpenny nails. 
 
 A TABLE 
 
 Of the Sizes and Weights of various Articles it raay le considered useful 
 
 to refer to. 
 
 Description. 
 
 Length. 
 
 Breadth. 
 
 Thickness. 
 
 Weight. 
 
 
 
 ft. 
 
 in. 
 
 ft. 
 
 in. 
 
 ft. 
 
 in. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 ozs. 
 
 Stock-bricks 
 
 each 
 
 0 
 
 8| 
 
 0 
 
 H 
 
 0 
 
 24 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 Paving ditto . . 
 
 ?» 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 4h 
 
 0 
 
 li 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 Dutch clinkers . 
 
 > ) 
 
 0 
 
 H 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 H 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 12 -inch paving- tiles . 
 
 
 0 
 
 Hi 
 
 0 
 
 llj 
 
 0 
 
 14 
 
 13 
 
 0 
 
 10-inch ditto 
 
 11 
 
 0 
 
 9f 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 Pantiles^ 
 
 
 0 
 
 104 
 
 0 
 
 64 
 
 0 
 
 Of 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 Pantile laths, per 10 -feet 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 bundle . 
 
 
 120 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 u 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 Ditto, 12-feet ditto 
 
 
 144 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 N.B. A bundle contains 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 twelve laths. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Plain tiles, per bundle 
 
 
 500 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 Thirty bundles of 
 
 laths 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 make a load. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 To ascertain the quantity of brickwork contained in a 
 well^ take the diameter^ allowing the thickness on one 
 side, three times of which, and one-seventh, will be the 
 circumference. This should be multiplied by the deptli^ 
 and the contents brought into brick and half work. 
 
BRICKLAYING. 
 
 17 
 
 To find what quantity of \yater a well will hold^ mul- 
 tiply half the circumference by half the diameter ; this 
 should be multiplied by the depth^ and will give the 
 number of cube feet which wall contain 6 gallons and 
 1 pint each. 
 
 We so far have endeavoured to explain the various 
 tools and principal materials used in the trade of a 
 bricklayer, and at the same time would impress upon, 
 the young artisan to give some attention to geome- 
 trical drawing ; for, unless he has some knowdedge of 
 this useful auxiliary, he will never be enabled to read 
 or comprehend the design he may be entrusted with 
 to execute. For, even in the simple turning of an 
 arch over a centre already fixed for him, unless he 
 knows that every brick should radiate to a centre and 
 knows how to find that centre, he wdll never be certain 
 of making sound work to his arch. We have endea- 
 voured to show this in two diagrams shown on Plate 
 XVI., figs. 4 and 5. Let 1 — 2 be the opening or span 
 of the segment of an arch ; e f the rise ; stretch a line, 
 or apply a straight edge, from 2 to r, and mark the 
 centre c; apply the square, and where it intersects 
 the centre of your rise, b f will be centre for the 
 arch ; consequently, b will be the converging point for 
 all the bricks on that arch. Fig. 5 merely exemplifies 
 the same principle applied to the ellipsis, as it should 
 to every other description of arch. 
 
18 
 
 ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 CARPENTER. 
 
 The business of the carpenter consists in framing 
 timber together for the construction of floors^ parti- 
 tions, roofs, &c. 
 
 The carpenter^s principal tools are the axe^ the saw, 
 and the chisel, to which may be added, the chalk- 
 line, plumb-rule, level, and square. The work of the 
 carpenter does not require the use of the plane, which 
 is one of the principal tools of the joiner; and this 
 forms the principal distinction between these two 
 trades, the carpenter being engaged in the rough 
 frame-work, and the joiner on the finishings and 
 decorations of buildings. 
 
 Probably the first occupation a carpenter will have 
 in a building is the preparation and laying of bond- 
 timber, making and fixing of centers, &c. Bond-timber 
 and wood-bricks were formerly used as the only means 
 for providing against irregular settlement in the brick- 
 work. There is, however, a great objection to the use 
 of timber in the construction of a wall, as it shrinks 
 away from the rest of the work, and often endangers 
 its stability by rotting. Instead of bond-timbers, hoop- 
 iron bond is now very generally used. This is formed 
 
CARPENTRY. 
 
 19 
 
 of iron-hooping tarred^ to protect the iron from contact 
 with the mortar^ and hiid in the thickness of the mortar 
 joint. This forms a very permanent longitudinal tie, 
 and has all the advantages^ with none of the disad- 
 vantages, of the bond-timbers. 
 
 Floors. 
 
 The assemblage of timbers forming any naked 
 flooring may be either single or double. Single flooring 
 is formed with joists reaching from wall to wall, where 
 they rest on plates of timber, built into the brickwork, 
 and called wall-plates. The floor-boards are nailed over 
 the upper edges of the joists, whose lower edges receive 
 the lathing and plastering of the ceilings. Double 
 floors are constructed with stout binding joists, a few 
 feet apart, reaching from wall to wall, and supporting 
 ceiling joists, which carry the ceiling, and bridging 
 joists, on which are nailed the floor-boards. In double 
 framed flooring, the binders, instead of resting on the 
 walls, are supported on girders. Single flooring is in 
 many respects inferior to double flooring, being liable 
 to sag or deflect, so as to make the floors concave ; and 
 the situation of the joists occasions injury to the 
 ceilings, and likewise shakes the walls. This may be 
 prevented in single floors by herring-bone, trussing them, 
 and introducing an iron rod from wall-plate to wall- 
 plate, asshown and described on Plate XIX., figs. 1, 2, 
 3, and 4. Fig. 5 shows the method of applying sound 
 boarding puggings, &c., to prevent any sound passing be- 
 tween the upper and lower floors. In double floors, the 
 
so ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 stiffness of the binders and girders prevents botli de- 
 flection and vibration, and the floors and ceilings hold 
 their lines, that is^ retain their intended form much 
 better than in single flooring. 
 
 If it were not for the increased expense it would be 
 much better for all the joists of a single floor to be 
 laid on a plate supported by projecting corbels, which 
 prevents the wall being crippled in any way by the in- 
 sertion of the joists. The plates of basement floors 
 are best supported on small piers carried up from the 
 footings. This is an important point to be attended to, 
 as the introduction of timbers into a wall is nowhere 
 likely to be productive of such injurious effects as at 
 the foundations^ where from damp and imperfect 
 ventilation all woodwork is liable to speedy decay. 
 
 Partitions, 
 
 The partitions forming the interior divisions of a 
 building, may be either solid walling of brick or 
 stone, Or they may be constructed entirely of timber, 
 or they may be frames of timber^ filled in with 
 masonry or brickwork. It would always be best for 
 durability, and security against fire, to make the par- 
 titions of solid walling; bnt this is not always prac- 
 ticable j and in the erection of houses they are generally 
 made of timber. 
 
 The principles to be kept in view, in the construction 
 of framed partitions, are very simple. Care must be 
 taken to avoid any cross strain, and they should not in 
 any way depend for support upon subordinate parts 
 
CARPENTRY. 21 
 
 of the construction^ but should form a portion of the 
 main carcass of the building, and quite independent 
 of the floors which should not support, but be sup- 
 ported by them. 
 
 When a partition extends through two or more 
 storeys of a building, it should be as much as possible a 
 continuous piece of framing, with strong sills, at proper ^ 
 heights, to support the floor-joists. 
 
 Where openings occur as for folding-doors, or where 
 a partition rests on the ends of the sill only, it should 
 be strongly trussed, so that it is as incapable of settle- 
 ment as the walls themselves. 
 
 From want of attention to these points, we fre- 
 quently see in dwelling-houses, floors which have sunk 
 into curved lines, doors out of square, cracked ceilings 
 and broken cornices, and gutters that only serve to 
 conduct the roof-water to the interior of the building, 
 to the injury of ceilings and walls, and the great 
 discomfort of the inmates. 
 
 Roofing. 
 
 In roofs of the ordinary construction, the roof- 
 covering is laid upon rafters, supported by horizontal 
 purlins, which rest on upright trusses, or frames af 
 timber, placed on the walls at regular distances from 
 each other. Upon the framing of the trusses depends 
 the stability of the roof. The arrangement of the 
 rafters and purlins being subordinate matters of detail. 
 The timbering of a roof may be compared to that of a 
 double-framed floor; the trusses of the former corre- 
 
22 ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 sponding to the girders of the latter, tlie purlins to the 
 binders, and the rafters to the joists. 
 
 Timber roofs may be divided into two heads : — 
 
 First. Those which exert merely a vertical pressure 
 on the walls on which they rest. 
 
 Secondly. Those in which advantage is taken of the 
 strength of the walls to resist a side thrust, as in many 
 of the gotliic open-timbered roofs. 
 
 Trussed roofs exerting no side thrust on the walls, 
 consist essentially of a pair of principals, or principal 
 rafters, and a horizontal tie-beam, and in large roofs 
 these are connected and strengthened by king and 
 queen posts and strutts. 
 
 The collar beam roof is the most simple truss, in 
 which the tie is above the bottom of the feet of the 
 principal, which is often done in small roofs for the 
 sake of obtaining height. In this roof the feet of 
 both common and principal rest on a wall-plate, and 
 the tie is called a collar. The purlins rest on the 
 collar, 'and the common rafters butt against a ridge 
 running along the top of the roof. This kind of truss 
 is only suited for very small spans, as there is a cross 
 strain on that part of the principal below the collar 
 which is rendered harmless in a small space by the 
 extra strength of the principal ; but which, in a larger 
 one, would be very likely to thrust out the walls. 
 
 In roofs of larger spans the tie-beams are placed 
 below the feet of the principals, which are tenoned into 
 and bolted or strapped to them. To keep the beam from 
 sagging, or bending by its own weight, it is suspended 
 
CARPENTRY. 
 
 23 
 
 from the head of the principal by a king-post of wood 
 or iron. The lower part of the king-post affords abut- 
 ments for strutts^ supporting the principals immediately 
 under the purlins, so that no cross-strain is exerted on 
 any of the timbers in the truss, but they all act in the 
 direction of their length, the principals and strutts being 
 subjected to compression, and the king-post and tie- 
 beams to tension. The common rafters butt on a pole 
 plate, the tie-beams resting either on a continuous wall- 
 plate, or on short templets of wood or stone. Where 
 the span is considerable, the tie-beam is supported at 
 additional points by suspension pieces called queen- 
 posts, from the bottom of which spring additional strutts, 
 and by extending this principle ad infinitum we might 
 construct a roof of any span, were it not that a prac- 
 tical limit is imposed by the nature of the materials. 
 
 Having in a cursory manner described the principles 
 of framing, we will now endeavour to describe some of 
 the principal joints made use of in framing. Timbers 
 that have to be joined in the direction of their length, 
 are what is termed scarfed together, that is, an oblique 
 cut is made across the width of one piece at the end 
 proposed to be joined, and a corresponding one to the 
 piece proposed to be added to it, with bird^s-mouth 
 bevels at each end, and notches in the middle to admit of 
 oak or iron wedges ; these are then placed together and 
 secured either by iron bolts or straps. The king-post 
 is connected with the tie-beam by a tenon and mortice, 
 and the post should be cut somewhat short, to give the 
 power of screwing up the framing after the timber has 
 
ERECTION OE D^TELLIXG-HOUSES. 
 
 become fully seasoned. The tie-beam may be suspended 
 from the king-post either by a bolt or by a strap passed 
 round the tie-beam^ and secured by iron wedges or 
 cotters passing through a hole in the king-post ; this 
 last is the more perfect, but at the same time the more 
 expensive of the two methods. 
 
 The king-post is generally cut with joggles for the 
 principal rafters and strutts to abutt against and frame 
 into. The ends of the principal rafters and strutts 
 should be cut off as nearly square as possible, and 
 tenoned into the joggles — otherwise when the timber 
 shrinks, which it will more or less, the thrust is thrown 
 upon the edge only, which splits or crushes under the 
 pressure and causes settlement. 
 
 The wall-plates are halved and dove-tailed together, 
 and the tie-beams cogged upon them, the purlins 
 bridged upon the principal rafters, and the common 
 rafters notched upon the purlins. And it should be 
 observed, as a general rule, all timbers should be 
 notched dovrn to those on which they rest, so as to 
 prevent their being moved either lengthways or side- 
 ways. Where an upright post has to be fixed between 
 two horizontal sills, as in the case of the uprights of 
 a common framed partition, it is simply tenoned into 
 them, and the tenons secured with oak pins driven 
 through the cheeks of the mortice. 
 
 The carpenter requires considerable bodily strength 
 for the handling of the timbers on which he has to 
 work ; he should have a knowledge of mechanics, that 
 he may understand the nature of the strains and thrusts 
 
CARPENTRY. 
 
 25 
 
 to which his work is exposed, and the best method of 
 preventing or resisting them ; and he should have such 
 a knowledge of working drawings as will enable him, 
 from the sketches of the architect, to set out the lines 
 for every description of work for centering, framing, 
 &c., that may be entrusted to him for execution. 
 
 In measuring carpenter^s work, the tenons are included 
 in the length of the timber. This is not the case in 
 joiner^ s, in which they are alloAved for in the price. 
 Carpenter^s Avork is generally measured by the square 
 of 100 feet, and the cubical contents of every square 
 taken out; and not anything is to be deducted for 
 chimneys, as the extra thickness of the trimmers will 
 make good for the deficiency, and in a quarter parti- 
 tion the braces and extra thickness of the door posts 
 will make good for the opening, but the head and sill 
 must be taken separate ; and if the joists or quarterings 
 in roofs or partitions are 13 inches asunder, one-twen- 
 tieth of the quantity found is to be taken off — that if 
 placed within 11 inches, one-twentieth must be added. 
 And in measuring the work for labour, only take the 
 extreme verge, including the bearings, one way, and 
 make no deductions for well-holes, chimney-breasts, 
 door-ways, &c. The tiuiber to be collected the full 
 length and size, and charged as cube fir without labour. 
 The following tables should be constantly borne in 
 mind by the young carpenter : — 
 
 Lineal or running measure contains 12 inches in 1 
 foot, 3 feet in 1 yard, 2 yards 1 fathom and 1760 yards 
 or 5280 feet in one mile. 
 
26 
 
 ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 Superficial measure contains 144 square inches in 1 
 foot^ 9 feet in 1 yard^ and 100 feet in 1 square of flooring, 
 roofing, partitioning, &c.; 272 J feet in ] rod or pole, 
 and 160 poles in 4840 yards, or 48560 feet in 1 acre. 
 
 Cubical measure comprises tlie length, breadth, and 
 thickness, and contains 1728 inches in 1 cubic foot, 
 27 cubic feet in one cubic yard, 282 cubic inches in 1 
 gallon, and 6 gallons and 1 pint in each cubic foot. 
 
 To measure round timber, multiply the mean or 
 quarter girt by itself, and that product by the length 
 by cross multiplication, and the cubical quantity will 
 be ascertained. For instance : suppose a piece of 
 timber to girt 6 feet, one-quarter of this will be 1 foot 
 6 inches, which, multiplied by 1 foot 6 inches, will give 
 2 feet 3 inches superficial, which, multiplied by the 
 length (say 20 feet), will give the contents — 45 feet 
 cube; and in the same way for any other size. 
 
 A TABLE 
 
 Of quantities of Timher each maTcing One Load. 
 50 feet cube of square timber. 600 feet of 1-incli planking. 
 
 40 feet ditto of round or rough. 30 12-feet S-inch deals. 
 
 150 feet of 4 -inch planking. 
 170 feet of S^iDch ditto. 
 200 feet of 3-inch ditto. 
 240 feet of 2i-inch ditto. 
 300 feet of 2-inch ditto. 
 
 26 14-feet ditto ditto. 
 18 20-feet ditto ditto. 
 25 12-feet 3-inch plank. 
 21 14-feet ditto ditto. 
 18 16-feet ditto ditto. 
 
 400 feet of 14-inch ditto. I 15 20-feet ditto ditto. 
 
 The following quantities of Material will eachy on an average, iveigh 
 One Ton:— 
 
 30 feet cube of oak timber. i 48 feet of ash timber. 
 
 50 ditto of fir [ 35 12-feet 2i-inch deals. 
 
 60 ditto of elm 
 45 feet of ash 
 60 feet of beech 
 
 30 ditto 3-inch ditto. 
 46 12-feet 2 J -inch battens. 
 38 ditto 3-inch ditto. 
 
CARPENTRY. 
 
 27 
 
 The number of Cube Feet in every Square of Flooring^ Foofing, or 
 Quarter Partitions of the following different dimensions, the 
 timbers whereof are one foot apart, ivhich should not be more in 
 either. 
 
 Roofs and Quarter Partitions. 
 
 inches. 
 2 by 24 . 
 
 cube 
 ft. 
 . 2 
 
 in. 
 104 
 
 inches. 
 
 3 by 44 . . 
 
 cube 
 ft. 
 . 6 
 
 in. 
 10 
 
 2 „ S . 
 
 . . 3 
 
 4 
 
 4 „ 24 . 
 
 . . 5 
 
 8 
 
 'i „^. 
 
 . 4 
 
 3i 
 
 4 „ 4 . . 
 
 . 8 
 
 4 
 
 3 „ 3 . 
 
 . . 5 
 
 (5 
 
 4 „ 44 . 
 
 . . 9 
 
 1 
 
 
 . 5 
 
 7 
 
 4 „ 5 . . 
 
 . 9 
 
 94 
 
 3 „ 4 . 
 
 . . 6 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 
 Naked Floor without Girder. 
 
 
 
 inches. 
 
 cube 
 ft. 
 . 7 
 
 in. 
 
 inches. 
 9 by 24 . 
 
 cube 
 ft. 
 
 . . 12 
 
 in. 
 
 iH 
 
 5 „ 3 . 
 
 . . 8 
 
 4 
 
 9 „ 3 
 
 . 15 
 
 0 
 
 6 „ 24 
 
 . 8 
 
 74 
 
 10 „ 24 . 
 
 . . 14 
 
 4| 
 
 6 „ 3 . 
 
 . . 10 
 
 0 
 
 10 „ 3 
 
 . 16 
 
 3 
 
 7 „ 2i 
 
 . 10 
 
 4i 
 ^2 
 
 11 „ 24 . 
 
 . . 15 
 
 94 
 
 7 „ 3 . 
 
 . . 11 
 
 8 
 
 11 „ 3 
 
 . 18 
 
 4 
 
 8 „ 24 
 
 . 11 
 
 6 
 
 12 „ 24 . 
 
 . . 17 
 
 3 
 
 8 „ 3 . 
 
 . . 13 
 
 4 
 
 12 „ 3 
 
 . 20 
 
 0 
 
 The above tables of different scantlings will be found 
 very useful to those who are unacquainted with taking 
 and squaring and cubing dimensions ; as also to such 
 as have to make an estimate in a hurry^ as they .are 
 the common dimensions of fir scantling for joists^ 
 rafters^ and quarters for roofs and partitions^ of second 
 thirds and fourth-rate houses : but we would advise the 
 young carpenter to take the dimensions of the timber 
 required for any stated work, and square and cube 
 them himself. 
 
28 
 
 ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 MASON. 
 
 The business of the mason consists in working the 
 stones to be used in a building to their shape and set- 
 ting them in their places. The works connected with 
 the trade of the mason are those of the stone-cutter^ 
 who hews and cuts large stones roughly into shape 
 preparatory to their being Avorked by the mason^ and 
 of the carver^ who executes the ornamental portions of 
 the stone-work of a building, as enriched cornices, 
 capitals, &c. Where the value of stone is considerable 
 it is^ sent from the quarry to the building in large 
 blocks, and cut into slabs and scantlings of the requit'ed 
 size with a stone-mason's saw, which differs from that 
 used in any other trade in having no teeth. It is a 
 long thin plate of steel, slightly jagged on the bottom 
 edge and fixed in a frame, and, being drawn backwards 
 and forwards in a horizontal position, cuts the stone by 
 its own Aveiglit. 
 
 To facilitate the operation a heap of sharp sand is 
 placed on an inclined plane over the stone, and water 
 allowed to trickle through it so as to wash the sand 
 into the saw cut. Of late years machinery worked by 
 
MASONRY. 
 
 29 
 
 steam-power has been used for sawing marble into 
 slabs as well as stone to a very great extent^ and has 
 almost entirely superseded manual labour in this part 
 of the manufacturing of chimney-pieces. 
 
 Some freestones^, as Bath stone^ are so soft as to be 
 easily cut with a toothed saw worked backwards and 
 forwards by two persons. The harder kinds of stones^ 
 as granites and gritstones^ are brought roughly into 
 shape at the quarry^ with an axe or scalping hammer, 
 and are then said to be scalped. The tools used by the 
 mason for cutting stone, consist of the mallet and 
 chisel of various sizes. The mason^s mallet differs 
 from that used by any other artisan, being similar to a 
 dome in contour, excepting a portion of the broadest 
 part, which is rather cylindrical ; the handle is short, 
 being only sufficiently long to enable it to be firmly 
 grasped. In London the tools used to break the faces 
 of the stone are the point, which is the smallest 
 description of chisel, being never more than a quarter 
 of an inch broad on the cutting edge; the jnch tool; 
 the boaster, which is two inches wide, and the broad tool, 
 of which the cutting edge is three and a-half in. wide. 
 The tools used in working mouldings, and in carving, 
 are of various sizes according to the nature of the 
 work. Besides the above cutting tools, the mason uses 
 the banker or bench, in which he places his stone for 
 convenience of working, and straight-edges, squares, 
 levels, and templets, for marking the shapes of the 
 blocks, and for trying the surfaces as the work proceeds. 
 Any angle greater or less than a right angle is called a 
 
30 
 
 ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 bevel angle, and a bevel is formed by nailing two straight- 
 edges together at the required angle ; a bevel square is 
 a square with a shifting back, which can be set to any- 
 required bevels. A templet is called a mould, moulds 
 are commonly made of sheet zinc carefully cut to the 
 profile of the mouldings with shears and files. For 
 setting his work in place the mason uses the trowel, 
 lines, and pins, the square and level, and plumb, and 
 battering rules for adjusting the faces of upright and 
 battering walls. 
 
 The mason^s scaff'old is double, that is, formed with 
 two rows of standards, so as to be totally independent 
 of the walls for support, as putlog holes are inadmissible 
 in masonry. 
 
 During the last fifteen years the construction of 
 scafi'olds with round poles lashed together with cords, 
 has been superseded in large works by a system of 
 scaff'olding of square timbers connected together by 
 bolts and dog-irons. The hoisting of the materials is 
 performed from these scafl*olds by means of a travelling 
 crane, which consists of a double travelling carriage 
 running on a tramway formed on straight sills laid on 
 the top of two parallel rows of standards. The crab 
 winch is placed on the upper carriage, and by means 
 of the double motion of the two carriages can be 
 brought with great ease and precision over any part 
 of the work lying between the two rows of standards. 
 
 The facilities which are aff*orded by these scaff'olds 
 and travelling cranes for moving heavy weights over 
 large areas, have led to their extensive adoption, not 
 
MASONRY. 
 
 31 
 
 only in the erection of buildings, but on landing wliarfs, 
 masons^ and iron-founders^ yards, and similar situations, 
 "where a great saving of time and labour is effected by 
 their use. Scaffolding of square timbers appears to 
 have been little used in England before a.d. 1837, when 
 Messrs. Cubitt, of Gray^s Inn Hoad, applied it to the 
 erection of the entrance gateway of the Euston station 
 of the North Western Hallway. Since then it has 
 been very generally used in large works, amongst which 
 may be mentioned the Reform Club House, and the 
 Nelson Column, — where it was carried up in perfect 
 safety to the height of 180 feet ; and it has been used 
 on a very large scale at the new Houses of Parliament, 
 now in progress of being finished. 
 
 The moveable derrick crane is also much used in 
 setting mason^s work. It consists of a vertical post 
 supported by two timber back-stays, and a long move- 
 able jib or derrick hinged against the post below the 
 gearing. By means of a chain passing from a barrel 
 over a pulley at the top of the post, the derrick can be 
 hoisted to an almost vertical, or lowered to near a 
 horizontal position, thus enabling it to command every 
 part of the area of a circle of a radius nearly equal to 
 the length of the derrick. This gives it a great ad- 
 vantage over the old gibbet-crane, which only com- 
 mands a circle of a fixed radius, and the use of which 
 entails great loss of time from its constantly requiring 
 to be shifted as the work proceeds. 
 
 Derrick cranes appear to have been first introduced 
 at Glasgow, in 1831, by Mr. York, since which time 
 
32 
 
 ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 their original construction has been greatly improved 
 upon^ and they are now very extensively used. 
 
 In hoisting blocks of stone they are attached to the 
 tackle by means of a simple contrivance called a lewiSy 
 which consists of a tapering hole being cut in the upper 
 surface of the stone to be raised^ the two side pieces of 
 the lewis are inserted and placed against the sides of 
 the holes [which being made in the form of a dovetail^ 
 and the aperture in the stone made to correspond), a 
 centre parallel piece is then dropped in and secured in 
 its place by a strong pin passing through all three pieces, 
 and the stone may then be safely hoisted, as it is im- 
 possible for the lewis to draw out of the holes. By 
 means of the lewis, in a slightly altered form to this de- 
 scribed, stone can be lowered and set under water with- 
 out dilBculty, the lewis being disengaged by means of 
 a line attached to the parallel piece, the removal of 
 which allows the other to be drawn out of the mortice. 
 
 In stone-cutting the workman forms as many plane 
 faces as may be necessary for bringing the stone into 
 the required shape with the least waste of material and 
 labour, and on the plane surface, so formed, applies the 
 moulds to which the stone is to be worked. 
 
 To form a plane surface the mason first knocks off 
 the superfluous stone along one edge of the block until 
 it coincides Ayith a straight-edge throughout its whole 
 length — this is called a chisel draught. Another chisel 
 draught is then made along one of the adjacent edges, 
 and the ends of the two are connected by another 
 draught, a fourth draught is then sunk across the last. 
 
^ MASONRY. 33 
 
 which gives another angle point in the same plane with 
 the other draughts, and the stone is then knocked off 
 between the outside draughts until a straight-edge 
 coincides with its surface in every part. 
 
 To form cylindrical or moulded surfaces^ curved in 
 one direction only^ the workman sinks two parallel 
 draughts at the opposite ends of the stone, to be worked 
 until they coincide with a mould cut to the required 
 shape, and afterwards work off the stone between these 
 draughts by a straight-edge applied at right angles to 
 them. 
 
 The formation of conical or spherical surfaces is 
 much less simple, and requires a knowledge of the 
 scientific operations of stone-cutting, a description of 
 which would be unsuited to the elementary character of 
 these pages. The reader who wishes to pursue the 
 subject, is therefore referred to the volume of this series 
 on masonry and stone-cutting, where he will find the 
 required information. 
 
 The finely grained stones are usually brought to a 
 smooth surface, and rubbed with sand to produce a 
 perfectly even surface. 
 
 In working soft stones the surface is brought to a 
 smooth face with a drag, which is a plate of steel in- 
 dented on the edge like the teeth of a saw, to take off 
 the marks of the tools employed in shaping it. The 
 harder and more coarsely grained stones are generally 
 tooled, that is, the marks of the chisel are left on their 
 face. If the furrows left by the chisel are dispersed in 
 regular order, the work is said to be fair-tooled ; but if 
 
 c 3 
 
34 ERECTION OF D\yELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 otherwise^ it may be random tooled^ or chiselled, or 
 boasted^ or pointed. If the stones project beyond the 
 points, the work is said to be rusticated or reticulated. 
 
 Granite and gritstone are chiefly worked with the 
 scalping hammer. In massive erections, where the 
 stones are large and effect is required, the fronts of the 
 blocks are left quite rough, as they come out of 
 the quarry, and the work is then said to be quarry 
 pitched. 
 
 Many technical terms are used by quarry-men, and 
 others engaged in working stone; but they need not be 
 inserted here, as they are mostly confined to particular 
 localities, beyond which they are little known, or perhaps 
 bear a difi*erent signification. When the mason re- 
 quires to give the joints of his work greater security 
 than is afi'orded by the weight of the stone and the 
 adhesion of the mortar, he makes use of joggles, dowels, 
 and cramps. Stones are s?ad to be joggled when a 
 proje^ction is worked out on one stone to fit in a corres- 
 ponding hole or grove in the other ; but this occasions 
 great labour and waste of stone. Dowels are chiefly 
 made use of, which are hard pieces of stone cut to the 
 required size, and let into corresponding mortices in 
 the two stones to be joined together. 
 
 Dowels may be pins of wood, metal, or stone, used to 
 secure the joints of stone-work in exposed situations, as 
 copings, pinnacles, &c. The best material is copper ; but 
 the expense of this metal causes it seldom to be used. If 
 iron be made use of it should be thoroughly tarred, to 
 prevent oxidation, or it will sooner or later burst or 
 
MASONRY. 35 
 
 f 
 
 split the work it is intended to protect. Dowels are 
 often secured in their places with lead poured in from 
 above^ through a small channel cut in the side of the 
 joint for that purpose; but a good workman will eschew 
 lead, which too often finds its way into bad work, and 
 will prefer trusting to very close and workmanlike joints, 
 carefully fitted dowels, and fine mortar : dowels should 
 be made tapering at one end, which ensures a better 
 fit, and renders the setting of the stone more easy for 
 the workman. 
 
 Iron cramps are used as fastenings on the tops of 
 copings, and in similar situations ; but they are not to 
 be recommended, as they are very unsightty^ and if 
 they once become exposed to the action of the atmos- 
 phere, are powerfully destructive agents ; cast-iron is, 
 however, less objectionable than wrought for this 
 purpose. 
 
 In measuring mason's work, the cubic contents of 
 the stone is taken as it comes to the banker, without 
 deduction for subsequent waste. If the scantlings are 
 large, an extra price is allowed for hoisting. The 
 labour in working the stone is charged by the super- 
 ficial foot, according to the kind of work, as plain work, 
 sunk work, moulded work, &c. Pavings, landings, &c., 
 and all stones less than three inches, are charged by 
 the superficial foot. Copings, curbs, window-sills, &c., 
 are charged per lineal foot. Cramps, dowels, mortice 
 holes, &c., are always charged separately. 
 
