THE GETTY RESEARCH INSTITUTE LIBRARY Halsted VanderPoel Campanian Collection i THE HISTOEY OF ANCIENT AET. VOLUItlE II. THE HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART, TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN OF JOHN WINCKELMANN, BY G. HENRY LODGE, M.D. VOLUME TWO. LONDON: SAMPSON LOW, MARSTON, SEARLE, & RIVINGTON, Crown Buildings, Fleet Street. 188L En iW[ettt0rtam. TO MY CLASSMATE AND FRIEND, THOMAS SHERWIN, LATE PBINCIPAL OF THE ENGLISH HIGH SCHOOL, BOSTON. CONTENTS. HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. BOOK VI DRAPERY. CHAPTER I. MATERIALS, KINDS, AND SHAPE OE GARMENTS. SECT. PAGE 1, 2. Drawing of Draped Greek Figures 3 3. Drapery of Female Sex 4 4. Materials of Clothing, Linen, and other Light Stuffs ... 4 6. Clothing of Cotton 5 6. „ „ Silk 5 7. „ „ Cloth 6 8. „ „ Gold 6 9. Color of the Dress of Divinities 7 10. „ „ „ Kings, Horses, and Priests 8 11. „ „ „ in Mourning 8 12. Of the Kinds and Form of Dress 9 13. „ Under Garment 9 14. „ Bodice 10 15. „ Tunic, the Square Tunic or Gown 10 16. „ „ with Narrow Sewed Sleeves 10 17, 18. „ Trimming of the Tunic 11 19-21. „ taking up of the Tunic, and especially the Girdle . 12 22. The Girdle of Venus 13 23. Figures without a Girdle 14 24. The Female Mantle, and especially its Circular Form. Of the Great Mantle 15 vm CONTENTS. 25, 26. The Tassels on the Cloak 15 27. The Mantle of Isis 16 28. Juno covered by a Lion's Hide 17 29. The Manner of putting on the Mantle 17 30. The Doubled Cloak of the Cynics 17 31. Further Notice of the Cast of the Mantle 18 32. The Short Mantle of Greek Women 18 33, 34. Supposed Veil of the Vestals 19 35. The Folding of Female Garments 20 CHAPTER II. THE COVERING AND DEESS OF INDIVIDUAL PARTS OF THE BODY. 1. Clothing of other Parts of the Body, — of the Head ... 21 2. The Veil 21 3. Hood of Aged Women 22 4. The Hat 22 5, 6. Covering of the Feet 23 7, 8. Trimmings of Dress 25 9. Elegance or Grace of Dress 26 10-13. Other Ornaments of Female Attire 28 14-16. Ear-rings 30 17. Bracelets 31 18. Rings on the Legs 32 19. Bell on the Neck of the Comic Muse 32 CHAPTER III. THE DRESS OF MALE FIGURES. 1, 2. Draped Figures of the Male Sex 33 3. Dress of the Body ; the Under Garment 33 4. Its Shape .34 5. Breeches or Hose 35 6. The Mantle ; the Shorter Mantle 37 7. The Chlamys, or Shorter Mantle 37 8,9. TheChlEena 37 10-13. The Longer Cloak 39 14. Cinctus Gabinus 41 15. The Apron of the Sacrificial Priests 42 16. Ornaments of Dress 42 17. Dress of the Extremities 42 18. The Hat 43 19, 20. The Head covered with the Toga 44 21. Covering of the Feet . 45 CONTENTS. ix 22. The Sandals 45 2.3. The Shoes 45 24, 25. The Gloves 46 26. Body-Armor 47 27. The Cuirass 47 28. The Helmet 47 29. Greaves 47 30. Swords on Statues 48 31. The Quilted Shield of Pallas 48 32. Roman Fasces 48 33. General Remarks upon the Drawing of Draped Figures . . 49 34. Errors of more Modern Artists in Drapery 49 BOOK VIL THE MECHANICAL PART OF GREEK ART. CHAPTER I. MATERIALS USED IN ART. 1-4. Clay 51 5. Gypsum 6, 7. Ivory and Silver. Explanation of the word " Toreutike " . 54 8-11. Stone ; Marble and its Kinds 54 12. Execution. Statues usually made from a Single Block . . 56 13. First Draught of Statues 56 14. Support of Detached Parts . » 56 15-18. The Finish of Statues 57 19-23. Alabaster 59 24-30. Porphyry, and especially of Hollowed Vases 62 31, 32. Restoration of Ancient Works 65 33, 34. Date of such Restorations 65 35-39. Engraved Gems 66 40. Description of a few of the most Beautiful Engraved Gems . 68 41. Intaglios 68 CHAPTER II. WORK IN BRONZES. 1-3. Preparation of Bronze for Casting 71 4. The Moulds 72 5, 6. The Mode of Casting, and uniting the Different Pieces . . 72 X CONTENTS. 7. Solders 73 8. Inlaid Work 74 9. The Greenish Coat on Bronze 74 10, 11. Gilding 74 12. „ on Marble 75 13-15. Inserted Eyes 76 16. List of the best Bronze Figures and Statues 77 17. In Herculaneuna 78 18. In Rome 79 CHAPTER III. OF THE PAINTINGS OF THE ANCIENTS. 1, 2. Preliminary Remarks 86 3, 4. Paintings found on Walls of which only Drawings have been preserved 86 5- 14. Ancient Paintings preserved in Rome 87 15-27. Paintings in the Herculaneum Museum 91 28-32. Paintings found in an unknown Place 100 33. The Period within which most of the Paintings mentioned were executed 101 34. Whether the Painters were Greeks or Romans 102 CHAPTER IV. THE EXECrTION OF PICTUEES. 1-3. Monochromes in White and Red 105 4. Monochromes and Vases of Terra-Cotta 106 5. The Principal Tone in the Coloring 106 6- 14. Mode of Painting, especially on Walls • , 107 15. Painted Statues Ill 16, 17. Characters of some Ancient Painters Ill 18. Painting in Mosaic 113 19. Use of Mosaic .... 113 CONTENTS. xi BOOK VIIL THE RISE AND FALL OF GREEK ART. CHAPTER I. THE MORE ANCIENT STYLE OF ART. 1, 2. General Considerations as to the Style in Greek Art . . 115 3, 4. The more Ancient Style 116 5-10. Monuments of the Oldest Style ; Coins 117 11. On an Engraved Gem 120 12-14. On Marble 121 15-18. Characteristics of this Older Style 123 19. Imitations of the Earlier Style 125 CHAPTER II. THE GRAND STYLE. 1- Its Characteristics 130 4. Works of this Style in Rome 132 5, 6. The Beautiful Style 132 7, 8. Its Attributes = 133 9-12. Especially Grace 1^^ 13-15. The Higher Grace 135 16-19. The more Pleasing Grace 137 20-24. The Lower, Childish, and Comic Grace 138 25, 26. Two Statues, as Examples of the Lofty and Pleasing Grace 140 27. Of Figures of Children 141 CHAPTER III. THE STYLE OF THE IMITATORS. — COMMENCEMENT OF THE DECLINE AND FALL OF ART. 1, 2. Through Imitation ^43 3, 4. Through Labor on Accessories 14* 5-7. Efforts to return to former Styles. Conjecture in Regard to 8. Characteristics of Style during the Decline of Art . . . 148 9. Great Number of Portrait-Heads in Comparison with Statues 10. Low Standard of Beauty in the Closing Period 148 11. Burial-Urns, most of which are of the later Times ... 149 xii CONTENTS. 12, 13. Works which were executed not in Rome 150 14. The Good Taste remaining even in the Downfall of Art . 151 15,16. An Extraordinary Monument of Art, by Greek Artists . . 152 17. Recapitulation of the Contents of the Chapter 153 CHAPTER IV. OF AKT AMONG THE ROMANS. 1,2. Examination of the Roman Style in Art 156 3-5. Works of Roman Sculptors ; Roman Inscriptions ... 157 6, 7. Imitation of Etruscan and Greek Artists 160 8. Erroneous Belief in a Style peculiar to Roman Art ... 161 9, 10. Injudicious Respect for Greek Works 162 11-13. History of Art in Rome ; under the Kings 163 14-16. In the Early Days of the Republic 164 17-25. After the Second Punic War 165 26. After the Conquest of Macedonia 168 BOOK IX. HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART IN ITS RELATION TO THE EXTERNAL CIRCUMSTANCES OF THE TIMES AMONG THE GREEKS. CHAPTER I. AKT TROM THE EARLIEST AGES TO THE TIME OE PHIDIAS. 1, 2. Preliminary Remarks I75 3-11. List of the most Celebrated Artists during this Time . . 176 12,13. Schools of Art ; at Sicyon I79 14. At Corinth 180 15. In the Island of JEglna 130 16. Of the Condition of Greece shortly before the Time of Phidias, as regards its Form of Government 181 17. Of the most Ancient Works of Art of this Time extant . 181 18, 19. Most Ancient Coins 182 20. Deliverance of the Athenians from their Tyrants ; prepara- tory Steps to Improvement in the Arts and Sciences . . 183 21. Victory of the Athenians over the Persians 183 22-24. Growth of the Power and Courage of the Athenians and otlier Greeks 183 25, 26. The Flourishing Condition of the Arts and Sciences result- ing therefrom 484 CONTENTS. xiu 27. Improvement in Architecture and Sculpture, from the Re- building of tlie Ruins of Atliens 185 28-32. Artists of this Period 186 33. False Coin of Tiiemistocles 188 84. Busts of Herodotus and Euripides 189 CHAPTER II. ART PKOM THE TIME OF PHIDIAS TO THE TIME OP ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 1, 2. Preliminary Remarks 190 3-8. Of the Peloponnesian War 191 9. General View of Art at this Time 193 10. Artists of this Time 193 11-14. Phidias 194 15. Alcamenes 195 16-18. Agoracritus 190 19. Flourishing State of Poetry and Art during the Peloponne- sian War 197 20. Works of Art and Artists during the Peloponnesian War . 198 21-24. Polycletus 199 25. Scopas 200 26t31. Of the Niobe 201 82. Ktesilaus 204 33-36. Of the supposed Dying Gladiator 204 37. Myron 207 88-40. Doubts as to the Age in which he lived 207 41, 42. Scholars of Myron 209 43,44. Refutation of the Opinion that the Deification of Homer belongs to this Period 209 CHAPTER III. ART FROM THE TIME OF PHIDIAS TO THE TIME OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT — continued. 1, 2. The Influence upon Art of the Fall of Athens, and the Res- toration of her Liberty 212 3. Artists of this Period 212 4, 5. Kanachus, Inquiry as to his Age and Style 212 6. Of his Apollo with a Nimbus on his Head 213 7. Naucydes 214 8. Dinomenes 214 9. Patrocles 214 10,11. After the Peloponnesian War, and before the Battle at Mautinea 215 xiv CONTENTS. 