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Gesso Tempera Painting on wood, probable age 600 
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 (Painting in the possession of the author.) 
 
Materials for 
 Permanent Painting 
 
 A MANUAL FOR 
 
 MANUFACTURERS, ART DEALERS, ARTISTS 
 AND COLLECTORS 
 
 By Maximilian Toch 
 
 Member American Institute Chemical Engineers 
 Municipal Lecturer on Paints, Colors, Etc., College of the 
 City of New York 
 Past President of the Chemists’ Club 
 Past Chairman Society Chemical Industry N. Y. Section 
 Director of Chemical Laboratory of Toch Brothers 
 Author of the Chemistry of Mixed Paints, Etc. 
 
 Fellow of the Chemical Society of London 
 
 C.ONS , 
 
 Ni 
 
 i^n 
 
 Etc., Etc. 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
 D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY 
 19 11 
 
Copyright 1911 
 
 BY 
 
 D. Van Nostrand Company 
 
 The Eddy Press Corporation 
 Cumberland, Md. 
 
Contents 
 
 TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 Preface. 
 
 Chapter 
 
 I, 
 
 History of Painting. 
 
 Chapter 
 
 II, 
 
 Pigments used by the Ancients. 
 
 Chapter 
 
 III, 
 
 Sinopia, the Search for the Mas- 
 
 Chapter 
 
 IV, 
 
 ters’ secret. 
 
 Photo-Chemical Deterioration of 
 
 Chapter 
 
 V, 
 
 Oil Paintings. 
 
 Cause of the Cracking of Paintings 
 
 Chapter 
 
 VI, 
 
 and the Remedies. 
 
 Canvas, Wood and Metal as Foun- 
 
 Chapter 
 
 VII, 
 
 dations. 
 
 Preparation of Canvas in Commer- 
 
 Chapter 
 
 VIII, 
 
 cial Practice. 
 
 Renovation and Cleaning of Pic- 
 
 Chapter 
 
 IX, 
 
 tures. 
 
 The School of Impressionism. 
 
 Chapter 
 
 X, 
 
 Volatile Solvents. 
 
 Chapter 
 
 XI, 
 
 Picture Varnishes. 
 
 Chapter 
 
 XII, 
 
 Driers. 
 
 Chapter 
 
 XIII, 
 
 Linseed Oil and Other Drying Oils. 
 
 Chapter 
 
 XIV, 
 
 Classification of the Pigments and 
 
 Chapter 
 
 XV, 
 
 their Description. 
 The Permanent Colors. 
 
 Chapter 
 
 XVI, 
 
 Pigments Dangerous to Health. 
 
 Chapter 
 
 XVII, 
 
 Pigments afifected by Coal Smoke, 
 
 Chapter 
 
 XVIII, 
 
 etc. 
 
 Water in Tube Colors. 
 
 Chapter 
 
 XIX, 
 
 Pigments which are Permanent, 
 
 Chapter 
 
 XX, 
 
 etc. 
 
 Pigments which Dry Slowly. 
 
 Chapter 
 
 XXI, 
 
 The failure of Sir J. Reynold’s 
 
 Paintings. 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 Page 
 
 Gesso Tempera Painting on Wood Frontispiece 
 
 Photo-Micrograph of a Section of an Oil Paint- 
 ing Showing Cracks 40 
 
 The Engineering Features of a Painting at Rest. . 42 
 
 Photo-Micrograph of Cracks in a Painting, and 
 Dirt and Dust Encysted in the Varnish 45 
 
 Painting on Mahogany Panel Showing Serious 
 Cracks Produced by Varnishing the Picture Be- 
 fore the Imderlying Coat was Sufficiently Dry. . 48 
 
 Photo-Micrograph of Cracks Invisible to the Naked 
 Eye Showing Encysted Matter and Fissures... 63 
 
 Photograph of an Oil Painting Showing Serious 
 Cracking Throughout, Due to the Contraction of 
 
 the Paint 80 
 
 High-power Photo-micrograph of Flake White 
 which Contains too much Water in its Composi- 
 tion 185 
 
Preface 
 
 PREFACE 
 
 I N the course of my acquaintance with artistic 
 painters, I was astonished to find the enormous 
 amount of ignorance that exists among them as 
 to the composition of the materials which they use 
 and the science of painting. Almost every painter of 
 note will tell you what a great pity it is that the 
 science of making colors is lost, and that the ancient 
 painters and great masters were so successful primar- 
 ily because their pigments and materials were far su- 
 perior to those which we can obtain to-day. This 
 statement is so diametrically opposed to the facts 
 that I have been prompted to make a study of paint 
 pigments in order to throw some light on this sub- 
 ject, and demonstrate to the painter that the colors 
 of to-day are far superior to the colors used by the 
 ancients, and show that the principal fault lies with 
 the manufacturer, who makes fugitive colors, for the 
 use of which there is no scientific nor commercial rea- 
 son. Almost any large dealer in artists’ colors has 
 upwards of 200 pigments on sale. In the first place, 
 no palette could hold any such quantity, and in the 
 second place, there are possibly only 10 or 15 sufficient- 
 ly permanent pigments to warrant their use. 
 
 The correct, complete and most edifying book on 
 
 [ 5 ] 
 
Preface 
 
 this subject has never been written, nor is my efifort 
 of much value, excepting perhaps from the stand- 
 point of the chemist. Some day there will be born 
 a man, who will be both a color chemist and a painter, 
 and that man will write the ideal book on the subject. 
 The popular impression is that all chemists must have 
 a comprehensive knowledge of the chemistry of pig- 
 ments, but this is not true, as there are very few chem- 
 ists who know anything about the technology of 
 paints, because it is a specialty which very few have 
 worked up, and no matter how proficient a chemist 
 may be, if he is not an artistic painter, he cannot 
 advise how a sky should be painted, or what particular 
 greens to use for foliage and shadows. The technique 
 of the fine arts is a subject by itself, and while I may 
 be supposed to have some knowledge on this sub- 
 ject, I frankly admit my inability to paint, but in- 
 asmuch as I feel very certain of one part of my sub- 
 ject, that is the physical and chemical properties of 
 the pigments, I do not hesitate to recommend in plain 
 language exactly what the painter shall do with refer- 
 ence to his colors, and the materials upon which he 
 paints. 
 
 Furthermore, I was very much astonished to find 
 that in the art schools of the various countries no at- 
 tention whatever is paid to the chemistry of colors. 
 A painter should be aware that certain pigments are 
 affected by the fumes arising from vegetables in a 
 dining room, and that these fumes form chemical com- 
 
 [ 6 ] 
 
Preface 
 
 pounds with certain pigments, and a painter should 
 likewise know that the atmosphere of large cities is 
 contaminated with acid gases which are absent in 
 smaller places, and which did not exist before the age 
 of the burning of coal as fuel. 
 
 I trust, therefore, that my work will be taken serious- 
 ly, and that the poorer painter will recognize that he 
 need not use expensive colors to produce permanent 
 results. I am glad that I am not actuated by any com- 
 mercial motive in writing this book, for, although I 
 have been a color manufacturer for many years, I have 
 never made, nor have I the intention of making tube 
 colors for artists’ use, but I have made quantities of 
 finely ground colors for many of my friends, who are 
 painters, and have demonstrated to them that some- 
 times the ordinary paints ground in oil, such as are 
 used by house decorators, are sufficiently good for 
 many purposes, and in many instances produce the 
 same results as the more expensive colors filled in 
 tubes. I have tried to write as fully as I know and 
 give as plainly as I could the description relating to 
 the more expensive colors, condemning those which 
 should be condemned, and recommending others as 
 long as there is nothing superior to be had. 
 
 It may interest the reader to know why I take such 
 a positive stand with reference to the fading, drying 
 and other physical characteristics of colors, in view 
 of the fact that the majority of investigators vacillate 
 continually. 
 
 [ 7 ] 
 
Pref ace 
 
 In 1886, while I was still a chemical student, I 
 made my first investigation of tube colors, and from 
 that day to this I have been interested in the subject 
 of the manufacture of paints and pigments as a vo- 
 cation, and have always been interested in the sub- 
 ject of the application of artistic pigments as an avo- 
 cation. Drying tests can, of course, be conducted in 
 a few weeks, but extensive tests take years, and al- 
 though it is reasonable to determine the permanency 
 of a color by exposure to the bright sunshine for 
 three months, I have made experiments along these 
 lines which have involved exposure for over five years. 
 
 When pigments are mixed with an aqueous medium 
 containing a little gum, and the resulting picture is 
 hermetically sealed, no decomposition takes place, be- 
 cause the majority of chemical reactions cease in the 
 absence of moisture, but linseed oil or varnish medium 
 will generate moisture and certain gases, producing a 
 slow decomposition, so that it often takes years to 
 make a determination of which a description can be 
 written in a few minutes. 
 
 It is a great pleasure for me to acknowledge the 
 assistance I received from Dr. George F. Kunz, who 
 gave me a fairly complete collection of semi-precious 
 minerals, all of which represented the pigments used 
 by the ancients and with which I conducted many of 
 my experiments. 
 
 [ 8 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 THE HISTORY OF PAINTING 
 
 T he decorative art of using colors is probably as 
 old as man. We have the instinctive efifort of 
 the barbarian, who bedecked his body with col- 
 ored earths, and we have the frescoes and wall decora- 
 tions and the painting of the columns in the temples 
 of Luxor and Karnak, as evidence of the use of pig- 
 ments for decorative purposes. There seems to be 
 little doubt that from the earliest day of decorative 
 painting down to the fourteenth century, the media 
 used consisted of some albuminous or gelatinous com- 
 pound mixed with water. The white of egg or the 
 entire egg mixed with lime was evidently the prin- 
 cipal medium used to fasten colors, although many 
 other substances were used, such as the liquid ob- 
 tained by boiling parchment and the skins of animals 
 in water, which is practically the same thing as using 
 glue. 
 
 In the method of painting with the white of egg 
 which has always been known as tempera, the paint 
 was generally applied to a ground of gesso, which is 
 the Italian word for gypsum, or plaster of Paris, and 
 the pigments which were used, and the methods of 
 
 [ 9 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 preparation of the wood foundations for painting 
 were so perfect that absolutely no decomposition takes 
 place in gesso tempera painting, for we have brilliant 
 examples that are over 600 years old practically in 
 their pristine condition. Pliny mentions the use of 
 milk as a medium, and while it is doubtful whether 
 we have any authentic samples of early paintings with 
 milk, we have the custom still in vogue, for there are 
 thousands of tons of kalsomine or water colors made 
 at the present day in which the binding material is 
 casein, which is the gluey substance that is contained 
 in milk. In addition to these media the early monks 
 used almost every conceivable substance of a sticky 
 nature, such as wax, honey, wine boiled until it is 
 slightly thickened (glucose or sugar), the juice of 
 various plants, and from the eighth century on we 
 begin to have evidence of the use of drying oils in the 
 form of some nut oil (more than likely linseed oil 
 mixed with a varnish), for in Italy before the days 
 of oil, we have, according to Cennini, the mention of 
 vernice, from which evidently our word “varnish” 
 has been etymologically derived. 
 
 Oils were known to the ancients as an article of 
 food and as a material for anointing the body, suffi- 
 cient evidence for this being found in the Bible, and 
 as many priests busied themselves with painting and 
 used the materials at hand, there is no doubt that 
 many of them used cooking oils such as olive, flax 
 and nut oil in many of their works. Eastlake, in his 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 most valuable book,* makes the statement that Aetius, 
 a medical writer of the fifth and the beginning of the 
 sixth century, mentions at great length, a drying oil 
 in connection with works of art, and it was this early 
 writer who described at full length what we probably 
 recognize as “linseed oil,” and after mentioning this, 
 he makes the statement, “walnut oil is prepared like 
 that of almonds, either by pounding or pressing the 
 nuts, or by throwing them into boiling water after 
 they have been bruised. It has a use besides a medi- 
 cinal use, being applied by gilders or encaustic painters, 
 for it dries, and preserves gildings and encaustic 
 paints for a long time.” 
 
 The popular statement that the brothers Hubert and 
 Jan Van Eyck were the first to paint permanent 
 pictures in oil, is only true in so far that both of these 
 men evidently investigated all the work that had been 
 previously done, as the Italian historian, Facius, speaks 
 of Van Eyck as having consulted the previous author- 
 ities with much profit, t Facius, whose full name was 
 Bartolommeo Facio, appears to have first published 
 his work in 1456, but we have ample evidence as far 
 back as Henry HI, in 1239, showing that oil painting 
 was practiced in England as a trade. In view of the 
 fact that the work by Sir Charles Eastlake is to be 
 found in few libraries, and that his celebrated book is 
 therefore not easily accessible, I quote from his in- 
 
 * Materials for a History of Oil Painting, 
 t Eastlake’s Material for the History of Oil Painting, p. 25. 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 vestigations as follows: “In 1239 (23d of Henry 
 III) oil is mentioned in connexion with painting. Sim- 
 ilar notices appear in numerous account-rolls belong- 
 ing to the reign of Edward I, viz., from 1274 to 1295; 
 and in others dated 1307, the ist of Edward II.” 
 Another series exists in the records of Ely Cathedral, 
 the dates extending from 1325 to 1351. A great 
 number of the same kind are preserved in accounts 
 belonging to the reign of Edward III, and relating 
 to the decoration of St. Stephen’s Chapel, from 1352 
 to 1358. Partial translations (unfortunately without 
 the original text) of some of the last-mentioned 
 records have been published in “Smith’s Antiquities 
 of Westminster.”* The extracts made by that writer 
 relate to glass-painting, architecture, and decorations 
 generally. Of certain weekly accounts (belonging to 
 the reign of Edward I), amounting originally to one 
 hundred and forty-two in number, he states that he 
 had found eleven only, t In the course of a recent 
 investigation forty-four have been discovered. How- 
 ever interesting in other points of view, these numer- 
 ous documents throw but little light on the practice 
 of oil painting. The same materials constantly re- 
 appear, but there is no direct allusion to their use, 
 except as regards the process of varnishing. Such 
 passages as the following refer to the commonest 
 operations of this kind: “To the same (Stephen Le 
 
 * London. 1837. 
 
 t Ib., p. 76. 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 Joigneur) for varnishing two coffers, 8d.” ;* and else, 
 “To Richard de Assheby for preparing with white, 
 covering with ochre, and varnishing the King’s Cham- 
 ber, according to contract. 32 shillings.” t A few 
 specimens of the mandates and accounts above ad- 
 verted to, beginning with those of the thirteenth cen- 
 tury, will therefore suffice. The first in order of time 
 is familiar to many, having been originally published 
 by Walpole. 
 
 1239. “The King to his treasurer and chamber- 
 lains. Pay from our treasury to Odo the goldsmith 
 and Edward his son one hundred and seventeen shil- 
 lings and ten-pence for oil, varnish, and colours bought, 
 and for pictures executed in the Queen’s Chamber 
 at Westminster, from the octaves of the Holy Trinity 
 (May 25th) in the 23rd year of our reign, to the 
 feast of St. Barnabas (June nth) in the same year, 
 namely, for fifteen days.” t 
 
 It is here necessary to remark, in anticipation of 
 the inquiry respecting varnishes, that the word vermx 
 or vernisium, in the earlier notices of painting, does 
 not mean a fluid composition, but dry sandarac resin, 
 which, when melted and boiled with oil, formed a 
 
 * "‘Eidem (Stephanno le Joignur) pro vernicione ii. coffro rum Viii. 
 d/’ 
 
 t **Richardo de Assheby pro bealbacions ocriacione et ver nacione 
 camere Regis ad tascham xxxii. s.” 
 
 t “Rex thesauriario et camerariis suis salutem. Liberate de thesauro 
 nostro Odoni aurifabro et Edwardo filio suo centum et septemdecem 
 solidos et decern denarios pro oleo, vernici, et coloribus emptis, et 
 picturis factis in camera reginae nostrae apud Westm. ab octavis Sane- 
 tae Trinitatis anno regni nostri xxiii. usque ad festum Sancti Barnabe 
 apostoli, eodem anno, scilicet per xv, dies.** 
 
 [ 13 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 varnish, in the modern sense of the term. The proofs 
 of this will be given hereafter. It may be sufficient 
 here to observe, that, in the English accounts, the 
 quantity of varnish is always noted by weight, and that 
 of oil by measure. The above passage should be 
 translated “for oil, sandarac resin, and colours.” It 
 will be seen, that the order relates to the work of 
 fifteen days only ; but it does not follow that the oil 
 varnish was used upon pictures, or operations in paint- 
 ing, then executed. In the portion of time specified 
 some works may have been varnished and others pre- 
 pared for it. The date of this mandate is a year be- 
 fore the birth of Cimabue. 
 
 In 1259, Master William, the painter, with his as- 
 sistants, received forty-three shillings and ten-pence for 
 painting a Jesse (no doubt the usual genealogical tree 
 of Christ) on the mantel-piece of the King’s Chamber 
 (The Painted Chamber), and “for renovating and 
 washing the paintings on the walls of the said cham- 
 ber.” * 
 
 This supposes that these celebrated works, consisting 
 chiefly of subjects from the Old Testament and from 
 the Apocrypha, were varnished. Size paintings, with- 
 out such a protection, would hardly have been proof 
 against this “ablution.” The tempera, composed chief- 
 ly of yolk of egg, is firmer than size, and becomes 
 very solid in time ; but the colored remains of the 
 
 * “Magistro Willelmo Pictori cum hominibus suis circa Jesse in 
 Mantell, camini Regis depingendum et circa picturam parietum ipsius 
 camere Regis innovandam et abluendam, xliii. s. x. d.” 
 
 [ 14 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 Painted Chamber (the varnish probably having be- 
 come decomposed from damp during the lapse of 
 ages) easily yielded to the sponge when they were 
 examined in 1819. * 
 
 In the period from 1274 to 1277 (3rd to 5th of 
 Edward I), an account, apparently relating to the 
 Painted Chamber, contains the following items ; “To 
 Reymund, for seventeen fb. of white lead, ii. s. x. d. 
 To the same, for sixteen gallons (?) of oil, xvi. s. To 
 the same, for twenty-four lb. of varnish, xii. s. To 
 Hugo le Vespunt, for eighteen gallons of oil, xxxi. s.,'' 
 etc. t Again; “To Reymund, for a hundred (Leaves) 
 of gold, hi. s. To the same, for twenty-two lb. of 
 varnish, xi. s. i. d.” t Elsewhere: “To Robert King, 
 for one cartload of cliarcoal for drying the painting in 
 the King’s Chamber, iii. s. viii. d.“ § 
 
 The last entry appears to relate to the drying of 
 surfaces painted in oil, but the precaution may also 
 have been necessary before varnishing tempera. The 
 application of heat, even before painting in oil, ac- 
 cording to the directions of Eraclius, will here be re- 
 membered : “Ad solem vel ad ignem siccare permittes.’’ 
 It can hardly escape observation, that the practice of 
 oil painting taught by Eraclius agrees in many details 
 
 * See Gage Rokewode’s Account of the Painted Chamber, 1842, p. 15. 
 t “Reymundo pro xviii. ii. albi plumbi ii. s. x. d. Eidem pro xvi. 
 gal. olei xvi. s. Eidem i>ro xxiiii. li. verniz xll. s. Hugoni le Ves- 
 punt pro xviii. gal. olei xxi. s.” 
 
 t “Reymundo pro C. auri iii. s. Eidem pro xxii. li. verniz xi. s. i. d.” 
 § “Roberto King pro i. carecta carbonis ad picturam in Camera Regis 
 desiccandam iii. s. viii. d.” 
 
 [IS] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 with that exemplified in the English records ; and the 
 circumstance may warrant a supposition that he com- 
 posed his treatise in this country. 1289 (17th of Ed- 
 ward I). The following materials are enumerated in 
 an account relating to repairs in the Painted Cham- 
 ber: “white lead, varnish, green, oil, red lead, tin-foil, 
 size, gold leaf, silver leaf, red ochre, vermilion, indigo, 
 azure, earthen vessels, cloth, etc.” * 
 
 In 1292, oil and varnish are twice mentioned in a 
 similar account, t In 1307, in consequence of a fire 
 (which occurred in 1298), repairs were again under- 
 taken, and similar materials were used. 
 
 The records of Ely are more conclusive as to the 
 mixture of oil with the colors ; and, as the materials 
 are nearly the same as in the above extracts, it may 
 be inferred that oil painting of some kind was employed 
 at Westminster. Of this, indeed, there are other 
 proofs. 
 
 1325. Among the items of an account, three 
 flagons and a half of oil are mentioned “for painting 
 
 * “In albo plumbo, vernicio, viridi, oleo, plumbo rubeo, stangno 
 albo, cole (Fr. colle), auro, argento, sinople, vermilone, ynde, asura, 
 ollis, panno et alHs minutis emptis ad viridandam novam Camereram 
 de petra et ad emendaciones picture mangne Camere Regis sicut patet 
 per particulas. Summa xii. li. vl. s. vi. d. ob.’’ This extract is given in the 
 work last quoted, but with some inaccuracies; for example, ranno 
 for panno, and in the heading, verniorum for verinorum. There is 
 no punctuation in the original account-rolls, but vernicio viridi should 
 not have been connected. It would be unjust to point out these 
 trifling oversights in an important and interesting work, without, at 
 the same time, paying a tribute of respect to the memory of one who 
 so often distinguished himself as an accurate and intelligent inves- 
 tigator. 
 
 t Item in iii. quarteronis olei empti. Summa ix. d. In I. lb. vernicio 
 (sic) empt. Summa iiii. d. In ocra, piastre, filo et pelli emptis,” etc. 
 
 [ 16 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 the figures upon the columns.”* The term “ymagines,” 
 in these and other English records of the time, is used 
 indiscriminately for painted figures and for statues. In 
 the treatise of St. Audemar the latter are distinguished 
 as “ymagines rotunde.” There can be little doubt that, 
 in the above passage, painted figures were meant ; 
 and, in any case, oil colors were used. 
 
 In 1336, in a similar account, oil appears in abund- 
 ance, forty-eight flagons altogether ; and this may ex- 
 plain its absence in other entries, where colors and 
 other materials are mentioned without oil. It should 
 also be observed that, if, in mutilated documents, “var- 
 nish” appears alone, it may always be inferred that 
 the oil (without which the vernix, or sandarac, was 
 of no use) was originally included in the list of ma- 
 terials. In the last mentioned account columns were 
 to be painted, t 
 
 In 1339 and 1341 oil again appears; in the account 
 of the former date “for tempering the colours.” t 
 
 In 1351 oil is mentioned “for making the painting 
 in the chapel.” § In all these documents, when varnish 
 
 * “In iii. lagenis et dimid. olei pro ymaginibus super columnas de* 
 pingend. iii. s. vi. d.” 
 
 XX 
 
 t “Item in vii. iv. albi plumbi emp. de eodem xii. s. prec. i. d. In 
 xiii. lagenis olei wmpt. de Thoma d’Elm x. s. iii. d. ob. prec. lagen. 
 X. d. oU In vi. lagenis olei empt. de Thoma de Chayk iv. s. xi. d. prec. 
 lagen. x. d. In xxviii. lagenis et dimid. olei empt. de Nich. de Wickam 
 xxvi. s. i. d. ob. prec. lagen. xi. d. In dimid. lagen. olei empt. v/d. In 
 vas terren, pro oleo imponendo iv. d. quad. In i. longa corda empt. 
 pro le chapital deaurand. et column, depingend. viii. d.,’^ etc. 
 
 t “In xxxi. lagenis et dimid. olei empt. de quodam nomine de Wick- 
 ham pro coloribus temperandis xxl. s. prec. lagen. viii. d.,“ etc, 
 
 § “In oleo empt. pro pictura facienda in capella x. s.,“ etc. The 
 above extracts relating to Ely Cathedral will be found in the 
 Archaeologia, vol. ix. 
 
 [ 17 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 is included in the items, the quantity, as usual, is noted 
 in weight. 
 
 The last accounts in the general list before given 
 (1352-1358) relate to St. Stephen’s Chapel. They 
 are very numerous ; but, as already observed, they 
 afford no additional light respecting the particular ap- 
 plications of oil painting. In other respects they are 
 of great interest ; and, like those of the time of Edward 
 I, indicate a practice in art corresponding in almost 
 every particular with that described by Cennini. 
 
 The large supplies of oil which appear in the West- 
 minster and Ely records, indicate the coarseness of the 
 operations for which oil was required. The quantity 
 supplied to Giorgio d’ Aquila, at Pinarolo, has ex- 
 cited the surprise of Italian antiquaries ; * but it now 
 appears that contemporary examples, quite as remark- 
 able, are to be found in English documents. Such no- 
 tices as the following (not the only entries of the 
 kind) at least remove all doubt as to the nature of 
 the oil sometimes used, and the general purposes for 
 which it was provided. 
 
 The extracts relate to St. Stephen’s Chapel. Sept. 
 19, 1352, (25th of Edward III) : “For nineteen flagons 
 of painters’ oil, bought for the painting of the chapel, 
 at 3s. qd. the flagon, 43s. qd.” t March 19, 1353: 
 
 * See a letter from the Padre Guglielmo Della Valle, in the Giornale 
 di pisa, 1794. He endeavors to show, notwithstanding the plain ex* 
 
 E ression, “non erat sufficiens in pingendo,” that the oil may have 
 een used for lamps. 
 
 t “Die Lune xix. Septembris. In xix. lagenis olei pictorum emptis 
 pro pictura capelle precium lagene iii. s. iiii. d. xliii. s. iiii. d.“ 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 “To Thomas Drayton, for eight flagons of painters’ 
 oil, bought for the painting of the chapel, at 2s. 6d. 
 the flagon, 20s.”* May 13, in the same year: “To 
 John de Hennay, for seventy flagons and a half of 
 painters’ oil, bought for the painting of the same 
 chapel, at 2od. the flagon, 117s. 6d.” t Contracting 
 with this lavish use of oil, we find such entries as the 
 following: “To Gilbert Pokerig, for two flagons of 
 size, bought for the painting of the said chapel, 2d. 
 To the same, for two earthen vessels for heating the 
 size, three halfpence.” t 
 
 Eggs, which afforded the vehicle for the finer work 
 in tempera, are not mentioned: this may, however, 
 be accounted for either by the incompleteness of the 
 records of this period, or by the nature of the work, 
 as. the item occurs in earlier documents, hereafter to 
 be noticed, belonging to the reign of Edward I (1274). 
 It will be observed that tlie price of the oil used in 
 St. Stephen’s Chapel varies, and that sometimes it 
 is more than three times the price of that employed 
 at Ely about the same time. The expression “painters 
 Oil,” applied to the former, may explain this. It had 
 been probably purified and deprived of its mucilage 
 by exposure to the sun, in the mode then generally 
 
 * “Die Lune xix. die Marcii. Thome Drayton pro viii. lagenis olei 
 pictorum emptis pro pictura capelle precium lagene ii. s. vi. d. xx. s.” 
 
 t “Die Lune xiii. die Maii. jTohanni de Henr.aij pro ixx. lagenis 
 et di. olei pictorum emptis pro pictura ejusdem capelle precium lagene 
 XX. d. cxvii. s. vi. d.” 
 
 t “Die Lune xix. die Marcii (1353). Gilberto Pokerig pro ii. lagenis 
 de cole emptis pro pictura dicte capelle ii. d. Eidem pro ii. ollis terreis 
 emptis pro cole calefaciendo i. d. ob.” 
 
 [ 19 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 practiced for the preparation of linseed oil which 
 was to serve for better kinds of painting (on surfaces 
 where it was desirable to produce a gloss), and for 
 the composition of varnishes. This appears the more 
 likely, as the oil was sometimes purchased of the 
 (then) principal painter, Hugh of St. Albans. * 
 
 Cennino Cennini gives the most exact formulas for 
 the preparation of drying oil and varnishes, including 
 prescribed methods for the grinding of colors in oil 
 for painting in oil on iron and on stone, and one of the 
 most noteworthy facts that we have in conjunction 
 with this remarkable Italian investigator is, the fact, 
 that the description of the varnish kettles for the melt- 
 ing of the gum, and the implements used for stirring 
 are almost identical in shape with those that are used 
 in the present day, and in his description of the prepa- 
 ration of drying oil which we now popularly term “gold 
 size,” is a slow-drying linseed oil that remains “tacky” 
 for several days, and dries without shrivelling. It is 
 also noteworthy of mention that our methods for 
 making an oil size do not differ to-day from the for- 
 mulas prescribed by Cennini. 
 
 The early Italians were better book-binders than 
 they were painters, and as nearly all of their subjects 
 were of a religious nature, the madonnas with the gold- 
 
 * “Die Lune xxv. die Julii (1352) Eidem (Magistro Hugoni de 
 Sancto Albano) pro xiii. lagenis olei pictorum emptis pro pictura diste 
 capelle precium lagene iii. s. iiii. d. xliii. s. iiii. d.” The same quantity, 
 at the same comparatively high price, is entered on the 19th of Septem- 
 ber following. This extract has been already given. 
 
 [ 20 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 en background, the saints with the golden halos, were 
 all so wonderfully prepared, that to this day we have 
 excellent examples of this art, which is really a mix- 
 ture of book-binding and painting. 
 
 About the year 1400, the practice of oil painting 
 had become thoroughly established, due undoubtedly, 
 to the research and investigation of the Van Eycks. 
 The examples of their oil painting which are in ex- 
 istence to this day are in a condition that is absolutely 
 remarkable. Even a superficial examination of one 
 of the paintings of Hubert Van Eyck in the National 
 Art Gallery in London, shows a brilliancy and fresh- 
 ness that pays an inexpressible tribute to the wonderful 
 care exercised by this master and his brother. 
 
 [ 21 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 CHAPTER II 
 
 THE PIGMENTS USED BY THE ANCIENTS 
 
 T he permanence of the old paintings is entirely 
 due to the fact that the painters had very few 
 pigments to work with, and practically all of 
 them were native earths which were in many instances 
 exceedingly brilliant. The lapis lazuli which is the 
 same thing as our ultramarine blue of to-day occurs 
 in nature, and varies in shade from a greenish sky 
 blue to a dark ultramarine. The selection of various 
 shades of this most permanent pigment gave to all 
 the painters who used it a blue which has not been 
 surpassed. 
 
 For the yellow pigments there were ample yellow 
 earths in the form of ochre and sienna, which while 
 not very brilliant were sufficiently bright for all pur- 
 poses. 
 
 The white effect about the gesso paintings was pro- 
 duced by whiting and gypsum, and as white lead was 
 known 400 B. C., either as an artificial product or as 
 a mineral known as cerusite which is a native car- 
 bonate of lead, the use of this pigment was well known 
 and largely practiced, although its defects were noted 
 by nearly every one of the early writers. 
 
 [ 22 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 As far as green is concerned, there were several 
 varieties of minerals that furnished green, principally 
 malachite, which is a form of carbonate of copper, 
 and no doubt when properly glazed was found to be 
 amply permanent, although sulphur gases aflfected it. 
 
 In addition to these pigments they had Grecian 
 green or Graecum which the French later on, called 
 verte de grece, from which the term verdigris is de- 
 rived. Whether this was metallic copper subjected to 
 vinegar as we now know it, or whether it was the 
 turquoise mineral or clayey earth stained with phos- 
 phate of copper, as may have been the case, it is diffi- 
 cult to say, for the verdigris that we know in modern 
 art is transparent, and has the qualities of a lake or 
 stain, and not the qualities of a paint. 
 
 Concerning the reds which the ancients used, we 
 know that they were familiar with all the red oxides 
 of iron, and the Italians used not only calcined sienna 
 which is a brownish red and now recognized as burnt 
 sienna, but they also calcined ochre, which made a 
 yellower red. The bright red or vermilion used from 
 the thirteenth century on under the name of sinopia, 
 deserves a chapter for itself, and will be described 
 later on. 
 
 As regards the blue colors, indigo was used by the 
 Phoenicians. This is an organic compound which at 
 that time, according to the latest researches on the 
 subject, was obtained from the extract of a certain 
 fish. We now recognize this substance as Indican, 
 
 [ 23 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 which is chemically analogous to indigo, and is found 
 as a product of decomposition, even in the human be- 
 ing. The dark blue dye that was used in Egypt, and 
 is still preserved in some of the mummy cases is 
 recognized as this particular indigo, and as the color 
 is mentioned by Cennini, there is ample evidence of 
 its use. It never was permanent, however, and all 
 our philosophies on the colors of the ancients can only 
 refer to those which have stood the test of time. 
 
 Concerning the blacks, we have evidence that russ 
 which is equivalent to our lampblack was manufac- 
 tured as far back as 1352, and that in the fourteenth 
 century the calcining of paints even to the ancients 
 was a familiar operation. * 
 
 There are about 215 tube colors for sale to-day for 
 the use of painters, and out of this entire amount there 
 are not over twelve that may have any possible use, 
 and ninety-nine painters out of a hundred could get 
 along almost perfectly with seven or eight pigments. 
 The remainder of this vast number of pigments in 
 existence are not only useless, but are a positive detri- 
 ment, because every one of them has some inherent 
 defect which makes it a menace to the permanence 
 of paintings. Inasmuch as we are concerned with 
 painting only as it has been tried since the time of 
 Van Eyck, and as a large number of the paintings 
 are still extant in a perfect state of preservation which 
 
 * See Eastlake, p. 133. Notes from a German manuscript in the 
 Public Library in Strassburg. 
 
 [ 24 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 have been made since those days, it behooves us to 
 look into the materials and pigments that were used, 
 and as there is no need for any improvement in the 
 matter of pigments, it would be very well to stick to 
 the old ones. 
 
 If we go back 2000 to 3000 years we find that the 
 pigments used by the Egyptians, Phoenicians and those 
 described by Pliny were practically the same as those 
 that were used by the painters of the fourteenth, fif- 
 teenth and sixteenth centuries. In every case native 
 earths were used, although it is likely that zinc oxide 
 was a manufactured pigment in the time of Pliny, it 
 having been collected in tbe furnaces where zinc was 
 melted. But the media used before the discovery that 
 oil could be used in painting, had much to do with the 
 permanence and brilliancy of the colors, for assuming 
 that the principal media in those days was always 
 water with a glutinant such as the white of egg, glue 
 obtained by boiling parchment in water, or some simi- 
 lar adhesive material, there was no re-action between 
 the colors when they were dry, so that we have many 
 examples of brilliant tempera paintings that are 600 
 and 700 years old. The Flemish painters as well as 
 the Italians confined themselves to very few colors, 
 and all the colors used by the painters prior to the time 
 of artificial chemical colors are included in the fol- 
 lowing list: 
 
 Red: Sinopia, or cinnibar, which is the same as 
 our vermilion, but inasmuch as the native sinopia was 
 
 [25] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 used, a variety of shades were obtained by selecting 
 ores ranging from orange to a very deep red. 
 
 Red oxides of iron, which were native, and burnt 
 ochres and burnt siennas. The burnt ochres and burnt 
 siennas are all equivalent to the Mars colors of to-day. 
 
 Yellow; native ochre, native sienna. 
 
 Green : powdered malachite, terre verte or green 
 earth. 
 
 Brown : native umber and bituminous earth similar 
 to cassel brown, vandyke brown, etc. 
 
