I!lilil!!li!iltllillllllliilllli!l -.nil! FRANKLIN INSTITUTE LIBRARY PHILADELPHIA, PA. REFERENCE r WOOD : A MANUAL OF THE NATURAL HISTORY AND INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS OF THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE SOME OPINIONS OF THE PRESS on THE FIRST EDITION " An immense amount of information about the timbers of commerce from many points of view. . . . The author has done his work much in his own way. and, on the whole, has done it well. . . . The material is well arranged and rendered accessible by what appears to be a very complete index." — Nature. " This handy, useful volume." — Enf/ineerim/ News. "... A book of solid information on a subject that tew people know anything about. It is a book much wanted by practical people, and will be a useful volume for the landowner and the timber merchant, and, in short, for anyone who works in wood, from the boy of the village carving club to the architect and surveyor. . . ." — Pall Mall Gazette. "We have no hesitation in recommending the present volume as a useful elementary work of reference to all who are interested in timber and its many and varied uses. It is just the book that has long been wanted by land agents, foresters, and woodmen, and it should find a place in all technical school and village libraries." — Field. ". . . The book may unhesitatingly be commended for the cleai- arrangement and presentation of the contents. . . . Professor Boulger's book may safely be commended to the notice of those who are seeking for an introduction to the subject, especially those who have already some practical knowledge which they wish to supplement." — Surveyor. "... The arrangement of the matter being excellent, and the printing very clear, while the standardisation of the commercial names of the woods, by adopting one synonym, and referring to it all the other synonyms which are given in the alphabetical list, is very useful. The accenting of the Latin scientific names of the trees should ensure their correct pronunciation. . . . Mr. Boulger has produced a very useful work; and although it cannot be considered as a completely authoritative account of wood, it will be easy to correct its defects in a new edition. . . . There are disputes in the trade as regards the identity of some kinds of timber, that find their way into the Law Courts, and such disputes would be less frequent were Mr. Boulger's book to be consulted by timber merchants. . . ." — Gardeners' Chronicle. "So far as arrangement and lucidity are concerned, seems to us a capital text-book." — Tim es. PREFACE In an attempt, such as this, to cover a wide ground, within a book of small compass, perfect accuracy cannot be hoped for, complete- ness is impossible, and originality is neither expected nor desirable. Rather, however, than burden the body of the book with constant acknowledgments of indebtedness, I have thought it better to add a bibliographical appendix, indicating those works from, which I have borrowed most freely. For Figs. 1, 7, 16, 17, 20, and 29 I am indebted to the courtesy of Mr. Francis Darwin and the Syndicate of the Cambridge University Press ; for Figs. 10, 18, 21-23, and 27 to that of the late Professor Marshall Ward and Messrs. Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner and Co. ; for Figs. 12, 13, 15, 26, and 30 to that of Professor Somerville and Mr. David Douglas ; and for Figs. 4 and 28, which are photographed from nature, to Mr. D. F. Mackenzie of Morton Hall, Midlothian ; whilst Figs. 2, 3, 6, 8, 9, 11, 14, 24, 25, and 37-43 have been drawn for me by Miss Emily Carter. To Mr. James A. Weale, of Liverpool, I am even more deeply indebted. Not only has he supplied the photographs for Figs. 32-3(> and for all the 48 plates in Appendix IV. ; but throughout my work of revision lie has aided me with numerous corrections and suggestions from the store of his unrivalled practical knowledge. I have thought it Avell to indicate the pronunciation of the Latin names by putting an accent over the syllables on which the stress falls ; and it may be desirable to point out here that the chief symbols employed in Part II. are explained on pp. 120 and 121. How incomplete my work is may be gauged by the statement that, while there are undoubtedly several thousand woods used in various parts of the world, only about 1,000 are here enumerated ; but these include most of those which are practically known in general commerce, and to have dealt with more would have necessi- tated a volume fully twice as large. G. S. B. V 170i3 *' Wood is an indispensable part of the material structure upon which civilization rests ; and it is to be remembered always that the immense increase of the use of iron and substitutes for wood in many structures, while it has meant a relative decrease in the amount of wood used, has been accompanied by an absolute increase in the amount of wood used. More wood is used than ever before in our history." — President Roosevelt, January 3, 1905. vi CONTENTS PART I.— OF WOOD IN GENERAL CHAPTER I PAGE The Origin, Structure, and Development of Wood, and its use TO the Tree 1 CHAPTER II The Recognition and Classification of Woods - - - - 34 CHAPTER III Defects of Wood 55 CHAPTER IV Selection, Durability, Seasoning, and Storage of Woods - - 65 CHAPTER V The Uses of Woods 76 CHAPTER VI Our Supplies of Wood 94 CHAPTER VII Testing Wood 112 PART II.— WOODS OF COMMERCE Their Sources, Characters, and Uses 123 vii viii CONTENTS APPENDICES PAGE I. Explanation of some Terms used with Reference to Con- verted Timber, etc. 303 II. The Microscopic Examination of Woods - . . . 305 III. Select Bibliography - - 307 IV. The Distinctive Microscopic Structures of Woods: (Plates I.-XLVIII.) 309 Notes 322 Index 324 WOOD A MANUAL OF THE NATURAL HISTORY AND INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS OF THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE G. S. BOULGEK, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.H.S., A.S.L HONORARY PROFESSOR OF NATURAL HISTORY IN THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE; LECTURER ON BOTANY, GEOLOGY AND FORESTRY IN THE CITY OF [.ONDON COLLEGE ; HONORARY MEMBER OF THE ROYAL ENGLISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY ; AUTHOR OF "FAMILIAR TREES," "THE USES OF PLANTS," ETC. WITH 48 PLATES AND 43 OTHER ILLUSTRATIONS SECOND edition;. RllVtSEt) AND ENLARGED LONDON EDWAED ARNOLD 1908 [All rights reserved] HI-' BY KIND PERMISSION TO THE MASTER AND WARDENS OF THE WORSHIPFUL COMPANY OF CARPENTERS AND THE MASTER AND WARDENS OF THE WORSHIPFUL COMPANY OF TURNERS ^GETTVCe«71R UBRARV LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS FIGURES IN THE TEXT PIG. PAGE 1. Transverse Section of an Oak . . . . 4 2. Growing-point of Stem . . . . . 7 3. Terminal Bud ...... 7 4. Transverse Section of Stem of Clematis 8 5. Early Develoj^ment of Exogenous Stem 9 6. Diagrams of Exogenous Stem . . . . - 10 7. Transverse Section of Stem of Helidnthus - 11 8. Longitudinal Section of Helidnthus - - - - - 12 9. Pits -------- - 14 10. Elements of Oak Wood . - - . . 15 11. Coniferous Wood - 17 12. Wood of Spruce {Picea excelsa) . . . . - 18 13. Transverse Section of Picea excelsa - - - - - 19 14. Resin-duct - 20 15. Radial Section of Abies pectindta . . . . - 20 6. Diagram of Merismatic Tissue . . . . - 21 17. Transverse Section of Pinus sylvestris - 22 18. Transverse Section of Oak, magnified - 23 19. Transverse Section of Oak, natural size - 24 20. Transverse Section of Oak, diagrammatic - - 24 21. Tangential Section of Oak, magnified - 25 22. Tangential Section of Oak, more highly magnified - - 26 23. Radial Section of Oak, highly magnified - 27 24. Wood of Oak, diagrammatic . - - . - 28 25. Dicotyledonous Wood, magnified - . . - - 29 26. Transverse Section of Beech, magnified - 30 27. Transverse Section of Oak, highly magnified - 31 28. Transverse Section of Buckthorn, magnified - 32 29. Transverse Section of Linden . . . . - 40 30. Radial Section of Pinus sylvestris . . . . - 43 31. Transverse Section of Ash, natural size - - 45 32. Transverse Section of Humiria floribunda - - 46 33. Transverse Section of Lophira aldta - - - - - 47 ix X LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS FIG. i>AOi: 34. Transverse Section of Dillenia indica - - - - 48 3i5. Transverse Section of Rhus Cotinus - - - - - 50 36. Transverse Section of Juglans cinerea - - - - 51 37. Cup- and Heart-shake - - - - - - 56 38. Star-shake 57 39. Heart-shake - - - - - - - - 58 40. Structural Aggregates - - - - - -67 41. Plank well laid 67 42. Plank badly laid 08 43. Honeycombed Board - 70 PLATES IN APPENDIX IV I. Banhsia serrata, transverse section II. Banksia serrata, radial section III. Banksia serrata, tangential section IV. Moreton Bay Fig {Ficus macrophylla) V. Padouk {Pterocarpus marsupium) VI. Cassia Fistula VII. Lignum-vitae {Guaiacum officinale) VIII. Alhizzia procera IX. Greenheart {Nectandra Rodioei) X. Thingan {Hopea odorata) XI. Sideroxylon horhonicum) XII. Calophylliim Tacamahaca XIII. American Ash {Fraxinus americana) XIV. Locust {Rohinia pseudacacia) XV. Laburnum {Gytisus Laburnum) XVT. American Elm [Ulmus americana) XVII. Chestnut {Castdnea sativa) XVIII. American White Oak {Quercus alba) XIX. Hickory {Hicoria ovata) XX. Persimmon {Diospyros Virginiana) XXI. Teak {Tectona grandis) XXII. African Mahogany XXIII. Cuban Mahogany XXIV. Cigar-Box Cedar (Cedrela odorata) XXV. Buckthorn {Rhamnus catharticus) XXVI. American Walnut {Juglans nigra) XXVII. Karri {Eucalyptus versicolor) XXVIII. Western or American Plane {Platanus occidentalis) XXIX. American Beech {Fagus ferruginea) XXX. Hornbeam {Carpinus Betulus) LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xi XXXI. Alder {Alnus glutinosa) XXXII. Sycamore {Acer pseiidoplatanus) XXXTII. American Holly {Ilex opaca) XXXIV. Canary White wood {Liriodendron tulipifera) XXXV. Satin Walnut {Liquidamhar styraciflua) XXXVI. Basswood {Tilia americana) XXXVII. Hawthorn {Cratoegus oxyacantha) XXXVIII. Pear {Pyrus communis) XXXIX. Canadian Birch {Betida lenta) XL. Willow {Salix alba) XLI. Yew {Taxus haccata) XLII. Californian Redwood {Sequoia semjjervirens) XLIII. Cedar of Lebanon {Cedrus lihavi) XLIV. White Spruce {Picea alba) XLV. Larch {Larix europcea) XL VI. Oregon or Douglas Pine {Pseudotsuga Douglasii) XL VII. Pinus palustris (the Pitch Pine of EngUsh Commerce) XL VIII. Pinus Strdbus (the Yellow Pine of EngHsh Commerce, White Pine of America, Weymouth Pine of Gardens) PART I.— OF WOOD IN GENERAL CHAPTER I THE ORIGIN, STRUCTURE, AND DEVELOPMENT OF WOOD AND ITS USE TO THE TREE. Few, if any, of the products of nature are of such manifold utihty as wood. Though coal has in many lands largely replaced it as fuel, and as a source of tar, though stone, brick, and iron or steel have often been substituted for it as house-building materials, and the metals last mentioned for the construction of ships, new uses are constantly arising for it, such as railway sleepers, pavements, and paper-making, so as to more than make up for the saving effected by these substitutes. In England and the United States, for example, the consumption of wood per head of the population during the last half-century has more than doubled. Most people are aware that for these manifold uses a great number of different woods are employed in the various countries of the world — woods that differ in colour, grain, hardness, weight, fiexibihty, and other properties almost as widely as the trees by which they are produced vary in foliage, flower, or fruit. It is,, however, not so generally recognized that the suitabihty of wood of any kind for some particular purpose depends mainly upon its internal structure. This structure is determined not by man's employment of the material, but by the vital requirements of the tree when growing. Our present concern is with wood as a material in the arts, and not with any merely botanical interest it may have, or with its cultivation as a crop by the forester. In deahng with the means of recognizing different kinds of wood we shall, therefore, not depend in any way upon characters derived from bark, leaves, flowers, or fruit — the characters, that is, of standing, or of un- converted timber — but only on those of the wood itself as it 1 2 OF WOOD IN GENERAL appears in the timber market. At the same time, if we are to be able to identify woods and determine their suitabihty for various economic apphcations, it is absolutely essential that we should know something of their origin, structure, development, and use to the plants that produced them. Wood does not occur in any plants of a lower grade than ferns ; and in the higher plants in which it does occur it is chiefly, but not exclusively, in the stem. The main physiological function of wood is the mechanical one of giving strength to resist the increasing weight of the structure as it grows erect and branches. Submerged aquatic plants, buoyed up, as they are, by the water, do not form wood in their stems, nor, as a rule, do annuals, nor, at first, the succulent, flexible shoots of longer-hved plants. In ferns, even when growing into lofty trees, and in allied plants, the wood, though dense, consists largely of scattered longitudinal strands and often of cells of no great vertical length. Though there are also generally woody layers just below the surface of the stem, giving it considerable strength as a whole, this structure renders tree-ferns useless as timber. For all practical purposes, therefore, wood is produced only by the highest sub-kingdom of the plant world, the seed-bearing or flowering plants, the Spermatophyta or Phanerogdmia of botanists. This great group of plants is sub-divided, mainly by characters derived from parts other than their stems, into two divisions, the Gymnospermce, or plants the seeds of which are naked, i.e. not enclosed in a fruit, and the Angiospermce, or fruit-bearing plants. The Gymnosperms are all perennial trees and shrubs ; but of three " Natural Orders " into which they are divided, two, the Cycaddcece and Gnetdcece, belong almost exclusively to the Southern Hemisphere and are valueless as timber. The third Natural Order is the Coniferce, so named from the general arrangement of its seeds on a series of overlapping scales arranged in a cone, but having also other general characters, one of the most conspicuous of which is the production of numerous narrow, rigid, undivided leaves, whence they get the familiar name of needle-leaved trees. The members of this Order, which includes the Pines, Firs, Larches, Cedars, etc., have much-branched stems, and wood which, though in many points, such as its arrangement in annual rings of growth, it resembles that of some other, more highly- organized plants, has, as we shall see, many peculiarities. It is, in general, of rapid growth, soft and of even texture, and very commonly abounds in resinous substances. They are, therefore, often spoken of as " soft woods " or as " resinous woods,'' and being, from these characteristics, both easily worked and of considerable PLANTS WHICH PRODUCE WOOD 3 durability, are more entensively used than any other class of woods. The Maidenhair- tree of China and Japan {Ginkgo hiloha) is exceptional among conifers in having broad leaves : neither this tree nor the Yew can be said to bear cones, though their seeds are naked : the Yew is destitute of resin ; and the epithet " soft- wooded " applies to Willow, Poplar, Horse-chestnut, etc., as truly as to conifers. The second and higher division of seed-bearing plants, the Angiospermae, is divided into two Classes, which, whilst agreeing in having their seeds enclosed in fruits, differ in many characters, and in none more than in the structure of their stems. They are known botanically, from the number of seed-leaves or cotyledons of their embryos, as Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons. The Mono- cotyledons, with one such seed-leaf, comprise lilies, orchids, bananas, palms, sedges, grasses, etc. Few of these, such as Palms and Bamboos, reach the dimensions of trees, and those which do so have generally unbranched stems which do not as a rule increase in diameter after the very earliest stages of their growth, the wood in them being confined to isolated strands crowded together towards their outer surfaces. Though such stems may occasionally, like those of tree-ferns, be utilized " in the round," and veneers, cut from the outer part of the stem of the Cocoa-nut Palm {Cocos nucifera), and known, from the appearance of the dark-coloured woody strands in the lighter ground-tissue, as " Porcupine- wood," are used for inlaying, Monocotyledons may well be ignored as economic sources of wood. Dicotyledons, so named from having two seed-leaves to the embryo, comprise an immense and varied assemblage of plants, a very large proportion of which are merely herbaceous, never forming wood. In those perennial members of the Class, how- ever, which acquire the dimensions of trees or shrubs, the stem generally branches freely, has a separable " bark," and increases in girth with age ; the wood, though, as we shall see, it differs in several important but not very obvious characters, agreeing with that of conifers in being arranged in rings produced in successive seasons (Fig. 1). These rings, as they appear in a cross-section of a tree, or conically tapering sheaths surrounding the tree, as they in fact are, form on the outside of the wood of previous seasons and beneath the bark ; and this type of stem, characteristic of gymnosperms and dicotyledons, is in consequence correctly termed exogenous,, from the Greek ex, outside of, and gennao, to produce. The term endogenous, still sometimes applied to the structure of the stem of monocotyledons, is less accurate. 1—2 4 OF WOOD IX GENERAL Dicotyledons are commonly slower of growth than conifers,^ and their wood, especially that near the centre of the stem, is often much harder. They bear as a rule also broad, net-veined leaves ; and are known familiarly, therefore, as " hardwoods'^ or as " broad-leaved trees.'' Such are the Oak, Beech, Ash, Elm, Teak, Willow, Alder, etc. It is then only with the two classes of exogenous stems, those of gymnosperms or needle-leaved trees, and those of dicotyledons or broad-leaved trees, that we are concerned. Though, as we have already said,, conifers and broad-leaved trees present important differences in the structure and conse- quent character of their wood, their manner of growth is so nearly identical in its initial stages and broad outhnes that we may weU treat them at first collectively. It is, perhaps, the many branches and the numerous small leaves exposed by Fig. 1. — Ti*ansverse section of an Oak, 25 years old. (After Le Maout and Decaisne, from The Elements of Botany, by permission of Mr. Francis Darwin and the Syndicate of the Cambridge UniTersity Press.) means of these branches to a maximum of air and light in these two groups of plants (as contrasted with the general absence of branching, and the small number and large size of the leaves in ferns and palms) that has determined the produc- tion of the progressively enlarging, solid stem that characterizes them. It must be remembered, however, that the stem of a tree fulfils several very distinct physiological purposes. Besides bearing up the weight of leaves and flowers so as best to obtain the air and hght they require, it is the means of communication between the root and the leaves. Through it the water and its ^ ' ' This statement is too general -when the trees of tlie whole world are taken into account. Species of Eucalyptus and Casiiarina, Altinrjia excelsa, Bomhax mala- baricum, Cedrcla Toona, Mahogany, and planted Teak grow faster than any Conifer. Even among our European trees, Birch, Alder, Ash, and Sycamore more than hold their own with Conifers for the first thirty years ; the rapid growth of Poplars is well known, and Beech beats Spruce and Silver fir up to seventy or eighty years, and after ninety outgrows Scots Pine." — Gardeners' Chronicle, December 20, 1902. USE OF WOOD TO THE TREE 5 dissolved gases and saline substances, taken in by the root from the soil, are conveyed to the leaves, which have been termed the laboratory of the plant," to be built up in them, with the carbonaceous food-material taken in from the atmosphere, into those complex " organic " compounds of which the whole struc- ture of the plant is composed. Furthermore, the stem serves as a reservoir in which some of these organic compounds, the *' plastic material " of the plant, are stored up for use in future growth. Every stem and every branch — and a branch is but a secondary stem, differing only in position — as long as it remains capable of elongation, is terminated, in the groups of trees with which we are concerned, by a bud. A hud is a growing-point protected by overlapping rudimentary leaves. In the immediate neighbourhood of this growing-point the stem in this its initial stage is entirely made up of structures which almost completely resemble one another. Whether we cut such a growing-point across or lengthwise it presents under the microscope the appearance of a delicate mesh-work of thin membrane filled in with a viscid semi-fluid substance. These meshes, from their resemblance to honeycomb, were in 1667 named cells by Robert Hooke. The delicate membranes which form them, the cell-walls as they are termed, are composed of a substance, or rather group of substances, known as cellulose. It contains the three elements, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, in definite proportions, which the chemist represents as CgH^oOg, that is, in a hundred parts by weight 44 are carbon, 6 are hydrogen, and 50 are oxygen. Cellulose, like starch and sugar, belongs to a group of compounds of carbon with hydrogen and oxygen in the proportions in which these two elements occur in water, which are known as carbo-hydrates. It has, in fact, the same percentage composition as starch, though differing from it in many properties. It is insoluble in water, flexible, slightly elastic, permeable, but only shghtly absorbent, and does not readily undergo fermenta- tion. When treated with acid it passes into a starch-like condi- tion, as is evidenced by its then turning blue with iodine, and under certain conditions in the living plant it would seem capable of being formed from, or of passing into, sugar. Cotton-wool consists almost entirely of pure, unaltered cellulose. The viscid, semi-fluid substance contained in the cells is of far more complex chemical composition. It contains not only carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, but also, though in far smaller proportion, nitrogen, with traces of sulphur, and, perhaps always also, phosphorus and other elements. It is probably a mixture in varying proportions 6 OF WOOD IN GENERAL * of some of those substances which, from their resemblance to albumen or white of egg, are known as albuminoid, and, from the readiness with which they undergo chemical change or decompo- sition, as proteids. Being the substance out of which all plant- structures originate, the sole constituent of the first germs of all living beings, it is known as protoplasm, from the Greek protos, first, plasma, formed matter. Any collection of similar cells or modifications of cells having a common origin and obeying a common law of growth is known as a tissue. These young cells at the apex of a stem, of nearly uniform size, and that extremely minute, with their delicate, as yet unaltered, cell-walls filled with protoplasm, form an embryonic tissue, one, that is, which will undergo change. Its uniform character causes it to be termed undifferentiated, while the various kinds of tissue to which by different changes it gives rise are known in contradistinction as permanent tissues. One change to which any cell is liable so long as it contains protoplasm is division into two, a partition wall of cellulose forming across it. The formation of this solid wall from material in solution in the protoplasm, and a correlative power, which, as we shall see, the living plant possesses, of dissolving a cell-wall, illustrate that interchangeability of sugar and cellulose of which we have spoken. A tissue the cells of which undergo division is termed merismatic or meristem, from the Greek merisma, division ; so that the embryonic tissue at the apex of the stem is known as apical meristem. Although its cells are all embryonic, they nevertheless at a very early stage commonly present such a degree of differentia- tion as to make it possible to distinguish three well-defined rudimentary tissue-systems (Fig. 2). First, there is a single layer of cells on the outside of the growing-point, with thickened outer walls and undergoing division only in planes perpendicular to the surface. If we trace this layer backwards down the surface of the shoot below its apex we shall find it continuous with similar cells which have lost their protoplasm and have even thicker outer walls. As this outer layer of permanent tissue is called the epidermis, from the Greek epi, upon, derma, skin, the embryonic layer in which it originates is termed the dermdtogen (derma, skin, and genndo, to produce). In the middle of the growing-point is a solid column-like mass of cells which are all somewhat elongated in the direction of the elongation of the stem. This is known as the plerome, and the central axis of tissues to which it gives rise as the stele (Greek for a column) (Fig. 3). Between the outer dermatogen and the inner plerome THE STELE 7 there is a layer, or a series of layers, of cells which undergo division both in planes perpendicular to and in planes parallel to the surface of the stem. These are known as the periblem. On tracing them backwards down the shoot we find them continuous with tissues which immediately beneath the epidermis are com- FiG. 2.— Growing.point of stem, showing apical meristein. P, plerome ; R, peri- blem ; E, dermatogen ; /, rudiment of leaf. (After Leunis and Frank.), monly green, and which often have their cells much thickened in the corners in herbaceous plants or shoots, whilst still further back, on older parts of woody shoots, the green layer is often buried under one or more layers of brown cork. These tissues Fig. 3.— Terminal bud, showing growing-point of stem, overlapped by rudimentary- leaves with buds in their axils, the whole covered by dermatogen. In the centre is the stele to which descend the midribs of the leaves. (After Prantl.) which thus originate in the periblem are known collectively as the cortex. It is with tissues originating from the central plerome or stele that we are mainly concerned. If we cut a young shoot across, a little below its entirely embryonic apex, we shall see that, whilst 8 OF WOOD IN GENERAL there is a central whitish mass, which on being magnified exhibits a comparatively wide-meshed structure, there are round this a ring of patches of a greyer, closer tissue. These grey patches may be observed to be roundish or sHghtly wedge-shaped in out- line, their longer diameter Ipng in one of the radii of the stem, and they are wider across their outer parts. They appear grey on account of the smaller diameter of their cells. Longitudinal sections show these patches to be cross-sections of long strands or bundles of cells, narrow^er and more elongated than those around them. The central mass of tissue is the fith or medulla, smd these strands are known as procambium or desmogen. Fig. 4.— Transverse section of the stem of Tra veller s Joy Clematis ( Vitdlba), showing relatively large central pith and large vessels. The pith is relatively large in the stems of herbaceous plants or in young shoots (Fig. 4), but does not increase in bulk as the tree grows older. Its cells are at first full of fluid, and their walls often remain thin. Those of its outer portion, near the pro- cambium strands, are smaller, and aU its cells are often two or three times as long in the direction of the elongation of the stem as they are broad. Thus in shape they are short, polygonal, closely-packed prisms. In many cases, as in the Elder, the ceUs of the pith die, losing their fluid contents, shrivelhng, and so completely disorganizing the entire tissue that the stem becomes hollow, or a mere fine of dry powder in the centre of the inner- most ring of wood marks tliis structural centre of the stem. In BUNDLES AND PITH-RAYS 9 other cases, as in the Oak, the cells of the pith have their walls thickened, and turn from white to brown ; but even then its rela- tively minute width makes it difficult to detect in a stem several years of age. The procambium strands extend, from the rudiments of leaves near its apex, right through the stem into tiie root. They get their name from a Latin word, cambio, to grow, being in a merely transi- tory or embryonic condition. In Monocotyledons the whole of their tissue passes into the condition of wood and bast ; so that the bundle, as the strand in its permanent form is termed, being incapable of any further growth in diameter, is said to be closed. It is because it gives rise to a bundle (Greek, desmos, a bond) that Fig. 5.— Three stages in the early development of an exogenous stem, m, pith ; r, cortex ; h, primary xylem : H, secondary xylem ; 6, primary phloem ; B, secondary phloem ; c, cambium ; ms, pith-ray. the procambium is termed desmogen. In those trees, however, with which we are concerned, viz. Gymnosperms and Dicotyledons, whilst the inner portion of each strand becomes wood or xylem (Greek, xylon, wood) and the outer part bast or phloem (Greek, phloios, bark), a band between these two parts remains embryonic. This layer is called the cambium, or more precisely, for a reason we shall see pres^ently, the fascicular cambium, the cambium, that is, within the bundle. Such a bundle, possessing such a cambium- layer, is termed an open one. Between the bundles, connecting the pith in the centre with the cortex on the outside of the ring of bundles, are parts of the original or ground-tissue of the stem, which are known as primary m^edullary rays or pith-rays (Fig. 5). In Dicotyledons they are 10 OF WOOD IN GENERAL often broad and conspicuous ; but in Gyninosperms they are so narrow as not to be visible to the naked eye. Prom the cambium- layer in one bundle to those in the bundles on either side of it the formation of cambium extends, across the primary pith-rays, so that instead of mere strips of cambium running longitudinally doT^Ti the stem between the xylem and phloem of each bimdle, there is now a cyhndrical sheath of cambium extending from the embryonic tissue of its terminal bud do\sTiwards over the whole stem. In transverse section this sheath appears as a ring, and is accordingly sometimes called the cambium-ruig. Those parts of it that extend between the bundles are termed interfascicular cambium, in contradistinction to the precisely similar tissue within Fig. (3. — Diagrams of exogenous stem -with six bundles, during the first year, at the beginning and at the close of the second year's growth, the last showing the wedge- shaped masses of primary xylem projecting into the central pith, and the formation of tlie first ring of secondary wood during the second year by the activity of the cambium ring. the bundles. This cambium- sheath is familiar to us all as the layer of dehcate thin-waUed ceUs, full of sticky protoplasm, through which we easily tear when we peel a stick. Having what has been termed the quahty of perpetual youth, it remains recognizable in a stem many years of age, and with the pith furnishes us with a convenient rough classification of all the structures of such a stem. As we have seen, the pith, not having grown since its earhest condition, remains as a mere central hne in such a stem. From this j)ith to the cambium-sheath is wood or xylem : outside the cambium is the rind, or, as it is commonly but somewhat mis- leadingly termed, bark, made up of the outer and often corky cortex and the inner, largely fibrous, phloem or bast. VASCULAR BUNDLES 11 In the first year the xylem and phloem are formed directly by the modification of the inner and outer parts respectively of the procambium-strand ; but subsequently all wood, bast, and pith- rays originate in the cambium. Accordingly the xylem and phloem of the first year are termed primary, and that formed from the cambium secondary (Fig. 6). The pith of trees seems mainly a structure of temporary utilit}^ to the plant, and the function of the cortex is chiefiy protective ; Fig. 7. — Transverse section of the stem of the Jerusalem Artichoke (Heliunthus tuberosus). From The Elements of Botany, by Mr. Francis Darwin, by his permis- sion and that of the Syndicate of the Cambridge University Press, c, cortex ; /, bast fibres ; c.c, companion-cells ; i.cb, interfascicular cambium ; d.v, pitted vessel ; p.x, spiral vessel of protoxylem ; e, endodermis ; s.t, sieve-tube: cb, cambium; m.r.p, pith-ray ; x.f, wood fibre : p.p, pith. but as the main function of the stem is to convey liquid nourish- ment from the root to the leaves, and to carry back, also in a diffusible form, the material elaborated in the leaves to growing parts, it is one of the most noticeable characters of the bundles that they are largely composed of vessels, elongated tube-like structures formed by the absorption of the transverse, or top and bottom, walls of rows of long cells placed end to end. For this reason they are often spoken of as vascular bundles. They also contain, however, cells which have not been thus fused into vessels, 12 OF WOOD IN GENERAL such cellular tissue, when its constituent cells are not more than three or four times long as they are broad, being technically known as parenchyma. As we have already seen, in addition to its function of conduct- ing hquids, which necessitates these vessels or other coiiducting tissue, as it is termed physiologically, the stem has to perform the mechanical function of bearing up a considerable weight — itself, its branches, leaves, etc. To enable it to do this, both xylem and phloem are commonly accompanied by elongated elements, of which the chief characteristic is that their walls are much thickened and hard. The elements of this mechanical tissue are known as fibres, and from containing them the bundles are often termed fibro-vascular bundles (Figs. 7 and 8). P S S F T F T C Sv B E Cx Fio, S. — Lougitudinal section of a fibro-vascular bundle in Helianthus. (After Sachs.) P, pith ; S, spiral vessels of protoxylem ; F, wocd-fibres ; T, tracheal ; C, cambium ; Sv, sieve-tubes ; B, bast fibres ; E, endodermis ; Cx, cortex. The walls of cells, fibres, and vessels in the xjdem acquire mechanical strength or resistance by undergoing a change known as lignification. This consists in their imjDregnation with a sub- stance kno^TL as lignin. Lignin consists of the same three elements as cellulose, viz. carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, but in different proportions, its percentage composition being 49 per cent, of carbon, 6 of hydrogen, and 44 of oxygen. Its chemical constitution is, however, as yet unknown. It is harder and more elastic than cellulose, readily permeable by water, but not absor- bent, not, that is, retaining the water. It is more soluble in acids, such as chromic acid, than is cellulose, and is recognised by turning brown when treated with Schulze's solution, a mixture of zinc- PHLOEM AND XYLEM 13 chloride, potassium-iodide, and iodine which turns unaltered cellulose blue. The elements of the phloem, with which we are less concerned than we are with the xylem, though often variously thickened, are not lignified. They consist of hast- parenchyma, sieve-tubes, companion-cells, and bast-fibres, besides the medullary rays which traverse xylem and phloem alike. Bast-parenchyma consists of slightly elongated cells in vertical rows of four or six, of which the terminal cells taper. This arises from each row having been formed by several transverse divisions of a single procambium or cambium cell. They generally contain protoplasm and sometimes grains of starch or crystals. Sieve-tubes are the vessels of the bast, long tubes with transverse partition-walls, and retaining their protoplasm but communicating through these transverse walls by the sieve-plates from which they take their name. The sieve-plate is a thin portion of the wall perforated by numerous pits close together. The sieve-tubes are the chief channel by which proto- plasmic matter manufactured in the leaves is conveyed through the stem. Companion-cells occur only in angiosperms. In longi- tudinal section they appear as narrower cells alongside the sieve - tubes filled with granular protoplasm and with unperforated transverse walls adjoining those of the sieve-tubes. In a trans- verse section they appear like small corners cut off the larger sieve-tubes, and they have their name from the fact that each of them originates in this way, a longitudinal wall dividing the original cell into two unequal parts, of which the larger contributes to a sieve-tube, the smaller remains a cell. Bast-parenchyma, sieve-tubes, and companion-cells are known collectively as soft bast in contradistinction to bast-fibres or hard bast. Bast-fibres are extremely elongated structures, tapering at each end, containing only water or air, and with their walls so thickened as sometimes to almost obliterate the cavity or lumen, as it is termed. Their walls are generally at least partially lignified and give a reddish colour with Schulze's solution, and the thickening is absent from some spots on their walls. These unthickened spots are known as pits. Pits, which are important as occurring also on some of the elements that make up wood, are of two main classes, simple and bordered. A simple pit is a spot at which a cell-wall is left unthickened, generally on both sides, each successive thickening- layer leaving the same space uncovered. It appears accordingly as a bright spot on the wall ; or, if in section, as a canal, the length of which depends upon the thickness of the wall. A bordered pit is so called because the bright spot appears surrounded by, or crossed by, a second circle or ellipse. The structure will 14 OF WOOD IN GENERAL be best understood from the diagrams (Fig. 9). In the thicken- ing of the cell-wall the area of the outer circle is at first un- thickened, but successive layers of thickening overlap this unthickened area more and more so as to make a short canal broad at the end near the original cell-wall and narrow at the end towards the centre of the cell. Subsequently a slight thickening termed the torus forms in the centre of the unthickened area. Pressure of liquid on one side of the pit-membrane often forces it against the " border," in which case the torus does not completely occupy the opening in the border or inner circle. The whole mechanism has been compared to a laboratory filter, the border being the funnel that acts as a support, the unthickened mem- brane, which is j)ermeable, corresponding to a filter-paper and the torus to the small platinum cone sometimes placed in the middle of the filter to protect it from direct pressure of liquid. The bordered pits on xylem vessels in Oak have been compared to Fig. 9.— Pits. A, Simple pit ; Al, in tangential longitudinal section ; A2, in surface view. B, Bordpred pit ; B\, in tangential longitudinal section ; J52, the same, with the middle lamella thrust to one side ; jS3, in surface view ; B^, in semi-profile. screw-heads, discs traversed by an elongated mark like the groove for a screw-driver, and the structure has been explained by the following imaginary model -.^ "Imagine a pair of watch-glasses each pierced by a narrow slit, and imagine them united face to face with a dehcate circular piece of paper between them, and then fixed into a hole cut in a thick piece of card. The outline of the screw- head is the outhne of the united watch-glasses where they are let into the card ; the groove in the screw-head is the obhque cleft which leads into the space between the glasses." In some cases, under pressure from the cell-contents on the other side of it, the unthickened membrane in a pit bulges into the cavity of the adjoining vessel. Such projections, which are known as tyloses, may undergo cell-division and may even form a mass of tissue blocking up the entire lumen of the vessel. This is the case in some of the vessels of Oak and still more strikingly in the Locust BZ BJ Al Francis Danvin, Elements of Botany , pp. 77-8. PITS 15 or Acacia [Robinia Pseudacdcia), in which the wood consequently appears non-porous, but, their cell-walls being thin, the tyloses appear in transverse section as light yellow spots on the dark heartwood. In Letterwood {Brosimum AubUtii), on the other Fig, 10. — Elements of Oak Wood, highly magnified. /, fibre ; w.p, part of row of wood-parenchyma cells ; tr. tracheid ; p.v, trachea (part of) ; sp, part of a spiral vessel. (From The Oak, by permission of Prof, Marshall Ward and Messrs. Kegan Paul, Trench, Triibner & Co,) hand, the tracheae are filled up with tyloses, the cells of which have their walls very much thickened so that they appear dark. We come next to the tissues which are of the greatest im- portance in our present study — those of the xylem or wood, 16 OF WOOD IX GENERAL developed on the inner side of the procambium strand and subsequently on the inner side of the cambium sheath. The development of xylem in a procambium strand begins with the conversion of one or a few cells, or vertical rows of cells, of the inner part of the strand into spirally, or occasionally annularly, thickened tracheids or trachece, known as the protoxylem or first-formed wood. This conversion consists in the loss of their protoplasmic contents, the hgnification of their walls, the deposit of a spiral thickening band internally, or of a series of rings, and, in the case of tracheae, the absorption of the trans- verse walls of the vertical rows of cells. Whilst tracheids are elongated cells, losing their contents, generally becoming hgnified and having thickened walls, so as to be adapted for the conveyance of air or water, trachece or true vessels differ from them only in being formed by the fusion of vertical rows of ceUs. In a transverse section the protoxylem is recognizable by the relatively small diameter of its tracheae or tracheids ; and, where there is a distinct pith, the}' may be seen projecting into the outer part of the pith in a discontinuous ring known as the medullary sheath. In longitudinal section the loose rings or spirals of their thickening are usually conspicuous, since, being the first vascular elements to form, they are considerably stretched b}^ the growth in length of the adjoining fundamental tissue. The spiral or annular thickening permits, by an uncoiling in the former or a separation of the rings in the latter, a considerable amount of such stretching (Fig. 10). The differences between the wood of coniferous trees and that of broad-leaved trees show themselves in the protoxylem and the rest of the primary wood, though they are even more im- portant in the secondary xylem, i.e. that formed after the cam- bium-ring is complete. We will, therefore, now deal with them separatelv, taking the simpler type, that of the conifers, first (Fig. 11).^ The xylem of conifers, both primary and secondary, consists mainly of tracheids ; but tracheae, or true vessels, occur m the protoxylem. In addition to the protoxylem the primary wood, i.e. that which is formed direct from the inner cells of the pro- cambium strand, contains other wider tracheids with bordered pits between the turns of their spiral thickening. A cross section of a Pine or Spruce shows distinct annual rings each made up of an inner, softer, hght-coloured portion, the spring ivood, and an outer, firmer, darker-coloured portion, the summer wood. The outer zone of the wood, that next to the bark, comprising from 30 to 50 of the most recently formed of these CONIFEROUS WOOD 17 annual rings and from one to three or more inches across, is of lighter colours and is known as the sap-wood or alburnum. Many of its cells are still in a sufficiently active state of vitality to store up starch, at least in winter, though growth is confined to the outermost layer of all, the cambium. The inner rings are darker and constitute the heart-wood or duramen, the cells of which are physiologically dead and serve only the mechanical function, of supporting the weight of the tree and resisting the lateral strain of the wind. The darker colour of this heart- wood is due to infiltration of chemical substances into the cell walls, but not, cs SW SHW Fig. 11.— Coniferous wood, about natural size. TS, tangential section ; RS, radial section ; CS, cross section; SPW, spring wood ; SW, summer wood. (After Roth.) in pine, as is sometimes supposed, to any greater thickening, Ugnification, or filling up of the cells than there is in the sap- wood. The proportion of sap-wood to heart-wood is always considerable, but it varies in width even in different parts of the same tree, the same year's growth being sometimes sap-wood in one part and heart-wood in another. The width of the annual rings varies from half-an-inch or more near the centre of very quick-grown trees to one-eighth or one-sixth of an inch (3-4 mm.), common widths for the twenty innermost rings in deal, one- twelfth of an inch, a general average width, one-thirtieth (0-7 mm.), an average for the twenty outermost rings, and even 2 18 OF WOOD IX GENERAL a minimum of one two -hundredth of an inch (0-2 mm.).^ Many local causes, esi^ecially exposure to wind, produce excentricity of growth, few trees presenting a truly circular cross-section or a truly central pith, though this is more common among pines than among other trees. Branches almost always present an excentrically oval section, the pith nearer to the upper surface. The summer-wood in each ring being darker, heavier, and denser. / 2 Fig. 12. — 1. Piece of wood of Spruce (Picea excelso.) with the bark removed, natural size. 2. A portion from the nearest upper outside angle of 1, showing wood near the outside of an annual ring, magnified 100 times. (From Hartig's Timbers and hoic to l"iioic than, by pemiissiou of Dr. SomervUle and Mr. David Douglas.) its relative proportion to the spring-wood largely determines the weight and strength of the wood, so that colour becomes a valu- 1 Poplars grown in moist gi'ound may reach a diameter of 14 inches in 8 years. Laslett records {Timber and Timber -trees, ed. 2, pp. -ii-o) exceptionally fine English Oak and Elm, and an average drawn from several specimens of Canadian Oak and Elm which gave the following number of rings at 6, 12, IS, and 24 inches diameter : English Oak, ----- Canadian Oak, . . . - English Ehn, Canadian Elm. - - - . . )in. 12 in. IS in. 24 in. 13 19 24 30 49 105 160 216 10 16 25 36 80 156 252 CONIFEROUS WOOD 19 able aid in distinguishing heavy, strong pine wood from that which is light and soft. Whilst on a cross-cut or transverse section the annual growths appear as rings, on a longitudinal radial section they are represented by narrow parallel stripes alternately hght and dark, and on a longitudinal but tangential section by much broader alternating and less parallel stripes with some V-shaped lines (Fig. 12). Under the microscope a transverse section of coniferous secondary wood presents regular straight radial rows of apparently four- sided meshes or openings, the transverse sections of tracheids. These are as broad in a radial as in a tangential direction in the spring wood, but much narrower radially in the summer wood of each Fig. 13.— Transverse section of Spruce (Picea excelsa), magnified 100 times, showing narrow rings, thin walls and three resin -ducts. (From Hartig's Timbers and how to kn'Ao them, by permission of Dr. Somerville and Mr. David Douglas.) ring. The cell-walls also are thicker in the summer wood. The radial walls have bordered pits, and in some cases such pits also occur on the tangential walls. Scattered through the summer wood are numerous irregular greyish dots, which on being mag- nified are seen to be the cross sections of relatively large spaces, the resin-passages, each surrounded by a layer of thin-walled cells, the resin-epithelium (Fig. 13). These resin-passages are not cells or vessels, but intercellular spaces, into which the resin oozes from the surrounding epitheHum (Fig. 14). They generally occur singly, though sometimes in groups, and are most readily detected on a very smooth surface, or are often more easily seen on radial or tangential sections. On these they appear as fine fines or scratches 2—2 20 OF WOOD IX GENERAL running longitudinally. The whole mass of xylem is traversed radially by pith-rays, most of which appear in the transverse sec- FiG. 14.— Resin-duct in coniferous wood, in transverse section, highly magnified, showing the epithelial cells surrounding the duct. tion of the stem as only one cell in width and made up of cells elongated radially. In a longitudmal and radial section (Fig. 15) Fig. 15,— Radial section of Silver Fir (Abies pectindta), showing a medullary ray, with simply pitted, parenchymatous cells, crossing wide tracheids of spring wood, and narrower ones of autumn wood, with bordered pits. Magnified 100 times. (From Hartig's Tirabers and how to knozc them, by permission of Dr. Somerville and Mr. David Douglas.) it appears that the tracheids are from 015 to I inch long, 50-100 times as long, that is, as they are wide ; that they have their DEVELOPMENT OF CONIFEROUS WOOD 21 bordered pits in a single row down their radial walls ; and that they are closed at their ends by a tapering to one side like the cutting edge of a carpenter's chisel. The pith-rays in longitudinal sections are seen to extend only a short way longitudinally, each appearing on radial sections as a band of 8 to 10 rows of cells elongated at right angles to the elongation of the tracheids Hke bricks in a wall 8-10 bricks high, with bordered pits on the cells of the upper and lower rows, in Pines and Spruces, and simple pits on the others. On tangential sections the rays appear as vertical series of 8-10 pores tapering above and below. In Pines there are some larger pith-rays containing horizontal resin-passages. The development of this comparatively simple type of wood IV III Fig. 16.— Diagram illustrating merismatic tissue. I, a merismatic cell ABCD ; II, a cross-wall ab has appeared; III, KabB has grown and again equals ABCD in size, whilst aCD& has also grown ; IV, Aa6B has been divided by a cross-wall cd ; V, AcdJi has again grown : it equals ABCD in size and is ready again to divide. Meanwhile caM and aCD6 have increased in size considerably- (From The Elements of Botany, by Mr. Francis Darwin, by his permission and that of the Syndicate of the Cambridge University Press. ) from the cambium can be readily traced. The cambium is a cyhndrical sheet of very thin-walled cells, each of which is rect- angularly prismatic, broader in a tangential direction and tapering above and below to a radially-directed chisel-edge. These cells contain protoplasm. After they have grown somewhat in a radial direction, partition walls form across them in the longitudinal tangential direction, so that each cell gives rise to two radially placed towards one another, and, this process being then repeated in one or both of the resultant cells, a radial row is formed (Fig. 16). After several such divisions the innermost and earliest-formed of these cells ceases to divide, and uses up its protoplasmic contents in lignifying and thickening its walls, except at certain spots which 22 OF WOOD IX GENERAL become pits. It has, in fact, become a water- and- air- conducting tracheid. A cambium cell in the same radial row as a pith-ray undergoes transverse division into 8-10 superposed cells which elongate radially and retain protoplasmic contents, thus continu- mg the pith-ray (Fig. 17). In sprmg, when there is httle heat, hght, or activity of root and leaf to supply material, and when the bark, spht by winter, may exert but httle pressure, tracheids are produced with relatively thin walls and wider radial extension, constituting the spring wood ; but in summer heat, hght, and physiological activity, thicker waUs are produced, whilst increased pressure of new bark aUows less radial extension. As winter comes on, the active growth and division of the cambium ceUs ceases, and its recommencement to form large thin-walled tracheids in the following spring, after bemg dormant for several months, produces the sharp contrast between compressed summer tracheids and larger spring ones that marks a new annual ring. Fig. 17.— Transverse section of Scots Fir (Piaus sylvistrU). After Strasburger. (From The Eleraents of Botan;/, by permission of Mr. Francis Darwin and the Syndi- cate of the Cambridge University Press.) phi, phloem ; s.p, sieve-plate ; rn.r, pith-ray ; c, cambium ; i, initial cell of cam- bium ; x, xylem ; 1, 2, 3, successive stages in the development of bordered pits. The simple uniformity of structure in coniferous wood contri- butes largely to its great technical value. Space does not permit any detailed discussion of the physio- logical uses of the different parts of such a stem as that of a conifer to the growing tree. The following recapitulation must suffice. The vitahty of the pith of trees is generally confined to the very earhest stages of their existence, and the spiralty-thickened ele- ments of the protoxylem also only serve as conducting tissue when aU. the xylem is young. Heart -wood has ceased to have any active functions, serving merely for strength. Whilst cortical tissue serves to protect from external action, damp, etc., and to check transpiration, the sieve-tubes of the phloem appear to be the chief carriers of the food-materials elaborated by the leaves to the growing parts of the stem ; and the formation of new phloem and xylem is the one function of the cambium. In the sap-wood FUNCTIONS OF CONIFEROUS WOOD 23 of conifers, consisting, as it does, so largely of tracheids, it is these tracheids, communicating as they do by the bordered pits on their radial walls, that convey water and air from the roots to the leaves, though they also store up starch in autumn and winter. The pith- rays being elongated radially, retaining their protoplasm, forming Fig. 18.— Transverse section of part of young stem of Oak, highly magnified. ah, pith ; c, cortex ; i, epidermis ; h, periderm ; g, collenchyma ; r, spiral vessels forming protoxylem ; pv, pitted vessels (trachea?) ; s;/i. secondary pith-rays ; p, wood- parenchyma ; n, m, cambium ; k, bast-fibres. (After Hartig, from The Oak, by per- mission of Professor Marshall Ward and Messrs. Kegan Paul, Trench, Triibner & Co.) starch, and communicating through their pitted walls with phloem and even cortex as well as xylem, undoubtedly play an important part in the transfer of formative material from one part of the stem to another. When we examine the stem of a broad-leaved tree, such as an 24 OF WOOD IN GENERAL oak, we find, with the same general exogenous arrangement of pith, bark, heart-wood, sap-wood, and annual rings, considerably greater complexity in the variety and grouping of the elements of which the tissues are built up (Fig. 18). The pith presents Fig. 19.— Transverse section of Oak, photographed direct from nature. considerable variety among broad-leaved trees, so as to be used to some extent in discriminating woods seen in complete cross- sections. Thus in its proportion to the area of the wood in cross- section it may vary from equality, i.e. being as wide as the xylem, as in three-year-old shoots of Elder, to 0^05 in shoots of the Fig. 20.— Part of transverse section through a branch of Cork Oak (Ouercus Siiber), 4 years old. (After Le Maout and Decaisne, from The Eleriunts of Botany, by permission of Mr. Francis Darwin and the Syndicate of the Cambridge University Press.) M, pith ; PC, phloem and cortex ; S, cork ; 1, primary pith-ray, running from pith to cortex ; 2, 3, and 4, secondary pith-rays formed in successive years. Cork-Elm of the same age. In outline it may be pentangular or hexagonal, as in Oak, Spanish Chestnut, Black Poplar, or White Willow ; triangular, as in Birch, Beech, and conspicuously in Alder ; ovoid, as Linden, Plane, Holly, Ash, and Maples ; or nearly circular. PITH OF BROAD-LEAVED TREES 25 In the last -mentioned case the projections of the primary xylem into the pith may give the pith a wavy or crenate outer margin, as in Hawthorn, Rowan, Laburnum, Horse-Chestnut, or Elder ; or this margin may appear even, as in Elm, Hazel, and Dogwood {Cormis). In the Walnuts the pith has an interrupted or chambered structure : in the Elder it soon dies and disintegrates, leaving the stem hollow ; whilst in young stems of Elm the inner portion of it Fig. 21.— Tangential longitudinal section of Oak, magnified 50 diameters, showing transverse sections of pith-rays. (After Miiller, from rim Oak, by permission of Prof. Marshall Ward and Messrs. Kegan Paul, Trench, Triibner & Co.) has thin walls and loses its protoplasm, whilst the outer part becomes thick- walled but retains its cell-contents. The pith-rays of broad-leaved trees are in general far more conspicuous than those of conifers. In Oak the large primary pith-rays extending from pith to cortex are often twenty or more cells in width, appearing as long, clearly defined, greyish hues in a transverse section of the stem (Fig. 19). The secondary pith- rays are much narrower as well as shorter (Fig. 20). In a tan- 26 OF WOOD IN GENERAL gential section (Figs. 21 and 22) the primary rays may be several hundred cell-rows, i.e., upwards of an inch, in height, and, however wide at the middle, taper to one cell at each end. On a radial section they appear as broad, shiny bands, the " mirrors," " felt," or " silver grain," so that they are conspicuous on any section, in whatever plane it may be. In Oak they constitute 16-25 per cent, of the wood (Figs. 23 and 24). The protoxylem of broad-leaved trees differs from that of conifers mainly in that its spirally-thickened elements are trachem or true vessels, owing to the absorption of the transverse walls of a vertical row of tracheids. But it is in the elements of the secondary xylem WOOD OF BROAD-LEAVED TREES 27 that we find the greatest complexity and variety. This may con- tain from three to five of the following six kinds of elements : tracheids, vessels, woody fibres, fibrous cells with thick or with thin walls, and wood-parenchyma. The tmchece or true vessels vary considerably in transverse diameter, some of them being the widest pores seen in a transverse section of wood and being some- times specially conspicuous in the spring-wood. Some of them, in young wood, have net-like thickening, but most of them have bordered pits, as have also the tracheids. The chief differences in fact between these two kinds of elements are the smaller diameter and lesser length of the tracheids. As they are each formed from a single cambium-cell, these tracheids have no transverse divisions ; 28 OF WOOD IN GENERAL whereas in the vessels there are much-perforated or partially ab- sorbed partitions inchned towards the pith-rays, indicating the origin of the vessels from the fusion of a chain of cells. Woody fibres may be as long as, or longer than, the tracheae, and are often more pointed, but their distinctive characteristic is their much- thickened, lignified walls, marked with few simple pits, often obhque and narrow. This thickening of their walls sometimes almost obliterates the cell-cavity or lumen, and, together with their early loss of all contents but water and air, serves to indicate their main function to be that of mechanical support. Fibrous cells only differ from fibres in retaining their protoplasmic contents. Their walls sometimes remain thin. Both thick- walled fibrous cells and woody fibres sometimes become chambered by the formation of delicate transverse walls. Wood-Parenchyma consists of vertical groups of Fig. 24. — Two annual rings of wood and the loark of the Oak, the upper surface in transverse section, part of the inner ring (unshaded) in tangential, and the front view of both rings in radial section. The medullary rays are shown black in trans- verse, shaded in radial section. (After Hough.) short cells, the upper and lower cell of each group tapering to a point, each group originating, in fact, from the transverse division of one cambium-cell. They retain their protoplasm and become filled with starch in autumn. Their walls are not much thickened, but are lignified and pitted, having bordered pits where in contact with trachese or tracheids, but simple pits elsewhere. Wood- parenchyma is commonly grouped in narrow circles round the vessels, appearing in longitudinal sections as cloudy margins to them. It may expand from such circles laterally into wings form- ing a spindle-shaped patch with the vessel in the centre, and these wings may widen until they meet others, so forming straggUng oblique lines, long wavy streaks, or concentric circles (" false rings "). These transverse lines of tissue may be very narrow, as in Ebonies, or broad and conspicuous. Wood-parenchyma much WOOD OF BROAD-LEAVED TREES 29 resembles the pith-rays, especially in tangential longitudinal sec- tions ; but its walls are not elongated radially. As has been said, the wood of broad-leaved trees may contain from three to five of these different elements. Vessels are always present, but in some cases tracheids are absent. The wood of Plane, Ash, and Citrus (Orange, Lemon, etc.), for example, con- sists of vessels, woody fibre, thin-walled fibrous cells and wood- parenchyma only. That of Holly, Hawthorn, and Pyrus (Apple, Pear, Rowan, etc.) is made up of vessels, tracheids, and wood- parenchyma : that of Maples, Elder, Ivy, Euonymus, etc. contains also thick-walled fibrous cells. The wood of Berheris (Barberry) a WP T Fig. 25.— a piece of dicotj'ledonous wood, magnified about 100 times. A transverse section is shown above, with a pith-ray {Pr.) crossing the zone of autumn wood (a) which forms the outer boundary of an annual ring. In front is a radial longi- tudinal section showing wood parenchyma (ir/'), some large tracheaj (J), and much wood-fibre, crossed by another pith-ray. The tangential section is in shadow. consists exclusively of vessels, tracheids, and thin and thick- walled fibrous cells ; and that of Oaks, Hornbeams, Plum, and Buckthorn of vessels, tracheids, woody fibre, and wood-paren- chyma (Figs. 25 and 26). The most common type of structure, how- ever, occurring in Willows, Poplars, Alder, Birch, Walnut, Linden, Magnolia, Ailanthus, Rohinia, etc., contains vessels, tracheids, woody fibre, thin-walled fibrous cells, and wood-parenchyma. The distinctive features of woods, however, depend rather upon the proportions in which these elements are present, and upon their arrangement, than upon the absence of any of the six kinds of elements. There is, as a rule, among the woods of 30 OF WOOD IX GENERAL broad-leaved trees no such regularity of radial arrangement of elements as characterizes the simple wood of conifers. In the cambium region, it is true, owing to the repeated regular tan- gential divisions, the cells not only appear rectangular in a trans- verse section, but are also in regular radial rows ; but in the xylem itseK this regularity is disturbed by the different diameters attained by the various elements as they become fully formed. In Oak, for example, the annual rings are marked in a cross- section by the large and conspicuous pores, or sections of the vessels, which occupy the greater part of the spring wood of each ring (Fig. 27). On a radial section the layers appear as parallel a 1) Fig. 26. — Ti-ansverse section of Beech {Faguz sylvdtica). Magnified 100 times, a, naiTow pith-ray ; b, broad pith-ray ; c, boundary of an annual ring. Tlie large pores are transverse sections of vessels (tracheae). The thick--^alled elements with narrow lumina are wood-fibres ; those with thinner walls and wider lumina, wood- parenchyma or tracheids. (From Hartig's Timbers and how to knon- them, by permission of Dr. Somerville and Mr. David Douglas.) stripes, and on a tangential one as broader and less parallel stripes ; but, whilst in coniferous woods the dark bands were denser summer wood, in this case the darker parts are produced by the vessels in the spring wood, the more uniform fibres of the summer wood appearing hghter. Vessels, tracheids, and fibres formed in spring have larger diameters and thinner waUs than those formed in autunm, which fact produces much of the distinctness of the annual rings. In timbers with well-marked rings the distinctness of these rings may either be due, as in Oak, Ash, Teak, etc., to the contrast between wood with numerous large vessels and that with fewer or smaller ones ; or, as in Birch, Maple, Horse-chestnut, etc., RINGS AND FALSE RINGS 31 to the fibres being smaller across and thicker- walled in one part of each ring, whilst the vessels may be evenly dispersed through the whole wood. Woods differ widely as to the circularity of their rings. In not a few cases they are distinctly wavy ; and, whilst in Beech and Hornbeam the crests of the waves — as seen in a cross-section — bend inwards at the primary pith-rays, in the Bar- berry they bend outwards. In evergreens, to which type belong the bulk of tropical broad-leaved timbers, where there is not the check to physiological activity produced by the " fall of the leaf," we do not, as a rule, find such well-marked annual rings. Some- times, however, the annual rings are replaced by less completely 32 OF WOOD IN GENERAL concentric zones, often stretching as wavy, pale, bar-like markings from one primary pith-ray to another, and sometimes running into one another. These " false rings," as they have been termed, which are seen in the wood of Figs, She-oaks {Casuarina), Poon {Calophyllum), etc., will be found on microscopic examination to be mainly produced by zones of wood-parenchyma. The grouping of the vessels also affords some useful distinctive characters. Thus in Box and in Quince they usually occur singly ; in Hazel and Holly in groups of from 5 to 12 ; in Hornbeam in long sinuous radial lines between the pith-rays ; in Elms in concentric Fio. 28— Transverse section of Buckthorn {Rhdranus cathdrticus), showing flame-like groups of vessels. bands like false rings ; and in Oaks, Chestnut and Buckthorn, from 20 to 50 together, in flame-hke groups (Fig. 28). The elements of the wood are generally parallel in direction to the axis of the stem or limb in which they occur — i.e. the wood is straight-grained ; but they may be spirally twisted round the stem, or obhque, in which latter case if successive layers he in opposite directions the wood is cross-grained. A shghtly wavy longitudinal course in the elements of the wood produces the condition known as curly grain, frequent in Maple ; whilst shght projections or depressions repeated on the outer surface of suc- cessive annual layers produce the bird's-eye and landscape varieties in the same wood. The presence of undeveloped buds or knots, PITH-RAYS AND PITH-FLECKS 33 as in " burrs," produced on many trees by the attacks of mites {Phytoptus), causes similar ornamental wavings of the grain. One main cause of the elements not being vertical is their growth in length and in diameter after leaving the cambium stage. Such growth in length causes the tips of the fibres to crowd in between those above and below, and become interlaced and obUque in direction. This adds to the toughness of the wood and makes it less easy to spht, and may produce a visible twisting of stems or branches. Up to a certain age the segments or chambers (original cells) of the vessels, the tracheids and the fibres, gradually increase each year both in length and diameter. The pith-rays — as seen in cross-section — afford a very useful distinctive character, varying much, as they do, in number and in width. In Willow, Horse-chestnut and Ebony, as in Conifers, they are either only one cell in width, or are at least so incon- spicuous as to require a lens for their observation, whilst in Oak and in the so-called She-oaks {Casuarina) they are conspicuous to the naked eye. They vary in width from -005 millimetre to a millimetre ; and in number from 20 or less in a breadth of 5 milli- metres, as in Labur7ium and Robinia, to 64 in the same space, as in Oak, or even 140 in the case of Rhododendron maximum. Another character of some value in discrimination is the occur- rence of pith-flecks, or medullary spots, dark rust-like patches, which occur in Alder, Birch, Hazel, Hawthorn and some species of Willow, Poplar and Pyrus. They are supposed by some authorities to originate in passages bored by the larvae of a species of Tipula (wire-worm) which live in the cambium, these passages becoming filled up immediately with cellular tissue ; but their origin requires further investigation. We will postpone the consideration of such characters of woods as weight, hardness, colour and odour — char- acters that depend little, if at all, upon structure — to a subsequent chapter. It may be noted here that, while it is the lignified ele- ments of woods, especially their tracheids and fibres, that give them their chief technological value, it is the stored up nitrogenous and other more complex, and therefore more chemically unstable, substances that are the most combustible, i.e. the most readily oxidized, and also the most readily decomposed by the attacks of fungi. It is these substances, therefore, that have to be eliminated, or at least taken into account, in the processes of seasoning or preserving timber, and it is their presence which renders sap- wood generally less durable than the physiologically inert heart- wood. 3 CHAPTER 11 THE EECOGXITIOX AXD CLASSIFICATIOX OF WOODS. Not only carpenters and other workers in wood, but engineers, surveyors and timber-merchants at present recognize the timbers with which they are famihar as to kind, and even largely as to qualit}', by methods obviously and confessedly emxDirical, mere rule of thumb." From this it results that, though woods may be accurately discriminated generically, as oak, ash, birch or pine, the species are seldom correctly distinguished, and, as a consequence, the best wood for any particular purpose is very often not obtained. In these empirical identifications such more obvious but variable, and therefore less trustworthy, characters as weight, hardness, colour and odour are often more used than most of the struc- tural characters described in the previous chapter. In attempting a more thorough-going discrimination we cannot ignore these more obvious characters ; but it is important to recognize their varia- bility and consequently merely secondary importance. Details as to the testing of weight and hardness will form the subject-matter of a subsequent chapter : we are here only concerned T^ith rough approximations. Weight of wood. — The weight of wood depends mainly upon two things, its compactness and its moisture. Compactness sig- nifies the amount of woody or other sohd matter in a given bulk, and this will generally be greater in slow-growing than in quick- groT^ing species, greater in heartwood than in saj)wood. Moisture is so far more variable in amount in the same wood, according to the extent to which it has been naturally or artificialh^ seasoned, that no comparison of the weights of different woods can be of any value imless the samples have been kiln-dried, and even by this method it is difficult to secure a uniform elimination of moisture. If finely powdered and completely dried, all woods have a density or specific gravity — a weight, that is, as compared to that of water — of ajDproximately 1-5. Many tables have been published giving the density or specific gravity of various woods to three or even four 34 WEIGHTS OF WOODS 35 places of decimals. A more useful form of statement, however, is perhaps the weight of a standard cube, either that of a cubic foot in pounds or that of a cubic decimetre in grams. ^ Thus, while water weighs 62-321 lbs. per cubic foot, timbers range from 13 to 85 lbs. per cubic foot. They may be grouped from this point of view in the following six grades : Approximate weight of 1 cubic foot Specifi'' in pounds. gravity 1. Very light, - not exceeding 24 •26—-^ Spruce, Willow and most Poplar. 2, Light, 24—30 •4— -5 Northern Pine, Hemlock Spruce, Linden, Chestnut. 3. 30—36 •5— -6 Pitch-pine, Douglas Spruce, Sycamore. 4. Heavy, 36—42 •6— -7 Most Birch, Beech and Walnut. 5. Very heavy, 42—48 •7— -8 Hornbeam, Hickory and good Ash and Elm. 6. Heaviest, ------- Above 48 Above 'S Some Oak, most Teak, Mahogany, Jarrah, ]\Iora and Greenheart. Whilst such kiln-dried weights as those employed here range from a specific gravity of -26 in Ficus aurea, or 13 lbs. to the cubic foot in Erythnna suberosa, to 1-3 in Black Iron-wood [Con- ddlia ferrea), or 85 lbs. to the cubic foot, as in Anjan (Hardwickia hindta), none of the native woods of temperate latitudes are, when dry, as heavy as water.^ Most of the woods in grade 6 of the above table grow within the tropics. Hardness of wood. — Though in testing woods for engineering purposes various resistances, such as stiffness or elasticity and compressibility, have to be ascertained, hardness, or resistance to indentation, is often estimated roughly. It may be expressed with precision by the number of kilograms required to sink a. punch one centimetre square to the depth of 1-27 millimetres (oV of an inch) perpendicularly to the fibres of the wood, or by the number of pounds per square inch to produce such an indenta- tion. Here too we may, perhaps, group all woods roughly into six grades : 1. Hardest, such as the Iron-wood of India, Mesua ferrea, which turns the edge of almost any tool, and Lignum-vitae (Gudiacum), which requires 793 kilograms to produce the standard indentation. ^ To facilitate the conversion of one measure into the other it may be noted that 1 cubic foot = nearly 28J (28*315) cubic decimetres, and 1 pound avoirdupois = 453^ (453-592) grams. ^ This is true when the contained air is not eliminated. For more precise esti- mates see Chapter VIL 36 OF WOOD IN GENERAL 2. Ven^ hard, requiring more than 3200 lbs. per square inch, such as Hickory and good Oak and Elm. 3. Hard, requiring from 2400 lbs.-3200 lbs., such as Ash, Walnut, Beech, Holly, Sycamore, and Sweet Chestnut. 4. Medium, requiring from 1600 lbs. -2400 lbs., such as Douglas Spruce. 5. Soft, requiring less than 1600 lbs., such as the majority of coniferous woods. Pine, Spruce, Cedar, Poplar, Linden and Horse- chestnut. 6. Very soft, such as the so-called Cotton-tree of India (Bomhax malahdricum), which is so soft that a pin can be readily driven into it w4th the fingers. Hardness and density or weight to a great extent vary together. They also increase from the base of a stem up to its first branch, and decrease from that point upward. Colour of wood. — The colour of the heartwood affords in many cases a useful aid in identification, w^hile mere differences of tint are often indicative of quality or soundness. The black duramen of the Persimmon {Diospyros virginidna), of other species of Diospyros knoTvn as Ebonies, and of Laburnum {Cytisus Laburnum), the dark brown of the Walnuts, the purphsh-red of Logwood {Hcematoxylon campechidnum), the lemon-yellow sap wood and bluish-red heartwood of the Barberry [Berheris vulgaris), the narrow yellow sapwood and greenish heart in Lignum-vitse {Gudia- cum officinale), or the mottling of dark and hght brovms in the Ohve {dlea europcea), are obvious distinctions. The Northern Pine (Pinus sylvestris) presents numerous varia- tions in the colour of its wood, as well as in its mode of branching, dependent probably in part upon the conditions under which it is grown, and the superiority of " red deal " to the more resinous honey-yellow varieties is well known in trade. Northern hill- groA^Ti wood is commonly redder than that of the south grown in plains, the finest being that of the Riga pines, with a close pyramid of ascending branches, including the timber from Smolensk, Vitebsk, Tchernigov, and Volhynia. The Locust or False Acacia of the United States (Rohinia Pseudacdcia) includes at least four varieties of wood. The most durable, most beautiful, and most valuable is the red : the commonest, the green, a greenish-yellow wood (apparently the only kind imported), is next in value ; the black is only recorded in the Western States ; and the white is the least valuable. In West Virginia three varieties of the Tuhp-tree (Liriodendron tulipifera) are distinguished as " White," " Blue," or " Yellow Poplar," of which only the last named is commonly shipped to HARDNESS AND COLOURS OF WOODS this country. Grown only for ornament in Europe, in America this tree is largely used for rafters, wainscots, roof-shingles, boxes, furniture, and turnery, and increasing quantities now arrive at Liverpool from New York under the names of American or Yellow Poplar, American Whitewood or Canary Whitewood. These names and that of " Tulip-wood " are nearly all objectionable, as previously applied to very different woods, or as suggesting a connection between the tree, a member of the Magnolia family, and the Poplars. The yellow variety of its wood comes from moist low-lying ground, and is valued for staining or poHshing, by cabinet-makers, shop-fitters, and coach-builders. Exposure to air or light darkens the colour of most wood, as is well seen in freshly felled, as compared to seasoned. Mahogany. Moisture carries this darkening deeper into the wood, whilst the black of Oak and the dark brown of Yew after prolonged immer- sion in bogs are well known. The translucency of all sound timber when in thin slices gives it a characteristic lustre, whilst incipient decay renders it dull and opaque. Any local departure from the natural colour peculiar to the species is an indication of incipient decay. The deterioration that sets in directly growing timber passes maturity generally shows itself first by a white colour at the centre of the butt-end of the leg. This is not a serious defect ; but the yellowish-red tinge subsequently assumed indicates a loss of toughness and tenacity, and suggests that the log is not well fitted for constructive work. So too spots of discoloration scattered through a log, especially at its butt-end, are liable to prove centres from which serious decay, caused or accompanied by parasitic fungal moulds, may spread. This remark does not apply, however, to the so-called pith-flecks or medullary spots, which are often numerous in woods when perfectly sound. The reddish-brown tinge known as foxiness is a clear sign of advanced decay, unfitting wood for any purposes requiring strength ; but Oak is very often much prized by cabinet-makers when in this condition, merely on account of its colour, it being then known as " Brown Oak." Odours and resonance of woods. — The odours of woods, such as the resinous smells of Deal or Teak, the fragrance of Cedars, Toon, or Sandal-woods, the characteristic perfume of Camphor- trees and the unpleasant smells of the Stinkwood {Ocotea bulldta) of South Africa and the Til (Oreoddphne fdetens) of Madeira, may sometimes be of use in discrimination, as, to an educated ear, may the notes given out by different woods when struck by a hammer. In the manufacture of musical instruments the wood must be of uniform structure, even-grained, free from knots, well 38 OF WOOD IN GENERAL seasoned, and unbent, so that each fibre may vibrate freely. The notes emitted will vary in pitch directly with the elasticity, and indirectly with the weight of the wood. Spruce {Picea excelsa), imported as " Swiss Pine," " Viohn- wood," or Bois de resonnance," is employed for the sounding boards of pianos and the belly of violins, whilst Maple, a dense wood, is used for the back and ribs of the latter instrument. Classification of woods. — Obviously these " rule of thumb " characteristics are generally made use of in practice, not sepa- rately, but together. This will also be the case in the classification which we are about to propose, which refers mainly to the ap- pearance of transverse sections, including both heartwood and sapwood. For ready identification and comparison of timbers, considering even the great variety that are used in the arts in various parts of the world, it is obviously necessary to have some system of classification. Botanists group trees, as they do other flowering plants, in accordance with the characters of their flowers, fruit, and leaves, a method which is undoubtedly the best for the purpose of indicating the genetic affinities of the various species. As we have seen, for instance, timber-yielding trees fall naturally into two main groups, conifers and dicotyledonous angiosperms, of which the first is generally distinguished by needle-hke leaves and seeds borne exposed on the inner surfaces of scales arranged in a cone, whilst the second group has generally broad leaves and the seeds enclosed in a fruit. For the practical study of timber, however, we require a scheme of grouping based upon the wood itself ; and, having often to deal with converted timber it is well to be as independent as we can of characters derived from bark, or even from pith. Speaking of this problem in his excellent work. Timber and some of its Diseases, Professor H. Marshall Ward writes : It may be doubted whether all the difficulties are hkely to be surmounted. ... In any case, while allowing that it is as 3'et impossible so to arrange a collection of pieces of timber, that all the kinds can be recognized at a glance, it must be admitted that the attempt to do so at least aids one in determining many kinds." In describing the many valuable timbers of India, Mr. J. S. Gamble makes use of eight classes of characters : (i) the size of the trees ; (ii) whether they are evergreen or deciduous ; (iii) the bark ; (iv) the wood, its colour, hardness, and grain ; (v) the annual rings ; (vi) the pores or vessels ; (vii) the pith rays ; and (viii) other miscellaneous characters, such as concentric markings or false rings. Of these, the first three are not available to the DISTINCTIVE CHARACTERS 39 student of converted timber. The annual rings by their width indicate the rate of growth, a character of great importance as to quahty, if not of great distinctive value. More than 12 rings to the inch, giving, as it does, 6 feet of girth in 134 years, may be termed slow growth ; from 12 to 6 rings to the inch, which would mean 6 feet of girth in from 134 to 67 years, moderate ; and less than 6 rings to the inch, or 6 feet of girth in 67 years, jast growth. The absence of pores or vessels is characteristic of coniferous woods. As to the size of pores, Mr. Gamble classifies them in 7 groups : extremely small, as in Box ; very small, as in Acer fictum ; small, as in Haldu (Adina cordi folia) ; moderate-sized, as in Mahwa {Bdssia latijolia) ; large, as in Siris {Alhizzia Lehhek) ; very large, as in Erythrma suherosa ; and extremely large, as in many climbers (Fig. 4, for instance). So too the pith-rays, as distinctive characters, are grouped under seven types : extremely fine, as in Euonymus Idcerus ; very fine, as in Ebony {Diospyros Melanoxylon) ; fine, as in Siris {Alhizzia Lehhek) ; moderately broad, as in Dillenia pentagyna (Compare Fig. 34, p. 48) ; broad, as in Plane [Pldtanus orientdlis), in which case they measure I mm. ; very broad, as in some Oaks, in which they reach 1 mm. ; and extremely broad, as in Sdmara rohusta. The number and distance apart of the pith-rays are also characters of consequence. When further apart than twice the diameter of the pores they may be termed distant. There are some of these microscopic characters that are eminently distinctive of large groups, such as the Natural Orders into which botanists group plants. The CupuUferce, for instance, that great group to which the Oaks, Beeches, Chestnuts and Hornbeams belong, have their pores in wavy radial lines or queues : in the Ehendcece, or Ebony tribe, and the Sapotdcece, a closely-allied tropical Order, including the Bullet-woods [Mimusops), the pores are in short, wavy lines, and there are wavy false rings ; but whilst the Ehendcece have white, grey or black wood, that of the Sapotdcece is reddish. So too the tropical Order Anondceoe, or Custard-Apple family, which includes the Lancewood of the West Indies, has regular ladder-like transverse bars on its woods that are very characteristic. Several of the characters used in the classification of woods, such as weight per cubic foot, hardness and amount of ash left on combustion, not only vary together, but also differ according to the age of the tree and the distance of the sample from the root. Weight, for instance, increases from the butt to the lowest branch, and decreases from the latter point upward. 40 OF WOOD IX GENERAL Among minor characters sometimes of use in discriminating woods may be mentioned the colour of a solution obtained by boihng the wood in water or in alcohol, its reaction when treated with a solution of iron sulphate or perchloride, and the colour of the ash j^roduced in burning. Jarrah, for instance, yields a black cindery mass, whilst the only less valuable paving wood Karri gives a white ash. Unfortunately trees of the same Order, or even of the same genus, by no means always have similar woods. Mr. Gamble, for instance, cites the important genus Dalbergia, three Indian species of which — the Blackwood {D. lati folia), Sissoo [D. Sissoo), and D. lanceoldria — have hard, dark- coloured, heavy woods ; whilst other species have only white and often soft sapwood, not forming any Fig. 29. — Transverse section of Linden, a ling-porou? wood, showing three annual rings. (After Van Tieghem, from The Elemeivts of Botany, by permission of [Mr. Francis Darwin and the Syndicate of the Cambridge University Press.) ' duramen,' or heartwood. When, however, we compare heartwoods microscopically they do as a rule resemble one another in aUied species. In many cases a knowledge of the locahty from which a timber comes may aid us in identifj-ing it. Tlius, save by this means, it is apparently impossible to distinguish the woods of Cupressus Lawsonidna from Oregon, C. thyoides from the Eastern States, Thuya gigdntea, the Canoe Cedar or Red Cedar of the West, and T. occidentdlis, the Arbor-vitfe of the Xorth-east, all of them being known to American timber-merchants as White Cedar. The following table is by no means exhaustive, few Asiatic or Austrahan woods being, as yet, classified in it. It has seldom been jDossible to carry the discrimination further than genera. Though obvious naked-eye characters have been largely employed, use is also made of those seen only in microscopic sections. For CLASSIFICATION OF CONIFEROUS WOODS 41 this purpose it is only necessary to take a single shaving, across the grain, with a well-sharpened plane, put it at once into methyl blue or some other die, and then mount it as an ordinary micro- scopic slide. The first character to be observed is the presence or absence of " pores " or the transverse sections of large tracheae. If they are absent, which practically means that the wood is coniferous, we next look for conspicuous resin-canals, and for the presence of heartwood defined by a distinct colour. The out- lines of the annual rings, the hardness, colour, weight, taste and smell of the wood then afford further means of identification ; whilst such microscopic characters as the presence of tracheids in the pith-rays, or of spiral thickening in the tracheids, are only requisite as a last resource. Where, on the other hand, the presence of " -pores " indicates that the wood is that of a broad- leaved tree, we first note whether there are, or are not, distinct annual rings, or whether " false rings " of wood-parenchyma are present ; then whether the " pores " are so collected in the inner or spring portion of each ring that we should class the timber in question as " ring-porous " (Fig. 29), or whether they are so scattered that we may call it " diffuse-porous." The grouping of the pores, the prominence of the pitli-rays, the weight, hardness, and colour here again furnish subsidiary characters. I. CONIFEROUS OR NON-POROUS WOODS. No visible or conspicuous pores on a transverse section, even when magnified, the wood containing no tracheae or true vessels, except immediately round the pith. Resin-canals often present in the autumn wood. Annual rings generally sharply marked by denser, dark-coloured autumn bands. Pith-rays very fine and numerous, invisible to the naked eye. A. Without conspicuous resin-canals. 1. No distinct heartwood : rings well rounded. a. Yellowish-white, soft : no tracheids in the pith-rays. Abies. The True or Silver Firs, e.g. A. pectindta of Central Europe, A. Wehhidna of the Himalayas, A. balsdmea, the Balsam Fir of the North-Eastern United States, and A. grdndis, A. concolor, A. amdbilis, A. nohilis, and A. magmfica of the Western States. b. Reddish, soft, brittle : pith-rays with tracheids. Tsuga. The Hemlock Spruces, including T. canadensis of North- east, and T. Mertensidna of North-west America. 42 OF WOOD IN GENERAL 2. Heartwood present and contrasting in colour. a. Heavy, hard, non-resinous, dull. Heartwood brownish or orange-red : sapwood lemon-colour. Rings excentric, wavy and sinuous. Taxus. The Yews, including T. hdccata of Europe and Northern Asia, and T. hrevifolia of North-west America. h. Light, soft to medium hard, usually aromatic. Heartwood rose, yellowish or brownish red : sapwood yellowish white. Rings wavy and sinuous. Pith-rays very fine. The Red Cedars," Jumpems. Heartwood rose to brown red. J. virginidna. Heartwood yellowish-brown. J. communis and J. Oxycedrus. c. Very hght, very soft, odourless. Heartwood hght-red, turning brownish : sapwood narrow, amber-coloured. Rings regular. Pith-rays very distinct, especially on the radial section. Resin-canals in a single row, or absent. Redw^oods," Sequoia. d. Medium heavy and hard, often camphor-scented. Heart- wood rich brown, often mottled with darker brown • or yellow : sapwood narrow, white. Rings wavy. Cypress Pines," etc. Cdllitris. e. Light, moderately hard, or soft, fragrant. Heartwood yellowish or reddish-brown. Rings well rounded. Resin-ducts few and narrow. Cedrus. 3. Heartwood present, but differing only in shade from the sap- Avood, of a dull yellowish or greyish brown. a. Odourless and tasteless. Taxodium. h. Light, soft, with shght resinous odour, tasteless. Rings finely and coarsely wavy. Pith-rays very fine but distinctly coloured. White Cedars," including Thuya occidentdlis and T. gigdntea, Cupressus thyoides and C. Lawsonidiia. c. Light, soft, with resinous smell and peppery taste. Incense Cedar, Libocedrus. Near here belong apparently the Huon Pine and allied species, Dacrydium, etc. B. Resin-canals present, at least in autumn wood. L Heartwood not distinctly coloured, white : resin-canals few, very narrow : rings imperfectly rounded ; tracheids in pith- rays. Spruces, Picea. 2. Heartwood distinct. a. Resin-canals not numerous, nor evenly distributed. CLASSIFICATION OF CONIFEROUS WOODS 43 (i) Canals solitary or here and there in pairs ; tracheids without spirals. Heartwood reddish-brown, sapwood yellowish. Knots irregularly distributed. Larches or Tamarack, Ldrix. (ii) Canals in groups or Hnes of 8-30 : tracheids with spirals, otherwise resembhng Larch. Douglas Spruce, Pseudotsuga. b. Resin- canals numerous, evenly distributed. Knots in regular whorls. Pinus. Fig. 30.— Radial section of Scots Fir {Piaus sylctstrk). Magnified 100 times. a, narrrow tracheids of autumn wood with small bordered pits on their radial walls ; h, broad spring tracheids ; cd, resin-duct lined with epithelium ; c, parenchyma of pith-ray with large simple pits ; /, tracheids of pith-ray with small boi-dered pits and dentate projections. (From Hartig's Timbers and how to know them, by permission of Dr. Somerville and Mr. David Douglas.) (i) Wood tolerably hard and firm : transition from spring to autumn wood abrupt : resin-canals more numerous in autumn wood : heartwood reddish : tracheids of pith-ray with dentate projections, when seen in radial section (Fig. 30). Hard Pines. * 1 or 2 simple pits on radial wall of each tracheid of pith-ray. " Norway pine " of U.S.A., Pinus resinosa. ** 3 to 6 such pits. I Wide rings. Loblolly and Short-leaf Pines of U.S.A., P. tceda and P. echindta ; Northern, 44 OF WOOD IX GENERAL Black Austrian, and Cluster Pines of Europe, P. sylvestris, Laricio, and Pinaster. ft Narrower rings. Longleaf Pine of U.S.A., P. palustris ; Dwarf Pine of Europe, P. montdna. (ii) Wood soft and light : transition from spring to autumn wood gradual ; autumn wood narrower and wdth fewer resin-canals : tracheids of pith-ray without dentate projections. Soft Pines. * Rings rather narrow, circular : resin-ducts very large and numerous : wood yello\\dsh. P. Cembra. Rings broad : wood redder. Weymouth and Sugar Pines, P. Strohus and P. Lamhertidna of U.S.A. ; and probably the Aleppo Pine, P. halepensis. II. LEAF- WOODS, HARD-WOODS, OR POROUS WOODS. Pores visible on transverse section, either to the naked eye or when magnified, often characteristically grouped, especially in spring-wood. Pith-rays either all fine or some broad. A. Without distinct annual rings, though sometimes with false-rings or partial zones of wood-parenchyma. Mostly tropical. 1. With false rings. a. Some pith-rays broad. Indian Oaks, Quercus lamellosa, etc. b. All pith-rays narrow. (i) False rings very distinct. * No distinct heartwood : wood moderately hard and dense, greyish. Banyan, Ficus hengalensis, Myro- balans, Termindlia belerica, and various Asiatic Acacias and other LeguminoscB. ** Dark heavy heartwood. E.g. the very hard, tough purplish -bro^vTi Jhand, Prosopis spicigera. (ii) False rings obscure : wood dense, heavy, red, brown, purple or black. Including the chief hardest woods of India and other tropical countries, such as the Ebonies, Diospyros, Ironwood, Mesua ferrea, Pynkado, Xylia dolabriformis, Anjan, Hardwickia bindta. Rose- woods, Dalbergia, Pterocdrpus, etc.. Babul, Acacia ardbica, and other species, such, perhaps, as the Austrahan Myall, A. homalophylla, Saj, Termindlia tomentosa, Bandara, Lagerstrdemia parvifolia, Lignum- vitae, Gudiacum, etc. Ohve {Olea europdba), a close, CLASSIFICATION OF HARD-WOODS 45 compact, yellow wood, characteristically mottled with brown, with uniformly scattered vessels, may, perhaps, be classed here. 2. Without false rings. a. Soft, with no distinct heart. Silk-cotton, Bombax, Mango, Mangifera, etc. b. Harder, denser, usually with distinct heart. Siris, Alhizzia Lebbek, Eng, Dipterocdrpus tuberculdtus, etc. (Compare Fig. 33, p. 47.) B. With distinct annual rings. 1. Ring-porous : vessels in spring wood large or numerous, those in summer wood small or few and scattered. a. Vessels in the spring wood larger. 1 Fig. 31.— Transverse section of Common Ash (Frdxinus excelsior), photographed from nature. (i) Vessels in tree-like or dendritic groups, or in circles, often scattered in the inner part of the rings. * Slightly dendritic or concentric : pores in summer wood minute, regularly distributed, singly or in groups, or in short peripheral, but never radial lines X Pith-rays minute, scarcely distinct. § Wood heavy and hard : vessels in summer wood not in clusters, or 2-4 together, (a) Heartwood not yellow in radial section ; con- tinuous zone of pores in spring wood. Ash, Frdxinus. Vessels in summer wood in peripheral lines. OF WOOD IX GENERAL White and Green Ash, F. americdna and F. viridis. Vessels in summer wood not united in peri- pheral lines. English, Black and Red Ash, F. excelsior (Fig. 31), F. sambuci folia, F. pubescens. (b) Heartwood yellow, very heavy^ and very hard. Osage Orange, Madura. §§ Wood hght and soft : vessels in summer wood in groups of 10-30. Catdlpa. Ji Pith-rays very fine, but distinct : heartwood red- dish bro^^-n : sapwood yellowish white : vessels Fig. 32.— Transverse section of Bastard Bullet-wood {Huminailorihunda). in summer wood single or in short lines : odour. Sassafras. %%% Pith-rays fine, but distinct. § Very heavy and hard : heartwood dark yellowish broT\TL : sapwood j^ellow : vessels 1-10 to- gether, filled, so appearing as yellow dots. Black Locust, Robinia. §§ Heavy : moderately hard or hard. (a) Vessels in summer wood very minute, usually in small clusters of 1-8, open : heartwood j^ellow to h'ght orange-broT^TL, reddening on CLASSIFICATION OF HARD-WOODS 47 exposure to light : sapwood yellowish white : odourless. Mulberry. Morus. (b) Vessels in summer wood small or minute, usually solitary : heartwood cherry-red. Coffee Tree, Gymnodddus. XXXt Pith-rays fine, but very conspicuous to the naked eye : heartwood rose-red to brownish : sapwood pale lemon or greenish white ; vessels open. Honey-Locust, Gleditschia. XXXXX Pith-rays rather coarse, lustrous : heartwood brownish or greyish orange : sapwood broad, yellowish : broad zone of very large open pores Fig. 33. — Transverse section of African Oak (Lophira aldta), a type of the Diptcrocarpdccct:. in spring wood : vessels in autumn wood 1-5 together in segments of circles. Aildnthus. * Strikingly dendritic : pores in summer wood minute or small, appearing as finely feathered hatchings on tangential sections, t Vessels 1-8 together : pith-rays fine, but distinct. X Heartwood yellowish or greenish brown to black, hard : sapwood narrow, yellowish. Laburnum. XX Heartwood greenish or j^ellowish white, hard, heavy : sapwood not differing. Hackberry. Celtis. 48 OF WOOD IN GENERAL tt Vessels 1 to several dozen together, in wavy peri- pheral hnes in autumn wood : heartwood brown, hard, heavy : sapwood yellowish-white. Elm, Ulmus. % Pores of spring wood forming a broad band of several rows. Enghsh, Scotch and Red or Slippery Elm, Ulmus campestris, montdna and fidva. J J Pores of spring wood in a single row, or nearly so. White, Rock, Winged and Cedar Elms of Fig. 34. — Transverse section of Billcnia indica. U.S.A. Ulmus americdna, racemosa, aldta and crassi folia. Vessels in radial lines or queues, wavy or branched, the branches often uniting, t All the pith-rays very broad. J Wood beset with large pores : heartwood reddish- brown. Vine, Vitis. {J Wood, sulphur yellow, hard : zone of vessels narrow. Barberry, Berheris. j-f Pith-rays so narrow as to be hardly perceptible : heartwood oak-brown : zone of vessels very broad and vessels large, but less crowded than in Oak. Chestnut, Castdnea. CLASSIFICATION OF HARD-WOODS 49 fit Some of the pith-rays very broad and easily visible to the naked eye. Oaks, Quercus. % Pores in summer wood very fine, numerous and crowded : heartwood light brown. White Oaks, Q. alba, Mcolor, palustris, obtusiloba, etc., in U.S.A. and Robur in Europe. J{ Pores in summer wood fewer but larger : heart- wood dark brown. Red and Black Oaks of U.S.A., Q. rubra, tinctoria. %%% Pores few, gradually but slightly diminishing across the entire ring : wood very dense and heavy. Live Oaks, Q. virens of U.S.A., Ilex and Suber of Europe, •ftff Pith-rays moderately broad and distinct : vessels in spring wood very large, those in summer wood much smaller, 1-8 together : heartwood brownish yellow : sapwood white. Judas-tree, Cercis. **** Vessels in summer wood mostly but httle smaller than those of the spring wood, scattered, solitary, or few together. Mostly hard, heavy woods. I Fme peripheral lines of wood-parenchyma : pith- rays fine : zone of vessels interrupted : summer wood reddish nut-brown. Hickories, Hicoria. tt Similar, but with blackish heartwood. Persimmon, Diospyros virginidna. •ftt Vessels distinct and large, sometimes filled with white phosphate of lime : pith-rays fine, distinct, light-coloured: wood bromiish-red. Teak, Tectona. tttt Vessels equally distributed : pith-rays fine, dis- tinct : wood a warm red brown, often beautifully figured. Mahogany, Swietenia Mahdgoni. ttttt Vessels very large, open or partly filled with a brown resin : pith-rays distinct : heart-wood cin- namon brown, very soft, fragrant. Honduras Cedar, Cedrela odordta. b. Vessels in the spring wood not larger, but generally more numerous and crowded than in the autumn wood, (i) Pith-rays distinct. * Heartwood reddish-brown, zone of vessels in spring wood fighter coloured : vessels 1-4 together : hard, heavy. Plum, Primus domestica. ^* Heartwood yellowish-brown, with greenish streaks, fragrant : vessels 1-S together : hard. Mahaleb Cherry, Prunus Mahaleb. OF WOOD IN GENERAL *** Heartwood yellowish-brown, with an unpleasant odour at first : sapwood yellowish-white : vessels 1-8 together : moderately hard. Bird Cherry, Prunus Pddus. **** Heartwood blackish-brown, with pitch-flecks : sap- wood reddish : vessels 1-5 together : hard. Black- thorn, Prunus spinosa. ***** Heartwood yellowish-brown : sapwood reddish- white : vessels minute, 1-13 together : hard, heavy. Cherry, Prunus Cerasus. ****** Sapwood yello^dsh-white : heartwood shghtly Fig. 3.J.— Transverse section of Sumach (Rhus Cotinus, L.). browner : vessels 1-8 together : hard : pith very large. Elder, Samhucus. (ii) Pith-rays not at all, or scarcely visible. * Heartwood orange - red : sapwood yellow : vessels about 50 together in branching flame-hke groups : hard, heavy. Buckthorn, Phdmnus cathdrticus (Fig. 28). ** Similarly coloured ; but vessels 1-7 together, not in flames, but equally distributed and minute : soft. Berry-bearing Alder, Rhdmnus Frdngula. *** Heartwood greyish-green, autumn wood in darker zones : sapwood narrow, yellowish - white : soft. Stag's horn Sumach, Rhus typhina. CLASSIFICATION OF HARD-WOODS 51 **** Heartwood greenish to golden : sapwood narrow, white : vessels 1-7 together : harder. Venetian Sumach, or Wig- tree, Rhus Cotinus (Fig. 35.) ***** Heartwood light brown, touched with red or violet : sapwood narrow yellowish-white : hard, heavy. Lilac, Syringa vulgaris. Diffuse-porous : vessels numerous, usually minute, but neither larger nor more numerous in the spring wood : rings some- times rendered distinct by closer texture of the elements of the autumn wood. a. Vessels large, open, but few. Fig. 36.— Transverse section of Butternut {Juglans cinerea). (i) Wood soft and light : heartwood light reddish-brown. Butternut or White Walnut, Jitglans cinerea (Fig. 36). (ii) Wood hard and heavy : heartwood chocolate-brown : pith-rays fine : fine peripheral lines of parenchyma vessels 1-4 together : with darker wavy zones. Common Walnut, Juglans regia, (iii) Similar, but darker. Black Walnut, Juglans nigra. The Indian Sal {Shorea rohusta) belongs here. b. Vessels minute. (i) Broad pith-rays present. * Pith-rays numerous, mostly broad, crowded : rings bend- ing outwards at the rays : reddish-white or light brown : 4—2 52 OF WOOD IX GENERAL hard, moderately heavy. Plane, Buttonwood or Sycamore, PIdtaniis occidentdlis. ** Only some of the pith-rays broad. % Broad rays numerous : rmgs bending inwards at the rays : reddish-white or Hght brown : hard. Beech, Fdgus. %% Broad rays few, hght-coloured : rings very sinuous, bending inwards at the rays : yellowish-white : hard, heay^^, tough. Hornbeam, Wliite or Blue Beech, Carpinus. %%% Broad rays few : rings almost circular : reddish- white, soft. Hazel, Corylus. %%%% Broad rays few : rmgs bending inwards at the rays : white, becoming bro^mish-red, with brown pith-flecks, soft. Alder, Alnus. (ii) Xo broad pith-rays. * Pith-rays narrow but quite distinct to the naked eye. t Wood hard. § Pith-rays with a decided satiny lustre. Maples, Acer. J Rings perfectly circular. \ Wood white, hard and heav;\' : pith-rays straight : Sycamore or Plane. A. Pseudo- pldtanus. Similar ; but with winding pith-rays. A. o-pidifoUum. Jt Rings sHghtly wa\y. \ Wood reddish, very hard, sometimes with curled, bird's-eye or blister figures. (a) Sometimes with j)ith-flecks. Field Maple, A. cam- pestre and Moose-wood, A. pennsylvdnicum. (b) Without pith-flecks. Rock or Sugar Maple, A. bar- bdtum. Wood reddish, but hghter, hard, with ver}- fine but conspicuous pith-rays. (a) With distinct, dark-coloured heartwood. Red Maple, A. riihrum. (b) Without distinctly coloured heartwood. Xorway or Plane MajDle, A. platanoides. UTilf Wood hght-coloured, reddish, or yellow, hghter and softer. (a) Red-tinged, sometimes curled. Silver or soft Maple, A. saccharinum. (b) Yello^^-ish, with very broad rings : vessels minute, numerous. Box-elder, A. Xegundo. CLASSIFICATION OF HARD-WOODS 53 §§ Pith-rays very fine, but distinct, not markedly satiny : rings circular : wood white or greenish : vessels minute. Holly, Ilex. tl Wood soft or very soft. § Pores crowded, occupying nearly all the space between the pith-rays. % Yellowish-white, often darker or greenish in the heartwood. American White- wood, Yellow- wood or Yellow Poplar, Liriodendron tulipifera, and Cucumber-tree. Magnolia acuminata and alUed species. Jt Sap wood greyish -white : heartwood light to dark reddish-brown, heavy, but soft. Sweet Gum, Bilsted or Red Gum of U.S.A., Liquiddmhar styra- ciflua. §§ Pores not crowded, occupying not more than one-third of the space between the pith-rays : brownish or reddish -white to light brown ; only slightly silky ; pith-rays less distinct and less lustrous than in the Maples : light. Linden, Lime or Basswood, Tilia. Pith-rays not distinct to the naked eye. t Wood hard : distribution of vessels uniform, or some- times in wormlike Hnes. § Vessels 1-3 together. { Wood flesh-coloured, with pith - flecks. Haw- thorn, Crataegus Oxyacdntha. %% Yellowish-white. Spindle-tree, Euonymus euro- paeus. XtX Greenish. Bladdernut, Staphylea pinndta. §§ Vessels 1-4 together. { Without pith-flecks. ■[f Heartwood flesh-coloured. Dogwood, Cornus sanguinea. ^Tf Brownish-red, no distinct heartwood. Pear, Pyrus communis. With a dark-red brown heartwood. Apple, Pyrus Mdlus. %% With pith-flecks. ^ Sapwood reddish-white : heartwood reddish- brown : pith-flecks few, near centre. White Beam, Pyrus Aria. ^Tf Brownish-yellow : pith-flecks numerous. Wild Service-tree, Pyrus tormindlis. 