12, 13. Artists of this Period 215 14. After tlie Battle of Mantinea 216 15-19. Artists of this Age ; Praxiteles in Sculpture 216 20-22. Pamphilus in Painting 218 23. Euphranor 219 24. Parrliasius 220 25,26. Zeuxis 221 27-30. Nicias 222 BOOK X. HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART IN ITS RELATION TO THE EXTERNAL CIRCUMSTANCES OF THE TIMES AMONG THE GREEKS— co«an«ed CHAPTER I. ART IN THE REIGN OP ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 1-5. General Remarks 225 6-10. Sculptors and Engravers of Gems ; Lysippus 226 11-17. Agesander, Polydorus, and Athenodorus, and their Work, Laocoon 228 18-21. Pyrgoteles 232 22,23. Painters; Apelles 234 24. Aristides 234 25. Protogenes 235 26. Nichomachus 235 27, 28. Portraits of Alexander the Great 235 29,30. Heads 236 31. Statues 236 32, 33. His History on Rilievi 237 34, 35. Portraits of Demosthenes 238 CHAPTER II. ART UNDER THE IMMEDIATE SUCCESSORS OP ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 1. General Remarks 240 2. Influence on Art of the Events in Greece 240 3. Especially of the Circumstances of the Athenians under Antipater 240 4. Under Cassander 241 CONTENTS. XV 5-7. Under Demetrius Poliocetes 241 8. Works of Art of this Time 243 9. A Coin of Antigonus the First 243 10-15. The Farnese Bull, so called 243 16-18. Coins of this Age ; supposed Likeness of King Pyrrhus . 245 19. Of a Statue of Jupiter 247 20. Portrait of Menander, the Comic "Writer 247 21. Reconciliation of Hercules, in the Albani Villa 247 22-24. Art transplanted by Greece in other Lands 248 25. Extant Greek Works executed in Egypt 249 26-28. Of Basalt 249 29,30. Of Porphyry 250 31, 32. View of tiie Art of Poetry of this Period . • 251 33. In Asia under the Seleucidae 252 34. Events in Greece until the Restoration of Art there . . . 253 35. Motive of the Achasan League 253 36. New Form of Government in Greece through the Achaean League 254 37, 38. War of the Ach£ean League with the ^tolians, and In- juries done to Works of Art by both Parties .... 254 CHAPTER III. AUT UNDER THE IMMEDIATE SUCCESSORS OP ALEXANDER THE GREAT (continued). 1-5. Flourishing State of Art in Sicily during the Wars and Desolation in Greece 257 6-10. Flourishing State of Art under the Kings of Pergamus . . 260 11, 12. Restoration of Art on the Return of Peace after the Achaean War 262 13. The Recovery of Freedom in Greece giving a Fresh Im- pulse to Art, though of only Brief Duration 262 14, 15. Artists of this Period, and especially ApoUonius, the Master of the Torso in the Belvedere 263 16, 17. Description of the Mutilated Hercules in the Belvedere . 264 18, 19. The Farnese Hercules 265 20. Renewed Decline of the Arts, and Loss of Greek Freedom 266 21. Capture and Plunder of the City of Corinth 267 22. Objections in Regard to the Statues belonging to this Age supposed to be Extant 267 23. Plunder by the Romans, and Removal of the most Beauti- ful Works of Art in Greece 267 24, 25. Buildings erected in Greece 268 26. Decline of Art in Egypt and Magna Graecia 269 27-29. Decline of Greek Art under the Kings in Syria 269 xvi CONTENTS. 80, 31. End of Greek Art in Egypt ; Eefutation of Vaillant and others 270 32, 33. Restoration of Art in Greece and at Syracuse 271 34. Heads in the Rondinini Museum 272 35-39. Injury to Art from the War with Mithridates and the Ravages in Greece, Magna Gr^cia, and in Sicily . . . 273 BOOK XL GREEK ART AMONG THE ROMANS. CHAPTER I. ■UNDER THE EEPUBLIC. 1. Before the Triumvirate 276 2, 3. Supposed Likenesses of Scipio 276 4. Supposed Shield of Scipio ■ 277 5. Arts encouraged and Works executed by L. Sylla, from the Time of the Triumvirate 277 6. The Temple of Fortune at Prasneste 278 7. The Mosaic found there, and Doubts in Regard to Previous Interpretations of it 278 8. Proposed Explanation 279 9. The Luxury at Rome one Reason of the Admission of the Arts there 280 10, 11. Especially of Julius Caesar 280 12. Of Greek Artists in Rome ; Freedraen-Artists 281 13. Other Celebrated Greek Artists 282 14. Especially Kriton and Nicolaus, Sculptors of Athens . . . 282 15-17. Artists who remained behind in Greece 283 18. Works of Art remaining ; two Statues of Captive Kings in the Capitol 285 19-22. Statue of Pompey together with the Likeness of Sextus Pompey on an Engraved Gem 286 23. Statue erroneously supposed to be that of Marius . . . 288 24. Bust of Cicero in the Mattel Palace 289 25. Supposed Statue of Publius Clodius 289 CONTENTS. XVll CHAPTER II. UNDEK THE EOMAN CiESARS. 1, 2. Under Augustus 290 3. His Public Works generally 290 4, 5. Supposed Statue of Quintus Cincinnatus 291 6. Statues and Works of Art prior to the Time of Augustus. Statues and Portraits of him 292 7. Statues of Cleopatra, erroneously so called 293 8. Engraved Gems of this Time 293 9. Likenesses of Marcus Agrippa 294 10. Conjecture as to a Karyatid by Diogenes of Athens . , . 294 11. Architectural Works under Augustus. Tomb of Marcus Plautius at Tivoli 295 12-15. Paintings in the Tomb of the Naso Family 295 16. Works of Art collected by Asinius PoUio 297 17. The Villa of Vedius Pollio on the Posilippo at Naples . . 297 18. Under Tiberius. State of Greece ; Inclination of Tiberius 298 19, 20. Remaining Monuments of Art. Base at Pozzuolo . . . 299 21. Supposed Statue of Germanicus 299 22. Under Caligula 299 23, 24. Greece robbed by him of its Statues 300 25. Under Claudius. His Character and Likeness 300 26, 27. Examination of the Group of Arria and Psetus, erroneously so called. Erroneous Explanations of this Work . . . 301 28. More Probable Explanation of it 302 29. Criticism of another Group erroneously named 303 30. Refutation of the Naming of Papirius and his Mother ; first from History 303 31. From the Representation 304 32. Doubts in Regard to the Interpretation of the Phaedra and Hippolytus given by me elsewhere 304 83, 34. Probable Representation of Electra and Orestes .... 304 35, 36. Notice of another Statue in the Pamfili Villa 305 CHAPTER III. UNDEU THE KOMAN CiESARS (^COnHnwe^. 1. Under Nero ; his Taste 307 2, 3. Likenesses of him 307 4. Heads, erroneously supposed to be Heads of Seneca . . 308 5. Statue in the Borghese Villa, erroneously supposed to be of Seneca 309 VOL. II. 5 XViii CONTENTS. 6. The Name of Persius, the Poet, given to a Head ; not war- ranted 310 7. State of Art 310 8. State of Greece ; Statues carried from it . 311 9, 10. Statues carried from Greece by Nero 311 11. Description of the Apollo Belvedere 312 12, 13. Also of the Gladiator, erroneously so called in the Borghese Villa 314 14. Under the three Immediate Successors of Nero .... 315 1-5. Under Vespasian 315 16. The Gardens of Sallust, and the Discoveries made there . 316 17. Under Titus 317 18. Works of Art 317 19, 20. Trophy of Marius, erroneously named . 318 21, 22. Portraits of Titus 320 28. Under Nerva ; his Forum 321 24. His Likeness 321 25 Statue of Epaphroditus 321 26. Under Trajan. The llevival by the Emperor of the Prac- tice of erecting Statues to Merit, one Cause of the Pro- gress of Art. Artists who probably lived about this Time 322 27-32. Works executed by Trajan 322 33. Circumstances of the Greeks 326 BOOK XII. GREEK ART UNDER THE ROMANS. CHAPTER I. TJNDEB THE KOMAN CiESARS, 1. Under Adrian. Likeness of him ; his Love of Art . . . 327 2. Promotion of Art by Large Buildings ornamented with Statues ; in Greece 327 3. Especially at Athens 328 4. Art encouraged by others in Imitation of the Example of the Emperor 328 5. In Italy. Of the Theatre at Capua 328 6. His Magnificent Mausoleum at Rome 329 7. His Tiburtine Villa ; the Statues discovered there .... 329 8, 9. The Picture of the Doves, in Mosaic 330 CONTENTS. xix 10, 11. Description of two other such Pictures in the Herculaneura Museum 332 12. Consideration of tlie Art of Drawing under this Emperor . 333 13. Imitation of Egyptian Statues executed at this Time . . 333 14. Works of Greek Art. Two Centaurs in tlie Capitoline Museum 334 15. Lilceness of Antinolis 335 16. Bust of him in the Albani Villa 335 17, 18. Colossal Head of him at Mondragone 335 19. Other Portraits of him 336 20. Of the Antinoiis, erroneously so called, or the Meleager in the Belvedere 386 21, 22. Portraits of Adrian 337 CHAPTER II. UNDER THE ROMAN C^SARS {continued). 1, 2. Under the Antonines. General Keview of Art 340 3-5. Of the Statue of Thetis 341 6,7. Tlie Colossal Head of Faustina 343 8. Busts of these Caesars 344 9. Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius 344 10. Statues of Aristides and Herod Atticus 345 11. Abuse of Statues in erecting them to Undeserving Persons 346 12. Under Conimodus ... . . 346 13-15. Statue erroneously supposed to be that of Commodus . . 347 16-19. Decline of Art under Septimius Severus; Works in the Reign of this Caesar 349 20. Under Caracalla 350 21. Under Heliogabalus 351 22-24. Under Alexander Severus 351 25. Of a Statue of Pupienus 352 26-29. Downfall of Art under GaUienus 353 CHAPTER III. UNDER THE ROMAN C^SARS {continued). 1. Review of Art under Constantine ; in some Works now re- maining 356 2. The Tomb of Constantia ; the great Urn of Porphyry in it, and Pictures in Mosaic 356 3. Remarks upon the Architecture of this Age 857 4, 5. Condition of Art in the Eastern Portion of the Roman Em- pire and at Rome 359 XX COI^TENTS. 6. Decay of the City of Athens ; Destruction of Rome ... 361 7-9. Presumed Statues of Justinian and Belisarius 361 10. Last Fate of Statues in Rome 363 '11. In Constantinople 363 12. Art among the Greeks at later Periods 364 13. Conclusion 364 Notes 367 Explanation of Plates ^ 504 THE HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. VOLUME III. VOL. II. 1 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. BOOK VL DRAPERY. CHAPTER 1. MATERIALS, KINDS, AND SHAPE OF GARMENTS. 