 Black : burnt ivory, charred bones and condensed 
 soot (lampblack). 
 
 White: plaster of Paris (gypsum), whiting (cal- 
 cium carbonate). These two were used for gesso 
 painting and later for oil painting. White lead (ceru- 
 site), zinc oxide moderately, and tin oxide, but from 
 the evidence at hand white lead was used more than 
 any other white pigment. 
 
 Blue : the principal blue used was lapis lazuli, 
 which is identical with the ultramarine blue of to-day. 
 This ranges in color from a sky blue to a deep ultra- 
 marine, and was selected according to shade. 
 
 It must not be inferred that all the pigments used by 
 the painters of ancient times were absolutely perma- 
 nent, for only those that have survived have been per- 
 manent pigments, orpiment, for instance, which is the 
 tri-sulphide of arsenic, is a color which interacted with 
 other pigments. 
 
 [ 26 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 A number of lakes were used which are the ex- 
 tracts of woods, as well as of plants, such as the beet 
 and cactus and red berries, but none of these red 
 lakes were permanent. 
 
 [27] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 CHAPTER III 
 SINOPIA 
 
 THE SEARCH FOR THE MASTERS’ SECRET 
 
 M uch time and thought has been expended 
 upon the so-called search for the secret of 
 the old masters. This search was probably 
 started by Sir Josbua Reynolds, who had the idea 
 that the permanence of the pictures of the old mas- 
 ters was largely due to some secret knowledge which 
 they possessed of certain colors, and that the so- 
 called sinopia of the old masters was a red which 
 disappeared and had been duplicated after the six- 
 teenth century. On the contrary it is quite certain 
 that the early Italian and Flemish painters had no 
 secrets. Their painting was conducted upon lines 
 of common sense and intellectual investigation. 
 Rubens, Rembrandt, Franz Hals and their contem- 
 poraries did not use over five or possibly seven colors, 
 and the sinopia which they used was all of one origin. 
 Sinopia is evidently derived from the word sinopis,’^ 
 and means a red earth from which the name cinnibar 
 has been derived. We have therefore the cinnibar 
 or red earth which was well known as far back as the 
 twelfth century, and was found in an Austrian locality 
 
 * Die Malerei der Alien, Johns. 
 
 [ 28 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 now known as Idria, which at that time was a province 
 of Venetia. In Spain * this pigment has likewise 
 long been known and is still found there to-day. It 
 occurs as a bright red earth varying in color from 
 scarlet to deep red, which is nothing more nor less than 
 quick silver vermilion in its native form, together 
 with oxide of iron. 
 
 From analyses made by the author of fragments of 
 paintings of the fourteenth century, bright reds are 
 conclusively proven to be sulphide of mercury or ver- 
 milion. It is also well known that for thousands of 
 years the Chinese either made vermilion artificially, 
 or carefully selected the bright particles from their 
 native ores, and that the Chinese vermilion was in- 
 troduced into Venetia during the thirteenth century 
 by Marco Polo. This celebrated explorer traveled 
 eastward, and found the first passage to the Orient. 
 However, as the first authentic biography of Marco 
 Polo was written by John Baptist Remusio 200 years 
 after Marco Polo’s death, there is some doubt as to 
 some of the details of his trip. So we have, not only 
 the introduction of the artificial and natural Chinese 
 vermilion into Italy during the thirteenth century, but 
 we have the Spanish ores of Almaden, and ores from 
 the mines of Idria, from which all shades of bright 
 red were selected for the production of this so-called 
 sinopia, which was supposed to have been the brilliant 
 and permanent red which was one of the causes of 
 
 * The Almaden Mines. 
 
 [ 29 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 the superiority of the lost art, and one of the alleged 
 great secrets of the old masters. 
 
 In examining a piece of ore from the Idria section, 
 it is noted that many bright shades of red may be ex- 
 tracted and as sulphide of mercury when properly 
 varnished and not exposed to brilliant sunshine does 
 not change, we have a satisfactory explanation of the 
 celebrated permanent red. 
 
 There is no doubt that in addition to using this 
 red as a body color, hundreds of artists glazed this 
 natural or artificial red with madder lake, and the 
 condition of paintings of Franz Hals and his con- 
 temporary school is evidence of that fact. 
 
 Some statements have been made that sinopia is a 
 color redder than vermilion, and was made from mad- 
 der, but as vermilion or cinnibar is composed of all 
 the shades of red from minium to deep scarlet, and 
 as madder was known during that time, it is more than 
 likely that the madder was used either as a glaze or 
 mixed with vermilion, and in either case it was per- 
 manent, because all of the painters of that time var- 
 nished their pictures. 
 
 Some statements have been made referring to mad- 
 der as a Brazil wood lake, and Eastlake makes the 
 statement “Lignum brasilium nascitur in partibus 
 Alexandriae et est rubei coloris.” Brazil wood has 
 its origin in a part of Alexandria, and is of red color, 
 but inasmuch as Brazil was neither discovered nor 
 exploited for several centuries afterwards, this state- 
 
 [ 30 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 ment must be taken to refer to some particular wood 
 which was called Brazil wood, and which was indi- 
 genous to the country around Alexandria, and cannot 
 be confounded with the Brazil wood we know, which 
 produces a maroon dye that is exceedingly fugitive. 
 
 As far as the secret of the old masters is concerned, 
 it would be very wise for modern painters not to wasfe 
 their time in a search of this kind for these old masters 
 whose pictures have lived to this day, were possessed 
 of only one secret, which was common sense. 
 
 [ 31 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 
 PHOTO-CHEMICAL DETERIORATION 
 OF OIL PAINTINGS* 
 
 A ll oil paintings show unmistakable signs of 
 age. Students who visit the various art galleries 
 and copy old oil paintings invariably glaze them 
 with a lake color or asphaltum, so that the lighter 
 colors are toned down and show a yellowish brown 
 tinge, which to all of us is an unmistakable sign of 
 age. The cause of this deterioration is nowhere in 
 the entire literature of oil paintings, as far as the 
 writer couM learn. A number of writers have all 
 suggested a remedy, which suggests the causes, the 
 remedy given being the exposure of a painting to 
 bright sunlight. The change in color is always more 
 apparent in the high lights, and where light tints have 
 been used, and inasmuch as water colors, pastels, 
 and tempera painting do not show this particular 
 deterioration, it is quite evident that the cause does 
 not lie in the pigment itself, nor in the sub-stratum 
 upon which is painted, but in the medium which is 
 used to bind the pigment to its foundation. In search- 
 
 * Read 'before the 7th International Congress of Applied Chemistry, 
 London, May 28, 1909. 
 
 [ 32 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 ing for the cause, an analogous condition exists on 
 walls of buildings which are painted in oil paint, 
 for it is always apparent that where the sun shines on 
 a wall it either retains its pristine color or becomes 
 more brilliant. Similarly, back of the picture there is 
 a distinct yellowing or browning of the pigment which 
 gives a clear line of demarkation where the picture 
 hung. Another piece of evidence is the fact that no 
 such yellowing occurs where walls are painted with 
 distemper or water colors, but this particular reaction 
 is apparent in every instance where oil pigments are 
 used. After finding the cause the task of finding a 
 remedy was more simple. A series of experiments 
 were tried by the author in the following sequence, 
 and with the following results : 
 
 That the cause is what may be termed the effect of 
 light on a mixture of white lead, zinc oxide and lin- 
 seed oil, or a linseed oil varnish is evident because 
 paint chemists have long known that white lead in 
 any form, whether it be called flake white, kremitz 
 white, silver white or white lead, has a reducing ac- 
 tion on the pigment present in linseed oil, or linseed 
 oil varnish, and that this reducing action changes this 
 pigment into another pigment which is yellow. It 
 may fairly be asked whether such a reaction can take 
 place if the linseed oil is bleached. To this question 
 the reply must be given that the bleaching of linseed 
 oil does not destroy the color which is present, but 
 simply changes it from an olive yellow to an exceed- 
 
 [ 33 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 ingly pale yellow, which can hardly be seen, so if we 
 take refined or bleached linseed oil and mix it with 
 white lead or a pigment containing white lead or zinc 
 oxide, we have a very brilliant white which remains 
 white as long as it is exposed to bright light. If 
 we take this mixture and place it for six weeks in 
 an absolutely dark place, the white paint changes into 
 the well known yellow tint and it is this particular 
 change which produces in all paintings the distinct 
 yellowness of age. Flaxseed, from which linseed oil 
 is made, contains a coloring matter which is known 
 as chlorophyll. This is the same coloring matter which 
 is found in all plants, in many of the woods and in 
 a large number of gums and resins, particularly in the 
 fossil resins. 
 
 Vibert, the well known French painter, knew this 
 fact without having been able to trace it to its chemical 
 cause, and this led him to abandon entirely linseed 
 oil as a binding medium and to substitute petroleum 
 and colophony compounds with which he painted most 
 of his pictures. Nearly all of his subjects contain 
 little or no light colors, such as whites or straw colors, 
 but as his particular forte lay in painting pictures 
 of cardinals, the original brilliancy of his paintings 
 still remains, and there is no reason why his pictures 
 should not endure for centuries, if they are properly 
 protected from any influence of the elements and ob- 
 noxious gases of modern civilization. 
 
 A long series of experiments were, therefore, made 
 
 [ 34 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 and commercial chlorophyll, which is the coloring 
 matter of flaxseed, grass, and the fossil resins, was 
 taken and mixed with white lead and zinc oxide (zinc 
 white), exposed to the sunlight for a short time and 
 then placed in a dark closet for varying periods from 
 six weeks to three months. In every instance the 
 white turned yellow ; sometimes a bright canary yel- 
 low, sometimes a dirty yellowish brown, but the yel- 
 low effect was always obtained. A similar line of 
 experiments was made in which gum damar was 
 dissolved in turpentine, naphtha and benzol, and 
 the results carefully noted. Gum damar and turpen- 
 tine showed only an exceedingly slight decomposition, 
 and gum damar containing a small percentage of 
 benzol and a large percentage of naphtha showed no 
 decomposition. The human eye is not very sensitive 
 to these shades, but fortunately we have the pho- 
 tographic plate. Photographs taken of these various 
 mixtures on plates which are not over sensitive to 
 yellow show up these results with better effect than 
 the human eye can discern them in the original 
 chlorophyll experiment. 
 
 Another line of experiments was carried out, in 
 which bleached linseed oil was used. This turned 
 exceedingly yellow in three months, but when ex- 
 posed for three months to the bright sunlight it be- 
 came brilliant white again, and upon being placed in 
 a dark closet for another three months no change took 
 place. Those parts of the painted experiment which 
 
 [ 35 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 had been bleached by the sunlight remained white 
 in the dark closet at the end of the experiment. This 
 would, therefore, prove that when a picture has turned 
 yellow it can safely be exposed to the sunlight in 
 order to bring it back to its natural brilliancy, pro- 
 vided, of course, that no part of it has been painted 
 with asphaltum or bitumen, for the asphaltum and 
 bitumen instead of bleaching in the light become 
 black. To those who are interested in this photo-chem- 
 ical experiment, the author refers to his paper on “The 
 Influence of Sunlight on Paints and Varnishes,” Jour- 
 nal Society of Chemical Industry, April 15, 1908, No. 
 7, Vol. XXVII. 
 
 Nearly all of the varnishes, with few exceptions, 
 contribute largely to this deterioration of oil paint- 
 ings, because the coloring matter in a dark place or 
 away from the brilliant light changes from a neutral 
 or invisible to a yellowish tint, which is due to a direct 
 decomposition of chlorophyll into one of its lower 
 bodies. A similar line of experiments were conducted 
 with such resins as Manila copal. West Coast copal, 
 and Zanzibar copal, all of which turned yellow even 
 though no linseed oil was present. It is, therefore, 
 easy to conclude that these and all fossil resins con- 
 tain coloring matters similar to those present in grass, 
 flaxseed, and in some instances, turpentine. 
 
 Furthermore, all of these fossil resins when used 
 for making varnish are reduced or fluxed in a solution 
 of linseed oil. The varnishes which, however, do not 
 
 [ 36 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 show this same effect are the alcohol varnishes com- 
 posed of solutions of bleached shellac, sandarac, and 
 mastic, although these show also some slight tendency 
 toward turning yellow. The one resin which, however, 
 resisted the action of darkening when mixed with 
 white lead was gum damar. As there are three well 
 known varieties of this gum used in the arts, the au- 
 thor has found that Batavia, Singapore and Pedang, 
 when selected for brilliancy of color in their original 
 state, are the safest to use, but there are varieties of 
 these three gums which are originally yellow and 
 should be avoided either as a varnish or as a medium 
 for oil painting. The objection may be urged that 
 the solution of gum damar is not sufficiently binding 
 as compared with linseed oil, but to this the answer 
 must be made that an oil painting is never exposed 
 to the elements and is certainly more tenacious and 
 less liable to decomposition than the media used by 
 the ancients such as white of egg, mucilaginous mat- 
 ter, etc. We have authentic records where paintings 
 executed by the Romans with poor and weak media 
 have lasted for upwards of twenty centuries. 
 
 Of the solid white pigments, which induce the 
 decomposition of oil and varnishes, white lead is the 
 strongest in its action and zinc sulphide, or lithopone, 
 is the weakest. It has been urged that lithopone, which 
 is a mixture of zinc sulphide and barium sulphate — 
 barium sulphate being the old permanent white or 
 blanc fixe — should be substituted for all white pig- 
 
 [ 37 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 ments in oil painting, but this cannot be urged at pres- 
 ent for the reason that tlie majority of the lithopones 
 are acted upon by light and turn gray, although there 
 are a variety of patents for the manufacture of lith- 
 opone which are alleged to be permanent. On exam- 
 ining these we find that their brilliancy is superin- 
 duced by the addition of a soluble salt such as nitrate 
 of soda, and when lithopone, either according to the 
 special American patents or the German patents, is 
 mixed with gum damar solution no change takes 
 place, but when mixed with linseed oil, either bleached 
 or unbleached, the soluble salt produces the same 
 effect as white lead in so far that it reduces the color- 
 ing matter from a neutral and invisible tint to a yellow 
 or yellowish pigment, and, therefore, no advantage is 
 gained at present by the use of this so-called perma- 
 nent lithopone. Zinc oxide, or zinc white, is therefore, 
 as yet, the most permanent pigment, although perma- 
 nent white or blanc fixe is absolutely inert but it has 
 the inherent weakness that it has no hiding power and 
 is really more of a glaze than an opaque pigment. 
 
 However, if linseed oil is insisted upon by the paint- 
 er the raw, unbleached, unrefined product should be 
 used for it is reasonable to assume that it cannot 
 grow any darker as long as the coloring matter is not 
 visibly hidden, but may improve, for upon exposure 
 the coloring matter will surely bleach, and upon re- 
 placing the painting in a poorly lighted room it will 
 not grow any darker than it originally was when the 
 
 [ 38 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 painter used it. Some painters use poppy oil, which is 
 almost colorless ; other painters use walnut oil, but the 
 author finds that while poppy oil and walnut oil are 
 not so prone to become yellow with age, they never- 
 theless do become yellow and have in addition the 
 fault of drying exceedingly slowly, which interferes 
 largely with the progress of the painting. The driers- 
 that painters use are also to be avoided. The one 
 color, megilp, which contains both lead and manganese, 
 frequently exhibits a dirty pink, and the sugar of lead 
 drier turns the oil yellow even quicker than white 
 lead does. 
 
 Summing up the facts before us, it is reasonable to 
 conclude that in order to make a painting permanent 
 a medium like damar or mastic varnish, which has 
 back of it a long history and is not experimental, may 
 be advocated for general use as a varnish with which 
 to glaze a painting and preserve its permanency. It 
 has very few defects and much in its favor. In looking 
 over the works of the Flemish artists, particularly 
 those by the Van Eycks, which may be seen in the 
 London galleries, it is quite evident that all these 
 painters used a medium other than tempera. It is 
 exceedingly likely that the medium contained little 
 linseed oil, and possibly a varnish composed of an 
 easily soluble gum, either like damar or mastic. 
 
 [ 39 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 CHAPTER V 
 
 THE CAUSE OF THE CRACKING OF 
 PAINTINGS AND THE REMEDIES 
 
 I T is very interesting to note that the little which 
 is written on this subject varies with the actual 
 facts presented in the case, and in addition is 
 relatively incomplete. Nearly all writers give, as the 
 cause of the cracking of paintings, two or three or- 
 dinary phenomena, when, as a matter of fact, the 
 cause of the cracking of paintings may be due to a 
 large variety of causes. The following are the prin- 
 cipal causes for the cracking of paintings : 
 
 I. The application of such pigments as, for in- 
 stance, umber or zinc white over lampblack, graphite, 
 black lead, asphaltum or lake. 
 
 2. The application to a picture of a varnish over 
 a surface that has not been thoroughly dried. 
 
 3. The effect of dry atmosphere on a painting, 
 which contracts the canvas and leaves the paint film 
 in its original size. 
 
 4. The unequal tension or compression of a can- 
 vas due to moisture. 
 
 5. The application of a flat drying paint over a 
 glossy paint. 
 
 [ 40 ] 
 
Photo-micrograph of a section of an oil painting showing 
 cracks. A. A. is a photograph of the warp of the can- 
 vas. The oblong white surfaces are thin films of paint 
 which are cracked through tension and drying. 
 

 
 
 ^ rr, anent Pam ring 
 
 CHAm,^..v 
 
 ^>E OF i ;i : i-fACi TNG OF 
 
 GsGS AND Tiir D^-;:v;Dr)(KS 
 
 ';e--n vari. 
 
 ■hi: I'tiir- 
 
 th- 
 :ii add.. 
 
 '■-."y nitercisung to 
 ‘i ,;n OT5 rliis 
 
 ■ ■ • : ‘o;erted in the cass., 
 
 o.con.plete. Nearly a!) antert give. ... the 
 e . I the cracking of paino.igs, two or th ,jy. 
 rv rOiaiomena, when, as a oiatirr of fa-.y »he 
 
 ■ of the cracking of paintings rna',. be d . ■ x 
 variety of causes. The following are h . -an 
 VU.SC.S for the cracking of paiuling,s; 
 
 application of such pigricnts as. ’. r g;. 
 A vrdwr or zinc wliite over bmoblack, gray; ;a. 
 Nad, aspnaliurn or lake. 
 
 application to a pictn: 
 that iia.s not been thoro- 
 i he eTcct o.f dry atmosp. . 
 " on tr acts the • n>.wr -r*-* * 
 
 i.:se) 
 
 vTaT~sf?A~ 
 
 ' 'Wtngoloilq d ,i 
 
 pamt “S'™-"" ,y 
 

 
 
 *..• 
 
 
 • ^ - V A , • • 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 6. The application of megilp over a soft ground. 
 
 7. The use of bitumen as a glaze. 
 
 I. We learn from practical painters who apply 
 colors and varnishes to the surfaces of carriages, au- 
 tomobiles and railway cars, that a proper ground must 
 be prepared so that each coat will be dependent upon 
 the other, and that the priming coat shall be harder 
 than the layer above it. Practical painters, however, 
 never have surfaces like canvas to paint, excepting 
 when these surfaces are directly applied by means 
 of a glutinant to a wall or similar foundation. We 
 notice, even in the climate of North America, where 
 the temperature variation is about 130° F., that the 
 paint film on nearly all vehicles is permanent without 
 cracking or peeling for several years. The principal 
 cause is that a priming coat is applied of a hard drying 
 paint which is rubbed down so as to present a smooth 
 and uniform layer, and that a gloss coat is never placed 
 over a gloss coat, but a gloss coat is always applied 
 over a flat coat, in which case we have what is known 
 as a “mechanical bond.” 
 
 Canvas made of linen is exceedingly susceptible to 
 the influence of moisture, and prepared canvas is 
 generally sold with a coating that is sufficiently flat 
 and has a better grain so that the first layer at least 
 takes good hold. In order, therefore, to prevent crack- 
 ing and to remedy it when it has taken place, it is 
 essential to apply a good coat of paint on the back of 
 
 [ 41 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 the canvas, or to mount the finished picture upon 
 another sheet of canvas which has been previously 
 painted. The paint which has been found most suit- 
 able for the prevention of the absorption of moisture 
 by a finished picture, and which in many instances will 
 close up minute hairline cracks that have already 
 started, is a mixture composed of one pound of red 
 lead, dry, one pound white zinc, ground in oil, thinned 
 with sufficient raw oil and turpentine to make a ready 
 for use paint, having the consistency of cream. This 
 mixture cannot be kept ready for use, because the red 
 lead will combine with the oil and form a species of ce- 
 ment which dries very hard, and yet has some flex- 
 ibility. The application of such a mixture to the back 
 of a canvas makes it impervious to moisture and at- 
 mospheric influences, and preserves an otherwise weak 
 painting. 
 
 When the cracking occurs through the influence 
 exerted on the back of the canvas, it is due absolutely 
 to an engineering condition which is known as “com- 
 pression and tension.” The accompanying diagram 
 illustrates this fact, so that we may have cracking 
 which is entirely due to a curvature of the painted 
 surface which is known as tension, or a compression 
 of the canvas side, which is known as compression. 
 
 The artistic painter can demonstrate this for him- 
 self, if he will take an ordinary kodak film, which is 
 perfectly flat, and paint one side of it with a mixture 
 of, say, zinc white or reduced with turpentine only. 
 
 [ 42 ] 
 
^ PAINT 
 ^NEUTRAL 
 AXIS 
 CANVAS 
 
 The Engineering features of a pamting at rest in which the centre 
 line is the neutral axis. 
 
 CRACKS 
 PRODUCED 
 THROUGH TEITSiON 
 
 NEUTRAL 
 
 AXIS 
 
 The canvas in compression ami the paint in tension, the tension 
 producing cracks owing to the expansion of the paint films. 
 
 c 
 
 WRINKLES 
 
 NEUTRAL 
 
 AXIS 
 
 The paint in compression and the canvas in tension, zohich is the 
 cause of paint films being forced from the canvas as indicated by 
 the arrow. 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 fasten it to a board so that it will not curl, and 
 when it is dry, bend the surface which has been 
 painted in an outward direction, whereupon he will 
 find that the painted surface will show minute delicate 
 cracks, which explains the theory of tension, and the 
 theory of compression. The side in tension which is 
 the painted side, invariably cracks. This then goes 
 far toward explaining why pictures painted on metal 
 or on wood have stood for centuries and have not 
 cracked, and why unprotected pictures painted on can- 
 vas have cracked. Even wood panels are better pro- 
 tected when they are varnished on the reverse side 
 than when they are permitted to warp. 
 
 The author cites as an illustration a painting by 
 Michau on an oak panel which had for two centuries 
 remained evidently in a perfectly flat condition in Bel- 
 gium, but became badly warped when brought over 
 to America, and only the application on the edges and 
 the reverse side of two coats of the red lead and zinc 
 paint, prevented what might have been a bad crack- 
 ing of the panel itself. The climate in the winter in 
 the United States shows an abnormally dry condition, 
 and in the summer an abnormally moist condition, 
 so that a painting which will curve outwardly in the 
 winter through the contraction of the underside, will 
 curve inwardly in the summer time, and this alter- 
 nate bending inwardly and outwardly would eventually 
 show some cracks. 
 
 2. One of the most fruitful surfaces for the crack- 
 
 [ 43 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 ing of pictures is the varnishing of a picture before it 
 is dry, and complaints are frequently heard that some 
 varnishes are less liable to crack than others. This 
 is largely the case with the alcohol varnishes which 
 show a tendency to crack, and owing to their brittle- 
 ness they should only be used under certain conditions. 
 As the alcohol varnishes dry by evaporation they dry 
 very rapidly. Many of the paints expand in the drying 
 and some few of them ultimately contract, so that 
 in either case varnishing even after apparent dryness 
 with an alcohol varnish will produce very bad cracks. 
 It has been generally stated, as an axiom, that a pic- 
 ture should be six months old before it be varnished. 
 This is merely an arbitrary figure, and in every instance 
 it is far better to wait a year if it can be conveniently 
 done, than to varnish a picture in six months. Where, 
 for instance, a very slow drying pigment like any one 
 of the lakes, lampblack, black lead, etc., are used, 
 and the picture is varnished before these pigments are 
 thoroughly dry, cracking is bound to ensue. We there- 
 fore have the familiar phenomenon of a varnished 
 picture which cracks in some places and is perfectly 
 intact in others. This is due entirely to the so-called 
 selective drying of the pigment itself. It is therefore 
 wise under any circumstance to expose a picture to a 
 current of air and to the bright light before varnishing. 
 
 3. This can always be obviated by properly paint- 
 ing the underside of the canvas. Where a painting of 
 the underside is not desirable, the picture can be 
 
 [ 44 ] 
 
moun''.’'* 
 of I 
 
 \ oiiKU ;• ':•> f '<> * 
 
 4 r. *=• < ..lx:=a::. -wi 
 '•T'ld vvi i- ' 
 
 on canvas, is more noincn^ • •' 
 the. eastern part of l.h'’ ■ 
 
 Germany or England v’k'x 
 tively moist the yea; 
 preserved in any chm>o'- ■ 
 tected against dampness ■ . 
 
 upon which the paint ■ 
 
 sion and contraction wh.. 
 efficient of expansior,," - 
 there would be no troud:- 
 paint film of an oil pamr,; 
 absorb moisture, and '.' I'e!.. 
 the moisture just as ■ 
 very readily and d -icr oui: vs - 
 ticularly dry wood, absom;. tv .-' ■ 
 slowly than canvas. Tbo^i a’ 
 paintings on copper wh 
 served for many cent; r?cs, ■- 
 can use either well 
 
 advisable to do sO. 
 
 - fJUU <!slonT) \o iUii)t^OTjim-oU))i‘l 
 
 . ^ , imo sirtanra aivailX . .xUiinu'x aili ui baJwjiia iaub 
 tive drying qtiali u - 0('' 
 
 for the painter to -ol' < ■ 
 
 .a'rti!«8d 
 
 Th e ' fo l ftfw m : 
 
 
Photo-micrograph of cracks in a painting, and dirt or 
 dust encysted in the varnish. These cracks are open 
 fissures. 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 mounted either upon metal or upon another stretch 
 of canvas by means of a mixture of white lead and 
 Venice turpentine. 
 
 4. The climatic influence which has been previously 
 described, and which will cause cracks particularly 
 on canvas, is more noticeable in climates like those in 
 the eastern part of the United States than it is in 
 Germany or England where the atmosphere is rela- 
 tively moist the year round. Paintings can be best 
 preserved in any climate when they are properly pro- 
 tected against dampness or dry air. If the material 
 upon which the paint is applied had the same expan- 
 sion and contraction which is technically called “co- 
 efflcieht of expansion,” as the pigments themselves, 
 there would be no trouble from this source, but the 
 paint film of an oil painting is exceedingly slow to 
 absorb moisture, and when the air is dry it gives up 
 the moisture just as slowly, whereas canvas absorbs 
 very readily and dries out very readily. Wood, par- 
 ticularly dry wood, absorbs moisture readily but more 
 slowly than canvas. There are a large number of old 
 paintings on copper which have been technically pre- 
 served for many centuries, so that where a painter 
 can use either well seasoned wood or copper, it is 
 advisable to do so. 
 
 5. In the proper chapter (see page 187), the rela- 
 tive drying qualities of paints are given, and it is wise 
 for the painter to follow the rules laid down. 
 
 The following experiment will illustrate a fruitful 
 
 [ 45 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 source of cracks in painting and many other pigments 
 will act in a similar manner to a greater or lesser de- 
 gree. Materials like minium, which is red lead, or 
 burnt umber, dry with great rapidity, particularly 
 when turpentine is added. Apply either one of these 
 pigments over a ground work of pigments composed 
 of lampblack or a lake, and it will be readily noted 
 that within two weeks the top coat will contract and 
 the bottom coat will expand, so that, because these two 
 pigments do not dry co-ordinately, cracks will develop 
 and the surface will resemble alligator hide, sometimes 
 minutely, and sometimes with scales almost as large 
 as those of the alligator hide itself. 
 
 6. The use of megilp. 
 
 This refers to the previous paragraph, and comes 
 under the same heading, for megilp is a powerful 
 oxidizing agent, and will produce a cracking when 
 mixed with any pigment if placed over a soft drying 
 ground. The same phenomenon results if megilp is 
 used excessively with even a slow drying color such 
 as madder lake or lampblack. Megilp, irrespective 
 of this fact, is a material which should not be used 
 by any painter, for in addition to its rapid drying 
 qualities, it has a destructive influence on many of 
 the finer colors. 
 
 7. Bitumen as a glaze has been productive of more 
 damage than painters are aware of. It will produce 
 cracks over almost any pigment to which it be ap- 
 plied, for it dries principally by evaporation, whereas 
 
 [ 46 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 the ground upon which it is placed dries by oxidation. 
 Its photo-chemical defects have been described under 
 the heading of asphaltum, page 89, and need not be re- 
 peated here, but its physical defects are so patent, and 
 it has been productive of so much disaster in the pro- 
 duction of cracks, owing to unequal tension which 
 it produces, that it should never be used. 
 
 [ 47 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 CHAPTER VI 
 
 CANVAS, WOOD AND METAL 
 AS FOUNDATIONS 
 
 I T is obvious that the best foundation for any pic- 
 ture is a sheet of metal. The next choice is a 
 panel of oak or mahogany thoroughly seasoned, 
 and last and least, a stretch of canvas. Copper has 
 been used for centuries as a foundation for pictures, 
 and as such cannot be improved upon, particularly if 
 the copper be rolled out sufficiently thin and fastened 
 to a well seasoned piece of wood. Next in choice and 
 perhaps just as good, is zinc, but as both copper and 
 zinc are exceedingly smooth, it is always advisable 
 to roughen the surface by means of sand or emery 
 powder, which gives it the appearance of ground 
 glass, after which it takes the first coat of paint with 
 perfect ease. 
 
 If artistic painters would only follow the precept and 
 experience of coach painters, who, from time imme- 
 morial have followed the same rule, pictures would 
 be much more permanent and less liable to crack. 
 The coach painter, and in this category must be in- 
 cluded the railway car painter and the automobile 
 
 [ 48 ] 
 
Painting on niuho^any panel showing serious cracks 
 produced by varnishing the picture before the underlying 
 coat was sufficiently dry. 
 
 (Painting in the possession of the author.) 
 

 
 f -- - , 
 
 i.'ermanent Painting 
 
 tiiAPTER VI 
 .b. WOOD AND rwlPTA!. 
 
 
 FOUNDATIONS 
 
 % • ■ . * that the best founds tio; • - Any pic- 
 
 : • :s -beel of metaJ. The next choice is a 
 . .;tk or mahogany thoroughly seasoned, 
 
 : i :ou5t, 3. strctch of canyas. Copper has 
 
 : • ?. n-e.i \ui centuries as a foundation for pictures, 
 ^t:ch canfjot be improved upon, particularly if 
 copper be rolled out sufFtcicritly thin and fastened 
 = ’ a well seasoned piece of wood. Next in choice and 
 perhaps just as good, is zir.c, but as both copper and 
 ziiic are exceedingly smooth, it is always advisable 
 to roughen the surface by rneans of sand or emery 
 powder, which gives, it iiie appearance o-<^ ground 
 glass, after which it takes the first coat of paint with 
 perfect ease. 
 
 if artistic painters would only follow the srecep t and 
 experience ot coach painters, who, from urne imme- 
 
 1(0 , &.nh#<h»'^v'ould 
 
 eluded the railway car --O inter 
 
 o i p'le automobile 
 
 r 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 painter, prepare the metal or wooden surface by first 
 rubbing with sandpaper, emery cloth or pumice stone. 
 Any imperfections in the surface are generally re- 
 moved by the application of a first coating of what 
 is known as “rough stuff.” Rough stuff may be a 
 finely powdered mineral such as slate or silicious 
 clay, to which a little lampblack and white lead is 
 added. The medium is not oil but Japan varnish, 
 which is composed of a hard, quick-drying varnish 
 containing very little oil. After two or three days, 
 or sooner, this coating is sufficiently dry to be rubbed 
 again, and a coat of white lead and lampblack is then 
 applied, or pure white lead mixed with the same Japan 
 varnish which is known as “Gold Size Japan,” or 
 “Coach Makers Japan.” After this second coat is 
 rubbed it presents a good surface for subsequent paint- 
 ing, which is exceedingly hard, but yet not brittle. 
 This description refers, of course, to painting on a 
 solid foundation like wood or metal, for on canvas 
 such a treatment is ill advised owing to the unequal 
 expansion and contraction between the canvas and the 
 hard coating of such a priming paint. 
 
 From experiments which the author has made, it 
 would appear that a sheet of aluminum tV of an inch 
 thick rubbed with either linseed oil and finely pow- 
 dered emery, or with pumice stone and water, pre- 
 sents a surface upon which a mixture of zinc white and 
 white lead may be applied, forming a surface most de- 
 sirable for subsequent painting, and giving a film which 
 
 [ 49 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 should be permanent for all time. Under no circum- 
 stances should the priming coat of any picture dry 
 with a high gloss, otherwise no union takes place be- 
 tween the film of paint and the metal to which it be 
 applied. The unequal expansion between an elastic 
 coat and a rigid metal are very undesirable, but in 
 spite of any good advice that may be given on this 
 subject, painters will continue to paint on canvas, 
 and such being the case, the best advice to give is 
 to follow the precepts of the old Flemish painters, and 
 paste the canvas either on a wood or metal foundation 
 with white lead and Venice turpentine. 
 
 Where canvas is mounted on a wooden stretcher, and 
 is sufficiently dry, the best application for the back 
 is a hard drying semi-elastic paint, composed of red 
 lead, white lead and zinc oxide, raw oil and turpentine. 
 This should be applied until a thick glossy coating is 
 obtained. Such a coating prevents cracks, and in- 
 hibits any chemical action through the underside of 
 the canvas. 
 
 The purchase of ready made canvas is not always 
 to be recommended. This statement refers to the 
 canvas ready for immediate painting. Where a paint- 
 er has the time a canvas may be purchased mounted 
 upon a proper stretcher and treated in the following 
 manner : A first coat of white lead is applied to the 
 front and back of the canvas, and then a second coat 
 of zinc oxide on the front of the canvas is properly 
 rubbed down and smoothed. This makes an admirable 
 
 [ 50 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 surface which has sufficient tooth to take subsequent 
 coats. 
 
 It has often been advised to prime canvas with a 
 glue size, but the glue is continually subject to the 
 influence of moisture, which it will absorb on a damp 
 day and release again on a dry day, so that continual 
 contraction and expansion take place, which is one of 
 the causes of the cracking of paintings. A good hard 
 coat of paint composed of white lead, more zinc and 
 coach painter’s japan properly applied to the surface of 
 canvas will, in a few days, lay the lint sufficiently hard 
 so that it can be sandpapered smooth. The next coat, 
 which should also be a coat that does not dry glossy 
 and that contains sufficient turpentine, will make a 
 perfectly smooth foundation, and a paint of this sort 
 is less subject to expansion and contraction than one 
 painted on a glue size. Any painter can prepare a 
 dozen canvases after this method, and if they are placed 
 in the sun and allowed to ripen with age, they even- 
 tually become hard without becoming brittle. 
 