54 OF WOOD IX GENERAL §§§ Vessels 1-5 together : pith - flecks numerous : reddish. Rowan or Mountain Ash, Pyrus Aucu- pdria. §§§§ Vessels 1-8 together, minute : sapwood whitish : heartwood reddish, with satiny lustre. Birch, Betida. §§§§§ Light yellow, very compact and fine-grained, almost horny : rings scarcely visible : heavy. Box, Buxus. tt Wood soft. § Creamy white, yellowish or reddish, Hght : vessels 1-7 together, indistinct : rings wide. Horse- chestnut or Buckeye, ^^sculus. §§ Sapwood white or reddish : heartwood hght red to dark brown, sometimes lustrous, hght : rings sometimes angular : vessels in worm-Uke groups. Willow, Sdlix. §§§ Sapwood white : heartwood light bro^^ii, lustrous : rings angular : vessels 1-5 together. Black Poplars or Cottonwoods, Populus nigra, moni- Ufera, balsamifera. §§§§ Rings circular : vessels 1-7 together. t Without pith-flecks : heartwood j^ellow-brown. White Poplar, Populus alba. H With white pith-flecks : white, with no distinct heartwood. Aspen, Populus tremula. Further details as to the main types of structure are given and illustrated in Appendix IV. CHAPTER III DEFECTS OF WOOD. In every stage of their growth trees are liable to mischances, from defects of soil or climate, from accident, or from the attacks of fungi, of insects, or of other animals. Some of these mischances have permanent and important effects upon their wood. Although, in healthy surroundings and in the absence of external injury, there is no very definite limit to the longevity of any species of tree, after it has reached maturity a certain deterioration generally shows itself at the centre of the trunk, which will subsequently manifest itself as decay. After felling, shrinkage in the process of drying and the attacks of species of fungi, mostly differing from those that injure growing trees, develop further defects in timber of the very gravest practical import to the consumer. The attacks of insects or of fungi upon the leaves of trees, though they may prove fatal to seedlings, have generally in later stages of growth merely the effect of injuring the nutrition of the plant. They may thus diminish the amount of wood formed in the season, and may, therefore, be of first-rate importance to the forester or timber- grower, but do not in general concern the timber-user. Cup-shake. — When, however, the caterpillars of some moths, such as Tortrix viriddna, entirely destroy the young leaves of the Oak in June, though the tree may put out new leaves in July and August, it will only do so at the expense of wood-forming reserve- materials, and there may possibly result so complete a check to the nutrition of the tree that the wood of one year may fail to cohere to that of the preceding season, a cup-shake or ring-shake being pro- duced (Fig. 37). Such a separation between successive annual rings — a defect seriously interfering with the conversion of timber into planks — is, however, undoubtedly produced for the most part by various other causes, and may be briefly here described. It occurs in various species, such as Hazel, Oak, Poplar, Pitch Pine, and Lignum- vitae, and seems to some extent local. The Oaks of Sicily, for instance, a variety of our British species, Quercus Robur, and thosft 55 56 OF WOOD IN GEXERAL of the Forest of Dean {Q. Bobur, var. sessili flora), are peculiarly subject to this defect, which in the latter case has been doubtfully ascribed either to the rocky character of the soil or to the swaying to and fro of the tall trees by strong w4nds. This action of wind bending the rings of wood alternately in opposite directions, in a manner obviously calculated to tear them apart, may well explain the occurrence of this form of shake in Poplars. Cup-shake has also been attributed to frost, the rings of sapwood and heartwood in a living tree containing varying proportions of water and the outer layers being most hkely to freeze first. The explosive rending of trees by frost, the noise of which disturbs the stillness of night in the forests of Xorth America, may in this way be sometimes concentric in its action. This may explain the prevalence of this defect in the swamp-loving Pitch Pine (Pinus austrdlis) of Vir- ginia. Frost cannot, however, be the cause of the frequency of cup- shake in the tropical Lignum-vitse ; but in this case the sun may have produced an effect similar to that which sometimes occurs when part of the cambium ring at the base of a stem is injured by a forest fire. Lastly, in some Pines this defect is the result of the attacks of certain fungi (Trametes), the " spawn " or " mycehum " of which spreads as a felted mass of colourless mould especially in the cam- bium. Cup-shake occurs most frequently at the base of the stem : when of long standing, it is often accompanied by traces of rot, and in many cases it is also associated with star-shake. Star-shake. — Star-shake consists in clefts radiating from the pith along the planes of the pith-rays and widening outwards (Fig. 38). It occurs in many species and in trees of all ages. The clefts may only extend a small distance and be so slightly open when the Fig. 37. — Cup- aud heart-shake. STAR- AND HEART-SHAKE 57 tree is newly felled as to be scarcely perceptible. In such a case they generally widen during seasoning, from the more rapid drying of the outer layers, their sides becoming darker in colour than the rest of the wood. In other instances the clefts may have extended to the circumference of the stem, in which case they may have been so overgrown by new wood as to form a longitudinal rib down the exterior of the bark, a sure sign of the defect to the experienced timber surveyor. Such extreme cases at least seem to be always the result of frost or sun, the latter being specially frequent in the case of smooth thin-barked species, such as Beech and Hornbeam, in which lines of the cortex are killed by sun-burn. Heart-shake. — More common than either cup-shake or star- shake is heart-shake, one or two clefts crossing the central rings of the stem and widening towards the centre (Fig. 39). This may occur in almost every kind of timber, whether coni- ferous or broad-leaved, and seems to be quite independent of soil or situation. Among species least affected by it Mr. Laslett^ mentions the so-called African Oak or Teak [Oldfieldia africdna), Sabicu, Spanish Mahogany, Common Elm, Dantzic Fir or Redwood {Pinus sylvestris), Canadian Red Pine {Pinus resinosa), and, some- what less free from it, Canadian Yellow Pine {Pinus Strohus) ; whilst as exceptionally liable to the defect he mentions the true Indian Teak [Tectona grdndis), the Australian Tewart {Eucalyptus gomphocephala), the Riga and Swedish varieties of Pinus sylvestris, and P. austrdlis, the Pitch Pine of the southern United States. Fig. 38.— Star-shake. Timber and Timber-tree^, cd. ii., p. 58 OF WOOD IN GENERAL Greenheart (Nectandra Rodiaei) commonly develops two crossing heart-shakes for two or three feet up the butt-end of the log. One of the worst forms of this defect is when, owing to spiral growth, the shake shifts its direction as we trace it up the stem. It may in this way sometimes be nearly at right angles at one end of the tree to its direction at the other, thus rendering the conversion of a log into plank wellnigh impossible. It is this hindrance to the conversion of timber into plank that constitutes the main practical importance of all forms of shake, as they do not at first involve any decay, and consequently do not much interfere with the employment of the logs in bulk. Heart-shake, however, is probably in itself an indication of that incipient decay that comes when timber has passed its maturity and the older layers shrink more than the outer. Rind-gall. — Somewhat alhed to cup-shake is the local defect known as rind-gall. This originates from the destruction of part of the bark of a growing tree, whether by another tree falling against it, the scorching of a forest -fire, the gnawing of an animal, or even the cutting of initials by some misguided youth. If the cut has penetrated to, exposed, and destroyed the cambium, there may, in spite of the gradual overgrowth of layers of new wood from the margins of the injury, be a local want of cohesion between the exposed wood and that subsequently formed over it. This defect may entirely escape detection from the outside of an un- converted log. Decay. — Bright-looking wood is generally of better quality than that which is dull ; while any departure from the usual colour of the timber of the species is commonly, as we have Fig. 39.— Heart-shake. FUNGAL ATTACK 59 already stated, an indication of at least incipient local decay. Discoloured patches, such as occur on the exterior of the butt- ends of some masts of the Kauri (or Cowdie) Pine of New Zealand [Agathis austrdlis), will generally be found to be relatively brittle. They are usually white at first and are then of small extent or consequence ; but when they are yellowish-red, the mischief has gone further ; and a decided red or foxy colour indicates a wide- spread decay so serious as to disqualify the timber for purposes of construction. Oak, however, in an advanced state of foxiness and decay is in request for cabinet-work. In old Beeches, and other trees, decay appears to begin in the pith and spread outwards, such wood being known in France as hois rouge ; but it very fre- quently originates in a broken branch, a rind-gall, or a star-shake reaching the surface, so that air, damp and fungi find access to the wood of the tree. It is this decay spreading from the pith that gradually hollows out old trees ; but this hollowing occurs much earlier in pollards where water and rotting leaves may accumulate in the fork of the crown, or in trees in which broken limbs or other injuries have been neglected. The breaking of a small branch may set up decay, and yet such a druxy knot, as it is termed, may gradually be covered up with sound wood, so that only a slight swelling may indicate the defect at the surface of the stem. Any such excrescence should be removed directly a tree is felled ; as, though the healing over, by excluding further damp, may have checked the mischief, there is no telling from the outside how deep it may have extended, and such a patch of decayed wood, if left to itself, is certain on being laid bare in the process of conversion to absorb more atmospheric moisture and so enlarge itself. It is now clearly understood that the pure lignified cellulose of seasoned wood is practically imperishable. It may be splintered and pulverized by mechanical action, but neither air nor moisture have per se any destructive effect on it. Originally secreted by the protoplasm of the vegetable cell, it is, however, liable to be re- dissolved or digested by this powerful natural solvent, or, perhaps, rather by the ferments which it contains. This protoplasmic fermentative action may affect wood in two ways. When wood is " green " or imperfectly seasoned, it may be set up by the nitrogenous matter remaining in the tissues of the wood itself. On the other hand, after seasoning, if proper ventilation is absent, and if the tissues of the wood have not been refilled with some preservative, it may originate in the action of the living protoplasm of some other plant, such as a " mould " or saprophytic fungus, or the cellulose-bacteria of the soil. Fungal attack. — Fungi excrete ferments, which, in the presence 60 OF WOOD IN GENERAL of moisture, air, and some degree of heat, exert a solvent action, some on cellulose, some on lignin. The fungus feeds on what it dissolves, and specially flourishes in the living nitrogenous matter of sap wood. As no fungal growth takes place without water and air, neither absolutely dry wood, nor completely submerged wood, will decay. Some fungi confine their attacks to living trees, others to timber after it is felled ; and of the first-mentioned class some are true parasites, attacking the roots of living and otherwise healthy trees, whilst others are wound-parasites, the minute spores or reproductive germs finding their way into the tree through some wound not produced by the fungus. Holes bored by insects, excoriations of the bark by animals of any kind, and branches broken by wind or badly pruned, afford wounds suitable for the attacks of these last. When the disease caused by a wound-para- site manifests itself first in the cortical and cambium tissues it is termed a canker. Some fungi are confined to single species of trees, others attack conifers only, others hard woods only, whilst some seem capable of attacking trees of all kinds alike. The fungi most destructive to timber belong to the more highly organized sub- divisions of the class, the Peziza, which produces the canker in the Larch, being, for instance, one of the Ascomycetes, whilst many others known as " wet rot," " dry rot," etc., are members of the order Hymenomycetes, that to which the mushrooms belong. One of the most generally destructive of these last is the toad- stool Agdricus (Armilldria) melleus, clusters of the yellow fructi- fications of which are often seen near the base of unhealthy Beech, Spruce, Oak, or other trees in autumn. The upper surface of its tawny cap is shaggy with hair ; the gills on the under surface run down on to the stalk, round which there is a well-marked torn ring ; and the spores, when ripe, are white. Underground, instead of the delicate white " spawn " or mycelium, resembling cobweb, which is common among fungi, this species produces stout, pur- plish-black strands, which may extend, at a depth of six or eight inches below the surface, to a distance of several feet. These strands are known as rhizomorphs, from their root-like appearance. They have growing points capable of penetrating the cortex of living tree roots, and, when they have done so, extend into the cambium and send off branches into the pith-rays and the wood. When this parasite attacks a resinous tree, such as Spruce, a quantity of the resin flows from the pierced root, and the fungal threads travel partly along the resin-passages. In these cases the fungal threads commonly exude a fermentative secretion, by means of which they soften and dissolve the walls of cells or vessels : on penetrating cells containing protoplasm, starch, etc., they readily absorb such CANKER AND DRY-ROT 61 substances ; but they also destroy cellulose and lignin itself, at first producing various discolorations of the wood, and ultimately reducing it to the condition of " touchwood " or " punk." It will readily be understood that all these progressive changes are accom- panied by a decrease in the specific gravity of the timber, for the fungus decomposes the substance much in the same way as it is decomposed by putrefaction or combustion, i.e. it causes the burning off of the carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen, in the presence of oxj^gen, to carbon-dioxide, water, and ammonia, retaining part in its own substance for the time being, and living at its expense. 1 Another true joarasite, Trametes radiciyerda, only attacks coni- fers. Its spores, which can be readily conveyed in the fur of mice or other burrowing animals, germinate in the moisture around the roots : the fine threads of " spawn " penetrate the cortex and spread through and destroy the cambium, extending in thin, flat, fan-like, white, silky bands, and, here and there, bursting through the cortex in white oval cushions, on which the subterranean fructifications are produced. Each of these is a yellowish-white felt -like mass, with its outer surface covered with crowded minute tubes or " pores " in which the spores are produced. The wood attacked by this fungus first becomes rosy or purple, then turns yellowish, and then exhibits minute black dots, which surround themselves with extending soft white patches. The many pores in the fructification of Trametes indicate its kinship with the genus Polyporus, many species of which are well knowTL as " shelf -funguses," projecting hke brackets from the stems of trees, and having their pores on their under-surfaces. Most of these are wound-parasites. One of the commonest, the yellow cheese-like Polyporus sulphur eus, occurs on Oak, Poplar, Willow, Larch, and other standing timber, its spawn-threads spreading from any exposed portion of cambium into the pith-rays and between the annual rings, forming thick layers of yellowish- white felt, and penetrating the vessels of the wood, which thereupon becomes a deep brown colour and decays. The ravages of such wound-parasites are often the result of neglect, broken branches being left untrimmed as a lodgment for the spores of the fungus. We have kno™ an Elm-tree to be divided in this way by a broad zone of touchwood, originating from the attack of a Polyporus on a snag, so that, though sound timber both above and below, the tree snapped readily in half in a slight gust of wind. 1 Timber and some of its Diseases, by Prof. H. Marshall Ward, F.R.S., to which work 1 am particularly indebted in the present chajner. 62 OF WOOD IN GENERAL Another species of Polyporus, P. vapordrius, though it acts as a wound-parasite on coniferous trees, frequently develops and does its chief mischief in stacked timber. It is then commonly confused with the true dry rot, of which we shall speak presently. Its spores (which are, as in most fungi, extremely minute and produced in myriads) fall into cracks of wood, whether the result of injuries to timber when standing, or '* shakes " developed after the tree is felled and barked. As their spawn-threads develop in the timber and gradually decompose and absorb its substance, the wood shows deep red or brown streaks, warps and cracks up, and becomes thoroughly rotten, and is penetrated by thick snowy-white ribbons of the felted fungus. In stacked timber this rot frequently develops mainly in the lower, less ventilated, layers of a stack. Some of the diseases that show themselves conspicuously in the cortex and are known as cankers may be set up by frost, by sun, or by insect attack ; but in Oak, Beech, Maple, Hornbeam, Alder, Lime, and Larch, canker is mostly the result of wound-parasite fungi. The spores of most, if not all, of these fungi are incapable of penetrating sound cortex ; but how many are the chances that bring about small ruptures of this layer ! In the case of that most destructive of cankers, the Larch disease, it has been shown that the fungus which produces it, Peziza Willkommii, is far less common and less deadly in the drier colder air of AljDine heights where the Larch is indigenous ; but that late frosts attacking the more advanced and sappy trees in the moist air of the lowlands kill many a shoot and form wounds by which the spores can enter. The moister and warmer air at the same time is more favourable to the growth of the fungus. Its spa^vTi-threads ramify in all directions through the wood, turning it bro"WTi and drying it up ; while resin flows out at the wound in the bark, which enlarges yearly as the tissues surround it with successively wider-gaping lips of cork in the futile effort of the tree's vitahty to heal it over. Round the margins of the wound appear the little orange cup- shaped fructifications of the Peziza scattering their spores so as to infect other trees ; whilst the ultimate effect is that each tree is ringed by the destruction of its cortex and then generally succumbs. Many of the fungi which attack standing timber are so ruinous in their action that the wood of the affected trees Tvdll never reach the hands of the timber-merchant ; but the wood- worker is more seriously interested in those diseases which attack converted timber. Of these the most important is ""dry rot " {Meriilius Idcrymans). The spores of this fungus germinate on damp wood, provided some alkali is present, such as the ammonia fumes in stables. Then, under the influence of warm, still air {i.e. the BURRS— INJURIOUS ANIMALS 63 absence of ventilation) its spawn-threads spread not only in all directions through the wood, forming greyish-white cords and flat cake-like masses of felt on its surface, but even over surfaces of damp soil or brickwork, and thus to other previously uninfected timbers. Feeding upon the elements of the wood, getting its nitrogen from cells which retain their protoplasm, such as those of the pith- rays, but its carbonaceous and mineral substances from the walls of the tracheids and other fibrous elements, the fungus destroys the substance of the timber, lessening its weight, and causing it to warp and crack ; until, at length, it crumbles up when dry into a fine brown powder, or, readily absorbing any moisture in its neigh- bourhood, becomes a soft, cheese-like mass. At an earlier stage the affected timber appears dark-coloured and dull ; and, long before its total disorganization, it will have lost most of its strength. Imperfectly seasoned timber is most susceptible to dry rot ; the fungus can be spread either by its spawn or by spores, and these latter can be carried even by the clothes or saws of workmen, by currents of air, by rats, mice or insects, and are, of course, only too likely to reach sound wood if diseased timber is left about near it ; but on the other hand dry timber kept dry is proof against dry rot, and exposure to really dry air is fatal to the fungus. If only the ends of properly seasoned beams which are inserted in brick walls are previously creosoted, it will prove a most effective protection. Burrs. — Another class of malformations of considerable interest to the timber-merchant are the gnarled and warty excrescences known as hurrs or knauers. These are sometimes due to some mechanical injury to the cortex, at other times apparently to the sudden exposure of a previously shaded stem to the light, as by the felling of a neighbouring tree. They consist of a number of dormant buds, capable of growing in thickness and putting on wood, but insufficiently nourished to grow in length. In course of years they may grow several feet across, their wood being very irregular, and, owing to its slowness of formation, very dense. The cross-sections of these bud-axes, as in the " bird's-eye " variety of the Hard Maple {Acer harbdtum), the Elm, the Yew, the Walnut, the Oak, and other species, furnish beautiful veneers. Injurious animals. — Brief mention must be made here of three classes of enemies to both living and converted timbers, viz., the ship-worms or Teredos, the termites (erroneously known as " white ants "), and various insect-larvae known generally as " worms." Teredo navdlis, the ship-worm, and its allies, are bivalve mollusks, which bore into most kinds of timber when immersed in sea-water, some very dense species, and especially those with pungent resinous secretions, being proof against them. 64 OF WOOD IX GEXERAL On the other hand, creosoting is by no means always sufficient to l^eep off their attacks. Shipworms occur in all seas : they gene- ralh' bore with the grain, lining their burrows with a layer of calcareous matter, and carefuUy ayoiding one another's burrows. They will sometimes completely riddle timber within four or fiye years. In Australia they are knoMii as " cobra." The termites belong to the Xeuroptera, an entirely distinct Order of the insect class from that to which the true ants belong. They occur in a great yariety of species throughout the Tropics, but especially in South America, liying in societies of j)rodigious numbers, and, no doubt, fulfilhng a useful function in the economy of nature, by disintegrating, remoying, and destroying wood that is already decayed, just as the ship-worms rid the seas of much derehct timber. The termites will, howeyer, attack most species of wood after conyersion, sometimes eating their way upward from the foundations of a house to its rafters until all its timbers are reduced to a mere shell, or completely destroying wooden articles of furniture. The pungent resinous secretions which repel the teredo seem also generally effectiye as a protection against termites. The large and yoracious laryte of some moths are most destruc- tiye to growing trees, and sometimes attack conyerted timbers. Ver}' generally their eggs are laid in the bark, and the grubs generally bore downward through the sapwood. The Goat -moth {Cossus Ugniperda), for mstance, specially attacks aged and already unsound Willows, Ash, Elm, Cork Oak, etc. ; but will attack conyerted as well as hying wood. The Wood-leopard (Zeuzera CBSculi) specially attacks liying fruit-trees and Horse-chestnuts, and its Australian congener, the Wattle Goat -moth (Z. eucalypti), fre- quents the yarious species of Acacia. Such insects are most destruc- tiye ; but their large galleries are only too obyious in conyerting timber. Of the wood-boring beetles, on the other hand, many only attack unhealthy trees : others, such as Scolytus destructor, the Elm- bark beetle, tumiel in and under the bark, especially of fallen logs, only occasionally penetrating a small depth into the outer wood. Others are far more destructiye, in many cases mainly attacking sound conyerted timber. The widespread Death-watch beetles, for instance [Anobium domesticum, A. tessellatum, and aUied forms), the chief cause m England of the famihar " worm-holes " in Oak, frequently entirely destroy the timbering of roofs, and still more commonly riddle our smaller articles of furniture. In the Tropics and warmer Temperate regions their place is largely taken by the numerous family Bostrychidce, some of which attain far larger dimensions. CHAPTER IV SELECTION, DURAPjILITY, SEASONING, AND STORAGE OF WOODS Selection of wood. — The wood - worker must, of course, deter- mine first what kind of wood is best suited for his purpose, and then take steps to secure that the wood he obtains is a sufficiently good sample of its kind. It cannot, unfortunately, be at aU assumed that the botanical determination of the species will prove a guarantee of the quality of a timber. Experience shows that Pinus sylvestris or Quercus Rohur from different parts of Europe, or even from different situa- tions in one country, or Tectona grdndis from different districts of India, may be a very different thing from the same species of Pine, Oak, or Teak from elsewhere. Botanical identification, therefore, though a most important prehminary, will not obviate other tests. For many purposes, such as mere temporary hoardings, crates, packing-boxes, or the carcases of low-priced furniture, cheapness may be a consideration paramount to all others. Speaking generally, warm countries, sunny exposures, and dry, elevated land produce heavier, harder, and stronger timber. It is important that timber should be selected for felling when mature, when the quantity of sapwood is small and the heartwood nearly uniform, hard, compact, and durable. After this stage, wood may become brittle, inelastic, discoloured, and perishable, while before maturity, when the sapwood is in excess, it will seldom be durable. Oak, for instance, for building, should not be less than 50 nor more than 200 years old, and Teak not less than 80 years of age. Autumn or winter felled wood, owing to the lower temperature, sphts less in drying, and for this reason, and on account of the season being less favourable to fungus-growth, is generally more durable than that felled in the spring or summer. Shakes, knots, especially if disposed in a ring round a stick, upsets, i.e., fibres crippled by compression, or cross-grain are all defects which reduce the strength of timber. Both butt and top -should be close, solid, and sound, any sponginess near the pith, 65 5 66 OF WOOD Ds GEXERAL discoloration at the top, rind-gall, worm-holes, or sphts produced in seasoning being indications of weakness. Bright-coloured and smooth-working wood is generally better than any that is dull or works with a rough surface ; and heavier wood is in all res^Dects stronger than lighter wood of the same species. Where hghtness and stiffness are desirable, coniferous wood is generally preferable ; and, where a steady load has to be supported, the denser coniferous woods equal those of broad-leaved trees, which are costher and heavier. Where, however, moving or jarring loads have to be sustained, the tougher hard woods should be used. Conversion of timber. — Spht wood is straighter in grain and more easily seasoned than sawn timber ; and, when sawn, timber will prove stronger and more durable, will season better and will warp less if sawed as nearly as possible along the radii of the amiual rings, or, as it is termed, " quarter " or " rift " sawed. Tliis method is more expensive than tangent sawing ; but a httle con- sideration will show how it secures — in flooring boards, for instance — a more even exposure of the grain — i.e., the hard bands of summer wood — on the surface. It must be borne in mind that in a squared beam with the pith in its centre, whilst we have some complete annual cones of wood appearing as rings at the butt end and taper- ing to a point or to smaller rings at the top, we shall also have other imperfect cones represented by rings at the top but presenting tangent or " bastard " faces on the sides of the beam and not repre- sented at the butt. These different " structural aggregates " differ materially in strength, the central cone, with its numerous knots, being the weakest part, whilst the strongest is the hollow cyhnder formed of cones that occur as rings both at butt and top (Fig. 40). Quarter-sawing secures the most advantageous unifor- mity in the proportion of each of these aggregates in every plank. In ordinary tangent-sawed timber it is, as pointed out by Mr. Laslett, important to notice that there is an outside and an inside to every board, and that it is desirable in construction to leave the outside exposed, as shown in Fig. 41, since otherwise (Fig. 42) the inner rings of wood soon shell out. Durability of wood. — AU wood when first felled contains a large quantity of moisture, and this, together with the readily decomposable organic or protoplasmic matter also present, furnishes (especially at temperatures between 60"^ and 100'' F.) the most favourable conditions for the growth of those fungi which are the main causes of decay. If completely submerged, or buried, or when once dried and kept so, timber may last indefinitely. The piles in the Swiss lake-dwellings must be many centuries old ; and CONVERSION AND SEASONING 67 ancient Egyptian objects in the British Museum must be several thousand years ; wood of Jumperus Oxycedrus buried in the island of Madeira has remained undecayed and fragrant for 400 years ; and Spruces 3 to 4 feet in diameter have been observed in the moist forests of North- West America growing on the prostrate but still sound trunks of Thuya gigdntea. Speaking at the Surveyors' Institution in 1905, Mr. H. J. Elwes Fig. 40. — A beam, showing sti-uctural aggregates. 2, cylinder of rings continuous throughout; 3 and 4, "bastard faces " on the sides. (Modified from Roth.) 1, central or pith cone ; partial cylinders, making said : " Last April he was in a house in Massachusetts which was built of White Oak in 1704, and had never paint or tar or preser- vative on it, and yet stood sound and water-tight to-day. He had lived in Switzerland in a house built of Larch logs wliicli dated back more than 400 years. He had also lived in a timber house in Norway said to be 160 years old, and still perfectly sound, although the much-despised Spruce was the timber used." Seasoning.^ — By girdling standing timber the process of season- FiG. 41.— Plank well laid, with inside, or inner rings, downward. (After Laslett.) ing is to a great extent anticipated. Thus, in order to float the timber, which in its green state is at least as heavy as water, it is the general practice in Burmah to cut a complete ring through the ^ " There is probably no one to-day who does not believe that timber preservation in one form or another pays. Treated timber in almost every respect is cheaper in the long run than untreated timber ; furthermore, the better treatments, although more expensive at first, are much cheaper in the long run." — Hermann von Schrenk (1905). 5—2 68 OF WOOD IX GENERAL bark and sapwood of the Teak three years before it is intended to fell it. This stoppage of all ascending sap kills the tree in a few weeks : the heat of the chmate helps the seasoning process ; and, as usually about a year elapses between the feUing of the timber and its dehvery in England, it is then fit for immediate use. It is recommended that the dense Austrahan timbers should, Hke Teak, be ringed while standing. This should be done a year or more before felling, and between April and August, when the sap is quiescent. The tree is most thoroughly drained of its sap when thus left vertical. It has, however, been objected to this process that it causes or intensifies heart-shake, and, by drying the wood too rapidly, renders it brittle and inelastic. Seasoning of some kind is, in all other cases, rendered imperative by the changes in volume, irregular shrinkage, or warping, that all green woods undergo imder the influence of changes in atmospheric temperature and moisture, especially in their cross sections. So important is it to avoid this warping in furniture, wheelwright's Fig. 42. — Plank badly laid, with, the inside, or inner rings, upward. (After Laslett.) work, etc., that it is a common practice to block out work roughly and let it season a little longer before finishing. Seasoning is ordinarily understood to mean drying ; but, in addition to the evaporation of water, it imphes other changes, such as the drying out or partial decomposition of the albuminous sub- stances in the wood, rendering it more permeable and less ferment- able. The strength of many woods is nearly doubled by seasoning, hence it is very thriftless to use it in a green state ; as it is then not only weaker, but is Hable to continual change of bulk and form. The longitudinal fibres of the wood being, as it were, bound together by the radiating pith-rays, as the wood shrinks it finds rehef by sphtting radially from the centre along the pith-rays. When a log is sawn into four quarters, by passing the saw twice through the centre at right angles, the outer annual rings shrink the most, so that the two flat surfaces of each quarter of the log cease to be strictly at right angles to one another. In tangent-sawn timber, AIR AND HOT-AIR SEASONING 69 however, the same shrinkage causes the centre plank to contract in thickness at its edge, whilst planks cut from the outside will shrink in breadth, their edges curving away from the centre of the tree. The many methods of wood-preservation may be classified as seasoning methods, either " natural " — i.e., slow or accelerated — surface carbonization, or impregnation methods. Of these it is generally believed that natural or air seasoning gives the best results. Firewood should be dried rapidly ; but in other cases slow drying in cool air and in the shade — a process difficult to effect in the tropics — is most desirable in order to reduce the amount of cracking. The timber should be squared as soon as cut, and even halved or quartered, for the rate of drying depends largely on the shape and size of the piece, an inch board drying more than four times as fast as a 4-inch plank, and more than twenty times as fast as a 10-inch timber. The wood is then piled in the seasoning yard so as to be protected as far as possible from the sun and rain, but with air circulating freely on all sides of each log. Bad ventila- tion is sure to cause rot ; but at the same time exposure to high wind is likely to cause unequal drying, and is, therefore, to be avoided. One of the most fertile causes of decay is the leaving of logs to sink into soft ground where they are felled, often in the immediate neighbourhood of rotting stumps or dead twigs, the most fertile source of infection by fungus - spores that can be imagined. Timber should therefore be stacked, or at least skidded a foot off the ground, as soon as possible and protected by a roof. Experience is against the stacking of timber vertically or at an angle, as this only produces unequal drying ; but planks may be stacked flat or on edge. Laslett gives the following table of the times required for seasoning Oak and Fir in a shed : Months. Pieces 24 ins. and upwards square, Oak about 26 Under 24 ins. to 20 ins. 22 20 16 12 16 12 18 14 10 6 Months. Fir, 13 11 9 7 5 3 For planks half or two-thirds of these times would be requisite, according to their thickness. Too prolonged seasoning will cause an undue widening and deepening of the shakes that open at the surface during drying. The chief methods of accelerated seasoning are kiln drying, or hot-air seasoning, and steam-drying processes. Of these the former is a rapid but expensive method. It is a common practice 70 OF WOOD IN GENERAL to first steam the timber, which reduces its hygroscopicity and, therefore, its warping. This, however, is said to reduce the strength, if not also the durabihty, of the wood. If not steamed, the ends of boards should be clamped before kiln-drying to prevent sphtting and warping. Neither hygroscopicity nor shrinkage of wood can be altogether overcome by dr^ring at temperatures below 200° F. ; but as a rule only the first shrinking is likely to cause splitting, so that any timber which has had from three to six months' air-drying may be safely kiln-dried. Too rapid kiln-drying, however, is apt to produce " case-hardening " in Oak and other hard woods, the drying and shrinking, that is, of an outside shell followed by " honey- combing," or sphtting of the interior along the pith-rays (Fig. 43). Previous air-drying or steaming will obviate this. Various tem- peratures are employed in kiln-drying ; but it is stated that at 100° to 120° F., Oak, Ash, and other hardwoods can be seasoned in dry kilns without any of the loss of strength often alleged to result from artificial heat. Poplar planks are dried in kilns in America at 158° F. to 180° F. ; but Oak, Ash, Maple, Birch, Sycamore, etc.. Fig. 43. — " Honeycombed " board, splitting along the pith-rays. (After Roth.) are first air- seasoned for three to six months, and are then exposed to these temperatures for six to ten days for 1-inch stuff. Pine, Spruce, Cypress, and Cedar of the same dimensions are dried for four days immediately after being felled and sawn up. Such temperatures are more than sufficient to kill and prevent fungus growth, and the fact that well- ventilated seasoned wood is seldom attacked shows that the amount of moisture then left in the wood is insufficient to support fungus growth. Walnut gun-stocks are desiccated in the rough by a current of air at 90° or 100° F., passing over them at such a rate as to change the whole volume of air every three minutes, and it is found possible in this way to save a year of seasoning. Temperatures of 250° to 300° F. are almost certainly detrimental to the wood. Such desiccated timber must not be exposed to damp before being used or it will re- absorb moisture, and coloured woods are said to lose colour and lustre under this treatment. Seasoning by passing the smoke-laden products of combustion from the furnace through the timber pile has been found successful, VARIOUS METHODS OF SEASONING 71 and has an important preservative effect. A modification of this, known as M'Neile's process, consists in exposing the wood to a moderate heat in a moist atmosphere charged with the products of the combustion of fuel. Boihng timber in water has much the same effect as steaming, but is costly, and probably weakening in its effects. Seasoning by immersion in water is a slow method that answers well for wood to be used in water or in damp situations. It re- duces warping, but renders the wood brittle and less elastic. It is important that the submergence be total, as otherwise there is great danger of fungus attack along the water-line. Two or three weeks' water-seasoning is often a good preparation for air-seasoning, and it must be remembered that foreign timbers have often had some weeks or months of such treatment while being transported by water to the port of shipment. It is important that wood seasoned in this way be thoroughly dried before use, otherwise dry rot will set in. In Mauritius, Ebony, which is perfectly sound when freshly cut, is immersed immediately for 6 to 18 months, and then, on being taken out, is secured at both ends of the logs with iron rings and wedges. Soaking timber or burying it under corn were methods of seasoning practised by the ancient Romans, who also steeped wood in oil of cedar to protect it against worms. Salt water makes wood harder, heavier, and more durable ; and the rules of Lloyd's add a year to the term of classification of a ship if she is " salted " during construction, having her timbers, that is, packed with salt. Salt water cannot, however, be applied to any timber intended for use in ordinary buildings, as it gives the wood a permanent tendency to attract moisture from the air. Boiling in oil is an effective and strengthening, but costly, method of seasoning, employed in making wooden teeth for mortice gears. The wood is roughed out in blocks little more than the size of the finished work, and the oil kept at a temperature not exceeding 250° F. In Australia the abundance of hardwood, its great weight, and the high price of labour, has led to a general total neglect of season- ing, which has had a very deleterious effect upon the reputation of Australian timbers in the markets of the world. Though admittedly too costly for general use, the modification of the oil process adopted by Mr. J. H. Maiden, curator of the Technological Museum of New South Wales, for museum specimens of timber is interesting. The logs are stood on end and the upper end is soaked with boiled linseed oil, and a day or two later covered with a cream of white lead. Iron bands are then put round each end of the logs and 72 OF WOOD IX GENERAL hammered to their outhne, the ends of the bands bemg tm-ned out at right angles and bored for a screw bolt, by means of which the bands can be tightened up every few days. The various steaming processes justly claim that the high tempera- tures employed destroy disease germs and coagulate the albuminous constituents of the sap. The two most important methods are, per- haps, the Erith and the Haskin. The former consists in the circu- lation of warm but very moist air round the timber, so as to avoid case-hardening and to remove the moisture from the centre out- wards. Haskinizing consists in submitting the wood to circu- lating superheated air under considerable pressure, " causing the constituents to organize into an oleaginous compound, saturating the fibre, and filling the pores." This process is costly, and the drawbacks to all such methods are the danger of a deterioration of the wood by a separation of its fibres and the removal of some of its substance without any replacement. Carbonizing, or charring the outer surface of wood, destroys all fungus-germs at the surface ; and, charcoal resisting the solvents of fungi, this process renders the wood httle hable to subsequent infection. It also dries the surface, destroys any tendency to fer- mentation, and distils such antiseptic substances as acetic acid and creosote out of the surface wood, leaving them free to act as pre- servatives. Thus it is stated that the stakes found in the bed of the Thames, near Weybridge, and supposed to have been used to oppose the invading Romans, and the piles upon which the city of Venice was built, had alike been charred. M. de Lapparent, who introduced this process into the French dockyards forty years ago, held that the durabihty of carbonized timber is secured by the absence of fermentation in the juices of the interior of the wood. The results are satisfactory^, but care must be taken not to cause surface splitting. M. de Lapparent's process is carried out by means of a jet of gas. The most important series of methods of seasoning are those which may be termed impregnation methods, which all depend upon the principle that the sap may be replaced by some substance that is antiseptic or poisonous to fungus-germs. The most primitive of these is merely to paint the substance, such as tar, as thickly as possible over dry wood and leave it to soak in, and this un- doubtedly has a great preservative effect, even on sapwood or wood very imperfectly dried ; but the chief drawback to tliis, and the chief difficulty in several other impregnation processes, is the very smaU distance that the hquid soaks, so that shglit cracks expose unprotected wood to fungus attacks. Whilst it is comparatively easy to inject sapwood in a longitudinal direction, it is far more IMPREGNATION METHODS 73 difficult to inject heartwood ; and it is vastly easier to force liquids through wood tangentially than radially. An improvement on any painting process is to submerge the timber in a bath of the preservative, which may be tar, sulphate of iron, copper, zinc, hme, or magnesia, chloride of zinc, borax, creosote, or sugar, and in these processes the replacement of the air and sap in the wood by the Hquid will generally be hastened by heat. Penetration is, however, slight, and long submergence renders the timber brittle. The main desiderata in a preservative are that it should be antiseptic or incapable of supporting fungal Hfe, easily injected, but remaining in the wood when injected, and cheap. Of the materials employed for impregnating timber, the most effective is corrosive subhmate (mercuric chloride), the use of which is known, from its inventor, Kyan (1832), as kyanizing. It forms insoluble compounds in the wood, and is, therefore, permanent, except in sea-water ; but its costhness and dangerously poisonous character are against it. Zinc chloride, mainly introduced by Sir Wilham Burnett in 1838, is cheap and effective against both insects and fungi, but less so than creosote. It is claimed that, in Bur- nettizing, as the process is termed, the salt enters into a perma- nent chemical combination with the fibre of the wood, and, without discolouring it, renders it proof against mould and termites, and less flammable ; that wood may be treated when green ; that it will not corrode nails embedded in it ; and that it will take paint or varnish. Copper sulphate, sometimes used for sleepers in France, is cheap ; but is deposited in crystals in the wood, rendering it brittle, and, owing to its solubility, is as easily washed out as it is injected. In the Hasselman or Xylosote process a compound solution of iron and copper sulphates and kainite (potassium and magnesium sulphate and chloride) is employed. Creosote, originally suggested by Bethell in 1838, and now very largely employed in various ways, is cheap, lasting in its effects, and useful in rendering the wood damp-proof. The more expensive carbolic acid and ferric tannate have also been used. To force the antiseptic solution into the wood, M. Boucherie, who first employed copper sulphate, proposed placing it in an elevated reservoir connected by a pipe with the lower end of a log ; but this requires the log to have its bark on, and is thus a wasteful process. A more comphcated and costly, but very successful, process consists in the use of air-tight chambers, in which the converted timber is placed. The air is then partially exhausted, so as to draw out some of that in the vessels of the wood, and the anti- 74 OF WOOD IN GENERAL septic solution is then forced in by pumps, preferably with steam or heat, the whole process occupying less than an hour. About 75 lbs. of creosote, however, are required for the impregnation of an ordinary railway sleeper, and various attempts to reduce this quantity by the use of some liquid solvent have failed. Though it is very difficult either to secure the penetration of the creosote or to determine the amount absorbed, it is usually specified that from 8 to 13 lbs. of creosote shall be injected per cubic foot. Herr F. Seidenschnur proposes that the timber be first steamed under pressure, the air then exhausted by reduced pressure, and then an emulsion of 15 per cent, of creosote, in a resin soap to which water is added, forced in under a pressure of seven atmospheres. The latest process of this class, known as the Nodon-Bretonneau method, is electrical. The timber is placed on a lead plate, connected with the positive pole of a dynamo, in a tank filled with a solution, a second lead plate, connected with the negative pole, being on top. The circuit is completed through the wood ; and, within from 5 to 8 hours, the sap rises to the surface of the bath, the aseptic solution replacing it in the pores of the wood. Artificial drying, or a fortnight's natural seasoning in summer weather, will then com- plete the process. Solutions of magnesium or zinc sulphate or of borax are employed. Some recent trials undertaken by the United States Govern- ment show that all injection under pressure tends to lessen the cohesive strength of the wood. Powellizing consists in boiling the wood in a saccharine solution without pressure, so as to expel air and moisture and coagulate the albumen, and then drying it at a high temperature. Green wood, and some species, such as Spruce, which cannot readily be creosoted, can be treated by this process ; and the wood is not only seasoned within a few days of being felled, but small cracks are closed up, the porosity of the wood is much diminished — a very important point in connection with wood-paving — and its strength, tough- ness, resihency, and durability are enhanced. The process need not discolour the wood, but may be made to bring out figure, and thus, in more ways than one, render it possible to substitute a lower grade timber for the more expensive grades now in use. The processed wood will take paint or varnish, and is completely immune to the attacks of dry rot. Having no unpleasant odour, powellized wood is adapted for furniture as well as for paving or railway sleepers ; whilst a slight modification of the treatment protects it from the attacks of termites. Such impregnation methods double or treble the life of railway sleepers. On the other hand, it should be remembered that paint FLAME-RESISTIXG WOOD— STORAGE 75 prevents not only the entrance of moisture, but also its exit ; so that if apphed to imperfectly seasoned wood it merely protects the dry rot which finds a sufficiency of moisture in the wood. Even perfectly seasoned wood, if not protected by tar or paint, requires good ventilation if it is to last. Warm, moist, stagnant air or draught, and partial contact with, moist earth or water are the most unfavourable conditions for the durability of timber. Flame-resisting wood. — In connection with building, and still more with railway rolHng- stock, it is important that wood, though it can hardly be made absolutely fire-proof, should be rendered so fire-resisting that it will only smoulder and not burst into flame. Several substances have been injected for this purpose, and others have been used as surface paints. Of the former, the more im- portant are sodium tungstate, ammonium sulphate with boric acid, and ammonium phosphate, the last-mentioned being the most efiicacious, but requiring to be injected under a high pres- sure. Of the paints, asbestos and soluble glass are, perhaps, the best. Storage. — For the storage of seasoned timber much the same precautions are requisite as for that which is undergoing air- seasoning — viz., thorough ventilation, absence of contact with moist earth, and preferably some protection from rain and sun. If logs are stacked with their butt- ends outward and sUghtly lower than their tops, if every log or scantHng be so separated by small packing billets that it can be removed without disturbing the remainder, and if each tier of timber is set back a few inches so as to obviate the use of a ladder, it will render the stock not only safe but acces- sible. CHAPTER V THE USES OF WOODS. So multifarious are the uses to which wood is apphed that it is weUnigh hopeless to attempt to classify or enumerate them. Still less is it possible here to mention all the different kinds of wood locally employed for each purpose, or to describe the methods in which they are treated. We must be content with a rough cata- logue mainly confined to species widely used or known in general commerce, with occasional mention of less known kinds of timber for which we believe there may be a demand in the near future. The term " timber," from the Old Enghsh " timbrian," to build, is strictly applicable only to felled and seasoned wood fit for build- ing, as distinguished from " fancy " or furniture- woods, dye- woods, etc. Undressed trunks without branches are termed " round timber "; or, if of young trees, " spars "; hewn logs are called " square timber "; or when quartered, " billets "; when spHt, " staves " or " lathwood "; or when sawn, " deals," " battens," " planks," " boards," and " scantling." Some very strong timbers, such as Teak, Sal, and Padouk, are specially designated as " Ordnance woods." Shipbuilding. — There is, perhaps, no purpose for which timber has been, and requires to be, more carefully tested and selected than for shipbuilding. From this point of view we have a full account of most timbers so employed in the late Mr. Thomas Laslett's Timber and Timber-trees, originally published in 1875, of which a new edition by Professor Marshall Ward appeared in 1894. The requirements of the dockyard are, however, very varied, durability being generally necessary ; but great strength, even if accompanied by weight, and freedom from decay on contact with metal, being important for armoured vessels ; resistance to ship-worms or termites for those not metal-sheathed ; lightness for boats ; freedom from sphntering for planks ; extreme toughness for blocks ; evenness of growth and great resistance to strain for masts ; flexibility for oars. For general purposes, among the heavier woods, Teak (Tectona grdndis) is taken as a standard, and SHIPBUILDING TIMBERS 77 is far more used than the Oaks, whether European or American, of former days,^ valuable as these are, however, especially for exposed and compass timbers. The Indian Jarul {Lagerstrdemia Flos-regince) and Thingan {Hopea odordta), the Greenheart of Demerara {Nectdndra Eodicei), the AngeHque {Dicorynia guianen- sis), African Oak or Teak [Oldfieldia africdna) from West Africa, Stinkwood {Ocotea hulldtd) and Sneezewood [Pteroxylon utile) from the south of the same continent, the Rata or Ironwood of New Zea- land {Metrosideros rohusta and M. lucida), and probably the Bilhan (Eusideroxylon Zwdgeri) of Borneo, are but little inferior. Lloyd's Register, classifying shipbuilding timbers in 17 lines, places Teak alone in the first ; in the second, Enghsh Oak {Quercus Rohur), African Oak [Oldfieldia africdna), Live Oak [Quercus virens), Adriatic, Itahan, Spanish, Portuguese, and French Oak [Q. Cerris, jEscuIus, pyrendica, Ilex, Suber, and Rohur), Morung Saul [Shorea rohusta), Greenheart [Nectdndra Rodicei), Morra [llora excelsa), Iron-bark [Eucalyptus siderophloia, and probably E. leucoxylon, and E. sideroxylon), and White Ironbark (apparently E. crehra, amyg- dalina, and paniculdta) ; in the third, Cuba Sabicu [Lysiloma Sdhicu), Pencil Cedar [Juniperus Bermudidna, or perhaps Dysoxylon Iluelleri, and D. Fraseridnum), Angelly [Artocdrpus hirsuta), Vanatica [Pithe- colohiumsp ?), Jarrah, [Eucalyptus mar gindta). Karri [E. diversicolor), 1 " Shipbuilding in 1805. "The oak was very costly, for the service requh-ed the very best wood. It could not be, or should not have been, used for a year after cutting, for it needed to be seasoned before being handled by the shipwrights. On coming to the yards it was stacked for some months in sheds, in various positions, according to its future use, to allow it to season. In times of stress much of it was used green — not properly seasoned. " The ships were built in the open air, and it was the custom to allow the frame or skeleton of every ship to stand exposed ' for a twelvemonth or a little more ' before any timbers were placed across her ribs. It was thought that this exposure seasoned the Oak of the frame. As a matter of fact, the constant wettings and warpings from rain and sun set up decay in the exposed wood, so that many ships had begun to rot 'before a plank was put on.' Some, indeed, were as green as grass with mildew and fungus before the timbers were fitted. The general life of a ship of those days built under these conditions was only eight or nine years. Few lasted so long ' without great repairs equal almost to their first cost.' Many rotted to pieces after a few months at sea. In 1812 a fine three-decker, which had seen no hard sea service, was condemned as rotten a year after she was launched. " In those ships in which American Oak had been used, the decay set in more quickly than in other cases. These ships used to strain their seams or timbers open, ever so slightly, in heavy weather, admitting water to the cracks. The wood so wetted began to develop dry rot or fungus from the moment the water penetrated its fibres. Both fungus and dry rot spread with strange rapidity when once it had established itself, and a ship so attacked had either to be pulled to pieces, so that the rotting oak could be removed, or broken up as useless." — Macefield, Sea-life in Nelson's Time, 78 OF WOOD IX GEXERAL Blue Gum {E. Globulus), Red Gum {E. rostrdta), Box (E. hemipJiIoia F), Tliingan {Hopea odordta), Puhutukawa [Metrosideros tomentosa), Molave (Vitex geniculdta and F. alUssima), Dungon {Sterculia cymhiformis), Yacal {Shorea reticulata), Mangachapuy, (Shorea Mangdchapoi), Betis {Payena Betis), Ipil {Afzelia bijuga), Guijo {Shorea robusta), Xarra {Pterocdrpus pdllidus and P. santalinus), Batitinan (?), and Palomaria de Playa {Calophyllum Inophyllum ?) ; in the fourth, those of the first and second hne when second-hand ; in the fifth, Stringy Bark [Eucalyptus obUqua, etc.), Red Cedar (apparently Cedrlla Toona), Banaba, which is the Jarul of India, and Philippine Islands Cedar (probably chiefly Cedrela Toona) ; in the sixth, Danish and other Continental White Oak, Mahogany {Swietenia Mahogani), Spanish Chestnut [Castdnea sativa), Flooded Gum {Eucalyptus saUgna), Spotted Gum {E. maculdta), Grey Gum {E. vimindlis), Turpentine {E. Stuartidna, chiefly). Black Butt {E. piluldris), Tuhp-wood {HarpuUia pendula F), Tallow- wood {Eucalyp- tus microcorys), and Mulberr3^(?) ; in the seventh, Xorth American White Oak [Quercus dlba) ; in the eighth, Pitch Pine {Pinus r'lgida), Oregon Pine {Pseudotsuga Dougldsii), Huon Pine {Dacrydium Frank- Unii), Kauri Pine (Agathis austrdlis), Larch {Ldrix europcea), Hack- matack or Tamarac {L. americdna), and Juniper (?) ; in the ninth, Dantzic, Memel, and Riga Pine {Pinus sylvestris), and American Red Pine (P. resinosa) ; in the tenth, Enghsh Ash {Frdxinu^ ex- celsior) ; in the eleventh, foreign Ash {F. sambucifolia americdim, etc.), and Rock Maple {Acer barbdtum) ; in the twelfth, American Rock Elm {Ulmus americdna and racemosa), and Hickory {Hicoria ovdta, dlba, gldbra, minima, Pecan, etc.) ; in the tliirteenth, European and American Gre^^ Elm {Ulmus campestris and others) ; in the fourteenth. Black Birch {Betula lenta) and Black Walnut {Juglans nigra) ; in the fifteenth. Spruce Fir {Picea excelsa), Swedish or Xorway Red Pine, and Scotch Fir ; {Pinus sylvestris) ; in the six- teenth. Beech {Fdgus sylvdtica) ; and in the seventeenth. Yellow Pine {Pinus Strobus). The Tm'pentine-tree {Syncdrpia laurijolia). White Box {Tristdnia conferta), Box {Eucalyptus liemiphloia) and Spotted Gum {E. macu- ldta) of Xew South Wales are also generally useful. The Securipa and Guarabu of Brazil, the latter of which may be Termindlia acuminata or Peltogyne macrolobium, though httle known, are employed locally ; but the Stringy-bark of Tasmania {Eucalyptus obliqua) and the Blue Gums {E. Globulus in Tasmania, and E. botryoides in Victoria) have been proved suitable both for beams and planks. Other dense timbers are employed mainly for beams and keelsons, such as the Mora of Demerara {Dimorplidndra Mora, or Mora excelsa), Tewart {Eucalyptus gompliocepliala) of West SHIPBUILDING TIMBERS 79 Australia, Iron-bark {E. siderophloia) of Queensland and New South Wales, and Sabicu (Lysiloma Sdbicu) of Cuba. Chow, or Menkabang Penang {Casuarma equiseti folia) from Borneo, the " Cedre " of the Seychelles, though a heavy wood, is mainly em- ployed for masts, as are also the Poon, Tatamaka, or Alexandrian Laurel of India {Calophyllum Inophyllum), which is known as " Phung-nyet " in the Andaman Islands, as " Domba " in Sin- halese, and as Penago, Panagah, Pingow, or Borneo Mahogany in Borneo, the Peroba branca {Sapota gonocdrpa) of Brazil ; and, still more, such soft woods as Biga Fir {Piiius sylvestris), Yellow Pine (P. Strobus), Oregon or Douglas Fir (Pseudotsuga Dougldsii)^ the unequalled Kauri Pine of New Zealand {Agathis austrdlis), and the Huon Pine of Tasmania {Dacrydium Franklinii). For this purpose a certain elasticity is requisite, resistance, that is, to wind. Other coniferous woods are of more general use, such as Dantzic Fir {Pinus sylvestris), the Totara (Podocdrpus Totara) and Tana- kaha (P. asplenifolius) of New Zealand, the Moreton Bay Pine {Araucdria Cunninghdmi), mostly for spars, Red Pine {Pinus resinosa) and Pitch Pine (P. palustris), which serve equally for spars and for planking. Other species, mainly on account of their dimensions, are chiefly employed in boat-building, such as the Black or Cypress Pine {Cdllitris robusta), the Oyster Bay Pine {C. rhom- boidea) and the Bermuda " Cedar " {Juniperus bermudidna) among conifers ; and European and American Elm, Jarrah {Eucalyptus margindta) and Red Gum {E. rostrdta), Pynkado or Pyengadu {Xylia dolabriformis), which is the Ironwood of Pegu and the Acle of the Philippines, Anan {Fagrcea frdgrans), Gumbar {Gmelina arborea), Sundri {Heritiera littordlis), and the Brazilian Camara {Geissospermum Vellosii) among hard woods. Some timbers are most valuable for compass timbers, such as the Angelim vermelho (probably Andira fraxinifolia) of Brazil and the Puriri {Vitex littor- dlis) and Pohutukawa {Metrosideros tomentosa) of New Zealand ; whilst others are used almost exclusively for decks and planking, such as the Turpentine Tree or Stanthorpe Box {Eucalyptus Studr- tiana) and White Beech {Gmelina Leichhardtii) of Eastern Australia, the Canella preta {Nectdndra dtra) of Brazil, and the Lauan {Dip- terocdrpus thurifer) of the Philippines. Exceptionally hard and tough woods, such as Lignum Vitse {Guaiacum offlcindle) and the Ironwood of Tasmania {Notelcea ligustrina), are required for blocks ; whilst tough but flexible kinds, such as the Ash of Europe or America and the Silver Wattle {Acdcia dealbdta), are employed for oars. For the internal fittings of ships almost any species can obviously be used which is employed in ordinary civil architecture or joinery. 80 OF WOOD IN GENERAL Submerged structures. — Passing next to timbers used for piles or other submerged structures, such as locks and water-wheels, Elm, Larch, Chestnut (Castdnea), Live Oak (Quercus virens), Sal (STiorea rohusta), Totara (Podocdrpus Totara), Eucalyptiis globulus, E. rostrdta, and Rassak (Vdtica Rdssak) of Borneo, may be specially mentioned. Greenheart, Jarrah, Pynkado, Chow, Kapor {Dryobdlanops aromdtica), another Bornean timber. Alder, and Beech are also used for these purposes. For the strouds of water- wheels and for paddle-boards Willow is employed ; and for water- conduits, Pine. Strength timbers. — For such engineering purposes as require considerable strength, and resistance to definitely calculable strain, for bridges, piers, or baulks of timber, Teak, Jarul, Sal, Sissoo {Dalhergia Sissoo) and Anan {Fagrcea frdgrans) among Indian timbers, the Locust of Trinidad {Hymencea Courbaril), Oak, and the superior kinds of Pine may be mentioned. Sleepers. — Railway sleepers absorb enormous quantities of timber, which requires to be durable when in contact with the earth and with metal. ^ Creosoted Red Deal [Pmus sylvestris) is the chief wood employed for this purpose in Britain ; but treated Oak and Beech are largely used in France. Deodar {Cedrus Deoddra), Sal, Blackwood (Dalbergia latifolia), Poon (Calophyllum Inophyllum), Nagesar or Ironwood (Mesua ferrea), and Cliilauni {Schima WalUchii) among Indian timbers ; the Box of New South Wales (Eucalyptus hemiphloia) ; Puriri [Vitex littordlis), Hinau [Elceocdrpus dentdtus) and Totara (Podocdrpus Totara) in New Zealand ; when creosoted, the Upright or Real Yellow-wood, Geel Hout, or Umceya (Podo- cdrpus latifolius or P. Thunbergii) in Cape Colony ; and the Chihan " Roble " (Fdgus obUqua) in Argentina, are employed for this pur- pose ; and one of the most important industries of the future in the colony last mentioned is the cultivation of the European Cluster Pine (Pinus Phmster) and of Eucalyptus for the same use. Mining timber. — Less care is exercised in the selection of pit- props for mines. Larch and pine, both home-groT\Ti and of Baltic origin, are largely used in Enghsh mines, and Pmus Pindster is imported from Bordeaux to the Welsh colheries and Cornish tin- mines. In French mines the order of durabihty has been found to be Spanish Chestnut, Oak, Scots Fir, Alder, Ash, Pinus Pindster, Acacia. It has been said that for every ton of coal taken out of a mine we should put back a cubic foot of timber. ^ ''As yet no substitute has been devised for wood ties that is economical or desirable. They maintain the alignment of the railroad, so essential to safety, better than any metal substitute, and give an elasticity to the road-bed most important for the preservation and maintenance of the rolling-stock," — C. F. Manderson in What Forestry Means to Hepresentative Men : U.S. Bureau of Forestry, Circular 33. TELEGRAPH POLES, BUILDING TIMBERS, ETC. 81 Telegraph poles. — For telegraph poles much the same char- acters are requisite as for masts, in addition to durability under- ground. Besides Larch and European Pine and Douglas Fir, the Black or Cypress Pine of New South Wales [Cdllitris robusta), being proof against termites, is in request for this purpose, and, in the United States, Chestnut (Castdnea vulgaris, var. americdna) is used. Building. — Less durabiUty is essential in scaffold-poles and ladders, for which Spruce {Picea excelsa) is largely used. For joists, rafters, and flooring, no wood is so much used with us as Dantzic Fir {Pinus sylvestris), though the somewhat shaky and cheaper Swedish Fir of the same species is also largely used, whilst that of Norway is imported in the form of ready-made flooring and match-boarding. In the West of England Baltic Pine is largely replaced by American White Pine {Pinus Strobus). The Pitch- Pine of the United States {Pinus palustris) is now largely employed in match-boarding and other internal work in English buildings, and Larch is much used for flooring, as also are both Baltic and American Black Spruce {Picea excelsa and P. nigra). Since the importation of these coniferous timbers from the Baltic and from America, which dates mainly from the beginning of the eighteenth century, Oak, till then the chief building-timber in North-west Europe, has been but Uttle used, though, of course, old oak beams, floors, and panellings are still abundant. From its not splintering, Willow is still occasionally used for flooring. In the United States, whilst White Oak {Qucrcus dlba) is very largely employed for the main timbers of houses, the Pines, especially the soft White Pine {Pinus Strobus), the Long-leaf Pine {P. palustris), the Loblolly Pine {P. tceda) and the so-called Norway Pine {P. resinosa), with other species in the west, are (under a confusing jumble of popular names) the timbers most used. In Northern India, the Bhotan Pine {Pinus excelsa) and Himalayan Cypress {Cupressus torulosa) are important coniferous timbers, and there are several valuable species of Oak — ■ viz., Quercus semecar pi folia, Q. dilatdta, Q. pachyphylla, Q. lamel- losa, Q. fenestrdta, Q. spicdta, and Q. Griffithii. Among the other hardwoods important in building are Champa {MicMlia Chdmpaca), Redwood {Adendnthera pavonina), Sal, Iroawood {Mesua ferrea), the Myrobalans, Babela, and Harra {Termindlia belerica and T. CM- bula), Shoondul {Afzelia bijuga), Illupi {Bdssia longi folia), and Iron- wood or Pyengadu {Xylia dolabriformis). In Australia, the Pepper- mint {Eucalyptus amygdalina) and the White Stringy Bark {E. capitelld) ; in New Zealand, the Totara {Podocdrpus Totara) and Tanakaha {Phylloclddus trichomanoides) ; the Yellow-wood {Podo- cdrpus elongatus and P. latifolius) in South Africa ; Mora and 6 82 OF WOOD IX GENERAL Angelique in Guiana ; Canella preta (Nectdndra dtra and N. mollis) in Brazil ; and CagiiejTan {Copaifera hymenceifolia) in Cuba, are all timbers valuable to the builder. Wood-paving. — The consumption of wood for paving in our large towns, already enormous, is rapidly increasing, although the comparative advantages of soft wood, in England mainly Pine, with, its greater cheapness, and hard woods, with their greater durabihty and the chance of their becoming shppery, are not yet decided. The chief hard woods as yet used in England are Jarrah {Eucalyptus margindta) and Karri {E. diversicolor) from South- western Australia. In Paris Pinus Pinaster and Larch are em- ployed. Black-butt {E. piluldris) and Crow's Ash (Flindersia austrdlis), from Eastern Austraha, were laid experimentally in Wellington Street, Strand, in 1895 ; and Tallow- wood {Eucalyptus microcorys), from Xew South Wales, Bloodwood {E. corymbosa) and Ironwood {Tarrietia argyrodendron), from Queensland, and Blue Gum {Eucalyptus globulus) and Stringy Bark {E. obliqua), from Tas- mania, have also been tried. Little can be said in favour of the Red Gum of the Eastern L'nited States {Liguiddmhar styraciflua), a large quantity of which was ordered for use in W^estminster in 1901. " Cedar," often spoken of in this connection in Western American cities, is probably mostly the wood of Thuya gigdntea {T. plicdta) and Cupressus lawsonidna. Shingles and fencing. — Wooden shingle roofs, for which Oak used to be employed, are of much less importance in England than in the United States, where White Cedar {Thuya gigdntea and T. occidentdlis, Cupressus lawsonidna, and C. Thyoides and Libocedrus decurrens) is largely used for this purpose, which requires a straight- grained wood, easy to spht. In all countries enormous quantities of split and sawn timber are consumed for fencing purposes ; more especially Oak, Larch, and Spanish Chestnut with us ; " Cedar " in the L'nited States ; the so-called " Birch," really a Beech {Fdgus Soldndri), in Xew Zealand ; and Beef wood or Swamp or Forest Oak {Casuarina equisetifolia) and alhed species, together with various species of Eucalyptus, in Austraha, of which, perhaps, E. amygdalina, E. rostrdta, and E. vimindlis are the chief. Carpentry. — The work of the carpenter and joiner hnks that of the builder to that of the cabinet-maker. In Europe, in addition to much Baltic and American Pine, chiefly Pinus sylvestris, P. Strobus, and P. palustris, he uses much Spruce {Picea ezcelsa), Bordeaux Pine {Pinus Pindster), and ST\dss Pine {Abies pectindta), besides Oak, Ash, and Chestnut. To give additional strength. Elm is used for the ends of ammunition-boxes, whilst their sides are of Pine. So also in the United States and Canada, the Hemlock FENCING AND CARPENTERS' WOODS 83 Spruce (Tsuga canadensis), White and Black Spruces (Picea alba and P. nigra) ; and in the West Indies, Fiddlewood (various species of Citharexylum) may be specially mentioned as carpenters' woods. In South Africa the Cedar Boom [Widdringtonia j uniper Sides) , though not very durable, is a useful wood, as the allied species, W. WMtei, from the kloofs of the Shire Highlands, may probably prove ; and in Eastern Australia the Moreton Bay Pine {Arau- cdria Cunninghdmi) may be mentioned in this group. The carpenter requires cheap wood, easily worked, and of moderate strength. Carriage-building. — We may class here the various woods em- ployed in the many branches of the wheelwright's, waggon and carriage-builder's trade. Hornbeam {Carpinus Betulus), Elm, and Australian Blackwood {Acacia melanoxylon) are peculiarly fitted for the hubs ; Oak, Robinia, Ash and Eucalyptus crebra and E. goniocdlyx for spokes ; Hickory (various species of Hicoria) for axle-trees and shafts ; Poplar, American White-wood (Liriodendron tulipifera), Birch and Maple {Acer barbdtum) for panels ; the dense Pyengadu {Xylia dolabriformis) and Padouk {Pterocdrpus indicus) of Burma, for gun-carriages or the frames of railway- waggons, and the Bastard Peppermint of New South Wales {Tristdnia suaveolens) for somewhat similar purposes, in which tough hard wood is needed. About 1750, Satinwood, upon which Cipriani and Angelica Kauff- mann executed their paintings, became fashionable for coach- panels ; whilst for the humbler purposes of wheelbarrows Willow is useful from its freedom from splintering. Furniture. — An immense variety of woods have been employed in the making of furniture, susceptibility to polish, beauty of colour or grain, and durability being their chief requisites, together with freedom from shrinkage, whilst they are variously employed either planed, carved, turned, or bent. Thus some wood known as " Cedar " seems to have been largely used in ancient Assyria and Egypt, forming the beams of the temple of Apollo at Utica, said by Pliny to have been sound 1,200 years after their erection ; employed alike in Solomon's temple, in Greek sculpture, and in carpentry, as for the chest in which Cypselus of Corinth is said to have been concealed about 550 B.C. As Vitruvius speaks of that of Crete, Africa, and Syria as the best, it is probable that then, as now, the wood of several species was confused under one name, probably the Lebanon Cedar {Cedrus libani), that of Mount Atlas {C. atldntica) and the 'Arar {Tetraclinis articuldta) of Morocco. This last sweet-scented wood, known also as Atlas Cjrpress, was the much- vaunted " Citrus " or " Citron " Wood of the Romans and probably the " Thyine Wood " of the Apocalypse. The roof of the cathedral at Cordova, originally a mosque, is built of it, it being 6—2 84 OF WOOD IX GENERAL there known as " Alerce." The true Cj^ress [Cujpressus semper - virens) was, no doubt, largely used, not only, as is related, for Alexander the Great's Babylonian fleet or Semiramis' bridge over the Euphrates, but owing to its durabihty and resistance to moth, for clothes-chests. An Itahan chest of this wood of the fourteenth century is preserved at South Kensington, and John of Gaunt bequeaths one in his will in 1397. The Certosina work, or inlay- ing of this wood and walnut with ivory, so called from the choir fittings of the Certosa between ^lilan and Pavia, an art practised at Florence in the fifteenth century, was perhaps brought by the Venetians from Persia, from which country it also reached Bom- bay. Sissoo {Dalhergia Sissoo), possibly the Chittim of Holy Scrip- ture, and other species of Rosewood, Ebony, Teak, and Walnut, may have reached Assyria, Syria, and even more western lands from India ; but the Corsican Ebony used by the Romans for veneers was probably the Laburnum, the " Faux Ebenier " of the French. Lotos-wood, said to have been used in Greek sculpture, may have been that of the Xettle-tree {Celtis austrdlis), stiU much used in Southern Europe. We read of the Romans using Box and Beech for chairs and for veneers ; Beech for chests ; Ohve, both vrild and cultivated, for veneers ; Fig, WiUow, Plane, Elm, Mulberry, Cherry, and Cork-Oak, as ground for veneers ; Maple, especially Bird's-eye Maple (probably Acer campestre), for tables ; and Syrian Terebinth {Pistdcia Terehinthus), and Poplar for various other purposes. Though Xorway Pine was imported by Henry III., in the thirteenth century, for panelhng at Windsor, throughout the ^Middle Ages, Oak was the main furniture wood as it was the chief building material. As in the timber-frame houses of the Chester rows, the fourteenth- century roof of Westminster Hall, or the marvellously carved one of the Palais de Justice at Rouen in the sixteenth ; so in the great bed of Ware and other Enghsh and Flemish furniture during the Tudor period. Oak alone is emplo^'ed. It was used as a bed wood for veneering by Boule under Louis XIV., and was painted white and gilt in the time of Louis XVI. Italian Walnut {Juglans regia) was much used in Italy for carving and gilding from the fifteenth century, and it was at Venice and Florence that the use of the soft white woods of Willow, Linden, and Sycamore for carved and gilt frames for mirrors originated in the sixteenth. A beautiful cabinet of Enghsh sixteenth-century^ workmanship in the Victoria and Albert Museum is adorned with high-rehef carvings in Pearwood ; and a South German one in the same museum of seventeenth-century date is of Pine and Oak veneered \\dth Hungarian Ash and Walnut. The use of Ebony, especially for inlaying Walnut wardrobes, became more general after the Dutch settlement in Ceylon in 1695 ; Grinling FURNITURE WOODS 85 Gibbons, who was partly of Dutch descent, employed Linden and other white woods for his inestimable carving ; and the work of Thomas Chippendale in the eighteenth century gave Mahogany the popularity in England that Satin wood enjoyed at that time in France. Heppelwhite and Sheraton employed Mahogany not only for chairs, but for small articles such as tea-caddies, whilst in the inlaid work of the period it was used, not only with other dark woods, such as Rosewood, Laburnum, and Purple-heart (Copaifera pubi- flora), but also with Holly, Maple, and Pear. At the present day Mahogany is used for dining-room furniture and veneers, though much Oak, some of which is the Canadian Red Oak {Quercus rubra), is used for the same purpose, whilst large quantities of Walnut Juglans nigra), Ash (Frdxinus americdna), Bass-wood (TUia americdna), Maple (Acer harhdtum), and Birch {Betula Imta) are im- ported from North America for library and bedroom furniture, stained or painted Deals being employed for yet cheaper goods. Fifty years ago American Walnut was only used in England for inferior purposes, such as framing for veneers ; but now it has much advanced in popularity with cabinet-makers and shopfitters with a doubling of its former price. Another American wood of in- creasing importance is the American Whitewood, or Canary White- wood [Liriodendron tulipifera), used for the seats of American Windsor chairs, and, from its suitability for staining or pohshing, rapidly becoming a favourite with wood-workers. Beech and Yew are the staple woods of our Buckinghamshire chair factories. Ash being used in bent wood- work ; whilst bamboo work and cane-seats are somewhat outside our present scope. Among furniture woods in use in other countries we can only enumerate a few : In India : — Ebony (Diospyros spp.). Rosewoods or Blackwoods [Dalbergia Idtifolia, etc.), Sissoo (Dalbergia Sissoo), Redwood {Adendnthera pavonina), Padouk [Pterocdrpus indicus and P. dalbergioides), Bija Sal or Bastard Teak {Pterocdrpus Marsupium), Margosa or Neem {Melia spp.), Siris (Albizzia spp.), Chittagong wood {Chickrdssia tabuldris), Chatwan (Alstonia scholdris), a soft wood, named from its use for blackboards in Indian schools, Gumbar (Gmelina arbor ea), Toon, Moulmein Cedar or Indian Mahogany (Cedrela Toona) ; ' and Jack or Ceylon Mahogany {Artocdrpus integri folia). 86 OF WOOD IN GENERAL In Mauritius and other islands in the Indian Ocean : — Tatamaka or Rosewood, under which name are confused Thespesia popuhiea and Calopliyllum Inophyllum. In South Africa : — Sneezewood, Xeishout, or Umtati [Pteroxylon utile), Stinkwood {Ocotea hulldta), Cape Ebony [Eudea pseudebenus, etc.), Cape Ash, Essen Boom, or Umgwenyuizinja (Eckehergia capensis), Saffron- wood, or Umbomoana (Elceodendron croceum), Assegai- wood, or Umguna {Curtisia faginea), Sahc-wood, or Unkaza (Buddleia salvice folia), and Red Cedar, or Rood Els {Cunonia capensis). In Yoruba Land, West Africa : — Iroko (Chlorophora excelsa), resembhng Satinwood. In Borneo : — Mirabow (Afzelia palembdnica). In Austraha : — Blackwood {Acacia melanoxylon, etc.), Jarrah {Eucalyptus margindta), Shingle Oak {Casuarina stricta), Queenwood {Daviesia arbor ea). Rosewood {Dysoxylon Fraseridnum), Beef wood {Grevillea stridta), Mulberry {Hedycdrya angustifolia), Silky Oak {Stenocdrpus salignus), Moreton Bay Pine {Araucaria Cumiinghdmi), and Pencil Cedar {Podocdrpus eldta). In Tasmania : — Honeysuckle {Bdnksia margindta) and Huon Pine {Dacrydium FrankUnii). In New Zealand : — Honeysuckle or Rewa-rewa {Knightia excelsa), Kauri Pine {Agathis austrdlis), Rimu {Dacrydium cupressinum), Miro {Podocdrpus ferruginea), and Totara (P. totara). And in Tropical America : — Mahogany or Baywood {Swietenia Mahogani), Sabicu {Lysiloma Sabicu), Santa Maria, or Galba {Calophyllum Cdldba), Green Ebony {Brya Ebenus), Zebra Wood {Connarus guianensis, etc.), Sapodilla {Achras Sapota), and Braziletto {Ccesalpinia brasiliensis, etc.). VENEER WOODS, TURNERY, ETC. 87 Veneers. — Very choice ornamental woods are employed mainly as veneers. Such are, in addition to many of those just enumer- ated : Amboyna wood, the product, it is beheved, of some species of Pterocdrpus ; the burrs of Yew, largely used for tea-caddies, etc., in the eighteenth century ; those of Walnut ; and the beautiful Lacewood or Honeysuckle wood of North America (Pldtanus occi- dentdlis). Turnery. — The turner requires a tough wood, which will often be also hard and susceptible of good pohsh. No wood is more generally useful to him than the Ash, as it does not splinter. Curi- ously enough, cankered Ash- wood, popularly known as " bee-sucken Ash," being apparently twisted in its grain, is extremely hard and tough, and, therefore, suitable for mallets. Beech is used for wedges, planes, and tool-handles ; Hornbeam for the bearers of the cylinders of printing-machines ; Pear for T-squares ; and Elm, and in former times Maple, for bowls ; whilst the record of the demand for Walnut for the manufacture of gunstocks reads like a romance. In 1806 France required 12,000 Walnut-trees per annum ; while in England, before the Battle of Waterloo, £600 was paid for a single tree. For cheaper gunstocks American Walnut is now used, whilst the American species of Ash, Beech (Fdgus ferruginea), and Hornbeam {Carpinus carolinidna, known as " blue Beech "), are employed in the United States for purposes similar to those to which their European equivalents are put. The Hickories {Hicoria), more especially for handles, the Persimmon {Diospyros virginidna) for shuttles, plane stocks, etc., and the Cherry {Prunus serotma) are also important to the American turner. In Japan, Kizi (Paul- ownia imperidlis) is the main basis for lacquer- ware : the so- called Cherry (Exocdrpus cupressiformis) and the fragrant Musk wood {Oledria argophylla) of Australia, and the Violet- wood {Copaifera bractedta) of Brazil may be specially mentioned ; whilst in South Africa the various species of Olea known as Ironwood, the Silk-bark or Zybast {Celdstrus acumindtus), Buffelsbal (Gardenia Thunbergii), Ladle- wood [Hartogia capensis), and Umzumbit (Mil- letia Kdfra) ; and in India the Babul {Acdcia ardbica), Ironwood (Mesua ferrea), Ebonies (Diospyros spp.), calamander (D. qucesUa), Anjan (Hardwickia bindta). Tamarind (Tamarmdus indica), Dhaura (Anogeissus latifolia). Bullet-wood (Mimusops littordlis), Satin-wood (Chloroxylon Swietenia), and Sandal-wood (Sdntalum album), are noteworthy. Walking-sticks, etc. — A great variety of woods are used in the manufacture of walking-sticks. Not to mention Jersey Cabbages and the leaf-stalks of the Date-palm and a great variety of Canes, imported specially from Singapore, these include English-grown Oak, Ash, Blackthorn, Holly and Hazel, Whitethorn, Aspen, Birch, 88 OF WOOD IX GENERAL Crab-apple, Furze, Maple, Hornbeam, and Rowan. Medlar {3Ie,s- pilus germdnica) and Chestnut {Castdnea sativa) are imported from France ; Cork Oak {Quercus Suher) from Spain ; Carob {Ceratonia Siliqua) from Algeria ; Guelder-rose {Viburnum Opulus), under the names of " Teazle " or " Balkan-rose," from the Balkans ; OUve and Orange from Southern Europe, while " Black Orange " is a trade name for the common Broom [Cytisus scopdrius) ; Box, from Persia ; Ebony, from Ceylon ; and, from the West Indies, Cocus or " Flowered Ebony " {Brya Ehenus), Partridge-wood (Andira inermis), Pimento (Pimenta officindlis), and Letter- wood or Leopard- wood [Brosimum AuhUtii). Edward IV. ordered all bows in Ireland to be made of Yew, Wych-hazel (Ulmus glabra). Ash, or Alder ; and, in his time, much Yew was imported from Dalmatia via Venice. Lancewood and Hickory are now largely used for this purpose. Engraving. — For wood-engraving, the Box (Buxus semper- virens) of Turkey is unequalled, and the use of metallic blocks has diminished the urgency of the search for a substitute for, as wasteful consumption threatened exhaustion of the supply of, this species. The Cape Box {Buxus Macowdnii), introduced in 1885, is now con- siderably used : Ebony is nearly equal in texture to Box, but its colour militates against its use ; Hawthorn is probably next best to Box of any known wood, but cannot readily be obtained of sufficient size : Pear {Pyrus communis), used for calico-printer's blocks, the Chinese T'eng li mu {Pyrus betulcefolia), and Pai'cha (Euonymus europdeus, var. Hamiltonidnus), the American Box or Dogwood {Cornus florida) and other species are suitable for coarse work ; but Jamaica Box {Tecoma pentaphylla) is on the whole the most likely successor to Box. Musical instruments. — While any well-seasoned ornamental wood, such as Rosewood, Mahogany, or Walnut, is used for the cases of pianofortes, those parts of musical instruments in which resonance is produced must consist of wood of uniform texture, free from all knots or other defects or contrasts of grain. Ancient Etruscan flutes seem to have been made of Box ; whilst at the present day the Green Ebony {Brya Shenus) of the West Indies is, w^hen properly seasoned, the very best wood for this purpose. Evelyn writes that Cj^ress is a sonorous wood, and is employed in making harps, organ-pipes, and other musical instruments ; but the Spruce {Picea excelsa), known in the trade as " Swiss Pine," is now accounted the most resonant of all woods, and is used for the bellies of the violin and the sounding-boards of pianos. Sycamore (Acer pseudo-pldtanus) or Hard Maple {A. barbdtum) being employed for the back and sides of the former instrument. MISCELLANEOUS USES OF WOOD S9 Miscellaneous uses. — Even tobacco-pipes consume large quan- tities of certain woods, such as the Bruyere, commonly known as Briar {Erica arborea), from Southern Europe, the Myall {Acacia homalophylla) from Australia, and the Cherry {Prunus avium, Mdhaleh, etc.), used for long pipe-stems and grown mainly in Austria. The light white woods of the Horse-chestnuts or Buck- eyes {Msculus) are used for artificial limbs, just as, judging by the ^yritings of the comic dramatists, Linden-wood was employed in making corsets for male dandies in ancient Greece. Millions of cubic feet of Bermuda Cedar and of the Red or Pencil Cedar of Virginia {Juniperus bermudidna and J. virginidna) are cut annually for the manufacture of pencils alone. The quantities of Alder {Alnus glutinosa), Beech, Willow {Sdlix dlba more especially). Spruce or White Deal {Picea excelsa), Birch {Betula dlba), Linden, Poplars, and even Horse-chestnut {jEsculus hippocdstanum) in Europe, and of Tupelo {Nyssa sylvdtica) and Canoe Birch {Betula papyrifera) in North America, consumed for sabots must be immense, to say nothing of the quantities of these and other woods used for shoe- lasts, shoe-pegs, boot-trees, hat-blocks, etc. Soft white woods, such as Willow, Alder, Linden, Poplar, or " Cottonwood," that of the Tulip-tree {Liriodendron) and the Cucumber-tree {Magnolia acumindta), confounded together as " Canary White wood," and the Spruces {Picea) and Soft Pines {Pinus Strobus, etc.), are those chiefly in demand by the toy-manufacturer. Cooperage. — The requirements of the cooper are more varied than might be supposed, different woods being needed for staves, for hoops, for head-pieces, and for dry, Hquid, or volatile goods. Oak is largely used for staves, especially French Oak {Quercus Robur), and American White Oak {Q. dlba), but in AustraUa the Black Wattle {Acdcia mollissima) takes its place. Willow and Hickory are used for hoops and Ash for a great variety of purposes, but for dry goods the cooper employs cheap soft white woods such as those used for the manufacture of packing-cases. Packing-cases. — Packing-cases made of inferior Silver Fir {Abies pectindta) are sent all over the world from Switzerland and the Tyrol : its cheapness causes Norway Spruce {Picea excelsa) to be almost as universally employed ; and on the continent of Europe the Black Austrian, Bordeaux Cluster, and ItaUan Stone Pines (Pinus austriaca, Pindster, and Pinea) are also largely used for this purpose. Their not sphtting when nailed renders the Poplars admirable for this purpose, and the White, Aspen, and Lombardy Poplars {Populus canescens, tremula, and fastigidta) are accordingly largely used in France, as are Populus monilifera and other " Cotton- woods," as they are there called, in the United States. Picea 90 OF WOOD IN GENERAL Smithidna, the Himalayan Spruce, is in common use in India ; but for tea-chests, though Chir {Pinus longijolia), Chatwan (Alstonia scholdris), Chaplash [Artocdrpus Chapldsha), Toon (Cedrela Toona), Shembal [Boinbax malabdricum), and Maples, such as Acer Camp- hellii in the north - east, and A. pictum in the north - west, are employed, there is an inadequate supply of suitable native wood, wliich is being met by the importation of Birch veneers from Russia. Crates, etc. — Ash, Alder, and Birch are largely used in the making of crates ; and few persons probably, outside the trade, notice the variety of woods, in addition to Willow, which go to the making of our baskets. Enormous quantities of the Pine timber of Sweden {Pinus sylvestris) are consumed in the form of lucifer matches ; while wood-shavings and wood-wool, as it is called, much used in packing, are Httle more than bye-products in the conversion of timber for other purposes. Paper-pulp. — The manufacture of wood-pulp for paper, an industry belonging almost entirely to the last twenty-five years, has grown to such dimensions as to seriously affect the question of our timber supphes. It is carried on mainly in Scandinavia, Germany, the United States, and Canada. The Po^^lars, Alders, Buckeyes, and Spruces are the most suitable woods for this manufacture ; but the coarser kinds of printing paper, packing paper, and paste-board are made from Pine, even the branches and chips, formerly wasted, being utihzed. The refuse of Juniperus virginidna from the pencil factories yields a paper useful for underlaying carpets or wrapping articles Hable to be injured by moth. Two methods are followed, the mechanical, yielding a granular inferior product, and the chemical. Of this last there are two principal modifications — viz., the soda or alkahne process, and the sulphite or acid process, accord- ing as the reagent employed is caustic soda or bisulphite of hme, The former produces softer, the latter harder and more transparent, paper. Cellulose, prepared by these chemical processes from coniferous wood, is also manufactured in Germany into an infinite variety of articles. As an illustration of the growth of the wood- jDulp industry it may be stated that in 1891 the product of Norway was valued at 8,600,000 kronor (about £430,000), and that of Sweden at 10,400,000 kronor (£520,000), whilst in 1900 they were 27,400,000 and 33,200,000 kronor respectively. In 1892 there were already 600 paper-pulp factories in Germany and 200 in Austria- Hungar}' ; by 1900 the value of the industry in Canada was esti- mated at 6J millions sterHng ; and in the following year Dr. Schhch calculated that Norway was producing 1,400,000 tons a year, Canada 1,200,000, and Sweden 1,000,000, tons. British imports FUEL AND CHARCOAL 91 of wood-pulp in 1899 exceeded 20,000 tons, valued at nearly two millions sterling. These amounts have undoubtedly at the present time been largely exceeded. Fuel. — ^The heat-producing value of wood as fuel varies greatly, owing to the differing capacity that woods have for retaining moisture. Thus, while green wood may contain 50 per cent, of moisture, ordinary stack- wood may contain only 25 per cent., and kiln-dry wood only 2 per cent. With 25 lbs. of water, 100 lbs. of fire-wood will contain about 1 lb. of incombustible ash and 74 lbs. of the dry substance of wood. This last consists of 37 lbs. of carbon, 32 lbs. of oxygen and 4-4 lbs. of hydrogen ; and in burning the whole of the oxygen combines with 4 lbs. of hydrogen to form water, so that only the 37 lbs. of carbon and 0-4 lb. of hydrogen — i.e., about half the weight of the dry substance of the wood — are available for heat-production. Every pound of water combined in the wood requires about 600 units of heat to evaporate it, the unit being the amount of heat necessary to raise 1 lb. of water 1° C. ; so that 100 lbs. of stack-wood (25 per cent, moisture) only furnishes about 255,000 units, whilst if kiln-dry (2 per cent.) it would yield 350,000. The advantage of seasoning for firewood is, therefore, obvious. The resinous woods of the conifers produce most flame and are most useful accordingly in starting a fire ; but the denser hard woods produce from 25 to 30 per cent, more heat. Charcoal and distillation of wood. — When wood is heated to 200° F. without access of air, it remains unaltered, at 220° it becomes brown, and at 270° to 300° it suffers decomposition, torrefied wood or red charcoal being formed. At 350° it is resolved into volatile products and true or black charcoal. If the temperature is raised gradually, so that 600° F. is not reached for several hours, the pro- cess is called dry distillation. The first product of distillation is almost entirely water ; but at 500° pyroligneous (crude acetic) acid, or wood-vinegar, wood-spirit and uncondensable gases pass off, charcoal and some tar remaining. In the primitive method of the charcoal-burner, or meiler, in which billets of wood are stacked horizontally or inclined round a central chimney opening, most of the volatile products are lost ; but for charcoal this process is still largely employed on the Continent. If the fire is steady and regular, the slower the process the better the yield. For gun- powder-charcoal, however, and acetic acid, iron or brick ovens are mostly employed. The best gunpowder-charcoal is produced from light woods, such as Willow, Buckthorn, or " Dogwood " (Rhdmnus Frdngula), and Alder. Charcoal is darker, heavier, a better con- ductor of heat and electricity, less easily ignited, and gives out greater heat in burning, the higher the temperature at which it has 92 OF WOOD IX GENERAL been made. The proportion of charcoal yielded is greater (24 to 30 per cent.) with a slow process, that of the volatile products with a rapid one. From experiments with Hornbeam, Alder, Birch, Rowan, Beech, Aspen, Oak, Buckthorn, Silver Fir, and Larch, we find the yield of charcoal to range from 20 per cent, with slow, to 34-6 per cent, with quick distillation ; the total distillate from 43 to 53 per cent. ; the pyrohgneous acid from 47-5 in the hardwoods to 38 in the conifers ; and the tar from 2-9 in Beech to 9-7 in conifers. In practice only about 18 to 20 per cent, by weight of charcoal is obtained, or about half the volume of the wood. Pyrohgneous acid is in England largely manufactured from spent dye-woods, such as fustic, logwood, etc., the charcoal obtained being largely used for packing the meat refrigerators in ships. The gas manu- factured on the Continent by the distillation of wood consists, hke coal-gas, of carbon-monoxide, hydrogen and hydrocarbons such as acetylene, olefiant gas, benzene, etc. That from Silver Fir (Abies pectinata), for instance, contains carbon-monoxide 22-3 to 61-8 per cent, by weight, hydrogen 18-4 to 48*7, heavy hydrocarbons 6-5 to 10-6, and fight hydrocarbons 9-4 to 35-3 per cent. The products of distillation, under the most favourable circumstances, are stated as : Charcoal. Tar, Crude Pyroligneous Acid. Pure Acetic Acid. Birch, 22-4 8-6 45-0 4-47 Beech, 24-6 9-5 44-0 4-29 Oak, 26-2 9-1 43-0 3-88 Juniper, - 22-7 10-7 45-8 2 34 Silver Fir, 21-2 13-7 41-2 2-16 Scots Fir, 21-5 11-8 42-4 2-14 Purer acetic acid is obtained by re-distillation, and, when mixed with certain essences, constitutes aromatic vinegar. Among the acetates prepared on a large scale from pyrohgneous acid are those of lime, the brown containing from 60 to 70, and the grey from 80 to 85 per cent, of acetate. In the preparation of these naphtha is recovered ; and from this, by neutrafizing with fime and re- distilfing, wood spirit or methyl alcohol. Wood-tar, used for creosoting wood and in the manufacture of roofing-felts, is a thick, dark, viscous material, containing from 5 to 20 per cent, of acetic acid, from 30 to 65 per cent, of pitch, and from 20 to 45 per cent, of tar-oils. From these last, creosote, a colourless, highly refracting oil, with a specific gravity of 1-04, boiling at 406° F., and paraffin, used for candle-making, are obtained, by neutrafizing with car- bonate of soda and further distillation. DYEING AND TANNING 93 Dyeing and tanning. — Finally, somewhat apart from these other uses to which woods are applied, is the employment of certain species for dyeing and tanning. Of the former the most important are Logwood (Hcematoxylon campechidnum L.), which dyes red or black, and of which we import over 50,000 tons annually from Central America ; Fustic, a yellow dye, obtained from the wood of the large West Indian trees, Chlorophora tinctoria Gaud. ( = Mac- lura tinctoria D. Don) and its varieties, xanthoxylon and dffinis ; Sappan or Yellow- wood, from Ccesalpinia Sdppan L. ; the red dyes known as Brazil, Braziletto, Nicaragua, or Lima wood, from Ccesal- pinia crista L., hrasiliensis L., echindta Lam., C. bijuga, and C. tinc- toria ; Camwood, Bdphia nitida Afz., from West Africa ; and Red Sanders or Sandal- wood, Pterocdrpus saiitalinus L. fil., and Adendn- thera pavonina L., from India. Barks are more used for tanning than are woods ; but the Que- brachos, the produce of several South American species, have been a good deal employed of late years. The various methods employed consist essentially in a machine for grinding the dye-wood into a fine state of division, and a boiler or digester in which an extract is prepared by dissolving the grated wood in a suitable lye. CHAPTER VI OUR SUPPLIES OF WOOD. In spite of the substitution of iron or other substances for wood in shipbuilding and other industries, with the increasing numbers of civihzed man the consumption of wood increases at such a rate as to demand serious attention. The clearing of forest land for the purposes of agriculture has been most recklessly carried out, especially during the last century in the United States and in Canada, much of the wood being wasted. Where, too, the timber has been cut for use, this has in general been done so completely without any provision for the regenera- tion of the forest-lands as to lead to their extinction. The floods and famines of Cliina, the waste of the agricultural soil in Ceylon, the barrenness of Mesopotamia, Sjrria, Asia ]\Iinor, and Cyprus, the drjdng up of the springs and deterioration of the cHmate in South Africa, Mauritius, Turkey, and Spain have been attributed mainly to wholesale destruction of forest. The feUing of the woods on the Atlantic coast of Denmark has exposed the country to sharp sea winds and drifting sand, forming lagoons and bogs and causing a marked deterioration of the climate : the disafforesting of the Apennines during the last two centuries has much increased the violence of the mountain-torrents ; and even in Russia, wliich has not only the largest area of forest of any European state, but the largest percentage of her whole area under forest, a decrease in the waters of the Volga has been attributed to the same cause. Whilst all woodland has disappeared from some lands, special sxDecies are threatened with extinction in others. The pine forests of Tunis have disappeared during the last hundred years : some districts of Austraha already experience a scarcity of fire-wood and of mine-props : until Government regulations put a stop to the felling of saphngs to act as rollers in transporting the larger logs, the valuable Greenheart of Demerara was in imminent danger of extinction ; and the enormous drain upon the supply of White Pine {Pinus Strohus) is a grave danger in Xorth America. 94 BRITISH WOOD SUPPLY 95 Great Britain. — In Great Britain the abundance of coal renders us independent of wood as fuel, and our geographical position so facilitates the importation of timber that we have to a great extent neglected our woodlands as a source of profit, while our mild insular climate has enabled us to overlook the hygienic importance of forests. There is accordingly little more than 3 million acres of woods and forests in the United Kingdom, or only 4 per cent, of the entire area, a lower percentage than that of any other European state, except Portugal, while this country stands pre-eminent as the greatest importer of timber, exceeding 300 million cubic feet, or, including paper-pulp, gums, bark, and other forest produce, an annual value exceeding 35 millions sterling. No complete statistics are available as to our consumption of home-grown timber ; but it probably does not exceed 2 million tons. Special local demand is to some extent met by local supply, as, for instance, in the case of the bobbin-wood in the cotton-mill districts, pit-props in the Scottish mining area, and the Beech of the Chilterns, from 12,000 to 15,000 loads of which are used annually in the Buckinghamshire chair-making industry, by which some 50,000 families are supported. Of our imports, over five millions sterling is the value of the timber received from Canada, and even greater amounts from Sweden and Russia. The United Kingdom imported timber to the following values in the years 1898, 1899, and 1900 from Knssia, - Sweden and\ Norway, j Germany, United States, India, Canada, - Other countries, Total Besides furniture- woods and veneers, and Mahogany, Sir J. F. L. Rolleston, M.P., in his presidential address to the Surveyors' Institution in November, 1901, said : " Before leaving the subject of land and its future, I should like to say that of all its products the only one, the value of which appears to be in the ascending scale, is timber. In the midland counties I have been furnished with accounts of timber sales at which single Oak trees have realized up to £100, while other woods are command- ing good prices, and poles and thinnings are readily sold. There is a reason for this. The great onslaught that has been made on the virgin forests of the world, from the 180S. 1899. 1900. £4,645,549 £4,957,001 £5,993,377 6,600,283 6,889,857 /5,681,274 U, 934, 171 660,446 606,230 727,842 2,078,012 2,421,100 3,360,466 620,095 626,101 731,842 4,342,244 4,751,069 5,243,496 1,000,050 1,277,568 1,478,759 £19,946,679 £21,528,926 £25,151,104 646,075 659,312 722,460 691,220 693,949 826,520 96 OF WOOD IN GENERAL time of the Phcenicians onwards, without artificial reafforestation, must at length be appreciably felt. The increase of population and the advance of civilization must also point to an increased use of timber of all kinds for works of construction, for articles of use and ornamentation, and for fuel. A rise in the value of home-grown timber seems possible ; in any case a ready sale may be anticipated. With the decline in the value of cereals it can hardly be doubted that a consider- able portion of the land of this country (some of which is derelict, and some let at a very low rental) might be planted to advantage." The forest area of Europe was estimated by Dr. Schlich in 1901 at 758,080,000 acres, i.e. 31 per cent, of the total area, or 2 acres per head of the population. That of the chief countries is estimated as foUows : ♦Russia, - . - - 516,000,000 acres, 40 per cent. ♦Sweden, - - - 48,000,000 acres, le. 40 per cent. ♦Austria-Hungary, - - 46,410,000 acres, i.e. 30 per cent. France, .... 23,530,000 acres, t.e. 18 per cent. Spain, . - - - 20,960,000 acres, i.e. 17 per cent. Germany, - - - 34,490,000 acres, i.e. 26 per cent. *Norway, - - - 17,000,000 acres, Ic. 21 per cent. Italy, - - - . 