 A journey-man mason will receive from 4^. to 5^. %d, 
 per day, and the labourer from 2^. &d, to 3^. per day ; 
 
36 
 
 ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 but masons working piece-work, or at any work 
 requiring particular skill, will often earn mucli more. 
 The remuneration of a stone carver is dependent on 
 his talent^ and the kind of work he is engaged upon. 
 
 The following table of the weights of the different 
 lands of stone^ will convey an idea of their relative 
 hardness^ and of the labour required to work them : — 
 
 TABLE 
 
 Of the Weifjlds of different hinds of Stone. 
 
 13 cubic feet of marble ..... v.'eigh one ton. 
 
 13 J of granite 
 
 14 of Purbeck stone . . • ^ 
 144 of Yorkshire stone . . . . 
 
 16 of Derbysliire grit , . • 
 
 17 of Portland stone . . . . 
 
 18 „ of Bath ditto . ^. . . „ ,, 
 58 feet superficial of 3-incb York paving . . 
 
 70 of24-inc]i ,, . . 
 
 PLUMBER. 
 
 The work of the plumber chiefly consists in laying 
 sheet lead on roofs^ lining cisterns^ laying on water to 
 the different parts of a building, and fixing up pumps 
 and water-closets. The plumber uses but few tools^ 
 and those are of a simple character, the greater number 
 of them being similar to those used by other artificers, 
 hammers, mallets, planes, chisels, gouges, files, &c. The 
 principal tool peculiar to the trade of the plumber is the 
 bat, which is made of beech, about eighteen inches long, 
 and is used for dressing and flattening sheet lead ; for 
 soldering also, the plumber uses iron ladles of various 
 sizes for melting solder, as well as lead and grozing 
 
PLUMBING. 
 
 37 
 
 irons for smoothing down the joints. The sheet-lead 
 used by the plumber is either cast or milled^ the former 
 being generally cast by the plumber himself out of old 
 lead taken in exchange, whilst the latter, which is cast 
 lead, flattened out between two rollers in a flatting 
 mill, is purchased from the manufacturer. Sheet-lead 
 is described, according to the weight per superficial 
 foot, as 51b. lead, 61b. lead, &c. 
 
 Lead-pipes, if of large dimensions, are made of sheet- 
 lead dressed round a wooden core and soldered up. 
 
 Smaller pipes are cast in short lengths, of a thickness 
 three or four times that of the intended pipe, and either 
 drawn or rolled out to the proper thickness. 
 
 Soft-solder is used for uniting the joints of lead- 
 work ; it is made of equal parts of lead and tin, and is 
 purchased of the manufacturer, by the plumber, at a 
 price per lb., according to the state of the market. 
 
 Laying of Sheet -lead. 
 
 In order to secure lead-work from the injurious 
 efi'ect of contraction and expansion where exposed to 
 the heat of the sun^ the plumber is careful not to 
 confine the metal by soldered joints, or otherwise. All 
 sheet-lead should be laid with a sufficient current to 
 keep it dry ; a fall of one inch in ten feet is sufficient 
 for this purpose, if the boarding on which the lead is 
 laid be perfectly even. Joints in the length of the 
 current are made by dressing the edges of the lead over 
 a wooden roll, and joints in the length are made with 
 drips. 
 
38 
 
 ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 Flashings are pieces of lead turned down over the 
 edges of other lead-work^ which is turned up against 
 a wall, and serve to keep the wet from finding its way 
 between the wall and the lead. The most secure way 
 of fixing them is to build them into the joints of the 
 brick-work, but the common method is to insert them 
 about an inch into the mortar joint, and to secure them 
 with wall hooks and cement. 
 
 A very important part of the business of the plumber, 
 consists in fitting up cisterns, pumps, and water-closet 
 apparatus, and in laying the diflferent services and 
 wastes connected with the same. 
 
 Plumber^s work is paid for by the cwt. weight, milled- 
 lead being rather more expensive. Mere cast-lead pipes 
 are charged per foot, lined according to size. 
 
 Pumps and water-closet apparatus are charged at so 
 much each, according to description, as also basins, 
 air-traps, washers and plugs, spindle, valves, stop-cocks, 
 ball-cocks, &c. 
 
 TABLE 
 
 Of the Weight of Lead Pipes per Yard. 
 
 Bore. lbs. ozs. Bore. lbs. ozs. 
 
 i-inch . . .33 li-incli . . . 11 0 
 
 |-incli . ..57 li-incli . . . 14 0 
 
 l-mcb . . .8 0 2-inch . . . 21 0 
 
 The wages of a journeyman plumber are from 5^. to 
 65. per day, and the plumber^s labourer receives from 
 3^. to 3^. 6d. per day. 
 
 ZINC WORKER. 
 
 The use of sheet-lead has been to a certain extent 
 
ZINC-WORKER, — SMITH AND IRON-FOUNDER. 39 
 
 superseded by the use of sheet-zinc, which, from its 
 cheapness and lightness, is very extensively used for 
 almost all purposes to which sheet-lead is applied. It 
 is, however, a very inferior material, and not to be 
 depended on. The laying of it is generally executed by 
 the plumber, but the working of zinc, and manufactur- 
 ing of it into gutters, rain water-pipes, chimney-cowls, 
 and other articles, is practised as a distinct business. 
 
 SMITH AND IRON-FOUNDER. 
 
 The smith furnishes the various articles of wrought- 
 iron work used in a building, as pileshoes, straps/screw- 
 balls, dog-irons, chimney-bars, gratings, wrought-iron 
 railways, and iron ballustrades for staircases. Wrought- 
 iron was formerly much used for many purposes, for 
 which cast-iron is almost exclusively employed ; the 
 improvements effected in casting during the present 
 century having made a great alteration in this respect. 
 The operations of the iron-founder have been much 
 improved since the middle of the last century, when 
 the smelting of iron was carried on with wood charcoal, 
 and the ores used were chiefly from the secondary strata, 
 although the clay iron-stones of the coal-measures 
 were occasionally used. The weald of Kent and Sussex 
 contained many iron-works during the seventeenth 
 century, that at Lamberhurst, near Tunbridge Wells, 
 Sussex, is noted as having furnished the cast-iron rail- 
 way round St. PauPs Cathedral. The tilt hammers 
 used in forging bar-iron were chiefly worked by water 
 power. 
 
40 ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 A large pool in Beeding Forest^ near Horsham, 
 Sussex, still retains the name of the hammer pond, and 
 the former sites of many old forges in the Wealden 
 district, may still be traced by the heaps of cinders 
 which yet remain here and there, and by the local name 
 to which the works gave rise. 
 
 The introduction of smelting with pit-coal coke 
 during the last century, caused a complete revolution 
 in the iron trade. The ores now chiefly used are the 
 clay-iron stones of the coal measures, and the fuel pit- 
 coal or coke. 
 
 Steam power is almost exclusively used for the pro- 
 duction of the blast-furnaces and for working the forge 
 hammers and rolling mills. For the production of 
 wrought-iron in the ordinary manner, two distinct sets of 
 processes are required : 1st, the extraction of the metal 
 from the ore in the shape of cast-iron ; 2nd, the con- 
 version of cast-iron into malleable or bar-iron by 
 remelting, puddling, and forging. The conversion of 
 bar-iron into sheet is effected by placing it in contact 
 with powdered charcoal in a furnace of concentration. 
 
 Cast-iron is produced by smelting the previously 
 calcined ore in a blast furnace by its greater specific 
 gravity. The lime-stone and other impurities float on 
 the top of the melted mass, and are allowed to run oS", 
 forming slag or cinder. The melted metal is run ofl* from 
 the bottom of the furnace into moulds where castings 
 are required, and into furrows made in a level bed of sand, 
 where the metal is required for conversion into malleable 
 iron ; the bars thus produced being called pigs. 
 
SMITH AND IRON-FOUNDER. 
 
 41 
 
 In the year 1827^ it was discovered that by the use 
 of heated air for the blasts a great saving of fuel could 
 be effected as compared with the cold heat process. 
 The hot blast is now very extensively used, and has the 
 double advantage of requiring less fuel to bring down 
 an equal quantity of metal, and of enabling the manufac- 
 turer to use raw pit-coal instead of coke; so that a saving 
 is effected both in the quantity and cost of the fuel. 
 
 For a considerable time after its introduction it was 
 held in great disrepute ; which, however, may be 
 chiefly attributed to the inferior quality of metals used, 
 the power of the hot blast in reducing the most 
 refractory ores offering a great temptation to obtain a 
 much larger product from the furnaces than was com- 
 patible with the good quality of the metal. 
 
 The use of the hot blast by firms of acknowledged 
 character has greatly tended to remove the prejudice 
 against it, and in many iron-works of high character 
 nothing but the hot blast with pit coal is used in the 
 smelting furnaces, the use of coke being confined to 
 the subsequent processes. 
 
 Perhaps it may be laid down as a general principle, 
 that where the pig-iron is remelted with coke in the 
 cupola furnace for the purposes of the iron founder, or 
 refined with coke in the conversion of forge-pig into 
 bar-iron, it is of little consequence whether the reduc- 
 tion of the ore has been effected with the hot or cold 
 blast ; but where castings have to be run directly from 
 the smelting furnace the quality of the metal will, no 
 doubt, suffer from the use of the former. 
 
43 
 
 ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 Cast-iron is divided by the iron-founder into three 
 qualities : No. 1, or blank cast-iron^ is coarse-grained^ 
 soft, and not very tenacious. When remelted it passes 
 into No. 2, or grey cast-iron. This is the best quality 
 for castings requiring strength. When repeatedly re- 
 melted it becomes excessively hard and brittle and 
 passes into No. 3, or white cast-iron, which is only used 
 for the commonest castings, as sash weights, cannon 
 balls, and similar articles. 
 
 White cast-iron if produced direct from the ore, is an 
 indication of derangement in the working of the furnace, 
 and is unfit for the ordinary purposes of the founder, 
 except to mix witli other qualities. 
 
 Girders and similar solid articles are cast in sand 
 moulds enclosed in iron frames or boxes, each mould 
 requiring upper and lower boxes. A mould is formed by 
 pressing sand firmly round a wooden pattern, which is 
 afterwards removed, and the melted metal poured into 
 the spaces thus left through apertures made for that 
 purpose. 
 
 The moulds for ornamental work and for hollow 
 castings are of a more complicated construction, which 
 will be better understood from actual inspection at a 
 foundry than from any written description. Almost all 
 irons are improved by admixture with others, and there- 
 fore where superior castings are required they should 
 not be run direct from the smelting furnace, but the 
 metal should be remelted in a cupola furnace, which 
 gives the opportunity of suiting the quality of the iron 
 to its intended use. Thus for delicate ornamental work 
 
SMITH AND IRON-FOUNDER. 
 
 43 
 
 a soft and very fluid iron will be required, whilst for 
 girders and castings exposed to cross strain the metal 
 will require to be harder and more tenacious. For 
 bed-plates and castings which have merely to sustain a 
 compressing force, the chief point to be attended to is 
 the hardness of the metal. 
 
 Castings should be allowed to remain in sand until 
 cool, as the quality of the metal is greatly injured by 
 the rapid and irregular cooling which takes place from 
 exposure to air if removed from the moulds in a red-hot 
 state, which is sometimes done in small foundries to 
 economise room. 
 
 Staffordshire, Shropshire, and Derbyshire afford the 
 best iron for castings. The Scotch iron is much 
 esteemed for hollow wares, and has a beautifully smooth 
 surface, which may be noticed in the stoves and other 
 articles cast by the Carron Company. The Welsh iron 
 is principally used for conversion into bar-iron. 
 
 The conversion of forge pig into bar iron is effected 
 by a variety of processes, which have for their object 
 the freeing of the metal from the carbon and other 
 impurities combined with it, so as to produce as nearly 
 as possible the pure metal. We do not propose to 
 enter in these pages into any of the details of the 
 manufacture of bar-iron, or of its conversion into steel, 
 as our business is rather with the iron-founder than 
 the manufacturer; it may, however, be proper to state 
 that new processes have lately been patented, by which 
 malleable iron and steel may be produced directly from 
 the ore without the use of the smelting furnace, a plan 
 
ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 whicli is likely to be attended with beneficial results^ 
 both as regards economy and quality of metal. 
 
 Besides cast-iron columns^ girders, and similar articles 
 which are cast to order^ the founder supplies a great 
 variety of articles which are kept in store for immediate 
 use^ as cast-iron palings^ balconies^ rain water-pipes^ 
 and guttering, air-traps^ coal-plates, stoves, stable- 
 fittings, iron sashes, &c., &c. 
 
 Both wrought and cast-iron work are paid for by 
 weight, except small articles kept in store for immediate 
 use, which are valued per piece : — 
 
 One cubic foot of cast-iron . . . weighs about 450 lbs. 
 Ditto ditto of wrought . . . 475 
 Ditto ditto of closely-hammered • 485 
 
 The coppersmith provides and buys sheet copper for 
 covering roofs, copper-gutters, and rain water-pipes, 
 washing, brewing coppers, copper cramps, and dowels, 
 for stone-mason^s work, and all other copper work in a 
 building; but the cost of the material in which he 
 works prevents its general use, and the washing-copper 
 is frequently the only part of a building which requires 
 the aid of this artificer. Sheet copper is paid for by 
 the superficial foot, copper in dowels, bolts, &c., at per 
 pound. 
 
 Warming apparatus, steam and gas-fittings, and 
 similar kinds of work are put up by the mechanical 
 engineer, who also manufactures a great variety of 
 articles which are purchased in parts, and put together 
 and fixed by the plumber, as pumps, taps, water-closet 
 apparatus. 
 
SLATING. 
 
 45 
 
 SLATER. 
 
 The business of the slater chiefly consists in covering 
 the roofs of houses with sTates ; but has of late years 
 been very much extended by the general introduction 
 of sawn slates as a material for shelves^ cisterns^ baths, 
 chimney-pieces^ and even for ornamental purposes. 
 
 Vv^e propose here to describe only those operations of 
 the slater which have reference to the covering of roofs. 
 Besides the tools which are in common use among other 
 artificers^ the slater uses one peculiar to his trade called 
 the zax^ which is a kind of hatchet with sharp point at 
 the back. It is used for trimming slates and making 
 the holes by which they are nailed in their places. 
 
 Slates are laid either on boarding or on narrow 
 battens from two to three inches wide, the latter being 
 the more common method on account of its being less 
 expensive than the other. The nails used should be 
 either copper or zinc ; iron nails, though sometimes 
 used, being objectionable from their liability to rust. 
 Every slate should be fastened with two nails, except 
 in the most inferior w^ork. The upper surface of a slate 
 is called its back, the under surface the bed, the lower 
 edge the tail, the upper edge the head, the part of each 
 course of slate exposed to view is called the margin of 
 the course, and the width of the margin is called the 
 gauge. 
 
 The bond or lap is the distance which the lower edge 
 of any course overlaps the slates of the second course 
 below, measuring from the nail-hole. 
 
46 
 
 ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 In preparing slates for nse^ the sides and bottom- 
 edges are trimmed^ and the nail-holes punched as near 
 the head as can be done without risk of breaking the 
 slate^ and at a uniform distance from the tail. 
 
 The lap having been decided on^ the gauge will be 
 equal to half the distance from the tail to the nail-hole, 
 less the lap ; thus a countess slate measuring nineteen 
 inches from tail to nail, if laid with a three inch lap, 
 would show a margin of eight inches. The battens are 
 of course nailed on to the rafters at the gauge to which 
 the slates will work. If the slates are of different 
 lengths, they must be sorted into sizes and gauged ac- 
 cordingly, the smallest size being placed nearest the 
 ridge. The lap should not be less than two inches, and 
 need not exceed three inches. 
 
 It is essential to the soundness, as well as the ap- 
 pearance of slater^s work, that the slates should all be of 
 the same width, and the edges perfectly true. The 
 Welsh slates are considered the best, and are of a light 
 sky-blue colour ; the Westmoreland slates are of a dull 
 greenish hue. 
 
 Slater^s work is measured by the square of 100 super- 
 ficial feet, allowance being made for the trouble of 
 cutting the slates at the hips, eaves, round chim- 
 neys, &c. 
 
 Slabs for cisterns, baths, shelves, and other sawn 
 work, are charged per foot, superficial, according to the 
 thickness of the slab, and the labour bestowed on the 
 work. Eubbed edges, grooves, &c., are charged per 
 lineal foot. 
 
SLATING. 
 
 47 
 
 A journeyman slater receives about 5^. per day^ and 
 his labourer about 2^. per day. 
 
 TABLE 
 
 Of the Sizes of Roofing Slates, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 9 o 
 
 
 i 3 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 Size. 
 
 
 i 
 
 ' % o 
 
 
 
 
 Description- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 it pe 
 Ton 
 
 M 
 
 5 a? 
 
 id to 
 
 
 Length. 
 
 Breadth 
 
 
 c8 
 
 
 <1> O 
 
 O m 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 < 
 
 
 
 li 
 
 u 
 
 
 
 ft. 
 
 in. 
 
 ft. 
 
 in. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Doubles 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 4 
 
 480 
 
 48^ 
 
 Ladies . . . . 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 8 
 
 
 44 
 
 u 
 
 280 
 
 280 
 
 Countesses . 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 
 2 
 
 176 
 
 352 
 
 Duchesses 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 127 
 
 254 
 
 Imperials . 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Rags and Queens 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 0 1 
 
 f A Ton will cover 2 J to 21 
 
 Westmoreland of yarious 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 squares. 
 
 
 sizes 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Inch slab per foot 
 
 superficial we 
 
 ghs 1 
 
 4 lbs. 
 
 
 
 We have now endeavoured to explain the various 
 trades employed^ and the materials required for the 
 carcass of a building, and will commence with the 
 finishing. 
 
 Finishings. 
 
 The work of the plasterer consists in covering the 
 brickwork and naked timbers of walls, ceilings, and 
 partitions with plaster, to prepare them for painting, 
 papering, or distempering, and in forming cornices, 
 and such decorative portions of the furnishings of 
 buildings as may be required to be executed in plaster 
 or cement. 
 
48 
 
 ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 The plasterer uses a variety of tools, of wliicli the 
 following are the principal ones : — 
 
 The drag is a three-pronged rake, used to mix the 
 hair with the mortar in preparing coarse stuff. 
 
 The hawk is a small square board for holding stuff 
 on, with a short handle on the under side. 
 
 Trowels are of two kinds, the laying and smoothing 
 tooly with which the first and the last are laid, and the 
 gauging trowel used for gauging fine stuff for cornices, 
 &c., &c. : these are made of various sizes, from three 
 to seven inches long. 
 
 Of floats, which are used in floating ceilings and 
 other work. There are three kinds, viz., the Derby, 
 which is a rule of such a length as to require two men 
 to use it. The handfloat, which is used in furnishing 
 stucco, and the quirk-float, w^hich is used in • floating 
 angles. 
 
 Moulds, for raising cornices, are made of sheet copper 
 cut to the profile of the moulding, to be formed and 
 fixed in a wooden frame. 
 
 Sloping and picking out tools are made of steel, seven 
 or eight inches long, and of various sizes. They are 
 used for modelling, and for finishing mitres, and 
 returns to cornice. 
 
 Materials, 
 
 Coarse stuff, or lime and hair, as it is usually called, 
 is similar to common mortar, with the addition of hair 
 from the tanner's yard, which is thoroughly mixed with 
 the mortar by means of the drag. 
 
PLASTERER AND OF MATERIALS. 
 
 49 
 
 Fine stuff is made of pure lime; slaked ^Yitll a small 
 quantity of ^yater; after which sufficient water is 
 added to bring it to the consistence of cream. It is 
 then allowed to settle^ and the superfluous water being 
 poured off^ it is left in a bin or tub to remain in a 
 semi-fluid state^ until the evaporation of the water has 
 brought it to a proper thickness for use. In using fine 
 stuff for setting ceilings^ a small portion of w^hite hair 
 is mixed with it. 
 
 Stucco is made Avith fine stuff and clean washed river 
 sand. This is used for finishing work intended to be 
 painted. 
 
 Gauged stuff is formed of fine stuff mixed with plaster 
 of pariS; the proportion of plaster varying according to 
 the rapidity with which the work is required to set. 
 
 Gauged stiff is used for running cornices and 
 mouldings. 
 
 Enrichments, such as pateras^ centre flowers for 
 ceilings, fec.^ are first modelled in clay, and afterwards 
 cast of plaster of paris in wax or plaster moulds. 
 
 Papier mache ornaments also are much used, and 
 have the advantage of being very light, and being 
 easily and securely fixed with screws. 
 
 The variety of composition and cements made use of 
 by the plasterer is very great. Roman cement, Portland 
 cement, and lias cement, are the principal ones used 
 for coating buildings externally. Martin and Keene^s 
 cements are well adapted for all internal plastering 
 where sharpness, hardness, and delicate finish are 
 required. 
 
50 
 
 ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 Operations for Plastering. 
 
 When brickwork is plastered, the first coat is called 
 rendering. 
 
 In plastering ceilings and partitions, the first opera- 
 tion is lathing. This is done with single^ one-and-a-half, 
 or double laths, these names denoting their respective 
 thicknesses. Laths are either of oak or fir; if of the 
 former, wrought-iron nails are used, but cast-iron nails 
 may be employed with the latter. The thickest laths 
 are used for ceilings, as the strain on the laths is 
 greater in a horizontal than in an upright position. 
 
 Pricking-up is the first coat of plastering of coarse 
 stuff upon laths ; when completed, it is well scratched 
 over with the end of a lath, to form a key for the next 
 coat. 
 
 Laid work consists of a simple coat of coarse stufi^" 
 over a wall or ceiling. 
 
 Tivo-coat work is only roughed over with a broom, 
 and afterwards set with fine stuff, or with gauged stuff 
 in the better description of work. 
 
 The laying on of the second coat of plastering is 
 called floating, from its being floated or brought to a 
 plain surface with the float. 
 
 The operation of floating is performed by surrounding 
 the surface to be floated with narrow strips of plastering, 
 called screeds, brought perfectly upright, or level, as 
 the case may be, with the level or plumb rule ; thus, in 
 preparing for floating a ceiling, nails are driven in at 
 the angles, and along the sides, about ten feet apart. 
 
PLASTERING. 
 
 51 
 
 and carefully adjusted to a horizontal plane, by means 
 of the level. Other nails are then adjusted opposite 
 to the first, at a distance of seven or eight inches 
 from them. The space between each pair of nails is 
 filled up with coarse stuff, and floated perfectly true 
 with a floating rule ; this operation forms a screed, 
 perfectly level throughout. Other screeds are then 
 formed, to divide the work into bays about eight feet 
 wide, which are successively filled up flush, and floated 
 level with the screeds. 
 
 The screeds for floating walls are formed in exactly 
 the same manner, except that they are adjusted with 
 the plumb rule instead of the level. After the work 
 has been brought to an even surface with the floating 
 rule, it is gone over with the hand-float and a little 
 soft stuff*, to make good any deflciencies that may 
 appear. The operation of forming screeds and floating 
 work, which is not either vertical or horizontal, as a 
 plaster floor laid with a fall, is analogous to that of 
 taking the face of a stone out of winding, with chisel, 
 drafts, and straight edges in stone-cutting, the prin- 
 ciple being in each case to find three points in the 
 same plane, from which to extend operations over the 
 whole surface. 
 
 Setting, 
 
 When the floating is about half dry, the setting or 
 finishing coat of fine stuff is laid on with the smoothing 
 trowel, which is alternately whetted wdth a brush, and 
 worked over with the smoothing tools, until a fine 
 surface is obtained. 
 
 D 2 
 
52 ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 Stucco is laid on with the largest trowel and worked 
 over with the hand-float, the work being alternately 
 sprinkled with water and floated until it becomes hard 
 and compact, after which it is finished by rubbing it 
 over with a dry stock brush. The water has the efi'ect 
 of hardening the face of the stucco, so that after re- 
 peated sprinklings and trowelling, it becomes very hard, 
 and smooth as glass. 
 
 The above remarks may be briefly summed up as 
 follows. The commonest kind of work consists of only 
 one coat, and is called rendering, on brickwork, and 
 laying, if on laths. If a second coat be added, it be- 
 comes two-coat work, as render set, or lath lay and set. 
 Where the work is floated it becomes three-coat work, 
 and is render float and set for ceilings and partitions, 
 ceilings being set with fine with a little white hair, 
 and walls intended for paper with fine stuff" and sand : 
 stucco is used where the work is to be painted. 
 
 Rough stucco is a mode of finishing staircases, pas- 
 sages,' &c., in imitation of stone. It is mixed with a 
 large proportion of sand, to give the appearance of 
 stone. 
 
 Rough-cast is a mode of finishing outside work, by 
 dashing over the second coat of plastering, whilst quite 
 wet, a layer of rough cast, composed of well-washed 
 gravel mixed up with pure lime and water till the 
 whole is in a semi-fluid state. 
 
 Pugging is lining the spaces between floor joists with 
 coarse stuff', to prevent the passage of sound, or between 
 two stones, and is done on laths or rough boarding. 
 
PLASTERING. 
 
 53 
 
 In the midland districts of England reeds are much, 
 used instead of laths^ not only for ceilings and parti- 
 tions, but for floors, which are formed with a thick 
 layer of coarse gauged stuff upon reeds. Floors of 
 this kind are extensively used about Nottingham, and, 
 from security against fire afforded by the absence of 
 wooden floors, Nottingham homes are proverbially fire- 
 proof. 
 
 Plasterer^s work is measured by the superficial yard 
 cornices by the superficial foot, enrichments to cornices 
 by the lineal foot, and centre flowers and other decora- 
 tions at per piece. 
 
 Memoranda. 
 
 The wages of a journeyman plasterer are from 4^. 6c?. 
 to 5^. &d. per day; those engaged on modelling and 
 ornamental work will earn much more. A labourer 
 receives from 2^. Qd, to 3s. per day ; and a plasterer^s 
 boy about 1,9. 
 
 Lathing. — One bundle of laths and 384 nails will 
 cover 5 yards superficial measure. 
 
 Rendering, — 187^ yards require \\ hundred of lime, 
 2 double loads of sand, and 5 bushels of hair. 
 
 Floating requires more labour, but only half as much 
 material as rendering. 
 
 Setting, — 375 superficial yards require \\ hundred of 
 lime and 5 bushels of hair. 
 
 Render Set. — 100 yards superficial require IJ cwt. of 
 lime, 1 double load of sand, and 4 bushels of hair. 
 Plasterer J labourer, and boy, 3 days each. 
 
51 
 
 ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 Lath Lay and Set, — 130 yards superficial of lath 
 lay and set require 1 load of laths, 10,000 nails, 2| 
 cwt. of lime, 1| double load of sand, and 7 bushels of 
 hair. Plasterer, labourer, and boy, 6 days each. 
 
 Twenty per cent, profit is allowed upon all materials. 
 
 JOINER. 
 
 The work of the joiner consists in framing and join- 
 ing together the wooden finishings and decorations of 
 buildings, both internal and external ; such as floors, 
 staircases, framed partitions, skirtings^ solid door and 
 window frames, hollow or cased window frames, sashes 
 and shutters, doors, columns and entablatures, chim- 
 ney-pieces, &c. 
 
 The joiner's work requires much greater accuracy 
 and finish than that of the carpenter, and differs mate- 
 rially from it in being brought to a smooth surface 
 with the plane wherever exposed to view, whilst with the 
 carpenter's work the timber is left rough as it comes 
 from' the saw. 
 
 The joiner uses a great variety of tools : the principal 
 cutting tools are saws, planes, and chisels. 
 
 Of saws there are a great variety, distinguished from 
 each by their shape and by the size of their teeth. The 
 ripper has 8 teeth in 3 inches ; the half ripper 3 teeth 
 to the inch; the hand -saw, 15 teeth in 4 inches; the 
 panel-saw, 6 teeth to the inch. The tenon-saw, used 
 for cutting tenons, has about 8 teeth to the inch, and 
 is strengthened at the back by a thick piece of iron to 
 keep the blade from buckUng. The sash-saw is similar 
 
JOINERY. 
 
 55 
 
 to the tenon-saw, but is backed with brass instead of 
 iron, and has 13 teeth to the inch; the dovetail-saw is 
 still smaller, and has 15 teeth to the inch. Besides the 
 above named, other saws are used for particular pur- 
 poses — as the C077ipass-saiv for cutting circular work, 
 and the Iceyhole-saio for cutting small holes. The car- 
 case-saiu is a large kind of dovetail-saiu, having about 
 11 teeth to an inch. 
 
 Planes are also of many kinds : those called bench 
 planes — as the jack-plane ^ the trying-plane, the long 
 plane, the jointer, and the smoothing -plane — are used 
 for bringing the stuff to a plane surface. The jack- 
 plane is about 18 inches long, and is used for the 
 roughest work. The trying-plane is about -22 inches 
 long, and used after the jack-plane for trying-up — that 
 is, taking off shavings the whole length of the stuff. 
 Whilst using the jack-plane, the workman stops at 
 every arm^s length. The long plane is about 2 feet 
 3 inches long, and used when a piece of stuff is to 
 be tried-up very straight. The jointer is about 2 feet 
 6 inches long, and is used for trying-up or shooting the 
 joints, in the same way as the trying-plane is used for 
 trying up the face of the stuff. The smoothhip -plane 
 is small, being only about 7 J inches long, and is used 
 on almost all occasions for cleaning or smoothing-off 
 finished Avork. Rebate-planes are used for sinking 
 rebates, and vary in their size and shape according to 
 their respective uses. Rebate-planes differ from bench- 
 planes in having no handle rising out of the stock, and 
 in discharging their shavings at the side. Amongst the 
 
56 
 
 ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 rebate-planes may be mentioned the moving fillister 
 and the sash fillister ^ the uses of which will be better 
 understood from inspection than description. Moulding- 
 planes are used for sticking mouldings^ as the operation 
 of forming mouldings with the plane is called. When 
 mouldings are worked with chisels instead of with 
 planes^ they are said to be worked by hand. Of the 
 class of moulding-planes, although kept separate in the 
 tool chest, are hollow and rounds, beads, &c., of various 
 sizes. 
 