 For a canvas which is to be rolled up, a totally 
 different method must be pursued. Such a canvas 
 must have a very flexible foundation, and this can best 
 be obtained by using raw linseed oil with a mixture 
 of white lead and lampblack as a first coat. This mix- 
 ture will take several days to dry. It should be very 
 thinly applied, each coat containing less lampblack 
 until a white surface is obtained. The rear side of 
 the canvas where it is to be rolled up, should be treated 
 
 [ 51 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 solely with a coat of raw linseed oil and nothing else. 
 A canvas so treated will remain flexible for many 
 years. 
 
 [ 52 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 CHAPTER VII 
 
 PREPARATION OF CANVAS IN 
 COMMERCIAL PRACTICE 
 
 C ANVAS for oil painting is stretched upon large 
 frames, and receives a sizing coat of glue and 
 water. After this sizing coat is dry, three coats 
 of white lead in oil slightly tinted with black to 
 produce a gray color are applied. The first coat is 
 generally a very thick mixture of lead, oil, turpentine 
 and drier which is applied to the canvas by means 
 of a stick, and then scraped oflf with a curved steel 
 knife. This is done for the purpose of pressing the 
 material into the fibre of the canvas, and likewise 
 for the purpose of producing a perfectly smooth sur- 
 face. The two following coats are usually applied 
 by means of brushes, and the material is thinned down 
 with turpentine so that it will dry perfectly flat. The 
 canvas is then stripped from the frame and rolled up, 
 and after a few months becomes decidedly brittle. 
 Up to date there has been no improvement in the 
 preparation of canvas and it is difficult to believe that 
 in this age of progress the preparation of canvas is 
 still a hand-made procedure. Canvas ought really to 
 
 [ 53 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 be coated on both sides, and the coatings should be 
 so very flexible that the question of cracking when 
 the canvas is rolled up should be entirely eliminated. 
 
 The use of wood panels is not to be recommended in 
 America, unless the wood is thoroughly seasoned. 
 After it has been seasoned and planed, it should be 
 allowed to soak for several weeks in a linseed oil 
 varnish in order that it may absorb sufficient material 
 to prevent future warping. The hygroscopic condi- 
 tions in America are totally different from those pre- 
 vailing in Europe. In Europe a painting on wood 
 will remain perfect for centuries, because the amount 
 of moisture in the air remains fairly uniform for a 
 given locality, but even on the sea coasts in the United 
 States the moisture conditions in the atmosphere var> 
 so remarkably that it is below normal in the winter 
 time, and above normal in the summer. Humidity in 
 the atmosphere is generally expressed by arbitrary 
 numbers, lOO representing a saturated condition of 
 the atmosphere during a rain storm. Eifty is exceed- 
 ingly dry, but in the winter on a clear day the humid- 
 ity in the atmosphere is expressed by the figure 30. 
 In such an atmosphere materials may be said to be 
 anhydrous. 
 
 An oil painting on wood, unless it be properly pro- 
 tected either by successive coats of paint on all sides, 
 or has been previously soaked in oil, varnish or shellac, 
 will warp in the winter time with a curvature on the 
 side of the painting, the reverse side being convex. 
 
 [ 54 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 The result is that the obverse or painted side becomes 
 cracked. 
 
 It is therefore preferable to paint on metal or on 
 the composition known as academy board, which is a 
 wood pulp or paper surface formed by cementing to- 
 gether several thicknesses of pasteboard or card- 
 board, and applying a coat of oil paint on what ulti- 
 mately becomes the obverse side. 
 
 [ 55 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 CHAPTER VIII 
 
 RENOVATION AND CLEANING 
 OF PICTURES 
 
 T here is perhaps no subject on which so little 
 is definitely known as the renovation or cleaning 
 of oil paintings, for the reason that no set rules 
 can be given. It is essential that anyone who at- 
 tempts to clean a picture should have some knowledge 
 of the pigments, oils and varnishes that were used; 
 otherwise good results are not obtained, and in many 
 instances the painting is ruined. If we attempt to 
 clean a picture with soap and water, which is very 
 frequently done, and it happens to be an old painting 
 of the tempera type, soap and water would dissolve the 
 entire picture with ruinous results, but if the painting 
 is made on wood or metal such preliminary clean- 
 ing can be resorted to, but no strong friction or at- 
 trition should take place on account of the danger of 
 abrasion. If, on the other hand, we attempted to 
 clean a picture with wood alcohol and turpentine, and 
 it were painted with the same colors and media used 
 by Vibert, and recommended by him, the picture 
 would be almost instantly dissolved and effaced from 
 
 [56] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 its canvas. It therefore becomes imperative to ex- 
 periment on the edge of a picture, preferably that 
 part which is usually protected by the frame, with 
 various solvents, in order to determine exactly what 
 will take place. 
 
 As far as the remedy for cracks is concerned, the 
 reader is referred to the chapter on “The Cause of 
 the Cracking of Pictures ; Its Prevention and Remedy.” 
 Therefore, this chapter will only deal with renovation, 
 and it is assumed that the person who attempts to 
 clean a painting is familiar with the materials used, 
 and inasmuch as perhaps ninety-nine paintings out 
 of one hundred that look like oil paintings are oil 
 paintings, the remedies given by the author are for 
 this class of pictures entirely. 
 
 The first essential is to determine the mount, whether 
 it is wood, academy board or canvas. If it is can- 
 vas, two courses may be pursued ; first, paint the back 
 of the picture (see page 41), or second, mount the 
 canvas with a mixture of white lead and Venice tur- 
 pentine on another canvas. There are a large 
 number of chemical solvents which remove old 
 varnish, but these should only be used by a 
 skilled operator. The most important of these chem- 
 ical solvents are acetone, benzine, naphtha, benzol, 
 amyl acetate, amyl alcohol (fusel oil), ethyl 
 alcohol (grain alcohol), terpineol, methyl alcohol 
 (wood alcohol), and various mixtures of these sub- 
 stances. The least harmful and the weakest is or- 
 
 [571 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 dinary benzine, such as is used for cleaning gloves and 
 garments, but it is not sufficiently strong to dissolve 
 old dried cracked varnish. At the same time, a solvent 
 which is strong enough to dissolve cracked varnish 
 may likewise be strong enough to destroy the painting 
 itself. Whether the picture is varnished or not, or- 
 dinary wood alcohol is taken either on a clean cot- 
 ton rag or a sponge, and lightly rubbed in one cor- 
 ner. If it be varnished, the wood alcohol wi'l 
 very likely dissolve the varnish without touching 
 the painting, but if there is any difficulty in dissolving 
 the varnish, a mechanical mixture of turpentine and 
 wood alcohol would have to be used, and as a general 
 rule this will take off all the varnish. Forcible abra- 
 sion must never be resorted to, for any wet rag will, 
 as a rule, take off some of the paint. The dried lin- 
 seed oil or other drying oil film is not soluble in tur- 
 pentine, but is attacked by wood alcohol after pro- 
 longed use. Therefore, if pure turpentine will cleanse 
 a picture, it is wise to let it go at that, and as a gen- 
 eral rule, assuming always that the picture is an oil 
 painting, a stiff brush will very frequently aid in 
 cleansing almost every part of a picture without the 
 addition of wood alcohol, so that we have here only 
 two re-agents which are necessary. It is necessary to 
 warn everyone not to try the so-called paint removers, 
 benzol or carbon tetrachloride mixtures which are 
 sold, because in many instances the use of these ma- 
 terials is very harmful because the solvent action is 
 
 [ 58 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 entirely too great. Ordinary naphtha or gasoline, such 
 as is used for cleaning gloves, can be very safely recom- 
 mended, because its solvent action is not as great as 
 that of turpentine and wood alcohol, so that, with the 
 aid of these three materials, almost any varnish can be 
 removed, and any adherent foreign substance easily 
 washed off. 
 
 The use of soap and water is recommended by many, 
 but this is always more or less dangerous unless the 
 soap is absolutely neutral. It always finds its way into 
 cracks, is absorbed by the canvas and the under- 
 lying paint, so that in many instances a painting be- 
 comes so badly buckled that, even though it is cleaned, 
 the cracks and defects are magnified. (Great care 
 must be taken not to use a soap which is alkaline. The 
 soaps which are neutral are principally the shaving 
 soaps. Ivory Soap, and genuine castile soap). The 
 soap may be mixed with tepid water and applied with 
 a sponge to the surface of the painting, thereby re- 
 moving the thickened dust and dirt from its surface. 
 An application of this kind will seldom, if ever, do 
 any harm, except on a painting which is badly cracked, 
 and where water is liable to soak into the canvas and 
 swell it, or where the painting is based on an aqueous 
 mixture. 
 
 Colors which have become darkened with age or 
 affected by the sulphur fumes of the atmosphere, like 
 flake white, and English or chrome vermilion, can 
 only be properly renovated if the surface is abraded. 
 
 [ 59 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 and this can be frequently accomplished by means 
 of a ball made of the inside of a fresh loaf of rye 
 bread. The ball is gently rubbed on the picture after 
 it has been cleaned with soap and water, and this is 
 to be done in a good light. The rubbing given by 
 means of the ball of bread will remove the outer layer 
 and bring the color up to its original brilliancy. 
 
 It is essential that experiments be tried on a very 
 small part, preferably in a corner or on an edge of the 
 picture with various solvents, in order to determine 
 whether any harm would be done or not. After wash- 
 ing a picture it may be rubbed with a clean woolen 
 rag which has been dipped in pure spirits of turpen- 
 tine, for spirits of turpentine will very often dissolve 
 a varnish like mastic or damar but will not attack the 
 dry linseed oil film of the painting beneath. The same 
 may be said of benzine. A mixture of benzine and 
 turpentine will frequently do no harm, but its appli- 
 cation must always be followed by washing with tur- 
 pentine alone. If thick films of varnish still remain, 
 and are unattacked, they had better be left alone and 
 the entire picture re-varnished with a harmless medium 
 like damar or mastic varnish. 
 
 The use of stale bread handled as an eraser, or the 
 use of soft rubber should not be resorted to, provided 
 turpentine, benzine or wood alcohol will remove the 
 surface dirt and varnish. Any form of abrasion may 
 become a menace for the obvious reason, that, if on 
 a flesh color madder lake was used as a glaze, it takes 
 
 [ 60 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 very little rubbing to remove the one one-thousandth 
 of an inch of madder lake which has been applied for 
 a given effect, and which when removed leaves a 
 ghastly result. 
 
 Paintings that have turned yellow with age are best 
 treated by first placing them in the bright sunlight for 
 two or three days before the application or washing 
 with turpentine. In many instances where a brilliant 
 sky blue has turned to a dirty olive color, the sun 
 will bring back much of the pristine brilliancy, and 
 the rubbing with turpentine and a small percentage 
 of wood alcohol will bring out the colors sometimes 
 more brilliantly than they were on the day that they 
 were applied. 
 
 Where sulphur fumes have decomposed the lead 
 color and formed a brownish result, chemists have 
 recommended the use of peroxide of hydrogen, and 
 while this may be theoretically the proper method to 
 pursue, it is not necessary, and sometimes dangerous, 
 for the reason that even though peroxide of hydrogen 
 will bring back flake white and chrome yellow to 
 their original color, it may bleach an adjacent lake 
 beyond redemption, and as these sulphur de-composi- 
 tions of color are usually on the surface, the wood 
 alcohol and turpentine treatment with very slight abra- 
 sion, will produce all the results necessary. The 
 cleaning and renovation of pictures in the hands of 
 an intelligent person is not a very difficult problem, 
 but it is very easy to spoil any good painting by the 
 
 [ 61 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 use of nostrums and recipes which are destructive in 
 their effect. 
 
 Very often a good picture assumes a bluish haze 
 commonly called “bloom,” which remains on it for 
 years. It is due largely to the absorption of moisture 
 by the varnish itself, and can easily be removed by 
 a gentle application of two or three coats of turpen- 
 tine, each successively wiped off and then finally var- 
 nished with a good hard varnish like amber or a 
 mixture of amber, mastic and damar. Paintings that 
 have been glazed with asphaltum must, however, be 
 handled differently, for in the chapter on the “As- 
 phaltum and Bitumen,” it will be noted that as- 
 phaltum becomes darker with exposure rather than 
 lighter, due to the liberation of carbon. This can be 
 almost invariably removed by slight rubbing with 
 turpentine and benzine, but inasmuch as it evidently 
 was the artist’s original intention to produce a different 
 color effect by means of this glazing, the picture will 
 have a totally different tone value and effect when the 
 smut remaining from the asphaltum is removed, and 
 the restoration of a picture of this kind should be 
 given to some painter for re-glazing after the smutty 
 residue of the asphaltum bitumen is thoroughly washed 
 off. 
 
 After a picture has been thoroughly cleaned and 
 bleached by means of sunlight, it is essential to var- 
 nish it immediately. Two coats of thin varnish prop- 
 erly dried, particularly where the second coat is ap- 
 
 [ 62 ] 
 
- M; 
 
 Photo-micrograph of cracks invisible to the naked eye 
 showing encysted matter and fissures. 
 
-iiwt**-. >■ vii>'-<o»'iiiWiwqwrriMi»iai> ’•og.’OMtwaiepi 
 
 '^"nnaiienr Painting 
 
 ■ ; ujTs and recipes which are destructive in 
 
 ■'hei-" eltect. 
 
 Verv often a good picture assumes a bluish haze 
 i ;: ■.:u)only called “bloom,” which remains on it for 
 a*..,. It is due largely to the absorption of moisture 
 h’. the varnish itself, and can easily be removed by 
 . geuile aj;niication of two or Uirce coats of turpen- 
 t:ach success’ '.-cly wiped off apd tlnm finally var- 
 "Mi.Mi v/ith a 1^00'! bard varnish and.er or a. 
 of amber, and damar. Paintings that' 
 
 N.;.n gpjred with a-.ohc iouu must, however, be 
 ,:o‘- ‘■■cc.rcnsd. foi j: •. nartC’* on the “As- 
 
 ; — . 1 . W'l; '•>«' taited that as- 
 
 . , .’''-.cs 'arker w>»h ■ • y-xure rather than 
 
 c •• lo the liberation of ' U>n. This can be 
 
 ■r. • : . .'a ■ iably removed by sliglu rubbing with 
 
 ■ O'- • - ,;v: benzine, but inasiuuvh it c-. idently 
 
 . • dc . vriginai udent-OiV to c;>ti"cc different 
 . . • i.v means or rsn?. edemg. tic -litre will 
 ■ • ‘ ;; ; Cady different tone vaJin- and eFcci when the 
 ' remaining from the a^phalUun ir cranoved, and 
 *c.. restoration o; a picture of this kind should be 
 to some painter for re-gla/iuy o e smutty 
 
 :'ov of the asplialtum bituu.cr ■ o ; -ighly washed 
 
 iraslmt 'a'ltlktdiri p.slotn'i ib'bfq1ciiko‘t5i^-'6foilP*^' 
 
 bitn -^5innf hsl«'fjVi5’Sni'<foitz 
 
 L. ) coats ot ,gfnishpr op- 
 
 V vIk'T': il'-'' -cond coat is ap- 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 plied after the first coat is thoroughly dry, is by far 
 preferable to the application of one heavy coat of 
 varnish. 
 
 [ 63 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 CHAPTER IX 
 
 THE SCHOOL OE IMPRESSIONISM 
 
 F rom time immemorial painters have depicted 
 scenes as they saw them. A blue sky was painted 
 with a mixture of white and blue. A sunset of 
 yellow and orange was painted with yellow and a 
 mixture of yellow and red. The principle upon which 
 all painting is executed is that there are three primary 
 pigments, red, yellow and blue, which, with the ad- 
 dition of white and black, furnish all the tints neces- 
 sary for the production of any given shade, or mix- 
 ture of complementary colors, so that if a green is 
 desired, yellow and blue may be mixed, and if a light 
 green is wanted, white is added, and if a dark green 
 is wanted either more blue or black is added. 
 
 Without going into the discussion of the physics 
 of this subject, it may be accepted that the result of 
 the mixture of two pigments is a subtractive phenom- 
 euon. In other words, when yellow and blue are 
 mixed, the yellow and the blue are simply subtracted 
 from the white light which falls on them with the re- 
 sult that green is obtained, and carrying out this theory 
 still further, if red, yellow and blue are mixed in their 
 proper proportions, each of these colors is subtracted 
 
 [ 64 ] 
 
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 from the white light with the result that a pigment is 
 obtained which produces an approach to black, and 
 black is regarded as a minus or zero quantity. 
 
 In the blending of light we have the opposite effect, 
 so that when we take three colored lights, or allow the 
 rays which pass through sheets of glass composed 
 of scarlet, green and violet, to impinge upon each 
 other, we do not obtain a subtractive color but an 
 additive color ; that is, these three colors falling upon 
 the same point form white. In other words, the sum 
 total of the colored rays of scarlet, green and violet 
 when added together are white, so that we have the 
 phenomenon that the primary pigments mixed to- 
 gether form black, and the primary color sensations 
 form white, and that the primary color sensations 
 are not identical with the primary colors but lie be- 
 tween or adjacent to the primary colors of the spec- 
 trum. That is, the color sensations are scarlet, green 
 and violet, while the primary colors are red, yellow 
 and blue. The spectrum, as is well known, is com- 
 posed of red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and 
 violet. The pigments may always be expressed in the 
 form of paint and the color sensations may always be 
 produced by light. 
 
 The Lumiere Bros., of Lyons, France, having 
 worked upon the theory of the primary color sensa- 
 tions, developed the now well known process of color 
 photography. They arranged close together colored 
 starch grains tinted with transparent dyes, so that 
 
 [ 65 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 when these starch grains are viewed by transmitted 
 light it is impossible to discern the scarlet from the 
 green or the violet, the result being that the mixture 
 produces what we call “white light.” In photograph- 
 ing a yellow flower, and examining the yellow under 
 the microscope we find that it is composed of equal 
 parts of scarlet and green. True impressionistic 
 painting is based upon this phenomena with the prop- 
 er modifications for the obvious reason that it is prac- 
 tically impossible for any painter to put such small 
 dots or points of pigments of green and violet so that 
 when viewed at a distance they appear sky blue, and 
 yet when we take green and violet light, or green and 
 violet microscopic particles so small that the eye can- 
 not deferentiate, the resulting color is sky blue, and 
 not a mixture which the painter would expect it to 
 be, because, as has been already explained, the mix- 
 ture of pigments is subtractive and the mixture 
 of light and light sensations is additive. If, there- 
 fore, on a gray or neutral ground, a painter will paint 
 small patches of alternate pale green and pale violet 
 and such a composite is viewed from a distance of 
 fifteen or twenty feet or more, the resulting impression 
 will be sky blue. True impressionistic painting is 
 based entirely upon such phenomena. 
 
 There is one other influence which causes impression- 
 ism, which is due entirely to a defect of the eye. Those 
 who have been in a photographic dark room, which is 
 illuminated entirely by a red light, will have often no- 
 
 [ 66 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 deed that upon emerging from the dark room into 
 the white light, everything appeared green. This is 
 caused by the fact that in the first place, the physical 
 power of the nerve-fibrils of the eye which are sensi- 
 tive to red are temporarily exhausted, and the eye 
 sees only the complementary color which is green. If, 
 therefore, a brilliant red sunset is painted by means of 
 the massive application of scarlet and red, the foliage 
 may be gray, but after viewing it steadily for a few 
 moments it appears perfectly green, so that we have 
 a green impression where it really does not exist, be- 
 cause the eye complements one color for another. 
 
 Unfortunately the theory of impressionistic paint- 
 ing has not been properly disseminated and not prop- 
 erly taught, so that we have some of the vilest and 
 most impossible attempts at impressionistic painting 
 which are based not upon science, but upon the fads 
 which exist. Human beings are prone to say that 
 they admire a daub because some one else who is sup- 
 posed to know has pronounced it good, when as a 
 matter of fact, it possesses no merit whatever, and its 
 entire workmanship is so crude and so impossible that 
 it would make little or no difference even if it were 
 hung upside down. 
 
 There is a remarkable future for true impression- 
 istic painting, but there is no future and no “raison 
 d’etre” for the impossible daubs which masquerade 
 under the name of impressionistic painting, and if a 
 painter will study the theory as propounded by Ducos 
 
 [ 67 ] 
 
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 Dunaron, which is not very difficult to learn, and will 
 study the chemistry of light as propounded by Vogel 
 and Rood, he or she will be able with a little practice 
 to master the new branch of the art which is coupled 
 with a science. The danger of applying masses of 
 paint in promontory patches which are likely to dry 
 rapidly and crack or peel have their own significance, 
 for impressionistic painting may be plastic, but its 
 plasticity should really be produced by means of light 
 and shade effects. 
 
 [ 68 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 CHAPTER X 
 VOLATILE SOLVENTS 
 
 T he two oldest solvents known are turpentine and 
 lavender oil, but from the data at hand, it is 
 very likely that lavender oil was known many 
 centuries before turpentine. Chemically, lavender oil 
 is analogous to turpentine, in fact, it is a species of 
 turpentine containing an aromatic ingredient. Laven- 
 der oil is not used at present by oil painters to any great 
 extent, but turpentine is largely used. 
 
 Vibert was the first great painter to recommend the 
 use of benzine as a diluent for paint, and on this sub- 
 ject much is to be said. Vibert did not believe in the 
 use of linseed oil, but used a resin varnish reduced 
 with benzine. Benzine is nothing more nor less than 
 the same material of lower gravity as what we know 
 under the name of gasolene, petroleum essence, pe- 
 troleum spirits, or naphtha, and is identical in chemical 
 composition with the material used as a motive power 
 in automobiles. There is another material which is 
 spelled with an “e,” “benzene,” whereas the petroleum 
 essence is spelled with an “i,” benzine. The chemical 
 name for benzene is benzol, but this is never to be 
 recommended for oil painting, as its solvent power 
 
 [ 69 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 is much too great. If benzol (benzene) were used 
 by a painter as a diluent over a freshly painted sur- 
 face, it would dissolve the work of yesterday. For 
 the purposes of uniformity, I shall refer to petroleum 
 spirits as naphtha, which is the name by which it is 
 best known in America. It has the advantage over 
 turpentine that it evaporates much more rapidly, and 
 leaves no residue, nor does it exert any drying influ- 
 ence by itself. 
 
 [70] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 CHAPTER XI 
 PICTURE VARNISHES 
 
 T here are on the market no less than nine 
 different varnishes sometimes sold under fan- 
 ciful names, out of which only three are rec- 
 ommended. The varnishes used are damar, sandarac, 
 amber, copal, shellac, spirit varnish, oil copal and 
 mastic. There may be some excuse for the use of 
 spirit varnishes such as shellac or sandarac, which 
 are made by dissolving these two gums in alcohol, and 
 adding a small percentage of oil to prevent them from 
 becoming too brittle. The principal advantage in us- 
 ing a spirit varnish is that it dries dust free in lo 
 or 15 minutes, but inasmuch as a spirit varnish binds 
 very poorly on a linseed oil film, it is not to be recom- 
 mended. 
 
 The use of oil copal varnishes, excepting where old 
 paintings are to be imitated, is likewise to be depre- 
 cated, for no copal varnish which is made by fusing- 
 copal or kauri gum with linseed oil retains its original 
 color, or absence of color. If a piece of wood is 
 painted with flake white or zinc white and varnished 
 with an oil copal varnish, it will be found that when 
 it is placed in a dark closet, it turns a dirty yellow at 
 the end of three months, and if the experiment is 
 
 [ 71 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 repeated, mastic or damar being used, it is found that 
 no change in color takes place. Therefore, the only 
 excuse for using an oil copal or oil kauri varnish is 
 that if an old master is copied, the effect of time and 
 the yellowing of age can be imitated. This can be best 
 accomplished by the use of an oil varnish, and putting 
 the painting away in a dark corner. 
 
 Mastic varnish is perhaps the most reliable of all. 
 It is made by dissolving gum mastic in spirits of 
 turpentine, this solution taking place in the cold and 
 with occasional shaking. After the solution has been 
 obtained, it is necessary to filter it either through cot- 
 ton or filter paper. When placed away and allowed 
 to ripen with age, it produces a flexible, glossy varnish, 
 the life of which is generally conceded to be ten years. 
 
 Perhaps the next in the line is damar varnish, al- 
 though this varnish is not as flexible as mastic, nor is 
 the life of damar much over five years, but neither mas- 
 tic nor damar turn yellow with age unless some drying 
 oil is added to them. 
 
 Bleached and orange shellac when dissolved in 
 methyl or ethyl alcohol have been used for many years 
 as picture varnishes. Both of these varnishes arc 
 very opaque when made in the usual way, so that in 
 order to clarify them, they are either filtered many 
 times, or quick-silver vermilion is shaken with the 
 varnishes, which after a day or two carries down the 
 wax, and leaves a layer of clear varnish. This clear 
 varnish is often sold under the name of French var- 
 
 [ 72 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 nish, and is frequently mixed with either oil of laven- 
 der or oil of bergamot to produce flexibility. If pro- 
 gressive drying takes place under a varnish of this 
 type, surface cracks are likely to ensue for obvious rea- 
 sons,* and this is true of every varnish when applied 
 before a painting be properly dry, but more so of the 
 quick and hard drying varnishes. 
 
 There is much varnish sold under the name of 
 amber varnish, which is made of a fossil kauri resin, 
 and there is no doubt that the fossil kauri resin is 
 superior to the genuine amber. It is a popular fallacy 
 to suppose that the ancients used amber varnish, for 
 it is very likely that they called all hard resins amber. 
 True amber must be so thoroughly tempered with oil, 
 and is so very difficult to fuse, and dries so very slow- 
 ly, that its use is not recommended, and where it is 
 properly fused it is almost black on account of the 
 high heat necessary for melting. 
 
 The conclusion to be arrived at from the foregoing 
 statements is that only two varnishes should be used 
 for ordinary purposes, damar and mastic, and of the 
 two mastic is preferable. It can be purchased from 
 reliable firms, but where there is any doubt as to its 
 purity, it can be very easily made by dissolving a pound 
 of mastic in a quart of pure spirits of turpentine. 
 When properly made, it has the color of refined lin- 
 seed oil. It is better to use it in a thin layer than to 
 make a thick solution and flow it on. 
 
 * See chapter on “The Cause of the Cracking of Paintings and the 
 Kemedies.” 
 
 [ 73 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 CHAPTER XII 
 DRIERS 
 
 T he use of driers in artistic painting is as 
 someone stated “an invention of the devil.” 
 Copal megilp, which is merely super-saturated 
 drying oil, has ruined many a good painting. There 
 are circumstances where the use of a drier for ar- 
 tistic painting is permissible, such as, for instance, 
 interior wall decorations where freedom from dust 
 is essential, or for temporary painting for the pur- 
 poses of reproduction for colored or black and white 
 illustrations in books or magazines, but for portrait 
 or landscape painting where the painter desires per- 
 manence, driers are to be deprecated. 
 
 The pigments themselves have peculiar characteris- 
 tics in this regard (see chapter on “The drying quali- 
 ties of pigments”), and the painter may help himself 
 in case he desires a painting to dry rapidly, for if he 
 has dark colors which do not dry, all the umbers and 
 siennas are rapid driers, and if he has light colors 
 which he desires to dry he may use in any instance 
 spirits of turpentine and sunlight. 
 
 Turpentine is an excellent drier and perfectly harm- 
 less. It is quite true that it flattens the color, but this 
 
 [ 74 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 is no objection, because the free use of turpentine en- 
 ables the painter to varnish his picture so much the 
 sooner, and the use of sunlight is also of great assist- 
 ance, for we have absolute evidence that zinc white, 
 which is at first a slow drier, dries progressively un- 
 til it becomes brittle, but may be made to dry rapidly 
 in the beginning by simply exposing it to bright light. 
 Ordinary zinc white when mixed with raw linseed oil 
 and placed in the dark, will remain soft and wet 
 sometimes as long as ten days, yet on a bright, clear 
 spring or summer day when exposed to the bright light 
 it will skin over and dry in 12 hours. Care, how- 
 ever, must always be taken never to expose a fresh 
 painting to the heat of the summer sun, for linseed 
 oil before it has begun to oxidize melts like wax. A 
 current of air is likewise an effective drier, and some 
 painters use the precaution of surrounding a painting 
 with a curtain of cheese cloth which keeps the dust 
 from it, but admits the air. 
 
 Driers decompose many pigments. In fact, nearly 
 every one of the lake colors is rapidly affected by the 
 action of driers. Madder lake, when mixed with a 
 lead or manganese drier, soon loses its pristine bril- 
 liancy. 
 
 [ 75 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 CHAPTER XIII 
 
 LINSEED OIL AND OTHER DRYING OILS 
 
 T he principal oils used by painters are linseed 
 oil and poppy oil, and occasionally a little wal- 
 nut oil. Linseed oil in its normal state is 
 the best and the only oil that a painter should use. 
 Walnut oil is paler than linseed oil, but dries much 
 slower, while poppy oil is the palest of all the nut 
 oils, and dries slower than walnut oil. 
 
 Linseed oil is the oil extracted from flax-seed and 
 while there may be a great deal of talk concerning 
 adulterated oils, it must be said in justice to the man- 
 ufacturers of artists materials that in no instance has 
 the author ever found a single sample of oil which was 
 labeled linseed oil that contained any impurity what- 
 ever, so that it is perfectly safe for any painter to 
 buy linseed oil from a credited manufacturer, and rest 
 secure in the knowledge that the material is abso- 
 lutely pure. 
 
 The great objection, however, to the purchase of 
 the majority of samples of linseed oil for artistic 
 painting, is that the oil is generally refined or bleached, 
 which is a serious mistake. Refined or bleached lin- 
 seed oil means linseed oil in which the color is hid- 
 
 [ 76 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 den, for in the bleaching of linseed oil the color is not 
 extracted, it is simply changed from a greenish color 
 to a barely visible yellow. * 
 
 The point which the author wishes to bring out is 
 that the painter is far better ofif, if he is going to use 
 linseed oil for the reduction of his pigments, to use 
 only raw linseed oil unbleached, but well settled. If 
 the yellowish green, or the decidedly yellow raw lin- 
 seed oil is used, the painter has the advantage in that 
 the resulting mixture with white or light pigments 
 will never grow much darker, and the highest tones 
 that are produced are tones which the subsequent 
 painting will show. On the other hand, if the bleached 
 and almost colorless linseed oil is used, it cannot bleach 
 any further, and if the painting is put away in a dark 
 place, it is bound to grow darker on account of the 
 generation of the original coloring matter in the oil. 
 In other words, the coloring matter contained in 
 bleached oil reverts with many pigments like flake 
 white and zinc white to its original greenish state. 
 Painters will do well to bear this in mind when paint- 
 ing portraits. The use of bleached de-colorized lin- 
 seed, poppy, or walnut oils is to be deprecated under 
 all circumstances. 
 
 Linseed oil dries much better in the sunlight than 
 it does in the dark. 
 
 The recommendation which one reads quite fre- 
 
 * For a more scientific treatment of this subject, the reader is re- 
 ferred to page 32, on the “Photo-Chemical Deterioration of oil paint- 
 ings.” 
 
 [ 77 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 quent.ly, that a painter should press linseed oil for 
 his own uses, is just as ridiculous in these days as the 
 recommendation that a painter should grind his own 
 colors. Pure raw linseed oil is obtainable in every 
 civilized community, and what a painter should do is 
 to buy a gallon of it, place it in small bottles which 
 are corked only with a tuft of cotton and stand them 
 on a shelf where they may remain for years, although 
 it is unwise for a painter to use linseed oil which is 
 more than five years old, because it is likely to de- 
 compose and become what is technically termed as 
 “fatty,” which is equal to a kind of rancidity that we 
 generally associate with the edible fats. At the same 
 time, linseed oil that has become slightly thickened 
 with age is of great value when mixed with the dry- 
 ing pigments, such as zinc oxide and umber, because 
 a film is obtained which is far more flexible than that 
 obtained with the aid of driers. 
 
 When linseed oil is boiled it becomes very much 
 paler than it is in its raw state. This may sound like 
 a contradiction, because nearly all boiled oils are dark, 
 but that is due to the fact that they are generally 
 boiled with a drier like lead or manganese, and these 
 metals go into solution and form chemical soaps 
 which alter the color of the oil. Any painter may try 
 the experiment himself by taking raw linseed oil, plac- 
 ing it in a clean agate-ware dish, and heating it slowly 
 and carefully until it begins to froth. On cooling, it will 
 be noted that the oil is somewhat thicker and very much 
 
 [ 78 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 paler, and in addition to this, it dries in much less time 
 than it does in its raw state. Such oil should never 
 be used with the quick-drying pigments, but may be 
 very safely used with all the blacks, zinc white, per- 
 manent white and any of the lakes, but boiled linseed 
 oil which contains an added drier like manganese, 
 litharge, zinc or lime, should never be used with any 
 lake pigment. 
 
 Linseed oil in the process of drying goes through 
 a very peculiar transformation. It generates both 
 carbonic acid and water.* 
 
 Even assuming that every pigment is dry when it 
 is ground with oil for the painters’ use, we can there- 
 fore readily see that if flake white is mixed with an 
 ultramarine blue, a sulphide of lead is likely to result, 
 owing to the generation of water in the actual drying 
 of the paint itself. 
 
 The painter is probably aware of the fact that lin- 
 seed oil, poppy oil and walnut oil, but linseed oil par- 
 ticularly, dry from the top down. In other words, 
 a skin is first formed, and underneath this skin the 
 paint remains soft sometimes for years. G»'aphite 
 and lampblack show this peculiar phenomenon more 
 than any other pigment. Either of these two will 
 dry on the surface, and sometimes a year afterward 
 will be soft and wet underneath the skin which has 
 formed. 
 
 * To those interested in the chemical philosophy of this subject, 
 the author refers the reader to page 82, “Chemistry & Technology of 
 Mixed Paints,” by Maximilian Toch. 
 
 [ 79 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 Linseed oil increases in bulk when it dries, which 
 means that it does not dry by evaporation like tur- 
 pentine, but dries by what we know as oxidation. It 
 absorbs oxygen from the air, and forms a material 
 which is known among chemists as linoxin, and linox- 
 in is nothing more nor less than dry linseed oil or ox- 
 idized linseed oil. A film of linseed oil paint in- 
 creases in size depending upon the nature of the seed 
 from which it is made, from lo to 20%, which ac- 
 counts for the wrinkling which very frequently takes 
 place. To obviate this wrinkling painters do not add 
 additional oil to their paint, but add turpentine, or 
 benzine. 
 
 [ 30 ] 
 

 Photograph of an oil painting showing serious cracking 
 throughout, due to the contraction of the paint. Not 
 sufficient sizing material had been applied to the canvas 
 before the painting was executed, 7vhich is evidenced by 
 the warp and woof of the caiwas shoiving through the 
 paint. 
 
' -*| r^tMTTUM— „_. 
 