10.110,000 acres, 14 per cent. Turkey,- - - - 6,180,000 acres, le. 8 per cent. Great Britain, - - 3,030,000 acres, i.e. 4 per cent. Switzerland - - - 2,100,000 acres, 20 per cent. Greece, ... - 2,030,000 acres, i.e. 16 per cent. Portugal - - - 770,000 acres, i.e. 3 per cent. Belgium, - - - 1,250,000 acres, i.e. 17 per cent. Holland, - - - 570,000 acres, i.e. 7 per cent. Denmark, - - - 600,000 acres, i.e. 6 per cent. ♦Bulgaria - - - 10,650,000 acres, i.e. 45 per cent. ♦Bosnia and Herzegovina - 6,790,000 acres, i.e. 53 per cent. Servia - - - - 2,390,000 acres, i.e. 20 per cent. ♦Roumania - - - 5,030,000 acres, i.e. 17 per cent. The asterisk indicates the chief exporting countries. With civihzation comes an increasing demand for timber for fencing, building, mine-props, railway- sleepers, and telegraph- poles, not to mention that for more valuable woods for furniture, etc., and the multitudinous other minor uses of timber. Thus American statisticians have estimated 3 million cords^ of wood as used annually in brick-burning, a milhon cords of Birch for tool- handles and boot-lasts, 100,000 cords of Soft Maple for shoe-pegs, and over 3,000 cords of Pine for lucifer matches in the United States alone. In 1904 Dr. Schhch calculated from the returns of the five pre- vious years the net annual imports and exports of timber by i]uropean countries in tons as : ^ A cord =2^ loads, 2^ tons, or 125 cubic feet. WOOD SUPPLY OF RUSSIA, SCANDINAVIA, ETC. 97 Imports. Exports. Great Britain and Roumania, - - 60,000 Norway, - - - 1,040,000 Austria-Hungary - 3,670,000 Sweden, - - - 4,460,000 Russia, with Finland, 5,900,000 Ireland, Germany, France, - Belgium, Denmark, Italy, - 9,290,000 4,600,000 1,230,000 1,020,000 470,000 420,000 210,000 180,000 170,000 60,000 50,000 35,000 15,000 Total 15,130,000 Spain, Holland, Net import into Europe, Switzerland, - 2,620,000 Portugal, Bulgaria, Greece, - Servia, - Total 17,750,000 Russia. — In the well-managed forests of Germany the average yearly growth, and, therefore, the amount legitimately felled annually, is estimated at 2-3 cubic feet for every 100 cubic feet of standing timber, or 50 cubic feet per acre. But in spite of the enormous annual yield which this computation gives to the forests of Russia (viz., 23-475 million cubic feet), when we find nearly half that amount (10,000 millions) now used within the country for fuel alone, and 30 millions for house-building, it will be realized how little reliance can be placed in Russia as a permanent source of supply for Europe. Before reckoning for her increasing popu- lation we may recall the saying that Russia is burnt down every seven years. Of the total timber output from Russian Govern- ment forests in 1880 of 2,900,000 cubic fathoms, Spruce {Picea excelsa) constituted 37-5 per cent., Pine (mainly Pinus sylvestris), 27'8, soft woods (Birch, Linden, Aspen, etc.), 19-5, and hard woods {Oak, Beech, etc.), 8-8 per cent. Besides paper-pulp from the Aspen, and a certain amount of Walnut, Russia exports Box from Odessa, and a large amount of Deal from the White Sea and Baltic ports. The growing supply of timber at Archangel and the other White Sea ports is yearly drawn from a greater distance inland. Scandinavia. — Sweden sends more than half of her exported timber to Great Britain. It consists largely of Pine, both as pit- props and in a manufactured form, as window and door-frames ; Spruce or " White Deal," used for scaffolds, ladders, etc. ; matches, of Pine and Aspen ; and paper-pulp of Aspen, Spruce, and Pine. The exports of Norway are similar, a certain amount of Birch and Maple {Acer platano'ides) also coming from this country to Englan \ Both Norway and Sweden are apparently reducing their forest areas by cutting more than the annual increment. France — Though a well-wooded country, with carefully managed 7 98 OF WOOD IN GENERAL forests in almost every department, exporting Oak and sending Bordeaux Pine (Pinus Pinaster) as mine-props to our Welsh col- lieries, France imports common building woods from Scandinavia, Russia, and America, as well as the more costly kinds used for furniture, etc., her imports exceeding her exports to the value of over five million sterUng per annum. German Empire, etc. — Spain imports, but does not export timber. Prussia has 23 per cent, of its area under forest, over 6 milHon acres, or 30 per cent, of the whole, being under Govern- ment administration. The yield is about 47 cubic feet per acre per annum, i.e. safely within the calculated annual increment of 50 cubic feet, the total expenditure about IJ milhons sterhng, and the net surplus over a million, or about 3s. 6d. an acre for all ground in use. The chief species are Kiefer (Pinus sylvestris), exported as Dantzic or Riga Fir or Prussian Deal, and Fichte or Roth Tanne [Picea excelsa), forming between them three-fourths of the whole crop. Eiche (Quercus Robur) is exported to England as Baltic or East Country Oak, and the Silver Fir, Edeltanne or Weissfichte [Abies pectindta) abounds in the Vosges and occurs in Schleswig- Holstein and Silesia. More than a quarter of the area of Bavaria is under wood, and, though there is a large local demand for fuel, the careful foresight of the administration is evidenced by the fact that in 1885 a government forester was sent to study the timber- trees of the United States, who frankly explained his mission by saying, " In fifty years you will have to import your timber, and as you will probably have a preference for American kinds, we shaU begin to grow them now, so as to be ready to send them to you at the proper time." Timber is the chief export of the country. Saxony has over a million acres of forest, one-third of which belongs to the State, the annual cut being estimated at a million cubic feet. The Saxon forests include Oak, Beech, Ash, Birch, and Alder, as well as Pine, Spruce, Silver Fir, and Larch. Wurtemberg has nearly IJ milhon acres, or over 30 per cent, of its whole area under forest, comprising the Pine-wood districts of the Black Forest and the hardwoods of the Swabian Alps. Pine, Spruce, Silver Fir, and Oak are floated down the Rhine to the Dutch shipbuilding yards, whilst Beech furnishes the cliief fuel of the country, and is used for ships' keels, carriage-building, and chair-making, and Aspen is in demand for matches and paper-pulp. Hesse-Darmstadt, the Fir-trees from which are in special demand in Holland, has one-third of its area under forest ; whilst Baden has also over a million acres, or one-third of its area, so occupied. Austria-Hungary. — The forests of the Austrian Empire occupy over 42 J million acres, those of Austria being 30 per cent., those WOOD SUPPLY OF SWITZERLAND, ITALY, ETC. 99 of Hungary 26-6 per cent., of the entire areas of the two countries. Beech, Spruce, Silver Fir, and Larch are the prevalent species, and the bulk of the timber is consumed, for building purposes or fuel, at home. Hungary has also some large forests of excellent Oak. Switzerland. — From the 1,900,000 acres of the forests of Switzer- land it is estimated that over 89 milhon cubic feet of timber are cut annually, but, in addition to considerable clearing, the demands of a growing population for building purposes, and the use of much wood as fuel, there has been considerable waste, as, for instance, in cutting young trees for fencing, so that the total cut has been estimated as in excess of the yield, and the export has accordingly dechned. Spruce, Silver Fir, and Pine are the predominant species. Italy. — Italy exports a certain amount of Oak of various qualities, but of ill-ascertained origin. The best, the Tuscan, Neapolitan, and Sicihan, would seem to be Quercus Robur, Q. JEsculus, and Q. pyrend'ica. Modena, Roman, and Sardinian Oak and xldriatic Oak {Q. Cerris) are inferior. The country is, however, deficient in timber, from the point of view both of climate and of demand. Wliile with our moist climate we can manage with a far smaller proportion of forest, the countries bordering on the Mediterranean all suffer from the removal of their forests. Centuries ago the Karsb region of Southern Austria was covered with magnificent Oak forests and furnished piles and shipbuilding timber to Venice in her palmy days. It was said that a squirrel could travel for miles along the Istrian coast from tree to tree. Reckless felHng by the Venetians led to the washing away of the surface soil, until the country for twenty miles north of Trieste was reduced to bare rock. Forty years ago the Austrian Government began a costly system of reafforestation. Asia. — Turning from Europe to Asia, we fmd undoubtedly a large supply of Larch (Ldrix sibirica), Pine, Spruce (Picea cepha- lonica), Birch, and other species in Siberia ; but, unless the Amoor can, to some extent, play the part of the St. Lawrence, the difficulty of transport will be insuperable. Neither China, the interior of which probably suffers much from the effects of disafforesting, nor Japan, holds out any prospect of any large export either of common or of choice woods, whilst, except perhaps in the remote future to western North America, cost of freight would put the former class of timber out of the question. In Japan, where forest conservancy dates from the third century A.D., half the area of the country, or about 47,000,000 acres, are stated to be forest, yielding more than 120 species of valuable timbers, of which the Nikko Silver Fir {Abies homolepis S. and Z.) 7—2 100 OF WOOD IN GENERAL and Saghalien Fir {A. sachalinensis Masters) are the cheapest, and Hi-no-ki {Cupressus obtusa Koch) and Ke-ya-ki (Zelkowa acuminata Planchon) are the most expensive. India. — Taking British India as 480 milhon acres, 40 millions, or one-twelfth of the whole area, are forest. In spite, however, of the enormous local consumption for fuel and the increasing demand for railway-sleepers, India produces such a variety of valuable ornamental and dense hardwoods that conservation is hkely to enable her long to continue her exportation. Of some 2,500 species of timbers described from India the fourteen most important are Teak, Sal, Deodar, Sissoo, Babul, Juniper, Klieir, Blackwood, Sandalwood, Red Sanders, Pyengado, Xahor, Anjan, and Mahwa. In 1899-1900 she exported Teak to the value of over £600,000, besides Blackwood, Padouk, Satinwood, Ebony, and Sandalwood ; but her supply of cheap softwood for tea-chests, etc., is hardly equal to the demand. At the same time many of her ornamental furniture woods might well be more largely used in Europe, especially Iron- wood, Saj, Toon, Thingan, and Eng. Such woods as P^Tikadoo {Xylia dolahriformis), Kranji [Didlium indum), and Tampinnis {Sloetia sideroxylon), in the Malay Pen- insula, the Lauan {Dipterocdrpus thurifer) and Acle {Xylia dolahri- jormis) of the Phihppines, and the Rassak [Vcitica Bdssak), Billian {Eusideroxylon Zwdgeri), and Compass (Koempdssia malaccensis) of Borneo, may well prove worthy of European attention, especially for density and durabihty, when they become better known, and the supply of them may be said to be as yet untapped. Among 200 species thought worthy of trial in the arsenal at Manila, the essentially Malayan flora of the Pliihppines includes : Acle {Xylia dolahriformis), Banaba {Lagerstrdemia Flos-Begince), Betis {Payena Betis), Bolongnita {Diospyros pilosdnthera), Cedar {Cedrela Toona), Dougon {Sterculia cymbiformis), Guijo {Shorea robusta), Ipel {Afzelia hijuga), Lauan {Dipterocdrpus thurifer), Mangachapoi {Shorea Mangdchapoi), Molave {Vitex geniculdtus and F. altissima), Xarra {Pterocdrpus pdllidus and P. santalinus), Padouk {Pterocdrpus indicus), Palo Maria {Calophyllum Inopliyllum), and Yacal {Shorea reticulata). WOOD SUPPLY OF AUSTRALASIA 101 Australasia. — Australian timbers have, as we have already said, suffered in European repute by not being seasoned ; and as, in spite of a vast area of scrub, the area of timber-producing forest is comparatively small, wholesale clearing for the purposes of agriculture, the use of wood for fuel, and the great demand for building, fencing, railways, and telegraphs, have sensibly affected the supply. The areas under marketable timber are stated to be as follows : — Acres. Acres. Queensland, - - 40,000,000 Tasmania, - - 11,000,000 West Australia, - 20,400,000 Victoria, - - 5,000,000 New South Wales, 20,000,000 South Australia, - 3,840,000 Total 100,765,000 Conservation has begun ; but mine-props and even firewood are locally scarce. Queensland exports Red Cedar (Cedrela Toona), and Moreton Bay, Kauri and Cypress Pines (Araucdria Cunning- hdmii, Agathis robusta, and CdlUtris robusta). Among the chief other species of this State are Ironbark {Eucalyptus siderophloia), Peppermint {E. microcorys), Stringybark {E. acmenioides), Woolly- butt (E. botryoides), Bloodwood {E. corymbosa), River Gum (E. rostrdta), Blue Gum (E. tereticdrnis), Grey Gum [E. saligna), Gum- topped Box (E. hemiphloia), Brisbane Box [Tristdnia conferta), Swamp Mahogany {T. suaveolens), Moreton Bay Chestnut {Cas- tanospermum austrdU), Paper-barked Tea-tree [Melaleuca Leuca- dendron), Gidgee {Acacia homalophylla), Beech {Gmelina Leichardtii), Kauri Pines {Agathis robusta and A. Pahnerstoni), She Pine {Podo- cdrpus eldta), and the Pencil Cedars {Dysoxylon Fraseridnum and D. Muellerii). New South Wales sends Cedar {Cedrela Toona) and Pine {Araucdria Cunninghdmii) to China and New Caledonia, and the area under the former species is now considerably reduced. Among other important woods of this State are most of those just mentioned as occurring in Queensland, together with White Iron- bark {Eucalyptus paniculdta), Narrow-leaved {E. crebra), and Red {E. Sideroxylon), Blackbutt {E. piluldris), Woollybutt {E. longi- folia), Forest Mahogany {E. resinifera), Grey Gum {E. propinqua), and Spotted Gum {E. maculdta), Turpentine {Syncdrpia lauri folia), Silky Oak {Grevillea robusta). Tulip-wood {Harpullia pendula), and Coachwood {Ceratopetalum apetalum). Nearly half the area of the colony of Victoria (40,000 out of 88,198 square miles) was estimated as forest in 1878, most of it being in the hands of Government, and more than half of it consisting of Eucalyptus. Many Victorian timbers are extremely dense and hard, such as Red Gum, Blue Gum, White Gum or Peppermint, Messmate and Iron-bark {Euca- lyptus rostrdta, globulus, amygdalina, obliqua, and leucoxylon), etc. ; 102 OF WOOD IN GENERAL and accordingly, though some of them may weU maintain a more than local value for sleepers, wood-paving, etc., timber at present appears among the imports rather than among the exports of the colony. Other important species in this State are the Grey Box and Bairnsdale Grey Box {Eucalyptus Jiemiphloia and E. Bosis- todna), the Yellow Box [E. melliodora), the Stringybarks {E. macror- rhynca, E. capitelldta, E. piperita and E. Muelleridna), the Silvertop Ironbarks (E. Sieheridna and E. virgdta), the Spotted Gum {E. goniocalyx), the Blackwood {Acacia melanoxylon), and the Cypress Pine {Cdllitris verrucosa). The forest-area of South Australia, where Eucalyptus also forms the staple of the timber supply, is not large. It is West Austraha, however, and especially its south- western parts, from wliich we at present import the bulk of our Australian timber-supply. Besides Sandalwood {Sdntalum cyg- norum or Fusdnus spicdtus) to the value of nearly £30,000 annually, sent mainly to China, West Austraha is exporting timber to the value of haK a million sterling, the cliief species being Jarrah {Eucalyptus margindta), which is officially stated to be the pre- dominant species over 14,000 square miles, Karri {E. diversicolor) occupying 2,300 square miles, Tewart {E. gomphocephala) occupy- ing some 500 square miles. Other species are the Red Gum {Eucalyptus calophylla), Wandoo {E. redunca), Blackbutt {E. patens), York Gum {E. loxophleba), and Yate Gum {E. cornuta). The timber areas in West Austraha are stated as : Jarrali (with Blackbutt and Red Gum), - - - 8,000,000 acres. Karri, 1,200,000 ,, TcAvart, 200,000 Wandoo, 7,000,000 ,, York Gum, Yate, Raspberry -jam, and Sandahvood, - 4,000,000 ,, This area is estimated to contain 62 milhon loads of mature timber worth £3 per load, a total value, deducting \ for waste in sawing, of £124,000,000. Nearly one-haK of the island of Tasmania (8,000,000 acres) is timbered, seven-eighths of the woodland being under Government, but the timber area is diminisliing. The beautifully mottled, durable Huon Pine {Dacrydium Franklinii) has become scarce and high - priced. The bulk of the timber exported consists of Stringy- bark {Eucalyptus ohliqua), sent in planks to Victoria, South Australia, and New Zealand ; but the most valuable timber of the colony is the Blue Gum {E. globulus), which is abundant in the south of the island. Other leading species are the Peppermint {Eucalyptus amygdalina), Swamp Gum {E. regnans), Ironbark {E. Sieheridna), Myrtle {Fagus Cunninghamii), She Oak {Gasuarina quadrivdlvis), and Blackwood {Acdcia melanoxylon). WOOD SUPPLY OF AFRICA 103 The forest-area of New Zealand, estimated at over 20,000,000 acres in 1830, was only 12,000,000 acres in 1874, when clearing was proceeding at the rate of 4 per cent, per annum ; but conserva- tion was then inaugurated and the many valuable species of timber thereby saved from extermination. Of these the most valuable is the Kauri Pine (Agathis australis), which is confined to the North Island. This fine durable timber is the softwood of the country, and is extensively converted for export to Australia, the freight militating against it in competition with Baltic timber for the English market, though it is employed to some extent for the decks of yachts. Africa. — Little can be said as to the timber resources of the African continent. Neither Atlas Cedar {Cedrus atldntica), re- sembling the Deodar, nor Atlas Cypress (TetracUnis articuldta), the Citron-wood of the ancients, are well known commercially, and the same must be said of Morocco Iron wood [Arginia Sideroxylon). Algeria, however, has nearly 5 million acres of forest, three-fifths of which are under State control, and its Evergreen Oaks (Quercus Ilex, Suher, bdllota, etc.), its Kabyle Ash, said to be equal to English, and Maritime Pine (Pinus Pinaster) should prove of value. From our West African colonies we did import small quantities of African Oak or Teak {Oldfieldia africdna), a dense wood, shipped from Sierra Leone, and still obtain African Rosewood {Pterocdrpus erindceus) ; but the trade in Mahogany from Lagos, Benin, Bathurst, Axim, Assini, and other ports has of late years assumed considerable dimensions. Several distinct species are undoubtedly imported under this name. But little is known of the timber-trees of tropical Africa, though several valuable species appear to extend right across the continent from east to west ; while the south of the continent is one of the districts of the world which suffers most in climate from the want of timber, partly from reckless destruction. Little is known as yet as to the botanical nature or abundance of the undoubtedly valuable timbers of Rhodesia. It is estimated that there are about 2,000 square miles of forest in Matabeleland, while Mashonaland is not so well timbered. Annual grass fires kill innumerable young trees : the natives are answerable for the destruction of many thousands ; and the felling of large timber is attended with much unnecessary destruction of smaller trees. The Gwaai forest, which extends along the river of that name, fifty miles from Buluwayo, consists of Ikusi, or Native Teak, several kinds of Acacia, and Mopane. Large areas in Mashona- land also are covered with Ikusi, a handsome dark brown wood streaked with yellow, which is worked for building purposes. The Shangani river passes through a forest of Baobab, the largest tree 104 OF WOOD IX GENERAL of the country ; whilst the Mahobohobo, valuable as a mine-timber because it is termite-proof, abounds in the Selukwe and Belingwe districts. Katope, resembhng Pine ; Mbawa and Malombwa, re- sembling Mahogany ; and Muwowa, used for native canoes, and stated to reach an immense height, are also valuable species. Cape Box {Buxus Macowdnii) is far inferior to Turkey Box ; but many of the cabinet-woods of Cape Colony, such as Stinkwood (Ocotea hulldta) and Sneezewood [Pteroxylon utile), deserve more than local repute. The remnants of the indigenous forests of "Pencil Cedar" [Widdringtonia juniperoide-s) will repay strict conservation, wliilst one of the most important industries of the future will be the growth of the Maritime Pine (Pinus Pinaster) for railway-sleepers. Natal has 165,000 acres of forest ; but depends largely for firewood upon the rapid-growing Eucalyptus and Casitanna which have been introduced from Austraha. Some of the indigenous timbers, such as Essenboom, or Cape Ash {Ecke- hergia capensis), Assegai-wood {Curtisia jaginea) and Umzimbit or White Ironwood {Todddlia lanceoldta) may prove worthy of atten- tion, especially by cart-builders. Like the as yet undetermined Pink Ivory, a singularly beautiful wood, they unfortunately grow mostly in kloofs or other somewhat inaccessible situations. In 1898 Cape Colony imported over 3 J miUion cubic feet of rough timber, of which over 2,600,000 cubic feet came from Sweden, and 2 miUion cubic feet of planed timber, of wliich over 930,000 cubic feet came from Norway, and 691,000 from Sweden. In the same year Natal imported 1,687,000 cubic feet of rough timber, of which 1,292,000 were from Sweden, and 1,150,000 cubic feet in planks, 918,000 cubic feet of which were from the same country. Three-quarters of the area of the island of Madagascar is stated to be forest, mainly as yet untouched. Its woods are as yet httle known botanicaUy. They include one or more Ebonies, a " Violet - wood " (perhaps an Acacia) and a " Rosewood," besides a valu- able hard redwood suitable for joinery, known as " Lalona." South America. — Timber does not form an article of export from the southern or western portion of South America ; but Argentina is now becoming a considerable exporter of timber, and Brazil resembles Austraha in the extent and variety of its forests. At the Chicago Exhibition of 1893 no less than 440 different Brazihan timbers were exhibited ; but unfortunately many of these have not yet been botanically identified. It is stated that some of the species vary much in durabihty according to the situation in which they are grown ; that some of them are too hard and too heavy for many ordinary purposes ; and that the absence of railway facihties for transporting the timber to the coast has much reduced WOOD SUPPLY OF AMERICA 105 the exports. These, however, exceed £100,000 annually, com- prising Mahogany, Logwood, Rosewood, and Brazilwood. Rose- wood is Dalbergia nigra, shipped from Rio, whilst other species of the genus are known as Violet-wood and King-wood. Brazilwood, hard and heavy, but largely used as a dye, is Ccesalpinia echindta. French Guiana produces many valuable timbers, including Angelique [Dicorynia paraensis), Cuamara or Tonka-bean {Couma- rouna odordta), Courbaril or Locust {Hymencea Courbaril), Balata (Mimusops Bdlata), Lancewood (Duguetia quitarensis), and Crab- wood (Cdrapa guianensis) , several of which species grow also in Dutch and British Guiana. In all three colonies the forests cover almost the whole area. British Guiana, where forest conservation has been introduced, produces hundreds of species of timber, suitable for almost every purpose, growing, however, in a mixed virgin forest, though at present the exports amount only to about 170,000 cubic feet, valued at £11,000 a year. The most important species are Greenheart {Nectdndra Rodicei), Mora {Dimorphdndra Mora), Crabwood [Cdrapa guianensis), Bullet [Mimusops globosa), and Locust. Trinidad grows Mora, Crabwood, Bullet, Locust, Lignum- Vitae [Guaiacum offlcindU), Galba [Calophyllum Cdlaba), the dye-wood Fustic [Chlorophora tinctoria), and other valuable species ; but its export is insignificant. Ecuador, Colombia, and Venezuela have extensive forest resources, but export little or no timber. Honduras, however, exports Mora, Mahogany, Fustic, and Zebra- wood [Guettdrda speciosa), whilst British Honduras now only exports Cedar [Cedrela odordta), Mahogany, and Logwood. The annual British import of Mahogany from America has notably declined, being only 2 million cubic feet in 1906, as against 23 milhon of West African. West Indies. — Though exporting little timber save Mahogany, and even employing Pine imported from the United States in its sea-ports, Cuba possesses extensive and valuable forests, yielding Cedar, Logwood, Fustic, Lignum- Vitse, Ocuje [Calophyllum Cdlaba), Roble Blanco or Jamaica Box [Tecoma pentaphylla), an Ebony [Diospyros tetrasperma), Cocus-wood or Granadillo [Brya Ebenus), and the valuable Sabicu [Lysiloma Sdbicu). t In 1873 Jamaica was estimated to contain 800,000 acres of timber, of which 20,000 were in the hands of Government ; but clearing was then proceeding at the rate of 30,000 acres a year. Dye-woods, such as Logwood, Fustic, etc., now form over 8 per cent, of the exports of the island, which exceed 1 J millions sterling ; but the forests contain many valuable cabinet- woods, the Mahogany being harder and richer in grain than that of Honduras. While Barbadoes and some others of the Windward Islands are 106 OF WOOD IN GENERAL wholly dependent, even for fuel, upon imported timber, Grenada, Tobago, St. Lucia, and Dominica produce Cedar, Galba (Calo- phyllum Cdlaba), Angelin (Andira inermis), Bullet-wood [Mimusops globosa), and Bois Riviere or Water-wood [Chimdrrhis cymosa), and have a small export. North America. — In the United States and Canada during the last twenty years, timely, if somewhat alarmist, warnings have been put forward against the reckless waste of the timber resources of the continent. Mr. B. E. Fernow, Chief of the Forestry Division of the United States Department of Agriculture, in 1886 expressed the opinion that the reason why the prophecies of a dearth of timber made for more than a century by alarmists in Europe have not been realized is that their clamour has induced more careful husbanding of forest resources. He then estimated the forest area of the United States, exclusive of Alaska, as less than 500 million acres, much of this being only brushwood or thinly stocked with trees. The amount of wood then used he quotes as 20,000 million cubic feet, made up as follows : Lumber-market and mamifacture, . - . . 2,500 millions. Railroad construction, 360 Charcoal, 250 Fences, 500 Fuel, 17,500 " There is also to be added," he writes, " an item requiring yearly a considerable amount of wood for a use to which no other civilized nation puts its forests. I refer to the 10,000,000 acres or so of woodland burnt over every year, intentionally or unin- tentionally, by which a large amount of timber is killed or made useless ; and, what is worse . . . the capacity of the soil for tree growth is diminished." Reckoning 50 cubic feet as the yearly accretion per acre, the 20,000 million cubic feet consumption here indicated would require an area of not less than 400 million acres to be kept well stocked. Some day, no doubt, the development of the coal-fields of the United States will considerably lessen the consumption under the largest of the above-mentioned items, and there is certainly room for economizing in other directions. It is computed, for instance, that, in the Californian Redwood (Sequoia sempervirens) forests, to produce a railroad-tie worth 35 cents, timber to the value of 1*87 dollars is wasted. In 1894 there were in the United States 156,497 miles of railroad ; there were in 1899 189,294 miles. Reckoning 2,640 as the average number of sleepers per mile would make the number used by 1884 413,152,080. The young sound trees employed will not commonly make more than two sleepers each, i.e. not more WOOD SUPPLY OF NORTH AMERICA 107 than 100 to 200 sleepers could be cut from an acre of such timber- land as prevails in the States, so that the Hues existing in 1884 had required all available timber from 4,131,520 acres. The average " Life " of a sleeper is seven years, so that 59,021,700 ties, or the product of 590,217 acres, would be requisite to keep the existing lines in repair. The average length of new line built every year was then about 5,000 miles, requiring 13,200,000 ties, or the timber of 132,000 acres. If we allow twenty-five years as the time necessary for trees to attain a size suitable for making ties, then it would re- quire the annual growth of 14,755,425 acres to keep good the existing hues, and 3,300,000 to supply the annual demand for new lines, to say nothing of keeping the latter in repair. Not less than 18,000,000 acres of woodland need, therefore, to be kept in reserve for the sole maintenance of the permanent way of the railroads of the United States. By 1905 it was estimated that there were 620 million cross-ties in use in the United States, so that from 90 to 110 miUions would be annually required for repairs and ex- tensions. Bridge-timbers, fence-posts, telegraph-posts, car materials, and other railway building timber would together equal the amount demanded for cros3-ties. The annual fuel consumption is reckoned as the produce of 6J million acres annually, and the entire con- sumption as 25 milUon acres. Not only have too many Redwood trees been used for fuel, but of late ordinary building has absorbed a great many, panels of Redwood having become very popular in San Francisco as a substitute for plastered walls, whilst there has also been considerable exportation to Ciiina, Hawaii, and the Philippines. Some lumbermen predict that within a few years the Redwood tree will be as scarce as the buffalo, and that a shortage has already begun is evident from the fact that the price of Red- wood has risen rapidly from 25 to 45 dollars per 1,000 square feet. Another serious factor in the question of timber supply in the United States is the extravagant manner in which the turpentine industry is conducted. Instead of any care being taken not to destroy the timber (as is done in the south of France), it has been said that there is no business connected with the products of the soil which yields so httle return in proportion to the destruction of the material involved. The turpentine is chiefly obtained in Georgia from the Long-leafed and Loblolly Pines (Pinus palustris and Tdeda), and the forests of this State were once unsurpassed, and, if properly husbanded, might have continued indefinitely to yield a handsome return. The turpentine farmers, however, aim only at obtaining the maximum amount of crude-resin with the smallest expenditure of labour, caring nothing for the fate of the trees they attack. 108 OF WOOD IN GENERAL If, however, 500 million acres of true timber-forest were main- tained in the United States, an annual cut of 20,000 milhon cubic feet, or 40 cubic feet per acre, would not at first sight appear exces- sive. It is, however, important to bear in mind that the White Pine [Pinus Strohus) requires 90 years to reach the dimensions attained by the Northern Pine of Europe {Pirius sylvestris) in 70, whilst the Long- leafed Pine (P. palustris) requires 200 years for the same growth. The White Pine has for half a century been the most important timber of the United States, furnishing, as it does, the best quahty of soft Pine. Of the home consumption of this wood some idea may be formed from the fact that the city of Chicago alone received in one year over 2,000 million feet, principally of this species, or an amount equal to the entire produce of Canada during that year. Speaking of this species, in 1882 Professor C. S. Sargent of Harvard wrote, " It has been wantonly and stupidly cut, as if its resources were endless : what has not been sacrificed to the axe has been allowed to perish b}^ fire. The Pine of New England and New York has already disappeared. Pennsylvania is nearly stripped of her Pine, which only a few years ago appeared inexhaustible." . . . " In IMichigan there remained of standing White Pine timber, suit- able for market, but 35,000 milhon feet, board measure," wliilst in 1880 there had been cut in the State over 4,000 milhon feet, " re- quiring only eight years at this rate to exhaust the supply." In Wisconsin there were standing 41,000 million feet, with a cut of over 2,000 milhon for that year, " leaving a supply that would last but fourteen years." In ^Minnesota there were remaining 8,170 million feet, and 541 million were cut in 1880, leaving a supply for fifteen years ; so that the supply in the three States would be ex- hausted in twelve j^ears. There was in fact little more than 80,000 million feet in the L'nited States, whilst consumption was at the rate of 10,000 million per annum and the demand constantly and rapidly increasing. Already by 1885 the L^nited States were im- porting timber from Canada to the value of nearly tw^o milhons sterhng, or about 75 million cubic feet, more than the entire cut of the province of Ontario. That the extreme forecasts of the alarmists have not been wholly realized throughout the L'nited States may be owing to the fact that it has been cheaper for the more densely populated north-eastern States to supplement their own dwindhng resources from Canada rather than from the southern States. Thus Mississippi, with 18,200 milhon feet board measure of Long-leaf Pine standing in 1880 and Tvith an annual cut of 102 miUion feet, can supply timber at the same rate for 150 years, a period sufficient, with proper conservation, to enable the supply to renew itself. Throughout Newfoundland and the Dominion of Canada reckless WOOD SUPPLY OF CANADA 109 waste has prevailed in the past. Forest fires and the absence of replanting has reduced the forest area of Newfoundland to about -fj of the whole area of the country, or some 464,000 acres, bearing White Pine, Spruce {Picea alba and nigra), Tamarack or Red Larch {Ldrix microcdrpa), said to be better than that of the mainland, Yellow Birch [Betula excelsa), and Poplar. Prince Edward's Island produces the same species, together with Rock Maple {Acer barbdtum), Hemlock Spruce {Tsuga canadensis), and the valuable Cedar {Juniperus virginidna), which has been largely sacrificed for railway purposes ; but fires and clearings have largely diminished the supply, the annual cut being more than 17 times the incre- ment. Nova Scotia had 9 million acres of timber land in 1875, but the annual cut was for years 25 per cent, more than the increment. Hackmatack or Larch {Ldrix americdna), White Pine and Hemlock Spruce, are the chief species. New Brunswick had but 6 million acres of timber land in 1874, mainly covered with hardwoods. Sleepers of Cedar {Cupressus thyoides) and Hemlock bark-extract for tanning are important articles of export, besides deals, con- sisting mostly of Black Spruce {Picea nigra). In the province of Quebec the lumber industry is still by far the most important trade ; but, whereas in 1874 there were 74 million acres, there are now only 62 million, 32 million of which are under license to cut timber. The species are mostly the same as those of New Brunswick, in- cluding White Pine and a scarce but valuable Oak {Quercus dlba). The wood-pulp industry has grown from an annual value of 160,000 pounds sterling in 1890 to nearly forty times that amount ; and a service of rangers has been organized to prevent forest-fires. In Ontario lumbering has ceased to be the sole industry that it once was ; but almost the whole amount felled is exported, and the demand of the adjoining States of the Union keeps the annual consumption far in excess of the increment. Though two-thirds of British Columbia, or about 110 million acres, were under timber in 1874, and almost all was under Government control, destructive fires and wholesale clearing have very much lessened the supply. There is, however, a very extensive timber reserve on the coast, consisting of Douglas Fir {Pseudotsuga Dougldsii), Spruce, Red Cedar {Juni- perus virginidna). Yellow Cedar {Cupressus nootkatensis) , and Hem- lock {Tsuga Mertensidna), the available supply of which is from 40,000 to 100,000 million feet. British Columbia has now a wooded area estimated at 285,000 square miles, extending along the coast, river- valleys, and foot-hills as far north as Alaska, and producing many useful species besides the Douglas Spruce. There are, however, sixty saw-mills in operation, with an annual capacity of 550 million feet. 110 OF WOOD IN GENERAL ^ In the early days of its occupation by the French, the forests of Eastern Canada, which then stretched unbroken from the Atlantic to the head of the St. Lawrence basin, a distance of over 2,000 miles, engaged the attention of the Government, who drew from them large numbers of masts and spars for their navy and issued stringent regulations for the preservation of the Oak. On the conquest of the country by Great Britain, which then had almost the entire trade with the Baltic, Canadian lumber was neglected ; but the con- tinental blockade during the war with Napoleon directed the atten- tion of our timber importers to the resources of Canada, and an import of 2,600 loads in 1800 grew to one of 125,300 loads in 1810, and over 300,000 loads in 1820, whilst for the last fifty years it has exceeded a million loads annually. Whilst during the first half of the last century Canada only exported wood to the United King- dom and the West Indies, for the last twenty years she has experi- enced a steadily increasing demand from the United States, which now take about half her annual export, or some 13 milhon dollars' worth annually. For many years past the Pine logs floated down to Ottawa have numbered nearly four millions a year ; and now the demand for paper-pulp has given the Spruce, owing to the far greater area of its distribution, a value in the aggregate much greater than that of the Pines. In addition to the southern forest belt, now so largely cleared or depleted in the eastern half, there is the great northern forest which stretches from the Straits of Belle-Isle round by the southern end of James Bay to Alaska, a distance of about 4,000 miles, with a breadth of some 700 miles. " This vast forest," says Dr. Robert Bell of the Canadian Geological Survey, " has everywhere the same characteristics. The trees, as a rule, are not large, and they con- sist essentially of the following nine species : Black and White Spruce, Banksian Pine, Larch, Balsam Fir, Aspen, Balsam Poplar, Canoe Birch, Bird-Cherry, White Cedar, White and Red Pines : Black Ash and Rowan occur sparingly in the southern part of this belt." With nearly 38 per cent, of the whole area of the Dominion under forest, Canadians have in the past given little heed to conservation, beheving in the power of natural reproduction to balance the forces of destruction, a behef which, when not substantiated by careful statistical investigation, is a dangerous fool's paradise. Conclusions. — A most valuable practical test of the increased consumption and the growing scarcity of timber is the advance in prices. It has been estimated that in Germany from about 1550 to 1750 wood quadrupled in price, from 1750 to 1830 the progres- sive increase of price was at the same rate, but from 1830 to 1880 CONCLUSIONS 111 the rate was much higher, reaching in some cases 300 per cent, within the half-century. What was worth 100 francs in 1840 was worth 150 francs in 1850, 260 francs in 1860, 360 francs in 1865, and 400 francs by 1877. In the United States prices rose 100 per cent, between 1874 and 1882^ ; and an equal rise took place in Russia ; whilst in Sweden and Norway between 1847 and 1882 (35 years) a rise of from 150 to 200 per cent, according to species occurred. The obvious conclusions to be drawn from this necessarily in- complete survey of the world's resources and consumption of timber are that, in spite of substitutes, the use of wood increases with advancing population and civilization ; that there is still in many lands much waste, much over-felhng and but little conservation or forethought ; that no coimtry can safely declare its supply inex- haustible ; and that, though an absolute dearth of timber may be far distant, some valuable species are in danger of extermination, and we may expect a considerable enhancement of the price of the commoner kinds as the supply has to be drawn from more and more remote sources. It is undoubtedly, from the magnitude of the interests at stake, a question which demands the attention of the economists, land- owners and legislature of every country. If, as Bernard PaUssy wrote in the sixteenth century, " after all the trees have been cut down it will be necessary for all the arts to cease and if even Colbert could prophesy that " France will perish for want of wood," the danger, in our own time and in many lands besides France, is far more serious. ^ " AVood-prices, even in the United States, have been rising continuously for the last seventy years at the rate of about 1| per cent, a year." — B. E. Fernow (190,)). CHAPTER VII TESTING WOOD. The very general substitution of iron or steel for wood in per- manent structures renders the exact investigation of the strength of timber less important now than formerly. Nevertheless, in merely temporary structures, such as scaffoldings or centerings, its power of withstanding different strains is of very serious concern. Practically, although not scientifically, every joist, rafter, window- sash or door-frame, the chair we sit on, the floor we walk on, the wood of the cart or boat we ride in, are all tested as to their strength, their elasticity, their hardness and their toughness. In the workshop it is recognized that the fitness of a wood for a given purpose in- variably depends upon a combination of several qualities. A spoke, for instance, must not only be strong, it must be stiff to keep its shape, tough and hard ; and accordingly it must be made from wood spht with the grain, and not from sawn or cut material. The experienced wood- worker judges the suitability of any particular piece of wood for his purpose by rule- of- thumb. This rule-of- thumb guess is largely based on the general rule that, in timber, weight, hardness, and power of resistance to most strains, vary together. To this rule, however, there are many important excep- tions, where testing would prove what no rule-of-thumb is hkely to perceive ; and it was in reference to tliis that Tredgold remarked that actual testing may take the place of a hfe-time of practical experience in carpentry. In the scientific testing of timber each property is examined separately. A beam resists bending, and is accordingly termed stiff ; wicker bends readily, or is -flexible ; while the rod or beam that straightens itself again on the removal of a load that has been appHed to it is termed elastic. Resistance to a pull in the direction of the grain is known as tensile strength ; whilst a force applied in an opposite but parallel direction is a crushing force. The pressure of a hammer-head across the grain of the handle tends to shear the fibres, and a nail entering a board tests its cleavahility or tendency to split. 112 TESTING WOOD 113 The results of the many tests that have been pubhshed are often widely discordant. This arises from various causes, e.g. incorrect identification of the species, nature of the locality where the tree was grown, the age of the tree when felled, the part of the tree from which the test specimen was taken, the extent to Avhich it was seasoned, the size of the piece tested, and the method of stating the experimental results. The use of popular names, such as Ironbark or Blue Gum, each apphcable to half-a-dozen different species, is an obvious source of error. As we have already seen, the same species grown under different conditions of heat, moisture, etc., varies widely in rate of growth, and accordingly in strength also. Timber is at its best when the tree is at its maturity, an age which depends upon the species, the climate and the soil. Before that age not only does the less durable sapwood predominate, but the heart- wood has not yet reached its full strength ; whilst after maturity the heartwood is the first to show symptoms of weakness. As we have already seen, the centre, with its many knots, is generally the weakest part of the heartwood, and a scantling will have greater transverse strength, or resistance to bending stress, and tensile strength in proportion to the number of rings that occur both at its butt and its top. Seasoning, as we have seen, may double the strength of timber. Early experiments on the strength of timber were generally made with very small pieces owing to the difficulty of holding and bringing strains to bear upon large scantlings. Pieces less than a quarter of an inch square were often used. Such pieces might give an unduly unfavourable result from the cutting across of individual fibres ; or, on the other hand, being freer from knots or other defects, more readily seasoned throughout and more homogeneous, they are rather picked than average samples, and may give an unduly favourable result. In an excellent series of tests carried out for the Forest Depart- ment of the United States Board of Agriculture by Professor Johnson in 1891-92, an accurate record was kept, when each tree was felled, as to the condition of the soil, the climate, the size, age and growth of the tree and the date of felling. Density. — We can only give here a bare outline of the principles, methods, and results of testing. Much, as we have seen, depends upon density ; and, admitting that, owing to air or moisture in the wood, the results are not as satisfactory as could be wished, we have two simple methods, described by Professor Unwin, for determining this character, viz. (i) by measuring and weighing planed rectangular blocks, and (ii) by weighing the block and the water it displaces. In the former method, if 6= the breadth, t = the thickness, and h = the height of the block in inches, its 8 114 OF WOOD m GENERAL volume will= cubic feet ; and if W=its weight in pounds, the heaviness of the wood per cubic foot will= lbs. ^ bth In the second method, if W=the weight of the block in pounds, W'=the weight in pounds of the water it displaces, and G=the weight of a cubic foot of water, i.e. 62-4 lbs. at the normal tempera- W ture, then --^^the volume of the block in cubic feet, and the GW heaviness of the wood per cubic foot will be Mr. Stephen P. Sharpies, who made the examinations of North American timbers incorporated by Professor Sargent in the Ninth Census of the United States, vol. ix. (1880), making at least two determinations for each species, calculated the specific gravity by measurement with micrometer calipers and weighing. The speci- mens tested were 100 millimetres long and about 35 miUimetres square, and were dried at 100° C. until they ceased to lose in weight. Of the 429 species experimented upon the specific gravity ranged from 0-2616 in the Small-fruited Fig {Ficus aurea) to 1-3020 in Black Ironwood {Conddlia ferrea). Bauschinger found, by experiments made at Munich in 1883 and 1887, that the density and strength of timber is greatly affected by the amount of moisture it contains, the strength falling very rapidly in any one quality of timber as the percentage of moisture increases. To determine the percentage of moisture Professor Unwin gives this method. Drill a hole through the test block and weigh the shavings at once. Dry them in an oven at a temperature of from 200° to 212° F. for 8 or 10 hours, and, when they cease to lose weight, re- weigh them. If then W= their first or wet weight, and D = their second or dry weight, W - D = the weight of moisture ^ lOO(W-D) ^ they contam, and ^ = the percentage of moisture. The maximum of strength is reached, not when the timber is perfectly dry, but when there is from 3 to 4 per cent, of moisture in it. Bauschinger decided on 15 per cent, of moisture as the standard dryness of air-dried wood. Ash percentage and fuel value. — From the specific gravity Mr. Sharpies deducted the percentage of ash (determined by burning small dried blocks at a low temperature in a muffie furnace), in order to obtain the relative approximate fuel value. This calculation is based on the assumption that the real value of the combustible DENSITY, FUEL VALUE AND STRENGTH 115 or volatile substance of all woods is the same. Though resinous woods give off more than 12 per cent, more heat on burning than do non-resinous woods, at least this amount is lost in the case of the former in the form of unconsumed carbon in the smoke. The amount of heat obtained is, in fact, very nearly in direct proportion to the specific gravity, i.e. the heavier the wood the greater the amount of heat obtained. Taking as the unit of fuel value an imaginary wood with no ash and a specific gravity of 1, the relative fuel value of 430 woods examined varied from 0*248 in Yucca to 1-194 in Black Ironwood {Conddlia ferrea). Taking as a unit of heat the amount necessary to raise 1 cubic decimetre or 1 kilogram of water 1° C, 4,000 units will be produced by burning a kilogram of dry wood, i.e. the relative fuel value of any wood multiplied by 4,000 will give approximately the amount of heat obtained by burning a cubic decimetre of it. Strength. — All measurements of the strengths of timbers are determinations of their powers of resisting certain stresses, or forces tending to produce strains, or changes of shape. It must always be remembered that, unlike metals or many artificial products, wood is not, and cannot be, considered as uniform in structure and compo- sition : it is not homogeneous or isotropic. Stresses applied to it, and the resultant strains must, therefore, be considered separately. Those stresses which are exerted in a direction normal, or at right angles, to a cross-section or imaginary surface of division are termed pushes or pulls, and being continuous, or in parallel though opposite directions, may be considered as identical, or rather as differing only in mathematical sign ( + or— ). Those which are exerted at a tangent to such a cross-section are termed shearing stresses. The intensity of a stress is its amount per unit of surface, and may, therefore, be expressed in pounds or tons per square inch, or in kilograms per square millimetre, or per square centimetre.^ Broadly speaking, the strength of timber increases with its heaviness. More accurately, the greater the density or weight the greater the resistance to compressive strain. Density is no criterion as to tenacity or tensile strength. The most valuable timbers for structural purposes are those which have considerable strength without excessive heaviness, as is the case with Pine. In 1676 Robert Hooke enunciated the law that (using modern terminology) within the limits of elasticity, or recovery from strain when the stress is removed, strain is proportional to stress. In accordance with Hooke' s law, Thomas Young postulated the 1 To facilitate the conversion of results thus variously stated, it may be mentioned that 1 ton, or 2,240 lbs. per sq. incli = l'511 kilos, per sq. mm., or 151*1 kilos, per sq. centim. ; whilst 1 kilo, per sq. centim. =14-22 lbs. per sq. inch. 8—2 116 OF WOOD IN GENERAL modulus of longitudinal extensibility that bears his name. This is generally called the modulus of elasticity, but incorrectly, since there are others. It is constant for any material, being represented by the letter E, and is, in fact, the ratio of the intensity of push or pull to longitudinal strain. Thus, if Z= length and change of length under a stress, then dl : I : : p : E, or E Obviously, a stress appHed to a transverse section of wood will have to break the fibres across, while one apphed to a longitudinal section tends to separate the fibres from each other. Thus the strength of wood along the grain depends upon the strength of the fibres ; that across the grain, upon their cohesion. This latter or lateral strength is, in broad-leaved trees, from J to J of the longi- tudinal strength ; but in coniferous woods it is only from -oV to One of the simplest and most instructive tests of timber is that of transverse strength or breaking weight. Two knife-edges, or supports for the ends of the beam, a cradle to sling from the centre, in which pig-iron or other weight can be placed, a stretched cord and a 2-foot rule are practically all the apparatus required for such testing. Laslett, in his Woolwich experiments, took pieces 84 inches long, 2 inches wide, and 2 inches thick, placed upon supports 72 inches apart, and then poured water gradually into a scale sus- pended from the middle, noting the deflection with 390 lbs. weight and at the breaking point. The transverse strength [p] is calcu- lated from the formula v = irr^, where w'=the breaking weight in pounds, 1= the length between supports, 6= the breadth, and d=th.e thickness of the sample, or with the dimensions employed, Mr. Gamble uses the formula where L=the length between supports in feet, 6= the breadth of the bar in inches, and d^its thickness in inches. Bauschinger employed for bending tests beams 20 inches square and 9 feet long, with 98-4 inches between their supports ; and Professor Lanza of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology employed beams varying from 4 to 20 feet in length, from 2 to 6 inches in width, and from 2 to 12 inches in thickness. Then, W being the load at the centre in tons, I the length in inches of the beam between supports, b its breadth, and h its thickness, also in inches, /, the greatest direct stress on the fibres, or coefficient of bending strength, is obtained in tons per square inch from the STRENGTH OF WOOD 117 formula /=f^' If 5=tlie deflection at the centre in bending in inches, the coefficient of elasticity (E) in tons per square inch is obtained from the formula 'E=i^rT^, Sir John Anderson has re- duced the results of many experimenters to a simple comparative table of mean breaking weight for beams 1 foot long and 1 inch square in timbers employed in England, which, with some slight modifications, is as follows : — Ash (Frdximis exclesior), - . . . . 690 lbs. Beech (Fdgus sylvdtica), ------ 625 „ 'EAm {tllmus campestris), 405 Larch {Ldrix europaa), ------ 440 Memel Fir (Pinus sylvestris), . . - . 561 Riga Fir „ 457 Scots Fir ,, 381 Christiana Fir ,, 574 American Red Pine ,, 501 White Spruce 570 Oak, English (^wercws i?d6wr), - - . . 591 Dantzic, 513 ,, ,, Adriatic, 460 ,, Canadian 580 ,, ,, or Teak, African (0Zf(/?e7(:?ia a/Wcd?ia), - - 855 ,, Mahogany {Sivietenia Mahdgoni), - - - - 531 ,, Teak {Tectdna graiidis), - • - - • - 814 The ultimate strength of a material is that stress which is required to produce rupture, and this may be either tensile stress or that exerted longitudinally or parallel to the axis of a beam, crushing stress, or resistance to compression in the direction of the fibres, or shearing stress, i.e. tangential. Professor Unwin figures details of various instruments employed for testing timbers, more especially for tensile strength, including Bauschinger's roller and mirror extensometer, and several shackles for holding the test-specimens. The principle of most modern in- struments for these purposes is the same, the weight being apphed gradually, either by small weights or by hydraulic action, to a system of levers, the force exerted being shown by a delicately adjusted steelyard. Thus the comparatively simple instrument of American design, introduced at Woolwich in 1854 by Sir John Anderson, and figured in his work,i consists of a combination of two levers which together give a purchase of 200 to 1, that is to say, 1 lb. applied to the end of the long arm of the upper lever will exert a stress of 200 lbs. on the specimen attached by shackles to the lower one. ^ The Strength of Materials and Structures, London, 1872, p. 16. 118 OF WOOD IN GENERAL The dimensions of the specimens tested by different experi- menters, whether for breaking weights, tensile strength, or other measurements, have unfortunately varied greatly. In contra- distinction to the long beams just mentioned as used by Bau- schinger and Lanza, Captain Fowke, in testing the New South Wales timbers at the Paris Exhibition of 1855 for breaking weight, etc., used samples 2 inches square and 12 inches between supports. Mr. Laslett used samples of the same sectional area, but 72 inches between supports ; whilst Mr. P. A. Campbell, experimenting on AustraUan timbers in 1879, employed a sectional area of only -Jg of an inch. The term strength, when used absolutely, generally means the breaking weight under a bending test, and in Enghsh books is expressed in pounds. It is found by the formula ^ ^ , where 5= breadth in inches, depth in inches, length in feet, and E = the constant or modulus. This constant, in England, means the number of pounds' weight appHed in the middle of a bar 1 inch square and 12 inches between supports required to break the bar. When a beam is supported at each end in such experiments as these, the distance to which the middle of the beam is forced down below its original position by the load is termed its deflection. In sohd rectangular beams the deflection varies directly as the load and the cube of the length, and inversely as the breadth and the cube of the depth. The resistance to deflection is known as stiff- ness or rigidity. If then we require two beams of the same breadth, but of different lengths, to be equal in stiffness, then their respective depths must be in proportion to their lengths. Thus, if the beams are 24 and 12 feet long respectively, and the latter is 12 inches deep, the former vnW have, in order to be equally stiff or rigid, to be 24 inches deep. Strength, on the other hand, in sohd rectangular beams, varies inversely as the length, directly as the breadth, and directly as the square of the depth, so that, in the example given above, the longer beam ^dll only require to be 17 inches deep in order to be as strong as the shorter. If the beams are equal in breadth, but of different length, and are required to be equal in stiffness, their breadths must be as the cubes of the lengths. In two beams 24 and 12 feet long, for examj^le, the breadths must be in the ratio of 24^ to 123, ^- 13,824 to 1,728, or as 8 is to 1. In other words, the long beam would have to be eight times as broad as the shorter one to be equally rigid, whereas it only requires to be twice as broad to be equally strong. So, too, in cylinders, the strength varies as the cube, the stiffness as the fourth j)ower of the diameter. The constants or values of deflection were deduced by Barlow STRENGTH OF WOOD 119 from the formula — ^ — r, where length in feet, W=the greatest weight in pounds which the beam can bear without losing its elasticity or acquiring a permanent set, 6 = breadth in inches, 6^= depth in inches, and 8= deflection in inches. From this it obviously follows that It is found in practical engineering that the deflection of timber beams {d) should not exceed 4 loth of their length. Bauschinger employed, for testing tensile strength, rods 18 inches long and 1 or 2| inches square for 5J inches at each end, reducing to J or If inch in the middle. He does not, however, consider these, or his experiments on bending (in which the individual variation of the large beams employed, as to knots, etc., produces wide differ- ences in the results), so instructive as to the relative values of timbers as are crushing experiments. For such experiments he used blocks 6 inches high and 3J inches square, protected at the ends with metal plates. Results will be affected by so many circumstances that it is most important that the history of logs experimented with should be known. The nature of the locality in which the timber is grown, the age of the tree, the part of the tree from which the timber is taken, and the extent to which it has been seasoned, will all modify the results. Thus Bauschinger showed that strength varies according to the proportion of summer to spring wood, and that the centre of a tree is therefore weaker ; whilst the following table of the range of variation in 26 trees of Pinus palustris, quoted by Professor Unwin from a Report of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, shows how butt, middle, and top logs differ in strength, largely no doubt for the reason, which we explained in a previous chapter, that the annual increments of wood forming cones do not extend uniformly from end to end of a log. [See p. 66 and Fig. 40.] Heaviness in lbs. per cubic foot. Coefficient of Elasticity from Bending Test. ■ Tensile strength. Crushing Strength. Coefficient of Bending Strength. Shearing Strength. All in tons per square inch. Butt, 28-64-8 500-1380 3-84-14-4 2-13-4-40 2-12-7-25 •21--58 Middle, 36-53-5 510-1369 2-82-13-4 2-25-4-15 3-40-7-65 ■24--55 Top, 32-56-5 375-1200 1-85-10-8 2-04-4-06 1-90-7-00 •22- -52 120 OF WOOD IN GENERAL As to seasoning, since timber loses from i to i or, when per- fectly dried, J of its weight in the process, and strength and the co-efficient of elasticity vary directly with density, its effect is obvious. Unfortunately, the systems employed for stating the results of experiments vary almost as much as the dimensions of the speci- mens tested, so that it is a matter of considerable calculation to compare the records of different experimenters. Mr. Sharpies, for instance, defines the co-efficient of elasticity, or rather of longi- tudinal extensibility, as the weight in kilograms sufficient to elongate a stick 1 centimetre square to double its original length, were that possible, and states results ranging from 25,699 in Ficus aurea to 165,810 in the Western Tamarack (Ldrix occidentdlis). To translate his results into the tons per square inch usual in England it is necessary to divide them by 151-1. (See footnote on p. 115.) So too while Professor Thurston defines the modulus of rupture as " the quantity which represents the stress upon a unit of area of cross-section ... at the instant of breaking under the transverse stress," and Mr. Sharpies expresses this breaking-weight, as it is generally termed, in kilograms per square centimetre, English writers here also use tons or pounds per square inch. So too Mr. Sharpies gives the resistance to longitudinal pressure, or ultimate weight which a stick will support, in the number of kilograms re- quired to crush a stick one centimetre square by such pressure, while Mr. Laslett terms this vertical strength, and states it in the number of pounds of vertical force required to crush 1 square inch of base. Mr. Sharpies also gives the resistance to indentation or number of kilograms required to sink a punch 1 centimetre square to the depth of 1-27 millimetres perpendicularly to the fibres. It is well-nigh impossible to reduce all the results of different experimenters. They will, therefore, be here stated mainly in the form and with the terminology of their respective authors. The following symbols will be employed : S.G.= Specific gravity, compared to water as 1000. W= Weight of a cubic foot in pounds. E= Co-efficient of elasticity, stated in tons or pounds per square inch, or in kilograms per square centimetre. = Elasticity compared to Oak as 1-00. 2?= Transverse strength in pounds per square inch. = Transverse strength compared to Oak as 1-00. /= Co-efficient of bending strength in tons per square inch. ABBREVIATIONS EMPLOYED 121 Tensile strength or tenacity along the fibre, in tons per square inch. c= Direct cohesion, in pounds per square inch. c'= Cohesion compared with Oak as 1-00. /c= Crushing strength along the fibre, in tons per square inch. Crushing strain as compared to Oak as 1-00. fs = Shearing resistance along the fibre, in tons per square inch. R= Modulus of rupture for transverse strain, stated either in kilograms per square centimetre, or in pounds per square inch. PART II.— WOODS OF COMMERCE, THEIR SOURCES, CHARACTERS, AND USES Acacia, in England, Robmia Pseudacdcia L. See Locust. Acacia {Eucryphia Moorei F. v. M. : Order Eosdcece). New South Wales and Victoria. Known also as " Plum, Acacia Plum," or " White Sally." Warm, light brown, moderately hard, of considerable dimensions, easily worked. Used for the bodies of buggies. Acacia Cedar {Albizzia Toona Bail. : Order Leguminosce) . Queensland. Also known as " Mackay Cedar." A large tree. The heartwood resembles that of Moulmein Cedar. Acajou,, a general name in the French timber-trade for Ma- hogany. See Mahogany. In French Guiana it is applied also to Cedrela guianensis A. Juss. : (Order Melidcece). S.G. 577. Reaching large dimensions, soft, not very flexible, very homo- geneous and free from flaws, working well, without splitting, dur- able, owing to a bitter principle obnoxious to insects, and termite- proof. Fairly common and in much request as a furniture-wood. Used in Europe for cigar-boxes. In Guadeloupe " Acajou blanc " is Simaruba amdra. See Simarouba. In Barbadoes " Cedre acajou " is Cedrela odordta. See Cedar, West Indian. Acle (Xylia dolabriformis Benth. : Order Leguminosce). India, the Malay Peninsula, and the Philippines. " Ironwood " of Pegu and Arracan. Hindi " Jambu," Burm. " Pyengadu," Philipp. " Acle." Formerly named Mimosa Acle and Inga xylocdrpa. Height 70 — 100 ft., diam. 3 — 4 ft., yielding timber 1 — 21 ft. square ; S.G. 934—1225, W 63, e' 2-19, p 17,200, p' 1-58, c 8960—10,360, c' 1-275, v' 1-527, /c 5-2. Heartwood dark brown or reddish- brown, often beautifully mottled with a waved and twisting grain, heavier than water, hard, tough, strong, rigid, its pores filled with a thick, 123 124 WOODS OF COMMERCE oily resin, which renders it clammy until completely seasoned, difficult to cut, causing sneezing in working, taking a good pohsh, shrinking i- in. per foot in seasoning, " more indestructible than iron," being both termite and teredo-proof, but having sometimes extensive heart-shakes which unfit it for constructive purposes. The Burmese wood contains more resin than that from the Deccan. It is used for piles and beams of bridges ; in Bengal and Burma for telegraph-posts ; in Southern India for posts, railway-sleepers (for which purpose it ranks next to Teak), carts, etc. ; in Burma for agricultural implements ; and for house and boat-building in the Philippines, and is probably the best hardwood in India for paving. Ah-pill {Erythrophlceum Laboucherii F. v. M. : Order Leguminosce). Northern Queensland and North Australia. Probably the " Legu- minous Ironbark " of Leiclihardt, and also named Laboucheria chlorostdchys F. v. M. A medium-sized tree. Wood red, close- grained, very durable, and the hardest in Australia. Used by natives for spear-heads. Ailantus (Aildnthus glandulosa Desf. : Order SimarubecB) . Molucca " Ailanto," French " Ailante," Germ. " Gotterbaum," Ital. " Albero di paradiso," Russ. " Pajasan," Spa7i. " Barniz falso de Japan." Height 50—60 feet ; diam. 1—2 ft. Sapwood broad, yellowish. Heartwood not dissimilar, greyish- orange, not readily distinguishable in a transverse section from Ash. Rings wide and distinct. Springwood very broad with numerous large vessels towards its inner margin and few small ones, scattered, or in segments of circles, four or more together, towards its outer part. Medullary rays distinctly visible to the naked eye, with a satiny lustre. Pith-mass very large. The wood contains vessels, tracheids, wood-fibres, fibre-cells, and parenchyma. It is moderately heavy, tolerably hard, somewhat difficult to split, and of a beautiful satin-like lustre. It is durable, and, although not common, is appreciated by cabinet-makers ; but the tree is mainly grown for shade. A native of Japan and Northern China, it is grown for ornament in England and the Eastern United States. It is used for charcoal in Europe. Akagashi (Quercus acuta Thunb. : Order Cupuliferce). South Japan. The dark red-brown, very hard and heavy wood of an Evergreen Oak, which with that of some allied species, such as the grey-white Shiragashi {Q. vibrayeana Tr. and Tav.) is used in boat and waggon building, and, owing to the growing scarcity of American White Oak, is now established in the European market. Akashide {Carpmus laxiflora Bl. ; Order Cupuliferce). Japan, Height 40 ft. ; diam. 1 ft. It is used for furniture, waggon- building, agricultural implements and firewood. ALDER 125 Alder, Common or Black (Alnus glutinosa Medic. : Order Betu- Idcece). French " aune," Ital. " alno " or " ontano," Span. " alano " or " aliso," Germ. " schwarz Erie " or " Else," Russ. " olse." S.G. fresh 901, dry 551. W 50—62 when green, 50—26 when dry. Strength, compared to Oak, 80 ; stiffness, 63. Height 20 — 40, very rarely 70 — 80 ft. ; diam. 1 — 2 ft. No heartwood. Wood white when alive, red when cut, becoming pinkish-brown. Rings rather broad, not very distinct, waving inwards where they cross the few, lighter-coloured, medullary rays. Brown pith-flecks are frequent. Pith-mass triangular with rounded angles, from which the medullary rays radiate in curves. The wood contains vessels, tracheids, wood-fibres, fibre-cells, and parenchyma ; but the vessels are small, few, and uniformly distributed. It is soft, easily split, rather light, with a smooth, fine grain, and lustrous. It does not warp or sphnter. When kept wholly submerged it is very durable, but not at all so otherwise. To preserve the finer pieces from insect attack they are sometimes, in Scotland, immersed for some months in peat- water, to which some lime is added, which gives the wood some resemblance to Mahogany. It has then been used for tables. Alder was formerly used for piles, water-pipes, sluices, etc., but Elm, being far more durable when alternately wet and dry, is much better for such purposes. The piles of Ravenna, according to Vitruvius, and those of the Rialto at Venice, and those of Amsterdam, according to Evelyn, were largely of Alder, and Pliny speaks of it as " eternal " when so used. Alder is employed for packing-cases, the staves of herring-barrels, shovels, clogs and sabots, bobbins, barrows, kneading- troughs, etc. The roots and knots, being often handsomely veined, are used in small articles of turnery and cabinet-making. Alder is practically the best wood for gunpowder-charcoal. It is imported from the Baltic ports of North Germany, where there are extensive pure forests of this species, sometimes mixed with Birch ; and it is mainly bought by the Lancashire clog-makers. Alder, American or Hoary [Alnus incana Willd : Order Betu- Idcece). Germ. " Weisserle." A similar but inferior wood, with more lustre, fewer pith-flecks, very few, wide, but indistinct medul- lary rays, has a wide range in North America. Alder, Red, Alnus rubra Bong. = Oregona Nuttall, a native of the Pacific slope, known also as " Oregon " or " Western Alder," is a large tree yielding a light brownish wood sometimes employed for charcoal, canoes, or furniture. Alder, Red, of the Cape. See Cedar, Red, in Cape Colony. Alder, White, the name in the western United States for Alnus rhombifolia Nutt. ; but apphed in Cape Colony to Platylophus 126 WOODS OF CO:\DIERCE trifolidtus Don, a yellowish- white, hard, tough, durable wood, from a tree 20 — 50 ft. high and 2 — 4 ft. in diam., much used in the Colony for furniture and boat-keels. It takes a good pohsh and in the lower part of the tree has generally a fine twisted grain. W 38. Boer name, " Wliite Els." Alerce [TetracUnis articuldta). [See Thuya.] In Chile the name is applied to Lihocedrus tetrdgona, a very durable coniferous wood of moderate dimensions, used for spars and roof -shingles. Algarrobo, applied in Brazil to Hymencea [See Locust], is in Argentina the name for the allied Prosopis nigra Hieron. and P. alba Griseb. (Order Leguminosce), small trees not exceeding a foot in diameter, yielding a very tough, fine-grained wood, used for wheel-felloes and paving-blocks. Almond, Indian {Termindlia Catdppa L. : Order Combretdcece). India, Queensland, Fiji, etc. " Tavola " of Fiji. A large deciduous tree. Wood reddish-brown, waved, rather close-grained, taking good pohsh, durable. Sapwood hght-coloured. W 32 — 41. Almond, Wild (Brdbejum stellati folium L. : Order Protedcece). South Africa. Known also as " Red Stinkwood," " Cafire," or " Wild Chestnut," " Amandelboom." Usually small but reacliing 60 ft. in height and 1| — 6 ft. in diam. Durable. Used for waggons furniture, and turnery. Amboyna-wood. Moluccas, especially Ceram and Amboyna, Arru and Xew Gumea. Malay name, " Kaya Boka," corrupted into " Kiabooca," known also as " Lingoa wood." The tree throws out burrs which are sawn off in slabs 2 — 8 in. thick and up to 9 ft. in diam. The burrs are known as Amboyna-wood, the wood as Kiabooca, but both are now rare on the market. Light reddish- brown to orange, fragrant, somewhat resembhng Thuya, very hard, beautifully mottled and curled, taking a good polish and very durable ; but of uncertain botanical origin, probably a species of Pterocdrpus (Order Leguminosce), but possibly Meliaceous. Sold in Singapore by weight. Used in inlaying and for fancy boxes, etc. S.G. 634. W 39. Amaranthe. See Purple-heart. Amarello Pao. See Fustic. Ameixera. See Sanders, Yellow. Amla ka (PJiylldnthus Emblica Gaertn : Order Euphorbidcece). India, Cliina, and Japan. Red, hard, elastic, durable, especially under water ; but seldom straight. Its fruit is known as Embhc Myrobalans. Anan {Fagrcea frdgrans Roxb. : Order Loganidcece). Burma and Indian Archipelago. Red-brown, hard, close-grained, beautifully ANCONA— APPLE 127 mottled, very durable, teredo-proof. Used for bridges and boat- building. W 52-5. S.G. 840. Ancona. See Walnut (Juglans regia), Andiroba. See Crabwood. Angelim vermelho (Andira fraxinifolia Bentli.? : Order Legu- minosce). Brazil. Of crooked growth, reddish-brown, moderately heavy. Used for ship-timbers. Angelin [Andira inermis Kunth : Order Leguminosce). Tropical America. " Cabbage " or " Bastard Cabbage Tree." Cuba, "Yaba." Height 20— 50 ft. ; diam. 3— 5 ft. 8.0.644—688. W 33-8 —60-4. E 563 639. R 300 lbs. / 2-01— 5-44. fc 1-98— 2-99. fs -32 — -45. Brown, veined, hard, very durable imderground or under water. Used for mill-rollers and in house and ship building. Some " Partridge-wood " may be the timber of this species. Angelique {Dicorynia paraensis Benth. : Order Leguminosce). Brazil and Guiana. Height 20 — 54 ft., yielding timber 12 — 22 in. square. S.G. 746 — 916. R 215 kilos. Reddish-brown, moderately hard, tough, strong, elastic, straight and even-grained, easily worked, durable in sea-water, insect-proof, sometimes with an ornamental waviness of grain, with but little sapwood ; but with slight shakes and an unpleasant odour, and said to rust nails. Used in French dockyards, as a substitute for Teak, for backing armour plates, etc., far more durable than Oak. Angelly [Artocdrpus Jiirsuta Lam. : Order Artocarpdceoe). India, chiefly in the south-west, Ceylon, Burma. Known also as " Jungle Jack " and " Aini." Height 50—60 ft. ; diam. 2i— 3 ft. S.G. 590. W 36 — 51. Very tough, bears exposure to water well, and, if kept oiled, is very durable. Used for planks in house-building, canoes, fishing- boats, etc. Classed in the third line in Lloyd's Register. Angico (Piptadenia rigida ^enth. = Acacia Angico Mart.: Order Leguminosce). Brazil. " Angica vermelho." In logs of 6 — 10 in. diam. W 71*5. Reddish or dark brown, with black lines, hard. Turnery. Anjan {Hardwickia hindta Roxb. : Order Leguminosce). Central and Southern India. Telugu " Epe," Tamil " Acha maram." Height 50 — 60 or 120 ft., straight. Dark red, streaked with black and often purplish, close-grained, " perhaps the hardest and heaviest wood in India," resinous, very durable, not warping, but liable to split, very strong. W 84—85. Used for bridges, sleepers, beams, rafters, house posts, and ornamental work. Apple [Pyrus Mdlus L. : Order Rosdcece). German " Apfelbaum," French " pommier," Span. " manzana," Russ. " jablon." 128 WOODS OF CO:\DIERCE Height seldom over 30 ft., or diam. over 2 J ft. Dark brown, generally strongly tinted with red. Sapwood, dull white. Rings distinct, broad, often over J in. across ; with no pith-flecks ; medul- lary rays not visible to the naked eye ; vessels small, imiformly distributed, 1 — 4 together. Heavy, very hard, close-grained, brittle, taking a high pohsh, but warping badly on drying. S.G. 790. W 41 — 50. Used for mallets, tool-handles, and other turnery, and traditionally preferred in Cornwall for " pohng " tin-ore. Apple, Black or Brush (Sideroxylon austrdU, Benth. and Hook, fil. : Order Sapotdcece). New South Wales and Queensland. Also known as Xative " or " Wild Plum." Height 80—100 ft., diam. 1 — 3 ft., W 55 — 58. Pale yellow, close-grained, prettily veined, but requires careful seasoning. Used for staves, laths, and build- ing, but suitable for cabinet work. Apple, Emu. See Plum, Sour. Apple, Oregon Crab (Pyrus rivuldris Dougl. : Order Rosdcece). Alaska — Cahfornia. Height 15 — 25 — 40 ft. ; diam. 1 — IJ ft. S.G. 832. W 51-8. Light reddish- brown, heavy, very hard, close- grained, taking a fine pohsh. Used in mill-work and for handles. Apple-tree {Angophora lanceoldta Cav. : Order Myrtdcece). New South Wales and Queensland. Also known as " Mountain Apple Tree, Orange, Red," or "Rusty Gum." Aborig. " Toolookar." Height 70—80 ft. ; diam. 2—3 ft. S.G. 893. Hard, used for rough work and fuel. Apple-tree, Broad-leaved {Angdphom suhvelutma F. v. M.). New South Wales and Queensland. Aborig. " Illarega." Red- dish, tough, pohshes well, durable, but requires careful seasoning. W 52 — 53. Used by wheelwrights and for fencing. Apple-tree, Narrow-leaved (Angophora intermedia DC). Eastern Austraha. Formerly Metrosideros floribunda Sm. Height 40 — 100 ft. ; diam. 1 — 3 ft. Hard, tough, bears damp well, but is sub- ject to gum- veins. Much used by wheelwrights. 'Arar. See Thuya. Arbor-vitae. See Cedar, White. Argan {Argdnia Sideroxylon Rom. and Schult. : Order Sapo- tdcece). Morocco. " Morocco Ironwood." Height seldom more than 20 — 30 ft. ; diam. 8 ft. or more. Heavier than water, very hard. Arjun [Termindlia Arjuna Bedd. : Order Combretdceoe). India, Burmah, Ceylon. Apparently known also as " Kahua " or " Ko- wah." Height 50 — 80 ft. ; diam. 2 — 8 ft. Dark bro^\Ti or brown- red, very heavy, strong, but sometimes rotten at the heart, splits ASADA— ASH 129 freely when exposed to the sun, durable, but liable to termite attack. Recommended for beams, rafters, and masts. Asada. See Hornbeam, Hop. Ash (Frdxinus excelsior L. : Order Oledcece). Germ. " Esche." Dutch " aesche," Dan. and Swed. " ask," French " freae," Ital. "frassino," Span. " fresno," Russ. "jasan." S.G. fresh 852, dry 750—692, W 43—63, E 750 tons, e' 1.28, v 11,600, 1-05, ft 2—7, c 3,780, c' -499, fc 2—4, -912, fs •2-3-7, R 15,120 lbs. Stress required to indent 2V i^- transversely to the fibre, 2,300 lbs. per square inch. (Fig. 31. Height 30—50, or even 80—100 ft. ; diam. IJ— 2 ft. The sapwood, very broad, about 40 rings, yellowish or greyish- white ; the heart, light brown, or greyish-white, not very different from the sapwood, or, in colour, from light Oak. Rings very distinct, with a broad zone of spring-wood with numerous larger vessels, sharply marked off from the autumn wood, in which the few small vessels stand singly or from 2 — 4 together. Pith-rays scarcely recognizable. Pith-mass, ovoid, very large. The wood contains vessels, wood-fibres, fibre-cells, and parenchyma. It is of moderate weight and hardness, very even and close in grain, lustrous and susceptible, of a good polish, the toughest of European woods, and very pliable. It warps but little ; and, if felled in winter and properly seasoned, is extremely durable, though few woods are more perishable if these precautions are neglected. " Very great advantage will be found in reducing the Ash logs soon after they are felled into plank or board for seasoning, since, if left for only a short time in the round state, deep shakes open from the surface, which involve a very heavy loss when brought on later for conversion" {Laslett). The compression or contortion of its fibre produces a lateral grain or figure in Ash known as " ram's-horn," or, from its re- semblance to the figured Maple used for the backs of violins, as " fiddle-back." This is best shown in billets imported from Austria and Hungary. Though the Ash grows in almost any soil, it pro- duces the best light- coloured wood when grown quickly in rich loam and a moist climate, as in the valleys of Britain and Central Europe. The slower-grown wood of poorer soils, mountains, and Northern Europe is apt to become " black-hearted," as also does that of pollard-trees. This is sometimes attributed to incipient decay, and is held to lessen the strength of the wood, but produces the figured veneers imported from the Pyrenees, as " Pyrenean Ash." Wounds or cankers also occur in the heart- wood, which are believed, in the North-East of England, to be caused by bees ; but this " Bee-sucken Ash," as it is termed, is extremely hard and tough, so as to be suitable for mallets, etc. The utility of the Ash has long been recognized, and few woods 9 130 WOODS OF CO:\DIERCE have a greater variety of uses, so that the poet Spenser terms it " The ash, for notliing ill." Greeks, Romans, and Teutons ahke used its tough saphngs for lances, the Romans preferring the wood obtained from Gaul, and the Teutons also emplojdng it for bows, arrows, sliields, and boat-building. Roman agricultural writers recommended it for imjDlements, and from its varied uses in tliis respect it has been called " the husbandman's tree." It is fre- quently coppiced, this young, or " Maiden Ash," and the " stooled " shoots, or second growth from the original roots, which are very tough, being fit for walking-sticks or whip-handles when four or five years' growth, for lance-poles or hop-poles a year or two later, for spade-handles at nine 3'ears, and when 3 inches in diameter as valuable as the timber of the largest tree. These growths are fre- quently termed " Ground Ash." In the Potteries it is largely used for crate-making, for which purpose it is cut every five or six years, though for other purposes only every seven or eight. Since, when steamed or heated, it can be easily bent, without injury, into any curve, it is invaluable for hoops. Larger wood is largely used by the wheelwright, for both spokes and felloes, and by the carriage- builder, and for oars. As it does not sphnter, it is also useful for choi3ping-blocks, shop-boards, handles, such as those of croquet- maUets, and biUiard-cues. For furniture it is cliiefly used where softer, as in Central Russia. Its flexibihty unfits it for use in archi- tectural work. When seasoned, the sapwood is as valuable as the heart. The roots and knotty parts of the stem were formerly valued by cabinet-makers. There being no bitter principle in. the heart -wood. Ash is very liable to the attacks of the larvae of the furniture-beetle, though painting renders it more durable. Ash is valuable as fuel, and its residue is rich in potash. The tree is a native of Europe and Northern Africa. Ash {Elceoccb'pus ohovdtus Don : Order Tilidcece). Xorth-Eastern Australia. " Chereen " of natives in Xew South Wales, " Woolal " in Queensland. Height 80—90 ft., diam. 2— 2i ft. White, hard, tough, easily worked. Used for oars. Ash (Flindersia). See Flindosa. Ash, American, Quebec, or White {Frdxinus americdna L. =i^. acumindta Lam., F. canadensis ]Mich. : Order Oledcece). S.G. 654. W 30—40, Coefficient of elasticity 101,668, R 861 kilos, Resistance to longitudinal pressure 463, Resistance to indentation 171. Height 70 — 100 ft. ; diam. 1 — 3 ft. Imported in partly squared logs, 18 — 35 ft. long, and 10 — 18 in. square, in planks and partly manu- factm^ed, as oars, etc. Wood generally much whiter, and with narrower rings than Common Ash {F. excelsior) ; the sapwood, when well seasoned, nearly white ; the heart, light reddish, contrasting with the sapwood more than m Common Ash, but less than in other ASH 131 American kinds, in the best quality, lightest and most uniform ; in second quality, slightly stained alternately red and yellow ; and in the third quality, mottled red. It is of much slower growth than Common Ash, the rings being only about half the width of those in that species, very distinct, with a narrow zone of spring- wood and fewer larger vessels. Though it may be termed rather heavy, it is less so than the European species, moderately hard, but very tough and elastic, except in the oldest timber, clean and straight in grain, very easy to work, and standing well after seasoning. In America it is used for all purposes to which Common Ash is applied in England. The small wood of young trees or stools, which is mostly sap wood and white, is the best material for oars. Larger logs, when white, are much sought after for bedroom and other furniture, and for coach-panels ; but the more coloured logs are universally considered by the trade inferior in strength and durability, though, being more easily worked, they are used by cabinet-makers for drawers and carcass work, for which European Ash is never employed. It occurs generally throughout Canada and the Eastern United States, chiefly on river-banks, and is the species imported into England for bending and carriage-work. Ash, Arkansas. See Ash, Water. Ash, Black, Hoop, Ground, Swamp, or Nova Scotia (Frdxinus nigra Marshall =i^. sambucifolia Lam. : Order Oledcece). Germ. " schwarze Esclie," French " frene noire," Span. " fresno negro." S.G. 632, W 38—44-5, Co-efficient of elasticity 87,185, R 806 kilos. Re- sistance to longitudinal pressure 423, Resistance to indentation 194. Height 80 ft. or more, diam. 2 — 2J ft. Slow-grown, trees 22 in. in diameter having 234 annual rings. Sapwood thin, light brown, or nearly white, sharply contrasting with the dark brown heart. Numerous thin medullary rays. Spring- wood with crowded ducts forming a narrow sharply- defined zone. Moderately heavy, rather soft, not strong, but tough, elastic, coarse-grained, separating easily between the rings, not durable, except under water. Less valuable than White Ash, but much used in America for furniture and interior finishing, and for fencing and hoops. The Indians use it for making chair-bottoms and " splint " baskets, working it " into sticks as wide along the rings as the splints are to be, and perhaps 2 inches thick. These are then bent sharply in the plane of the radius of the rings when they separate into thin strips nearly or quite as many as the rings of growth " (Romeyn Hough). Large wart-like swellings, or " burls," on the trunk, with much contorted grain crossed by innumerable radiating " pins," or abortive branches, form, when cut tangentially, very valuable veneers. Swampy situations from Newfoundland and Winnipeg south- ward, the most northern American Ash. 9—2 132 WOODS OF CO]\DIERCE Ash, Black [Litscea dealhdta Nees : Order Laurinece), Xew South Wales and Queensland. Height, 100—150 ft. ; diam. 2—3 ft. Yellowish, streaked with broT^Ti longitudinally, fragrant, close- grained, tough. Used for indoor work. The name is also apphed to the smaller white wood of Cupdnia semiglduca F. v. MuelL, the " Tyal-dyal ' of New South Wales, which is not used. Ash, Blue [Frdxinus quadranguldta Mchx. : Order Oledcece). Dry woods in the central United States, ]Micliigan to Tennessee, best in the basin of the lower Wabash River. Height, 70 ft. ; diam. 2 ft. Heavy, hard, and more durable, especially when alter- nately wet and dry, than any other Ash. Valuable for tool- handles, used also in carriage-making, flooring, and other j^urposes, as is White Ash. Ash Blue (Eloeodendron aicstrdle Vent. : Order Celastrdcece), North-East Austraha. Known also as " Wliite Cedar " or " Cour- aivo." Height 20—30 ft. ; diam. 4—12 in. W 49-5. Pinkish, close-grained, prettily marked, but liable to shakes. Valuable for oars, staves, or shingles. Ash, Blueberry {Elceocdrpus cydneus Ait. and E. holopetalus F. V. Muell. : Order Tilidcece), the former in Tasmania and through- out Eastern Austraha, the latter in Victoria and Xew South Wales. The former is known also as " White Boree " or " Native Ohve," the latter as " Maddagowrie " or " Prickty Fig." E. cydneus grows 40 — 50 ft. liigh, with a diameter of 12 — 15 in., has a dark heart and white sap wood and is very tough, and is useful for tool-handles. E. holopetalus reaches 60 — 80 ft. with a diam. 1 — 2 ft., and W 37-5, is white, close-grained and suitable for cabinet work. Ash, Brush {Acronychia Baueri Schott. : Order Rutdceoe). New South Wales and Queensland. Height 40 — 70 ft. ; diam. 1 — 2 ft. Very hard, close-grained, and strong. Excellent for tool-handles, and might be used for cabinet work. Ash, Cabinet. The Enghsh trade name for Frdxinus nigra [See Ash, Black], F. Pennsylvdnica [See Ash, Red] and F. Carolinidna [See Ash, Water]. Ash, Cape (Ehebergia capensis Sparrm. : Order Meliaceoe). Natal and Cape Colony. Boer " Essen-boom," Zulu " Umgwenyuizinja." Height 20 — 30 ft ; diam. 2 — 3 ft., close-grained, tough. Used for furniture, the sides of waggons, etc. Ash, Crows'. See Flindosa. Ash, Elderberry (Pdnax samhucifolius Sieber : Order Aralidcece). Northern and Eastern Austraha. A small tree. Wood very tough, prettily marked, and used locally for axe-handles. Ash, Green {Frdxinus lanceoldta Borkh. = i^. viridis ]\lichx.= F. Pennsylvdnica, var. lanceoldta Sargent : Order Oledcece). Ver- ASH 133 mont and Saskatchewan to Texas, Arizona, and Florida, most common and best in the Mississippi valley. Height 50 — 60 ft. ; diam. IJ— 2 ft. S.G. 718. W 44-35. Brown, with obscure pith- rays and several rows of open ducts in each ring. Heavy, hard, and strong. Somewhat inferior to White Ash ; but often employed for the same purposes. Ash, Grey. See Ash, Red. Ash, Moreton Bay {Eucalyptus tesseldris F. v. Muell. : Order Myrtdcece). Central and North-Eastern Australia. " Ilumba," " Corang," and " Carbeen " of natives. Height 30 — 60 ft. ; diam. 1 — 2 ft. Dark brown, tough, not hard or durable. Used for building purposes, being of better quality in the warmer parts of its range. Ash, Mountain {Pyrus Aucupdria L. Order Rosdcece). See Rowan. Ash, Mountain (Alphitonia excelsa Reisseek : Order Rhamndcece). North-Eastern Australia. Also known as " Red Ash," " Leather- jacket," " Humbug," " Murr-rung." Height 45—50 ft. ; diam. 1 — 2 ft. W 53. Heart light-red to dark-brown ; sapwood pinkish, darkening with age, hard, close-grained, very tough, polishing well, durable, but warps in drying. Valuable for staves and, perhaps, for gun-stocks. The name is also applied in the Illawarra district of New South Wales to ElcBocdrpus longifolia C. Moore and E. Kirtoni Bailey (the latter being also known as " Australian White Beech " or " Kirton wood "), close and fine-grained, light-brown woods, easily worked and employed by wheelwrights and for oars ; and in other parts of Australia to Eucalyptus Stuartidna F. v. M., the Apple- scented Gum, to E. Sieberidna F. v. M., the Cabbage Gum, to E. piluldris Sm., the Blackbutt, to E. pauciflora Sieb., to E. hcemd- stoma Sm., the Scribbly Gum, in East Gippsland to E. goniocdlyx F. V. M. (See Box, Bastard), and in Victoria to E. amygdalina Labill., and especially the tall variety regnans. This last-named species is a native of Southern Australia and Tasmania, and is probably the tallest tree on the globe, often reaching 100 — 150 ft., with diam. from 3 — 8 ft., but in some cases 400, 410, or even 420 or 471 ft. It is, therefore, appropriately called " Giant Gum," the name " Peppermint tree " belonging apparently to smaller specimens. The Gippsland aboriginal name " Wangara " is the equivalent of " Stringybark," applied to many other species. S.G. air-dried 1045—1076, dry 908—703. W 47-54. R 778—1,152 lbs. Light yellowish brown, with a neat striped figuring, straight in grain, easily worked, sometimes proving durable under water, not twisting in drying, suitable for fencing,^shingles, ships' planks, 134 WOODS OF CO:\DIERCE keelsons, packing-cases, carpentry, or railway- carriage building ; but less durable than E. globulus or E. ohliqua. Ash, Black Mountain (Eucalyptus lencoxylon F. v. M.). See Iron-bark. Ash, Oregon [Frdxiiius Oregona Xutt. Order Oledcece). Xorth- Western United States. Height 30—40 or 60 ft. ; diam. 1— IJ ft. Resembhng White Ash, rather heavy, sometimes brittle, not strong. Used for furniture, waggon and carriage - frames and cooperage. Ash, Prickly {Zanthoxylum Clava-Herculis L. : Order Rutdcece). West Indies. The prickly young stems are imported under the name of " Briar " for walking-sticks. In Jamaica it is known as "Prickly Yellow - wood." W 60-66. E 499. / 2-7. fc 111. fs -418. Ash, Red, Grey, or Brown-barked (Frdxinus Pennsylvdnica Marshall = i^". pubesceiis Lam. = i^. tomentosa ^lichx. : Order OledcecE). Xew Brunswick and South Ontario to Louisiana and Florida, along streams, chiefly in the north. French " Frene rouge," Germ. " Rothesche," Spmi. " Fresno Colorado." Height 50 ft. ; diam. 2 ft. S.G. 625. W 38—96. E 8,122 lbs. R 869 kilos. Sapwood light brown or nearly white, sharply defined ; some- times streaked with yellow ; heart rich or light reddish brown, moderately heavy, hard, rather strong, coarse-grained, brittle ; pith-rays numerous, thin. Used locally for agricultural imple- ments, fence-rails, interior finisliing or furniture, as a substitute for Black Ash. In Austraha the name Red Ash " is apphed to Alpliitonia excelsa [See Ash, Mountain,] and to Orites excelsa [See Oak, Silky.] Ash, Rock, of Cape Colony. See Els, Klip. Ash, Water, Swamp, or Arkansas (Frdxinus Carolinidna Miller = F. platycdrpa ]\Iichaux. : Order Oledcece). Swamps : Virginia — Louisiana. W 35*75. Coarse-grained, brittle. Other less important species, used locally, are Frdxinus anomalo. Watson. S.G. 660. W 41—11. Light brown with thick sap- wood (30 — 40 rings), thin medullary rays, many large scattered ducts and several rows of small ducts. Heavy, hard, close-grained. Colorado, Utah, Nevada. F. Berlandieridna D.C. Used for tool-handles in Mexico. F. velutina Torrey (= F. pistacicefolia Torrey). Used, for axe- handles and waggons, in New Mexico, Texas, and Arizona. Aspen (Populus tremula L. : Order Salicinece). German " Aspe," " Espe," " Zitterpappel," French " peupher tremble," Span. alamo tremblon," Russ. " osyka." Possibly the Becaim, aincn or Mulberry (A.V.) of 2 Samuel v. 23, the Pyrus " of the Vulgate. ASPEN— BABUL 135 Dingy white, looking reddish-brown in transverse section, with no heartwood. Rings circular, broad, distinct ; medullary rays not visible to the naked eye ; vessels small, uniformly distributed, dendritic, 2 — 7 together ; generally with white pith-flecks near the centre. Soft, light, elastic, easily spHt, warping and cracking but little. Used as blindwood, for cooper's ware, milk-pails, herring casks, butchers' trays, clogs, pack-saddles and paper-pulp ; and, in France, for sabots and for flooring. Imported in small quantities from the southern Baltic ports, mainly for turnery. Aspen, American or Quaking Asp {Populus tremuloides Michaux : Order Salicinece). Throughout North America, coming up after fires and replacing destroyed fir-forests. Germ. " Amerikanishe Zitter-Espe," French " tremble d'Amerique," Span. " Alamo tremblon." S.G. 403. W 25—13. Coefficient of elasticity 81441. R 677 kilos. Resistance to longitudinal pressure 330 kilos. Re- sistance to indentation 80 kilos. Height seldom 60 ft. or 2 ft. in diam. Light brown with very thick, very white sapwood. Re- sembling Aspen in texture, close-grained, cottony in fibre, light, soft, not strong, soon decaying in contact with damp. Used in turnery, and occasionally for flooring, chiefly in the Western United States ; but chiefly for paper-pulp, for which purpose, though very white, in strength it is inferior to Spruce. Aspen, Large-tooth {Populus grandidentdta Michaux). [See Poplar, Large-toothed.] Assegai- wood [Curtisia faginea Ait. : Order Corndcece). Zitlu " Umguna," " Umnoiso." " Cape Lancewood." Cape Colony and Natal. Height 40—80 ft. ; diam. 1—4 ft. W 60. Bright red, becoming dull on exposure, close-grained, very strong, tough, elastic and durable even in damp situations. Used for furniture, shafts of assegais, tool-handles, spokes and felloes, and is one of the best woods for waggon- building. Avocado Pear (Persea gratissima Gsertn. : Order Lauracece). Cuba "Aguacate." West Indies. S.G. 661. A handsome, dark red-brown, resembling Mahogany, with wa\^ figure ; but grown chiefly for its fruit. Axe-breaker {Notelcea longi folia Vent. : Order Jasmindcece). " Mock Ohve." Ahorig. " Coobagum." New South Wales. Height 48 — 50 ft. ; diam. 1 — IJ ft. Hard, close-grained, and firm. Babela {Termindlia belerica Roxb.). See Myrobalan wood. Babul {Acacia ardbica Willd. : Order Leguminosce). Hindi "Babul." Bengali " Babla." Panjabi " Kikar." Height 50— 60 ft. ; diam. 2 — 2J ft. W 45. Heartwood, pinkish to brown, mottled, with dark streaks, hard, and, if well seasoned, very dur- able. Used extensively in Northern India for wheels, sugar and 136 WOODS OF COmiERCE oil-presses, rice-pounders, agricultural implements, and tool-handles; and in Sind for boat-building, rafters, occasionally for railway- sleepers, and for fuel. Bagasse, the name of two similar but distinct timbers of French Guiana : (i) Bagdssa guianensis Aubl. (Order Artocarpdcece), a large, straight-growing tree. S.G. 1130 — 730. R 215 kilos. Very dur- able and excellent for flooring ; and (ii) Icica altissima Aubl. (Order Burserdcece), knowTi also as " Cedreblanc," " Kurana " or " Carana," also of large size. S.G. 1036—842. R 226 kilos. Soft, but of excellent quality. Used for canoes and for cabinet-making. Bakula {Jlhnusops Elengi L. : Order Sapotdcece). Sinlmlese "Munamal." Tamil " Makulai." India, Ceylon, Moluccas. S.G. 736. W 46—61. Red, hard, strong, fairly durable. Used in house-building and for furniture in Southern India and Ceylon. Bailey Gum. See Gum, Bailey. Balau. See Teak, Johore. B allow, as yet undetermined. W 61. Resembhng Oak, hard, strong, durable, easily worked. Extensively used for railway- sleepers, piles, beams, and planks. British Xorth Borneo. Bally Gum (Litscea reticulata Benth. : Order Laurinece). Queens- land. " Cudgerie." Large, grey, close-grained, hght, easily worked and susceptible of staining. Suitable for flooring or cabinet- work ; but not plentiful. Banaba. See Jarul. Bancoulier. See Walnut, Belgaum. Bandara. {Lagerstrcemia parvi-fidra Roxb. var. majuscula C.B. Clarke : Order Lythrdcece). India. A large tree. Diam. 2 ft., W 40. Red or hght brown, compact, moderately hard, tough, elastic, seasons well and is easily worked, and durable in water. It is used for beams, rafters, and boat-building, and is recommended for sleepers. Banksia [Bdnksia littordlis R. Br. : Order Protedcece). West Austraha. Height 20—40 ft. ; diam. 1 ft. W 43-75. Rich bro^Ti, beautifully grained. Coming into use for furniture. Barranduna (Trochocdrpa laurina R. Br. : Order Epacriddcece). New South Wales and Queensland. " Beech, Brush, Cherry," or " Myrtle." Height 20—30 ft. ; diam. 6—12 in. W 48. Warm brown, prettily grained, hard, close-grained, tough, requiring careful seasoning. Useful for turnery. Barberry {Berheris vulgdris L. : Order Berberiddcece). Germ. " Sauerdorn." Too small to be of use. Sap wood lemon-yellow ; heart bluish-red. Pith-rays widening outwards, all broad ; pore- circle very narrow, with very large vessels in radial lines. Europe. BARWOOD— BEECH 137 Barwood, generally considered identical with Camwood, but possibly Pterocdrpus santalinoides L'Herit. or P. angolensis DC. (Order Leguminosce) . West Africa. S.G. 620. W 38-75. A dye- wood. Basswood {Tilia americdna L. : Order Tilidcece). " American Linden " or " Lime," " Bee tree." Germ. " Amerikanische Linde," French " Tilleul d'Amerique," Span. " Tilio Americano." Eastern United States and Canada. Height 80 — 100 ft. ; diam. 3 — 4 ft. S.G. 452. W 26— 45-5. R 589 kilos. Ash percentage -55. Relative fuel value -45. Coefficiency of elasticity 84,010 kilos. Resistance to longitudinal pressure 348 kilos. Resistance to indentation 63 kilos. White to light brown, or tinged with red, light, soft, tough, close-grained, easily worked, but not strong, shrinking considerably in drying ; but durable. Extensively used for cheap furniture, toys, carriage-panels, chair-seats, carpentry, turnery, cooperage, and to some extent for paper-pulp and charcoal. It is sometimes worked up by a rotary knife-cutting veneer machine so as to make a thin board, as long as the log and as much as 100 ft. broad, for three-ply wood. Basswood, White {TUia heterophylla Vent.). Middle and Southern States. Not distinguished commercially from the preceding. Bay-wood. See Mahogany. Bead-tree (Melia composita Willd. = M. Azedardch L. : Order MelidcecB). " Persian Lilac," " Pride of India." In Australia " White Cedar " or " Cape Lilac." Hind. " Nim." French " Lilas des Indes," " Sykomore," " Laurier grec." Port. " Margosa." Tamil " Vem - pu." Syria, India, China, Australia. Height 40—50 ft. ; diam. 1—2 ft. W 30—38. Sapwood yellowish-white ; heart yellowish to reddish-brown, handsomely marked, especially vertically, soft and rather loose-textured, easily worked, but taking a good polish and becoming hard and durable, but warping and splitting. It is used in India for furniture, being known in the south as " Bastard Cedar." [See Margosa.] Bean-tree, or Bean, Black. See Chestnut, Moreton-Bay. Bean, Red (Dysoxylum Muelleri). See Cedar, Pencil. Beati {Cassia sidmea Lamk. : Order Leguminosce). Sinhalese " Wa." Southern India, Ceylon, Burma. 1| ft. diam. W 62. Heart nearly black, often beautifully mottled longitudinally, very hard. Used in Burma for mallets and walking-sticks, and in Ceylon for fuel for railway-engines. Exported to Bombay and thence to England as " Bombay Black- wood " or " Rosewood." Beech, Common (Fdgus sylvdtica L. : Order Cupuliferce). Germ. " Gemeiner " or " Roth Buche," Dutch " Rood beuke," Danish 138 WOODS OF CO:\BIERCE " Bog," Swedish " Bok," Russian Q^ndi Polish " Buk," Ital. " Faggio," Portug. " Faya," Span. " Haya," French " Hetre." " White Beech " in America. S.G. 700— 720," average 705. W 41—56. E 603 tons. jt 2-3 — 7. fc 3 — 4. / 4-7. fs -4 — -5. Breaking weight (tensile) 4,853 lbs. per sq. in. Crushing strain on sq. in. 9,363 — 7,733 lbs. Lighter than Oak, with less tensile but almost equal crushing strength. Height 70 — 100 ft. ; diam. 3 — 4J ft. Wood varying in colour from red to yellow or wliite, the red being the better, grown on richer soil. Rings distinct, bulging between the medullary rays. Vessels small, more numerous in the spring wood, 1 — 5 together, so that autumn wood appears darker. Medullary rays broad, very distinct, with a satiny lustre, occupj^ing nearly a tenth of the transverse section. Pith-mass triangular, small. The wood contains vessels, tracheids, wood-fibres and parenchyma. It is hard, heavy, as strong as Oak and tougher, but 25 per cent, less stiff, close and even in texture, with a fine silky grain, easily cleaved along the rays, very durable under water, and, when well seasoned, not liable to spht. (Fig. 26.) It must, however, be kept either wet or dry. It is hable to become worm-eaten ; but can readily be treated with preservatives. Beech is largely used for chair-making in Buckinghamshire and in Vienna, in the latter district being often stained. Burning rapidly with a bright fiame, it is the chief fuel on the Continent of Europe. It also yields one of the best gunpowder-charcoals. It is in great request among turners for tool-handles, wooden screws, wheel cogs (for wliich it ranks next to Hornbeam), shoe-lasts, printers' rollers, wood type, knife-handles and bobbins, and makes excellent wedges. In France and Germany it is considered the best of all woods, except Walnut, for sabots and wooden soles, for which purpose it is " smoked " over branches and chips of beech, so as to become charged with pyrohgneous acid, when it is extremely impermeable. It is also used for railway- sleepers, shafts, oars and boat-building. It is imported from Hol- land and Germany to our Eastern ports. The name is apphed in Austraha to Trochocdrya laurma R. Br. [See Barranduna], Flindersia austrdlis R. Br. [See Flindosa], F. Oxleydna F. v. M. [See Jack, Long], Tristdnia laurma R. Br. [See Box, Bastard], Schizomeria ovdta T>. Don [See Coach-wood], Monotoca elliptica R. Br. [See Wallang-unda], Cryptocdrya glau- cescens R. Br. [See Beech, She], and to Gmelina Leichhdrdtii F. v. M. (Order Verhendcece). This last is also termed " White Beech," and by the aborigines " Binburra " and " Cullonen." It is a native of Queensland and Xew South Wales, 80—150 ft. in height ; 2—4 ft. in diam. W 36. Light-coloured, with a fine, bright, silvery grain, strong, not warping, if moderately seasoned, durable, not easily attacked by termites, and easily worked. It is one of the most valuable of Austrahan timbers, being useful for turnery or for floats BEECH 139 of mill-wheels, but specially valued for the flooring of verandahs and the decks of coasting vessels, posts, carving, cooperage, etc. Beech, American or Red (Fdgus ferruginea Ait. : Order Cupu- Uferce). Germ. " Amerikanische Buche," French " Hetre d'Amer- ique," Span. " Haya Americana." Eastern North America. Height up to 100 ft. ; diam. up to 4 ft. S.G. 688. W 41—43. Ash percentage -51. Relative fuel value -685. E 120,996 kilos. R 1,148 kilos. Resistance to longitudinal pressure 478, to indenta- tion 196 kilos. White to hght brown ; heart reddish , pith-rays large and conspicuous. Moderately heavy, hard, stiff, strong, tough, rather coarse in texture, warping in drying, but taking a very smooth and beautiful polish, liable to insect attack, and not tolerant of contact with the ground, but otherwise durable. Used in America for plane-stocks, shoe-lasts, chairs, tool-handles, furni- ture, ships' timbers, and fuel. It is exported to a small extent to England, but is inferior to Enghsh Beech. Beech, Black. See Beech, She. Beech, Blue. See Hornheam. Beech, Cape (Myrsine melanoplileos R. Br. : Order Myrsindcece). South Africa. " Beukenhout." Height 50 ft. ; diam. 21 ft. W 39-5 — 46. Brownish, with prominent and beautiful reddish silver-grain, hard, tough, fine and even-grained, easily worked, durable, neither cracking nor warping. Used in waggon-building. Beech, Evergreen {Fdgus Cunninghdmii Hook : Order Cupu- Uferce). " Myrtle." " Negro-head Beech." Tasmania and Vic- toria. Height 100 — 200 ft. ; diam. sometimes 8 ft. or more. S.G. 972—593. W 37—53-69. R 548—692 lbs. E 842. / 4-08. fc 2-58. fs -557. Reddish-brown, satiny, with beautiful feathery cross veins, especially in the warty protuberances on the trunk, hard and free from knots, susceptible of an excellent polish. Used for cogs, doors, furniture, carpentry, fret-saw work, piano carcases, ball-room floors, etc. [See Roble.] Beech, Indian (Pongdmia glabra Vent. : Order Leguminosce). Bengal. " Kurunja," Burm. " Karung," Tamil " Poonga," Fiji " Vesivesi." India, Tropical Australia, and the Pacific. Height 40—50 ft. ; diam. 1—2 ft. W 40—42. White, turning yellow on exposure, moderately hard, close-grained, tough, prettily marked, but much attacked by insects, and not durable, though improved by seasoning in water. No distinct annual rings, but marked wavy " false rings "; vessels few, scattered ; pith-rays distinct. In India used mainly for fuel. Beech, Red, in Queensland {Flindersia Chatawaiana F. M. Bailey : Order Melidcece). Also known as " Maple." Used for joinery and cabinet work. 140 WOODS OF COmiERCE Beech, She (Cryptocdrya glaucescens R. Br. : Order Launnece). " Black Beech, Sassafras, White Laurel." Xorth-Eastern Austraha. Height 70 — 80 ft. ; diam. IJ — 2 ft. Soft, ornamental, not durable. Used in cooperage. The name has also been applied to C. obovdta R. Br. [See Sycamore, White.] Beech, White, in Canada is Fdgus sylvdtica L. [See Beech, Common]. In Austraha the name is applied to Elceocdrpus Kirtoni F. V. M. [See Ash, Mountain], Gmelina Leichhdrdtii F. v. M. [See Beech, Common], and to Phylldnthus Ferdindndi Miill. Arg. (Order Euphorbidcece). This tree, also called " Pencil Cedar," " Lignum- vitse," and by the aborigines " Chow- way " and " Tow- war," a native of the north-east, reaches a height of 70 — 80 ft. and a diameter of 1 — 1 J ft. Its wood is grey, close-grained, and easy to work, but warps. It is used in building and for staves. Beech, Water. See Hornbeam. Beef-wood in Trinidad is Bhopala montdna (Order Protedcece), a valuable timber ; but in Australia the name is hopelessly vague, being applied to members of four genera of Protedcece, viz. , Bdiiksia, GreviUea, Hdkea and Stenocdrpus, and to several species of the widely differing genus Casuarina. For Bdnksia see Honeysuckle ; for Hdkea, Pinbush ; for Stenocdrpus, Oak, Silky ; for Casuarina equiseti folia. Oak, Swamp ; for C. suherosa, She-oak, Erect ; and for C. toridosa, Oak, Forest. GreviUea stridta R. Br. (Order Protedcece), also known as " Silvery Honeysuckle," and by the aborigines as " Turraic," reaches a height of 40 — 50 ft., with a diam. of IJ ft. Its timber is red and prettily marked, though named from its resemblance to raw beef, hard, close-grained, and susceptible of a good pohsh. It is used for fencing, cabinet work, and furniture. [See also Bullet-wood.] Bendy-tree. See Umbrella-tree. Betis {Payena Betis Villar : Order Sapotdcece). Phihppines. Used in ship-building, and classed in the third line of Lloyd's Register. Big-tree (Sequoia gigdntea Decaisne : Order Coniferce). " Mam- moth tree of Cahfornia." " Welhngtonia." French "Sequoia gigantesque," Germ. " Riesen Sequoia," Ital. " Gigante della Cah- fornia." Western slopes of Sierra Nevada, California, 5,000 — 8,000 ft. above sea-level. Height 250 — 400 ft. ; diam. sometimes exceeding 35 ft. The specimen, 62 ft. in girth, of which a section is exhibited in the Natural History Museum, South Kensington, has 1,335 annual rings. Wood red-brown, light, soft, brittle, weak, cross-grained, durable in contact with. soil. Formerly used locally for lumber, fencing, shingles, etc., but now only of historical interest. Introduced into England a.s an ornamental tree by Wilham Lobb in 1853. BIJA— BIRCH 141 Bija. See Teak, Bastard. Billian or Borneo Iron Wood {Eusideroxylon Zwdgeri T. and B. : Order Laurdcece). British North Borneo. A very large tree. W 67. Resembhng Oak when newly cut, but with age or exposure becoming black as Ebony. Very heavy and hard, strong and durable, bearing exposure, resisting termites and the ship-worm. The best wood in the Bornean and Chinese area for piles, beams, or planks. Billy Web. See Ebony, American. Bilsted {Liquiddmbar styraciflua L.). See Gum, Sweet. Birch, Common, European, White or Silver {Betula dlha L. : Order Betuldcece). French " Bouleau commun," Germ. " Gemeine Birke," Dutch " Berk," Danish " Birk," Swedish " Bjork," Russian " Bereza," Port. " Bettula," Span. " Abedul." Northern Europe and Asia. Height 40—50 ft. ; diam. li ft. S.G. fresh 909, dried 664. W 32—49. ft 2-3—10. fs -43. Yellowish or reddish-white to light brown, the vessels so minute as to be almost imperceptible to the naked eye, a smooth transverse section appearing as though sprinkled with flour. Rings and pith-rays distinctly marked : pith-flecks numerous near the centre : wood consisting of tracheae, tracheids, fibres, fibre-cells, and parenchyma. Moderately hard and heavy, even-grained, difficult to split, but easily worked, neither strong nor durable, and liable to the attacks of worms. Burrs are occasionally produced on the stem, with solid marbled wood, valued by turners, and made into cups and bowls in Lapland. In many countries on the Continent, Birch as the cheapest native hardwood, is largely used for furniture and turnery : in France it is largely used for felloes of wheels, cooperage, and sabots ; and in the Scottish Highlands for an infinity of purposes, including spoons and plates, as in Russia. It is a valuable fuel in Northern Europe, comparing with Beech as a heat-producer as 13 to 15. It also pro- duces excellent crayon charcoal, and its coppice-wood is largely used for brooms, hoops, and crate-making ; for tanning leather ; for a yellow-brown, or, with alum, a brownish-red, dye ; and, when burnt, for distilling Scotch whisky and smoking herrings and hams. Birch timber is imported, mostly with the bark on, from Prussia and the South of Sweden, to Grimsby, Hull, and Ireland ; but that from Sweden is often crooked ; and the sapwood, especially if felled in the spring, left on the ground, kept too long on the voyage, or stored without ventilation, will become " doated " or foxed, under- going, that is, a fungoid fermentation. A new industry has been recently started in Russia in the manufacture of Birch three-ply planks for export to India for tea-chests. The logs are cut rotarily, as we have already mentioned in the case of Basswood, and three thicknesses are then glued back to back with their grains crossing so 142 WOODS OF COmiERCE as to correct warping. We are not here concerned with the manifold uses of Birch bark — especially in Russia, Sweden, and Scotland — for boxes, baskets, boots, boats, cordage, dyeing, tanning, and even bread-making. The two forms known as Betula verrucosa Elirh., the " Raubbirke " of Germany, and B. pubesceiis Ehrh., the " Haar- birke," are here treated as one species. In Jamaica the name Birch is apphed to Bursera gummifera, a tree in no way similar, and in Tasmania to Dodondea viscosa. [See Lignum- vitae vi.] Birch, American, a trade name for the imported timber, wliich is the product of more than one species, though chiefly of Betula lenta, the Cherry Birch, and, to a much less extent, B. lutea, the Yellow Birch. Birch, Black {Betula lenta L.). See Birch, Cherry. Birch, Black or White, of Xew Zealand [Fcigus Soldndri Hook, fil. : Order CupuUferce). Maori " Tawhai rauriki." Really a Beech, but known in Nelson as " Wliite," and in Welhngton as " Black Birch." Height 100 ft. ; diam. 4—5 ft. W 47. Hard and very durable, and suited for fencing or fresh-water piles, but hable to attack by the ship- worm. The names " Black " and " Red Birch " are also apphed to Fdgus jusca Hook, fil., a tree reaching a greater diameter and with darker wood. " Tawhai raunui." S.G. 700. W 48-6— 53-25. p 202-3. Birch, Canoe {Betula papyrifera Marshall : Order Betuldcece). " White " or Paper Birch." Gerjn. " Xachen Birke." Canada and the Xorthern United States. Height 60 ft. or more ; diam. 3 ft. or more. Sapwood wliite, heart reddish-brown, vdth. a fine glossy grain. Rather heavy, hard, tough, and strong, not durable where exposed to alternations of moisture and heat. Used for bobbins, shoe-lasts and pegs, turnery, and extensively for paper- pulp and fuel. A curl in the grain where the branches are given off is sought after by Boston cabinet-makers for veneers. Birch, Cherry {Betula lenta L. : Order Betuldcece). Black, Sweet," or " Mahogany Birch," " Mountain Mahogan3^" French " Bouleau doux," Germ. " Kirsche-Birke," Span. " Abedul dulce." Canada and Eastern United States. Height 60 — 80 ft. ; diam. 3—4 ft. S.G. 762. W 37-5-48. Ash percentage -26. Relative fuel value -759. Coefficient of elasticity 141,398. R 1,216 kilos. Resistance to longitudinal pressure 619, to indentation 226 kilos. Sapwood when first sawn distinctly yellow, with the heart a brownish red. After seasoning the sapwood fades to a cream wliite and the heart to a pinkish red. Heaw^', hard, very strong, close-grained, taking a beautiful satiny polish, not attacked by worms, and fairly durable, but becoming duller after conversion. It presents the " roll figure," seldom seen in any other wood. If the boards after BIRCH— BITTERWOOD 143 sawing are allowed to lie together, mildew soon develops, and the sapwood becomes what is known as " dozy." Largely used, especially in the Northern States, for furniture, sometimes stained to imitate Mahogany or Cherry, and also for turnery, for bakers' troughs, in ship-building, and for fuel. It is exported to England in sawn planks and in slightly waney logs 6 — 20 ft. long and 1 — 2h ft. square, the best coming from Quebec. It is here chiefly used for bedroom furniture, the planks, which seldom exceed 9 in. in width, being used chiefly for chair-making, while the logs are in great request by the coachbuilder. Birch, Grey. See Birch, Yellow, and Birch, Old-Field. Birch, Mahogany. See Birch, Cherry. Birch, Old-Field {Betula populi folia Marshall : Order Betuldcece). " White, Grey," or " Poplar-leaved Birch." From the St. Lawrence to the Delaware. Height 25—30 ft. ; diam. 1 foot. S.G. 576. W 35-9. R 778 kilos. Sapwood brownish-white ; heart light- brown, light, soft, fine-grained, taking a fine satiny polish, not strong, nor durable. Used for bobbins, shoe-pegs, paper pulp, and fuel. Birch, Paper. See Birch, Canoe. Birch, Indian Paper (Betula Bhojpdtm Wall.). Sanskrit " Blmr- jama," Telugu " Bharjapatri," Japan " Onoore." Northern India. Yellow to reddish-v/hite, hard. Used for furniture and exported. Birch, Red or River [Betula nigra L.). Eastern United States. French " Merisier rouge." Smaller, lighter, and less valuable than the other American species, nearly white. Used like poplar, but not exported. The name Red Birch is applied in New Zealand to Fdgus fusca [see Birch, Black or White] and also, with " Silver Birch," to F. Menziesii Hook. fil. S.G. 626. W 39. p 158-2. Birch, Sweet. See Birch, Cherry. Birch, White. See Birch, Common, Canoe, Black, and Old- Field. Birch, Yellow (Betula lutea Micliaux fil.). "Grey" or "Tall Birch." Germ. " Gelbe Birke," French " Bouleau jaune," Span. " Abedul amarillo." Eastern Canada and United States. Height 60—80 ft. ; diam. 2—3 ft. S.G. 655. W 40-8. R 1,248 kilos. Sapwood nearly white ; heart light reddish-brown, heavy, very hard, close-grained, tough, very strong, taking a beautiful satiny polish. Burrs occur, which are used for mallets. The saplings are split for hoops and the older wood for very small woodware, such as button- moulds, for chair-seats, wheel-hubs, and, in Canada, for frames of sledges. It is also largely used for fuel. Bitterwood. See Quassia and Simarouha. 