 There are other kinds of planes besides the above- 
 named, as the plough, for sinking a groove to receive a 
 projecting tongue; the bead, for sticking beads; the 
 snipers-bill, for forming and cleaning out quirks ; the com- 
 plasS'pane and the f or kstaff -plane, for forming concave 
 and convex cylindrical surfaces. The shape and use of 
 these and many other tools used by the joiner will be 
 better understood by inspection than description. 
 
 Chisels are also varied in their form and use : some 
 are used merely with the pressure of the hand, as the 
 paring chisel; others by the aid of a mallet, as the 
 socket chisel [so named from the iron at the top forming 
 a socket to receive an iron handle), for cutting away 
 superfluous stuff ; and the mortice chisel, for cutting 
 mortices : the gouges are curved chisels. 
 
 The joiners use a great variety of boring tools, as the 
 brad-aivl, gimlet, and stock and bit. The last form but 
 one tool, the stock being the handle, to the hollow of 
 which may be fitted a variety of steel bits of diflPerent 
 bores and shapes, for boring and widening out holes in 
 
JOINERY. 
 
 57 
 
 wood and metal^ as countersinks^ rimers, and taper 
 shell-bits. 
 
 The screw-driver, pincers, hammer, mallet, hatchet, and 
 adze are too well known to require description. 
 
 The gauge is used for drawing lines on a piece of stuff 
 parallel to its edges. 
 
 The bench is one of the most important of the joiner'^s 
 implements. It is furnished with a vertical sideboard, 
 perforated with diagonal ranges of holes, which receive 
 the bench-pin, on which to rest the lower end of a piece 
 of stuff to be planed, whilst the upper end is firmly- 
 clamped by the bench-screw. 
 
 The mitre-box is used for cutting a piece of stuff to a 
 mitre, or an angle of forty-five degrees, with one of its 
 sides. 
 
 The joiner uses for setting out and fixing his work, 
 the straight edge, the square, the level or square with a 
 shifting blade, the mitre square, the level, and plumb 
 rule. 
 
 In addition to the tools and implements above 
 enumerated, the execution of particular kinds of work 
 requires other articles, as cylinders, templets, cramps, 
 &c., the description of which would unnecessarily extend 
 the limits of our present object. 
 
 The principal operations of the joiner are sawing, 
 planing, dovetailing, morticing, and scribing. 
 
 The manner of forming a dovetail is by projecting a 
 part, called the tenon, gradually tapering from the outer 
 edge to the inner, and a corresponding hole made to 
 receive it, which is called a socket. 
 
 D 3 
 
58 
 
 ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 Morticing is executed by forming a hole in a piece of 
 timber to receive the end of another piece, called the 
 tenon. The tenon is sometimes pinned in its place 
 with oak pins driven through the cheeks of the mortice. 
 But in forming doors, shutters, &c., the tenon is secured 
 with tapering wedges driven into the mortice, which is 
 cut slightly wider at the top than the bottom, the 
 adhesion of the glue with which the tenon and wedges 
 are first rubbed over, making it impossible for the tenqn 
 afterwards to draw out of its place. 
 
 Joints in the length of the stuff may be either 
 square, rebated, or grooved and tongued, which is 
 executed by a groove made with a plough and iron on 
 each edge of the two pieces of stuff, and then a slip of 
 wood, which is called the tongue, being inserted before 
 the joint is glued up. 
 
 Scribing is the drawing on of a piece of stuff the 
 exact profile of some irregular surface to which it is to 
 be made to fit ; this is done with a pair of compasses, 
 one leg of which is made to traverse the irregular surface, 
 the other to describe a line parallel thereto along the 
 edge of the stuff to be cut. 
 
 In the execution of circular loork, or as it is 
 frequently termed siveep work, there are four different 
 methods by which the stuff can be brought to the re- 
 quired curve : — 
 
 Firstly. It may be stamped and bent into shape. 
 
 Secondly. It may be glued up in thicknesses which 
 must, when thoroughly dry, be planed true, and, if not 
 to be painted, covered with a thin veneer, bent round. 
 
JOINERY. 
 
 59 
 
 Thirdly. It may be formed in tliiu thicknesses 
 bent round and glued up on a mould. This may 
 be considered the most perfect of all the methods 
 in use. 
 
 Lastly. It may be formed by sawing a number of 
 notches on one side, by which means it becomes easily 
 bent in that direction, but the curve produced by this 
 means is very irregular^ and it is an inferior mode of 
 execution compared to others. 
 
 When a number of boards are secured together by 
 cross pieces or ledges nailed or screwed at the back, the 
 work is said to be lodged ; lodged work is for common 
 purposes, as cellar-doors, outside shutters, &c. 
 
 Framed work consists of styles and rails morticed 
 and tenoned together, and filled in with panels, the 
 edges of which fit in grooves cut for the purpose in the 
 styles and rails, 
 
 . Work is said to be clamped when it is prevented 
 from warping or splitting by a rail at each end. If the 
 ends of the rail are cut off it is said to be mitre-clamped. 
 
 There are several ways of laying floors practised by 
 joiners. In laying what is called a straight-joint floor, 
 from the joints between the boards running in an un- 
 broken line from wall to wall, each board is laid down 
 and nailed in succession, being first forced firmly 
 against the one last laid with a flooring cramp. 
 
 Folding floors are laid by nailing down first every 
 fifth board, rather closer together than the united 
 widths of four boards, and forcing the intermediate 
 ones into the space left for them by jumping on them. 
 
60 
 
 ERECTION OF DAVELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 This method of laying floors is resorted to when the 
 stuff is imperfectly seasoned and is expected to shrink^ 
 but it should never be executed in good work. 
 
 The narrower the stuff with which a floor is laid the 
 less will the joints open^ on account of the shrinkage 
 being distributed over a greater number of joints. 
 
 The floor boards may be nailed at their edges^ and 
 grooved and tongued or dowelled, if it is desirous to 
 make a very perfect floor. Dowelling is superior to 
 grooving and tonguiug^ because the cutting away the 
 stuff to receive the tongue^ greatly weakens the edges 
 of the joint^ which are apt to curl. 
 
 Glue is an article of great importance to the joiner, 
 the strength of his work depending much upon its ad- 
 hesive properties. 
 
 The best glue is made from the skin of animals, that 
 from the sinewy or horny parts being of inferior 
 quality. The strength of the glue increases with the 
 age of the animals from which the skins are taken. 
 
 Joiner^s work is measured by the superficial foot, 
 according to its description. Floors by the square of 
 100 feet superficial. Hand-rails, small mouldings, 
 Avater-trunks, and similar articles, per lineal foot. 
 Cantilevers, trusses, cut-brackets, scrolls to handrails, 
 &c., are valued per piece. 
 
 The wages of a joiner are from 5^. to 6^. per 
 day. 
 
 The following memoranda relative to joiner^s work 
 may be found useful : — 
 
JOINERY. 
 
 61 
 
 One Square of Flooring ivill take — ■ 
 
 94. 
 
 10-feet boards at . 
 
 
 
 
 5 J 
 
 5) 
 
 at . 
 
 - in on f 1 iff. A 
 
 
 1 7 
 
 >) 
 
 ) > 
 
 at . 
 
 '7-inpTi fli+.f.A— 
 
 XV/ JLII* YV CVJJ. uCV-i • 
 
 i-O 
 
 5 J 
 
 >> 
 
 at . 
 
 
 
 13 
 
 >) 
 
 >) 
 
 at . 
 
 9-incli ditto — 
 
 -2 ft. 6 in. wanted. 
 
 12 
 
 >) 
 
 5) 
 
 at . 
 
 . 10- inch ditto. 
 
 
 20 
 
 12 -feet boards at . 
 
 . 5 -inch gauge. 
 
 
 14 
 
 
 3 J 
 
 at . 
 
 6 -inch ditto— 
 
 -4 ft. wanted. 
 
 12 
 
 •> 
 
 >> 
 
 at . 
 
 7 -inch ditto— 
 
 -2 ft. wanted. 
 
 12 
 
 )> 
 
 J> 
 
 at . 
 
 . 8 -inch ditto— 
 
 -4 ft. wanted. 
 
 12 
 
 >» 
 
 >» 
 
 at . 
 
 . 9 -inch ditto— 
 
 -1 ft. wanted. 
 
 10 
 
 > ) 
 
 )) 
 
 at . 
 
 . 10-inch ditto. 
 
 
 N.B. One square of flooring will take 200 nails. To 
 make them tough they should be heated in a fire-shovel 
 or the like, with a bit of tallow or grease in them. 
 
 120 twelve feet deals make one hundred ; and the 
 readiest way of calculating the price of a single one^ is 
 to consider every pound per hundred as two-pence per 
 deal : thus if deals are 40/. per hundred, they are 40 
 times two-pence each, or 80 pence, which is 6^. 8cf. for 
 each deal; or if 36Z. 10^. per hundred they would be 
 36i times two-pence each, double of which, for pence, 
 would be 73, or 6^. \d. each deal, and in the same way 
 for any other given price. 
 
 TABLE 
 
 Of the Relative WeirjJu of Timher, 
 24 cubic feet of mahogany . weigh 1 ton. 
 
 39 
 
 of oak 
 
 >> 
 
 J) 
 
 45 
 
 of ash . . 
 
 >) 
 
 > J 
 
 60 
 
 ,, of elm 
 
 )> 
 
 J ) 
 
 65 
 
 of fir . . . 
 
 )) 
 
 ? ) 
 
 50 
 
 of fir timber . 
 
 >> 
 
 1 load. 
 
62 
 
 ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 120 12-feet 3-incli deals . . equal 5f loads of timber. 
 400 superficial feet l^-incli deals v/eigh 1 load. 
 
 Planks are reckoned to 11 inches wide. 
 
 Deals ,, n 9 
 
 Battens 7 
 
 A reduced deal is in. thick, 11 in. wide, and 12 
 feet long. 
 
 A square of flooring laid rough requires 12^ floor- 
 board. Ditto, edges shot, 12 J. Ditto wrought and 
 laid folding, 13. Laid straight joint, 13 J. 
 
 Wrought and laid straight joint, and ploughed and 
 tongued, 14. If laid with 12 feet battens, wrought and 
 laid folding, 17, and with straight joint, 18. 
 
 Sawing, 
 
 The sawer is to the carpenter and joiner what the 
 stone-cutter is to the mason. 
 
 The pit saw is a large two-handed saw fixed in a 
 frame, and moved up and down in a vertical direction 
 by two men called the top -man and the pit-man, the 
 first of whom stands on the timber that is to be cut, 
 the other at the bottom of the saw-pit. The timber is 
 lined out with a chalk line on its upper surface, and the 
 accuracy of the work depends mainly on the top-man 
 keeping the saw to the line, whence the proverbial ex- 
 pression top-saivyer, meaning one who directs any 
 undertaking. 
 
 In sawing of deals and battens into thicknesses for 
 the joiner^s use, the parallelism of the cut is of the 
 utmost importance, as the operation of taking out of 
 
SAWING^ IRONMONGERY. 
 
 63 
 
 winding a piece of uneven stuff, causes a considerable 
 waste of material, and much loss of time. 
 
 Circular-saws, moved by steam-power, are now much 
 used in large establishments, timber-yards, &c., and 
 effect a considerable saving of labour over the use of 
 the pit-saw, where the timbers to be cut are not too 
 heavy to be easily handled. 
 
 The saw is mounted in the middle of a stout bench 
 furnished with guides, by means of which the stuff to 
 be cut is kept in the required direction, whilst it is 
 pushed against the saw, which is the whole manual 
 labour required in the operation. 
 
 IKONMONaERY 
 
 Is charged for, generally, with the work to which it 
 is attached ; the joiner being allowed 20 per cent, profit 
 upon the prime cost. 
 
 The principal articles of ironmongery used in a 
 building, consist of nails^ screivs^ sash-pulleys, bolts, 
 hinges, locks, latches, and sash and shutter -furniture, 
 besides a great variety of miscellaneous articles which 
 we have not space to enumerate. 
 
 Of the different kinds of hinges may be mentioned 
 hook-and-eye hinges for gates, coach-house doors, &c. ; 
 butts and back-flaps for doors and shutters; cross 
 garnets, -which are used for hanging lodged doors and 
 other inferior work ; H and H hinges, whose name is 
 derived from, their shape ; and parliament hinges. 
 
 Besides these, are used rising-butts for hanging doors 
 to rise over a carpet or other impediment, projecting- 
 
64 
 
 ERECTION OF DWELLIXG-HOUSES. 
 
 buttSy used when some projection has to be cleared^ 
 and spring-hinges and swing centres for self-shutting 
 doors. 
 
 The variety of locks now manufactured is almost 
 infinite. We may mention the stock-lock, cased in 
 wood for common work^ and rim-Jocks, which have a 
 metal case or rim_, and are attached to one side of a 
 door ; they should not be used when a door has suffi- 
 cient thickness to allow of a mortice-lock^ as they often 
 catch the dresses of persons passing through the door- 
 w^ay. Mortice-locks, as the name implies^ are those 
 which are morticed into the thickness of the door. 
 
 The handles and escutcheons are called the furniture 
 of a lock, and are made of a great variety of materials^ 
 as brasSj bronze, ebony, ivory, and glass, &c. 
 
 Of latches, there are the common thurab-latch, the 
 boiv-latch with brass knobs, the brass pulpit-latch, and 
 the mortice-latch. 
 
 There are also a great variety of other articles^ both 
 
 useful and ornamental, kept in stock and supplied by 
 
 the furnishing ironmonger. 
 
 GLAZIER. 
 
 The business of the glazier consists in cutting glass, 
 and fixing it into lead-work, luood-ioork, or wood 
 sashes. The former is the oldest method of glazing, 
 and is still used, not only for cottage windows and 
 inferior work, but for church windows and glazing with 
 stained glass, w^hich is cut into pieces of the required 
 size, and set in a leaden framework ; this kind of 
 glazing is called fretwork. Glazing in sashes is of 
 
GLAZING. 
 
 65 
 
 s comparatively modern introduction. The sash bars are 
 j formed with a rebate on the outside for the reception of 
 1 the glass, which is cut into the rebate, and firmly beaded 
 j and back-puttied to keep it in its place. Large squares 
 ! are also sprigged or secured with small brads driven 
 { into the sash bars. 
 
 Glazing in lead-work is fixed in leaden rows called 
 cameSy prepared for the use of the glazier by being 
 passed through a glazier^s vice, in which they receive 
 the grooves for the insertion of the glass. The sides 
 or cheeks of the grooves are sufficiently soft to allow 
 of their being turned down to admit the glass, and 
 again raised up and firmly pressed against it after its 
 insertion. For common lead-work, the bars are soldered 
 together so as to form squares or diamonds. In fret- 
 work, the bars, instead of being used straight, are bent 
 round to the shapes of the different pieces of glass 
 forming the device. Lead-work is strengthened by 
 being attached to saddle-bars of iron, by leaden 
 bars soldered to the lead-work and twisted round 
 the iron. 
 
 Putty is made of pounded whiting beaten up w^ith 
 linseed oil into a tough tenacious cement. 
 
 The principal tool of the glazier is the diamond, 
 which is used for cutting glass. This tool consists of 
 an unpolished diamond fixed in lead, and fastened to a 
 handle of hard wood. " • 
 
 The glazier uses a hacking-knife for cutting out old 
 putty from broken squares, and the stopping -knife for 
 laying and smoothing the putty w^hen stopping-in glass 
 
66 
 
 ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 into saslies. For setting glass into lead-work^ the 
 setting -knife is used. 
 
 Besides the above, the glazier requires a square and 
 straight edge, and a pair of compasses, for dividing the 
 tables of glass to the required sizes. Also, a hammer 
 for springing large squares, and brushes for cleaning off 
 the work. 
 
 The glazier^ s vice has already been mentioned. The 
 luter-kin is a pointed piece of hard wood, with which 
 grooves of the cames are cleared out and widened for 
 receiving the glass. 
 
 Cleaning windows is an important branch of the 
 glazier^s business in most large towns : the glazier 
 taking upon himself the cost of all glass broken in the 
 operation. 
 
 Glazier^s work is valued by the superficial foot, the 
 price increasing with the size of the square. Irregular 
 panes are taken of the extreme dimensions each 
 way. 
 
 Crown glass is bloivn in circular tables, from 3 feet 
 6 inches to 5 feet diameter, and is sold in crates, the 
 number of tables in a crate varying according to the 
 quality of the glass. 
 
 A crate contains 12 tables of best quality. 
 
 Ditto ditto 15 „ second ditto. 
 
 Ditto ditto 18 third ditto. 
 
 Plate gTass is cast in large plates on horizontal tables, 
 and afterwards polished. 
 
 The manufacture of sheet or spread glass, which was 
 formerly considered a very inferior article, has of late 
 
PAINTING. 
 
 67 
 
 years been mucli improved. Much is now sold, after 
 I being polished, under the name of patent plate. 
 
 PAINTER, PAPER-HANGER, AND DECORATOR. 
 
 The business of the house-painter consists in cover- 
 ing with a preparation of white lead and oil, such por- 
 tions of the joiner^s, smithes, and plasterer^s work as 
 require to be protected from the action of the atmo- 
 sphere. Decorative painting is a higher branch, re- 
 quiring a knowledge of the harmony of colours, and 
 more or less of artistic skill, according to the nature 
 of the work to be executed. 
 
 The introduction of fresco painting into this country, 
 as a mode of internal decoration, has led to the employ- 
 ment of some of the first artists of the day in the 
 embellishment of the mansions of the nobility, and the 
 example thus set will no doubt be extensively followed. 
 
 The principal materials used by the painter are — 
 wJdte lead^ which forms the basis of all the colours used 
 in house-painting ; linseed oil and spirits of turpentine, 
 used for mixing and diluting the colours ; and dryers^ 
 as litharge, sugar of lead, and white vitriol, which are 
 mixed with the colours to facilitate their drying. 
 Putty, made of whiting and linseed oil, is used for 
 stopping or filling up nail holes and other vacuities, in 
 order to bring the work to a smooth face. 
 
 The painter^s tools are few and simple : they con- 
 sist of the grinding 'Stone and muller, for grinding 
 colours ; earthen pots, to hold colours ; cans for oil and 
 turps; pallet knife, and brushes of various sizes and 
 
68 
 
 ERECTION OF D^VELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 descriptions. In painting wood, tlie first operation 
 consists in killing the knots, from wliich the turpentine 
 would otherwise exude and spoil the work. To effect 
 this, the knots are covered with fresh slaked lime, 
 which dries up and burns out the turpentine ; when 
 this has been on twenty-four hours, it is scraped off, 
 and the knots painted over with a mixture of red and 
 white lead mixed with glue size. After this, they are 
 gone over a second time with red and white lead 
 mixed with linseed oil ; when dry, they must be 
 rubbed perfectly smooth wdth pumice stone, and the 
 work is then ready to receive the priming coat. 
 
 This is composed of red and white lead, Aveli diluted 
 with linseed oil. 
 
 The nail holes and other imperfections are then 
 stopped with putty, and the succeeding coats are then 
 laid on, the work being rubbed down between each coat 
 with pumice stone, to bring it to an even surface. The 
 first after the priming is mixed with linseed oil and a 
 little turpentine. The second coat with equal quantities 
 of linseed oil and turpentine. 
 
 In laying on the second coat where the work is not 
 to be finished white, an approach must be made to the 
 required colour. The third coat is usually the last, and 
 is made with a base of white lead, mixed with the 
 requisite colours, and diluted with one-third of linseed 
 oil to two-thirds of turpentine. 
 
 Painting on stucco, and all other work in which the 
 surface is required to be without gloss, has an addi- 
 tional coat mixed with turpentine only, which from its 
 
PAINTING. 
 
 69 
 
 drying of one uniform flat tint is called a flatting 
 coat. 
 
 If the knots show through a second coat tli^y must 
 be carefully covered with silver leaf. 
 . Work finished as above described would be techni- 
 cally specified as knotted^ primed^ painted three oils, 
 and flatted. 
 
 Flatting is almost indispensable in all delicate interior 
 work, but it is not suited to outside work, as it will not 
 bear exposure to the weather. 
 
 Painting on stucco is primed with boiled linseed oil, 
 and then should receive at least three coats of white 
 lead and oil, and be finished in a flat tint. 
 
 The great secret of success in painting stucco is, 
 that the surface should be perfectly dry, and as this 
 can hardly be the case in less than two years after the 
 erection of a building, it will always be desirable to 
 finish new work in distemper, which can be washed off* 
 whenever the walls are suflriciently dry to receive the 
 permanent decorations. 
 
 Graining is the imitation of the grain of various 
 kinds of wood, by means of graining tools, and, when 
 well executed and properly varnished, has a handsome 
 appearance, and lasts many years. The term graining 
 is also applied to the imitation of marble. 
 
 Clear coling is a substitution of size for oil, in the 
 preparation of the priming coat. It is much resorted 
 to by painters on account of the ease with which 
 a good face can be put on the work with fewer coats 
 than when oil is used, but it will not stand damp, 
 
70 
 
 ERECTION Ol' DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 which causes it to scale off; and it should never be used 
 except in painting old work, which is greasy or smoky, 
 and cannot be made to look well by any other means. 
 
 Distempering is a kind of painting in which whiting 
 is used as the basis of the colours, the liquid medium- 
 being size; it is much used for ceilings and walls, and 
 will require two, and sometimes three coats, to give it 
 a uniform appearance. 
 
 Painter^s work is valued per superficial yard, according 
 to the number of coats, and the description of work, as 
 common colours, fancy colours, party colours, &c. 
 
 Where work is cut on both edges, it is taken by the 
 lineal foot. In measuring railings, the two sides are 
 measured as flat work. 
 
 Sash panes are valued per piece, and sashes per 
 dozen squares. 
 
 The manufacture of scagliola, or imitation marble, is 
 a branch of the decorator^s business which is carried to 
 very great perfection. 
 
 Scagliola is made of plaster of paris and different 
 earthy colours, which are mixed in a trough in a moist 
 state, and blended together until the required effect is 
 produced, when the composition is taken from the 
 trough, laid on the plaster ground, and well worked 
 together with a wooden beater and a small gauging 
 trowel. When quite hard, it is smoothed, scraped, and 
 polished, until it assumes the appearance of marble. 
 
 Scagliola is valued at per foot superficial, according 
 to the description of marble imitated and the execution 
 of the work. 
 
PAINTING, PAPER-HANGING. 
 
 71 
 
 Gilding is executed with leaf-gold, whicli is furnislied 
 by the gold-beater in books of twenty-five leaves, each 
 leaf measuring 3^ by 3 inches. 
 
 The parts to be gilded are first prepared with a coat 
 of gold-size, which is made of Oxford ochre and fat oil. 
 
 The operations of the paper-hanger are so simple as 
 to require little description. There are as great a 
 variety of patterns as there are of prices, and the 
 expense of hanging them is generally regulated by the 
 value of the paper, as the most expensive papers require 
 more time and attention than the plainer sorts. 
 
 A piece of paper is twelve yards long, and is twenty 
 inches wide when hung, and covers six feet superficial, 
 hence the number of superficial feet that have to be 
 covered divided by sixty, will give the number of pieces 
 required for any description of work. 
 
72 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 GEOMETRY. 
 
 Haying in a cursory manner endeavoured to describe 
 the principal tools and materials used in the erection of 
 dwelling-houses, in which we have alluded to the neces- 
 sity of the young artisan giving some attention to 
 lineal drawing, we are now desirous of conveying our 
 opinion [founded upon many years^ experience, both 
 theoretically and pract ically ,) of its utility and import- 
 ance j and in doing so, we may not probably assume 
 too much, by stating that not any mechanic in the 
 building department, or in fact in any other, can ever 
 be efficient in his business unless he fully comprehends 
 the application of scales and the elementary principles 
 of geometry. 
 
 Until late years there was not that attention paid to 
 this art its general application and usefulness demanded, 
 it being considered more an acquisition for the mathe- 
 matician, artist, or amateur, than the mechanician, but 
 the progress that has been made within the last half 
 century in every branch of mechanical art has caused 
 such praiseworthy and meritorious emulation to excel, 
 and the inability to do so without an elementary know- 
 ledge of theoretical information combined with prac- 
 tical experience, not only stimulated the artisans and 
 
GEOMETRICAL DRAWING. 
 
 78 
 
 students who possessed sucli laudable ambition to apply 
 themselves for the required information^ but also the 
 Government^ under whose auspices there is now a 
 number of schools opened, at merely a nominal expense , 
 for the instruction of this important auxiliary to the 
 various branchical arts of design and ornamentation. 
 
 That geometrical drawing to the young mechanic 
 may at first be considered a dry and useless study is 
 admitted, but he must recollect that no one ever rose to 
 eminence in any of the arts or sciences without per- 
 severance and intense application, and although the 
 study here particularly alluded to may be considered 
 dry and disinteresting at first, it will be rewarded by 
 the pleasure and confidence it gives to its possessor 
 hereafter. 
 
 It is a well-known fact that without a knowledge of 
 scales and their application, and an elementary ac- 
 quaintance with the principles of geometry, no one, 
 however well-informed on other subjects, can convey 
 the emanation of his mind for any practical mechanical 
 purpose. He certainly may be enabled in a cursory 
 manner to sketch out his ideas, but they cannot with any 
 certainty be carried into practical execution, without 
 they are geometrically delineated to a scale. Having 
 thus expressed our Adews upon the usefulness and appli- 
 cation of drawing, we will now endeavour to explain 
 the paper in general use for drawing, and the particular 
 use of such scale and mathematical instruments, as 
 are essential for him to possess in the practice of his 
 profession. 
 
 E 
 
74 DRAWING PAPER. 
 
 A Table of the Dimensions of Dra wing-Paper.* 
 
 Inches. Inches. 
 
 Demy 20 by 154 
 
 174 
 
 m 
 
 22 
 23 
 234 
 26 
 27 
 31 
 48 
 
 Medium ....... 22J 
 
 Royal 24 
 
 Super Royal 27^ 
 
 Imperial 30 
 
 Elephant 28 
 
 Columbier ....... 35 
 
 Atlas 34 
 
 Double Elephant 40 
 
 Antiquarian . . . . . . . 53 
 
 Emperor 68 
 
 HINTS ON THE MANAGEMENT OF DRAWING PAPER. 
 
 The first thing to be done preparatory to the com- 
 mencement of a drawing is the preparation of the 
 paper, that is^ the stretching it evenly upon a drawing- 
 board, the edges of the paper should first be cut 
 straight, and as near as possible at right angles with 
 each other. Also the sheet should be so much larger than 
 the intended drawing and its margin, as to admit of 
 beings afterwards cut from the board, leaving the border 
 by which it is attached thereto, by glue or paste, as we 
 shall next explain. The paper must be thoroughly and 
 equally damped with a sponge and clean water on the 
 opposite side from that on which the drawing is to be 
 made. When the paper absorbs the water, which may be 
 seen by the wetted side becoming dried, as its surface is 
 viewed slant-ways against the light, it is to be laid on 
 the drawing-board with the wetted side downwards 
 
 * It is assumed that the student is fully acquainted with the use of the 
 drawing-boards, T squares, set squares, and parallel rulers. 
 
DRAWING PAPER. 
 
 75 
 
 and placed so that the edges may be nearly parallel 
 with those of the boards otherwise in using a T square 
 an inconvenience may be experienced. This done, lay 
 a straight-edge on the paper with edge parallel to and 
 about half an inch from one of its edges. The straight- 
 edge or ruler must now be held firm while the said 
 projecting half-inch of paper is turned up along its 
 edges^ then a piece of glue, having it partially dissolved 
 by holding it over boiling water for a few seconds^ must 
 be passed once or twice along the turned up edge of 
 the paper; after which^ by sliding the ruler over the 
 glued border^ it will again be laid flat^ and the ruler or 
 straight-edge being pressed down upon it that edge of 
 the paper will adhere to the board. If sufiicient glue 
 has been applied the ruler may be removed directly, and 
 the edge finally rubbed down by an ivory book-knife, 
 or any clean polished substance at hand, which will 
 then firmly cement the paper to the board. This done, 
 another but adjoining edge of the paper must be acted 
 upon in a like manjtier, and then the remaining edges 
 in succession : we say the adjoining edges, because we 
 have occasionally observed that when the opposite and 
 parallel edges have been laid first, without continuing the 
 process progressively round the board, a greater degree 
 of care is required to prevent undulations in the paper 
 as it dries. 
 
 Sometimes strong paste is used instead of glue ; but 
 as this takes a longer time to set, it is usual to wet the 
 paper also on the upper surface to within an inch of 
 the paste mark, care being taken not to rule or injure 
 
 E 2 
 
76 
 
 DRAWING PAPER. 
 
 the surface in the process ; the wetting of the paper in 
 either case is done for the purpose of expanding it, and 
 the edges being fixed to the board in its enlarged state 
 acts as stretcher upon the paper while it contracts in 
 drying, which it should be allowed to do gradually. 
 All creases or undulations by this means disappear from 
 the surface of the paper, and it is a smooth plane to 
 receive the drawing. 
 