1. Having how concluded our examination of the drawing of the naked body, as exemphfied in Greek art, I pass on to that division of my subject which treats of the drawing of draped figures. An investigation of this department of the art is the more necessary in a history designed to communicate instruc- tion, since previous treatises upon the drapery of the ancients have been more learned than instructive and definite ; an artist, after having perused them, would be more ignorant than before. Such works are compiled by individuals whose infoi^mation is gathered solely from books, and not drawn from an observant study of the works of art. I must however acknowledge that it is difficult to determine every point with exactness ; it is not therefore my design to present to the reader a minute investi- gation into the dress of the ancients. I believe that I have said what is most needful, but still there are many deficiencies, and much information which the artist might desire to possess has not been brought forward, especially as any description of the several parts of the dress would be imperfect without an accom- panying drawing. But it would be impossible for any one man to engrave the whole. 4 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. 2. The greater number of male figures in Greek art are nude, even according to the testimony of the ancients. Pliny also says : Groeca res est nihil velare ; at contra Romana ac militaris, thoraces addere ; — " It is a Greek custom to veil nothing ; but, on the other hand, it is a Roman and a military practice to add a cuirass " ; this we see even now exemplified in the statues of the Greek heroes. A treatise on the drapery of Greek art must therefore be confined more especially to the dress of the female sex, with which I shall accordingly commence. All remarks on the Greek male dress specially will be introduced hereafter in connection with the Roman male garb, just as the dress of women among the Romans will be considered at the same time with that of the Greek women. 3. I shall, in the first place, speak of the material of female dress ; secondly, of its different pieces, and kinds, and of its form ; and thirdly, of the ornaments and elegance not only of the dress itself, but also of other portions of woman's attire. 4. The dress of men as well as women consists of an upper and an under garment. The latter, at least in summer, was of linen. As linen was a fabric in common use, Perraidt tias no reason for saying that Augustus, with all his splendor, did not possess a shirt. The dress ot women was partly of linen or some other light material, and, especially among the Romans at a later period, of silk, and partly also of cloth. Even garments worked in gold were known. In works of sculpture as well as painting, linen can be distinguished by its transparency, and flat, small folds. This kind of drapery has been given to figures, not so much because artists imitated the moist linen with which they draped their model, as because the most ancient inhabitants of Athens, as Thucydides and other Greeks also inform us, were accustomed to wear linen. According to Herodotus, this remark should be understood as applying solely to the under dress of women. Linen however wp,s not worn by the Athenian women long prior to the times of these two historians. Thucydides, in his description of the plague at Athens, mentions shirts of very fine linen. If any one should take that fabric, which on female figures appears to be linen, for some otlier light material, still it does not affect my position. Linen must notwithstanding have been a common article of dress among the Greeks, because in the country about Elis the finest and most beautiful flax was cultivated and manufactured. Now as the Samuites wore linen DRAPERY. 5 when on their campaigns, and the Iberians in the army of Annibal had purple-colored linen vests, we can with the more confidence believe that linen was not so rare in Rome as some writers have concluded from a passage in Pliny which they did not rightly understand. It may be inferred that the under dress of women usually consisted of linen, from a mention made by Pliny of the Roman family Serana, the women of which did not wear linen, and in that particular differed from other Roman ladies, by whom it was consequently worn. Arbuthnot is wrong in con- cluding from this statement, that linen stuffs were not in use among the Romans. 5, The principal light material was cotton, which was culti- vated and manufactured in the island of Cos. It was worn not only by the Greek, but also by the Roman women. Men who wore dresses of cotton wei'e stigmatized for their effeminacy. This material was occasionally figured with stripes, as it is seen on Chserea, who is dressed as a eunuch, in the Vatican copy of Terence ; frequently it was embroidered with all sorts of flow- ers. Light stuffs for women were also woven from the wool which grows on certain muscle-shells, of which, even at the present day, especially at Taranto, very fine gloves and stock- ings for winter are manufactured. There were stuffs so trans- parent in texture that they were termed " mists," and Euripides describes the mantle which Iphigenia had thrown over her face as so thin that she could see through it. 6. Silken garments can, it is supposed, be recognized in an- cient paintings by the varying color on the same bit of dress ; hence it is called a changeable color, colore cangiante. This ef- fect is strikingly obvioiis in the " Aldobrandini Marriage," as it is termed, and in the copies of other pictures, — which have been found in Rome and have faded out, — in the Vatican li- brary, and in the museum of the cardinal Alexander Albani. But it occurs more frequently in many paintings from Hei'cu- laneum, — which has been noticed in the catalogue and descrip- tion of them in several places. This changeable color is occa- sioned by the polished surface of the silk of which the garment is made, and the bright reflection from it. It is an effect which is produced neither by woollen nor cotton cloth, by reason of their woolly thread and roughish surface. This is the meaning of Philostratus in the passage where he says, in reference to the mantle of Amphion, that the color of it was not always the 6 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. same, but changed according to the point from which it was seen. We do not however learn from written authority that the Greek women wore silken garments in the best days of Greece, but we see it in the works of their artists, among which the four pictures last discovered at Herculaneum, to be de- scribed hereafter, may possibly have been painted before the time of the Emperors. One would say that the model from which these artists painted had been draped with a silken dress. Silk, as an article of dress, was unknown in Eome until the time of the Emperors. But, as luxury and the fondness for show increased, 'silken fabrics were brought from India, and worn even by men, until prohibited by a sumptuary ordinance in the reign of Tiberius. A peculiar changeable color is to be seen on many garments in ancient paintings, namely, red and violet or azure together, or red in depressions and green on elevations, or violet in depressions, and yellow on eleva- tions. This likewise indicates silken fabrics, though of a par- ticular kind. The threads of the woof and w^arp must each have had its own proper color ; and the one or the other woiild be illuminated, in drapery disposed in folds, according to the differing direction of the folds. A purple color commonly denoted woollen cloth. But it was probably given also to silk. There were two kinds of purple, namely, violet or the blue of the sky or of violets, tav^tvos (1), and the Tyrian. The former color the Greeks expressed by a word the proper signification of which is sea-color ; of this kind was the purple of Taranto. The latter was the more valuable, and was similar to our lake (2). It appears that silken fabrics were woven, colored with both these sorts of piarple. 7. Woollen garments on figures are plainly distinguishable from linen and other light fabrics. A certain French artist (3) who observed none but very fine and transparent stuffs in mar- ble was thinking only of the Farnese Flora, and of figures clothed in a similar manner. It may on the contrary be main- tained that, on female figures at least, we have as many speci- mens of garments which represent woollen cloth as of those representing finer fabi'ics. Woollen cloth is recognized by its large folds ; also by the large creases made in the garment by folding it (4). I shall speak of these creases hereafter. 8. To the different materials of which female dress was made, I add those fabrics which were wrought of gold. They do not DRAPERY. 7 properly belong here, for there is no figure painted in this man- ner ; but the mention of them completes the list of materials used. The rich fabrics of the anftients were not, like ours, made of brass or silver finely drawn and gilded, and spun upon silken threads, but it was massive wrought gold, as Pliny shows in speaking of a cloak of this kind, worn by the younger Agrip- pina, wife of Claudius, when she was present at an exhibition of a naval battle : Nos vidimus Agrippinam Claudii principis, edente eo navalis proelii spectacidum, indutam paludamento auro textili, sine alia materia, — " We saw Agrippina, wife of the Emperor Claudius, at an exhibition of a naval battle, dressed in a cloak of wrought gold, without any other material." This same writer also mentions that even Tarquinius Priscus had worn a golden tunic, tunicam auream. Garments of this kind, made from pure gold, have been found in Eome, during my residence there, contained in two sepulchral urns (5). They were instantly melted by the persons to whom they belonged. The priests of the Clement College, in whose vineyard the last urn of green basalt was found, acknowledged that they had ob- tained four pounds of gold from their garment. It is probable however that they did not tell the truth in regard to its weight. We can form some idea of this fabric from specimens of gold galloon in the Herculaneum museum, which also is woven out of the pure metal. 