 ^xrmanent Pain dncr 
 
 1 }r.vT<‘ases in bulk when it dries, which 
 d.jes not dry by evaporation like tur- 
 ; 5’'. dues by what we know as oxidation. It 
 from the air, and forms a material 
 d !> Knovv H among chemists as linoxin, and linox- 
 uothmg more nor less than drv Hnvecd oil or ox- 
 ■i < !.oxt<' oil. A film of linsfrri .oti paint in- 
 es in si?..- depending upon t!ie of the seed 
 
 which it. i.s made, fn r. jo to which ac- 
 
 ir ;or the w’rinkling v. bnrh ;;rv frequently takes 
 . i'o obviate this wrio-hnp painters do not add 
 "ial oil to then' paii't, b n add turpentine, or 
 
 ot*. 
 
 aimhmo ?.,ion9?. l^uiUuaq Iro no ilqna|olojiq 
 
 »o/i ,h„nq 3,1) i,oi)on-m,oa 3,1) ol 3„b .l,m,tSi„oa,ll 
 3,1) 01 b3ilqq„ „33,1 b0,{ b)h3)l,,„ )„ 3 bi^t,« 
 
 O b30„3b,3’3 a, ,b„loj ,b3)„33X3 S„i),tioq 9,1) 9-,obcl 
 ii&i,0-„ll ftm<,K)il8 ?.n(jnD9 3,1) Ioo-m b „0 qaivH 3 , 1 ) 
 
 .)„i,iq 
 

Permanent Painting 
 
 CHAPTER XIV 
 
 CLASSIFICATION OF THE PIGMENTS 
 AND THEIR DESCRIPTION 
 
 The pigments which are in use, and a fairly complete 
 list of those found on the market throughout the civ- 
 ilized world, are as follows ; 
 
 List of Colors 
 
 Alizarin Crimson 
 
 Brown Pink 
 
 Alizarin Orange 
 
 Burnt Carmine 
 
 Alizarin Scarlet 
 
 Burnt Roman Ochre 
 
 Alizarin Yellow 
 
 Burnt Sienna 
 
 Alizarin Green 
 
 Burnt Umber 
 
 Alizarin Carmine 
 
 Cadmium Yellow 
 
 Alumina White or 
 
 Cadmium Yellow Pale 
 
 Lake White 
 
 Caledonian Brown 
 
 Antwerp Blue 
 
 Cappah Brown 
 
 Asphaltum 
 
 Carbon Black 
 
 Aurelian 
 
 Carmine 
 
 Bistre 
 
 Carmine Lake 
 
 Bitumen 
 
 Carnation Lake 
 
 Black Lead 
 
 Cassel Earth 
 
 Blue Black 
 
 Cerulean Blue 
 
 Blue Verditer 
 
 Charcoal Gray 
 
 Bone Brown 
 
 Chinese Blue 
 
 Brilliant Ultramarine 
 
 Chinese Vermilion 
 
 Blue 
 
 Chinese White 
 
 Bronze Green 
 
 Chrome Greens, 1,2 &3 
 
 Brown Madder 
 
 Chrome Orange 
 
 Brown Lake 
 
 Chrome Oxide 
 
 Brown Ochre 
 
 Chrome Red 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 Cinnabar Greens, 1, 2 
 & 3 
 
 Citron Yellow 
 Cobalt Blue 
 Cobalt Green 
 Cobalt Violet 
 Cologne Earth 
 Constant White 
 Copal Megilp 
 Cork Black 
 Cremnitz White 
 Crimson Lake 
 Crimson Madder 
 Davey’s Gray 
 Deep Madder 
 Emerald Green 
 Extract of Vermilion 
 Eield’s Orange, Ver- 
 milion 
 
 Elake White 
 French Blue 
 French Ultramarine 
 French Vermilion 
 French Veronese Green 
 Foundation White 
 Gallstone 
 Gamboge 
 Geranium Lake 
 Geranium Madder 
 Gold Ochre 
 Green Lakes, 2 & 3 
 Harrison Red 
 Hooker’s Green, 1 & 2 
 Indian Lake 
 
 Indian Purple (Oil) 
 
 Indian Purple (Water) 
 
 Indian Red 
 
 Indian Yellow 
 
 Indigo 
 
 Italian Pink 
 
 Ivory Black 
 
 Jacqueminot Madder 
 
 Jaune Brilliant 
 
 King’s Yellow (Oil) 
 
 King’s Yellow (Water) 
 
 Lamp Black 
 
 Leitch’s Blue 
 
 Lemon Yellow 
 
 Light Red 
 
 Madder Carmine 
 
 Madder Carmine, extra 
 
 Madder Lake 
 
 Magenta 
 
 Malachite Green 
 
 Mars Brown 
 
 Mars Orange 
 
 Mars Red 
 
 Mars Violet 
 
 Mars Yellow 
 
 Mauve 
 
 Mauve Lake 
 
 Megilp 
 
 Mineral Gray 
 
 Minium 
 
 Monochrome Tints 
 (warm) 
 
 Monochrome Tints 
 (cool) 
 
 [ 82 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 Mummy 
 
 Naples Yellow (Oil) 
 Naples Yellow, Light 
 Naples Yellow, French 
 Naples Yellow, Medium 
 Naples Yellow, Deep 
 Naples Yellow, Reddish 
 Naples Yellow, Green- 
 ish 
 
 Neutral Orange 
 Neutral Tint (Oil) 
 Neutral Tint (Water) 
 New Blue 
 Nottingham White 
 Olive Green (Oil) 
 
 Olive Green (Water) 
 Olive Lake 
 Olive Madder 
 Orange Madder 
 Orange Mineral 
 Orange Vermilion 
 Orient Madder 
 Orpiment 
 Oxford Ochre 
 Oxide of Chromium, 
 Oxide of Chromium, 
 Transparent 
 Payne’s Gray (Oil) 
 Payne’s Gray (Water) 
 Permanent Blue 
 Permanent Green, Lt. 
 Permanent Green, Med. 
 Permanent Green, Deep 
 Permanent Violet 
 
 Permanent White 
 Permanent Yellow 
 Pink Madder 
 Primrose Aureolin 
 Primrose Yellow 
 Prussian Blue 
 Prussian Brown 
 Prussian Green (Oil) 
 Prussian Green 
 (Water) 
 
 Pure Scarlet 
 Purple Lake 
 Purple Madder 
 Raw Sienna 
 Raw Umber 
 Rembrandt's Madder 
 Roman Ochre 
 Roman Ochre (cool) 
 Roman Sepia 
 Rose Doree 
 Rose Lake 
 Rose Madder 
 Rubens Madder 
 Sap Green (Water) 
 Sap Green (Oil) 
 Scarlet I.ake 
 Scarlet Madder 
 Scarlet Red 
 Scarlet Vermilion 
 Sepia (Oil) 
 
 Sepia (Water) 
 
 Silver White 
 Sky Blue 
 Smalt 
 
 [ 83 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 Terra Rose 
 Terre Verte 
 Tours Red 
 
 Tours Orange Mineral 
 Transparent Gold 
 Ochre 
 
 Tuscan Red 
 Ultramarine (Genuine) 
 Ultramarine Ash 
 Vandyke Brown 
 Vandyke Madder 
 Venetian Red 
 Verdigris 
 Vermilion 
 Vermilion, pale 
 
 Verona Brown 
 Veronese Green 
 Violet Carmine 
 Viridian 
 Warm Sepia 
 Yellow Carmine 
 Yellow Lake 
 Yellow Ochre 
 Zinc White 
 
 Zinnober Green, light 
 Zinnober Green, extra 
 light 
 
 Zinnober Green, Me- 
 dium 
 
 Zinnober Green, Deep 
 
 Later I shall attempt to separate these pigments into 
 various classes. First, the pigments which can be 
 indiscriminately mixed with each other, and will not 
 interact and are not affected by light. Second, pig- 
 ments which alone are permanent, but which cannot 
 be mixed with each other. Third, pigments which 
 are fairly permanent under normal conditions, but 
 not permanent when exposed to strong sunlight. 
 Fourth, pigments which are fugitive, and which should 
 under all circumstances be excluded from the artist’s 
 palette, existing only for the purpose of illustration 
 for half-tone color work, and for use in illustrations 
 in magazines. Perhaps the only excuse for the use 
 of the fugitive pigments is for the purpose just re- 
 ferred to, but even then every possible shade and 
 
 [ 84 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 gradation of color can be obtained by the use of the 
 more permanent colors. 
 
 ALIZARIN COLORS (RED) 
 
 The alizarin colors are identical in composition with 
 all the madder lakes, and up to the last generation the 
 madder root was specially cultivated for the purpose 
 of making a permanent red lake. The growing of the 
 madder plant and the extraction of the color from 
 the root, was a great industry in France. The red 
 trousers worn by the French military were dyed with 
 madder, in order to give the proper impetus to this 
 industry, but with the advent of the coal tar dyes, an 
 artificial madder was produced which is known as 
 alizarin. This is identical in every respect with the 
 color extracted from the root of the plant. The botan- 
 ical name of the plant is Rubia Tinctorium, and as 
 such was known to the Flemish and Italian painters. 
 
 Alizarin or madder lake may be considered as a 
 permanent color under certain conditions. Franz Hals 
 was well aware of the correct way in which to use this 
 lake in order to produce the vivid flesh tints of his 
 countrymen. Rubicond noses and sunburnt cheeks 
 were portrayed by him in a manner which after a 
 lapse of three centuries have shown that this color, 
 when intelligently used, is permanent. 
 
 If madder lake is used as a glaze over a color which 
 
 [ 85 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 has been allowed to dry thoroughly, it will remain 
 permanent, but if madder or alizarin lake is mixed 
 with any mineral or metallic color such as ochre, lead, 
 sienna, etc., a chemical decomposition takes place, with 
 the result that the lake is bleached. It is reasonable 
 TO suppose that Rembrandt did not glaze his flesh 
 paints in the way that Franz Hals and Jan Steen did, 
 as the flesh tints of the Rembrandt’s of to-day are 
 more or less bleached. The “Anatomy Lesson’’ in the 
 Hague, shows upon close examination that the flesh 
 tones of the demonstrator and the spectators have 
 suffered from exposure to light, very likely due to 
 the fact that the lake used in glazing was mixed with 
 the under-coat. It is, therefore, reasonable to assume 
 that alizarin or madder lakes should be used as glaz- 
 ing colors over a properly dried surface. Alizarin 
 or madder lakes, however, will not decompose when 
 mixed with various blacks such as black lead, ivory 
 black, lamp black and carbon black. 
 
 Madder lake may be mixed with any oxide of iron 
 color which has been burnt, but may not be mixed with 
 any raw iron color. For instance, madder or alizarin 
 may be mixed with Indian red, forming a color known 
 as Tuscan red, which is perfectly permanent. It may 
 also be mixed with burnt sienna, burnt ochre, burnt 
 umber, etc., but is fugitive when mixed with raw ochre, 
 raw sienna or raw umber. The chemical colors like 
 flake v.diite (white lead), zinc oxide, chrome yellow, 
 Naples yellow and chrome green all bleach it, but 
 
 [ 86 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 colors like quick silver, vermilion, cadmium yellow and 
 all of the blacks do not atfect it. 
 
 The safest way in which to use it is as a glaze over 
 a ground which is thoroughly dry. Madder lake deep- 
 ens considerably when placed in a dark place, but is 
 revived when subjected to bright sunlight. 
 
 ALIZARIN YELLOW AND GREEN 
 
 These two colors are taken as one, for the reason 
 that both alizarin yellow and alizarin green do not ex- 
 ist, all tha alizarin colors up to date being of a red 
 or maroon shade. The name, therefore, is a misnomer, 
 and should not be permitted. 
 
 Alizarin yellow is a fairly permanent yellow lake 
 made of an aniline yellow. There are, however, some 
 alizarin yellows on the market which are made from 
 the extracts of bark like quer citron, and these are not 
 permanent. The author has made a yellow lake from 
 the paranitraniline which is perfectly permanent when 
 used alone, has great brilliancy and strength, but can- 
 not by any means be called an alizarin yellow. 
 
 The same is true of alizarin green, which as such, 
 does not exist, and all the so-called alizarin greens on 
 the market are not permanent, but are green lakes 
 made from coal tar dyes which readily decompose 
 when they are mixed with ochre or any one of the 
 oxide of iron colors. The use of both of these colors 
 is unwarranted. 
 
 [ 87 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 ALUMINA WHITE OR LAKE WHITE 
 
 This is the hydrated oxide of alumina which is 
 ground in linseed oil, and is almost as transparent as 
 glass. It is simply used as a medium for reducing or 
 attenuating other pigments as, for instance, when it 
 is desirable to glaze with burnt sienna, it is of advan- 
 tage to mix burnt sienna with alumina, because in 
 that way the burnt sienna assumes all the qualities of 
 a lake color. Alumina is permanent, and is not af- 
 fected by other pigments. As however, the amount of 
 oil necessary to grind alumina into the paste form is 
 very large, the oil contained in the mixture is prone 
 to turn yellow. It has a variety of advantages, how- 
 ever, which makes it exceedingly useful and can be 
 generally recommended. 
 
 ANTWERP BLUE 
 
 Antwerp blue is either a mixture of Prussian blue 
 or Chinese blue with aluminum hydrate, in other words, 
 it is a Prussian blue reduced with a transparent base, 
 and is not to be recommended where absolute perma- 
 nency is desired. Of itself, or when mixed with zinc 
 white, it produces very beautiful sky blue shades, and 
 if properly varnished and painted on a solid surface, 
 such as metal or wood, shows no change for many 
 years, but when Antwerp blue is mixed with flake 
 white or zinc white and reduced with raw linseed oil, 
 
 [ 88 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 it turns decidedly green in a dark place, or in a poorly 
 lighted studio, but regains its brilliant color when ex- 
 posed to sunlight and air again. It is a weak form of 
 Prussian blue used as a glaze, and is now superseded 
 by ultramarine blue mixed with a transparent black. 
 
 ASPHALTUM 
 
 This is the same as bitumen and is a black gum, va- 
 rieties of which are found in Africa, Cuba and the 
 United States. It is a great mistake for artists’ material 
 manufacturers to sell asphaltum or bitumen to paint- 
 ers or to carry it in stock, as it is not only worthless, 
 but has a tendency to ruin a painting on which it is 
 used. When mixed with other pigments, it retards 
 their drying. When u.sed as a glazing color, it is 
 frequently a cause of so-called alligator cracks, owing 
 to the unequal expansion and contraction between it 
 and the base upon which it is applied, but the worst 
 feature of it is that when it is exposed to sunlight, it 
 decomposes into charcoal and water, and deposits a 
 black soot on the picture. To those who are interested 
 in a scientific dissertation on this subject, 1 would 
 refer them to the article on the “Influence of Sun 
 Light on Paints,” Journal, Society of Chemical In- 
 dustry, which systematically explains the effect of light 
 on the hydro-carbon compounds, but as this is not a 
 work on chemistry, the scientific illustrations will be 
 omitted. 
 
 [ 89 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 Asphaltum or bitumen is harmful in every sense of 
 the word, and it is very doubtful whether the great 
 masters ever used it. In Italy it was used to a great- 
 er extent than in Flanders, for there are still many 
 old pictures to be found in Italy which are a black 
 smudge with here and there a faint trace of lighter 
 pigment. This black smudge was once a bright mass 
 of colors glazed with bitumen, which can be revived by 
 cleaning carefully with methyl alcohol. 
 
 A glaze which is permanent can be made in imita- 
 tion of asphaltum by mixing raw sienna, burnt umber 
 and carbon black or ivory black. 
 
 AURELIAN 
 
 Aurelian is a pigment that has been introduced dur- 
 ing the last generation, and is sometimes sold under 
 the name of cobalt yellow. It is a double nitrite of 
 cobalt and potassium. There is a variation of opinion 
 as to its permanency. Some claim that it is absolutely 
 permanent both in water and oil, and others claim that 
 it decomposes with a white, but from the experiments 
 made by the author its permanence depends entirely 
 upon its purity. If the color is thoroughly washed by 
 the manufacturer after it is precipitated in order to 
 free it from soluble salts, it may be regarded as ab- 
 solutely permanent, because it is not afifected by sul- 
 phur gases nor by sunlight. If the color is impure, 
 it is very likely to decompose any lake which may be 
 
 [ 90 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 added to it, and when mixed with raw linseed oil, it 
 loses its brilliancy in a short time. There are several 
 good manufacturers of this pigment, whose aurelian 
 yellow may be used and regarded as absolutely perma- 
 nent. For safety’s sake, it is advisable to use it alone 
 and not to mix it with any lake pigment. Lake glazed 
 over it, after it is perfectly dry, does not affect either 
 the lake or the aurelian. 
 
 AURORA YELLOW (See Cadmium Colors) 
 BISTRE 
 
 This is a species of lamp black, which is the soot 
 from the smoke of pitch pine. In the condensation, a 
 small percentage of resin is admixed which probably 
 accounts for the brownish color of this soot. It may 
 be regarded as permanent, but when mixed with oil 
 dries very badly. It is a deep brown, but it has been 
 asserted that better or more permanent effects can be 
 obtained by a mixture of lamp black and umber. It is 
 used as a water color as well as an oil color. 
 
 BITUMEN (See Asphaltum) 
 
 BLACK LEAD 
 
 This pigment is composed principally of graphite, 
 which is the material used for making lead pencils. 
 It is a form of carbon, and varies in purity from 
 6 o% to 90%, the other constituents being silica and 
 
 [ 91 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 clay. Black lead is popularly known under the name 
 of “stove polish.” It has a metallic steel gray sheen, 
 both when used as a water color and as an oil color, and 
 gives delicate grays which are free from blue. It is 
 one of the permanent colors, and has absolutely no 
 effect whatever upon any color with which it may be 
 mixed. It is an exceedingly slow drier, and when it 
 does dry it remains soft, so that care must be exer- 
 cised not to use it too thickly, for, after it skins over 
 and dries from the top, the interior may remain soft 
 for years. In making a gray by mixing with zinc 
 white, it has the advantage of neutralizing the even- 
 tual brittleness produced by the zinc, and may be 
 regarded under every circumstance as a perfectly soft 
 and permanent pigment. The hard drying colors such 
 as zinc, red lead, orange mineral, nmber, etc., should 
 be used with great care over black lead, for the ob- 
 vious reason that cracks are bound to result, owing 
 to the non-equal tension in drying. * 
 
 BLUE BLACK 
 
 This is a species of vine black and charcoal, and 
 derives its name from the fact that when mixed with 
 white, it produces a very pleasing bluish gray, which 
 is absolutely permanent. Blue black is an excellent 
 drier, in fact, so much so, that the pigment will some- 
 times dry up entirely in the tube. Blue black is slight- 
 
 * See chapter on the Cracking of Oil Paintings, p. 40. 
 
 [ 92 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 ly alkaline, which accounts for its excellent drying 
 properties, and likewise accounts for its livering in the 
 tube. When once it has livered, it cannot very well be 
 restored to its original condition. There are, however, 
 a number of good lamp blacks on the market sold in 
 tube form, which are as fine, if not finer, than blue 
 black and produce practically the same shade. 
 
 Of the various samples examined, no two manufac- 
 turers appear to use the same material. In one in- 
 stance, the author found the pigment to be composed 
 of vine black, which is a species of charcoal. In an- 
 other instance a very pure lamp black appeared to be 
 the base, which when mixed with white tinted out to 
 a relatively blue gray, and in a third instance, it ap- 
 peared to be a mixture of charcoal tinted with Prus- 
 sian blue. All three of these pigments may be re- 
 garded as permanent, for very particular uses in paint- 
 ing, particularly in landscape painting for producing 
 som.bre sky effects. 
 
 Blue black may be mixed with zinc in any propor- 
 tion, and while it is not so slow a drier as graphite 
 or lamp black, it has relatively the same effect on 
 zinc and prevents it from becoming brittle. 
 
 BLUE VERDITER 
 
 Blue verditer is the hydrated oxide of copper, but 
 inasmuch as it is made by precipitating a copper so- 
 lution with lime, it is not always permanent in the 
 
 [ 93 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 tubes, for it has the property of combining with the 
 oil and stiffening into a livery compound. It is quite 
 a defective color, and should not be used for perma- 
 nent painting, for the reason that hydrogen sulphide 
 blackens it and sulphuric acid bleaches it, and when it 
 contains traces of lime it dries exceedingly hard and 
 is liable to crack. * 
 
 The same shade may be obtained by mixing such 
 permanent pigments as ultramarine, zinc oxide and 
 hydrated chrome oxide, these three being unaffected 
 by sulphureted hydrogen. 
 
 BONE BROWN 
 
 This is one of the pigments which has no license to 
 exist. When bones are fully calcined they produce 
 a very desirable black color, but when bones are partly 
 calcined the color is brown, owing to the production 
 of what is known as bone pitch. In chemical compo- 
 sition, bone pitch is the same as asphaltum, and this 
 accounts for the fact that bone brown is a very bad 
 drier and is not permanent to light. The same effects 
 may be produced by the use of many other more 
 durable colors. Bone brown should be stricken from 
 the list of artists’ colors. 
 
 BRILLIANT ULTRAMARINE BLUE 
 
 Brilliant ultramarine blue is assumed to be the 
 artificial ultramarine blue which is made by calcining 
 
 [ 94 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 sulphur, clay and sulphate of soda. It is permanent 
 to light when used alone and when used with certain 
 of the colors upon which it has no influence, and will 
 be properly described under ultramarine blue. 
 
 BRONZE GREEN 
 
 This is a mixture of orange chrome yellow and 
 Prussian blue. When pure, it is not affected by sun- 
 light, and when properly varnished, and protected is 
 unaffected by sulphureted hydrogen. 
 
 There is, however, no reason why bronze green 
 should be made from chrome yellow, as where possible 
 all lead colors should be avoided by the painter. Cad- 
 mium yellow and Prussian blue make a very perma- 
 nent bronze green which is permanent but more ex- 
 pensive than the chrome yellow pigment. 
 
 BROWN MADDER 
 
 Brown madder differs nowadays from the brown 
 madder made 50 years ago. Formerly the madder 
 brown was prepared from madder root, and tinted with 
 a solid pigment, such as burnt ochre or burnt sienna 
 Brown madder is now made in the same chemical 
 manner in which the red madder is made, with the 
 exception that the color is practically spoiled in the 
 making by the addition of iron oxide, because inas- 
 much as iron compounds exert a continuous reducing 
 
 [ 95 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 action on the pigment, brown madder soon loses its 
 brilliancy and is destroyed. It may be regarded as a 
 fairly permanent color, but can be replaced in several 
 ways, and is therefore not to be recommended. 
 
 All the cjualities of this pigment are described under 
 the head of alizarin or madder lake. When mixed 
 with a metallic color like lead, zinc or iron it is not 
 permanent. When used alone and made of madder 
 lake and lamp black it is permanent. 
 
 BROWN LAKE 
 
 This may be any red or maroon lake of an organic 
 nature either calcined the same as burnt carmine or 
 saddened by the admixture of an iron compound. 
 When made in the latter manner it is permanent for 
 two or three years. When made in the former manner 
 it is very fugitive. 
 
 Brown lake made by mixing madder lake and burnt 
 amber is permanent and dries very well. Some paint- 
 ers make a perfect brown by mixing lamp black, cad- 
 mium and madder lake. This mixture is permanent, 
 but has the disadvantage of drying very slowly. 
 
 BROWN OCHRE 
 
 Brown ochre is similar in composition to all the 
 other ochres, being a form of clay tinted naturally with 
 iron ores or the hydrated oxide of iron. It is known 
 
 [ 96 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 also under the name of Oxford ochre, and sometimes 
 deep Roman ochre, and when used alone is permanent, 
 but when mixed with any white pigment it turns con- 
 siderably darker after a lapse of several years. 
 
 Brown ochre must never be used with any lake color 
 because the iron oxide in it has a destructive effect. It 
 is a good drier, and when properly thinned out may be 
 used as a glaze. It is analogous to raw sienna, but is 
 considerably weaker in tinting power. 
 
 A very dark ochre may contain nearly 40% hy- 
 drated oxide of iron, whereas French ochres contain 
 only 20%, and are therefore nearer in composition 
 to siennas. It has a tendency, when exposed to strong 
 sunlight for a long time, to darken, which is evidently 
 due to the change in the oxide of iron. It is otherwise 
 an exceedingly permanent color, but has a destructive 
 influence on all lakes with which it may be mixed. It 
 is a good drier. 
 
 BROWN PINK 
 
 Brown pink is similar in composition to Dutch pink 
 and Italian pink. It is a transparent olive yellow like 
 all of its progenitors. It is made from either the 
 Persian berry or quercitron bark, and when made from 
 a vegetable coloring matter of this kind, has little or 
 no value as a permanent pigment. It is very easily 
 decomposed in the presence of many of the metallic 
 pigments, and when mixed with zinc or used as a glaze 
 
 [97] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 will fade in the bright sunlight perceptibly in four 
 weeks. 
 
 For experimental purposes, however the author has 
 made a color of this nature on the paranitraniline ser- 
 ies which, when used alone over a dry surface, is prac- 
 tically permanent and does not bleach in the light, but 
 darkens very slightly. Brown pink after a year is 
 useless as a permanent color and is not recommended. 
 Neither can the transparent yellow made by the author 
 be recommended at this writing, because the color has 
 only been under observation for four years. 
 
 BURNT CARMINE 
 
 Burnt carmine is made from ordinary carmine or car- 
 mine lake by heating it until the organic matter begins 
 to char, so that what we really have is a decomposition 
 of the color and an increase in the percentage of car- 
 bon. If you, therefore, take a lake and mix it with 
 carbon black, you obtain practically the same results. 
 At the same time, any burnt lake of the carmine or 
 scarlet or crimson order is a fugitive color, weak in 
 hiding power, poor in glazing properly, but effects are 
 obtained which are regarded as desirable by some. A 
 burnt lake should really not be used by any painter. 
 It may be a very beautiful color, and it may possibly 
 have some uses for interior decoration where brilliancy 
 is not required, but from the standpoint of the artists’ 
 palette, it is unfortunate that this color was ever in- 
 
 [ 98 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 vented for a four weeks’ exposure to the midsummer’s 
 sun decomposed it almost beyond recognition. 
 
 Any madder with a touch of lampblack produces the 
 same result, and color manufacturers could produce 
 such a combination under the name of permanent 
 burnt lake. 
 
 BROWN ROMAN OCHRE 
 
 This is a species of dark ochre obtained by burning 
 the ochre and driving ofi the water which it contains, 
 thus producing a rich brown which has some similarity 
 to burnt sienna, but is very much weaker. It is a 
 very permanent color. When mixed with whites it 
 does not fade, but after eighteen months becomes 
 slightly darker, if that term may be used in conjunc- 
 tion with it, but in spite of its darkening it loses none 
 of its pristine brilliancy, and was one of the colors 
 used by the early Italian painters with excellent 
 results. 
 
 When ground in pure linseed oil, it has a tendency 
 to harden in the tube, but may be broken up and used 
 freely. It has very little hiding power, and may there- 
 fore be used as a glazing color. It has less effect 
 upon the decomposition of madder lake than its un- 
 burnt progenitor. 
 
 BURNT SIENNA 
 
 This is a material very much similar in composition 
 to burnt ochre, excepting that its content of oxide of 
 
 [ 99 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 iron is very much larger, and the physical character- 
 istics differ from those of ochre. Ochre is opaque and 
 burnt sienna is translucent. Burnt sienna is one of 
 the most permanent colors in existence, excepting 
 perhaps, the lighter shades which have not been so 
 well calcined, and these have a strong tendency to 
 darken and become redder. As a glazing color, it 
 has valuable properties, and it can be mixed with 
 lake colors. Painters generally allow the sienna to 
 dry thoroughly, and then glaze a lake color over it. 
 Exceedingly rich tints are produced in this manner 
 which are absolutely permanent, providing the lake 
 itself is permanent. 
 
 The mars colors are nearly all artificial siennas and 
 are just as permanent. Burnt sienna is an excellent 
 drier and will mix with almost every other perma- 
 nent color. 
 
 BURNT UMBER 
 
 Burnt umber is similar to burnt sienna. It con- 
 tains oxides of manganese and iron. It is made by 
 heating raw umber, which is a dark olive green color, 
 but when heated is converted into a pleasing brown. 
 It is a permanent color, and one of the best drying pig- 
 ments in existence ; so much so, that many painters 
 mix umber with their pigments for producing dark 
 backgrounds in order to obtain a good drying surface. 
 
 Burnt umber has more hiding power (opacity) than 
 
 [ 100 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 tlie sienna colors and is perfectly permanent and re- 
 liable. Care must be exercised not to paint it over 
 a soft or semi-dry ground or cracks will result. 
 
 CADMIUM YELLOW 
 
 This description comprises all of the cadmium colors 
 from the palest yellow to the deepest orange. All of 
 the cadmium colors are manufactured by precipitat- 
 ing a salt of cadmium with a salt containing a sul- 
 phide, so that the cadmiums are sulphides of cadmium, 
 and according to the speed of precipitation, tempera- 
 ture of the solutions, admixture of acids or alkalies, 
 all shades from brilliant yellow to the deepest orange 
 are formed. 
 
 All writers practically agree in stating, and the 
 experiments of the author confirm it, that cadmium 
 yellow may be regarded as a perfectly permanent 
 pigment. The artistic painter is fortunate in having 
 such a brilliant color at his command. Much has 
 been written on the supposed reactions that take 
 place between this and other pigments. It is said, 
 though being a sulphide, it should not be mixed with 
 a lead color, because the sulphur in the cadmium 
 would combine with the lead with a blackening effect. 
 Ordinarily, this is not so. Cadmium sulphide is a 
 very stable chemical compound, and will not give up 
 its sulphur as readily as artificial ultramarine blue 
 
 [ 101 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 will ; for instance, there should therefore be no hesi- 
 tancy in using cadmium sulphide with any lead com- 
 pound, although, to make assurance doubly sure, 
 zinc white could be used as when a cadmium color 
 is mixed with zinc there can not possibly be any visi- 
 ble eflfect of decomposition. 
 
 It is unfortunate, perhaps, that cadmium sulphide is 
 so very expensive. The dry pigment itself costs at 
 this writing about $3.00 a pound to manufacture, but 
 no artistic painter should be without this yellow, and 
 above all it should only be bought from a manufacturer 
 of excellent reputation. 
 
 Cadmium yellow may fail, and in many instances 
 does fail, because it is improperly made and because 
 it is ground in an emulsion of oil and water, or be- 
 cause the oil in which it is ground may be of a highly 
 acid nature. Manufacturers of tube colors ought to 
 learn the lesson that no tube color should be ground in 
 a chemically bleached vegetable oil, for oils are prin- 
 cipally bleached by means of a strong acid like sul- 
 phuric or chromic, and all traces of these acids are 
 not entirely washed out, so that much trouble may 
 arise from the ultimate effect of this trace of acid, 
 and even a good color like cadmium may be decom- 
 posed if the oil be not entirely pure. 
 
 The cadmiums are slow but reliable driers and may 
 be mixed with all other chemical pigments, even flake 
 white, without decomposing. 
 
 [ 102 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 CALEDONIAN BROWN 
 
 Caledonian brown may be a mixture of brown umber 
 and raw sienna in varying degrees, or it may be a 
 mixture of Vandyke brown and sienna. In the latter 
 case it would not be permanent. In the former case 
 it would be, and in all events, no two manufacturers 
 use the same mixture of pigments nor obtain the 
 same shades, and as the painter can obtain the shade 
 he wants by mixtures of these permanent pigments, 
 there is really no reason why this color should be 
 added to the already complicated list of painters’ tube 
 colors. It has a tendency to grow darker upon very 
 long exposure, and when it contains manganese is a 
 good, hard drier, but when it contains large cjuanti- 
 ties of Vandyke, it is a soft, slow drier. It is easily 
 produced on the palette by mixing sienna and umber. 
 
 CAPPAH BROWN 
 
 Cappah brown is a species of decomposed bog earth 
 similar in composition to a mixture of vandyke brown 
 and burnt umber. It is similar to umber on account of 
 the manganese which it contains, and therefore is a 
 good drier. It is, however, not very stable in bright 
 sunlight and darkens somewhat on exposure owing 
 to its content of bitumen. It can easily be spared from 
 the list of browns. 
 
 [ 103 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 CARBON BLACK 
 
 This is an extremely fine pigment stronger than 
 lamp black and intensely black, in fact, in blackness 
 it compares favorably with ivory black. It is per- 
 manent, and does not affect any other pigment with 
 which it may be mixed. Its great strength (tinctorial 
 power) can be shown very easily as follows : if one 
 takes one part of carbon black and twenty parts of 
 permanent white and mixes them together, the result 
 will be a black which will approximate the shade of 
 lamp black. In other words, it has such intense color- 
 ing properties that it stains every other color with 
 which it may be mixed. Although it is absolutely 
 harmless under all circumstances, it is no better than 
 ivory black and possesses a number of disadvantages. 
 It is an extremely poor drier and retards the drying 
 of every other pigment with which it may be mixed, 
 so that ivory or bone black should be used in place of it. 
 
 CARMINE 
 
 Carmine is the coloring matter of the cochineal bug 
 which is mordanted or fastened by means of alum. It 
 is an intensely brilliant red, translucent and works 
 well and dries fairly well, but it is exceedingly fugi- 
 tive, and is not only bleached by the action of sunlight, 
 but is destroyed by many of the metallic pigments. 
 There is no effect that can be produced with carmine 
 that cannot be produced with the madder lakes, and 
 
 [104] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 therefore carmine should never be used on any paint- 
 er’s palette. 
 
 CARMINE LAKE 
 
 Carmine lake is a deep maroon which is made after 
 the first coloring matter is extracted from the cochi- 
 neal bug. It may have a pleasing maroon shade, and 
 it may have good working qualities, but in six days in 
 the bright sunlight it shows a loss of brilliancy and 
 begins to fade. This quality should eliminate it as a 
 pigment for artistic use. It is decomposed in the pres- 
 ence of the ochres. 
 
 CARNATION LAKE 
 
 Prior to 25 years ago this lake was a carmine de- 
 rivative. Within the last 20 years the author has 
 found a carmine sold under the name of carnation 
 lake which was evidently a wood extract and fugitive, 
 and another sample which was a reduced form of 
 madder lake. The former was fugitive and useless. 
 The latter, while not very brilliant, was permanent, 
 so that, at this writing, it is impossible to say whether 
 carnation lake, as a general statement, is permanent 
 * or not, for it depends entirely upon the maker. Under 
 the circumstance it is advisable not to use it for it is 
 not essential, as the same shade is sold under the name 
 of scarlet madder. 
 
 [ 105 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 CASSEL EARTH 
 
 This pigment may have been in former years an 
 ochrey brown, but at present it appears to be identical 
 with Vandyke brown, and is not regarded as a per- 
 manent color. It will be properly described under the 
 name of vandyke brown. 
 
 CERULEAN BLUE 
 
 In the present age cerulean blue is an artificial ultra- 
 marine blue of pale shade known commercially under 
 the name of artificial cobalt blue. Some manufactur- 
 ers in order to give it its proper tone grind this pale 
 commercial ultramarine blue with a mixture of zinc 
 oxide, and it has the property of appearing blue un- 
 der gas light or electric light. The author finds that 
 when made by reputable concerns, it is perfectly per- 
 manent and can be mixed with almost any pigment ex- 
 cepting those containing lead. Its existence compli- 
 cates matters, however, for the ordinary cobalt blue 
 of commerce mixed with white will produce practically 
 the same shade and effect. 
 