 In mounting paper upon canvas, the latter should be 
 well stretched upon a smooth flat surface being damped 
 for that purpose, and its edges glued down as was 
 recommended in stretching drawing paper, then with a 
 brush spread strong paste upon the canvas, beating it 
 in until the grain of the canvas be all filled up ; for 
 this, when dry, will prevent the canvas from shrinking 
 when subsequently removed. Then, having cut the 
 edges of the paper straight, paste one side of every 
 sheet and lay them upon the canvas, sheet by sheet, 
 overlapping each other a small quantity. If the drawing 
 is strong it is best to let every ^heet lie five or six 
 minutes after the paste is put on it, for as the paste 
 soaks in, "the paper will stretch and may be better 
 spread smooth upon the canvas, whereas, if it be laid 
 on before the paste has moistened the paper, it will 
 stretch afterwards and raise blisters when laid upon the 
 canvas. The paper should not be cut oflP from its ex- 
 tended position till thoroughly dry, which should not be 
 hastened, but left in a dry room to do so gradually if 
 time permit, if not, it may be exposed to the rays of 
 the sun, unless in the winter season, when the assistance 
 
PENCILS, 
 
 77 
 
 of a fire is necessary, provided it is not placed too near 
 a scorching heat. In joining two or more sheets of 
 paper together by overlapping, it is necessary, in order 
 to make a neat joint, to feather-edge each sheet, this is 
 done by carefully cutting with a knife half-way through 
 the paper near the edge and on the sides which are to 
 overlap each other, then strip off a feather edge or slip 
 from each, which, if done dexterously, will form a very 
 neat and efficient joint when put together. The fol- 
 lowing method of mounting and varnishing drawings 
 or prints may be considered useful. Stretch a piece 
 of linen on a frame, to which give a coat of isinglass 
 or common size, paste the back of the drawing or 
 print, which leave to soak and then lay it on the linen. 
 When dry give it at least four coats of well-made 
 isinglass size, allowing it to dry between each coat. Take 
 Canada balsam diluted with the best oil of turpentine, 
 and with a clean brush give it a full flowing coat. 
 
 Pencils. 
 
 In selecting black pencils for use, it may be remarked, 
 that they ought not to be very soft nor so hard that 
 their traces cannot be easily erased by the India rubber. 
 Great care should be taken in the pencilling, that an 
 accurate outline be drawn, the pencil marks should be 
 distinct, yet not heavy, and the use of the rubber 
 should be avoided as much as possible, for its frequent 
 application ruffles the surface of the paper and will 
 destroy the good effect of shading or colouring, if any 
 is afterwards to be applied. 
 
78 
 
 DRAWING INSTRUMENTS. 
 
 DRAWING INSTRUMENTS. 
 
 The Compasses, 
 
 The compasses or dividers are instruments so well 
 known ; tliat it would be superfluous to enter into an 
 accurate description of them^ or of the various uses to 
 which they may be applied. The best are constructed 
 with joints of two different metals^ as steel and brass, 
 whereby the wear is more equal, and the motion of the 
 legs uniform and steady, and not subject to sudden 
 jerks in opening or shutting; this motion will occasion- 
 ally require some adjustment to render it uniformly 
 smooth, and to move stiffer or easier at pleasure ; but 
 so that they may keep steadily any position that may 
 be given to them, the adjustment is performed by the 
 application of a turn-screw to this axis of the joint. 
 In the common compasses a simple screw forms the 
 axis upon which the legs move, and may be turned 
 with a screw driver of the ordinary construction ; but 
 in the best made instruments a steel pin passes through 
 the joints, having at one end a head of brass riveted 
 fast upon it, and on the other end a similar plate is 
 screwed, which is therefore a nut, on a diameter of 
 which is drilled two rensall holes for the application of 
 a lever of a particular description. 
 
 The points of a well-made instrument should be of 
 steel, so tempered as neither to be easily bent or 
 blunted; not too fine and tapering, and yet meeting 
 closely when the compasses are shut. As some of the 
 
COMPASSES, 79 
 
 numerous uses to which this instrument may be 
 applied^ the following may be mentioned : — To take 
 any extent or length between the points of the com- 
 passes^ and to set it off or to apply it successively upon 
 any line. To take any proposed line between the 
 points, and by applying it to the proper scale, to find 
 its length. To set off equal distances upon a given 
 line, to describe circles, intersecting arcs, &c. To 
 make an angle equal to any given angle ; to lay off an 
 angle of a given quantity upon an arc of circle from 
 the line of cords, &c. ; to construct any proposal in 
 plotting, or drawing plans, &c., &c. 
 
 The Hair Compasses. 
 
 This instrument is represented in the adjoining ^ 
 engraving, and is constructed in the same man- 
 ner as those above described. The only differ- 
 ence consists in a contrivance 5, whereby the 
 lower point or half one shank, can be moved a 
 very small quantity, either towards or from the 
 other point which is useful when a distance is 
 required to be taken with the utmost possible 
 exactness. This contrivance consists of a fine 
 spring and screw, by which, when the compasses 
 are opened nearly to the required extent by the 
 help of the screw 5, the points may be set to the I 
 greatest precision, which cannot be done so well 1 
 by the motion of the joints alone. 
 
so 
 
 COMPASSES. 
 
 Compasses with moveable points. 
 
 In the smaller and move portable cases of drawing 
 instruments^ it is customary to insert a larger sized pair 
 of compasses^ of which the point of half of one of the legs 
 is never moveable^ to admit of adapting singly a pen or 
 pencil^ or dotting points. The pen point is used for 
 drawing circles or arcs with ink^ and is constructed like 
 the drawing-pen which will be hereafter described ; the 
 pencil point is alike adapted to hold a piece of black lead 
 pencil or crayon for describing circles or arcs that are 
 not to be permanent^ and the dotting point consists of 
 two blades similar to those of the drawing pen, but 
 rounded at the points^ between which revolves a small 
 wheel with numerous points round its circumference 
 resembling the rowel of a spur. The space between 
 the blades being supplied with Indian ink^ and the 
 wheels rolled upon paper^ as the compasses describe a 
 circle or arc; each point as the wheel revolves will pass 
 through the ink and transfer it to the paper beneath, 
 making equi-distant dots in the circle which the com- 
 passes describe. 
 
 The moveable points have a joint in them just under 
 that part which locks into the shank of the compasses, 
 by which the part below the joint may be set perpen- 
 dicular to the plane on which the lines are described 
 when the compasses are open. An additional piece 
 called a lengthening bar is frequently applied to these 
 compasses, which by lengthening the moveable leg 
 
BOW COMPASSES. 
 
 81 
 
 enables them to strike larger circles^ or measure greater 
 extents than they otherwise would perform. When 
 this is applied^ the moveable 
 part has a joint similar to 
 those on the pen and pencil 
 points, and for a similar 
 purpose the annexed dia- 
 gram represents this instru- 
 ment and its appendages. 
 
 A. The compasses with 
 a moveable point at b ; 
 c and J), the joints to set 
 each point perpendicular 
 to the paper ; e the pencil 
 point ; F the pen point (this 
 is represented with a dot- 
 ting Avheel, the pen point, 
 and the dotting point are 
 similar in shape to each 
 other) ; o the lengthening 
 bar. 
 
 iQ 
 
 Bow Compasses. 
 
 These are a small pair having a point either for ink or 
 pencil. They are used to describe small arcs or circles, 
 which they do more conveniently than large compasses, 
 not only on account of the size, but also from the shape 
 of their head, which rolls easily between the fingers and 
 can be turned round as delicately as they require to be 
 moved for drawing very minute circles. 
 
 E 3 
 
82 
 
 BOW COMPASSES. 
 
 The adjoining figures represent the pencil bow as suited 
 for describing arcs of different radii. 
 r\ Fig. I. is a construction adapted for 
 
 corresponding with the joint a in Fig. I. The 
 spring of the two blades is then kept in obedience 
 by an adjusting screw by which the two points may 
 be set to any required degree of minuteness^ and very 
 small circles may be described with a precision that 
 could not be expected or scarcely attempted by the 
 construction of Fig. I. 
 
 The pen bows are represented in the annexed engrav- 
 ing; their construction is similar to the pencil bows 
 last described. In the pen point of Fig. I. there is a 
 second joint just below letter a, by which; when the 
 instrument is open for use, the pen may be set per- 
 
 describing arcs of a radius inter- 
 mediate between those described by 
 the above-named compasses^ and 
 those capable of being produced by 
 the bows represented by Fig. II. 
 
 In Fig. I. the pencil point and 
 the centre point f, can be opened a 
 considerable width by the joint a, 
 whilst in the other construction, 
 Fig. II., the corresponding points 
 E and G are limited in their opening, 
 the two blades carrying the points, 
 being formed out of one solid piece 
 
 of steel, and tempered so as to 
 form a spring at the upper part 
 
TUBULAR COMPASSES. 
 
 83 
 
 pendicular^ or nearly so^ to the paper^ which is essential 
 in the use of the drawing pen. This is a corresponding 
 contrivance with that before^ as appli- 
 cable to the compasses^ with moveable 
 points. In Fig. II. b shows the spring 
 blades carrying the points o and 
 and the adjusting screw, to set 
 these points to the required radius. 
 
 Tubular Compasses. 
 
 The engraving on the other side re- 
 presents this admirable instrument. It 
 may be used as an ordinary pair of com- 
 passes, either with two fine points, a pen 
 point, or a pencil point, and is capable 
 of describing circles to any extent of 
 radius from an eighth of an inch to 
 fourteen inches and a-half, and with the 
 advantage of reversing points which may be changed 
 from pen to pencil, &c., without deranging the setting 
 of the instrument when opened to any definite extent. 
 
 A and B are the two principal legs of the instrument, 
 consisting of tubes moveable about a very nicely con- 
 structed joint at c. Within these are two sliding tubes 
 E and D, which draw out their whole length, and are 
 accurately fitted to the principal tubes a and b, so that 
 they may be drawn out to their required extent with a 
 smooth and steady motion, not subject to sudden stop- 
 pages, or to move with equally sudden jerks, a proof of 
 bad workmanship, but uniformly, and not too easy. 
 
84i 
 
 COMPASSES. 
 
 To assist in this, their inner extremities are made to 
 
 act as springs within tubes, 
 wherein they slide, thus in- 
 creasing their friction. 
 
 The outward extremity of 
 each of the sliding tubes e and 
 D, terminates in a square 
 headed joint, a and h ; upon 
 these move the pieces c and 
 which carry the point limbs of 
 the compasses. The joints a 
 and h in this instrument cor- 
 respond with the joints c and d 
 of the compasses, with move- 
 able points as before described, 
 and are used for a similar 
 purpose, namely, to set the 
 point limbs perpendicular to 
 the paper, and consequently 
 parallel to each other, at what- 
 ever opening the legs of the 
 compasses may be extended to. 
 
 In our engraving, the two point limbs ^, A, and ^, 
 to the two carrying pieces which are jointed to the 
 tubes at a and 6, their pivots also give the means of 
 inserting the position of the points ; that is to say, the 
 limbs can be turned upon these pivots so as to make 
 the points e and or / and li change places. By this 
 simple and ingenious contrivance, the draftsman, after 
 having used the two fine points e and for fixing 
 
PORTABLE COMPASSES. 
 
 85 
 
 with precision the opening of the compass to his 
 required radius, may obtain a pencil point to describe 
 a corresponding arc or circle^ by simply turning the 
 pencil limbs h, f, round on its pivot d, which will 
 cause the point of a pencil or crayon placed in the 
 tube hy to change places with the fine point / of the 
 compasses^ and as the pivot is (or ought to be) at right 
 angles to a line connecting the points f, and of the 
 pencil at h, the latter will exactly take the place of 
 the former^ at the same extent or openings f. In 
 like manner^ by turning the pen limb e, g, round its 
 pivot Cy the pen point may be made to occupy the 
 position of the fine point or whatever the compasses 
 may have been set to in the first instance. The milled- 
 head screw, represented at ky is for the purpose of 
 fixing a pencil firmJy in its tube h; the screw i is 
 for adjusting the blades of the pen-point g, between 
 which the ink is inserted to any required degree of 
 fineness, so as to produce a corresponding fine or 
 coarse circular line. The joint by removing alto- 
 gether the screw gives the means of opening the 
 blades for the better cleansing them after use, and is 
 the same as applied to most drawing pens. 
 
 Portable or Turn-in Compasses. 
 
 This forms in itself a complete portable case of draw- 
 ing instruments, consisting of a large pair of compasses 
 with moveable points, which are also so contrived that 
 one forms in itself a small pencil bow and the other a 
 pen bow ; and when the whole instrument is put toge- 
 
86 
 
 PORTABLE COMPASSES. 
 
 ther and folded up (or the points turned in, from 
 whence is derived the name of turn-in compasses) they 
 occupy but a space three inches long, and may be car- 
 ried in the pocket without being an incumbrance. 
 The annexed engraving represents the instrument when 
 all its parts are together. The principal legs of the 
 
 instrument are f and o^ moveable, as usual, by a joint at 
 A. The lower joints, b and c, afford the means of set- 
 ting the front limbs, d and e, perpendicular to the 
 paper, as explained before when describing the last 
 instrument. Each of the point limbs may be removed 
 from the legs e and g, and by means of their joints b 
 and c form perfect instruments — the one a pen bow, 
 represented at h, and the other a pencil bow, shown 
 at J K. The points of these lesser instruments are all 
 
SCREW DIVIDERS. 
 
 87 
 
 adapted to slide into the principal legs^ f and of 
 the larger one, which are made hollow for their re- 
 ception. A section of the limb f is shown at to 
 convey to the reader a better idea of the arrangement. 
 
 It may easily be seen from the engraving, that by 
 reversing either of the points in the principal instru- 
 ment,, as may be, leaving the other fine or plain point, 
 E or D, to act as a centre. A sheath or case is some- 
 times applied to insert the instrument for carriage. 
 There are also various forms and arrangements of the 
 parts occasionally given to the instrument to suit the 
 fancies of individuals ; but the one we have described 
 above will give the reader a correct notion of the 
 general character of this class of instruments. 
 
 Large Screw Dividers. 
 
 ^ We have now to describe another class of compasses 
 such as are used for accurately dividing lines, &c., into 
 a definite number of equal parts, or for setting off 
 equal distances. The first of these is the large screw 
 divider represented in the adjoining figure ; a is the 
 centre, about which the legs a c and a b open or 
 shut ; B and c are joints by which the point limbs 
 may be set perpendicular as usual. The extent or 
 opening between the points is regulated by a screw 
 passing through a socket, f, and terminated at the 
 other extremity by a milled head, by which the screw 
 is turned round. Between this milled head and the 
 nearest point limb is fixed what is called a micrometer 
 head, decimally divided round its outer or cylindrical 
 
88 
 
 DTVIDERS. 
 
 edge. One turn of the screw carries the micrometer 
 head completely round ; therefore^ when part of a turn 
 only is given to the screw_, the divisions on the head 
 show what fraction of a turn has been given, and if it 
 be known what number of turns or threads of the 
 screw are equal to one inch, the points of these com- 
 passes may be thus set to aity small definite measure 
 of length with the utmost precision. The index or zero 
 for reading the fraction of a turn of the screw is 
 marked on the point limb below b : thus this instru- 
 ment may be considered as a beam compass of small 
 dimensions and minute accuracy. 
 
 Spring Dividers, 
 
 This instrument^ represented in the accompanying 
 diagram^ is particularly useful for repeating divisions 
 of a small but equal extent — a practice that has the 
 
COMPASSES. 
 
 89 
 
 name of stepping^ for which a small pair of hair 
 compasses would also be found useful when fj 
 the head is constructed as shown in the adjoin- 
 ing figure, or similar to that of the bow compass 
 before described, and for reasons before stated. 
 The upper part forming the handle is composed 
 of brass or silver, whilst the lower part from a 
 towards the points is made of one piece of steel 
 of a spring temper, whereby the two points are 
 always endeavouring to recede from each other, 
 or open by their elasticity, which is counter- 
 acted by the adjusting screw b, by which it may 
 be set to the required opening. This acts in the 
 same manner as the micrometer screw, described 
 as belonging to instruments before explained, 
 but with this difference — that it has not the 
 means of pointing out the measure of the material, 
 or extent between the fine points of the compasses, 
 which must therefore be taken from a suitable scale. 
 
 Wholes and Halves. 
 
 Having explained the general construction of the 
 most approved instruments of the smaller kind for 
 describing circles and dividing lines, we come now to 
 allude to those employed in copying and reducing 
 drawings. And first of the instrument represented in 
 the annexed engraving, which is the simplest form of 
 proportional compasses, and capable of reducing or en- 
 larging in one proportion only — namely, one-half, 
 from whence its name of wholes and halves is derived. 
 
90 
 
 COMPASSES. 
 
 The points a and e are one piece of metal : likewise 
 the points b and n are at the extre- 
 mities of another piece of metal, and 
 straight lines connecting these points pass 
 through the centre, c. The legs of the 
 instrument are connected together by a 
 joint of the usual form at c, placed one- 
 third of the whole length from one extre- 
 mity : consequently, whatever may be the 
 extent of the opening of the points a and b, 
 it will always be double the extent of the 
 opening of the other two points, n and e. 
 Therefore, if the whole length of any line 
 be taken between the opening of the two 
 |/ M former points, the interval between the two 
 
 j| I latter points will be exactly one-half the 
 
 [ B A . length of the same line ; consequently, this 
 
 instrument affords the readiest means of 
 dividing a line into two equal parts, or vice versa. Its 
 usefulness in dividing lines does not rest here ; for, if the 
 original line has to be di\ided into any number of parts 
 — 2, 4, 6, 8, &c., by constantly taking the half of the half 
 in the same manner as taking the half of the original 
 line in the first instance, the requisite number of sub- * 
 divisions may be obtained. 
 
 Proportional Compasses, 
 
 This instrument is a very useful and necessary ap- 
 pendage to a case of drawing instruments, and although 
 rather expensive in its original cost, it very soon repays 
 
PROPORTIONAL COMPASSES. 
 
 91 
 
 its owner in saving both time and trouble. The pro- 
 portional compasses consist of two equal and similarly- 
 formed parts or limbs, a e and b d [see the 
 accompanying engraving)^ which are repre- 
 sented as opening upon a centre and 
 forming a double pair of compasses or points, 
 A E D. When shut up, the two limbs ap- 
 pear as one, and a small stud fixed on one 
 fits into a notch made in the other, and re- 
 tains the instrument exactly in its closed 
 position, the two points also at each ex- 
 tremity then coincide and become as one 
 point. When thus closed the dove-tailed 
 slits shown in the engraving as made in each 
 limb, both equal and similar, also coincide 
 and appear as one slit, and in this position 
 only can the adjustment be made for any 
 required proportion ; that is to say, the 
 instrument must always be closed in order 
 to slide and fix the centre c in its proper 
 place, and the opening of the small points e d at the 
 other extremity. 
 
 The centre consists of pivot or steel pin which passes 
 through dove-tailed pieces of brass, nicely fitted to slide 
 in the before-named slits, and also through a circular 
 nut or collar on each face which answers the double 
 purpose of keeping the dove-tailed pieces of brass in 
 their slits, and also firmly clamping them together by 
 means of the milled head, c, when they are moved to 
 the position required for the centre to occupy ; on the 
 
92 
 
 PROPORTIONS. 
 
 dove-tailed pieces a line is drawn for the zero to set 
 the centre by^ which in our engraving is represented as 
 coinciding with the division on the limb marked 2^ and 
 nearly with the one marked 12. On the face of each 
 limb there are two sets of division, one denominated 
 lines, a second circles, a third planes, and the fourth 
 solids. When the zero of the centre on the dove- 
 tailed sliding-piece is set to the division marked 1, on 
 the line of lines, then the proportion between any 
 opening of the large points a b, will be two to one, or 
 twice as great as the opening of the smaller points d e, 
 and consequently any extent taken between the large 
 points may be accurately divided into two parts by the 
 smaller ones. Also when the zero is set to the division 
 marked 3, on the same lines, the proportion of any 
 opening will be three to one, or that of the smaller 
 points will be one-third of the extent of the larger 
 points, and the same of the remaining divisions on the 
 line which extend to ten of the line marked circles^' on 
 the opposite edge of the same face of the instrument ; 
 the divisions are numbered from 6 to 20, and the 
 index of zero being set to any number, the points will 
 open in the proportion of the radius of a circle to the 
 side of an inscribed polygon of that number of sides. 
 Thus if it be set to the division marked 8, and the 
 points A B are opened to the radius of any circle, the 
 opening of the smaller points n e, will divide the cir- 
 cumference into eight equal parts. 
 
 The other lines of divisions, namely, those marked 
 planes and ^^solids,^^ are on the other face of the instru- 
 
PROPORTIONS, 
 
 93 
 
 ment^ these are in fact lines of square aad cube roots. 
 The line of planes'^ or squares^ ^ shows the proportion 
 between the areas of similar plane figures. Thus, set 
 the zero to the division marked 3, and measure the side 
 of the square in the large points a the opening of 
 the short ones, n e, will then be equal to the side of a 
 square, which will be one-third the area of the other. 
 The same of triangles, circles, or any other regular 
 plane figure. 
 
 To find the square root of a given number, shut the 
 compasses and set the zero to the number given upon 
 the line of planes, open the instrument, and from any 
 scale of equal parts take the number between the larger 
 points A B, then apply the smaller points n e, to the 
 same scale, and the distance between them wdll be 
 equal to the square root of the distance between the 
 points of the larger legs a b. The mean proportional 
 between two given numbers is the square root of their 
 product, and may be found by the proportional com- 
 passes ; thus, required the mean proportional between 2 
 and 4^ : — Open the compasses with the zero or index set 
 against 9, the product of two given numbers, till the 
 distance between the larger is equal to 9, taken from 
 some scale of equal parts, then the distance between 
 the. smaller points will be equal to 3 of the same scale, 
 and is the mean proportional between 2 and 4|, for as 
 2 : 3 : : 3 : 41. 
 
 The line of " solids expresses the proportions 
 between cubes or spheres. Thus, set the zero to the 
 division marked 2 on the line of solids, then measure 
 
TRIANGULAR COMPASSES. 
 
 the diameter of any sphere^ or the side of a cube which 
 will have one half the solid content of the former. In 
 like manner by. setting zero to the divisions marked 
 3, 4, &c.; the interval between the larger and smaller 
 points of the instrument will show respectively the 
 diameters^ &c.; of spheres^ of which one shall have 
 three or four times the solid of the other. 
 
 Also the cube root of any number may be found by 
 setting zero upon the given number upon the line of 
 solids^ &c.; as described for obtaining square root by 
 means of the line of planes ; proportional compasses of 
 the best construction are sometimes made with a clamp 
 and tangent screw for setting the zero with the utmost 
 precision^ this however is seldom used, and the instru- 
 ment we have described is the kind in general requi- 
 sition. 
 
 Triangular Compasses, 
 
 The adjoining figure represents this instrument 
 as it appears when closed up for packing in its 
 case. That which appears in the engraving as one 
 limb, A, consists of a pair of compasses precisely of the 
 ordinary construction ; the single point limb b, has a 
 compass joint at a, by which its points may be opened 
 at right angles to the plane of the pair of compasses a, 
 when the three points will form a triangle. The com- 
 pass point at a is firmly attached to the centre of the 
 compasses a, which^ by means of a nut or screw b, may 
 be turned round without moving the limbs^ of which 
 it is the centre. The double motion thus given to 
 
TRIANGULAR COMPASSES. 
 
 95 
 
 the point limb b (both right angles to^ and parallel 
 to the plane of the compasses a)^ par- 
 take of the nature of an universal joint, 
 and enables the three points of the instru- 
 ment to be placed at the angular points of 
 any shaped triangle whatever, be it ever 
 so obtuse. AlsO; by the same means, 
 the three points may be brought into one 
 straight line. This instrument, it will be 
 obvious from the description, is chiefly 
 useful in transferring points from one paper 
 to another, and is very serviceable in copying 
 mechanical drawings. The two points of the 
 compasses a being set upon such points of 
 the drawing as are already copied ; the third 
 point, B, of the instrument may be moved 
 by its universal joint, a b, to rest upon any 
 other point, and then by similarly applying 
 the points of a to the corresponding points on the copy, 
 the new point of the original may be correctly trans- 
 ferred to it by means of the limb of the instrument b. 
 Another form of triangular compasses 
 is represented in the annexed engrav- 
 ing, a, 6, c, is a solid tripod, having 
 at the extremity of each arm a limb Cy 
 dj and e, moving freely upon centres 
 by which they may be placed in any 
 position with respect to the tripod and each other. 
 These limbs carry points at right angles to the plane 
 of the instrument, which may be brought to coincide 
 
96 
 
 BEAM COMPASSES. 
 
 with iiny three given points on the original drawing, 
 and then transferred to the copy as above described. 
 
 Seam Compasses, 
 
 The accompanying diagram represents this instru- 
 ment which consists of a beam a a^ of any length 
 required^ generally made of well- seasoned mahogany 
 upon its face ; is inlaid, throughout its whole length, 
 a slip of holly or box-wood a^ a, upon which are 
 engraved the divisions or scales, either feet and decimals, 
 or inches and decimals, or whatever particular scale 
 may be required ; those made for use of the persons 
 engaged on the ordnance survey of Ireland, were 
 divided to a scale of chains, 80 of which being equal 
 to six inches, which therefore represented one mile, 
 that being the scale to which the survey is being 
 plotted. Two brass boxes b, and c, are adapted to the 
 beam ; the latter may be moved by sliding to any part 
 of its length, and fixed in position by tightening the 
 clamp screw e. Connected with the brass boxes are 
 the two points of the instrument g and h, which may 
 have any extent of opening by sliding the box c along 
 the beam, and the other box b being firmly fixed at 
 
COMPASSES. 
 
 97 
 
 one extremity. The object to be attained in the use 
 of this instrument is the nice adjustment of the points 
 G and H to any distance apart ; this is accomplished 
 by two verniers or reading plates, b Cy each fixed at 
 the side of an opening in the brass boxes to which they 
 are attached, and afi'ord the means of minutely sub- 
 dividing the principal divisions a a on the beam which 
 appear through those openings ; n is a clamp screw for 
 a similar purpose as the screw e, namely, to fix the 
 box B and prevent motion in the point it carries 
 after adjustment to position; r is a slow-motion screw 
 by which the point o may be moved any very minute 
 quantity, for perfecting the setting of the instrument 
 after it has been otherwise set as nearly as possible by 
 the hand alone. 
 
 The method of setting the instrument for use may 
 be understood from the above description of its parts, 
 and also by the following explanation of the method of 
 examining and correcting the adjustment of the vernier 
 6, which, like all other mechanical adjustments, will 
 occasionally get deranged ; this verification must be done 
 by means of a detached scale. Thus, suppose for 
 example that our beam compass is divided into feet, 
 inches, and tenths, and sub-divided by the vernier to 
 hundredths, &c. First set the zero division of the 
 vernier to the zero of the principal divisions on the beam, 
 by means of the slow-motion screw r. This must be done 
 very accurately. Then slide the box c with its point 
 G, till the zero on the vernier c exactly coincides with 
 any principal division on the beam, as 12 inches or 6 
 
98 
 
 INSTRUMEMS. 
 
 inches^ &c.; which must also be done to a great nicety, 
 {in some superior kind of beam-compasses , the box c is 
 also furnished ivith a tangent or slow-motion screw, by 
 which the setting of the ])oints or the divisions may be 
 done with the utmost precision in the same manner as 
 the vernier h, by means of the screw f,) then apply the 
 points to a similar detached scale, and if the adjustment 
 is perfect the interval of the points g h will measure on 
 it the distance to which they were set on the beam. If 
 they do not by ever so small a quantity, it should be 
 corrected by turning the screw r till the joints exactly 
 measure that quantity on the detached scale ; then, by 
 loosening the little screws which confine the vernier b 
 in its place^ the position of the vernier may be gradually 
 changed till its zero coincides with the zero on the beam, 
 and then tightening the screws again the adjustment 
 will be complete. 
 
 Knife, File, Key, and Screw-driver, 
 
 The annexed engraving represents a very useful ap- 
 pendage to a case of drawing instruments^ its use will 
 
 be too apparent to need much description, a is the 
 knife blade, b the file, c the screw-driver, and d the 
 key, which is adapted to fit the heads of the compasses 
 for tightening or loosening them as may be required. 
 
INSTRUMENTS. 
 
 99 
 
 Drawing Pens, 
 
 These are made as represented in the accompanying 
 engraving. The left-hand figure shows 
 the form of the best kind, the handle is 
 of ivory, and the blades have a joint 
 whereby they may be opened for the 
 purpose of more efiPectually cleaning them 
 after use. The right-hand figure, which is 
 in two parts, shows an older form of con- 
 struction, the part a, to which is attached 
 a pricker or protracting pin, screws into 
 the part marked b, making the handle of 
 sufficient length to use convenieatly as a 
 drawing pen, thus combining two instru- 
 ments in one. 
 
 The milled head screw, which is repre- 
 sented as connecting the blades together, 
 is for the purpose of setting their points at any opening 
 to draw a line of an assigned thickness. In using the pen, 
 it should be slightly inclined in the direction of the line 
 to be drawn, taking care, however, that the edges of both 
 the blades touch the paper. These observations are 
 equally applicable to the pen point of the compasses 
 before described, observing, as before stated, that 
 whenever a circle or an arc of more than about an inch 
 radius is to be described, the point should be so bent 
 that the blades of the pen be nearly perpendicular to 
 the paper, and both of them touched at the same 
 time. 
 
 F 2 
 
100 
 
 INSTRUMENTS. 
 
 The Road Pen. 
 
 This instrument consists of two pens, a and so 
 arranged with a spring which gives them a 
 ^ tendency to separate from each other to the 
 extent of about half-an-inch, which tendency is 
 counteracted by a screw, c, whereby the pen- 
 points may be set to any required interval 
 within the above limits. The screws a and b 
 are for the purpose of setting the points of the 
 blade to draw lines of any assigned degree of 
 fineness, as before explained for the ordinary 
 drawing pen. The use of this instrument is to 
 draw two lines parallel and close to each other 
 at the same time, whereby perfect parallelism 
 may be secured. It is usually known by the 
 p name of the Road Pen, having been originally 
 designed to draw lines of roads upon maps, 
 both sides being drawn at the same time. Por 
 such purposes it is very convenient, as one side 
 or fence may be drawn wdth a stronger line than the 
 other, which is frequently done on general maps as a 
 distinguishing mark for principal or turnpike-roads, &c. 
 In like manner it is useful in drawing lines of canals, 
 where bounding lines are generally more nearly parallel 
 than on public roads ; besides which, it may be suc- 
 cessfully used in mechanical and architectural draw- 
 ings, where extremely close parallel lines are very 
 frequently required. 
 
INSTRUMENTS. 101 
 
 The Dotting Point. 
 