9. I have also a few remarks to offer upon the color of the dress, especially as no mention of it is made in works which treat of the vestments of the ancients. To begin with the figures of divinities : Jupiter is covered to the lower part of the belly with a white mantle, in the picture which represents him as about to kiss Ganymedes. An ancient writer of a later date gives him a red dress. Neptune, of course, would be clothed in sea-green, as the Nereids were usually painted. Even the animals which were sacrificed to the divinities of the sea were decked with sea- green ribbons. For the same reason, the poets represent the Rivers with hair of this color. The Nymphs also, because their name is derived from water, Nv/x<^77, Xv/n^a, were generally attired in green, in ancient paintings. Wherever Apollo has a mantle, it is blue or violet. Bacchus, who might with propriety wear a purple-red dress, is notwithstanding dressed in white. Cybele, as the goddess of the earth and the mother of all creatures, is clothed in green by Martianus Capella. Juno, in reference to 8 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. the sky, of which she is emblematic, may be dressed in azure ; but the writer just quoted mentions her as wearing a white veil. Ceres should have a yellow dress, because this is the color of the ripened grain (6), in allusion to which the epithet ^avdrj, "yellow," is also applied to her by Homer. In the Vatican library there is a drawing, executed in colors, of an old painting — engraved in my Ancient Monuments — which presents Pallas in a mantle, not azure-colored, as it usually is in other figures of her, but fire-red, probably as significant of her warlike dis- position ; for this was the color worn by the Spartans when en- gaged in war. In a Herculaneum picture, Venus has a loose di-ess of a golden-yellow color, which shades into dark green, — probably in reference to the epithet Golden, by which she is sometimes characterized. A Naiad, in the above-mentioned Vatican drawing, has on a fine under garment of a steel color; thus Virgil clothes the Tiber, — — eum tenuis glauco velabat amictu Carbasus, — but his upper dress is green, such as the poets have given to other Rivers. Both colors are symbolic of water ; but green refers particularly to shores covered by verdure. 10. It will even not be entirely useless, as respects artists, to make some mention of the garments worn by heroes and kings. Nestor threw a red robe about himself. The porphyry from which the robe and the entire dress of three captive kings, in the Medici villa, and of two others, in the Borghese villa (7), is wrought, appears to denote their royal dignity and a purple attire. In an ancient painting Achilles had a sea-green tunic, in allusion to Thetis, his mother, which Balthasar Peruzzi has also noticed on a figure of him on the ceiling of a hall in the Farnesina. Sextus Pompey adopted a tunic of a similar color after the naval victory obtained by him over Augustus, — im- agining himself, as Dion Cassius says, to be a son of Neptune. Augustus presented a sea-green banner, as a reward, to Marcus Agrippa, after the naval battle with Pompey. The priests of all nations were dressed in white (8), 11. In ancient times, the Roman as well as the Greek women wore black when in mourning. This was already an established custom in Homer's time ; Thetis assumes the blackest cloth in which to lament the death of Patroclus. Under the Roman emperors however the usage changed, and women mourned in DRAPERY. 9 white. Though Plutarch notices this custom in general terms, and without specifying any particular period, still it is to be understood solely of that time. Herodian mentioned white gar- ments as being used in mourning, in his account of the obse- quies of the Emperor Septimius Severus. He says that women, attired in white, even sat near the waxen image which repre- sented his body, and lamented him, whilst on the left side was the whole Roman senate, in black. The Roman men invariably wore black when in mourning, as we know with respect to the Emperor Adrian, who wore black for nine days when mourning the death of Plotina, the widow of Trajan. 12, The second point with respect to female dress relates to its different pieces and kinds, and to the form of them. The pieces of which it is composed are three in number, the under garment, the tunic, and the mantle, and their form is the sim- plest that can be imagined. In the earliest ages, the style of female dress was the same with all Greeks, namely, the Doric. At a later period, the lonians departed from the general mode. Artists however seem to have adhered, in the figures of gods and heroes, principally to the most ancient style of dress. 13. The under garments filled the place of the modern che- mise.^ It is to be seen on figures partly undressed, or sleeping, as on the Farnese Flora (9), on the statues of the Amazons in the Campidoglio and the Mattel villa, on the Cleopatra, falsely so called, in the Medici villa, and on a beautiful Hermaphrodite in the Farnese palace. The youngest daughter also of Niobe, who seeks protection in the lap of her mother, has only an under garment. It was termed by the Greeks x'-rwv. Those who were dressed solely in an under garment, in which the women slept, were termed /AovoTrejrXoi, "single-robed," and /aoi/oxitwcs, "sin- gle-shifted." This article of dress was, as it appears from the figures just mentioned, of linen or some very light fabric, and without sleeves. It was fastened together on the shoulders by means of a button, and entirely covered the breast when not loosed on either shoulder. The Spartan virgins wore a light garment of this kind without any girdle. Occasionally, an edg- ing of some finer stuff appears to have been sewed on, and gath- ered in around the neck of it. As Lycophron describes such a frill on the shirt in which Clytemnestra entangled Agamemnon, 1 This word is used here in its proper sense, as meaning the body-gar- ment either of men or women. — Tr. 10 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. there is more probability that it was also an ornamental trim- ming on the under garment of women. 14. It seems to have been usual for maidens to fasten a band tightly over the under garment, below the breast, for the pur- pose of making and keeping the waist slender, and at the same time of rendering its beauty of shape more conspicuous. This kind of bodice was called by the Greeks Sr^^dSeo-jnos ; and by the Eomans, Castula. We also find that the Greek women, to conceal defects of shape, made compression of the body by thin strips of linden-wood. The custom of lacing must also have ex- isted among the Etruscans, as it is shown by a Scylla on an antique paste ; her waist tapers like a bodice towards the hips. The under garment of persons otherwise entirely naked is con- fined by a girdle, which was not customarily worn, as it appears, in full dress. 15. The tunic of women was usually nothing else than two long pieces of cloth, merely sewed together lengthwise, without being cut into any particular shape, and fastened together on the shoulders by one or more buttons, corresponding to the de- scription, given by Josephus, of the tunic usually worn. At times, pointed hooks were used instead of buttons ; they were worn of a larger size by the women of Argos and yEgina than by those of Athens. This is the square tunic, as it was named. It cannot possibly be cut round, as Salmasius believes ; he attrib- utes the form of the mantle to the tunic, and that of the tunic to the mantle. It is the most usual dress of the figures of gods and heroes. This garment was put on by being passed over the head. The tunic of the Spartan virgins was open below on its sides ; and the front and back parts floated loosely from each other, as may be seen on the figures of Dancers. 16. There is another kind of tunic, with narrow sewed sleeves reaching to the wrist ; hence it was called «ap7rcoToi from Ka.pTo% "the wrist." The younger of the two most beautiful daughters* of Niobe, and the putative Dido of the Herculaneum pictures, as well as the greater number of female figures on the most ancient rilievi, have such sleeves ; besides these, others may be seen on painted vases. Oftentimes the sleeves cover only the upper arm, and are hence termed TrapaTny^u?, " to the elbow " They have buttons from the shoulder downwai'ds. The sleeves on the under garment of men were even shorter than this. When the sleeves are very wide, as on two beautiful statues of BRAPERT. 11 Pallas, in the Albani villa, they belong not to the tunic, but to the under garment. This latter is not cut in any particular way for the purpose of forming them, but, by means of the gir- dle which confines it, is drawn out from the tunic, — which has fallen from the shoulder down upon the arm, — and presents the appearance of sleeves. When, in such a case, the square tunic is very wide, and the ends wliich come upon the shoulders are not sewed, but connected together by buttons, the buttons, having slipped down, are seen upon the arm. Tunics of this ample size were usually worn by women on festival days. But, throughout the whole range of antiquity, there is not a single instance of wide shirt-sleeves, rolled up on the arm, as in mod- ern times, like those given by Bernini (10) to Saint Veronica, in Saint Peter's church, and by other modern sculptors to their female figures. 