 CHARCOAL GRAY 
 
 This pigment appears to be a vine black reduced with 
 permanent white. When badly washed in its original 
 manufacture it has a tendency to become hard in the 
 
 [106] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 tubes. It can easily be substituted by mixing lamp 
 black with permanent white, and although it is a per- 
 manent color and not affected by any other color, it 
 is a hard drier, owing to its alkaline nature, and if 
 used on top of a soft drying color like any one of the 
 lakes, it would show a tendency to crack. 
 
 CHINESE BLUE 
 
 This is a ferrocyanide of iron sold also under the 
 name of Prussian blue, milori blue, steel blue, bronze 
 blue, Antwerp blue and various other names. It dif- 
 fers from Prussian blue physically only in the fact that 
 when mixed with white it produces a clear sky-blue 
 tint. Chemically it is unstable, for, when mixed with 
 white lead and allowed to remain on the palette over 
 night it will be blue where it comes in contact with 
 the air, and decomposes into a pale, sickly green un- 
 derneath the surface. It does not show this defect 
 when mixed with permanent white or zinc oxide. If 
 mixed with one of the charcoal or vine blacks which 
 contain a slight amount of alkali, it loses its colo’’ and 
 becomes brownish, but when properly made and thor- 
 oughly washed in its original manufacture and used 
 alone, it is practically permanent. It may have some 
 excellent working qualities, and may be a beautiful, 
 rich color, but all its shades and delicate effects can be 
 reproduced by means of more permanent blues. There- 
 fore, there is no reason why this blue should be used. 
 
 [ 107 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 CHINESE VERMILION 
 
 Chinese vermilion is one of the oldest pigments 
 known to artistic painters. The reader is referred to 
 the chapter on synopia for a history of the use of this 
 pigment. Whether the ancient Greeks and Romans 
 obtained vermilion from China or the Idria section, 
 it is difficult to say, but the chances are that the Orien- 
 tal travelers brought some of the native vermilion 
 with them in addition to that which was found in 
 Europe. 
 
 Vermilion is a sulphide of mercury, and is artificially 
 made by mixing sulphur and mercury in the presence 
 of an alkaline solution under heat and pressure. It 
 ranges in shade from a light orange to a deep scarlet, 
 and while it is perfectly true that when used alone as 
 an oil color and exposed to the brilliant sun rays, it 
 will darken considerably, when glazed over with mad- 
 der, as is frequently done after it is thoroughly dry, 
 it is remarkably permanent, or when properly varnished 
 it is very stable. It is a good drier and has great 
 opacity. 
 
 CHINESE WHITE 
 
 Chinese white is a zinc oxide. Its name would imply 
 that it is a color invented by the Chinese or found 
 in China, neither of which is the case. It was invented 
 in France, and probably to hide its origin some manu- 
 
 [ 108 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 factiirer called it Chinese white. The description will 
 be found under the head of zinc white. 
 
 CHROME GREEN, LIGHT, MEDIUM AND DARK 
 
 These greens are unfortunately named, because al- 
 though there is some chromium in their composition 
 from the chromate of lead which they contain, they are 
 strictly speaking, not pure chrome greens, such as 
 guignet or viridian green. Chrome greens are essen- 
 tially a double precipitate of chrome yellow and Prus- 
 sian blue, and vary in shade according to the percent- 
 age of yellow or blue which they may contain. These 
 colors may work very well and dry very well, but 
 have the combined defects of chrome yellow and Prus- 
 sian blue. Assuming that the color is properly made, 
 it is fairly permanent to light, has tremendous tinting 
 power, but is acted upon by sulphureted hydrogen, 
 and even when not subjected to the action of any gas, 
 it loses its brilliancy within a very few years. It is 
 not recommended as a necessary color and can be very 
 well omitted. 
 
 CHROME ORANGE AND CHROME RED 
 
 Both of these colors are chromates of lead made 
 with the addition of lime and are not any more perma- 
 nent than the other shades of chrome yellow. In chem- 
 ical composition they are equal to chrome yellow mixed 
 
 [ 109 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 with a small percentage of red lead or orange mineral. 
 In view of the fact that cadmium orange exists and 
 is much more permanent, chrome orange should be 
 eliminated from the palette. 
 
 CHROMIUM OXIDE (See French Veronese Green) 
 CINNABAR GREEN 
 
 The word cinnabar refers entirely to the sulphide of 
 mercury, and when chrome green was first made, some 
 manufacturer called his product cinnabar green, in- 
 tending to convey the idea that his mixture of chrome 
 yellow and Prussian blue was as permanent as cinnabar 
 red or native vermilion. The name has stuck to it in the 
 trade. An examination of the pigments shows that 
 it is by no means a pure chrome yellow and Prussian 
 blue, but is reduced with either whiting, permanent 
 white or other reinforcing pigment, and owing to this 
 reduction it is more permanent than the concentrated 
 color, because it does not contain as much pigment 
 that can spoil or deteriorate as the concentrated color 
 does. In brilliancy, tone and strength, it is quite sat- 
 isfactory, but it is not permanent and is easily affected 
 by noxious gases. 
 
 CITRON YELLOW 
 
 Citron yellow is also known under the name of 
 primrose yellow, and is usually composed of a mixture 
 of chromate and oxide of zinc. Inasmuch as this color 
 
 [ 110 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 is somewhat soluble in water, it cannot be very thor- 
 oughly washed, and in the presence of moisture has 
 a marked effect on almost every color with which it 
 may be mixed. When used alone, it is quite permanent 
 and not affected by noxious gases of any kind, and 
 when varnished before it has any opportunity for de- 
 composition, it is remarkably permanent. In former 
 years it was regarded as a fugitive color, but this was 
 due to defects in its manufacture. Now the color has 
 a fairly large sale for coach painting, but as an artists’ 
 color there is no reason to use it, because the pale 
 shades of cadmium mixed with permanent white pro- 
 duce identical effects with no serious results. 
 
 COBALT BLUE 
 
 This color is very difficult to describe, as it may 
 be a pale shade of artificial ultramarine blue, or it 
 may be a true oxide of cobalt, or it may be a salt of 
 cobalt mixed with alumina and barium. A tube no 
 larger than your little finger may sell anywhere from 
 25 to 40 cents, but that is no indication whatever of 
 its quality or composition, and the majority of samples 
 of cobalt blue as sold, that the author has examined, 
 consist of artificial ultramarine blue, and as such are 
 among the most permanent and useful pigments v.ffiich 
 the artist can possibly use. Owing to the fact that 
 cobalt and its chemical derivatives are expensive, the 
 high price still clings to the cobalt blue which the paint- 
 
 [ 111 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 er uses, but this is more or less unwarranted, because 
 the artificial cobalt blue (ultramarine) is very inex- 
 pensive and exceedingly permanent, except when 
 mixed with another pigment which contains lead, like 
 flake white, white lead, chrome yellow or chrome green. 
 It should also be kept away from colors containing 
 copper, lead and iron, and such metallic bases as 
 are affected by sulphureted hydrogen, for the slight- 
 est trace of acid will liberate sulphureted hydrogen 
 from cobalt or ultramarine blue. 
 
 On the other hand, it is still possible to buy genu- 
 ine cobalt blue which is a brilliant blue glaze, finely 
 powdered. The beautiful blues produced on china 
 ware by means of vitrification are generally produced 
 by means of oxide of cobalt, which turns blue at a 
 very high temperature. When these blue glazes are 
 finely powdered whetber they be brought up in a 
 medium of glass or of pottery is the same. As such, 
 these blues have very little hiding power, but are ex- 
 ceedingly brilliant and strong and unchangeable. They 
 are used as transparent glazes, but the artificial cobalt 
 blue made from ultramarine is just as transparent, 
 and when used alone just as permanent. At the same 
 time, the minute broken bits of glass of which genuine 
 cobalt blue is composed refract and reflect the light 
 with such brilliancy that the optical value of the color 
 is enhanced. 
 
 Cobalt blue is sold under the following names: 
 smalt, powder blue, Vienna blue, royal blue. 
 
 [ 112 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 COBALT GREEN 
 
 Cobalt green is made in various ways. Some manu- 
 facturers mix a pale shade of ultramarine blue which 
 is known commercially as artificial ultramarine green 
 with a mixture of oxide of zinc. Sometimes it is 
 made by grinding oxide of zinc and zafifer which is a 
 native oxide of cobalt. In any case the cobalt green 
 which has been examined is apparently very permanent, 
 but lacks very much in opacity, which, however, is no 
 detriment, because the color is principally used as a 
 glazing color. It appears to be a very expensive color 
 when made from the salt of genuine cobalt, and as 
 such is permanent under any and all conditions. It 
 may also be a composition of genuine cobalt blue 
 mixed with chromate of zinc or zinc yellow, in which 
 case it would also be permanent, but if it is a mixture 
 of ultramarine blue and chromate of zinc, it is not 
 permanent, and has sometimes been known to decom- 
 pose in the tube. 
 
 It is difficult for the painter to tell what the com- 
 position of cobalt green may be, but inasmuch as gen- 
 uine chrome green which is described under the name 
 of viridian and oxide of chromium is more permanent 
 and of practically the same shade, the use of cobalt 
 green may be eliminated. 
 
 COBALT VIOLET 
 
 This is also a chemical precipitate made with phos- 
 phate of cobalt, and bas evidently been used for nearly 
 
 [ 113 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 a century. It is exceedingly permanent and translu- 
 cent, but has not the tinctorial power of the purple 
 madders which easily replace it. 
 
 There is a violet ultramarine which is sometimes 
 sold under the name of cobalt violet. This color is a 
 beautiful, clear, transparent, permanent color. When 
 used alone or as a glaze over any other dried color, it 
 dries slowly. 
 
 COLOGNE EARTH 
 
 This may be a native vandyke brown tinted with 
 lamp black, or a native vandyke brown which is cal- 
 cined so that the organic matter chars and blackens. 
 It dries somewhat better than vandyke brown, is fair- 
 ly permanent, but not quite as translucent, and is 
 analogous to cassel earth and Rubens brown. If 
 the glazing color which David Teniers, the younger, is 
 supposed to have used, was cologne earth, we have 
 no reason to doubt its permanency, and all experiments 
 made by the author show that it can be freely mixed 
 with other pigments without producing any decompos- 
 ing effect. 
 
 CONSTANT WHITE 
 
 There is no question that this material which is an 
 artificial sulphate of barium is one of the most useful 
 pigments for indiscriminate use. It is quite true that 
 it lacks opacity, and that even when piled on thickly 
 
 [ 114 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 shows a transparency which for many purposes is 
 detrimental from the artistic and technical standpoint, 
 but due consideration must be given to the fact that 
 it is a valuable pigment which can be indiscriminately 
 mixed with every pigment that is permanent without 
 producing any harmful effect. For producing a per- 
 manent glaze, and substituting bitumen, which is easily 
 decomposed, permanent white can be mixed with any 
 one of the solid colors, and the same effect produced. 
 It is not affected by any gases, and when scientifically 
 prepared, has little or no action on the oil. In other 
 words, there is no tendency to turn the oil yellow 
 when placed in the dark. This material is also sold 
 under the name of blanc fixe, and although some 
 manufacturers produce a permanent white which is 
 largely composed of zinc oxide, there are others who 
 grind the dry blanc fixe in oil, and still others who 
 mix dry blanc fixe with zinc oxide. There are many 
 lake colors which are precipitated on this material, 
 and therefore a quasi lake can always be made by 
 the painter by taking a small proportion of the solid 
 pigment and mixing it with a large proportion of 
 constant white. It dries well and is very reliable. 
 
 COPAL MEGILP 
 
 When linseed oil is boiled with oxide of lead and 
 manganese to a temperature of above 500° F., a chem- 
 ical decomposition takes place, and the metallic com- 
 
 [ 115 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 pounds are dissolved in the linseed oil. Strictly speak- 
 ing, in the chemical sense, a linseed oil metallic soap 
 is formed which is frequently used as a drier, and 
 under some circumstances is reliable, but under others 
 is not. For instance, as when megilp is mixed with any 
 one of the blacks, such as lamp black, carbon black, 
 ivory black, gray black, etc., it hastens their drying, 
 but should not be used with the colors which natur- 
 ally dry well. When megilp is mixed with the chemical 
 colors, a change in shade almost invariably takes 
 place, and it is an established fact that after megilp 
 is dry to the touch, it keeps on drying until the re- 
 sulting film is hard, brittle and contractile. 
 
 Where megilp is used indiscriminately, a picture is 
 almost invariably likely to crack, and even though it 
 may have some good qualities, its bad qualities so 
 far outweigh them that it should not be used for 
 permanent painting. 
 
 CORK BLACK 
 
 This is a carbon black produced by calcining cork. 
 It is grayish in color but has extreme strength. It 
 is a very slow drier, which is characteristic of all 
 carbons. It is very permanent but has no advantage 
 over lamp black. 
 
 CREMNITZ WHITE, CREMS OR KREMS WHITE 
 
 In all respects this white is similar in chemical com- 
 position to flake white or white lead. It is chemically 
 
 [ 116 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 produced by what is known as the “quick process,” 
 and is made directly from a solution of acetate of lead. 
 It is exceedingly heavy, but crystalline in structure, 
 and very easily affected by sulphureted hydrogen. It 
 should not be used in painting portraits because zinc 
 white is far more permanent. However, it has one 
 good feature and is useful for one purpose. In pre- 
 paring a canvas cremnitz white mixed with turpentine 
 produces a flat ground which has what the painter calls 
 “tooth.” The surface has a fine grain, to which sub- 
 sequent colors adhere well, and as such its use is per- 
 missible. 
 
 CRIMSON LAKE 
 
 This is a beautiful shade of cochineal lake, and is 
 manufactured from the coloring matter which remains 
 after the carmine has been precipitated or extracted 
 from the cochineal bug. It is, however, a useless color. 
 It not only dries badly, but when submitted to the 
 sunlight for lo days, it bleaches badly. It should 
 never be used under any circumstances for permanent 
 painting, and is similar to carmine lake. 
 
 CRIMSON MADDER 
 
 This is a form of madder lake manufactured very 
 largely from alizarin, which is chemically the same 
 as the madder produced from the root. It is very 
 permanent as long as it is used alone or when used 
 
 [ 117 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 as a glaze over a thoroughly dry surface, but when 
 mixed with any one of the chemical colors, or the na- 
 tive earth colors, it decomposes rapidly, and therefore 
 should not be used indiscriminately. It dries slowly. 
 
 DAVEY’S GRAY 
 
 Davey’s gray is a permanent color which is prepared 
 from a silicious earth, either clay or slate, tinted with 
 artificial cobalt. It is not used in America to any great 
 extent, because it is assumed that the color may be 
 produced by a mixture of constant white, lamp black 
 and cobalt blue. It is permanent and has no effect on 
 other colors, but is affected by sulphureted hydrogen, 
 or when made with artificial ultramarine blue decom- 
 poses lead colors. 
 
 DEEP MADDER 
 
 This is a permanent glazing color when used alone 
 or when glazed over other colors which are dry. In 
 shade it approaches carmine lake and should be used m 
 the place of carmine lake. It dries very slowly, but 
 can be generally recommended as a safe pigment. Must 
 not be mixed with ochre, lead or native earth pigments. 
 
 EMERALD GREEN 
 
 There is apparently no green which is as brilliant as 
 emerald green. It is also known under the name of 
 
 [ 118 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 Paris green or emeraude green. It is a peculiarly crys- 
 talline color, and when ground exceedingly fine loses 
 its brilliancy. Some samples contain green aniline, 
 which is added for the purpose of giving it staining 
 power, because emerald green of itself is a defective 
 and exceedingly weak color. Being a compound of 
 arsenic and copper, it is very easily decomposed by 
 sulphur gases, although it is fairly permanent to light. 
 It is one of the fugitive colors for whose existence there 
 may be some excuse, because it is exceedingly bril- 
 liant, and when used with extreme care and varnished 
 over as soon as it is thoroughly dry, there is no rea- 
 son why it should not last 50 or 100 years. 
 
 Marine painters use it for painting the starboard 
 light, and sometimes produce a most brilliant effect by 
 starting with a hydrated oxide of chromium, then 
 painting a ring of emerald green, and in the center 
 placing a touch of zinc white. This gives the effect 
 of luminosity. 
 
 Emerald green dries slowly and should always be 
 used alone. It sometimes destroys lake colors in a 
 few hours. 
 
 EXTRACT OF VERMILION 
 
 This is a misnomer, for there is no such thing as 
 an extract of vermilion. The color is generally a very 
 pale vermilion of scarlet shade, and the description 
 under the head of Chinese and English vermilion an^ 
 swers the description of extract of vermilion. 
 
 [ 119 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 FIELD’S ORANGE VERMILION 
 
 This color is composed of the sulphide of mercury, 
 the same as extract of vermilion, Chinese vermilion, 
 etc., and differs only in shade, being somewhat deeper 
 than cadmium orange or orange chrome yellow. It is 
 regarded as permanent when used alone and is a fairly 
 good drier. 
 
 FLAKE WHITE 
 
 The Dutch were the first to manufacture white lead, 
 by what is known as the Dutch process, which con- 
 sisted in submitting sheets of lead to the heat of de- 
 composing manure and the vapors of vinegar. They 
 found that the metallic lead was decomposed after 3 
 or 4 months, and flakes of white replaced the metallic 
 lead. The Dutch called this pigment scheel white, 
 which means scale or flake, and when we use the term 
 “flake white” we always refer to white lead. 
 
 There is no question that flake white has certain 
 defects, its principal one being that it is affected by 
 sulphur gases. Another defect, which it has in con- 
 junction with many other pigments, is its tendency 
 to turn a painting yellow. Much of the yellowness 
 of age is due to the decomposition which takes place 
 between flake white and the oil or varnish used as 
 a medium. 
 
 At the same time, there are many pictures which are 
 
 [ 120 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 hundreds of years old in which the flake white has 
 been rejuvenated even after it has turned brown or 
 yellow through the effect of gases. From a mechanical 
 standpoint flake white is an unctious paint which 
 works very well under the artist’s brush, and when 
 properly dry and glazed over with zinc, cannot be 
 considered as fugitive or easily decomposed. It has 
 the advantage over zinc, that it does not dry continu- 
 ously, nor does it become exceedingly brittle with age, 
 but zinc has so far replaced it that there is really no 
 reason why it should be promiscuously used. 
 
 FRENCH BLUE 
 
 This is an artificial ultramarine blue which is abso- 
 luely permanent to light, dries fairly well, and can 
 either be used as a glaze or as a solid color. It must 
 never be mixed with flake white, chrome yellow, 
 chrome green, emerald green, or any pigment contain- 
 ing a metallic base, excepting zinc. When mixed with 
 zinc, any re-action that may take place is not visible 
 or apparent, and for this reason is one of the most 
 remarkable colors that we have. It is identical in 
 composition with the genuine lapis lazuli oi natural 
 ultramarine blue, and the author cannot find that it 
 is inferior in any respects to the natural stone. 
 
 It contains a large amount of sulphur, which is 
 very easily liberated in the presence of an acid, and 
 in view of the fact that there is free acid in the at- 
 mosphere in any city, it is well to bear in mind that 
 
 [ 121 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 this pigment should never be mixed with any other 
 pigment which the free sulphurous acid is likely to 
 decompose. In the chapter on drying oils evidence 
 will be adduced which will demonstrate that decompo- 
 sition can take place only in the presence of water 
 or moisture, so that the decomposition of ultramarine 
 blue by acid with flake white can be prevented. 
 
 FRENCH ULTRAMARINE 
 
 The same as French blue or artificial ultramarine 
 blue. It was first made in France but to-day Germany 
 and the United States are the largest producers of 
 ultramarine blue. When used alone or when mixed 
 with zinc white it is absolutely permanent. There are 
 no less than twenty shades of French ultramarine rang- 
 ing from the palest cobalt to the deepest ultramarine. 
 Other varieties are also made, such as green, violet, 
 purple and red, which will be described in their proper 
 places. 
 
 FRENCH VERMILION 
 
 The same as Chinese or English vermilion. 
 
 FRENCH VERONESE GREEN 
 
 French Veronese green is now a permanent pig- 
 ment which does not possess very much opacity, but 
 
 [ 122 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 can be readily mixed with any other pigment without 
 any injurious effects. There is a story extant that 
 Paul Veronese was the discoverer or inventor of this 
 color, but it is doubtful whether this is true, in view 
 of the fact that the production of hydrated oxide of 
 chromium was evidently not known during the time 
 that he lived. The true Veronese green named for 
 him was more likely a clay colored with hydrated ox- 
 ide of iron known to this day under the name of terre 
 verte or green earth, although from the evidence which 
 we have at hand, terre verte was used long before 
 Paul Veronese was born. 
 
 Veronese green is similar to the genuine chrome 
 green, of which there are two kinds, the solid or 
 opaque kind, known under the name of chromium 
 oxide, and the transparent kind, known under the 
 name of viridian. Viridian is sometimes known un- 
 der the name of guignet green, but it is generally 
 believed that guignet green is the oxide of chromium 
 and not the hydrated oxide. 
 
 It must be borne in mind that the hydrated oxide 
 is a transparent color similar to a lake, and the ox- 
 ide of chromium is an opaque pigment with intense 
 hiding power. Both the oxide and the hydrated oxide 
 are very permanent under any and all conditions, and 
 can be mixed with other pigments with the excep- 
 tion that the hydrated oxide and madder lake show 
 some slight decomposition, but as has been properly 
 pointed out, there is seldom, if any, opportunity, where 
 
 [ 123 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 madder lake must be mixed with oxide of chromium 
 to produce any given shade. 
 
 Veronese green is a good drier and a reliable color. 
 
 FOUNDATION WHITE 
 
 This is the ordinary white lead of commerce which 
 is generally a very pure article, and is identical with 
 that which the house painter uses. As such, it is not 
 by any means the best foundation white, and cannot 
 compare with a mixture of zinc oxide and white lead. 
 For foundation purposes, such a mixture dries very 
 well, and produces a surface which is neither too 
 hard nor too soft, and after it has dried sufficiently 
 hard, presents a surface to which other pigments ad- 
 here very well. Such a surface has what is technically 
 known as “tooth,” so that when we speak of a pig- 
 ment having “tooth,” we refer to a physical surface 
 to which other colors adhere properly. 
 
 Foundation white may be made by the painter of a 
 mixture of ordinary house painters’ pigments, such as 
 zinc white and white lead ground in linseed oil. It 
 should be thinned only with turpentine so as to dry 
 with a gloss. A little picture varnish (mastic dis- 
 solved in turpentine or damar varnish) may be mixed 
 to give elasticity but as these varnishes become brittle 
 in time, fat oil (a fatty linseed oil) is preferable and 
 a small quantity in foundation white is to be recom- 
 mended. 
 
 [ 124 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 GALL STONE OR EXTRACT OF GALL 
 
 This is a true organic color with which the bile 
 of the gall bladder is strongly tinted. When this 
 bile is combined with lime and magnesia, it forms small 
 nodules known as gall stones. It has its origin dur- 
 ing the time when the ancients used almost any ma- 
 terial which had tinctorial power, but as it possesses 
 no particular merit and is exceedingly fugitive, it is 
 not to be recommended for painting. 
 
 GAMBOGE 
 
 Gamboge is a semi-soluble resin which is obtained 
 from a particular tree in India, Ceylon and Siam. It 
 is a coloring matter which has many of the character- 
 istics of the yellow coloring matter in linseed oil, in 
 fact, a chemical examination of it indicates that it is 
 analogous to xantophyll and is not as fugitive as 
 the yellow coloring matter obtained from turmeric, 
 Persian berry, etc. We find it on the market in com- 
 bination with alumina as a base, and as it has no 
 hiding power whatever, it must be regarded as a stain 
 or a true lake, for it is quite transparent. It is seldom 
 sold in its pure state, and as an oil color, the dye which 
 gamboge contains is mordanted on alumina as a base. 
 It bleaches somewhat when exposed to strong sun- 
 light but recovers its color again when placed in the 
 dark, which is characteristic of the coloring matter 
 of many of the vegetable oils. It is of a true resinous 
 
 [ 125 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 nature, and therefore acts like a varnish gum, for it 
 dries with a considerable gloss. It is not very stable, 
 and while it may dry fairly well by itself, it acts sim- 
 ilar to bitumen, retarding the drying of other colors. 
 It is therefore not to be generally recommended. 
 
 GERANIUM LAKE 
 
 It is very unfortunate that in the early 70’s when 
 the dye known as eosine was invented, many brilliant 
 lakes were made for the painter, which exceeded in 
 strength and efifectivenss any coloring matter that had 
 been known before that time. There are two shades of 
 geranium, the bluish and the yellowish, both of them 
 exceedingly brilliant, some of which are precipitated 
 on alumina and some on minium or red lead. In any 
 case, geranium lake is so fugitive when made of eosine, 
 that in 24 hours it begins to bleach, and many a painter 
 has had his work completely destroyed by the use of 
 pigments of this class. It is unfortunate that these col- 
 ors were ever sold to painters. They should under 
 no circumstances be used. The madder lakes easily 
 replace geranium lake and should be used instead. 
 
 GERANIUM MADDER 
 
 When this pigment is made of a very bright form of 
 madder it is safe to use it as a glazing color, as it is 
 perfectly permanent. It is like all the madders which 
 
 [ 126 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 are easier to use as glazes than in mixtures with any 
 pigments which may have an ultimate efifect, that is, 
 the color will change in time. It dries very slowly and 
 must not be mixed with ochre, raw sienna or flake 
 white. 
 
 GOLD OCHRE OR GOLDEN OCHRE 
 
 Ordinarily this pigment is French ochre toned with 
 chrome yellow, and the painter should not use it, for 
 it is far preferable to use ordinary ochre, toning it, if 
 necessary, with cadmium yellow. All the ochres have 
 a slight tendency to darken upon exposure. They 
 must not be mixed with any of the lake colors, but 
 when mixed with any of the mineral colors are prac- 
 tically permanent. Ochres all dry very well and when 
 once dry are permanent. 
 
 GREEN LAKE 
 
 This pigment is prepared in various ways, and is 
 generally conceded to be a fugitive color which has 
 little or no value. When made of an aniline dye 
 precipitated on alumina it will fade within a week, but 
 when made of zinc yellow and Prussian blue diluted 
 with alumina, it will retain its brilliancy for many 
 years. There is another variety on the market which 
 is made of Dutch pink or quercitron bark extract and 
 Prussian blue, which is not as permanent as that made 
 from zinc yellow. The color is not to be recommended. 
 
 [ 127 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 HARRISON RED 
 
 This is a new pigment of the aniline series which is 
 exceedingly brilliant and probably ten times as strong 
 as quick silver vermilion. In shade it approximates 
 a mixture of light and dark English vermilion, but in 
 tinctorial power it is remarkably strong. It is much 
 more permanent to light than vermilion, and like ver- 
 milion it has a tendency to darken and not to fade. 
 
 Its composition is similar to a proprietary red known 
 as helio fast red, and is made by one of the large ani- 
 line manufacturers in Germany and they probably 
 named it in honor of the American artist, Birge Har- 
 rison. 
 
 This pigment possesses some analogies to the parani- 
 traniline colors, but has the advantage of not bleed- 
 ing. In other words, after it is dry, and when white 
 is painted over it the red does not bleed through 
 and turn the white into a brown as is the case with 
 para reds. 
 
 Harrison red may be said to be permanent when 
 thoroughly diluted with alumina lake and white ; it 
 does show slight traces of decomposition after three 
 months’ exposure to the sun, but not sufficient to 
 condemn it, and it may be said that the only disad- 
 vantage concerning this color, known at present, is 
 its inability to dry. When Harrison red is mixed with 
 oil it sometimes remains absolutely moist and smeary 
 for six or seven weeks, which, of course, is a serious 
 
 [ 128 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 disadvantage. At the same time the addition of a 
 drier or a drying oil changes the brilliancy of its 
 shade, so that it might be well in the use of this color 
 to reduce it only with turpentine and then expose it to 
 the light. It mixes well with madder lake without 
 showing very much decomposition. 
 
 HOOKER’S GREEN 
 
 This pigment is similar to the green lakes just de- 
 scribed, with the exception that it has some hiding 
 power. Some manufacturers, in order to make it more 
 permanent, use a mixture of orange chrome yellow, 
 Prussian blue and alumina, which is not as brilliant as 
 the pigment made from yellow lake or gamboge, but 
 it is much more permanent. 
 
 One sample examined by the author appeared to 
 be a mixture of Prussian blue and raw sienna. Such 
 a mixture is permanent and dries well. 
 
 INDIAN BLUE (See also Indigo) 
 
 This color is obtained from the leaves of certain 
 plants which are found principally in India. Within 
 the last few years it has been made the subject of 
 research, as in the case of madder, so that it is now 
 manufactured artificially from coal tar. The pigment 
 present in artificial indigo is identical wdth that in the 
 natural, but the artificial color is purer. In its over- 
 
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Permanent Painting 
 
 tone it is similar to Prussian blue, but is much weaker, 
 and somewhat transparent, having all of the character- 
 istics of a lake color. It dries poorly, and when a 
 manganese or lead drier is added to it it is quickly 
 decomposed. When it is exposed to the sunlight it 
 fades rapidly. It is, therefore, useless for artistic 
 painting. 
 
 INDIAN LAKE 
 
 Indian lake is a deep red lake which is assumed to 
 be the lake that exudes from the tree from which 
 gum shellac is recovered, and is one of the lakes which 
 was probably used by Sir Joshua Reynolds, which tend- 
 ed to destroy his pictures to such a great extent. In per- 
 manency it is better than carmine, and not by any 
 means as good as madder, and like all organic lakes 
 is quickly decomposed when mixed with some of 
 the iron oxide colors. It is fugitive and unreliable, 
 dries very badly and should not be used. 
 
 INDIAN PURPLE 
 
 Indian purple is a complex mixture originally made 
 by taking a weak form of Prussian blue and mixing it 
 with vermilion. As such, it was very deep toned and 
 muddy, but was fairly permanent. Later on, carmine 
 was added to this mixture, but it was found that, al- 
 though the brilliancy of the colors was enhanced, it 
 
 [ 130 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 was less permanent than before. Nowadays it is 
 made by coloring or mixing ultramarine blue with' 
 madder lake, during the process of manufacture of 
 the madder, and is regarded as a fairly permanent 
 color. It can be readily duplicated on the palette. 
 
 INDIAN RED 
 
 This is a true oxide of iron which contains no water 
 in its combination, is extremely permanent, and can 
 be generally recommended when it is unsophisticated. 
 Unfortunately a number of manufacturers of artist 
 tube colors spoil this good and permanent color by 
 adding a lake in order to enhance its brilliancy, and 
 in doing so destroy the permanent value of the pig- 
 ment. The name Indian red is supposed to have or- 
 iginated from two sources ; the first, because a native 
 form of hematite or red oxide of iron which contains 
 silica was found, and is still found, in the Orient, par- 
 ticularly in Persia, and, in the second place, from the 
 further fact that the North American Indians used the 
 native red ochre or hematite as a wash for the wig- 
 wams, and as a coloring matter for personal decora- 
 tion. In either case, the colors chemically are the 
 same and are bright red oxides of iron. Much of the 
 Indian red, however, which is used by color makers, 
 is artificially prepared by burning copperas (sulphate 
 of iron), until the acid is entirely driven off, and 
 only the oxide remains. When this is washed it forms 
 
 [ 131 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 a bright red, solid color which can be mixed with 
 nearly every other permanent pigment, and may be 
 regarded as fairly permanent, with one or two excep- 
 tions. Upon long and extreme exposure the bright 
 Indian red loses its brilliancy and turns darker, which 
 is due to the chemical change or decomposition from 
 the ferric to the ferrous state. The ferrous oxide of 
 iron is a black oxide with which the artistic painter is 
 not acquainted. The ferric oxide of iron is the bright, 
 red oxide. The darkening effect of Indian red is due 
 to the slight change from the ferric to the ferrous 
 oxide. The same is true when Indian red is mixed 
 with zinc oxide to produce a flesh tint. The author 
 exposed a sample so made for three years to the bright 
 daylight, and at the end of three years a very slight 
 darkening effect had taken place, but inasmuch as 
 artistic paintings are rarely, if ever, exposed to the 
 bright sunshine throughout the entire }^ear, Indian red 
 must be regarded as one of the permanent and reliable 
 pigments. 
 
 Indian red dries very well and has enormous hid- 
 ing power (opacity). When mixed with zinc oxide 
 to produce a ground for flesh tints it is very reliable. 
 There are many shades of Indian red. Some produce 
 a violet when mixed with white and others a dis- 
 tinct pink or rouge. All are permanent when pure. 
 When Indian red is toned with madder lake it is 
 frequently called tuscan red or Pompeian red. Indian 
 red does not decompose madder lake. 
 
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Permanent Painting 
 
 INDIAN YELLOW 
 
 This color is similar in many of its characteristics 
 to gall stone yellow, and inasmuch as it is made from 
 the excrement of camels, its coloring matter is same- 
 what similar to the biliary coloring matter, and while 
 it is brilliant and transparent, it is just as fugitive as 
 gall stone yellow, and is not to be recommended. It 
 dries badly. 
 
 INDIGO 
 
 This is a color extracted from the indigo plant which 
 grows in the East Indies, and has been in use for many 
 centuries. It is used both as an oil color and a water 
 color but possesses no particular advantage. As an 
 oil color indigo dries very slowly, fades when exposed 
 to light, is destroyed or reduced when mixed with 
 chrome yellow, white lead and the majority of metallic 
 paints. It can be safely substituted by a mixture of 
 Prussian blue and lamp black, or better still, by a mix- 
 ture of Antwerp blue and lamp black, Antwerp blue 
 being a reduced form of Prussian blue. It is of doubt- 
 ful value, and it is a question whether any of the old 
 painters used it to any great extent. While it is ac- 
 cepted that it makes a very desirable green when mixed 
 with raw sienna or a yellow lake, it is not as good as 
 a mixture of Prussian blue and raw sienna, and as yel • 
 low lake in almost any form is fugitive the resulting 
 color is not to be recommended. 
 
 Indigo should therefore be excluded from the palette. 
 
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Permanent Painting 
 
 ITALIAN PINK 
 
 This is the same as Dutch pink or yellow lake, its 
 name is a misnomer, because it is a transparent olive 
 yellow, and not a paint. It is quite fugitive. It dries 
 very poorly and should not be used. 
 
 IVORY BLACK 
 
 Ivory black is prepared from charred ivory, and 
 contains only about 20% of carbon black, the balance 
 of it being phosphate of lime or bone material, but it 
 is unlike any other black, on account of its intensity. 
 In fact, it is so black by comparison, that on an ivory 
 black ground a stripe of lamp black is distinctly dis- 
 cernible, or visa versa, a stripe of ivory black will make 
 a black mark on lamp black. It is perfectly perma- 
 nent and dries very well, and can be mixed indiscrim- 
 inately with any other permanent color. 
 