 The great expense of time in dotting by hand such 
 lines upon a drawing as may be essential to 
 be shown and not drawn in full^ may be obviated ^ 
 by the use of this instrument. It in all respects 
 resembles a drawing-pen^ except that the points 
 are not so sharp, and the back blade, as seen in 
 the engraving, is a pivot on which may be placed 
 a dotting-wheel, a, resembling the rowel of a 
 spur ; the screw, b, is for opening the blades to 
 remove the wheel for cleaning after use, or re- 
 placing it with one of another character of dot. 
 The cap, c, at the upper end of the instrument, 
 is a box containing a variety of dotting wheels, 
 each producing a different shaped dot. These 
 are used as distinguishing marks for different ^ 
 classes of boundaries on maps ; for instance, one 
 kind of dot distinguishes county boundaries, 
 another kind parish boundaries ; a third kind 
 distinguishes that which is both a county and a parish 
 boundary. In using this instrument, the ink must be 
 inserted between the blades of the dotting wheel, so 
 that as the wheel revolves the points shall pass through 
 the ink, each carrying with it a drop and marking the 
 paper as it passes. It is sometimes stated as an objec- 
 tion, that the wheel will often revolve many times before 
 it begins to deposit its ink on the drawing, thereby 
 leaving the first part of the line altogether blank, and 
 in attempting to go over it again, the made dots are 
 
102 
 
 INSTRUMENTS. 
 
 liable to get blotted ; at all events^ the line is likely to 
 consist of dots of diflerent sizes^ which is at least 
 unsightly. This evil may be mostly remedied by placing 
 a piece of blank paper over the drawing at the very 
 point the dotted line is commenced upon ; then begin 
 with drawing the wheel over the blank paper firsts so 
 that by the time it will have arrived at the proper point 
 of commencement^ the ink may be expected to flow 
 over the points of the w^heel, and make the dotted 
 line perfect^ as required. 
 
 The Pricking or Tracing Point. 
 
 This instrument consists of a pair of forceps^ 
 which firmly hold a needle pointy or blunt pointy 
 a, by means of a sliding ring, h* Its use^ which 
 scarcely needs pointing out, is chiefly in copying 
 drawings, the original being laid upon paper in- 
 tended to receive the copy, and held down by 
 w eights or pins to prevent its shifting its position. 
 The principal points are transferred to the copy 
 by pricking through the original with a very fine 
 needle. This method of copying cannot be resorted 
 to when the original is of considerable value. When 
 such is the case, a common method of copying is 
 by placing between the drawing and the intended 
 copy a sheet of thin paper [such for instance as 
 bank post paper), one face of which has been 
 sprinkled with black lead and rubbed until it be 
 uniformly covered, and then as much wiped off* as would 
 come away with gentle rubbing. This being placed 
 
DRAWING PINS. 
 
 103 
 
 with the blackened part towards the intended copy^ a 
 bkmt point substituted for the needle point in the 
 instrument may be drawn with gentle pressure over 
 the lines of the original without damaging it, and the 
 blackened paper will leave corresponding lines on the 
 fair sheet beneath ; by reversing the needle in the instru- 
 ment, leaving the eye end instead of the point exposed, 
 and using it edgeways, it will be found a fine and 
 smooth tracer. 
 
 These require but little explanation. They are used 
 to fix paper down upon a drawing or other board in any 
 required position, and in most cases answer better than 
 heavy weights, which are frequently ..^-^^^ /?^^ 
 
 may be shifted from place to place ^-^—^ 
 without moving the paper. They consist of a brass 
 head with a steel point at right angles to its plane, a 
 represents it as seen edgeways, and e as seen from 
 above. 
 
 Drawing Pins, 
 
 used for that purpose, as the board 
 
104 
 
 ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSE!? 
 
 Specification of the different Artificers^ Work required 
 for the erection of two houses proposed to be erected 
 on a plot of ground J situate 
 for 
 
 according with, and corresponding to the various 
 drawings, comprising plans, elevations, sections, and 
 details, made and combined with this specification 
 for the purpose of such erection, and under the 
 superintendence of 
 
 CARCASS OF BUILDING. 
 
 EXCAVATOR. 
 
 The ground is to be excavated to the wliole of tlic 
 extent of the principal building for the basement storey, 
 and to the depth and dimensions shown, and described on 
 the plans and section plates S and 3, which will average 
 an area of about 50 feet by 50 feet, and 5 feet deep; 
 and the trenches then to be dug out of sufficient 
 breadth and depth for the construction of the founda- 
 tions of the several walls, chimney breasts, piers for 
 sleepers, Sec. To excavate when and where directed, 
 according to the dimensions, the earth required for the 
 formation of the rain-water tank, being about 11 feet 
 long, 8 feet deep, and 8 feet wide, as well as for all 
 pipes, drains, traps, syphons, or cesspools, that are, or 
 may be hereafter, described or necessary. 
 
SPECIFICATION. 
 
 105 
 
 To fill in and well ram the earth or soil round all the 
 foundations, piers, traps, gullies, syphons, &c., and to 
 well puddle round and about the rain-water tank, suffi- 
 cient to prevent the ingress or egress of water. To level 
 all grounds and to cart away from time to time, as may 
 be directed, all the superfluous earth or rubbish that 
 accumulates round or in the buildings or grounds during 
 their erection, and to leave them in a clean and perfect 
 condition at the conclusion of the works. 
 
 BRICKLAYER. 
 
 Drains, 
 
 Provide and lay six-inch glazed earthenware socket- 
 jointed pipes, for conveying soil and waste-water into 
 principal drain or sewer, in the position and to the depth 
 shown on the block-plan and section, Plate III., with 
 a fall of not less than 6 inches to every 100 feet, and 
 to fix and make perfect and secure. No. 8 15 inch 
 earthenware gully-traps, and No. 4 syphons of the best 
 and most approved description. To lay a 6-inch similar 
 connecting pipe from principal and servants^ water- 
 closets, as well as 4-incli glazed pipes, from sink in back 
 kitchens and front areas into the above named or 
 principal drain, with all necessary bends, traps, &c., to 
 render the drainage perfect. Build in 9-inch sound 
 stock brickwork, the rain-water tank, and complete the 
 same in the manner shown and described, and to the 
 dimensions exemplified on Plate XIV., viz : The walls 
 all round to be built in 9-inch brickwork in cement, 
 
 P 3 
 
106 
 
 BUILDING. 
 
 and the bottom to be paved with two course of bricks 
 laid flat in the same material^ upon which are to be two 
 courses of tiles bedded in cement^ and the whole to be 
 rendered all round with compo 1^ inch thick^ and all 
 the external portion to be well puddled. To lay and 
 lix complete 4 inch glazed earthenware socket-pipes^ 
 from the zinc down-comers of roofs into the said tank, 
 and a 6 inch waste ditto into the principal drain or soil 
 pipe, with all necessary bends, neck, or traps, that may 
 be requisite for the full completion of the conveyance 
 of the water to and from the tank and the drainage. 
 
 Building. 
 
 The whole of the brickwork to be executed with 
 sound hard-burnt stock bricks laid in well-made mortar, 
 composed of Dorking lime (or any other that approxi- 
 mates to the same quality), mixed in the proportion of 
 one measure of lime to three of clean sharp river or 
 road sand, free from loam or earthy particles. 
 
 The whole of the external walls of the erection as 
 high as the ground-floor line to be laid in old English 
 bond and left rough for receiving Eoman cement stucco, 
 and from thence to the top of the building, to be carried 
 up in Flemish bond and prepared and left for tuck 
 pointing. No four courses in either bond to rise more 
 than 12 inches in height, and all the several walls, 
 chimney-breasts, piers, &c., with their various footings, 
 to be built and finished in the manner and according 
 to the dimensions shown and described upon the ac- 
 companying plates. 
 
FOUNDATIONS. 
 
 107 
 
 All openings below the ground-floor line to have 
 rough skue-back arches turned over them, and all 
 above^ both to front and back elevation, to have 14- 
 inch arches of the best picked malms rubbed and set 
 in putty. 
 
 The foundations to be laid in three courses, and the 
 piers for sleepers to be built 9 inches square, as shown 
 and described on Plate XV. To provide and lay a course 
 of slates between two beds of cement on all the walls 
 at the level of the ground surface of the principal 
 building to prevent the rising of the damp. 
 
 Each storey of the feuilding to have two double tiers 
 of hoop-iron bonds, of No. 12 gauge, properly tarred and 
 bedded round and across all the walls of the building. 
 To build up the bay-windows and porches to entrance- 
 hall in cement, and according with the manner and 
 dimensions shown and described on Plates XXII. and 
 XXIII. 
 
 No. 6 ail' bricks to be inserted between the floor 
 joists of each storey in front, and the same number in 
 the back elevations, for allowing ventilation to the 
 floors. 
 
 To turn over all door and window openings dis- 
 charging arches closely set, and to each fire-place a 4J 
 inch brick trimmer, and insert a wrought-iron chimney-* 
 bar 2 inches wide by f of an inch thick, as shown on 
 Plate XVII., to all the chimney openings ; the bars to 
 have 4J inch bearing and to be turned up and down at 
 the ends. 
 
 Carry up all the flues as shown on section^ and in the 
 
108 
 
 FOUNDATIONS. 
 
 direction thereon described, and to properly core and 
 parget the same. 
 
 To thoroughly bed in mortar all the sleepers, wall- 
 plates, wood, bricks, bond-timber, lintels, and all others 
 requiring to be set or bedded in mortar, and to fix in 
 and point with lime and hair all the door and window 
 frames. 
 
 A chasm in the brickwork of each house to be left 
 where directed, from the ground to the principal water- 
 closet, for soil and water-pipes. 
 
 Kitchen Offices, 
 
 The walls of these buildings to have two courses of 
 footings, and carried up to their various heights one brick 
 or 9 inches thick, and the flues to be taken, as shown 
 on the section one tier of iron hoop bond similar to 
 that described for the principal building, to be inserted 
 all round the party and external walls. 
 
 A 6-inch glaze earthenware soil pipe to be laid from 
 servants^ water-closet into principal or main drain, and 
 a 4-inch ditto from sink in back -kitchen into waste- 
 drain, properly trapped and in connection with waste or 
 soil-pipe of the above named closet. 
 
 To carry up 4 J inch division or protection walls be- 
 tween water-closet, coal-cellar, and back-kitchen. Also 
 to 9-inch spandril brickwork, with necessary footings 
 for the support of steps from ground-floor to garden. 
 
BASEMENT. 
 
 109 
 
 CARPENTER. 
 
 All tlie timber used {except for the sleepers) to be tlie 
 best Dantzic, Higa, or Memel fir. The sleepers to be of 
 well seasoned oakj as free from knots^ shakes^ and sap as 
 possible, and all tbe scantlings figured on the drawings 
 or herein expressed to finish to their full dimensions. 
 No ceiling joists^ quarters, or rafters are to be more 
 than 12 inches apart. 
 
 To provide and fix. all wood, bricks where and when 
 required, as well as all necessary centres, screens, 
 springing slips, and all othenfe articles necessary for the 
 due execution of the carpenter^s work. 
 
 BASEMENT STOREY. 
 
 The sleepers to be of oak 5x3 inches, halved and 
 spiked together, and bedded level and soundly on the 
 brick piers, as shown and described on Plate XV. 
 
 The floor joists to be 4x2 inches, bridged and 
 well nailed to sleepers. 
 
 Wood bricks to be inserted where requisite in jambs 
 of doors, windows, &c., as well as round the walls for 
 fixing the skirting and other joiner's work to. 
 
 Lintels to be inserted over all the door and window- 
 openings, 3 inches thick, and the width of the jamb ; and 
 to have at least a 4-inch bearing on each jamb. 
 
110 
 
 GROUND FLOOR. 
 
 Ground Floor. 
 
 Wall-plates 4-^ x 3 inches to be inserted the whole 
 length of front and back walls^ to be halved and dove- 
 tailed at the angles of the two external flank waUs, 
 and return upon the same not less than 6 feet, to 
 form a connecting bond with the front and back walls 
 of the building. A wall-plate of the same scantling to 
 be also inserted upon the top of the wall dividing break- 
 fast room from kitchens. 
 
 The floor-joists to be 9x2 inches^ and to extend 
 from front to back wall of building and over-bay 
 window, and to be bolted^and spiked to the wall-plates. 
 The joists to be herring-bone trussed, and to have on 
 the floors of each house No. 3, 1-inch wrought iron 
 tension-rods inserted, as shown and described, with 
 the trimmers on Plate XIX. It must be distinctly un- 
 derstood that before the herring-bone trussing and iron 
 tension-rods are applied, the joists on each floor must 
 be shored up in the centre to form a camber of at 
 least 2\ inches, when, after the trussing is filled in, 
 and the above-mentioned rods screwed up, the shoring 
 may be taken away. 
 
 The wood trimmers before and on the sides of chim- 
 ney-breasts to be framed and supported as shown and 
 described on Plate XVI. It may, perhaps, be- as 
 well to state, that they are framed at one end into 
 the front one, and rest upon a stone corbel inserted 
 purposely for their support at the other; and after 
 being properly applied to their places^ are secured by 
 
CHAMBER FLOOR. Ill 
 
 an iron bar being well spiked to the end of each end 
 trimmer. 
 
 The trimmers for well-hole of stairs to be of the 
 same scantling, and supported from the flank walls in a 
 similar manner. 
 
 Lintels, bond, wood, bricks, and every other requisite 
 to be inserted as before described for the basement 
 floor. 
 
 First or Chamber Floor, 
 
 The wall-plates to be 4^ x 3 inches, and to extend 
 the whole length of front and back walls of building, 
 to be halved and dovetailed and well spiked at the 
 angles, and to return upon the flank walls, not less 
 than 6 feet, to form a connecting bond at the angles. 
 The floor joists to be 9 x 3 inches, and to extend from 
 front to back and over bay windows^ and to be notched 
 and spiked to wall-plates. 
 
 The joists to be herring-bone trussed, and wound up 
 with wrought iron tension rods, as shown and described 
 for the ground floor below. 
 
 Also, the trimmers to be framed, fixed, and sup- 
 ported in a similar manner ; at the same time pro- 
 viding and fixing all necessary centres, bond, wood, 
 bricks, and every other requisite. 
 
 Attic, 
 
 The wall- plates of this floor to be of the same scant- 
 ling, and to be fixed on the walls in a similar manner, 
 to that above described for the two floors below. The 
 
113 
 
 DETAILS. 
 
 floor joists to be also 9x2 inches^ and fixed, 
 herring-bone trussed ^vitli the iron rods applied in a like 
 manner to those before described^ as also the trimmers ; 
 with all the necessary auxiliaries alluded to for the 
 before-named floors. 
 
 Quarter -partitions. 
 
 The partitions to be framed and fixed in the manner 
 shown and described on the Plates XXIV. and XXV. ^ 
 and the floor joists notched and secured to the heads or 
 sills thereof (as the case may be), which heads and sills 
 are to rest on a stone corbel inserted in the party wall for 
 that purpose, and connected together oy iron straps, as 
 shown and described at fig. 3, Plate XXV. The 
 scantlings to be of the following dimensions, viz. : — 
 heads and sills, 7x3 inches; side and door posts, 
 4 X 3 J inches; braces, 3|x3J inches; filling in quar- 
 ters, 3 J X 2 inches ; with all necessary bolts, ties, straps, 
 &c., fix^d complete. 
 
 Ciste^ms, 
 
 A cistern to be framed and fixed in the roof over 
 water-closet, and put together with white lead, as shown 
 and described in Plate XXIV., figs. 4 and 5, and to 
 be of the following dimensions, viz. : — 8 feet long, G 
 feet wide, and 3 feet deep; the quarterings of the 
 heads, sills, sides, and bottom, to be 3 x 3 inches, 
 framed and put together in the usual manner, with 1 J 
 by \ thick iron ties at all the angles, properly spiked 
 
ROOF. 
 
 113 
 
 thereto; the whole to be lined with 1| inch ploughed 
 and tongued yellow deal boarding. 
 
 A smaller cistern also to be prepared and fixed imme- 
 diately under the one above described, but just above 
 the water-closet, upon the quarter space of stairs be- 
 tween the ground and chamber floors ; the size of which 
 is to be 2 feet 6 inches long, 1 foot 6 inches wide, and 
 1 foot 6 inches deep — to be prepared from 1^ inch yel- 
 low deal, ploughed, tongued, dove-tailed, and strapped 
 in the usual manner. 
 
 Roof to principal Building, 
 
 The roof to be framed and fixed with wall-plates, tie- 
 beams, queen and king posts, principal rafters, half 
 principal ditto, pole plates, purlins, common rafters, 
 diagonal ties, slips, ridges, &c., as shown and described 
 on Plates XX. and XXI., and with the accompanying 
 explanation, viz. : — Two whole pair of principal rafters 
 to be framed and fixed at the intersection of the hips, 
 and eight half principal rafters in the position shown 
 on plan of roof to be framed into them ; the wall plates 
 to be properly scarfed and wedged together with oak 
 or iron wedges, and to be halved, dove-tailed, and well 
 spiked at the angles, so that it may form and be a con- 
 tinuous bond all round the external walls of the build- 
 ing; the tie-beam and angular ties to be properly 
 cogged down upon the wall-plate ; the principal rafters 
 and half principal rafters to be framed with the neces- 
 sary draft, and in the usual manner, with all the requi- 
 site iron bolts, clips, straps, wedges, &c., fixed thereon ; 
 
114 DETAILS. 
 
 the pole plates to be scarfed and wedged together, and 
 tenoned and fixed at the angles, so that it may make 
 a continuous tie to the roof, in the same manner the 
 wall-plate does to the walls, and the purlins to be 
 scarfed where required, and fixed to hips in the usual 
 way — and to be bridged down upon principal rafters ; 
 the hip rafter to be framed into the dragging tie, and the 
 common rafters to be notched on to purlins and pole 
 plate. The ridge board and hip rafters to rise full 2 
 inches above the top or line of common rafters for 
 dressing the lead round. The scantlings of the timbers 
 for this roof are to be as follows : — 
 
 The plate for fixing brackets to . . . . 4^ by 3| 
 
 Wall-plate 4^ 4* 
 
 Cantilevers, to be Lalved and nailed to feet of 
 
 
 4 „ 
 
 2 
 
 
 i) „ 
 
 4 
 
 
 7 „ 
 
 4 
 
 Pole plate and purlins . . . . . . 
 
 7 „ 
 
 4 
 
 
 4 „ 
 
 2 
 
 Queen and kingposts in clear of joggle.^ . . . 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 4 „ 
 
 3 
 
 
 2 
 
 Diagonal and dragging ties 
 
 44 „ 
 
 
 
 2 „ 
 
 3 
 4 
 
 
 7 „ 
 
 3 
 
 To prepare and fix to collar pieces of roof ceiling joists 
 
 H 
 
 2 
 
 And to fix, as shown in Plate XX., all canting fillets, 
 
 facia. 
 
 as 
 
 may be required, to their various sizes, &c. 
 
 Kitchen Offices. 
 
 To prepare and fix in jambs and other places re- 
 quired, and where directed w^ood bricks for fixing and 
 
DETAILS. 
 
 115 
 
 completiug the joiner^s work^ and to prepare and bed 
 lintels over all door and window openings ; the width 
 of the jambs 3i inches thick^ and to lay 4^ inches on 
 each jamb. 
 
 The servants^ privy to have a wall-plate ii x 3 inches 
 inserted, and to have floor x 2 inches notched 
 thereon, and trimmed for pan of closet. 
 
 The roofs over these buildings to be plain lean-to 
 roofs, each declining from the party-wall, and to the 
 same inclination, as that of the principal building, and 
 to comprise a loall-plate, tie-beam, principal rafter, 
 forming common rafter' as well, a purlin supported by a 
 strut from the tie-beam, and ?i pole plate ; the whole to 
 be battened for receiving slates, &c. 
 
 The scantlings for these offices are to be of the follow- 
 ing dimensions, namely : — 
 
 Wall-plates, 4 J x 3 inches ; tie-beams 8x4 inches ; 
 pole plate, 4 J x 3 inches; principal rafter, 8x3 inches ; 
 common rafters, 3 J x 2 inches ; ridge-board, 6 x li 
 inches ; and battens for slates, 2 x f inches. 
 
 Two cisterns to be prepared and fixed in roofs over 
 the sinks for receiving the water from the service and 
 the rain-water tank; these cisterns are to be 4 feet 
 long, 3 feet wide, and 2 feet 6 inches deep, and framed 
 with skeleton angular framing ; that is, to have a head 
 and sill all round with quartering, at all the angles similar 
 to that described for the cistern in principal roof, with 
 one upright in the middle, and a corresponding piece 
 across the bottom, the whole to be lined with 1 J inch 
 yellow deal, ploughed, tongued, and put together with 
 
116 
 
 IRON WORK. 
 
 white lead. A partition in eacli cistern prepared in the 
 same manner, from one inch yellow deal, to be inserted 
 and grooved into sides and bottom. 
 
 To provide and fix when and where directed, all 
 centres, bond, timber, wood, bricks, springing pieces, 
 &c., and set ont all necessary work, and to do or cause 
 to be done all and everything that is required of a 
 carpenter in a building, providing all materials, the 
 best of their respective qualities, and all requisite plant 
 for the full completion of the M^ork. 
 
 SMITH AND IRON-FOUNDER. 
 
 All the iron work, except that particularly described 
 to be cast, to be of the best malleable metal, as free from 
 blister or any other imperfections as possible. To prepare, 
 deliver, and assist in fixing No. 1 6 wrought iron chimney 
 bars, of the dimensions of the opening shown on the 
 various drawings, and of the form and manner described 
 in the detailed plates, each bar to be 2 inches wide, and 
 fth of an inch thick, to have a 4J bearing on each 
 joint, and to turn up and down 2J inches at each end. 
 
 To prepare and deliver No. 8 iron straps, 2 feet 6 
 inches long, 2J inches wide, and J thick, punched with 
 holes for the necessary spikes, &c., for tieing heads and 
 sills of partitions together, and as shown on Plate XXIV. 
 fig. 2, prepare No. 6 iron clips for partition posts, 2 feet 
 long, 3 J clip, 2 inches wide, and \ inch thick. 
 
 To prepare, provide, and assist in fixing, No. 18, one 
 inch wrought iron tension rods, to extend from front 
 
IRON WORK. 
 
 117 
 
 to back walls of the building, three of which are to be 
 fixed in each floor of each house of the building, with 
 2-inch head, one inch thick at one end, and taped 
 up at the other end at least four inches, with a nut of 
 the same size as the head, with a pair of washers to 
 each rod, 6 inches by 3 and J of an inch thick. See 
 Plate XIX. 
 
 To prepare and deliver No. 12 iron clips for feet of 
 principal rafter as shown on Plate XXI., fig. 1, 18 inches 
 long, 4 inches clip, 2 inches wide, and |-inch thick, 
 pierced for the necessary spikes, &c. ; No. 4 clips for 
 foot of queen posts, figs. 3 and 4, 2 feet long, 4-inch 
 clip, 2 inches wide, &c., ^ inch thick, with mortice for 
 wedges, I J inches deep, and f thick, and a pair of 
 corresponding wedges to each clip. 
 
 No. 4 pairs of iron straps to fix on to the heads of 
 queen posts, stretching piece and head of principal 
 rafter, made to the form shown on the same plate, 2 
 feet 6 inches long, 3 inches wide, \ inch thick, pierced 
 for the requisite spike, &c. 
 
 No. 4, I inch bolts for king posts, 2 feet long, taped 
 down 3J inches, with 2 heads and washers, 4 inches by 
 3, and \ of an inch thick. 
 
 No. 8, clip similar to those described for the whole 
 principal rafters, to be provided for the half principal 
 rafter. No. 8 clips also to be provided for the heads of 
 the same, 1 foot 6 inches long ; clip 4 inches by 2 inches 
 wide, and J inch thick, with all necessary spikes, nails, 
 wedges, &c., for making the work complete. 
 
 To provide and fix No. 8 angular irons to top and 
 
118 
 
 MASONRY. 
 
 sill of cistern in roof, 1 foot 6 inches upon each return, 
 
 2 inches wide, and 1-inch thick ; and also No. 8 for the 
 two smaller cisterns, 1 foot long, 1^-inch wide, and 
 j^^-inch thick. 
 
 STONE MASON. 
 
 To put to all the external doorways Yorkshire stone 
 solid tooled steps, with mortice holes for receiving the 
 ends of door-posts. 
 
 To provide and fix No. 8 properly dished and holed 
 gully stones, 15 inches square and 3 inches thick, when 
 and where directed ; as also a 5-inch York landing, 10 
 feet long by 7 feet wide, or two stones to correspond 
 to the same dimensions over the rain-water tank, with 
 every preparation of receiving the slate filter, as shown 
 on Plate XIV. 
 
 To prepare and bed No. 20 Yorkshire stones, 1 foot 
 
 3 inches square and 1 foot 4 inches deep, for receiving 
 trimmers to floors and heads and sills of partitions, 
 tooled as shown on Plate XXIV. 
 
 To prepare and fix 100 feet run of York throated 
 coping, 12 X 3, to area of front and back elevations, 
 and to kitchen offices ; also, 36 feet run of rough York, 
 1 foot 4 inches by 4 inches thick, to form core for the 
 cornices of entrance porches and bay windows. 
 
 To prepare, provide, and fix tooled, rubbed, and 
 throated window sills, 8 inches wide and 4i inches 
 thick, properly dished, to all openings of windows in 
 front and back elevations and kitchen offices, according 
 to the dimensions shown on the various drawings. 
 
PLUMBING. 
 
 119 
 
 To prepare and fix to the porches of entrance doors 
 a 6 -inch tooled and rubbed landings with steps leading 
 thereto, 12 inches by 6 inches, bedded to brick span- 
 drils, as shown on Plate XXIII. Also, to fix a tooled 
 landing 7 inches thick to the back or garden entrance, 
 and the steps from thence to the garden, which are to 
 be 2j inch tooled treads and risers securely bedded on 
 brick spandrils carried up for that purpose. 
 
 To provide and fix in back kitchen a stone sink, to 
 size shown on plan and 6 inches deep, with a hole cut 
 and dished to receive bell trap and waste water pipe. 
 
 To cut on the stonework all necessary holes, mor- 
 tices, rebates, grooves, as required, and all other work 
 pertaining to the trade of a mason. 
 
 PLUJilBER. 
 
 All the slips and ridges of principal roof to be covered 
 with 6 lb. milled lead, and to be laid down over the 
 slate at least 6 inches on each side with the usual lap, 
 and secured in the most approved manner. The dormer 
 lights to attics to be also covered with 6 lb. lead, and 
 the vertical sides of each with 5 lb. lead. All the 
 flashings for this roof, as well as that over kitchen 
 office, to be of 5 lb. lead, and to dress over the slates 
 and up the side at least G inches, and where requisite 
 to be let into the brickwork at least 1 inch, wdth all 
 necessary solder, holdfast screws, nails, &c., with every 
 other requisite for making the internal roofs impervious 
 to wet, from rain, snow, or other causes. 
 
120 
 
 ROOFING. 
 
 SLATER 
 
 The roof over principal building to be covered with 
 duchess slating, with at least 3 inches lap, and the usual 
 gauge of about 10 i inches securely fixed to the battens^ 
 with 2 copper nails to each slate ; and to cover the 
 kitchen office with lady slates, with the usual lap and 
 gauge fixed to the battens, Avith 2 zinc nails to each 
 slate, with all the necessary dressings to hips, valleys, 
 and eaves, &c., and both roofs to be securely pointed 
 with lime and hair. 
 
 To provide, prepare, and fix No. 1.2, 3 inch slate canti- 
 levers, to the size and form shown in the drawing of 
 details for roof. 
 
 To provide and fix in the rain-water tank a f inch 
 slate filter, according with and to the dimensions 
 described on the plan and section Plate XIV., with all 
 necessary lifts, perforated plates, taps, &c., and apparatus 
 complete. 
 
 ZINC WORKER. 
 
 To prepare and fix all round principal building a 
 gutter of the best Belgian zinc of 15 inch gauge, to 
 the form and dimensions shown and explained on Plate 
 XXI., with all proper falls to the various dimensions^ 
 and so manufactured in external appearance as to be 
 level with the soffit of the projecting eave of the 
 building, as shown on the before-named plate. 
 
 To put up and securely fix No. 6 downcomers of 4 
 inch calibre in the position marked on plan of roof. 
 
FINISHINGS. 
 
 121 
 
 To provide and fix the said in the position marked 
 on the plan of roof^ and each to have a suitable cistern 
 head^ vrith all necessary shoes^ laps^ joints^ holdfasts^ 
 and every requisite to connect them with the earthen- 
 Avare pipes laid for conveying the water into the rain- 
 water tank. 
 
 The gutters and downcomers from the roof over 
 kitchen offices of 3 inch calibre^ with corresponding 
 cistern-head. 
 
 Also to provide and fix a 2 inch downcomer, with 
 every requisite bend from the flats of the bay windows 
 and entrance porches to the drain in front area. 
 
 FINISHINGS. 
 
 JOINER'S WORK. 
 Attic Floor. 
 
 The dormer light in each room to be fitted up with 
 two inch beaded, and rebated frames, and \\ inch 
 chamfered sashes, suspended on pivots in the centre, 
 with all requisite cords, pullies, fastenings, &c., for the 
 opening and closing of the same, in an impervious and 
 efficient manner. 
 
 Floor, 
 
 The floor to be 1 J inch white deal, and laid folding ; 
 skirting ground 3 inches wide by | thick, chamfered 
 to receive plaster, and as shown on Plate 26, fig. 2, to 
 be fixed all round the rooms, and a similar description 
 
 a 
 
122 
 
 JOINERY. 
 
 of ground to door and window joints^ which are to be 
 covered with a 1 J inch mouldings to form an architrave 
 and break the joints of plaster, and grounds, and to 
 the ground rovmd rooms, is to be fixed a 6-inch square 
 skirting-board. The jambs of doors to have a f inch 
 beaded lining, and to have a slip braded on to form the 
 rebate for doors, which are to be 1 J inch ; two panel 
 square, hung with suitable butt hinges and fastenings. 
 