1 7. The tunic is never found trimmed with a fringe, either on its lower border or elsewhere. I mention this in explanation of what Callimachus terms Aeyvwrov on the tunic of Diana, and which was understood by ancient as well as modern commenta- tors to mean tassels or fringes. Spanheim alone understands by the word stripes woven into the tunic lengthwise. Calli- machus introduces the goddess making a request to Jupiter that she might be permitted, among other things, to wear her tunic tucked up to her knees, .... /cat es yovv fj-expt x^Tcora Zwvvva-Oai XeyvwTov ; but neither in ancient paintings nor on statues is her tunic seen ornamented with fringes, or stripes running from above downwards. On the hem of it, on the contrary, a broad inwoven border is usually denoted; it can be seen most distinctly on the statue of her, in the Hercula- neum museum, described in the sixth book, chapter second, paragraph fourteenth. 18. Hence, I am of the opinion that the word Xeyvcordi/ refers to the trimmed or otherwise ornamented hem of the tunic. For tunics, as well as mantles, were generally ornamented with one or more bands running round their border, w-hich might even be woven in, or embroidered. This is very clearly to be seen in old paintings ; but it is likewise represented on marble. This ornament was termed by the Romans Limbus, and by the Greeks Trt^as, KVKXa<;, and TreptTroSiov ; most usually it was of a purple color. The Etruscan and Roman men even, it is well known, had it on their dress ; but the dress of women 12 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. on its lower part was ornamented with one or more stripes of different colors. The painted figures in the Pyramid of Ces- tius, at Rome, had one stripe. There are two yellow stripes on the tunic of the female harp-player (11) in the so-called " Aldobrandini Marriage." The tunic of Roma, in the Barbe- rini palace, has three red stripes, with white flowers wrought on them ; and there are four bands on a figure in one of those Herculaneum pictures which are drawn in one color on marble. Such stripes are also painted on a statue of Diana, of the most ancient style, in the Herculaneum museum, of which mention has already been made. 19. Not only virgins, but even married women, confined the tunic just below the bosom. This is the practice even now in some parts of Greece, and it was usual with the Jewish high- priests. A person thus girdled was said to he tuclced vp high, (3a0vC(^vo<;, which is an epithet frequently applied to Greek women by Homer (12) and other poets. This band, or girdle, termed by the Greeks rama, o-Tp64>Lov (13), and also ixCrpa (14), is visible on most figures (15). Three points with knots in them hang from both ends of it on the breast of a small Pallas of bronze, in the Albani villa, and also on the female figures of the most beautiful vase of the Hamilton collection. This band is tied below the breast, generally in a . single, but sometimes in a double knot, though it is not visible on the two most beautiful daughters of Niobe. On the younger of the two, the girdle passes over both shoulders and the back, and around the body, as seen on the four Caryatides, of the size of life, which were found in April, 1761, near Mount Por- tio, not far from Frascati. When it was disposed in this man- ner, it had a particular name, at least at a later period, namely, siiccindormm or hracile. We see by the figures of the Vatican Terence, that the tunic was confined in this way by two straps, which must have been fastened above on the shoulder, for when they are untied, as seen on some figures, they hang down on both sides ; but, when tied, they sustained the girdle which encircled the body below the breast. We must sxippose the girdle, ratvia, to have been of this length, since Longus (16) represents Chloe allowing hers to be used, for want of a rope, in drawing her lover Daphnis out of a wolf's den. The en- graving makes it a head-band, but that is an impossibility. The girdle of some figures is as broad as a horse-girth, as, for DRAPERY. 13 instance, that of the almost colossal Muse (17) in the Can- cellaria, of the Aurora on the arch of Constantine, and of a Bacchante in the Madama villa, outside of Rome. The Muse of tragedy commonly has a broad girdle, which, on a large sepulchral urn, appears as if embroidered. Urania ^ also has occasionally such a broad girdle (18). There is a fragment of the poet Turpilius remaining, in which a young maiden says. Me miseram, quod inter vias epistola excidit milii inter tuni- culam et strophium collocata, " How unfortunate I am ! the letter which I placed between my tunicle and girdle is lost." Some one (19) tries to make it out from this passage, that a particular form had, in the course of time, been given to the girdle. But this conclusion by no means follows ; the distressed damsel is speaking of a letter which she had placed between the under garment and tunic, under her girdle. 20. The girdle of the Amazons alone is not placed directly below the bosom, but, as with men, it Hes about the hips. It served not so much to confine or sustain their tunic as to gird them, — in allusion to their warlike disposition. To gird, in Homer, signifies to prepare for battle; hence this band on them is properly to be termed a girdle. In the Farnese palace there is an Amazon, under the size of life, falling wounded from her horse, with her girdle confined close below the breasts ; this however is a solitary instance. 21. From what has just been stated, the meaning of Philos- tratus becomes clearer in that passage in which he says, that in a picture Comus is represented surrounded by women and men, the latter wearing women's shoes, and tucked up or gir- dled, contrary to usage, kol Cwvvvvtul irapa to otWov ; that is, the men wore their girdles, like women, below the breast. But flute-players, also, were accustomed to appear upon the stage in women's shoes ; this fashion was introduced by Battalus of Ephesus, 22. Statues of Venus, fully attired, always represent her with two girdles. One of them lies below the belly, as it may be seen on a Venus with a portrait head, near the Mars in the Campidoglio, and on the beautiful draped Venus which formerly stood in the Spada palace, and is now in the possession of Lord Egremont, of England. This is the girdle which is peculiar to her, and which is termed by the poets " the cestus of Venus." 1 Plate I. ; Plate II. ; Plate III. See Explanation of Plates. 14 HISTORY OF ANCimi ART. This observation has never been made before. Juno bejged the loan of this girdle when she wished to excite in Jupit(r an ardent desire towards herself, and she placed it, as Homer ;ajs, in her lap (20), that is, about and below the belly, where i lies on the figures above mentioned. It was for the same re.son, probably, that the Syrians gave this girdle to Juno. Goi be- lieves that two of the three Graces on a sepulchral urn holdsuch a girdle in their hands, — a supposition that cannot be prwed. 23. There are a few figures, covered merely by an mder garment that is hanging unfastened from one shoulder, \hich have no girdle. On the Farnese Flora, wrongly so namd, or rather one of the Hours, it has fallen down loosely abou the belly. On the Antiope, mother of Amphion and Zeth\s, in the Farnese palace, and on a statue in the palace of the JVedici villa, the girdle is lying about the hips^ in a manner yhich corresponds to the description given by Longus of his nynphs. Some few Bacchanti in pictures, marble, and on gems, are with- » out girdles, partly to signify their voluptuous softness, — as Bacchus has no girdle, — and partly because, in dancing and jumping, it is an unpleasant restraint upon the movemeits of the body. Hence even the mere position of some mutlated female figures without girdles point them out as Bacclanti ; there is one of the kind in the villa Albani. The figures and statues of female Dancers commonly have no girdle, and their light dress is not confined either below the breast or ovtr the hips, as I briefly noticed in my remarks upon Action. The same may be said of the greater number of the Bacchant, who are represented either dancing or in violent movemen- In ancient times, however, there was one statue of a female Dancer which had a girdle. Among the Herculaneum paint- ings are two young maidens without girdles. One of then has a dish of figs in her right hand, and a pitcher in her left. The other has a dish and a basket. These figures may rep-esent the attendants, AeiTrvo^opot, " food-bringers," upon thos who ate in the temple of Pallas. No meaning has hitherte been attached to them by those who have undertaken to expliin the picture ; and, if they do not denote what I state, they hive no signification whatever. Moreover, women in great afflict on are represented without girdles, especially when grieving for the loss of parents or relatives. Seneca introduces the Trojan 1 Plate III. DRAPERY. 15 women mourning with loosened garments, veste remissa, over the dead body of Hector ; and there is a rilievo in the Borghese villa, which represents Andromache, accompanied by other women, receiving the corpse of her husband at the gate of Troy ; their garments are ungirdled and trailing. This was also a customary observance among the Romans in similar cii- cumstances ; and even the Roman knights ungirdled their gar- ments when they accompanied the body of Augustus to the monument in which it was deposited. 