144 WOODS OF CO:\DIERCE Biwa. See Loquat. Blackbutt {Eucalyptus piluldris Sm. : Order Myrtdcece). " Flint- wood, White-top," or sometimes " Mountain Ash, Willow," or "Stringy-bark." Aborig. " Toi, Tcheergun, Benaroon." South- Eastern AustraHa. Height 50—150 ft. ; diam. 2—4 ft. S.G. 990. W 46—66. E 1-152. / 5-79. fc 3-75. fs -36. Warm greyish brown, close and straight-grained, moderately heaw, ver}" strong, but occasionally liable to gum-veins and shakes, working fairly well, but warping and requiring careful seasoning, comparatively non-inflammable. Suitable for sleepers, paving, telegraph-poles, planks, or house-carpentry. The demand for waggon-planks of Blackbutt is increasing as the supply of American Oak diminishes. The name is applied in Xew South Wales to E. hcemdstoma [See Gum, Spotted] ; in Victoria, to E. amygdaUna regnans [See Ash, Mountain] ; in Tasmania to E. Sieheridna [See Gum, Cabbage] ; occasionally to E. piperita [See Peppermint] ; and in South- West Australia to E. patens Benth., which reaches a height of 100 ft., with a diam. of 6 ft., W 46 — 74, is tough and durable, especially underground, and is used for wheeh\Tights' work, paving, piles, and sleepers. Blackthorn {Primus spinosa L. : Order Rosdcece). " Sloe." Hard, tough. Sapwood reddish ; heart blackish-brown, often wdth pith- flecks, pith-rays distinct, vessels small, numerous, equally dis- tributed. Used for walking-sticks. Blackwood, in Australasia {Acdcia melanoxylon R. B. : Order Leguminosce). In Tasmania " Lightwood," in Xew South Wales "Hickory, Silver Wattle," or "Black Sally," Aborig. " Moot- chong," " Mooevang," Tasmania, and South-East Austraha, and naturahzed in India. Height 60—100 ft. ; diam. IJ— 3 ft. S.G. 854—529. W 36-63-5. E 1,064. / 5-45. fc 324. fs -687. Dark brown, the older growth beautifully flgured, sometimes " fiddle-back," with about an inch of nearly wliite sapwood, hard, close and very even in grain, easily split and worked, and taking, with care, an excellent polish, but warping unless very carefully seasoned. One of the most valuable of Australian timbers, an excellent substitute for American walnut ; but it has the defect of resin-veins, so that newly-sawn boards feel sticky. Largely used for oil-casks, in staves 3 inches thick, for gun-carriages, furni- ture, gun-stocks, tool-handles, crutches, the sounding-boards of pianos, picture-frames, etc., the figure-wood being cut into veneers for railway-carriage panels, billiard-tables, etc. Blackwood, in Cape Colony {Royena lucida L. : Order Ebendcece). Boer " Zwartbast," Zulu " Umcaza." Height 40 — 50 ft.; diam. 1 — 2 ft. W 39. YelloT\*ish with brown stripes, very hard, tough, taking a good pohsh. Used in waggon-building, but adapted for BLACKWOOD— BLOODWOOD 145 furniture or turnery. R. nitida Thunb., from Natal, is a smaller but similar wood, known by the same vernacular names. Blackwood, African [Dalhergia melanoxylon Guill. and Perr. : Order Leguminosce). " Senegal Ebony," " Congoholz." Tropical Africa. W 74*5. Sap wood narrow, brownish- white ; heart jet- black or brownish-black, heavy, hard, coarse but even-grained, with a slight smell of rosewater, burning with a smoky flame and the tarry smell characteristic of Dalhergia. Used, as ebony, in turnery. Blackwood, Indian {Dalhergia latifolia Roxb. : Order Leguminosce) ' " Malabar Blackwood," " Bombay Rose-wood." " Rosetta Rose- wood." Beng. "Sit Sal," Tarn. " Iti." India. A large tree reaching 80 ft. in height and 5 ft. diam. S.G. 1064—818. W 46— 66-75. R 522 — 602 lbs. Sapwood whitish ; heart dark-brown to greenish-black, often mottled with lighter purplish streaks, heavy, very hard, tough, close but cross-grained, and containing lime- incrustations, and therefore difficult to work, taking a fine polish, durable. Used for sleepers, agricultural implements, gun-carriages, cart-wheels, tool-handles, carving, and especially furniture, for which purpose it is exported via Bombay, and has fetched £13 10s. per ton in London, whilst £7 to £10 is an ordinary price. With it is confused the wood of its variety D. latifolia, var. sissoides, known in Tamil as " Biti," a smaller tree common in the extreme South of India, very strong and tough, but with much heartshake and so much oil as to be unfit to receive paint ; and that of D. cultrdta in Burma. [See Yen-dike.] Bloodwood (Eucalyptus corymhosa Sm. : Order Myrtdcece). Ahorig. " Boona." Southern Queensland and New South Wales. Height 30—100 ft. ; diam. 1—4 ft. S.G. 983—853. W 72-6. E 1023. / 7-57. fc 4-48. fs -615. Dark red-brown, moderately heavy, easily dressed, straight and close in grain, but full of gum-veins, and not, therefore, a favourite with sawyers, becoming hard on drying, very strong and durable, little attacked by termites. Used chiefly for posts and rails, but also for piles and sleepers. The name is also applied to the allied E. termindlis F. v. M. of the interior, the " Arang-mill " of the aborigines, a very red wood, forming the chief large timber of the area, but not otherwise valuable ; and also to E. paniculdta Sm. [See Ironbark, White and Ironwood xxi.] Bloodwood, Brush, or Scrub {Baloghia lucida Endl. : Order Euphorhidcece). " Roger Gough." New South Wales, Queensland, Norfolk Island, New Caledonia. Height 70—80 ft. ; diam. 2—21 ft. W 44 — 45. Buff or light reddish, fine and close-grained, but rather soft and not used. [See also Rosewood {Synoum glandulosum).] Bloodwood, Mountain, Smooth-barked, or Yellow {Eucalijptus eximia Schauer : Order Myrtdcece). " Rusty Gum." Blue Moun- 10 146 WOODS OF COMMERCE tains. Height 80 ft. Light-coloured, soft, not durable, except under water. Useful for work under water and as fuel. Boco or Coco Wood {Bocoa prouacensis Aubl. : Order Leguminosce) . Guiana. Demerara " Eta balH." S.G. 1234—706. R 402 kilos. Tall, yielding logs 20 — 50 ft. long and 12 — 18 in. in diam. Sap- wood very hard and compact, clear yellow ; heart dark-brown black, working well. Suitable for walking-sticks, carving and cabinet-work. Bois Chaire {Tecoma leucoxylon Mart. : Order Bignonidcece). Brazil, Guiana, Trinidad. Brazil " Quirapaiba," Cayenne " Ebene verte." A large tree yielding logs 14 ft. long, squaring 14 — 16 in. S.G. 1220— 1211. R 480 kilos. Hard, even-grained, durable dark-green, or, when polished and varnished, a dark brownish- black. Used in chair-making, whence its name ; in building and for the sounding-boards of pianos. Bois d'arc. See Osage-Orange. Bois de feroles. See Satine. Bois de natte (Lahourdonnaisia calophylloides Boj., L. glaucay Mimusops Imbricaria Willd., etc. : Order Sapotdcece). Mauritius and neighbouring islands. Extensively used for ship-building, cabinet-work, and furniture. Bois de Sang-Vene. See Rosewood, African. Bois de Table, of the Seychelles, Heritiera littordlis. See Sundri. Bois graine bleu {Symplocos martinicensis Jacq. : Order Styrdcece). " Kakarat." Dominica, Martinique, etc. A small tree. Used for planks in internal work. Bois Lezard (Vitex divaricdta Swartz : Order Verbendcece). Brazil and West Indies. Strong and durable. Bois Mulatre (PentacUthra filamentosa Benth. : Order Legum- inosce). " Palo Mulato." Trinidad. Height 30—40 ft. ; diam. 1 — 2 ft. Dark, even-grained, and said to be durable underground. Bois Riviere. See Water-wood. Bois Violet. See Purple-heart. Bolongnita (Diospyros pilosdnthera Bl. : Order Ebendcece). Philip- pines. Bottle-brush, Red (Callistemon lanceoldtus DC. : Order Myrtdcece). " Water Gum." Ahorig. " Marum." Eastern Austraha. Height 30 — 40 ft. ; diam. 1 — IJ ft. Hard, heavy. Used for mallets, in ship -building and wheelwrights' work. Bottle-brush, White (C. salignus DC). " River or Broad-leaved Tea-tree," " Stone-wood," " River Oak," Ahorig. " Unoyie, Hum- bah." Eastern Australia. Height 40 — 50 ft.; diam. IJ— 2 ft. BOW-WOOD— BOX 147 S.G. 983. W 57 — 61. Drab to dark red, sometimes prettily- grained, very hard, close-grained, fairly easy to work, and said to be very durable underground. Bow-wood. See Osage-Orange. Box {Buxus semper vir ens L. : Order Euphorbidcece). French " Bois commun," " Bois beni," Germ. " Buchsbaum." Northern and Western Asia, North Africa, and Central and Southern Europe. Height 8—30 ft. ; diam. small. S.G. 950—980. W 80-5-53. Light yellow, very homogeneous, almost horn-like, neither rings, pith-rays, nor vessels being distinct, hard, heavy, firm, free from heart-shake, difficult to split, but works up smoothly, with a shght silky lustre, and is durable, when thoroughly seasoned. " Box- wood is very apt to split in drying ; and to prevent this, the French turners put the wood designed for their finest work into a dark cellar as soon as it is cut, where they keep it from three to five years. . . . They strike off the sapwood with a hatchet, and place the hardwood again in the cellar till it is wanted for the lathe. For the most delicate articles, the wood is soaked for twenty-four hours in fresh very clear water, and then boiled for some time. When taken out of the boiling water, it is wiped perfectly dry and buried, till wanted for use, in sand or bran." Compared for closeness of grain to Ebony by Theophrastus : used by the Romans for veneers and flutes : Virgil mentions the Box as used by the turner : '* Smooth-grained and proper for the turner s trade, "Which curious hands may carve, and steel with ease invade." (Dryden's translation.) Invaluable for mathematical instruments, the chief use of Box since the fifteenth century has been for wood-engraving, for which purpose it is chiefly imported from Abasia in Circassia, Persia, and Odessa in billets 3 — 8 ft. long and 3 — 12 in. across, fetching as much as £60 a ton for large sizes. In spite of the advance of other methods of engraving. Box is so unequalled for this purpose that careful search is being made for any wood likely to approach it in suitability. (See p. 88 supra.) The largest number of box-trees in Europe are in the mixed forests of Ligny and of St. Claude on the Jura. At the latter place the wood, which is not of large dimensions, is turned into small boxes, beads, spoons, forks, etc. The Teasshur or irv^os of Ezekiel xxvii. 6, which was inlaid with ivory, was probably Buxus longi folia of Lebanon. In Australia the name Box is applied to a great number of Eucalypti, such as E. hemiphloia [See Canary Wood], E. largiflorens [See Gum, Slaty], E. leucoxylon [See Ironbark], E. odordta [See Peppermint], E. stelluldta, E. Stunrtidna, and E. vimindlis [See Gum, Manna]. In America the name is applied to Cornus fidrida L. [See Dogwood] ; in the Bahamas to Vitex umbrosa Sw. 10—2 148 WOODS OF CO:\DIERCE Box, Bastard is also a name of wide appKcation in Australia, sometimes referring to Eucalyptus largiflorens [See Gum, Slaty], E. longifolia [See Woolly Butt], E. microtheca [See Box, Dwarf], E. polydnthema [See Box, Red], E. punctata [See Leather- jacket], or E. tereticornis [See Gum, Slaty] ; but chiefly to Tristdnia con- ferta, T, lamina, and Eucalyptus goniocdlyx. Tristdnia conferta R. Br. (Order Myrtdcece), otherwise " Bris- bane, Brush, Red," or " White Box," or " Brisbane Mahogany." Ahorig. " Tubbil-pulla." Xorth-Eastern Austraha. Height 80 — 120 ft. ; diam. 1 — 3 ft. W 59 — 64. Greyish or brownish, some- times prettily grained, strong, tough, hard, elastic, and durable, but warping very much unless carefully seasoned, dressing well and not attacked by termites. Used for ship-building, bridges, tram-rails, tool-handles, etc. T. lamina R. Br., of Eastern Austraha, known also as " Water Gum, Beech," and " Swamp Mahogany," is a smaller tree. Height 50 — 60 ft. ; diam. 1 — 2 ft. Dark-coloured, hard, tough, close- grained, difficult to season. Used for tool-handles and cogs. Eucalyptus goniocdlyx F. v. M. (Order Myrtdcece), of Tasmania and South-Eastern Austraha. " Grey Box, Mountain Ash, Spotted, Grey, White," or " Blue Gum." Height up to 300 ft. ; diam. to 6 or 10 ft. S.G. 1152—798. W 72—74. R 799 lbs. Pale yellow to hght brown, very hard, tough, usually free from gum-veins, straight-grained, difficult to spht, not warping, very durable, especially underground. Used for joists, beams, rafters, sleepers, spokes, staves, boat-building, and fuel. Box, Black (Eucalyptus largiflorens). See Gum, Slaty. „ „ (E. obliqua). See Stringybark. „ {E. microtheca). See Box, Dwarf. Box, Brisbane or Brush [Tristdnia conferta). See Box, Bastard. Box, Brown. See Box, Red. Box, Cape (Buxus Macowani Oliv. : Order EupJiorbidcece). Eastern Cape Colony. Height 40—80 ft. ; diam. up to 4 ft. W 74. YeUow, hard, close and even-grained, resembhng European (Turkish) Box, but not equally valuable for engraving. Used for turnery. The name is also apphed to Gonioma Kamdssi E. Mey. [See Kamassi.] Box, China [Murray a exotica L. : Order Butdcece). Queensland. Small, resembhng Box, but apt to crack, requiring careful seasoning. W 61—63. Used for tool-handles. Box, Cooburn [Eucalyptus largiflorens). See Gum, Slaty. Box, Dwarf, Flooded, or Narrow-leaved [E. microtheca E. v. M. : Order Myrtdcece). Also knoT\^i as Bastard " or " Black Box." Austraha, in most of the colonies. Reddish, hard, heavy, elastic, BOX 149 sometimes figured like walnut, but darker, heavier, closer-grained, and too hard for ordinary cabinet-work. Used in building. Box, Bairnsdale Grey {Eucalyptus Bosistodna F. v. M. : Order Myrtdcece). Victoria. Height up to 70 ft. Durable wood for piles, wheelwrights' work, etc. Box, Grey {Eucalyptus goniocdlyx). See Box, Bastard. ,, ,, {E. hemiphloia). See Canary wood. ,, ,, {E. largifldrens). See Gum, Slaty. ,, {E. polydnthema). See Box, Red. „ ,, {E. saligna). See Gum, Blue. „ Ironlbark {E. obligua). See Stringybark. Jamaica or West Indian {Tecoma pentaphylla Juss. = Tahe- huia pentaphylla Hemsl. : Order Bignonidcece). Brazil, Venezuela, West Indies, etc. " White Cedar," "Cogwood," " Roble bianco." S.G. 876—834. W 49—54-5. Light yellow, fine, close and even- grained, liable to split in drying. Used for piles, house and boat- building, and suggested for engraving, but inferior to Box. Box, Knysna. See Kamassi. „ Native. See Boxthorn. ,, Poplar {Eucalyptus populifolia Hook. : Order Myrtdcece). "Red" or "White Box, Nankeen," or "White Gum." Ahorig. " Egolla." North-east Austraha. Height 50—60 ft. ; diam. 2 ft. Grey or light-brown, hard, heavy, close-grained, tough, strong, hard to work, often unsound, handsome when polished, durable. Used for sleepers, posts, building, etc. Box, Red {Tristdnia conferta). See Box, Bastard. ,, ,, {Eucalyptus populifolia). See Box, Poplar. „ ,, {Eucalyptus polydnthema Schau. : Order Myrtdcece). South-Eastern Australia. Also known as " Bastard, Brown " or " Grey Box, Lignum- Vitae," or " Poplar-leaved Gum." Ahorig. "Den." Height sometimes 250 ft. S.G. 110— 1248. R 749— 803 lbs. Brownish-red, very hard, fine-grained, very tough, often hollow, but very durable. Used for pit-props, cogs, naves, felloes, and fuel. Box, Scrub {Tristdnia conferta). See Box, Bastard. Box, White {Eucalyptus hemiphloia). See Canary wood. ,, {E. odordta). See Peppermint. ,, {E. populifolia). See Box, Poplar. ,, {Tristdnia conferta). See Box, Bastard. ,, Yellow {Eucalyptus melliodora A. Cunn. : Order Myrtdcece). Eastern Australia. Also known as " Yellow Jacket, Honey- 150 WOODS OF COmiERCE scented " or " Red Gum." Aborig. " Dargan." Height 40—80 ft. diam. IJ— 31 ft. S.G. 876—1125. W 60—70. R 725—695 lbs. Light yellow or pale brown, very hard, heavy, close-grained, tough, durable, with a wavy figure, but with some gum-veins and cup- shake. Used for spokes, naves, cogs, treenails, posts, and, to some extent, engraving. The name Yellow Box is also apphed to Eucalyptus hemiphloia [See Canary wood], and to E. largifloreiis [See Gum, Slaty]. Box-Elder. See Maple, Ash-leaved. Boxthorn {Bursdria spmosa Cav. : Order PiUospordcece). Aus- tralia and Tasmania. " Native Box " or " Ohve." Height 20 — 30 ft. ; diam. less than a foot. White, close-grained, and taking a fine polish. Used in turnery. Braziletto or Brazil-wood [Ccesalpmia hrasiliensis Sw. : Order Leguminosce), now almost extinct, G. crista L., C. hijuga Sw., and C. tinctoria H.B.K. Tropical America. Hard, heavy woods, taking a pohsh, and employed for viohn-bows and in cabinet-work, but mainly as a red dye. They contain a red colouring-matter known as Braziline, soluble in water, and giving, with hme, baryta and tin chloride, a red precipitate, whilst Logwood gives a blue one. [See also Nicaragua wood, Peach wood, Pernambuco wood and Sappan wood.] Break-axe. See Ironwood xxiii. Briar. See Ash, Prickly. Briar-root {Erica arborea L. : Order Ericdcece). French " Bru- yere." Southern Europe. Dark brown, dense, mottled. Small wood, used exclusively for tobacco-pipes, imported from France. Brigalow. See Myall, Brigalow. Brimstone-tree {Morinda citrifolia). See Canary-wood. Broom {Cytisus scopdrius Link. : Order Leguminosce). Western Europe. Cultivated in Algeria, its stems being imported under the trade names of " Congo Oak " and " Black Orange " as walking- sticks. Buckeye, Ohio {^sculus gldbra Willd.) and Sweet Buckeye (^. fldva Ait. : Order Sapinddcece) . Eastern United States. Small trees with creamy-white, light, soft, fine, and even-grained wood, not strong, but often tough, easily worked. L^sed locally for build- ing, but more for turnery, artificial limbs, and especially paper-pulp. These woods, and that of ^E. indica Colebrooke, from Xorth-West India, resemble that of the Horse-Chestnut. [See Tochi.] Buckthorn {Rhdmnus catMrticus L. : Order Rhamndcece) . Europe, Siberia, North Africa. Germ. " Kreuzdorn." A shrub with narrow, greenish-yellow sapwood and orange-red heart, with a narrow but BUCKTHORN— BULLY 151 distinct zone of pores in the spring wood, and remarkable flamboyant groups of vessels in the autumn wood (Fig. 28) ; pith-rays indis- tinguishable. The wood is hard and heavy, and suitable for turnery, but small. The other British species, R. Frdngula, the Alder or Berry - bearing Buckthorn, yields the wood known as Dogwood. Buckthorn, Canadian {Rhdmnus Purshidna DC). North America. ^'Bearberry, Wild Cherry" or " Shittim-wood." W 31-5—35. Not more than 12 in. diam. Sapwood light-yellow, heart yellowish- brown with purplish streaks, fine-grained. The bark is the drug Cascara Sagrada. Buffelsbal {Gardenia Thunhergii L. : Order Rubidcece). Cape Colony. Hard and heavy. Used for clubs, tool-handles, axles, etc. Bullet-wood, Balata, Bully, or Buruch {Mimusops globosa Gaertner, Sapota Mulleri Mi quel : Order Sapotdcece). Apparently identical with Mimusops Bdlata Crueg. Surinam " Balata rouge," " Horse- flesh wood," "Beef wood," "Red Lance-wood." S.G. 1232— 1032. W 63—80-97. E 1097. / 8-58. /c 4-77. fs -494. R 353 kilos. Height 100 ft. ; diam. 2—7 ft. In logs 20—50 ft. long, squared up to 36 in. or 42 in. Dark red-brown, fine, straight and close-grained, very heavy, hard, strong, easily worked, taking a fine polish, very durable ; but subject to serious heart-shake, un- fitting it for use in large scantlings, and to the attacks of teredo and termites. Of three varieties, " Red," " White," and " Black," the " Red " is the best. Much used in house-building for beams, floors, and mill-work, being said to have more than three times the resistance of Oak, and nearly twice that of the best Teak. Used also for shafts and bending, but limited in quantity. This tree yields the elastic substance Balata. British Guiana and West Indies. The name is also applied to the wood of the allied Sapodilla {Achras Sapota L.), (q.v.). Bullet-wood, Andaman [Mimusops littordlis Kurz. : Order Sapo- tdcece). Tenasserim and Andaman Islands. "Mowha." A large tree, yielding a very hard, red-brown, close-grained, durable wood, which is, however, apt to split. W 60 — 70. Used for bridges and house- posts, and recommended for sleepers. [See also Palu, and Sapodilla.] Bullet-wood, Bastard [Humiria floribunda Mart, with numerous synonyms : Order Humiridcece). Tropical America. W 74-5. Sapwood brownish- white, heart light orange-red, heavy, hard. Spokes and house-building. (Fig. 32.) Bully, Naseberry [Sapota Sideroxylon Gr. : Order Sapotdcece). Jamaica. W 74. E 1,080. / 9-16. fc 4-31. fs -50. One of the most valuable woods of the Colony. 152 WOODS OF CO:\BIERCE Bunya-bunya (Araucdria Bidwilli Hook : Order Coniferce). Queensland. Height 100 — 150 ft. ; diam. 2| — 4 ft. Light -coloured, straight -grained, beautifully veined, very strong, easily worked, susceptible of polish, not warping, durable. Suitable for cheap furniture, but seldom felled, as its seeds are eaten by the aborigines. " Mottled " outside planks showing figure are used for veneers and turnery. ' Butternut (Juglans cinerea L. : Order Juglanddcece). Eastern North America. " White Wahiut." " Oil nut." French " Noyer cendre," Geryn. " Graue Walnuss." Height 50 — 60 ft. ; diam. 2 — 3 ft. Reddish-brown, fight, soft, not strong, free from the attacks of worms, not easily split. Used for sleepers, for internal work in building, coach-panels, boats and canoes, wooden dishes, shovels, and cabinet-work. Seldom imported into England. Button-wood. See Plane. Cabbage-bark. See Angelin. Cagueyran {Copaifera hymencBifolia Moric. : Order Leguminosce). Cuba. A large tree, the wood of which is used in building. Cailcedra. See Mahogany, African. Cajeput {Melaleuca leucadendron L. : Order Myrtdcece). Malaysia and tropical Australia. " ^lilkwood, White " or " Swamjo Tea- tree." Ahorig. Atchoourgo." Malay " Kaj^ puti." New Cale- donia " Xiaoufi." Height 40 — 50 ft. ; diam. 1 — 2 ft. Hard, heav\', with a ripple-fike mottfing, close-grained, very durable under- ground. Used for posts and in sliip- building, turns well, and is suitable for carriage-work, being considered in New Caledonia the most valuable native wood. Calabash [Crescentia Cujete L. : Order Bignonidcece). Cuba Guira." West Indies. S.G. 580. W 54-69. E -230. R 243 lbs. / 2-62. fc 1-69. fs -358. Light brown, soft, elastic. Pith irregular, rather large ; rings and pith-rays incfistinct ; vessels equaUy but sporadicaUy distributed, smaU. Used for lasts, saddle-bows, etc. Calamander or Coromandel wood {Diospyros qucesita Thwaites, D. oocdrpa Thw. and D. Jiirsuta Linn. fil. : Order Ebendcece). Tamil " Calamander maram," Sink. " Kalu-mediriya." W 57. One of the most valuable ornamental woods of Ceylon, but now scarce, red-hazel-brown or chocolate brown, with handsome black stripes, intermediate between Rosewood and Zebra-wood, hard, close- grained. L'sed for turning and veneers. Caloon or Calshum {Eloeocdrpus grdndis F. v. M. : Order Tili- dcece). North - East Austrafia. " Mountain Ash." " Brisbane Quandong." " Moorgum " in North Queensland. " Blue Fig " in New South Wales. W 45*5. Large, light grejdsh-brown, close- CAMARA— CANARY-WOOD 153 grained, tough, readily split, resisting termites. Used for building, staves, oars, sculls. Camara {Geissospermum Vellosii Allem. : Order Apocyndcece). Brazil. S.G. 746. Light-coloured, moderately heavy, strong, but small. Used in boat-building. Camphor (Cinnamomum Cdmphora Nees : Order Laurdcece). Formosa, etc. Height 30 — 60 ft. ; diam. 2 — 3 ft. Light-coloured, fragrant, soft. Used for entomological and ornamental cabinets, and the source of most of the camphor of commerce which is obtained by destructive distillation. Camphor, Borneo (Dryohdlanops aromdtica Gaert. : Order Dip- terocarpdcece). Malay " Teng Mang." " Kayu Kapor Barus." Borneo and Sumatra. A large tree, 150 ft. high and 3 — 4 ft. in diam., yielding timber 25 — 45 ft. long and 1 — 2 ft. square. W 47. S.G. 895—1053. E 3,770,000. p 16,000. e' 3-36. p' 1-47. c 6,790. c' -896. 1-561. Light red, resembling Honduras Mahogany, not fragrant, plain, straight-grained, moderately hard and tough, durable, but liable to star-shake. Used for planks, beams, piles, etc. Camphor separates out in large masses in the wood. Camphor, Nepal (Cinnamomum glanduUferum Meissn. : Order Launnece). India. Also known as " Nepal " or " Assam Sassa- fras," and apparently identical with " Martaban Camphor- wood " and " Burmese Sassafras." A large tree yielding timber 20 — 30 ft. long and IJ ft. in diam., floating when seasoned, brown, tough, strong, durable, with the odour of Sassafras, and a grain resembling Bay- wood. Used for house-carpentry, cabinet-work, tool-handles, etc. Camphor- wood (Austrahan). See Cypress-Pine. Camwood [Bdphia nitida Afz. : Order Leguminosce). West Africa. "Irosun," "Osrin." Height 8—10 ft. W 59-5- 67-25. Red, hard, coarse-grained. Imported from Sierra Leone in logs 4 ft. long and 1 ft. or less in diam., or powdered. Used by native women for rubbing on their bodies to check perspiration, and in England, with iron-sulphate, as a dye for red handkerchiefs. Canary Whitewood. See Tulip-tree and Cucumber-tree. Canary-wood (Eucalyptus hemiphloia F. v. M. : Order Myrtdcece). South- East Australia. Known also as " Box, Grey, White, Yellow " or " Gum-topped Box," " White Gum." Ahorig. " Narulgun." Height 50—60 ft. or more ; diam. 2—4 ft. or more. S.G. 1230— 773. W 48 — 74. Yellow-white or light buff, heavy, very hard, strong, tough, cross-grained, not readily split, durable, but often hollow and subject to dry-rot and termite-attack. Used in Australia for sleepers, piles, planks, pit-props, fencing, handles, cogs, naves, 154 WOODS OF CO:\DIERCE felloes, screws, tree-nails, etc., but as yet of no commercial im- portance. Canary-wood [Morinda citrifolia L. : Order Rubidcece), { = Nau- clea unduldta Roxb., Sarcocephalus corddtus ^liq.). " Indian Mul- berry," " Leichhardt's Tree." Hind. " Al," Tarn. " Xonna maram," Fiji " Kura." " Tolmgah " or "Brimstone-tree" of Sierra Leone. India and the Eastern Tropics to Queensland. Height 50—70 ft. ; diam. 2— 2i ft. W 30—41. Yellow, soft, cross-grained, sometimes with a beautiful wavy figure, easily worked and taking a good polish, bitter, astringent, and insect-proof. Suitable for turning or cabinet-work ; but little used, save as a dye. [See also Tulip-tree.] Canella or Canelle, a name appUed to various Brazilian woods belonging to the Laurdcece, including Dicypellium caryophylldtum [See Rosewood, Cayenne], Aydendron canella Meissn., Xectdndra atra. and X. mollis. The latter is brown, hght, easily worked, but not durable. S.G. 744. It is procurable of a considerable size, and is used for decks, house-building, and carpentry. Cannon-ball tree {Xylocdrptts Grandtum Keen. = Cdrapa moluc- censis Lam. : Order Jlelidcece). Cevlon, Burma, Fiji Islands, etc. "Sea Cocoa-nut." Burm. "Pen-lay," Fiji " Dabi." Height 20 ft. ; diam. 4 ft. W 47. Whitish, turning red, hard. Used for house-building, handles, spokes, furniture, etc. In South America the same name is appHed to Couroupita guianensis, belonging to the Brazil-nut group {Lecythiddcece). Caoba. See Mahogany. Carapa or Carapo. See Crab-wood. Carob [Ceratonia Siliqua L. : Order Leguminosce). French " Caroubier." Chiefly known for its fruit, the " Locust bean " or " St. John's-bread "; but imported from Algeria as walking-sticks. Cashew-nut [Anacdrdium occidentdle L. : Order Anacardidcece). A native of South America, cultivated for its fruit throughout the Tropics. French " Acajou a fruits, a pommes " or " de Guade- loupe," Germ. " Acajoubaum," Hind. " Kaju," Tam. " Mundiri." Red to brown, moderately hard. Used in boat-building, for packing-cases and for charcoal, especially for iron-smelting. Catalpa [Catdlpa speciosa Warder : Order Bignonidcece). South Central United States. " Bois Shavanon." Height 80 ft. ; diam. 4 ft. Brown, hght, soft, not strong, brittle, coarse-grained, durable, especially in contact with the soil. L^sed for posts and fencing ; but suited for internal fittings, and being now much planted. Cedar, a name extended from the Lebanon Cedar [Cedrus Lihani Loud. : Order Coniferce) to other species of the genus, to various Junipers and other coniferous woods, and to many other woods of CEDAR 155 broad-leaved trees, especially the Meliaceous genus Cedrela, most of which resemble the true Cedar in being brown, even-grained woods of moderate hardness and often fragrant. The true Cedar is a native of the Lebanon, Taurus, and neighbouring ranges of South- West Asia, and was introduced into England as an orna mental tree after the middle of the seventeenth century, that at Enfield being perhaps the oldest existing English tree. French Cedre du Liban," Germ. " Libanon Ceder," Ital. " Cedro del Libano." Hebr. " Erez," Greek KeSpos. Height 50—80 ft. ; diam. 3 — 4 ft. or more. S.G. 480. Reddish-brown, light, straight and open-grained, very porous, soft and spongy in the centre, easily worked, but rather brittle, liable to extensive heart- and cup- shakes, not strong. Mountain-grown Cedar is harder, stronger, less liable to warp and more durable. The wood has a pleasant odour, which is obnoxious to insects. It is, therefore, suitable for cabinets, internal work, carving, etc., for which purposes it seems to have been mainly employed by the ancients, with whom it had so great a repute for durability. In the Cilician Taurus it is used for the best household furniture and for church-fittings. The " Cedar " of the English timber trade is the West Indian Cedrela odordta, shipped from Cuba, Trinidad, Honduras, and Tabasco, and fetching 3d. to 4Jd. per foot. [See Cedar, West Indian.] Cedar, Atlas {Cedrus atldntica Manetti). Mount Atlas. Height 80 — 100 ft. ; diam. up to 5 ft. W 49 — 85. Sometimes a deep Mahogany-red, fibrous, even-grained, not strong, very durable, neither splitting nor warping, taking glue well. The outer part of the heartwood beautifully veined, resembling in quality and value that of the Deodar of India. Used in North America for sleepers, paving, cabinet-making, and carpentry. Pliny states that the beams of the Temple of Apollo at Utica, made of Numidian Cedar, were sound after 1,178 years. The French Government in Algeria is offering a forest of this timber in the Aures Mountains for sale. Cedar, Barbadoes {Juniperus barbadensis L. : Order Cupressmece). Juniper Cedar." Barbadoes, Jamaica, etc. Closely allied to, if not identical with, the Red Cedar of the United States {Juniperus virginidna L.). Cedar, Bastard, in India. See Bead-tree and Mahogany, East Indian. Cedar, Bastard, in Jamaica {Guazuma tomentosa H.B. : Order Sterculidcece). French " Orme d'Amerique," Telugu " Rudraksha chettu." West Indies. Introduced into Ceylon and Southern India more than a century ago and now common. Light, splitting easily. Used in Jamaica for staves for sugar hogsheads. Cedar, Bastard Pencil {Dysoxylon rufum Benth. : Order Meli- dcece). Queensland and Northern New South Wales. Height 156 WOODS OF COMIERCE 40 — 50 ft. ; diam. 1| — 2 ft. Red, nicely grained, easily worked. Used for cabinet-work. Cedar, Bermuda {Jumperus hermudidna L. : Order Cupressinece). Bermudas. Closely allied to the Red Cedar, Jumperus virginidna, of which it is supposed to be a geographical variety. Height 50 — 60 ft. ; diam. 2 — 3 ft. Used for boat-building and formerly exported for pencils, for which purpose the Red Cedar has super- seded it. Cedar, Black {Nectdndra Pisi ]\Iiq. : Order Laurdcece). " Brown arouabalh " or " SiruabalK." Guiana. Height 90 ft. ; diam. IJ ft. S.G. 830. W 49-5. Dark-browTi, moderately heavy, firm, easily worked, teredo - proof. Useful for boat - planks and masts, but suitable for furniture. Cedar, Borneo. See Serayah. Cedar, Canoe (Thuya gigdntea Xutt. : Order Cupressinece). " Yellow Cedar." " Red Cedar " (of the Western States). " Red Cypress " of British Columbia. One of the " Wliite Cedars " of the American trade. " Lobb's Arbor- Vitae." French " Thuia geant de Calif ornie," Germ. " Riesens-Lebensbaum," Ital. " Albero de la vitadi Lobb." Western North America, from Alaska to California. Height 130 — 200 ft. ; diam. 9 ft. or more. W 19-75— 26-5. Heartwood hght brown, Hght, soft, brittle, moderately strong, free from knots, easily spht or worked, not warping, and very durable in contact with soil. An important lumber tree, the only wood used by the Red Indians of the Xorth-West for canoes. Used by wliite settlers for fencing, shingles, cooperage, doors, window-sills, indoor fittings, and the coarser kinds of furniture. Cedar, Clanwilliam [Cdllitris arhorea Schrad. : Order Comferoe). Cederberg Momitains, South Africa. W 36. Light-brown, soft, fine and even grained, not resinous, fragrant, durable, with silver grain resembling Maple. ^'^^'f - Cedar, Cigar-box {Cedrela odordta [See Cedar, West Indian] and the allied C. guianensis, from the Guianas and Brazil, and C. brasil- iensis, from Brazil and the Argentine. The supply of these woods is now so limited that they are used only for boxes for the best cigars, cheaper ones being made of the less aromatic African Ma- hogany. Cedar, Cuba. See Cedar, West Indian. Cedar, Deodar [Cedrus Deoddra Loud. : Order Coniferce). Afghan- istan to the Western Himalayas. " Indian Cedar." French " Cedre de rHimalaya," Hind. " Devaderu." Height 150—240 ft. ; diam. 5 — 7 or even 10 — 12 ft. at base, tapering to one-third at 80 ft. up. Heartwood hght yellomsh-bro\\Ti, compact, even-grained, moderately hard, not readily sphtting or warping, fragrant, with an CEDAR 157 abundance of resinous " oil," but no distinct resin-canals, and exceedingly durable : annual rings uniform, with well-marked autumn zones : resin-canals absent. The pillars in the Shah Hamaden Mosque at Srinagar of this wood are probably over 400 years old, and some of the bridges in the same city, though their piers are alternately wet and dry, are said to have lasted even longer. This species was introduced into England as an orna- mental tree in 1831. It is the chief timber of North-West India, where it is used for sleepers, for all purposes of construction and even for furniture. Cedar, Florida. See Cedar, Red. Cedar, Guiana (Idea altissima Aubl. : Order Burserdcece), " Kur- ana " or " Car ana-gum." French " Cedre blanc, Cedre bagasse." A large and very valuable wood of French and British Guiana, easily worked, fragrant, durable. Height up to 100 ft. S.G. 1036 — 842. R 226 kilos. Used for canoes, book-cases, internal house-fittings, etc. Cedar, Honduras. See Cedar, West Indian. Cedar, Incense [Lihocedrus decurrens Torr. : Order Cupressinece). Bastard, White or Post Cedar." Freneh " Cedre blanc de Cah- fornie," Germ. " Cahfornische Flussceder." Pacific slope of the United States. Height 100 ft. or more ; diam. 6 ft. or more. Light greyish-brown, light, soft, fine- and close-grained, but brittle and not strong, very durable in contact with soil. Extensively used in California for posts, fencing, shingles, laths, internal work and furniture. Cedar, Indian. See Cedar, Deodar. Cedar, Japanese. See Sugi. Cedar, Mackay. See Acacia Cedar. Cedar, Mexican. See Cedar, West Indian. Cedar, Moulmein {Cedrela Toona Roxb. : Order Melidcece). India, Java, Austraha. " Bastard Cedar," " Bastard " or " Indian Mahogany," or " Chittagong wood " of India, " Cedar " or " Red Cedar " of Austraha. Hind. " Toon," " Toona." Burm. " Thitkado." French " Cedre de Singapore." Height 70—180 ft. ; diam. 2—10 ft. S.G. 508—576. W 28—36. Timber generally from 14—40 ft. long, and from 11 — 26 in. square. Pale brick-red, resembhng Mahogany, often beautifully curled near the root or branches, fragrant, clean and straight, but open in grain, moderately hard, easily worked, does not warp, but spHts somewhat in seasoning, and is liable to heart- and star-shakes, durable, termite-proof. A very valuable wood, formerly hollowed out for canoes in North- East India and largely used for tea-chests, but not now sufficiently abundant. Much employed for boat-planks in Queensland, for 158 WOODS OF COMMERCE furniture, door-panels and carving, and yielding beautiful veneers. The best of the woods known as Chittagong woods. Cedar, New Zealand [Libocedrus Bidwillii Hook. fil. or L. Doniana Endl. : Order Cupressinece). Maori " Pahautea," " Kawaka." Height 60—100 ft. ; diam. 3—5 ft. W 28. Soft, close-grained reddish woods, resembhng the Incense Cedar of the Western United States. Suitable for planks and spars. Cedar, Oregon {Cupressus Lawsonidna Murr. = Chamcecyparis Lawsonidna Sargent : Order Cupressinece). " Port Orford Cedar, Lawson's Cypress, Ginger Pine." South Oregon and North Cah- fornia. Height up to 200 ft. ; diam. up to 12 ft., but generallv 120—150 ft. high. S.G. 460. Light yellowish-brown, light, but heavier than other " white Cedars," hard, strong, very close- grained, abounding in fragrant resin, easily worked, susceptible of a beautiful polish, very durable in contact with the soil. One of the most valuable timber- trees of Xorth America, largely cut for lumber and used for ship and boat building, fencing, flooring. Cedar, Pencil, a name applied in Enghsh commerce to Juniperus virginidna [See Cedar, Red], but in Northern New South Wales and Queensland to (i) Dysoxylon Fraseridnum and (ii) D. Muelleri, Phylldnthus Ferdindndi [See Beech, White], and (iii) Podocdrpus eldta, and to Lucuma galactoxylon [See Miva] ; in India to Juni- perus macropoda [See Juniper, Indian], and (iv) in Cape Colony to the Coniferous Widdringtonia juniperoides. (i) Dysoxylon Fraseri- dnum Benth. (Order Melidcece), known also as " AustraHan Mahogany," " Rosewood " or " Bog- onion," 50 — 70 ft. in height and 3 — 4 ft. in diameter, yields a reddish, prettily-figured, fragrant, easily-worked wood, valued for furniture, turning, engraving and ship-building, being, in fact, a substitute for Mahogany, (ii) D. Muelleri Benth., known as " Red Bean " and, from the smell of the wood when freshly cut, as " Turnip-wood," the " Kidgi- kidgi " of the aborigines, a taller tree, yields a rich red wood, equally valuable, and sometimes figured, (iii) Podocdrpus eldta R. Br. (Order Taxdcece), known also as " Pine, White," " Brown Pine " or " She Pine," or " Native Deal," is a fine tree, 50—130 ft. high and 2 — 5 ft. in diam. W 45*7. Though seldom cyhndrical, it is free from knots, sometimes beautifully figured, soft, fine, close and silky in grain, easily worked, durable, termite- and teredo-proof, and valued for joinerj^ and cabinet-work, (iv) Widdringtonia juniperoides, growing above the winter range of snow on the Ceder- berg in the Clanwilliam district of Cape Colony, sometimes reaches 12 ft. in diam. It is kno^n as " Ceder Boom " to the Dutch, and the demand for it exceeds the supply. The alhed W. Whitei Rendle, o_^ elevated kloofs in the Shire Highlands, Nyassaland, is CEDAR 159 a fine tree, 150 ft. high, reaching 6 ft. diam., and yielding an orna- mental, fragrant, hght, yehow-brown wood, susceptible of a good polish, and suitable for building, pencils and other purposes. Though suitable for re-afforesting tropical highlands, this species is not at present abundant. Cedar, Red, in North America {Juniperus Virginidna L. : Order Cupressinece). " Florida Cedar, Savin, Pencil Cedar." French " Cedre de Virginie," Germ. " Virginischer Sadebaum," " Virgin- ische Wachholder," " Bleistift-holz." Throughout the coasts of the United States, but large only in the South. Height 40 — 50 or even 100 ft. ; diam. 1—4 ft. S.G. 330. W 20—35. Sapwood broad, yellowish ; heart rose-red to brown-red, fragrant ; annual rings sinuous ; pith-rays very fine ; resin-ducts absent ; light, soft, brittle, compact, fine-grained, strong, easily split, durable, especially in contact with the soil or water, and obnoxious to insects. One of the most valuable coniferous woods of America. Formerly much used by the Spaniards in Florida for ship-building, and in England, up to fifty years ago, for cabinets, work-boxes, etc., it was occa- sionally employed in the United States for railway-sleepers and fencing, in the Southern States for coffins, and in Philadelphia for cooperage. It is, however, now too dear for any use but pencil- making, for which purpose several million cubic feet are cut annually. A useful paper for protection against moth is made from the refuse of the pencil factories. Cedar, Red, in Cape Colony [Cunonia capensis L. : Order Cunoni- dcece). Dutch " Rood Els " or " Elzenhout." Height 15 — 25 or even 60 ft. ; diam. 1 J — 2 ft. W 46. Red ; close-grained, tough, taking a good polish. Much used in cabinet-work and turnery, for railway-sleepers, and by wheelwrights. Cedar, Pink or Red, of Sikkim tea-planters, used for tea-chests and furniture, is Acrocdrpus fraxinifolms Wight (Order Legum- inosce), the " Mandania " of the natives. Cedar, Red, in Austraha (Gedrela Toona). See Cedar, Moulmein. Cedar, Rock {Juniperus sabinoides Sarg.), a native of Mexico and Texas. Height 20—40 ft. ; diam. 1 ft. S.G. 690. W 43. Sap- wood thin, nearly white ; heart brown, often streaked with red, slightly fragrant, light, hard, close-grained, not strong, very durable in contact with soil. Used for sleepers, telegraph-poles, fencing, and fuel. Cedar, Sitka, or Yellow {Cupressus nutkaensis Hook. = CAamoe- cyparis nutkaensis Spach : Order Cupressinece). United States and Canada. Also known as " Yellow Cypress." W 20.75. Large, sometimes exceeding 6 ft. diam. ; light reddish-brown, soft, weak, easily worked, but shrinking unless seasoned, very durable in 160 WOODS OF COMMERCE contact with soil and said to be teredo-proof. Sleepers, x^osts, boat- building, interior work, cooperage, etc. Cedar, Tasmanian (Athrotdxis selaginoides Don. with A. cupres- so'ides : Order Taxodiece). " King Wilham Pine." Height about 45 ft. Light, yellow, or pink, straight, even-grained, tough, strong. Used for furniture and boat-building. Cedar, Western Red [Juniperus occidentdlis Hook. : Order Cupres- smece). Western North America. Known also as " Yellow Cedar, Cahfornian Juniper," or " Pencil- wood." W 36. Pinkish-brown, soft, fine, straight and even-grained, very durable in contact with soil, shghtly fragrant. Used for fencing or fuel ; but suitable for pencils. Cedar, West Indian {Cedrela odordta L. : Order Melidcece). " Cuba, Havana, Honduras, Jamaica " or " Mexican Cedar." " Cedre Acajou." The " Cedar " of Enghsh commerce. A tall tree capable of yielding timber 18 — 40 ft. long and 1 — 2 ft. square. S.G. 372 — 664. W 27—47. p 7,600. p' -7. e' 1-0. / 3-02. fc 1-98. fs -362. c 2,870. c' -379. v' -086. Sapwood narrow, reddish- white ; heart cinnamon-bro^wTi ; annual rings broad and distinct ; pith-rays numerous and distinct ; vessels very large, open, scattered, but more numerous, larger and partly filled with brown resin in spring wood. Fragrant, often beautifully marked and resembhng the aUied Mahogany ; but very much softer, hght, easily spht, bitter in taste and with a peppery smell. Used mainly for cigar- boxes, but also for furniture. Cedrela fissUis Veil. ( — 0. hrasiliensis Juss.), the " Cedro " used for furniture in Northern Argentina, being unseasoned, warps, but might be used for other purposes. Cedar, White, in the United States, a name apphed to the similar coniferous woods of Lihocedrus decurrens [See Cedar, Incense], Cupressus Lawsonidim [See Cedar, Oregon], Thuya gigdntea [See Cedar, Canoe], Cupressus Thyoides, and Thuya occidentdlis. In Austraha it is used of Elceodendron austrdle and Melia composita. Cupressus Thyoides L. French Cedre blanc," Germ. " Weisse Ceder, Ceder-C^^oresse." Swamps on the east coast of the United States. Height 70 — 80 ft. ; diam. 2 — 3 ft. Light greyish-brown, very Hght, soft, not strong, shghtly fragrant, close-grained, easily worked, very durable in contact with soil, not warping. Used for sleepers, posts, shingles, cooperage, and boat-building. Thuya occidentdlis L., known also as " Arbor- Vitge." French " Arbre de vie," Germ. " Lebensbaum." Eastern North American. Height 30—40 or 60 ft. ; diam. 2—4 ft. S.G. 320. Light, soft, brittle, very fragrant, rather coarse-grained ; but otherwise resemb- ling the preceding in characters and uses. Elceodendron austrdle. See Ash, Blue. Melia composita. See Bead-tree. CEDAR— CHERRY 161 Cedar, Yellow. See Cedar, Sitka and Yellow-wood. Champak (Michelia Chdmpaca L. : Order Magnolidcece). Beng. " Champa " or " Champaka." Sink. " Sapu." India, Ceylon, Moluccas. Height 30 ft. ; diam. up to 41 ft. S.G1-. 6731. W 42. R 350 lbs. Light to dark olive-brown or greenish, soft, but seasons well, taking a good polish, very durable. Used for furniture, house- and boat-building. The allied M. excelsa Blume is the " Bara-Cliamp " of the Eastern Himalaya, the principal building and furniture wood of Darjiling, whilst M. nilagirica Zenk., the " Pila Champa " of Southern India and Ceylon, is also used. Chaplash (Artocdrpus Chapldsha Roxb. : Order Mordcece). India. " Lesser " or " Thorny Jack." Hind. " Chaplasha." Height 100 ft. S.G. 556. W 34-75. Yellow-brown, moderately hard, even-grained, durable, especially under water. Used for canoes, tea-chests, furniture, etc. Chatwan {Alstonia scholdris R.Br. : Order Apocyndcece). India, Ceylon, Moluccas. Telugu " Eda-kula." Malay " Kayu Gabas." A large tree, yielding white, close, but rather coarse-grained, soft, perishable, bitter wood. Used for writing-boards in schools, whence its name, for boxes, tea-chests, coffins, turnery, etc., and as a tonic Cheese wood [Pittosporum unduldtum Vent. : Order Pittosporece). Eastern Australia. " Native Laurel," " Mock Orange." Aborig. " Wallundun-deyren." Height 30—50 or 90 ft. ; diam. 1— 2J ft. W 61-25. White or whitey-brown, very close-grained, hard. Suitable for turning, rollers for mangles, and engraving, though inferior to Box. The name is also applied to P, bicolor Hook., the " Whitewood " of Tasmania, where it was used by the aborigines for clubs. This is a smaller tree with yellower wood. S.G. 874. Used for axe-handles, billiard-cues, etc. Cherry [Prunus Avium L. and P. Cerasub L., and probably P. Pddus L. : Order Rosdcece). Europe, Northern and Western Asia. S.G. 750. W 33-5—49. Sapwood reddish or yellowish white ; heart light yellowish-brown, hard, heavy, firm, fine and even-grained, but not durable ; annual rings distinct ; pith-rays distinct, fine ; vessels fine. The wood is valued by turners and for inlaying. After soaking for several days in lime-water it becomes a beautiful brownish-red, and can be used as a substitute for Mahogany. More important, however, is the " Perfumed Cherry," P. Mahaleb L., the perfumed brown or green- streaked wood of which is grown and manufactured in Austria into pipe-stems and walking-sticks. Cherry, Brush [Eugenia myrtifolia). See Myrtle, Native. Cherry, Brush (Trochocdrpa laurina R.Br.). See Barranduna. 11 162 WOODS OF COmiERCE Cherry, Canadian (Prunus emargindta Walp. : Order Rosdcece). United States and British Columbia. W 35*5. Brownish, hard, fine and straight-grained. Cherry, Native {Exocdrpus cupressiformis) R.Br. : Order Santa- Idcece). Austraha. Height 10 — 20 or 40 ft. ; diam. 6 — 20 in. S.G. 756 — 845. Close-grained, handsome, hard, durable. Used for tool-handles, spokes, gun-stocks, cornice-poles, etc. The alhed E. lati folia is sometimes called " Broad-leaved Cherry." See Sandal-wood, Scrub. Cherry, Wild Black {Prunus serotina Ehrh. : Order Rosdcece). Eastern United States. W 36*5. "American Cherry." Height 90 — 120 ft. ; diam. 2 — 3 ft. Sapwood yellowish-white ; heart pale reddish to brown, often with discoloured flaws, compact, fine- and close-grained, hard, heavy, strong, shrinking in drying, but taking a good polish, durable. Valued for cabinet-work and interior decoration ; but scarce. Chestnut {Castdnea vulgdris Lamk. = (7. sativa Gaertn., C. vesca Gaertn. : Order CupuUferce), " Spanish Chestnut." French " Cha- taignier." Germ. " Edelkastanie." A large tree, sometimes reach- ing an enormous girth, native to the continent of Europe and represented by a closely related variety, americdna, in the Eastern United States. Sapwood yellowish-white or light brown ; heart darker brown, resembling Oak but distinguished by the absence of broad pith-rays ; pores large, forming a broad circle in the spring- wood and bifurcating hues beyond ; moderately hard, but much softer than Oak, light, coarse-grained, not strong, warping in drying, subject to ring-shakes and worm-boring, but durable when dry or wet. S.G. 450. E 85,621. R 696 kilos. W 28—46-5. Used for fence-posts and rails, staves, vine-props, hop-poles, cabinet-work, and charcoal. It is one of the best woods for veneering, taking glue well. The ancient roofs in England alleged to be of Chestnut are really of Oak, and can be readily recognized as such by the broad pith-rays. Chestnut, Horse. See Horse-Chestnut. Chestnut, Moreton Bay {Castanospermum austrdle A. Cunn. : Order Leguminosce). " Bean-tree." " Black Bean." North-East Australia, introduced into India. Height 80 — 90 or 130 ft. ; diam. 2 — 3 or 6 ft. W 35 — 46'5. Sapwood yellow, heart prettily grained, streaked with dark brown, somewhat resembling walnut, soft, fine- grained, shrinking much in drjdng and so requiring thorough seasoning, taking a good pohsh, but not durable. Used for furni- ture, cabinet-work, gun-stocks and veneers. Chestnut, Wild, of South Africa {Calodendron capense Thunb. : Order Rutdcece). Dutch " Kastanie." Height 20—30 or 70 ft. ;. CHILAUNI— COFFEE-TREE 163 diam. 2 — 3 or 5 ft., the dimensions in Cape Colony exceeding those in Natal. W 36 — 44. White, very Ught, but soft, tough, strong, easily worked. Used for yokes, hoops of waggons, etc. Chilauni {ScMma WalUchii Chois. : Order CamelUdcece). Bengal. Red, coarse-grained, durable. Much used for bridges and sleepers. China-berry, an American name for Melia composita. See Bead-tree. Chinquapin, in the Eastern United States {Castdnea pumila Michx.), in the Western States (Castanopsis chrysophylla A. DC), small trees alhed to the Chestnut, with similar but sHghtly heavier wood. Chir (Pinus longi folia Roxb. : Order Comferce). India. Easily worked, but not durable. Used mainly for fuel, charcoal, tar, and turpentine. Chittagcng-wood, a name applied to several woods imported to Madras, from North-East Bengal, the best of which is Cedrela Toona [See Cedar, Moulmein.] Chukrdsia tabuldris A. Juss. (Order Melidcece), otherwise known as " Cedar, Bastard Cedar " or " Deodar." Bengal " Chikrassi." Sink. " Hulanhik." Tamil " Kal-otthi," is also so-called. Height 80 ft. ; diam. 2—3 ft. W 24 — 45. Yellowish-brown to reddish-brown, with a splendid satiny lustre, fragrant, hard, seasoning and working well, but warping and creaking in very hot dry weather. Used for furni- ture and carving. Coach-wood {Ceratopetalum apetalum D. Don. : Order Saxi- fragdcece). " Light-wood " or " Leather-jacket." New South Wales. Height 50—70 or 100 ft. ; diam. IJ— 2 or 3 ft. W 42. Soft, light, close-grained, exceedingly tough, with the fragrance of coumarin. Used for coach-building, tool-handles, cabinet-work, boat-building, etc., and suggested for sounding-boards and stetho- scopes. The name is also applied to Schizomeria ovdta D. Don., an allied reddish wood of inferior character, known also as " Cork- wood, Beech," or " White Cherry." Cocobola Wood. {Humiria? : Order Humiridcece). British Guiana. W 75. Sapwood brownish, heart deep orange with jet-black hnear markings, hard, heavy, coarse-grained. Used for turnery, inlaying and Tunbridge-ware. Cocus {Brya Ebenus). See Ebony, American. Coffee-tree {Gymnoclddus canadensis Lam. : Order Leguminosce). French " Chicot, Gros fevier." Germ. " Amerikanischer Schusser- baum." Span. " Arbol de cafe falso." Eastern United States. Height 100 ft. ; diam. 3 ft. S.G. 693. W 43-2. E 104,822. R 771 kilos. Sapwood yellow or greenish-white ; heart brown blotclied with red, heavy, cross-grained, hard, strong, very stiff, taking a 11—2 164 WOODS OF COMMERCE high pohsh, handsome, and durable. Used for fencing, building, and cabinet-work. Cogwood (Ceanoihus Chloroxylon Nees = Zizyphus Chloroxylon W. : Order Bhamndcece) . Jamaica. " Cerillo." W 67. Dark nut- brown, hard, heavy, very fine-grained, elastic and durable under water. Used for cogs in sugar-mills. Compass {Koompdssia malacensis Maingay : Order Leguminosce) . Borneo. W 58. Red, heavy, tough, strong, coarse-grained, but liable to termite-attack and nc t durable. Cooper's wood (Alphitonia excelsa). See Ash, Mountain. Cork-wood tree of ^Missouri (Leitneria Floriddna Chapm. : Order Leitneridcece). S.G. 210. The hghtest known wood. Cork-wood tree of the Antilles [Hibiscus tilidceus L. : Order Malvdcece). " Mahoe." Grown throughout the Tropics. Nut- brown, very light. Used for floats for fishing-nets. Cork-wood in Australia (i) (Duboisia myoporoides R.Br. : Order Solmidcece). Also known as " Elm." New South Wales and Queensland. Height 15—30 ft. ; diam. 1—2 ft. W 30-30-75. White or yellowish, very soft, close-grained, and firm. Used for carving. Named from its bark resembling that of Cork Oak. The name is apphed (ii) to Schizomeria ovdta [See Coachwood], and (iii) to Weinmdnnia rubi folia F. v. M. [See Marrara.] Cork-tree, Indian [Millingtonia liortensis L. fil. : Order Big- nonidcece). Yellow- white, soft, taking an excellent pohsh. Used for furniture. Cornel and Cornelian-wood. See Dogwood. Coromandel-wood. See Calamander. Cotton-tree [Bombax Ceiba L. : Order Bombdcem). Identical with B. malabdricum DC. Southern India, Burma, Northern Austraha. " Malabar Silk-cotton," " Red-Cotton tree." French Fromage de HoUande." Hind. " Sliembal." Height 60 ft. or more ; diam. 5 ft. W 20 — 32. Light, soft, coarse-grained, not durable. Used for planks, packing-cases, tea-chests, coffins, canoes, and fishing-fioats. Cotton-wood. See Poplar and Dogwood, in Tasmania. Courbaril. See Locust. Cowdie-pine. See Kauri. Crab-wood {Cdrapa guianensis Aubl. : Order Melidceoe). Guiana, Trinidad, etc. " Caraba, Carapo, Andiroba." Height 60 — 120 ft. upward ; diam. 1—3 ft. S.G. 894—349. W 39-25- 46-25. fc 3-29. fs -433. R 80 kilos. Reddish-brown, moderately heavy and hard, straight-grained, resembhng inferior Mahogany, but affected by shakes and sphtting in seasoning, taking a good pohsh, little CROW'S ASH— CYPRESS 165 attacked by insects. Used for furniture, internal fittings, masts, spars, staves, and shingles. Cardpa procera DC. ( = C. guineensis Sweet, C. guyanensis Oliver), the " Touloucouna " or "Tallicoma" of Senegambia, is a very similar wood, as also is C. grandifldra Sprague, of Uganda. Crow's Ash. See Flindosa. Crow's-foot Elm. See Silver-tree. Cuamara. See Tonka-bean. Cucumber-tree {Magnolia acuminata L. : Order Magnolidcece). *' Mountain Magnolia." Eastern United States. Height up to 100 ft. ; diam. 4 ft. S.G. 409. W 29-23. R 671 kilos. Sapwood broad, white ; heart yellowish-brown, soft, light, close-grained, moderately compact and durable, taking a satiny polish. Closely resembling and often confounded with Tulip-wood {Liriodendron tulipifera), though generally distinguishable by its wider sapwood, this wood is used for turnery, wainscot, packing-cases, and cheap furniture. [See also Papaw.] Cudgerie. See Flindosa. Curupay {Piptadenia cebil Grisebach (?) : Order Leguminosce). BoUvia. Height 65 ft. ; diam. 3 ft. S.G. M4. Reddish, very heavy, hard, coarse-grained, durable when submerged, and there- fore valuable for bridge-construction or ship-building. It is an admirable wood for the spokes of heavy motor-waggons. Another less valuable wood, yellowish-brown, with dark purple streaks, comes to England under the same name. Cypre, Bois de (Cordia Gerascdnthus Jacq. : Order Borraginece), Tropical America. " Prince-wood," " Spanish Elm," " Dominica Rosewood," " Bois de Rliodes." Dark brown with dusky excentric zones, open-grained, soft, durable. W 42—47-69. E 553. / 2-73. fc 2-16. fs -428. Used in cabinet-work. Cypress {Cupressus sempervirens L. : Order Cupressinece). Medi- terranean region, Asia Minor, and Persia. Height up to 100 ft. ; diam. sometimes 7 ft. S.G. 620 — 570. Reddish, fragrant, mode- rately hard, very fine- and close-grained, and virtually indestructible. Used by the ancient Egjrptians for mummy-cases ; for the coffins of the Popes ; in Assyria and in Crete for shipbuilding ; for the gates of Constantinople destroyed by the Turks in 1453, eleven hundred years after their construction ; and for the doors of S. Peter's, which were quite sound when replaced, about the same time and after a similar duration, by brass. Perhaps the Tirzah of Isaiah xliv. 14, 15. Used, according to Evelyn, for harps and organ-pipes, and also for vine-props ; but now seldom employed. Cypress, Bald, Black, Deciduous, Red, Swamp or White (Taxodium distichum Richard : Order Taxodiece)^ Swamps of the Southern 166 WOODS OF CO:\DIERCE United States. Height 80—100 or more ft. ; diam. 6—8 or 13 ft., but tapering. Wood lighter and less resinous on low ground, and then termed " White Cypress," reddening on exposure, soft, straight- and fine-grained, not strong, but very durable in contact with the soil. Formerly used in Louisiana for canoes, water-pipes, and house-frames, and now for sleepers, fencing, and, on a large scale, for shingles. So nearly identical with Redwood [Sequoia) as to be often so-called. ^Cypress, Himalayan or Indian (Cupressus torulosa D. Don.), a light-brown, fragrant, moderately hard wood, used for building, etc. Cypress, Japanese. See Hi-no-ki. Cypress, Red. See Cedar, Canoe and Cypress, Bald. Cypress-pine, the general name for the species of Frenela (Order CupressinecB), in Xorthern and Eastern Austraha, especially the varieties of F. robusta A. Cunn. (=CdUitris rohusta R. Br.), " Black, Common, Dark, Lachlan, Murray, Murrumbidgee " or " White Pine, Camphor- wood." Ahorig. " Marung." Height 60 — 70 ft. ; diam. \\ — 2 ft. Light to dark brown, often with pinkish longi- tudinal streaks and beautifully figured, with a camphor-hke frag- rance, straight -grained, but very full of knots, easily worked, shrinking and warping but httle, and taking a good pohsh, largely teredo- and termite-proof. Much used for piles, building, and furniture. Frenela rohusta, var. microcdrpa A. Cunn., the " Coo- rung-coorung " of the aborigines, is a similar and valuable wood, but dark-coloured and somewhat brittle, used for telegraph- poles. F. robusta, var. verrucosa A. Cunn., sometimes known also as " Rock Pine," " Desert Cypress," or " Sandarac Pine," is also dark. S.G. 691. W 43 — 44-5. It is used for telegraph-poles and cabinet-making, its camphoraceous smell being said to be obnoxious to insects. Frenela Endlicheri Parlat., known as " Black, Red, Scrub " or " Murray Pine," a rich brown, beautifully mottled with darker brown, presenting a superb figuring, fragrant, fine- grained, susceptible of a high pohsh and durable, is a valuable wood, used for internal work and for piles, sleepers, etc. Frenela rJiomboidea Endl., kno\\Ti also as " Light " or " lUawarra Mountain Pine," or, in Tasmania, as " Oyster Bay Pine,-" is close-grained, strong, easily worked, takes a good pohsh and is durable, but smaller than the varieties just mentioned. W 39*25. It is used for similar purposes. Cypress-pine, Mountain {Frenela Parlatorei F. v. M.), also known as Stringybark Pine." Height 40—60 ft. ; diam. 1—2 ft. Light straw-colour, fragrant, close-grained, soft, easily worked. Much used for joinery. Dagame {Calycophyllum candidissimum DC. : Order Bubi- dcece). Cuba. Known also as " Degame " or " Degame Lance- DAMINIYA— DOGWOOD 167 wood." W 49. Yellow, moderately heavy and hard, very fine and close-grained. Used as Lancewood. Daminiya [Grewia tilicefolia Vahl : Order Tilidcece). Ceylon and Southern India. Dark, Walnut-like, elastic, strong and tough. Used for masts, oars, and shafts. Date, Kafir, or Plum {Harpephyllum Caff rum Bernh.). Cape Colony. W 45-7. / 5-86. fc 2-94. Dull red mahogany-like, easily worked, and suitable for carpentry and cabinet-work. Deal, a term properly describing soft (coniferous) wood sawn in thicknesses of 2 — 4 in., but often used with prefixes as to colour or country of origin. Thus Dantzic, Red or Yellow Deals are derived from the Northern Pine {Pinus sylvestris L.) [See Pine, Northern], White Deals from the Spruce {Picea excelsa), Canadian and New Brunswick Spruce Deals, mostly from Picea nigra, narrow- ringed trees yielding the " Black," wide-ringed ones the " White Spruce " of Canadian lumbermen. Very large quantities of White Deals are now reaching England from Galatz, of greater average length and coarser grain than Baltic White Deal, and competing with Canadian Spruce. Deodar. See Cedar, Deodar. Del {Artocdrpus nohilis Thw. = J.. pubescens Moon.: Order Urticdcece). Ceylon. Sink. " Aludel." W 39-5 — 50. Large, greenish-brown, moderately heavy and hard, cross-grained. Used for canoes and furniture. Dhaura (Anogeissus lati folia Wall. : Order Combretdcece). India. Height up to 200 ft. ; diam. 3 ft. or more. Sapwood wide, grey or yellowish ; heart purplish, hard, very strong and tough, but splitting in seasoning and only durable when kept dry. Used for axles, axe-handles, agricultural implements, furniture, etc. Dilo. See Poon. Dogo. See Mangrove. Dogwood, in England (i) (Cornus sanguinea L. : Order Corndcece), Europe and Northern and Western Asia. Known also as " Cornel," " Prickwood." A mere shrub. Hard, horny, flesh-coloured, with minute evenly distributed vessels 1 — 4 together, without pith-flecks and with indistinguishable pith-rays. Used formerly for skewers and arrows, and to some extent for gunpowder charcoal, (ii) Rhdm- nus Frdngula L. : Order Ehamndcece). Europe, North Africa, and Siberia. Known also as " Berry-bearing Alder," and to gunpowder- makers as " Black Dogwood." A shrub 5 — -10 ft. high. Sapwood narrow, light yellow ; heart brilliant yellowish-red ; vessels minute, not in flamboyant groups as in the allied Buckthorn {R. cathdrticus) ; soft. Largely used in the manufacture of sporting gunpowder charcoal. 168 WOODS OF COmiERCE Dogwood, in the United States and Canada (Cornus florida L. and C. Nuttalli Aud. : Order Corna.cece). The former is known commercially as " Cornel " and also as " Boxwood " and as " Cor- nelian wood," and the latter as " Western Dogwood." W 46 — 50. Small, not exceeding 15 in. diam., with white sapwood and reddish- brown heart, heavy, very hard, fine-grained and strong. Used for turnery, wood-engraving, cogs, tool-handles, mallets and shuttles, and formerly for arrows and charcoal. In the manufacture of shuttle-blocks, for which it is largely employed, the blocks are reduced by hydraulic pressure from 2 inches square to If in., a test very few woods can stand wdthout rupture of the fibres. Dogwood, in the West Indies {Pisddia Erythrma L. : Order Leguminosce). W 56-89. / 3-74. fc 2-03. /s -387. Used in building. Dogwood, in Tasmania {Bedfordia salicina DC. : Order Com- 'positce), the " Cottonwood " of New South Wales. Height 12 — 30 ft. S.G. 896. Pale brown, often beautifully mottled, hard, close-grained, fetid when cut, brittle and difficult to season. The name is also apphed to Pomaderris apetala (Order Bhamndcece) . Height 30 ft. ; diam. 12 in. Used for cabinet-work and furnishing burrs for veneers. Dogwood, in Australia (i) {Emmenospermum alphitonioides F. V. M. : Order Bhamndcece). Height 130—170 ft. ; diam. 2—21 ft. Straight-grained and durable. Useful for tool-handles, oars, staves, boat- and house-building, (ii) {Jacksonia scopdria R. Br. : Order Leguminosce). Height 10—15 ft. ; diam. 3—12 in. W 55-25- 56-5. Dark-yellow or brown, hard and polishing well, fetid when burning. Too small for much use. (iii) {Myoporum montdnum R. Br., Order MyoporinecB), knoTvn also as " Waterbush " or " Native Daphne." Height 30—40 ft. ; diam. 1 ft. W 47. Soft, hght, tough, straight-grained. Used in building, (iv) {Myo- porum platycdrpum E. Br.), knoT\Ti also as " Sandal " or " Bastard Sandal- wood," or " Sugar- tree." Small, light walnut colour, fragrant when cut, often with a bird's-eye mottling, especially in burrs, fine-grained, taking a fine polish. Suitable for veneers, (v) {Synoum glandulosum). See Rosewood. Dongon {Sterculia cymhiformis Blanco). PhiHppine Islands. Douglas Fir. See Pine, Oregon. Dudhi (Wrightia tinctoria R. Br. : Order Apocyndcece). India. Hind. " Kala Kudu." Tamil " Nila Pila." A small tree, 12—15 in. in diam. Wood white, close-grained and hard, resembhng ivory. Used for turning. Durmast. See Oak, Durmast. EAGLE-WOOD— EBONY 169 Eagle-wood {Aquildria Agdllocha Roxb. in Sylhet, and A. malac- censis Lam. of Further India : Order Aquilaridcece) . " Lign-aloes, Aloes-wood, Agilawood, Black Agallocha." French " Bois d'Aigle." Germ. " Adlerholz." Sanskrit " Agaru." Arab. " Aqulugin." Latin " Agallochum." Large trees with whitish or light yellow wood, containing an abundance of resin and an essential oil, much valued as a perfume and possibly the " aloes " of Psalm xlv. The wood retains its fragrance for years, and is burnt in Indian temples and also used for inlaying and as a setting for jewels, selling at £30 per cwt. in Sumatra. Ebony, a name for a very dense, hard, and generally black wood, mentioned by Herodotus and perhaps by Ezekiel, and originally applying to Diospyros Ehenum Konig (Order Ehendceoe). Latin " Ebenus." French " Ebene." Germ. " Ebenholz." Sinh. " Kaluwara." Arabic " Abnoos." Hebrew " Hobnim " (Ezek. xxvii. 15). A large tree, a native of Southern India and Ceylon. S.G. 1,187. W 70—76; the heart 75—80. p 756—1,180. Sap- wood dingy grey with black patches, flexible and very liable to insect attack ; heart deep black, very heavy, hard, and fine- grained, the rings and pith-rays being scarcely recognizable, capable of a very high polish, but affected by weather, and, there- fore, used largely as veneer, selling in England at from £5 to £10 per ton. Ebony, Acapulco, Cuernavaca or Mexican [Diospyros Ebendster Retz.). A native of India, cultivated in Mauritius, the Philippines and tropical America, the " Bastard Ebony " of Ceylon. Ebony, American, Green, Jamaica or West Indian [Brya Ebenus DG. = Amerimnon Ebenus Sw. : Order Leguminosce). " Cocus " or " Cocos " of Jamaica, " Granadillo " of Cuba, "Billy Web" or " Chichipate " of Honduras. A small tree. S.G. 1,206—1,210. W 61-45—87. E 1,178 tons. / 9-10. fc 4-5. js -529. R 480 lbs. Heavy, dark greenish-brown to purplish, very fine and even-grained, durable. Used for inlaying flutes, flageolets, etc. Ebony, Bombay, Ceylon and Siam (Diospyros Ebenum Konig, Ebendster Retz., melanoxylon Roxb. and other species). D. melan- oxylon Roxb., also known as " Coromandel " or " Godavery Ebony." Hind. "Tendu." A large tree. S.G. 978—1,200. W 61—82. R 294 lbs, Sapwood pink ; heart black, with beautiful purple streaks, irregular, heavy, very hard, strong. Used for building, shafts, carving, etc. Ebony, Camagoon (Diospyros pilosdnthera Bl.), the " Golong- nita " of the Philippine Islands. Ebony, Cape or Orange River (Euclea Pseudebenus E. Mey : Order Ebendcece). South- West Africa. Jet-black, hard, durable. 170 WOODS OF COMMERCE Ebony, Cuba [Diospyros tetrasperma Jacq.). " Ebano Real."' S.G. 1,300. R 305 lbs. Black, hard, brittle. Used in cabinet- work. Ebony, False, the Corsican Ebony " of ancient Rome (Cytisus Laburnum L. : Order Legwninosce). French " Faux ebenier." Sapwood broad, yellowish ; heart dark-brown with a greenish tinge ; rings and pith-rays distinct ; vessels in spring-wood large, crowded in groups of six or eight between the rays, those of the later wood in crescentic groups ; hard, capable of high pohsh, but not durable. Used for whip-handles, in turnery, and by the ancients as veneer. Ebony, Gaboon, Lagos or Old Calabar {Diospyros Dendo Welw.). Tropical West Africa. " X'Dendo." W 72-5. Small, black, sometimes streaked with brown, very hard. Ebony, German, the wood of Pear or Yew, stained black. Ebony, Green, in the English timber trade and in the West Lidies is Br?ja Ehenus [See Ebony, American] ; but in Southern India it is Diospyros cliloroxylon Roxb. [Telugu " Xella uhmera "), a large tree ^delding a hard, useful wood. In Brazil the name is apphed to Tecoma leucoxylon Mart. (Order Bignonidcece), also known as Quirapaiba," a heav;\', hard, dark-green, close-grained cabinet- wood vielcling logs 14 ft. long and 14 — 16 in. square. S.G. 1,220 — 1,211.*^ R 481 kilos. Ebony, Madagascar, Macassar or Zanzibar [Diospyros mespili- formis Hochst., Jiaplostylis Boiv. and microrliomlDus Hiem.), weigh- ing 49 — 61 lbs. per cubic foot, and also Acacia glaucophylla Steud. and the heavier Dalbergia melanoxylon Guill. and Perr. [See Blackwood, African], all natives of tropical Africa, with black heart- wood. Some aj^parently occur near both the east and west coasts. Ebony, Manila [Diospyros philippensis Giirke and D. Ebendster Retz.). Ebony, Mauritius [Diospyros tesseldria Poir). Ebony, Mountain [Baulnnia Hookeri F. v. M. and B. Carronii F. V. M. : Order Leguminosce). Also known as " Queensland Ebony." Eastern Austraha. The former 30—40 ft. high ; 1— li ft. in diam., dark-jed, heavy : the latter hght-brown to dark-bro^\Ti. Suitable for veneers. Ebony, Purple (Da?6er^?a sp. ?). Ceylon. W 53-5. Dark purple, streaked with black. Ebony, Red [Diospyros rubra Gartn.). Mauritius. Ebony, St. Helena [Dombeya melanoxylon Roxb. : Order Byttneri- dcece). Height 10—15 ft. S.G. 1,145. W 71-5. Almost exter- minated by goats. EBONY— ELM 171 Ebony, White {Diospyros Malacapdi A. DC). Philippines. [See Tarco.] Eki {Dipterocdrpus sp. ?). Lagos. W 72. R 51,154 lbs. Stiffness (taking Oak as 100) 237 '7. Worth 7s. per cubic foot for piles or blocks. Elder {Samhucus nigra L. : Order Capri folidcece). Europe, West Asia and North Africa. French " Sureau noir." Germ. " Schwartze Holder." A small tree. W 35-5 — 64. Pith very large ; pith- rays numerous and distinct : vessels more numerous in spring- wood ; wood yellowish, hard, firm, difficult to dry, warping. Used in turnery. In Cape Colony the name is applied to Nuxia flori- hunda Benth. See Vlier. Elder, Box. See Maple, Ash-leaved. Elm, a name referring originally and mainly to species of the genus Ulmus (Order Ulmdcece), broad-leaved trees with very large vessels in their spring-wood, and the vessels in the autumn-wood in wavy peripheral lines. French " Orme." Germ. " Ulm " or " Riister." Ital. " Ulmo." Span. " Olmo." Elm, American, Water or White (Ulmus Americana L.). French " Orme parasol." Alluvial ground in Eastern North America. Height 100 ft. or more ; diam. 6—7 ft. S.G. 650—540. W 34— 40*5. R 852 kilos. Sapwood yellowish-white ; heart light-brown, heavy, strong, tough, compact, but not durable ; pores in spring- wood conspicuously large and almost entirely in a single row. Valuable for tool-handles, agricultural implements, wheel-hubs, cooperage, etc., and for fuel. I Elm, Canadian, Cliff, Cork, Hickory, Rock or White {U. racemosa Thomas). French " Orme a grappe." Germ. " Trauben Ulme, Felsen Ulme." Canada and Eastern United States. Height 80—150 ft. ; diam. 2—3 ft. S.G. 726—765. W 43—47. R 1,066 kilos, c 9,182. c' 1-213. v' 1-191. e' 1-39. p' 1*14. Sapwood greenish, not durable ; pores in spring- wood small, those in summer- wood in fine rather distant lines ; heavy, hard, compact, very strong, tough and elastic. Logs 20 — 40 ft. long and 11 — 16 in. square, liable to split in drying, and, therefore, preferably kept immersed ; very durable under water. A valuable, but very slow-growing timber, making on an average only one inch of diameter in fourteen years. Largely used for the same purposes as the above-mentioned species, and for house- and boat-building, being one of the best timbers for bending, and exported in large quantities, in hewn logs and in the round, to Liverpool and London for coach-building, wheels, piles, boat-building, etc., fetching 3s. 6d. per cubic foot. Elm, Cork, Common or English {U. campestris Sm.). Germ. " Korkulme, Rote Ruster." Height 80— 90 ft. ; diam. 2— 3 ft. S.G. 172 WOODS OF CO^BIERCE 542— 909. W 34— 56-7. E 445 tons per sq. in. e' -56. 2^14,000— 13,489. p^-49. /3 o. ftQ-26. c 5,460. c' -721. /c 4-6. i;' -757. fs -62. Sap wood narrow, yellowish- white, as durable as the heart ; heart dark-browTi or brownish-red, heavy, hard, firm, elastic, very tough, very difficult to spht, susceptible of high pohsh, extremely durable if kept either dry or wet. The Rialto at Venice is said to be built on 12,000 elm piles. The wavy lines of pores in the summer-wood consist of single rows of pores and are inter- rupted : pith-rays hardly distinguishable : grain twisted. Though free from shakes. Elm timber is very Hable to druxy knot, and, though not splitting, is difficult to season without twisting. On the Continent Elm is valued for gun-carriages. In England it was used formerly for water-pipes and is now employed for coffins, butchers' -blocks, pulley-blocks, naves of wheels, pumps, ships' keels, coachbuilding, turnery, etc., though for most purposes inferior to Oak. Both this and the Scotch Elm are largely used for chair-making at High Wycombe. Elm, Crows'-foot. See Silver-tree. Elm, Dutch or Sand, a large-leafed form, allied to the last-men- tioned, grown only for ornament, its wood being subject to star- shake. Elm, Indian {U. integrifolia Roxb.). Hind. " Papri." Telugu "Xalh." Burm. " Thalai." India, Ceylon, Burma. A large tree. Wood fight yellowish-grey to red, moderately hard and strong. Used for door frames, cart -building, and carving. Elm, Japanese. See Keyaki. Elm, Moose, Red or Slippery (U. fulva Michx.). French " Orme gras." Southern Canada and Xorth-Eastern United States. Height 60—70 ft. ; diam. 2 ft. S.G. 695. W 43-35. R 869 kilos. Brownish-red, heavy, hard, strong, compact, tough, more durable than other Elms ; pores in spring wood forming a broad band of several rows, those in the summer w^ood in broken, shghtly waved, narrow lines. It is more easily split than other Elms, and is, there- fore, much used for fence-rails, whilst its toughness and flexibifity when steamed fit it for the ribs of boats. Elm, Scotch, Wych, or Mountain {U. montdna Sm.). Also known as " Chair-elm " and formerly as " Wych-hazel." Germ. " Bergruster." Height 80—120 ft. ; diam. up to 16 ft. In Britain most abundant north of the Trent. Wood hghter-coloured, softer, straighter-grained, and, therefore, more easily spht than English Elm. Pores in the summer wood in complete bands. Used for the backs of Windsor chairs, shafts, and other purposes to winch Ash is applied, and for boat-building. Elm, Spanish. See Cypre, Bois de. ELM-^FIDDLE-WOOD 173 Elm, Spreading {U. effusa Willd.). Germ. " Flatterriister." Sapwood broad, yellowish ; heart Hght-brown ; vessels in spring wood in a single line, those in the summer wood in broad con- tinuous wavy bands ; less strong than the other species ; but valued on the Continent on account of its markings for turnery, cabinet- work, gun-stocks, etc. Elm, Winged, or Cork-winged {U. aldta Michx.). Aborig. " Wa- hoo." South-East United States. Small, heavier and more compact than U. americdna, fine-grained ; pores in spring wood small, in a single row, those in summer wood in broad, slightly wavy bands. In Australia the name " Elm " is applied to Duhoisia myoporoides [See Cork- wood] and to AphanatM phiUippinensis Planch. (Order Urticece), known also as " Tulip-wood," and by the aborigines as " Mail," a tree introduced in the north-east, 80 — 90 ft. high and 1 — IJ ft. in diam., yielding a light-coloured, close-grained wood, used for internal work in building. Els, Klip or Rock Ash {Rhus Thunhergii Hook. : Order Anacardi- dcecB). Cape Colony. Hard, heavy, close-grained, and tough. Suitable for musical instruments or carving. Els, Rood. See Cedar, Red. Eng {Dipterocdrpus tuberculdtus Roxb. : Order Dipterocarpdcece). Burma. Burm. " Eng." A large tree, 60 ft. in height and 3 ft. in diam. W 55. Reddish, hard. Used for house-posts, canoes, and planking. Other species, such as D. grandiflora Wall, and D. aldtus Roxb. [See Gurjun], are confused under the same name. Engyin {Shoreasiamensis^liq. : Order Dipterocarpdcece). Burma and Siam. Perhaps the same name as the preceding. A large tree, resembhng the alHed Sal. W 54 — 55. Heart very hard, very heavy and cross-grained : pith-rays finer than in Sal. Used in house-building, and for bows, etc. Epel of Borneo may be " Ypil " of the Philippines, " Yepi, Apa " or " Epe " in Telugu, Afzelia bijuga A. Gray [See Shoondul], Bauhinia dipliylla Buch. or Hardwickia bindta Roxb. [See Anjan.] Essen-boom. See Ash, Cape. Featherwood (Polyosma CunningJidmii J. J. Benn. : Order ;S^aa;i- fragdcece). North-Eastern Australia. " Hickory, Wineberry." Aborig. " YaraUa." Height 40—60 ft. ; diam. 1—3 ft. W 49-3. Yellow, close-grained, tough. Used for ladders, hand-spikes, etc. Fiddle- wood {Citharexylum melanocdrdium Sw., cinereum L., surrectum Griseb., and quadranguldre Jacq. : Order Verbendcece). West Indies. French " Bois fidele, Bois de cotelet." Used for posts, shingles, etc. 174 WOODS OF COMMERCE Fig, the general name for the genus Ficus, few species of which yield timber of any value. That of Ficus indica L. (Order Arto- carpdcece) is used in Ceylon for common furniture ; but it, and that of other species, being soft and spongy, is readily charged with oil and emery for knifeboards or pohshing purposes. Fig, Blue. See Caloon. Fig, Leichhardt's Clustered (Ficus glomerdta Willd.). India, Burma, Northern Austraha. Aborig. " Parpa." Hind. " Kith Gular." Height 40—60 ft. ; diam. 1—3 ft. W 25—36. Greyish or straw-colour, coarse but straight-grained, hght, soft, porous, moderately strong, not durable, except under water. Used for well-frames in India, and for furniture in Ceylon, and suggested for packing-cases. Fig, Illawarra, Port Jackson or Rusty [F. ruhiginosa Desf.). Aborig. " Dthaaman." Eastern Austraha. Height 60 — 80 ft. ; diam. 4 — 5 ft. W 28-5. Light, soft, brittle, spongy. Sometimes used for packing-cases. Fig, Large-leaved or Moreton Bay [F. macrophylla Desf.). North- Eastern Austraha. Height 50—100 ft. ; diam. 3—6 ft. W 34. Pale-brown, with a beautiful wavy figure on a darker brown, but difficult to season, soft and not durable, so only occasionally used for packing-cases. Fig, Prickly. See Ash, Blueberry. Fir, a name very loosely used both in commerce and in botany, mostly for coniferous trees. ^ Thus Dantzic, Ehasberg, Memel, Norway, Red, Riga, Saldowitz, Scots, Stettin, Swedish and Yellow Fir are all Pinus sylvestris [See Pine, Northern], named mainly from the port of shipment, Douglas or Oregon Eir is Pseudotsuga Dougldsii [See Pine, Oregon], and White Fir (" Baltic White ") is Picm excelsa [See Spruce, Norway]. The name is preferably restricted to the genus Abies, conifers distinguished by their flat leaves with two lateral resin-canals, and by their erect cones which fall to pieces when the seed is ripe. Their wood is generally without resin-ducts, coarse-grained, soft, and perishable. Fir, Balsam or American Silver {Abies balsdmea MiUer). Wet ground in Eastern North America. Known also as " Balm-of- Gilead Fir." French " Sapin baumier." Germ. " Balsam-Tanne." Height 30—60 or 80 ft. ; diam. 2 ft. S.G. 382. W 23-8. R 515 kilos. Yellowish, very hght, soft, coarse-grained, not strong or durable. Sometimes used for staves for fish-barrels. The most valuable product of this species is Canada balsam, a resin coUected in Quebec. The names " Balsam Fir " and " Black Balsam " are sometimes apphed to A. concolor [See Fir, White]. ^ Among Anglo-Indians species of Casuar'ina are knoAvn as "Fir." See Oak, Swamp.] FIR— FIRE-TREE 175 Fir, Red {A. nohilis Lindl.). Western United States. " Larch- fir." "Noble Fir." Germ. " Edel Weisstanne. Height 100— 200 ft. or more ; diam. 4 — 5 ft. or 9 ft. Light-brown, streaked with red, Light, hard, strong, durable when seasoned. Used for internal work. The name is also apphed to A. magnifica Murray, Germ. " Prachtige Weisstanne," a loftier species of the same region, with inferior timber, used for rough work or fuel. Fir, Scots. See Pine, Northern. Fir, Silver {A. pectindta DC. = alba Miller). Mountains of Central and Southern Europe. " Swiss Pine." French " Sapin des Vosges, Sapin de Lorraine." Germ. " Tanne, Edeltanne, Weisstanne, Silbertanne." Height 100—180 ft. ; diam. 6—8 ft. Yellowish or pinkish-white without distinct heart, and with few or no resin-canals, with regular circular, well-defined rings, owing to the darker autumn wood, light, soft, porous, silky in lustre, strong, elastic, easily worked, not durable, taking glue well. Used by the ancient Romans for masts and ship-building. (Virgil, Georgics ii., 68, Pliny, Nat. Hist., xvi.), and still so employed. Much used in toy-making, for carving, and for packing-cases, which are largely exported from Switzerland and the Tyrol. Used also, where it grows, for fence-posts, internal work, sluices, joists, planks, general carpentry, paper-pulp, and charcoal ; but inferior to Spruce. Fir, Colorado Silver (A. concolor Lindl. and Gordon). Western United States. " White Fir, Balsam Fir, Black Balsam." Germ. " Cahfornische " or " Gleichfarbige Weisstanne." Height 100 — 250 ft. ; diam. 4 ft. or more. Very light, soft, coarse-grained, neither strong nor durable. Used locally for butter- tubs, etc. Fir, Great or Tall Silver {A. grdndis Lindl.). North- Western United States and British Columbia. " White Fir of Oregon " or " Western White Fir." Germ. " Grosse Kiistentanne." Height 250—300 ft. ; diam. 3—5 ft. or more. W 22—29. Light, soft, easily worked, not strong or durable. Used for indoor carpentry, packing-cases, cooperage, etc., and forming, with Oregon Pine, the chief lumber exported from the Pacific ports. Fir, Indian Silver [A. Webhidna Lindl.). Himalayas. Height 120 — 150 ft. ; diam. 3 — 5 ft. Whitish, scentless, non-resinous, open-grained, soft, easily worked, but not durable, if exposed. Used locally for shingles and building. Fir, Western or Lovely Silver {A. amdhilis Forbes). North- Western United States and British Columbia. " White Fir." Height 150—200 ft. ; diam. 3—4 ft. Light, hard, but not strong. Fire-tree (Stenocdrpus sinudtus Endl. : Order Protedcece). North- Eastern Australia. " Tulip-tree." Ahorig. " Yiel-yiel." Height 176 WOODS OF COmiERCE 60 — 70 ft. ; diam. 2 ft. Nicely marked, close-grained, hard, sus- ceptible of a good polish, durable. Used for staves and veneers. Flindosa {Flindersia austrdlis R. Br. : Order Melidcece). North- Eastern Australia. " Crow's " or " Mountain Ash," or " Beech." Aborig. " Cudgerie." Height 80—100 ft. ; diam. 2—4 ft. S.G. 936. W 44-8- 77-8. E 960 tons. / 7'03. fc 4-54. fs -62. Re- sembling Oak, with sHght or no figure, very hard, close and strong, difficult to saw, but shrinking little in drying, very durable, not dis- coloured by iron. Used for staves and as a substitute for Beech, and suitable for railway construction and shafts. Flintamentosa or Wyagerie, the product of a larger tree, reach- ing 150 ft. in height and 6 ft. in diam. in Northern New South Wales ; may be the same or some other species of Flindersia. It is used in house-building. Fuchsia {Fuchsia excorticdta L. fil. : Order Onagrdcece). New Zealand. Maori " Kohutuhutu." Height 10 — 30 ft. ; diam. sometimes 3 ft. Durable. Fustic {Chlorophora tinctoria Gaud., var. Xanth6xylon = M&tus tindoria W^, Madura tindoria D. Don. : Order Mordcece). Tropical America. French " Bois d'orange." Span. " Fustete, Palo nar- ango." Port. " Espinheiro branco, Amoreira de espinho." W 39 — 46-5. R 305 lbs. A large tree, yielding timber 20 ft. long and a foot or more wide. Canary-yellow, light, tough, hard, durable. Used for spokes ; but chiefly as a dye under the name of " Old Fustic," " Young " or " Zante Fustic " being the wood of Bhus Cotinus. [See Sumach, Venetian.] Galaba or Galba. See Santa Maria. Gangaw. See Ironwood, xix. Gidya. See Myall ii. Gold-spangle Wood [Cardwellia suhlimis F. v. M. : Order Prote- dcecE). Tropical Queensland. Large, light- coloured, prettily marked. Suitable for cabinet-work. Granadillo (Amyris halsamifera L. : Order Burserdcece) . West Indies. Known also as " Rosew^ood," " Mountain Torchwood," "Lignum Rhodium," or " Funera." W 74—60. E 986—565. tons. / 6'7— 4-7. fc 4—5-7. fs -35- -43. Red, handsomely figured, aromatic, resinous, hard. Used for building and furniture, and exported. In Cuba the name is appHed to Brya Ebenus. [See Ebony, American.] Grape, Sea-side {Coccoloba uvifera Jacq. : Order Polygondcece). Jamaica. W 65-34. E 637 tons. / 4-13. fc 2-52. fs -428. Greenheart (Neddndra Bodioei Schomb. : Order Laurdcece). North-Eastern South America and the West Indies. Aborig. GREENHEART— GUAYACAN 177 " Bibim," " Sipiri." A large tree 60—100 ft. high, yielding timber 42—70 ft. long and 1—2 ft. square. S.G. 1,079—1,210. W 58— 76-5. E 1,286 tons, e' -97. ^' 1-65. / 8-97. c 8,820. 1-165. /c 5-17. v' 2-0. /<§ -435. Dark-greenish or chestnut, often nearly- black in the centre, fine, even, and straight-grained, the rings indistinguishable, very heavy, hard, tough, strong, elastic, and durable, the heartwood being teredo-proof, though the similar sapwood is not so. This very valuable timber is liable to heart- shake. It is largely used for piles, bridge-building and the keelsons, beams, and planks in sliips, being classed in the second-line in Lloyd's Register, for carriage-shafts, fishing-rods, etc. All the dock-gates, piers, and jetties of the Liverpool Docks are of this wood. It is imported in hewn logs, up to 60 ft. in length, fetching 3s. 6d. per cubic foot at Liverpool. These logs have tapered or " snape " ends to facilitate their being drawn out of the forest. These " ends," from 2 to 5 feet long, are cut off in con- version, and are useful for many purposes, such as motor-waggon spokes, belaying-pins, tobacco-pegs, etc., fetching 25s. to 50s. per ton. Grignon {Bucida angustijolia DC. : Order Combretdcece). Guiana. Kjiown in Surinam as " Wane." S.G. 714. Very large, straight- growing, pale red, rather less hard than Oak, even and straight in grain. Used for masts and for furniture. Grignon fou {Qudlea ccerulea Aubl. : Order Vochysidcece). Guiana. Known also as " Couaie." S.G. 800. Large, reddish, soft, straight- grained, very common, but of inferior quality to the preceding. Used for masts. Gru-gru (Astrocdryum sp. and Acrocomia sclerocdrpa Mart. : Older Palmdcece). Trinidad. Height 20 — 30 ft. ; diam. 1 ft. The outer part of the stem of these pahns is hard, heavy, susceptible of a fine polish, and durable. Used for walking- sticks. Guarabu [Termindlia acuminata Allem. : Order Combretdcece, or Peltogyne macrolohium Allem., or P. confertifldra Benth. : Order Leguminosce). Brazil. " Pao roxo." A large tree, yielding straight, dark-purple, fine-grained wood, with numerous pores filled with a hard white substance. Used in ship- building. Guayacan, the native name of various species of Guaiacum in Central and South America [See Lignum-Vitae], is apphed in Venezuela to Tecoma Guayacan Seem. (Order Bignonidcece) , S.G. 1-3, and in Argentina to Ccesalpinia mela^iocdrpa Griseb. (Order Leguminosce), a rich, dark-brown colour, very heavy and dense in grain, said to be the hardest wood in the country, resisting moisture 12 178 WOODS OF COMMERCE well. It yields timber 18 ft. long and a foot square, and is used for door-frames, wheel-hubs, etc. Guijo. See Sai. Gum, a name referring mainly to the many and valuable Aus- tralian and Tasmanian species of the Myrtaceous genus Eucalyptus, the identification and synonymy of many of which is much in- volved. Gum, Apple-scented [Eucalyptus Stuartidna F. v. M.). Eastern Australasia. Frequently called " Turpentine " or " Peppermint- tree "; in Tasmania " Red Gum "; in Victoria also " Mountain Ash" or "Apple-tree"; in New South Wales "Woolly Butt "; in Queensland " Box " or " Tea-tree." Introduced in the Punjaub. Height 40—90 ft. ; diam. 2—4 ft. S.G. 834—1,050. W 66 Light red-brown, wavj^, hard, difficult to spht, \sdth gum-veins, weak, but said to be durable underground, polishing well. Used for ships* planks, sleepers, fence-posts, and rough furniture. Gum, Bailey [E. Bailey ana F. v. M.). Southern Queensland. " Rough Stringybark." Large, fight-grey, very tough, suitable for tool-handles. Gum, Bally. See Bally Gum. Gum, Bastard. See Gum, Cider. Gum, Black, in North America (Nyssa uni flora Wangenh. = N. tomentosa ]\Iichx.). See Tupelo. Gum, Black, in South-East Australia {Eucalyptus stelluldta Sieb.), known also as " White, Green," or " Lead Gum," " Sally," and " Box," from 12 — 50 ft. high and IJ — 3 ft. in diam., but used only as fuel. Gum, Blue {E. globulus LabilL). Soutli-Eastern Australasia. Introduced into India, South Africa, California, and Southern Europe as a supposed preventive of malaria. Height 200 — —350 ft.; diam. 6—25 ft. S.G. 698—1,108. W 43— 75. e' 1-75. p' -88. c 6,048. c' -798. v' -915. Pale straw-colour, hard, heavy, moderately strong, tough, elastic, with curled and twisted grain, planing well, durable, partially immune from Teredo ; pith-rays very numerous, fine ; pores moderate-sized, round, grouped or in lines. Used for fence-rails, telegraph-poles, bridge-building, piles, slfipbuilding, felloes, shafts, spokes, and implements ; exten- sively for carriage-buildings, and formerly for sleepers, for which E. rostrdta is now preferred ; and classed in the third-line of Lloyd's Register for ship-building. The whalers of Hobart Town were built of this wood, the most durable of Tasmanian hardwoods. It is preferred to Jarrah or Karri for the piles driven in advance of GUM 179 the shield in tunnelling. For Dover Harbour piles 70 — 100 ft. long and 18 or 20 in. square have been employed. Being hardy and quick-growing in any soil, in districts free from frost, this species has been largely planted in many parts of the world — as, for instance, in South Africa — for firewood and for mine-timbers. Gum, Blue (E. saligna Sm.). In New South Wales known also as "Flooded, Grey, White," or "Silky Gum," or "Grey Box." Height 40—120 ft. ; diam. 2—7 ft. S.G. 1,023. W 63—74. Warm red-brown, wavy, very heavy, close- and cross-grained, easily worked, difficult to season, strong and durable, but liable to shakes. Excellent for sleepers, fencing, ships' planks, spars, paving, and building. Gum, Blue, in Queensland {E. tereticornis). See Gum, Moun- tain. Gum, Bastard Blue and Scribbly Blue are names of E. leucoxylon. See Ironbark. Gum, Brown. See Mahogany, Swamp. Gum, Cabbage {E. Sieberidna F. v. M.). Known also as " Gum- top Stringybark, Ironbark, Bastard," or " White Ironbark, Green- top, Silvertop," and " Blackbutt " in Tasmania, and as " Mountain Ash " in New South Wales. Height 40—150 ft. ; diam. 1—5 ft. S.G. 896. W 55 — 60. Bufi, moderately heavy, rather coarse and cross-grained, very tough, easily worked, elastic, full of gum-veins, seasoning badly, generally soft, whence its name, and doubtfully durable. Used for posts, rails, building, furniture, and fuel. Gum, Cider [E. Gunnii Hook. fil.). Tasmania and South- Eastern Australia, being known in the latter district as " Sugar, White, Swamp, Yellow," or "Bastard Gum." Height 30 or exceptionally 250 ft. S.G. 700—1,021. W 44. Light reddish- brown, hard, tough, with a few gum- veins, often crooked. Chiefly valuable for charcoal and for its sap. Gum, Creek {E. rostrdta). See Gum, Red. Gum, Drooping {E. vimindlis [See Gum, Manna] or E. pauci- flora [See Gum, Mountain White]). Gum, Flooded, a name applied to E. Gunnii [See Gum, Cider], E. pauciflora [See Gum, Mountain White], E. rostrdta [See Gum, Red], E. saligna [See Gum, Blue], E. tereticornis [See Gum, Moun- tain]. Gum, Giant [E. amygdalina). See Ash, Mountain. Gum, Gimlet (E. saluhris F. v. M.). West Austraha. Known also as " Fluted Gum." Height 120 or 150 ft. W 65—68. Dark neutral brown, with warmer-coloured bands, tough, but easily 12—2 180 WOODS OF COMMERCE worked. Used for shafts, impleraents, rough engraviDg, and furniture. Gum, Green {E. stelluldta). See Gum, Black. Gum, Grey, a name applied to E. crehra [See Ircnbark, Grey], E. goniocdlyx [See Box, Bastard], E. largiflorens [See Gum, Slaty], E. punctata [See Leatherjaeket], E. resinifera [See Mahogany], E. saligna [See Gum, Blue], E. tereticornis [See Gum, Mountain], and E. vimiimlis [See Gum, Manna]. Gum, Lead (E. stelluldta, Sieb.). See Gum, Black. Gum, Manna {E. vimindlis Labill.). South-Eastern Australasia. Kno^Ti as " White " or " Swamp Gum " in Tasmania, as " Grey, Blue, Ribbony, Drooping," or " Weeping Gum," or as " Woolly Butt " in New South Wales, and as " Box " or " Peppermint Gum " in Victoria. Height up to 320 ft. ; diam. up to 17 ft. S.G. 685—1,003. W 44—67-5. Buff to dull brick-colour or warm- browTi, moderately heavy, straight coarse-grained, full of gum- veins, weak, easily worked, requiring careful seasoning, only durable underground. Used for pahngs, shingles, flooring, and building material. The name is also applied to E. amygdalina. [See Ash, Mountain]. Gum, Morrell [E. longicornis F. v. M.). West Austraha. W 56 — 73. Carmine-red, heavy, very hard, fine-grained, planing easily, durable. Used for rafters and wheelwrights' work. Gum, Mountain (E. tereticornis Sm.), Eastern Austraha. Known also as " Red, Flooded, Grey, Blue," or " Slaty Gum " and " Bas- tard Box." Ahorig. " Mungurra." Height 40—150 ft. ; diam. IJ— 4 or 6 ft. S.G. 843. W 52-5. Red-brown, resembling Cedar, with cross, curly grain, lustrous, heavy, very hard, tough, with some gum- veins, easy to dress, but difficult to season, very durable. Largely used for fencing, naves, felloes, sleepers, telegraph-poles, building, paving, fuel, etc. Gum, Mountain White {E. pauciflora Sieb.). South-Eastern Australasia. Known in Tasmania as " Weeping Gum," and in Austraha as " White, Swamp, Drooping," or " Flooded Gum," " Peppermint " or " Mountain Ash." Height 100 ft. ; diam. 2—4 ft. White or buff, soft, straight but short-grained, full of gum-veins. Used for fencing, and excellent for fuel. Gum Nankeen {E. populi folia Hook.). North-East Australia. Also knoTVTi as " White Gum, White, Red, Poplar," or " Bembil Box." Height 50—60 ft. ; diam. 2 ft. Grey or light brown, hard, heavy, close-grained, very tough, strong, hard to work, but susceptible of a fine polish, liable to gum-veins and often unsound, durable. Used for sleepers, posts, and building. GUM 181 Gum, Peppermint. See Gum, Manna. Gum, Red, a name applied in Australia to Angophora lanceoldta [See Apple-tree], Eucalyptus amygdaUna [See Ash, Mountain], E. Gunnii [See Gum, Cider], E. melliodora [See Box, Yellow], E. punctata [See Leatherjacket], E. resinifera [See Mahogany, Forest], E. tereticornis [See Gum, Mountain], and especially to (i) E. rostrdta and (ii) E. calophylla. (i) E. rostrdta Schlecht. Eastern Australia. Known also as " Creek, River, Forest, Flooded, Blue, White, or Murray Red Gum," or " Yellow-jacket." Aborig. " Yarrali," not to be confounded with Jarrah, though little inferior to it. Height 30—80 or 100 ft. ; diam. 1—6 or 8 ft. S.G. 790— 1,045. W 53-5 — 65. Dark red, with a pretty curly figure, mode- rately heavy, exceedingly hard when dry, and therefore most difficult to work, liable to twists and shakes in seasoning, but can take a fine polish, very durable, termite- and teredo-proof. Highly valued for ships' beams, sleepers, piles, bridges, posts, building, fencing, and charcoal ; but, owing to its hardness, only slightly for furniture. This is the chief wood used for paving in Melbourne, costing about £9 per 1,000 blocks, or 14s. per 100 feet super. (ii) E. calophylla R. Br. of South-West Australia, reaching a height of 150 ft., and 3 ft. diam. ; yields a yellowish-red, tough, but not durable wood, with many gum-veins. W 47 — 72. Used for wheels, handles, and building. Gum, Red, in Tasmania {E. 8tuartidna). See Gum, Apple- scented. Gum, Red, in the United States, a trade name for Liquiddmbar styraciflua. See Gum, Sweet. Gum, Rusty. See Apple-tree. Gum, Salmon {E. salmonophloia F. v. M.). West Australia. W 60 — 79. Salmon-colour to dark red, fine-grained, exceedingly hard and tough, difficult to split or plane, but readily sawn, durable. Used for piles, mine-timbers, and wheelwrights' work. Gum, Scribbly {Eucalyptus hcemdstoma Sm.). Queensland and New South Wales. Known also as " Gum-top Stringybark " of Tasmania, and as " Spotted, White," or " Blue Gum," " Black- butt," " Mountain Ash," etc. Height, 60—120 ft. ; diam. 2—3 ft. S.G. 1,101. W 68-75. Grey or reddish, wavy or stripy, often crooked, close, smooth, short-grained, brittle, easily worked, not durable. Used for coach-building, flooring, and fuel. Gum, Slaty {E. largifldrens F. v. M.). Eastern Australia. Kjiown also as " Cooburn, Black, Yellow, Bastard, or Grey Box," or as "Ironbark." Height 100—120 ft.; diam. 2—3 ft. Red, hard, tough, durable, especially underground. Used for fencing, sleepers. 182 WOODS OF COMMERCE building, cogs, etc. The name is also applied to E. tereticornis. [See Gum, Mountain.] Gum, Sour. See Gum, Black. Gum, Spotted, a name applied to Eucalyptus capitelldta [See Stringybark, White], E. goniocdlyx [See Box, Bastard], E. hcemd- stoma [See Gum, Scribbly], and T. maculdta Hook. This last-men- tioned species, native to Eastern Australia, reaches 100 — 150 ft. in height, and 3—8 ft. in diam. S.G. 1,035—1,170. W 60—67. Light yellow to walnut-brown, sometimes with a wavy figure, heavy, close but very coarse in grain, with large gum- veins, strong, tough, durable. In great demand for paving, girders, bridge, and ship-building, shafts, naves, shingles, etc. It fetches 2s. a cubic foot in London. Gum, Sugar (E. corynocdlyx P. v. M.). South Australia. Height 120 ft. ; diam. 5 — 6 ft. Yellowish-white, very heavy, hard, strong and durable, termite- and teredo-proof, not warping. Used for sleepers, piles, planks, fencing, wheels. The name is also applied to E. Ounnii. [See Gum, Cider.] Gum, Swamp. See Gum, Cider, Manna, and Mountain White. Gum, Sweet (Liquiddmbar styraciflua L. : Order Hamameldcece). Eastern United States. " Bilsted " or " Red .Gum," " Californian Red Gum " (though shipped from New Orleans). " Satin Walnut," " Hazel Pine." French " Copalm," Germ. " Storaxbaum," Span. " Liquid-ambar." Height 100 ft. or more ; diam. 4 — 5 ft. S.G. 591. W 36-8 — 59-5. R 651 kilos. Sapwood cream-white ; heart irregular, reddish-brown, with dark false rings, rather heavy, close-grained, soft, tough, free from knots, taking a satiny polish, warping and twisting badly in drying, unless first steamed. Used for furniture, veneers, turnery, shingles, and clap-boards, and, though little suited for the purpose, for paving. It is commonly supposed in the timber- trade that " Hazel Pine " is merely a trade name for the sapwood and " Satin Walnut " for the heart, whilst, with equal ingenuity, the wood when offered for paving purposes was dubbed " Californian Red Gum." As a matter of fact, whilst the so-called Satin Walnut is often beautifully marked with the rich dark stripe of the false rings, which makes it a favourite wood for cheap furniture, the so-called Hazel Pine is the same species grown in low-lying, swampy districts where the dark colouring- matter is not developed. The vessels are filled with a hygroscopic gum, which renders the wood very susceptible to changes in the moisture of the atmosphere, and causes it to both twist longitudin- ally and warp transversely. Satin Walnut is, therefore, only used for cheap bedroom furniture, not being fit for rooms in which fires are lit. The Hazel Pine is largely imported in planed boards. CTOI— HACKBERRY 183 and is used for the inside linings of cheap furniture, competing with the lower grades of Canary Whitewood. Gum, Water {Tristdnia neriifolia R. Br. : Order Myrtdcem). New South Wales. Height 80—100 ft. ; diam. IJ— 2 ft. W 66-5. Very close-grained and elastic, apt to split in drying. Used for handles, mallets, cogs. Gum, Broad-leaved Water {T. siuiveolens Sm.). Eastern Australia. Known also as " Swamp Mahogany " and " Bastard Peppermint." Height 50 — 60 ft. ; diam. 1 — H ft. Red, resembling Spanish Mahogany, hard, close-grained, strong, elastic, tough, durable, but apt to split in drying, termite- and teredo-proof. Extensively used for piles, sleepers, posts, handles, cogs, coach-frames, etc. Gum, Wattle {Acacia microhotrya Benth. : Order Leguminosce) . West Australia. " Badjong." Used for barrel-staves and soft- wood turnery. Gum, White, a name applied to Eucalyptus amygdaUna [Sec Ash, Mountain], E. gomphocephala [See Tewart], E. goniocdlyx [See Box, Bastard], E. Gunnii [See Gum, Cider], E. hcemdstoma [See Gum, Scribbly], E. hemiphloia [See Canarywood], E. leucoxylon [See Ironbark], E. pauciflora [See Gum, Mountain White], E. popu- lifolia [See Gum, Nankeen], E. redunca [See Wandoo], E. resimfera [See Mahogany], E. rostrdta [See Gum, Red], E. saligna [See Gum, Blue], E. stelluldta [See Gum, Black], E. Stuartidna [See Gum, Apple-scented], and E. vimindlis [See Gum, Manna]. Gum, Yellow, a name applied in Australia to E. Gunnii [See Gum, Cider], E. punctata [See Leatherjacket], or E. melliodora [See Box, Yellow], and in North America to Nyssa muUiflom [See Gum, Black]. Gum, York [E. fcecunda Schauer =E. loxopUeba Benth.). Western Australia. Height 80 ft. ; diam. 3 ft. W 59—77. Light pink, hard, heavy, close-grained, tough, elastic. Used by the aborigines for spears ; suitable for spokes. Gurjun (Dipterocdrpus turhindtus Gaertn. fil. or D. aldtus Roxb. : Order Dipterocarpdcece) . Andaman Islands and Further India. Also known as " Wood-oil tree." Burm. " Ka-nyin " and some- times " Eng." Height up to 250 ft. ; diam. 8 ft. W 38—55. Light brown to red, dense, hard, but will not stand moisture. Excellent for house-building, posts, or planks. Guru-kina {Calophyllum tomentosum Wight: Order Guttiferce). Ceylon. W 62-6. E 657 tons. / 3-90. fc 2-41. fs -423. Used for tea-chests and in building. Hackberry {Celtis occidentdlis L. : Order Ulmdcece). Eastern North America. " Sugarberry, Nettle- tree, False Elm." French 184 WOODS OF CO]VIMERCE " ^licocoulier Occident ale," Germ. " Abendlandisclier Ziirgelbaum," Span. " Almez Americano." Height 100 ft. ; diam. 4 — 5 ft. S.G. 729. W 45-4. R 789 kilos. Sapwood yellowish or greenish ; heart brown, often dark, rather heavy, not hard or strong, tough, fine-grained, working well, slu-inking moderately, and taking a good satiny polish. Sometimes used for fencing, furniture, or wheelwrights' work, as a substitute for Elm ; but scarce. Hackmatack. See Tamarack. Haldu (Adina cordifolia Hook. fil. and Thom. = Nauclea cordi- folia Roxb. : Order Ruhidcece). India, Ceylon, Burma. Hind. " Haldu." Tamil " Manja Kadamba." Burm. " H'nau." Height 75 — 80 ft. ; diam. 2 — 3 ft. Pretty, yellow, light, close-grained, resembling Box, but soft, easily worked, not strong, much affected by weather, but durable if kept dry, cracking and warping, but polishing well. Used for masts, interior work in house-building, turnery, modelling, combs, etc. Hannoki [Alnus mantima Nutt. : Order Betuldcece) . Japan. Height 40 ft. ; diam. 1 ft. Used for gunpowder-charcoal. Harra {Termindlia Chebula Retz. : Order Combretdcece). India, Ceylon, Burma. " Pilla murda wood." Hind. " Harra." Sansk. " Haritaka." Tamil " Pilla marda." Height 45—80 ft. ; diam. 1| — 4 ft. S.G. 682. W 42 — 53. BrowTiish-grey, with a greenish, yellowish, or reddish tinge, darkening externally on seasoning, hard, strong, smooth and close-grained, taking a good polish and seasoning well, but subject to dry rot and to the attacks of termites and carpenter-bees. Used for beams and other house-building purposes, agricultural implements, etc. Its fruits, Chebulic or Black Myrobalans, are largely exported foi dyeing. Hawthorn (Crataegus Oxyacdntha L. : Order Bosacece). " White- thorn," " May," Europe, North and West Asia, and Xortli Africa. Height 10 — 20 ft. ; diam. seldom large. Flesh-coloured, with numerous pith-flecks, hard, heavy, difficult to split, with- out lustre ; vessels small, those in spring- wood not numerous ; pith-rays indistinguishable. Used in turnery and for walking- sticks, and the best substitute for Box for engraving yet discovered ; but slow-growing and seldom procurable of any size. Hazel [Corylus Avelldna L. : Order CupuUferce). Europe, North Africa, Temperate Asia. Height rarely 30 ft. ; diam. generally less than 1 ft. S.G. 600. W 35—45. Reddish-white, resembling Beech, without heart, soft, highly elastic, easily spHt, not durable ; annual rings almost circular ; pith-rays wide and narrow ; vessels small, in radial lines. Used for barrel-hoops and walking-sticks. Corylus Colurna L., the Turkish or Con- stantinople Hazel, of South-Eastern Europe, reaches considerable HAZEL-PINE— HICKORY 185 dimensions, over a foot in diameter, and yields a fine-grained, reddish-yellow wood, suitable for small furniture work. Hazel-Pine. See Gum, Sweet. Hemlock Spruce {Tsuga canadensis Carr. : Order Coniferce). Eastern North America. " Hemlock," " Hemlock Fir." French " Peruche," Germ. " Schierling Tanne." Height 80—100 ft. ; diam. 3 ft. S.G. 244. W 26-4. R 736 kilos. Light reddish-grey or brown, with lighter sapwood ; free from resin-ducts, light, soft, stiff, but brittle, usually coarse-grained, splintery, not very easily worked, shrinking and warping considerably in seasoning, retaining nails firmly, but wearing rough and not very durable. Used for sleepers, laths, rafters, planks, fencing, etc. Its bark is valuable for tanning. Hemlock, Western (Tsuga Mertensidna Carr. = Abies Albertidna Murray). Western North America. " Prince Albert's Fir." Height 180 ft. or more ; diam. 9 ft. or more. W 36-5. Heavier and harder than the Eastern form, but not strong. Used for rough lumber ; but chiefly valued for its bark. Hiba {Thujopsis dolabrdta Sieb. and Zucc. : Order Cupressiiiece). Japan. Japanese "Hiba, Asu-Naro, Thuia." French " Thuia de Japon." Germ. " Hiba-Lebensbaum, Beilblatriger Lebensbaum." Height 7 — 40 ft. ; diam. small. Yellowish-white, durable. Used in house-, bridge-, and boat-building. Hickory, originally the name of the North American genus Hicoria or Cdrya (Order Juglanddcece), closely allied to the Walnuts. " So close an analogy exists in the wood of these trees that, when stripped of their bark, no difference is discernible in the grain, which is coarse and open in all, nor in the colour of the heart- wood, which is uniformly reddish " (Michaux). In all, the sap- wood is broad and white, the heart a reddish nut-brown, heavy, hard, strong, proverbially tough, elastic, coarse, smooth and straight-grained ; the pith large, pith-rays numerous but hardly discernible ; with numerous fine peripheral lines of wood- parenchyma ; the pore-circle narrow but with large pores, whilst the vessels in the autumn wood are small and scattered. The wood seasons slowly, shrinking and warping considerably ; unlike Walnut, is very subject to the attacks of boring insects ; and is not durable if exposed. It is, consequently, never used in house- or ship-building ; but is specially valued for carriage-building, axles, the handles of implements, screws such as those of bookbinders' presses, bows, chair-making, coach-whips, gunstocks, hoops, fuel, and charcoal. It is harder, heavier and tougher than Ash. Nearly all American-made carriage-wheels imported into Britain have Hickory spokes and rims, which, though quite satisfactory in the 186 WOODS OF COmiERCE dry climate of the United States, are less so here than Oak would be. Hickory is, however, cheaper than Red Oak. In Australia the name has been apphed to many species of Acacia and other genera, to which reference will be made after the description of the true Hickories. Hickory Black, a name apphed equally to H. alba [See Hickory, Mocker-nut] and to H. glabra [See Hickory Pig-nut]. Hickory, Big-bud. See Hickory, Mocker-nut. Hickory, Bitter-nut {H. minima Britton = Cdrya amnra Xutt.). Eastern United States. " Swamp Hickorv." French " Xcyer amer." Height 70—80 or 100 ft.; diam.'