 JAUNE BRILLIANT 
 
 This is also known under the name of bulliant yel- 
 low, its name being a translation from the French. 
 It is made in two ways, the one producing a permanent 
 and the other an unreliable pigment. The permanent 
 brilliant yellow is made of zinc yellow mixed with 
 zinc oxide to give it hiding power, and is a brilliant, 
 permanent color. By the other method one part chem- 
 
 [ 134 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 ically pure lemon chrome yellow is mixed with twenty 
 parts of white lead. The latter is stronger and has 
 more hiding power than the former, but is easily af- 
 fected by sulphureted hydrogen, and is not as perma- 
 nent as the zinc yellow. It dries very well and should 
 be used alone. 
 
 JACQUEMINOT MADDER 
 
 This is merely a bluish shade of madder, very strong, 
 brilliant and permanent, and ranks with all the other 
 madder lakes. It dries very slowly and for flower 
 painting is absolutely permanent when used as a glaze 
 over a dry ground. It is frequently mixed with ivory 
 black to produce a brown lake. 
 
 KING’S YELLOW 
 
 This is prepared in several ways. Some manufac- 
 turers make it similar to the formulas of brilliant yel- 
 low just described. Others mix chrome yellow and flake 
 white. Formerly, it was made by grinding the mineral 
 orpiment, which is a sulphide of arsenic, and has been 
 used as a pigment for several thousand years. When 
 used absolutely alone, it has some qualities which may 
 recommend it, but it is almost impossible to use a pig- 
 ment of this kind alone, for the mere addition of a 
 small amount of drier is sufficient to destroy the 
 brilliancy of orpiment, hence manufacturers have been 
 
 [ 135 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 led to make it by using zinc yellow or chrome yellow 
 as a base. In any case, orpiment is useless and not to 
 be recommended, as King’s yellow has all the charac- 
 teristics of brilliant yellow with which it is analogous. 
 
 LAMP BLACK 
 
 This pigment is now made by condensing the smoke 
 of various burning coal tar oils. It is almost a pure 
 form of carbon, is intensely strong, and differs from 
 carbon black and ivory black in that it produces a dis- 
 tinctly bluish gray shade when mixed with white. It 
 is a very bad drier, and remains very flexible for a 
 long time. Therefore, it is always advisable, when a 
 gray is to be made, that zinc oxide and lamp black 
 be used, because the flexibility of lamp black overcomes 
 the brittleness of zinc. Lamp black can be mixed with 
 any other pigment. It is not chemically acted upon, nor 
 is it acted upon by light. It can be mixed with any 
 pigment and is absolutely inert. When it refuses to 
 dry it may be exposed to the sunlight and fresh air, 
 which hastens the drying very considerably. Lamp 
 black, however, may be mixed with drier without any 
 harm, but sunlight and air are more reliable. 
 
 LEITCH’S BLUE 
 
 This is similar in some respects to artificial ultra- 
 marine blue, but not as permanent. It is made by 
 
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Permanent Painting 
 
 mixing artificial ultramarine blue and Prussian blue. 
 An old variety was made by mixing genuine cobalt 
 blue and Prussian blue. In either case it bleaches 
 slightly, and is not as reliable as either cobalt blue 
 or ultramarine alone. It dries better than ultramarine 
 and can be produced on the palette. It has a tendency 
 to turn slightly greenish in the dark but revives on 
 exposure to light. 
 
 LEMON YELLOW 
 
 This may be either chromate of barium or a chro- 
 mate of strontium, and has many of the characteristics 
 of a brilliant yellow lake, and at the same time is much 
 more permanent than any organic color. It can be 
 mixed with almost every color, excepting those con- 
 taining hydrated oxide of iron, such as siennas or 
 ochres, and where a yellow lake is desired of excep- 
 tional brilliancy, a mixture of constant white and 
 lemon yellow produces very desirable results. It is 
 similar in many respects to chromate of zinc, and may 
 be regarded as a reliable, permanent color. It cannot 
 supplant zinc yellow and may therefore be omitted. 
 
 LIGHT RED 
 
 The author finds that some of the light reds on the 
 market are evidently brilliant shades of Indian red, 
 and almost pure oxide of iron. Others are mixtures 
 
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Permanent Painting 
 
 of burnt sienna and oxide of iron, and still others are 
 forms of burnt ochre, which are oxides of iron and 
 clay. In any case, any one of these three colors are 
 perfectly permanent and reliable, and the description 
 for Indian red would hold good for light red. All 
 of the light reds are good driers, and we find that from 
 the earliest days of decoration as practiced by the 
 Egyptians down to the present day, light red has been 
 used by all painters. When mixed with zinc white 
 or flake white the tendency for light red is to darken 
 slightly and become brownish, but this is not percepti- 
 ble for many years, and only occurs upon extreme ex- 
 posure. It is a very reliable pigment. 
 
 MADDER CARMINE, MADDER CARMINE 
 EXTRA AND MADDER LAKE 
 
 These are lakes prepared from the madder root that 
 differ somewhat as to shade and brilliancy. They are 
 all similar in composition to the alizarins, and are all 
 permanent, except when mixed with the ochre and 
 sienna pigments, white lead, chrome yellow, chrome 
 green and metallic pigments of that nature. The mad- 
 der lakes should only be used as glazes, and can very 
 safely be mixed with constant white to produce bril- 
 liant and more roseate shades. They all dry slowly 
 and when they “sadden” they can be revived by plac- 
 ing them in the sunlight for a few hours. 
 
 [138] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 MAGENTA 
 
 Magenta is one of the newer, aniline pigments, 
 precipitated on an alumina base, and while extremely 
 brilliant when freshly applied, has absolutely no value 
 whatever as an artistic color. In one week, magenta 
 bleaches perceptibly, and is very easily affected by any 
 of the inorganic pigments. It is not to be recom- 
 mended and should not be used. 
 
 MALACHITE GREEN: ALSO KNOWN UNDER 
 THE NAME OF MOUNTAIN GREEN 
 
 This pigment was known to the Grecians, and is also 
 a semi-precious jewel. It is sometimes found in huge 
 slabs and used in the making of table tops, pedestals 
 and other articles of ornament. It is a brilliant miner- 
 al green streaked with a light green, and is a hy- 
 drated carbonate of copper. Whether made artifi- 
 cially, or prepared from the green mineral, it has the 
 serious defect that it is affected by sulphur gases, and 
 may either bleach or darken according to the nature 
 of the gas which attacks it, but when properly var- 
 nished and used alone, it is quite permanent. In view 
 of the fact that there are other greens which are ab- 
 solutely permanent, and from which similar shades 
 may be prepared, there is no necessity for the use 
 of malachite green. 
 
 This pigment dries well and has been used for over 
 three thousand years. It was well known to the an- 
 cient Egyptians. 
 
 [ 139] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 MARS COLORS 
 
 BROWN, ORANGE, RED, VIOLET AND YELLOW 
 MARS BROWN 
 
 This is a natural color, unburnt, and similar in 
 composition to raw umber. It is a very good drier, 
 but must not be mixed with any of the lakes. Of it- 
 self, it is a perfectly permanent pigment. 
 
 MARS ORANGE 
 
 This has sometimes been called extract of burnt 
 sienna, because it is composed entirely of hydrated 
 oxide of iron which has been properly precipitated and 
 washed. It is very uniform in composition, and identi- 
 cal with ordinary iron rust. It has generally been re- 
 garded as a perfectly safe and permanent pigment, but 
 this is not a fact. It attacks not only every lake 
 with which it may be mixed, but is such a hard drier 
 that it has a tendency to crack. It makes most beau- 
 tiful, clear yellowish tints when mixed with zinc 
 white, and when diluted with constant white, it has 
 every characteristic of a lake, but owing to its chem- 
 ical composition, it darkens upon extreme exposure, 
 and the beautiful clear tones which it produces when 
 mixed with white have a tendency to sadden upon 
 exposure. 
 
 [ 140] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 MARS RED 
 
 This is similar in all respects to mars orange, with 
 the exception that it has been heated until the water 
 of combination is driven off, and while it is identical 
 with light red, it is much more transparent. It is a 
 soft, permanent color, and although it is supposed to 
 affect a number of lakes, it is very doubtful whether 
 it does, but in order to practice precaution, it may be 
 wise not to mix it with several of the lakes, but to 
 use the lakes over it as a glazing color. It dries well, 
 and is permanent. 
 
 MARS VIOLET 
 
 Mars violet is a very dark form of crocus martis, or 
 Indian red. It is similar to the color known as caput 
 mortum, and is nothing more nor less than a purple 
 oxide of iron. It has a distinctly bluish shade, is very 
 durable, dries well and is permanent to light. 
 
 MARS YELLOW 
 
 Mars yellow has also been called extract of ochre, 
 or extract of raw sienna, because it is composed of 
 the coloring matter of these two pigments. It fre- 
 quently cannot be distinguished from a good quality 
 of raw sienna, is permanent, dries well and is trans- 
 lucent. It has been suggested frequently that mars 
 yellow, or a good form of raw sienna should be used 
 
 [ 141 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 as a substitute for the yellow lakes, and this can easily 
 be done when these colors are mixed with constant 
 white. As a glazing color, it is permanent, but, like 
 all of the oxides of iron which contain water in combi- 
 nation, it must not be mixed with an organic color 
 such as any one of the lakes. 
 
 MAUVE AND MAUVE LAKE 
 
 This is a most undesirable though brilliant color, 
 which begins to deteriorate almost the same day that 
 it is applied. It is made from one of the fugitive 
 aniline dyes, hut could be made from permanent dyes, 
 although there is no sample on the market which the 
 author has examined that is fit for the artist’s palette. 
 In these modern days mauve lake should be replaced 
 by a permanent mauve which would not be difficult to 
 produce, and which would be as permanent as madder, 
 but such a pigment does not exist, to the best of the 
 author’s knowledge. 
 
 MEGILP (See Copal Megilp) 
 
 MINERAL GRAY 
 
 This is a nondescript color which is made from a 
 solid gray or gang rock, and tinted with the blue ot 
 lapis lazuli. It has very little strength or tinctorial 
 power. Its principal characteristic is its high price. 
 It can very easily be imitated by a mixture of cheaper 
 
 [ 142 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 colors which would be just as permanent. It has, 
 however, no defects. It dries well, is permanent to 
 light, and permanent when mixed with every pigment 
 excepting those containing lead, which it does not 
 affect as quickly as ultramarine blue, because its sul- 
 phur content is so extremely low. Zinc white, lamp 
 black and a trace of ultramarine produce the same 
 shade. 
 
 MINIUM 
 
 Minium is a very brilliant orange red. It is a 
 pure form of oxide of lead made by calcining flake 
 white. Its shade is similar to that of orange vermilion. 
 It is perfectly permanent to light, but is very suscepti- 
 ble to the action of sulphureted hydrogen. It has the 
 same shade as scarlet quick silver vermilion, and is a 
 powerful drier. It is best to use it alone and it ought 
 to be varnished as soon as possible. When not var- 
 nished it bleaches to a straw color on long exposure, 
 which is due to the acid gases in the air. 
 
 MONO CHROME TINTS 
 
 These are mixtures of white lead, raw umber, burnt 
 umber, lamp black, ivory black, etc., and on account 
 of the lead content are affected by sulphureted hy- 
 drogen. which tends to darken them. When these 
 colors are made on a zinc white base they are much 
 
 [ 143 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 more permanent, in fact, may be regarded as perfectly 
 permanent. They dry well and can be reproduced on 
 the palette. 
 
 MUMMY 
 
 Mummy is a form of bitumen or asphaltum used 
 as a glazing color. It was supposed to be permanent, 
 because the bitumen or asphaltum which is found in 
 the mummy cases was assumed to be permanent, be- 
 cause it was so old, and had not undergone any change 
 in its drying condition ; but when used as an oil color, 
 it is treacherous, and should not be used for the same 
 reason that no asphaltum or bitumen should be used. 
 It retards the drying of an otherwise good color, and 
 is to be condemned from every point of view. 
 
 NAPLES YELLOW 
 
 The old Naples yellow was a mixture of litharge, 
 or oxide of lead and sulphide of antimony, a most un- 
 stable color which frequently decomposed itself, but 
 for many years color manufacturers have imitated it 
 by mixing cadmium, yellow, ochre and white, and some 
 manufacturers produce better and more permanent 
 Naples yellow than others. This is due to the fact 
 that this pigment may be a mixture of deep orange cad- 
 mium and zinc white, in which case it is exceedingly 
 permanent, but where the zinc white is replaced by 
 
 [ 144 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 white lead or flake white, it is easily affected by sul- 
 phureted hydrogen. Except for convenience there is 
 no necessity for having this as a separate color, for 
 the painter can mix up any shade of Naples yellow 
 to suit himself. 
 
 NAPLES YELLOW REDDISH 
 
 Naples yellow reddish is the same as any Naples yel- 
 low, except that the orange form of cadmium has 
 been used, or a slight tinge or oxide of iron added to 
 the zinc white. Either form of imitation Naples yel- 
 low is superior to the natural and is practically per- 
 manent, which cannot be said of the genuine. 
 
 NEUTRAL TINT 
 
 This is a complex mixture of ultramarine, sienna, 
 lamp black or ochre and lamp black, and under all 
 circumstances is an excellent color which is perfectly 
 permanent. It can be reproduced on the palette and is 
 bought only for convenience. It dries well. 
 
 NEUTRAL ORANGE 
 
 Neutral orange is a permanent color also of a com- 
 plex mixture. It has many of the characteristics of 
 mars orange, but sometimes is made by mixing a bril- 
 liant yellow, free from lead, with a bright oxide of 
 iron. When made from cadmium yellow, it is quite 
 
 [ 145 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 expensive, but when made from zinc yellow or barium 
 yellow, it is not quite as strong in hiding power, but 
 is very desirable. The color dries well. 
 
 NEW BLUE 
 
 New blue is an artificial ultramarine blue of the 
 cobalt shade, perfectly permanent, excepting when 
 mixed with white lead or flake white, or any other 
 color containing lead. It must not be used in con- 
 junction with a lead drier. By itself it is absolutely 
 permanent and dries well. 
 
 NOTTINGHAM WHITE 
 
 This is a form of white lead or flake white, which 
 is described under the heading of flake white. 
 
 OLIVE GREEN 
 
 Olive green is a beautiful pigment, composed of a 
 mixture of yellow lake and Prussian blue. It is not 
 permanent and should not be used, for it dries badly 
 and fades. 
 
 Olive green may be made of raw sienna and Prus- 
 sian blue, in which case it dries well and is absolutely 
 permanent, and when mixed with constant white 
 (blanc fixe) or diluted with blanc de lacque (alumina 
 hydrate) produces a lake of any degree of transpar- 
 ency. 
 
 [ 146 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 Olive green or olive green lake must not be mixed 
 with any other lake. 
 
 OLIVE LAKE 
 
 Olive lake is a mixture of ultramarine blue and yel- 
 low lake which fades and is unreliable. The mixture 
 described under the paragraph on olive green is to be 
 recommended in its place. 
 
 OLIVE MADDER 
 
 Olive madder is a misnomer, there being no true 
 madder lake which is green, but a mixture of ultra- 
 marine blue and certain forms of raw sienna or Prus- 
 sian blue and sienna produce an olive green which 
 is exceedingly permanent, and, although somewhat 
 muddy, can be very safely used, except in the presence 
 of lead pigments. It is a very good drier. 
 
 ORANGE MINERAL (See Minium) 
 ORANGE VERMILION (See Vermilion) 
 ORANGE MADDER 
 
 A scarlet madder mixed with an aniline yellow or a 
 yellow lake like Dutch pink or Italian yellow. This is 
 a most undesirable pigment which remains wet for 
 weeks and in the end, fades. There is, however, no 
 
 [ 147 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 reason why a lake color of an orange shade cannot be 
 made from the para yellows or para reds, but the au- 
 thor has not found any on the market. 
 
 ORIENT MADDER 
 
 Orient madder is a deep variety of cadmium yellow, 
 and has all the permanent characteristics of the cad- 
 mium series of colors. It is diluted with blanc de 
 laque (alumina hydrate) and has almost as much trans- 
 lucency as a true lake, but dries very slowly. 
 
 ORPIMENT 
 
 Orpiment is the same as King’s yellow, and was 
 originally a sulphide of arsenic. Some samples of 
 orpiment still found on the market are the arsenic 
 color, and as such are not recommended. The same 
 shade may be produced by mixing various yellows 
 and whites. The true orpiment is not to be recom- 
 mended. 
 
 OXIDE OF CHROMIUM (See French Veronese Green) 
 
 OXIDE OF CHROMIUM, TRANSPARENT 
 (See French Veronese Green) 
 
 OXFORD OCHRE 
 
 This is a muddy grade of ochre found in England, 
 very permanent, and containing more oxide of iron 
 
 [ 148 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 than the French ochre. It is sometimes used as a base 
 for red pigments, and that is done when the ochre 
 is heated to a red heat so that all the water of combi- 
 nation is driven off, and the hydrated iron is changed 
 into a true oxide. It is perfectly permanent, except 
 when mixed with the lakes. When burnt and sold 
 under the name of burnt ochre, it is similar to some 
 of the shades of mars orange. 
 
 PAYNE’S GRAY 
 
 Payne’s gray is a mixture of black, ochre and blue, 
 and is permanent if the blue used is ultramarine. The 
 water color Payne’s gray is a different mixture which 
 is not permanent. It dries slowly. 
 
 PERMANENT BLUE (See Ultramarine Blue) 
 PERMANENT GREEN (See Viridian) 
 PERMANENT VIOLET 
 
 This may be a mineral color com.posed of phosphate 
 of manganese, and when so prepared is not permanent 
 by any means, and does not deserve the name, or it 
 may be a mixture of cobalt blue and madder lake 
 which is more permanent, but the painter is referred 
 to other violets which can be made from permanent 
 pigments, and should be used in place of the so-called 
 permanent violets. 
 
 [ 149 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 Violet ultramarine is the most reliable of the violets 
 but should not be mixed with any color excepting, per- 
 haps, constant white (blanc fixe) and zinc white. It 
 is as transparent as a lake, and remains brilliant even in 
 the bright sunlight. 
 
 PERMANENT WHITE 
 
 This is a pure zinc oxide described under the chap- 
 ter on zinc white, dries slowly and is permanent. 
 
 PERMANENT YELLOW 
 
 This is a mixture of chromate of barium and zinc 
 white, or chromate of zinc and zinc white. The color 
 is rather weak, but can be safely used with chromium 
 oxide or the viridian colors, and is not afifected by 
 sulphur gases or light. Generally it is a very safe col- 
 or to use, but dries rather slowly. It is also known 
 as canary yellow. 
 
 PINK MADDER 
 
 This is a weak variety of madder lake made from 
 alizarin or madder root. It is permanent and safe to 
 use when not mixed with ochre, lead, or any one of 
 the chemical pigments. When used as a glaze over a 
 perfectly dry surface, it is quite permanent, although 
 bright sunlight bleaches it to a very slight extent 
 
 [ 150 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 after the lapse of two years. It is a bad drier, but 
 under no circumstances must it be mixed with a drying 
 oil, because all the drying oils contain metallic sub- 
 stances in solution which act deleteriously on all of 
 the madders. The best way to dry pink madder or any 
 madder lake is to use well settled, old, raw linseed oil, 
 and then expose the picture to the bright light, for the 
 sun will dry madder lake without decomposing it. As 
 this color is largely used as a glaze it is the frequent 
 cause of cracks. 
 
 PRIMROSE AUREOLIN (See Aureolin) 
 PRIMROSE YELLOW 
 
 This is a pale variety of chromate of zinc, or it may 
 be a mixture of chromate of zinc and chromate of 
 barium, or it may be composed of chromate of zinc 
 and oxide of zinc. In any one of these cases, it is 
 a safe, permanent, reliable color. It dries fairly well, 
 particularly when exposed to light. It is not affected 
 by sulphur gases but cannot be mixed with a lake 
 color. 
 
 PRUSSIAN BLUE 
 
 Prussian blue is a chemical compound which is made 
 from the cyanogen obtained from certain organic sub- 
 stances such as leather, horn, feathers, etc. There 
 
 [ 151 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 is a great variety of colors made in this manner, all 
 of which are ferro-cyanides of iron. They are called 
 steel blue, Chinese blue, Milori blue, bronze blue, Prus- 
 sian blue, Paris blue, Antwerp blue, etc. All of these 
 colors are intensely rich, strong and inimitable, yet 
 the pigment cannot be safely recommended for in- 
 discriminate mixtures. When Prussian blue or any 
 of its analogues are mixed with white lead of flake 
 white, the rich sky blue or greenish tint which will 
 result bleaches over night into a sickly green, but on 
 exposure to the light for an hour, it comes back to its 
 original color. This is a chemical effect known to 
 chemists as “reduction.” For certain purposes, Prus- 
 sian blue is safe and permanent. Several of the ultra- 
 marines mixed with black will give a shade or tint 
 which will approximate Prussian blue, but rather than 
 take any chances the painter is advised to avoid the 
 use of Prussian blue, or any color which may be partly 
 composed of this material, excepting for sky effects 
 when mixed with zinc. The so-called chrome greens 
 are Prussian blue mixed with yellow, and although they 
 are strong and brilliant, they lose their brilliancy 
 after some years. 
 
 Prussian blue is a good drier, and when used alone 
 is perfectly permanent, provided it is unglazed or 
 painted over a solid ground. When varnished with 
 an oil varnish, or when mixed with megilp or copal, 
 it turns green, but used by itself the author can pos- 
 itively state that in three years it shows no change. 
 
 [ 152 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 It has very great opacity, and is similar to indigo in 
 appearance. It is far superior to indigo and is a good 
 drier. 
 
 The Prussian blues can be safely mixed with 'zinc 
 and the sienna colors. 
 
 PRUSSIAN BROWN 
 
 When Prussian blue is heated, and the cyanogen 
 driven off, it is converted into a form of oxide of iron, 
 which has a rich, deep, chocolate color that is abso- 
 lutely permanent and perfectly reliable, and is such a 
 stable compound that when mixed with madder lake 
 it does not decompose the madder. It is not only a 
 good drier, but a flexible drier, and after a lapse of 
 many years Prussian brown remains soft and flex- 
 ible without showing any tendency whatever to crack. 
 It is frequently used mixed with burnt umber, in 
 order to prevent the burnt umber from drying too hard. 
 It is also made by subjecting Prussian blue to ammonia, 
 but this pigment is not as stable as the color made by 
 the hot or burning process. 
 
 PRUSSIAN GREEN 
 
 Prussian green is a mixture of yellow lake and 
 Prussian blue, undesirable and unreliable. A better 
 and more permanent Prussian green can be made by 
 mixing raw sienna with Prussian blue. 
 
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Permanent Painting 
 
 PURE SCARLET (See Scarlet) 
 
 PURPLE LAKE 
 
 Purple lake is a deep, crimson lake, generally made 
 from the extract of hypernic, which is a variety of 
 wood lake, and is not much more permanent than one 
 of the aniline lakes. It possesses no quality which 
 should recommend it in preference to purple madder, 
 which is very much more permanent. 
 
 PURPLE MADDER 
 
 This is a deep variety of madder lake, just as per- 
 manent as any one of the madders, but it must not 
 be mixed with a metallic drier, or with any one of the 
 lead pigments or ochres. It is a slow drier, but its 
 drying can be hastened by exposure to sunlight. 
 
 RAW SIENNA 
 
 This is one of the safest pigments to use, and works 
 well with every color, except the lake colors. In com- 
 position it is similar to ochre, with the exception that 
 it is four times as strong, or in other words, contains 
 four times as much iron, but the iron which it con- 
 tains is the hydrated form., hence the color is translu- 
 cent. It is composed of a native earth originally found 
 in and near Sienna, Italy, and was used by the ancient 
 
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Permanent Painting 
 
 painters. There are a large variety of raw siennas, 
 some of which approach closely a yellow lake. All 
 of them are more or less adapted for the purpose of 
 glazing. Sienna when used in dilute form is almost 
 transparent, and under any circumstances excepting 
 those mentioned, is absolutely permanent with the 
 possible exception that it darkens very slightly after 
 many years. A mixture of raw sienna and white lead 
 or zinc white becomes more mellow in time. It is a 
 good drier. 
 
 RAW UMBER 
 
 This pigment is somewhat similar to the raw sienna, 
 with the exception that it contains manganese, and 
 is found not only in Italy but in certain parts of Ger- 
 many, Cypress and Turkey, and among paint manu- 
 facturers the name of Turkey raw umber is applied 
 to practically all the umbers which are found in south- 
 ern Europe. 
 
 It is a translucent color having a peculiar olive 
 brown shade, and cannot be said to be uniform for 
 there are raw umbers which vary in shade from, a light 
 yellowish olive to a very deep brownish green. It is 
 a most excellent drier, but has a decomposing effect 
 upon lake colors. It may be very safely used as a 
 glaze, and like the siennas it has a tendency to darken 
 very slightly. 
 
 It is a very strong drier and is often used like burnt 
 umber with black to hasten the drying of the black. 
 
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Permanent Painting 
 
 It is permanent when used alone and permanent when 
 mixed with blacks, umbers, siennas, ochres and zinc 
 white. 
 
 REMBRANDT’S MADDER AND 
 RUBEN’S MADDER 
 
 It is very likely that Rembrandt, Ruben and Franz 
 Hals used madder lake, but Franz Hals evidently was 
 better acquainted with its technical use than any other 
 painter of his time. The brilliant, rubicund flesh tints 
 are almost perfectly preserved to-day, and a minute 
 careful examination reveals the fact that he used 
 madder lake as a glaze only after the under-coats were 
 thoroughly dry. 
 
 Why these particular shades of madder should be 
 called Ruben’s madder and Rembrandt’s madder is 
 merely a question of sentiment, as none of the lakes 
 known under that name differ materially from any 
 other madder lakes. In any case, they are reliable 
 when kept away from the ochre or lead colors, and are 
 perfectly reliable when glazed over the dry colors 
 which otherwise decompose them. 
 
 ROMAN OCHRE 
 
 Roman ochre is a native ochre, identical in compo- 
 sition with French ochre or Oxford ochre, and has 
 some of the characteristics of a mixture of ochre and 
 raw sienna. It is stronger in tinting power than the 
 
 [ 156 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 French ochre, which would indicate that it is a species 
 of sienna, perfectly permanent and reliable, excepting 
 with lakes. 
 
 ROMAN OCHRE, COOL 
 
 The description of Roman ochre answers this, only 
 it is a different shade. 
 
 ROMAN SEPIA (See Sepia) 
 
 ROSE DOREE 
 
 This is a yellowish shade of madder, and the general 
 description of all the madder lakes applies to this pig- 
 ment. 
 
 ROSE LAKE 
 
 Rose lake is an aniline color, precipitated on alum- 
 ina, exceedingly brilliant when first applied, but per- 
 fectly unreliable and not to be recommended for any 
 painting purposes whatever. 
 
 ROSE MADDER, RUBEN’S MADDER 
 (See Madder Lake) 
 
 SAP GREEN 
 
 Originally this was a transparent green lake which 
 was extracted from myrtle leaves, and known under 
 
 [157] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 the chemical name of chlorophyll. Whether used as 
 an oil color or a water color, it is thoroughly unre- 
 liable, because if it is a green made from the green 
 coloring matter of certain plants, it will turn to a 
 brilliant yellow in the presence of white lead during 
 the process of drying, and will turn dark green again 
 after it is exposed to the air. It is unreliable and not 
 to be recommended. Tbe sap greens sold in tube 
 colors, however, are mixtures of yellow lake, Prussian 
 blue or ultramarine blue, and in any case are not per- 
 manent to light and therefore should be excluded. It 
 dries very badly. 
 
 SCARLET RED 
 
 When this color is made of a very deep orange 
 chrome yellow, it can easily be detected by its exces- 
 sive weight. A tube of it lying on the palm of the 
 hand feels as if it were lead. In reality it is a lead 
 color toned with orange mineral. It may be made also 
 entirely of orange mineral, which is a form of red 
 lead and minium. Its principal defect is that it is 
 easily attacked by sulpbureted hydrogen. Inasmuch 
 as scarlet red and orange mineral are both identical 
 in shade with orange vermilion, it is much safer to use 
 orange vermilion, although orange mineral or scarlet 
 red, when properly varnished and not mixed with any 
 color, is permanent. 
 
 [ 158 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 SCARLET LAKE 
 
 This is madder lake mixed with orange mineral, and 
 lately the author has seen samples of scarlet lake which 
 were composed of orange mineral stained with paran- 
 itraniline red. Madder scarlet has a slight tendency 
 to bleach, and a para scarlet has a slight tendency to 
 darken. The safest course would therefore be to use 
 any shade of quick silver vermilion, and when dry 
 glaze it with madder. 
 
 SCARLET MADDER (See Madder Lake) 
 SCARLET VERMILION (See Orange Vermilion) 
 SEPIA 
 
 Sepia is either the juice of the cuttle-fish, which 
 this fish uses as a form of natural protection, or is 
 the extract of walnut. The cuttle-fish, when passing 
 through a dangerous zone, obscures the water by eject- 
 ing an organic coloring matter, and then hides in this 
 darkened zone. As an oil color, neither of these ex- 
 tracts are of much use, although walnut stain gives a 
 very transparent glaze, but takes so long to dry that 
 it cannot be recommended. Painters, as a rule, mix 
 their own sepia for oil color, one form being a mixture 
 of madder lake and burnt umber, which is very 
 perm.anent, and another form being carbon black and 
 
 [ 159 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 Vandyke brown. However, lampblack, raw sienna and 
 burnt umber make a very permanent sepia which, for 
 glazing, is thoroughly reliable, and which dries very 
 well. 
 
 SILVER WHITE 
 
 This is a precipitated white lead. The painter can 
 very well omit this pigment from his palette for zinc 
 white or permanent white could be substituted. 
 
 SKY BLUE 
 
 This is a yellowish shade of blue, composed, as a 
 rule, of ultramarine blue very faintly tinted with zinc 
 yellow. It is a very permanent color and dries well. It 
 is easy for the painter to mix his own shades for skies. 
 
 SMALT 
 
 This is powdered blue glass, which has been col- 
 ored with oxide of cobalt. It has, of course, no hiding 
 power, and the principal excuse for its use is the lum- 
 inous effects which it produces. It is perfectly per- 
 manent, and finds its principal use for painting trans- 
 parencies on glass. When sold as an oil color, in tubes, 
 it is really ground and mixed in a vehicle of gum 
 arable and glycerine, and unless the painter is familiar 
 with it, it is likely to curl from any oily surface to 
 
 [ 160 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 which it may be applied, and thus defeats the object 
 of its use. 
 
 TERRE ROSE 
 
 This is a translucent clay colored with red oxide of 
 iron, and when the red oxide, from which it is made, 
 is thoroughly burnt and washed, it may be regarded 
 as permanent under all conditions. It dries very well 
 and works freely under the brush. 
 
 TERRE VERTE 
 
 This is a bluish green transparent color which is a 
 clay tinted with a green hydrated oxide of iron. It 
 has always been regarded as a permanent glazing col- 
 or, but it is permanent only after it is varnished, but 
 never before. The iron oxide in terre verte is of 
 such a chemical nature that it changes slightly, and this 
 process of decomposition is quite well understood by 
 chemists. It has a disastrous effect upon the lake 
 colors, and therefore it is much safer to use it alone. 
 
 TOUR’S ORANGE MINERAL, OR TOUR’S RED 
 
 This is a French oxide of lead made by calcining 
 white lead. It has the brilliant color of orange quick 
 silver vermilion, and is perfectly permanent to light. 
 It is quickly affected by sulphureted hydrogen, and 
 
 [ 161 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 bleaches or pales slightly when subjected to sulphur 
 acids. These defects, however, are not apparent after 
 it is varnished. It is much cheaper than quick silver 
 vermilion, but not as reliable. It is an excellent drier. 
 It is also used as a base for making the vermilion 
 substitutes, because it does not saponify or become 
 hard in the tube. There are a large variety of these 
 substitute vermilions, some of them stained with para 
 red and some stained with madder. The para red 
 vermilions darken in the sunlight, but the madder 
 vermilions are more permanent. As a ground color 
 Tour’s red or orange mineral is very reliable. 
 
 TRANSPARENT GOLD OCHRE 
 
 This is a species of ochre similar to Roman ochre, 
 and is really a form of raw sienna. The description 
 of raw sienna applies to this pigment. 
 
 TUSCAN RED 
 
 When madder lake is precipitated on Indian red 
 as a base and a pigment is formed which has a dull, 
 rose shade that may be regarded as absolutely perma- 
 nent. There is a painting in the National Gallery of 
 London, by Hubert Van Eyck, of a man with a rose 
 colored cloak, in which the colors evidently used were 
 oxide of iron and madder lake over a white ground. 
 The author finds that some of the Indian reds on the 
 
 [ 162 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 market are oxides of iron stained with madder, and, 
 as stated in a previous chapter, when oxide of iron 
 is thoroughly burnt so that it contains no water of 
 combination, it does not decompose madder lake. 
 Tuscan red dries very well and is very reliable. 
 
 ULTRAMARINE BLUE 
 
 Ultramarine blue whether it is artificial or genuine 
 is chemically the same, with the one difference that 
 the genuine ultramarine blue is the powdered mineral 
 known as lapis lazuli, and ordinarily is the blue known 
 under that name, but the mineral itself is found at times 
 in an impure state either admixed with slate or gang- 
 rock, or contaminated slightly with other minerals, and 
 the genuine ultramarine blue may run, therefore, from 
 a very deep blue to a very pale ashen blue, in fact, 
 the lapis lazuli which lies adjacent to the gang-rock is 
 ground up and sold under the name of ultramarine 
 ashes, which is nothing more nor less than a very 
 weak variety of genuine ultramarine blue. 
 
 From the standpoint of exposure to light or drying 
 quality, the artificial ultramarine is just as good as the 
 genuine, and the only advantage that the genuine has 
 over the artificial is that the genuine is not so quickly 
 affected by acids as the artificial is. 
 
 It may be of interest to know that in 1814 Tessaert 
 observed the accidental production in a soda oven at 
 St. Gobain (France) of a blue substance which 
 
 L 163] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 Vanquelin declared to be identical with lapis lazuli. 
 
 In the following year the same observation was 
 made by Huhlmann (at St. Gobain, in a sulphate 
 oven) and by Hermann in the soda works at Schoene- 
 beck (Prussia). 
 
 In 1824 La Societe’d’Encouragement pour Indus- 
 trie offered a prize of 6000 francs for the production 
 of artificial ultramarine which, in 1828, was awarded 
 to J. B. Guinet, a pharmacist of Toulouse, later of 
 Lyons, who asserted that he first produced ultramarine 
 in 1826. Vanquelin was one of the three “trustees” 
 holding the secret contrary to the rule of the Societe’. 
 
 In December, 1828, Gmelin of Goettingen explained 
 his process of making artificial ultramarine before the 
 Acadamie des Sciences of Paris. He used as the basis 
 a mixture of precipitated hydrate of alumina and silex, 
 which was, later on, superseded by China clay (kaolin). 
 
 In 1829 Koettig produced ultramarine at the Royal 
 Saxon Porcelain factory at Meissen. 
 
 In 1834 Leverkus, at Wermelskirchen, and later at 
 Leverkusen, on the Rhine, produced the pigment. 
 