24. The third article of female dress is the cloak. It was termed by the Greeks TreVAos, a word which, though at first applied exclusively to the mantle of Pallas, was afterwards used in speaking of the mantle of other divinities and of men. It was not square, as Salmasius has supposed, but perfectly cir- cular, just as the cloak of modern days is cut. This must also have been the shape of the cloak of men. Though on this point I differ from those who have written upon the dress of the ancients, still their opinion has been derived mostly from books and ordinary engravings, whereas I can appeal to ocular proofs and the observation and reflections of many years. It is impossible for me to engage in the explanation of the ancient authors, or in attempts to reconcile or refute their commen- tators ; I am content to take their remarks as applying to that form of the mantle which I have adopted. Most of the pas- sages in the ancients speak generally of mantles with four cor- ners (21); but there is no difficulty here, if we understand by the word " corners," not a garment cut into four right angles, but one having four points, which, when the cloak was either folded up or worn, arranged themselves so as to correspond to the same number of small tassels, sewed on.^ 25. Two tassels only are visible on most cloaks, worn by either sex, whether on statues, or figures engraved on gems ; the others are concealed by the manner in which the cloak is cast on. Three are frequently seen, as on an Isis, executed in the Etruscan style, on an Esculapius, both of natural size, and on a Mercury, on one of the two beautiful candlesticks of mar- ble, all in the Barberini palace (22). All four tassels are visi- ble on the same number of ends of the cloak of one of two similar Etruscan figures, of the size of life, in the same palace ; on a statue with the head of Augustus, in the Conti palace ; 1 Plate IV., Letter B. 16 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. and on the tragic muse, Melpomene, on the cited sepulchral urn in the Mattei villa. These tassels are evidently mi at- tached to any corners ; indeed, the cloak can have no corners, because, if it were cut square, the folds, which fall in waTes on all sides, could not have been produced by the cast of the cloak. The very same folds are effected by the adjustment of the cloak of Etruscan figures, so that it must consequently have had the same form. 26. Any one can convince himself of this by fastening a cloak together with several stitches, and then casting it about the body like a circular cloak, after the manner of the ancients. Even the shape of the modern chasuble, which is cut roundish before and behind, shows that formerly it was a complete circle and a cloak, which is actually the case among the Greeks at the present day. This vestment was put on by being passed over the head, and for greater convenience in administering the sacrament of the mass, the lower part of it was liaised upvards upon the arms, so that the parts before and behind hung down in a curve. As, in the progress of time, the material of which the chasuble was made became richer, so the garment received, partly for convenience and partly for economy, that form which it assumed when it was raised up, and rested on the arms ; that is to say, its present form. 27. Among female mantles that of Isis deserves especial notice. It generally is trimmed with a fringe, and always broxight over both shoulders down in front, and tied in a knot by two ends, below the breast. In the villa Albani is a figure with such a garment ; it belongs to the second style of Egyp- tian art, and has been already mentioned in the Book which treats on the subject. From the remark just made, the figure in question is to be regarded as an Isis. A mantle knotted in a similar manner ^ was given to all later figures of this goddess which were executed by Greek artists after her worship bad been introduced into Rome, from the largest statue of her, in the palace Barberini, down to the smallest. It is not easy therefore to err in applying the name of Isis to a figure whose cloak is fastened in the manner stated, even if all other chai'ac- teristics should be mutilated or broken oflF. By this means I recognized the small mutilated Isis, in the Villa Ludovisi, men- tioned in the second chapter of the second Book, who is step- 1 Plate V. DRAPERY. 17 ping with the right foot into a small ship. For the same reason must the upper part of a mutilated colossal figure, which stands by the palace of the Venetian Republic at Rome, be viewed as an Isis. It is called by the people Madame Lucretia. 28. A female figure of almost colossal size, in the Paganica mansion, is extraordinarily attired (23). The top of her head is covered with the skin of a lion's jaws, as Hercules is ; the rest of the hide is confined close to the body by means of a broad girdle. It supplies the place of a vest, and hangs down so low as to cover one half of the thighs. This kind of short upper garment is to be found on no other known statue. From mention made of a statue which stood at Argos, and at whose feet a lion's skin was thrown, this figure might be looked upon as a Juno. It is probably the Juno called 'PetwvTy, — a word hitherto unexplained. If we derive this appellation from "Plov (24), "a skin," that is, the Juno covered with a skin, or with a skin waistcoat, then she should be called 'Vuv^v-q or 'Pii/wvt;. There is but a single figure of Juno Sospita, " she that saves or delivers," to be found in marble, and that is on around work in the villa Pamfili, although her image is not rare on Roman coins. It is as usual covered by a doe-skin. 29. The round cloak of the ancients was disposed and thrown about the person, c7ri/3aA.Xeo-(9a6, in various ways. The most usual was to cast a third or fourth of it over the shoulder, which might serve to cover the head. Thus, in Appian, Scipio Nasica cast the hem, Kpdcnr^Sov, of his cloak over his head. Occasionally, the cloak was used in a doubled form ; this man- ner of wearing it is alluded to by the ancient writers, and is also exemplified by statues. In this case it must have been larger than usual. The cloak of the two beautiful statues of Pallas, in the villa Albani, among other instances, is doubled, but it is not cast ; it is drawn under the left arm in front and behind, upwards beneath the aegis on the breast ; and it is fas- tened together and suspended on the right shoulder. 30. We may probably understand by the doubled garment of the Cynics a cloak worn doubled. It is not however doubled on the statue of a philosopher of this sect of the size of life, in the villa Albani (25), As the Cynics wore no under garment, they had more need than others to wear their cloaks doubled. This explanation is more intelligible than anything adduced by Salmasius and others (26). They wish the word " doubled " to VOL. n. 2 18 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. signify the manner of casting the mantle. But it canmt be so understood ; for, on the statue above mentioned, it is usposed as on most figures with mantles. 31. The most usual manner of wearing the cloak is o draw it under the right arm, and cast it over the left sioulder. Occasionally however it is not cast, but hangs suspendtd from the shoulders by two buttons, as on the extremely bautiful and sole statue of Leucothea, in the villa Albani, and on two other statues with baskets on their heads, or Caryatides in the villa Negroni ; all three are of the size of life. We mist sup- pose that at least one third of these cloaks is drawn uider the arm, or cast over the shoulder, which is plainly seen tc be the case on a female figure, above the size of life, in the iourt of the Farnese palace, on which the portion drawn beneath the arm and cast over the shoulder is included and confined by the gir- dle. The train of a cloak, thus suspended from the sloulders, is gathered up and placed beneath the girdle of a Muse above the size of life, in the court of the Cancellaria, and onAutiope in the group of the Farnese Bull so called. Occasiomlly also the cloak was tied in a knot below the breast, as it is m some Egyptian figures, and on Isis generally, which has alreidy been noticed in the third chapter of the third Book. Irstead of being tied, the two ends were sometimes fastened together below the breast by a hook, Trepows, so that probablr one of them was drawn down upon the chest over the shouUer, and the other brought from under the arm. It is somewhat singular that the fragment of a female statue (27) in the villa of Count Fede, on the spot where Adrian's villa once stood, netr Tivoli, has a vestment resembling a net hanging over her cloak, which is knotted on her breast like that of Isis. This net is probably the over garment called ayprjvov, which was a vestment worn by those who were celebrating the orgies of Bacchus, and was also given to figures of Tiresias and other soothsayers. 