^2— 3 ft. S.G. 755. W 47. R 1,101 kilos. Less valuable than Shell-bark Hickory ; but used for ox -yokes, hoops, and fuel. Hickory, Brown. See Hickory, Pig-nut. Hickory, Mocker-nut {H. alba Britton = (7a>?/a tomentosa Xutt.). Chiefly in the Southern United States. " Black, Big-bud," or " White-heart Hickory." Height 90 ft. or more ; diam. 3 ft. or more. Heart-wood in young trees white, slow-growing, durable, except when attacked by borers. Hickory, Pecan [H. Pecan Britton = Cdrya olivceformis Nutt.). South-Central United States. "Illinois Xut." Height 75 ft. or more ; diam. 2 ft. or more. Brittle, not strong. Inferior to Shell-bark Hickory, and chiefly used for fuel. Hickory, Pig-nut (H. glabra Britton = Cdrya glabra and C. por- cina Xutt.). Eastern Xorth America. " Brown Hickory." French "Xoyer de cochon." Germ. " Ferkekiusz." Height 85—100 ft. ; diam. 3—4 ft. S.G. 822. W 51. R 1,046 kilos. Perhaps the best of all the Hickories for axletrees and axe-handles. Hickory, Shell-bark (H. ovdta Britton = Cdrya alba Xutt.). Eastern United States. " Sliag-bark Hickory," " White Hickory." Frerich " Noyer tendre." Height 100—110 ft.; diam. li— 3 ft. S.G. 837. W 51—52. R 1,200 kilos, ft 2-7-5. fs -37— -4. Deriving its French-Canadian name from its elasticity, this is the species most exported, especially for axe- and hammer-handles, spokes, etc. It is also the best fuel. Hickory, Big or Thick Shell-bark {H. laciniosa Sarg. = Cdrya sulcata Xutt.). Central United States. Height 70—100 ft. ; diam. 3—4 ft. S.G. 810. W 50-5. R 1,083 kilos. Similar m character and uses to the last-mentioned. Hickory, Water [H. aqudtica Britton = Cdrya aqudtica Xutt.). South-Eastern United States. The lightest, weakest, and most useless species. HICKORY— HONEYSUCKLE 187 Hickory, in Australia, is applied to Acacia hinervdta [See Wattle, Black], A. doratoxylon [See Spearwood], A. falcdta [See Myall, Bastard], A. melanoxylon [See Blackwood], Eucalyptus punctata [See Leatherjacket], E. resinifera [See Mahogany], and Polyosma Cunninghdmii [See Feather- wood]. Hinau [Elceocdrpus dentdtus Vahl. : Order Tilidcece). New Zealand. S.G. 562. W 33—39-25. p 125. Small, light dull brown, very fine and close-grained, very tough, strong, and durable, almost incombustible. Used for sleepers, fencing, etc. Hinoki [Cupressus obtusa Koch : Order Cupressinece). Japan. " Japanese Cypress." Germ. " Feuercypresse, Sonnencypresse." Height 70—100 ft. ; diam. 2i— 3 ft. Sapwood yellowish-white ; heart rose-red, fragrant, strong, fine-grained, taking a high polish. One of the best of Japanese timbers, held sacred by the followers of the Shinto faith, whose temples are built of it, as also are the palaces of the Mikado. It is also the best for lacquering. Holly {Ilex Aqui folium L. : Order Ilicinece). Central Europe and West Asia. French " Houx." Germ. " Stechbaum, Hulse, Christdorn." Height 10—40 or 80 ft. ; diam. 1—4 or 5 ft. W 47— 60. White to greenish-white, fine-grained, with fine but distinct rings and pith-rays, vessels scarcely visible, approaching ivory in colour and texture more than any other wood, hard, heavy, sus- ceptible of a high polish, but shrinking and warping very much. Used, in the round, for engraving, especially in calico-printing ; for staining as imitation Ebony, as in the wooden handles of metal tea-pots ; in veneers, especially for white or stained strings in inlaying, as in Tunbridge ware ; and also for walking-sticks and tool- handles. Holly, American {Ilex opdca Ait.). Eastern United States. Height 50 ft. ; diam. 3—4 ft. S.G. 582. W 36. R 686 kilos. Similar to the European species and similarly used. Holly, Smooth {Hedycdrya angustifolia A. Cunn. : Order Moni- midcece). Eastern Austraha. " Native Mulberry." Small, very light, close-grained, and tough. Used by the aborigines for fire- sticks and spears, and fit for cabinet-work. Honey, Locust. See Locust, Honey. Honeysuckle, a general name in Australasia for species of Bdnksia (Order Protedcece), especially B. margindta and B. serrdta. B. margindta Cav. {^B. austrdlis R. Br.). South-Eastern Australasia. Height 10—20 or 40 ft. S.G. 598—610. W 38. When fresh cut resembling raw beef, with reddish-white sapwood, light, soft, porous, twisting and warping ; but, when thoroughly seasoned, hard, susceptible of a fine poHsh, and beautifully figured. Used for cabinet-work. 188 WOODS OF COMMERCE B. serrdta Linn. fil. Eastern Australasia. S.G. 803. W 39 — 50. Dark red, mahogany-like, handsome, finely figured, coarse and open-grained, strong, requiring careful seasoning, much bored by beetles. Used for window-frames and boats' -knees, and might be used for furniture. (See Appendix IV.) Honeysuckle, Coast {Bdnksia integrifolia L.). Eastern Australia. Known also as " Beefwood." Height 20—30 ft. ; diam. 1 ft. S.G. 799. W 50—39. Pink, beautifully grained, moderately dense, tough, durable when not exposed. Used for boats'- knees, etc. Honeysuckle, Silvery. See Beefwood. Honeysuckle in Xew Zealand (Rymdndra excelsa). See Re wa- re wa. Honeysuckle-wood in the United States (Pldtanus occidentdlis) . See Plane. Honoki {Magnolia hypoUuca S. and Z. : Order 3Iagnolidcece). Japan. Height 50 ft. ; diam. 2J ft. A dense, hard, ornamental wood, used for tables, wooden shoes, pencils, and for charcoal. Hoobooballi (? Stryphnodendron guianense Benth. =Mim6sa gui- anensis Aubl. : Order Leguminosce) . British Guiana. Height 100 ft. ; diam. 2 — 3 ft. W 55-75. Sapwood white, heart whitish- brown, with dark concentric streaks, very ornamental, durable in contact with water. Suitable for cabinet-work. Hoop Pine. See Pine, Moreton Bay. Horco Cebil {Piptadenia communis Benth. : Order Leguminosce). Xcrthern Argentina. Yielding timber 15 ft. long and 28 in. square, of a light Mahogany colour, as hard as Box, close and smooth- grained, but not withstanding moisture. Very useful for beams, cabinet-work, etc. Horco moUo [Bumelia ohtusifolia Koem. and Schutt. : Order Sapotdcece). Argentina. Light red-brown, fine and even-grained, easily worked. Useful for building. Hornbeam {Carpinus Betulus L. : Order Coryldcece). Central Europe and West Asia. French " Charme." Germ. " Weiss- buche," " Hainbuche." Height 40 — 50, sometimes 70 ft. ; diam. 1, rarely reaching 31 ft. S.G. 1,250—759. W 75-6—45. c 6,405. & -846. v' 1-087. YelloTvdsh- white, close-grained, heavy, hard, very tough, strong, difficult to spht, somewhat lustrous, and very durable if kept dry ; pores minute, in radial lines ; broad pith- rays lighter than the rest of the wood ; annual rings very sinuous, bending outward between the broad pith-rays. Used for handles, mallets, lasts, skittles, etc., imequalled for cogs and bearers for printers' rollers, and excellent for fuel, and imported in considerable quantities from France. Value 2s. 3d. per cubic foot. We have HORNBEAM— IROKO 189 seen the similar timber of C. duinensis Scop. ( = C. orientdlis Lam.) of South-Eastern Europe labelled " Oriental Beech." Hornbeam, American {Carpinus Carolinidna Walt.). Eastern North America. Known also as " Blue " or " Water Beech " and " Ironwood." Height sometimes 50 ft. ; diam. 1—2 ft. S.G. 728. W 45-4. R 1,149 kilos. Used to a small extent for handles, mallets, levers, and hoops ; but apparently slightly inferior to the European species. Hornbeam, Hop (Ostrya virginica Willd. : Order Coryldcece). Eastern North America. " Stonewood, Ironwood, Leverwood." French " Bois dur." Germ. " Amerikanische Hopfenbuche." Height 50 ft. ; diam. 2 ft. S.G. 828. W 47-5-58. R 1,134 kilos. Sapwood whitish ; heart dull brownish, heavy, hard, very strong and tough, durable. Used for fence-posts, handles, levers, etc., but scarce : excellent fuel. The Hop-Hornbeam of Southern Europe and Asia Minor {Ostrya carpini folia Scop.) is a similar but reddish wood resembling Pear, and suitable for turnery, or as a substitute for Hornbeam. Horse-chestnut {Msculus Hippocdstanum L. : Order Sapin- ddcece). Supposed to be a native of Asia ; but largely grown for shade throughout Europe and the United States. French " Mar- ronier d'Inde." Germ. " Roszkastanie." Height sometimes 80 ft. ; diam. 3—4 ft. W 60-29-5. White, or slightly yellowish or reddish, soft, close-grained, warping little, not durable, being deficient in tannin and resin ; annual rings wide, circular ; pith- rays narrow, numerous, indistinct ; vessels small, numerous, uniformly distributed, 1 — 7 together ; pith large, round. Wood similar in character to Willow and Poplar. Used for flooring, cart-linings, barrows, packing-cases, blind-wood in cabinet-making, moulds for castings ; and, in France, for sabots. [See Buck-eye, Tochi.] Huon Pine [Dacrydium FrankUnii Hook. fil. : Order Comferce). Tasmania. Also known as " Macquarie Pine." Height 60 — 80 or 100 ft. ; diam. 3 — 6 ft. W 33. Light yellow, very beautifully marked with dark wavy lines and small knots, light, close-grained, tough, easily worked, susceptible of a good polish, durable, noxious to insects. Used for boat-building, carving, and bedroom furniture, and burns briskly with an aromatic fragrance ; but is now quite scarce. Illupi. See Mahwa. Ipil. See Epel. Iroko (Chlorophora excelsa Benth. and Hook. fil. : Order Mordcece). Tropical West Africa, principally Southern Nigeria. " Iroko " in Yorubu land, " Odum " in Guinea, " Mbundu " in Uluguru, 190 ^YOODS OF CO:\DIERCE " Muamba-Camba " in Angola. Reaching large dimensions up to 3 ft. square. W 39—49. 34,951 lbs. Yellowish or brownish, witli dark zones, becoming with age a rich dark brown, handsome, moderately hard and strong, straight, coarse and open in grain, and ver}' durable, proof against termites and other x^'lophagous insects. This wood has jDrobably a great future on the European market, being one of the finest known substitutes for Teak, which it resembles in colour, and, when sawn tangentially, in texture. Though inferior to Burmese Teak, it is superior to Javanese, being worth 6s. per cubic foot. It is at present used in West Africa^ for railway-sleepers and building purposes. The grain picks out so that it will not polish. Ironbark, a name applied to various species of Eucalyptus (Order MyrMcece). In Tasmania, E. Sieheridna [See Gum, Cabbage]. In Australia, E. largiflorens [See Gum, Slaty], E. macrorrliyncha [See Stringybark], and especialh' E. leucoxylon and E. siderophloia. E. leucoxylon F. v, M. South-Eastern AustraHa. Ejoiown also as " Black or " Red Ironbark, Black Momitain Ash, \Miite, Bastard." or " Scribblv Blue Gum." Height up to 200 ft. : diam. 2—5 ft. S.G. 1,173—908. W 73-26— 63-5. Light brown, yellowish or pale pinkish-white, close- and straight-grained, hard, very strong, tough, and durable, both in water and in the ground, shghtly greasy, which renders it suitable for cogs. It is also used for naves and felloes, sleepers, piles, planks, telegraph-poles, fence-posts, axe-handles, beams, rafters, tree-nails, and screws. An aUied form, E. sideroxylon A. Cmin. in Xew South Wales, has darker and heavier wood, similarly employed, and furnishing one of the best fuels in the country. E. siderophloia Benth. Xew South Wales and South Queensland. Kjio^tl also as " Red " or " Broad-leaved Ironbark." Ahorig. " Tanderoo." Height 70—100 ft. : diam. IJ— 4 ft. S.G. 1,171—936. W 71-5-64. e' 2-16. p' 1-74. c 8,377. C 1-106. v' 1-348. Deep red, very hard, heavy, strong, rigid, and difficult to work, plain and straight- grained, hable to heart- and star-shake ; pores very minute, filled with a hard, white, brittle secretion. Used for beams, keelsons in ship -building, piles, sleepers, and paving, bemg one of the strongest and most durable of Austrahan timbers. Ironbark, Grey [E. crebra F. v. M.). Eastern Austraha. Kno^ii also as ^^^lite, Red," or " Xarrow-leaved Ironbark." or " Grev Gum." Height 70—90 ft. ; diam. IJ— 3 ft. S.G. 1,119— l,2li. Dark purphsh or brown, hard, very heavy, tough, cross-grained, hard to work, durable. Used for sleepers, piles, fence-posts, spokes, etc. Ironbark, White [E. paniculdta Smith). Eastern Australia. Known also as "Red, Pale," or " She Ironbark," and as " Blood- wood." Height 70—150 ft.' ; diam. 3—4 ft. W 71—76. Brown, IRONWOOD 191 heavy, very hard, tough, strong, seasoning and working well, durable. Perhaps the most valuable Ironbark : much used for sleepers and other railway work, fence-posts, beams, etc. [See also Gum, Cabbage.] Ironwood, a name applied to many widely different timbers in various countries ; but to a greater variety in Australia than elsewhere. (i) Acacia excelsa Benth. (Order Leguminosce) . Queensland. Height 70 — 80 ft. ; diam. 2 — 3 ft. Violet-scented, ornamental, hard, close-grained, tough, elastic. A cabinet wood. (ii) A. stenophylla A. Cunn. Eastern Australia. Known also as " Dalby Myall." Height 40—60 ft. ; diam. 1—2 ft. Dark, beauti- fully marked, very hard, heavy, close-grained, taking a fine polish. (iii) Casuarina equisetifolia Forst. (Order CasuaHnece). See Oak, Swamp. (iv) Melaleuca genisUfoUa Sm. {Order Myrtdcece). North-Eastern Austraha. Known also as " Ridge Myrtle." Height 30—40 ft. ; diam. IJ — 2 ft. Greyish, close-grained, hard, durable. (v) Myrtus gonocldda F. v. M. (Order Myrtdcece). North Queens- land. Very hard, and suggested for engraving. (vi) Notelcea ligustrma Vent. (Order Oledcece). South-Eastern Australasia. Known also as " Native Olive, Heartwood " in Tas- mania, and as " Spurious Olive," or " White Plum " in Victoria. Height 30 ft. ; diam. 1 ft. S.G. 925. Irregularly figured, like OHve wood, exceedingly hard and close-grained, and taking a fine polish. Used for mallets, blocks, and turnery. (vii) Olea paniculdta. See Marblewood. (viii) Tarrietia argyrodendron. See Silver-tree. In Borneo and the Straits Settlements (ix) Eusideroxylon Zwagerii is so called. See Billian. In Burma (x) Xylia dolabrijormis goes by this name. See Acle. In Cape Colony (xi-xv) Olea laurijoUa Lam. (Order Oledcece). 60 — 90 ft. high and 2 — 3 ft. in diam. O. unduldta Jacq,, 0. capensis L., 0. exasperdta Jacq., and 0. verrucosa Link., " Olyvenhout " or " Umguma," all very similar and nearly equal to Lignum- Vitse, are known as " Black Ironwood," W 54-6, used for guides for stamps in gold-crushing ; whilst (xvi) Todddlia lanceoldta Lam. (Order Xanthoxyldcece) is known as " White Ironwood " [See Umzimbit], and (xvii) Sideroxylon inerme L. (Order Sapotdcece), which occurs along the east coast of Africa from the Cape to Zanzi- bar, a very heavy, hard, close-grained, durable, greyish-yellow wood, with brownish-red markings, used in ship- and bridge-building, and for telegraph-poles, is known as " White Ironwood of Mauritius," and also as " Soft " or " White Milkwood " in South Africa. Copai- fera Mopdne Kirk, which occurs from Guinea to Mozambique, is (xviii) also known as " Ironwood." [See Mopane.] In Ceylon and India the name " Ironwood " is applied to (xix) 192 WOODS OF COMMERCE Mesua ferrea L. (Order GuttifercB), also known as " Indian Rose- chestnut." Hind. Xagesar." Assam. " Xahcr." Andaman and Burm. " Gangaw." Height 20 ft. or more ; diam. 1 — 2 ft. W 69 — 77. Dark red, extremely hard and difficult to work, taking a high polish, strong, durable. Used for gun-stocks, handles, wood- paving, and building, and suitable for furniture. " Black Iron- wood " is here (xx) Conddlia ferrea Griseb. (Order Bhamndcece) . S.G. 1,300. W 85. The Iron wood of China and Japan, used for rudders and anchors, is believed to be (xxi) Metrosideros vera Rumph. (Order Myrtdcece), occurring in the ^lalay Archipelago, and knowTi in AmbojTia as " Xani " : that of Guiana and Honduras is (xxii) Lapldcea Hcemat- oxylon Camb. (Order Camellidcece), also Imown as " Blood- wood," and used for cogs ; whilst in Jamaica (xxiii) Slodnea jamai- censis Hook. (Order Tilidcece), known also as " Break-axe," and (xxiv) Erythroxylon areoldtum L., also kno^vTi as " Redwood," are also so named. The latter has a light reddish-brown sapwood and dark heart, with some figure. It is durable in water, and is used for mill-frames and cogs. Ironwood, Morocco (xxv). See Argan. In Xatal, besides the White Ironwood [See Umzimbit], there is (xxvi) Olea laurifolia Lam., known as "Black Ironwood," Zulu " Tamboti." Height 40—70 ft. ; diam. 2—3 ft. W 64-68— 73-5. E 896 tons. / 7-84. fc 4-79. BroTvn with dark streaks, resembhng Ohve, and suitable for turnery. In Xew Zealand the name is applied to (xxviii-xxix) Metrosideros rohusta and M. lucida A. Rich. [See Rata] and to M. tomentosa A. Cunn., Maori " Pohutakawa." This last yields timber 10 — 20 ft. long, and 9—16 in. square, with S.G. 1,200—858, dark red or walnut-brown, very heavy, hard, close-grained, strong and durable, suitable for ship -building. In the United States (xxx) Carpmus carolinidna is sometimes called Ironwood [See Hornbeam, American] ; but in Xew Mexico the name is apphed to (xxxi) Olneya Tesota, A. Gray {Order Legumi- nosce). In Persia (xxxii) Parrotia persica (Order Hamamelidd- cece) ; and in the island of Reunion (xxxiii) Stadmdnnia sideroxylon DC. (Order Sapinddcece) is so called. Irosun or Osun, the native name of several West African woods. [See Camwood and Rosewood, African.] Ivory Wood {Siplwnodon austrdle Benth. : Order Celastrdcece). Xorth-East Australia. Xot plentiful, tall, straight, diam. 1 ft., white, very close-grained, firm, easily worked. Used for spools and turnery, but suitable for engraving. Jacaranda, the Brazilian name for various species of Dalhergia and Maclicerium (Order Leguminosce), known in English commerce I JACK— JARRAH 193 as Rosewood, including Jacaranda cabiuna [Dalhergia nigra Allem.), Jacaranda roxa {Mdchcerium firmum Benth.), and Jacasanda preto {M. legale Benth.). See Rosewood. Jack {Artocdrpus integri folia L. : Order Mordcece). India. Beng. " Kanthal." Sinh. " Kos." Brazil. "Jaqueira." Some- times known as " Orangewood." Height 80 — 100 ft. ; diam. 2 — 5 ft. S.G. 554—676. W 35-6-45. Yellow or orange, darkening on exposure to a dull red or mahogany colour, somewhat coarse and crooked in grain, moderately hard, requiring thorough seasoning to check warping, taking a good polish ; but brittle when dry and not tolerant of alternations or dryness and damp. Used as a yellow dye, for house- and boat-building, furniture, musical instru- ments, grain-measures, and in England for cabinet-work, marquetry, turning, and the backs of brushes. Jack, Jungle. See Angelly. Jack, Long (Flindersia Oxleydna F. v. M. : Order Melidcece). North-Eastern Australia. Known also as " Light Yellow Wood." Height 80—100 ft. ; diam. 2—31 ft. Yellow, often pretty, light, fine-grained, strong, durable, almost tremite-proof. Used for hand-screws and buggy-shafts, in boat-building and cabinet-work as a substitute for Cedar and often coming to market as " Beech " — i.e., Gmelina Leichhdrdtii [See Beech] ; but not so valuable. Jambolana {Syzygium Jambolana DC. : Order Myrtdcece). India, Ceylon, Mauritius, Australia. Port. " Jambu." Hind. " Ja- moon." Beng. "Jam." Mahr. " Jambool." Tarn. "Nagal." Austral, ahorig. " Durobbi." Height 80—100 ft. ; diam. 2—3 ft. W 49. Flesh-colour or red, hard, firm, close-grained, durable, shrinking little in drying, resisting the action of water or termites. Used for sleepers, building, carts, well-work, and agricultural implements. Jam-wood. See Myall (iii). Jarrah (Eucalyptus margindta Sm. : Order Myrtdcece). South- western Australia, Sometimes known as " Mahogany " or " Bastard Mahogany," a name which has led to ruinous customs- tariffs. Height 90 — 150 ft. ; diam. 3 — 5 or sometimes 10 ft. S.G. 837—1,120. W 48—76. E 620 tons, e' -66. p 2,113—10,000. p' -85. / 413. ft 7-20- 4-6. fc 3-04. c 2,940. c' -388. v' -937. Straight-grown, and, even when unsound in the centre, yielding timber 20 — 40 ft. long and 1 — 2 ft. square, red, mahogany-like in colour, sometimes exhibiting a ray of light across the grain and a beautiful mottling, and sometimes curled in grain, very heavy, hard, close-grained, working smoothly, taking a good polish, and, when sound, extremely durable, resisting the action of damp, water, earth, or rust, and very uninflammable. This most valuable 13 194 WOODS OF CO:\DIERCE of Australian timbers is stated to cover 14,000 square miles ; but the best timber grows only on the ironstone ridges. It should be cut when the sap is at its lowest ebb and banded if in the round, or seasoned one month for every inch in thickness if in scantlings. Its durability is due to from 16 — 20 per cent, of a powerfully astringent gum, mainly consisting of an acid allied to taimic, which is present in the heartwood when soimd. Burrs are sometimes formed on the trees, from 6 — 10 ft. across, and equal to those of Oak or Walnut in their figure. For ship-building Jarrah is classed in hne 3 of Lloyd's Register : it can be used without copper-sheath- ing : while cheaper in India than Teak when in the log, and only half its price in scantlings, roof-shingles made of it are almost uninflammable ; and it is largely used for sleepers, telegraph-poles, piles, dock gates, and keelsons, but especially for wood paving- blocks, for which purpose it has been largely employed. Jarrah sleepers are apt to split in manufacture, and when in small scanthngs this timber twists and changes in shape for years. It can appar- ently be much improved in this respect by impregnation. Its price in England is about £7 per ton, or from £9 10s. to £13 10s. per 1,000 blocks, the freight alone being 50 — 60 sliillings a ton. The orna- mental varieties are valued for furniture, in spite of their great weight ; and the wood also yields an excellent charcoal. 'i|-v'^-i*,^ V Jarul (Lagerstrcemia flos-regince Retz. : Order Lythrdcece). India, Burma, and Ceylon. " Queen Lagerstrcemia." Sansk. " Stotu- lari." Hind. "Jarul." Burm. " P;>Tn-mah." Sink. " Muruta." Height 30 ft. to first branch ; diam. 4 ft. S.G. 744. W 41—46-5. E 544 tons. / 5-22. /c 2-76. fs -337. R 822 lbs. Light red, hard, lustrous, durable under water. The most valuable timber of Xorth-East India and second only to Teak in Burma. Chiefly used in boat -building, often pelding compass-timber suitable for knees ; but also for naves, felloes, waggon-frames, gun-carriages, and building. Jati. See Teak. H Jelutong [Dyera costuldta Hook. fil. : Order Apocyndceoe). Malay peninsula. Used locally for planks, etc. Jhand {Prosopis spicigera L. : Order Leguminosce). Persia, Afghanistan, Western India. A moderate-sized tree, pelding timber 9 in. square, purj)Ush-brown, straight -grained, very hard, tough and strong, easily worked, but not durable. Used for wheels, carts, agricultural implements, weavers' shuttles, furniture, and building. Judas-tree {Cercis Siliqudstrum L. : Order Legumiiiosce) . Southern Europe and Warmer Temperate Asia. Known also as " Love-tree." French " Arbre de Judee, Gainier." Ger7n. Judasbaum." Sap- wood white ; heart brownish-yellow, veined with black, handsome, JUNIPER— KAMASSI 195 hard, taking an excellent polish ; rings distinct ; pith-rays moderately broad ; vessels in spring-wood large, those in the summer- wood much smaller, 1 — 8 together. Juniper [Juniperus communis L. : Order Cupressinece). Europe, Northern Asia, and North America. Amer. " Ground Cedar." French " Genevrier." Germ. " Wachholder." Height 15—20 ft. or more ; diam. seldom considerable. S.G. 660. W 33 — 41. Sapwood narrow, yellowish ; heart light yellowish-brown, fragrant, fine and close-grained, with no resin-ducts, no distinguishable pith-rays, wavy annual rings marked by narrow reddish-brown zone of autumn-wood, tolerably heavy, soft, difficult to split, very durable. Used, on the continent of Europe, for whip-handles, vine-stakes, buckets, and turnery, Verv similar in character to the wood of Cupressus and Thuja, and with similar burrs. Juniper, Indian {Juniperus macropoda Bois.). Afghanistan, Biluchistan, Himalaya to Nepal. " Himalayan Pencil-Cedar." Height 30 — 45 or 70 ft. ; diam. 1 — 7 ft. Light, moderately hard, very fragrant, deep red, often purplish, easy to work, durable. Often the only valuable timber, as near Quetta. Used for building and carpentry. In Australia the name " Native Juniper " is applied to Myoporum serrdtum R.Br. (Order Myoporinece), known also as " Blueberry, Native Currant, Native Myrtle," and "Cockatoo Bush." S.G. 809 — 819. White, hard, durable when protected, but small. Used for inlaying. Kaddam {Stephegyne parvifolia Korth. : Order Ruhidcece). India, Burma, Ceylon. Height 70—80 ft. ; diam. 2—5 ft. W 37. Light pinkish-brown or deep yellow, easily worked, taking a good polish, durable if kept dry. Used for building, furniture, carving, and turnery. Kafir Date or Plum. See Date, Kafir. Kahikatea. See Pine, White, of New Zealand. Kakeralli (Lecythis Olldria L. : Order Lecythiddcece). Tropical America. " Monkey-pot, Sapucaia-nut." W 61. Large, dense, even and smooth-grained, brown, durable, teredo-proof. Used in wharf- and house-building. Kamahi ( Weinmdnnia racemosa L. : Order Saxifragdcece). New Zealand. Towhai." W 45-25. Dark reddish-brown, fine- grained, soft. Kamassi (Gonioma Kamdssi E. Mey. : Order Apocyndcece) . Cape Colony. " Cape, East London," or " Kjiysna Boxwood." Height 16—20 ft. ; diam. 1—1^ ft. W 58. Close-grained, hard, tough, heavy. One of the finest woods in South Africa, but small. 13—2 196 WOODS OF COmiERCE Used for cabinet-work, planes and other carpenters' tools, and suitable for engraving. Kapor. See Camphor, Borneo. Karamatsu. See Larch, Japanese. Karri (Eucalyptus diversicolor F. v. M. : Order Myrtdcece). South- West Australia, Sometimes known as " Blue Gum." Height 300—400 ft. ; diam. 3—12 ft. S.G. 1,023—885. W 50—72. E 760 tons, 2-10. 1-05. 6-20. /c 2-92. c 7,070. -934. Reddish, very heavy, slightly wavy or curled in grain, but without ornamental figure, hard, tough, strong, elastic, not so easily wrought as Jarrah, subject to star-shake and gum-veins, durable under water or when exposed to alternate drought and wet, but not between wind and earth, comparatively non-inflammable, but more liable to dry-rot than Jarrah. Much used locally for wheels, ship-building, and planks, being classed in the third-line of Lloyd's Register, suited for piles and bridges, and coming into use for paving-blocks, waggon -building, and for furniture. Stated to cover 2,300 miles of country. Katsura (Cercidiphyllum japonicum S. and Z. : Order Magnoli- acece). Hokkaido, Japan. Height 80 ft. ; diam. 3 ft. Used in building, carpentry, and turnery. Kauri (Agathis austrdlis Sahsb. = Ddmmara austrdlis Lamb. : Order Araucarmece). North Island, New Zealand. " Kauri " or " Cowdie Pine." Height 120—200 ft. ; diam. ^10 or 20 ft. at base. S.G. 498—623. W 38-96— 37-4. E 470 tons, e' 1-78— 1-39. p' l-Ol— -79. / 2-16. fc 2 03. c 4,543. c' -6. v' -769. Sap wood 3 — 5 in. wide, very resinous : heart yellowish- white to brown, clean, fine, close and straight in grain, moderately hard for Pine, very firm, strong and elastic, generally sound or with shght heart-shake, shrinking very little in seasoning, planing up well, with a beautiful silky lustre like the plainest Satinwood, taking a good polish, staining well, wearing even, without splintering, and more durable than any other Pine, except where exposed to the teredo. It is sometimes richly mottled or " curly." Unrivalled for masts and spars, valuable for the decks of yachts owing to its freedom from knots and regularity of grain, used also for sleepers, telegraph- posts, house-building, and joinery. It is the most valuable forest- tree of New Zealand and the soft wood of the country ; but the supply is limited, and, though there is a considerable export trade to Australia, the cost of freight limits its employment elsewhere. It is imported only in the form of sawn planks, its price in London auctions being from 3s. 3d. to 4s. 6d. per cubic foot. Kauri, Queensland. See Pine, Dundatha. KAYA— KIRTON-WOOD 197 Kaya [Torreya nucifera S. and Z. : Order Taxdcece). Japan. " Japanese Torreya." French " Porte-noix Torreya." Height 20 — 30 or 80 ft. ; diam. up to 4 — 5 ft. Yellowish- white, hard, straight-grained, strong. Much valued for building and cabinet - making. Keurboom {VirgUia capensis Lam. : Order Leguminosce) . Cape Colony. Height 15—40 ft. ; diam. IJ— 2 ft. W 44-2. Light, moderately hard, open-grained. Occasionally used for rafters, spears, etc. Keyaki {Zelkowa acuminata Planch. : Order Ulmdcece). Japan. " Japanese Elm." The best deciduous timber-tree in Japan. Used for common lacquered ware. Khair {Acdcia-Cdtechu Willd. : Order Leguminosce). Punjaub — Berar. A. catechuoides Benth. Bengal — Burma, and A. Sundra DC. Western India. " Cutch, Kath." Burm. " Sha." Dark red-brown to light brick-red, very hard, heavy, and durable, termite- and teredo-proof, and taking a fine pohsli ; but chiefly used as a source of the tanning extract catechu. Kharpat {Garuga pinndta Roxb. : Order Burserdcece). India and Burma. Mahr. " Kooruk." Telug. " Garuga." Height 40 ft. to first branch ; diam. 3 ft. W 52. Reddish, moderately hard, seasoning well, but not durable. Occasionally used for building or for fuel. Khat {Cdtha edulis Forsk. : Order Celastrmece). East Africa. Seldom more than a shrub, but yielding a beautiful reddish-white wood, with zones of darker red, very hard and heavy. Kial300ca. See Amboyna-wood. Kiamil [Odma Wodier Roxb. : Order Anacardidcece =Calesium grdnde O.K.). India, Burma, Ceylon. Burm. " Na-bhay." Tarn. " Ooday." Telug. " Goompana." Height 50 ft. to first branch ; diam. 4 ft. S.G. 656. W 41—65. Light-red when first cut, darkening to red-brown on exposure, close-grained, moderately hard, seasoning well but slowly, requiring two or three years, not warping, not very durable. Used for spear-shafts, scabbards, spokes, oil-presses and rice-pounders, suitable for cabinet-work. Kino. See Rosewood, African. Kino, Indian. See Teak, Bastard. Kirni {Mimusops Kauki L. : Order Sapotdcece). India, Burma, and represented by a variety, Brownidna A.DC. in tropical Australia. Port. " Poma d'Adseo." Hind. " Kirni." Malay. " Manil kara." " Ironwood " in commerce. Red, fine-grained, very hard, easily worked. Kirton-wood. See Ash, Mountain. 198 WOODS OF COIVmERCE Kizi {Paulownia imperidlis S. and Z. : Order Scrophularidcece) . Japan. A moderate-sized tree, yielding a soft, white, very light wood, employed for the finest lacquer ware. Knobthorn [Zanthoxylum capense Harv. : =Fagardstrum capense D.Don. : Order Rutdcece). South Africa. " Knobhout, Paarde- pram." Height 50—60 ft. ; diam. 1 ft. W 44-75— 48-5. Sap- wood greenish-yellow, heart brown, heavy, hard, close-grained. Used for axles, tools, etc. Kohekohe {Dysoxylum spectdhile Hook. f. : Order Melidcece). New Zealand. " Redheart." S.G. 678. W 36—42. p 117-4. Sapwood brown, heart rose-red, soft, fine-grained, easily worked. Used for cabinet-work. Kola {Cola acuminata R. Br. : Order StercuUdcece). West Africa ; introduced into tropical America. Height 40 ft. Whitish, Hght, porous, Poplar-hke wood, obnoxious to insects. Used in boat and waggon-building and for tables. Kolavu (Hardwickia pinndta Roxb. : Order Leguminosce). South- West India. Brown, moderately hard. Used in building. Kosum (Schleichera trijuga Willd. : Order Sapinddceoe) . India, Burma, Ceylon. " Ceylon Oak." Beng. " Koon." Mahr. " Ku- soombh." Sinh. " Kon." Tarn. " Kulu " or " Puvu." Height 50 ft. ; diam. 1 — 4 ft. W 60 — 70. Red, very heavy and hard, strong, durable, but not large. Used for axles, spokes, pestles, sugar-crushers, and screw rollers for mills, beams and trusses. Kowhai {Sophora tetrdptera var. graiidifiora Ait. : Order Legumi- nosce). New Zealand. S.G. 884. W 48-75—55. p 207-5. Brownish-white, very hard and tough. Used for cogs. Kranji {Didlium : Order Leguminosce). Malay peninsula, Java, Borneo. " Tamarind Plum." A general Malay name for five or six species, D. indum L., D. laurinum Baker, D. Maingdyi Baker, D. pdtens Baker, and D. platysepalum Baker, the last being known as " Kranji sepan." They are 50 — 80 ft. high, 4 — 5 ft. in. diam. W 67. S.G. 956—1,067. e' 3-4. p' 1-83. c 10,920. c' 1-442. Sapwood whitish, heart red, very heavy, hard, tough and strong, close-grained, resembling Spanish Mahogany, but without figure, wellnigh indestructible. Used in Borneo for ship- and house- building. Kretti (Nectdndra sp. ? : Order Laurdcece). British Guiana. Height 80 ft. ; diam. 2 ft. W 32. Brown, resembhng the heavier Black Cedar, but with the fragrance of West Indian Cedar. p^Kurumi (Juglans mandshurica Maxim. : Order J uglanddcece) . Japan. Resembhng the European Walnut in characters and uses. Laburnum. See Ebony, False. LACEBARK— LARCH 199 Lacebark. Under this name and the Maori name " Powhiwhi " are confused the two Malvaceous trees Hoheria populnea A. Cunn. and Plagidnthus hetulinus A. Cunn., both confined to New Zealand. The former is brown, coarse-grained, soft, and brittle. W 42. It is used for furniture. The latter is lighter in colour and weight (W 36-5), and finer in grain. Lacewood. See Plane. Ladle- wood [Hartogia capensis L. : Order Celastr'meoe). Cape Colony. Resembling Mahogany, hard. Suitable for turnery or cabinet-work. Lancewood in Honduras, etc. [Guatteria virgdta Dun : Order Anondcece). " Yaya." Yellow, light, elastic, hard, fine-grained. W 52 — 63. Used for shafts, fishing-rods, bows and arrows, and imported in spars fetching about 7s. each. In Guiana the allied or identical " Yariyari " {Duguetia guitar ensis Benth.) is exported under the same name. Diffuse-porous, with minute pores and fine rays. The ladder-like cross-bars of soft tissue between the rays, which are characteristic of the Order Anonacece, are in this species white and finer than in some others. [See also Myrtle, Scrub, and Shad-bush.] In Tasmania the name is applied to Eriostemon squdmeus (Order Eutdcece). Height 20 ft. ; diam. 1 ft. S.G. 801. W 50. A scarce, yellow wood, used for shafts and tool- handles. Lancewood, Red. See Bulletwood. Lapachc [Tabebuia flavescens Benth. and Hook. fil. : Order Bigyionidcem). Bolivia and Northern Argentina. Abundant, averaging 20 ft. high, and reaching 3 ft. in diam. S.G. 1-1. Greenish-brown, closely resembhng Greenheart, heavy, tough, durable. Used for hydraulic work and sleepers in Bolivia, and for beams, spokes, telegraph-arms, and " varillas," or fence-droppers, in Argentina. Larch {Ldrix europcea DC. : Order Ahietiyiece) . Alps of Central Europe, and represented by a variety in Siberia. French " Meleze." Germ. " Larche." Ital. " Larice." Height 80—100 or 120 ft. ; diam. 2—4 ft. at base. S.G. 809—519. W over 68, when green 32—38. E 400—600 tons, e' 1-45. p' -78. / -43. ft 4—5-5. c 4,203. c' -555. /c 2-5. v' -783. fs -75. Yellowish - white, generally straight and even, but sometimes rather coarse in grain, soft, tough, strong, very easily split and very durable, being rich in tannic and phenolic antiseptic substances, shrinking excessively and warping in seasoning, but lustrous and working up tolerably well. In its native cold uplands, though there may be an inch of yellowish-white sapwood, the heart is reddish-brown and harder. The pith is small ; the pith-rays with tracheids with bordered pits 200 WOODS OF COMMERCE above and below, and parenchyma with simple pits in the middle ; resin-ducts smaller and fewer than in Pinus ; knots irregularly distributed ; annual rings wide, defined by a broad dark zone of autumn- wood, finely sinuous. Its durability rendered Larch a favourite wood in ancient Rome. Caesar styles it " hgnum igni impenetrabile." Augustus built his forum with it ; Tiberius brought this timber for the repair of bridges from the forests of Rhaetia and preserved one tree, which was 120 feet long and 2 feet in diameter throughout, as a curiosity ; and Vitruvius attributes the decay of the buildings erected in Rome at the time to the disuse of Larch on the exhaustion of the forests near the city. Much of Venice is built on Larch piles, which, after ages of exposure to alternate wet and drought, are still sound. Being of rapid growth, Larch is much used for scaffold-poles, ladders, pit- props, sleepers, and fencing ; and, being more free from knots than Spruce, is much prized by carpenters and wheelwrights. In ship-building, though its durability is in its favour, its shrinking is against it ; but it is classed with Douglas, Huon, Kauri, and Pitch Pines, in the eighth-line of Lloyd's Register. Larch is not largely imported ; that from Italy being small, crooked, and coarse- grained, that from Poland rather larger and straighter, and that from Northern Russia the largest. When growing in the plains the Larch has proved so susceptible to the fatal attacks of the fungus Peziza Willkommii that it seems likely to be replaced as an object of cultivation by the Douglas Spruce. Larch, American, Black, or Red. See Tamarack. Larch, Chinese or Golden (Pseudoldrix Kcempferi Gord. : Order Ahietineoe). China. Height 120 — 130 ft. Very heavy and hard. Larch, Himalayan {Ldrix Griff ithii Hook. fil.). Eastern Himalayas. Height 40 — 60 ft. Of small dimensions, white, soft, easily split, but durable. Of little value. Larch, Japanese {L. leptoUpis Gord.). Central mountains of Japan. " Toga, Kara-matsu, Fuji-matsu." Height 60 — 80 ft. or more ; diam. 1| — 4 ft. Heart red -brown, heavy, hard, and strong ; but little used, as it grows at altitudes of 5,000 or 6,000 ft. This species is, however, now being largely cultivated in Europe. Larch, Western. See Tamarack, Western. Lasrin (Alhizzia odoratissima Benth. =^ Mimosa odoratissima Roxb. : Order Leguminosce) . India, Burma, and Ceylon. Sink. " Hurihi." This species and A. Lebbek constitute the East Indian Walnut of commerce. [See Walnut, East Indian.] W 42 — 60. Dark brown with darker streaks, very hard, seasoning and polishing well, and fairly durable. Used for wheels, oil-mills and furniture, suitable for carving. LAUAN— LAURIER MADAME 201 Lauan {Anisoptera thurifera Blume =Dipterocdrpus thurifer Blanco : Order Dipterocarpdcece) . Philippines. Does not split with shot. Used formerly for ship-building. Laugoussi [Termindlia Tanihouca Rich. : Order Combretdcece) . French Guiana. S.G. 1,226—922. R 250 kilos. Very commonly used for canoes and curved timbers. Laurel is a name not applied to any timber- tree in Europe. The true Laurel or Bay {Laurus nohilis L.), though 50 — 60 ft. high in Southern Europe, is always more of a shrub ; and though the Cherry-Laurel {Prunus Laurocerasus L.) is recorded with stems of large girth, its wood does not seem to be used. In Australia the name is applied (i) to Panax elegans and (ii) to Cryptocdrya austrdlis. Panax elegans F. v. M. (Order Aralidceoe). North-Eastern Australia. Also known as " Light " or " White Sycamore " or " Mowbulan Whitewood." Height 30—40 ft. ; diam. 1 ft. W 31. White, with a pretty grain, much resembling Ulmus in structure, light, soft, easily split, not durable, warping and cracking unless very carefully seasoned. Might do for cricket bats or blind-wood. Cryptocdrya australis Benth. (Order Laurmece). North-Eastern Australia. Also known as " Moreton Bay Laurel " and " Grey Sassafras." Height 80—100 ft. ; diam. 1— IJ ft. White, light, easily wrought, obnoxious to insects, not durable if exposed. In Northern Argentina the name is applied to Nectdndra por- phyria Griseb. (Order Laurmece), yielding timber 10 — 12 ft. long and 3 ft. square, of a rich dark-brown colour, well figured. Abun- dant, used for beams, furniture, and railway-carriage fittings ; but liable to crack in the sun. Laurel, Alexandrian. See Poon. Laurel, Big. See Magnolia, Large-flowered. Laurel, California {Umbelluldria calif ornica Nutt. : Order Laur- dcece). California. Also known as " Myrtle." Light brown, heavy, hard, susceptible of a high polish. A local substitute for Oak. Laurel, Madrona {Arbutus Menziesii Pursh. : Order Ericdcece). North America. " Strawberry-tree." W 44 — 55. Small, reddish- brown, hard, tough, fine and even-grained. Used for gunpowder charcoal. Laurel, Native. See Cheesewood. Laurel, White. See Beech, She. Laurier Cypre [Ocotea cernua Mez. =Oreoddphne cernua Nees : Order Laurinece), West Indies. Durable, useful timber of moderate size. Laurier Madame {Nectdndra sangmnea Rottb. : Order Laurinece). West Indies. Light, used for staves and planks. 202 WOODS OF CO:\DIERCE Laurier marbre {N. concinna Xees). A cabinet wood. Leather jacket, a name applied in Australia to (i) Alphitonia excelsa [See Ash, Mountain], (ii) Ceratopetalum apetulum [See Coaehwood], (iii) Cryptocdrya Meissnerii F. v. M. (Order Laurinece). Xorth-Eastem Australia. Height 80—100 ft. ; diam. 2—3 ft. White, close-grained, tough. Used for staves. (iv) Eucalyptus punctata DC. (Order Myrtdcece). Xew South Wales. Also kno^n as " Hickorv, Turpentine, Bastard Box," " Grey Red," or " Yellow Gum." Height 40—100 ft. ; diam. 1 — 2 ft. Sapwood yellow ; heart pale reddish-brown, heavy, hard, close-grained, tough, with gum-veins, difficult to split, but seasoning well and very durable. Used for sleepers, fence-posts, ship- and house-building, wheelwrights' work, and fuel. (v) Weinmdnnia Benthdmii F. v. M. : Order Saxifragdcece) . Xorth-Eastern Austraha. Height 50—60 ft. ; diam. IJ — 2 ft. Close-grained, firm, easily wrought. Used for staves and inside work. Lein or Lienben (Termindlia hialdta Wall. : Order Combretdcece). India, Burma, and the Andaman Islands. Height 80 ft. to the first branch ; diam. 4 ft. W 39. BroT\^l, beautifully mottled, moderate^ hard. Lemon-wood [PsycMtria ecTclonidna F. v. M. : Order Rubidcece). Cape Colony. " Lanumi." Height 20—30 ft. ; diam. 2—3 ft. Hard, tough, useful. Leopard or Letter- wood [Brosimum Aubletii Poepp. =Pira- tinera guianensis Aubl. : Order Mordcece). Guiana. Known in English commerce as " Snakewood." , French " Lettre mouchete." Germ. " Lettern-holz." Port. " Pao de letras." Ahorig. " Buro- koro." S.G. 1,333—1,049. W 77—83. R 340 kilos. Sap- wood yellow, not used ; heart squaring 20 in., but only exhibiting its characteristic dark mottling for about 6 in., very hard, heavj^, compact, taking an excellent polish, but difficult to work and full of defects. The heartwood is imported for inlaying and walking- sticks, but rare. ^Microscopically this wood is remarkable in ha^-ing its large vessels filled Avith tyloses of very thick-walled cells, with dark, ruby-coloured resin. Letter-wood, Red or Striped {Ainanoa guianensis Aubl. : Order Eupliorhidcece). Guiana. French " Lettre rouge " or " rubanne." S.G. 1,175 — 1,038. R 317 kilos. Sapwood whitish ; heart brown- red with blackish veins. Lightwood. See Blackwood and Coaehwood. Lign-Aloes. See Eagle-wood. Lignum-vitse {Guaidcum officin/ile L. : Order Zygophylldcece). Colombia, Venezuela, Jamaica, Cuba, Hayti, but chiefly St. Do- LIGNUM-VIT^ 203 mingo. Cuba " Guayacan." Height 20 — 40 ft. ; diam. 1 — 2 ft. S.G. 1,393—1,248. W 60—83. E 508—498 tons. / 4-88— 7-18. ft 7-14. fc 3-4- 4-4. fs •447-1-246. R 246 lbs. Sapwood dingy yellow, ^ — 1 in. broad, as durable as the heart, some of it being, therefore, left on to preserve the rest from splitting ; heart blackish with a greenish tint ; pith-rays not recognizable and annual rings scarcely so ; very heavy, hard, strong, and close-grained, with fibres running obliquely both radially and tangentially, so that it can hardly be split, and containing 25 per cent, of gum-resin, which renders it almost imperishable. It is liable to cup-shake when more than 10 in. in diameter. Imported in lengths of 6 — 12 ft. up to 10 in. diam. and 3 — 6 ft. when of greater diam., realizing £5 — £18 per ton. Used for ships' blocks, pestles, mortars, skittle-balls, rulers, heads of croquet-mallets, string-boxes, etc. Among the ancients and in France the name has been applied to Tetraclinis articuldta. [See 'Arar.] Lignum-vitse, African (Comhretum truncdtum Welw. : Order Combretdcece). Guinea to Mozambique. " Mozambiti." Large, very heavy, dense, close-grained, with light-coloured sapwood and deep reddish-brown heart. Lignum-vitse in Austraha (i) Acdcia falcdta [See Myall, Bastard], (ii) Myrtus semenioides [See Myrtle, White], (iii) Eucalyptus poly- dnthema [See Box, Red], (iv) Phylldnthus Ferdindndi [See Beech, White], (v) Vitex Ugnum-vitce A. Cunn. (Order Verbendcece). North- Eastern Austraha. Height 50—70 ft. ; diam. IJ- 2 ft. Blackish, hard, close-grained. Useful, but not yet known to cabinet-makers, (vi) Dodoncea viscosa L. (Order Sapinddcece). Found throughout the tropics. " Switch-sorrel " of Jamaica. " Birch " of Tas- mania. Sapwood white, heart dark-brown, in some varieties greenish-black, streaked with rose, very hard, close-grained, and durable. Used in India for engraving, turning, tool-handles, and walking-sticks, and suited for all the uses of the true Lignum- vitse. Lignum-vitae, Bahama (Gudiacum sdnctum L.). Florida and the Bahamas. W 89. Sometimes as much as 26 ft. long and 12 in. in diam., resembling G. ofp^cindU and similarly employed. Lignum-vitae in British Guiana {Ixora ferrea Benth. =Sidero- dendron triflorum Vahl : Order Rubidcece). Known also as " Hackia,' or " West Indian " or " Martinique Ironwood." Height 30—60 ft. ; diam. 1—2 ft. W 65-8—73. E 1,027 tons. / 6-72. fc 4-85. fs -457. Dark-brown and hard. Valuable for cogs, shafts, or furniture. Lignum-vitae, Guayaquil, an unknown species, nut-brown, hard, fine-grained, having nothing in common with the true Lignum- vitse, to which it is inferior. _^^W 49. Shipped from Guayaquil. 204 WOODS OF CO:\BIERCE Lignum- vitae, Maracaibo {Gudiacum arboreum DC). Brazil, Paraguay. " Palo Santo." S.G. 1,306. W 69. Sometimes 60— 70 ft. long, and 1 — 2 ft. in diam., bro\^Ti, excessively hard, fine and close in grain. Lignum-vitae in Xew Zealand (Metrosideros scrhidens Banks and Sol. : Order Myrtdcece). Kjiown also as " Akibaum." A creeper " growing up the stem and over the tops of the tallest trees in the Xew Zealand forests ... so exceedingly Hke the Rata {M. rohusta) in wood, bark, leaf, and flower, that I could never distinguish any difference between them " (Laslett). Lilac, Persian. See Bead-tree. Lilly-pilly [Eugenia SmUhii Poir. : Order Myrtdcece). Eastern AustraHa. Height 80—120 ft. ; diam. 1—3 ft. S.G. 935—898. Close-grained, but liable to split in seasoning and to dry-rot. Used for axe-handles. Lima-wood. See Peach-wood. Lime, a coiTuption of Line, also known as Linden [Tilia corddta Miller, platyphyllos Scop, and argentea Desf. : Order Tilidcece). Europe, the last-named onh' in the south-east. French " Tilleul.'* Germ. " Linde," T. corddta being known as " Winterlinde," T. platy- phyllos as Sommerlinde." JRuss. Lipa." Height 20—90 ft.; diam. 1—4 ft. S.G. 794—522. W 29-5- 32-5. Pale yellow, white, or reddish-white, light, soft, close-grained, easily split, with a feebly silky lustre, not very durable, being liable to become " worm- eaten "; annual rings indistinct ; pith-rays fine but distinct ; vessels scarceh^ visible, equally distributed. Though not durable where exposed to the weather. Linden wood stands fairly well when thoroughly dried and kept in a uniform atmosphere or protected by paint or varnish. Used for sabots, and in Japan for " getta," or sandals, as blind-wood in pianofortes and other furniture, in turnery, especially for druggists' boxes, for carving, as in the beautiful work of Grinling Gibbons, for leather-cutters' planks, and for gunpowder-charcoal. It makes good sounding-boards for pianos, and has been imported from Lithuania for this purpose. Lime, American."^ See Bass-wood. Locust, in Guiana and the West Indies [Hymencea Courharil L : Order Leguminosoe). Simiri," " Courbaril." Span. " Algarrobo." Height 60—80 ft. ; diam. 8—10 ft. S.G. 1,191—904. W 33-25— 59. E 549—1,018 tons. / 4-54— 8-13. jc 2-23- 5-41. fs -49- •585. R, 333 kilos. Fine reddish-brown, streaked with darker veins, hard, compact, close and even-grained, easily worked, elastic, taking a beautiful pohsh, not sphtting or warping in seasoning. L^sed for ships' planks, engineering, tree-nails, furniture, and cabinet-work, and suitable for cogs. LOCUST— LOQUAT 205 Locust or Black Locust in the United States are names used indiscriminately for the alHed Rohinia pseudacdcia and Gleditschia triacdnthos, the former known distinctively as the Yellow, the latter as the Honey or Sweet Locust. Rohinia pseudacdcia L. (Order Leguminosce) . Southern United States. Height 75 ft. or more ; diam. 3 ft. or more. W 36 — 52. Sap wood very narrow, comprising generally only five rings, yellowish-white ; heart yellowish-brown, with shades of red and green, very heavy, hard, strong, tough, firm, offering the greatest resistance to compression in the direction of the fibres, elastic, shrinking considerably in seasoning, but very durable, especially in contact with soil. Vessels all plugged with thin-walled tyloses and appearing as clear yellow spots : those in the spring-wood very large, forming a broad pore-circle, those in the autumn-wood often in peripheral lines. Used for sleepers, piles, waggon-hubs, and tree-nails in America ; and in Europe, where it is considerably grown, under the name " Acacia," especially on railway-banks to protect forests from sparks, for vine-props, wheel-spokes, turnery, and cabinet-work. It has recently acquired increased importance both here and on the Continent from its suitability for the spokes of motor-cars. Gleditschia triacdnthos L. (Order Leguminosce). Central United States. Known also as " Three-thorned Acacia." French " Fevier a trois epines." Germ. " Dreidorniger Honigdorn." Span. " Al- garrobo de miel." Height 90—100 ft. ; diam. 3—4 ft. S.G. 674. W 42, R 923 kilos. Sap wood broad, yellowish to greenish- white ; heart rose or brownish-red, heavy, hard, fine- and close-grained, strong and very durable, especially in contact with the soil, re- sembling Rohinia in character and uses ; but with open vessels — i.e., without tyloses. Logwood (Hcematoxylon campechidnum L. : Order Leguminosce). Central America, naturalized in Jamaica and introduced into India. " Campeche." Germ. " Blauholz, Blutholz." Height 40 ft. ; diam. IJ ft. S.G. 995. Deep dull brownish-red, very heavy and hard, violet-scented. The heartwood is used exclusively as a red or black dye. We import 40,000 to 60,000 tons annually, and it fetches from £5 to £10 per ton. It comes to market in logs about 3 — 4 ft. long. The colouring-matter, " hsematein," forms metallic green crystals, but gives a port-wine coloured solution with water. For purple dyes stannate of soda is used as a mordant : with lime, baryta and tin chloride logwood gives a blue precipitate ; and " woaded blacks " are dyed first in indigo and then in logwood extract and potassium bichromate. Logwood is also extensively used in the manufacture of ink. Loci\X3Lt{Erioh6tryajap6nicaIjmdl.; Order Rosdcece) . Japan. "Biwa." Germ. " Wellenmispel." Hard. Used for musical instruments. 206 WOODS OF CO:\DIERCE Magnolia, Large-flowered {Magnolia grandiflora L. : Order Magnolidcece). Southern United States. " Big Laurel," " Bull Bay." Height 70 ft. or more ; diam. 3 ft. \Miite, heavj', soft, not strong. Suitable for cabinet-work and interior finish. Mahoe, Blue (Hibiscus eldtus Sw. : Order Malvdcece). Tropical America. "Tulip-tree." S.G. 722. W 44-5— 49. Brownish-grey, occasionally shaded with dark blue, peppery when worked, hard, coarse-grained, very flexible, longer in fibre and more durable than Ash. Used for gunstocks, carriage-poles, fishing-rods, etc. Mahogany originally (Swietenia MaMgoni L. : Order Melidcece). Centra] America, Mexico, Cuba, and other West Indian islands. " Spanish " or " Cuba Mahogany," and "St. Domingo " are local names. French "Acajou." Germ. " Mahagoniholz." Span. " Caoba." Height 5 — 50 ft. to the branches ; diam. 1 — 4 ft. S.G. 560—880. W35— 67. E 560—650 tons, e' Ml— 1-9. 2:>' -97— 1-06. / 4-46. ft -76—7. fs -15- -25. c 2,998—3,791. c' -396- •5. /c 3-3— 3-5. v' -772— -953. men freshly felled light reddish- brown, soon darkening on exposure to light ; vessels equally dis- tributed ; annual rings distinct ; pith-rays fine, but distinct ; sap wood only |- — 1 in. thick ; heart generally heavy, hard, close, and straight in grain, difficult to split, susceptible of a very high polish, with a beautiful satiny lustre, and sometimes with a w^a\y figure that much enhances its value as a furniture wood. The figures are known as " roe," " mottle," " cross-mottle," " dapple," " fiddle-back," " plum-pattern," and " curls." It does not, as a rule, shrink or warp, and is superior to all other woods in taking a firm hold of glue : it is also durable, and almost non-inflammable. Of the varieties above enumerated Cuba or Spanish Mahogany yields accurately squared timber 18 — 35 ft. long and 11 — 24 in. pquare, very solid at centre, rarely affected by cup- or star-shake, and with insignificant heart-shake. Its specific gravity ranges from 720— 817. W 53. 1-71. 1-06. c 3,791. -5. v' -doS. From the time of Cortez and Raleigh, in the sixteenth century doTVTi to the eighteenth. Mahogany was used as an Oak-substitute in ship-building for beams, planks, and stanchions, whilst figured logs demand high prices for furniture, but are now only seen in very small sizes. St. Domingo Mahogany is very similar in quality, but much smaller, generally 8 — 10 ft. long and 12 or 13 in. square, though occasionally 25 ft. long and 15 in. square. It is very hard, almost horny, a stress of 4,300 lbs. per square in. being required to indent it -Jq. in. transversely to the fibres. It is mostly figured, presenting a rich curl or feather at the bases of its branches. It is now very seldom exported, and appears to be almost exhausted in the accessible districts. There seems, in fact, to be very little American Mahogany in the market which is truly Swietenia Ma- Mgoni, the distinctive anatomical characters of which seem to be MAHOGANY 207 a nearly continuous ring of pores in the spring-wood and few pores in the outer part of the annual ring. The Mahoganies of the Central American mainland, which form the bulk of the rapidly shrinking American supply, and are known as Honduras, Tabasco, Bay- wood, Colombian, Panama, Mexican, or Bermuda, are probably the wood of species of Cedrela, a genus closely allied to Swietenia. They are almost always considerably lighter in weight than the old Spanish or Cuban Mahogany, weigh- ing 35 lbs. or less per cubic foot as against from 35 to 67 lbs., and are also decidedly softer. Anatomically they are marked by the general absence of a continuous pore-ring in the spring-wood and by the presence of almost as many scattered pores in the outer as in the inner part of each annual ring. Honduras Mahogany, shipped from Belize, Trujillo, and Tabasco (the largest logs, which frequently have heart-shakes, coming from the latter port), reaches 50 ft. at its first branch and 3 ft. in diam., and yields logs 25 — 40 ft. long and 12 — 24 in. square, or even larger. It is seldom figured, becomes somewhat brittle on drying, and is apt to develop deep star-shakes. S.G. 644—684. W 35. Ml. 2?' -99. c 2,998. c' -396. v' -806. Stress required to indent it 2V in. transversely to its fibres 1,300 lbs. It is known commercially as " Baywood," and, besides being used as an Oak-substitute in ship-building, is largely used in cabin fittings and by cabinet- makers, turners, and carpenters. Some Mahogany sold as Honduras is really Guatemalan. Mexican Mahogany reaches the largest dimensions, sometimes squaring 48 in., but generally coming to market in logs 18 — 30 ft. long and 15 — 36 in. square. It is generally somewhat soft and spongy at the centre, often affected by star- shake, and plain in figure. S.G. 612— 790. e'1-9. -97. c 3,427. c' -451. v' -772. We import some 75,000 loads of Mahogany annually, the value of which is about £730,000. Mahogany, African, is the trade-name for several allied woods belonging to the Order Melidcece, and not distantly related to the Swietenia of the West Indies, and the genus Cedrela, which is represented in the tropics of both hemispheres by valuable timber- yielding species. The species most frequently represented on the Liverpool market are Khdya senegalhisis A. Juss., K. grandifolia Stapf, K. Purchii Stapf, Trichilia Pricuridna A. Juss., Enta^idro- phrdgma Candollei Harms, E. Candolledna De Will. & T. Dur, and E. angolense C. DC. ; but it is probable that many other species are also sent to market as Mahogany, which accounts for the great variation in the nature of the wood so named. So-called African Mahogany is shipped from settlements as far apart as Senegal and Angola ; but though some reaches Liverpool, the chief European port of import from French territory, such as Grand Bassam and Assinee, on the Ivory Coast, the bulk of the supply 208 WOODS OF CO:^DIERCE at present reaches us from the British settlements on the Gold Coast and in Southern Xigeria. Khaya senegalensis seems to be the chief species north and west of the Gold Coast, being known to the French as " Cailcedra," as " Gambia Mahogany " in our Northern colonies, as " Hie " in Jolop, " Jallow " in Mandingo, " Dubina " and Oganwo " on the Gold Coast. It does not appear to be in any quantity south-east of Sekondi on that coast ; but is reported from Angola and N^^assaland. W 34-5. Between Sekondi and Lagos no Mahogany is shipped ; but from Lagos to Benin TricMlia Pri- curidna is the predominant species, and from Benin to Sapeli Entandrophrdgma Candollei. Some of the trees reach very large dimensions, being often 100 ft. to the first branch, and squaring 2 ft. at that height. The wood is, however, mainly shipped in logs from 10 — 29 ft. long, and mostly between 15 and 20 ft., and from 13 — 52 in. — or mostly 20 — 30 in. — deep at the butt. There is an apparently illimitable demand for logs 30 — 36 in. deep. The wood shipped from Assinee and Axim reaches the largest dimensions, that from Sekondi seldom exceeding 50 cubic ft. per log, and that from Lagos being also small. In colour the woods vary from yellow to brown, with dark zones, and it is sometimes so finely figured as to realize 5s. to 12s. per superficial foot for veneers. Bathurst wood is the hardest ; but whilst those from Guinea are mostly of good quality in this respect, that from the Gaboon is little better than Birch, fetches much lower prices, and is probably quite a distinct species. Some of the best wood is shipped from the Ivory Coast ; but, owing to the surf, it is difficult to get the logs off, so that but little reaches Liverpool. Very large quantities are shipped from Axim, and the logs fetch good prices, up to 5, 7, 9, and even from 12 to 19 pence a foot. Sekondi is increas- ing in importance as a port of shipment, the small logs brought down by rail from north of Tarquah being firm and of good colour. More than a quarter of the whole supply is now shipped from Lagos : the Benin wood is excellent, and that from Sapeli [Entandro- fliragma ?) is fine, large, well-squared, and scented like a Cedar. Entandrophrdgma Candolledna De Wild. & T. Dur., known locally as " Cail-Cedra," is a large tree, 100 ft. high, described, from the neighbourhood of Stanley Falls in the Congo Free State, as " un bel Acajou," and as yielding abundance of a yellowish resin. E. angoUnse CDC. ( =Swietenia AngoUnsis Welw.), " Quibaba da Qucta," is also a large tree ; but, perhaps, yields inferior wood. Khdya anthotheca CDC. " Quibaba da Mus- sangue," described by Welwitsch, from the south-west, as a large tree, 40—60 ft. high and 4—5 ft. in diam., is stated by Mr. M. T. Dawe to occur in the Semliki Forest and in Unyoro in Eastern Tropical Africa. In this region the last-named botanist also records a TricMlia near to T. emetica Vahl as yielding a useful MAHOGANY 209 timber near Lake Victoria Nyanza, Khdya senegalensis as only a small or medium-sized tree, Pseudocedrela excelsa Dawe & Sprague, from the West Ankole Forest, as a valuable timber-tree reaching 100 ft. in height, and P. utilis Dawe & Sprague, from Unyoro, reaching an equal height, from 3 — 5 ft. in diam., and yielding a valuable light Mahogany. African Mahogany is very strong and termite-proof, and the demand during the last few years has more than kept pace with the supply. The Liverpool import of 9 million feet in 1894 grew to 13 milHon in 1897, 18 milHon in 1900, 21 milhon in 1903, and 20 million in 1906. The logs are mostly hewn square when im- ported, and a very large proportion of them, especially of those that are figured, are re-exported to America. It seems to have been first imported about 1833, when fifty-eight logs sold in Liverpool at 5d. — 6d. a foot ; but as a real business the trade dates from 1886, when some 94,000 ft. from Assinee sold at 4d.— 6d. Of the 20 million cubic feet which reached Liverpool in 1906, over 6 million came from Lagos, 4 million from Axim, nearly 2f million from Benin, over IJ million from Assinee, IJ- million from Grand Bassam and a million from the Gaboon. In 1903 a log from Assinee fetched the record price of 12s. 6d. per foot. Mahogany, Australian. See Cedar, Pencil, and Jarrah. Mahogany, Bastard {Eucalyptus hotryoides Sm. : Order Myrtdcece). Known also as " Swamp " or " Gippsland Mahogany," " Blue Gum," "Bastard Jarrah," "Woolly Butt," and "Bangalay." South-Eastern Australia. Height 40 — 100 or 160 ft. ; diam. 2 — 4 or 8 ft. S.G. 891. W 55-59. Light dull red to warm rich brown, heavy, hard, tough, close, even and straight in grain, easy to work, but somewhat subject to gum-veins and shakes, durable. Valuable for ship- and waggon-building, yielding compass-timber suitable for ships' knees. The name is also applied to Jarrah. Mahogany, Bay {Cercocdrpus ledifolius Nutt. : Order Rosdcece). California. Dark-coloured, hard, and heavy. Mahogany, Borneo or Penagah, is probably Calophyllum ino- phyllum. See Poon. Mahogany, East India (Soymida febrifuga A. Juss. : Order Melid- cece). " Bastard Cedar, Indian," or " Coromandel Redwood." Hind. " Rohuna." Telug. " Somida." Central and Southern India. A large tree, yielding logs 17 — 20 ft. long and 1 — 1 J ft. diam. S.G. 378. W 54-8. Dark blood-red, heavier than water when fresh, very hard, close and straight-grained, easily worked, durable underground, termite-proof, but splitting on exposure, and becoming very brittle when seasoned. Used in boat-building, well-work, plough-shares, tables, and carved work in temples. 14 210 WOODS OF C0:\B1ERCE Mahogany, Forest or Red {Eucalyptus resimfera Sm. : Order Myrtdcece). North-East Australia. Also known as " Red, Grey," or " Botany Bay Gum, Hickory, Red Stringybark," and " Jimmy Low." Height 80—130 ft. ; diam. IJ— 5 ft. W 61—72.5. Light brown or dark or very dark red, very heavy, close and smooth in grain, very strong, not shrinking, affected with gum- veins, but very durable in air, water, or soil, teredo- and termite-proof. Used for ships' knees, piles, fence-posts, paving, rafters, and shingles. The name " Forest Mahogany " is locally apphed also to E. microcorys. [See Tallow-wood.] Mahogany, Horseflesh (Ccesalpinia sp. : Order Leguminosce). Bahamas. Very strong and durable. Used for ships' knees. This name, or that of Horseflesh-wood, is also appHed to the allied species Swdrtzia tomentosa DC, which has S.G. 1,020, and is known in Venezuela as " Xaranjillo." Horseflesh Mahogany is exported from the Bahamas to England as " Sabicu." Mahogany, Indian. See Cedar, Moulmein. Mahogany, Madeira {Persea indica Spreng. : Order Laurinece). Teneriffe. KnowTi also as " Venatico " or " Vinacito." Mahogany, Mountain (Betula Unta [See Birch, Cherry] and Cercocdrpus parvifolius Xutt. (Order Rosdcece). Mahogany, Natal (Kiggeldria Dregedna Turcz. : Order Bixdcece). South Africa. W 48. Light yellomsh Mahogany-coloured, soft, fine-grained. Mahogany, Swamp, a name applied in Australia to (i) Eucalyptus hotryoides [See Mahogany, Bastard], (ii) Tristdnia laurina [See Box, Bastard], (iii) T, suaveolens [See Gum, Broad-leaved Water], and (iv) Eucalyptus rohusta Sm. (Order Myrtdcece). This last species, a native of Xew South Wales, is known also as " Wliite Mahogany " and " Brown Gum." Height 100—150 ft. ; diam. 2—4 ft. S.G. 1,098—889. W 58-5. Light-browTi to dark-red, generally containing some gum-veins, often cross-grained, difficult to split, seasoning well, but with some warping, and becoming rather brittle, durable in damp situations, and obnoxious to iQsects, probably owing to its containing no less than 19 per cent, of kino- red, the astringent gum-resin so characteristic of this genus, a higher percentage than in any other species. It is valued for shij:- building, shingles, inside work, wheelwrights' work, mallets, rough furniture, and fuel. Mahogany, White. See also Stringybark (vi). Mahwa (Illipe latifoUa Eng. and /. Malahrorum Konig =Bdssia latijolia Roxb. and B. lo7igif6lia L. : Order Sapotdcece). The former in Northern India, the latter in the south and Ceylon. " Butter- tree." Hind. "Mahwa" or " Mahua." Tarn. " lUupa." Sink. MAIRE— MANGEAO 211 " Mee." These trees are rarely felled, being valued for their edible flowers. In Central India the wood is pinkish, weak, invariably rotten at the heart, so as only to square 4 — 6 in., though approach- ing 2 ft. in diam. ; but in the Upper Provinces it is Mahogany-like in colour, harder, strong and tough, and is used for the naves of wheels, furniture, and sleepers. The southern species is light- reddish, hard, close-grained, flexible, and durable. W 61. It is apt to split on exposure to wind and sun ; but is used for spars, keels, tree-nails, bridges, house-building, etc. Maire, Black {Olea Cunninghdmii Hook. fil. : Order Oledcece). New Zealand. Height 40 ft. S.G. 1,159. W 74-5—60. p 314-2. Light-brown, very heavy and hard, dense and durable, averaging eleven fairly even rings to the inch, with vessels in flamboyant groups, somewhat as in Buckthorn. Used for wheels and mill machinery. The strongest wood in the Dominion. Maire- tawhake {Eugenia maire A. Cunn. : Order Myrtdcece). New Zealand. S.G. 790. W 49-24. p 179-7. Maire, White {Olea lanceoldta Hook. : Order Oledcece). New Zea- land. W 53. Sapwood pink, heart brown, streaky, hard, fine- grained. A substitute for Ash. Makita {Parindrium laurinum A. Gray : Order Rosdcece). Fiji Islands. Height 50 ft. Very hard, durable, and tough. Used for spars for canoes. Make {Aristotelia racemosa Hook. fil. : Order Tilidcece). New Zealand. "Currant-tree." S.G. 593. W 33-62. p 122. An ornamental wood. Mammee-apple {Mdmmea americdna L. : Order Guttiferce), West Indies. Also known as " Wild " or "St. Domingo Apricot." Height 50 ft. W 59—61. E 763—857 tons. / 6-95—7-4. fc 2-2— 3-5. fs -36 — -55. White or reddish, light, durable under ground or water. Used in building and carpentry. Mammcth-tree. See Big-tree. Manchineel {Hippomdne Manchinella L. : Order Euphorbidcece). Sandy shores in Central America and the West Indies. Tawny yellow, variegated with brown, with odour of lavender, and yield- ing a poisonous milk. W 50. Furniture. Mangachapui {Shorea Mangdchapoi Blum. : Order Diptero- carpdcece). Philippines. S.G. 671. W 42. Used in ship-building at Manilla, and classed in the third-line in Lloyd's Register. Mangeao {Tetrdnthera calicdris Hook. fil. : =Litsea calicdris Benth. & Hook. : Order Laurinece). New Zealand. Height not exceeding 40 ft. S.G. 621. W 38—48. p 137. Light-brown, tough, close-grained. Used for ships' blocks. 14—2 212 WOODS OF COMMERCE Mango {Mangifera indica L. : Order Anacardidcece) . Tropical and sub- tropical Asia. Introduced in the West Indies. Hind. '•Am." Telug. " Mamidi." S.G. 597. DuU grey, porous, be- coming a Light chocclate colour, harder, closer-grained, and more durable in the centre of very large old trees, holding a nail faster than any other wood, and standing exposure to salt-water, but not to fresh. It could readily be creosoted. Used for solid cart- wheels, canoes, rough furniture, planking in the interior of houses, for packing-cases, as bhnd-wood and as ground for veneers, being the cheapest light wood obtainable in Madras. Mangosteen, False or Wild (Sandoricum indicum Cav. : Order Melidceoe). Southern India, Burma, Philippines, and Moluccas. " Indian sandalwood." Burnt. " Theit-to." A large tree, yielding a timber with white or grey sapwood ; heart reddish, dense, hard, susceptible of a high polish. Used in cart- and boat-building. Mangrove {Rhizophora mucrondta Lam. : Order BhizophordcecB) . Maritime tropical swamps from Zanzibar to the Fiji Islands. East Africa ^Ikonko.'' jPz^i " Dogo." Te%. " Ponna." JIalay " Mangi-mangi," " Api-api." Height 15—25 ft. W 70-5. Light- coloured, red or brown-red at the centre, with darker zones, often nearly black, very heavy, hard, close-grained, tough and durable. Manoao. See Pine, Silver. Manuka (Leptospermum scopdrium Forst.) and Manuka rauriki {L. ericioides A. Rich. : Order Myrtdcece). New Zealand. " White Tea-tree." S.G. 943. W 59. p 239. Dark, maple-like, hard. L'sed for piles, fences, wheels, or furniture. Manzanita {Arctostdphylos pungens H.B.K. : Order Ericdcece). L'nited States. W 59-5. Small, sapwood white, heart reddish- purple, with lighter streaks, fine-grained. Used in turnery. Mapau {Myrsine Urvillei A. DC. : Order Myrsindcece). New Zealand. " Matipo," "Red Birch," or "Red Maple." S.G. 991. W 61-82. p 192-4. Used for furniture and fuel. Mapau, Black {Pittosporum tenuifolium Banks and Sol. : Order Pittosporece). New Zealand. " Matipo-tarata," " Black Maple." S.G. 955. W 60-14. p 243. Maple, originally Acer campestre L. (Order Acerinece). England, Central Europe, Northern Asia. " Common " or " Field Maple." French " Erable champetre." Germ. " Gemeiner, Feld " or " Kleiner Aliom." Welsh " Masaran." Height 10—20 or 40 ft. ; diam. 9 — 12 in. S.G. 750. W^ 61-5 when green, 52 when dry. Light-brown or reddish-white, hard, fine-grained, compact, tough, with a beautiful satin-like lustre, sometimes containing dark pith- flecks, and not uncommonly curled or speckled (" Bird's-eye Maple ") ; annual rings slightly wa^^ ; pith-rays fine but distinct ; MAPLE 213 vessels minute. Curled or mottled specimens were prized in former days for " mazer-bowls," which were mounted in silver. These when cut into veneers, as by the rotary knife, are equal to American Bird's-eye Maple. In France the wood is sought after by turners and cabinet-makers. It makes excellent fuel and the very best charcoal. In Austraha the name " Maple " is applied to Villaresia Moorei F. V. M. (Order Olacinece) of New South Wales, also Imown as " Scrub Silky Oak." Aborig. " Belbil." Height 80—120 ft. ; diam. 3 — 6 ft. W 41-36. White, close-grained, prettily figured, durable. Suitable for bedroom furniture. The name is also applied in Queensland to Flindersia Chatawaidna. [See Beech, Red.] Maple, Ash-leaved {Negundo aceroides Moench. : Order Acermece). South Central United States, California, and Manitoba. Also known as "Box-Elder" or "Black Ash." "Negundo." French " Erable a giguieres." Height 50 ft. or more ; diam. 2 ft. or more. S.G. 438. W 27. R 529 kilos. White or yellowish, light, soft, not strong or durable. Of inferior quality, used to some extent for interior finish and cooperage, and for fuel, but chiefly for paper-pulp. Maple, Bird's-eye or Pin. See Maple, Rock. Maple, Black. See Maple, Rock. Maple, Blister. See Maple, Rock. Maple, Broad-leaved. See Maple, Oregon. Maple, California. See Maple, Oregon. Maple, Great or Sycamore. See Sycamore. Maple, Hard. See Maple, Rock. Maple, Himalayan. Several species of Acer are of some impor- tance in thisregion ; viz. (i) A. Campbelli Hook. fil. & Thbg., in the Eastern Himalayas, a greyish-white, hard, and dense wood, used for tea-boxes and planking ; (ii) A. ohlongum Wall., in Nepal and Kumaon, a reddish-brown, hard and dense wood, used for agricultural implements ; (iii) A. Loheli Tenore, growing from the Eastern Mediterranean to the Himalayas, a brownish- white, hard, dense, elastic wood ; (iv) A. Icevigdtum Wall., in Nepal, reaching 30 — 40 ft. in height and 3 — 4 ft. in diam., and used for beams, rafters, etc. Maple, Japanese {A. pictum Thunb., A. polymorphun, etc.). " Itaya-Kayede." Several ornamental species in Japan yield timber similar to that of the European species. Maple, Norway {A. platanoides L.). Norway to Central Europe. " Plane Maple." French " Erable plane." Germ. " Spitz Aliorn." Height 60—70 ft. ; diam. 2—3 ft. W 43. White, but inclining to grey, when mature, easily worked, and taking a fine polish, with the satin-like lustre of the pith-rays characteristic of the group, and slightly wavy annual rings, hard, heavy, tough, cracking 214 WOODS OF CO:\DIERCE and warping, but durable if kept dry. Used in turnery, for musical instruments, gun-stocks, etc., being practically identical with the wood of the Sycamore. Maple, Oregon {A. macrophyllum Pursh.). Pacific slope of Xorth America. Also known as " Cahfornia " or " Broad-leaved Maple." Height 90 ft. or more ; diam. 4 ft. or more. W 40*5. Rather light, hard, and strong. Used in Oregon for axe- and broom-handles, snowshoe-frames, and furniture, and on radial sections exhibiting occasional curly figure, which is highly prized for cabinet-work. Tliis figure is produced by an unexplained waviness or spiral twist in the elements of the wood, which is rarely recognizable in the growing tree, but produces transverse corrugations on the surface of the log when the bark is removed, these curls or corrugations varying in number in different trees from one, or less than one, to several to the inch. Though scarcely visible in a transverse section, tliis beautiful figuring is seen on all longitudinal or cbhque sections, appearing on the planed surface so like the hght and shadow on an undulating surface that it is difficult to beheve it smooth. It is sometimes called " Fiddle-backed Maple " from its resemblance to a variety of Sj^camore used for the backs of violins. Maple, Red {A. rubrum L.). Canada and Eastern United States. Known also as " Soft, Swamp " or " Water Maple." Height 70—90 ft. ; diam. 3—4 ft. S.G. 618. W 38-5. R 811 kilos. SajDwood broTVTiish-wliite, with a small, irregular brown or reddish- brown heart, moderately hea^^', hard and elastic, close-grained, compact, taking a very smooth pohsh, not strong or durable. Used in turnery, chair-making, for wooden dishes, shovels, and other small ware. Occasionally curled, when it is valued for gunstocks and for veneers. The bird's-eye figure is rare in this sj)ecies. This wood does not enter into American export trade. Maple, Rock {A. harhdtum, ^lichx.). Eastern Xorth America. Also known as " Hard " or Sugar Maj^le," and a variety as "Black Maple." Height 50—100 ft. or more; diam. 1—4 ft. S.G. 691. W 43. R 1,149 kilos. White when first cut, becommg rosy on exposure and when seasoned ; sap wood light yellowish ; heart brown, heay\', very hard, fine and close in grain, comj^act, strong, tough, taking a fine polish, with a satiny lustre. The most valuable species, but not durable if exposed, requiring two or three years' seasoning. Used in Xew England as an Oak substitute, in preference to Beech, Birch, or Elm, for house-frames, ships' keels, axles, spokes, chairs and other furniture, flooring and interior fijiish, wooden bowls, considered the best in the market, shoe-lasts, pegs, saddle-trees, etc., and also for fuel. It is but little imported, except when figured. " Bhster " or "Landscape," "Bird's-eye" or " Pin," and " Curly " or " Fiddle-back " figures all occur in this MAPLE— MARGOSA 215 species, the first two being almost confined to it. The BHster figure is produced by wart-hke prominences on the wood beneath the bark, and is cut tangentially by a rotary lathe in a veneer the length of the log, and running spirally inwards to the centre of the tree. The name " Landscape Maple " is appropriate in that this figure much resembles a contoured map. The Bird's-eye or Pin figure, which is more common, is produced by pittings, which are visible on the bark. These appear in transverse section as " pins," and in tangential section as " eyes." This figuring does not extend more than 6 — 8 in. from the surface, the centre being invariably plain wood. Veneers of these varieties are imported at Liverpool, and three-ply wood, faced on one side with Bird's-eye Maple, is in request for the panels of railway-carriages. Maple, Silver {A. saccharinum, Wang.). Eastern North America. Otherwise known as " Soft " or " White Maple." Height 90— 100 ft. ; diam. 4—5 ft. S.G. 527. W 32-8—54. R 1,019 kilos. Sapwood delicate creamy white ; heart reddish-brown, lighter and softer than Rock Maple, brittle, not very strong or durable if exposed, shrinking moderately, seasoning and working well, taking a fine polish, wearing smoothly. Used for flooring, cheap furniture, interior finish, turnery, wooden ware, and fuel. Sometimes curled. Maple, Striped (A. Pennsylvdnicum, L.). Eastern North America. " Moose- wood. Whistle- wood. Striped Dog- wood." Height 30 — 40 ft. ; diam. 8—10 ins. S.G. 530. W 33. Sapwood wide, light brown ; heart rather darker, light, soft, close-grained. Not used as timber. Maple, Sycamore. See Sycamore. Marble wood [Olea paniculdta R. Br. : Order Oledcece). New South Wales and Queensland. Known also as " Iron wood " and " Native Ohve." Height 50—70 ft. ; diam. 1 J— 2 ft. Whitish, darkening towards the centre, prettily mottled, hard, tough, close- grained, durable. Used for staves, and suitable for turning or engraving. Marblewood, Andaman (Diospyros Kurzii Hiern : Order Ebendcece), Andaman Islands. " Zabra-wood." Sapwood light yellow-brown, heart handsomely streaked with black and grey, very heavy, hard, close-grained and durable. Used for handles and furniture, and valuable as a substitute for the scarce Calamander wood of Ceylon. Margosa {Azadirdchta indica A. Juss., Melia Azadirdchta L. = M. indica Brandis : Order Melidcece). India, Burma, Ceylon, Java. Planted in East Africa, Jamaica, etc. Hind. " Neem." Sink. " Kohomba." " Hoop-tree " in Jamaica. S.G. 739. W 35—50. Light reddish-brown, beautifully mottled when old, heavy, hard, compact, and durable, resembling Mahogany, aromatic. Used for furniture, images, fiooring, carts, etc. 216 WOODS OF COmiERCE Marrara {Weinmdnnia ruhifolia F. v. M. : Order Saxifragdcece) . Xorth-East Australia. " Corkwood." Height 80—150 ft. ; diam. 2 — 3 ft. Close-grained, tough, easily wrought. Not much used. Massaranduba [Mimusops eldta Fr. Allem. : Order Sapotdcece). Brazil. Height 80 ft. ; diam. 10 ft. Very hard. Used in con- struction and in joinery. Matai. See Pine, Black. Mee. See Mahwa. Me-matsu. See Pine, Japanese Red. Meranti (Hopea Mardnti ]VIiq. : Order Dipterocarpdcece). Malay peninsula. Over 100 ft. high ; 3 ft. in diam. W 55. Resembling Bay-wood, red, heavy, but soft. Used for planks, furniture, and boxes, and ^adding a dammar resin. Mesquite [Prosopis juliflora BC. : Order LeguminoscB). Southern United States and Northern Mexico. Height 30 ft. Dark brown to red, very heavy and hard, durable. Used in house-building and for furniture. Messmate, a name applied in Australia (i) to Eucalyptus amygda- Uiia [See Ash, Mountain], (ii) to E. obUqua [See Stringybark], (iii) to E, piperita [See Peppermint], from their association with the Stringybarks. Milkwcod. See Ironwocd (xvii). Milk wood, Red (Mimusops ohovdta Sond. : Order Sapotdcece). South Africa. Height 15—20 ft. ; diam. 1|— 2 ft. W 52-4. E 876 tons. / 9-52. Moderately hea^-^^, close-grained and tough. Used for felloes of wheels and other parts of waggons. Milla or Mililla [VUex altissima L. fil. : Order Verhendceoe). Cevlon and Southern India. Sinh. "Milla," " :\Iimia." W 60-9. E'^721 tons. / 6-59. fc 3-12. fs -448. A large tree yielding a grey or yellowish, hea\y, very hard, fine and close-grained wood, which in Ceylon is one of the most valuable for building purposes. Mirabow (Afzelia palembdnica Baker in Hook. : Order Legumi- nosce). Andaman Islands, Malay Islands, Borneo. " Meraban " or " Merban." A large tree, 100 — 150 ft. high, yielding timber 30—40 ft. long, and IJ— 2J ft. in diam. W 52—55. Dark yellow or brown, darkening and reddening with age, prettily figured, hard, moderately heaw, of fine even grain, very tough, durable, termite-proof, working freely and taking a fine poHsh, thus re- sembhng Mahogany. The most important timber in the Malay peninsula, suitable for sleepers, building, or furniture. Miro. See Pine, Black. MIVA— MOUTOUCHI 217 Miva (Lucuma galactoxylon F. Muell. : Order Sapotdcece). Queens- land. " Pencil Cedar." 12 — 16 in. wide. Used for veneers and cabinet-work. Molave ( Vitex altissima [See Milla] and V. geniculdta Blanco : Order Verbendcece). Philippines. S.G. 819. W 51-2. e' 1-87. p' 1-54. c 7,812. c' 1-032. Straw-coloured, heavy, hard, close- grained, strong, with a figure resembhng Satin-wood, not shrinking or splitting in seasoning, very durable even when exposed. Used extensively for all kinds of work, and considered almost equal to Teak in building, while it might prove useful in cabinet-work. Monkey-pot {Lecythis grandiflora Aubl. : Order Myrtdcece). Guiana. " Wadadura." French " Canari Macaque." Height 100 ft. ; diam. 2 — 3 ft., yielding logs 20 — 50 ft. long, and squaring 16 — 28 in. S.G. 1,032. Light brown, very heavy, hard, close- grained, tough, working easily, taking a fine polish, and very durable. Used for staves and furniture. Moose-wood. See Maple, Striped. Mopane (Copaifera {Colopliospermum) Mopdne Kirk : Order Leguminosce). Guinea — Mozambique. " Iron -wood." Height 50 — 75 ft., straight, dark-coloured, heavy, very durable, but difficult to work. Suitable for furniture. Mora {Dimorphdndra excelsa Baill. = Z). J/dra Benth., Mora excelsa Baill. & Benth. : Order Leguminosce). Guiana and Trinidad. Height 100—150 ft., frequently 60—70 ft. to the first branch ; diam. 2 — 2 J ft., yielding logs 18 — 35 ft. long, squaring 12—20 in. S.G. 1,075—1,094. W 57-72-3. E 1,068—1,465 tons. e' 1,05. p' 1-64. / 6-87—9-42. c 9,240. c' 1-220. fc 3-14— 5-34. v' 1-117. fs -456 — -655. Chestnut-brown or red, very heavy, hard, straight-grained, tough, strong, sometimes with a beautiful curled figure, taking a good polish, durable, but very liable to star-shake. Suitable for keelsons, beams, and planking in ship-building, classed in line 2 of Lloyd's Register, and also fitted for house-building and as a substitute for Rosewood or Mahogany for furniture and cabinet-work, especially when figured. Moricypre (Byrsonima spicdta Rich. : Order MalpigJiidcece). Brazil and West Indies. Height 30—40 ft. ; diam. 2 ft. Used in building and cabinet-work. Morrel (Eucalyptus macrocdrpa Hook. : Order Myrtdcece). West Australia. Very hard. Used for spokes, shafts, and furniture. [See also Gum, MorrelL] Morung Sal. See Sal. Moutouchi (Pterocdrpus Draco L. = Moutouchi suberosa Aubl. : Order Leguminosce). Guiana. Introduced into India in 1812. 218 WOODS OF COMMERCE S.G. 1,018—875. R 255 kilos. With long streaks of pale violet, light bro^TL and white, easily sawn or worked. Mountain Ash. See Rowan and Ash, Mountain. Mulato-wood. See Bois Mulatre. Mulberry (Morus alba L. : Order Mordcece). Said to be a native of China introduced into Europe in the fifteenth century. French " Murier." Germ. " Maulbeerbaum." Span. " Moral." Height 20 — 30 ft. ; diam. 1 — 2 ft. Sapwood narrow, yellowish-white ; heart yellowish-brown, becoming reddish, like old Mahogany, on exposure, heavy, hard, lustrous, difiicult to split ; vessels in the spring-wood very large, forming a very broad and distinct pore-circle, most of them open, but a few filled with a white secre- tion ; those in the autumn-wood regularly distributed, very minute ; pith-rays fine, but very distinct. A durable wood, similar to that of the Black Locust {Rohinia). Used chiefiy in veneers and inlaying. Mulberry, Indian (i) M. indica L., a native of the Himalayas, India, China, and Japan, has a wood very similar to that of 31. alba, used for tea-boxes and furniture, (ii) more generally used of Morinda citrifolia L. [See Canary-wood.] Mulberry, Native. See Holly, Smooth. Mulberry, Red (Morus rubra L.). Eastern United States. Height 60—70 ft. ; diam. 3—4 ft. S.G. 589. W 36-76. R 775 kilos. Sapwood very narrow, whitish ; heart, orange -yellow, of moderate weight and hardness, tough, coarse-grained, strong, taking a satiny poHsh, and very durable in contact with the soil. Largely used for fence-posts and cooperage, and to some extent for agricultural implements and in boat-building. Mulga [Acacia aneura F. v. M. and A. doratoxylon A. Cunn. : Order Leguminosoe). Australia. " Myall." Height 20 — 30 ft. ; diam. 9 — 12 in. Dark brown, very hard. Used for fence-posts, bullock-yokes, boomerangs, spears and " mulgas," narrow wooden shields. Musk-tree (Mdrlea vitiensis Benth. : Order Corndcece). Fiji Islands, introduced in Australia. Height 20 — 30 ft. ; diam. 6 — 12 in. Bright yellow, with black centre, pretty curl, musk-like odour, and close grain. An excellent cabinet-wood. Musk- wood (Oledria argophylla F. v. M. : Order Compositce). South-East Australasia. Height 20—30 ft. ; diam. IJ— 3 ft. S.G. 642. W 40. Brownish-yellow, beautifully mottled at the butt-end, hard, working well, taking a good polish, and fragrant. Highly prized for cabinet-work and turnery, burrs at the butt-end giving fine veneers. MUTTON-WOOD— MYALL 219 Mutton- wood [Myrsine varidhilis R. Br. : Order Myrsineoe). East Australia. Also known as " Jemmy Donnelly," a name also applied to the totally dissimilar EuroscMnus falcdtus. Height 45—50 ft. ; diam. 12—15 in. S.G. 714. Yellowish or pinkish, hard, tough, somewhat resembling Oak in figure, easily worked, durable. Myall, a name applied in Australia to various species of Acacia (Order Leguminosce) , especially (i) A. pmdula A. Cunn. " True " or " Weeping Myall," " Violet- wood." Aborig. " Boree." North- East AustraHa. Height 20—30 ft. ; diam. 6—12 in. W 76. Kich dark brown, beautifully marked, heavy, hard, close-grained, violet-scented as long as it is unpolished. Used for boomerangs, veneers, fancy boxes, and especially for tobacco-pipes, and often imitated by artificially scenting the wood of other species, a per- fume which does not last. Suggested for parquetry. (ii) A. homalophylla A. Cunn. Also known as " Spear-wood." Aborig. " Gidya." South-East Australia. A similar tree, similarly employed. Used also for briar pipes and in turnery, and formerly for spears. S.G. 1,124. W 66-76-75. (iii) A. acuminata Benth. West Australia. Known also from its fragrance as " Raspberry Jam " or " Jamwood. ' Height 38 — 40 ft. W 54 — 78. Similar, reddish -brown, but with a per- fume resembling raspberries. Used for weapons and fence-posts ; but suited for ornamental work and now coming into use for furniture. (iv) A. aneura. See Mulga. (v) A. glaucescens Willd. Also known as " Mountain Brigalow " and " Rosewood." South-East Australia. Height 30 — 45 ft. ; diam. 1 — IJ ft. W 54. Resembling Walnut or Rosewood, prettily marked, slightly fragrant, hard, close-grained, tough. Used for spears and handles, and suitable for turnery or veneers. Myall, Bastard (i) {A. falcdta Willd.). Also known as " Hickory, Lignum- vitse " and " Salee." East AustraHa. Height 20 — 30 ft. ; diam. 6 — 12 in. Sap wood yellow ; heart light-brown, heavy, hard, tough. Used for whip-handles and coach-building. (ii) A. Cunninghdmii Hook. East Australia. Height 20 — 30 ft. diam. 9 — 12 in. W 46-75. Dark, resembling the wood of Red Cedar {Cedrela Toona), but heavier, close-grained, and taking a good polish. A useful cabinet wood. Myall, Bngaloyf7{A.'^ harpophylla P. v. M.). Also known as " Brigalow." South Queensland. Brown, strongly violet-scented, very heavy, very hard, elastic, durable, splitting freely. Used for turnery, tobacco-pipes, vine-stakes, spears, and boomerangs. Myall, Dalby. See Ironwood (ii). 220 WOODS OF CO:\BIERCE My Lady, a West Indian wood, perhaps Nectdndra sangidnea Rottb. [See Laurier, Madame.] Myrobalan-wood {Termindlia heUrica Roxb. : Order Comhre- tdcece). India, Ceylon, Burma. " Babela." Sansk. " Bahira." Pers. " Beleyleh." Tarn. " Tandi." Height 50—80 ft. ; diam. 2 — 4 ft. W 40. Yellowish-grey, hard, improved by steeping, but is hable to become worm-eaten, and does not apx3ear durable. Used for j)^cking-cases, coffee-boxes, grain-measures, canoes, and planking. [For alhed species see Arjun, Harra, Lein, and Saj.] Myrtle, a name not applied to any useful wood in the Xorthern Hemisphere. In Tasmania and Victoria it refers generally to Fdgus Cunninghdmii [See Beech, Evergreen] ; but in Xew South Wales and Queensland to Syncdrpia leptopetala F. v. M. (Order Myrtdcece) and to Backhousia scadiophora F. v. M. ; belonging to the same Order. Syncdrpia leptopetala { = Metrosideros leptopetala F. V. M.), which is known also as " Iron wood " or " Brush Turpen- tine," reaches a height of 50 — 60 ft., with a diameter of 2 ft., is heay}^, hard, and durable, and is used in turnery. Backhousia scadiophora, 80 — 90 ft. high, with a dia,meter of 2 ft., is hard, close- grained, and prettily marked ; but, though possibly useful for engraving, is not yet in use. Myrtle, Black (Cargillia pentdmera F. v. M. : Order Ebendcece). Xorth-East Australia. Know^l also as " Grey Plum." Height 80 — 100 ft. ; diam. 2 — 3 ft. Reddish, close-grained, tough, durable. Used occasionally for tool-handles and for flooring. Myrtle, Brush. See Barranduna. Myrtle, Drooping {Eugenia Ventendtii Benth. : Order Myrtdcece), ^s^rth-East Austraha. Height 40—60 ft. ; diam. 2—3 ft. Grey or pinkish, beautifully marked, hea^'y, hard, close-grained, tough. Used for handles, ribs of boats, and floors of verandas. Myrtle, Grey. See Myrtle, Scrub. Myrtle, Native or Red {Eugenia myrti folia Sims : Ovd.ev Myrtdcex) , Xorth-East Austraha. Known also as " Brush Cherry." Height 50—80 or 100 ft. ; diam. 1—2 ft. W 47-75. Light reddish or 3'ellowish, strong, elastic, seasoning and working well. Used for boomerangs, shields, staves, oars, boat -building, and tool-handles. [See also Myrtle, Scrub, and Juniper.] Myrtle, Ridge. See Ironwood (iv). Myrtle, Scrub {Backhousia myrtifolia Hook & Harv. : Order Myrtdcece). Xorth-East Australia. Kno^Ti also as " Grey " or " Native MjTtle " and as " Lancewood." Height 20—40 ft. ; diam. 9 — 12 in. Light yellow, often prettily marked with dark MYRTLE— NUT 221 brown, walnut-like stains, hard, close-grained, tough, durable. Used for mallets, handles, bows, and suitable for turnery and perhaps engraving. Myrtle, Three-veined. See Turpentine, Brush. Myrtle, Water. See Gum, Water. Myrtle, White (i) (Myrtus acmenioides P. v. M. : Order Myrtdcece). North-East Austraha. Height 60—70 ft. ; diam. 1—1 J ft. W 61. Light-coloured, close-grained, very hard, tough and durable. Used by coachbuilders. (ii) [Rhoddmnia argentea Benth., in the same Order). North- East Austraha. Ahorig. " Muggle-muggle." Height 80—100 ft. ; diam. 2 — 3 ft. Close-grained, hard, and durable ; but seldom used. Nagesar or Nahor. See Ironwood (xviii). Nani. See Ironwood (xx). Narango, Palo. See Fustic. Narra. See Sanders, Red. Neem. See Margosa. Needle-bush. See Pin-bush. Nettle-tree (Celtis austrdlis L. : Order Ulmdcece). Mediter- ranean. French " Micocoulier." Germ. " Ziirgelbaum." Height 30 — 50 or 70 ft. ; diam. 6 — 12 in. Yellowish, heavy, hard, com- pact, elastic, taking a high polish ; vessels in spring- wood few, but large, the smaller, later ones arranged dendritically ; pith-rays fine but distinct. When cut obliquely it resembles Satinwood. Used for furniture, carving, turnery, whip-handles, walking-sticks, flutes, etc. [See Hackberry.] Nettle-tree, Giant (Laportea gigas Wedd. : Order Urticdcece) North-East Austraha. Height 80—100 or 160 ft. ; diam. 2—8 ft. W 16 — 17. Brownish, soft, spongy. Useless. Nettle-tree, Small-leaved {L. photiniphylla Wedd.). A smaller tree, from the same region, yields an even lighter wood. W 13-8. It might be used for floats for fishing-nets. Niaouli. See Cajeput. Nicaragua-wood. See Peaehwood. Nispero. See Sapodilla. Nogal (Juglans austrdlis Griseb. : Order Juglanddcece). Northern Argentina. Height 20 — 25 ft., yielding timber squaring IJ ft. In colour resembling European Walnut, straight-grained, and easy to work. Much used for beams, door- and window-frames, furni- ture, and railway-carriage fittings. Nut. See Hazel. 222 WOODS OF COIVEVIERCE Nut, Queensland {Macaddmia ternijolia F. v. M. : Order Pro- tedcece). North-east Australia. Ahorig. " Eandal-kindal." Height 30 — 50 ft. ; diam. small. Reddish, firm, fine-grained, prettily figured. Used for staves, bullock-yokes, shingles, cabinet-work, and veneers. Oak, originally Quercus Robur L. (Order Cupuliferce), the principal hardwood of Europe, afterwards extended to other species of the genus in Southern Europe, North America, the Himalayas, and Japan, and to various other entirely unrelated timber-trees, chiefly species of Casuarina, in Australia. It will be convenient to depart from the strictly alphabetical arrangement of the many kinds of " Oak " in use, in favour of a geographical enumeration. Beginning, therefore, with the Common Oak of Europe, we will then describe the other European and North African forms, taking those of North America next, and then those of the Himalayas and of Japan, and relegating the so-called Oaks of Africa and Australia to the last. Oak, Common, British or European {Q. Robur L.). Syria, Mount Taurus and Mount Atlas to 60° N. lat. French " Chene." Germ. "Eiche." Span. " Roble." Japan. " Gashi." Height 60— 100 ft. ; diam. 1—22 ft., often with a straight stem 30—40 ft. high, and 2 — 4 ft. in diam. S.G. 1,280 when fresh cut, to 780 or 597 when seasoned. " It must be borne in mind, however, that these weights refer to the wood as a structure, and do not give the specific gravity of the wood-substance itself. This latter may be obtained by driving ofi all the air and water from the wood, and is found to be 1,560 " (Marshall Ward). W 62—43. E 535— 800 tons, Mr. Laslett takes the mean elasticity of British Oak as unity for the comparison of other woods. Other specimens of the species range from -64 — 1-41. p 6,500 — 11,300. p' Here, too, Oak is unity, its range being •6—1-06. / 5-27. ft 1-9— 8-8. c 7,571 — 8,102. c' English Oak being taken as unity, French- grown Oak is 1-071. fc 2-7. — 4-5. v' English Oak unity, Dantzic Oak, probably the same species, -99, French 1-04. fs -4 — 1-03. R 10,000 — 13,600 lbs. Sapwood narrow, yellowish ; heart of various shades, from greyish or yellow-brown (fawn-colour) to reddish or very dark brown, darkening on exposure. " Oak is neither the hardest and heaviest, nor the most supple and toughest of woods, but it combines in a useful manner the average of these qualities. Good Oak is hard, firm, and compact, and with a glossy surface, and varies much ; young Oak is often tougher, more cross- grained, and harder to work than older wood " (Marshall Ward). A stress of 1,900 lbs. per square inch is stated as the average requisite to indent Oak in. transversely to its fibres. Oak timber is apt to be affected by star- and cup-shakes, especially in OAK 22a certain districts ; and, though it can be readily seasoned, it is very Hable to warp and shrink during the process. When Oak was largely in use in our royal dockyards the rules as to specifications were that only logs would be accepted 10 ft. or more in length that would side 9 in. and upwards in proportion to their length ; and that each piece was measured for contents by calliper measurement as far as its spire (or top-end) " will hold 12 in. in diameter." Thirty inches calliper will yield sided timber of about 21 in., 24 in. calliper 18J in the side, or on an average a " siding " of about seven-tenths of the calliper measurement, or more precisely 70 in. from 99. For fencing or staves Oak splits easily, with a moderately smooth surface ; and, for ornamental purposes, it is susceptible of a high polish. The sapwood is very liable to insect attack, and cannot be termed durable ; ^but the heart, whether under ground, under water, or exposed to alternations of drought and damp, is remarkably so, few woods changing so little when once seasoned. The " life " of a railway- sleeper of young Oak is stated to be from seven to ten years if not treated with any preservative, or sixteen years if treated with zinc chloride. The piles of Old London Bridge, taken up in 1827, sound after six and a half centuries' use, are a striking instance of these lasting qualities ; whilst the " Bog-oak " blackened by the action of the iron salts in peat-mosses on the tannin it contains — a natural ink — remains sound after far longer periods. The durability of Oak timber is undoubtedly affected by the time of year at which it is felled, the best season being winter, when there is least water and sap or fermentable matter in the wood. The greater amount of tannin in the bark and the greater ease in stripping it in the spring have, however, often led to the trees being felled at that time. Incipient decay often shows itself in the heartwood of ancient Oak-trees as "foxiness," a warm deepening of the colour that actually enhances the value of the wood for some ornamental purposes. It is then known as Brown Oak, and is often cut into veneers, sometimes fetching very high prices for this purpose. A tree felled at Welbeck, for instance, realized £100, and one from Lord Fitzwilliam's seat, Wentworth Woodhouse, £110 ; while six at Burghley House averaged £75 apiece. The minute structure of Oak has already been to some extent described and fully illustrated in Part I. The pith, at first white, then brown, is pentangular, and from 1 — 4 millimetres across : the pith-rays are of two kinds, very broad, lustrous, light-coloured ones — the "silver-grain" — sometimes f in. apart, and others, far more numerous — about 300 to the inch — very fine and less straight. The annual rings undulate slightly, bending outwards between the broad pith-rays : they vary in width from 1 — 8 or more millimetres, and they are conspicuous owing to the pore- 224 WOODS OF CO:\DIERCE circle of very large vessels in the spring-wood, which is only a single row when the rings are narrow, or four rows when they are wide. Into the autumn-wood there radiate outwards straight or bifurcating bands of finer vessels, tracheids, and cells. Xumerous, very narrow, wavy, peripheral hues (" false rings ") of wood-parenchyma, recognizable by their contents, but seldom more than a single row of elements each, are generally visible, especially when the annual rings are broad. Owing to the large proportion that the pores bear to the fibre when the annual rings are narrow, such slow-growing unthrifty Oak, growing on poor soil or in severe climatic conditions, is, though often beautifully marked, softer than the broad-ringed, thrifty, quick-grown wood of good soils and a favourable climate. They may differ to the extent of their specific gravities — a fair criterion of their hardness and strength — varying from 691 to 827 respectively. Quercus Rohur is a somewhat variable species, three somewhat inconstant t53)es being recognized as British — viz., pedunculdta, sessiflora, and intermedia. Q. Rohur pedunculdta derives its scientific name from the long stalks to its acorns, for which reason also the Germans call it " Stieleiche," whilst from the situations in which it grows they call it " valley Oak " (Thaleiche), and from its early production and shedding of its leaves it is called Early Oak " (Friiheiche) and " Sommereiche." It is generally quick-growing, but does not, perhaps, produce so great a length of clear stem as sessiflora. Its wood may be lighter in colour, whence, apparently, it gets its French name, " Chene blanc but it is generally more compact, denser, and tougher, and therefore better for purposes where strength is a primary consideration. Q. Rohur sessiliflora, known, from a supposedly greater resemblance in its wood, as " Chestnut Oak," by the French as " Chene rouge," and by the Germans as " Traubeneiche " " Red (Rotheiche), Hill (Bergeiche), Late " (Spateiche), or " Winter Oak," has long stalks to its leaves, but not to its acorns, and is apparently generally less dense in its timber. It is also, perhaps, more Liable to shakes ; but it must be admitted that, in the absence of any record as to the source of the logs or of any exact measurement of specific gravity, timber-dealers cannot discriminate the wood of these two varieties. Stunted specimens, grown on rocky hill-sides, produce crooked, hard, knotty wood, difficult to spHt, formerly of consider- able value in ship-building ; and Coppice Oak is of a similar char- acter. Q. Rohur intermedia, the Durmast Oak, is not common. It has short stalks to both leaves and acorns, and its leaves are downy on their under- surfaces. It has a broad sap wood and a dark-brown lieart, and is considered of inferior quality. OAK 225 There is, perhaps, greater difference between the woods of Q. Rohur imported from various parts of the Continent than there is between these home-grown varieties. French Oak, largely Q. Rohur pedunculdta grown in Brittany and Normandy, is generally smaller, shorter, and more tapering than English ; but with S.G. 992—720, e' 1-39— 1-41, p' 1-01— 1-06, c 8,102, c' 1-071, v' 1-04, and shrinking and splitting less in seasoning than English, it would appear, in spite of some former prejudice, to be better all round, always presuming that a good sample be selected. Dantzic Oak, shipped partly from Memel and Stettin, mostly brought down the Vistula from Poland, but also from Odessa, which comes to market as staves, in logs 18 — 30 ft. long and 10 — 22 in. square, or in planks about 32 ft. long, 9 — 15 in. wide, and 2 — 8 in. thick, is brown, straight, and clean-grained, and free from knots. It would seem to be largely Q. Rohur sessiliflora, and is sometimes so figured as to be classed as " wainscot-oak," this term being the equivalent of the American " quartered." It has S.G. 897 — 768. e' -43. -59. c 4,214. c' -556. v' -99, and is, therefore, decidedly inferior in strength to good English-grown Oak. It is carefully sorted or " bracked " for market, the planks of best, or " crown," quality being marked W, those of second-best, or " crown brack," quality WW. Riga Oak, a very similar wood, also probably sessiliflora, only comes to market in " wainscot logs " of moderate dimensions, for furniture or veneers, for which purposes it is the finest quality in the trade. Oak, Holm. From Italy and Spain a variety of Oak timbers were formerly imported to our dockyards, partly the produce of varieties of Q. Rohur, but partly apparently from the evergreen Cork and Holm Oaks {Q. Suher L., and Q. Ilex L.). Most of this wood was comparatively small, curved, brown, hard, horny, tough, difficult to saw or work, and very liable to shakes, and, therefore, unsuitable for boards. The Holm Oak abounds in Algeria, where it is much used in joinery and carriage-building and for fuel. Its wood, which has a density of 900 — 1,180, becomes with age a deep brown or jet-black. Oak, Kermes {Quercus coccifera L.). South Europe and North Africa. Heavy, hard, and compact. Used for building and for charcoal. Oak, Turkey {Quercus Cerris L.). Middle and Southern Europe and South- West Asia. Known also as " Adriatic, Iron, Wainscot," or " Mossy-cupped Oak." Germ. " Zerreiche." A tall species, with straight, clean stems, hard- wooded in the south and in plains, softer in the north or on hills, very liable to ring- and star-shakes. Sapwood broader than in Q. Rohur ; heart a redder brown ; broad pith-rays more numerous. On the whole inferior, not standing 15 226 WOODS OF CO:vrMERCE exposure, and being more liable to "worm" attack than British Oak. Throughout Europe, and more specially in Britain, Oak was employed for every purpose both of naval and civil architecture until about the beginning of the eighteenth century, when Pine was first largely imported from the Baltic and North America. In our docks^ards Oak continued to be in large demand until about 1865, all other hard and heavy woods used in shij)building being compared with it as a standard, and described as " Oak-substi- tutes." Oak has, however, one serious drawback in this con- nexion — viz., the presence of a powerful wood acid, which exerts a rapidly corrosive action upon any iron in contact with it, this rusting being apt in turn to react upon the timber, producing rot. With the introduction of armour-plating and steel ships, wood of any kind has become far less important in ship-building, and Teak has largely superseded Oak. In Lloyd's Register, however, English, French, Itahan, Spanish, Portuguese, and Adriatic Oak, and Live Oak, Q. virens of the United States, are classed together on hne 2. Though the greater cheapness and hghtness of coniferous wood have led to its being now generally preferred in building, Oak is still in request where strength and durability are objects. Large quantities are used for palings, shingles, staves, parquet-floors, wheelwright's work, wainscot, furniture, and carving. For these last three purposes the softer, more figured, wood is preferred, whilst for gate-posts, doors, stair-treads, door-sills, etc., the harder sorts are employed. The ancient Romans are said to have used the evergreen Holm Oak (Q. Ilex) for axles, and hard Oak is still used for this purpose on the Continent. Walking-sticks are also made of Oak, and it furnishes an excellent charcoal. Excellent Oak is imported from Roumania. Oak, Zeen {Quercus Miheckii Durien). North- West Africa. Height 100—110 ft. ; diam. up to 6 ft. S.G. when green 924. Breaking-weight per square millimetre 7*4 kilos, as against 4-7 — 7'2 kilos for European Oak. Yellowish or rose-coloured ; pith-rays numerous, broad, close ; heavy, horn}^, straight-gramed, very durable, but Hable to shakes and warping. Used for sleepers, bridge-girders, piles, and wine-barrels ; and, when winter-felled and seasoned for six or twelve months, is one of the most valuable timbers of Tunis, where it covers about 26,500 acres. Oaks in America are somewhat numerous, three well-marked kinds — ^White, Red or Black, and Live Oak — being distinguished in commerce. The evergreen or Live Oak {Q. virens) of the Southern United States, formerly much employed in ship -building, though smaller than White Oak, is one of the heaviest, hardest, and most durable timbers of the country. White Oak is more compact, tougher, stronger, and more durable than Red Oak. OAK 227 We will, however, briefly describe the various species alphabeti- cally. Oak, Baltimore. See Oak, White. Oak, Basket {Q. Michauxii Nutt.). South-Eastern States. Known also as " Cow " or " Swamp Chestnut Oak." French " Chene de panier." Germ. " Korb-Eiche." Span. " Roble de canasto." Height 100 ft. or more ; diam. 3 ft. or more. Sap- wood white ; heart fawn-colour ; rings fairly broad ; pores in about two rows in spring- wood ; very heavy, hard, tough, very strong, very durable in contact with soil. Largely used for agricultural implements, cooperage, fencing, baskets, and fuel. Oak, Black. See Oak, Red, and Oak, Yellow. Oak, Burr (Q. macrocdrpa Michaux). Canada and the North- Eastern and Central States, westward to the Rocky Mountains. Known also as " Mossy-cup " or " Over-cup Oak." French " Chene a gros gland." Germ. " Grossfriichtige Eiclie." Span. " Roble con bellotas musgosas." Height 100 ft. or more ; diam. 4 — 7 ft. S.G. 745. W 46-45. R 982 kilos. Sapwood pale buff, heart rich brown ; rings fairly broad ; pores in about three rows in spring-wood ; heavy, hard, strong, tough, rather more porous than White Oak, more durable, in contact with soil, than any other American Oak. Classed with and used as White Oak. Oak, Chestnut (Q. Prinus L.). Southern Ontario and North- Eastern United States. Known also as " Rock Oak." French "Chene de roche." Germ. " Gerbereiche," " Felsen Eiche." Height 80 ft. or more ; diam. 3—4 ft. or more. S.G. 750. W 46-7. R 1,031 kilos. Sapwood brownish white ; heart rich brown ; rings narrow ; pores hardly more than a single row ; heavy, hard, rather tough, strong, durable in contact with the soil. Chiefly valued for its bark, but used for fencing, railroad-ties, and fuel. The name is also applied to Q. Muhlenhergii [See Oak, Chinquapin]. The Californian Chestnut Oak is Q. densiflora [See Oak, Tan-bark], and the Swamp Chestnut Oak, Q. Michauxii [See Basket-Oak]. Oak, Chinquapin {Q. Muhlenhergii Engelm.). Eastern United States. Known also as " Chestnut Oak " and " Yellow Oak." French " Chene jaune." Germ. " Kastanien Eiche." Height 80 ft. ; diam. 3—4 ft. S.G. 860. W 53-6. R 1,238 kilos. Sapwood brownish white ; heart rich brown ; rings of moderate width ; pores in 1 — 2 rows ; heavy, hard, strong, durable in contact with soil. Valued for railway-ties, cooperage, furniture, fencing, and fuel. Oak, Cow. See Oak, Basket. Oak, Duck. See Oak, Water. Oak, Iron. See Oak, Post. 15—2 228 WOODS OF COMMERCE Oak, Live (Q. virens Ait.). Southern States. French " Chene vert." Germ. " Lebenseiche, Immergriine Eiche." Height 60 ft. or more ; diam. 5 ft. or more. Sapwood hght-brown ; heart dark- brown ; rings of moderate width ; pores very few and small ; pith- rays distinct and bright ; very heavy, compact, hard, tough, strong, fine, and close, but somewhat twisted in grain, and consequently very difficult to work, durable. Seldom yielding large straight timber, but with many crooked pieces, it was formerly much used for knees in shipbuilding. It is, perhaps, stronger than any known Oak, and is now used by wheelwrights, millwrights, and tool- makers. Oak, California Live {Q. chrysoUpis Liehm.). Pacific States at altitudes of 3,000—8,000 ft. Known also as "Thick-cup Live Oak, Maul Oak," and " Valparaiso Oak. ' Height 80 ft. or more ; diam. 5 ft. or more. Very heavy, hard, tough, very strong. Con- siderably used in waggon-building, and for agricultural implements. Oak, Mossy-cup. See Oak, Burr. Oak, Peach. See Oak, Tan-bark and Oak, Willow. Oak, Pin (Q. palustris Du Roi.). South-Central States. Known also as " Swamp Spanish " and " Water Oak." French " Chene marecageaux." Germ. " Sumpf Eiche." No distinct heart ; rings wide, very wavy ; pores very numerous, forming a wide zone ; light brown. Oak, Possum. See Oak, Water. Oak, Post (Q. ohtusiloha Mchaux). Eastern and Southern States. Known also as " Iron Oak." French " Chene poteau." Germ. " Pfahl Eiche, Posteiche, Eiseneiche." Height 60 ft. or more ; diam. 3 ft. or more. Sapwood light brownish ; heart sharply defined, dark brown ; rings rather narrow ; pores small, in about three rows ; very heavy and hard, very durable in contact with soil. Used chiefiy for railroad- ties, fencing, and fuel ; but occasionally for cooperage and carriage-building. Oak, Punk. See Oak, Water. Oak, Quebec. See Oak, White. Oak, Quercitron. See Oak, Yellow. Oak, Red {Q. rubra L.). Canada and North-Eastern States. 