 In 1837 Leykauf & Zeltner, at Nueremberg, intro- 
 duced the manufacture of ultramarine into Germany. 
 
 Prices of ultramarine in 1830: 
 
 Natural $50.25 per pound 
 
 Artificial 4.05 per pound 
 
 Ultramarine is composed of alumina, silica, soda 
 and sulphur, as follows : 
 
 Ultramarine (pure blue) containing a minimum of 
 
 [164] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 silica seems to be a more or less well defined chemical 
 body, i. e., a double silicate of sodium and aluminum 
 with sulphur as a poly-sulphide of sodium, or as a 
 
 thio-sulphate. 
 
 Poor 
 
 Rich 
 
 Ultramarines 
 
 in Silica 
 
 in Silica 
 
 Alumina 
 
 29 
 
 23.70 
 
 Silica 
 
 38.50 
 
 40.80 
 
 Soda 
 
 22.50 
 
 19.30 
 
 Sulphur 
 
 8.20 
 
 13.60 
 
 Undecomposed 
 
 1.80 
 
 2.60 
 
 
 100.00 
 
 100.00 
 
 R. Hoffman gives the following proportions : 
 
 Alumina Silica 
 
 Poor in silica 100 128 
 
 Rich in silica 100 170 
 
 In resistance to alum the dififerent products rank as 
 follows : 
 
 Lapis Lazuli first 
 
 Artif. Ultramarine (rich in silica) second 
 
 Artif. Ultramarine (poor in silica) third 
 
 In 1859 Leykauf discovered the purple and red 
 varieties of ultramarine which were produced by the 
 action of hydrochloric and nitric acids, and by heating 
 ultramarine with calcium chloride, magnesium chloride 
 and various other chemicals. In this way there were 
 produced a variety of shades, and by the addition of 
 such substances as silver, selenium and tellurium, even 
 yellow, brown, purple and green shades were produced. 
 
 All of these colored ultramarines are exceedingly 
 
 [ 165 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 permanent to light, but have little or no hiding power, 
 and when used alone are perfectly permanent. 
 
 The ultramarine blue which is made by means of a 
 potash salt instead of a soda salt has every analogy 
 of color and shade to genuine cobalt blue, excepting 
 that the genuine cobalt blue is not affected by acids 
 as rapidly as the artificial. 
 
 ULTRAMARINE, GENUINE (See Ultramarine Blue) 
 ULTRAMARINE ASH 
 
 This may be called a weak variety of ultramarine 
 blue either artificial or natural. It is obtained when 
 artificial ultramarine blue is mixed with clay, or when 
 natural lapis lazuli is mixed with the gang rock oi 
 native earth that surrounds it. Both the genuine and 
 the artificial ultramarines are perfectly permanent when 
 used alone, and permanent when mixed with zinc 
 white and cadmium yellow, but not permanent when 
 mixed with flake white or any color that may contain 
 lead. 
 
 VANDYKE BROWN 
 
 Vandyke brown is a native earth, and is identical 
 with cassel brown. It is popularly supposed that Van- 
 dyke first used this pigment as a glazing color in place 
 of bitumen, and as it is composed of clay, iron oxide, 
 decomposed wood and some bituminous products, it 
 
 [ 166 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 is fairly translucent and adapts itself for glazing pur- 
 poses. Because of the bitumen which it contains, it 
 dries very badly and very slowly, and has a tendency 
 to crack or wrinkle if the under-coat is either too hard 
 or too soft. Concerning its permanence, there can 
 be no doubt that it darkens considerably on exposure 
 like all the bituminous compounds, and many painters 
 use a permanent glaze composed of a mixture of ochre 
 and black tinted with umber. Where the effect of age 
 is to be simulated, there is no objection to its use. 
 
 VANDYKE MADDER 
 
 This is a madder lake mixed with either Vandyke 
 brown, umber or black. If the artist prepares the pig- 
 ment himself, it is safer for him to use lamp black and 
 madder lake, for the iron content of Vandyke brown 
 or umber have a decomposing effect upon the madder. 
 
 VENETIAN RED 
 
 This is a pure bright form of oxide of iron which 
 in the early days was a native hematite, selected by 
 the artist for brilliancy of color. It was also made by 
 the early Italian painters by calcining ochres and 
 siennas, and then selecting the product as to shade and 
 brilliancy. Venetian red is permanent, dries well, and 
 is reliable, but has a tendency to darken when exposed 
 to bright light. The Venetian red of commerce is 
 
 [ 167 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 a mixture of gypsum and oxide of iron which is more 
 permanent to light than the pure oxide of iron, and 
 neither fades nor darkens, but should not be mixed 
 with any lake. It dries well, and has complete hiding 
 power. It is frequently used as a mixture with white 
 as a ground color for portrait painting, but should al- 
 ways be permitted to dry most thoroughly before being 
 painted over, for the reason that it dries so hard that 
 it may crack under subsequent painting. 
 
 VERDIGRIS 
 
 This color is produced by subjecting copper to the 
 action of vinegar, and is therefore a form of acetate 
 of copper. When used alone, and properly protected, 
 it is fairly permanent to light, but has a violet chem- 
 ical action on every one of the organic pigments and 
 lakes, and affects many of the inorganic pigments. It 
 is popularly supposed that the ancients used it as a 
 glazing color, but this is very doubtful, in view of the 
 fact that the ancients worked more with malachite 
 green than they did with verdigris. It is thoroughly 
 unreliable, and should not be used, even though it 
 may not fade. It is affected by sulphur gases and dries 
 slowly. 
 
 VERMILION, PALE, MEDIUM AND DARK 
 (See French Vermilion) 
 
 [ 168 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 VERONA BROWN 
 
 Verona brown is a fancy name given to a mixture of 
 burnt sienna and burnt umber, or raw sienna and burnt 
 umber. It is a permanent color, unaffected by, but 
 has a deleterious action on, some of the lakes. As 
 a glazing color, it is reliable, and is to be recommended. 
 
 VERONESE GREEN 
 
 It is supposed that Paul Veronese was the first 
 painter to use this pigment, and if he did, it is very 
 likely that the green he used was a mixture of raw 
 sienna and permanent blue (lapis lazuli). There is a 
 tradition that the original Veronese green was terre 
 verte or ground green earth, but green earth is so 
 exceedingly weak and such an indistinct green that 
 it is more than likely that the former combination was 
 the original green. When raw sienna and permanent 
 blue are mixed they form a permanent and reliable 
 pigment. 
 
 VIOLET CARMINE 
 
 It would appear that this pigment is made from the 
 hypernic wood or Brazil wood, and as such is thor- 
 oughly unreliable from the standpoint of permanence. 
 Similar shades can be made by mixing madder with 
 other pigments which would be permanent, and there- 
 
 1 169 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 fore violet carmine, when made from a wood lake, 
 has no place on the painter’s palette. 
 
 VIRIDIAN 
 
 This is a form of chrome oxide which is quite trans- 
 parent, and while not very brilliant as compared, for 
 instance, with emerald green, is a thoroughly safe and 
 reliable color. It evidently has been known for many 
 years, and when exposed to the light does not show 
 any perceptible change, nor is it affected by any gases 
 in the atmosphere. It has all the characteristics of 
 oxide of chromium, and has the same chemical com- 
 position with the addition of water as a hydrate or 
 water of combination. In its effect it is similar to a 
 lake, and can be used for glazing. It forms a valuable 
 pigment for the painter, and is thoroughly reliable. 
 It dries well. 
 
 WARM SEPIA 
 
 This is generally made by mixing a sienna or ochre 
 with madder lake. As a mixture for oil painting, this 
 mixture is very undesirable, for the iron in the ochre 
 or sienna decomposes the madder, and as a water color 
 the same result is obtained, with the exception that it 
 takes much longer to manifest itself. This color is 
 not to be recommended. 
 
 [ 170] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 YELLOW CARMINE 
 
 This pigment is a misnomer, there being no such 
 thing as yellow carmine. The pigment sold is a yel- 
 low lake similar to Italian pink or Dutch pink, fades 
 very rapidly, is quickly decomposed, and has no merit 
 whatever. 
 
 YELLOW LAKE 
 
 All yellow lakes which the author has examined 
 are in the same class with Dutch pink, Italian yellow, 
 yellow carmine, etc., and are thoroughly undesirable. 
 The author has, however, made a yellow lake from 
 paranitraniline which is intensely powerful, has ten 
 times the tinctorial power of quercitron lake or Dutch 
 pink, and has shown itself absolutely permanent when 
 used alone for over one year, but when mixed with 
 the metallic pigments, it does not bleach but darkens. 
 The author has not made this with any commercial 
 purpose in view, but simply as a matter of experi- 
 ment, for the purpose of producing a permanent yel- 
 low glazing color. There is no reason why the reputa- 
 ble tube manufacturers should not produce a perfectly 
 permanent yellow lake. 
 
 YELLOW OCHRE 
 
 This is a native clay colored with about 20 per cent, 
 of iron rust previously described under the head of 
 
 [ 171 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 Roman ochre, etc., very permanent, and can be mixed 
 with other mineral pigments. It has the same destruc- 
 tive effect upon the lake colors that the sienna earths 
 and other ochres have. When exposed to the bright 
 light for a year, it has a tendency to darken very 
 slightly. It is a good drier. 
 
 ZINC WHITE 
 
 This is a pure form of zinc oxide, permanent under 
 any and all conditions, but having the defect of drying 
 very hard. To overcome this it should always be mixed 
 with pure raw unbleached linseed oil, and although it 
 is a very slow drier at first, its drying is progressive, 
 for it evidently combines with the linseed oil. It has 
 been suggested by some writers that zinc oxide should 
 be mixed with beeswax or castor oil, or other semi 
 and non-drying compounds, but such advice should by 
 no means be followed. When zinc white is mixed with 
 a semi or non-drying medium and exposed to bright 
 sunlight in the summer time, it is very likely to sag 
 and run, even years after it has been applied. There 
 is a great deal of discussion concerning the trans- 
 parency or lack of opacity of zinc white, but this is 
 largely a fiction. Any painter, who uses a color in 
 microscopic quantities, cannot expect it to hide the 
 pigment over which it is placed. Zinc white liberally 
 applied, one one-hundredth of an inch thick, for in- 
 stance, will totally obscure black, while many painters 
 
 [ 172 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 apply their colors to the depth of one-eighth of an inch. 
 
 Zinc oxide is popularly supposed to be unaffected by 
 sulphur gases. This is not strictly true. It is affected 
 by sulphur gases just as quickly as white lead, the 
 difference being that the result in the case of zinc 
 oxide is not visible, because the sulphur compounds 
 of zinc, such as the sulphide with sulphureted hydro- 
 gen, sulphite of zinc with sulphurous acid, and sul- 
 phate of zinc with sulphuric acid, are all white com- 
 pounds, just as white as the zinc oxide itself, while 
 lead forms a black compound with sulphureted hydro- 
 gen. Hence, we assume that these gases do not affect 
 zinc, because we cannot see the result, but chemically 
 we know that they do. Zinc oxide can be mixed with 
 any color and may be freely used. 
 
 ZINNOBAR GREEN, LIGHT, MEDIUM AND DARK 
 
 Because Zinnobar red or Zinnober was a permanent 
 red, some manufacturers have made a Zinnobar green, 
 and have sold it more or less on the implication of ex- 
 cellence on account of the name. 
 
 Zinnobar green of commerce, which is now made 
 by only a few tube manufacturers, is a mixture of 
 Prussian blue and chrome yellow, sometimes reduced 
 with whiting and sometimes with zinc. In any case, 
 this color should not be used, and while it is not as 
 fugitive as emerald green, and not as quickly affected 
 as a green lake, there are too many conditions under 
 
 [ 173 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 which this color may fail, and therefore it is not to be 
 recommended. It is quite natural to suppose that this 
 color has all the defects of Prussian blue and chrome 
 yellow both as to decomposition and actinic quality, 
 yet a sample of Zinnobar green, deep, used alone and 
 allowed to dry before being varnished over, will not 
 show any decomposition for two years, but as there 
 are other more permanent greens for the painter to 
 use, it is far wiser for him not to use Zinnobar green 
 on his palette. 
 
 [ 174 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 CHAPTER XV 
 
 THE PERMANENT COLORS 
 
 T he following is a list of pigments which can 
 be mixed with each other or used separately, 
 and which are not affected by light, nor do 
 they interact upon each other ; 
 
 Lamp black 
 Ivory black 
 Graphite 
 
 Plumbago, or any form of carbon or carbonaceous 
 black 
 
 Zinc white, or any form of oxide of zinc 
 Permanent white, or any form of artificial barium 
 sulphate 
 
 Venetian red 
 Indian red 
 Burnt umber 
 Raw umber 
 Raw sienna 
 Burnt sienna 
 
 and the various mars reds, orange, brown and purple. 
 Oxide of chromium, transparent 
 Oxide of chromium, viridian 
 Terre verte 
 
 [ 175 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 The vermilions made from sulphide of mercury. 
 
 Blue, ultramarine blues, native or artificial 
 
 Brown, burnt umber and all oxide of iron browns. 
 
 Cadmium yellow to orange. 
 
 From a chemical standpoint these are practically 
 the only colors which may be mixed with each other 
 that will not react, and I have purposely omitted a 
 number of so-called permanent colors in this schedule, 
 such as, for instance, the madder colors, which I find 
 will decompose when mixed with ochres, as well as if a 
 faint trace of acid is left in the oil. I have omitted 
 the madder lakes, for although they are permanent, 
 they cannot be indiscriminately mixed with other pig- 
 ments. 
 
 [ 176 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 CHAPTER XVI 
 
 PIGMENTS DANGEROUS TO HEALTH 
 
 N early all of the pigments are poisonous, and 
 as some artistic painters from time immemorial 
 have been accustomed to use the fingers in 
 shading and in grading tints, particularly in portrait 
 work, it is essential to know which of the colors are 
 poisonous and which are not, as pigments may easily 
 be absorbed through the skin as well as by taking them 
 internally. In medical practice, for instance, a solu- 
 tion of iodine is painted on the skin and is ab- 
 sorbed in that way into the system. So likewise it 
 is possible to absorb colors through the skin, particu- 
 larly under the finger nails. The unbroken skin is 
 supposed to be impervious, yet lead poisoning may 
 result through the actual manipulation of lead pig- 
 ments, and it behooves the painter to be very careful 
 in the use of his or her fingers in the manipulation of 
 certain pigments. 
 
 The worst results are produced by the use of lead 
 pigments, for it appears that the arsenic and copper 
 pigments which are more poisonous if taken inter- 
 nally are not so easily absorbed through the skin. 
 First in the list of dangerous pigments is flake white. 
 
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Permanent Painting 
 
 which is easily absorbed and produces lead poisoning. 
 Many painters have the habit of blending colors on 
 the palms of their hands either with a brush or with 
 a finger, and due care should be taken to remove the 
 colors as soon as the desired effect is produced on 
 the canvas. The pigments which are absorbed into 
 the skin are flake white, chrome yellow, chrome green, 
 Naples yellow, red lead and orange mineral. These 
 are the lead colors principally used. The arsenic col- 
 ors are Paris green, emerald green and orpiment. 
 There are a number of other poisonous colors such 
 as mercury vermilion, verdigris, etc., which are, how- 
 ever, not frequently used by the painter. Prussian blue 
 which is a cyanide blue is supposed to be a poisonous 
 color, but in reality it is not. Zinc white, permanent 
 white, baryta white and ultramarine are non- 
 poisonous. All the blacks, siennas, umbers, ochres, car- 
 mine, red oxides and many of the lakes are non- 
 poisonous, but the best rule to follow is to clean the 
 hands with soap and water after having stained them 
 with colors. 
 
 [ 178 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 CHAPTER XVII 
 
 PIGMENTS WHICH ARE AFFECTED BY 
 SULPHUR GASES AND COAL SMOKE 
 ALSO THE PIGMENTS WHICH ARE 
 AFFECTED BY LIGHT 
 
 I T has been demonstrated by numerous writers, and 
 particularly by Prof. Chas. Baskerville * that in all 
 large communities there exists sulphuric acid in the 
 
 * Baskerville made a number of determinations of the sulphur dioxide 
 content of the air of New York City. Stations were established 
 throughout greater New York, including the high office buildings, parks, 
 subways, and railroad tunnels. Very variable results, as might be 
 expected, were obtained. 
 
 The determinations may, in part, be thus summarized: 
 
 Locality SO2 in parts per million 
 
 Elevated portion of the city near a high stack 3.14 
 
 Various parks 0.84 (maximum, others negative) 
 
 Railroad tunnels 8. 64 — 31.50 
 
 Subway None 
 
 Downtown region 1.05 — 5.60 
 
 Localities near a railroad 1.12 — 8.40 
 
 A total quantity of 1300 tons of sulphur dioxide, calculated as 80 
 per cent, sulphuric acid, is discharged every twenty-four hours into 
 the air of New York City from the combustion of coal alone. 
 
 From an economic standpoint, this is an enormous, partly avoidable, 
 waste, while from a sanitary standpoint, any disinfecting action it 
 exerts on the organic wastes arising from the streets is greatly counter- 
 balanced by its general injurious effects.! 
 
 t Paper read before the Society of Chemical Industry, Feb., 1909. 
 These may be thus summarized: 
 
 [ 179 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 1. Its presence in atmospheric air is a menace to hygienic welfare, 
 since it has serious effects on susceptible persons and particularly 
 exerts deleterious effects upon the respiratory organs. SO 2 in the air 
 of manufactories tends to produce bronchitis and anaemia. 
 
 2. It exerts an injurious action on plant life. In this action, it 
 is less violent than hydrogen cliloride, sulphuric acid, and fluorine; 
 but owing to its less solubility and consequent slower condensation it 
 has a wider distribution. In Manchester, England, in 1891, it was 
 learned that the greatest injury to plant life is due to the emana- 
 tions from dwelling houses. 
 
 3. The condensation of sulphurous acid with moisture in fogs and 
 hoar frosts seriously affects goods printed with colors sensitive to 
 sulphurous acid; for example, logwood, Brazil wood shades, and 
 aniline black. 
 
 4. Sulphur dioxide proceeding from the combustion of coal and 
 coal-gas, the quantity of which in towns is considerable, necessarily 
 destroys the ozone of the air. This may account for the definite 
 variations of the proportion of ozone observed at various localities. 
 
 5. In anti -cyclonic periods the amount of sulphur dioxide rises con- 
 siderably and at such times this increase is accompanied by at least 
 as large an increase in the amount of organic impurities. (Baskerville.) 
 
 Where there is much soft coal consumed in a certain district, the 
 brick and stone become coated with particles of carbon. This deposit 
 causes marble and other light-colored materials to take a funeral as- 
 pect and not only that, it causes some stone to decay. St. Paul's 
 Cathedral in London is a notable example of this as shown by Church. 
 In other cases the sulphur gases attack the mortar or cement. This 
 is due to the fact that sulphur dioxide accumulates on the soot and other 
 solids, where it is oxidized to sulphurie acid. 
 
 In the manufacture of sulphuric acid used for purifying crude oil 
 and for other purposes, the escape of sulphurous acid fumes from the 
 Exits often constitutes a decided nuisance. Not only is vegetation 
 injured and often killed in nearby sections, but the health of the 
 residents in the neighborhood is injuriously affected by breathing the 
 poisonous vapors, throat troubles of a chronic nature often resulting. 
 However, injuries are often attributed to sulphuric acid factories, 
 when in fact they are innocent. Compliance with the requirements 
 of the English Alkali Act of Lord Derby, effectually prevents any 
 serious injury. Temporary discomfort and even serious injury may 
 result, however, through an accident in the works. Manufacturers 
 wish tu avoid and also prevent the escape of sulphur dioxide, for all 
 that is lost diminishes profits. Corrective devices are applied by the 
 works’ owners. 
 
 [ 180 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 air, and many of the colors which we have regarded 
 as permanent to light, are not permanent to the ef- 
 fects of acid gases. In a general way this rule ap- 
 plies also to the colors affected by sulphureted hydro- 
 gen. If we take, for instance, red lead, which is the 
 red oxide of lead, and expose it to the air of a city, it 
 apparently bleaches white. The same red lead when 
 varnished and covered with glass may be exposed for 
 ages, and will not be affected. We note the former 
 change particularly on steel structures like bridges 
 which have been painted with red lead and on which 
 the color sometimes bleaches from a pure scarlet to 
 a pale pink. On rubbing such a surface with linseed 
 oil and turpentine the original color comes back in all 
 its brilliancy. Upon investigation, we find that the 
 sulphuric acid has affected the color and formed a 
 minute crystalline surface of sulphate of lead, which 
 is white. Chrome yellow will be affected in the same 
 way. Improperly washed prussian blue will likewise 
 bleach, and flake white is affected m identically the 
 same manner, with the exception, that the change 
 cannot be noted by the eye, but if a flake white surface 
 which has been exposed to the elements is rubbed with 
 a black cloth, a white chalky deposit will stain the 
 cloth. This is known as chalking, and mural decora- 
 tions which cannot very well be varnished and pro- 
 tected, should therefore be executed with pigments 
 that are not affected by the acid gases of sulphur. Near- 
 ly all the pigments are affected, with the exception of 
 
 1 181 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 the blacks. The ochres, siennas and the earth colors 
 which are exceedingly permanent show this defect 
 to a less degree, although, as compared with the chem- 
 ical colors like prussian blue, the lakes, cadmium yel- 
 low and the lead colors, but paintings which are kept 
 in a pure atmosphere under glass are necessarily pre- 
 served, and water colors are more susceptible than 
 any other form of painting. 
 
 These acid gases are produced during the burning of 
 coal, and as the combustion of coal is more or less 
 incomplete, soot may deposit upon the surface of a 
 painting, particularly decorations in a locality where 
 soft coal is used. This is particularly true of locali- 
 ties like Sheffield, England ; Pittsburgh, U. S. A., and 
 Chicago, U. S. A. There are, however, many paint- 
 ings such as, for instance, the Horse Fair by Rosa 
 Bonheur, which cannot be covered by means of glass, 
 and paintings of such magnitude should be kept care- 
 fully varnished to prevent any disintegration from the 
 acid gases. The canvas upon which most of these large 
 paintings are executed is either composed of flax 
 which is equal to linen, or cotton fibre, or a mixture 
 of both, and these fabrics are particularly susceptible 
 to the action of acid gases. The chemical method of 
 determining the difference between cotton and wool 
 consists in dissolving out the wool with caustic pot- 
 ash, which leaves the cotton intact, and vice versa, we 
 may take an acid re-agent which will not attack the 
 wool but will dissolve the cotton. In time, therefore, 
 
 [ 182 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 the canvas would be weakened, and its strength re- 
 duced through the action of these moist acid gases, 
 which demonstrates the advisability of either painting 
 the back of a canvas, or mounting it upon a wood 
 or metal support. In the case of a very large paint- 
 ing a sheet of metal could not be fabricated which 
 would be sufficiently light and rigid for this purpose, 
 but a seasoned wood support could be constructed. 
 However under all circumstances the back of the can- 
 vas should be painted to prevent this disintegration. 
 
 In case a canvas is very thin, and there is danger 
 of the protecting coat on the back soaking through, it 
 is advisable to put on a thin glue size before applying 
 the protective coat. 
 
 In this list must be included all colors which contain 
 metallic bases, such as lead, copper and antimony. 
 The colors which are affected are as follows : 
 
 Flake White 
 Silver White 
 Cremnitz White 
 Lemon Yellow made oi 
 chrome yellow 
 Chrome Yellow 
 
 Naples Yellow 
 Chrome Green 
 Paris Green 
 Emerald Green 
 Verdigris 
 Zinnober Green 
 
 [ 183 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII 
 WATER IN TUBE COLORS 
 
 U NDER normal conditions, if you take heavy 
 pigments like white lead, oxide of iron, etc., 
 and grind them in linseed or poppy oil, the 
 oil will eventually float to the top and the pigment 
 will settle hard to the bottom, yet nearly all the tube 
 colors remain soft and fresh, and apparently the law 
 of gravity is overcome in some way. 
 
 A large number of the colors are kept in suspension 
 because the manufacturer adds water to the oil, and 
 makes an emulsion which keeps the pigment suspend- 
 ed. This is particularly true of the whites, and it must 
 be admitted that a small percentage of water added 
 to the pigment or the oil during the process of man- 
 facture does not do any ultimate harm, yet, some tube 
 manufacturers use such an excessive quantity of water 
 that where paint is very smoothly applied the water 
 evaporates quite rapidly and leaves the subsequent 
 film in a spongy, porous condition. If a picture were 
 to be put away in a perfectly clean atmosphere free 
 from dust no harm would result, or if the precaution 
 were taken to place a sheet of glass over the picture 
 and slightly away from it, the picture would dry in 
 
 [ 184 ] 
 
High power photo-micrograph of Flake While which 
 contains too much water in its composition. The uneven 
 surface presents an excellent lodging place for dust and 
 dirt which are hard to remove. 
 
Periiianent Painting 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII 
 WATER IN TUBE COLORS 
 
 NDER normal conditions,^! you take heavy 
 pigments like white lead, oxide of iron, etc., 
 and grind them in linseed or poppy oil, the 
 oil will eventually float to the top and the pigment 
 will settle hard to the bottom, :yet nearly all the tube 
 colors remain soft and fresh, and apparently the law 
 of gravity is overcome in some way. 
 
 A large number of the colors are kept in suspension 
 because the manufacturer adds water to the oil, and 
 makes an emulsion which keeps the pigment suspend- 
 ed. This is particularly true of the whites, and it must 
 be admitted that a small percentage of water added 
 to the pigment or the oil during the process of man- 
 facture does not do any ultimate harm, yet, some tube 
 manufacturers use such an excessive quantity of water 
 that where paint is very smoothly applied the water 
 e vap nrjtrq gnitp rapidly and leaves the 
 porous condition. 
 
 if, the precai 
 
 were t<fken' to place a 
 
 and slightly away from it. tlic picture would dry in 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 a perfectly clean condition, and would remain so until 
 it were varnished; but this is not the case, so that if 
 we examine microscopically a paint film which con- 
 tains excessive water, we find that the spongy, porous 
 condition of the surface is a lodging place for dust 
 and dirt which cannot be readily removed for obvious 
 physical reasons, and as it seems advisable to add 
 water to nearly all of the tube colors which will settle 
 out rapidly and heavily, it is well to acquaint the 
 painter with this fact in order that the picture be not 
 subjected to a dry atmosphere which is dusty. 
 
 [ 185 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 CHAPTER XIX 
 
 THE PIGMENTS WHICH ARE ABSOLUTELY 
 PERMANENT WHEN USED ALONE BUT 
 ARE NOT PERMANENT WHEN 
 MIXED WITH OTHER COLORS 
 
 Madder Lake 
 Antwerp Blue 
 Prussian Blue 
 Paris Blue 
 
 Vermilion made of sul- 
 phide of mercury 
 Para Red 
 Lithol Red 
 
 Harrison Red 
 Ultramarine Blue 
 Cobalt Blue 
 
 Hooker’s Green (when 
 made from Prussian 
 blue and raw sienna) 
 Ochre 
 
 Flake White 
 
 The foregoing list of colors must be used with some 
 judgment. Many of these colors are permanent when 
 mixed with some other colors, but decompose when 
 mixed with each other. Eor instance, yellow ochre 
 and madder lake when used alone are permanent, yet 
 the two when mixed will decompose. 
 
 [ 186 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 CHAPTER XX 
 
 COLORS WHICH DRY SLOWLY 
 AND IRREGULARLY 
 
 ( FROM 1 DAYS TO 2 WEEKSi 
 
 Bone Brown 
 Alizarin Yellow 
 Crimson Madder 
 Carmine Lake 
 Crimson Lake 
 Brown Madder 
 French Carmine 
 French Carmine No. 2 
 Orange Cadmium 
 Gamboge 
 Capucine Madder 
 Mauve 
 Magenta 
 Indian Yellow 
 Brown Pink 
 American Vermilion 
 Madder 
 Alumina 
 
 Cork 
 
 and as a rule all 
 
 Rose Pink 
 Transparent Black 
 Sepia 
 
 Scarlet Lake 
 Rose Doree 
 Alizarin Green 
 Yellow Lake 
 Payne’s Gray 
 Italian Pink 
 Indigo 
 Lamp Black 
 Carbon Black 
 Olive Lake 
 Alumina & Prussian 
 Blue 
 
 Sap Green 
 Violet Carmine 
 Vandyke Brown 
 Black 
 
 of the Lake colors 
 
 [ 187 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 CHAPTER XXI 
 
 THE FAILURE OF SIR JOSHUA 
 REYNOLD’S PAINTINGS 
 
 O NE of the greatest portrait painters who ever 
 lived and the man who made the most fail- 
 ures of his art, was Sir Joshua Reynolds, the 
 obvious reason being that he was always after the 
 search of the secret of the ancient masters, and as 
 far as we can deduce, he never made a single inves- 
 tigation and hardly ever painted two pictures alike 
 from the technical standpoint. During three years 
 of his career, he painted on an average one portrait 
 every three days. He was just as careless at times 
 in his imitative style as he was in the selection of his 
 pigments, for many of his clients refused to accept 
 the pictures after he had finished them, because 
 they did not resemble the sitter. It was his custom 
 to paint simply the face and the hands, and per- 
 mitted his students to fill in the dresses and the 
 background. In nearly every one of his pictures 
 that has faded and decomposed only the face and 
 hands are affected, the rest of the picture being in 
 perfect condition. 
 
 He kept a diary which was written in a jargon of 
 
 [ 188 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 Italian, Latin, English and French, and every time 
 he made a note, it appears as if he was sure that he 
 had made a new discovery, and had at last found 
 what he always thought was the Venetian secret. 
 
 The principal cause of his failure was the fact that 
 all lakes were probably the same to him, and he us- 
 ually mixed a lake with ochre, which is, of course, a 
 radical mistake. During his life time many of his 
 pictures had faded until the faces assumed the ghastly 
 tint which in medicine is known to be due to chronic 
 anaemia where the skin blanches and assumes a yel- 
 lowish gray, and the line of demarcation around the 
 lips is obliterated. This effect in his pictures is due 
 to the fact that the lake which he used was not always 
 madder lake, but weaker lakes produced from berries 
 and wood, although even madder lake is incompatible 
 with yellow ochre and with the siennas and umbers, 
 so that none of the effects which he produced were 
 permanent. 
 
 How strange is the comparison between the work 
 of Sir Joshua Reynolds and that of Franz Hals and 
 his contemporaries. Hals used practically the same col- 
 ors but always glazed with madder lake after the un- 
 dercoat was thoroughly dry. Painters, as a rule, 
 know that no earth color or metallic color should be 
 mixed with a lake, but yet a lake may be used over 
 every one of the earth colors, including even ochre, 
 provided the ochre has been allowed to become thor- 
 oughly dry. The one possible exception to this may be 
 
 [ 189 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 the use of madder lake mixed with English or Chinese 
 vermilion, because vermilion is a very stable chemical 
 compound and the madder lake is therefore not de- 
 composed, with the possible exception that in time 
 a mixture of madder lake and English vermilion will 
 darken slightly when exposed to direct sunlight. 
 
 If painters will limit the colors used on their pa- 
 lettes to the least possible number and use only those 
 which do not interact, as well as exercise a little 
 judgment in glazing over colors only after they are 
 thoroughly dry, absolutely permanent results will be 
 obtained, and the mistakes made by the older men will 
 not be without profit. 
 