32. The Greek wonieii had also a small cloak, wHch they used as a substitute for the larger one. It consistei of two parts, which were sewed together below the shoulders, and fas- tened above on the shoulders by buttons, so that openings were left for the arms. This cloak was called by the Romms Eici- niuni. Sometimes it reaches scarcely to the hips ; often, indeed, it is not longer than a modern mantilla. In a few Herculaneum paintings, it is actually made as the women of our day wear it ; DRAPERY, 19 that is, it is a light little cloak, which also comes down over the arms, and was probably cut circularly, so as to require it to be put on over the head. Hence this is probably the article of female dress which was termed (.jkvkXov or kukAcis, that is, a cir- cular garment, from kvkXo^, a circle, and also avafioXmov and afxTre^ovLov. We notice as a singularity a longer cloak, likewise formed of two pieces, a front and a back piece, on the Flora in the Campidoglio. Both sides are sewed together from below up to the shoulders, and buttoned above on the shoulders, leav- ing openings through which the arms may be passed. The left arm is actually passed through one of them ; the right arm has the mantle thrown over it, but the arm-hole is visible. 33. Different figures and statues, with their upper garments or cloak drawn up upon their heads, have been commonly taken for Vestals, notwithstanding such a fashion was common to all women. All however have agreed in calling a head in the Far- nesina, the chin of which is veiled, a Vestal (28). They did not reflect that the most distinctive characteristic of a priestess of this order is wanting, namely, the Infula, a broad band around the head, from which it fell down upon the shoulders. In this way are represented two heads which Fabretti adduces ; one is on a round brass plate, the other is engraved on an onyx. On the former is the name of the person, with the superscription, BELICIAE MODESTE ; on the inside, near the bust, are the two letters V. V., which the writer just quoted interprets to mean Virgo Vestalis, " vestal virgin." On the latter, below the figure, are the letters NERVIRV, which he thus restores, NERATIA, VIRGO VESTALIS. A Vestal would also be rec- ognized by a peculiar cloth or veil, of an oblong shape, upon the head, termed Svffibulum. Such an Infula hangs down, doubled, upon the breast of a figure, under the size of life, in the Barberini palace, to which a head of Isis has been given by its modern restorer. 34. It is necessary however to remark that the cloaks, as well of female as of male figures, are not always thrown about the person in the usual manner of wearing the garment which is plainly to be seen, but arranged in a style which the artist found convenient or serviceable. This is so true, that the paludameiitum, )(XaixvvTrep6€ Kaplan ftdXXe KaXvTrrprjv 'Apyv(f>er]v, — " she threw the white veil over her sweet head " ; mention is also made of one in a Greek epigram. I do not know however whether Helen, covered with white linen, dpyevvrja-L Ka\vil/a[x4vr} oOovrja-iv, or with a thin white texture, eavw dpyfjTi, was veiled with the veils above mentioned. For it is plainly obvious from Pollux (4), that even the Greeks of a later period did not un- 22 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. derstand the precise signification of the words 'Eavos and ITcTr- Ao?, which are found in Homer and other ancient poets. The sole example of the veil of which we speak, to be found on an- cient monuments at Rome, is on a beautiful Mosaic, which was discovered near Atina, in the kingdom of Naples, and now adorns the villa of the Cardinal Alexander Albani. It repre- sents the exposure of Hesione, daughter of Laomedon, king of Troy, to a sea-monster, and her rescue by Hercules, who gives her in marriage to his friend Telamon. She wears a white veil, which is no part of her outer dress, thrown about her head ; and I conclude, from a passage of Cratinus, quoted by Athe- nseus, that it could not have been unusual for women to wear a linen covering on the head. This vestment, which was cus- tomary among the Asiatic women, seems, from its resemblance to a towel in size, shape, and color, to have been termed x^'po' fjLaKTpov, " a towel," as this same writer, Athenteus, shows by quotations from Sappho and Herodotus. Two female figures in Herculaneum paintings have a peculiar covering on their heads, from which it hangs down behind. 3. There is a kind of cap peculiar to aged women, of which one can obtain some idea from the statue, in the Capitoline museum, which goes by the unwarranted name of Praifica. I believe, on the contrary, that it is a Hecuba, with head up- turned as when she saw her grandson, Astyanax, dashed from^ the walls of Troy. The ground of my opinion is, on the one hand, that, on all the monuments illustrative of ancient fabu- lous history, including the figures of nurses, such as those of Phaedra, Alcestis, the daughters of Niobe, etc., Hecuba is the only aged woman represented, and, on the other, because she is always distinguished by a similar coif. A head-dress of this kind is however worn by the figure of a youthful Bacchante ^ on a large round basin of marble, which will appear in the third volume of the Ancient Monuments. A similar one is also seen on two young and beautiful tragic Masks, one in the Albani palace,^ and the other in the Lancellotti palace, and also on the nymph (Enone, the first love of Paris, represented in a rilievo in the Ludovisi villa. 4. But when on a journey or exposed to the sun, women wore a Thessalian hat, which resembles the straw hat, with a very low crown, worn by the Tuscan women of the present day. 1 Plate VI., Letter A. » Plate VI., Letter B. DRAPERY. 23 The hat of the ancients was generally of a white color, which is apparent on various painted vases.^ (5) With such a hat Soph- ocles describes Ismene, the youngest daughter of (Edipus, who had followed her father from Thebes to Athens. A mounted Amazon, contending with two warriors, painted on an earthen vessel in the collection of ancient vases belonging to Signer Mengs, has a hat of this kind, but it has fallen back- wards upon her shoulders. Such a hat is also worn by the figure symbolical of the city Hyrcania, on the pavement at Poz- zuoli, of which an explanation is given in the " Essay on Alle- gory " ; also by a figure, sitting on a rock, executed in high relief, in the villa Negroni, and an erect figure among the " Labors of Hercules," which are represented on a large mar- ble basin, fifteen palms in diameter (ft. 11 Eng.), in the Al- bani villa. The figure, from its attire, appears to be Pallas, as she always aided this hero. As it wears a hat, it may be Pallas engaged in the chase, Pallas the Huntress, — because she also amused herself with hunting, as Callimachus and Aris- tides observe, — for she stands near Hercules at the moment when he overtakes the stag of Mount Taygetus. Again, the hat was a vestment peculiar to the priestesses of Ceres. That which appears to us to be a basket on the heads of the Carya- tides may probably have been an article of dress in some parts of Greece. Even now, the women of Egypt wear something similar to it on their heads. 5. The dress for women's feet consisted in part of entire shoes, and in part of sandals. The former are seen on many figures in Herculaneum paintings (6), in which they are some- times of a yellow color, such as those worn by the Venus in a painting on the walls of the baths of Titus, and by the Per- sians ; also on female statues in marble, as on the Niobe,*^ but these last do not taper towards the toes, and terminate in a rounded point, like the other instances adduced, but are ratlier broad at the toes. The sandals were bound under the foot ; they are generally of the thickness of a finger, and are com- posed of more than one layer. Occasionally five laminae are sewed together, which is indicated by five incised lines on the sandal of a beautiful Pallas in the Albani villa ; the sole in this instance is two fingers thick. Sandals wath four layers were called Quadrisoles. Cork appears to have been used in 1 Plate VII., Letter A. « piate VI., Letter C. 24 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. mcaking the sole, because it is light and absorbs no moisture. It has also been applied to the same purpose in modern days, and hence it has received in Germany the name of Slipper- wood. In Italy, even at the present day, some nuns wear sandals of cork. They were covered above and below with leather, which projected beyond the cork so as to form a rim, which is shown on a small Pallas, of bronze, also in the Albani villa. Of this kind are the sandals of a Pallas, above the size of life, in the villa Ludovisi, of which Antiochus of Athens was the artist ; they are three fingers thick, and are ornamented by three rows of stitching entirely around. Shoes the soles of which were formed of a single thickness of leather, and which were laced on the upper part of the foot, — of the kind usually worn by the peasantry between Rome and Naples, and such as we see on two statues of captive Thracian kings, of black mar- ble, in the Capitol, — were termed aTrASs, " single," and ixovo- TreX/xa vTroS-qixara, " single-soled shoes." 