 • Chamber Floor, 
 
 The floor to be 1 J inch yellow deal, with a straight 
 joint, and splayed heading, joints, with mitred borders 
 to heartVs, a ground 2 inches wide by 1 inch thick, 
 chamfered to be fixed all round the rooms for receiving 
 the plaster and fixing the skirting to, and also one 3^ 
 wide of the same thickness round all door and window 
 openings. The small housemaid^s closet on this floor 
 to be formed with a 1^ inch square panelled partition, 
 and the door to correspond with the other described for 
 this floor. 
 
 The sashes and frames for the principal rooms on this 
 floor, to be of the Venetian character, with the centre 
 sashes of each window, double hung, and side sashes 
 fixed. The frame to be deal cased, with oak sunk sills, 
 brass cased pullies, with 1^ inch ovolo sashes hung with 
 cast metal w^eights, patent cord^ &c., and the sashes and 
 frames for dressing-room and stairs to be of a similar 
 description and double hung. The finishing to all these 
 windows to be as shown and described on Plate XXVI. 
 
 The jamb lining for doors to be inch thick, beaded 
 
FINISHINGS. 
 
 128 
 
 and single rebated^ and to have IJ incli four-panel- 
 square doors^ properly hung with 2J butt hinges. 
 
 The skirting to be moulded 9 inches wide^ and fixed 
 in the manner shown at fig. 2, Plate XXVI. 
 
 Ground or Principal Floor, 
 
 The floor to be inch yellow deal, straight jointed, 
 splayed heading, joints edge-nailed, and mitred-borders 
 to hearths. 
 
 Grounds, 
 
 Skirting grounds 2^ inches wide, by one inch thick, 
 to be fixed all round the floors for receiving the plaster, 
 and fixing the skirting to the upper edge, to be ploughed, 
 and all angles to be dovetailed together, as well as the 
 ends secured in a similar manner to the vertical grounds 
 of doors and windows — (see grounds to Venetian window) 
 Plate XXVI. 
 
 Entrance Hall. 
 
 The door frames to be 4 inches by 3^ inches, rebated 
 and beaded, with double rebated transom head, and to 
 be tenoned into stone step. 
 
 The doors to be 2^ inch, two panel bolection moulded 
 on both sides, |th panels, and to be hung with 8 pair 
 of 2^ butt hinges. 
 
 The fan-light to be a two-inch lamVs tongue moulded 
 light and fixed above door, with grounds, linings, and 
 architraves, corresponding with those shown and 
 described for the floor on Plates XXVI. and XXVII. 
 To put up with all the corresponding fittings, a pair of 
 
 G 2 
 
124 
 
 INTERIOR. 
 
 two-incli sasli doors, with a suitable light above, to 
 divide the entrance hall from passage and stairs. 
 
 Also to provide and fix a two-inch sash door and 
 partition to form the lobby under water-closet, and 
 divide the stairs from the garden or back entrance to 
 this floor, with all suitable finishings, and according to 
 the one above described for dividing the hall from the 
 stairs. The door frame from lobby to garden to be 
 prepared for fan and side lights {as shoivn on elevation 
 of back front), the external posts and head to be 3^ 
 inches by 3 inches, and the two vertical posts, as well 
 as transom head, to be 3^ inches by 2i inches, to be 
 beaded, rebated, and tenoned into step, in a similar 
 manner to that described for the front entrance door, 
 and to have a two-inch sash-door fan and side-lights, 
 with \\ inch framed boxing shutters as high as the 
 transom head, the grounds, linings, and other finish- 
 ings, to be similar to those shown on Plate XXVI., and 
 described for the Venetian window in the back parlour. 
 
 Bay-ivindowSy Front parlours. 
 
 These windows to be fitted-up and finished in the 
 manner shown, and described on Plate XXVII., with 
 deal cased frames, oak sunk sills, and the centre 
 position to have brass cased puUies, patent cords, and 
 cast metal weights, and prepared to receive the sashes, 
 which are to be 2-inch lamb tongue moulding, the 
 middle sashes double hung, and those of the sides 
 fixed. The other portions are to be prepared and fixed 
 in the manner shown on the before-named Plate XXVII., 
 
FITTINGS. 
 
 125 
 
 for receiving metal, revolving shutters, and finished 
 with the grounds, linings, soffit, skirting, architraves, 
 as there shown and described. 
 
 Back Parlour. 
 
 The Venetian window in this room to be fitted up in 
 the manner shown and described in Plate XXVI., fig. 
 4 ; the middle sashes to be double hung, and the side 
 lights fixed. To have 1 \ inch moulded shutters hung 
 W'ith brass, cased pullies, patent cord, and cast metal 
 weights; and to have 1^ inch framed and moulded 
 back. The grounds, linings, architrave, &c., in a 
 corresponding manner to those described and shown 
 for the front parlour or dining room. 
 
 Doors. 
 
 To prepare and fix 1\ inch double rebated and beaded 
 jamb lining to the grounds for the folding-doors be- 
 tween the two parlours. The doors to be 1^ inch double 
 moulded, two panels in each door, and the grounds, 
 architraves, &c., to be of the same description, and to 
 correspond with those before described. The jamb- 
 linings for the other doors to be of the same descrip- 
 tion as before stated, and to have 1^ inch 4-panel doors 
 moulded on both sides, with corresponding grounds and 
 architraves. 
 
 Skirting. 
 
 All the skirting for this floor to be board wide and 
 1-inch thick, and to be surmounted with a \\ inch 
 rebated moulding. 
 
126 
 
 INTERIOR. 
 
 Basement. 
 
 Breakfast Room, — The floor to be 1 J inch yellow 
 deal^ straight joints and splayed headings^ and mitred 
 borders to hearth. The bay window to have sashes 
 and frames similar to those described for dining room 
 above^ and to have sliding shutters similar to those 
 shown and explained for the back parlour windows, 
 with door skirting, lining, and all others of a cor- 
 responding character. 
 
 Kitchen. 
 
 The floor to be 1\ inch deal, folding and mitred 
 border to hearth. 
 
 Sash Frames, 
 
 The sash frames to be of a similar description to 
 those already described for the upper floor, and to have 
 \\ inchovolo sashes, and 1\ inch square framed sliding 
 or hung shutters with 1-inch grounds and 1^ moulding 
 to break the joint and form architrave, as those 
 described for the attic storey. 
 
 Cellar Door. 
 
 Under principal entrance and back entrance doors 
 to have frame 3^ by 3 inches, beaded and single re- 
 bated and tenoned into stone steps or sills, and to 
 have a 1^ inch 4 panel bead and butt door. The 
 back entrance door frame to be of similar scantling, 
 but framed with a transom head for a 1^ fan light, 
 and the door to this frame to be a 1^ inch sash 
 
FINISHINGS. 
 
 127 
 
 door with a lifting shutter ; and all other doors on 
 this floor to be inch 4 panel square doors^ with 
 lining and finishing as above stated for the attics. 
 
 Stairs. 
 
 The stairs from basement to ground floor to have 1^ 
 wrought yellow deal strings^ with 1^ inch treads and 1 
 inch risers blocked and bracketed and securely housed 
 into the strings in the usual manner. 
 
 The partitions forming the spandril framings as well 
 as those forming pantries and store closets, to be 1\ 
 inch square panel, and to have a 6 inch f skirting- 
 board, to correspond with others that are to run round 
 the passage. 
 
 Stairs from ground floor to chamber storey to be 
 geometrical, with one circular string and quarter cir- 
 cular on landing as shown on Plan, and to have 1\ inch 
 yellow deal treads, risers, carriage and string boards, 
 with all requisite carriage furrings to soflit, &c. The 
 treads to have round and hollow nosings. The risers 
 to mitre into the external string, w^hich is to be dove- 
 tailed to receive the ballusters and the return nosing; 
 the other end of both treads and risers to be housed 
 and securely wedged into the external string; a full 
 scroll curtail step, with veneered riser and circular part 
 to frame into external string, to be firmly fixed at the 
 starting of the flight, and the succeeding step to be 
 gradually carved until they join the straight flyers. 
 (See Ground Plan, Plate V.) The whole flight to have 
 f X I inch square ballusters dove-tailed into the end 
 
128 
 
 HOUSEHOLD. 
 
 of tread and strings and covered with the mitred 
 nosing. One ornamental iron balluster^ taped and to 
 have nuts and screws complete^ to be securely fixed in 
 centre of scroll of curtail step^ and No. 3 plain iron 
 ballusters^ corresponding with those of deal before 
 described, to be fixed where requisite on the flight. 
 The whole to be surmounted with a 2i inch moulded 
 Spanish mahogany hand-rail^ sunk to receive the bal- 
 lusters and properly wreathed to well^ and to have a 
 corresponding mitred cap over curtail step. The same 
 description of skirting as described for rooms of ground 
 floor to be fixed all round hall and passage^ and the 
 same mouldings to continue up inside string of stairs : 
 flnding and applying all necessary joints, screws, and 
 every other requisite to make the work complete. 
 
 Water Closet, 
 
 On quarter space, — The partition dividing stairs from 
 water-closet to be a 2-inch framed and moulded sash 
 partition with sash doors to correspond^ prepared for 
 receiving ground or stained glass, with the moulded 
 skirting of stairs continued round on the stair side, 
 and the whole to finish in accordance with the stairs. 
 
 Inside, — The window-frame and sash to correspond 
 with the one described for the chamber storey. To fit 
 up the seat and riser with J \ inch Honduras mahogany, 
 the riser to be properly dished out to the form of pan, 
 and to have a beaded box for handle. This seat to be 
 covered with a framed and beaded skeleton for the flap 
 to hang to, which is to be 1^ inch selected mahogany, 
 
ACCOMMODATIONS. 
 
 129 
 
 hung with brass butts, and both frame and flap to have 
 a projected moulded nosing; ^ inch beaded skirting 6 
 inches deep to be fixed round back and sides, as also 
 on ground in front of riser. The whole to be fitted up 
 with all necessary scantling, bearers, &c., for the sup- 
 port of pan and apparatus, as well as the efficient 
 support of the seat and riser, in the most approved 
 manner* 
 
 Also to fit up with 1-inch Honduras mahogany an an- 
 gular wash-board and closet, the closet underneath with 
 a 1-inch square panel-door, hung to a beaded and suitable 
 skeleton frame, with all suitable appendages for receiving 
 basins and depositing towels, &c., and also to fix 
 over chasm of soil, w^aste and supply-pipe, a 1-inch 
 mahogany-framed skeleton-ground, rebated and beaded 
 for a corresponding board, to be slightly screwed 
 to the same for allowing easy access to the before- 
 named pipe, a small moulding, to be fixed over ground, 
 and plaster to break the joint ; and to fix on all other 
 articles that m&y be required for the full completion of 
 the closet. 
 
 Kitchen Offices. 
 
 All the external door-frames to be 3^ x 3 in yellow 
 deal, beaded and rebated, and tenoned into stone sills 
 or steps. Those to servants^ water-closets, and to the 
 lobby between kitchen and back kitchen to be framed 
 with transom heads, and to have 1^ lights fixed 
 therein. The whole of the external doors to be 1\ 
 inch bead and butt, 4 panel doors framed flush on 
 
 G 3 
 
130 
 
 PLASTERING. 
 
 one side, and square panel on the other. All internal 
 doors to be fitted up in the same manner as those 
 described for the attic. The doors for coal-shoots to 
 have a small 2^ inch x 2 inch frame rebated and beaded, 
 and 1-inch ledged doors. 
 
 The sash-frames and sashes for kitchens to be of a 
 similar description to those described for chamber- 
 floors ; and each window to have a pair of 1 J bead, 
 bead and flush-panel shutters hung to the frame on the 
 outside. 
 
 The small window to pantries, marked d d on the 
 basement plan, to have 2^x2 inch beaded and rebated 
 frames, and a Ih inch sack hung upon centres for 
 ventilation. The servants^ water-closet, marked a on 
 the same plan, are to have floor-joints 5x2 inches, and 
 laid with yellow deal. The seat and risers to be 
 also of 1^ inch deal, properly fixed and blocked to pan, 
 and dished out in a corresponding manner; and a 
 beaded box prepared for the pull ; a movable f beaded 
 casing to be placed over pipes, with ^ery article to 
 make the work complete. 
 
 PLASTERER. 
 Attic. 
 
 Lath, plaster, and set the ceilings and parti- 
 tions, and also render, and set the walls of the 
 same. 
 
 Chamber Floor, 
 To lath, plaster, float, and set the ceilings and 
 
INTERIOR. 
 
 131 
 
 partitions, and render, float, and set the walls ; run 
 a plain moulded cornice round the porch room of this 
 floor of 6 inches girth, and one round back room of 5 
 inches girth. 
 
 Ground Floor. 
 
 Entrance and passage, lath, plaster, float, and set the 
 ceilings ; the partitions to be lathed, floated, and set 
 in stucco j and render, float, and set the walls in 
 stucco; and finish the whole for painting; and a 
 plain moulded cornice of 5 inches girth to be run all 
 round so far as the break for stair will admit. 
 
 The front and back parlours to have their ceilings 
 and partitions lathed^ plastered, floated, and set, and to 
 have a 10-inch plain moulded cornice run round both 
 rooms. 
 
 Basement Floor. 
 
 The ceilings of this floor to be lathed, plastered, 
 floated, and set ; and the walls rendered, floated, and 
 set ; the front room, or breakfast parlour, to have a 
 plain*moulded cornice of 5 inches girth run all round. 
 
 Stairs. 
 
 The stairs from basement to ground floor and all 
 other contiguous conveniences, not before alluded 
 to, to be finished as the rooms of the attic floor. 
 The next flight from ground floors to chamber floors, 
 with the lobby and water-closet included. To finish in 
 the manner described for the entrance halls, that is to 
 say, the sofiit of the stairs and ceilings to be lathed, 
 
132 
 
 OUTSIDE WORK. 
 
 plastered^ and set^ and partitions to be lathed^ plastered,, 
 floated, and set with stucco ; and all the walls rendered, 
 floated, and set in stucco, and finished for painting. 
 The stairs from chamber floors to attic to be finished in 
 a corresponding manner to that already described for 
 the chamber floor. All the ceiling and soffits to be 
 twice lime-whitened. 
 
 Kitchen Offices. 
 
 To lath, plaster, and set all the ceilings, and to render 
 and set the walls. 
 
 The ceiling and walls of these buildings to be twice 
 lime-whitened. 
 
 Outside TVork. 
 
 The tops of chimneys to be stuccoed in cement all 
 round, with fillet moulding and blocking, as shown on 
 front elevation, Plate IX. 
 
 The soffit of the eaves of principal building, to have 
 a sinkiiig between each bracket to form a panel, as 
 shown on section fig. 1, Plate XXT., and to be lathed, 
 plastered, and set, the portion round flank and back to 
 be finished plain. The string-course and frieze to be 
 finished in stucco, with Atkinson's cement, and in the 
 manner shown and described on the same Plate. 
 
 The entrance porches and bay-windows to be finished 
 in stucco as shown and described on Plates XXII. and 
 XXIII., with cornice, piers, pilasters, spandrils, &c., all 
 complete. The whole of principal front from basement 
 to ground floor, line to be stuccoed with cement, and 
 
MASON^S WORK. 
 
 133 
 
 have returned reveals, sides of steps to entrance hall, 
 and party wall of area with sunk joints, as shown on 
 Plate XXII. 
 
 MASON. 
 
 Attics. 
 
 To put to each fire-place in attic a hearth and back 
 hearth of 3 inches Yorkshire stone, and to each opening 
 jambs and head 5 inches wide and 1 inch thick, with a 
 shelf of the same dimensions, properly cramped and 
 fixed together. 
 
 Chamber Floor. 
 
 To provide and fix on this floor No. 4 marble chimney 
 piece, with back-hearths, slabs, and shelves complete, 
 to the value of 40^. each. 
 
 Gi'ound Floor. 
 
 Provide and fix on this floor No. 4 marble chimney 
 pieces, with back-hearth, slabs, and mantel complete, 
 to the value of £3 each. 
 
 Basement Storey. 
 
 To provide and fix in the breakfast-room No. 1 
 marble chimney piece, with back hearth, slab, and 
 mantel complete, to the value of £2 10^. 
 
 Kitchens. 
 
 To fix complete, rubbed York chimneys, with mantels 
 and hearths complete, to the value of £2 each, and to 
 
134 
 
 IRONMONGERY WORK. 
 
 the back kitchen chimney pieces of the same descrip- 
 tion of stone to the value of 30^. each. 
 
 To pave the lobby leading from kitchen to back 
 kitchen, and the whole of the kitchen offices, as well 
 as the front and back areas, with 2^ tooled York 
 paving, 
 
 FURNISHING IRONMONGER. 
 Attic Floor, 
 
 To provide and deliver for dormer lights on this floor 
 No. 8, f-inch pivots, with side-plates, patent cord and 
 pulleys for opening and closing the lights, as also No. 4 
 barrel 4-in. bolts, and requisite staples for fastening the 
 same, with all necessary screws, nails, &c. Also to 
 deliver No. 4, 6-inch iron-rim locks, with box staples, 
 keys, and brass furniture, with all necessary screws 
 and nails complete for the doors to these rooms. 
 
 Chamber Floor. 
 
 To provide and deliver all the brass cased pulleys, 
 patent cord, cast metals, weights, &c., shown on the 
 drawings, and described in the joiner's work for this 
 floor, as well as 2-inch spring-fastenings to each sash. 
 
 To provide No. 16 pair of butt-hinges, with all 
 necessary screws, &c., as well as No. 4, 6-inch morticed 
 locks, with brass furniture complete, for the principal 
 doors ; No. 2, 4-inch brass spring and bolt latches for 
 dressing rooms, and No. 2, 4-inch iron closet locks, 
 with all requisite striking plates and furniture com- 
 plete. 
 
FASTENINGS^ ETC. 
 
 135 
 
 Water-Closet. 
 
 To provide the brass cased pulleys^ cords, weights^ 
 fastenings^ &c., for this window^ as before described^ as 
 well as one pair of 2^ butt-hinges for door^ and a 4| 
 brass spring and bolt latch with furniture complete for 
 door. 
 
 Ground Floor. 
 
 To provide the brass cased pulleys^ patent cord^ 
 weights^ fastenings, &c., as before described for the 
 sashes, as also a set of a similar description for shutters 
 of back-parlour, and to provide and fix to the bay- 
 window of this floor the metal revolving shutter shown 
 on Plate XXVII., with all requisite machinery for their 
 efficient action, as well as the necessary furnishing. 
 
 To provide for entrance doors to hall No. 4 pair of 
 4-inch butt-hinges, with all necessary screws, &c., and 
 a best 10-inch draw-back mounted lock, with staple 
 and all necessary furniture complete; as also a 12-inch 
 door-chain, with brass knobs and asp complete, and two 
 10 -inch barrel bolts, with staples and plates complete 
 for top and bottom of door. The back entrance doors 
 to have hinges, lock, bolts, and chain of a similar de- 
 scription; the shutters to have 18-inch bow-latch 
 shutter-bars complete, with every necessary, &c., and to 
 provide for doors dividing lobby from stairs, a 3-inch 
 brass spring bolt latch. 
 
 To provide for shutters in back-parlour No. 4, 1-inch 
 brass flush rings, with No. 2 brass clips for fastenings. 
 To provide for doors not before alluded to on this floor 
 
136 
 
 INTERIOR FITTINGS. 
 
 No. 8 pair of 3-inch butt-hinges^ with all necessary 
 screws, &c.^ and for folding doors No. 4, 12-inch brass 
 flush-bolts^ with all necessaries, &c., as also to provide 
 No. 6, inch mortice locks, with brass striking plates and 
 furniture complete. 
 
 Breakfast Room, 
 
 To provide for the sashes brass cased pulleys, patent 
 cords, and fastenings, as described above for back- 
 parlour ; but the shutter will require 3 pair of brass 
 cased pulleys with weights, fastenings, and cords com- 
 plete ; the door of this room to be provided with a 6-inch 
 mortice lock, and brass furniture complete. 
 
 To provide for kitchen window and shutters the same 
 number of brass c?ksed pulleys, cords, and fastenings, as 
 before described for the back-parlour. 
 
 To provide for the six back-entrance doors 9-inch iron 
 spring-stock locks with staples complete, No. 6, 10-inch 
 door chains, and No. 12, 10-inch barrel-bolts and staples 
 all complete, as also No. 6, 6-inch iron rim stock locks 
 with box-staples complete for the other doors, and to 
 provide No. 24 pair of 3-inch butt-hinges, as well as 
 No. 8 pair of 2^ ditto, with all necessary auxiliaries, &c. 
 
 To provide one ornamental cast-iron balluster, IJ 
 diameter, 3 feet 6 inches long, tapped at one end, with 
 nut and plates complete for curtail step, and three 
 other, I by f , two feet 5 inches long. 
 
 It is to be distinctly understood that the furnishing 
 ironmonger is to dehver all articles here expressed, and 
 all others that may be requisite for the due execution of 
 
PLUMBING^ ETC. 
 
 137 
 
 the work into the possession of the joiner^ who will 
 apply and fix the same in their relative positions, pro- 
 viding and delivering as may be required glue^ brads, 
 nails, screws, and materials generally supplied by the 
 ironmonger. 
 
 BELL-HANGER. 
 
 To provide and hang bells with all proper springs, 
 cranks, wires, &c., of the size required, and in the 
 position when and where may be hereafter directed, to 
 the value of £10. 
 
 PLUMBER. 
 
 To line the cisterns in roof of principal building, as 
 well as the four smaller ones described for supply 
 of water-closet and kitchen oflices, with six pounds 
 milled lead, in the most efficient and workman-like 
 manner, and to lay on from principal main to the large 
 cistern in each house a 1 J lead main supply-pipe, with 
 a 6-inch ball-cock properly applied at the cistern end, 
 with a standing waste of the same calibre to be 
 taken down and connected with principal drains. 
 The house-service, to be 1-inch calibre, to be taken into 
 small cisterns over water-closets, and from thence 
 into cistern in roof of kitchen offices; each of the 
 smaller cisterns to be furnished with a suitable ball- 
 cock, standing waste and service with rose-tops, and 
 every other requisite article. The water-closets to be 
 fitted up with Beetson^s patent valve closets, with Warner^s 
 registered valves and patent regulators fitted up 
 
138 
 
 PLUMBING. 
 
 complete^ and to have a 5 -inch soil-pipe connected and 
 continued perfectly sound into principal drain ; and to 
 complete the closet apparatus TV'ith all necessary bends, 
 valves, traps, &c., to render them efficient and complete in 
 all their actions, the service-pipes to be brought from the 
 small cistern above, as well as two f -inch service-pipes 
 to supply the water to the washing-basins in corner ; to 
 provide and fix No. 2, 10-inch wash-basins, and fix to 
 the f pipes suitable cocks, and to the basins a stop 
 valve, with chain and waste pipe complete, into prin- 
 cipal drain. 
 
 To provide and fix to each house one of Warner^s 
 vibrating lift and force pumps, with all necessary pipe, 
 bosses, and fastenings for supplying the filtered rain 
 water into the cisterns situate in roof over kitchen 
 offices, &c., and bring from the said cisterns two 1-inch 
 service pipes to sinks in washhouse, with all proper 
 taps, &c., as well as the waste pipes from cisterns, and 
 all other articles that are requisite to make the supply of 
 water complete ; to provide and fit up in servants^ 
 privies two single-valve-pan water-closets, with flush- 
 ing apparatus, and pipes of 1-inch calibre for water 
 brought from cisterns in roofs, with necessary bends, 
 traps, joints, &c., for carrying soil into principal drain. 
 
 The plumber to furnish and provide the water-closets 
 as described, with all necessary traps, syphons, bends, 
 pipes, lead, solder, joints, taps, cocks, bosses, roses, and 
 every other article that is necessary for the full com- 
 pletion of his work. 
 
GLAZING; PAPER-HANGING. 
 
 139 
 
 GLAZIER. 
 
 To glaze tlie windows in attics with good seconds 
 Newcastle glass, properly beded and back puttied, and 
 the window in chamber-floor and water-closet with good 
 crown glass, which is to be well beded, braded, and back 
 puttied. 
 
 Ground Floor. 
 All the sashes on this floor to be glazed with 20-ounce 
 crown glass. 
 
 Basement Floor, 
 The bay-window in breakfast-room to be glazed with 
 20-ounce glass, and all the other windows to be with 
 the best Newcastle seconds glass. 
 
 PAINTER. 
 
 To knot, prime, and paint in three oils all the outside 
 wood and iron work, and to flat any of the inside work 
 when and where directed, and to finish the other in any 
 colour that may be hereafter decided on. 
 
 PAPER-HANGER. 
 To prepare and hang [except the hall passage, stair- 
 case, water-closet, and landing, ivhich are to be painted) 
 the whole of the chamber floor with paper hereafter 
 to be chosen, to the amount of Is, 6^?. a piece, and 
 the front and back parlour on the ground floor, and the 
 breakfast room on the basement floor, with paper to 
 the amount of 2^. &d, per piece, hanging and bordering 
 included. 
 
140 
 
 GENERAL CONDITIONS. 
 
 General Conditions, 
 
 It is to be distinctly understood that the party or 
 parties contracting for the erection of the buildings 
 herewith described^ are to provide and deliver on the 
 premises, all the materials, the best of their respective 
 qualities, also to provide and furnish all necessary plant, 
 scaffolding, labour, and all other articles that are re- 
 quisite for the full completion and finishing of the work, 
 according with the accompanying drawings and this 
 specification ; and if anything should be shown in the 
 drawings and not herein specified, or anything herein 
 specified that is not shown on the drawings, the same 
 to be executed as if fully shown and explained in both ; 
 and if any alteration from the drawings or this specifica- 
 tion should take place during the progress of the works, 
 such alteration not to make the contract or estimate 
 null and void, but the expense of such deviation to be 
 added to, or deducted from {as the case may be), such 
 estimate. 
 
 It is requested that the amount for each particular 
 trade, with a tarifi* of prices upon which such estimate 
 is founded, shall accompany each tender. 
 
QUANTITIES, 
 
 141 
 
 Quantities of the various Materials, and the Excavation 
 necessary, for the erection of two Houses proposed to 
 be built on a plot of ground situate 
 
 according to the various drawings [numbered from ] to 
 17 inclusive) and specifications made for that purpose. 
 
 PRINCIPAL BUILDING— CARCASS. 
 
 EXCAVATOR. 
 
 Cube 
 yards. 
 
 
 £ 
 
 at 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 573 
 
 To be excavated and carted away . 
 Levelling, filling-in, pugging, ramming, and 
 carting away earth, rubbish, &c. . 
 
 
 
 
 BRICKLAYER. 
 
 Rods. 
 
 Super. 
 
 Run. 
 
 
 
 200 
 
 
 
 200 
 
 28 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 at 
 
 Of 6 -inch glazed socket-pipes, 
 
 with requisite bends . 
 Of 4 -inch ditto . . . . 
 No. 8 15-inch gully traps 
 No. 4 6-inch syphons , , 
 Of reduced or standard brick- 
 work .... 
 Of rubbed malm arches 
 
142 
 
 CARPENTER. 
 
 Cube 
 feet. 
 
 Super. 
 
 Run. 
 
 
 
 at 
 ^• 
 
 
 25 
 925 
 
 
 
 Of Englisli oak, for sleepers . 
 
 184 loads of Riga timber, 
 framed in floors, partitions, 
 roof, cisterns, &c., according 
 to drawings and specifica- 
 tion* .... 
 
 
 
 
 * It perhaps is necessary to observe that this calculation embraces the net 
 quantity of timber required for the erection of the carcass of the buildings, exclu- 
 sive of any other article. 
 
 SMITH AND IRONFOUNDER. 
 
 Hoop-iron bond . 
 
 Chimney bars . 
 
 Clips and straps for partitions 
 
 For tension rods, &c. 
 
 For clips and straps to roof . 
 
 For bolts, &c. 
 
 Ties to cistern, &c. • 
 
 2759 lbs. = 24cwt. 711bs. 
 
 Exclusiye of all spikes, holdfasts, nails, screws, 
 and every other article requisite for the sound 
 fixing of the above-named works, which are 
 to be calculated in the estimate. 
 
 PLUMBER. 
 
 Of 6 -lb. lead, for flashings, &c. 
 Ditto, to dormer lights 
 
 5- lb. ditto, to sides of ditto . 
 
 6- lb. flashings to lights and chimney, &c. 
 ditto to cisterns 
 
 5143 lbs. = 45 cwt. 3 lbs. weight of milled lead, exclu- 
 sive of any other article. 
 
 at 
 
143 
 
 MASON. 
 
 Cube. 
 
 Super. 
 
 Run. 
 
 
 
 at 
 
 d. 
 
 50 
 
 70 
 
 
 Of tooled steps for doors . 
 
 No. 8 15 -inch gulley-stones, 
 properly dished, and five 
 holes in each . . . . 
 
 Of 5 -inch York landing for 
 rain-water tank . 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 Of tooled York, for trimmers 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 of floors, and heads and 
 sills of partitions, &c. . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 Of 12 -inch X 3 -inch throated 
 coping, for area walls, &c. . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 36 
 
 Of stone core for cornice, 1 ft. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 in. wide, 4 in. thick 
 Of dished and throated window- 
 sills . . ... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 60 
 
 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 
 Of 6 -inch rubbed York landing, 
 for entrance porches . 
 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 OO 
 
 75 
 71 
 
 No. 20 tooled and rubbed York 
 steps, for entrance doors . 
 
 Of 7 -inch tooled landing . , 
 
 Of 2 4 -inch tooled treads, 13 in. 
 wide, and 
 
 Ditto, for riser, 7 in. wide, for 
 steps from back entrance of 
 ground-floor to garden . 
 
 
 
 
 ♦ SLATER. 
 
 Square. 
 