1^0 wn in commerce as " Canadian Red " and as " Black Oak." French " Chene rouge." Germ. " Rotheiche." Height 80—100 ft. or more ; diam. 4—6 or 7 ft. S.G. 654. W 40-49-25. R 990 kilos. Sapwood almost white ; heart hght-brown or reddish ; rings wide ; pores numerous, in a wide zone ; pith-rays indistinct ; heavy, hard, strong, but inferior to White Oak, coarse-grained, and so OAK 229 porous as to be unfit for staves for liquor casks, shrinking moderately without splitting, easy to work. Used for flour- and sugar-barrels, clapboards, chairs, and interior finish, and imported from Canada to London and still more to Liverpool for furniture-making. It is valued for its bark. [See also Oak, Spanish.] Oak, Rock. See Oak, Chestnut. Oak, Scarlet {Q. coccinea Wang.). Eastern United States. Height 100 ft. or more ; diam. 3—4 ft. S.G. 740. W 46. R 1,054 kilos. Sapwood whitish ; heart ill-defined, pinkish-brown, heavy hard, strong ; rings narrow, wavy ; pores in 3 — 4 rows, making a rather broad zone ; pith-rays prominent. Used in cooperage, chair-making, and interior finish, being treated in trade as Red Oak, and of small value. Oak, Spanish {Q. falcdta Michx.). Eastern and Southern States. Known also as " Red Oak." Height 70 ft. or more ; diam. 4 ft. or more. Heav^^, very hard and strong, but not durable. Valued for its bark ; but used in building and cooperage, and as fuel. . Oak, Swamp Spanish. See Oak, Pin. Oak, Tan-hark {Q. densi flora Hook and Arn.). Pacific coast. Known also as " Peach " or " California Chestnut Oak." Height 60 — 70 ft. ; diam. 2 — 3 ft. Heavy, hard, strong. Classed as an inferior White Oak : but valued chiefly for its bark. Oak, Water [Q. aqudtica Walt.). Central, Southern, and South- Eastern States. Known also as " Duck, Possum " or " Punk Oak." Height 50 — 80 ft. ; diam. 3 — 4 ft. ; heavy, hard, strong. Sapwood whitish ; heart ill-defined, light brown ; rings of moderate width, wavy ; pores in 1 — 2 rows, graduating into those of the autumn- wood ; pith-rays numerous and prominent, but not very wide. Used in cooperage, but chiefly as fuel. The name is also applied to Q. palustris. [See Oak, Pin.] Oak, White (Q. alba L.). South-Eastern Canada, Eastern United States. Height 70—130 ft.; diam. 6—8 ft. S.G. 1,054— 695. W 46-35- 65-75. fc 1-5- 2-3. e' M9— 1-58. p' 1— -9. c 7,021—3,832. -927— -506. v' -912- -771. R 905 kilos. Sapwood whitish ; heart defined, reddish-brown ; hea,vy, hare, tough, straight-grained, strong, durable in contact with soil ; rings narrow, slightly wavy ; pores in spring-wood in 1 — 2 rows, those in summer- wood very fine ; pith-rays numerous and prominent ; wide radial groups of dense woody fibre extending across the summer- wood crossed by several concentric lines of fine pores. One of the most generally useful of American hard- woods, being so elastic that " planks cut from it may, when steamed, be bent into almost any form," shrinking and splitting ver}^ little in seasoning, but liable to some twisting, free from knots, and shipped in logs from 25 — 50 ft. 230 WOODS OF CO:\BIERCE long and 11 — 28 in. square, or in tliick-stufp or planks. Largely used in sliip -building, liouse-frames, interior finish, door-sills, staves for wine-casks, railway and other carriage-building, agricultural implements, fence-posts, sleepers, piles, furniture, and fuel. Though beautifully marked when quarter-sawn, it is inferior to the best European Oak. " Quebec Oak " is the trade name of an excellent quahty, and " Baltimore Oak " that of a somewhat inferior one, both named from their port of shipment, and reahzing from 2s. 6d. to 2s. 9d. per cubic foot in London. The name " White Oak " is apphed in the Southern States to Q. Durdndii Buckley, and in the West to Q. Garry ana Dougl. Oak, Swamp White (Q. hicolor Willd.). Eastern Canada and L^nited States. French " Chene de marais." Germ. " Sumpf Weisseiche, Zweifarbige Eiche." Height 75 — 100 ft. ; diam. 5 ft. S.G, 766. W 47-75. R 909 kilos. Sapwood whitish ; heart defined, pinkish brown, heavy, hard, tough, and strong, resembling Q. aqud- tica, but with more defined heart and wide rings and pith-rays. Classed in trade as " White Oak "; but appearing inferior. Oak, Weeping or Western {Q. lohdta Xee). California. Germ. WestHche Weisseiche." The largest -growing species on the Pacific coast. Classed as " White Oak." Oak, Willow (Q. Phellos L.). Eastern States. I^OAvn also as Peach Oak." Heavy, hard, very elastic, but small. Oak, Yellow [Q. tinctoria Bartram). Eastern United States. Known also as " Black " or " Quercitron Oak." French " Chene jaune." Germ. " Farber Eiche." Height 80 ft. or more ; diam. 3 ft. or more. Sapwood white ; heart reddish-brown, heavy, hard, coarse-grained, porous, strong, but not tough ; rings narrow, wavy ; pith-rays numerous ; pores in spring- wood in 3 — 5 rows. Valued for its bark for tanning and dyeing j^ellow, and used as a substi- tute for White Oak in building, cooperage, etc., and for fuel. [See also Oak, Chinquapin.] In the Himalayas there is a considerable variety of species of Oak, most of which are evergreen. The wood of these species is often hard, durable, and valuable, resembling English Oak, but not having distinct annual rings, these being replaced by partial zones of wood-parenchyma or " false rings." Among them are : Oak, Brown {Q. semecar pi folia Sm.). Afghanistan to Bhotan, at altitudes of 8,000 — 10,000 ft. Wood large, reddish-grey, very hard. L'sed for all kinds of building and for charcoal. Oak, Green [Q. dilatdta Lindl.). Afghanistan and the Xorth- West. Wood large, hard, seasoning well without warping, durable. Used for building. The name is also applied to Q. glauca Thunb., which grows from Kashmir to Bhotan and in Japan, and yields OAK 231 a brownish-grey, very hard wood, used in house- and bridge- building. Oak, Grey {Q. incdna Roxb.). From the Indus to Nepal, at altitudes of 8,000—3,000 ft. Known also as " Himalayan Ilex " or " Ban," and in Kumaon as " Munroo." Heartwood reddish- brown, very hard, but warping and splitting considerably in build- ing. Used in building. Oak, Holm [Q. Ilex L.), the same species that occurs in Southern Europe, occurs also in the North- West. Oak, Ring-cupped (Q. annuldta Sm.). Sikkim, up to altitudes of 10,000 ft. A well-marked, handsome, but not durable wood. Q. fenestrdta Roxb., of the Eastern Himalaya, from Sylhet to Burmah, and of the Khasia Hills, growing down to 50 ft. above the sea, yields a red, very hard, good and durable heartwood, somewhat inferior to Englisli Oak. Q. Griff ithii Hook. fil. & Throm., of Bhotan, Sikkim and the Khasia Hills, yields a brown, very hard, strong wood, much re- sembling English Oak, used in building. Q. lamellosa Sm., occurring from Nepal to Bhotan, has a grey- brown wood with a beautiful silver grain, used in building, but not very durable if exposed. Q. lancecB folia Roxb., of the Garrow Hills and Assam, yields a light-coloured wood, resembling English Oak, but harder and very durable. Q. lappdcea Roxb., of the Khasia Hills, has a strong wood, re- sembling English Oak, but hard and more close-grained. Q. pachyphylla Kurz, of the Eastern part of the range, at altitudes of 8,000 — 10,000 ft., yields a greyish, very durable, damp-resisting timber, used for fencing, shingles, and planks. Q serrdta Thunb., which ranges from the Himalaya into China and Japan, yields a brown, very hard, building wood, resembling that of Q. Griffithii. Q. spicdta Sm., the range of which extends from the Himalayas to Malacca and the Sunda Islands, yields a reddish, very hard and durable wood, used in India for builaing. In Southern Japan several species of evergreen Oak occur, including Q. acuta Thunb., " Aka-gashi," with a dark red-brown, very hard and heavy heartwood, used in waggon-building ; the lighter-coloured Q. gilva Bl. " Ichii-gashi "; and the greyish-white Q. vibrayedna Tr. & Tav., " Shira-gashi," and Q. my r since folia BL, " Urajiro-gashi," used in ship-building and waggon-building. In Northern Japan occurs Q. grosserdta BL, " 0-nara," the wood of which is employed for building and furniture. Oak, African (Lophira aldta Banks : Order Dipterocarpdcece). Lagos and the Gold Coast. W 67 — 72. Deep-red, heavy, very 232 WOODS OF COmiERCE hard, coarse-grained. A very showy wood for turnery and fur- niture. In Austraha, where there are no true Oaks, many very diverse species are so named ; but the name is chiefly apphed to species of Casuarina (Order Casuannm), from a fancied resembhince in the colour and broad pith-rays of their wood to that of true Oak. These woods have been known in Enghsh trade as " Botany Oak," and used in veneer and mlaying. Oak, Bull {Casuarina glauca Sieb.). Also known as " Swamp- Oak, Desert " or " River She Oak." Ahorig. " Billa." Height 40 — 50 ft. ; diam. 1 — 2 ft. Red with small darker veins, some- what resembling Quercus Ilex, the Hohn Oak, close-grained, strong. Used for staves, shingles, and fence-rails, but not suited for posts. The name is also applied to C. equiseti folia [See Oak, Swamp.] Oak, Forest {C. toriulosa Ait.). North-East Australia. Known also as " Beefwood," " She Oak," " Botanv-bay," " River," and " Mountain Oak." Height 60—80 ft. ; diam."^lf^2 ft. W 48-5—64. Heart well defined, prettily marked, close-grained. Much used for shingles and fuel, and also used for furniture, either solid or in veneer. The name is also applied to C. equisetifolia [See Oak, Swamp] and to C. suberosa [See Oak, Erect She]. Oak, River, a name applied to CaUistemori salignus [See Bottle- brush, White], Casuarina Cunninghamidna [See Oak, Scrub, She] C. distyla [See Oak, Stunted She], C. stricta [See Oak, Shingle], and C. torulosa [See Oak, Forest]. Oak, She, a usefully distinctive name for the species of Casuarina, viz. : C. Fraseridna, C. stricta [See Oak, Shingle], C. glauca [See Oak, Bull], C. suberosa, Cunninghamidna and distyla. C. Fraseri- dna ^liq. West Australia. W 45 — 60. Sapwood light-brown, heart light-red, hard, fine-grained, beautifully figured, easily worked, but liable to heart-shake, durable. Used for furniture and roof -shingles. Oak, Erect She (C. suberosa Ott. and Dietr.). Central and Eastern Australasia. Kno'^Ti also as " Beefwood, Forest, Swamp," or " Shingle Oak." Height 30—50 ft. ; diam. 1—2 ft. W 59-6. Reddish, beautifully marked, very apt to split in drying. Used for shingles, handles, mallets, etc., and formerly for boomerangs ; but would be valuable for veneers. Oak, Scrub She (C. Cunninghamidna jVIiq.). North-East Aus- tralia. Known also as " River Oak." Height 60 — 70 ft. ; diam. 2 ft. Prettily marked, hard, close-grained. Used for shingles, staves, and fuel. OAK 233 Oak, Stunted She {C. distyla Vent.)- Southern and Western Australasia. Known also as " River Oak." Height 40 — 60 ft. ; diam. IJ — 2 ft. Brown to- deep-red, light, tough, strong. Used for bullock-yokes. Oak, Shingle {C. stricta Ait.). South-East Australasia. Known also as " Coast She Oak," " Salt-water Swamp Oak," and " River Oak." Height 20—30 ft. ; diam. 9—15 in. S.G. 1,037—935. W 57 — 63. Reddish, with dark longitudinal bands, giving a beautifully mottled appearance to the outer part of the heart, the darker centre being less handsome, heavy, close-grained, very hard, tough, working up splendidly, but not durable. Used for shingles, staves, spokes, axe-handles, turnery, and furniture. Oak, Silky (i) {Stenocdrpus salignus R. Br. : Order Protedcece). North-East Australia. Known also as " Silvery Oak " and " Beef- wood." Aborig. " Melyn." Height 30—50 or 80 ft. ; diam. 1 — 3 ft. W 32 — 59-5. Red-brown, sometimes dark, with a beauti- ful wavy figure, hard, close-grained, splitting and working readily, durable. A most beautiful wood, used for furniture, veneers, and walking-sticks ; but becoming scarce, (ii) {Grevillea rohusta A. Cunn. : Order Protedcece). North-East Australia, and suc- cessfully introduced into Ceylon. " Tuggan-tuggan." Height 70—80 or 100 ft. ; diam. 2—3 ft.^ W 35-25- 38-8. Light-coloured, but prettily marked, especially where knots are present, moderately hard, elastic, working well, durable. Largely used for staves for tallow-casks, and now becoming scarce, suitable for veneers, (iii) (Orites excelsa R. Br. : Order Protedcece). North-East Aus- tralia. Known also as " Red Ash." Height 40—70 or 80 ft. ; diam. 2 — 3 ft. Grey, prettily marked, hard, susceptible of a good polish, durable. Used for cask-staves, shingles, and farm imple- ments, (iv) (Cardwellia suhlimis F. v. M. : Order Protedcece). Known also as " Gold Spangle- wood." Large, light-coloured, figured cabinet-wood. Oak, Swamp (Casuarina equisetifolia Forst.). North-East Aus- tralia ; introduced near Madras. Known also as " Beef wood," " Forest," and " Bull Oak," and in the South Seas as " Ironwood." Anglo-Indian " Fir," from an external resemblance to Larch. Madagascar and Mauritius " Filaof." Dekhan " Sarv " (cypress). Indian Archipelago " Aroo." Tarn. " Chouk." Height 50 — 70 ft. ; diam. 1 — H ft. W 55 — 63. Reddish, coarse-grained, beautifully marked, hard, tough, strong, straight in growth, and very durable. Used for fencing and shingles, and largely for fuel, for which it is excellent. The name is also applied to C. glauca [See Oak, Bull] and C. suherosa [See Oak, Erect She], Oak, White {Lagundria Pater soni). See Tulip-tree. In addition to these the name " Oak " is applied in Ceylon to 234 WOODS OF COMMERCE SchUichera trijuga [See Kosum], and in New Zealand to AUctryon excelsum Gaertn. (Order Sapinddcece), the " Titoki " of the Maoris, which is used in building. S.G. 916. W 57-1. p 248. Oak, African. See African. Oak, Indian, a name sometimes applied to Barringtonia acutdngula Gaertn. (Order Myrtdcece), a species ranging from the Seychelles to Queensland and Northern India. Hind. " Samandar-phal, Hijjul." Tarn, " Radami." Telug. " Kanapa " or " Kanigi." Burm. " Kyai - tha." A large tree, yielding red, fine-grained, hard timber, said to be equal to Mahogany, and used in boat- and cart- building, well-work, and cabinet -making. W 46. Olive (Olea europcea L. : Order Oledcece). Mediterranean region ; introduced into California, India, and other countries. French " Olivier." Germ. " Oelbaum," " Olivenholz." Hebr. " Zaith." Greek iXala. S.G. 940. W 57 — 69*5. Height seldom more than 20 ft. Very close- and fine-grained, light yellowish-brown, with irregularly wavy dark lines and mottlings, especially near the root, resembling Box in texture, but not so hard, and rather brittle, taking an excellent polish, with no distinguishable rings or pith- rays, and minute, evenly distributed vessels. Used chiefly in turnery and carving for small articles, fancy boxes, paper-knives, etc. Olive or Wild Olive in Cape Colony {Olea verrucosa Link.). Boer " Olivenhout." Also known as " Olina-wood." Zulu " Umguna.' Height 14—16 ft. ; diam. 8—15 in. W 68-95. E 669 tons. / 6-65. /c 3*90. fs S. Dark, very hard, heav;^^, dense, taking a good polish. Used in waggon-building and for furniture. Olive, Indian {Olea dioica Roxb.). Silhet and Assam southward. White, compact, strong. Used in building, and might be creosoted. Other Indian species are 0. glanduUfera Wall., light-brown, dense, hard, susceptible of a good polish, and durable, used in building ; and 0. cuspiddta Wall., resembling the Common Olive. Olive, Mock. See Axe-breaker. Olive, Native, in Australia {Notelcea ovdta R. Br. : Order Oledcece). Eastern Austraha. Aborig. " Dunga-runga." Small and crooked in growth, light-coloured, with irregular dark-brown blotches, fine, close and even in grain, hard, firm, working easily, and taking a good polish, but requiring careful seasoning. W 60*3. Used for tool-handles. [See also Marblewood.] Olive, Native, in North America {Osmdnihus americdnus Gray : Order Oledcece). Also known as " Devilwood." French " Olivier d'Amerique." Germ. " Amerikanischer Oelbaum." Span. " Ma- dera del diablo." Resembling Box, very hard and durable, with evenly circular rings and fine vessels in dendritic lines across the entire ring, resembling those of Rhamnus. OLIVE— ORANGE 235 Olive, Spurious. See Ironwood (vi), and for other allied species, Ironwood (vii), (xi-xv), and (xxiv). Olivier [Termindlia Buceras Wright : Order Combretdcece). West Indies. Kjiown also as " Black Olive " and " Olive-bark." Height 30 — 50 ft. ; diam. 2 — 4 ft. Not flammable, durable in water, insect-proof, between OHvewood and Satinwood in character. Omatsu. See Pine, Japanese Black. Opepe [Termindlia sp. : Order Combretdcece). West Africa, especially Lagos and Toruba. W 47-5— 50-7. R 14,347 — 17,907 lbs. A beautiful reddish-yellow or golden-red, moderately hard, and heavy, coarse and open in grain, planing well, and taking an excellent pohsh. Mr. Stone describes it as "a splendid cabinet wood," and Mr. Weale is of opinion that it has a future in the Liver- pool timber market. Orange [Citrus Aurdntium L. : Order Aurantidcece). Probably a native of India, cultivated for its fruit in most tropical and sub- tropical countries. Sansk. " Nagranga." Arab, and Pers. " Naranj." Hind. " Naringi." S'pan. " Naranja." French "Oranges." Germ. " Pomeranzen." S.G. 700. W^ 58. Small, light yellow, close-grained, hard. Imported from Algeria for walking-sticks, and used in the West Indies in cabinet-work. Lemon-wood [C. medica, var. Limonum) seems very similar. Orange, Black. See Broom. Orange, Mock. See Cheesewood. Orange, Native, in Australia (i) [Citrus austrdlis Planch.). Height 30 — 40 ft. ; diam. 9 — 12 in. Resembling the Common Orange ; (ii) from the shape of the fruit [Cdpparis Mitchelli Lindl. : Order Capparidece), known also as " Small Native Pomegranate." Height 14 — 20 ft. ; diam. 1 ft. Whitish, hard, close-grained, closely resembhng Lancewood. Suitable for engraving ; (iii) Endi- dndra virens P. v. M. : Order Laurdcece). North-East Australia. Known also as " Bat and Ball," " Native Pomegranate," and " Ullagal Mabbie." A tall shrub, with grey, close-grained, firm, apparently useful wood. Orange, Osage [Madura aurantiaca Nutt. : Order Mordcece). Arkansas and Texas. Known also as " Boxwood." French " Bois d'arc." Height 50 ft. or more ; diam. 2 ft. Sapwood yellow, heart brown transversely, yellow longitudinally, soon turning greyish on exposure, very heavy, hard and strong, not tough, flexible, of moderately coarse texture, shrinking considerably in drying, very durable in contact with soil. Formerly used for bows and wheelwrights' work, now for fence-posts, railway-ties, waggon-building, and paving-blocks ; but suitable for turnery and carving. 236 WOODS OF CO:\DIERCE Orham-wood (Ulmus sp.? : Order Ulmdcece). Canada. W 32. Brownish, soft, coarse-grained, twists badly, and is not durable, but is cheap, fetching Is. lOd. per cubic foot for prime quahty in Liverpool. Xow considerably used as a cabinet-wood. Pacara [Enterolohium Timboilva Mart. : Order Leguminosce) . Xorthern Argentina. Yielding logs 15 ft. long and IJ ft. square. Light-brown, loose-grained, not strong. Used for door-frames, furniture, etc. Pader or Padri {Stereospermum chelonoides DC : Order Bignonid- cece). India and Burma, Ceylon and Sunda Islands. Height to first branch 30 ft. ; diam. 1 — 2 ft. Grey, reddish-brown or orange, wood hard, elastic, easy to work, moderately durable. Used in house-building, and for canoes, furniture, and tea-chests. Padouk {Pterocdrpus indicus Willd. : Order Leguminosce). Burma, Sunda and Phihppine Islands and Southern China. Known also as '* Burmese Rosewood," or " Tenasserim Mahogany." Fiji " Cibicibi." Height to first branch 35 ft. ; diam. 2 — 5 ft., yielding timber 15—30 ft. long. W 56—81. R 1,000 lbs. Dark-red, beautifully variegated and darker near the root, resembling Ma- hogany, but heavier, shghtly aromatic, very heavy, moderately hard, coarse but close-grained, working fairly well, taking two years to season, termite-proof, and susceptible of a high pohsh, but fading in colour on exposure, and will not take glue. It is used by the Burmese for musical instruments and cart-wheels ; in India for gun-carriages and furniture ; and is recommended as a Teak-substi- tute for railway-carriages and for counter-toi3s and ball-room floors. Padouk, African. See Rosewood, African. Padouk, Andaman {Pterocdrpus dalhergioUes Roxb.). Andaman Islands. Squaring 60 ft. and 2 ft. in the side. W 40—60. Hand- somer than P. indicus, being comparable to the best Spanish Mahogany, but browner. L^sed for furniture, parquet, etc. The root gives a closer-grained, darker, and more beautifully figured wood than the stem. Good samples of the wood fetch £10 per ton in London, or 4s. — 4s. 6d. per cubic foot. Pahautea. See Cedar, New Zealand. Pai'cha (Euonymus europceus, var. Hamilfonidnus Wall. : Order Celastrinece). Ning-po. Perhaps also known as " Tu chung mu." Yellowish-white, very hard, close- and fine-grained. Inferior to Box ; but one of the best substitutes yet found for it as an engraver's wood. L^sed by the Chinese for carving and typography. Palisander-wood (i) Jacardnda hrasilidna Pers. : Order Bignonid- cece). Brazil. Sapwood very narrow, grey ; heart dark chocolate- brown, marked by deep black veins and bands, very heavy, hard, difficult to spht, almost brittle ; rings scarcely visible ; pith-rays PALO BLANCO— PAPAW 237 invisible ; vessels large, appearing like strings of pearls on longi- tudinal, and as light-red spots on transverse, sections. A valuable wood, chiefly used in pianofortes, (ii) Possibly Dalhergia nigra Allem., or some species of the allied genus Machcerium (Order Leguminosce) may be the source, in whole or in part, of this wood. Dalhergia nigra, sometimes apparently known as " Jacaranda cabiuna," is dark-coloured, porous, and open-grained. S.G. 768 — 841. It is a valuable furniture-wood. Probably most of the Palisander-wood of commerce is Dalhergia or Machcerium [See Rosewood], and not Bignoniaceous. The best in figure, and there- fore the most valuable, comes from Bahia, but is a very wasteful wood, as the tree rots at the heart before reaching maturity, so that the roughly-hewn, semi -cylindrical billets of half a log each, in which form it is imported, are never sound. The wood from Rio Janeiro, though in less unsound round logs, is less figured. Palo Blanco {Calycophyllum multiflorum Griseb. : Order Ruhid- cece). Northern Argentina. Height 25 — 30 ft. ; diam. 2 — 2 J ft. Almost white, fine- and close-grained. Used for beams and planks. Palo Cruz (Tahehuia nodosa Griseb. : Order Bignonidcea^). Northern Argentina. Yielding timber 11 J ft. long and 1 ft. square. Light yellow, loose-grained, but of good quality. Used for waggon - frames, axe-handles, etc. Palo Maria. See Poon. Palo Mulato. See Bois Mulatre. Palo Narango. See Fustic. Palu {Mimusops Jiexdndra Roxb. : Order Sapotdcece). Ceylon. W 68. Large, very heavy, hard, red-brown. Walnut-like in tint ; but monotonous, valuable for purposes of construction. Panacoco (Rohinia Panacoco Aubl. = Swdrtzia tomentosa DC. : Order Leguminosce). French Guiana. Height up to 50 ft. ; diam. 8 ft., imported in logs squaring 17 in. and upwards of 32 ft. long. S.G. 1,231—1,181. R 400 kilos. Sapwood white; heart black, more lustrous than ordinary Ebony, very compact and durable. Used in fencing ; but most valuable for cabinet-work. Pao d'arco (Tecoma speciosa DC. : Order Bignonidcece). Brazil. Height 100 ft. ; diam. 10 ft. or more. Very hard, compact, and elastic. Pao precioso {Mespiloddphne pretiosa Nees : Order Laurineoe). Brazil. Very hard, compact, with beautiful grain, fragrant. Used in building and in perfumery. Papaw {Asimina triloha Dunal : Order Anondcece). Middle, Southern, and Western United States. Also known as " Custard- 238 WOODS OF COMIMERCE apple " and " Cucumber- tree." French " Asiminier." Germ. " Dreilappiger Flachenbaum." Span. " Anona." Height 15 — 30 ft. S.G. 397. W 24-74. Sapwood narrow, heart dark-green, hght, soft, weak, coarse-grained. Papri. See Elm, Indian. Parcouri [Clusia insignis Mart. : Order Clusidcece). Guiana. Kjiown in Demerara as " Wild Mammee, Coopa," and " Cowassa." S.G. 816 for the black, 784 for the yellow variety. Fine, compact, and even in grain. Partridge-wood in South America may be Andira inermis [See Angelin], or A. AuhUtii [See Wacapou]. In Xorthern Australia it is the outer part of the Palm Livistona inermis R.Br., also known as " Cabbage-palm." Height 14 — 40 ft. ; diam. 1 ft. Light grey, streaked with a darker colour, the fibro-vascular bundles, producing a beautiful effect, very hard, and taking a good polish. Patawa {(Enocdrpus Bataua Mart. : Order Pahndcece). French Guiana. With parallel veins of black and white. Suitable for walking-sticks, umbrella-handles, and inlay. Peach-wood {Ccesalpinia echindta Lam. : Order Leguminosce)- Central and South America. Kjiown also as " Lima, Nicaragua," or " Pernambuco-wood," or " Bresil de St. Martha." Small and little known, hard, heavy, and susceptible of a good polish. Valu- able as a red, orange, or peach-coloured dye ; but inferior to Brazil- wood. Pear (Pyrus communis L. : Order Posdcece). Europe and Western Asia ; cultivated as a fruit-tree in other temperate climates. French *'Poirier." Germ. " Birnbaum." Span. " Peral." Height 20— 50 ft. ; diam. 1—2 ft. S.G. 680. W 44—52. No true heart, but sometimes a darker, more chocolate-brown in the centre, light pinkish-brown, moderately heavy, hard, close-grained, tough, firm, dijBficult to split, but easily cut in any direction, taking a satiny polish, and very durable, if kept dry. Rings recognizable by the dark zone of the autumn-wood ; pith-rays and vessels not visible to the naked eye. Highly esteemed for turnery, cabinet-work, T-squares, and other drawing instruments, cahco-printing blocks, coarse wood-engraving and, when " ebonized " or stained black, for picture-frames. Pear, Hard (Olinia cymosa Thunb., var. intermedia : Order Oliniece). Cape Colony. Zulu " Umnonono." Height 14 — 16 or 55 ft. ; diam. 1 — 2J ft. W 54-3. Yellowish, very heavy, hard, compact and tough. Valuable for axles and carriage-poles, and suitable for musical instruments and turnery. Pear, Native, in Australia (i) (Xylomelum pyri forme Knight : Order Protedcece). New South Wales and West AustraHa. Kjiown PEAR— PEPPERMINT 239 also as " Wooden Pear." Height 20—40 ft. ; diam. 6—8 in. W 40 — 56. Sapwood narrow, light ; heart a rich dark reddish, with a beautiful rich figuring on tangential sections, taking an excellent polish. Occasionally used for picture-frames, veneers, and walldng- sticks. (ii) (Hdkea sericea Schrad. { = aciculdris R. Br.) var. lissosperma : Order Protedcece). South-East Australasia. Height 20 — 30 ft. ; diam. 8 — 10 in. Hard, and used in turnery. Pear, Red {Scolopia Ecklonii Bentli. and Hook. fil. : 'Order Flacourtidcece). South Africa. Height 30 — 35 ft. ; diam. 2 — 3 ft. Heavy, hard, close-grained. Used chiefly by wheelwrights and in mill- work. Pear, Thorn or Wolf (Scolopia Zeyheri Benth. and Hook. fil.). Cape Colony. " Klipdoorn." " Igumza elinameva." Height 60 — 70 ft. ; diam. 2 — 3 ft. Straight-growing, very hard and close- grained, very difficult to saw. Used for cogs. Pear, Wooden. See Pear, Native. Pear-wood, White [Pteroceldstrus rostrdtus Walp. : Order Celas- trdcece). South Africa. Zulu " Umdogan." " Umdakane." Height 20—25 ft. ; diam. 1—2 ft. W 42-84. E 635 tons. / 6-95. fc 3-04. Moderately heavy, strong, and durable. Much used for felloes and other waggon- work. The name is also applied in Natal to Apodytes dimididta E. Mey. : Order Olacinece). Height 70 ft. ; diam. 2 — 3 ft. W 49 — 61-5. Greyish-brown, hard, very fine- and close-grained, tough, working well, and excellent for turnery. This tree occurs from Guinea to the Nile. Penagah. See Poon. Pencil Cedar. See Cedar, Pencil. Pencil-wood [Pdnax Murrayi F. v. M. : Order Aralidcece). North- East Austraha. Height 50—60 ft. S.G. 348. Light-coloured, the lightest in weight of any wood in the district, soft. Pith large. The wood hardens externally in drying, so that the outside is often harder than the centre. Cuts well, and is recommended for lining- boards. Pepperidge. See Gum, Black. Peppermint, a name applied in Australia to various species of Eucalyptus, including (i) E. amygdalina, which is known as " Brown, Dandenong, Narrow-leaved," or " White Peppermint " [See Ash, Mountain] ; (ii) E. capitelldta [See Stringybark, White] ; (iii) E. micro- corys [See Tallow-wood] ; (iv) E. pauciflora [See Gum, Mountain White] ; (v) E. Stuartidna [See Gum, Apple-scented] ; (vi) E. piperita; and (vii) E. odordta E. piperita Sm. (Order Murtdcece). Eastern Australia. Ejiown also as " Blackbutt, Redwood, Messmate, White," or " Almond-leaved Stringybark." Height 80—100 ft. ; diam. 2—3 ft. S.G. 1,109—922. W 69-22. Red, very heavy. 240 WOODS OF COIVIMERCE but works with difficulty, and is very subject to shakes, durable. Used for posts, shingles, and rough house-building. E. odordta Behr. South-East Austraha. Also known as " Red Gum, Box," and " White Box." Small. W 60—70. Yellowish- white or light-brown, heavy, very hard, tough, close- and straight - grained, generally hollow. Used for fencing, wheels, and fuel. Peppermint, Bastard. See Gum, Broad-leaved Water. Pernambuco-wood. See Peach-wood. Peroba branca or Peroba de campos {Sapota gonocdrpa Mart. : Order Sapotdcece). Brazil. A large tree, yielding straight timber, 60—70 ft. long, siding 24—40 in. S.G. 868—739. W 50. Yellow, moderately heavy% stronger than Teak, but not so heavy, close and fine-grained, easily worked, taking a high polish, very durable, even when in contact with iron. Used in building Bra- zihan ironclads, and is suitable for engineering or building-work, or for furniture. Peroba vermelha (Aspidosperma sp. : Order Apocyndcece). Brazil. Red, moderately heavy, smooth, close and fine in grain, somewhat resembling Pencil Cedar. Used in ship -building. Persimmon (Diospyros virginidna L. : Order Ebendcece). Eastern United States. Elnown also as " Date-plum." French " Plaque- minier de Virginie." Germ. " Virginische Dattelpflaume." Span. " Persimon." Height 80 ft. ; diam. 2 ft. S.G. 790. W 49-28. R 879 kilos. Sapwood very broad, sometimes 60 rings, cream- colour ; heart dark-brown or black, heavy, hard, close-grained, strong and tough, resembling Hickory, but finer in grain. Used for shuttles, shoe-lasts, plane-stocks, etc. Pimento {Pimenta offlcindlis Lindl. : Order Myrtdcece). Jamaica. Imported as walking-sticks. Pin-bush {Hdkea leucoptera R. Br. : Order Protedcece). Central and Eastern Australia. Known also as " Beef wood," " Water- tree," and " Needle-bush." Height 15—25 ft. ; diam. 4—6 in. S.G. 818. Heavy, coarse-grained, soft, taking a good polish. Used for tobacco-pipes, cigarette-holders, and veneers. Pine is the general name originally applied in the Northern Hemisphere to the trees and wood of the coniferous genus Pinus, and subsequently extended — mainly in Australasia — to the allied genera Agathis, Frenela, Araucdria, Dacrydium, Podocdrpus, and Pseudotsuga. Curiously enough, however, the wood of the various local varieties of the Northern Pine {Pinus sylvestris) imported from Baltic ports, especially Dantzic, Memel, and Riga, is known in commerce as " Fir," or " Red " and " Yellow Deals," the name " Pine " being used for the timber of other species of the same PINE 241 genus imported from North America. The pines, often called firs, are known in French as " pin," in German as " Kiefer, Fohre," or " Pynbaum," in Italian and Spanish as " Pino," in Swedish as " Fura," in Danish as " Fyr," and in Russian as " Sosna." The wood of Pines, as also of those other trees that are so-called and of all Conifers, is of the simple structure described in our first chapter, consisting only of tracheids, with the pith-rays, and, in most cases, resin-canals. That of the true Pines — the genus Pinus — has numerous resin-canals, uniformly scattered through the annual rings, and has a distinct dark-coloured heart, though when the wood is freshly cut this last is often not recognizable. The pith-rays are rarely more than one cell thick, and are, therefore, invisible to the naked eye, but vary in depth, having generally from three to eight radial rows of elements, of which the central rows are paren- chyma or cellulose-walled cells, with simple pits on their radial walls — i.e., on those in contact with the tracheids of the xylem, whilst the upper and lower row or two consist of tracheids with bordered pits. The rings are rendered distinct by the darker and firmer zone of autumn-wood in each, consisting of more compressed, thicker- walled elements. This simpUcity of structure and resinous character renders the wood uniform and even in texture, easy to work, and of considerable durability. It is also, on the whole, soft, light, elastic, stiff, and strong, characters which, coupled with its abundance in pure forests — forests, that is, mainly made up of a single species — combine to render the Pines the most generally useful and among the cheapest of woods. The wood even of a single species of Pine varies very much, according to the condition under which it is grown ; but, though connected by intermediate cases, most of the species fall into two fairly well-marked groups, known in America as the " Hard " and " Soft " Pines. The Hard Pines are harder, heavier, and darker-coloured, ranging from yellow to deep orange or brown ; their autumn-wood forms a much broader proportion of the ring, and is somewhat abruptly marked off from the spring- wood ; and the tracheids of their pith-rays have their walls very unevenly thickened with tooth-like projections. This group includes the Northern {Pinus sylvestris), Austrian (P. austriaca), and Mountain (P. mon- tdna) of Europe, and the majority of the North American species. The Soft Pines are softer and lighter ; range in colour from light-red to white ; have a narrow autumn zone gradually merging into the spring-wood on its inner surface ; and have smooth walls to the tracheids of their pith-rays, with no tooth-like projections. The group includes the Cembra Pine (P. Cemhra) of Europe, and the Yellow, or, as it is there called, White (P. Strobus), Sugar (P. Lam- bertiana), and a few other species in America. 16 242 WOODS OF COMJMERCE Pine seasons rapidly and with but little shrinkage, this being, however, greater in the harder kinds. It is never too hard to nail, and when once well seasoned, is not subject to the attacks of boring insects. It is not, therefore, to be wondered at that Pine has become by far the most extensively used of all woods. The straight -growing, tapering stem fits it for masts and spars ; its strength and lightness recommend it for ships' timbers, pla.nking, bridges, and carriage-building, its durability for sleepers, its resinous character for torches or fuel, the refuse j^elding charcoal and lamp- black, and its cheapness for street-paving, general carpentry, common furniture and boxes and paper-pulp. Pine, Adventure Bay. See Pine, Celery-topped. Pine, Aleppo (P. halepensis Mill.). Mediterraneanr egion ; intro- duced in Australia. Height 50 — 80 ft. ; diam. 2 — 3 ft. Yellowish- white, fine-grained. Valued locally for telegraph-poles, turnery, joinery, or fuel, and as a source of turpentine. This was probably the Oren, ttltv^, or " Ash " of Isaiah xliv. 14 ; and also the Berosh, KVTrdpLcrcro^, or " Fir " of Isaiah xxxvii. 24. It was used for flooring, ceiling, and doors in the Temple, for harps, and for ships' decks. Pine, Austrian {Pinus austnaca Hoss. = P. Laricio in part). Lower Austria and the north of the Balkan Peninsula. Kno\\Ti also as " Black Austrian Pine." Germ. " Schwarzkiefer." French ",Pin noir d'x4utriche." Height 80 — 120 ft., relatively slender. Wood very similar to that of tlie Northern Pine (P. sylvestris) ; but, when grown in poor soil, apt to be knotty. Suitable for fencing or fuel. Pine, Bastard. See Pine, Cuban. Pine, Bhotan (P. excelsa Wall.). At altitudes of 6,000 to 12,000 ft., from Bhotan to the Kuram Pass in Afghanistan. Also known as " Indian Blue, Five-leaved," or " Himalayan Pine." French " Pin pleureur." Germ. " Thranen Kiefer." Chinese " Tong- schi." Height 50—150 ft. ; diam. 2—3 ft. Reddish, compact, close-grained, very resinous, durable. Used for torches ; but the most valuable wood of its district for building or engineering work, and second only in durability to the "Deodar. Pine, Big-cone (P. Coulteri Don. = P. macrocdrpa Lind.). Coast- range of California. Reported to be of small value as timber. Pine, Bishops'. See Pine, Obispo. Pine, Black, in North America (P. Jeffreyi Balf.). Cahfornia and Oregon, above 6,000 ft. Known also as " Bull Pine." Height 100 ft. or more, up to 300 ft. ; diam. 4 ft. or more, up to 10 or 12 ft. Light, hard, strong, very resinous. One of the " Hard Pines," closely alhed to the Bull Pine (P. ponderosa). Used locally, chiefly as coarse lumber. See also Pine, Lodge-pole. PINE 243 Pine, Black, in New Zealand (i) {Prumnopitys spicdta Masters : Order Taxinece). Maori " Matai." Height 80 ft. ; diam. 2—4 ft S.G. 787. W 35—49-25. p 197-2. Cinnamon-brown, heavy, close, smooth, and even in grain, strong, easily worked, very durable. Used for piles, sleepers, house-building, mill-wrights' work, etc. (ii) {Podocdrpus ferrugmea Don. : Order Taxinece). Maori " Miro." Germ. " Mirobaum." Height 50—80 ft. ; diam. 1—3 ft. S.G. 1,214 when green, 752—658 when seasoned. W 52— 40. p 190. Light to dark reddish-brown, sometimes nicely figured, moderately heavy and hard, close, straight, and even in grain, strong, elastic, planing up well, and taking a good polish, durable in contact with sea-water, but not in contact with the soil. Used for piles, and suited for house-building, cabinet-work, or turnery. Pine, Black, in Australia. See Cypress Pine. Pine, Brown. See Cedar, Pencil (iii). Pine, Bull (P. ponderosa Dough). Western North America. Known also as " Yellow " or " Heavy- wooded Pine." Germ. " Westhche Gelbkiefer." Height 100—150 ft. or up to 300 ft. ; diam. 5 — 6 or 15 ft. Sapwood wide ; heart very variable in weight, strength, and durability, generally hard, brittle, strong, resinous, but not durable in contact with the soil. Furnishing most of the hard Pine of the West, being largely used for lumber, railway- ties, mining- timber, and fuel. See also Pine, Black, and Pine, Nut. Pine, Bunya. See Bunya-bunya. Pine, Canadian Red [P. resinosa Sol. = P. rubra Michx.). Michigan and IVIinnesota to Newfoundland. Known in Canada as " Norwaj^ Pine " and in Nova Scotia as " Yellow Pine." French " Pin rouge d'Amerique." Germ. " Rothkiefer " or " Harzige Fichte." Height 60—100 ft. or more; diam. 2— 2i ft. S.G. 578—485. W 30—44. E 650—850 tons, e' 1-32. p' -81. / 3-71. ft 5-1- 6-3. c 2,705. c' -357. fc 2-4— 2-76. v' -62. fs -22— -35. R 800 kilos. Sapwood yellowish-white ; heart slightly reddish, Hght, harder than Yellow Pine (P. Strobus), tough, elastic, moderately strong, fine-grained, working up well, with a silky lustre, very resinous, durable, not shrinking or warping much in seasoning. Used for spars, ship -building, and piles ; but chiefly for flooring, for which it is preferable to Yellow Pine, with which it grows, it being, in fact, a hard Pine, resembling resinous examples of Scots Fir. Pine, Canadian Yellow. See Pine, White. Pine, Carolina. See Pine, Short-leaf. Pine, Cedar. See Pine, Lowland-Spruce. 16—2 244 WOODS OF CO:^DIERCE Pine, Celery-topped [PhyUodddus rhomboiddlis Rich : Order Tax'mece^ Podocdrpus asplenifolia Labill.). Tasmania. Known also as " Adventure Bay Pine." Height up to 60 ft., usually too slender to be useful. Even-grained, and easily worked, strong, durable. Occasionally used for spars, flooring, and railway-cars. See also Tanekaha. Pine, Cembra (P. Cembra L.). From Kamtschatka to the Urals, Carpathians, and Alps. Known also as " Swiss Stone Pine." French " Cembrot, Tinier." Germ. " Zirbelkiefer, Zirbe, Arve." Swiss " Alvier, AroUa." Height 60—70 or 90 ft. Sapwood broad, yellowish-white ; heart, when dry, white or yellowish-brown, hght, soft, fine-grained, easily split, shrinking httle, susceptible of a fine pohsh, fragrant, and obnoxious to insects ; annual rings regularly circular ; narrow autumn wood scarcely distinguishable ; resin-ducts numerous, and very large ; pith-rays with one row of smooth- walled tracheids above and below, with small bordered pits, and generally three rows of parenchyma in the middle, with, large simple pits. A soft pine, in request for wainscoting, carved work, lining clothes'- chests, turnery, etc. Pine, Chile (Araucdria imhricdta Pa von : Order Araucarinece) . Southern Chile. Kjiotvti also as " Pehuen, Piiion," and " Monkey Puzzle." Germ. " CliiHtanne, Schmucktanne." Height 70 — 100 ft. ; diam. 5 — 7 ft. at base. Wood in Enghsh-gromi specimens cross- grained, and not seemingly of value ; but in Chile yellowish, beauti- fully veined, and susceptible of a fine polish. Used in Cliile for masts. Pine, Cluster (P. Pindster Sol. = P. mnritima Lam.). Mediter- ranean region ; naturalized in South Africa, Northern India, Australia, etc. French " Pin de Bordeaux, Pin maritime. Pin des Landes." Germ. " Sternkiefer, Strandkiefer." Height 50—60 ft. W 33 — 48. Reddish, soft, coarse-grained, not durable. Used mainly for coarse carpentry, packing-cases, and fuel ; but of great value as a source of turpentine, charcoal, and lamp-black being manufactured from the refuse. Large numbers of pit-props of this species are imported into South Wales from Bordeaux. Pine, Colonial. See Pine, Moreton Bay. Pine, Common, of Australia. See Cypress-Pine. Pine, Corsican (P. Laricio Poir.). Corsica and the Maritime Alps. Elnown also as " Larch Pine." Germ. " Schwarzkiefer." Height 80 — 100 ft. Creamy white when freshly cut, broTVTiish- yellow when seasoned, tough, elastic, long, but rather coarse in grain, very resinous, easily worked, susceptible of a fair polish, very durable, obnoxious to insects. Resembling Northern Pine (P. sylvestris) of good quality in its structure and uses. PINE 245 Pine, Cuban (P. cuhensis Griseb.). Southern United States. Known also as " Bastard, Meadow, Slash, or Swamp Pine," and in British Honduras as " Yellow," or " Pitch Pine." Height 75 ft. or more ; diam. 2 ft. or more. Heavy, exceedingly hard, very strong, tough, and durable, little inferior to Long-leaf Pine (P. palustris), with which it is classed in Florida, but with wider sap- wood and coarser grain. Used in carpentry. Pine, Cypress. See Cypress-Pine. Pine, Dantzic. See Pine, Northern. Pine, Dark. See Cypress Pine. Pine, Digger. See Pine, Nut. Pine, Dundatha {Agathis rohusta Salisb. = Dammara rohusta C. Moore, and A. Palmerstoni F. von Muell. : Order Comferce). Queensland. Known also as " Queensland Kauri." Height 80 — 130 ft. ; diam. 3 — 6 ft. Light yellow, soft, close-grained, free from knots, and easily worked. Largely used by joiners and cabinet- makers, for pattern-making and in house-building. Pine, Flexible (P. flexilis James). Rocky Mountains at altitudes of 4,000—12,000 ft. Height 40—50 ft. ;' diam. 2—4 ft. Light, clear yellow, turning red on exposure, light, close-grained, compact, very pliable, but very knotty and coarse-grained. Known and used locally as " White Pine." Pine, Fox-tail (P. Balfouridna Murray). California at altitudes over 5,000 ft. Known also as " Hickory " or " Awned Pine." Height 30 — 50 ft. ; diam. 1 — 5 ft. Light, and apparently soft, and not strong : but used in Nevada for mine-timbers. Pine, Frankincense. See Pine, Loblolly. Pine, Georgia. See Pine, Long-leaf. Pine, Grey (P. Banksidna Lambert). Canada and Labrador from the Arctic Circle to Michigan and Maine. Known also as "Scrub, Jack, Yellow," or "Prince's Pine." Germ. " Strauch- kiefer." Height 25—60 or 70 ft. ; diam. 1—2 ft. Light, soft, not strong. Used chiefly for fuel and railway-ties, but recom- mended for planting in swampy or arid soils. Pine, Hazel. See Gum, Sweet. Pine, Hickory (P. pungens Michx.). Alleghany Mountains. Known also as " Table Mountain Pine." Germ, " Stechende Kiefer." Height 25 — 40 ft. Light, soft, coarse-grained, not strong. Chiefly used for charcoal. [See also Pine, Fox-tail.] Pine, Himalaya. See Pine, Bhotan. Pine, Hoop. See Pine, Moreton Bay. ! Pine, Huon, See Huon Pine. Pine, Jack. See Pine, Grey. 246 WOODS OF COmiERCE Pine, Japanese Black (P. Thunbergii Pari. = P. Massonimia S. and Z.). Japan and Korea. Japan " Omatsu.. Kuro-matsii." Height 80—90 or 120 ft. ; diam. 2—4 ft. Used in house-building and for fuel. Pine, Japanese Red (P. densifldra S. and Z.). Japan " Me- matsu, Aka-matsu." Height 50 — 70 or 100 ft. Slender, coarse- grained, moderately strong, more ornamental than that of the pre- ceding. Used for all kinds of carpentry, and a favourite species in a dwarfed condition. Pine, Jersey (P. virginidna ]\Ii]l. = P. inops Sol.). Eastern United States. Known also as " Scrub Pine." French " Pin chetif." Height up to 75—100 ft. ; diam. up to 2—3 ft. East of the Alleghanies used only as fuel ; to the west, where it reaches timber size, used in carpentry, especially in contact with water. Pine, Kauri. See Kauri. Pine, King William. See Cedar, Tasmanian. Pine, Lachlan. See Cypress Pine. Pine, Light. See Cypress Pine. Pine, Loblolly (P. Tdeda L.). Southern United States. Known also as " Torch, Frankincense, Slash, Rosemary, Sap, Short- straw," or "Old Field Pine." French "Pin a I'encens." Germ. " Weihrauchkiefer." Height 80—100 or 175 ft. ; diam. 2—5 ft. Sapwood wide ; heart hard, though less so than in the Long-leaf Pine (P. palustris), with which it is generally confounded, lighter, coarser in grain, and with wider rings than that species, not strong or durable. L^sed for common lumber ; but suited rather for fuel ; rich in resin. Pine, Lodge-pole (P. Murraijdna Balf.). Mountains of Western North America. Kjio^tl also as " Tamarack Pine, Black Pine," or, in the smaller form (P. contorio Dougl.) as " Oregon Scrub Pine." Height 70—80 or 150 ft. ; diam. 4—6 ft. Light, hard, straight- grained, easily worked, but not strong or durable. Used locally for railway-ties and carpentry, and more generally for fuel. Pine, Long-leaf, in America (P. palustris ]Mill. = P. austrdlis Michx.). Southern pine-barrens from Xorth CaroHna to Texa?^. Kno^A^l also in the Northern States as " Southern, Georgia," or "Red Pine"; in the Southern States as " Turpentine - tree," " Yellow, Broom," or " Long-straw Pine "; and generally, especially in foreign trade, as " Pitch Pine," associated with the name of the port of origin, such as Darien, Pensacola, Savannah, etc. Height 50—100 ft. ; diam. lA— 4 ft. S.G. 932—498. W 37—44. E 950 tons, e' 1-93— 1-53. " p' •91-1-3. / 3-57. ft 4—5-09. c 4,666. c' -616. fc 3-99. v' -847. Imported in logs and planks, 20—45 ft. long, squaring 11 — 18 in., or 3 — 5 in. tliick, and 10 — 15 in. wide. PINE 247 Reddish, resembling the Northern Pine (P. sylvestris), but heavier and more resinous, owing to which latter character the broad zone of autumn-wood appears greasy, tough, compact, clean, regular, straight, and sometimes fine and sometimes rather coarse in grain, susceptible of a high polish, rigid, rather difficult to work, but harder and stronger than other American Pine, liable to heart and cup-shake ; but, I believe, very durable. " There are," says Mr. Stevenson, " numerous architects and civil engineers who rigidly adhere to the use of Memel and Bantzic Fir, and who will not allow the use of Pitch Pine, whilst there are others who rank it almost with the Oak, and state that in piling, and in jetties, exposed to the tides and weather, it will last double and treble the time allotted to Memel and Dantzic Pir." It is still the most abundant, and by far the most valuable. Pine in the Atlantic States, occupying a belt from 80 to 125 miles wide, once covering 130,000 square miles. " Invaded from every direction by the axe, a prey to fires, which weaken the mature trees and destroy the tender saplings, wasted by the pasturage of domestic animals, and destroyed for the doubtful profits of the turpentine industry, the forests . . . appear hopelessly doomed to lose their commercial importance at no distant day " (Sargent). Millions of feet of marketable timber are constantly destroyed by the carelessness of the turpentine- workers. As a source of turpentine it is the most important species in the world. Its timber is used in ship-building for spars, beams, and planking, the redder wood (" Red Pine " of the dockyards in the Northern States) being specially valued for durability and a greater power of resisting the ship- worm than that possessed by Oak. In English shipbuilding it has almost extin- guished the use of Baltic timber for spars, England importing, in all, over 500 million feet, or nearly 870,000 loads — more than a third of the entire export. In America it is largely used for fencing, railway-ties, mine-timbers, wood-paving, house-building, and fuel ; whilst in this country it is largely used for wainscoting and church and school fittings, and to some extent in cabinet-making. Pine, Long-leaf, of the Himalayas (P. longifolia Roxb.). From Bhotan to Afghanistan at altitudes of 1,500 to 7,500 ft. Hind. " Chir." Height 100 ft. or more. Soft, not durable, easily worked. Used for tea-boxes, shingles, and building ; but chiefly valuable for its resin, one tree yielding 10 — 20 lbs. the first year. The wood is also used for torches and for charcoal, so that this is, on the whole, the most valuable Himalayan species. Pine, Lowland Spruce (P. glabra Walt.). South-Eastern United States. Known also as " Cedar " or " White Pine," and in Florida as " Old Field Pine." Height 80 ft. or more ; diam. 3 ft. or more. Light, soft, brittle, easily worked, not strong or durable, resembling 248 WOODS OF COMIERCE the Loblolly Pine (P. Tdeda), not resinous. Employed chiefly for inside work. Pine, Maritime. See Pine, Cluster. Pine, Meadow. See Pine, Cuban. Pine, Monterey (P. insignis Dougl. = P. radidta Don.). South Cahfornia. Height 80—100 ft. ; diam. 2—5 ft. Light, soft, brittle, not strong. Used only for fuel. Pine, Moreton-Bay {Araucdria Cunnighami Lamb. : Order Arau- carinece). I^orth-East Australia and New Guinea. Known also as " Colonial " or " Hoop Pine, Coonam," Cumburtu. Height 150—200 ft. ; diam. 3— ft. S.G. 763—500. W 30—33-75. Yielding spars 80 — 100 ft. long, hght-coloured, light, straight- grained, hard and strong, the sapwood liable to rot, but the heart durable if kept constantly dry or wet, working very easily, some- times exhibiting a peculiar figure from groups of small knots. In request for flooring-boards, carpentry, punt-bottoms, and to some extent for cabinet-work and spars, mountain-grown timber being preferred. The chief softwood of Queensland ; but far inferior to European or American Pine. Pine, Mountain (P. montdna Mill., including P. Pumilio Haenke, of Thuringia and the Carpathians, P. Mughus Wild, of the Tyrol, and P. uncindta Ram. of the Pyrenees). Central and Southern Europe, at altitudes of 500—8,000 ft. French " Pin nain." Germ. " Bergkiefer, Krummholzkiefer, Zwergkiefer." Resembhng the Northern Pine (P. sylvestris), but small, often eccentric in growth, narrow-ringed, harder, and heavier. Pine, Murray, and Pine, Murrumbidgee. See Cypress Pine. Pine, New York. See Pine, Short-leaf. Pine, Norfolk Island (Araucdria excclsa R. Br.). Germ. " Nor- folktanne." Height 150 — 200 ft. ; diam. 5 — 7 ft., yielding excellent timber, but now scarce. Pine, Northern (P. sylvestris L.). Europe and Northern Asia, up to 700 ft. above sea-level in Northern Norway and 6,500 ft. on the Sierra Nevada of Southern Spain. Kjiotvti in Scotland as the " Scots," in England as the " Scotch Fir," and in the timber trade by various names, according to its origin, such as " White Sea," "Baltic," "St. Petersburg," "Riga," " Memel," " Dantzic," "Gefle," "Soderhamn," " Eliasberg," " Saldowitz," "Swedish," or " Norway Fir," " Redwood," " Red " or " Yellow Deal." French " Pin sauvage." Germ. " Gemeine Kiefer, Fohre," or " Weiss- fohre." Dutch " Pynboom." Danish " Fyrre." Russ. " Sosna." Height 80—100 ft. ; diam. 2—4 ft. S.G. 774—478. W 19—47. 1-3— 1-69. •74—1-087. ft 2 6— b o. fc 2-5—3. c 4,051— PINE 249 3,231. c' -535— -427. v' -93— -618. The characters and quahty of the wood vary much, according to cHmate and soil. Conversely to what is the case with Oaks, the more slowly grown Pines of high latitudes or mountains, having narrower annual rings, with a pro- portionally smaller amount of spring-wood, are heavier, denser, and stronger than those of the South, or of plains, or from rich soils. English-grown Pine is thick-baited, carrying a great amount — often 4 inches — of sapwood, and is generally only used locally, not being nearly as durable as Larch. Scotch-grown wood is of better quality, and is imported into the North of England, chiefly as mine-timber. The Pine from Prussia and Central Russia is large, heavy, hard, resinous, and of excellent quality for sleepers, paving- blocks, masts, beams, and planks ; that from Archangel being the strongest and most durable imported, though subject to heart- shakes and surface-checks, and that from St. Petersburg sounder, but more sappy ; whilst from farther North — as from Gefie and Soderhamn m Central Sweden — a wood of high quality is shipped, and from the White Sea a closer-grown, less resinous kind, more suitable for j ornery. The sapwood is yellowish to reddish-white, the heart only be- coming distinct as brownish-red in drying, and the wood being on the whole whiter when grown on plains, redder when on hills. The annual rings are very distinct, owing to the broad, sharply defined zone of dark autumn- wood that characterizes the " hard Pines," and they are slightly wavy. The resin-ducts are numerous, very large and distinct, and mostly in peripheral zones near the outer margin of the rings. The pith-rays consist of two or three rows of thin-walled parenchyma, with large oval pits on their radial walls, each almost as wide as a tracheid, and two or three rows of tracheids above and below, with very unevenly thickened walls and small bordered pits. As the branches are in whorls, the knots serve to distinguish Pine from Larch, in which they are scattered. In Northern Europe the Pine is the chief timber used in house-building, both for framework of hewn logs, walls of logs in the romid, and clap- boards ; in Russia Pine-logs are used for corduroy roads, and the use of the wood for fuel is ujiiversal. Baltic Pine was imported to and used in our east-coast towns for flooring, wainscoting, and joinery in the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries, when Oak was the chief building timber employed in England. Not till the beginning of the eighteenth was it recognized that the Scots Fir was the same species ; the high price of foreign timber during the Napoleonic wars led to the clearing of the indigenous pine- forests of Northern Scotland ; and the excellence, easy working, and great durability of the timber obtained from them broke down the prejudice in favour of Oak, and resulted in the great consumption of Baltic, White Sea, and Canadian Pine during the nineteenth 250 WOODS OF COmiERCE century. Dantzic Fir, floated in rafts down the Vistula to that port, comes into the market in lengths from 18 — 50 ft., squaring from 11 — 20 in., in deals 2 — 5 in. tliick, and as irregularly grown logs for sleepers. The longest and straightest logs most free from knots are selected at Dantzic as " inch-masts," " hand-masts," and " spars," or " poles "; " inch-masts being over 6 ft. in circum- ference, and dressed octagonally or square : " hand-masts," from 2 — 6 ft. round, their length being measured in hands ; and " spars " or " poles," less than 2 ft. round. This wood is valued for deck- planking, beams, joists, scaffolding, railway-work, etc. Its average specific gravity is given by Mr. Laslett as 582, and it is described by him as light, moderately hard, even and straight in grain, tough, elastic, and easily worked. Riga Fir, with fewer knots, but a shght tendency to heart-shake, which makes it more wasteful in conver- sion into plank, averages about 541 in specific gravity, and so is, on the whole, inferior to Dantzic. Swedish Fir is yellowish-wliite, liable to heart-, star-, and cup-shakes, and does not exceed 35 ft. in length, or 16 in. square. It furnishes cheap building material, deals for rough carpentry, and much wood for matches and fire- wood. Norway Fir comes over in cheap prepared flooring and matchboarding, and as firewood. Pine, Norway. See Pine, Canadian Red. Pine, Nut (P. Sahinidna Dough). Cahfornia, up to 4,000 ft. Known also as " Digger " or " Bull Pine." Germ. " Nusskiefer, Weisskiefer." Height 40—50 or 80 ft. ; diam. 1—4 ft. Light, very soft, resinous, cross-grained, not durable. Valuable only as fuel. Pine, Obispo (P. muricdta Don.). Calif ornian coast. Known also, by a corruption, as " Bishop's Pine " and as " Prickle-coned Pine." Germ. " Bischofs Kiefer." Height 25—50 ft. ; diam. 1 — 2 ft. Light, resinous, coarse-grained. Used almost exclusively for fuel, except in the Xorth, where it is employed in rough car- pentry. Pine, Old Field. See Pine, Loblolly and Short-leaf. Pine, Oregon (Pseudotsuga Dougldsii Carr.). Western Xorth America from lat. 55° X. southward to lat. 23 J° X., up to 11,000 ft. Known also from its discoverer as " Douglas Fir " or " Douglas Spruce," or as "Yellow" or "Red Fir." French "Sapin^de Douglas." Germ. " Douglas -Tanne, Douglas-Fichte." Height 100—300 ft. ; diam. 4—6 or 12 ft. S.G. 605. Though more nearly allied to the Firs and Spruces, resembhng Larch or hard Pine in the general appearance, quality, and character of its wood. Sapwood narrow, yellowish, heart variable, usually reddish-white, heavy, hard, strong, coarse-grained, with well-defined summer wood, but sometimes yellowish, lighter and finer in grain ; close, PINE 251 straight and regular in grain, with few knots scattered as in Larch, firm, tough, elastic, not in the least liable to warp, more nearly resembling Canadian Red Pine [P. resinosa) than any other wood, rapid in growth, averaging 2 ft. in diam. at 100 years of age, very durable ; annual rings well defined ; resin-ducts small, often in groups of 8 — 30 ; pith-rays with tracheids with bordered pits as upper and under rows and parenchyma with simple pits in the centre ; tracheids in the xylem with a spiral thickening, which distinguishes it from all allied wood. Coming to market in clean, straight spars 40 — 110 ft. in length, and 9 — 32 in. in diam., this timber is excellent for lower masts, yards, bowsprits, etc., though less adapted for top-masts, where there is much friction, than Riga, Dantzic, or Kauri timber. Used in its native country also for house-building, engineering work and fuel, its freedom from fungoid disease and durability, even when grown rapidly in Scotland, suggests that Douglas Fir may well supersede Larch for sleepers, etc. It is 25 per cent, cheaper than Archangel wood of the same quality. Of the two varieties var. macrocdrpa, the Californian, is better worth growing than the slower var. glauca of Colorado. Pine, Oyster-bay. See Cypress Pine. Pine, Pitch (P. rigida Miller). Ontario and New Brunswick to Florida. Height 40—80 ft. ; diam. 2—3 ft. S.G. 515. W 32. R 739 kilos. Small, coarse-grained, resinous, knotty, light, soft, brittle. Used chiefly for fuel, for which it is unsurpassed in the North, and for charcoal ; but formerly much used in New England for building. The name in trade outside the United States belongs to the Long-leaf Pine (P. palustris). Pine, Pond (P. serotina Michx.), little more than a southern variety of the last-named. Pine, Port Macquarie (Frenela Madeaydna Parlat. : Order Cupres- sinece). North-East AustraHa. Height 20 — 30 ft. ; diam. 6 — 12 in. Light, useful, and probably termite-proof, like other Cypress Pines. Used in house-building. Pine, Prince's. See Pine, Grey. Pine, Pumpkin. See Pine, White. Pine, Red, of America. See Pine, Canadian Red. Pine, Red, of Australia. See Cypress Pine. Pine, Red, of New Zealand. See Rimu. Pine, Rock. See Cypress Pine. Pine, Rosemary. See Pine, Loblolly. Pine, Sand (P. clausa Vasey). South-East United States. Known also as " Upland Spruce " or " Scrub Pine." Height 15—20 or 80 ft. ; diam. 1—2 ft. S.G. 557. W 34-75. Sapwood 252 WOODS OF co:m]vierce broad, nearly white ; heart Hght orange, light, soft, brittle, not strong. Sometimes used for small masts. Pine, Sandarac. See Cypress Pine. Pine, Sap. See Pine, Loblolly. Pine, Scrub, of Austraha. See Cypress Pine. Pine, Scrub, of Cahfornia or Oregon. See Pine, Lodge-pole. Pine, Scrub, of Xorth-Eastern America. See Pine, Grey. [See also Pine, Jersey, and Sand.] Pine, She. See Cedar, Pencil. Pine, Short-leaf (P. echindta Mill = P. mitis jVIichx.). Eastern United States. Known also as " Carolina, Bull, Soft-leaved, Yellow, Slash, Old field," or "Spruce Pine," "Carolina Pine" being its best-known name in Liverpool. French " Pin-Sapin." Germ. " Glatte-Kiefer, Fichten-Kiefer. ' Height 80—120 ft. diam. 3—4 ft. S.G. 610. W 34—38. / 3-68. fc 1-5- 2-46. R 1,038 kilos. Sapwood variable in amount, yellowish ; heart light-orange, rather heavy, hard, coarse-grained, compact, strong, not difficult to work, durable, much resembling Long-leaf Pine (P. palustris), and but httle inferior to it as timber. Used in house- building, flooring, and interior finish. Pine, Short-straw. See Pine, Loblolly. Pine, Silver. See Pine, Westland. Pine, Slash. See Pine, Loblolly, Cuban, and Short-leaf. Pine, Southern. See Pine, Long-leaf. Pine, Spruce. See Pine, Short-leaf. Pine, Stone, or Umbrella (P. Pinea L.). Mediterranean region. Fre7ich " Pin de parasol." Germ. " Italienische Steinkiefer." Ital. " Pino a pinocchi." Span. " Pino real, Pino de comer." Height 40—80 ft. ; 1—2 ft. W 26-48-5. Whitish, very hght, moderately resinous. Used in Southern France and Italy for building and carpentry ; but chiefly valued for its nuts. "[See also Pine, Cembra.] Pine, Stringybark. See Cypress Pine, Mountain. Pine, Sugar (P. Lambertidna Dough). Oregon and Cahfornia, at 2,500—8,000 ft. KnowTi also as " White, Soft," or " Pumpkin Pine." French " Pin gigantesque." Germ. " Riesen - Kiefer, Zucker-Kiefer." Height 150—300 ft. ; diam. 10—20 ft. W 23— 51. The loftiest of all Pines. Wood very light, soft, coarse, but straight-grained, compact, very fragrant, easily worked, not cracking or warping. Used for indoor carpentry, cabinet-work, cooperage, and wooden ware. Pine, Swamp. See Pine, Cuban. PINE 253 Pine, Swiss. See Spruce and Pine, Cembra. Pine, Table Mountain. See Pine, Hickory. Pine, Torch. See Pine, Loblolly. Pine, Umbrella {Sciadopitys verticilldta S. and Z. : Order Taxo- dinece). Japan. French " Sapin a Parasol." Germ. "Japanische Schirmtanne." Japan " Koya-maki." Height 100 ft. ; diam. 2 — 3 ft. Wood nearly white, yellowish, or reddish-white, strong, straight-grained. Used at Osaka, to which port it is floated down the Kisiogaiva. Pine, Upland Spruce. See Pine, Sand. Pine, Westland {Dacrydium Westldndicum T. Kirk : Order Comferce). New Zealand. " Silver Pine." " Manao." Yielding timber 50 ft. long and 2 J ft. diam. W 41. Light-coloured, very fine- and even-grained, working well, heavier, harder, stronger, tougher and more durable than Kahikatea. Excellent for sleepers or piles. Pine, Weymouth. Pine, White, of America. Pine, White, of Australia. See Cypress-Pine. Pine, White, of America (P. Strohus L.). Newfoundland and Quebec to Georgia. Known also as " Soft, Apple, Sapling, New England," or " Pumpkin Pine," and in England as " Weymouth Pine," having been largely planted by Lord Weymouth at Longleat, or in the English timber- trade as " Yellow Pine." Germ. " Wey- mouths-Kiefer, Strobe," French " Pin du Lord, Pin blanc." Height 140 — 180 ft., sometimes 100 ft. to first branch ; diam. 3 — 4 or 8 ft. S.G. 385—600. W 20—30. E 600 tons, e' 1-46— 6-94, averaging 3- 48. p' -6- -78. / 3. ft 1-5- 5-1. c 2,027. c' -267. fc 2-24- 2-5. R 626 kilos. Straight-growing ; sapwood yellowish-white ; heart pinkish-yellow to pinkish-brown, light, very soft, straight- grained, compact, not strong, free from resin, easily worked, sus- ceptible of a fuie polish, but not durable in contact with soil, subject to cup and heart-shake, and in old trees to a slight sponginess at the centre, very closely resembling the Cembra Pine (P. Cembra), the narrow zone of autumn-wood merging into the spring-wood, the tracheids of the pith-rays having smooth walls, and the cells one or two large simple pits on their radial walls to each tracheid of the xylem. This is the most useful of American timbers, being very valuable for every description of joinery, doors, sashes, blinds, interior finish, laths, shingles, clap-boards, cabinet-work, and spars, and used also for fuel. Masts of this timber are much inferior to Baltic or Douglas Pine in strength, and cannot be relied upon for more than eight or ten years, especially if in the tropics. They should be very thoroughly seasoned before being painted, and the paint then renewed almost annually. Trees of a size 254 WOODS OF CO:\DIERCE suitable for masts were protected in our American colonies at the beginning of the eighteenth century ; but a century later seven- tenths of the houses in North America, except in the large toTVTis, were built of wood, and of these about 75 per cent, were of this species. Reference has already been made to its reckless destruc- tion by the axe and by fire. Pine, White, of Western Xorth America (P. monticola Don.). British Columbia to CaHfornia, at altitudes of 2,000—10,000 ft. Height 80 — 100 ft. ; diam. 4 — 5 or 7 ft. Xearly white, very hght, soft, close- and straight-grained, but inferior to P. Strohus, which it much resembles. Pine, White, of Xew Zealand [Podocdrpus dacrydioides A. Rich. = Dacrydium excelsum D. Dox and D. ferrugmeum Van Houtte : Order Taxmece). Maori " Kahikatea." Height 80—150 or 180 ft. ; diam. 4 — 5 ft., sometimes 60 ft. to the lowest branch. S.G. 488 — 428. W 26-75—35. p 106. Yieldmg timber 20—60 ft. long, squaring 1 — 2 J ft., white, light, soft, straight and even in grain, tough, easily worked, not durable when exposed or in contact with soil. Used in house-building and occasionally for canoes, but better adapted for indoor use, cheap furniture, packing-cases, or paper-pulp. This valuable timber, comparable in many respects to Yellow Pine {Pinus Strobus), is likely to have a great future on the European market. It has only come into notice with the great Australasian demand for butter-boxes ; but it can be imported at a cheap rate in baulks of great lengths and widths, and is likely, therefore, to compete with the better qualities of Canary Whitewood. P. lati folia Wall, of Burma is finer in grain and darker in colour, and P. Milanjidna Rendle, of British East Africa, is very similar to this last. Pine, Yellow. See Pine, White, Bull, Grey, and Short-leaf. The Yellow Pine of the English trade is the American White Pine (Pinus Strobus), Piney-tree. See Poon. Piney Varnish {Valeria indica L. : Order Dipterocarpdcece). Southern India and Ceylon. Known also as " Indian Copal " or " ^Vhite Dammar." Canarese " Dupa maram." Tamil " Piney- maram." Sink. "Hal." Height 30—60 ft.; diam. 2—5 ft. W 26. Sapwood reddish-white ; heart grey, tough, moderately hard, porous, said to be termite-proof. Used on the West Coast of India for boat- and house-building and masts, and in Ceylon for coffins, packing-cases, etc. It yields a fine copal or gum anime, used in Ceylon as incense, the finest specimens being sold as amber. Of allied species V. acumindta Hajnie, of Ceylon, is used for tea- chests. PINK IVORY— PLANE 255 Pink Ivory, Zulu " Mnini " (Order Leguminosce). A beautiful, but as yet undetermined, wood, of an Acacia-like tree of moderate dimensions, growing in kloofs in South-Western Natal, with yellowish broad sapwood and rose-pink heart, compact, fme-grained, moderately heavy and hard, and with indistinct rings. Plane, Eastern, or Oriental [Pldtanus orientdlis L. : Order Plata - ndcece). Kashmir to Greece. French " Platane de F Orient." Germ. " Morgenlandischer Platanus." Arab. " Doolb." Pers. " Chinar." Probably the Hebrew " Armon " in Gen. xxx. 37, correctly rendered TrXdravo^ in the Septuagint and Platanus in the Vulgate ; but " Chestnut " in the Authorized Version. Height 70 ft. ; diam. 3—5 ft. W 30-5-42. Pale yellow or slightly reddish, resembling Beech, but softer, in very old trees becoming brown with black lines so as to resemble Walnut, fine, close, and smooth- grained, capable of a high polish, but very apt to warp and split, frequently worm-eaten and not durable, but improved by soaking for several years ; annual rings finely but distinctly marked, bending outward at the pith-rays ; pith-rays numerous and broad, occupying nearly half the surface, and producing a pretty figure ; vessels scarcely recognizable. Formerly used for " dug-out " boats at Mount Athos, and by the Turks for ship -building ; in Persia and the Levant employed for cabinet-work, turnery, and carpentry, and in France as a substitute for Beech or Hornbeam. Plane, Western or Occidental {Pldtanus occidentdlis L.) Eastern North America. Known also as " Sycamore, Button-wood, Water- Beech, Button-ball Tree," or when cut radially as " Lace-wood " or " Honeysuckle Wood." French " Platane Americain, Platane de Virginie." Height 120 ft. ; diam. 10—14 ft. or more. S.G. 568. W 51-5 — 28. R 635 kilos. Sapwood wider than in the Beech, yellowish ; heart reddish-white, resembling Beech, except that the broad pith-rays are far more prominent ; rather heavy, rather hard, compact, stiff, tough, not very strong, usually cross-grained, difficult to split, but, when dry, easy to cut in every direction, liable to warp, not durable if exposed ; rings marked by a fine line bending slightly outward at the pith-rays ; vessels evenly distributed. Used con- siderably for cigar- and tobacco-boxes, wooden bowls, butchers' blocks, cooperage and blind-wood in cabinet-work. The cabinet- makers of Philadelphia object to the wood when in plank from its tendency to warp ; but when well seasoned it stands well, and is imported into England for furniture. It is also cut radially as veneers, the " felt " or " silver grain " produced by the pith-rays being darker than the ground colour, which is just the converse of the arrangement of tint in Oak. Plane makes good fuel when dry, but the difficulty of splitting it hinders its use. The Calif ornian species (P. racemosa Nutt.) has very similar wood. 256 WOODS OF CO:\BIERCE By a tiresome confusion the name " Plane " is given in Southern Scotland to the wood of the Sycamore or Great Maple {Acer Pseudo- pldtanus L.). See Sycamore. Plum {Primus domestica L. : Order Rosdcece). Western Asia, cultivated elsewhere. French " Prunier." Germ. " Zwetscliken- baum." A small tree. S.G. 780. Sapwood narrow, yellowish ; heart deep bro\vTiish-red, resembling ^lahogany, heavy, hard, not very durable ; vessels much more numerous in the spring-wood, so making a lighter-coloured zone ; pith-rays numerous and very distinct. Used by cabinet-makers, turners, and instrument- makers. Plum, in Austraha. See Acaeia. Plum, Black {Cargillia austrdlis R. Br. : Order Ebendcece). Xorth- East Austraha. Height 60—80 ft. ; diam. 11—2 ft. W 52. Close, very tough, firm, aj)t to spht and discolour in seasoning and very liable to insect attacks. Used for whip-handles. Plum, Burdekin {Spondias pleiogyim P. v. M. : Order Anacar- didcece). Queensland. Known also as " Sweet Plum." Dark brown with red markings, resembling Walnut, hard, close and straight in grain. Suitable for turnery or cabinet-work. Plum, Grey {Cdpparis nohilis P. v. M. : Order Cappariddcece). Xorth-East Australia. Known also as " Caper-tree " and " Native Pomegranate." Height 20—25 ft. ; diam. 6—14 in. Light coloured, hard, close-grained. Used for whip-handles, and suitable for carving. [See also Myrtle, Black.] Plum, Hog {Spondias mangifera Pers. : Order Anacardidcece) . India and Burma. Known also as " Wild Mango." Sansk. " Amrataca." Hind. " Amra." Beng. " Ambalam." Telug. Ambara." Height 30 ft. ; diam. 1 ft. Light grey, soft, valueless except as fuel. Yields a gum resembling Gum Arabic. Plum, Kafir. See Date, Kafir. Plum, Native or Wild. See Apple, Black or Brush. Plum, Sebestan {Cordia Myoca L. = Sehestdna officinalis Gaertn. : Order Boragindcece). Egypt, Persia, Arabia, India, and the Malay Peninsula. Kmown also as " Nakkeru wood." Sansk. " Bukampadaruka." Hind. " Lesura." Arah. " Lebuk." Tarn. Vidi." Telug. " Nakkeru." Height 8—15 ft. ; diam. 1—2 ft. W 28 — 42. Ohve-coloured, greyish or hght-brown, soft, coarse- grained, easy to work, strong, seasoning well, but hable to insect attack. One of the best woods for kindling fire by friction, used for boat-building, gun-stocks, etc., excellent for fuel, and perhaps suitable for tea-chests, being said to have been used for Egyptian mummy-cases. PLUM— POPLAR 257 Plum, Sour (Owenia venosa F. v. M. : Order Melidcece). Queens- land. Known also as " Tulip-wood." Height 30 — 40 ft. ; diam. 1 — 3 ft. W 62. Highly coloured, with handsome figure and different shades from yellow to black, very heavy, very hard, very strong, easily worked, taking a good polish, and durable. A valuable wood for cabinet-work. The allied 0. acidula F. v. M., known by the same name, and also as " Native Peach " and " Emu " or " Mooley Apple," which grows to about the same size, and occurs also farther to the south and west, is reddish, but similar in texture, and would be suitable for furniture. Plum, Sweet. See Plum, Burdekin. Plum, White. See Ironwood (vi). Pohutukawa. See Ironwood (xxviii). Pomegranate, Native. See Orange, Native and Plum, Grey. Poon, an Indian commercial name, seemingly applied to the timber of several species used for masts and spars, especially species of Galophyllum (Order Guttiferce). Of these the more important would seem to be (i) C. inophyUum, (ii) C. tomentosum, and (iii) C. angusti folium., G. inophyUum L. native to Madagascar, Mauritius, Ceylon, Southern India, Burma, Queensland, and the Fiji Islands. Known also as " Alexandrian Laurel," " Tatamaka," " Dilo." Hind. "Undi." Telug. " Punnaga " or " Penaga." Apparently also the " Palo Maria " of the Philippines. The name " Bintangor " applies equally to twenty species of Galophyllum in the Malay area. Height 20—80 ft. or more ; diam. U— 5 ft. S.G. 579—647. W 63—35. E 755 tons, c 10,000—14,700. c' 1-3— 1-9. Red- brown, with a pretty wavy figure, fairly hard, close- but coarse- grained, very strong, durable. Used in India for sleepers, and suited for joinery and cabinet-work. G. tome^itosum Wight, a native of Ceylon and of Queensland, is similar, and is used in the former country for tea-chests. G. angusti folium Roxb., the " Piney- tree " of Penang, which also attains large dimensions in the southern Ghats, and is apparently partly the source of " Poon-spars." (iv) DilUnia pentagyna Roxb. (Order Dillenidcece), a native of India and Burma, in no way related to the species just mentioned, Telugu " Ravudana," seems also to be a source of these spars. It is a large tree, sometimes 20 ft. to its lowest branch, and 2 ft. in diam. W 69. Reddish-grey, heavy, very hard, strong, and durable in contact with the soil. Used for rice-mills, canoes, deck-planks, and house-building, and yielding a good charcoal. Poplar, a name applied, with few exceptions, to the woods of species of Populus (Order Salicinece), which are known in the United States, from their hairy seeds, as " Cottonwoods." French ^' Peuplier." Germ, " Pappel." Span. " Alamo." Like those of 17 258 WOODS OF CO:\BIERCE their allies the Willows, these woods are white or pale grey, yellowish, or brown, very soft, and light, with neither pith-rays nor vessels distinctly visible. They are used mainly for paper-pulp and cellulose ; but to some extent for packing-cases, bhnd-wood, sabots, and other purposes, especially m France, at Ivry and elsewhere. Poplar, Aspen. See Aspen. Poplar, Balm of Gilead or Balsam {Populus halsamijera L.). Xorth America. Kno^^l also as " Tacamaliac." Height 70 — 80 ft. ; diam. 5—7 ft. S.G. 363. W 22-6. R 550 kilos. Sapwood wide, nearly white ; heart Ught reddish-bro^^Ti, not strong or durable. Used only for paper-pulp, for which it is excellent ; but as suitable for wooden- ware, etc., as other species. Poplar, Black (P. nigra L.). Europe and Northern Asia. Height 50—60 ft. ; diam. 1—2 ft. W 60-5 when green, 36—25 when dry. Sapwood wide, nearly white ; heart light reddish-browTi, shrinking more than one-sixth of its bulk in drying, not strong or durable. From its non-liability to s]3linter useful for the bottoms of waggons, sabots, clogs, and turnery, and used also for carving and for charcoal. Poplar, Black Italian (P. monilifera Ait. -P. deltoidea Marsh). Eastern United States, but now common in Italy, Switzerland, and other parts of Europe. Known also as " Carolina " or " Xecklace Poplar," " Big Cottonwood " or " Whitewood," or, in Europe, as " Swiss Poplar." Germ. " Wollpappel, Rosenkranz-Pappel." The timber is imported into Liverpool from tlie United States under its American name " Cottonwood." Height 150 — 200 ft. ; diam. 6—7 ft. S.G. 389. W 24-25. R 770 kilos. The quickest growing of Poplars. Sapwood very wide, nearly white, heart bro"«Tiish, tough, not durable if exposed to moisture, but of larger dimensions than, and equal in quaUty to, any other Poplar. It does not splinter, holds nails well, and does not readily ignite. Used for flooring, clapboards, the sides and bottoms of brick-carts and waggons, carcase-work, sabots, packing-cases, inferior fuel, and extensively for paper-pulp, for which purpose it is now largely and remuneratively planted in Britain. " Were every cottager to grow his o^Y\\ fuel . . . perhaps no tree would succeed so well " (Loudon), The polishing-wheels used by glass-grinders are made of horizontal sections across the entire tree of this species, or preferably of Willow. Poplar, Carolina. See Poplar, Black Italian. Poplar, Grey (P. canescens Sm.). Kashmir, Persia, Northern Africa, and Europe. Heiglit 60—100 ft. ; diam. 2—4 ft. W 58 when green, 38-5 when dry. White, shrinking a quarter of its bulk in drying, and cracking ; but not splitting when nailed. Said to be superior to White Poplar, and used on the Continent for packing-cases, rollers and boards for T^anding ribbon, silk, cloth, etc. POPLAR— PURPLE-HEART 259 Poplar, Large-toothed (P. grandidentdta Michx.). Eastern Canada and the North-Eastern United States. Kjiown also as " Large Aspen " or " Whitewood." Height 60—75 ft. ; diam. 2 ft. S.G. 463. W 29. R 721 kilos. Takes a smooth finish with a satiny lustre, and shrinks but little. Used for clothes-pegs, turned ware, and formerly for ladies' high heels ; but chiefly for paper- pulp. Poplar, Lombardy (P. dilatdta Ait.). Kashmir, Persia, and Mediterranean area. French " Peuplier pyramidal." Germ. " Pyramiden-Pappel." Syan. " Alamo de Italia." Height 100— 150 ft. ; diam. 3 — 4 ft. Sapwood wide, nearly white ; heart light reddish-brown, easily worked. Little used, chiefly for packing- cases ; but, after some years' seasoning, also for churns and coach-panels. Poplar, Necklace. See Poplar, Black Italian. Poplar, Swiss. See Poplar, Black Italian. Poplar, White (P. alba L.). Central Europe, Northern Africa, Northern and Western Asia. Known also as " Abele." Height 60 — 100 ft. ; diam. 2 — 4 ft. Sapwood white ; heart at first yellowish, becoming browner, and sometimes with reddish dis- colorations. Light, soft, and of little value. The Hebrew " Libneh " of Gen. xxx. 37, the XevKy of the Septuagint, is probably P. euphrdtica. Poplar, Yellow. See Tulip-tree. Porcupine-wood (Cocos nucifera L. : Order Palmdcece). Shores of India and throughout the tropics. Height 60 — 100 ft. ; diam. 2 ft. W 70. The wood near the outside of this monocotyledonous stem, being crowded with dense, dark-coloured fibro-vascular bundles resembling the quills of the porcupine, is very hard, strong, and durable. It is used in India for rafters, beams, spear-handles, and other purposes ; but in England for walking-sticks, or as a veneer for work-boxes and other fancy articles. Portia-tree. See Umbrella-tree. Prince-wood. See Cypre, Bois de. Puriri (VUex littordlis A. Cunn. : Order Verhendcece). New Zealand. " New Zealand Teak." Height 60 ft. ; diam. 3—5 ft. S.G. 1,100 when green, 1,000—959 when dry. W 76—59. p 223. Yielding timber 9 — 18 ft. long, squaring 10 — 18 in. ; sapwood 2 — 3 in. wide, yellowish ; heart dark-brown, very heavy, very hard, close-grained, very strong and durable. Much used for posts, piles, sleepers, etc., being the strongest and most durable of New Zealand timbers. Purple-heart of Guiana (Copaifera puhiflora Benth., C. hractedta Benth., and Peltogyne venosa Benth. : Order Leguminosce). French 17—2 260 WOODS OF COmiERCE " Amarantlie, Bois violet." Dutch " Purpuurhart." Aborig. *' Kooroobo villi." Germ. " Amarantholz." Large trees yielding timber 20 — 120 ft. long, squaring 1-| — 2 J ft., brownish to blackish purple, especially when freshly cut, or when heated, close-grained, very heavy, hard, strong, elastic, working easilv, taking a fine polish, durable. S.G. 967—721. W 49—62. R 231 kilos. Used for furniture, gun-carriages, house-frames, and works of con- struction. Though several species are confused commercially, those derived from Brazil, the Guianas, and Trinidad appear closely related, and of nearly equal value. Purple-heart of Trinidad (Peltogyne paniculdta Benth. : Order Legu7nin6sce) . Known also as " Zapateri." Yielding timber 20 — 25 ft. long and 12 — 15 in. wide, of a beautiful purple when freshly cut, but blackening with age, very durable. Sometimes used for furniture. The allied species P. conferti flora Benth., the " Pao roxo " or " Guarabu " of Brazil, is similar. Pyingadu and Pynkado. See Aele. Quar {Euclea unduldta Thunbg. : Order Ehendcece). Cape Colony. Height 20—30 ft. ; diam. 12—15 in. Sapwood hght- brown ; heart dark-brown, heavy, very hard, close-grained, with beautiful transverse wavy figure. Suitable for furniture. Quassia {Picrcena excelsa Lindl. : Order Simarubece). Tropical America. " Bitterwood." W 33—35. Yielding logs 6—10 ft. long, 6 — 10 in. diam., yellowish, soft, fine-grained, intensely bitter. Used medicinally as a tonic, often by being turned into cups, which impart their taste to water. Quebracho, meaning " axe-breaker," is mainly applied in Argen- tina and BoUvia to Aspidosperma Quebrdcho-blanco Schlecht. (Order Apocyndcece), " Quebracho-bianco," and to Quebrdchia Lorentzii Griseb. { = Loxopterygium Lorentzii Griseb. =Schm6psis Lorentzii Engler : Order Anacardidcece), "Quebracho Colorado." The former yields timber 20 ft. long and IJ ft. in diam., whitish- yellow, liable to warp and twdst, not durable if exposed to moisture or insects ; but largely used for wheel-hubs, fence-droj^pers, bottoms of railway-trucks, etc. The latter, a much more valuable wood, reaching 60 ft. in height and over 1 ft. in diam., yielding logs for sleepers 9 ft. long and 10 in. by 5 in. W 65—70. S.G. 1,250. Dark red, turning almost black with age, probably the hardest wood, in Argentina, equalling Ebony in this respect, and appar- ently imperishable, containing, as it does, up to 26 per cent, of tannin. It is largely employed for sleepers, fence-posts, beams, piles, and telegraph arms, over 250,000 tons being exported in 1C06, in addition to 55,000 tons of the tannin extract. Quina-quina [Myroxylon sp. 1 : Order Leguminosce). Northern Argentina. Yielding timber 18 ft. long and 1 ft. square. Light QUEEN- WOOD— REDWOOD 261 Mahogany-colour, smooth, and close - grained. Used for furni- ture. Queen-wood {Daviesia arhorea W. Hill. : Order Leguminosce). North-Eastern Austraha. Height 15 — 30 ft. ; diam. 6 — 12 in. Streaked with pink, hard, close-grained, susceptible of a fin-^ polish. An excellent cabinet-wood. The name is also applied to Piptadenia rigida. See Angico. Ranai {Alseoddphne semicarpifolia Nees : Order Laurdcece). Ceylon. W 63. Large and heavy. Useful for beams, house- and boat-building. Raspberry Jam. See Myall (iii). Rassak or Russock ( Vdtica Rdssak Blume : Order Diptero- carpdcece). Borneo. W 54. Light yellowish, becoming dark- red on exposure, heavy, coarse-grained, durable. Used for piles, house-building, etc. Rata (Metrosideros robusta, A. Cunn : Order Myrtdcece). New Zealand. " Northern Rata." Height 60—100 ft. ; diam. 3—4 ft. S.G. 1,228 when fresh, 786 when seasoned. Often 30—40 ft. to lowest branch, and yielding timber 20 — 50 ft. long, squaring 1 — 2J ft. Red, very heavy, hard, close-grained, strong, easy to work, durable. Used in ship -building and for railway- waggons. Rata, Southern (Metrosideros lucida A. Rich.). New Zealand. " Ironwood." Yielding timber 20 — 50 ft. long, and 1 — 4 ft. diam. S.G. 1,045. W 63—71. p 196. Red, very hard, strong, and durable. Used for ship-building, bridges, sleepers, and wheel- wrights' work. Redwood, a name variously applied : (i) in the English timber trade to Dantzic Fir (Pinus sylvestris) [See Northern Pine] ; (ii) in Australia to Eucalyptus piperita [See Peppermint (vi)] ; (iii) in Cape Colony to Ochna arhorea Burch. (Order Ochndcece). Known also as " Cape Plane." Boer " Roodhout." Zulu " Umtensema." Height 20—30 ft. ; diam. IJ— 2 ft. Red, hard, strong, durable. Used for waggon-building and furniture, and suitable for engraving. Redwood, Andaman. See Padouk. Redwood, Californian [Sequoia sempervirens Endl. : Order Taxo- dmeoi). Californian coast. Germ. " Immergriin Sequoie." " Eiben Cypresse." Ital. " II Legno rosso di California." Height 180 — 250 or 300 ft. ; often 75—100 ft. to lowest branch ; diam. 12—20 ft. S.G. 421. W 24-25 — 29. Sapwood light orange to dark amber, very soft and light, scentless ; heart maroon to terra-cotta or deep brownish-red, darkening on exposure, light, soft, brittle, close- but short-grained, not strong, without resin-ducts, very easily split, so that planks can be made from it without the use of the 262 WOODS OF COmiERCE saw, in structure resembling Bald Cjq^ress, very durable in contact with the soil ; pith-rays very distinct. The most valuable of Californian timber-trees, and the most used material for building and carpentry in the State ; used also for sleepers, fencing, telegraph- poles, shingles, and furniture, corresponding in quaUty and uses to White Cedar. The wood is so soft and porous that it dries quickly, losing its vitality entirely. Being thus absolutely dead wood, it keeps its shape in spite of all exposure, and is probably the most rehable known wood for such a purpose as a jointed sign- board exposed to the elements. The joints of such a board, if made of Redwood once dry, will never open. Though suited for drawers or lining, it is somewhat too monotonous for ornamental furniture. In the London cabinet trade it is now known as " Sequoia." Though sending up vigorous coppice-shoots when felled, " at the present rate of destruction not an improtected Sequoia of timber-producing size will be left standing twenty years hence " (J. G. Lemmon in 1895). Redwood, Coromandel or Indian. See Mahogany, East Indian. Redwood, in Jamaica. See Ironwood (xxiii). Rewa-rewa (Rymdndra excelsa Knight = K7iightia excelsa R. Br. : Order Protedcece). New Zealand. Kno-^Ti also as " Honevsuckle- wood." Height 100 ft. S.G. 785. W 46—50. p 161.*^ On a radial section lustrous golden-yellow with pretty wavy warm red-brown silver-grain, perishable on exposure, and becoming " foxy " unless thoroughly seasoned. Valued for inlaying and cabinet-work. Rimu (Dacrydium cwpressinvm Soland. : Order Taxinece). Xew Zealand. Known also as " Xew Zealand Red Pine." Height 40—80 or 100 ft. ; diam. 2—5 ft. ; sometimes 40—50 ft. to the lowest branch. S.G. 678—563 when seasoned. W 33—45. p 140-2. Yielding timber 20—80 ft. long, squaring 10—30 in. Chestnut-brown near centre, lighter outwards, figured with light- red or yellow streaks, moderately heavy and hard, very strong, fine, uniform and straight in grain, working well and taking a good pohsh, but not durable in contact with soil. Extensively used in building for beams, girders, etc., for panelling, fencing, railway- ties, paving, native canoes and furniture. This species, the most widely distributed timber-tree in the Dominion, and the most exten- sively used in local carpentry, has a certain future before it in the English market. Working as readily as Birch, and comparable in strength with Oak, it is likely to replace Satin Walnut, which it somewhat resembles, as a cabinet wood, being far more reliable than that timber. Roble, the Spanish for Oak, used in Trinidad for Platymiscium platystdchyum Benth. (Order Leguminosce), a hard, tough wood KOSE-CHESTNUT— ROSEWOOD 263 with an ornamental silvery transparent grain, used locally in ship- building ; in Chile for Fdgus obliqua. Height 100 ft. Sound in contact with water. Largely used for sleepers in Argentina. In Argentina the name is used for F. hetuloides Mirb., an evergreen Beech growing from Tierra del Fuego northwards, reaching 26 ft. in height and 3 — 4 ft. in diam., and yielding a straight, very fine- grained, handsome wood, resembling American Oak, and very easy to work, which is extensively used for panelling in railway-carriages. Rose-chestnut, Indian. See Ironwood xviii. Rosewood. French " Bois du rose." Germ. " Rozenholz." Ital. " Legno rodie." S'pan. " Leno de rosa." Port. " Pao de rosada." The name of a number of different species in various parts of the world, mostly heavy, dense, dark-coloured woods, many of which belong to the Order Leguminosce, such as the genera Dalbergia, Machcerium, and Pterocdrpus, and one or two of which contain a fragrant resin or oil, from which the name has originated. They have nothing more to do with the Rose. Rosewood, African [Pterocdrpus erindceus Foir. : Order Leguminosce). Tropical West Africa. " Gambia Rosewood." " African Padouk." French "Santal rouge d'Afrique." "Vene," "Wene" in Jolof, "Kaayno" in Mandingo, "Irosun," "Osun." Height 40—70 ft.; diam. 4 — 5 ft. Sapwood white ; heart red-brown, moderately hard, fine-grained, very elastic. Valuable as timber and as yielding an astringent resin or Kino. It is imported in round logs ; but having a spongy heart, is wasteful to convert, and its colour fades on exposure to light. Value £5 — £8 per ton. Pterocdrpus angolensis is similar. Rosewood, Australian (i) Acdcia glaucescens [See Myall (v)] ; (ii) Dysoxylon Fraseridnum [See Cedar, Pencil] ; (iii) EremopMla Mitchelli [See Sandalwood, Bastard] ; and (iv) Synoum glandulosum A. Juss. (Order Melidceoe). North-Eastern Australia. Known also as " Dogwood," " Bastard Rosewood," and " Brush Blood- wood." Height 40—60 ft. ; diam. IJ— 2 ft. W 41—45. Deep red and rose-scented when fresh, resembling Cedar, but heavier and deader in colour, taking a fine polish, firm, and easily worked. Used for ship-building, the inside of houses and cabinet-work, for which it has long been valued. An allied form, 8. Ldrdneri, without scent, and with more open grain, is known as " Pencil Cedar," or, from the smell of its bark, as " Turnipwood." Rosewood, Bombay. See Blackwood, Indian. Rosewood, Brazilian, including that of Bahia, the best, Rio, the second best, and San Francisco, is probably Dalbergia nigra Allem. (Order Leguminosce), Brazil. " Jacaranda cabiuna," or in part also species of the allied genus Machcerium, such as M. scleroxylon Tul., known as " Pao Ferro," 31. firmmn Benth., " Jacaranda 264 WOODS OF CO:\DIERCE roxa," and M. legale Bentli., " Jacarando preto." S.G. 768 — 841. W 53—65. In haK-round logs 10—20 ft. long, seldom over 14 in. in diam. Dark chestnut or ruddy brown, richly streaked and grained with black, resinous layers, with the perfume of rose-water, porous, open-grained, hea\y, taking a fine pohsh, Hable to heart- shake, fading with age, and frequently hollow, and sold, therefore, by weight. Valuable, both solid and in veneers, for furniture and ornamental cabinet-work, especially pianoforte-cases, and for turnery, realizing £10 — £12 per ton for inferior, £20 — £30 for good, and even up to £90 for the best qualities. Rosewood, Bastard. See Rosewood, Australian. Rosewood, Burmese. See Padouk. Rosewood, Canary (Coiivolvulus Scopdrius L., C. virgdtus Webb, and C. floridus L. : Order Convolvuldceoe). Canary Islands. " Lignum Rhodii." French " Bois des Rhodes des Parfumeurs." Derived from the rhizome and bases of the aerial stems, whence these species have been separated as a genus Rhodorrluza. Rose- scented and distilled for the powerfully scented oil " Oleum ligni Rhodii aethereum," used to adulterate attar of roses. Not other- wise used. Rosewood, Dominica. See Cypre, Bois de. Rosewood, Honduras [Dalhergia sp. ?). W 68 — 77. Xut-brown, streaked with narrow black lines, very hard, even-grained. Valu- able for furniture, turnery, and inlaying. Rosewood, Indian. See Blackwood, Indian. Rosewood, Jamaica (Linociera ligustrina Swartz. : Order Oledcece). See also Granadillo. Rosewood, Moulmein, probably a species of MilUttia (Order Legumiiiosce), possibly M, pendula Benth., a dense, hard, dark- coloured wood. Rosewood, Nicaragua (Dalhergia sp. ?). Central America. W 70. Reddish-orange, slightly streaked with black, very heavy and hard, coarse-grained, shghtty fragrant. Rosewood, Rosetta. See Blackwood, Indian. Rosewood, Seychelles. See Umbrella-tree. Rosewood, West Indian. See Granadillo. Rowan [Pyrus Aucupdria Gaertn. : Order Bosdcece). Europe, Northern and Western Asia. Kjiowti also as " Mountain Ash." Germ. " Eberesche." Height 10—40 ft. ; diam. 6—10 in. W 35 — 48. Sap wood reddish- wliite ; heart reddish-browTi, hard, tough, difficult to split, fine-grained, readily worked or polished ; RUBY-WOOD— SAL 265 pith-flecks frequent ; vessels and pith-rays indistinct ; autumn- wood sHghtly darker. Used to a small extent on the Continent in cabinet-work, carving, and turnery. Ruby-wood (Butyrospermum Pdrki Kotschy : Order Sapotdcece). Tropical Africa, from Guinea to the Nile. Height 30 — 40 ft. ; diam. 5 — 6 ft. Red, Cedar-like, very hard, close-grained. The seeds yield Shea butter, imported for soap -making. Sabicu (Lysiloma Sdhicii Benth. : Order Leguminosce). West Indies, especially Cuba. Somewhat crooked in growtli, but yield- ing timber 20—35 ft. long, squaring 11—24 in. S.G. 899—957. W 62—43. e' 2-21. 1-6. c 5,558. c' -734. v' 1-161. R 435 lbs. Dark chestnut-brown, heavy, hard, strong, elastic, close-grained, free from shakes, though sometimes exhibiting on conversion a cross fracture of part of the inner wood, snapped, perhaps, by West Indian hurricanes, seasoning slowly, but shrinking but little, and not splitting in the process, working up well, sus- ceptible of a high polish, durable when exposed, and sometimes with such a curled figure as to be mistaken for Rosewood. Used in ship-building, especially for beams, keelsons, engine-bearers, etc., and for furniture. The staircases of the Exhibition of 1851 were of tliis wood, and wore well. The allied species, L. latisiliqua Benth., native to the Bahamas and Florida, is similar. Saffron-wood {Elceodendron croceum DC. : Order Cdastrdcece). South Africa. Known also as " Safforan-wood." " Crocus-tree." Boer " Saffranhout," Zulu " Umbomoana." French " Olivetier jaune, Bois d'or du Cap." Height 20—40 or 60 ft. ; diam. 2—4 ft. W 47-5— 55-74. E 510 tons. / 4-4. fc 3-18. Reddish-brown, heavy, hard, close, fine-grained, tough, handsome. Used for beams, planks, waggon-building, furniture, etc. Saj {Termindlia tomcntosa W. and A.\ Order Combretdcece). India and Burma. Hind. " Asan." Tamil " Maradu." Mahrat. " Eyn." A large tree yielding timber 18—28 ft. long and 1—2 ft. in diam. S.G. 892. R 462 — 602 lbs. Sapwood white, narrow ; heart dark brown, finely variegated, with darker streaks producing a wavy figure, heavy, hard, elastic, strong, difficult to work, but seasoning well, and taking a high polish, liable to split on exposure and to dry-rot if not steeped. Its power of resisting termite- attack is doubtful. Largely used for joists and rafters, and in waggon- and boat-building, and recommended for paving. Re- sembling the next. Sal {Shorea rohusta Gaertn. : Order Dipterocarpdcece). Northern and Central India. Known also as " Saul," and formerly as "Morung Sal." Sansk. " Sala." Philippine " Guijo." A large tree, 100—150 ft. high, 7—8 ft. diam., yielding timber 20—60 ft. 266 WOODS OF CO:\DIERCE long and 1—2 ft. in diam. S.G. 458—842. W 28-6- 52-6. R 1.043 lbs. Sapwood whitish, narrow ; heart light to deep bromi, finely streaked with dark lines, ver}- heaw, hard, coarse and cross- grained, elastic, tough, comparing favourably as to strength with Teak, warping and splitting considerably in seasoning, but almost unrivalled for durability, its abundant whitish aromatic resin protecting it from termites. The most extensively used timber of Northern India for sleepers, piles, beams, bridges, planks, gun- carriages, wedges, tool-handles, blocks, cogs, etc., but too heavy to float, and, therefore, expensive. Saliewood {BuddUia salvi folia Lam. : Order Loganidcece). Cape Colony. " Sahe-hout." Zulu " Unkaza." Height 15—20 ft. ; diam. 10 — 15 in. W 54. Hard, tough, with a beautiful wa^^ gram. Used for carriage -building, agricultural implements, and cabinet-work, yielding veneers equal in appearance to Wahiut, and for cogs ; but recommended for wooden tv^e and coarse en- graving. Sallow, in England, chiefly Sdlix Caprea L. (Order SalicinecB). Europe, Xorthern and Western Asia. Known also as " Goat Willow." Germ. " Salilweide." A small tree. W 27—39. Sap- wood reddish-white ; heartwood a beautiful light red, light, very soft, easily split, lustrous, with wide annual rings, pith-rays in- distinguishable, vessels minute and equally distributed, pith-flecks often present. Used chiefly for crate- and hoop-making ; but in France one of the most useful Willows. [See Willow.] Sallow, in Australia, or Sally, or White Sally, names apphed to some species of Acacia, especially A. longifolia WiUd., var. fiori- hunda, a bro^\Tl, black-streaked, light, tough, and hard wood, used for tool-handles ; and to Eucryphia Moorei. [See Acacia.] Sandalwood, a name applied to the generally fragrant woods of Sdntalum album and other sioecies of the genus, to those of the other genera of the Order SantaldcecE — viz., Fusdnus, Exocdrpus, and Osyris, to some members of the Order Myoporinece, and a few other unrelated trees. True Sandalwood is Sdntalum album L. (Order Santaldcece). India, chiefly in the south, and perhaps also in the Malay Archipelago. Known also as " White " or " Yellow Sandalwood." Sanskr. " Chandana." Hind. " Chandana, Sandal." Telugu " Chandanam." Burm. " Sanda-ku." Chinese " Tan-mu." Height 30 ft., 8 ft. to lowest branch ; diam. up to 2 ft. W 56—71. Sold in crooked biUets weighing 50 — 90 lbs. each. YeUo wish- brown, very hard, heavy, close-grained and fragrant, the heart- wood yielding on distillation about 2 drams of oil per pound, and increasing in fragrance with age, very liable to heart-shake. Used for carving, ornamental boxes, Chinese coffins, walking-sticks, fans, burnt as a perfume, ground into powder as a cosmetic, and SANDALWOOD 267 distilled for its fragrant oil. Realizing from 600 — 850 rupees per ton, the chips fetching 300. Sandalwood, Australian (i) Fusdnus spicdtus R.. Br. = F. cygnorum Benth. : Order Santaldcece. Southern and Western Australia. ELnown also as " Fragrant Sandalwood." Height 30 ft. ; diam. up to 1 ft. W 46-5. Not very fragrant and scarce, yellow-brown, with darker streaks, very fine-grained. Exported to Singapore and China at about £10 per ton. (ii) Sdntalum lanceoldtum R. Br. Height 15 — 25 ft. ; diam. 3 — 6 in. Yellowish, firm, close-grained, taking a good polish, (iii) S. obtusifolium R.Br. Eastern Aus- tralia. Sandalwood, Bastard, of Australia, (i) (Eremophila MitcMlli Benth. : Order Myoporinece). Eastern Australia. Known also as Rosewood." Height 20—30 ft. ; diam. 9—12 in. Brown, beautifully grained, very fragrant, very hard. Yielding handsome veneers, (ii) [Myoporum platycdrpum R. Br.). [See Dogwood (iv)]. Sandalwood, Bastard, of India {Erythroxylon monogynum Roxb. : Order Erytkroxyldcece). A small tree of Southern India and Ceylon. Sansk. " Devadara." Arab. " Shajr-ul-jin." Hind. " Deo dhari." Tamil. " Devatharam." Telug. " Devadari." Dark-brown, very hard, taking a fine polish, very fragrant. Used as a substitute for Sandalwood. Sandalwood, Bastard, of the Sandwich Islands {Myoporum tenui- folium). Sandalwood, East African {Osyris tenuifolia Engl. : Order Santaldcece). Portuguese East Africa. " Mucumite." Length 6 — • 8 ft. ; diam. 8 in. Brown, with darker shades, heavy, crooked in growth. Sandalwood, Fiji {Sdntalum Ydsi Seem.). Sandalwood, Fragrant. See Sandalwood, Australian. Sandalwood, Indian. See Mangosteen, False. Sandalwood, Native {Fusdnus persicdrius P. v. M. : Order Santald- cece). Australia. Small and inferior. Sandalwood, New Caledonia (Sdntalum austro-caledonicum Vieill.). Sandalwood, Red. See Sanderswood, Red. Sandalwood, Sandwich ls\ands{Sdntalum freycinetidnum Gaud, and S. paniculdtum Hook, and Arn.). Sandalwood, Scentless {Eremophila Sturtii R. Br. : Order Myo- porinece). South-East Australia. Merely a shrub, with grej^ nicely marked, close-grained, hard wood. Sandalwood, Scrub {Exocdrpus latifolia R. Br. : Order Santaldcece). North-East Australia. Known also as " Broad-leaved Cherry." 268 WOODS OF COmiERCE Height 10 — 16 ft. ; diam. 6 — 9 in. Dark- coloured, fragrant, very- hard, coarse-grained, taking an excellent polish. Used in cabinet- work. Sandalwood, White. See Sandalwood. Sandalwood, Yellow. See Sandalwood. Sandan [Ougeinia dalhergio'ides Benth. : Order Leguminosoe) , Northern India. Mottled browTi and red, hard, tough, close- grained, taking a good polish, durable. Used for furniture, carriage- jDoles, wheels, agricultural implements, etc. Sanderswood, Red (i) {Pterocdrpus santaUnus L. fil. : Order Leguminosce) . Southern and Further India, Ceylon, China, Java, etc. Kjio^TL also as " Red Sandalwood." French " Santale rouge." Germ. " Ostindisches Santelliolz, Caliaturholz." Sansh. " Rakta chandana." Pers. " Sandal surkh." Hiiid. " Chandana." Tarn. " Chandanum." Sinh. " Rakt-chandan." Believed to be the Hebrew " Almug " of 1 Kings x. 11, 12, the ^vXa TreXeKTjrd of the Septuagint. Height 20—25 ft. ; diam. 1 ft. S.G. 750. W 46-84. Deep orange-red, with hghter zones, turning to claret-colour or black, heavy, very hard, fine-grained, taking a beautiful polish. Used for images, carving, furniture, turnery, and occasionally building ; but chiefly as a red dye, soluble in alcohol, but not in water, (ii) Adendnthera pavoniiuc L. : Order Leguminosce). India, Burma, Moluccas, Xorth Queensland, and cultivated in Tropical Africa and America. Known also as Redwood " or " Red Sandal- wood." Germ. " Condoriliolz." Sansk. " Cambhoji." Hind. " Ranjana, Ku-cliandana." Be7ig. " Ratka-chandan." Tarn. " Gandamani." A large tree. W 56. YeUo wish-grey or light- brown, or in older trees a beautiful coral-red, sometimes with darker stripes when fresh cut, turning dark-brown, or purple like Rosewood, on exposure, rather hea\y, hard, coarse- but close-grained, durable, but apt to be worm-eaten. Used in house-building and for cabinet- work ; or, ground into a paste, by rubbing the wood against a stone with some water, as a dye. Sanders, Yellow {Ximenia americdna L. : Order Olacinece). Tropical America, Pacific, Australia, Asia, and Africa. Brazil " Ameixero," " Espinha de meicha." Guiana " Hevmassoh." San Domingo " Croc." W 57-3. E 721 tons. / 4-5. fc 4. fs -368 Yellow, fragrant, very hard, tough, close- and even - grained. Employed in India as a substitute for Sandalwood, in the Fiji Islands for the peculiar pillows (" kah ") used by the natives, and suggested for engraving. Santa Maria {CalophyUum Cdlaba Jacq. : Order Guttiferce). Tropical America. Known also as " Galba," " Galaba," " Accite de Maria," and in Cuba as " Ocuje." Height 60—90 ft. ; diam. SAPPAN- WOOD— SASSAFRAS 269 2 — 3 ft. ; yielding logs 25 — 50 ft. long, squaring 12 — 22 in. S.G. 842. W 53. E 790 tons. / 5-14. fc 2-6. fs -215. R 354 lbs. Pale-red to orange-yellow, moderately heavy and hard, clean, fine and straight in grain, flexible, with few knots, shrinking and splitting very little in seasoning, easily worked, durable. Has been used in our dockyards for beams and planks, and is equal to plain Mahogany for interior finish. Sappan-wood {Ccesalpinia Sdppan L. : Order Leguminosce). India and South-East Asia. Known also as " Redwood, Brazil," or " Brasiletto-wood." Sansk. " Patanga." Hind. " Bakam." Malay " Sapang." Height 30—36 ft.; diam. 8 in. W 60—61. Brownish-red. Used almost exclusively as a red dye for cotton goods, or with copper sulphate for violet, the roots, known as " Yellow- wood " or " Sappan Root," yielding an orange-yellow one. Sapodilla {Achras Sapota L. : Order Sapotdcece). Tropical America. Known also as " Nispero," " Bully," or " Bullet-wood." Reddish-brown, very heavy, hard, and durable. Used for furniture, cabinet-work, and occasionally building. Saquisaqui [Bomhax mompoxense H. B. : Order Bomhdcece), Venezuela. Known also as " Cedro dulce." S.G. 529. Rose-red, of better quality than other species of the genus, similar to the wood of the Cedar {Cedrela odordta). Sassafras in North America (Sdssafras officindle Nees : Order Laurdcece). Known as " Sassafras " in Latin, Arabic, French, German, and Spanish, in German also as " Fenchelholz," and by the French in America as " Laurier des Iroquois." Canada to Florida and Texas. Height 50—90 ft. ; diam. 3—74 ft. S.G. 504. W 31-4. R 602 kilos. Sapwood yellow, narrow ; heart orange- brown, with a slight characteristic aroma, light, soft, rather brittle, coarse-grained, very durable when exposed, and partially insect- proof ; with broad distinct annual rings, a marked pore-zone of spring-wood with 4 — 5 rows of vessels arranged radially in pairs, and very fine pith-rays, distinguished from the Red Mulberry {Morus rubra) by its lightness. Used for fencing, buckets, etc. The essential oil which brought the tree into notice in the sixteenth century is distilled from the bark of the roots. The name is applied in various parts of the world to other species of the Order Laurdcece and the closely allied Monimidcece exhibiting the same characteristic smell. Sassafras, Assam [Cinnamomum glanduUferum Meissn.). See Camphor, Nepal. Sassafras, Australian (i) Atherosperma moschdta Labill. : Order Monimidcece). South-East Australasia. Height 100 — 150 ft. 270 WOODS OF COMMERCE Dark-coloured, often well figured, close-grained, very tough, easily worked, taking a fine polish. Used for lasts, bench-screws, and cabinet-work, and suggested for sounding-boards and doors, (ii) {Daphndndra micrdntha Benth. : Order Monimidcece). North- east Australia. Known also as " Satinwood " and "Light-yellow Wood." Height 50—80 ft. ; diam. li— 2 ft. W 43-5. Yellow when fresh, fragrant, soft, weak. Used for packing-cases and perhaps fit for cabinet-drawers, (iii) (Doryphora sdssafras Endl. : Order Monimidcece). North-East Australia. Height 50 — 100 ft. ; diam. 2 — 3 ft. Light-coloured, sometimes neatly figured, light, fragrant, soft, weak, insect-proof, but probably not durable. Used like the last-mentioned, (iv) {Nesoddphne obtusifolia Benth. : Order Laurdcece). North-East Australia. A large tree, yielding light-coloured, close-grained wood, easy to work, and suitable for joinery. Sassafras, Black. See Beech, She. Sassafras, Brazil (Mespiloddphne Sdssafras C. : Order Laurdcece). Sassafras, Burmese. See Camphor, Nepal. Sassafras, Cayenne [Dicypellium caryophylldtum 'Nees = Licaria guianensis Aubl. : Order Laurdcece). Known also as " Cayenne Rosewood," " Licari," " Pepper- wood," " Bois canelle," " Rose male." Brazil and Guiana. An excellent wood. S.G. 1,226 — 1,108. R 360 kilos. Pale yellow, slightly fragrant, moderately hard, compact, and straight in grain, very easily worked, durable. The name " Sassafras " or " Rose femelle " is applied in French Guiana to Acrodiclidium chrysophyllum Meissn. (Order Laurdcece). S.G. 806—688. R 184 kilos. Yellow, very durable, readily worked, yielding on distillation the essential oil known as " essence de roses." Excellent for ship-building or furniture. Sassafras, Grey. See Laurel. Sassafras, Indian. See Camphor, Nepal. Sassafras, Nepal. See Camphor, Nepal. Sassafras, Tasmanian. See Sassafras, Australian (i). Satine or Bois de feroles, of which there are two varieties — " Satine rouge," a beautiful red-brown, and " Satine rubanne," lighter- coloured, veined and lustrous — is apparently Ferolia guianensis Aubl. and, perhaps, F. variegdta Lam., and probably species of Parind- rium (Order Rosdcece). Guiana and Guadeloupe. Known also as " Bois marbre," and, in Demerara, as " Washiba." German " Peroliaholz." S.G. 877—825. W 55. Exported in logs 14— 28 ft., or more, long, squaring 13 — 15 in., red, splashed with yellow, hard, solid, and of good quality, tough, elastic, working well, and susceptible of a beautiful polish. Used for furniture and cabinet- work, bows, and fishing-rods. SATIN WALXUT— SEQUOIA 271 Satin Walnut. See Gum, Sweet. Satinwood [Chloroxylon SwieUnia DC. : Order Melidcem). Central and Soathern India and Ceylon. Hind. " Dhoura." Tarn. " Mutirai, Porasham." Sinh. " Buruta." Height 30—60 ft. ; diam. 12—30 in. W 64-3—49. E 699 tons. / 6-15. fc 3-37. fs -85. R 329 — 510 lbs. Light orange, beautifully figured, heavy, hard, close-grained, taking an excellent polish, durable, but liable to darken unless varnished, somewhat apt to split. Used in India for oil-mills, agricultural implements, and furniture, the beautiful figured variety being imported into England for the backs of hair-brushes, turnery, and cabinet-work. There is a magnificent specimen from Ceylon at the Imperial Institute, to which the Grand Prix of the Paris Exhibition of 1900 was awarded. Satinwood, in Australia {Zanthoxylum hrachyacdnthum F. v. ^I. : Order Rutdcece). North-East Australia. Known also as " Thorny Yellow-wood." Height 40—50 ft. ; diam. 12—15 in. Bright yellow, silky, soft, close-grained, easily worked. Used in cabinet- work, and said to be superior to seme Satinwood in the English market. See also Sassafras, Australian (ii). Satinwood, North American {Zanthoxylum floridum Nutt.). Florida. Yields only small wood. Satinwood, West Indian {Fdgara (Zanthoxylum) fldva Krug. and Urb. : Order Butdcece). Span. " Aceitillo." This appears to be the species imported in considerable quantities into- England in logs 10 ft. long and 8 in. in width and thickness for ornamental purposes from the Bahamas and Porto-Rico, fetching from £3 to £10 per ton ; but the name seems to be applied in Dominica also to Bucida capitdta Dow. (Order Combretdcece), which is also known as " Yellow Sanders," and in Brazil and the Guianas may be applied to other unascertained species. The Zanthoxylum is known as " Yellow- wood " in the Bahamas. It is imported from Nassau and New Providence, Bermuda, Jamaica, and St. Domingo, the last- named being the best, ranging in value from Is. per superficial foot up to almost any price, according to the beauty of its figure. It occurs in logs up to 12 in. in diam., is hard, close and even in grain like Box, and has a smell hke that of Coco-nut oil. It is very largely used for panels in ships' cabins, for the highest class of bedroom furniture, brush-backs, etc. Savicu. See Sabicu. Schaapdrolletje ]{Plectr6nia ventosa L. : Order Buhidcece). Cape Colony. Height 15 — 20 ft. ; diam. 6 — 10 in. Heavy, hard, close- grained, tough, susceptible of a good polish, and then handsome. Suitable for fancy work. Sequoia. See Redwood, Californian. 