 [ 190 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Abrasion in Cleaning Pictures 58 
 
 Abrasion of Surface, When Necessary 59 
 
 Absorption of Pigments through the Skin 177 
 
 Academy Board 55 
 
 Acid Gases, Action on Paint, of 181 
 
 Acid in Oils 102 
 
 Acetate of Copper 168 
 
 Acetone 57 
 
 Aging of Linseed Oil 78 
 
 Albumen as Paint Medium 9 
 
 Alcohol in Spirit Varnish 72 
 
 Alizarin Colors 85 
 
 Alizarin Green 87 
 
 Alizarin Yellow 87 
 
 Alligator Cracks, Cause of 89 
 
 Alligatoring 46 
 
 Almond Oil ii 
 
 Alumina Hydrate 88 
 
 Alumina White 88 
 
 Aluminum 49 
 
 Amber Black 0 
 
 Amber Varnish 73 
 
 Amyl Acetate as Solvent 57 
 
 Amyl Alcohol as Solvent 57 
 
 “Anatomy Lesson,” of Rembrandt 86 
 
 Ancient Painters; Media Used by 10 
 
 Ancient Pigments 22 
 
 Aniline Yellow 87 
 
 Antwerp Blue 88, 107 
 
 Antwerp Blue, Effect of Light and Air on 152 
 
 Arsenic Colors 178 
 
 Artificial Cobalt Blue iii 
 
 [ 191 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 Page 
 
 Artificial Cobalt Blue, as Cerulean Blue io6 
 
 Artificial Cobalt Blue, in “Davey’s Gray” ii8 
 
 Artificial Ultramarine Blue 163 
 
 Artificial Ultramarine Blue, Composition of 165 
 
 Artificial Ultramarine Blue, Effect of Acids on 121 
 
 Artificial Ultramarine Blue, Action with Other Pigments. .112 
 
 Artificial Ultramarine Blue with Prussian Blue 137 
 
 Asphaltum 89 
 
 Asphaltum, Effect of Light on 36 
 
 Asphaltum as Bone Pitch 94 
 
 Asphaltum Glaze 32 
 
 Asphaltum from Mummies 144 
 
 Asphaltum-glazed Paintings 62 
 
 Aurelian 90 
 
 Aurora Yellow (Cadmium Yellow) loi 
 
 Barium Sulphate 37 
 
 Baryta White 178 
 
 Baskerville, Prof.; Analysis of the Air in Cities 179 
 
 Benzene, (See Benzol) 
 
 Benzine 69 
 
 Benzine as a Solvent 57 
 
 Benzine for Cleaning Pictures 58 
 
 Benzol 69 
 
 Benzol as a Solvent 57 
 
 Benzol as a Paint Remover 58 
 
 Bistre 91 
 
 Bitumen 89 
 
 Bitumen, Effect of Light on 36 
 
 Bitumen, Harmful Effects of 46 
 
 Bitumen from Mummies 144 
 
 Bitumen in Vandyke Brown 167 
 
 Bitumen Glaze, a Cause of Cracking of Paintings 41 
 
 Blacks Used by the Ancients 24 
 
 Black Pigments, Indirect Cause of Cracking 44 
 
 Black Pigments, Nonpoisonous 178 
 
 Black Pigments, Their Permanency 182 
 
 Black Pigments, Use in Boiled Oil 79 
 
 Black, Ivory 134 
 
 Black Lead 91 
 
 Blanc Fixe 115 
 
 Bleached Linseed Oil 76 
 
 Bleached Oils 77 
 
 [ 192 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 Page 
 
 Bleaching of Colors i8i 
 
 Bleaching of Lake Pigments 189 
 
 Bleaching of Madder Lake 86 
 
 “Bloom” on Pictures 62 
 
 Blue Pigments of the Ancients 26 
 
 Blue Black 92 
 
 Blue, Cerulean 106 
 
 Blue, Leitch’s 136 
 
 Blue Verditer 93 
 
 Boiled Linseed Oil 78 
 
 Bone Brown 94 
 
 Bone Pitch 94 
 
 Brazil Wood 30 
 
 Brilliant Yellow 134 
 
 Bronze Blue 107, 152 
 
 Bronze Green 95 
 
 Brown, Caledonian 103 
 
 Brown, Cappah 103 
 
 Brown Pigments of the Ancients 26 
 
 Brown Lake 96 
 
 Brown Madder 95 
 
 Brown Ochre 96 
 
 Brown Pink 97 
 
 Brown, Prussian 153 
 
 Brown Roman Ochre 99 
 
 Brown Umber 103 
 
 Burnt Carmine 98 
 
 Burnt Sienna 99 
 
 Burnt Umber 100 
 
 Burnt Umber in Glaze to Imitate Asphaltum 90 
 
 Burnt Umber, Action wdth Madder Lake 86 
 
 Burnt Umber, Possible Effect of its Rapid Drying 46 
 
 Cadmium Yellow loi 
 
 Cadmium Yellow, its Use in Bronze Green 95 
 
 Cadmium Yellow, its Use in Golden Ochre 127 
 
 Cadmium Yellow, Effect on Madder Lake 87 
 
 Cadmium Yellow as Orient Madder 148 
 
 Calcium Carbonate Used in the Gesso Paintings 26 
 
 Calcined Ochre Used by the Ancients 23 
 
 Calcined Sienna (See Burnt Sienna) 
 
 Caledonian Brown 103 
 
 Canvas, Action of Acid Gases on 182 
 
 [ 193 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 Page 
 
 Canvas as a Foundation 48 
 
 Canvas, Deterioration of 182 
 
 Canvas for Oil Painting, Preparation of S3 
 
 Canvas in Commercial Practice 53 
 
 Canvas Mounting 57 
 
 Canvas, Preparation of for Painting 51 
 
 Canvas, Priming or Ground Coat Paint for 50, 51 
 
 Cappah Brown 103 
 
 Caput Mortuum (Mars Violet) 141 
 
 Carbon Black 104 
 
 Carbon Black in Burnt Carmine 98 
 
 Carbon Black in Sepia Substitute 159 
 
 Carbonate of Copper 139 
 
 Carbon Tetrachloride as Paint Remover 58 
 
 Carmine 104 
 
 Carmine, Burnt 98 
 
 Carmine, Madder 138 
 
 Carmine Used in Indian Purple 130 
 
 Carmine Lake 105 
 
 Carnation Lake 105 
 
 Casein Used as Medium ro 
 
 Cassel Brown (Vandyke Brown) 166 
 
 Cassel Brown Used by the Ancients 26 
 
 Cassel Earth 106 
 
 Castile Soap for Cleaning Pictures 59 
 
 Cause of Cracks in Paintings 40 
 
 Causes Affecting the Permanency of Paint Films 41 
 
 Cennini, Cennino, on Oil and Varnish 20 
 
 Cerulean Blue 106 
 
 Cerusite, Known to the Ancients 22 
 
 Chalking i8i 
 
 Charcoal in Blue Black 92 
 
 Charcoal (Vine Black) 93 
 
 Charcoal Gray 106 
 
 Charred Bones, Used as Black Pigment by the Ancients.. 26 
 
 Chemistry of Light 68 
 
 Chinese Blue 107 
 
 Chinese Blue in Antwerp Blue 88 
 
 Chinese Blue (Prussian Blue) 152 
 
 China Clay 164 
 
 Chinese Vermilion 108 
 
 Chinese White 108 
 
 [ 194 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 Page 
 
 Chlorophyll (Sap Green) 157 
 
 Chlorophyll in Oil 35 
 
 Chlorophyll, Bleaching and Recovery of Color 158 
 
 Chromate of Barium (Lemon Yellow) 137 
 
 Chromate of Barium in Permanent Yellow 150 
 
 Chromate of Lead 109 
 
 Chromate of Strontium (Lemon Yellow) 137 
 
 Chromate of Zinc (Primrose Yellow) 151 
 
 Chromate of Zinc (as Citron Yellow) no 
 
 Chromate of Zinc in Cobalt Green 113 
 
 Chromate of Zinc in Permanent Yellow 150 
 
 Chrome Green •. 109 
 
 Chrome Green, Absorption by Skin 178 
 
 Chrome Green, Effect on Madder Lake 86 
 
 Chrome Orange 109 
 
 Chrome Oxide (Veridian) 170 
 
 Chrome Oxide (Veronese Green) 123 
 
 Chrome Red 109 
 
 Chrome Vermilion, Renovation of Paintings where Used. 59 
 
 Chrome Yellow 109 
 
 Chrome Yellow, Absorption by Skin 178 
 
 Chrome Yellow, Effect of Acid Gases on 181 
 
 Chrome Yellow, In Chrome Green 109 
 
 Chrome Yellow, Tinting Material in Golden Ochre 127 
 
 Chrome Yellow, Used in Zinnobar Green 173 
 
 Cinnibar, Used by the Ancients 25 
 
 Cinnibar Green no 
 
 Citron Yellow no 
 
 Classification of Pigments 81 
 
 Clay, Base for Davey’s Gray 118 
 
 Clay, Basis of Brown Ochre 96 
 
 Clay, Occurrence in Black Lead 92 
 
 Clay, As Terre Verte and Terre Rose 161 
 
 Cleaning of Pictures 56 
 
 Climatic Influences Affecting Paintings 45 
 
 Coach Makers’ Japan 49 
 
 Coach Makers’ Japan, Utility in Preparing Surfaces for 
 
 Painting 51 
 
 Coach Painting, Application of Principles of,— to Prepara- 
 tion of Surfaces 48 
 
 Coating to Protect Wooden Panels 43 
 
 Cobalt Blue m 
 
 [ 195 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 Page 
 
 Cobalt Blue, as Component of Leitch’s Blue 137 
 
 Cobalt Blue, as Component of Permanent Violet 149 
 
 Cobalt Green 113 
 
 Cobalt Violet 113 
 
 Cobalt Yellow (Aurelian) go 
 
 Cochineal Bug, Color from the 104 
 
 Cochineal Lake 117 
 
 Coefficient of Expansion, Consideration of 45 
 
 Cologne Earth 114 
 
 Color Photography; Application of Theory 65 
 
 Colors Affected by Coal Smoke and Sulphur Gases 179 
 
 Colors Used by the Ancient Painters 25 
 
 Complimentary Color Sensations 67 
 
 Composition of Ultramarine 165 
 
 Compression and Tension in Paintings 42 
 
 Constant White 114 
 
 Copal Resins, Color Changes of 36 
 
 Copal Varnish 71 
 
 Copal Megilp 74, 115 
 
 Copper as Foundation of Paintings 48 
 
 Copperas, Crude Material Used in Manufacture of Indian 
 
 Red 131 
 
 Copper Carbonate Used by Ancient Painters 23 
 
 Cork Black 116 
 
 Cotton (Canvas) Foundations, Deterioration of 182 
 
 Cracking Due to Climatic Conditions 43 
 
 Cracking Due to “Compression and Tension” 42 
 
 Cracks Due to Alcohol Varnishes 44 
 
 Cracks Due to Selective Drying 44 
 
 Cracks Due to Unequal Drying Rates of Colors 46 
 
 Cracks Due to Varnishing an Undried Picture 44 
 
 Cracking of Paintings 40 
 
 Cremnitz White 116 
 
 Crimson Lake 117 
 
 Crimson Madder 117 
 
 Crocus Martis 141 
 
 Currents of Air, Acceleration of Drying by 75 
 
 Cuttlefish Juice (Sepia) 159 
 
 Damar Varnish yi, 72 
 
 Damar Varnish versus Mastic for Coating Pictures 73 
 
 Darkened Pictures, their Renovation 59 
 
 Davey’s Gray 118 
 
 [ 196 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 Page 
 
 Deep Madder ii8 
 
 Description of Pigments 8i 
 
 Deterioration, Photo-Chemical, of Oil Paintings 32 
 
 Dried Oil Films, Action of Solvents on 58 
 
 Driers 74 
 
 Drying of Linseed Oil 7g 
 
 Drying Oils, When First Used 10 
 
 Drying Oils 76 
 
 Drying of Linseed Oil, The 80 
 
 Dutch Pink (Brown Pink) 97 
 
 Dutch Pink, its Use in Orange Madder 147 
 
 Dutch Process White Lead 120 
 
 Earth, Cassel 106 
 
 Earth, Cologne 114 
 
 Eastlake, Sir Charles, On Early Use of Oil in Painting... ii 
 
 Effect of Dry Atmosphere on Paintings 40 
 
 Eggs Used as Vehicle by Ancient Painters 19 
 
 Egyptians, Pigments Used by the 25 
 
 Emerald Green 118 
 
 Emeraud Green 
 
 Emerald Green, Absorption by the Skin 178 
 
 Emery Cloth for Use in Surfacing 49 
 
 English Vermilion in Paintings; Renovation of 59 
 
 Eosine Colors (Geranium Lake) 126 
 
 Eraser for Cleaning Pictures 60 
 
 Ethyl Alcohol as a Paint Solvent 57 
 
 Expansion of Paint Eilms, Unequal 50 
 
 Extract of Gall 125 
 
 Extract of Vermilion 119 
 
 Facius on First Use of Oil in Painting ir 
 
 “Fatty Linseed Oil” 7 ^ 
 
 Ferric Ferrocyanide Blue 107 
 
 Field’s Orange Vermilion 120 
 
 Filter for Canvas 42 
 
 Flake White 120 
 
 Flake White, Action of Acid Gases, etc., on 181 
 
 Flake White, Renovation of Darkened Pigment 59 
 
 Flake White, Toxic Qualities of 177 
 
 Flesh Tints, Composition of,— Used by Franz Hals 85 
 
 Flexible Canvas Foundation 51 
 
 Flexible Varnish 72 
 
 Foundation White 124 
 
 [ 197 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 Page 
 
 French Blue 121 
 
 French Ochre 127 
 
 French Ultramarine 122 
 
 French Varnish 72 
 
 French Vermilion 122 
 
 French Veronese Green 122 
 
 Fusel Oil as a Solvent 57 
 
 Gall Stone 125 
 
 Gamboge 125 
 
 Geranium Lake 126 
 
 Geranium Madder 126 
 
 Gasoline Used for Cleaning 59 
 
 Gasoline as a Solvent 69 
 
 Gesso 9 
 
 Glazing with Burnt Sienna 100 
 
 Glue Sizing on Canvas 51, 53 
 
 Gmelin, Process of Making Artif. Ultramarine Blue 164 
 
 Golden Ochre ; 127 
 
 “Gold Size” Japan 49 
 
 Grain Alcohol as a Solvent 57 
 
 Graphite (Black Lead) 91 
 
 Graphite, Retarding Effect on Drying of Oil 79 
 
 Gray, Charcoal 107 
 
 Gray Shade of Black Lead 92 
 
 Gray, Mineral 142 
 
 Green, Alizarin 87 
 
 Green, Chrome 109 
 
 Green, Cobalt 113 
 
 Green, French Veronese 122 
 
 Green, Malachite 139 
 
 Green, Mountain 139 
 
 Green, Prussian 153 
 
 Green Pigments Used by the Ancients 23, 26 
 
 Green Earth, Possibly the Green Used by Paul Veronese. 123 
 
 Green Lake 127 
 
 Guignet Green 123 
 
 Guignet, Production of Artif. Ultramarine Blue by 164 
 
 Gum Damar, Effect of Light and Age on 35 
 
 Gypsum, Found in Venetian Red 168 
 
 Gypsum, Used on Gesso Paintings 22 
 
 Hairline Cracks 42 
 
 Plals, Franz, Use of Madder Lake by 85, 156 
 
 [198] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 Hard-Drying, Semi-Elastic Paint for Backing Canvas 50 
 
 Hard-Drying Colors, Effect of Application of, — Over 
 
 Graphite 92 
 
 Harrison Red 128 
 
 Helio Fast Red 128 
 
 History of Painting 9 
 
 Honey, Its Utilization as a Paint Medium 10 
 
 Hookers Green 129 
 
 Humidity, Effect of, on Paintings 54 
 
 Hydrated Oxide of Cooper (Blue Verditer) 93 
 
 Hydrate of Alumina 88 
 
 Hypernic Lake (Purple Lake) I5i4 
 
 Hypernic Wood, Pigment Made from 169 
 
 Imitation of Bistre 91 
 
 Imitation of Natural Sepia 159 
 
 Imitation of the Yellowing of Age 72 
 
 Impressionism, The School of 64 
 
 Indian Blue 129 
 
 Indian Lake 130 
 
 Indian Purple 130 
 
 Indian Red 131 
 
 Indian Red, Dark (Mars Violet) 141 
 
 Indian Yellow 133 
 
 Indican 23, 24 
 
 Indigo Used by the Ancients 23, 24 
 
 Indigo 133 
 
 Influence of Moisture on Canvas 41 
 
 Italian Pink 134 
 
 Italian Pink (Brown Pink) 97 
 
 Ivory Black 134 
 
 Ivory Black, In Mono Chrome Tints 143 
 
 Ivory Soap Used in Cleaning Old Paintings 59 
 
 Jaqueminot Madder 135 
 
 Jan Steen; Method of Glazing Flesh Tints by 86 
 
 Japan Varnish Used for Priming 49 
 
 Jaune Brilliant 134 
 
 Kauri Gum Varnish 71, 73 
 
 King’s Yellow 135 
 
 Koettig, Production of Ultramarine Blue by 164 
 
 Krems White 116 
 
 Lake, Brown 96 
 
 Lake, Carmine 105 
 
 [ 199 1 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 Page 
 
 Lake, Carnation 105 
 
 Lake, Indian 130 
 
 Lake, Madder 138 
 
 Lake, Mauve 142 
 
 Lakes Known to the Ancients 27 
 
 Lakes, Effect of Boiled Oil on 79 
 
 Lake White 88 
 
 Lampblack 136 
 
 Lampblack (Bistre) 91 
 
 Lampblack, Harmful Effects of the Slow Drying of.... 44, 46 
 
 Lampblack in Composition of Brown Madder 96 
 
 Lampblack in Composition of Flexible Priming 51 
 
 Lampblack, Slow Drying Action of 79 
 
 Lampblack, Utilization in Mono-Chrome Tints 143 
 
 Lapis Lazuli (Natural Ultramarine Blue) 163 
 
 Lapis Lazuli as the Coloring Matter of Mineral Gray 142 
 
 Lapis Lazuli Used by the Ancients 22, 26 
 
 Lapis Lazuli versus Ultramarine Blue t2i 
 
 Lavender Oil 69 
 
 Lead Poisoning 177 
 
 Leitch’s Blue 136 
 
 Lemon Chrome Yellow 135 
 
 Lemon Yellow 137 
 
 Leykauf, Discovery of Purple and Red Ultramarine Blue 
 
 (Artificial) by 165 
 
 Light, Effect of, on Asphaltum and Bitumen 36 
 
 Light Red 137 
 
 Linoxyn 80 
 
 Linseed Oil 76 
 
 Linseed Oil, Aging of 78 
 
 Linseed Oil, Bleached 76 
 
 Linseed Oil, Drying Action of, — with Zinc White 75 
 
 Linseed Oil, Earliest Description of ri 
 
 Linseed Oil, Ltnafifected by Blanc Fixe 115 
 
 Linseed Oil, Quality of. Desirable 38 
 
 List of Colors 81 
 
 Litharge in Composition of Naples Yellow 144 
 
 Livering of Blue Black in Oil 93 
 
 Livering of Blue Verditer in Oil 94 
 
 Lithopone, Action on Oil of 37 
 
 Lumiere Process of Color Photography 65 
 
 Madder, Brown 95 
 
 [ 200] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 Page 
 
 Madder, Carmine 138 
 
 Madder Colors, Incompatibilities of 86, 176 
 
 Madder, Crimson 117 
 
 Madder, Jacqueminot 135 
 
 Madder Lake 138 
 
 Madder Lakes (Red and Alizarin Colors) 85 
 
 Madder Lake, Action of Driers on 75 
 
 Madder Lake, Action of Hydrated Iron Oxide on 86, 176 
 
 Madder Lake, Effect of Raw Mineral Pigments on 86 
 
 Madder Lake Used as a Glaze 86 
 
 Madder Lake Glaze, Care Required in Cleaning 61 
 
 Madder Lake in Composition of Brown Lake 96 
 
 Madder Lake in Composition of Permanent Violet 149 
 
 Madder Lake in the Composition of Vermilion Substitute. 162 
 
 Madder Lake in the Composition of Warm Sepia 170 
 
 Madder, Orient 148 
 
 Madder, Pink 150 
 
 Madder, Purple I 54 
 
 Madder, Rembrandt’s and Ruben’s 156 
 
 Madder, Rose I 57 
 
 Madder, Scarlet 138 
 
 Madder, Vandyke 167 
 
 Magenta I 39 
 
 Malachite Green 139 
 
 Mars Brown 140 
 
 Mars Colors 140 
 
 Mars Orange 140 
 
 Mars Red 141 
 
 Mars Violet 141 
 
 Mars Yellow 141 
 
 Masters’ Secret, Search for 28 
 
 Mastic Varnish 72 
 
 Mauve 142 
 
 Mechanical Bond Between Paint Coatings 41 
 
 Media Used by Ancient Painters 10 
 
 Mastic, Use of, — by Flemish Artists 39 
 
 Megilp, Copal 74 . H 5 
 
 Megilp as a Cause of Cracking 46 
 
 Mercury Vermilion 178 
 
 Metal as a Foundation 48 
 
 Metallic Soaps as Driers 116 
 
 Methyl Alcohol as a Solvent 57 
 
 [ 201 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 Methyl Alcohol, Utility for Cleaning Decomposed Bitu- 
 men Glaze 90 
 
 Milori Blue (Chinese Blue) 107 
 
 Milori Blue, Reaction of, with Other Pigments 152 
 
 Mineral Gray 142 
 
 Minium 143 
 
 Minium, Drying Qualities of 46 
 
 Mixing Pigments, Principles of 64 
 
 Mixing of Pigments; Practiced by Sir Joshua Reynolds. . .189 
 
 Moisture, Protection of Wood Panels Against 54 
 
 Mono-Chrome Tints 143 
 
 Mountain Green 139 
 
 Mummy 144 
 
 Myrtle Leaves, Green Lake Made from 157 
 
 Naples Yellow 144 
 
 Naples Yellow, Reddish 145 
 
 Naphtha 69 
 
 Naphtha Used for Cleaning Pictures 59 
 
 Natural Ultramarine Blue 131 
 
 Neutral Orange 145 
 
 Neutral Tint 14S 
 
 New Blue 146 
 
 Non-Permanent Colors 179 
 
 Nottingham White 146 
 
 Ochre, Brown 96 
 
 Ochre, Brown Roman 99 
 
 Ochre, Extract of (Mars Yellow) 141 
 
 Ochre, Oxford 148 
 
 Ochre, Roman 156 
 
 Ochre, Transparent Gold 162 
 
 Ochre, Yellow 171 
 
 Oil Copal Varnishes 
 
 Oil of Bergamot 73 
 
 Oil of Lavender 73 
 
 Oil Paintings, Photo-Chemical Deterioration of 32 
 
 Oils, Acid in 102 
 
 Olive Green 146 
 
 Olive Lake 147 
 
 Olive Madder I47 
 
 Orange Chrome Yellow (Scarlet Red) 158 
 
 Orange Chrome Yellow as Component of Bronze Green... 95 
 Orange Madder I47 
 
 [202 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 Page 
 
 Orange Mineral (Minium) 143 
 
 Orange Mineral (as Scarlet Red) 158 
 
 Orange Vermilion (Chinese Vermilion) 108 
 
 Orange Vermilion, Field’s 120 
 
 Orient Madder 148 
 
 Orpiment 148 
 
 Orpiment (King’s Yellow) 135 
 
 Oxford Ochre 148 
 
 Oxford Ochre (Brown Ochre) 97 
 
 Oxide of Chromium (Viridian) 170 
 
 Oxide of Chromium (French Veronese Green) 122 
 
 Oxide of Cobalt (Cobalt Blue) ill 
 
 Oxide of Cobalt as Coloring Matter of Smalt 160 
 
 Oxide of Iron (Indian Red) 131 
 
 Oxide of Iron (Venetian Red) 167 
 
 Oxide of Lead (Minium) 143 
 
 Oxide of Lead (Tours Orange Mineral) 161 
 
 Oxide of Manganese, Occurrence in Number of 100 
 
 Painters’ Oil 19 
 
 Painting, History of 9 
 
 Paintings Yellow with Age, Renovation of 61 
 
 Paintings, Photo-Chemical Deterioration of 32 
 
 Paint Removers 58 
 
 Panels, Protection of Wood 43 
 
 Paris Blue 152 
 
 Paris Green (Emerald Green) 118 
 
 Payne’s Gray 149 
 
 Permanent Colors, List of 175 
 
 Permanent Glaze, Imitation of Asphaltum 90 
 
 Permanent Green (See Veridian) 
 
 Permanent Violet 149 
 
 Permanent White Pigments 38 
 
 Permanent White (Zinc White) 172 
 
 Permanent Yellow 150 
 
 Peroxide of Hydrogen for Restoring Discolored Lead Pig- 
 ments 61 
 
 Persian Berry, Lake Made from 97 
 
 Petroleum Spirits 69 
 
 Phoenecians, Pigments Used by tbe 25 
 
 Phosphate of Cobalt (Cobalt Violet) 113 
 
 Phosphate of Manganese (Perm. Violet) 149 
 
 Photo-Chemical Deterioration of Oil Paintings ,32 
 
 [ 203 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 Page 
 
 Picture Varnishes 71 
 
 Pigments Absorbed by the Skin 178 
 
 Pigments Afifected by Light 179 
 
 Pigments Dangerous to Health 177 
 
 Pigments which are Absolutely Permanent When Used 
 Alone, but Not Permanent When Mixed With Other 
 
 Colors 186 
 
 Pigments which Dry Slowly and Irregularly 187 
 
 Pink, Brown 97 
 
 Pink, Dutch (See Brown Pink) 
 
 Pink, Italian 13.4. 
 
 Pink Madder 150 
 
 Plaster of Paris; Use in Gesso Painting 9, 26 
 
 Poisonous Pigments as a Medium 170 
 
 Poppy Oil 76 
 
 Powder Blue 112 
 
 Prevention of Cracking 43, 50 
 
 Primary Colors 65 
 
 Primary Color Sensations 65 
 
 Primary Pigments 64 
 
 Priming, Coatings for 50, 51 
 
 Primrose Aurelian (See Aurelian) 
 
 Primrose Yellow 151 
 
 Progressive Drying 73 
 
 Protection of Canvas 183 
 
 Prussian Blue 151 
 
 Prussian Blue (Chinese Blue) 107 
 
 Prussian Blue as Constituent of Antwerp Blue 88 
 
 Prussian Blue, Permanency of i8r 
 
 Prussian Blue, — Component of Leitch’s Blue 137 
 
 Prussian Brown 153 
 
 Prussian Green 153 
 
 Pure Scarlet (See Scarlet) 
 
 Purple Lake I54 
 
 Purple Madder 154 
 
 Purple Ultramarine 165 
 
 Purple, Indian 130 
 
 Quercitron Lake (Brown Pink) 97 
 
 Quicksilver Vermilion, Use of, — In Clearing Shellac Var- 
 nishes 72 
 
 Raw Sienna I54 
 
 Raw Umber I55 
 
 [204 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 Page 
 
 Red Alizarin Colors 85 
 
 Red Lead (See Minium) 
 
 Red Lead (Scarlet Red) 158 
 
 Red Lead, Bleaching of 181 
 
 Refined Linseed Oil 76 
 
 Red Oxides Used by the Ancients 23, 26 
 
 Red, Chrome 109 
 
 Red, Indian 131 
 
 Red, Light 137 
 
 Red, Madder (See Madder Lake) 
 
 Red, Mars 141 
 
 Red, Venetian 167 
 
 Red, Ultramarine, Discovery of, — ^by Leykauf 165 
 
 Rembrandt, Colors Used by 28 
 
 Rembrandt, Treatment of Flesh Tints by 86 
 
 Rembrandt's Madder ^.156 
 
 Remedies for Bracking of Paintings 40 
 
 Renovation of Paintings 56 
 
 Renovation of Paintings Yellow with Age 61 
 
 Resin Color (Gamboge) 125 
 
 Resin, Fossil: Color and Utilization of 36 
 
 Reynolds (Sir Joshua), and Secret of the Old Masters. 28 
 
 Reynolds (Sir Joshua), Failure of the Paintings of 188 
 
 Roman Ochre 156 
 
 Roman Ochre, Cool 157 
 
 Roman Sepia (See Sepia) 
 
 Rose Doree 157 
 
 Rose Lake 157 
 
 Rose Madder (See Madder Lake) 
 
 Rough Stuff for Surfacing 49 
 
 Royal Blue (Cobalt Blue) 112 
 
 Rubens, Colors Used by 28 
 
 Rubens Madder 156 
 
 Rubia Tinctorium (See Red Alizarin Colors) 
 
 Russ (Lampblack), Earliest 24 
 
 Rye-Bread Ball for Cleaning 60 
 
 Sandarac, Earliest Use of 13, 14 
 
 Sandarac Varnish 71 
 
 Sap Green 157 
 
 Scarlet Lake I 59 
 
 Scarlet Madder (See Madder Lake) 
 
 Scarlet Vermilion (See Orange Vermilion) 
 
 [ 205 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 Page 
 
 School White (See Flake White) 
 
 School of Impressionism 64 
 
 Secret of the Masters’, Search for 28 
 
 Sepia 159 
 
 Sepia, Warm 170 
 
 Shellac Varnish 71, 72 
 
 Sienna, Burnt 99 
 
 Sienna, Extract of (See Mars Orange) 
 
 Sienna, Extract of Raw (See Mars Yellow) 
 
 Sienna, Raw 154 
 
 Sienna, Effect of Acid Gases on 182 
 
 Silica (Silex) in Ultramarine Blue 164, 165 
 
 Silver White 160 
 
 Sinopia Used by the Ancients 23, 25 
 
 Sinopia 28 
 
 Sky Blue 160 
 
 Slow Drying Colors 187 
 
 Smalt ..160 
 
 Soap for Cleaning Paintings 56 
 
 Solvents for Removing Old Varnish 57 
 
 Spirits of Turpentine (See Turpentine) 
 
 Spirit Varnish 71 
 
 Steel Blue (See Chinese Blue and Prussian Blue) 
 
 Sulphate of Barium (See Constant White) 
 
 Sulphide of Arsenic ( See King’s Yellow) 
 
 Sulphide of Cadmium (See Cadmium Yellow) 
 
 Sulphide of Mercury (See Chinese Vermilion) 
 
 Sulphur Dioxide in Air 180 
 
 Sulphur Fumes, Discoloration Caused by, — and its Removal 61 
 
 Sunlight, Drying Effects of 74 
 
 Sunlight, Bleaching Effects of 61 
 
 Synopia (See Sinopia) 
 
 Sizing Coats for Canvas 53 
 
 Tempera Painting, Mediums Used for 9 
 
 Tempera Paintings, Cleaning of 56 
 
 Terpinol- Solvent 57 
 
 Terre Verte 161 
 
 Terre Verte (Veronese Green) 123 
 
 Terre Rose 161 
 
 Tints, Monochrome I 43 
 
 “Tooth” Desirable in Ground Coats H 7 i i^4 
 
 Tours Orange Mineral 161 
 
 [ 206 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 Tours Red 
 
 Transparent Gold Ochre 
 
 Turpentine 
 
 Turpentine, Cleaning Pictures with 
 
 Turpentine as Varnish Remover 
 
 Turpentine, its Utility in Renovating Paintings 
 
 Tuscan Red 
 
 Ultramarine Ash 
 
 Ultramarine Blue 
 
 Ultramarine Blue, Action with Other Pigments 
 
 Ultramarine Blue, Effect of Acids on 
 
 Ultramarine Blue, Effect of, — on White Lead . . 
 
 Ultramarine Blue, Composition of 
 
 Ultramarine Blue with Prussian Blue 
 
 Ultramarine Blue, Silica Content of 
 
 Ultramarine Blue, Brilliant 
 
 Ultramarine Blue, French 
 
 Ultramarine, Genuine (See Ultramarine Blue) 
 
 Ultramarine, Purple 
 
 Umber, Burnt 
 
 Umber, Raw 
 
 Unequal Expansion of Paint Films 
 
 Vandyke Brown 
 
 Vandyke Brown (Cappah Brown) 
 
 Vandyke Brown (Cologne Earth) 
 
 Vandyke Madder 
 
 Van Eycks, Medium Used by the 
 
 Van Eyck, Hubert and Jan, Painting in Oil by., 
 
 Varnish, Amber 
 
 Varnish Known to the Ancients 
 
 Varnish as a Protective Coating 
 
 Varnish, Disintegrated, Removal of ...■ 
 
 Venetian Red 
 
 Verdigris 
 
 Vermilion, Chinese 
 
 Vermilion, Extract of 
 
 Vermilion, Field’s Orange 
 
 Vermilion Substitutes 
 
 Verona Brown 
 
 Veronese Green 
 
 Veronese, Paul, Green Used by 
 
 Verte de Grece 
 
 Page 
 
 . . .161 
 . . . 162 
 ... 69 
 ... 56 
 
 ...58 
 
 61, 62 
 
 . . . 162 
 . . .166 
 . . . 163 
 . . .112 
 . . . 121 
 • ■•79 
 
 • • • 165 
 
 164, i6s 
 
 94 
 
 122 
 
 165 
 
 100 
 
 155 
 
 50 
 
 166 
 
 103 
 
 114 
 
 167 
 
 39 
 
 . . . II, 21 
 73 
 
 • .13, 16 
 
 62 
 
 58 
 
 167 
 
 168 
 
 108 
 
 119 
 
 120 
 
 162 
 
 169 
 
 169 
 
 123 
 
 23 
 
 [ 207 ] 
 
Permanent Painting 
 
 Page 
 
 Vibert ^ 
 
 Vibert, Medium Used by 69 
 
 Vienna Blue (See Cobalt Blue) 
 
 Vine Black (See Blue Black) 
 
 Violet Carmine 169 
 
 Violet, Permanent 149 
 
 Violet Ultramarine 150 
 
 Viridian 170 
 
 Volatile Solvents 69 
 
 Walnut Oil 76 
 
 Walnut Oil, Early Knowledge of ii 
 
 Warm Sepia 170 
 
 Warping of Wooden Panels 54 
 
 Water in Tube Colors 184 
 
 White Pigments Used by the Ancients 26 
 
 White Lead (Cremnitz White) 116 
 
 White Lead (Flake White) 120 
 
 White Lead (Foundation White ) 124 
 
 White Lead, Ancient Use of 15, 22 
 
 Wood Alcohol for Cleaning Paintings 56, 58 
 
 Wood as Foundation 48 
 
 Wood Lake (Purple Lake) 154 
 
 Wood Panels, Warping of 54 
 
 Wool as Foundation 182 
 
 Xantophyll 125 
 
 Yellow, Alizarin 87 
 
 Yellow, Cadmium loi 
 
 Yellow, Citron no 
 
 Yellow, King’s 135 
 
 Yellow Lake 171 
 
 Yellow, Lemon 137 
 
 Yellow Ochre 171 
 
 Yellowy Permanent 150 
 
 Yellow, Primrose 151 
 
 Yellow Sienna (See Raw Sienna) 
 
 Yolk of Egg Used as a Medium 14 
 
 Zinc (Metal Sheet) as Foundation 43 
 
 Zinc Oxide (Chinese White) 108 
 
 Zinc White 172 
 
 Zinc White, Drying of, — in Oil 75 
 
 Zinc Yellow (See Primrose Yellow) 
 
 Zinnobar Green 173 
 
 [ 208 ] 
 
STANDARD WORKS 
 
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 j&aintB:, €>il0. Colors, anl) 
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 ANDES, L. E. Drying Oils, Boiled Oil, and Solid and Liquid 
 
 Driers: A practical work for manufacturers of Oils, Var- 
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 Paints, etc. 8vo, cloth, illustrated net, Is-oo. 
 
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 Translated from the German by Charles Salter. Illus- 
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 illustrated net, $4.00. 
 
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 THE 
 
 Chemistry-^Technoloqy 
 
 OF 
 
 MIXED PAINTS 
 
 BY 
 
 Ma ximilian T och 
 
 With Photo-micrographs and Engravings. 
 
 CONTEN^. 
 
 Preface. Introduction. Mixed Paints. The Manufacture of 
 Mixed Paints. The White Pigments. White Lead. Zinc Oxide. 
 Lithopone. Sulphate of Lead. Sublimed White Lead. The Oxides 
 of Lead. Red Lead. Orange Mineral. Litharge The Inert Fil- 
 lers and Extenders. Silica. Infusorial Earth — Silex. Barytes. 
 Barium Sulphate — Blanc Fixe. Gypsum — Calcium Carbonates. 
 
 China Clay — Kaolin. The Red Pigments. Venetian Reds. Indian 
 Red. Permanent Vermillion. Burnt Ochre. — American Sienna. 
 The Black Pigments. Coal. Charcoal. Graphite. Mineral Black. 
 Carnon Black. Lamp Black. Bone Black. Chrome Yellow. 
 
 Chrome Green. Chromium Oxide. Prussian Blue. Ultramarine 
 and Cobalt Blue. Linseed Oil China Wood Oil. Dryers. Ben- 
 zine. Benzol. Turpentine. Fish Oil. Combining Mediums. Water 
 in the Composition of Mixed Paints. Floor Paints. Cement Paint. 
 Damp Resisting Paints. The Analysis of Paints. The Analysis, 
 of White Paints. The Analysis of Oils in Paints. The Influence 
 of Paint on Malted Liquors. The Microscope. The Spectroscope. 
 Index. 
 
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 THE CHEMISTRY 
 
 OF 
 
 Paint and Paint Vehicles. 
 
 BY CLARE H. HALL, B. S. 
 
 EXTRACT FROM PREFACE. 
 
 **In writing this book, the author has attempted to sift from the great mass 
 of analytical chemistry, those methods which apply particularly to the analysis of 
 paints, at the same time calling attention to the most important physical 
 characteristics of the raw materials. 
 
 No chemist can be proficient in the analysis of paints, without a thorough 
 knowledge of all the materials with which he comes in contact. 
 
 This book, being written from the standpoint of a chemist, employed in the 
 manufacture of paints and colors. Chapter IV has been included in an attempt to 
 bridge the space between the laboratory and the factory. It is here that so often 
 the results of previous analysis are rendered worthless by being placed in the 
 hands of one who does not understand their interpretation nor the composition of 
 the raw materials which he is using. Over this work the chemist should ha«*» 
 final supervision.” 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Chap. I. The Determination of the Elementary Constituents 
 of Paints. 
 
 II. Raw Materials, Properties, Tests and Methods of 
 Analysis. 
 
 III. The Analysis of Dry Colors, Pastes and Liquid 
 
 Paints. 
 
 IV. Matching of Samples. 
 
 V. Paint Vehicles. 
 
 Appendix 
 
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 Publishers and Booksellers. 
 
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 Materials for permanent painting: a manu 
 
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