 
 £ 
 
 at 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 24J 
 
 Of Duchess slating, with all cuttings and 
 pointings complete 
 
 No. 12 slate cantilevers or brackets, for 
 principal elevation — (See details of roof, 
 Plate 21) 
 
 No. 1 sawn slate filter, as shown and described 
 on Plate 14, with all necessary bolts, nuts, 
 screws, rods, perforated plates, &c., com- 
 plete . 
 
 
 
 
144 
 
 ZINC WORKER. 
 
 Super. 
 
 Run. 
 
 
 & 
 
 at 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 
 168 
 
 210 
 80 
 
 Of 6 -inch gutter, worked and fixed as 
 sliown on details of roof, Plate 21 
 
 No. 6 octagon heads, with shoes, &c., 
 complete . ^ . . . . 
 
 Of 4 -inch piping, for down-corners, 
 fixed complete .... 
 
 Of 3 -inch ditto, for ditto of entrance- 
 porches and bay windows . 
 
 
 
 
 Quantities of the various Materials requisite for finishing 
 and completing the Carcasses of two Houses, before 
 calculated for. 
 
 JOINER'S WORK. 
 
 Feet 
 Super, 
 
 Feet 
 Run. 
 
 No. 
 
 FLOORS. 
 
 £ 
 
 at 
 s. 
 
 d 
 
 1304 
 3120 
 
 
 
 Or 13 square 4 feet of 1 J -inch 
 white floor-boards, laid fold- 
 ing in attic and part of 
 basement stories 
 
 Or 31 square 20 feet yellow 
 deal floor-boards, laid with 
 a straight joint and splayed 
 headings, for chamber, 
 ground- floor, and part of 
 basement stories . . . 
 
 
 
 
 106 
 
 120 
 250 
 
 
 GROUNDS. 
 
 Of J-inch grounds 2-inch wide, 
 faced and chamfered, for 
 attic 
 
 Of 1-inch ditto, for chamber 
 floor . . . . . 
 
 Of 1-inch splayed framed 
 ground, 3^-inch wide, for 
 chamber floors . 
 
 
 
 
JOINERS' WORK continued. 
 
 Feet 
 Super. 
 
 Feet 
 Run. 
 
 No. 
 
 
 164' 
 
 380 
 
 
 Of l-incli X 24-inch ploughed 
 skirting groundSj for grouiid 
 floor . . ... 
 
 Of 1-inch ploughed and framed, 
 and 5 inches wide, for door 
 and windows (see plate 26) 
 
 SASHES AND FRAMES. 
 
 54 
 
 
 
 Of champhered and rebated 
 lights, with frames and 
 finishings made complete 
 according to the specifica- 
 tion , . . . , 
 
 VENETIAN AYINDOWS — 
 CHAMBER FLOOR. 
 
 120 
 
 120 
 
 52 
 
 
 ... 
 
 To front and hack windows, 
 with frames 1 4 -inch, oval 
 sashes, lining, and all finish- 
 ing complete, as shown on 
 the drawings and described 
 in the specification 
 
 Ditto for back-parlour and 
 kitchen windows, with 
 sashes, frames, suspended 
 shutters, and all finishings 
 complete . . . . 
 
 Of small frames, sashes, and 
 finishings complete, for small 
 windows, &c. . 
 
 BAY WINDOWS. 
 
 390 
 390 
 
 
 
 Of frames, sashes, lining, 
 soffeet, and all other finish- 
 ings complete, except the 
 metal shutters 
 
 With suspended shutters and 
 finishings complete, for 
 breakfast-room (see, for the 
 finishings of these windows, 
 plates 26 and 27, and speci- 
 fication) . , , . 
 
146 
 
 JOINERS' WORK continued. 
 
 Feet 
 
 Feet 
 
 Xo. 
 
 60 
 
 
 
 256 
 
 
 ... 
 
 106 
 
 
 ... 
 
 75 
 
 
 
 280 
 
 
 
 183 
 
 
 
 95 
 
 
 
 126 
 
 
 
 40 
 
 
 
 40 
 
 
 
 729 
 
 
 
 140 
 
 "* 1 
 
 
 at 
 
 Of 1-incli beaded Imings, with 
 stops braided on, for attic I 
 and part of basement story ; 
 
 Of 1-inch beaded and single : 
 rebated ditto ditto. . . ^ 
 
 Of 1^-inch beaded and double 
 rebated ditto ditto 
 
 DOOR-FRAMES, DOORS, AND 
 
 FINISHIIfGS. I 
 
 Of 1^-inch two-panel square j 
 doors, for attics and part of | 
 basement . . . . 
 
 Of ditto four-panel square 
 doors, for ground-floor and 
 part of basement 
 
 Of 1 1 -inch four- panel, moulded 
 on both sides, for ground- 
 floor and breakfast-room 
 
 For entrance-hall door frames, 
 transom-head, fan-light, 
 doors, and finishings, all 
 complete {see specification) 
 
 For back or garden entrance, 
 door-fi'ame, sash-door, side- 
 lights, fan-lights, boxing 
 shutters, and all other finish- 
 ings ci>mplete 
 
 Of door frame, with IJ-inoh 
 four- bead and butt complete, 
 for cellar . . . . 
 
 Frame, with transom-head 
 light and 1 4 -inch sash door, 
 lifting shutters, and all 
 other finishings complete 
 
 FRAMED PARTITIONS, WITH 
 DOORS, COMPLETE. 
 
 Of IJ-inch square panel, in- 
 cluding 6 two-panel 1^-inch 
 doors complete, for store- 
 cluset and pantries 
 
 Ditto, sash -partition and doors. 
 
147 
 
 JOINERS' WORK continued. 
 
 Feet 
 Super. 
 
 130 
 
 160 
 
 220 
 270 
 
 Feet 
 Run. 
 
 210 
 
 380 
 280 
 
 120 
 
 112 
 
 32 
 
 25 
 7 
 
 to divide stairs from lobby of 
 garden entrance . 
 Of l|-inch sash partition, to di- 
 vide stairs from water-closet 
 
 SKIRTINGS. 
 
 Of l-incb skirting, six inches 
 wide, for attic and part of 
 basement floors . 
 
 Of 1-inch ditto moulded, for 
 chamber floors 
 
 Of 1-inch rebated ditto, for 
 ground- floor and breakfast- 
 room .... 
 
 MOULDINGS. 
 
 Of 1 4-inch, to form architrave 
 over grounds, and pilaster in 
 attic story . . , . 
 
 Of 2 -inch, for chamber floor 
 
 Of 3|-inch, for ground -floors 
 and breakfast-room 
 
 Of 14 -inch, for basement 
 
 WATER-CLOSET. 
 
 Of mahogany seat and riser, 
 dished to basin and handles 
 
 Ditto mahogany-framed top, 
 with moulded nosing, lining 
 complete, and finished with 
 skirting all round . 
 
 Of mahogany wash-stand, with 
 closet and shelves, &c., un- 
 derneath * . 
 
 Of mahogany doors to ditto 
 
 Feet run of -|-inch skirting, 
 six inches wide . 
 
 Of rebated and beaded maho- 
 gany box, to cover service 
 and supply pipes . 
 
 {See specification for these 
 privies. ) 
 
 H 2 
 
148 
 
 JOINERS' WORK continued. 
 
 Feet Feet 
 
 ; Super. Run. 
 
 No. 
 
 80 
 
 \ 40 
 ! to 40 
 
 936 
 
 i 133 
 
 STAIRS FROM KITCHEN TO 
 GROUND-FLOOR. 
 
 Of l^-inch treads, properly 
 blocked .... 
 Of l-inch risers 
 
 Of l^-inch string boards with 
 bracket housings and carriage 
 complete .... 
 
 GEOMETRICAL CIRCULAR WELL- 
 STAIRS, FROM GROUND TO 
 CHAMBER FLOOR. 
 
 Of 1 J -inch yellow deal treads, 
 risers, strings, and carriage ; 
 therisers mitred into external j 
 string, and treads moulded : 
 and mitred to return nosings, ; 
 and the whole completed as | 
 shown on and described in j 
 specification 
 
 Blocked and veneered curtail 
 step, with return to join 
 external string 
 
 Of 24-inch sunk mahogany 
 moulded hand-rail, wreathed 
 to circular well, as well as 
 to curtail step, and to be 
 mitred into a hand-work 
 mahogany cap, with all bal- 
 lusters complete to cham- 
 ber landing, comprising the 
 fixing of one ornamental bal- 
 luster to curtail, and three 
 plain ones on the flight 
 
 STAIRS FRO'^I CHAMBER-FLOOR 
 TO ATTIC -FLOOR. 
 
 Of treads, risers, strings, and 
 carriage complete . . . 
 (See plan and specification.) 
 
PLASTERERS' WORK. 
 
 Superficial 
 Yards. Feet. Kun. 
 
 1018 
 iSi 
 
 65 
 70 
 596 
 
 240 
 188 
 236 
 
 20 
 9 
 
 3 
 60 
 
 34 
 
 47 
 
 200 
 
 320 
 
 46 
 42 
 12 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 50 
 
 10 
 
 44 
 
 Of lath, plaster, float and set 
 to ceilings and partitions . 
 Of render, float and set on walls 
 Of cornice, 10 -inch girth 
 Of ditto, 6-inch ditto . . 
 Of ditto, 5 -inch ditto 
 
 STAIRS. 
 
 Of lath, plaster, and stucco, to 
 hall, passage, and stairs 
 
 Of render, set and float in 
 stucco, on walls, &c. . 
 
 Of lime whitening 
 
 OUTSIDE WOUK, 
 IN ATKINSON CEMENT. 
 
 Of cornice, 5'inch girth, &c. . 
 
 Of ditto, 3 -inch fillet, for 
 chimney-top 
 
 Of string-course, freize, avolo 
 moulding, and sunk soffeet, 
 under eaves of front eleva- 
 tion . . . . . 
 
 Of sunk dentules, to front ele- 
 vation .... 
 
 Of plain lathed and trowelled 
 soff"eet, under eaves of sides 
 and back elevation 
 
 PORCHES. 
 
 Of lath and float, to ceilings . 
 Of cornice, on brickwork . 
 To caps and bases of pilasters 
 To bases of ditto . 
 Of render, float, and jointed to 
 
 spandrils of steps . 
 Ditto, cliamphered and worked 
 
 to steps {see plate 23) . 
 
 BAY WINDOWS. 
 
 With sunk joints to jambs . 
 Plain work to top . 
 Of cornice . . . . 
 To front, rendered, floated, and 
 
 sunk -jointed 
 Ditto, to area walls . 
 Of 6-inch string-course . 
 
150 
 
 MASOX. 
 
 Feet 
 Supyr. 
 
 No. 
 
 
 £ 
 
 at 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 10 
 
 397 
 
 ... 
 
 4 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 Of l-iDcb. rul)b6(i ^ort stoiiGj for 
 
 chimney -pieces in attic 
 Cbimney-pieces for chamber-floors 
 
 Ditto ditto for ground- floors 
 
 Ditto ditto for basement-floors . 
 Of 24 tooled York, for paving to areas 
 
 and cellars, including steps 
 
 
 
 
 FURXISHING mONMONGER. 
 
 v- ATTIC-FLOOR. 
 } AO. 
 
 8 f -inch pivots, with patent cords, complete . 
 
 8 pair of brass-cased pulleys ... . . 
 
 24 yards of patent sash-cord ..... 
 
 16 metal sash-weights . . . . . . 
 
 8 2 -inch spring sash -fastenings .... 
 
 I 16 pair of 24 butt hinge . . . . . . 
 
 2 4 -inch leaf spring latches ..... 
 
 2 4-inch iron closet locks . . . . . . 
 
 4 6-inch mortice-locks, with furniture, complete 
 
 WATER-CLOSET. 
 
 4 pair of 2^ butts ....... 
 
 2 4 g -inch brass s^Dring latches, complete 
 
 GROUND -FLOOR. 
 
 ] 2 brass-cased pulleys . . . . . . 
 
 30 yards patent cord . ... 
 
 12 metal weights ....... 
 
 4 2 -inch brass fastenings ..... 
 
 revolving shutters, with all requisite finishing, to 
 be estimated at so much each. 
 
 ENTRANCE-HALL AND BACK ENTRANCE. 
 
 8 pair of 4-inch butt hinges . . ... 
 
 4 best 10-inch draw-back mounted spring-]ocks 
 
 4 12-inch door-chains, brass-mounted, with asp, and 
 
 j all complete ........ 
 
 4 10 -inch barrel bolts ...... 
 
 4 18 -inch bow-latch shutter-bolts . . . . 
 
 4 3-iach brass spring-locks ..... 
 
FURNISHING IRONMONGER continued. 
 
 No. 
 4 
 4 
 
 SHUTTERS IN PARLOUK. 
 
 1-inch brass flush-riugs . . . . 
 brass clips for fastenings, with requisite pins 
 pair of 3 -inch butt hinges .... 
 3-inch flush bolts . . 
 6 -inch mortice locks, with furniture, complete 
 
 BASEMENT-STORY. 
 
 10 pair of brass-cased pulleys 
 
 30 yards patent cord 
 
 20 metal weights .... 
 
 2 6-inch mortice locks . 
 
 6 9 -inch iron -rim locks, with furniture, 
 
 12 10 -inch barrel bolts, complete . 
 
 6 6-inch iron-rim locks, ditto . 
 
 24 pair of ;i-inch butt hinges . 
 
 8 pair of 2 J -inch ditto 
 
 1 ornamental cast baluster . 
 
 3 plain ditto ditto, 2 ft. 6 in. high. 
 
 complete 
 
 BELL-HANGER. {See specification.) 
 
 PLUMBER. 
 
 Feet 
 
 
 
 at 
 
 
 Run. 
 
 
 £ 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 300 
 
 Of 1 J -inch service -pipe to principal cistern, with 
 fittings-up, complete .... 
 
 
 
 
 140 
 
 Ditto of waste into water-closet 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 Ditto to water-closet cistern and kitchen 
 To fit up, complete, two of Warner's patent 
 water-closets, {see specification), and two 
 single- valve closets, for secondary closets, in 
 yard . . ^ 
 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 Of 1-inch servi?.e-pipe to the same . 
 
 
 
 
152 
 
 GLAZIER. 
 
 Super. ! at 
 
 Feet. 
 
 
 
 
 
 d. 
 
 233 
 361 
 
 Of Newcastle seconds glass, beded and well 
 back puttied ...... 
 
 Of 20-ounce glass, tbe greater portion to be 
 braded, as well as back puttied {see specifi- 
 cation) . 
 
 
 
 
 PAINTER. 
 
 Yards. 
 
 No. 
 
 
 £ 
 
 at 
 
 
 346 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 11 
 4 
 
 Frames and saslies to attic 
 Venetian frames and sashes . 
 Ditto, usual size .... 
 Times in oil . . . . . 
 
 ^. 
 
 d. 
 
 40 
 
 *4 
 
 8 
 11 
 
 OUTSIDE WOKK. 
 
 To eaves, ka. ..... 
 
 To doors, iron- work, ka. . . . 
 
 Frames and sashes to attic 
 
 Venetian frames and sashes . . . 
 
 Ditto, usual size .... 
 
 All properly prepared and finished ac- 
 cording to specification. 
 
 
 
 
 PAPER-HANGER. 
 
 Yards. 
 
 Pieces. 
 
 
 £ 
 
 at 
 
 d. 
 
 
 30 
 27 
 14 
 
 For chamber-floor .... 
 For ground-floor . . . . . 
 For basement ..... 
 
 s. 
 
 These quantities only apply to the principal buildings 
 {the kitchen offices not being mchided), and which may 
 be executed for about 4O0/. each^ or 800/. the pair. 
 
15i 
 
 Plate II. 
 
155 
 
 Plate III. 
 
 BLOCK PLAN. SHOWING B U I L D 1 N CS . S^c. 
 
 A. t?AlN WATER 
 TAN K. 
 
 2B^^>C.^,_u^ yy -x\x y,L. 
 
 SCALE OF. FEET 
 
SCALE OF FEET. 
 
Plate V. 
 
 157 
 
 GROUND FLOOR PLANS 
 
 X V 9 -g xxjt. 
 
 S C A L E o r FEET 
 
158 
 
 Plate YI. 
 
 PLANS DE CHAMBER FLOOR. 
 
159 
 
 Plate YII. 
 
 PLAN OF ATTICS. 
 
 ^ C A L£r OF FEET . 
 
Plate VIII. 
 
 i 
 
 160, 161 
 
 PLAN or ROOTS 
 
 y r-, 0 10 
 
 SCAUC OF FC^T 
 
 J,0 
 
SCALE OF 
 
 F EE T,, 
 
r 
 
167 
 
• 
 
Pmtk XVIII. 
 
 171 
 
Plate XX. 
 
 173 
 
SCALE OF FEET. 
 
i 
 
177 
 
 Plate XXIV. 
 
 TRANSVERSE SECTION SHOWING 
 PARTITIONS FROM A. TO B. ON PLAN. 
 
 o 2,0 0 
 
 scale: of feet '\ " 
 
178 
 
 Plate XXV. 
 
 SCALe OF FEET 
 
Plate XXVT. 
 
 179 
 
181 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 INSTRUMENTS. 
 
 Having in Chapter V. endeavoured to explain the 
 construction of such instruments as are used for the 
 purpose of drawing lines^ whether straight or curved, 
 and hence producing geometrical figures, we will now 
 proceed to explain the best form of protractors which 
 are essential for laying down angles. 
 
 Protracto7's, 
 
 The edge of the semicircular is divided into 180 
 degrees, and subdivided to half degrees, or 30 minutes, 
 and numbered for the convenience of plotting. Round 
 the edge is carried a vernier, which subdivides the prin- 
 cipal divisions into single minutes. The vernier is at- 
 tached to an arm, forming a radius to the semicircle, 
 which is extended beyond the circumference, and has 
 on tbe extended part a fiducial edge, on which the 
 angular line is to be drawn. 
 
 The centre of the instrument, which is visible 
 from above, by the centre upon which the vernier 
 radius moves, is a ring placed concentric with the 
 centre. To use this instrument, it is only necessary 
 
 H 3 
 
182 
 
 INSTRUMENTS. 
 
 to set tlie vernier to the given angle, then place the 
 protractors so that the fiducial edge may in every part 
 exactly coincide with the line already given, and the 
 centre with the given angular point. A line then being 
 drawn along the fiducial edge will be the direction of 
 the line forming the angle required ; and upon moving 
 the protractor, such line may be produced and connected 
 wdth the angular point. In adjusting the fiducial edge 
 upon the given line, so that the centre may exactly 
 coincide with the given angular point, there is a certain 
 degree of practical difficulty {we are noiv alluding to 
 ivhenever great accuracy is aimed at) , 
 
 It is not, therefore, essential, in setting the instru- 
 ment, to have any regard to the given angular point, 
 but only to set the edge nicely upon the given line ; 
 then, with a needle point, make three punctures 
 in the paper, one near the extreme point, a second 
 at the circumference of the arc, and the third as 
 nearly as possible at the centre. The protractor may 
 then be removed; and if all has been accurately per- 
 formed, these three points wdll be in one straight line, 
 which may be transferred to pass through the given 
 angular point by straight edge or ruler. 
 
 The Circular Protractor. 
 
 Is a complete circle, connected in its centre by four 
 radii. Like the instrument last described, the centre is 
 left open, and surrounded by a concentric ring or collar, 
 which carries two radial bars. To the extremity of one 
 bar is a pipion, working in a toothed rack, quite round 
 
PROTRACTORS. 
 
 183 
 
 the outer circumference of the protractor. To the 
 opposite extremity of the other bar is fixed a vernier, 
 \yhich subdivides the primary divisions on the pro- 
 tractor to single minutes, and, by estimation, to 80 
 seconds. This vernier, as may readily be understood, 
 is carried round the protractor by turning the pinion. 
 Upon each radial bar is placed a branch, carrying at 
 their extremities a fine steel pricker, whose points are 
 kept above the surface of the papers by springs placed 
 under their supports, which give way when the branches 
 are pressed downwards, and allow the points to make 
 the necessary punctures in the paper. The branches 
 are attached to the bars with a joint, which admits of 
 being folded backwards over the instrument when not 
 in use, and for packing in its case. 
 
 The centre of the instrument is represented by the 
 intersection of two lines, drawn at right angles to each 
 other on a piece of glass, which enables the person 
 using it to place it so that the centre, or intersection of 
 the cross lines, may coincide with any given point on 
 the plane. If the instrument is in correct order, a 
 line, connecting the fine prickiug points with each 
 other, would pass through the centre of the instrument, 
 as denoted by the before-mentioned intersection of the 
 cross lines upon the glass, which, it may be observed, 
 are drawn so nearly level with the under surface 
 of the instrument, as to do away with any serious 
 amount of parallax when setting the instrument over 
 a point from which any angular lines are intended to 
 be drawn. 
 
181 
 
 PROTRACTORS. 
 
 In using this instrument, the vernier should first be 
 set to —zero [or the division marked 360), on the 
 divided limb, and then placed on the paper, so that 
 the two fine steel points may be on the given line 
 [from ID hence other and angular lines are to be 
 drawn), and the centre of the instrument coincides 
 with the given angular point on such line. This done, 
 press the protractor gently down, which will fix it in 
 position by means of very fine points on the under 
 sides. It is now ready to lay off the given angle, or any 
 number of angles that may be required, which is done 
 by turning the pinion till the opposite vernier reaches 
 the required angle. Then press down the branches, 
 w^hich will cause the points to make punctures in 
 the paper on opposite sides of the circle; which 
 being afterwards connected, the line will pass through 
 the given angular point, if the instrument was first 
 correctly set. In this manner, at one setting of the 
 instrument a great number of angles may be laid from 
 the same point. 
 
 As described for the last instrument, it is not essen- 
 tial that the centre be over the given point when ap- 
 plied to the given line, provided the pricking points 
 exactly fall upon the line ; for an imaginary line, con- 
 necting the pricking points in this instrument, corre- 
 spond with the line on the diameter of the protractor 
 last described. Sometimes, instead of a rack and 
 pinion motion, a third radial arm is attached to the 
 centre at right angles to the other two, upon which is 
 fixed a clamp and tangent screw^, by which the vernier 
 
PLAIN SCALES. 
 
 185 
 
 is not only fixed in position upon the circular limb of 
 the instrument, but by the tangent, or slow motion 
 screWj it may be set to the required angle with the 
 greatest accuracy. 
 
 Plain, Circular^ and Semicircular Protractors. 
 
 Other and very useful protractors are made, con- 
 sisting of a circle or semicircle, without verniers, slow- 
 motion screws, or any other appendages, having simply 
 a fiducial circular edge, nicely divided to degrees and 
 half-degrees, or more minute subdivisions, if the instru- 
 ment is sufficiently large to admit of them. A very 
 useful instrument of this kind has a diameter of six 
 inches, and will be found sufficiently accurate for most 
 ordinary purposes, and not above one-third of the cost 
 of the above-named instrument, which, however, must 
 be resorted to when the utmost attainable accuracy is 
 required. 
 
 The Plain Scale, 
 
 This instrument is usually made of ivory, 6 inches 
 long, and If inches broad; it has on it two diagonal 
 scales, one half the size of the other, on the same 
 plane or face of the instrument, which, for distinction 
 sake, we will call the upper side. These diagonal 
 scales consist of eleven parallel lines, drawn equi- 
 distant from each other, and divided by vertical lines 
 into equal parts of an iuch long, and numbered from 
 right to left — 1, 2, 3, &c. The top and bottom lines 
 of the extreme half-inch space to the right is sub- 
 
186 
 
 PLAIN SCALES. 
 
 divided into ten equal parts by diagonal lines drawn 
 from tlie tenth below to tlie ninth above^ from the 
 ninth below to the eighth above^ from the eighth 
 below to the seventh above^ &c.^ till from the first 
 below to the nothing above, so that by these means the 
 half-inch space is subdivided into 100 equal parts. 
 Thus, if each of the first divisions of the half-inch spaces 
 be considered to represent unity, each of the first 
 divisions will express ~ of 1, and each of the subdi- 
 visions taken on the diagonal lines, counting from the 
 top downwards, wdll express — l^s^ subdivisions, 
 
 Y^-^ of the half-inch spaces {or primary divisions). If 
 each of the half-inch spaces (or primary divisions) be 
 considered as representing 1 0, then each of the first 
 subdivisions will express 1 {or unity), and each of the 
 second -j-V of unity. Again, if each of the primarj^ 
 divisions {or half-inch spaces) be considered to represent 
 100, then each of the first subdivisions will express 10, 
 and - each of the second subdivisions 1, or unity, 
 &c., &c. 
 
 The method of taking distances from the scale may 
 be thus shown : — Suppose the distance to be 347 on the 
 diagonal, lined, joined to the 4th subdivision on the top 
 line, count 7 downwards, reckoning the distance of each 
 parallel as 1 ; there set one point of the compasses, 
 and extend the other till it falls on the intersec- 
 tion of the third primary division with the same 
 parallel in which the other point of the compasses 
 rests, and their opening will then express a line of 
 347, 34-7, or 3*47, according as we may have con- 
 
SCALES. 
 
 187 
 
 sidered the primary divisions to represent 100^ 10^ or 
 unity. 
 
 The smaller diagonal scale is formed by dividing the 
 half-inch space into two^ and the further or left-hand 
 quarter of an inch space is then diagonally divided as 
 above described. 
 
 On the same or upper face of the instrument^ a pro- 
 tractor is formed x'ound its edges^ and after what has 
 been stated upon that instrument^ nothing more than 
 the mention of it is requisite in this place. On the 
 under surface of the instrument a variety of scales are 
 engraved, among which are the following : — 
 
 Line of Chords marked 
 
 Rhombs 
 
 , , Tangents , , 
 
 J , Sines , , 
 
 , , Secants , , 
 
 Longitudes ., 
 
 Latitudes 
 
 Inclination of ) 
 
 Meridians ) " 
 
 , J Hours , , 
 
 Besides scales having the following number of equal 
 divisions to the inch : — 30, 35, 45, 50, and 60. 
 
 The line of chords serves either to set off an angle 
 from a given point to any line, or to measure the quan- 
 tity of any angle already laid down. The first is done 
 by opening the compasses to the extent of 60 degrees 
 upon the line of chords (which is always equal to the 
 radius, the circle of projection), and setting one foot 
 upon the angular point ; with that extent describe an 
 
 C or C H. 
 
 RH. 
 
 T A. 
 
 SL 
 
 SEC. 
 
 L 0 N. 
 
 LA. 
 
 IM. 
 
 HO. 
 
188 
 
 SCALES. 
 
 arc ; then taking the angular quantity from the same 
 chord line^ set it off from the given line upon the arc 
 described; a right line connecting the given point with 
 that upon the arc will form the angle required. To 
 measure an angle already laid down, describe as before 
 an arc of 60 degrees ; and then taking the extent 
 with a pair of compasses between the lines which form 
 the angle upon the said arc, the opening measured upon 
 the same line of chords will denote the dimensions of 
 the angle. 
 
 The line of rhombs serves to lay down or measure on 
 a chart the angle of a ship^s course in navigation. 
 
 The lines of tangents^ sines,, and secants^ are used in 
 the stereographical and orthographical projection of the 
 sphere. 
 
 The line of longitudes^ with the help of the line of 
 chords, will show how many miles are contained in a 
 degree of longitude at any latitude. Thus, with a pair 
 of compasses take from the line of chords the number 
 of degrees of the given latitude, and apply the opening 
 of the compasses to the line of longitude, placing one 
 point of the compasses on the last division, marked 60 
 on the longitudes, the other point will note upon the 
 same line the number of miles in one degree of longi- 
 tude at the given latitude. For example, if the given 
 latitude be 60 degrees, take 60 from the line of chords, 
 and applying one point of the compasses on the last 
 division of the line of longitude {iinarked 60), the other 
 point will fall upon the division marked 30 on the same 
 line, showing that 30 miles is contained in one degree 
 
SECTOR. 
 
 189 
 
 of longitude at the latitude of 60 degrees. The lines 
 of latitude, inclination of meridian, and of hours, are 
 applicable to the practice of dialling, which does not 
 fall within our present purpose. 
 
 Plotting Scales and Rules. 
 
 These need but few observations, as they are nothing 
 more than scales of equal parts, the divisions being 
 placed on a fiducial edge, by which any length may be 
 pricked off on the paper without using the compasses, 
 whose points, by frequent use, destroy the fineness of 
 the graduation. Plotting scales are made of various 
 dimensions, and of all varieties of graduation, to suit 
 the purposes of the draftsman. Parallel rulers are also 
 made of various constructions — some of them sliding, 
 and others with rollers, each having its own advantages. 
 The plain scale above described is frequently fitted with 
 rollers, making it at the same time a convenient small 
 parallel. The instrument shown in the engraving is so 
 constructed and shown. 
 
 The Sector, 
 
 The sector derives its name from the fourth propo- 
 sition of the sixth book of Euclid, where it is demon- 
 strated that similar triangles have their like sides 
 proportional. 
 
 This instrument consists of two rulers, moveable 
 round an axis or joint, from whence several scales are 
 drawn on the faces of the rulers. 
 
 The two rulers are called legs, and represent the 
 
190 PROPORTIONS. 
 
 radii^ and the middle of the joint expresses the centre 
 of a circle. 
 
 The scales generally put upon sectors may be dis- 
 tinguished into single and double. The single scales 
 are such as are commonly put on plain scales^ and 
 may be applied in the same manner. The double 
 scales are those which proceed from the centre ; each 
 scale is laid twice on the same face of the instrument^ 
 namely, one on each leg. From these scales, dimen- 
 sions or distances are to be taken, when the legs of the 
 instrument are in an angular position. 
 
 The Decimal Scale. 
 
 This scale lies on the edge of the instrument, and is 
 of the same length as the sector when opened [one foot 
 is the usual length for sectors placed in cases of instru- 
 ments), and is divided into 10 equal parts or primary 
 divisions, and each of these into 10 other equal parts^ 
 so 'that the whole (foot) is divided into 100 equal 
 parts. 
 
 The Line of Artificial Nimibers. 
 