272 WOODS OF CO:\DIERCE Securipa, an undetermined Brazilian wood, of considerable dimensions, straight growth, moderate weight and fair quality, bro^^TL in colour. Used for beams and planks in ship -building. Serayah, probably a species of Hopea (Order Dipterocarpdcece). Malay Peninsula and Borneo. Known also as " White Cedar," "Borneo Cedar," Majow," " Selangan." W 43. Reddish, re- sembling soft Maiiogany, easily worked. Used for house-building, and recommended for the inside linings of furniture, but incapable of taking a finish, the grain turning up woolly and ragged from the tools. Service {Pyrus tormiridlis Ehrh. : Order Bosdcece). Europe, West Asia, and Xorth Africa. Germ. " Elsbeerbaum." A small tree, sometimes 30 ft. in height, with wood practically identical in character and uses with that of the Rowan. The Service-tree of the Continent, the French " Cormier," or " Sorbier," is a distinct but allied species [Sorhus domestica L.), yielding a fawn-coloured, very hard, fine-grained wood, susceptible of a fine poHsh, and often beautifully figured, which is in request for cabinet-work, turnery, cogs, planes, screws, and engraving. Shad-bush (Ameldnchier canadensis Torr. & Gray). Eastern Xorth America. Known also as " Shad-blow, Juneberry " and " Ser\4ce-tree." French " Grand Amelanchier." Germ. " Trau- benbirne." Span. " Xispero." Height 40 ft. ; diam. 15 in. S.G. 784. W 48-85. R 1,132 kilos. Sapwood thick, fight brown, mth red spots ; heart reddish-bro\^Ti, heavy, hard, strong, close-grained, taking a satiny finish. Little used, except for tool-handles, and, imder the nam.e of " American Lancewood," for fishing-rods. She Oak. See Oak, She. Shiragashi. See Akagashi. Shittim-w ood of Exodus xxvi. 15, the ^v\ov dayTrrov of the Septuagint, may have been Sissoo {Dalhergia Sissoo) or Acacia seyal. Shoondul (Jntsia hijuga O.K. = Afzelia bijuga A. GmY=Intsia amhoinensis Thouars {\) = Eperua decdndra Blanco: Order Legu- minosce). Seychelles, India, the Malay archipelago, and the Pacific. Known also as " PjTikado." Fiji " Vesi." A moderate-sized tree. Reddish-brown, very hard, close-grained. Used in the Pacific for war-clubs and in India for bridge- and house-building, and exported as a furniture wood. Silk Cotton-tree [Ceiha pentdndra G?iertn. = Eriodendron anfractu- osum P. DC. : Order Bomhdcece). The Tropics generally. Known also as " Cotton " or " White Cotton-tree." Hind. " Safed Simal." Tarn. " Elava." Sink. " Imbool." JIalay " Paniala." French SILKBARK— SISSOO 273 Arbre a coton." Germ. " Baumwollenbaum." Cuba " Ceiba." West African " Benten." Height 150 ft. or more. S.G. 287. Straight growing, white, light, soft. Used for canoes, boats, rafts, floats, toys, and packing-cases. '^ Silkbark {Celdstrus acumindtus L. : Order Celastrdcece). Cape Colony. " Zybast." Height 20 ft. ; diam. 1 ft. W 63. Prettily shaded, heavy, hard, even- and close-grained, taking a good polish. Used in turnery and furniture, and recommended for umbrella- handles. Silverballi, Brown, Siruaballi, or Cirouaballi. See Cedar, Black. Silver-top. See Gum, Cabbage. Silver-tree {Tarrietia argyrodendroii Benth. : Order StercuUdcece) . North-East Australia. Known also as " Ironwood, Stone wood. Black Stavewood, Crow's-foot Elm." Ahorig. " Boyung." Height 70 — 90 ft. ; diam. 2 — 3 ft. White, hard, close-grained, tough, firm, a substitute for Beech. Extensively used for staves, and suitable for piles. Simarouba (Simaruba amdra Aubl. = S. officindlis DC. : Order SimarubdcecB). Northern Brazil, Guiana, and the West Indies. " Maruba." " Acajou blanc " of Guadeloupe. A lofty tree, .^'ield- ing logs 13 or 14 ft. long, squaring 14 to 16 in. W 23—30. E 473 tons. / 3-36. /c 1-78. fs -224. Closely similar to Quassia, white, bitter, resembling Pine in quality, moderately hard, splitting in seasoning, easily worked, insect-proof. Used for constructive work in Brazil. Siris, Pink (Albizzia Julibrissin Durazz. : Order Leguminosce) . Tropical and sub-tropical Africa and Asia from Afghanistan to China and Japan. Known also as " Sirsa " or " Sirissa." " Cotton- varay " of Coromandel. Moderate-sized tree. Dark-brown to almost black, mottled, very heavy and hard, capable of a good polish. Valued for furniture, and for house- and boat-building. Sissoo (Dalbergia Sissoo Roxb. : Order Leguminosce). Northern India. A large tree, 15 ft. to its lowest branch, IJ ft. in diam., yielding logs 10 — 15 ft. long. Dark red-brown to light-brown, being at least as variable in colour as Mahogany, with dark longi- tudinal veins, very heavy, hard, close and even in grain, strong, elastic, seasoning well without warping or splitting, durable. One of the most valuable of Indian timbers, rapid in growth, sometimes almost as beautiful as Rosewood. Unrivalled for the naves and felloes of wheels, frames of carriages, boat-building, agricultural implements, and furniture. Once extensively used for the wheels of gun-carriages ; but not now plentiful. The sap wood rots so quickly that it invariably powders awav from the log before it 18 274 WOODS OF CO^BIERCE arrives in this country. The heartwood is, however, sound, and darkens in colour and hardens with age. Wheels of gun-carriages made of this wood went through the last Afghan war when the best which Woolwich could build of other materials very soon went to pieces, and it proved perfectly satisfactory for the spokes of heavy motor-waggons and artillery-carts during the South African War. Some Indian artillery wheels are now made with naves and felloes of Sissoo and spokes of Sundri. Snakewood in English commerce is Brosimum Aubletii of Guiana [See Leopard or Letter-wood] ; but in India the wood of Strychnos coluhrina L. and S. nux-vomica L. (Order Loganidcece) , the former of which is a climbing-plant 8 — 12 in. in diam. ; hght grey, hard, and intensely bitter ; the latter a tree reaching 15 ft. or 20 ft. to its lowest branch, and 3 ft. in diam. S.G. 706. W 52. White, or ash-colour, hard, close-grained, strong, very bitter. Used for ploughshares and cart-wheels in Travancore. Hind. " Kuchila." Telugu Xagamusada." Portuguese " Pao-de-cobra." French " Bois de couleuvre." The crooked and intensely' bitter roots of Ophiorrhiza Mungos L. (Order Cmchondcece), a native of the Sunda Islands, and the twisted chmbing stems of Bauwolfia serpentina Benth.= OpJiioxylon serpentinum L. : Order Apocyndcece), a native of the Malay archipelago, have also the same name. In the West Indies Coluhrina reclindta Brongn. and C. ferruginosa Brongn. (Order RhamndcecB), from their t^dsted roots bear also the same Enorhsh and French names, though known also as "West Indian Greenheart " or " Ironwood." Whilst all these woods get their names from their form or taste suggesting their use as remedies for snake-bite, the beautifully mottled Snakewood of British Guiana is Brosimum Aubletii. See Leopard or Letter-wood. Sneeze-wood {Pteroxylon utile Eck. and Z. : Order Sapinddcece). South Africa. Boer " Xeishout." Zulu " Umtati." Height 20 — 30 ft. ; diam. 2—4 ft. W 65— 67-5. E 782 tons. / 8-62. fc 5-96. Handsome, heays^ very hard, irregular in growth, difficult to con- vert, its dust producing violent sneezing, taking a fine poHsh, with a beautiful grain resembling Satinwood, and containing a gum- resin which renders it very inflammable, and one of the most durable woods in the world, ranking with Jarrah and Greenheart, termite- and teredo-proof, very shghtly affected by water, and for bearings superior to brass, iron, or Lignum- vitse. Perhaps the most valuable of South African timbers. Used for engineering work, bridges, furniture, agricultural implements, and carpentry. Souari or Schawari {Caryocar gldhrum Pers., G. hutyrosum Willd., C. tomentosum Willd. : Order Bhizoboldcece). Guiana. Known also as "Peki" or " Tatajuba." S.G. 932 — 820. R 211 kilos. Yellowish-red, moderately heavy and hard, and very cross-grained. SPEARWOOD— SPRUCE 275 Excellent for carriage-building, but used chiefly in ship-building and cabinet-work. Spear wood in Australia (i) Acacia homalophylla [See Myall (ii)], (ii) A. doratoxylon and (iii) Eucalyptus doratoxylon. Acacia dora- toxylon A. Cunn. (Order Leguminosce) is known also as " Hickory, Brigalow," or " Caariwan." Height 20 — 35 ft. ; diam. 6 — 12 in. S.G. 1,215. Sapwood narrow, yellow ; heart dark-brown, very heavy, hard, tough, close-grained, durable. Used for furniture, carriage-poles, gates, etc., and, by the natives, for spears and boomerangs. Eucalyptus doratoxylon F. v. M. (Order Myrtdcece). South-West Australia. Height 60—80 ft. ; diam. 2—3 ft. Straight- growing, hard, and elastic, for which qualities its saplings are much valued by the aborigines for spears. Spindle-tree {Euonymus europdeus L. : Order Celdstrdcece). Europe North Africa, and Western Siberia. Height 5 — 20 ft. ; diam. small. Clear yellowish-white, with distinct annual rings, but indistinguish- able vessels or pith-rays, light, hard, tough, fine-grained, difficult to split, but easily cut. Used in turnery for spindles, shoe-pegs, etc., and yielding a fine crayon or gunpowder charcoal. Spruce, a name applied originally to the Common or Norway Spruce {Picea excelsa ljmk. = Pinus Abies L. = P. Picea Duroi = Abies excelsa DC. : Order Coniferce) from Pruce or Prussia, whence it was obtained, and then extended to all the species of the genus Picea and to a few other trees. Besides the fact of their cones falling off whole, and other botanical characters, by which the Spruces are distinguished as a genus from the Firs (Abies), their wood, though varying in durability according to the soil on which it is grown, has most of its characters common to all the species. There is no distinct heartwood, the whole being of a whitish colour ; the resin-ducts are few and small ; and the pith-rays have tracheids with bordered pits for their upper and lower rows of cells, with four rows of parenchj^ma having simple pits in the middle. The wood is less resinous than Pine, though equal to some soft Pines, and superior to Silver Fir as timber, superior to Pine for paper-pulp, and much valued as a " resonance wood " for violins and sounding- boards. So similar are the Baltic and Canadian Spruce that in England each is used on that side of the country nearest to its origin, and the price of one affects that of the other. The principal Spruces are as follows : European — Common - Picea excelsa Link. Northern or Baltic var. - Polar var. Servian or Omorikan - Oriental - septentriondlis. boredlis. P. Omorica Pancic. P. orientdlis Carriere. 18—2 276 WOODS OF COiVDIERCE Asiatic — Siberian - - - -P. ohovdta Ledebour. Himalayan - - - - P. Morinda Link. Yezo P. ajanensis Fischer. P. Alcockidna Carriere. P. GUhni Fr. Schmidt. Japanese - - - - P. Hondomsis Mayr. Tiger's-tail - - - - P. poUta Carriere. North American — White or Canadian - - P. alba Link. Black (" American ") - - P. nigra Link. Red - - - - - P. rubra Link. Blue or Colorado - - - P. pungens Engelmann. Engelmann's - - - P. Engelmdnni Engelmann. Sitka or Menzies's - - P. sitchensis Trautw. Spruce, American, See Spruce, Black. Spruce, Bastard. See Pine, Oregon. Spruce, Baltic. See Spruce, Common. Spruce, Black (Picea nigra Link). Alaska, Canada, Xe^v^oimd- land and North-Eastern United States. Known also as " American, Canadian, New Brunswick, St. John's, Double," or " ]Muskeag Spruce." French " Sapinette noir, Epinette noir, Epinette a la biere." Germ. " Schwarzfichte." Height 25—80 ft. ; diam. 1—3 ft. S.G. 451—510. W 28-5. 1-74. p' -83. R 747 kilos. Sap- wood nearly white ; heart slightly reddish, hght, soft, elastic, strong, compact, with satiny lustre, being tougher, stronger, more elastic, and more durable than Yellow Pine, only slightly resinous, and, therefore, not good as fuel. Trees with wide rings are known to lumbermen as " White Spruce." Canadian Spruce is inferior in strength and durability to the Baltic White. The best shipments are those from Quebec and St. John's, the Lower Ports Deals being of less value. Canadian Spruce is used as " lumber," especially for flooring ; for spars and other purposes in ship -building ; for piles, paddles, and oars ; when " quarter-sawn " — i.e., cut radially — in the manufacture of sounding-boards for pianos, viohns, etc. ; and very largely for paper-pulp. The " Canadian deals " largely imported to the West Indies and England are used, among other purjooses, in Manchester and Birmingham for packing-cases. The tree yields a chewing-gum, and its shoots are brewed into Spruce beer. Spruce, Blue (P. pUngens Engelm.). Rocky Mountains at altitudes of 6,000—9,000 ft. Known also as ^ Colorado " or Rocky Mountain Spruce." Height 80—100 ft. ; diam. 1—3 ft. Cjarse, strong, useful lumber. SPRUCE 277 Spruce, Californian Coast. See Spruce, Sitka. Spruce, Canadian. See Spruce, Black. Spruce, Colorado. See Spruce, Blue. Spruce, Common (P. excelsa Link). From the Urals and Lap- land to the Pyrenees and Alps. Known also as " Spruce Pir, Norway Spruce," or " White Fir," and its wood as "White Deal." " Swiss Pine, Violin- wood." French " Faux sapin, sapin-pesse, sapin geniil, serente, pinesse, bois de resonnance." Germ. " Fichte Rothanne, Pechtanne." Height 125—150 ft. ; diam. 3—5 ft. W 64.7 when green, 28—32 when dry. E 715 tons. / 3-77. ft 5-5. fc 2 — 2-86. fs -27. Stress requisite to indent it -^-^ in. transversely to the fibres, 500 lbs. per sq. in. Straight-growing, white, reddish or yellowish, light, straight and even in grain, tough, elastic, easy to work except for the small hard knots, warping and shrinking slightly in seasoning, durable. Mostly imported from Norway with the bark on, in logs 30 — 60 ft. long, and 6 — 8 in. in diam., that from St. Petersburg being the best, that from the White Sea excellent, and that from Riga, Memel, and Dantzig large, but coarser. Very great quantities of White Deals are now arriving from Galatz, of greater average length and coarser grain than Baltic timber, probably the product of the form Picea montdna Schur. of Transsylvania and Moldavia. This timber is competing with Canadian Spruce. Spruce poles are used for scaffolding, telegraph- posts, ladders, roofs, fences, spars, and oars. The largest wood is converted into deals and planking, chiefly for Central and Southern Europe, for flooring, for toys, for which wide-ringed wood is pre- ferred, for packing-cases, for sounding-boards, dressers, and kitchen- tables, on account of its whiteness, and to a veiy large extent for paper-pulp. Spruce is also largely used for charcoal and for fuel, while its resin is used in the preparation of Burgundy pitch. Spruce, Double. See Spruce, Black. Spruce, Douglas. See Pine, Oregon. Spruce, Engelmann's. See Spruce, White. Spruce, Hemlock. See Hemlock Spruce. Spruce, Himalayan (P. Mormda JJmk^Pinus Smithidna Wall.= Abies Smithidna Forbes = KMitrow Loud. = Picea Smithidna Boiss.). Bhotan to Afghanistan at 6,000 — 11,000 ft. Known also as " Indian Spruce," " Morinda," or " Khutrow." Height 120— 150 ft. ; diam. 5 — 7 ft. White or nearly so, non-resinous, soft, straight-grained, easily worked, not durable, turning red and decaying rapidly on exposure. Used largely in Simla and its dis- trict of growth for packing-cases, rough and indoor carpentry, planking, and fuel. 278 WOODS OF COMMERCE Spruce, Hondo (P. hondo'dnsis Mayr). Mountains of Central Jp.pan. Japanese " Tolii." Perhaps identical with the Yesso Spruce. Very light and soft. Used in building and carpentry. Spruce, Indian. See Spruce, Himalayan. Spruce, Menzies'. See Spruce, Sitka. Spruce, New Brunswick. See Spruce, Black. Spruce, Norway. See Spruce, Common. Spruce, Red (P. rubra Link.). South-Eastern Canada and Eastern United States. French Sapinette rouge." Germ. " Roch- fichte." Height 70—80 or 100 ft. ; diam. 2—3 ft., being larger than the Black Spruce, with which it was confused. The most valuable timber of the district. Used for carpentry and paper- pulp. Spruce, Rocky Mountain. See Spruce, Blue, and Spruce, White (ii). Spruce, St. John's. See Spruce, Black. Spruce, Servian (P. Omorica Pancic). Mountains of Servia, Bosnia, and Montenegro, at 2,000 — 4,000 ft. Servian " Omorica, Morica." Said to have been largely exterminated for the sake of its timber, which resembles that of Pinus Pinaster. Spruce, Single. See Spruce, White, Spruce, Sitka (P. sitchensis Ca,Tv. = Abies Menziesii). Western Xorth America from Alaska to California. KnoT^Ti also as *' Menzies', Tideland," or " Calif ornian Coast Spruce." Height 100—250 ft. ; diam. 6—12 or 15 ft. W 26-75. Light yeUowish- brown, tinged with red, light, soft, straight -grained, compact, not strong, resembling the Western Hemlock. Said to be the best of American Spruces. Used for house- and boat-building, carpentry, coopera,ge, wooden- ware, fencing, etc. Spruce, Tideland. See Spruce, Sitka. Spruce, White (i) (P. alba Link). Alaska to Newfoundland and the Xorthern United States. Kuotvti also as " Single Spruce." W 25-5 — 32-5. Light, soft, straight- and even-grained, with a satiny lustre, compact, but not strong. Confused with wide- ringed examples of the Black Spruce, (ii) iP.Engelmdnni Engelm.). Rocky Mountains from Alberta to Arizona and New Mexico at 3,000—11.500 ft. Known also as ''Rocky Mountain Spruce." Height 100—150 ft. ; diam. 3—5 ft. Very hght, soft, straight, and close-grained, not strong. Used locally for lumber, and, being free from knots, is suitable for masts. Spruce, Yesso (P. ajanensis rischer=P. Jezoensis S. & Z.). Northern Japan, Ycssc, Saghalien, the Kurile Islands, and Amur- I STAVEWOOD— STRINGYBARK 279 land. Japanese " Yezo-matsii, Kuro-matsu." Height 120 — 130 ft. Very light and soft. Much used in Yeso for carpentry. Stave wood {Stercula fdetida L. : Order StercuUdcece) . Deccan, Ceylon, Burma, East Tropical Africa, Moluccas, and, though doubt- fully native, North Australia, and cultivated in Tropical America. Known also as " Horse Almond, Bastard Poon," or " Fetid Ster- culia." Beng. " Jangli badam." Tamil " Pinnari." Exported from Cayenne as " Bois puant." Height to first branch 50 ft. ; diam. 3 — 4 ft. W 26 — 33. Whitish, grey, or reddish-brown, generally soft, open -grained, and of little use ; but said to be used for spars for small vessels. The name is also applied in Australia to other little-used woods. Stinkwood {Ocotea hulldta Benth. = Zaitrt^s hulldta Burch = Oreoddphne hulldta Nees : Order Laurdcece). South Africa. Known also as " Hard-black Stinkwood, Cape Walnut," or " Laurel- wood." Height 50—70 ft. ; diam. 3—4 ft. W 50-8- 51-75. Golden-brown, often mottled and resembling Walnut, sometimes iridescent, giving off a strong peculiar odour when worked, very tough, and considered little inferior to Teak in strength and dura- bility. Used in house- and waggon-building, for gun-stocks, and furniture ; but now very scarce. Stinkwood, Camdeboo {Celtis Kraussidna Bernli. : Order Ulmd- cece). South Africa. Known also as " Soft Grey Stinkwood." Zulu " Umounari." Height 20 ft. ; diam. 2 ft. W 49-25-53. Dark greenish, beautifully veined, very heavy, close-grained, liable to warp. Used in waggon-building and furniture. Stinkwood, Red. See Almond, Wild. Stringybark, a name, obviously descriptive, applied in various districts of Australia to a good many different species of Eucalyptus (Order Myrtdcece), especially (i) E. rohusta [See Mahogany, Swamp], (ii) E. Sieberidna [See Gum, Cabbage], (iii) E. Stuartidna [See Gum, Apple-scented], (iv) E. macrorrhyncha, (v) E. ohliqua, and (vi) E. acmenioides. (iv) E. macrorrhyncha F. v. M. South-East Australia. Known also as Ironbark. Ahorig. " Yangoora." Height 50 — 100 ft. ; diam. 2— 4J ft. S.G. 1,060—809. W 63-5. Tensile strength 11,700 — 23,400 lbs. per sq. in. Light-brown, generally tinged with deeper red-brown, sometimes figured with yellow and brown stripes, hard, strong, close-grained, tough, easily split, tearing under the plane, capable of a good polish, durable, furnishing a fair fuel. Used for fencing, flooring, wheelwright's work, and house-carpentry, but suitable for furniture. (v) E. obliqua L'Her. Tasmania and South-East Australia. Known also as " Black " or " Ironbark Box," and in Victoria, from its resemblance to, and association with, E. macrorrhyncha, as 280 WOODS OF COmiERCE " Messmate." Height 100—150. or even 250—300 ft. ; diam. 3—4, or even 15 ft. S.G. 1,045—783. W 50—64. E 1,202 tons. / 4-72. fc 2-9. fs -476. Tensile strength 8,200—8,500 lbs. per inch. Straight-growing, hght to dark-brown, with a wavy figure near the base, heavy, hard, straight, close, and even, but rather coarse in grain, strong, tough ; sphtting very freely, somewhat liable to shakes and gum- veins, durable ; but, from its tendency to warp, requires seasoning. Probably the most generally used of all Eucalypts, being employed ic\ fencing, agricultural implements, joists, flooring, shingles, for ships' beams and keels, mine-timbers, paving, and piles. It has been successfully introduced into India, especially in the Xilgiri hills. (vi) E. acmenioides Schauer. South-East Austraha. Known also as " White Mahogany " and " Broad-leaved Box." Height 40—60 ft. ; diam. IJ— 2i ft. S.G. 1,066. W 67-25. Pale-coloured, heavier, and more durable than the preceding, sometimes prettily figured, strong, tough, easily spHt, v,dth a satiny lustre when planed. Used like the last-mentioned. Stringybark, Red. See Mahogany, Forest. Stringybark, Yellow {E. Mueller i J. B. Moore). Strong, tough, and suitable for harbour- works. Stringybark, White (i) Eucalyptus 'piperita [see Peppermint], (ii) E. capitelldta, and (iii) E. eugenioides. E. capitelldta Sm. Eastern Austraha. KnoA\Ti also as " Spotted Gum " and " Peppermint." Aborig. " Ya-ngoora." Height 80 — 120 or 200 ft. ; diam. 3—5 ft. S.G. 838. W 52-26. Moderately heavy, tough, strong, easily spHt, durable. Used for fencing, house-carpentry, and fuel. E. eugenioides Sieb. South-East Australia. KnoT^n also as " Broad-leaved Stringybark." Height said to reach 200 ft. Light- coloured, said to be less easily spht, but more durable than the other Stringybarks, but inferior as fuel. Used for fencing, shingles, and flooring. Sugar-berry. See Hackberry. Sugi {Cryptomeria japonica Don : Order Taxodinece). China and Japan ; introduced into England in 1843. Growing at altitudes of 500 — 1,200 or 3,000 ft. Known also as " Japanese Cedar." Height 60 — 125 ft. ; diam. 4 — 5 ft., tapering. Brownish-red, re- sembhng Sequoia in texture. Used for common lacquer-ware. One of the most abundant and useful of Japanese forest-trees. Sumach, Staghorn {Rhus typh'uui L. : Order Terehinthdceoe). Canada and Xorth-Eastern United States. KnowTi also as " Vir- ginian Sumach." Germ. " Hirsclikolben Sumach." Height seldom 20 ft. ; diam. seldom 10 in. S.G. 436. W 27. Sapwood very SUMACH— SYCAMORE 281 narrow, dingy yellowish- white ; heart golden-orange to greenish, the autumn zones much darker, handsome, somewhat aromatic, light, soft, brittle, rather close-grained, difficult to split, lustrous, vessels larger and much more numerous in the spring-wood, slightly dendritic, 1 — 7 together, pith-rays not visible. Used in dyeing, and occasionally in small pieces for inlaying in cabinet-work. Sumach, Venetian (Rhus Cotinus L.). Southern Europe. Known also as " Wig-tree," " Wild OHve," " Young," or " Zante Fustic." A shrub, yielding crooked sticks 4 — 5 ft. long and 2 — 3 in. in diam. Sap wood narrow, white ; heart golden-yellow or greenish, hard, easily split, lustrous ; rings not distinct ; vessels and pith-rays as in the preceding. Imported from Greece as a yellow dye for wool and leather. Sundri (Heritiera fomes Buch. : Order Sterculidcece) . Sunder- bunds of Bengal, Malay Peninsula, and Borneo. Beng. " Sundri." Burm. " Ka-na-zo." Germ. " Brettbaum." Not large, yielding timber 15 ft. long and 1 ft. in diam. S.G, 927—799. W 58—50. Brown, very hard, tougher than any other Indian wood, elastic, strong, and durable. Used for boat- and bridge-building, handles, naves and felloes, and especially spokes of gun-carriages, and in Calcutta largely as firewood, and yielding gunpowder charcoal of the best quality. The close-allied H. littordlis Dryand. is a native of East Africa, the Mauritius, Burma, and Queensland, where it is known as " Red Mangrove." It is the " Bois de Table " of the Seychelles and the " Looking-glass- tree " of English gardeners. It yields timber 30 ft. long and 2 ft. in diam. W 102 when wet, 65 when dry. Dark-coloured, scented, firm, very tough, durable. Used in boat-building, for handles, gunstocks, planking, and packing-cases. Sweetwood, Timber (Nectdndra exaltdta Gris. : Order Laurdcece). West Indies. Cuba " Boniato amarillo." W 53. Brownish, tinged with green, very heavy and hard, fine-grained, resembling Greenheart. Used for interior work. Sycamore, a name that has been singularly and variously mis- applied. Belonging originally to the Fig-mulberry of the Levant [Ficus Sykomorus L. : Order Mordcece), a shade-tree yielding a very strong wood, used for Egyptian mummy-cases ; it is applied in England to the Great Maple {Acer Pseudo-pldtanus L. : Order Acerinece). Central Europe and Western Asia, almost naturalized in Britain. Known in the South of Scotland as " Plane." French " Grand Erable, Erable blanc de montagne, Fausse platane." Germ. " Bergahorn." Height 40—60 ft. ; diam. 1—3 ft. W^ 64 when newly cut, 48 — 29 when dry. Without distinct heartwood, white, when young, becoming yellowish with age, or slightly brown in the centre, often beautifully figured, the fine but distinct pith- 282 WOODS OF COMMERCE rays having a satiny lustre, which distinguishes it from Linden- wood, compact, firm, neither very heavy nor hard, fine-grained, tough, sphtting evenly, but with difiiculty, easily worked, sus- ceptible of a high polish, cracking and warping somewhat in season- ing, and shrinking one-twelfth of its bulk, very durable if kept dry, and generally free from insect-attack ; rings marked by fine, evenly circular lines ; vessels indistinct, evenly distributed. Highly esteemed on the Continent by turners, cabinet-makers, carvers, and toymakers, the figured wood being used for violins. Formerly much used for platters and spoons, it is still largely manufactured at Glasgow and elsewhere into bread-platters, butter-dishes, and moulds, and is also in demand for bobbins, reels, coach-panels, cutting-boards for shoemakers, shop-boards for butchers, and wooden t}^e. Large wood is sought after for calico-printing rollers, and, when quartered, for those of washing-machines. It is superior to Beech both as fuel and for charcoal ; but is by no means plentiful or cheap. In America the name is apphed to Pldtanus occidentdlis [See Plane] ; in Australia to Panax elegans [See Laurel], and to Ster- culia lurida F. v. M. (Order Sterculidcece) , in the north-east, also knoAm as Hat-tree," a white wood occasional!}^ used for shingles. Sycamore, White {Cryptocdrya obovdta R. Br. : Order Laurdcece). Queensland and Xew South Wales. Known also as Bastard 'Svcamore, She-beech, Flindosa." Ahorig. " M;yTidee." Height 70—100 ft. ; diam. 2—5 ft. W 35. White, fight, soft, fairly dur- able if kept protected, working well, and darkening with age. Taaibosch [Rhus lucida L. : Order Anacardidcece). Xatal. W 38-7o. Brown with dark bands, fine-grained, easily worked. L'sed in turnery. The name is also applied in Cape Colony to R. Icevigdta L. Tacamahac. See Poplar, Balm of Gilead. Tallow- wood {Eucalyptus microcorys F. v. M. : Order Mijrtdcece) . Eastern Austraha. KnoAvii also as Tee, Peppermint, Turpentine- tree," and Forest Mahogany." Height 100—120 ft. ; diam. 6—8 ft. S.G. 952. W 74—59-43. e''896 tons. / 5-48. fc 4. fs -618. Light or dark yellow, or yellowish-brown, close, straight, or wa\^" in grain, strong, durable under or above ground, very greasy when freshly cut, liable to shakes, and generally hollow when large. Used by wheelwrights for naves, feUoes, and spokes, and for piles, girders, and ballroom floors. One of the best woods for paving, and much used in Sydney. In Tasmania the name is sometimes apphed to Pittosporum h'lcolor. [See Cheesewood.] Talura (Shorea Talura Roxb. : Order Dipterocarpdcece). Southern India. A large tree. Grey, ver}^ hard, smooth-grained. Used for house-building. TAMARACK— TANEKAHA 283 Tamarack {Ldrix pendula Salisb. = L. americdna Miclix. : Order €oniferm). Canada and North-East United States. Known also as " Hackmatack, American," or " Black Larch." French Canadian ^'Epinette rouge." Height 80, or rarely 100 ft. ; diam. 2—3 ft. S.G. 263. W 35—42-5. R 901 kilos. Sapwood light ; heart light- brown or reddish-grey, moderately heavy, hard, rather coarse- grained, compact, very strong and durable in contact wdth soil, in microscopic structure resembling European Larch. One of the best American timbers for sleepers, valuable from its straight growth for telegraph-poles and fence-posts, while naturally crooked pieces are used for knees in ship-building. Resembling Hard Pine in appearance, quality, and uses, equal in durability to Oak and in strength to European Larch. Tamarack, Western (L. occidentdlis Nutt). North- Western United States. Known also as " Western Larch." Height 100 — 250 ft. ; diam. 2 — 3 or 4 — 8 ft. Beautifully coloured, heavy, very hard, free from knots, strong and durable. The largest of Larches, harder and stronger than all other American conifers. Suitable for furniture or lumber ; but used chiefly for sleepers, posts, and fuel. Tamarind {Tamarindus indica L. : Order Leguminosce) . Through- out the Tropics. Pers. " Tamar-i-hindi." Hind. " Amli ka jhar." Malay " Asam, Kranji." Sansk. " Amlika." Tarn. " Pulia." Senegal " Diakar." Slow-growing, but large. Heiglit 60=80 ft. : diam. 5—8 ft. W 80. S.G. 1,323. Yellowish-white, with an irregular heart of dark purplish-brown blotches in old trees, re- sembling Ebony or Tulip-wood, but apt to be hollow, very heavy and hard, difficult to work, durable and free from insect-attack. Used for blocks, mallets, rice-pounders, oil- and sugar-mills, turnery, fuel, and gunpowder-charcoal. There is a very handsome table of this wood in the Kew Timber Museum. Tamarind Plum. See Kranji. Tamboti. See Ironwood (xi-xv). Tampinnis or Tampenis [Sloetia Sideroxylon Teijsm. and Binn. : Order Mordcece). Straits Settlements and Sundra Islands. Known also as " Ironwood." A large tree, 60 — 80 ft. high. Sapwood yellowish, heart dark red-brown, hard, durable timber, resinous, termite- and teredo -proof. W 67. Used in making the large implements employed in stirring gambir, and for engineering purposes. Tanekaha {Phylloclddus trichomanoides Don. : Order Taxinece). New Zealand, l^own also as " Celery- topped Pine." Height 50—80 ft. ; diam. 2—3 ft., 30—40 ft. to lowest branch, yielding timber 18—70 ft. long, squaring 10—16 in. S.G. 1,000—600. 284 WOODS or CO^CVIEROE YelloTvdsli-wliite, heavy, close- and straight-grained, tough, very strong, working up well, very durable, especially in moist situations. Used for sleepers, piles, bridges, mine-props, masts, decks, and building. Tapang {Koompdssia excelsa Taub. : Order Leguminosce). Borneo. A dense dark-red wood, reaching very large dimensions, a section, from Sarawak, in the Timber ^Museum at Kew, representing only part of the diameter, being iully 10 ft. square. Taraire {Beilsclimiedia Tardiri Benth. and Hook. ^.^Neso- daphne Tarairi Hook. fil. : Order Laurinece). Xew Zealand. Height 60—80 ft. ; diam. 1—2 ft. S.G. 888. W 55-34. p 112-3. Hard, compact, susceptible of a good polish, but not durable, if exposed. Suitable for cabinet-work. Tarco (Thouinia weinmannifolia Griseb. : Order Sapinddcece). Northern Argentina. White Ebony." Yielding timber 13 ft. long and 1 ft. square. Of a fine white, ivory-Uke appearance, and beautifully figured. In request for ornamental cabinet-work and panelhng. Tatamaka. See Poon. Tawa {Beilsclimiedia Tdwa Benth. and Hook. fil. = Laurus Tdwa A. Q\imi. = Nesoddphne Tdwa Hook. fil.). Xew Zealand. Height 60—70 ft. ; diam. 1—2 ft. S.G. 761. W 47—43. p 205-5. White, compact, even-grained, but, like the allied Taraire, not durable if exposed. Suitable for furniture. Tawhai (Fdgus Menziesii Hook. fil. : Order CupuUferce). Xew Zealand. "Silver" or "Red Birch." S.G. 626. W 38-99 p 258-2. Tawhai raiinui {Fdgus fusca Hook. fil.). Xew Zealand. Known also as " Black " or " Red Birch." Height 100 ft. ; diam. 10 ft. S.G. 780. W 48—53. p 202-3. Brown, very strong, tough, easily worked and durable. Used for sleepers, piles, bridges, and fences. Tawhai rauriki. See Birch, Black or White. Tea, a name transferred in Australia, from the varieties of Thea assdmica (Order CameUidcece) cultivated in China and now in India, to various species of Melaleuca and the alhed genera Kunzea and Leptospermum (Order Myrtdceoe) the leaves having been used as a substitute for tea by Captain Cook's sailors. The name is apphed unqualified (i) to Leptospermum lanigerum Sm., seldom larger than a tall shrub, with hglit-coloured, hea\'\', hard, tough, even-grained, and durable wood, used for tool-handles and fishing- rods, and by the aborigines for spears ; (ii) to L. flavescens Sm. similar, but reaching a height of 15 — 20 ft., and a diameter of 5 — 8 in. ; and (iii) to MeluleiLca unciimta R. Br., which reaches 70 — 90 ft. in height and 2 — 3 ft. in diameter. TEA-TREE— TEAK 285 Tea-tree, Black (Melaleuca styphelioides Sm.). Eastern Aus- tralia. Known also as " Prickty-leaved Tea-tree." Height 20 — 30 or 80 ft. ; diam. 1—3 ft. W 66-75- 73-35 when seasoned. Heavy, hard, close-grained, difficult to work, splitting in seasoning, very durable even in damp situations. Used for posts. Tea-tree, Broad-leaved {Melaleuca leucadendron L.). Australia. Known also as " White " or " Swamp Tea-tree, Paper-bark Tree," or " Milkwood." Height 40—50 ft. ; diam. 1—2 ft. W 47—54. Beautifully figured with ripple-like darker markings, heavy, hard, close-grained, termite-proof, very durable underground. Excellent for posts or bo at -building. Tea-tree, Mountain (Kunzea pedunculdris F. v. M.). South- East Australia. Aborig. " Burgan." Used for spears and boomerangs. Tea-tree, Prickly-leaved {Melaleuca armilldris Sm.). Eastern Australia. Height 20 — 30 ft. Hard and durable under ground or water, but decaying on exposure. [See also Tea-tree, Black.] Tea-tree, Soft-leaved {M. linariijolia Sm.). North-East Aus- tralia. Height 40 — 50 or 80 ft. ; diam. 1 — 3 ft. Very heavy, hard, close-grained and imperishable under water, but splitting in seasoning. Used for piles, turnery, and fuel. Tea-tree, Swamp (i) {M. ericifolia Sm.). Eastern Australia and Tasmania. Small, very hard and durable. Used for hurdles or rafters, and, in Tasmania, for turnery, (ii) {M. squarrosa Sm.). South-Eastern Australia and Tasmania. Height 6 — 10 ft. S.G. 713. Heavy, very hard, difficult to work, durable imder water or when exposed. [See also Tea-tree, Broad-leaved.] Tea-tree, White, in New Zealand, apparently {Leptospermum ericoides A. Rich.). Height 40 — 50 ft. ; diam. 1 — 2 ft. Heavy and hard. Much valued for piles, and used also in fencing and house-building. [See also Tea-tree, Broad-leaved.] Teak (Tectona grdndis L. : Order Verhendcece). Central and Southern India, Burma, the Shan States, Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Java, and Celebes, extensively planted by the Dutch in Ceylon. Hind. "Sdgun." Burm. " Kuyon." Malay " Jati " or " Djati." Tamil "Teak." Height 80—100 ft. or more; diam. 2—8 ft., yielding logs 23—50 ft. long, squaring 10—30 in. S.G. over 1,000 when green ; but, being generally " girdled " three years before felHng, 910 — 635 when seasoned. W 57 when green — 37. E 1,071 —950 tons, e' M9. p' 1-08. / 6-92. ft 4—9, averaging 6-7. c 3,301. c' -436 or more, fc 4—5-4. v' -832 or more. R 322— 406 lbs. Straight-growing, light straw-colour to a brownish red, when fresh, but darkening on exposure. Some of the Teak of the Deccan is beautifully veined, streaked and mottled, whilst some 286 WOODS OF COmiERCE old trees have burrs tlie wood of which resembles Amboyna-wood. It is very fragrant when fresh, so as to resemble Rosewood, owing to an oleo -resin which also renders the wood probably the most durable of known timbers, making it obnoxious to termites and keeping off rust from iron in contact with it. Seasoned Teak has, however, a very unpleasant smell, which has been compared to that of old shoe-leather. It is the general practice to "girdle" the trees — i.e., to cut a complete ring through both bark and sap- wood, so kilhng the tree and rendering it hght enough to float to the port of shipment ; and, as usually a year elapses between the felhng and its delivery in England, it arrives sufficiently seasoned, heavy, moderately hard, clean, even, and straight in grain, but little shrunken, split or warped in the process. The rapid drying, however, induced by girdling is said to render the wood inelastic, brittle, and less durable, so that it splits too readily for use in gun- carriages. Teak varies very much according to locality and soil, that of Malabar being darker, heavier, and rather stronger than, though not so large as, that of Burma. Though without shakes on its outer surface. Teak nearly always has a heart-shake, which, owing to a twist in the growth, may often at the top be at right angles to what it is at the butt, thus seriously interfering with conversion, though often little affecting the use of the timber in bulk. In the large Rangoon or Irrawaddy Teak there is also sometimes a close, fine star-shake. In these shakes an excretion of apatite or phosphate of hme consolidates in white masses, which will turn the edge of most tools. After girdling, the dead trees are often attacked by burrow- ing insects, which may penetrate beyond the sapwood and so render the timber unfit for reduction to plank. Being a deciduous tree. Teak has distinct annual rings, with large and distinct vessels which are rather larger and more numerous in the spring-wood and are sometimes filled with the apatite. The pith-rays are distinct and light-coloured, as in Oak, but fine, the vessels in the spring-wood being 2 — 3 together between every two rays. Teak splits readily and is easily worked, somewhat hke Oak, but it owes its superiority for ship-building over both Pine and Oak in part to its freedom from any change of form or warping, when once seasoned, even under the extreme climatic variations of the monsoons. In India, Teak is used for railway sleepers, bridge -building, and furniture. As the Indian Forest Department plant several thousand acres annually, there is little fear of the exhaustion of the supply, whilst the timber from cultivated trees is said to be better than that growTi in the natural forests. Teak is very largely exported, especially from Moulmein and Rangoon, that from the former port, drawn from the valleys of the Salwen and Thungyen Rivers being rather shorter but less shaky than that shipped at Rangoon from the Irrawaddy valley. Teak from Java is gritty and too hard. Whilst it is the best timber TEAK 287 known to us for shipbuilding, especially for the backing of armour- plates, deck-planks, etc., Teak is also considerably used in England in the building of railway- waggons, greenhouses, etc., but is com- paratively little used in foreign dockyards. In the London market it is sorted into A, B, and C classes, according to size, and has varied in price from £10 per load of 50 cubic feet, in 1859, to £14 — £20 at the present time. Whilst prime Moulmein Teak planks now fetch £20 a load, Java Teak, which is shorter in length and inferior in quality, ranges in value from £14 to £15 per load. Teak, African {Oldfieldia africdna, Benth. and Hook. : Order EupJiorbidcece). Western Tropical Africa ; but only found recently in Sherbro', Sierra Leone. In no way related to the true Teak. Height upwards of 30 or 40 ft. ; girtli 7—8 ft. S.G. 934—1,086. W 58—68. c 7,052. fc 4-9. c' -931. v' 1-341. p 15,000. R 855 lbs. Dark red, very hard, strong, rigid, fine, close, and straight in grain, free from shakes, shrinking and warping little, very durable ; but difficult to work. It was shipped from Sierra Leone in logs so badly hewn as to yield little more than 50 per cent, of well-squared timber. It was used in ship-building for keelsons, beams, etc., and classed in the second line in Lloyd's Register ; but has ceased to be imported since the general use of iron in ship-building. Beams that have been fifty years in old warships have been satisfactorily used up in artillery waggons and the spokes of motor-car wheels. The Forestry Department of South Nigeria reports that the wood cannot now be obtained, which, considering its valuable charac- teristics, is much to be regretted. Teak, Bastard {Pterocdrpus Marsupium Roxb. : Order Legu- minosce). Central and Southern India. Hind. Bibla." Beng. " Bija," " Bija Sal." A large tree, yielding timber 18—30 ft. long, and 1—2 ft. in diam. S.G. 820. R 518—378 lbs. Sapwood narrow, white, soft, heart reddish-brown, handsomely streaked with a darker shade, very hard, requiring thorough seasoning, susceptible of a fine polish, and very durable. Darker-coloured and harder than the allied Padouk, it is heavier than most Teak, equally strong, and less liable to split, but more expensive to work, and not durable if exposed to wet. It is largely used for door- and window-frames, posts, beams, agricultural implements, cart- and boat-building, and furniture. Teak, Johore (Parindrium oblongifolium Hook. fil. : Order Rosdcece). Malay " Balau." Height 60—100 ft. W 65. Yellow, becoming orange and dark-brown with age, very heavy, close- grained, termite-proof. Formerly largely exported, used for beams, and employed for the Colombo breakwater ; but now rare. Teak, New Zealand. See Puriri. 288 WOODS OF COMMERCE Teazle, the name in the walking-stick trade for Viburnum Opulus L. (Order CaprifoUacece). A native of Europe, Northern and Western Asia, and North America, known also as " Guelder Rose " or " Balkan Rose," reaching a height of 6 — 12 ft., and imported as walking-sticks from the Balkans. Tendu. See Ebony, Bombay. T'eng-li-mu {Pyrus betulcefolia Bunge : Order Rosdcece). China. The best wood in Wuchang for engraving purposes, being a tolerable substitute for Box, occurring in the market in planks 6 in. wide and 1 J in. thick, costing 150 cash, or 5Jd. Terebinth (Pistdcia Terebinthus L. : Order Terebinthacece). Medi- terranean. This is probably the Hebrew " Elah," the repe^ivOo^ of the Septuagint, variously mistranslated Oak and Elm in the Authorized Version. A tree of 20 — 40 ft. high, yielding the medi- cinal Chian turpentine and galls used in tanning ; but of no impor- tance as a wood. Tewart or Touart {Eucalyptus gomphocepJiala DC. : Order Myr- idcece). Western Australia, where it is stated it covers 500 square miles. Known sometimes as " White Gum." Height 100 — 150 ft., yielding timber 20 — 45 ft. long, squaring 11 — 28 in. S.G. 1,194 — 1,000. W60— 78. /^4-l. 2)2,552. c 10,284. 1-398. 1-229. R 257*25 lbs. Straight-growing, pale yellow, or light brown, very heavy, hard, tough, strong and rigid, close, twisted, or even curled in grain, so as to be difficult to cleave or work, and with no liabihty to split, with a slight heart- and star-shake miUtating against its reduction into planks, shrinking very Httle in seasoning, and apparently imperishable under any climatic changes. Used in ship-building for beams, keelsons, capstans, and windlasses, strongly recommended for the woodwork in engine-rooms, where it is exposed to great heat, and for piles and dock-gates, and well suited also for naves and spokes of wheels, but, though one of the strongest and toughest of known woods, too heavy for general use, and not plentiful. Thingan {Hopea odordta Roxb. : Order Dipterocarpdcece). Further India. Burm. " Thmgan." Anam " Sao." Height up to 250 ft., 80 ft. to lowest branch ; diam. 3—4 ft. S.G. 652—608. W 64—38. R 800 lbs. Yellowish-brown, heavy, hard, close- and even-grained, not liable to insect-attack, and very durable under water, but liable to split in the sun. Used for house-building, canoes, and cart- wheels, being one of the most valuable woods of its district. Thitka (Pentdce burmdnica Kurz. : Order Tilidcece). Burma, Pegu, Malacca, and Java. Ejiown also as " Kathitka." Very large. W 42. White or yellowish-red, light, soft, even-grained, taking a good polish, and having sometimes a lustre resembling THITKADO— TONKA-BEAN 289 Satinwood ; pith-rays moderately broad, wavy, red, equidistant ; rings visible. Used in Burma for boat-building and tea-chests, and exported in considerable quantities to Europe for furniture, resemb- ling inferior Mahogany. Thitkado. See Cedar, Moulmein. Thitya (Shorea obtusa Wall. : Order Dipterocarpdcece). Further India. Burm. "Thitya," " They a." A large tree, 50 ft. to its lowest branch ; diam. 2 ft. W 75. Dark-coloured, handsome, very hard and durable wood. Used in house- and canoe-building, and for handles. Thorn. See Blackthorn and Hawthorn. Thorn, in Cape Colony {Acacia horrida Willd. : Order Legumi- nosce). Kjiown also as " Mimosa." Boer " Doorn-boom, Kamul- boom." Height 20—25 ft. ; diam. 1— IJ ft. Hard, tough. Used for building, agricultural implements, wheels, etc. Thumbagum {Shorea Tumbuggdia Roxb. : Order Dipterocarpd- cece). Madras, Burma, etc. Dark-red, harder even than Sal. Used for gun-carriages. Thuya {TetracUnis articuldta Masters : Order Cupressmece). Morocco and Algeria. " 'Arar." The " Lignum- vitae " of the French, the " alerce " of the roof of Cordova Cathedral, and prob- ably the " Citron- wood " of the Romans, for tables made of which wood thousands of pounds were paid, and the " Tliyine-wood " of the Apocalypse (xviii. 12). Also named Thuya articuldta Vahl, and Cdllitris quadrivdlvis Vent. Height 30 ft. Only the burrs come into the Enghsh market, in which the name is pronounced Thoo'ee." They are reddish-brown, and fragrant ; and, having a figure very similar to the more valuable Amboyna-wood, are frequently substituted for it ; but can be distinguished by their distinctively coniferous structure. The root of Jumperus phoe- nicea L., the " Genevrier " of Algeria, is similar. ijTipa, Colorado or Palo Mortero {Machcerium Pseudotipe Griseb. : Order Leguminosce). Northern Argentina. Yielding timber 10 ft. long and 1 ft. square, light red-brown, fine and even in grain, and easy to work. Used for beams, scantlings, spokes, etc. A better wood than Tipa bianco or White Tipa {Tipudna speciosa Benth. = Machcerium Tipu), which is used as a tanning material. Titoki. See Oak, White. Tochi {JEsculus turbindta Bl. : Order Sapinddcece) . Japan. Height 20 ft. ; diam. 2 ft. Used in house-building, box-making, and lacquer-work. Tonka-bean {Coumarouna odordta Aubl. = Dipteryx odordta Willd. : Order Leguminosce). Brazil and Guiana. Known sometimes as 19 290 \YOODS OF C0:\D1ERCE Tonquin-bean." Gaiac," " Cuamara." Height 60—70 or 90 ft. ; diam. 1— 2i ft. S.G. 1,213—1,032. R 385 kilos. Dark yellow or reddish -brown, very heavy, hard, tough, cross-grained, difficult to work, taking a fine pohsh, very durable, and said to bear a greater strain than any wood in the Colony. Used for cogs, shafts, mill- wheels, and to a small extent for turnery and furniture, and medi- cinally as a substitute for Guaiacum. Toon. See Cedar, Moulmein. Torreya, Japanese. See Kaya. Totara {Podocdrpus Totcira A. Cimn. : Order Taxmece). Xew Zealand. Xew Zealand Yew." Height 40—70 or 120 ft., 35— 40 ft. to the lowest branch ; diam. 2 — 6 or 10 — 12 ft., yielding timber 20 — 45 ft. or more long, squaring 10 — 22 in. S.G. 1,230 when fresh cut, 559 when seasoned. W 28 — 37. p 133*6. Sapwood 2 — 3 in. wide, hght-reddish ; heart deep red, heaw, moderately hard, close, straight, very fine and even in grain, strong, very easily worked, not warping or twisting, very durable, teredo-proof. With the excep- tion of Kauri, the most valuable timber in Xew Zealand, and far more abimdant than Kauri. Used for piles in the sea, sleepers, wood-paving, telegraph-poles, fencing, shingles, bridges, canoes, and general building purposes, but is suitable for interior fittings and furniture, and has a future in the Enghsh market ; sometimes presenting AmbojTia-hke burrs. Trincomalee-wood [Berrya Ammonillu Roxb. : Order Tilidcece). Ceylon, Phihppines, and Tropical Austraha ; introduced in Lidia. Sink. " Halmilla." Tarn. " Katamanakku." Germ. *' Halmahlle- holz." Height 20—40 ft. ; diam. 1— 2i ft. W 48—65. Straight- growing, dark red, Hght, very hard, straight- and fine-grained, tough, very strong, durable. Imported from Trmcomalee to Madras. Specially valued in Ceylon for staves for oil-casks, and in Madras for boat- and carriage-building. Used for gun-carriages, spokes and shafts, for handles, capstan-bars, etc. Trumpet-tree [Cecropia peltdta L. and C. palmdta Willd. : Order Mordcece). The former in Jamaica, the latter in Brazil and Guiana. Height 50 ft. ; diam. 1 ft. Very Hght and resonant. Used for floats for fishing-nets, razor-strops, for producing fire by friction, for trumpets and drums made from the hollow branches or stems. Tsuga {Tsuga Sieboldi Ca:Tv. = Abies Tsuga S. & Z. : Order Comferce). Japan. Kjiown also as " Japanese Hemlock Fir." Jap. " Tsuga Araragi." Height 80—90 ft. ; diam. 3—6 ft. Reddish- white, durable. Little used, owing to its inaccessibihty. Tulip -tree {Liriodendron tulipifera L. : Order Magnolidcece). Eastern Xorth America. Known also as " Saddle-tree, Poplar, Yellow, White," or " Virginian Poplar, Whitewood, Canary White- TULIP-TREE— TULIP-WOOD 291 wood, Canary -wood," or " Canoe-wood." French " Tulipier." Germ. " Tulpenbaum." Height 100—150 ft. ; diam. 3—10 ft. S.G. 423. W 26-36. R 657 kilos. Sapwood of moderate width, nearly white ; heart light lemon-yellow or brownish, light, soft, close and straight in grain, tougher than many woods equally soft, compact, not very strong or durable, easily worked, shrinking and warping somewhat in seasoning, taking a satiny polish. Vessels minute, evenly distributed ; pith-rays fine, but distinct. Usually heavier, and more valuable as timber, than the true Poplars. Excellent for shingles and clapboards, as it does not split under heat or frost ; used for rafters and joists, and generally as a substi- tute for Yellow Pine {Pinus Strobus) or Cedar in building, especially for doors, panels, and wainscot, the seats of American Windsor chairs, box-making, turnery, and boat-building ; and formerly for Indian " dug-out " canoes. Imported from New York to Liverpool as " American " or " Canary Whitewood " in large planks, boards, and waney logs at a price equal to that of the best Quebec Yellow Pine, this wood is valued, as easily worked, firm when fully dried, and taking polish, stain, or paint very well, by carriage-builders, shop-fitters, cabinet-makers, etc. The planks and boards, which are in 16 ft. lengths, are often the wood of the allied Cucumber- tree {Magnolia acuminata), which has a wider white sapwood, and is somewhat harder and coarser. The boards are often planed on both sides, the saving in freight being greater than the cost of planing. Tulip-tree, in Australia (i) (Lagundria Pater soni Don : Order Malvdceoe). Known also as " White Oak " or " Whitewood." Height 40 — 60 ft. ; diam. IJ — 2J ft. White, close-grained, easily worked. Used for building, (ii) {Stenocdrpus sinudtus). See Fire-tree. Tulip-tree, in India. See Umbrella-tree. Tulip-wood [Physocalymma scaberrimum Pohl. : Order Lythrd- cece). Brazil. Portug. " Pao de rosa." French Bois de rose." Germ. " Rosenholz." A rose-coloured, beautifully striped wood. Considerably used for inlaying and small turned ware. Tulip-wood, in Australia (i) {HarpuUia pendula Planch. : Order Sapinddcece) . North-East Austraha. Ahorig. " Mogum-mogum." Height 50 — 60 ft. ; diam. 1 — 2 ft. The outer wood light-coloured, very tough, easily worked, the best wood in Australia for litho- graphers' scrapers, and suggested, for engraving. The innerwood beautifully marked with black and yellow, close-grained, strong, and much valued for cabinet-work ; (ii) the similar wood of Owenia venosa [See Plum, Sour] ; (iii) the very different light-coloured wood of Aphandnthe phillippinensis. [See Elm.] 19—2 292 WOODS OF CO:^DIERCE Tupelo {Nyssa uniflora Wangenh.^iV. tomentosa ^lichx. : Order Corndceoe). Southern United States. Kjiotvti also in America as " Black," " Cotton," " Sour," " Yellow," or " Tupelo Gum," or " Pepperidge." Span. " Tupelo." Height up to 120 ft. ; diam. 4 ft. S.G. 635. W 39-6. R 830 kilos. Sapwood hght yeUow ; heart Ught-brown, free from knots, moderately heavy, strong, and tough, cross-grained, hard to spHt, planing well, but warping, not durable or constant in character. Used in America for waggon- hubs, rollers, handles, sabots, and turnery. Imported in sawn boards, and used for inside linings in cheap cabinet-work. Turnip-wood (Synoum glandulosum A. Juss. : Order Melidcece). Xew South Wales and Queensland. Known also as " Dogwood, Brush Bloodwood," and " Bastard Rosewood." Height 40—60 ft. diam. IJ — 2 ft. W 41 — 45. Deep red when fresh, with a scent Hke that of roses, afterwards resembling Cedar, firm, easily worked, but apt to tear under the plane, taking a good pohsh. Used for cabinet-work, interior finish, etc. The bark has a turnip-like smell. [See also Cedar, Pencil.] Turpentine-tree, American. See Pine, Long-leaf. Turpentine-tree, in Austraha (i) Eucalyptus microcorys [See Tallow-wood] ; (ii) E. Stuartidna. [See Gum, Apple-scented] ; (iii) Syncdrpia laurifolia Ten. (Order Myrtdcece). Xorth-East Austraha. Height 100—150 ft. ; diam. 4^—5 ft. W 57—69. Sap- wood hght-coloured ; heart dark-brown, hard, apt to shrink and warp unless well seasoned, very durable underground in damp, or in sea-water, termite- and teredo-proof, o\\dng to the resin it contains, taking a high jDohsh, very iminflammable. Much used in Sydney for piles, excellent for sleepers, fence-posts, and uprights in buildings, (iv) 8. Hillii Bailey, of Xorth Queensland, a dark pink, close-grained, tough wood, appears to be also useful. Turpentine, Brush (i) {Syncdrpia leptopetala) [See Myrtle] ; (ii) {Rhoddmnia trinervia Blume : Order Myrtdcece) Xew South Wales and Queensland. Sometimes kno^vTi as " Black-eye." Height 70—80 ft. ; diam. 2—3 ft. W dO~52 Q. Reddish-brown, moderately hard, close-grained, firm, not easy to season, and almost always hollow when large. Xot much used. Umbrella-tree [Thespesia populnea Corr. : Order Malvdceoe). Western Tropical Africa, Seychelles, Ceylon, Southern India, Burma, Tropical Austraha, Fiji, and other Pacific islands, and Tropical America. Known also as " Tuhp-tree, Portia-tree, Rose- wood of Seychelles." Sinh. " Suriya." Telugu " Gangaravi." Tamil " Poris." Bengali " Parish-pippuL" Hindi " Parsipu." Mahratti " Bendi." French " Faux bois de rose, Bois de rose de rOceanie." Height 40—50 ft. W 48—53. Sapwood hght red ; UMZIMBIT— WA 293 heart small, dark-red, a deep claret colour when hollow, resembling Mahogany, hard, very strong, said to be durable in Cochin-China, but apparently variable in this respect. Used in India for furni- ture, spokes, and carriage-building, in Ceylon for gunstocks, and also in boat-building, and in the Pacific Islands for carving. Umzimbit {Todddlia lanceoldta Lam. : Order Xanthoxyldcece) . South Africa. Known also as " White Ironwood." Height 20 ft.; diam. 2 ft. W 60-37. E 772 tons. / 8-56. fc 4-33. White, hard, tough, elastic, resembling Ash or Hickory. Used chiefly for ploughs, axles, and waggon-building. The name is also applied to MilUttia cdffra Meissn. (Order Leguminosce), which has a white sapwood, and the heart purplish-pink, greasy, intensely hard, and seven times as durable as Lignum-vitse. Used for walking-sticks, and excellent for machine-bearings. Uroobie {Nephelium tomentosum F. v. M. : Order Sapinddcece) . North-East Australia. Height 20 — 30 or 80 ft. ; diam. reaching 3 ft. Yellow, close-grained, hard. Occasionally used for building. Vaivai {Seridnthes vitiensis A. Gray : Order Leguminosce). Fiji. Light, tough. Valued for planks in boat-building. Venatico. See Mahogany, Madeira. Vau, in Fiji. See Corkwood-tree. Varnish, Black or Burmese {Melanorrhcea usitdta Wall. : Order Anacardidcece). Further India. Known also as " Lignum- vitae of Pegu." Burm. " Thit-si." Manipuri " Kheu." Height 30— 40 ft. to lowest branch ; diam. 2 — 4 ft. W 54. Dark-red or brown, with yellowish streaks, heavy, very hard, fine- and close-grained, tough, durable, the black gum which exudes from it repelhng termites. Used for anchors and tool-handles, and recommended for blocks, gun-stocks, or sleepers. The varnish is largely used in lacquering and gilding. Vesi. See Shoondul. Vesi-vesi. See Beech, Indian. Vine (VUis vinifera L. : Order Vitdcem). Originally a native of Armenia. Small. Sapwood narrow, reddish-white ; heart reddish- brown ; pith large ; autumn-wood narrow ; spring-wood full of large vessels. Light, pliable, and elastic. Suitable for walking-sticks. Violet-wood. See Purple-heart. In England the name is applied, on account of perfume, to Acdcia pendula. See Myall. Vlier {Nuxia floribunda Benth. : Order Loganidcece). Cape Colony. " Elder." Height 40—50 ft. ; diam. 1—2 ft. W 44. Light-coloured, hard. Used in waggon-building, and excellent for turnery, resembling Box. Wa. See Beati, 294 WOODS OF COmiERCE Wacapou {Aiidira Auhletii Benth. : Order Leguminosce). Guiana. Acapu, Backlieart." French Epi de ble." Dutch " Bruinhart." In logs 14—21 ft. long, squaring 13—16 in. S.G. 1,113—900. R 304 kilos. Dark-coloured, straight-grained, strong, easily worked, very durable, and not liable to insect attack, one of the best of the hard-woods of the country ; but subject to serious heart-shake. Excellent for ship -building, railway-sleepers, or cabinet-work. Waibaima {Nectandra sp. ? : Order Laurdcece). British Guiana. Apparently also known as Cirouaballi." W 57. Abundant, green, shading to brown, close, but coarse in grain, heav}% working weU. Superior in most respects to Greenheart, and suitable for the same purposes. Wallaba [Eperua falcdta Aubl. : Order Legumindsce). Guiana, Brazil, etc. French Wapa gras." Height 40 — 80 ft. ; diam. 1—2 ft. S.G. 945—930. W 52—65-5. E 1,171 tons. / 81. fc 4-28. fs -424. R 224 kilos. Deep red, T\ith whitish streaks, heavy, hard, and, owing to a resinous oil, very durable, but rather coarse-grained. Used for vat-staves, shingles, pahngs, and, to a small extent, for furniture. The Ituri Wallaba {E. Jenmani OHver) is finer in grain. Wallang-unda [Monotoca elUptica R. Br. : Order Epacriddcece). Eastern Austraha. Known also as " Beech." Height 20 — 30 ft. ; diam. small. W 37 — 44-5. Resembling Beech, sometimes with a beautiful silvery grain, working well across the grain, and taking a polish. Excellent for planes, etc., but not answering for en- graving. Walnut (Juglans regia L. : Order Juglanddcece). A native of Xorthern Cliina and Persia, introduced into Greece and Italy in early times from Persia, and thence into the rest of Europe. Known also as " European," English," " Italian," " Ancona," " Au- vergne," or " Circassian Walnut," Pers. Jaoz, Charmagz, Akrot." Greek " Carua, Persicon, Basihkon." Latin " Juglans." French " Xoyer." Germ. Wahiuss." Height 30—50 ft. ; diam. 2—3 ft. W 58-5 when green, 47 — 28 when dry. Sapwood broad, greyish- white, very liable to become worm-eaten ; heart brown to black- brown, often watered " — i.e., showing dark, wavy Hues and zones — moderately hea\y, hard, fine and close in grain, splitting very httle in seasoning, but readily split artificially, taking a beauti- ful poHsh, and durable, if kept dry, especially when dark in colour and figured ; pith large, chambered ; pith-rays fine, indistinct ; rings distinct ; vessels uniformly distributed, few, very large and open, single or in pairs. Burrs, often 2 — 3 ft. across, and a foot or more in thickness, weighing 5 — 6 cwt., occur, and, being generally beautifully mottled, are highty valued for veneers. The sapwood WALNUT 295 may be rendered more durable by smoking over a fire of Beech, or by boiling in the juice of the green fruit ; but the liability to worm- attack prevents Walnut being used in building. English-grown Walnut, coming mostly from rich plains, is pale, coarse, little figured, and perishable ; French is better ; that from the Black Sea, some- times known as Austrian and Turkish, but grown partly in Servia, which is imported in waney logs 6 — 9 ft. long, squaring 10 — 18 in., is still more valuable ; whilst that from Italy, which comes in planks 4 — 9 in. thick, 10 — 16 in. wide, and 5 — 12 ft. long, is the best. At the beginning of the eighteenth century Walnut became very fashionable as a furniture wood, marking the first departure from the previous universal use of Oak. The severe winter of 1709 killed most of the Walnut-trees in Central Europe, the dead trees being bought up by the Dutch, who thus secured a " corner " in this wood. So scarce was it in France that its exportation was prohibited in 1720, and Mahogany, imported by the Dutch and Spaniards, largely replaced it for furniture. No wood, however, equals it for the manufacture of gunstocks, so that the wars of the eighteenth century created a great dearth of this timber, and we read of France consuming 12,000 trees a year in 1806, and of as much as £600 being paid for a single tree. European Walnut is still in use for the best gunstocks. The burrs have realized £50 — £60 per ton, and veneers, some of which are of a beauty unsur- passed by any other wood, as much as two or three shillings per square foot. These are used in the pianoforte and furniture trades. Swiss carvings are mostly in Walnut, and the wood is also used in turnery, for screws for presses, musical instruments, sabots, etc. European Walnut is now, however, so scarce that it is being largely replaced in all its uses by the American. Walnut, American or Black {Juglans nigra L.). Eastern North America. Height 60—150 ft. ; diam. 3—8 ft. S.G. 611. W 30— 55. R 856 kilos. Sapwood narrow ; heart violet-brown or choco- late-brown, blackening with age, heavy, hard, tough, strong, rather coarse in grain, checking if not carefully seasoned, easily worked, susceptible of a high polish, very durable in contact with the soil. More uniform in colour, darker, duller, less liable to insect-attack, and thus more durable than European Walnut. Formerly used on the Wabash for " dug-outs," 40 ft. long and about 27 in. wide, and also largely for fence-posts, shingles, building, naves of wheels, etc., this wood has now become too valuable as a cabinet and veneer wood to be used for these purposes. Before the middle of the nineteenth century it was only used in England for carcase ends, frames for veneering, and other inferior purposes ; it has now in- creased four-fold in price, and is more used than European wood, its uniform colour recommending it to shop-fitters' and as a basis for painted or other ornamentation in the cabinet-trade. It is 296 WOODS OF COmiERCE imported in logs 10 — 21 ft. long, squaring 15 — 30 in., in planks, and in boards ; and, besides its use in cabinet-making, is employed for the stocks of our army rifles. It fetches from 3s. to 8s. per cubic foot in the Liverpool market, and can be profitably grown in good soil in the South of England. Walnut, Belgaum (AleurUes triloba Forst. : Order Euphorbidcece) . Moluccas, New Caledonia, etc. Height 60 ft. ; diam. 1 — 2 ft. Used for packing-cases and joinery ; and, when seasoned, for building. Walnut, East Indian [Albizzia Lebbek Benth. : Order Leguminosce) . India and Tropical Africa. W 41 — 56. Dark brown, heavy, hard, coarse-grained, working and pohshing well, durable. Used for house- and boat-building, furniture, mill-rollers, and wheels. See also Lasrin. Walnut, Grey (Juglans cinerea L.). Walnut, Japanese (Juglans Sieboldidna Maxim.). Walnut, Manchurian (J. mandschurica Maxim.). Walnut, Queensland (Cryptocdrya Palmerstoni F. M. Bailey : Order Laurdcece). ResembUng American Walnut. Walnut, Satin. See Gum, Sweet. Walnut, White. See Butternut. Wandoo (Eucalyptus redunca Schau. : Order Myrtdcece). West Austraha. Known also as " White Gum." Height up to 120 ft. ; diam. up to 17 ft. W 63 — 79. Light-coloured, brownish-red, heavy, very hard, tough, and durable. Valued for building, and especially for wheelwrights' work, being superior to Tewart for spokes and felloes, and supplying the best naves and cogs ; used also for furniture, and recommended for sleepers. Water-tree. See Pin-bush. Waterwood (Chimdrrhis cymosa Jacq. : Order Eubidcece). West Indies. Known also as " Bois Riviere." Height 50 — 60 ft. Valued for furniture and joinery. Wattle, the general name in Australia for species of Acdcia (Order Leguminosce), from their use by the early colonists in " wattling " their huts. French " Bois tresse." Wattle, Black (i) (A. binervdta DC), North-East Austraha. Sometimes known as " Hickory." Height up to 30 — 40 ft. ; diam. 8 — 18 in. W 50-5 — 56-6. Dirty white to pinkish, close- grained, tough, light. Valued for axe-handles and bullock-yokes, (ii) (A. decurrens) [See Wattle, Feathery], (iii) (A. molUssima Willd.). South-Eastern Australia and Tasmania. Known also as "Silver Wattle." Aborig. " Garrong " or "Currong." Height 20—30 ft. ; diam. 6—9 in. S.G. 804—727. W 50-2. Light, WATTLE— WILLOW 297 tough, strong, liable to insect attack. Formerly used for boome- rangs, mulgas and spears, and nowadays in Tasmania for cask-staves, tree-nails, etc. Wattle, Feathery [A. decurrens Willd.). New South Wales and Tasmania. Known also as " Black " or " Green Wattle." Ahorig. " Wat-tah." Height 40—50 ft. ; diam. 1— IJ ft. S.G. W 62-8 — 45. Sapwood white, heart pinkish, hght, tough, strong, easily worked, very liable to the attacks of boring beetles. Good for fuel or staves. Wattle, Golden (i) {A. pycndntha Benth.). South-East AustraHa. Known also as " Green " or " Broad-leaved Wattle." S.G. 830. W 51-5. Tough, close-grained, (ii) {A. longifolia) [See Sallow]. Wattle, Green. See Wattle, Feathery, and Wattle, Golden. Wattle, Hickory (A. aulacocdrpa A. Cunn.). Queensland. Dark- red, heavy, hard, tough. Useful for cabinet-work. Wattle, Prickly {A. juniperina Willd.). South-East AustraUa and Tasmania. Height 8 — 12 ft. ; diam. small. White, light, tough. Used for mallet-handles. Wattle, Silver (i) {A. dealbdta Link.). Eastern Austraha and Tasmania ; established in India since 1840. Height 60 — 120 ft. ; diam. 1 — 2 ft. Light-brown, moderately hard, warping consider- ably. Used for cask-staves, tree-nails, turnery, and fuel, (ii) [See Wattle, Black (iii)]. (iii) [See Blackwood]. Wellingtonia. See Big Tree. Whitethorn. See Hawthorn. Whitewood, a name sometimes applied in the English timber- trade to the Norway Spruce. [See Spruce.] In the United States: it refers mainly to Liriodendron [See Tulip-tree]. In Australia it is either (i) Lagundria [See Tulip-tree (i)], or Pittosporum hicolor [See Cheesewood]. Whitewood, American or Canary (Liriodendron). See Tulip-tree. Whitewood, Mowbulan. See Laurel (i). Willow, a name restricted in Europe and North America to the numerous and variable species of the genus Sdlix ; but extended in Austraha to several trees in no way related to the true Willows or to one another. These will be dealt with after the true Willows. Some species of Sdlix are herbaceous and others mere prostrate undershrubs of no value. Several other species and their numerous hybrids are cultivated as coppice, in river eyots or wet ground, under the name of " Osiers," for the manufacture of wicker-work. Until about a hundred years ago all our osiers were imported from Holland. Of these the chief are S. vimiiidlis L., the Common Osier (Germ. " Korbweide "), with silky hairs on its young branches ; 298 WOODS OF COIVBIERCE S. purpurea L., the Purple Osier, with red or purple bark ; and S. vitelUna L., the Golden Osier, Avith yellow bark. Other species are treated as pollards, the top being valuable for hurdles, clothes- props, hoops, handles for hav-rakes, etc. Those most important as timber-trees are the Wliite Willow (*S'. dlha) and the Redwood Willow (aS'. frdgilis). S. Caprea has been already described. [See Sallow.] Willow, Black [S. nigra Marshall). Xorth America. French Saule noir." Germ. " Schwarze Weide." Height up to 50 ft. ; diam. up to IJ ft., but generally a shrub. S.G. 446. W 27-77. R. 424 kilos. Branches yellow, brittle at base ; sapwood nearly white ; heart reddish-broT^Ti, very light, soft, close-grained, easily worked. Used mainly for fuel and charcoal. Willow, Crack [S. frdgilis L.). Europe, Northern and Western Asia ; introduced in America. Known also as Withy," " Bed- ford," or " Redwood Willow," or " Stag's-head Osier." Germ. " Bruchweide." Height sometimes 50 — 90 ft. ; diam. 4 — 7 ft Branches green, yellow-brown, orange or crimson, smooth, poHslied, brittle at the base ; wood, when dry, salmon-coloured, light, phable, tough, and elastic. Said to be used in Scotland for boat-building ; used also in cabinet-work, and for sabots and toys. Said to be superior to other Willow. Willow, White {S. alba L.). Europe, Xorth Africa, Xorth and West Asia to the Xorth- West of India. Height up to 80 ft. ; diam. 7 ft. S.G. 785 when fresh, 461 when dry. W 35—24. Branches olive, silky, not easily detached ; sapwood white ; heart brownish, light, soft, smooth in grain, not sphntering, shrinking more than one-sixth of its bulk in drj-ing, very durable in water ; vessels uniformly distributed, indistinguishable ; pith-rays indis- tinct. Used in Pliny's time, on account of its lightness, for shields, and formerly for flooring ; nowadays for break- blocks on railway- waggons, since, owing to the absence of oil or resin, it will not take fire on friction ; for wheelbarrows, especially at iron-furnaces, as it will not spUt or warp when heated ; for the paddles of steam- boats and strouds of water-wheels ; for shoemakers' lasts and cutting - boards ; for whetting fine cutlery, and for toys ; but especially for cricket-bats, for wliich purpose large sound trees fetch exceptional prices. Cricket-bats sold at five shillings or any higher price are all made of Wliite Willow. The pohshing-wheels used by glass -grinders are made of horizontal sections across the entire tree. The smaller wood is used for clothes-props, the handles of hay-rakes, hurdles, fencing, and hoops, for druggists' boxes, for paper-pulp, and for fuel. Willow, Yellow {S. vitelliim L.). Europe ; introduced into Xorth America. Height up to 60 ft. ; diam. 3 — 4 ft. Sapwood WILLOW— YELLOW-WOOD 299 wide, nearly white ; heart irregular, reddish-brown, light, soft, not strong, easily worked, and taking a beautiful polish. Its yellow twigs, known as " Golden Osiers," are used for basket-work, and larger wood for fencing, fuel, and charcoal. In Australia the name " Willow " is applied (i) to Eucalyptus piluldris [See Blackbutt] ; (ii) to Geijera parviflora ; and (iii) to Pittospomm phillyrceoides, which is sometimes termed " Native Willow," a name also given to (iv) Acacia salicina. (ii) Geijera parviflora Lindl. (Order Rutdcece). Known also as " Dogwood." Aborig. " Wilga." Height 20—30 ft. ; diam. 6—12 in. Light- coloured, fragrant, hard, close-grained, apt to split in seasoning, and liable to gum-veins. Used for naves of wheels, (iii) Pitto- sporum phillyrceoides DC. (Order Pittosporeoe). Known also as " Butter-bush " and " Poison-berry." Height 20—25 ft. ; diam. 4 — 6 in. S.G. 767. Light-coloured, very hard, close-grained. Useful for turnery, (iv) Acacia salicina Lindl. (Order Leguminosce). Height 30—50 ft. ; diam. 1— IJ ft. S.G. 763. W 47-5. Dark- brown, prettily figured, heavy, close-grained, tough, taking a high polish. Used for boomerangs and furniture. Wood-oil tree. See Gurjun. Woolly-butt (i) {Eucalyptus longifolia Link. : Order Myrtdcece). South-East Australia. Sometimes known as " Bastard Box." Height 100—150 ft. ; diam. 3—6 ft. S.G. 1,187. W 68-5. Dark- red, heavy, hard, straight and close in grain, strong and tough, liable to gum - veins and shakes, durable, especially underground. When sound, much prized for the felloes and spokes of wheels, and suitable for paving ; but on account of its gum-veins more used as fuel. [See also (ii) Gum, Apple-scented, (iii) Mahogany, Bastard, and (iv) Gum, Manna.] Yacca {Podocdrpus coridcea Rich, and P. Purdiedna Hook. : Order Coniferce). West Indies. Small, pale brown. W 38-6 — 46*9. E 456—596 tons. / 4-3— 5-25. fc 2-49— 2-55. fs -346- -486. Yarrah {Eucalyptus rostrdta). See Gum, Red. Yate-tree {Eucalyptus cornuta Labill. : Order Myrtdcece). South- West Austraha. Height 100 ft. S.G. 1,235. W 64—79. The heaviest West Australian wood, hard, elastic, somewhat of the character of Ash. Valued for shafts, boat-ribs, and agricultural implements. Yellow-wood, a name applied in South Africa to various species of Podocdrpus (Order Coniferce), and in Australia to four or five woods in no way related to these or to one another. [See also Fustic] Yellow-wood, Bastard {Podocdrpus pruinosus E.M., or perhaps also P, elongdta L'Herit. and P. Thunhergii Hook.). P. pruinosus y 300 WOODS OF COMMERCE a native of Natal, is a tree of considerable size, yielding a pale- yellow, tough, and durable wood, much used for building. [See Yellow-wood, Natal, and Yellow-wood, Real.] Yellow-wood, Dark or Deep (Rhus rhodanthema F. v. M. : Order Anacardidcece). North-East Australia. Known also as " Yellow Cedar," or inappropriately as " Light Yellow- wood." Ahorig. " Jango-jango." Height 60—80 ft. ; diam. 11—2 ft. W 47. Rich brownish or yellowish-bronze colour, darkening with age, often beautifully marked, soft, fine and close in grain, taking a fine poUsh, with a silky lustre, durable. A handsome and valued cabinet- wood, but not plentiful. Yellow-wood, Light (i) inappropriately [Rhus rhodanthema) [See Yellow-wood, Dark] ; (ii) {Daphndndra micrdntha) [See Sassafras, Australian (ii)] ; and (iii) and most appropriately (Flindersia Oxley- dna) [See Jack, Long]. Yellow-wood, Natal or Outeniqua (Podocdrpus elongdta L'Herit.). South and Tropical Africa. Known also as " White " or " Bastard Yellow-wood." Boer " Geel Hout." Zulu "Umkoba." Height 30—120 ft. ; diam. 3—5 ft. W 30—45. Pale yellow, soft, light, close-grained, easily split and worked. Neither so common nor so hard as the Real Yellow-wood (P. Thunhergii) ; but used indis- criminately with it for roofs, beams, planks, flooring, and furniture, and, when creosoted, for sleepers. Yellow-wood, Real or Upright {Podocdrpms Thunhergii Hook.= P. lati folia R. Br.). South Africa. Boer " Geel Hout." Zulu " Umceya." Height 75—120 ft. ; diam. 2—8 ft. W 33—38. Light yellow, straight-growing, light, soft, even-grained, fairly elastic and strong, easily worked, but somewhat Hable to split or warp. Excellent for shingles, and used also for furniture, and, like the last mentioned, in building, and, when creosoted, for sleepers. Yellow- wood. Thorny ^(Zanthoxylum brachyacdnthum). See Satin- wood in Australia. Yellow - wood or Yellow Cedar, in Guiana] (Aniha guianensis Aubl. : Order Laurinece). French " Cedre jaune." S.G. 606 — 489. R 145 kilos. Very strong, easilv worked and durable. Used for planks in building. Yen-dike (Dalhergia cultrdta Grah. : Order Leguminosce). Burma. Apparently sometimes known as " Blackwood " and confused with some species of Ebony. Height 35 ft. to the lowest branch ; diam. 1 — 3 ft. W 64. Black, sometimes with white and red streaks, straight-grown, very heavy and hard, tough, not brittle, elastic, but full of shakes, very durable, not cracking any more after con- version, and resisting sun or rain. Excellent for spokes, bows, handles of ploughs, tools, planes, and spears, and largely used for carving. YEN-JU— YEW 301 Yen-ju {Sophora japonica L. : Order'^ Leguminosce). China and Japan. Height 40 ft. or more ; diam. 2 — 4 ft. Hard, fine-grained, ornamental. Used for turnery, furniture, and interior finish ; but valued as a shade tree and for its buds, the Chinese " Wai-hwa," which are used as a yellow or green dye. Yew {Tdxus haccdta L. : Order Taxmece). Europe, up to altitudes of 6,000 ft. in Southern Spain ; Northern and Western Asia, up to 11,000 ft. in the Himalayas ; and Northern Africa. French " If." Germ. "Elbe," " Eibenbaum." Welsh " Yw." Ancient Greek " Taxos, Melos." Modern Greek " Maurelatos." Latin " Taxus." Ital. "Tasso." 8pan. " Texo, Tejo." Height 15—20 or even 50 ft., and in the Himalayas 100 ft. ; diam. 1 — 5 ft. or more, up to 19 ft. W 40 — 57. Reddish -brown, resembhng Mahogany, irregular in its growth, heavy, very hard, close-grained, tough, very elastic and flexible, susceptible of a high poHsh, insect-proof, and more durable than any other European wood, especially in contact with soil, it being an old saying that " a post of yew will outlast a post of iron." On old trees burrs occur, figured and mottled like Am- boyna-wood. Sapwood very narrow, yellowish-white ; annual rings very narrow, wavy, well-marked by the broad dark zone of autumn-wood ; pith-rays indistinguishable and without tracheids ; wood without resin-ducts, entirely composed of spirally thickened tracheids. " The eugh obedient to the bender's will," as Spenser calls it, seems to have been used, owing to its combined toughness and elasticity, for bows from very early times. In England, though home-grown wood was used, that imported by Venetian traders from Italy, Turkey, and Spain, was of better quaUty. At the close of the sixteenth century the practice of " backing " bows with some other kind of wood was introduced, and at the present day they are largely made of Lancewood and Hickory. At the present day Yew is employed to some extent at High Wycombe and Worksop in chair-making, and on the Continent in turnery. When stained black it is one of the woods known as German Ebony. Small branches are valued for walking-sticks and whip-handles. In the latter part of the eighteenth century veneers of Yew burrs were largely used for tea-caddies and other small articles. There is in the Hbrary of the India Office a Persian illuminated manuscript on tliin sheets of Yew. I -J , -.^ Yew, Calif ornian. Pacific, or Western {Tdxus hrevifolia Nutt.). Pacific slope from British Columbia to South Cahfornia, up to altitudes of 8,000 ft. Height 40—50 or 80 ft. ; diam. 1—2 ft. W 40. Sapwood pale yellow ; heart orange-red, heavy, hard, fine- grained, extremely stiff and strong, seasoning well, and durable. Yew, Japanese {Tdxus cuspiddta S. & Z.). Yesso, and long cultivated throughout Japan. Japan. " Ichii, Momi-noki, Araragi." 302 WOODS OF CO^BIERCE Height 40 — 50 ft. ; diam. 2 ft. Dark reddish, handsome, close- grained, tough. Used by the aboriginal Ainu for bows, and by- wealthy Japanese for cabinet-work and interior finish. Used also for pencils. Yoke [Piptadenia peregrina Benth. : Order Leguminosoe) . Tropical South and Central America. A large tree. W 70*48. E 286 tons. / 3. fc 2. fs -317. Reddish-brown, heavy, hard, close-grained. In Trinidad the name is also apphed to Catdlpa longissima Sims (Order BignonidcecB) . Height 80 ft. ; diam. 3 ft. W 70. Light reddish-brown, heavy, very durable. Zebra- wood, a beautifully marked furniture- wood, chiefly ob- tained from Connarus guianensis Lam. Omphalohium Lambertu DC. : Order Connardcece). British Guiana. " HyawabaUi." Height 90 ft., squaring 10—12 in. S.G. 1,032. Reddish-brown, beautifully marked, working well, and taking a good pohsh ; but very rare. The name is also apphed to the woods of Eugenia frdgrans Willd., var. cunedta (Order Myrtdcece), Ghiettdrda speciosa L. (Order Buhidcece), the " Ron-ron " of Honduras, and Centro- lohium rohustum Mart. (Order Leguminosoe), the " Arariba " or " Araroba " of Brazil, exported from Rio, in lengths of 30 — 40 ft. ; and to Diospyros Kurzii (Order Ehendcece) from the Andaman Islands. Zelkova (Zelkova crendta Spach. = P?d?iera Richdrdi ]\Iichx. : Order Ulmdcece). Caucasus. Height 70 — 80 ft. Sapwood broad, light-coloured, very elastic, used for the same purposes as Ash or Elm ; heart reddish, heavy, very hard, taking a good pohsh. Used for furniture. Zwartbast. See Blackwood, in Cape Colony. APPENDIX I EXPLANATION OF SOME TERMS USED WITH REFERENCE TO CONVERTED TIMBER, ETC. It may be useful to give here the following definitions of terms used in the Enghsh timber trades. (See also p. 76 supra.) A balk is a log roughly squared. A plank is 11 in. broad, from 2 to 6 in. thick, and generally from 8 to 21 ft. in length. A deal is 9 in. broad and not more than 4 in. thick. A batten is not more than 7 in. broad. A square is 100 ft. superficial. A hundred of deals is 120. A load is 50 cubic feet of squared timber, or 40 cubic feet of unhewn, or 600 superficial feet of inch planking. The simplest formula for measuring timber is : where C — the cubic contents in cubic feet ; L — the length of the log in feet ; G=one-fourth of the girth of the tree midway in its length, in feet ; g'= one- fourth of the girth at one end, in feet ; g' = one -fourth of the girth at the other end, in feet ; a deduction for bark being made from each quarter-girth. The ratio of calliper measurement of the diameter of a tree to "siding" is as 99 : 70, or, roughly, as 10 : 7 — e.g., 10 in. diam. gives 7 in. in the side; 15 in. give 10| ; 20 gives 14 ; etc. Water weighs 62*321 lbs. per cubic foot; therefore wood, of which W — i.e., the weight per cubic foot — is 62, has the specific gravity which is stated as 1, or sometimes (dropping decimal points) as 1,000. As we use W to express the weight in lbs. per cubic foot, and S.G. to represent the density or specific gravity — i.e., the weight as compared with water — we find the S.G. by dividing 62'32 into W. Woods have specific gravities between '26 and 1'3, or 260 and 1,300— «.e., W ranges from 13 to 85 (see p. 35). In comparison with the Metric system it is convenient to reckon a decimetre as =4 in., a metre as =3j ft., a kilogram as =21 lbs., and a ton as = 1,016 kilos. A cubic centimetre of water, at the standard temperature and pressure, 303 304 APPENDIX being the unit of weight or gram, a cubic decimetre (1,000 cubic centimetres) or litre, weighs a kilogram ; and a cubic metre (35^ cubic feet) of water weighs 1,000 kilos. Several kinds of wood are sold by special measures. Teak is sold by the load of 50 cubic feet. Wainscot Oak logs, although they have three square sides and one round, are sold by calliper measure, which entails a loss to the buyer on conversion. Hewn Oak logs from Odessa and Libau, although eight-sided, are also invariably sold by calliper measure. Birch logs, on the other hand, are sold by string measure — i.e., actual girth — although the price is based on their calliper depth. Sawn Pitch-Pine logs are sold in some ports by string measure, and in others by calliper — the former giving an advantage of 5 per cent, to the buyer. Pine and Spruce deals are sold by the St. Petersburg standard, which contains 165 cubic feet. Mahogany, and Mahogany alone, is sold by what is called Brokers' measure, a custom dating from the time when it was usual to allow a hand's-breadth in every yard to the buyer to compensate him for loss in conversion. A " broker's rule " is 13|^ inches to the foot, and this broker's measure gives the buyer an advantage of from 25 to 40 per cent, over the calUper measure, or extreme contents of a log. In France wood, especially firewood, is measured by the st^re, or cubic metre, =35'32 cubic feet, or 1*31 cubic yards. Deal considered by builders dry enough for use weighs 34 lbs. per cubic foot — i.e., 66 cubic feet or 792 superficial feet to the ton. When wood weighs 30 lbs. per cubic foot, 72 cubic feet or 864 superficial feet go to the ton ; when 45 lbs. per cubic foot, 50 cubic feet or 600 superficial feet make the ton. APPENDIX II THE MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION OF WOODS It is generally recognized that much more trustworthy evidence as to the identity of out-of-the-way woods can be obtained by a microscopic examina- tion than from reports of native opinion or rule-of-thumb tests applied by lumbermen or unscientific traders. Such microscopic examination, it is true, will not always enable us to refer an undetermined wood even to its Natural Order, and will in many cases fail to discriminate between the species of one genus ; but, on the other hand, it will often afford, in addition to the evidence of identity, much valuable information as to strength, durability, or other reasons for suitability or unsuitability. No one need be deterred from having recourse to this method of examination by any alarm as to its technical difficulties or expense. Though even an examination of a planed surface of wood with a pocket lens may give useful suggestions, a thin transverse section examined under the slightly higher powers of a compound microscope will afford vastly greater information. Any ordinary microscope will suffice, Leitz's dissecting instrument, costing £2 10s., answering admirably ; but it is desirable to have a wide, simple stage and a triple or double nose-piece carrying, preferably, objectives oi in., ^ in., and in. focus, though it is seldom that any objective higher than 1 in. is required. The preparation of the sections is not difficult. It is quite unnecessary for the ordinary purposes of study to make them of anything like the superficial dimensions of the beautiful preparations of Herr Burkart or Mr. Hough. All that is requisite is to get a transparent section, across the grain, embracing a few annual rings, though it is well to have, either in one or in more than •one section, the pith or structural centre and some of the sapwood as well as the heartwood. Good results can be obtained with well -seasoned wood ; but it is easier to work with green wood, full of sap. It should be borne in mind that if a transverse section is not cut precisely at right angles to the vertical axis of the tree the round sections of the vessels will become oval. The end of the specimen having been roughly smoothed with a plane or chisel, a shaving can be easily cut with a well -sharpened plane which, though not equally thin all over, will serve all the purposes of^study. The iron of the plane should cut in a radial direction. The wood should, before being cut, 305 20 308 APPENDIX II be well moistened with glycerine if it is to be mounted in glycerine -jelly ; but, if not, it must, directly after being cut, be dehydrated by being soaked in methylated spirit and dried between blotting-paper. It is best to drop the curling shaving at once into some liquid dye, as this renders the structure far more readily visible under the microscope. An alcoholic solution of methyl violet does very well ; but, perhaps, erythrosin, which can be obtained in tabloids, is the best all-round stain for microscopic work. For micro-photo- graphy fuchsin gives sharper contrasts. After dyeing, the thinner part of the shaving can be cut square with scissors and mounted, for which purpose we personally prefer an extra wide glass slip and a square cover-glass. If carefully dried with blotting-paper under moderate pressure the sections can be preserved unmounted, or mounted, as permanent microscopic objects in Canada balsam or in glycerine-jelly under thin glass cover-slips, or on paper, like the series prepared by Herr Nordlinger. Another method we have found efficacious is to immerse a small squared specimen in a basin of water — such as a deep photographic basin — by means of metal weights, and then to slice off thin shavings with a broad chisel. The sections floating to the surface may then be dyed, or may be simply floated on to slips of glass, lightly covered with thin cover-slips and then dried slowly and cemented down. Though most students of minute structure use thin cover-slips, excellent results are attainable with thick ones, such as the glass ordinarily used for photographic negatives. Though the transverse section is most important, longitudinal ones, either radial or tangential, are often also of use — the latter, for instance, affording the readiest means of distinguishing Alder from Birch. Such microscopic sections can be most readily studied by being used with a lantern ; but when so used they should always be protected from the heat of the burner by an alum bath. Nothing is more likely to impress the facts of structure upon the student's mind than the fixing of the image of that structure as projected by the lens of a lantern by means of photography. This can be carried out without costly apparatus — that used by Mr. Weale in the preparation of the photo- graphs for Appendix IV. not costing five shillings, in addition to the price of the lens. APPENDIX III SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY [The works of other authors to which I am most indebted are marked with an asterisk J] Anderson, Sir John. — The Strength of Materials and Structures. 11th edition. 1892. Bailey, F. M. — Queensland Woods. 1899. Balfour, Edward. — The Timber Trees of India. 1862. Bauschinger, Joh. — Mittheilungen aus dem Mech. Tech. Laboratorium in Miinchen. 1883 and 1887. Beare, T. Hudson. — Timber: its Strength, and how to Test It. Trans. Roy. Scot Ahor. Soc. xix. 1906. Boulger, G. S. — Economic Forestry, Trans. Scottish Abor. Soc. xi. 1887. BouLGER, G. S.— The Uses of Plants. 1889. Boulger, G. S. — The Scientific Study of Timber, Trans. Surveyors' Instil. xxiv. 1892. Brandis, Sir Districh. — Indian Trees. 1906. Charpentier, Paul. — Timber. Translated by Joseph Kennell. 1902. Cross, C. F., E. J. Bevan, and R. W. Sindall. — Wood Pulp and its Applica- tions. 1906. Darwin, Francis. — The Elements of Botany. 1895. El WES, H. J. — British Timber and its Uses. Trans. Surveyors' Instil, xxxvi. 1903-1904. Fernow, B. E. — Report of the Division of Forestry, U.S. Department of Agriculture, for 1886. What Forestry means to Representative Men. 1905. Fletcher, Banister F. and H. P. — Carpentry and Joinery. 1898. Gamble, J. S. — Manual of Indian Timbers. 1881. 2nd edition, 1902. *Hartig, Robert. — Timbers and how to know them. Translated, from the 3rd German edition, by Dr. Wilham Somerville. 1890. Holtzapffel, Charles and John Jacob. — Turnery and Mechanical Manipula- tion. 1843-1844. *HouGH, RoMEYN B. — American Woods. 1888. Julius, G. A. — Notes re Timbers of Western Australia, and The Physical Characteristics of the Hardwoods of Western Austraha. 1906. 307 20—2 308 APPENDIX III Kent, Adolphus H. — Veitch's Manual of the Coniferae. 2nd edition. 1900. *Kew, Royal Gardens. — Official Guide to the Museums of Economic Botanj^ Xo. 3. — Timbers. 2nd edition. 1893. Kirk, T.— The Forest Flora of Xew Zealand. 1889. *Laslett, Thomas. — Timber and Timber Trees. Xative and Foreign. 2nd edition, re^'ised by Prof. H. Marshall Ward, D.Sc, F.R.S. 1894. *miDEX. J. H.— Useful Xative Plants of Austraha. 1889. [Masters, Dr. Maxwell T. — List of Conifers ... in Cultivation. Jouni. Royal Hort. Soc. xiv. XoRDLiNGER. H. — Les bois employes dans Tindustrie. 1872. XoRDLiXGER, H. — Holzqucrschnitte. 1862-1882. Rogers, Jullin. — Analysis of Returns . . . relating to Colonial Timber, presented to Parhament. 1878. *RoTH, Filibert. — Timber. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Division of Forestry. BuUetm Xo. 10. 1895. Sargext, Prof. C. S.— S^dva of Xorth America. 1891-1898. Sargext, Prof. C. S. — Report on the Forest Trees of Xorth America. Xinth Census of the United States, vol. ix. 1880. Sargent, Prof. C. S. — Manual of the Trees of Xorth America. 1906. ScAiOiELL, E. T. The Timber Resources of the Australian Commonwealth. Jour. Soc. of Arts. 1902. ScAMMELL. E. T. — The Preservation of Timber. Trans. Surveyors' Instit. 1903. ScHLiCH, Dr. W. — Outlook of the World's Timber Supply. Journ. Soc. of Arts, 1901, and Trails. Roy. Scot. Arbor. Soc. xvi. ScHLiCH. Dr. W. — The Forestry Problem in the United Kingdom. 1904. ScHLiCH. Dr. W. — A Manual of Forestry. ScHRENK. Dr. H. VON. — Seasoning of Timber. U.S. Bureau of Forestry. 1903. Sharples, Stephen P. — In Prof. Sargent's Xinth Census Report. Stevenson, W. — The Trees of Commerce. 1888. Stone, Herbert. — Identification of Wood by Anatomical Characters. Journ. Soc. of Arts. 1901. *Stone, Herbert. — The Timbers of Commerce. 1904. Timber Trades Journal. — 1876-1901 (in progress). Tredgold, Thomas. — Elementary Principles of Carpentry. 7th edition, edited by E. W. Tarn. 1886.^ *Unwin, Prof. W. C. — The Testing of Materials of Construction. 2nd edition. 1899. *Ward, Prof. H. ]\L\rshall. — Timber and some of its Diseases. 1889. *Ward, Prof. H. Marshall.— The Oak. 1892. *WooD, Prof. H. Marshall. — Disease in Plants. 1901. Wiesner. Julius. — Die Rohstoffe des Pflanzenreiche. 1902. Wood, H. T. — Colonial and Indian Exhibition Reports. 1887. APPENDIX lY THE DISTINCTIVE MICROSCOPIC^STRUCTURES OF WOODS fj A GENERAL description of the microscopic structure of wood has been given in Chapter I., and an outhne classification of woods based upon this micro- scopic structure has been attempted in Chapter II. The object of the present appendix is to give further details of the distinctive microscopic characters of a series of typical woods, arranged in accordance with that classification and illustrated by plates taken from Mr. J. A. Weale's admirable series of photo -micrographs. These last are uniformly magnified 30 diameters. As was explained in Chapter I., the wood of broad-leaved trees ("hard- woods," " porous woods," or " leaf-woods," as they are variously termed, see p. 44) is far more complex in structure than that of Conifers (" soft-woods," "non-porous woods," or "needle-leaved woods"). For convenience, however, the more complex hard-woods will here be dealt with first (Plates I to XL.). To realize fully the structure of wood, it is necessary to examine it not only in transverse section — cut, that is, " across the grain," or at right angles to the axis of the stem — but also in longitudinal sections — cut, that is, " with the grain," either tangentially, not passing through the centre, or radially — i.e., " quartered," or cut through the centre. At the same time the dis- tinctive characters of woods are seen better in transverse than in longitudinal sections. For the purposes of the practical examination of transverse microscopic sections of hard- woods, we use for convenience the terms " large pores " and " small pores," signifying mainly tracheae (p. 16) and tracheids respec- tively, the " ground- tissue " of the xylem — ^generally its hardest portion — being mostly wood-fibres, and the "soft-tissue " — often only relatively soft — being the " wood-parenchyma " (p. 28). This last term we have borrowed from Mr. Gamble. When this soft tissue forms a patch round a large pore we term it an " areola." As the structure of Oak — a fairly typical example of complex hard-wood — has been already fully illustrated by magnified views of sections in all three directions (Figs. 18 to 24 and 27), we have here taken another hard-wood, a typical Australian representative of the Order Protedcece, cut in all three directions (Plates I. to III.), as our starting-point. 309 310 APPENDIX IV The Protedcece have mostly moderately hard, reddish woods, distinctly ring-porous," having the " pores," or transverse sections of their tracheal tissue, confined to the earlier-formed wood of each ring. Like the Oaks, they are remarkable foi their conspicuous broad pith-rays. In a transverse section of the wood (Plate I.) these appear as broad lines of parallel cells, occasionally ^^ddening out, as seen near the bottom of the plate. In a tangential section (Plate III.) they appear as prominent spindle-shaped masses of cells in the irregular mesh-work of the wood, suggesting, as ]\Ir. Stone says, when speaking of one species, " the fibres of a Loofah." In a radial section (Plate II.) they form a "silver grain" of broad dark plates. Unlike the Oaks, the Protedcece generally have the pores of nearly uniform size, and they are seldom large. They vary considerably in their arrangement, forming, for example, regular rings in Hdkea, the " Pin-bush " of Eastern Austraha, but a series of curves between the rays in Bdnksia (Plate I.). These curves are convex in their outer margins, or, as they have been termed, " dentate." Bdnksia serrdta, from which species our photo-micrographs are taken, is one of the " Honeysuckles " of Eastern Austraha, trees of moderate size, j-ielding a handsome Mahogany-coloured wood, coarse and open in grain, and rendered ornamental by its silver grain. The curves or " loops " of pores are from two to five pores wide, and the pores are somewhat crowded together, whilst the width of the porous and that of the non-porous part of each " ring " are about equal. The rays are not generally more than twelve cells in "^-idth ; but the tangential section (Plate III.) shows them to be more than four times as deep as their width. In the radial section (Plate II.) the rings are clearly indicated by the fines of pores, and the "mirrors" of the silver grain are lustrous. Hard-woods may well be di^dded into two groups, according to whether annual rings are distinctly discernible, as in Bdnksia and in Plates XIII. to XL.> or not, as in Plates IV. to XII. Most of this latter group are tropical woods, and in many of them (Plates IV. to VII.) annual rings are more or less dis- tinctly simulated by wavy concentric or excentric partial or complete zones of soft tissue, chiefly wood-parenchyma, known as " false rings." These often run into one another, which true annual rings never do. Xo European woods belong to the group characterized by the presence of these " false rings," unless, perhaps, the Ofive may be so described. Among the woods of this group are some having both broad and narrow pith -rays, such as the Indian Oaks Quercus lamellosa and Q. incdna but usually all the rays are narrow. Plate IV. represents the wood of the Moreton Bay, or Large-leaved, Fig of Xorth-East Austraha {Ficus macropJujlla). The alternating bands of hard and soft tissue — thick-walled and thin-walled parenchyma — of which the latter is generally sfightly the wider, closely simulate annual rings. The pith-rays are of two thicknesses, but none of them broad, and they have a wavy course, being displaced by the large pores. The pores are not numerous, are irregu- larly scattered in both hard and soft wood, and are often divided into two or Gamble, Manual of Indian Timbers^ Plate XIV., Figs. 3 and 4. APPENDIX IV 311 three by tangential walls. This type of wood, of a grey or light-brown colour^ is characteristic of the genus Ficus ; and the pith-rays, neither very numerous nor very broad, though distinctly visible under a lens, are characteristic of the whole Order Urticdcece, considered in a wide sense — i.e., including the Bread-fruits (Artocdrpus), Mulberries (Morus), and Elms {tJlmus). (See Plate XVL). To this so-called "Fig type" belong many tropical Legumi- nosce, such as the Ponga (Pongdmia glabra), figured by the late Professor Marshall Ward^ and the Jhand {Prosopis spicigera), figured by Mr. Gamble. ^ Very similar is that of the Bastard Bullet-wood {Humiria floribunda), figured on p. 46. This wood, which belongs to a distinct Order, the Humiri- ■dcece, is characterized — in addition to its distinct false rings of darker wood, which sometimes run into one another, and sometimes die out laterally — by fine, concentric, " dentate " rings of soft tissue ; by numerous, equidistant a,nd uniformly fine pith-rays, with an undulating course bending round the pores, and forming a regular rectangular mesh -work, with the rings of soft tissue ; and by its comparatively few, uniformly distributed, medium-sized, white pores, which are sometimes in radial groups of two to five, and are filled with thyloses. Passing to those timbers in which the false rings are more obscure or less regular, a group of dense, heavy, dark-coloured woods from India and other tropical countries, including the Ebonies {Diospyros), in the Order Ebendcece^ many Leguminosce, and other series, we have selected three types (Plates V. to VIL). Padouk {Pterocdrpus marsupium (Plate V.) is a yello^^^sh-brown, leguminous wood from Southern India, P. indicus and P. macrocdrpus, from Burma, and P. dalbergioides, from the Andamans, being a rich Mahogany- like red. Our plate shows irregular zones of darker wood, with more or less ■concentric bands of soft tissue, varying very much in width, but completed by fine wavy lines, and made up of elements of rather larger transverse diameter than those in the rest of the wood. The pith-rays are very fine, numerous, uniform, and equidistant ; and the large pores are not numerous, but are uniformly scattered, varying somewhat in size, though mostly con- siderably wider than the space between two pith-rays, often subdivided radially into groups of two or three, or even as many as eight, and without thyloses. Plate VL — Cdssia Fistula, the Indian Laburnum, is in many respects a similar wood. It is very hard, heavy, and dark-coloured, with numerous very fine, uniform, slightly bent pith-rays, appearing light against the dark hard tissue ; and white, irregularly concentric, but anastomosing, bands of soft tissue surrounding the pores. These pores are not numerous, are uni- formly distributed, varying somewhat in size, but never very large, often radially subdivided, and often filled with resin. Plate VII. — Gudiacum ofjicindle, the Lignum- vitae of Tropical America, represents another Natural Order, the Zygophylldcece. It appears to have Timber and some, of its Diseases, Fig. 7. 2 Op. cit., Plate VL. Fig. 6. 312 APPENDIX IV true concentric rings of lighter and darker wood, the pores in the former being more numerous and larger ; but it is not likely that these rings con- stitute the spring- and summer-wood of a yer^r's growth. The pith-rays are very numerous, very fine, uniform, equidista,nt, and wavy, about the width of a pore apr.rt ; a,nd the pores a>re small, but variable in size, sometimes in groups of two or three, and appearing green from the resin which they exude. The narrow yellow sapwood is sharply contrasted with the dark-bro\^n he?*rt. Plates VIII. to XII. represent types of tropical timbers in which there are neither true annual rings nor false rings. Alh'izzia procera (Plate VIII.). the TMiite Siris of India, belonging to the sa.me genus as the so-called East Indian Walnuts {A. Lebbek, etc.), is a leguminous wood, closely alHed to Mimosa, hard, though quick-grown. The sapwood is wide and yellowish- white, the heart brown, with ill-defined alternating lighter a,nd darker bands. The pith-rays are few, fine, and, except where diverging romid the pores, straight. The pores are large, uniformly distributed, sometimes divided radially into two, and always sm'rounded by an " areola," or round patch, of soft tissue. Plate IX. — Xectdndra Rodicei, the Greenheart of Demerara — is a repre- sentative of the Laurdcece. It is a very hea^y. very hard, dark greenish- brown wood, almost black, with few, fine, imiform, gently undulating, equi- distant pith-rays, and a moderate number of large, uniformly distributed, yellowish-green pores. These pores are mostly subdi^-ided or grouped together in threes or fours, filled with yellowish -green resin, and surrounded by small patches of soft tissue, so that — but for the pith-rays — the transverse section has. as Laslett says, " the appearance of cane.'' Hopea odordta, the Thingan of India (Plate X.), is a member of the Order Dipterocarpdcece, which comprises several of the largest and fiinest of Indian forest -trees. They are generally hard, brown, and resinous, i^ith fine or moderately broad pith -rays, producing a good silver grain, and large resin- filled pores, each surrounded or ringed '' by a narrow band of loose tissue made up of large wood-cells. In the genus Hopea the wood is yeUowish- brown and even-grained, and there is some shght variety in the size of the pores. In our plate it will be noticed that the pith-rays vary in T\-idth, though none of them are wide, and that there are dehcate httle transverse lines or bars of sma.ll elements joining them at right angles. In one place these transverse bars are represented by a decided band. The wood of Lophira aldta, the African Oak (Fig. 33, p. 47), is another representative of this Order, Here the soft tissue forms fine, undulating, concentric lines, and there are very numerous, excessively fine, wavy pith- rays. The pores are not numerous, but mostly large, in groups from two to five together, many filled -with a whitish chalky substance, conspicuous a.ga,uist the blood-red colour of the wood. The Order SapotdceoE, of which Sideroxylon borbonicinn (Plate XI.) is an example, is one of considerable importance not only as containing timber- trees, but also as that to which the Guttaperchas belong. The woods in this Order resemble those of the Ebendcea^ in structure, but difi'er in being usually APPENDIX IV 313 red or yellow, whilst the Ehcnacece are black or grey. The pith-rays are numerous, fine, and equidistant ; but the characteristic features are the somewhat irregularly concentric and wavy, narrow bands of soft tissue, -vvith crowded small pores, and — still more so — the radial rows of moderately large pores arranged in echelon between the pith-rays. The Guttijerce are another large Order of tropical trees, including that yielding Gamboge, and having wood with that absence of rings so charac- teristic of the tropics. Their timbers are usually reddish, with fine, but clearly defined, pith-rays ; large pores irregularly distributed, singly or in more or less radial groups ; and fine broken transverse lines of darker cells. The genus Calophyllum, a species of which is represented in Plate XII., in- cludes most kinds of Poon. Passing on to woods having distinct annual rings (Plates XIII. to XL.), in which category are most of the broad-leaved trees of Temperate latitudes, we find that they fall readily into the two groups known as " ring-porous " and "diffuse-porous." The former (Plates XIII. to XXV.) have large or numerous pores in the spring-wood, with smaller, fewer, or more scattered ones in the summer-wood. They may be again subdivided (see pp. 45-49) into those having the pores in the spring-wood larger than those in the summer- wood, and those in which they are only more numerous and crowded. The former sub-group includes Ashes, Locusts, Elms, Oaks, Hickories, Teak, and Mahogany, etc. In the Ashes, one of which — Frdxinus americdna — is represented in Plate XIII., the annual rings are defined by a very narrow line of dense autumn-wood in contact with the conspicuous ring of large pores in that formed in the succeeding spring. These large spring-pores are oval, and form a loose ring of three to five rows, the pores diminishing radially. The pores in the summer-wood are small, often two or three together, and often connected by soft tissue, forming short peripheral lines, as seen in the upper half of the plate. The pith-rays are not distinct to the naked eye, or even to a low-power lens : they are straight, except where they bend round the large spring pores. Rohinia Pseudacdcia, commonly known as " Acacia " in England, and as " Locust " in America (Plate XIV.), is a hard and hea\^ leguminous wood. Its annual rings — in correlation, probably, with its deciduous character — are well defined by a line of dense autumn-wood, followed by an irregular " pore- ring " of small, followed by larger, pores ; these la,tter being followed by others gradually diminishing in size and number into the autumn-wood. The pores ?