 The line of numbers (marked n), or Gunter's Line, 
 as it is commonly called, is a line of geometrical pro- 
 portion divided into nine unequal parts, beginning at 1 
 towards the left hand, and numbered on with 2, 3, 4, 5, 
 &c., to 10, about the middle of the line, where another 
 radius begins, and the same divisions are repeated^ 
 numbered as before to 10, at the end of the line on 
 the right hand. Each of these primes, or first grand 
 
PROPORTIONS. 
 
 191 
 
 divisions, are subdivided, according to the same ratio, 
 into ten other parts, and each of these divisions (if the 
 line be of sufficient length) should again be subdivided 
 into ten lesser parts. But upon pocket sectors, which, 
 when opened, are twelve inches in length, only the part 
 from 1 in the middle to 2 towards the right hand is a 
 second time divided, and that but into five parts instead 
 of ten, everv one of which must be accounted as two 
 centesms in numbering; therefore, upon the line the 
 figures 1, 2, 3, &c., which denote the primes, may be 
 taken arbitrarily, either as units, tens, hundreds, or 
 thousands, or thousandth parts of an unit. 
 
 If 1, at the beginning of the line, be taken for unity, 
 then 1 in the middle will be 10, and 10 at the end 100; 
 but if the first 1 be accounted 10, then 1 in the middle 
 will stand for 100, and 10 at the end for 1000. Again, 
 if the first 1 be reckoned 100, then 1 in the middle 
 will be 1000, and 10 at the end 10,000. 
 
 When, therefore, the first, or prime, represents 10 
 units, the figures 2, 3, 4, &c. to 1 in the middle, will 
 stand for 20, 30, 40, &c. ; and each tenth, or subdivision 
 in the first radius of the line, will signify 1 unit ; and 
 each centesm in those tenths (if there be any) will be one- 
 tenth part of an unit ; 1 in the middle will be [as before 
 observed) 100; and the figures 2, 3, 4, &c. following, 
 200, 300, 400, &c. ; each tenth, or subdivision in the 
 second radius, will denote 1 0 units ; and each centesm 
 1 unit. Again, let the first 1 represent 100, then the 
 2, 3, 4, &c. following, 200, 300, 400, &c. ; 1 in the 
 middle 1000; and 10 at the end 10,000. According 
 
193 
 
 PllOPORTIONS. 
 
 to this supposition^ in tlie first, each tenth of a prime 
 will be 10 units^ and each centesm 1 unit; and in the 
 second radius^ each tenth of a prime 100, and each 
 centesm 10. 
 
 In estimating decimal fractions upon the line^ if 1 
 in the middle be accounted as unity, then will each 
 prime in the first radius denote -1, each tenth of a 
 prime '01, and each centesm '001, If 10 at the end of 
 the line to the right hand be accounted as unity, the 
 whole first radius will represent 1, and 2, 3, 4, &c., in 
 the second radius will represent 2, 3, 4, &c. ; every 
 prime in the first radius, and every tenth of a prime in 
 the second radius, will signify '01, or one hundreth 
 part of unity, or centesm ; in the second, will denote 
 •001, or thousandth part of unity. 
 
 The numeration of the line thus explained, let it now 
 be proposed to find the point thereon, answering to the 
 number 436. For four hundred, take the first four 
 primes next the left hand ; for the second figure, 3, 
 take three tenths of the grand division between 4 
 and 5 ; and for the six units, reckon six centesms, 
 or six parts of the next tenth, so that the extent 
 from 1 at the beginning of the line to that point, 
 will express the number 436. The same point will 
 likewise represent the numbers 43*6, 4-36, or 436 ; 
 if the first be accordingly accounted 10, 1, or of 
 unity. 
 
 To multiply upon the line, extend your compasses 
 from 1 at the beginning, to the point representing the 
 number of your multiplier. The same extent will 
 
SINES AND TANGENTS. 
 
 193 
 
 reach from the number of your multiplicand to the 
 product. Thus^ if 125 were given to be multiplied by 
 42^ extend the compasses from 1 to 42, and the same 
 extent will reach from 125 to 5250. 
 
 To divide upon the line, extend your compasses 
 backwards from the numbers of the division to 
 unitj^ The same extent, laid the same way, will 
 reach from the number of the dividend to the quo- 
 tient. Thus, if 5250 were to be divided by 125, 
 extend the compasses backwards from 125 to unity; 
 the same extent will reach the same way, from 5250 
 to 42. 
 
 The Lines of Artificial Sines and Tangents. 
 
 The line of artificial sines {marked s) consists only of 
 the logarithms of the natural sines, transferred from a 
 table of logarithms to the scale. They are numbered 
 from the left to the right, with the figures 1, 2, 3, &c., 
 to 10, which stands about the middle of the line ; and 
 so forward with 20, 30, 40, &c., to 90, at the end on 
 the right. In the first part of the line, the grand 
 divisions each represent one degree ; so that if each 
 prime be subdivided into twelve parts {as they are 
 commonly called upon sectors), each subdivision will 
 represent five minutes. In the latter part of the line, 
 the grand divisions, which are each ten degrees, being 
 subdivided into ten parts, each of them will signify five 
 minutes. In the latter part of the line the grand 
 divisions, which are each ten degrees, being subdivided 
 
194 
 
 SOLUTIONS. 
 
 into ten parts, each of them will represent one 
 degree ; and according as they are again subdivided 
 into four, three^ or two parts, such second divisions 
 contain fifteen, twenty, or thirty minutes each. 
 
 What has been stated of the line of sines, is likewise 
 to be understood of the line of artificial tangents, 
 [marked t), whose divisions begin also at 1, and run on 
 to 10 in the middle of the line, signifying degrees. In 
 the second part it runs on with 20, 30, &c., to 45, which 
 stands at the end of the line ; then returns back again 
 to 90, where it began. 
 
 The use of these lines is in working proportions, 
 whether arithmetical or geometrical, as well as in tri- 
 gonometrical solutions. Thus^ in all proportions, three 
 terms are given to find a fourth. Seek out, therefore, 
 the first term, whether number, sine, or tangent, on its 
 proper line; and in that point set one foot of the 
 compasses, and extend the other to the second or third 
 term, whichever of them is of the same name as the 
 first : the same extent laid from the other term the 
 same way, will reach to the fourth term required. 
 
 Example, — As the sine of 52"^. 30' : 85 :: radius, or 
 the sine of 90"" to the fourth number required. 
 
 Set one foot of the compasses in the line of artificial 
 sines on 52°. 30', and extend the other foot to 90° on 
 that line ; the same extent will reach from 85 on the 
 line of numbers to 107, the fourth term required. 
 
SCALES. 
 
 195 
 
 The Double Scales. 
 
 These consist of the line of lines^ or of equal parts 
 marked l ; the line of chords marked c ; the line 
 of sines marked s ; the line of secants also marked 
 Sj but placed on the reverse side of the sector ; the 
 line of polygons marked Pol; a line of tangents to 
 45° marked t ; and also a second line of tangents from 
 45° to 75°. Each of these scales begins at the centre 
 of the instrument^ and is terminated near the other 
 extremity of each leg; viz. the lines at 10^ the chords 
 at 60^ the sines at 90°^ and the tangents at 45°; the 
 remainder of the tangents, or those above 45°, are on 
 other scales beginning at J of the length of the former, 
 counted from the centre, and marked with 45, and run 
 to about 76 degrees. 
 
 The secants also begin at the same distance from the 
 centre, where they are marked with 10, and are con- 
 tinued to as many degrees as the length of the sector 
 will allow, which is about 75°. 
 
 The angles made by the double scales of lines of 
 chords, of sines, and of tangents to 45 degrees, are 
 always equal. 
 
 The angles made by the scales of upper tangents, 
 and of secants, are also equal, and sometimes these 
 angles are made equal to those made by the other double 
 scales. 
 
 The scale of polygons is put near the inner edge of 
 the legs; their beginning is not so far removed from 
 
196 
 
 INSTRUMENTS. 
 
 the centre as the 60 on the chords is. The beginning 
 of this scale is marked 4, and from thence is figured 
 towards the centre of the instrument to 12. 
 
 From this disposition of the double scales^ it is plain 
 that those angles which are equal to each other when 
 the legs of the sector are close^ will continue equal to 
 each other at every opening of the instrument. 
 
 Method of using the Double Lines on the Sector. 
 
 When a measure is taken on any of the sectoral 
 lines beginning at the centre^ it is called a lateral 
 distance ; but when a measure is taken from any point 
 on one line, to its corresponding point on the line of 
 the same denomination on the other leg, it is called a 
 transverse distance. 
 
 The divisions of each sectoral line are contained 
 within three parallel lines^ the innermost being the line 
 on which the points of the compasses are to be placed, 
 because this is the only line of the three which goes to 
 the centre, and is therefore the sectoral line. 
 
 Line of Lines, 
 
 Multiplication, — With the compasses, take from any 
 convenient distance from the scale of equal parts the 
 length of one of the factors, and open the sector until 
 the transverse distance between 10 and 10 is equal to 
 it j then the transverse distance of the other factor 
 [measured upon the same scale of equal parts) will repre- 
 sent the product. 
 
 Example, — Multiply 4 by 5, expand the compasses 
 
PROPORTIONS. 
 
 19T 
 
 from the centre of the sector to 4 on the primary divi- 
 sions {or take it from a7iy other scale of equal parts), and 
 open the sector till this division becomes the transverse 
 distance from 10 to 10 on the same divisions ; then 
 the transverse distance from 5 to 5 measured upon the 
 same scale as the former, will equal 2 or 20, the 
 answer. 
 
 Division. — Make the lateral distance of the dividend 
 the transverse distance of the divisor ; the transverse 
 distance of 10 will be the quotient. 
 
 Eooample, — Divide 20 by 4. Make 20, taken from 
 any convenient scale of equal parts, the transverse dis- 
 tance of 4, then the transverse of 10 (measured upon 
 the same scale) will be 5, the answer. 
 
 It will readily be perceived for the multiplication or 
 division of high numbers, aliquot parts of both factors 
 must be taken, and the result multiplied by the same. 
 The application of the sector to such common arith- 
 metical operations is therefore very limited {and of 
 doubtful utility). 
 
 Proportion, — Two lines being given to find a third 
 proportional. 
 
 Example, — The given = 2 and 6, a third propor- 
 tional required. Take between the compasses the lateral 
 distance of the second term 6 {either from the line of 
 lines on the sector, or any convenient scale), and open 
 the sector until this distance becomes the transverse 
 distance to the first term 2, then the transverse distance 
 of the second term 6 measured upon the same scale as 
 the former, will equal 18, the third proportional required. 
 
198 
 
 PROPORTIONS. 
 
 If the legs of the sector will not open so far as to let 
 the lateral distance of the second term fall between the 
 divisions expressing the first term^ then take ^, J, J, or 
 any aliquot part of the second term {such as will con- 
 veniently fall within the opening of the sector), and 
 make such part the transverse distance of the first 
 term; then, if the transverse distance of the second 
 term be multiplied by the denominator of the part 
 taken of the second term, the product will give the 
 third proportional required. Thus, in the above example, 
 take J of 6 = 2, which make the transverse distance of 
 2 the first term ; then the transverse distance of 6 the 
 second term will be = 6, which multiplied by 3, will 
 give 18, the answer. 
 
 Three lines being given to find a fourth proportional, 
 open the sector until the lateral distance of the second 
 term, or some aliquot part thereof, becomes the trans- 
 verse section of the first term, or some aliquot part 
 there'of, becomes the transverse distance of the first 
 term ; then the transverse distance of the third term 
 will be the fourth proportional required, or such a sub- 
 multiple thereof as was taken of the second term. 
 
 Example. — To find a fourth proportional to the 
 numbers 2, 6 and 10. 
 
 Take this lateral distance of the second term 6 from 
 any convenient scale of equal parts, and open the sector 
 until that quantity, or any aliquot part thereof, becomes 
 the transverse distance of the first term 2, then the 
 transverse distance of the third term 10, taken from 
 the same scale of equal parts will give 30, the fourth 
 proportional required. 
 
PROPORTIONS, 199 
 
 To diminish a Line in any Assigned Proportion. 
 
 Example. — Let it be required to diminisli a line of 4 
 inches in the proportion of 8 to 7. Open the sector 
 until the transverse distance of 8 is equal to a lateral 
 distance of 7. 
 
 Mark the point where 4 inches will reach as a lateral 
 distance taken from the centre, which will be in this 
 case 6.86, and the transverse distance taken at the 
 point will be 3 inches and a-half, the proportion re- 
 quired, that is, 8 : 7 I : 4 : 3^. 
 
 We may remark, once for all, that in all problems 
 with the sector, if any given line is too long for the legs 
 of the instrument, take J, or J, &c. of it, and the 
 result multiplied by 2, 3, or 4, will give the quantity 
 required. 
 
 The use of the sector in reducing drawings may be 
 thus shown : — Suppose a triangle was to be reduced to 
 the proportion of 4 to 7. 
 
 Take the length of one side of the triangle in the com- 
 passes, and make it the transverse distance of 7 and 7 ; 
 then take the transverse distance 4 and 4, which will be 
 the length of the corresponding side of the reduced 
 triangle. Next take the length of another side of the 
 given triangles, and make the transverse distance of 7 
 and 7 as before. Then the transverse distance of 4 and 4 
 will be the length of the corresponding side of the 
 reduced triangle, one point of the compasses being 
 placed at the proper extremity of the first reduced line. 
 
PllOPORTIONS. 
 
 describe :nnz a^c . vrith the leugtli bi ilie second line as 
 radius. Lastly^ the third side of the given triangle 
 being made the transverse distance of 7 and 7, and that 
 of 4 and 4 being taken^ another arc intersecting the 
 former one^ described from the opposite end of the first 
 reduced line^ will give the point to be connected with 
 each end of the first reduced line^ and the triangle will 
 be completed. 
 
 In the same manner^ any right-lined figure^ of how 
 many sides soever^ may be reduced in any given pro- 
 portion or augmented by the same rule. 
 
 To divide a given line into any proposed number of 
 equal parts : — 
 
 Make the length of the given line the transverse dis- 
 tance to the figures representing the number of parts 
 reqnired ; then the transverse distance of 1 and 1 M^ill 
 divide the given line as required. 
 
 Example, — Suppose a line to be divided into 9 equal 
 parts/ take the length of the given line in the com- 
 passes, and open the sector until it becomes the trans- 
 verse distance between 9 and 9 ; then the transverse of 
 1 and 1 will be -^th part of the given line, or such a 
 sub-multiple of the -i^th part as was taken of the given 
 line, br the -^th part will be the diff'erence between 
 the given line and the transverse distance 8 and 8. 
 
 The latter of these methods is to be preferred 
 when the parts required falls near the centre of the 
 instrument. 
 
 To make the line of lines represent any scale of equal 
 parts for drawing, plans, elevations, &c. Thus, sup- 
 
LINE OF CHORDS. 
 
 201 
 
 pose a scale of one to five chains^ or one inch to five 
 feet were required. Take one inch in the compasses^ 
 and, by opening the sector, make it the transverse dis- 
 tances of 5 and 5, and then the transverse distance of 
 any other corresponding points, as 6 and 6, 7^ and 7^ 
 will be that number of chains, and links or feet, &c., 
 to the scale required. 
 
 Line of Chords. 
 
 The double scales of chords upon the sectors are 
 more generally useful than the single line of chords 
 described on the plane scale : for, on the sector, the 
 radius with which the arc is to be described may be of 
 any length, between the transverse distance of 60 and 
 of 60, when the legs are close, and that of the transverse 
 of 60 and 60 when the legs are opened as far as the in- 
 strument will admit of. But with the chords on the 
 plane scale, the arc described must be always of the 
 same radius. 
 
 To protract or laj^ down a right-lined angle, which 
 shall contain a given number of degrees, suppose 46°. 
 
 Case 1. — When the angles contain less than 60 
 degrees, make the transverse distance of 60 and 60 
 equal to the length of the radius of the circle, and with 
 that opening describe an arc. Take the trans versp 
 distance of the given degrees 46, and lay this distance 
 on the arc. From the centre of the arc, draw two lines, 
 each passing through one extremity of the distance laid 
 on the arc, and these two lines will contain the angle 
 required. 
 
 I 2 
 
202 
 
 LINE OF POLYGONS. 
 
 Case 2. — When tlie angle contains more than 60 
 degrees. Suppose^ for example^ we wish to form an 
 angle containing 148 degrees. Describe an arc, and 
 make the transverse distance of J or J, &c., of the 
 given number of degrees, and lay this distance on the 
 arc twice or thrice. Draw two lines connecting them, 
 and they will form the angle required. 
 
 When the required angle contains less than 5 de- 
 grees, suppose 3^, it will be better to proceed thus 
 with the given radius, and from the centre describe an 
 arc, and from a given point lay off the chord of 60°, 
 which suppose to give the point a ; and also from the 
 first point lay off in the same direction the chord of 
 56^ degrees ( = 60° — 3^°), which would give the point b ; 
 then through these two points draw lines to the point a, 
 and they will represent the angle of 3^ degrees, as 
 required. From what has been stated about the pro- 
 tracting of an angle to contain a given number of 
 degrees, it will easily be seen how to find the degrees 
 or measure of an angle already laid down. 
 
 Line of Polygons, 
 
 The line of polygons is chiefly useful for the ready 
 division of the circumference of a circle into any 
 number of equal parts from 4 to 12, that is as a 
 ready means to inscribe regular polygons of any 
 given number of sides from 4 to 12, within a given 
 circle. To which set off the radius of the given circle 
 (which is always equal to the side of an inscribed 
 hexagon), as the transverse distance of 6 and 6 upon 
 
POLYGONS. 
 
 203 
 
 the line of polygons. Then the transverse distance of 
 6 and 6 npon the line of polygons. Then the trans- 
 verse distance of 4 and 4 will be the side of a sqnare ; 
 the transverse distance between 5 and 5^ the side of a 
 pentagon ; between 7 and 1, the side of a heptagon ; 
 between 8 and 8 the side of an octagon ; between 9 and 
 9, the side of a nonagon^ &c. ; all of which is too 
 plain to require an example. 
 
 If it be required to form a polygon upon a given 
 right line, set off the extent of the given line as a 
 transverse distance between the points upon the lines 
 of polygons, answering to the number of sides of which 
 the polygon is to consist, as for a pentagon between 5 
 and 5, or for an octagon between 8 and 8 ; then the 
 transverse distance between 6 and 6 will be the radius 
 of a circle whose circumference would be divided by 
 the given line into the number of sides required. 
 
 The line of potygons may likewise be used in describ- 
 ing, upon a given line, an isosceles triangle, whose 
 angles at the base are each double that at the vertex. 
 For, taking the given line between the compasses, open 
 the sector, till the extent becomes the transverse dis- 
 tance of 10 and 10, then the transverse distance of 6 
 and 6 will be the length of each of the two equal sides 
 of the isosceles triangle. 
 
 All such regular polygons, whose number of sides 
 will exactly divide 360 (the number of degrees into 
 which all circles are supposed to be divided) without a 
 remainder, may likewise be set off upon the circum- 
 ference of a circle by the line of chords. Thus, take 
 
204 
 
 SINES^ TANOENTS. 
 
 the radius of the circle between the compasses, and 
 open the sector till that extent is the transverse 
 distance between 60 and 60 upon the liiie of chords ; 
 then having divided 360 by the required number of 
 sides, the transverse distance between the numbers of 
 the quotient will be the side of the polygon required. 
 Thus for an octagon, take the distance between 45 and 
 45 ; and for a polygon of 36 sides, take the distance 
 between 10 and 10, &c. 
 
 Lines of Sines, Tangents, and Secants, 
 
 Given the radius of a circle (suppose to two inches) ; 
 required the sine and tangent of 28°. 30' to the radius. 
 
 Open the sector so that the transverse distance of 
 90 and 90 on the sines, or of 45 and 45 on the tangents, 
 may be equal to the given radius, viz. two inches ; then 
 will the transverse distance of 28^. 30', taken from the 
 sines;; be the length of that sine to the given radius ; or 
 if taken from the tangents, will be the length of that 
 tangent to the given radius. But if the secant of 
 38°.30' was required, make the given radius of two 
 inches a transverse distance of 0 and 0, at the begin- 
 ning of the line of secants, and then take the transverse 
 distance of the degrees wanted, viz. 28°.30'. 
 
 A tangent greater than 45 degrees (suppose 60) is 
 found thus : — 
 
 Make the given radius, suppose two inches, a trans- 
 verse distance to 45, and 45 at the beginning of the 
 scale of upper tangents, and then the required degrees 
 (60) may be taken from the scale. 
 
SINES^ TANGENTS. 
 
 205 
 
 Given the length of the sine, tangent^ or secant of 
 any degrees, to find the length of the radius to that 
 sine, tangent, or secant. 
 
 Make the given length a transverse distance to its 
 given degrees on its respective scale. Then, 
 
 If a sine ^ f„„„„ f 00 and 90 on the sines ^ will be 
 
 If a tangent under 45° ! ^ i 45 and 45 on the tangents 1 the 
 
 If a tangent above 45° rj^^ ® | 45 and 45 on the upper tangents ( radius 
 
 If a secant J 0 and 0 on secants J sought. 
 
 To find the length of a versed sine to a given number 
 of degrees, and a given radius. 
 
 Make the transverse distance of 90 and 90 on the 
 sine, equal to the given radius. 
 
 Take the transverse distance of the complement of 
 the given number of degrees. 
 
 If the given number of degrees is less than 90, sub- 
 tract the complement of the sine from the radius, the 
 remainder will be the versed sine. 
 
 If the given number of degrees are more than 0, 
 add the complement of the sine to the radius, and the 
 sum will be the versed sine. 
 
 To open the legs of a sector, so that the correspond- 
 ing double scale of lines, chords, sines, tangents, may 
 make each a right angle. 
 
 On the line of lines, make the lateral distance 10, a 
 transverse distance between 8 on one leg, and 6 on the 
 other leg. 
 
 On the line of sines, make the lateral distance 90, a 
 transverse distance 45 to 45 ; or from 40 to 50 ; or 
 from 30 to 60; or from the sine of any degrees to their 
 complement. 
 
206 
 
 DRAWING INSTRUMENTS. 
 
 On the line of tangents, make the lateral distance of 
 45 a transverse distance between 30 and 30. 
 
 Having now endeavoured to describe the principal 
 drawing instruments in general use, and the principal 
 scales from which all others emanate, we propose at 
 some future period to exemplify the simplicity of their 
 application to all the trades engaged in the building 
 art, accompanied by some useful diagrams and geo- 
 metrical problems. 
 
 The Author is desirous of soliciting a favourable con- 
 sideration for any unintentional errors that may have 
 inadvertently been made ; for, although every precau- 
 tion has been taken to make the work correct, some 
 inaccuracies will no doubt be found, and which are 
 unavoidable in a work of this description. 
 
 THE END. 
 
 BRADBURY AND EVANS, PRINTERS, WHITEFRIARS. 
 
In 1 vol. 4to., with 74 plates, extra clotli boards and lettered, price 21*., 
 
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 OR, 
 
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 A NEW EDITION, 
 
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 REVISED BY 
 
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 The volume comprises 68 Plates, consisting of Bridges of Stone, Viaducts, Iron 
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 extra large 4to, extra cloth boards and lettered, 
 
 THE PRACTICAL RAILWAY ENGINEER : 
 
 BXAMi-LES OF THE MECHANICAL AND ENGINEERING OPERATIONS AND STRUOTUREfl 
 COMBINED IN THE MAKING OF A RAILWAY. 
 
 By G. D. DEMPSEY, C.E. 
 
 contents. 
 
 Section I. — Curves, gradients, gauge, and 
 slopes. 
 
 Section II. — Survey and levels for a railway 
 — Parliamentary plan and section — Limits 
 of deviation — Setting out the line — Work- 
 ing plans and sections — Computing quan- 
 tities — Opening the ground. 
 
 Section III. — Earthworks, cuttings, em- 
 bankments, and drains. 
 
 LIST OF 
 
 1. Cuttings. 
 
 2, 8, 4. Earthworks, excavatmgf. 
 6. Ditto, embanking. 
 
 6. Ditto, waggons. 
 
 7 Drains under bridges. 
 
 8, Brick and stone culverts. 
 
 9. Paved crossings. 
 
 10. Railway bridges, diagram. 
 
 11, 12, 13, 14. Bridges, brick and stone. 
 15, 16. Ditto, iron. 
 
 17, 18, 19, 20, 21. Ditto, timber. 
 
 22 Centers for bridges. 
 
 23, 24, 25, 26, 27. ** Pont de Montlouis." 
 
 2S. "Pontdu Cher." 
 
 20 Suspension bridge. 
 
 30 Box-girder bridg-e. 
 
 31 Trestle bridge and Chepstow bridge. 
 S2. Details of Chepstow bridge. 
 
 8^3 Creosoting, screw-piling, &c, 
 
 84. Permanent way and rails. 
 
 35. Ditto, chairs. 
 
 86. Ditto, fish-joints, &c. 
 
 ST. Ditto, fis}) -joint chairs. 
 
 83, 39. Ditto, cast-iron sleepers, &c. 
 
 40, Ditto, Stephenson's, Brunei's, Hemans's, 
 
 Macneill's, and Dockray's. 
 '^*^» r^Hto, crossings. 
 
 Section IV. — Retaining walls, bridges, tun- 
 nels, &c. 
 
 Section V. — Permanent way and cousUuo- 
 tion. 
 
 Section VI. — Stations, &c. 
 
 Section VII. — Rolling stock — Carriages, 
 trucks, wheels, and axles — Brakes, stnci 
 details — Locomotive engines and tendei-s. 
 
 SectionVIII.— Signalsand electric tele^fraph. 
 
 PLATES. 
 
 Ditto ditto, details. 
 
 42. 
 
 43. Ditto, spring-crossings, &0. 
 
 44. Ditto, turn-table. 
 
 45. 46. Terminal station. 
 47, 48, 49. Stations. 
 
 50. Goods stations. 
 
 51. Polygonal engine-house. 
 
 52. Engine-house. 
 
 63. Watering apparatus. — (A). Tanks, 
 
 54. Ditto, (B.) Details of pumps. 
 
 55. Ditto, (C.) Details of engines. 
 
 56. Ditto, (D.) Cranes. 
 
 57. Hoisting machinery. . 
 
 58. Ditto, details. 
 
 59. Traversing platform. 
 
 60. Ditto, details. 
 
 61. Station-roof at King's Cross. 
 
 62. Ditto, Liverpool. 
 
 63. Ditto, Birmingham. 
 
 64. 65. Railway carriages. 
 
 66. Ditto, details. 
 
 67, 68. Railwa •/ trucks and wlieela, 
 
 69. Iron and ' covered waggons. 
 
 70. Details of brakes. 
 
 71. Wheels and details. 
 
 72. Portrait. 
 
JOHN WEALE'S NEW LIST OF WOEKS. 
 
 In 1 Vol. 4to, extra cloth, boards and lettered, 67 Engravings, 21«., 
 
 DESIGNS AND EXAMPLES OP COTTAGES, 
 VILLAS, AND COUNTRY HOUSES ; 
 
 BEING THE STUDIES OF SEVERAL EMINENT ARCHITECTS AND BUILDERS. 
 
 CONSISTING OF PLANS, ELEVATIONS, AND PERSPECTIVE VIEWS, WITH 
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 In imperial 8vo., with 13 large folding Plates, extra cloth boards, price 12«., 
 
 A PRACTICAL AND THEORETICAL ESSAY 
 ON OBLIQUE BRIDGES. 
 
 By GEORGE WATSON BUCK, M.Inst. C.B. 
 
 TOGETHKR WITH A 
 
 DESCRIPTION TO DIAGRAMS FOR FACILI- 
 TATING THE CONSTRUCTION OF 
 OBLIQUE BRIDGES. 
 
 By W. H. barlow, C.E., 
 Second Edition, corrected and improved. 
 
 In 1 vol. 4to., 50 plates, with dimensions, extra cloth boards, price 21*., 
 
 EXAMPLES FOE 
 BUILDERS, CARPENTERS, AND JOINERS; 
 
 BEING WELL-SELECTED ILLUSTRATIONS OF RECENT MODERN ART AND CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 CONTENTS OF PLATES. 
 
 10. 
 11. 
 12. 
 13. 
 14. 
 15. 
 16. 
 17. 
 18. 
 19. 
 20. 
 21. 
 22. 
 23. 
 
 24. 
 25. 
 
 Geometrical Staircase. 
 
 Construction of the "Wooden Columns 
 
 in King's College. 
 Details of do. 
 
 Plan and Elevation of the Athenasum 
 
 Club House. 
 Do. do. Arthur's Club, St. James' 
 
 Street. 
 Do. do. details. 
 Do. do. ,, 
 Design for Verandah. 
 Details of do. 
 Design for Verandah. 
 Details of do. 
 Design for Verandah. 
 Details of do. 
 
 Elevation of a Group of New Houses. 
 
 Joinery of Doors. 
 
 Base, Surbase, and Dado. 
 
 Plan and Elevation of Doors. 
 
 Sections do. do. 
 
 Section of the framing or frontispiece 
 
 of an entablature of a Shop front. 
 Roof at Charter House. 
 
 „ ClerkenweU (^^v/>!!Teh. 
 
 Elizabethan terminations of a Shop 
 
 front entablature. 
 Joinery at Windsor Castle. 
 
 Gate at the town entrance to tho 
 
 Royal Mews, Windsor. 
 Joinery at the Duke of Sutherland's, at 
 
 LilleshalL 
 Mullions of Windows, do. 
 Plan and Elevation of a Public-house. 
 Exeter Hall roof. 
 Couu try mansion. 
 Italian Designs. 
 
 Longitudinal Section, do. 
 
 Windows, Doors, &c. do. 
 
 Windows, <fcc. do. 
 
 Grand Staircase, do. 
 
 An Elegant Italian fa<?ade. 
 
 Penton Meusey Church, Bell Turret. 
 
 Plan and South Elevation of do. 
 
 West Elevation of do. 
 
 Elevations, with horizontal and vertical 
 
 sections of the Bell Turret, do. 
 Transverse section of do. 
 
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