-,re ova,l, solitary, or in radia-l groups of two to ten together, and filled with thyloses, so that they appear as yellow-brown dots. The numerous light-coloured pith-rays vary a good deal in width, and are very undulating, bending to avoid the pores. The Laburnum, Cytisus Laburnum (Plate XV.), is another representative of the deciduous Leguminosce of Temperate regions. Its wood is dense, often very regularly concentric, the yellow sapwood contrasting markedly with the dark-brown heart. The large irregularly formed pores in the spring -wood are crowded together in crescentic groups of six to eight between the pith- 314 APPENDIX IV rays, as are also the smaller vessels of the autumn-wood. The pith-rays are rather broad and, under the microscope, distinct. The pale patches of large wood-cells (wood-parenchyma) surrounding the pores and, with them, con- stituting these crescent-shaped areas, are very characteristic of the Sub-Order Papiliondcece, to which nearly all European LeguminoscB belong. Considering that they belong to a very distantly related Order, the Elms have woods which in much of their microscopic appearance, especially in the autumn-wood, much resemble the Laburnum. The rings are well defined by the zone of large pores, which consists of several rows in our English Elms, but of little more than a single row in tJlmiis americdna (Plate XVI.). The pores aie oval, but irregular, in form. The small pores of the autumn-wood are grouped three to fifteen together, surrounded by soft tissue, in festoons, which form almost continuous wavy concentric bands. The numerous pith- rays, which are brown in colour, are not very conspicuous under a low power. They do not avoid the pores in this species. The wood of the Chestnut, Castdnea (Plate XVII.), has its annual rings very sharply defined by the wdde ring of large pores ; and the wood itself is more spongy in the spring half of the year's growth than in the other. The large pores are oval, are somewhat loosely arranged in the zone, and decrease in size outwards. They are followed in the autumn- wood by very charac- teristic, oblique, branching, or "dendritic" groups of small vessels surrounded by soft tissue. The pith-rays are numerous, so fine as to be hardly dis- tinguishable, and bending round the large pores. The Oaks, of which the American AVhite Oak {Quercus dlha) is represented in Plate XVIII., belong, like the Chestnut, to the Order Cupuliferce ; and, though readily distinguished from the latter wood, have many points of structure in common with it. The annual rings are similarly defined by the zone of large spring pores. These pores are somewhat irregular in size and form, and are more crowded than tliose of Castdnea. The small pores of the autumn-wood are grouped in dendritic lines, and surrounded by wood-paren- chyma, much as in the other tree, but are often blocked by thyloses. The distinctive character of Oak wood, however, is the presence, in addition to numerous fine pith-rays, of the very broad compound rays which are readily visible to the naked eye. (Compare Figs. 19 and 27, pp. 24-31, and the descrip- tion there given. ) The Hickories (Hicoria), one of which is figured in Plate XIX., are American trees belonging to the Order Juglanddcece, the Walnut group. Their annual rings are well defined by a single, loose, undulating row of large, round, or slightly oval pores in the spring-wood. The pores are not numerous, and diminish in size in the outer spring-wood, and still more in the autumn-wood. The pith-rays are very numerous and very fine, and avoid the large pores. The autumn-wood is traversed by very fine wavy white lines of soft tissue. The wood of the Persimmon (Diospyros virginidna), the North American representative of the Ebonies (Plate XX.), though not related to the last- mentioned wood, has many structural points in common with it ; but in old trees becomes much darker — nearly black, in fact. The rings are well marked APPENDIX IV 315 by the larger pores in the spring zone ; but these are not shown in our plate, which only represents pert of a ring. The pores are nearly uniformly dis- tributed, are mostly small, and are sometimes grouped radially two to five together. The very numerous fine pith-rays bend to avoid the larger pores, and there is an obscure arrangement of transverse lines of soft tissue. Teak {Tectona grdndis), a member of the Order Verbendcece, presents (Plate XXI.) a somewhat similar structure. Its rings are well defined, both by the ring of large pores, forming about two rows, in the spring-wood, and by the greater density of the later-formed part of each year's growth. There are rather fewer pores in the later-formed wood, and they are sometimes grouped three or four together. A white secretion of calcium-phosphate is frequent in them. The numerous, moderately broad, equidistant pith-rays are rather lighter in colour than the ground tissue. They produce a hand- some silver-grain of elongated plates on a radial section. Including as it does the Neem-tree, the Crabwoods, Chittagong-wood, Satin- wood, and Toon, as well as the Mahoganies both of the West Indies and of Africa, and the so-called " Cedars " (Cedrela) of the New World, the Order Melidcece is among the most important of tropical groups. Though in some cases yellow— e.gr., Cliloroxylon — or even white, their woods are mostly red, and are hard and heavy. The rings are sometimes clearly marked both by a zone of large pores and by alternating lighter and softer spring-wood and darker autumn-wood, as in Cedrela (Plate XXIV.) ; but the pores are generally rather scanty, of moderate size, and evenly distributed ; and in many cases there is no pore-circle, and the colour-zones may be only " false rings." The pith-rays are not conspicuous. African Mahogany, as now in commerce (Plate XXII.) is, perhaps, Khdya grandifolia. It has its rings obscurely marked by dark zones, but not by a pore-ring ; its pores evenly distributed, of moderate size, solitary or in small groups, often radially subdi\aded, a-nd with dark contents, but ^\dth no marked areola of soft tissue ; and its pith- rays with black contents to some of their cells, which, however, are best seen in a tangential section. Cuban Mahogany (Plate XXIII.), which may be a Cedrela, and resembles the woods from Panama and St. Domingo, has its rings marked by a narrow zone destitute of pores. Its evenly-distributed, moderate-sized pores are often subdivided or radially grouped two to four together, and are rendered more conspicuous by accompanying soft tissue. Soft tissue also occurs in con- spicuous, fine, light-coloured, transverse lines. The pith-rays are numerous, very fine, uniform in Avidth, seldom noticeably displaced by the pores, but sinuous in long waves, which Mr. Stone says^ is not the case in Panama Mahogany. Crabwood {Cdrapa giiianensis), which he figures, has numerous short undulations. The Cigar-box Cedar, Cedrela odordta, of the West Indies (Plate XXIV.), has sharply defined rings, with a pore -zone of two or more interrupted rows of large round pores. These are sometimes partly filled with brown resin. Timbers of Commerce, p. 35. 316 APPEXDIX IV In the autumn-wood there a,re a few, widel}- scattered, much smaller pores, with smaU areolae of soft tissue. The fine, uniform pith-rays are of a brick- red against the cinnamon -brown wood, and are distinctly seen as they bend round the large pores in the spring-wood. The East Indian Cedrela Toona is a very similar wood. Passing on to woods in which the vessels or pores, though not equally dis- tributed throughout the rings, are not larger in the spring-wood than in the autumn-wood, we come to those of the genus Primus (the Plums and Cherries), in which the pith-rays are distinctly \4sible, and the Buckthorns and Sumachs [Rhdmnus and Rhus), in which they are not so. The wood of Bhdmnus cathdrticus, the Buckthorn (Plate XXV.), presents a striking object under the microscope, on account of the flame-hke branching groups of pores, often fifty together, which extend from broad bases on the inner margin of each ring to its outer limit. This structure does not occur in other species of the genus, such as the British R. Frdngula, the so-called " Berry-bearing Alder,'' or the Canadian R. Purshidna, which is figured by Mr. Stone. The heart- wood is orange and the sapwood yellow. The Venetian Sumach, or Wig-tree of our gardens {Rhus Cotinus), figured on p. 50 (Fig. 35), has a hard, greenish or golden heart -wood, which is used as a yellow dye. The rings are well marked under a lens, the large pores of the spring-wood gradually diminishing in number and size outward, and being grouped two to seven together. The " diffuse - porous " woods comprise most of our European broad- leaved trees. Their annual rings are very generally distinct ; but they owe this distinctness, not to any predominance in number of size or the pores in the spring-wood, but to the closer texture of the elements of the autumn- wood (Plates XXVI. to XL.). If we di\ide this large group into those ^^ith large and those ^-ith minute vessels, the Walnuts, Sa], and, perhaps, most of the Eucalypti, constitute the former division, though possibh" these last may be better placed with the " false-ring " types. Juglans nigra, the American Wahiut (Plate XXVI.), the species now most in use, has its rings bounded by a fine line just traceable with a lens, but not noticeable in solid specimens of the dark wood. There is an ill-defined pore- ring of an interrupted row of moderate^ large, open, oval pores ; and those scattered, fairly evenly, through the later-formed wood, somewhat in echelon, are smaller. They are often subdivided radially into two to five. The numerous pith-rays are not visible to the naked eye, are slightly undulating, and bent round the larger pores. Fine, short, transverse lines of soft tissue occur, but are very inconspicuous. Juglans cinerea, the Butternut or ^Miite Walnut of the United States (Fig. 36, p. 351), is a softer, fighter wood, with practically identical structure. Karri, Eucalyptus versicolor (Plate XXVII.), is a dark-red, hard, and heavy wood. Its rings are sometimes marked by a dense zone in contact with one ha\'ing crowded pores. The pith -rays are very numerous, uniform in width, equidistant, waved, and avoiding the pores ; but not recognizable by APPENDIX IV 317 the naked eye. The pores, though not very numerous, are conspicuous ; they are very irregularly distributed, singly for the most part, but also in groups or rows ; and often contain resin, and have irregular areolae of soft tissue. On the surface of a solid section they appear pinkish. Diffuse-porous woods with minute vessels are further subdivided according to the presence or absence of broad pith-rays. Plane, Beech, Hornbeam, Hazel, and Alder exemplifying the former subdivision. The wood of the Plane (Plate XXVIII.) differs from the other four examples in having all its pith -rays broad. It is light-brown, and in the American species here repre- sented {Pldtanus occidentdlis) the rings are seen well defined in the section by a narrow zone of dense autumn-wood. The boundary-line bends slightly outwards at the pith-rays — i.e., forms a series of shallow loops between every two rays, with their concavities towards the circumference of the stem. The pith-rays are numerous, straight, and uniformly broad, except at the boundaries of the rings, where they widen. They are lighter than the ground -tissue, and shine, so as to yield a pretty figure, sometimes known as " Honeysuckle," when quartered. The pores are crowded ; but those in the autumn-wood are less so, and are much more minute. The wood of the Beech (Plate XXIX.) is very similar, but has numerous excessively fine pith-rays between the numerous broad ones. The undula- tions of the ring-boundaries are generally stated to curve in the reverse direction to those of the Plane — i.e., with their concavities towards the centre of the stem — but this does not appear to be so in our section of Fdgus ferruginea. The crowded pores decrease gradually in number and in size towards the narrow autumn zone, the abrupt outer margin of which clearly indicates the ring - boundary. ^ The heavy, hard, and exceptionally tough, yellowish-white wood of the Hornbeam {Carpinus Betulus) is readily recognizable by the naked eye. Its rings are remarkably sinuous, and it has a small number of very broad " false " or compound pith-rays made up by the union of numerous narrow ones, and having ill-defined lateral boundaries. They have not the shining lustre of those of Beech or Plane. The pores are so far massed in the first-formed spring-wood and absent in the latest autumn-wood as to mark the rings. They are largely arranged in short radial lines (Plate XXX.). The much fighter, soft wood of the Alder {Alnus glutinosa), (Plate XXXI.) which, from white, dries to a light brown, is recognized by the few broad, nearly straight compound pith -rays, with very numerous fine simple ones between them, and the slight undulations of the faint ring-boundaries, which bend inward at the broad rays. The pores are somewhat fewer in the autumn - wood, and show a slightly radial grouping. The general occurrence of brown pith-flecks, which are sometimes concentric, is another discriminating feature. The diffuse -porous woods with minute pores and with no broad pith-rays may be subdivided into those in which the pith-rays, though narrow, are quite distinct to the naked eye, as in Maples, Hollies, Magnolidcece, Lindens, etc., ^ For further detail see G. S. Boulger, Life-History of the Beech, Quarterly Journal of Forestry, vol. i. (1907), pp. 230-279. 318 APPEXDIX IV and those in wliicli they are not so distmct, such as Hawthorn, Pyrus, Birch, Box, Willows, Poplars, etc. The Maples are hard woods, varying in colour, in the regularity of their rings, and in the presence or absence of pith- flecks : they seldom have a distinct heart ; and their pith-rays have a satin- like lustre which imparts a distinctive shine to the whole surface. The Sycamore {Acer Pseudopldtanus), (Plate XXXII.), has a moderately hard and heavy, white wood, with regularly circular annual rings defined by a narrow line of autumn-wood. Its pith-rays are straight, tapering out at both ends, white and lustrous. Its pores are numerous, but not crowded, and are often grouped two to five together. The HoUies, represented (Plate XXXIII.) here by Ilex opdca, an American species, have greenish-white, white, or grey wood, generally hard, and fine, and close in grain. The rings, though often indistinct, are mostly regularly circular, and are marked by a shght pore-ring. The pith-rays are straight, sometimes tapering, not markedly satiny, and far more conspicuous in longi- tudinal sections than in transverse ones. The pores are mostly in long radial rows. The wood of Liriodendron tuUpifera, the Tufip-tree (Plate XXXIV.), and that of the closely aUied American Cucumber-tree, Magnolia acuminata, dis- tinguished by broader sapwood, come to market as " Canary ^'^Tiitewood.'' It is white, canary-yellow, or grey, and, being a quick-growing species, has often wide rings, so that the confusion of its wood with that of the Poplars was excusable. A sh'ght diminution in the number and size of its pores characterizes the narrow zone of autumn-wood by which the rings are defined. The rings are for the most part evenly circular. The pith-rays are numerous, straight, colourless, and hardly visible to the naked eye ; and the pores are numerous, crowding almost all the space between the rays, and varying shghtly in size. Though not in any way systematically related to the Jlagnolidcece or the Linden, between which it stands in our classification, the wood of Li quid - ('unbar styraciflua, variously known as Bilsted, Sweet Gum, Cahfomian Red Gum, Satin Walnut, and Hazel Pine (Plate XXXV.), has many points of structural resemblance to that of the former. Its wide rings are clearly marked by a fine line of autumn-wood ; its numerous pith-rays are fine and straight ; and its numerous pores are nearly uniform in size, and crowded throughout the spaces between the raj*s. Some of these pores contain the hygroscopic gum or balsam, known as " styrax," which produces both warp- ing and twisting of the wood. The soft tissue is represented by small isolated patches. Satin Walnut, when grown on high ground, is marked by dark- brown or smoky false-rings. Tilia americdyia, the Basswood (Plate XXXVI. ), does not difter much from our European Lindens. Its rings are not very clearly defined, and have a wavy contour. Its pith-rays are numerous, but not equidistant, fine, straight, and less lustrous than those of the Maples ; and its pores form a ring of variable ■width in the spring-wood, and are also uniformly distributed, often three to six together, but not crowded, in the rest of the ring. There are very narrow APPENDIX IV 319 areolas of soft tissue round the pores. The wood as a whole has not the silky lustre of the Maples. Diffuse-porous woods in which the pith-rays are not distinguishable by the naked eye, comprise a hard and a soft series, the former including the Haw- thorn, Pyrus, Birch, and Box. Cratcegus Oxyacdntha, the Hawthorn (Plate XXXVII.), is a very hard and heavy, but lustreless, wood, which has been recommended as a substitute for Box, but seldom comes to market. Its rings are indistinct and wavy ; its pith-rays very numerous ; and its pores very numerous, minute, and evenly distributed, and sometimes grouped two or three together. Pith-flecks are numerous in this wood. Whilst the genus Prunus and the rest of the Amygddlece have visible pith- rays and a spring pore-zone, the Pomdcece, another Tribe of the Rosdcece, to which the Hawthorn and the genus Pyrus (Plate XXXVIII.) belong, have invisible rays, and are diffuse -porous. The wood of the Pear (P. communis) and the very similar wood of the Apple (P. Mdlus) are destitute of pith-flecks, but are liable to warp and crack. Their rings are clearly marked by a greater crowding of the minute pores in the spring-wood and their absence in the fine line of dense autumn-wood. The pith-rays are numerous, not quite equi- distant, fine, and undulating ; and the pores are often grouped two to five together, or in loose " worm-like " lines. The generally similar wood of the sub-genus Sorhus, including the Rowan, etc., in which pith-flecks do occur, is stated to season better than Apple or Pear wood. The tough, close-grained and moderately hard woods of the Birches have a fairly uniform type, of which we may take Betula lenta, the Canadian Birch (Plate XXXIX.), as a representative. The rings are tolerably clearly marked by a fine line of autumn-wood : the pith-rays are numerous, not equidistant, undulating, fine, and uniform in thickness ; and the pores are of medium size, so as to be visible " like fine white flour sprinkled over the surface of a solid section," evenly distributed, but not very numerous, and mostly sub- divided into groups of two to five or more together. Pith-flecks occur mostly near the centre — i.e., in the older wood. Among the soft- wooded broad-leaved trees few are of much importance as timber; but Sdlix dlba, the White Willow (Plate XL.), or, perhaps, rather 8. frdgilis, the Crack Willow, is exceptionally valuable for cricket-bats. Apart from colour and physical tests, there is nothing in the microscopic structure of Willow-wood that will suffice to enable us to discriminate species or qualities. 1 The wide rings are clearly defined, with a somewhat undulating contour, where the fewer and smaller pores of the denser autumn-wood con- trast with the numerous larger ones of the spongy spring-wood. The pith- rays are very numerous, very fine, and nearly equidistant, being rather more than the width of one large pore apart and undulating shghtly to avoid these pores. The pores are very numerous, small, oval, occasionally subdivided, 1 Stone, Timbers of Commerce, p. 236 ; and an admirable, fully illustrated paper on "The Variations of Sdlix dlba," by E. R. Pratt, Quarterly Journal of Forestry, vol. i. (1907), pp. 320-337. 320 APPENDIX IV and sometimes form a pattern of oblique lines. Pith-flecks, usually abundant in the Sallow or Goat-A^-illow {Sdlix Cdprea), are present in S. alba, but appar- ently absent in S. jrdgilis. The wood of the Comferce, the Needle-leaved trees, known commercially as " soft wood," is far simpler in structure than that of the trees of which we have been speaking, as may be seen by a glance at Plates XLI. to XLVIII. Its annual rings are generally well defined by the contrast of harder, heavier, and darker autumn-wood against the softer and lighter spring-wood. The pith-rays are so fine as to be hardly noticeable even in our highly magnified plates ; and there are no tracheae or pores, the wood — with the exception of the pith-rays and sometimes of resin-ducts — being entirely made up of tracheids. The very general presence of bordered pits on the side-walls of these tracheids (see Fig. 15) renders longitudinal sections of value in the dis- crimination of this group. The presence or absence of resin-ducts (Figs. 13 and 14) forms a useful character by which to subdivide these woods. They are absent, or nearly so, in the Silver Firs {Ahies), Hemlock Spruces (Tsuga), Yews (Tdxus), Junipers (Juniper us). Redwoods (Sequoia), Cedars (Cedrus), and Cypresses (Cupressus) ; while they are present in the Spruces (Picea), Larches (Ldrix), and Pines (Pinus). The Yew (Tdxus haccdta), (Plate XLI.), has a narrow, yellowish sapwood, contrasting -with its bro^^nish-red, Mahogany-like heart. The narrow annual rings are sharply defined by a dark zone of autumn-wood. The pith-rays, which are only one row of cells in width, contain some resin. In longitudinal section this wood is readily recognized b}^ the presence of spiral thickening bands in the tracheids, as well as pits. Sequoia sempervirens, the Cahfornian Redwood, (Plate XLII.) has a narrow light amber-coloured sapwood and a uniform light red, very soft and very light heart. It is usually slowly grown, the annual rings, though varying considerably, being narrow. They are clearly defined by a line of thicker- walled autumn tracheids. The pith-rays are very distinct ^^ith a lens, not equidistant, fine, uniform, and fairly straight. Resin occurs in isolated cells, resembling ruby beads. The tracheids, forming the bulk of the wood, are large and thin-walled. The wood has no fragrance. Cedrus Lihani, the Cedar of Lebanon (Plate XLIIL), is light, soft, or moderately hard, yellowish or reddish-bro^^•n, and fragrant. The rings are Avell marked by a dense autumn zone. Pith-rays are fine, not equidistant, uniform, and fairly straight. True resin-ducts do not occur ; but occasionally rows of large resin-cells appear. In structure Picea alba, the White Spruce of North America (Plate XLIV.), resembles the Common or Norwegian Spruce (P. excelsa), represented in Figs. 12 and 13. The heartwood and sapwood are ahke of a yellowish white, and hardly distinguishable. The broad rings, however, are very clearly defined by the darker and harder zone of auti nm-wood made up of radially compressed tracheids (Fig. 13), and they are sHghtly undulating in contour ; whilst in the European species this contrast of colour and hardness is not so marked. The pith-rays are numerous, straight, and one cell broad. The l.—BANKiilA SERRATA. Transverse section. MORETON BAY FIG {FICUS MACROPHYLLA). PADOUK H>TEROCARrUH MARSUPIUil). VII.-LIGNUM-VIT.E {GUAIACUM OFFICINALE). \ni. -A/./J/ZZ/A I' Hoc ERA. IX.— GREENHEART {NECTAXDRA RODItEI). X.~-THINGAX {UOPEA ODOR ATA). X I . SIDER OXYL OS BOKBOXIC UM. ^^ll.-CALol'HVLLl 'M T. 1 C. 1 MA HA 'BEAM {' aIIPJXU.s BETULUS XXXI.— ALDER (ALNUS GLUTINOSA). XXXII. -SYCAMORE {AC^R I'SEULorLATAyUS). XXXIIL— AMERICAN HOLLY {ILEX OI'ACA). XXXIV.— CAXAIJY \VHITEWO(»D {LIRInliEXDRoX TUIJI'IFKRA). XXXV. -SATIN WALNUT {LIQU I DA M BAR STY RAVI FLU A). XXXVI.— BAS.SWOUD {Tll.lA AMEIllfANA). XXXVII -HAWTHORN {CRAT.EGU.^ OXYACAyTHA). XXXVIII.— PEAR {I'YRUS COM MUMS). XXXIX. -CANADIAN BIRCH (JSKTULA LEXTA). ■WILLOW {.-SALIX ALBA). XL!.— YEW {TAXCS JiAC'CATA). XJ.IL— CALIFOHNIAX KEDWOOl) (.sA'Q^V'/.l Si:M I'LRVIREXS). XLTII.— CEDAR OK LEBANON (CE/J/IU.S LIBAM). XLIV.— WHITE «PRUCE {PWEA ALBA). XLV.— LARCH {LARIX EUliOl'.HA). XLVI.— OREGON OR DOUGLAS PINE {I'.SIlUDOTSUGA DOUGLA^ill). Xh\U.~PIXUS PALUSTRIS The Pitch Pine of English commerce. XLVii I. — yv.v r.s- ST/; <)B us. The Yellow Pine of English commerce, White Pine of America, Weymouth Pine of garden APPENDIX IV 321 vertical resin-ducts are few, but distinctly visible (Fig, 13), whilst the hori- zontal ones are less easily seen. Two are probably visible on the right-hand side of our plate. The Larch {Ldrix europdea), (Plate XLV.), has a reddish-brown heart- wood, well defined from the yellowish sapwood which may extend through from six to twenty years' growth. The rings are fairly broad, slightly undu- lating in contour, and very sharply defined by the broad dark autumn zone. The pith-rays resemble those of the Spruces, The resin-ducts are few in number, and are often grouped in twos and threes. Pseudotsuga Dougldsii, variously, but not quite accurately, known a3 Oregon Pine, Douglas Spruce, or Douglas Fir (Plate XLVL), in many char- acters, such as colour, definition of rings, and resin-ducts, much resembles Larch. It is, however, usually of a rather more rosy red ; its vertical resin - ducts are sometimes more clustered together, sometimes in Unes of from eight to thirty ; and horizontal ones are frequent. In a longitudinal section it can be seen that the tracheids of the spring- wood are spirally thickened, whilst those of the Larch are not. Whilst the highly resinous woods of the true Pines (Pmus) resemble those of the Larch and Douglas in their well-defined heart and spring and autumn zones, they are distinguished by the greater number and size of their resin- ducts, which are distributed with considerable uniformity throughout the rings. The knots in Pine wood, moreover, are generally approximr.tely in whorls, whilst those of Larch are irregularly distributed. As already stated (p. 241), the Pines fall into two series, known as " hard " and " soft." The former includes the Scots Fir, or Northern Pine {Pinus sylvestris), Corsican (P. Laricio), and Cluster (P. Pinaster) Pines of Europe, and most of the North American species, of which Pinus palustris, the Pitch Pino of EngHsh com- merce (Plate XLVIL), may be taken as a type. Their greater ha,rdness and weight is generally indicated by a darker colour, ranging from yellow to deep orange or brown, while their autumn-wood generally forms a considerable proportion of the width of each ring, and is somewhat sharply marked off from the spring -wood. Their resin -canals are chiefly in the autumn- wood. When seen in radial section (Fig. 30), the tracheids of their pith -rays are seen to have irregular tooth-like ("dentate") projections. In the Pitch Pine — the Long-leaved Pine, or Pensacola Pitch Pine of the United States — the resin- ducts are comparatively few, and with such delicate or imperfect epithelium that they are commonly torn in section-cutting. Its rings are narrower than those of most European Pines. The Soft Pines, on the other hand, of which Pinus Strobus, the Yellow Pine of English commerce, the White Pine of its native North America, and the Weymouth Pine of gardens (Plate XLVIIL), may be taken as a type, have their greater softness indicated by their lighter colours, which range from light-red to white. The zone of autumn-wood is narrow, and merges gradually into the spring-wood on its inner margin. The resin-ducts occur alike in spring- and autumn-wood ; and in the radial section no dentate projections occur on the sides of the tracheids. 21 322 NOTES NOTE A. Cellulose (p. 5). Though in the text cellulose is treated as a single substance, it is there suggested that the term belongs rather to a group of allied substances. These differ, perhaps, rather in chemical constitution or structure than in percentage composition. Among them have been distinguished " pectocelluloses " in fleshy roots, fruits, etc., " muco - celluloses " in certain seeds and fruits, " adipocelluloses " in cork, " cutocelluloses " in epidermis, and " ligno- celluloses " in the cell-walls of woody tissues. These last are original con- stituents of these cell-walls, and not the result of chemical changes during the process of thickening the walls. They apparently contain rather more oxygen than pure cellulose, being compounded with certain other substances which modify their chemical reactions. For example, while the purer cellulose of cotton- wool turns blue when treated with chlor-zinc -iodine, the lignocelluloses become yellow. NOTE B. The Recent Appreciation of Timber (p. 111). At the Conference on Afforestation held in a committee -room of the House of Lords on June 25, 1907, Dr. Schlich brought forward statistics showing that from 1890 to 1906 the average price of all imported timber had risen 17 per cent., while that of coniferous timber had risen 30 per cent. NOTE C. New African Timbers (p. 101). A variety of new tropical hardwoods have recently reached the Liverpool market from Southern Nigeria, and specimens of them were exhibited in the Tropical Products Exhibition of September, 1907, in that city. As full mention has been made in the text of the African Mahoganies and of Iroko, it is mainly necessary to refer here to several Walnut-substitutes. Of these the wood of which the Benin name is " Apopo Enwiwa," a species of TrichUia (Natural Order Melidcece), and, therefore, in reality a Mahogany, but sold in Liverpool as " African Walnut," is one of the best. It is brown to dark- brown, having numerous dark veins, but no figure, works easily, a-nd is alto- gether a very good furniture wood. " Owowe " (Albizzia sp. ; Natural Order Leguminosce), very similar to the allied " East Indian Walnut," or " Koko " of the Andaman Islands {A. Lebhek), is dark-brown, lustrous, rather coarse-grained, moderately strong, and obtainable in large dimensions. It should prove valuable now that true Walnut is becoming scarce. " Odono- mokyuku " {Eosivcllia Klainci ; Natural Order Burserdcece), which has also NOTES 323 been sold as " African Walnut," is, however, very inferior, lihgt in weight, coarse-grained, and taking a poor finish. In addition to these the " African Satinwood," " Ainyassan-gwe," a species of Cassia (Natural Order Leguminosce), is a large tree, yielding a bright canary -yellow wood, which is firm and close in texture, and should prove valuable for panelHng or cabinet-work. The so-called " African Greenheart," " Okan " {Piptadenia sp. ; Natural Order Leguminosce), proved not to be durable, and is, therefore, valueless as a substitute for the Demerara wood. Among a series of timbers from Uganda recently described by Mr. Stone, ^ the most important is, perhaps, " Muvube " {Chlorophora rustica Benth. ; Natural Order Mordcece), aUied to the Iroko of the West Coast, and a yellowish- brown, extremely hard and durable wood. Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, vol. v. (1907), Xo. 2. INDEX The scientific {Latin) names are in italics. Abbreviations employed, ' 120-1 Abele, 259 1 Abies, 41, 175 amdhilis, 41, 175 1 balsa mea, 41, 174 concolor, 41, 175 excelsa, 275 grdndis, 41, 175 homolepis, 99 Khutrow, 277 niagnifica. 41, 175 nobilis, 175 pectindta, 20, 41, 82, 89, 98, 175 sachalinensis, 100 Smithidnu, 277 Tsiiga, 290 Webbidiia, 41, 175 Abnoos, 169 Acacia, 44. 64, 80, 103, 104. 123. 313 acuminata, 219 aneura, 218 Angico, 127 ardbica, 44, 87, 135-6 aulacocdrpa, 297 binervdta. 296 Cdtechu. 197 catechuoides, 197 Cedar. 123 Cunninghdmii, 219 dealbdta, 79, 297 decurrens. 296-7 doratoxijlon, 218, 275 excelsa, 191 falcdta, 203, 219 False. 13 floribunda, 266 glau else ens. 219, 263 glaucophylla, 170 harpophylla, 219 homalophylla, 44, 89, 101,219 h6rrida,2%^ juniper ina, 297 longi folia, 266 Acacia melanoxylon, 83, 86, 102, 144 microbotrys, 183 I mollissima, 89. 296-7 I pendula, 219, 293 i Plum. 123 ! pycndntka, 297 ' salicina, 299 I seyal, 272 Sundra, 197 I stenophylla, 190 ! Three -t horned, 205 I Acajou, 123, 154, 206-7 . Acapu, 294 ! Aceitillo, 271 Acer, 52, 212-215 ! ! barbdtum, 52. 63, 78. 83, 85, 88, 109, I 214-215 ! Campbellii, 90, 213 campestre, 52, 84. 212- 3 Icevigdtum. 213 Lobeli, 213 macrophyllum. 214 XegHndo, 52, 213 oblongum, 213 opuli folium, 52 pennsylvdnicum, 52, 215 pictum, 39, 90, 213 platanoides, 52, 97. 213- 4 polymorphum, 213 Pseudo-pldtanus. o'2, 88,255,281-2,318 ■ rubrum. 52, 214 sacckarinum, 52, 215 Acetic acid, 92 Acha maram, 127 Achras Sapota. 86. 151, 269 Acle, 79, 100, 123-4 Acrocirpus fraxinifolius, I 159^ ' Acronychia Bauer i, 132 Adendnthera pavonina, 81. 85, 93, 268 Adinu cordifolia, 39, 184 JEsculus, 89 fldva, 150 glabra, 150 hippocdstanum, 89, 189 indica. 150 turbindtu, 289 African timbers, 103-4» 322-3 Afzelia bijuga, 78. 81, 100. 272 palemhdnica,^Q,2\^ Agallocha, Black, 169 Agallochum, 169 Agdricus melleus, 60-1 Agathis austrdlis, 59, 78,. 79, 86, 103, 196 Palmer stoni, 101,245 robusta, 101, 245 Agilawood, 169 Aguacate. 135 Ah-pill, 124 Ailantus, 29, 47. 124 Aildntkus glandulosa, 124 Aini, 127 Ainvassan-gwe. 323 Akagashi, 124. 231 Aka-matsu, 246 Akashide. 124 Akrot. 294-5 Al, 154 Alano, 125 Alaska, 106, 110 Albero di paradiso, 124 Albizzia, 85, 322 Julibrlssin, 273 Lebbek, 39. 45. 200,. 296. 312, 322 odordtissima, 200 pro-era, 312 Toona, 123 Alder, 4, 24, 29, 52, 62, 80, 88, 89, 90. 91. 92. 98, 125, 317 American, or Hoarv,. 125 INDEX 325 Alder, Berry -bearing, ol, 167 Ked, 125 — — White, 125 AUctryon excelsum, 234 Alerce, 84, 126, 289 AleurUes triloba, 296 Alexandrian laurel, 79 Algarrobo, 126, 204 de miel, 205 Algerian woods, 103 Almez Americano, 184 Almond, Horse, 279 ■ Indian, 126 Wild, 126 Almug, 268 Alnus, 52 glutinosa, 89, 125, 317 incdna, 125 maritima, 184 — — rubra, 125 rhombifolia, 125-6 Aloes-wood, 169 Alphitonia cxcelsa, 133, 164, 202 Alseoddphne semicarpi- folia, 261 Alstonia scholdris, 85, 90, 161 Altingia excelsa, 4 Aludel, 167 Alvier, 244 Am, 212 Amanoa guianensis, 202 Amaranthe, 126, 260 Amarantholz, 260 Amarello Pao. 126 Ambalam, 256 Ambara, 256 Amboyna-wood, 87, 126 Araeixero, 126, 268 Amddnchier canadensis, 272 Grand, 272 American timbers, 104- 110 Amerimnon Ebenus, 169 Amla ka, 126 Amlika, 283 Amli ka jhar, 283 Amoreira de espinho, 176 Amra, 256 Amrataca, 256 Amygddlece, 319 Amyris halsamifera, 176 Anacdrdium occidentdle, 154 Anan, 79, 80, 126-7 Ancona, 127 Anderson, Sir John, 117 Indira Aubletii, 238, 294 fraxinifolia, 79, 127 Andira mermis, 88, 106, 127, 238 Andiroba, 127, 164-5 Angelim vermelho, 79, 127 Angelin, 106, 127 Angelique, 77, 82, 105, 127 Angelly, 77, 127 Angico, 127 Angica vermelho, 127 Angiosperms, Wood of , 2, 3 Angophora intermedia, 128 lanceoldta, 128, 181 subvzlutina, 128 Aniba guianensis, 300 Animals, Injurious, 63-4 Anisoptera thurifera, 201 Anjan, 35, 44, 87, 100, 127 Annual rings, 2, 3 Anobium, 64 Anogeissus latijoUa, 87,167 Anona, 238 Anonacece, 39 Ants, White, 63-4 Apa, 173 Aphanathe phillippi- nensis, 173, 291 Api-api, 212 Apodytes dimididta, 239 Apopo Enwiwa, 322 Apple, 53, 127-8, 319 Black (or Brush), 128 Emu, 128 Mooley, 257 Oregon Crab, 128 tree, 128, 178, 181 tree. Broad -leaved, 128 tree. Narrow-leaved, 128 Apricot. St. Domingo, 211 Wild, 211 Aquildria Agdlloclia, 169 Arang-mill, 145 Aqulugin, 169 Arar, 83, 128, 289 Araragi, 301-2 Arariba, 302 Araroba, 302 Araucdria Bidwilli, 152 Cunninghdmi, 79, 83, 86, 101 imbricdta, 244 Arbor-vitge, 40, 128, 160 Lobb's, 156 Arbutus Menziesii, 201 Arctostdphylos pungens, 212 Argan, 128 Argdnia Sideroxylon, 103, 128 Aristotelia racemosa, 211 Arjun, 128-9 Armilldria, 60-1 Arolla, 244 Aroo, 233 Artocnrpus Chapldsha, 90, 161 hirsuta, 77, 127 integrifolia, 85, 193 nobilis, 167 pubescens, 167 Arve, 244 Asada, 129 Asam, 283 Asan, 265 Asenga Mopani, 103 Ash, 4, 24, 29, 30, 35, 45, 64, 70, 78, 80, 82, 83, 84, 87, 88, 89, 90, 98, 117, 129- 130, 242 American, 79, 87, 130-1, 313 Arkansas, 134 Bee-sucken, 87, 129 Black, 46, 110, 131-2 213 Black Mountain, 134 Blue, 132 Blueberry, 132 BrowTi-barked, 134 I Brush, 132 Cabinet, 132 Cape, 86, 104, 132 I Common, 45, 129- 130 I Elder-berrv, 132 English, 45-6, 78, ! 129-130 European, 79, 129- 130 Green, 45, 132-3 Grey, 134 Ground, 130, 131 Hoop, 131 Hungarian, 84, 129 Kabyle, 103 Maiden, 130 Moreton Bay, 133 Mountain, 133-4, 178, 179 Nova Scotia, 131 Oregon, 134 percentage, 114 Prickly, 134 Pyrenean, 129 Quebec, 130-1 Red, 46, 133,134,233 White, 45, 130-1 Rock, 134 Swamp, 134 Water, 134 1 Asiatic forests, 99-100 ! Asimina triloba, 237-8 326 INDEX Aspen, 88, 89, 92, 97, 98. 134-5 American, 135 Large, 259 ■ Large-tooth, 135 Aspidosperma, 240, 260 Asp, Quaking, 135 Assegai-wood, 86, 104, 135 Astrocdryum sclerocdrpa, 177 Atchooiirgo, 152 Atherosperma mosclidta, 269-70 Athrotdxis cupressoides, 160 selaginoidcs, 160 Australian timbers, 101-2 Austrian forests, 98-9 Avocado pear, 135 Axe -breaker, 135 Aydendron canella, 154 Azadirdchta indica, 215 Babela, 81, 135, 220 Babla, 135-6 Babul, 44, 87, 100, 135-6 Backhousia myrtifolia, 220-1 scadidphora, 220 Badjong, 183 Baden forests, 98 Bagassa giiianensis, 136 Bagasse, 136 Bahira. 220 Bakam, 269 Bakula, 136 Balan, 287 Balata, 105, 151 Balkan rose, 88 Ballow. 136 Balm of Gilead fir, 174 Baloghia lucida, 145 Balsam fir, 175 Ban, 231 Banaba. 78, 100, 136 Bandara, 44, 136 Bangalav, 209 Banksial 136, 140, 187 Bdnksia littordlis, 136 niargindta, 86, 187 integri folia, 188 serrata, 188, 310 Banyan, 44 Baobab, 104 Bdphia nitida, 93, 153 Barberry, 29, 31, 36, 48, 136 Barniz falso de Japan, 124 Barranduna, 136 Barringtonia acutdiigula, 234 Barwood. 137 Basilikon, 294 Bdssia latifoUa. 39, 210-1 longi folia, 81, 210-1 Bass wood, 53, 85, 137, 318-9 Bast, 9-10, 13 Bastard faces. 66-7 Bat and ball, 235 Batitinan, 78 Bauhinia Carronii, 170 — Hooker i, 170 Bauschinger, 114, 116-17- 18-19 Bavarian forests, 98 Bay, Bull, 206 Bay- wood, 86, 207 Bead-tree, 137 Bean, Red, 158 tree, 162 Beati, 137 Bearberry, 151 Becaim, 134 Bedfordia salicina, 168 Beech, 4, 24, 30, 31, 35, 39, 52, 57, 59, 60, 62, 78, 80, 82, 84, 87, 89, 92, 97, 98, 99, 101, 117, 136, 137-9, 148, 163. 294, 317 American. 139 Australian White, 133 Black, 140 Blue, 52, 87 Cape, 139 Evergreen, 139, 220 Indian. 139 Negro-head, 139 Red, 139 She, 140, 282 Water. 255 White, 52. 79, 133, 138, 140 Beefwood, 82, 86. 140, 151, 232-3, 240 Beetles, Wood-boring, 64 Bee -tree, 137 Beilschmisdia Tardiri, 284 Tdwa, 284 Belbil, 213 Beleyleh, 220 Bell, Dr. Robert, 110 Bendi, 292-3 Benton, 273 Berber is, 29, 36, 48 Bereza, 141 Berosh, 242 Berrya Amnion ilia. 290 Betis, 78, 100, 140 Bituladlba, 89. 141-2 Bhojpatra, 143 ■ excelsa, 109 Betula lenta, 78, 85. 142-3, 210, 319 lutea, 142, 143 papyrifera, 89. 142 populi folia, 143 pubescens, 142 verrucosa, 142 Beukenhout, 139 Beuke, Rood, 137-8 Bharjapatri, 143 Bhurjama, 143 Bibiru, 177 Bibla, 287 Bibliography, Select, 307 -S Big-tree, 140 Bija, 287 Sal, 85, 287 Billa, 232 Billian, 77, 100, 141 Billy Web, 169 Bilsted, 53, 182-3, 318 Binburra, 138 Bintangor, 257 Birch, 4, 24, 29, 30, 35, 70, 82, 83, 84, 88, 89, 90, 92, 96, 97, 98, 99, 109, 141-2. 304, 319 American, 142 Black, 78, 142, 284 Canadian, 319 Canoe, 89, 110, 142 Cherry, 142 Common, 141-2 European, 141-2 Grey, 143 Indian paper, 143 Mahogany, 142 Old Field, 143 Paper, 142 Poplar-leaved, 143 Red, 212, 284 River, 143 Silver, 141-2, 284 Sweet, 142-3 Tall, 143 W^hite, 141-2 Yellow, 109, 143 Bird-Cherry, 110 Bird's-eye grain, 32 Maple, 63 Biti, 145 Bitter wood, 260 Biwa, 205 Bjork, 141 Blackbutt, 78,82, 101, 102. 133, 144, 179, 181, 239 Blackeye, 292 Blackthorn, 51, 88, 144 Blackwood, 40, 80, 85, 86, 100, 101, 102, 144-5, 300 liNDEX 327 Blackwood, African, 145 Australian, 83, 101, 144 Bombay, 137, 145 Malabar, 145 Bladdernut, 53 Blauholz, 205 Bieistift-holz, 159 Bloodwood, 82, 101, 145, 190 Brush, 145, 263, 292 Mountain, 145-6 Scrub, 145 Sm o oth - b a rked, 145-6 i Yellow, 145-6 Blueberry, 195 Blue Gum, 196 Blutholz, 205 Boco, 146 Bocoi prouacensis, 146 Bog onion, 158 Bois beni, 147 canelle, 270 chaire, 146 commun, 147 d'Aigle, 169 d'arc, 235 ■ de cotelet, 173 de couleuvre, 274 de feroles, 270 de natte, 146 d' Orange, 176 de resonnance, 38, 277 de Rhodes, 165 de rose, 263, 291 de rOceanie, 292-3 Faux, 292-3 de Table, 281 des Rhodes des Par- fumeurs, 264 d'or du Cap, 265 dur, 189 ■ fidele, 173 graine bleu, 146 lezard, 146 marbre, 270 mulatre, 146 puant, 279 Riviere, 106, 296 rouge, 59 Shavanon, 154 tresse, 296 Bolongnita, 100, 146, 169 Bombax, 45 Ceiba, 164 malahdricum, 4, 36, 90 mompoxense, 269 Boniato amarillo, 281 Boona, 145 Boot-lasts, 96 Boree, 219 White, 132 Borneo woods, 100 Bostrychida;, 64 ! Boswellia Klainei, 323 Bottle-brush, Red, 146 I White, 146 Boucherie's process, 73 Boule, 84 Box, 32, 39, 78, 80, 84, 88, 97, 147, 153, 178, 180, 240 Bairnsdalef^rey,102, 149 Bastard, 148, 149, 180, 181-2, 299 Bembil, 180 Black, 181-2, 279-280 Brisbane, 101, 148 Broad-leaved, 280 Bro\ni, 149 Brush, 148 Cape, 88, 104, 148 China, 148 Cooburn, 181-2 Dwarf, 148-9 Elder, 52, 213 Flooded, 148-9 Grev, 102, 149, 153, 179, 181-2 Gum - topped, 101, 153-4 Ironbark, 149, 279- 280 Jamaica, 88, 105, 149 Knysna, 149 X a r r o w - 1 e a V e d , 148-9 Native, 150 Poplar, 149, 180 Red, 148, 149, 180 • Stanthorpe, 79 Yellow, 102, 149- 150, 153-4, 181-2 Boxthorn. 150 White, 78, 149, 153-4 180, 240 Boxwood, 168, 235 Boyung, 273 Brahejum stellatifolium, 126 Braziletto, 86, 93, 150 Brazilian timbers, 104-5 Brazil wood, 93, 105, 150 Break -axe, 192 Bresil de St. Marthe, 238 Brettbaum, 281 Briar, 89, 134, 150 — — root, 150 Bridge timbers, 107 Brigalow, 219, 275 Mountain, 219 Brimstone-tree, 154 British Columbia, 109 Broom, 88, 150 Brosinium AuhUtii, 15, 88, 202, 274 Bruchweide, 298 Bruinhart, 294 Brush, 136 Bruyere, 89 Brya Ebenus, 86, 88, 105, 163, 169, 170, 176 Bucida angustifolia, 177 Buckeye, 89, 90 Ohio, 150 Sweet, 150 Buckthorn, 29, 32, 51, 91, 92, 150-1, 167 Canadian, 151 Bud, structure of, 5, 7 Buddleia salvioefoLia, 86, 266 Buffelsbal, 87, 151 Building timbers, 81-2 Bukampadaruka, 256 Bullet-wood, 39, 87, 105, 106, 151, 269 Andainan, 151 Bastard, 46, 151,311 Bully, 151, 269 Naseberry, 151 Bumelia ohtusifolia, 188 Bundles, Fibro - vascular, 9, 11-12 Bunya-bunya, 152 Burgan, 285 Burnettizing, 73 Buro-koro, 202 Burrs, 33, 63 Bursdria spinosa, 150 Bitrsera giummfera, 142 Buruch, 151 Buruta, 271 Butter-bush, 299 Butternut, 51, 152, 316 Butter-tree, 210-1 Button -ball tree, 255 Button wood, 51, 152, 255 ButyrospermumPdrki, 2Q>5 Buxiis longifoUa, 147 Macowdnii, 88, 104, 148 semper vir ens, Byrsonima spicdta, 217 Caariwan, 275 Cabbage-bark, 152 Cabbage, Jersey, 87 palm, 238 I tree, 127 328 INDEX Ccesalpinia , 210 Ujuga, 93, 150 brasiliensis, 86, 93, 150 crista, 93, 150 ccAmato, 93, 105. 238 melanocdrpa, 177-8 Sdppan, 93, 269 tinctoria, 93, 150 Cagiieyran, 82, 152 Cailcedra, 152, 208-9 Cajeput, 152 \ Calabash, 152 | Calamander maram, 152 ■ wood, 87, 152 Caliaturholz, 268 Californian Redwood for- ests, 106 Calliper measurement, 303 Callisteinonlanceoldtus,\4iQ saUgnus, 146-7 CaMtris, 42 - — ■ — arhorea, 156 • quadrivdlvis, 289 — - — rhomboidea, 79 — rohusta, 79, 81, 101, 166 • verrucosa, 102 Calodendron capense, 162 Calophyllum, 32, 257, 313 avgusti folium, 257 ■ Cdlaha, 86, 105, 106, 268 • Inophyllut7i,'i8-9, SO, 86, 100, 209, 257 — — foment 6su7n, 183,251 Calshum, 152-3 Calycophyllum candidis- simum, 166-7 multiflorum, 237 Camara, 79, 153 Cambhoji, 268 Cambium, 9, 20 Campbell, F. A., 118 Campeche, 205 Camphor, Borneo, 153 Nepal, 153 tree, 37, 153 wood, 166 Australian, 153 Martaban, 153 Camwood, 153 Canadian forests, 110 Oak, 110 ■ timber export, 109- 110 Canari macaque, 217 Canary White wood, 37, 290-1, 318 wood, 153-4, 291 Canella, 154 preta, 79, 82 Canclle, 154 Canes, 87 Cannon-ball tree, 154 Canoe -wood. 291 Caoba, 206-7 Cape Colony, Timbers of, i 104 I Cape Plane, 261 j Caper- tree, 256 i Cdpparis Mitchelli, 235 nohilis, 256 Caraba, 164-5 I Carana, 136 ! Cdrapa grandi flora, 165 guianensis, 105, 164, 165, 315 guineensis, 165 guyanensis, 165 inoluccensis, 154 procera, 165 Carapo, 164-5 Carbeen, 133 I Carbonizing, 72 \ Cardwellia sublimis, 176, 233 I Cargtllia austrdlis, 256 pentdmera, 220 Carob, 88, 154 ' Carpentry woods, 82 Carpinus, 52 — Betulus, 83, 188, 317 carolinidna, 87, 192 laxi flora, 124 I Carriage-building woods, 83 Carua, 294 Gary a, 185 ! Cdrya alba, 186 j amdra. 186 { aqudtica. 186 gldhra, 186 ' porcina, 186 — • — sulcata, 186 ■ tomentosa. 186 Caryocar hutyrosum, 274-5 gldhrum, 274-5 tomentosum, 274-5 Cashew-nut, 154 Cdssia. 323 Fistula, 311 sidmea, 137 Castdnea, 48, 80, 314 — — pumila, 163 — — sativa, 78, 88, 162 — ■ — vulgdris, var. amcri- cdna, 81, 162 Castanopsis chrysophylla, 163 Castanospermum austrdle. 101, 162 Casuarina, 4, 32, 104, 232-234 Casuarina Cunninghdmii, 232 distyl2, 233 equiseti folia, 79, 82, 140, 190, 232, 233 Fraseridna, 232 glauca, 232 quadrivdlvis, 102 stricti, 86, 232, 233 suberosa, 140, 232 torulosa, 140, 232 Catdlpa, 46, 154 longissirrm, 302 speciosa, 154 Catha edulis, 197 Ceanothus Chlor6xylon,lQ4: Cecropia palmdta, 290 peltdta, 290 Cedar, 36, 37, 70, 82, 83, 100, 101, 105, 106, 154-5, 247 Barbadoes, 155 Bastard, 155, 209 Pencil, 155-6,163 Bermuda, 79, 89, 156 Black, 156 Boom, 83 Borneo, 272 Canoe, 40, 156 Cigar-box, 156, 315-6 Clanwilliam, 156 Deodar, 156-7 Florida, 159 Guiana, 157 Honduras, 50 Incense, 42, 157 Indian, 156-7, 209 Japanese, 280 Lebanon, 83, 154-5, 320 ^klackay, 123 IMexican, 160 — — Moulmein. 85, 157-8 Mount -Atlas, 83, 103, 155 Xew Zealand, 158 Oregon, 158 Pencil, 86, 89, 101, 104, 140, 158-9, 217 Philippine Islands, 78 Pink, 159 Port Orford, 158 Post, 157 Red, 40, 42, 78. 86, 89, 101, 156, 159 Rock, 159 Sitka, 159-160 Sleepers of, 109 Tasmanian, 160 INIDEX 329 Cedar, West Indian, 123, 160 Western red, 160 White, 40, 42, 82, 110, 132, 137, 149, 156, 157, 160, 272 Yellow,156, 159-161, 300 CeJre acajou, 123, 160 bagasse, 157 de Singapore, 157-8 de Virginie, 159 Cedrela, 207, 315-6 — — hrasiliensis, 156 ■ fissilis, 160 guianensis, 123, 156 odordta, 50, 105, 123, 155, 156, 269, 315-6 Toona, 4, 78, 85, 90, 100, 101, 157-8, 163, 316 Cedrus, 42 atldntica, 83, 103, 155 Deoddra, 80, 156-7 lihani, 83, 154-5, 320 Cciba, 273 Celdstrus acumindtus, 87, 273 Cells, 5 Cellulose, 5, 90, 322 Celtis, 47 austrdlis, 84, 221 Kraussidna, 279 occidentdlis, 183-4 Cembrot, 244 Centrolobium rohustum,302 Ceratonia SUiqua, 88, 154 Ceratopetalum apetalum, 101, 163, 202 Cercidiphyllum japonicum, 196 Cercis Siliqudstrum, 194 Cercocarpus ledifolius, 209 parvifolius, 210 Cerillo, 164 Certosina work, 84 Ceylon oak, 198 Chamcecyparis Lawson- idna, 158 — — nutkaensis, 159-160 Champa, 81, 161 Champak, 161 Champaka, 161 Chandana, 266, 268 ( handanam, 266, 268 Chaplash, 90, 161 Chaplasha, 161 Charcoal, 91, 106 Charmagz, 294 Chatwan, 85, 90, 161 Cheesewood, 161 Chereen, 130 Cherry, 51, 84, 87, 89, 136, 161 American, 162 Bird, 50 — — Broad-leaved, 267 Brush, 161, 220 Canadian, 162 Mahaleb, 50 Native, 162 Wild, 151 Wild Black, 162 White, 163 Chestnut, Moreton-Bay, 101, 162 Spanish, 24, 32, 35, 36, 39, 48, 78, 80, 81, 82, 88, 162, 314 Wild, 126, 162 Chichipate, 169 Chickrdssia tahuldris, 85 Chicot, 163 Chikrassi, 163 Chilauni, 80, 163 Chimdrrhis cymosa, 106, 296 China, 107 berry, 163 Chinar, 255 Chinquapin, 163 Chippendale, Thomas, 85 Chir, 90, 163, 247 Chittagong-wood, 85, 157-8, 163 Chittim, 84 Chlorophora excelsa, 86, 189 rustica, 323 tinctoria, 93, 105, 176 Chloroxylon Swietenia, 87, 271 Chouk, 233 Chow, 79, 80 Chow-way, 140 Christdorn, 187 Chukrdsia tahuldris, 163 Cibicibi, 236 Cinnaniomum Cdmphora, 153 glanduUferum, 153, 269 Cipriani, 83 Cirouaballi, 294 BrowTi, 156 Citharexylum, 83 melanocdrdium, 173 Citron-wood, 83. 103, 289 I Citrus, 29 Citrus Aurantium, 235 austrdlis, 235 medica, 235 Citrus-wood, 83 Cleavability, 112 Clematis Vitdlba, 8 Clusia insignis, 238 Coach wood, 101, 163 Cobra, 64 Coccoloba uvifera, 176 Cockatoo-bush, 195 Cocoa-nut, 3, 154 Cocobola-wood, 163 Cocus, 163, 169 Cozos nucifera, 3, 259 Coco-wood, 146 Cocus-wood, 88, 105 Coffee-tree, 47, 163-4 Cog wood, 149, 164 Cola acuminata, 198 Colophospermum Mo pane, 217 Coluhrina ferruginosa, 274 reclindta, 214^ Compass, 100, 164 Comhretum truncdtum, 203 Conddlia ferrea, 35, 192 Condoriholz, 268 Conducting tissue, 12 Congoholz, 145 Coniferous wood, 2, 16-23, 33, 320-321 Connarus guianensis, 86, 302 Conversion, 66 Convolvulus floridus, 264 Scopdrius, 264 irrigdtus, 264 Coobagum, 135 Coonam, 248 Coopa, 238 Cooperage woods, 89 Cooper's wood, 164 Coorung-coorung, 166 Copaifera hractedta, 87, 259-60 hy7nenceif6lia,S2,l52 Mopdne, 191, 217 pubiflora, 85, 259 Copalm, 182-3 Corang, 133 Cordia Gerascdnthus , 165 Myxa, 256 Cord of wood, 96 Cork-tree, 164 Cork-wood, 163, 164, 216 Corkwood-tree, 164 Cormier, 272 Cornel, 164, 167 Cornelian, 168 Cornus, 25 florida, 88, 147, 168 330 INDEX Conius Xuttdlli, 168 sanguinea, 53, 167 Coromandel - wood, 152. 164 Corylus, 52 Avelldna, 184-5 Colurna, 184-5 Cossus ligniperda, 64 Cotton-tree, 36, 164, 272 White, 272 Cottonwood, 89, 164. 168. 257-8 Big, 258 Courbaril, 105, 164, 204 Coumarouna odordta, 105, 289-290 Couaie, 177 Couraivo, 132 Cowassa, 238 Cowdie-pine, 164, 196 Crab-apple, 88 Crab-wood. 105, 164, 315 Cratdgus Oxyacc'nitha, 53, 184, 319 Crates, 90 Creosoting, 73-4, 92 Crescentia Cujete, 152 Cricket-bats. 298 Croc, 268 Crocus-tree, 265 Crow's-ash, 82 Crushing force, 112 Cryptocdrya australi-s, 201 glaucescens, 138, 140 Jleissnerii, 202 obovdta, 282 Palmerstoni, 296 Cryptomiria japonica, 280 Cuamara, 105, 290 Cucumber-tree, 53, 89, 165, 238, 291, 318 Cudgerie, 136 Cullonen, 138 Cumbertu, 248 Cunonia capensis, 86, 159 Cupdnia semiglduca, 132 Cupressiis Laicsonidna, 40, 42, 82, 158, 160 nootkatinsis, 109, 159-160 ohtusa, 100, 187 semper viretis, 84, 165 thyoides, 40, 42, 82, 109, 160 torulosa, 81. 166 Cup-shake, 55-6 Cupiiliferce, 39 Curly grain, 32 Currant-tree, 211 Currong, 296-7 Curtisia faginea, 86, 104, 135 Curupay, 165 Custard-apple, 39, 238 Cutch, 197 Cypre, Bois de, 165 . Cypress, 70, 84, 88, 165 Atlas, 103 Bald, 165-6 Black, 165-6 Deciduous, 165-6 Desert, 166 Himalayan, 81, 166 Indian, 166 Cypress -pines, 42, 81. 101, 102, 166 I Cypress-pine, Mountain, j 166 I Red, 156, 165-6 ! Swamp, 165-6 White, 165-6 Yellow, 159-160 Cytisiis, 36, 88, 150 Lahurnum, 170, 313-4 ; scopdrius, 150 ' Dabi, 154 Dacrydiiim, 42 cupresstnum, 86, 262 exxelsum, 254 ferrugineum, 254 Franklinii, 78, 79, 86, 102, 189 Westldndicum, 253 Dagame, 166-7 Dalb^rgia. 44. 170, 264 cidtrdta, 145, 300 lanceoldria, 40 la ti folia, 40, 80, 85, 1 145 lati folia, var. si-s- soides, 145 melanoxylon, 145, 170 nigra. 105, 193. 237, 263 Sissoo, 40, 80, 84, I 85. 273-4 Dalby Myall, 191 I Daminiya, 167 Dammar, White, 254 Ddmmara austrdlis, 196 — ■ — robusta, 245 Daphnandra, micrdntha, 270 ' Daphne, Native, 168 Dargan, 150 I Date-palm, 87 I Date, Kafir, 167 : Date-plum, 167, 240 Daviesia arbor ea, 86. 261 Deal, 37, 80. 85, 89, 97, 98, 167,276,303-4 Deal, Dantzic, 167 Xative, 158 Prussian, 98 Red, 80, 167, 240 Spruce, 167, 276 ^Miite, 89, 97, 167, 277 Yellow, 167, 240 • Deals, Canadian, 276 Lower Poits, 276 Decay, 37, 58-9 Degame, 166-7 Del, 167 De Lapparent's process, 72 Den, 149 Density of wood, 113-4 Deodar, 80, 100, 163 Deodhari, 267 Dermatogen, 6 Desmogen, 8-9 Deva-dara, 267 Deyadari, 267 Devaderu. 156-7 Devil- wood, 234 Dhaura, 87, 167 Dhoura, 271 Diakar, 283 Didlium indicum, 100, 198 Indum, 198 laurinum, 198 JIaingdyi, 198 platysepalum, 198 Dicorynia paraensis, 105, 127 guianensis, 11 Dicotyledons, Wood of, 3 Dicypellium caryophylld- tum, 154, 270 Diffuse-porous woods, 316 Dillenia indica, 48 peniagyna, 39, 257 Dilo, 257 Dimorphdndra Mora, 78, 105, 217 Diospyros, 44, 85, 311 chloroxylon, 170 Dendo, 170 ebendster, 169, 170 pbenum, 169 hiplosiylis, 170 hirsuta, 152 Kurzii, 215, 302 JIalacapdi, 171 Melanoxylon, 39, 169 mespiliformis, 170 microrhombus, 170 philippensis, 170 pilosdntliera, 100, 146, 169 INDEX 331 Diospyros qucesUn, 87, 152 rubra, 170 tesseldria, 170 tetrasper ma, 105, 110 virginidna, 36, 49, 87, 240, 314-5 Dipterocarpdcece, 47, 171, 312 Dipterocdrpus aldtus, 183 thurtfer, 79, 100, 201 tuherculdtus, 45, 173 turhindtus, 183 Dipteryx odordta, 289-290 Disafforesting, 94 Djati, 285-6 Dodoncea viscosa, 142, 203 Dogo, 212 Dogwood, 25, 53, 91, 151, 167-8, 263, 292 Black, 167 Striped, 215 Western, 168 Domba, 79 Domheya melanoxylon, 170 Dominica, 106 Dougon, 100, 168 Dooib, 255 Doornboom, 289 Doryphora Sdssafras, 270 Douglas Fir, 109, 321 Spruce, 35, 36, 43, 81, 109, 321 Druxy knot, 59 Dryobdlanops aromdtica, 80, 153 Dry-rot, 60, 62-3 Dubina, 208 Duhoisia myoporoides,lG4:, 173 Dudhi, 168 Diigmtia qiiitarensis, 105, 199 Dunga-runga, 234 Dungon, 78 Dupa-maram, 254 Durobbi, 193 Dye-woods, 93 Dyera costuldta, 194 Dysoxylon Fraseridnum, 77, 86, 101, 158, 263 Muelleri, 77, 101, 158 rufum, 155-6 Dysoxylum spectdbile, 198 Eagle- wood, 169 Ebano real, 170 Ebendceoi, 39, 311-3 Ebenier, Faux, 84, 170 Ebenus, 169 Eberesche, 264 Ebony, 28, 36, 39, 44, 71, 84, 85, 87, 88, 100, 104, 105, 169, 311 Acapulco, 169 American, 169 Bastard, 169 Bombay, 169 Camagoon, 169 Cape, 86, 169 Ceylon, 169 Coromandel, 169 Corsican, 84, 170 Cuba, 170 Cuernavaca, 169 False, 170 Flowered, 88 Gaboon, 170 German, 170 Godavery, 169 Green, 86, 88, 169 Jamaica, 169 Lagos, 170 Macassar, 170 Madagascar, 170 Manila, 170 Mauritius, 170 Mexican, 169 Mountain, 170 Orange River, 169 Purple, 170 Red, 170 Queensland, 170 St. Helena, 170 Senegal, 145 Siani, 169 West Indian, 169 White, 171, 284 Eckebergia capensis, 86, 104, 132 Eda Kula, 161 Egolla, 149 Elbe, 301 Eibenbaum, 301 Eki, 171 Eloeocdrpus cydneus, 132 dentdtus, 80, 187 grdndis, 152-3 holopetalus, 132 Kirtoni, 133 longi folia, 133 obovdtus, 130 Elceodendron austrdU, 132, 160 croceuni, 86, 265 Elah, 288 Elava, 272 Elder, 8, 24, 25, 29, 51, 171, 293 Elm-bark beetle, 64 Elm, 18,25, 32, 35, 36,48, 63-4, 80, 82, 83, 84, 87, 117, 171, 314 American, 79, 171, 314 Canadian, 18, 171 Cedar, 48 Cork, 171-2 Crow's-foot, 273 Dutch, or Sand, 172 English, 18, 48, 57, 171-2 European, 79 False, 183-4 Grey, 78 Indian, 172 Moose, 172 Red, 48, 172 Rock, 48, 78 Scotch, 48, 172 Slippery, 48, 172 Spanish, 165, 172 Spreading, 173 White, 48 Winged, 48, 173 Els, Klip or Rock Ash, 173 Rood, 86, 159, 173 Elsbeerbaum, 272 Else, 125 Elzenhout, 159 Emmenosper mu ui a Iph i- tonioiies, 168 Endidndra virens, 235 Eng, 45, 100, 173, 183 Engraving woods, 88 Engyin, 173 Entandrophrdgma Ango- Unse, 207-9 Candolledna, 207-9 Candollei, 207-9 ^ Enter olobiii lib Timboitva, 236 Epe, 127, 173 Epel, 173 Epidermis, 6 Eperua decdndra, 272 falcdta, 294 Jenmani, 294 tipi de ble, 294 Ereniophila Mitchelli, 263, 267 Sturtii, 267 Eriostemon squdmeus, 199 Erica arborea, 89, 150 Eriobotrya japonica, 205 Erith process, 72 Erythrina suberosa, 35, 39 Erythrophlcemn Labouch- erii, 124 332 INDEX Erythroxylon areoldtum, 192 • monogynum, 267 Espinha de ineicha, 268 Espinheiro branco, 176 Essen-boom, 86, 104, 132, 173 Eta-balli, 146 Eucalyptus, 4, 104, 178- 183, 190 acmeniotles,\0\,'2%0 amygdalina, 77, 82, 101, 102, 133, 144, 181, 239 Baileydna, 178 Bosistodna, 102, 149 hotryoiles, 78, 101, 209 calophylla, 102, 181 capiteUata, 81, 102, 182, 239, 280 cornufM, 102, 299 corymb 63a, 82, 101, 145 corynocdlyx, 182 crebra, 77, 83, 180, 190 doratoxylon, 215 diversicolor, 77, 82, 102, 196 eugenioides, 280 eximia, 145-6 fcecunda, 183 Globulus, 78, 80, 82, 101, 102, 178-9 gomphocephala, 51, 78, 102, 288 goniocdlyx, 83, 102, 133, 148, 149, 180 ■ Gunnii, 179, 182 hoemdstonia, 133, 144, 181, hemiphloia, 78, 80, 101, 102, 147, 149, 150, 153-4 largiflorens, 147, 180, 181-2, 190 leucoxylon, 11, 101, 133, 147, 179, 190 longicornis, 180 longifolia, 101, 148, 299 loxophUha, 102, 183 maculdta, 78, 101, 182 macrocdrpa, 217 macrorhyncJm, 102, 190, 279 margindta, 11, 79, 81, 82, 86, 102, 193 Eucalyptus melliodora, 102, 149-150 microcorys, 78, 82, 101, 210, 239, 282 microtheca, 148-9 Muelleri, 280 Muelleridna, 102 obliqua, 78, 82, 101, 102, 148, 279-280 odordta, 147, 239- 40 paniculdta, 11, 101, 145, 190 pdtens, 102, 144 paucifldra. 133, 179, 180, 239 piluldris, 78, 82, 101, 133, 144 piperita, 102, 144, 239, 261 polydnthenia, 148, 203 populifolia, 149, 180 propinqua, 101 punctata, 148, 180, 202 redunca, 102, 296 regnans, 102, 133-4, 144 rohusta, 210 resin if era, 180, 210 rostrdta, 78, 79, 80, 82, 101, 179, 181 saligna, 78, 101, 149, 179, 180 salmonophloii, 181 I salubris, 179-180 I sideropMoia, 11, 79, 101, 190 sideroxylon, 11, 101, 190 Sieheridna, 102, 133, 144, 179 stelluldta, 147, 178 Stuartidna. 78, 79, 133, 147, 178, 239 tereticornis, 101,14:8, 179, 180, terniindlis, 145 tesseldris, 133 versicolor, 316-7 vimindlis, 1 147, 179, 180 virgdta, 102 Euclea pseudebenus, 169 unduldtn, 260 Eucryphia Jloorei, 123, 266 Eugenia frdgrans cunedta, 302 ^8, 82, 86, Eugenia maire, 211 my rti folia, 161, 220 Smithii, 204 Ventendtii, 220 Euonymus, 29, 53 europdus, 53, 88, 236-275 Idcerus, 39 Euroschinus falcdtus, 219 Europe, Forest areas of, 96 Eusideroxylon Zwdgeri, 11, 100, 141, Exocdrpus cupressiformis, 87, 162 latifolia, 267 Exogenous wood, 3, 9-10 Eyn, 265 Fagroea frdgrans, 79, 80, 126-7 Fdgus betuloides, 263 Cunninghdmii, 102, 139, 220 ferruginea, 87, 139, 317 fu^sca, 142, 143, 284 Menziesii, 143, 284 obliqua, 80, 263 Soldndri, 82, 142 sylvitica, 18, 111, 137-8 Featherwood, 173 I Felsen Eiche, 227 Felt, 26 Fenchelholz, 269 i Fence-posts, 107 Fencing- woods, 82, 106 Fernow, B. E., 106, 111 Ferolia Guianensis, 270 variegdta, 270 Fibres, 12. 28 Fibrous cells, 28 Ficus aurea, 35 bengalensis, 44 macrophylla, 310-1 Sykomorus, 281-2 Fiddle wood, 83, 173 Fig, 32, 84, 174 Blue, 152-3 IUawarra( Port Jack- son or Rusty), 174 Large-leaved, or Moreton Bay, 174, 310-1 Leichardt's Clus- ; tered, 174 i Maddago^vTie, 132 Prickly, 132, 174 1 Figure, 206, 214-5 ; Filaof, 233 j Fir, 41, 98, 117, 174, 233, 1 240, 242 INDEX 333 Fir, Balsam, 41, 110, 174 Colorado Silver, 175 Dantzic, 57, 79, 81, 98, 261 Douglas, 79, 81, 321 Great Silver, 175 Indian Silver, 175 Japanese Hemlock, 290 Memel, 117 Oregon, 79 Red, 175 Riga, 79, 98, 117 Saghalien, 100 Scots, 4, 78, 80, 117, 175 Silver, 4, 41, 92, 98, 175 Spruce, 78, 277 Swedish, 81, 117 Western (or Lovely) Silver, 175 White, 277 Fire-tree, 175-G Flachenbaum, Dreilap- piger, 238 Flame-resisting wood, 75 Flatterruster, 173 Flindersia austrdlis, 82, 138 Chatawaidna, 139, 213 Oxleydna, 138, 176, 193 Flindosa, 138, 282 Flintamentosa, 176 Flint-wood, 144 Forest-areas of Europe, 96 Forest-clearing, 94 Fowke, Captain, 118 Foxiness, 37, 223 France, Timber-supply of, 97-8, 111 Frdxinus, 45 acuminata, 130-1 americdna, 45, 78, 85, 130-1, 313 Bcrlandieridna, 134 canadensis, 130-1 — — Carolinidna, 134 excelsior, 45-6, 78, 117, 129-130 lanceoldta, 132-3 nigra, 131 Oregona, 134 Pennsylvdnica, 132- 3, 134 pistacice folia, 134 platycdrpa, 134 pubescens, 46, 134 quadranguldta, 132 Frdxinus samhucifolia, 46, 78, 131 tomentosa, 134 velutina, 134 viridis, 45, 132-3 Frenela, 166 Endlicheri, 166 Parlatorei, 166 rhomhoidea, 166 rohusta, 166 Fromage d'HolIande, 164 Fuchsia, 176 excorticdta, 176 Fuel value, 115 wood, 91, 106 Fuji-matsu, 200 Funera, 176 Fungal attack, 59-63 Fura, 241 Furniture woods, 83-6 Furze, 88 Fusdnus cygnorum, 267 persicdrius, 267 spicdtiis, 102, 267 Fustic, 93, 105, 176 Fyr, 241 Gaiac, 290 Gabas, 161 Galaba, or Galba, 176, 268-9 Galba, 86, 105, 106 Gamble, J. S., 38-9, 116, 309-311 Gandamani, 268 Gangaravi, 292 Gangaw, 192 Gardenia Thunhergii, 87, 151 Garrong, 296-7 Garuga, 197 pinndta, 197 Gashi, 222-225 Geel Hout, 80, 300 Geijera parvi flora, 299 Geissospermum Vellosii, 79, 153 Genevrier, 195, 289 German forests, 98 Gibbons, Grinling, 84-5 Gidgee, 101 Gidya, 219 Ginkgo biloba, 3 Gleditschia, 47 triacdnthos, 205 Gmelina arborea, 79, 85 Leichhdrdtii, 19,101, 138 Goat-moth, 64 Gold-spangle wood, 176, 233 Gonioma Kamdssi, 148, 195 Goompana, 197 Grain, 32 Granadillo, 105, 169, 176 Grape, Seaside, 176 Greenheart, 35, 58, 77, 80, 94, 105, 176-7, 312 African, 323 West Indian, 274 Greentop, 179 Grenada, 106 Grevillea robusta, 101, 233 stridta, 86, 140 Grewia tilicefolia, 167 Grignon, 177 fou, 177 Growth, rates of, 4 Gru-gru, 177 Guaiacum, 35, 36, 44, 177-8 officindle, 79, 105, 202-3, 311-2 arboreum, 204 sanctum, 203 Guarabu, 78, 177, 260 Guatteria virgdta, 199 Guayacan, 177-8, 203 Guazuma tomentosa, 155 Guelder-rose, 88 Guettdrda speciosa, 105, 302 Guiana, Timbers of, 105 Guijo, 78, 100, 265 Guira, 152 Gumbar, 79, 85 Gum, 178-183 Apple-scented, 178 Bailey, 178 Bally, 136 Bastard, 179 Bastard Blue, 179 Black, 178, 292 Blue, 78, 82, 101, 102, 148, 178-9, 180, 181, 209 Botany Bay, 210 Broad-leaved Water, 183 Bro\\Ti, 210 Cabbage, 133, 179 Calif ornian Red, 182-3, 318 Cider, 179 Cotton, 292 Creek, 181 Drooping, 179, 180 Flooded, 78, 179, 180, 181 Fluted, 179-180 Forest, 181 Giant, 133, 179 Gimlet, 179-180 334 IXDEX Gum. Green. 178. 180 Grey, 78. 101. U8, 179, 180. 190,202. 210 Lead. 178. 180 Manna. 179. 180 Morrell. 180 Mountain. 179. 180 Mountain White, 179. 180 Murray Red, 181 Xankeen, 180 Orange, 128 Peppermint, 180-1 Poplar-leaved. 149 Red. 53. 78. 79. 82. 101. 102. 128, 150, 178. 181.202,210, 240 _ Ribbonv. 180 River. iOl Rustv. 128. 145-6, 18i Salmon. 181 Scribblv. 133. 181 Scribblv Blue. 179 Silkv. 179 Slaty, 180-2 Sour, 292 Spotted. 78. 101. 102, 148. 182, 280 Sugar, 179. 182 Swamp, 102, 179, 180, 182 Sweet. 53. 182-3, 318 Tupelo. 292 Water. 146. 183 Wattle, 183 Weeping, 180 Wnite. 101. 148, 149. 178. 179, 180. 181, 183. 283, 296 Yate. 102 Yellow. 179, 183, 202. 292 York, 102, 183 Gunpowder-charcoal, 91 Gun-stocks, 70 Gurjun. 183 Guru-kina, 183 Guttiferce. 313 Gyninoclddus, 47 ciJiadensis, 163 Gymnosperms, Wood of, 2 Hackberrv, 47, 183-4 Hackia, 203 Hackmatack, 78, 109, 283 American, 283 Hcemitorylon campechi- , dnu7n, 36, 93 i Hainbuche, 188 j Hdkea leucdptera, 240 serkea. 239 Hal. 254 Haldu. 39. 184 Halmilla. 290 Hannoki. 184 Hardwickia hindta, 35. 44. 87. 127 pinndta, 198 Hardwoods. 4 , Haritaka. 184 Harpephyllu m Cdffru m . 167 Harpullia pendula, 78, 101, 291 Harra, 81. 184 Hartogia capensis, 87. 199 Haskinising, 72 Hasselman process. 73 Hat-tree. 282 Hawaii. 107 Hawthorn. 25. 29, 33, 53, 88. 184. 319 Haya, 138 Americana. 139 Hazel. 25. 32. 33. 52, 88. 184-5 Hazel-pine, 182-3, 318 Heart-shake, 56-8 Heartwood, 17, 113. 191 Hedycdryj angustifolia. 86. 187 Helidnthus. 11, 12 Hemlock bark extract. 109 Fir, 185 Japanese. 290 Spruce, 35. 82-3. 185 Western. 185 Heppel white, 85 Heritiera formes. 281 littordlis, 146 281 , Hevmassoli. 268 Hiba, 185 Hibiscus tiliiceus, 164 Hickory. 35. 36, 49, 78. 83, 87. 88. 89, 144. 173, 185-7, 202.210.219,275, 314 Australian. 187 Big (or Thick) SheU bark. 186 Bitter-nut, 186 Black, 186 Mocker-nut. 186 Pecan. 186 Pig-nut, 186 I Shell-bark, 186 | Water, 186 | Hicoria, 49, 83. 87, 185, ' 314 Hicoria dlha. 78, 186 aqudtica. 186 1 glabra. 78, 186 laciniosa, 186 ' minima. 78. 186 ovdta, 78. 186 Pecan, 78, 186 Hie. 208 Hijjul. 234 Hinau. 80. 187 Hinoki, 100, 187 Hip po md n e 21 a n ch in ella , 211 H'nau. 184 I Hobnim, 169 Hohcria popidnea. 199 Hollv 24, 29. 32. 36. 53, ; " 88, 187, 318 ; American. 187 Smooth, 187 Honey-combing. 70 Honej'-locust, 47 i Honeysuckle. 86. 87. 187- I 8, 310, 317 coast. 188 Silverv. 140. 187 wood. 187, 262 Honoki. 187 Hoobooballi, 188 Hooke's law. 115-6 Hoop-tree, 215 Ho pea. 272 Merdnti, 216 odordta. 77, 78, 288, 312 Horco Cebil, 188 mollo, 188 Hornbeam. 29, 31. 32. 35. 39. 52. 57, 62. 83. 87. 88. 92. 187-8, 317 American, 189 Hop, 189 Horse-chestnut, 25, 30. 89, 188 Horseflesh- wood. 151, 210 Hulanhik, 163 Humbah, 146-7 Humbug, 133 Humiria floribujida, 46, 151, 311 Hungarian forests, 97-8 Huoii Pine, 42, 86, 102, 189 Hurihi. 200 Hyawaballi. 302 Hymencea, 126 Courbaril, 80, 105, 204 Ichii, 301 Ichii-gashi, 231 INDEX 335 Idea altissima, 136, 157 Igumza elinameva, 239 Ikusi, 103 Ilex, 53 Aqui folium, 187 Himalayan, 231 opdca, 187, 318 Illarega, 128 Illinois nut, 186 Illi-pe latifolia, 210-1 Malahrorum, 210-1 lUupi, 80, 210-1 Ilumba, 133 Imbool, 272 Imports of timber, British, 95 Impregnation metliods, 72-5 Indian forests, 100 Inga xylocdrpa, 123 Intsia amboinensis, 272 hijuga, 272 Ipil, 78, 100 Iroko, 86, 189-90 Ironbark, 77, 79, 101, 102, 179,181-2,190,279 Bxstird, 17^ Black, 190 Broad -leaved, 190 Grey, 190 Leguminous, 124 Narrow-leaved, 101, 190 Pale, 190 Red, 101, 190 She, 191 Silvcrtop, 102 White, 77, 101, 179, 190 Ironwood, 35, 44, 77, 79, 80,81,82, 87, 100, 123, 189, 190, 197, 215,217,220,233, 261, 273, 283 Black, 192 Borneo, 141 Morocco, 103 Martinique, 203 of India, 87 Wnite, 104, 192, 293 West Indian, 203, 274 IroHun, 153, 192, 263 Italian forests, 99 Itaya-Kayede, 213 Ifci, 145 Ivory wood, 192 Ivy, 29 Ixora ferrza, 203 Jablon, 127 Jacaranda, 192-3 Jacaranda hrasilidna, 236 cabiuna, 193-237, 263 preto, 193, 264 roxa, 193, 264 Jack, 85, 193 Long, 193 Jacksoiia scopdria, 168 Jallow, 203 Jam, 193 Jambolana, 193 Jambool, 193 Jambu, 123, 193 Jamoon, 193 Jam-wood, 219 Jangli badam, 279 Jango-jango, 30J Jaoz, 294 Japanese forests, 99-100 Jarrah, 35, 40, 77, 79. 80, 82, 86, 102, 193-4 Bastard, 209 Jarul, 77-8, 80, 193-4 Jasan, 129 Jati, 285-6 Jelutong, 194 Jemmy Donnelly, 219 Jhand, 44, 194, 311 Jimmy Low, 210 Johnson, Professor, 113 Judas-tree, 194-5 Juglans austrdlis, 221 cinerea, 51, 296, 316 tmndshurica, 198, 296 nigra, 51, 78, 85, 295-6, 316 regii, 51, 84, 127. 294-5 Siebjliiina, 296 June-berry, 272 Jungle Jack, 127 Juniper, 78, 100, 195 Indian, 195 Juniperus, 42 barbadensis, 155 Bzrmudidna, 77, 79, 89, 156 communis, 42, 195 mcLcropoda, 158, 195 Oxycedrus, 42, 67 s'lbinyiies, 159 virginidna, 42, 89, 90, 109, 155, 158 Kaayno, 263 Kaddam, 195 Kahikatea, 254 Kahua, 123 Kakarat, 146 Kakcrilli. 195 Kala Kudu, 163 Kal-otthi, 163 Kalu-medirya, 152 Kaluwara, 169 Kamahi, 195 Kamassi, 195 Kamulboom, 289 Kanapa, 234 Ka-na-zo, 281 Kanigi, 234 Kanthal, 193 Kanyin, 183 Kapor, 80 Karamatsu, 200 Karri, 40, 77, 82, 102, 196, 316-7 Karung, 139 Katamanakku, 290 Kath, 197 Kathitka, 288-9 Katope, lOi Katsura, 198 Kauffmann, Angelica, 83 Kauri, 59, 78, 86, 101, 196 Queensland, 245 Kaya, 197 Kayu Kapor Baru?, 153 Kayu-puti, 152 Keurboom, 197 Keyaki, 100, 197 Khair, 197 Kharpat, 197 Khat, 197 Khit/a anthotheca, 208 grindifolia, 207-9, 315 Parchii, 207-9 seneg ilensis, 207-9 Kheir, lOJ, 293 Khutrow, 277 Kiabocea-wood, 126 Kiamil, 197 Kidgi-kidgi, 158 Kiggzldria Dregedna, 210 Kikar, 135-6 Kiln-drying. 69-70 Ki idal-kindal, 222 King-wood, 105 Kirni, 197 Kirton-wood, 133 Kiefer, 98 Kizi, 87, 198 Klipdoorn, 239 Knxuers, 63 Knighti% excelsa, 86, 262 Knobhout, 198 Knobthorn, 198 Kohekohe, 193 Kohomba, 215 Kohutuhutu, 176 Koko, 296, 322 Kola, 198 Kolavu, 193 336 INDEX Kon, 198' I Koompdssia excelsa, 284 : nmlacensis, 100, 164 | Koon, 198 1 Kooroobovilli, 260 Kooruk, 197 Kos, 193 Kosuui, 198 Kowah, 128 Kowhai, 198 Koya-maki, 253 Kranji, 100, 198, 283 Kranjisepan, 198 Kretti, 198 Kreuzdorn, 150-1 Ku-chandana, 268 Kuchila. 274 Kiilu, 198 Kunzea pedunculdris, 285 Kura, 154 Kurana, 136, 157 Kiiro-matsu, 246, 279 Kurumi, 198 ' Kuriinja, 139 Kusoombli, 198 Kuyon, 285 Kyai-tha, 234 Kyanising, 73 Laboucheria chlorostdcliijs, 124 Lahourdonndisia cahphijl- loidcs, 146 glauca, 146 Laburnum, 25, 36, 47, 84, 85, 313-4 Indian, 311 Lacebark, 199 Lace wood, 87 Ladlewood, 87. 199 Lagerstrcemia Flos-regince, 77, 100, 194 par vi folia, 44, 136 La g u nd r i a Paters dni, 233-4, 291 Lalona, 104 Lancewood, 39, 88, 105, 199, 220-1 Cape, 135 Degame, 166-7 American, 272 Red, 151 Lanumi. 202 Lanza. Professor, 116, 118 Lapacho, 199 La pldcea Hceniat6xylo7i,lQ^ Lap or tea gijas. 221 pliotiniphylla, 221 Lapparent's process, 72 Larch, 60-63. 78-80, 81, 82, 92, 98, 99, 110, 117, 199-200, 321 Larch, American, 283 Black, 283 Chinese, 200 disease, 60-63 fir, 175 Golden, 200 Himalayan, 200 • Western, 200, 283 Ldrix americdna, 78, 109, 283 europcea, 78, 117, 199-200, 321 Griff iOiii, 200 leptolipis, 200 occidentdlis, 283 pendula, 283 sibirica, 99 Laslett, Thomas, 76, 116, 118, 120, 129, 222, 312 Lasrin, 200 Lauan, 79, 100, 201 Laugoussi, 201 Laurdcece, 312 Laurel, 201 Alexandrian. 79, 201,257 Big, 206 California, 201 Madrona, 201 wood. 279 Laurier Cypre, 201 des Iroquois, 269 Grec, 137 Madame. 201 Marbre, 202 Laurus bulldti, 279 nob His, 201 Tdwa, 284 Leatherjacket, 133, 163, 202 Lebuk. 256 Lecythis grandi flora, 217 ■ Olldria, 195 Leguminosce, 44, 311-4 Leichhardt's tree, 154 Lem, 202 Leinben, 202 Leitneria Floridana, 164 Lemon-wood, 29, 202, 235 Leopard- wood, 88, 202 Leptospermum ericioides, 212, 285 fiavescens, 284 lamgerum, 284 scopdrium, 212 Lesura, 256 Lett«rwood, 15, 88, 202 Red, 202 Striped, 202 Lever-wood, 189 Libneh, 259 Libocedrus, 42 ! Libocsdrus Bidwillii, 158 ! deciLrrens,^'2.\bl ,\Q.{} \ tetrdgona, 126 i Licari, 270 I Lightwood, 144, 163 1 Lign-aloes, 169 i Lignification, 12 I Lignum Rhodium, 176 I Rhodii, 264 vitse, 35, 36. 44, 55-6, 79. 105. 140. 149, 202-3, 219,289,293. 311-2 African, 203 Bahama, 203 British Guiana. 203 Guayaquil, 203 Maracaibo, 204 Xew Zealand. 204 Lilac, 51, 204 Cape, 137 Persian, 137, 202 Lime (see Linden). 204 Linden, 24, 29, 35, 36, 40, 53, 62, 84, 89, 318-9 American. 137 j Lingoa-wood, 126 i Linoceria ligustrina, 264 : Lipa.204 j Liquiddmbar styraciflua, ! 53, 82, 181, 182-3, 318 j Liriodendron tulipifera. 36-7, 53, 83, 85, 89, 165, I 318 i Litscea dealbdta, 132 reticulata, 136 calicdris, 211 Lloyd's Register, 77-8 ' Load, 303-4 LobloUv pine, 107 Locust."' 14-15. 36. 46, 80, 105, 123, 204, 313 bean, 154 Black, 14-15. 36. 46, 205 Honey, 47 Logwood. 36, 93, 105, 205 Long-leafed Pine, 107 Looking-glass-tree, 281 Lophira alata, 47, 231-2, 312 Loquat, 205 Lotos-wood, 84 Love -tree, 194 Lucuma galactoxylon, 158, 217 Lysiloma Sdbicu, 77, 79, 86, 105, 265 INDEX 337 Macaddmia ternifolia, 222 Machcerium, 192 firmum, 193 legale, 193 Pseudotipe, 289 scleroxylon, 263 Tipu, 289 Madura, 46 aurantiaca, 235 tinctoria, 93, 176 Macquarie Pine, 189 Madagascar, Timber of, 104 Magnolia, 29, 53, 206 acuminata, 53, 89, 165, 291, 318 grandiflora, 206 hypoleuca, 188 Large-flowered, 206 Mountain, 165 Mahoe, 164 Blue, 206 Mahogany, 4, 35, 37, 50, 57, 78, 85, 86, 88, 105, 117, 193,206- 10, 304, 315 African, 103, 207-9, 315 Australian, 158 Bastard, 193, 209 Bay, 209 Borneo, 79, 209 Brisbane, 148 Ceylon, 85 Cuba, 206, 315 Forest, 101-210, 282 Gambia, 208 Gippsland, 209 Honduras, 207 Horse-flesh, 210 Indian, 85, 157-8 Madeira, 210 Mexican, 207 Mountain, 142, 210 Natal, 210 Red, 210 St. Domingo, 206 Spanish, 206-7 Swamp, 101, 148, 183, 209, 210 Tenasserim, 236 White, 210, 280 Mahua, 210-1 Mahwa, 39, 100, 210- 211 Maiden, J. H., 71 Maire, Black, 211 tawhake, 211 White, 211 Majow, 272 Makita, 211 Mako, 211 Makulai, 136 Malay woods, 100 Malombwa, 104 Mamidi, 212 Mdmmea americdna, 211 Mammee-apple, 211 Mammoth-tree, 140 Manao, 253 Manchineel, 211 Mandania, 159 Madera del diabolo, 234 Mangachapuy, 78, 100, 21 1 Mangeao, 211 Mangifera indica, 212 Mangi-mangi, 212 Mango, 212 Wild, 256 Mangosteen, False, 212 Wild, 212 Mangrove, 212 Red, 281 Manila woods, 100 Manil kara, 197 Manja Kadamba, 184 Manuka, 212 rauriki, 212 Manzana, 127 Manzanita, 212 Mapan, 212 Black, 212 Maple, 24, 29, 30, 32, 38, 52, 62-3, 70, 78, 83, 84, 85, 87, 88, 90, 97, 139, 212- 15, 318 Ash-leaved, 213 Bird's-eye, 84, 212-3, 214 Black, 212, 214 Broad-leaved, 214 Calif ornian, 214 Common, 212-3 Field, 52, 212-3 Great, 281-2 Hard, 88, 214-5 Himalayan, 213 Japanese, 213 Landscape, 215 Norway, 52, 213-4 Oregon, 214 Plane, 52, 213-4 Red, 52, 212, 214 Rock, 52, 78, 109, 214-5 Silver, 52, 215 Soft, 52, 96, 214-5 Striped, 215 Sugar, 52, 214-5 Swamp, 214 Water, 214 White, 215 Maradu, 265 Marble wood, 215 Andaman, 215 Margosa, 85, 137, 215 Mar lea vitiensis, 218 Marrara, 216 Maruba, 273 Marum, 146 Marung, 166 Masaran, 212-3 Massaranduba, 216 Matabeleland woods, 103 Matai, 243 Matches, 96 Matipo, 212 tarata, 212 Maurelatos, 301 May, 184 Mbawa, 104 Mbundu, 189 Measure, Brokers', 304 Measures, Timber, 303-4 String, 304 Medlar, 88 Medullary rays, 9-10 spots, 33, 37 Mee, 211 Melaleuca armilldris, 285 ericifolia, 285 genistifolia, 191 Leucadendron, 101, 152, 285 linariifoUa, 285 squarrosa, 285 sty phelio ides, 285 uncindta, 284 Melanorrhcea usitdta, 293 Meleze, 199-200 Melia, 85 Azadirdchta, 215 Azedardch, 137 composita, 137, 160, 163 indica, 215 Melidcece, 315 Melos, 301 Melyn, 233 Mematsu, 246 Menkabang Penang, 79 Meraban, 216 Meranti, 216 Merban, 216 Meristem, 6, 21 Meridius Idcrymans, 62-3 Mespiloddphne pretiosa, 237 Sdssafras, 270 Mespilus germdnica, 88 Mesquite, 216 Messmate, 101, 216, 239, 280 Mesua ferrea, 35, 44, 80, 81, 87, 192 22 338 IXDEX Mctrosideros florihunda, 128 leptopitala, 220 Mcida, 11, 192, 261 rohusta, 11, 192, 261 scandens, 204 tomenfosa, 78, 79, 192 vera, 192 Mich e lia Ch dmpa ca. 81, 161 Micocoulier, 221 Microscopic examination. 305-6 Mililla, 216 Milkwoofl, 285 Red, 216 White, 152, 191 Milla, 216 MilUtia Kdfra, 87, 293 peyidula, 264 Millingtonia hortensis, 164 Mimosa, 123, 289 AcU, 123 guianensis, 188 odoratissima, 200 Mimusops, 39 eldta, 216 Bdlata, 105, 151 EUngi, 136 g'.'oZ>d5a,105,106,151 hexdndra, 237 Imbricdria, 146 Kauki, 197 littordlis, 87, 151 obovdta, 216 Mine-props, 80 Mirabow, 86, 216 Miro, 86, 243 Mirrors, 26 Miva, 217 Mkonko, 212 M'Xeile's process, 71 Mogum-mogum, 291 Molave, 78, 100, 217 Momi-noki, 301-2 Monkey-pot, 195, 217 puzzle. 244 Monocotyledons, Wood of, 3 Monotoca elUptka, 138, 294 Mooeyang, 144 Moorgiim, 152-3 Moose-wood, 52, 215 Mootchong, 144 Mopane, 217 Mora, 35, 77, 78, 81, 105. 217 excelsa, 11, 78, 217 Moral, 218 Moreton Bay Laurel, 201 Morica, 278 Moricypre, 217 Morinda, 277 citri folia, 150, 218 Morra. See Mora Morrel, 217 Morung Saul, 77 Sal, 265 Jlorus. 46, 218 dlba, 218 indica, 218 rubra, 218 tinctoria, 176 Mountain- Ash. 133-4, 144, 148, 152-3, 178-81, 264 Moutouchi, 217-8 suberosa, 217-8 Mowbulan Whitewood,201 Mozambiti, 203 Muamba-Camba, 190 Mucuniite, 267 Muggle-muggle, 221 Mulberry, 46, 78, 84, 86, 134, 218 Indian, 218 Red, 218 Mulga, 218 Munamal, 136 Mungurra, 180 Munroo, 231 Muoube. 323 Murier, 218 Murraya exotica, 148 Murr-rung, 133 Muruta, 194 Musical instruments^ 37-8, 88 Musk-tree, 218 wood, 87, 218 Mutirai, 271 Mutton-wood, 219 Muwowa, 104 Myall, 44. 89, 218-9 Bastard, 219 Brigalow, 219 Dalbv. 219 Truel 219 Weeping, 219 Mv lady, 220 MjTidee, 282 Myoporum inontdnum. 168 ^ platycdrpum, 168. 267 serrdtum, 195 tenui folium, 267 M\Tobalans, 44, 81 Myrobalan-wood, 220 Myroxylon, 260-1 Jlyrsine tnelanophleos, 139 UrvUlei, 212 variabilis, 219 Myrtle. 102,136, 139.201, 220-1 Black, 220 Brush. 136 Drooping. 220 Grey, 220-1 Xatiye, 220 Red. 220 Ridge, 191 - Scrub, 220-1 Three-yeined, 292 Water, 183 White, 221 Myrtus acmenioides, 221 gonocldda, 191 semenioides, 203 Xa-bhay, 197 Xagamusada, 274 Xagesar, 80, 192 Xagranga. 235 Xahor, 100, 192 Xakkeru, 256 wood. 256 Xalli, 172 Xani, 192 Xaranj, 235 Xaranja, 235 X'aranjillo, 210 X'arinji, 235 Xarra, 78, 100 Xarulgim, 153-4 X^atal timbers, 104 Xaiklea cordifolia, 184 undiildta, 154 X'Dendo, 170 Nectandra, 198, 294 dtra, 79, 82, 154 ' exaltdta, 281 mollis, 82, 154 I Pisi, 156 porphyria, 201 Rodidei, 58, 77, 176, 312 sanguinea. 201 ■ Needle-bush, 240 leayed trees, 320-1 Xeem. 85, 137, 215 Xegundo, 213 aceroides, 213 Xeishout, 86, 274 Xella ulimera, 170 Xepheliu m tomentosum, ' .-^^ Xesoddphne ohtusifolia, 270 : Tarairi, 284 Tdwa, 284 Xettle-tree, 84, 183-4, 221 Giant, 221 — Small-leayed, 221 Xewfoundland, 108, 109 INDEX 339 New Zealand timbers, 103 Nicaragua- wood, 93, 238 Nila-Pila, 168 Nim, 137 Nispero, 269, 272 Nodon-Bretonneau pro- cess, 74 Nogal, 221 Nonna maram, 154 Norway, 90 Notolcea ligustrina, 79, 191 longi folia, 135 Norwegian forests, 97 Nut, Queensland, 222 Nuxia fiorihunda, 293 Nyssa muUifldra, 183 sylvdtica, 89 tomantosa, 178, 292 uni flora, 178, 292 Oak, 4, 9, 15, 18, 23-33, 35, 36, 37, 39, 49, 55, 59, 60-4, 70, 77, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 88, 89, 92, 97, 98, 99, 103, 110, 222-34, 304, 314 Adriatic, 77, 99, 117, 225-6 African, 47, 57, 77, 80, 103, 117, 231-2, 312 American, 77, 226- 230 White, 89, 314 Baltic, 98 Baltimore, 230 Basket, 227 Black, 49, 228-9, 230 Bog, 223 Botany, 232-3 Bay, 232 British, 222-5 Brown, 37, 223, 230 Bull, 232-3 Burr, 227 California Chestnut, 229 Canadian, 18, 117 Red, 85, 117, 228 Chestnut, 224, 227 Chinquapin, 227 Common, 222-5 Congo, 150 Cork, 24, 84, 88, 225 Cow, 227 Dantzic, 117, 222, 225 Duck, 229 Durmast, 224 East Country, 98 Oak, English, 18.117,222-5 European, 222-5 Evergreen, 103,226-7 Forest, 232-3 French, 77, 89, 222, 225 Green, 230-1 Grey, 231 Holm, 225, 231 Indian, 234, 310 Iron, 225, 228 Italian, 77, 99 Kermes, 225 Live, 49, 77, 80, 226, 228 Maul, 228 Modena, 99 Mossy-cupped, 225- 6, 227 Mountain, 232 Neapolitan, 99 Over-cup, 227 Peach, 229 Pin, 228 Portuguese, 77 Possum, 229 Post, 228 Punk, 229 Quebec, 229-30 Quercitron, 228, 230 Red, 49, 228-9 Riga, 224 Ring-cupped, 231 River, 146-7, 232-3 Rock, 227 Roman, 99 Salt-water Swamp, 233 Sardinian, 99 Scarlet, 229 Scrub Silky. 213 She, 102, 232-3 Shingle, 86, 232-3 Sicilian, 99 Silky, 86, 101, 233 Silvery, 233 Oaks, Indian, 44, 230-1, 310 Japanese, 231 Oak, Spanish, 77, 229 Swamp, 232-3 Spanish, 228 Tan-bark, 229 Turkey, 225-6 Tuscan, 99 Valparaiso, 228 Wainscot, 225-6, 304 Water, 229 Weeping, 230 Western, 230 White, 49, 78, 81, 229-30, 233, 291 Oaks, Willow, 230 Yellow, 227, 230 Zeen, 226 Ochna arborea, 261 Ocotea hulldta, 37, 77, 86, 104, 279 cernua, 201 Ocuje, 105, 268 Odina Wodier, 197 Odonomokyuku, 322-3 Odours of woods, 37 Oduni, 189 Oelbaum, 234 (Enocarpus B%taua, 238 Oganwo, 208 Okan, 323 Oldfieldia africdna, 57, 77, 80, 103, 117, 287 Olea, 36, 44, 87 ^ Cunninghdmii, 211 capensis, 191 cuspiddta, 234 dioica, 234 europdea, 44, 234 exasperdta, 191 laurifolia, 191-2 lanceoldta, 211 glanduUfera, 234 paniculdta, 191 unduldta, 191 verrucosa, 191, 234 OLedria argophylla, 87, 218 Olina-wood, 234 Olinia cymosa, 238 Olive, 36, 44, 84, 88, 234, 310 Black, 235 bark, 235 Mock, 135, 234 Native, 132, 150,215 in Australia, 234 in North Amer- ica, 234 Wild, 234 Indian, 234 Olneya Tesota, 192 Olse, 125 Olyvenhout, 191 Omatsu, 246 Omorica, 278 Omphalobium Lambertii, 302 Onara, 231 Onoore, 143 Ooday, 197 Opepe, 235 Ophiorrhiza Mungos, 274 Ophioxylon serpentinum, 214: Orange, 29, 88, 235 Oranges, 235 22—2 340 INDEX Oranges, Black, 88, 150 Isative, 235 Osage, 235 wood, 193 Ordnance woods, 76 Oregon Fir, 79, 321 • Pine, 79, 321 Oren, 242 Oreoddphne hulldta, 279 ' fdetens, 37 Orham-wood, 236 Orites excUsa, 233 Osier, Golden, 298-9 Purple, 298 Stag's head, 298 Osiers, 297-8 Osmdnthus americdnus, 234 Osrin, 153 Ostrya carpinifolia, 189 Osun, 192, 263 Osyka, 134-5 Osyris tenuifolia, 267 Ougeinia dalbergioides, 268 Owenia acidula, 257 venosa, 257, 291 Owowe, 322 Paardepram, 198 Pacara, 236 Packing-case woods, 89-90 Pader, 236 Padouk, 83, 85, 100, 236, 311 Andaman, 236, 311 Padri, 236 Pahautea, 236 Paicha, 88, 236 Pajasan, 124 Palisander-wood, 236-7 Palo Blanco, 237 Cruz, 237 Maria, 78, 100, 237, 257 Mulato, 146 narango, 237 Palu, 237 Panacoco, 237 Panagah, 79 Pdnax elegans, 201 Murray i, 239 samhucijolius, 132 Paniala, 272 Pao d'arco, 237 de cobra, 274 precioso, 237 roxo, 177, 260 Papaw, 237 Paper-bark-tree, 285 pulp, 90-1, 109, 110 Papri, 172, 238 Parcoari, 238 Parenchyma, 12, 28 Parindrium laurinum, 211 oblongi folium, 287 Parish-pippul, 292-3 Parrotia persica, 192 Parsipu, 292-3 Partridge-wood, 88, 238 Patanga, 269 Patawa, 238 Paulownia ijiipcridlis, 87, 198 Paving, Wood, 82 Payena Betis, 78, 100, 140 Peach, Native, 257 wood, 238 Pear, 29, 53, 84, 85, 87, 88, 170, 238, 319 Hard, 238 Native, 238-9 Red, 239 Thorn, 239 Wolf, 239 wood. White, 239 Pehuen, 244 Peki, 274-5 Peltogyne confertijl6ra,\11, 260 macrolobium, 78, 177 paniculdta, 260 venosa, 259 Penagah, 209, 257 Penago, 79 Pencil Cedar, 77, 86, 217, 263 wood, 239 Pen-lay, 154 Pentad hurmdnica, 288-9 Pentacleihra filamentosa, 146 Pepperidge, 292 Peppermint, 81, 101, 102, 133, 178,239,280, 282 Bastard, 83, 318 Peral, 238 Periblem, 7 Pernambuco-wood, 238 Peroba branca, 79, 240 de campos, 240 vermelha, 240 Persea gratissima, 135 indica, 210 Persicon, 294 Persimon, 240 Persimmon, 36, 49, 87, 240, 314-5 Peruche, 185 Peziza Willkommii, 60, 62, 200 Philippines, Timbers of the, 100 Export to, 107 Phloem, 9-10, 13 Phung-nyet, 79 Pliylldnthus ernhlica, 126 Ferdindndi, 140, 158, 203 Phylloclddus rJiomhoiddlis, 244 trichonianoides, 81, 283-4 Physocalynuna scaherri- mum, 291 Picea, 42, 275-9 ajanensis, 276, 278-9 alba, 83, 109, 276, 278, 320-1 Alcockidna, 276 boredlis, 275 cephalonica, 99 Engelmdnni, 276, 278 excelsa, 18-19, 38, 78, 81, 82, 83, 88, 89, 97, 98, 167, 275, 277, 320-1 Glehni, 276 Hondoensis, 276, 278 Jezoensis, 278-9 Morinda, 276, 277 nigra, 81, 109, 167, 276 obovdta, 276 Omorica, 275, 278 orientdlis, 275 polita, 276 pungens, 276 rubra, 276, 278 septentriondlis, 275 sitchensis, 276, 278 Smithidna, 90, 277 Picrcena excelsa, 260 Pila Champa, 161 Piles, 80 Pilla marda, 184 murda wood, 184 Pimenta oifkindlis, 88, 240 Pimento, 88, 240 Pin-bush, 240. 310 Pine, 16-23, 36, 43, 70, 81, 84, 96. 97,99,110, 240-54, 304, 321 Adventure Bay, 244 Aleppo, 44, 242 American, 82 Red, 78, 110, 117 Apple, 253 Austrian, 241, 242 A\\Tied, 245 Baltic, 82, 248 Banksian, 110 Bistard, 245 Bhotan, 81, 242 INDEX 341 Pine, Big-cone, 242 Bishop's, 250 Black, 79, 81, 166, 242-3, 246 Austrian, 44 89, 242 Bordeaux, 82, 89 Broom, 246 Brow-n, 158 Bull, 242-3, 252 Canadian Yellow, 57 Red, 57, 110 Carolina, 252 Celery- topped, 244, 283-4 Cembra, 241, 244 Chile, 244 Cluster, 80, 89, 244 Colonial (or Hoop), 248 Common, 166 Corsican, 244 Cuban, 245 Cypress, 42, 79, 81, 101, 102 Dantzic, 78, 248 Dark, 166 Dundatha, 245 Dwarf, 44 Eliasberg, 248 Five -leaved, 242 Flexible, 245 Frankincense, 246 Fox-tail, 245 Gefle, 248 Georgia, 246 Ginger, 158 Grev, 245 Hazel, 318 Heavy- wooded, 243 Hickory, 245 Himalayan, 242 Hoop, 248 Huon, 78, 79, 102 Illawarra Mountain, 166 Indian Blue, 242 Italian stone, 89 Jack, 245 Japanese Black, 246 Red, 246 Jersey, 246 Kauri, 78, 79, 101, 103 Lachlan, 160 Larch, 244 Light, 166 Loblolly, 43, 81, 246 Lodge-pole, 246 Long-leaf, 44, 81, 107, 108, 246-7, 321 Pine, Long-leaf, of Hima- layas, 247 Long straw, 246 Lowland Spruce, 247 Maritime, 103, 104 Meadow, 245 Memel, 78, 248 Moreton Bay, 79, 83, 101, 248 Mountain, 241, 248 Murray, 166 Murrumbidgee, 166 Xew England, 108, 253 New York, 252 Norfolk Island, 248 Northern, 4, 22. 35, 36, 43, 167, 241, 248-50 Norway, 43, 78, 81, 84, 243 Nut, 250 Obispo, 250 Oldfield, 246-7 Oregon, 78, 250, 321 scrub, 246 Oyster Bay, 79, 166 Pitch, 55-6, 57, 78, 79, 81, 245, 251. 304, 321 Pond, 251 Port Macquarie, 251 Prickle-coned, 250 Pumpkin, 252, 253 Prince's, 245 Red,79, 110, 166.246 New Zealand, 262 Riga, 78 Rock, 166 Rosemary, 246 Saldowitz, 248 Sandarac, 166 Sand. 251 Sap. 246 Sapling, 253 Scrub, 166, 245-6 She, 101, 158 Short-leaf, 43, 252 Silver, 253 Slash, 245-6 Soderhamm, 248 Soft, 253 Soft-leaved, 252 Southern, 246 Spruce, 252 Stone, 89, 252 Stringy bark, 166 Sugar, 44, 241, 252 Swamp, 245 Swedish, 248 Red, 78 Pine, Swiss, 38, 82, 88 Stone, 244 Table Mountain, 245 Tamarack, 246 Umbrella, 253 Westland, 253 Weymouth, 44, 253, 321 White, 81, 94, 108, 109, 110, 158. 241, 247, 253-4, 321 of Western North Amer- ica, 254 of New Zealand, 254 Yellow, 78, 79, 241, 242, 245, 253, 246. 254, 321 Pines, Hard, 43, 241, 321 Soft, 44, 89, 241, '321 Pinesse. 277 Piney-Maram, 254 tree, 257 varnish, 254 Pingow, 79 Pink ivory. 104, 255 Pinnair, 279 Pinus, 43, 81, 240-54, 321 Abies. 275 austrdlis, 57, 246 austriica, 89, 241, 242 Balfour idna, 245 Banksidna, 245 Ce'Tnira, 44, 241,242 clausa, 251 Coulter i, 242 contorta, 246 cubensis, 245' densiflora, 246 ecliindta, 43, 252 excehci, 81, 262 flexilis, 245 glabra, 247 luilepensis, 44, 242 inops, 246 ins ignis, 248 Jeffreyi, 242 Lairibertidna, 44, 241,252 Laricio, 44, 242, 244 longi folia, 90, 163 247 — — macrocdrpa, 242 maritiina, 244 Massonidna, 246 mills, 252 montdna, 44, 241, 248 monticola, 254 342 INDEX Pinus JIurraydna, 246 Mughiis, 248 muricdta, 250 falustris, 44, 70, 81, 82, 107, 108, 246-7, 321 Picea. 275 Pinaster, 44, 80, 82, 89, 103, 104, 244 Pinea, 89, 252 ponder 6sa, 243 pungens, 245 pumilio, 248 radiata, 248 resin osa, 43, 57, 78. 79, 81, 243 rigida, 78, 251 rubra, 243 Sahinidna, 250 serotina, 251 Smithidna, 277 Strobus. 44, 57, 78. 79, 81, 82, 89, 94. 108, 241, 253-4. 321 sylvestris, 22, 43-44. 57, 78-9, 80, 81, 82,90,97,98, 108, 117, 167,240, 241, 248-50, 261 Tosda, 43, 81, 107, 246 Thunbergii, 246 uncindta, 248 virginidna, 246 Piptadenia cebil, 165 communis, 188 peregrma, 302 rigida, 127, 261 Piratinera guianensis, 20 Piscidia Erythrina, 168 Pistdcia Terebinthus, 84, 288 Pitch-pine, 35 Pith, 8, 10-11, 24-25 Pithecolobium, 77 Pith-flecks, 33, 37 rays, 9-10, 20, 25, 33 Pits, 13-15 Pittosporum bicolor, 282 phillyr ceo ides, 299 tenuifolium, 212 unduldtiim, 161 PlagidntJms betulinus, 199 Plane, 24. 29, 39, 51, 52, 84. 255-6, 281. 317 Eastern or Oriental. 255 Western or Occi- dental, 255 Pldnera JRichdrdi, 302 Plaqueminier de Virginie, 240 Pldtanus cccidentdlis. 51, 87, 188, 255, 317 : orientdlis, 39, 255 I racemosa, 255 I Plati/lophus trifolidtus, I 125-6 Platymiscium platystdch- yum, 262-3 Plectronia ventosa, 271 Pier o me, 6 Plum. 29, 50, 256 Black, 256 Burdekin, 256 Grey, 220 Hog, 256 Sebestan, 256 Sour, 257 Sweet, 256 Wild, 128 Podocdrpus asplenifdlius, 79, 244 — — coridcea, 299 dacrydiotdes, 254 eldta, 86, 101, 158 ehngdta, 81, 299-300 ferruginea, 86, 243 lati folia, 80, 81, 300 pruinosus, 299-300 Purdiedna, 299 Thunbergii, 80, 299. 300 Totara, 79, 80, 81, 86 Pohutakawa, 79, 192 Polyosma Cunninghdmii, 173 Poison-berry, 299 Polyporus sulphureus, 61 vapordrius, 62 Pomdcece, 319 Pomaderris apetala, 168 Pomegranate, Native, 256 Small Xative, 235 Pomeranzen, 235 Pommier. 127 Poma d'Adaeo, 197 Ponga, 311 Pongdmia gldbra, 139, 311 Ponna, 212 Poon, 32, 79, 80, 257, 313 Bastard, 279 Poonga, 139 Poplar, 18, 29, 33, 35, 36, 55-6, 61, 70, 83, 89, 109, 110, 257-9, 290-1 American Yellow, 36-7, 290-1 ! Aspen, 89 Balsam, 110, 258 Poplar, Balm of Gilead, 258 Black, 24, 258 Italian, 258 Blue, 36-7 Carolina, 258 Grey, 258 Large-toothed, 259 Lombardy, 89 Necklace, 258 Swiss, 258 Virginian, 290-1 White, 36-7,89,250, 290-1 Yellow, 53, 259, 290-1 Populus, 257-9 alba, 259 balsamifera, 258 canescens, 89, 258 dilatdta, 259 euphrdtica, 259 fastigidta, 89 grandidentdta, 135, 259 monilifera, 89, 258 nigra, 258 tremula, 89, 134-5 tremuloides, 135 Porasham. 271 Porcupine-wood, 3, 259 Pores, 39, 309 Poris, 292-3 Porte-noix Torreva 197 Portia-tree 259, 292-3 Powellizing, 74 Powhiwhi, 199 Prickwood, 167 Pride of India. 137 Prince wood, 165 Procambium, 8-9 Proscpis alba, 126 juli flora, 216 nigra, 126 spicvgera, 44, 194, 311 Protedcece, 310 Protoplasm, 6 Protoxylem, 16 Prumnopiti/s spicdta, 243 Prunus, 316 avium, 89 161 Cirasiis, 51, 161 domcstica, 50, 256 emargindta, 162 laurocerdsus, 201 Mdhaleb, 50, 89. 161 Pddus, 50, 161 serotina, 87, 161 spinosa, 51. 144 Prussian forests, 08 Pseudoc€drela exctlsa, 209 INDEX 343 Pseudoldrix Kcempferi, 200 Pseudotsuga Dougldsii, 43, 78, 79, 109, 321 Psychotria ecklonidna, 202 Pterocarpus, 4:4:, 87 angoUnsis, 137, 263 dalbergiotdes, S5,2S6, 311 Draco, 217-8 erindceus, 103, 263 indicus, 83, 100, 236, 311 macrocdrpus, 311 Marsupium, 85, 287, 311 pdlUdus, 78, 100 santalinoides, 137 santaUnus, 78, 93, 100, 268 Plerocclastrus rostratus, 239 Pteroxylon utile, 77, 86, 104, 274 Puhutukawa, 78 Pulia, 283 Punnaga, 2." 7 Puriri, 79, 80, 259 Purple-heart, 85 of Guiana, 259-60 of Trinidad, 260 Pyengadu, 79, 81, 83, 100, 123 Pym-mah, 194 Pynkado, 44, 79, 80, 100, 272 Pyroligneous acid, 92 Pyrus, 29, 33, 134, 319 Aria, 53 Aucupdria, 54, 264 letulcefolia, 88, 288 communis, 53, 88, 238, 319 Mdlus, 53, 127. 319 rivuldris, 128 tormindlis, 53, 272 Qualea coerulea, 177 Quandong, Brisbane. 152-3 Quar, 260 Quarter-sawing, 66 Quassia, 260 Quebrdchia Lorentzii, 260 Quebracho, 93, 260 bianco, 260 Colorado, 260 Queensland timbers, 101 Queenwood, 86, 261 Quercus, 49, 222-31 acuta, 124, 231 Jisculus, 11, 99 Quercus dlba, 49. 78, 81 . 89. 109, 229-30, 314 ■ annnldta, 231 aqudtica, 229 hdllota, 103 bicolor, 49, 230 Cerris, 11, 99, 225-6 chrysolepis, 228 coccifera, 225 cocc inea, 229 densiflora, 229 dilatdta, 81, 230-1 Durdndii, 230 falcdta, 229 fenestrdta, 81, 231 Garrydna, 230 g'llva, 231 glauca, 230-1 Griffithii, 81, 231 grosserdta, 231 Ilex, 49, 77, 103, 225-6. 231 incdna, 231, 310 laimUosa, 44, 81, 231,310 lanceoefolia, 231 lappdcea, 231 —— lobdta, 230 macrocdrpa, 227 Mibeckii, 226 Michauxii, 227 Muhlenbergii, 227 myrsincefolia, 231 pachyphylla, 81, 231 obtusiloba, 49, 228 palustris, 49, 228 Phellos, 230 Prinus, 227 pi/rendica, 77, 99 Eobur, 49, 55-6, 77, 89, 98, 99, 117, 222-5 riibra, 49, 85, 228-9 scmecarpifolia, 81, 220 serrdta, 231 spicdta, 231 Suber, 24, 49, 77, 88, 103. 225 tinctoria, 49, 230 vibrayedna, 231 virens, 49, 77, 80, 226, 228 Quibaba da Musanguc, 208 da Queta, 208 Quina-quina, 260 Quince, 32 Quirapaiba, 146, 170 Radami, 234 I Railroad-ties, 106 Rakt-cliandan, 268 Rakta chandana, 268 Ranai, 261 Ranjana, 268 Raspberry- jam, 102, 219 Rassak, 80, 100, 261 Rata, 77, 261 Northern, 261 Southern, 261 Ratka-chandan, 268 Ravudana, 257 Redheart, 198 Redwood, 42, 57, 81. 85, 106, 166, 192, 239 261 Calif ornian, 261-2, 320 Coromandel, 209, 261 Resin-ducts or passages, 19-20 Resonance of woods, 37-8 Rewa-rewa, 68, 262 BJidmnus cathdrticus, 51. 150-1, 167, 316 Frdngula, 51, 91, 151, 167, 316 Purshidna, 316 Rhizomorphs, 60 Rhizophora mucrondta, 212 BJioddmnia argentea, 221 trinervia, 292 Rhododendron, 33 RJiopala montdrm, 140 Rhus Cotinus, 50, 51, 176, 316 Icevigdta, 282 likida, 282 rhodanthema, 300 Thunbergii, 173 typhina, 51, 280-1 Rift-sawing, 66 Rimu, 86, 262 Rind-gall, 58 Ring-porous woods, 313 Rings, Annual, 2, 3, 28, 39 False, 28 Ring-shake, 55-6 Robinia panacoco, 237 Pseudacdcia, 15, 29, 33,36,46,83, 123. 205, 313 Roger Gough, 145 Rohuna, 209 RoUeston, Sir J. F. L., quoted, 95-6 Ron-ron, 302 Rood Els, 86 Rose, Balkan, 288 femelle, 270 Guelder, 288 344 INDEX Rosemale, 270 Rosewood, 44, 84, 85, 86, 88, 104. 145, 176, 219, 263-4, 267 African, 103, 263 Australian, 158, 263 Bastard, 263, 292 Bombay, 145 Burmese, 236 Brazilian, 263 Canary, 264 Dominica, 165 Gambia, 263 Honduras, 264 Jamaica, 264 Moulmein, 264 ■ Xicaragua, 264 Bosetta, 145 Rowan, 25, 29, 88, 92, 110, 264, 319 Royena lucida, 144 nitida, 145 Ruby wood, 265 Rudraksha chetta, 155 Russian forests, 97 Ryimindra ezcelsa, 188,262 Sabicu, 57, 77, 79, 86, 105, 210, 265 Sadebaum, Virginischer, 159 Saddle-tree, 290-1 Safed Simal, 272 Saffron-wood, 86, 265 Sasun, 285 Sahlweide, 266 St. John's bread. 154 Saj, 44, 100, 265 Sal. 51, 80, 81, 85, 100, 265-6 Sala, 265 Salee, 219 Saliewood, 86, 266 Sdlix, 297-8 I dUm, 89, 298, 319- i 320 i Caprea, 266, 320 frdgiUs, 298, 319- i 20 ! nigra, 298 : ■ purpurea, 298 \ vitelUna, 298-9 Sallow, 266, 320 in Australia, 266 Sally. 178, 266 Black, 144 White, 266 Salting timber, 71 Samandar-phal, 234 Samara rohusta, 39 Samhucus, 51 • nigra, 171 Sandaku. 266 Sandal, 266 Surkh, 268 Sandalwood, 37, 87, 100, 168, 266 Australian, 267 Bastard, 168, 267 East African, 267 Fiji, 267 Fragrant, 267 Indian, 212 Xative, 267 Xew Caledonia, 267 Red, 93, 268 Sandwich Islands, 267 Scentless, 267 Scrub, 267-8 Whit«,266 Yellow, 266 Sandan, 268 Sanders, Red, 93, 100 wood. Red, 268 Yellow, 268, 271 Sandoricum indicum, 212 Sdntalum dlbum, 87, 266 austro-caledonicum, 267 cygnorum, 102 freycinetidnum, 267 lanceoldtum, 267 ohtusifolium, 267 paniculatum, 267 Ydsi, 267 Santa Maria, 86, 268-9 Sao, 288 Sapang, 269 Sapodilla, 86, 151, 269 Sapotdcece, 39, 312-3 Sapota gonocdrpa, 79, 240 Mulleri, 151 Sideroxylon, 151 Sappan, 93 Sappan-wood, 269 Sapucaia-nut, 195 Sapwood, 17, 113 Saqui-saqui, 269 Sarcocephalus corddtus, 154 Sargent, Professor, 108 Saro, 233 Sdssafras, 46, 140, 153. 269-70 Sassafras, 269 Australian, 269-70 Brazil, 270 Burmese, 153 Cayenne, 270 Sdssafras officinale, 269 Satine, 270 rouge, 290 Assam, 153, Satine rubanne, 270 Satin Wahiut, 182-3. 318 Satin wood, 83, 85, 87. 271 in Australia, 271 Xorth American, 271 West Indian. 271 Saul, 265 Savin, 159 Saxony, Forests of, 98 Sawing, 66 Scandinavian timber- supply, 97 SchaapciroUetje, 271 Schawari, 274-5 SchinwL Wallichii, 80, 163 Schinopsis Lorentzii, 260 Schizomeria ovdta, 138, 163, 164 Schleichera trijuga, 198 Schlich, Dr., 90, 96-7 Sciadopitys verticilldta, 253 Scolopia Ecklonii, 239 LeyJieri, 239 Scolytus destructor, 64 Scots Fir, 4, 22 Seasoning, 67-75 Sebestdna officinalis, 256 Secondary tissues, 11 Securipa, 78, 272 Selangan, 272 Sequoia, 42, 106, 166 gigdntea, 140 semper vir ens, 261, 320 Serayah, 272 Service, 53, 272 tree, 272 Sha, 197 Shad-blow, 272 Shad-bush, 272 Shajr-ul-jin, 267 Sharpies, S. P., 114, 120 She-beech, 282 Shelf -fungi. 61 Shembal, 90, 164 She-oak. 32, 33, 86, 102, 232-3 Coast, 233 Desert, 232 Erect, 232 River, 232 Scrub, 232 Stunted, 233 She-pine, 101 Sheraton, 85 Shingles, 82 Shipbuilding woods, 76-9 Shiragashi, 124, 231 Shittim-wood, 151, 272 Shoe-pegs, 96 INDEX 345 Shoondul. 81, 272 Shorea Mangdchapoi, 7vS, 100, 211 ohtusa, 289 reticulata, 78, 100 robusta, 51, 77, 78, 80, 100, 265-6 siamensis, 173 Talura, 282 Tumhuggdia, 289 Sideroxylon austrdle, 128 horhonicum, 312-3 inerme, 191 Sieve-tubes, 13 Silk-bark, 87, 273 Silk-cotton-tree, 272 Silver Fir, 4, 20, 89, 99 Nikko, 99-100 Silver grain, 26 Silver-top, 179 Silver-tree, 273 Simarouba, 273 Simaruha, 123 amdra, 123, 273 ofjicindlis, 273 Siphonodon austrdU, 192 Sipiri, 177 Siris, 39, 85 Pink, 273 Sirissa, 273 Sirsa, 273 Siruaballi, Brown, 156 Sissoo, 80, 40, 84, 85, 273 Sit sal, 145 Sleepers, 80, 100 Sloanea jumaicensis, 192 Sloe, 144 Sloetia sideroxylon, 100, 283 Snake wood, 202, 274 Sneezewood, 77, 86,104, 274 Soft tissue, 309 Soft-woods, 4, 309, 320-1 Somida, 209 Sophora japonica, 301 Sorhus, 319 domestica, 272 Sosna, 241 Sophora tetrdptera, 198 Souari, 274-5 Soymida fehrifuga, 209 Spearwood, 219, 275 Specific gravity of wood, 34-5, 303 Spindle-tree, 53, 275 Spondias mangifera, 256 pleiogyna, 256 Spring wood, 16 Spruce, 4, 18-19, 35, 42, 60, 67, 70, 81, 82, 88, 89, 97, 98, 99, 109, 110, 275-9, 304 Spruce, American, 276 American Black, 81 , 276 Baltic, 81, 277 Black, 83, 109, 276 Blue, 276 Californian Coast, 278 ■ Canadian, 276 Colorado, 276 Common, 275, 320-1 Double, 276 Douglas, 35, 36, 43. 109, 321 Engelmann's, 276 Hondo, 278 Indian, 277 Hemlock, 35, 41, 109 Himalayan, 276, 277 Japanese, 276 Menzies's, 276, 278 Muskeag, 276 New Brunswick, 276 Northern, 275 Norway, 89, 277, 320-1 Omorikan, 275 Oriental, 275 Polar, 275 Red, 276, 278 Rocky Mountain, 276, 278 SL John's, 276 Servian, 275, 278 Siberian, 276, Single, 278 Sitka, 276, 278 Tideland, 278 Tiger's-tail, 276 Wliite, 83, 117, 276, 278, 320-1 Yesso, 278-9 Yezo, 276, 278-9 Spurious Olive, 191 Stacking timber, 75 Stadniannia sideroxylon, 192 Standard, St. Petersburg, 304 Staphylea piniidta, 53 Star-shake, 56-7 Stave-wood, 279 Black, 273 Stele, 6-7 Stem, Functions of,4, 22-3 Structure of, 8-10 Stenocdrpus, 140 salignus, 86, 233 sinudtus, 175-6, 291 Stephigyne parvifolia, 195 Sterculia cymhiformis, 78, 100, 168 fc^tida, 279 lurida, 282 Stere, 304 Stereospermum chelo- noides, 236 Stinkwood, 37, 77, 86, 104, 279 Camdeboo, 279 Hard-black, 279 Red, 126 Soft Grey, 279 Stone, Mr. Herbert, 310, 315-6, 319, 323 Stone-wood, 146-7, 189, 273 Storage, 75 Stotulari, 194 Strawberry-tree, 201 Strength timbers, 80, 115 Stringybark, 78, 82, 101, 133, 144, 279-280 Almond -leaved, 239 Broad-leaved, 280 Gum-top, 179, 181 Red, 210 White, 81, 239, 280 Yellow, 280 Strychnos coluhrina, 274 nux-vomica, 274 Stryphnodendron guian- ense, 188 Submerged structures, 80 Sugarberry, 183-4 Sugar-tree, 168 Sugi, 280 Sumach, Stag's-horn, 51, 280-1 Venetian, 50, 51, 281 Virginian, 280-1 Summer wood, 16 Sundri, 79, 281 Suriya, 292 iSwdrtzia tomentosa, 210, 237 Swedish forests, 97 Sweetwood, Timber, 281 Swietenia Mahdgoni, 50, 78, 117, 206-7 Swiss forests, 99 Pine, 175,277 Sycamore, 36, 51, 52, 70, 84, 88, 255, 281-2, 318 Bastard, 282 White, 201, 282 Light, 201 Sykomore, 137 Sympldcos martinicensis, 146 346 INDEX Syncdrpia HUlii, 292 lauri folia, 78, 101, 292 kptopetala, 220, 292 Synoumglandulosum, 145, 168, 263, 292 Syringa vulgaris, 51 Syzygium Jambolana, 193 Taaibosch, 282 Tahehuia flavescens, 199 nodosa, 237 pentaphylla, 149 Tacamahac, 258 Tallicoma, 165 Tallow-wood, 78, 82, 282 Talura, 282 Tamarack, 43, 78. 109, 283 Western, 283 Tamar-i-hindi, 283 Tamarind, 87, 283 Tanmrindus indica, SI ,2S3 Tamarind Plum, 198 Tamboti, 192 Tampanis, 283 Tampinnis, 100, 283 Tanderoo, 190 Tandi, 220 Tanekaha, 79, 81, 283 Tangent-sawing, 66 Tan-mu, 266 Tanning woods, 93 Tapang, 284 Tar, 92 Taraire, 284 Tarco, 284 Tarrietia argyrodendron, 82, 273 Tasmanian timbers, 101-2 Tatajnba, 274-5 Tatamaka, 79, 86, 257 Tavola, 126 Tawa, 284 Tawhai, 284 raunui, 284 rauriki, 142 Taxodium, 42 distidium, 165-6 Tdxus baccdta, 42, 301, 320 hrevifolia, 42, 301 cuspiddta, 301-2 Tcheergun, 144 Tea, 284 Teak, 4, 30, 35, 50, 57, 67-8, 76-7, 80, 84, 100, 117, 285- 7, 304, 315 African, 57, 103, 287 Bastard, 85, 287 Johore, 287 New Zealand, 259 Teasshur, 147 Tea-tree, 178, 285 Black, 285 Broad-leaved, 146-7, 285 Mountain, 285 Paper-barked, 101, 285 Pricklv-leaved. 285 River,"' 146-7 Soft-leaved, 285 Swamp, 152, 285 White, 212, 285 Teazle, 88, 288 Tecoma Gudyacan, 111 leucoxylon, 146, 170 pentaphylla, 88, 149 speciosa, 237 Tectona grdndis, 50, 57, 117, 285-7, 315 Tee, 282 Telegraph-polei, 81, lOo, Tendu, 169 T'eng-li-mu, 88, 288 Teng Mang, 153 Tensile strength, 112 Terebinth, 288 — — Syrian, 84 Teredo navilis, 63 Termindlia acuminata, 78, 177 Arjuna, 128-9 hialdta, 202 helerica, 44, 81 Buceras, 235 Catdppa, 126 Chebula, 81, 184 Tanihouca, 201 tomentosa, 44, 265 Termites, 63-4 Terms used, 303 Tetraclinis articuldta, 83, 103, 126, 203, 289 Tetrdnthera calicdris, 211, Tewart, 57, 78, 102, 288 Texo, 301 Thalai, 172 Thea assdmica, 284 Theit-to, 212 Thespesia populnea, 86, 292-3 Theya, 289 Thingan, 78, 100, 288, 312 Thitka, 288-9 Thitkado, 157-8 Thit-si, 293 Thitya, 289 Thorn, 289 Thou inia weinmanni folia, 284 Thujopsis dolahrdta, 185 Thumbagum, 289 Thurston, Professor, 120 Thuya, 289 Thuya articuldta, 289 gigdntea, 40, 42, 67, 82, 156, 160 occidentilis, 40, 42, 82, 160 plicdta, 82 Thyine wood, 83, 289 Til, 37 Tilia americdna, 85, 137, 318-9 argentea, 204 corddta, 204 heterophylla, 137 platyphyllos, 204 Timber, 76, 81, 106, 303 Appreciation of, 95-6, 322 Converted, 303 European, 96-7 exports and im- ports, 96-7 Seasoning of, 113 Tipa bianco, 289 Colorado, 289 White, 289 Tipudna speciosa, 289 Tipula, 33 Tirzah, 165 Tissues, 6 Titoki, 234 Tochi, 289 Todddlia lanceoldta, 104, 191, 293 Toga, 200 Tohi, 278 Toi, 144 Tolmgah, 154 Tong-schi, 242 Tonka-bean, 105, 289-290 Tonquin-bean, 290 Toolookar, 128 Toon, 37, 85, 90, 100, 157-8 Toona, 157-8 Torreya nucifera, 197 Tortrix viriddna, 55 Totara, 79, 80, 81, 290 Touloucouna, 165 Towhai, 195 Tow-war, 140 Trachese, 16, 26-28 Tracheids, 16, 27-28 Trametes radiciperda, 56, 61 TricUlia, 322 Pricuridna, 207-9 Trincomalee-wood, 290 Tristdnia conferta, 101, 148, 149 laurina, 138, 148 INDEX 347 Tristdnia nerii folia, 183 suaveolens, 83, 101, 183 Trochocdrpa lauHna, 136, 138, 161 Trumpet- tree, 290 Tsuga, 41, 290 Araragi, 290 canadensis, 41, 83, 109, 185 31 er tens idna, 4:1, 109, 185 Sieholdi, 290 Tubbil-pulla, 148 Tu Chung mu, 236 Tugga,n-tuggan, 233 Tulip-tree, 36-7, 89, 175- 6, 206, 290-1, 292 Tulip-wood, 37, 78, 101, 165, 291 Tulpenbaum, 291 Tupelo, 89, 292 Gum, 292 Turnery woods, 87 Turnip-wood, 158, 263, 292 Turpentine, 101, 106, 178, 202 Brush, 220, 292 tree, 78-9, 101, 282, 292 Turraic, 140 Tyal-dyal, 132 Ullagal Mabbie, 235 Ulmus, 48, 236 aldta, 48, 173 americdna, 48, 171, 314 campestris, 48, 78, 117 crassifolia, 48 effusa, 173 fulva, 48, 172 glabra, 88 integri folia, 172 montdna, 48, 172 racemosa, 48, 171 Umhellula ria Ca lifornica, 201 Umbomoana, 86, 265 Umbrella-tree, 292-3 Umcaza, 144-5 Umceya, 80, 300 Umdakane, 239 Umdogan, 239 Umguma, 191 Umguna, 86, 135, 234 Umgwenyuizinja, 86, 132 Umkoba, 300 Uranoiso, 135 Umnonono, 238 Umounari, 279 Umtati, 86, 274 Umtensema, 261 Umzumbit, 87, 104, 293 United States forests, 106 Unkaza, 86, 266 Unoyic, 146-7 Unwin, Professor, 113-14, 117, 119 Urajiro-gashi, 231 Uroobie, 293 Urticdcece, 311 Vaivai, 293 Vanatica, 77 Varnish, Black, 293 Burmese, 293 Valeria acumindta, 254 indica, 254 Vdtica Rdssak, 80, 100, 261 Vem-pu, 137 Vene, 263 Venatico, 210 Veneers, 87 Vesi, 272 Vesivesi, 139 Vessels, 11, 26-28, 39 VibHrnum Opulus, 88, 288 Victoria, Timbers of, 101-2 Vidi, 256 Villaresia Moorei, 213 Vinacito, 210 Vine, 48, 293 Violet-wood, 87, 104, 105, 219, 293 Violin-wood, 38, 277 Virgilia capensis, 197 Vitex altissinia, 78, 100, 216-7 divaricdta, 146 geniculdta, 78, 100, 217 lignum-vitce, 203 littordlis, 79, 80, 259 umbrosa, 147 Vitis, 48 vinifera, 293 Vlier, 293 Wa, 137 Wacapou, 294 Wadadura, 217 Wahoo, 173 Waibaima, 294 Wai-hwa, 301 Walking-sticks, 87-8 Wallaba, 294 Ituri, 294 Wallang-unda, 294 Wallundun-deyren, 161 Walnuss, 294 Walnut, 25, 29, 36, 51, 63, 84, 85, 87, 88, 97, 294-6 African, 322-3 American, 85, 295-6, 316 Ancona, 294 Austrian, 295 Auvergne, 294 Belgaum, 296 Black, 51, 78, 295-6 Cape, 279 Circassian, 294 Common, 51, 294-5 East Indian, 296 English, 294 European, 294 French, 295 Grey, 296 Italian, 84, 294-5 Japanese, 296 Manchurian, 296 Queensland, 296 Satin, 182-3, 318 substitutes, 322-3 Turkish, 295 White, 51, 316 Wandoo, 102, 296 Wane, 177 Wangara, 133 Wapa-gras, 294 Ward, Professor H. M., 38. 222 Washiba, 270 Water-bush, 168 Water- tree, 240 wood, 106, 296 Wat-tah, 297 Wattle, 296-7 Black, 296-7 Broad-leaved, 297 Feathery, 296-7 Golden, 297 Green, 297 Hickory, 296-7 Prickly, 297 Silver, 79, 144, 296-7 Weale, Mr. J. A., 306, 309 W einmdnnia Bznthdmii, 202 racemosa, 195 rubifolia, 164, 216 Wellenmispel, 205 Wellingtonia, 140 Wene (in Jolof), 263 West Indian timbers, 105-6 Whistle -wood, 215 Whitebeam, 53 Whitethorn, 88, 184 Whitetop, 144 Whitewood, 36-7, 53, 161, 258-9, 290-1, 297 348 INDEX Whitewood, American, 83. 85, 291 Canary, 83, 85, 89, 290-1, 318 Mowbulan, 201 Widdringtonia juniper- oides, 83, 104, 158 WUtei, 83, 158-9 Wig-tree, 51 Wilga, 299 Willow, 29, 33, 35, 61, 83, 84, 89, 90, 91, 144, 297-9, 319- 320 Bedford, 298 Black, 298 Crack, 298, 319-320 Goat, 320 Redwood, 298 mite, 24, 298, 319- 320 Yellow, 298-9 Wineberrv, 173 Withv, 298 Wood as fuel, 91-2 Brasiletto, 269 Brazil, 269 Cayenne Rose, 270 Colour of, 36-37 Defects of, 55-64 Distillation of, 91 Durability of, 66-7 Function of, 2 Hardness of, 35-36 Honeysuckle, 255 lace, 255 leopard, 64 Microscopic Exami- nation of, 305-6 Structures of, 309-321 oil tree, 183 Our supplies of, 94- 111 parenchyma, 28 paving, 82 pepper, 270 Plants producing, 2-3 Wood, Prices of, 110-11, 322 Rate of consumption, 1, 94 Selection of, 65-6, 112 spirit, 92 Structure of, 9, 309- 321 Testing, 112, 121 Uses of, 1, 5, 76-93 vinegar, 91-92 Waste of, 94 Weight of, 34-5 Woods, Classification of, 38-54 Hard, 4 of commerce, 123- 302 Odours of, 37 Recognition of, 34- 37 Resonance of, 37-8 Soft, 2 Woody fibres, 28 Woolal, 130 Woolly Butt, 101, 178, 180, 209, 299 Worms, 64 Wound-parasites, 60-1 Wright ia tinctoria, 168 Wyagerie, 176 Wych-hazel, 172 Ximenia americdna, 268 Xvlem, 9-12, 15-20 I Xylia dolahriformis, 44, I 79, 81, 83, 100, 123-4 Xylocdrpus Grandtum. 154 Xylomelum fyriforme, 238-9 j Xylosote process, 73 ! Yaba, 127 i Yacal, 78, 100 i Yacca, 299 I Yangoura, 279, 280 I Yaralla, 173 j Yarivari, 199 I Yarrah, 181 Yate, 102, 299 Yaya, 199 Yellow-jacket, 149-150, 181 Yellow- wood, 53, 80, 81, 93, 299-300 Bastard, 299-300 Dark, 300 Deep, 300 Light, 300 Xatal, 300 Outeniqua, 300 Pricklv, 134 Real, 300 Thorny, 300 Upright, 300 White, 300 Yendike, 300 Yen-ju, 301 Yepi, 173 Yew, 3, 37, 42, 63, 85, 87, 88, 170, 301-2, 320 Californian, 301 Japanese, 301-2 Xew Zealand, 290 Pacific, 301 Western, 301 Yezo-matsu, 279 Yiel-yiel, 175-6 Yoke, 302 Ypil, 173 Yw, 301 Zaith, 234 Zintli oxylu m hrachyamn- thum. 271 Clava-Herculis, 134 fldva, 271 I fldridum, 271 ' Zapateri, 260 j Zebra-wood, 105, 302 ' Zelkova, 302 Zelkowa acuminata, 100, 197 ! creiidta, 302 i Zeuzera, 64 I Zizyphus Chlororylon, 160 Zwartbast, 144-5 I Zvbast, 87, 273 BILLING AND SONS, LTD., PRINTERS, GUILDfORD Mr. Edward Arnold's List of Technical & Scientific Publications Extract from the LIVERPOOL POST of Dec. 4, 1907:— "During recent years Mr, Edward Arnold has placed in the hands of engineers and others interested in applied science a large number of volumes which, independently altogether of their intrinsic merits as scientific works, are very fine examples of the printers' and engravers' art, and from their appearance alone would bean ornament to any scien- tific student's library. Fortunately for the purchaser, the publisher has shown a wise discrimination in the technical books he has added to his list, with the result that the contents of the volumes are almost without exception as worthy of perusal and study as their appearance is attractive." Power Gas Producers. Their Design and Application. By PHILIP W. ROBSON, Of the National Gas Engine Co., Ltd. ; .sometime Vice-Principal of the Municipal School of Technology, Manchester. Demy 8vo., cloth, los. 6d. net. The recent enormous increase in the use of gas power is largely due to the improvements in gas producers. This book, which is written by a well-known expert, goes thoroughly into the theory, design, and application of all kinds of plants, with chapters on working and general management. Electrical Traction. By ERNEST WILSON, Whit. Sch., M.I.E.E., Professor of Electrical Engineering in the Siemens Laboratory, King's College, London, AND FRANCIS LYDALL, B.A., B.Sc. Two volumes, sold separately. 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This translation of the " Kurze Lehrbuch der Electrotechnik " is intended to fill the gap which appears to exist between the elementary text-books and the specialized works on various branches of electrical engineering. LONDON: EDWARD ARNOLD, 41 & 43 MADDOX STREET, W. Mr, Edward Arnold's List of Alternating Currents. A Text- Book for Students of Engineering. By C. G. lamb, M.A., B.Sc, Clare College, Cambridge ; Associate Member of the Institution of Electrical Engineers; Associate of the City and Guilds of London Institute. viii + 325 pages. With upwards of 230 Illustrations, Demy 8vo., cloth, los. 6d. net. The scope of this book is intended to be such as to cover approximately the range of reading in alternating current machinery and apparatus considered by the author as desirable for a student of general engi- neering in his last year— as, for example, a candidate for the Mechanical Sciences Tripos at Cambridge. Electric and Magnetic Circuits. By ELLIS H. 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