6. The ancients, both men and women, also wore sandals made of cord, and woven like a net ; such are those on the fig- ures of the divinities on an altar in the Albani villa. This kind of shoe appenrs to have been called 'PatSta, a word which Pol- lux explains by iroXviXiKTov vwoSrjfxa, "a sandal woven with many plaits." Another kind of rope-sandal has been found in Herculaneum ; in this the cord is coiled in longish circles. The piece which covers the heel of the foot was also made of cord, and attached to the sandal. Several of such sandals, even for persons of tender age, have been found in Hercula- neum. The buskin was a sandal of varying thickness, but generally of the thickness of a hand's-breadth, which is com- monly given to the Tragic Muse in rilievi. The peculiar form of it is exhibited on a hitherto unrecognized statue of her, of the size of life, in the Borghese villa (7) ; in this instance it is five twelfths of a Roman palm (33 in. Eng.) high. Those pas- sages of the ancients which seem to set all probability at defi- ance in reference to the extraordinary stature of persons on the stage (8) are to be miderstood in conformity to this piece of truthful evidence. The buskin of hunters and warriors ^ is to be distinguished from the buskin appropriated to tragedy. It is a kind of half-boot, and was called by this name, reaching half-way up the leg, and was used by hunters formerly, as it is 1 Plate VI., Letter D. DRAPERY. 25 at the present day in Italy. Diana and Bacchus were accus- tomed to wear it occasionally. This buskin is confounded by most writers with the other. The mode of fastening the san- dals to the feet is well known. On the Etruscan Diana, at Portici, which has been frequently quoted, the straps are red, as they also ai'e on a few other figures in the ancient paintings at that place. I will notice here only the cross-strap at the middle of the sandal, beneath which the foot might be passed, and which then lay on the middle of it. This strap is rarely found on figures of female divinities ; and, even in those in- stances in which it is visible, it lies beneath the foot, in fact beneath the flexure of the toes, and only the eye of it on both sides is displayed, lest it might conceal some portion of the elegant shape of the foot. But it is singular that Pliny, speak- ing of the sandals of the seated statue of Cornelia, mother of the Gracchi, remarks that they did not have the strap in ques- tion. I cannot, on this occasion, forbear remarking that neither shoes nor sandals with heels are found, except the shoes of a female figure in a Herculaneum painting (9). The shoes them- selves are red ; the soles and heels are yellow. Shoe-heels were termed KaTTVfxara, and they were formed of several small pieces of leather fastened together. 7. Having thus noticed the different pieces composing the dress of women, and their shape, I proceed to make some fur- ther remarks on the trimming and elegance of them, and on other ornamental parts of female attire. This is comprehended in the second division of our present review of the drawing of clothed figures. In speaking of the dress, I make a distitfction between its trimmings and its elegance. The latter word I apply to the attire in reference to its kind and fashion, and to the disposition of the upper garments or other light fabrics, and to their folds. The former, which might also be called the dec- orations, are either inwoven, embroidered, or attached. 8. The borders of tunics, as well as of mantles, were generally ornamented with stripes of purple or other colors sewed on ; and the most usual decoration of the hem of female dress is thus denoted, in the easiest and shortest way. The designs are how- ever sometimes more elegant and elaborate, as may be seen on a few vessels of burnt clay, which have been painted with espe- cial industry. The most favorite design for this purpose appears to have been the so-called Mteander (10), to which allusion is 26 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. also made by a Greek scholia. Not only the dress of the women, but also of the men, on the beautiful vase in the Hamil- ton collection, of which mention has been made several times, is ornamented with a border of this description. On this vase a half-naked king is seen, seated and holding a sceptre ; around his mantle runs the Maeander. This Mseander also appears on the dress of an Etruscan figure in bronze. On the vase above mentioned, we see a band running not only over the breast, but also down in front and at the sides, in addition to the one on the lower hem. This band, which is ornamented with embellish- ments, is composed partly of small squares like those of a draught-board, and partly of volutes like the curls of vine-ten- drils. On a vase belonging to the English Consul at Naples, which represents Theseus and Ariadne, a dark stripe studded with a sort of buttonhole runs down the breast of the latter. Moreover, small stars were at times interwoven all over the dress of women. In this manner was also the dress of the hero Sosipolis decorated; even Demetrius Poliorcetes wore a tunic of this kind. 9. The trimming of a dress is to be regarded as bearing the same relation to its elegance that the beautiful does to the pleas- ing. For elegance, which among the ancients belongs especially to the dress of women, is not a property of the dress itself, but is imparted to it by the wearer in the arrangement of its folds. It might even be termed the Grace of dress. It can however be said with propriety only of the upper garment or mantle, because this is arranged according to one's liking, whereas the under garments are thrown into folds and confined by the man- tle and girdle. Elegance can therefore more correctly be at- tributed to the dress of the ancients than of the moderns, which, as worn by both sexes, clings closely to the body, and is there- fore incapable of any freedom of arrangement. From the arrangement of the folds therefore, which diflFers in the most ancient from that of the subsequent periods of art, and the ele- gance of the dress combined, we can derive at once some knowl- edge, not only of the style, but also of the period. The folds on figures of the oldest style are for the most part straight, or in curves slightly sunken. A writer, very inexperienced in these things, pronounces this a universal characteristic of an- cient folds ; he was not aware that the folds on the figures which he cites are in the under dress, and must fall perpendicu- DRAPERY. 2T larly. In the most enlightened times of the art, the artist strove to introduce into the folds of the upper garment or man- tle the utmost variety of arrangement, — the same variety indeed which existed in the real dress, which was probably arranged in the earliest ages precisely in this manner, though there did not exist at that time skill enough to master the infi- nite diversity of folds into which the drapery fell. Now, as the Etruscan upper garments are arranged for the most part in small folds, lying almost parallel to each other, as we have before said, and as the similarity which existed between the most ancient Greek style and the Etruscan extended also to the drapery of their figures, we can, even without any proof drawn from extant monuments, infer that the Greek garments of the older style were also similar to those of the Etruscans. This is precisely the style in which a Diana on an engraved gem, bearing the name HEI°Y, is dressed. The manner in which the name is written places this Heius in the more remote ages of antiquity. Even on figures executed in the best times of the art we find the mantle arranged in flat folds ; this is evi- dent from a Pallas, on coins of Alexander the Great. Such folds alone therefore are no characteristic of the most ancient style, which they are generally assumed to be. In the highest and most beautiful style the folds were more sunken in curves, and, from a desire of attaining variety, the continuity of the folds was broken, in the same manner as the branches of a tree break the continuance of their parent stem, and the course of them all was slightly waving. The diversity and elegance dis- played in the drapery of figures, from paintings on vases, con- sidered as drawings, up to works in the hardest stone, porphyry, are the greatest that can be imagined, and cannot be viewed without astonishment. In large garments, artists observed it as a rule, to keep the folds united in masses ; the mantle of Niobe, the most beautiful upper garment in all antiquity, is an example of this large manner. A modern artist, in his Reflec- tions upon Sculj^ture, did not think of the dress of the mother, when he asserted that there is a monotony in the drapery of Niobe, and that the folds are not arranged understandingly (11). He could not possibly have examined the figure of Niobe her- self, for her mantle may be ranked among the most elegant in the whole range of ancient works. But whenever an artist wished to display the beauty of the naked body, he always 28 HISTORY OF ANCimT ART. made the elegance of the drapery a secondary consideration, which we see exemplified in the daughters of Niobe. Their garments c*ling quite closely to the skin, and form folds only in hollows ; they are, on the contrary, very light and scanty on prominences, merely enough to indicate that they are covered by drapery. We observe in nature that no folds form on any part of the body which is raised, and from which a loose dra- pery falls down on all sides, but that they form in depressions, into which the drapery sinks. The very intricate breaks in folds, after which most modern sculptors and painters particu- larly have striven, were not regarded by the ancients as a beauty. But in mantles which have been cast off, as that of Laocoon is, and in another, thrown upon a pedestal, which is distinguished by the name of EPATfiN, the artist, in the Albani villa, we see how elegantly the folds are broken. 10. The ornaments of which it now remains to speak, namely, those of the head, arms, and legs, belong exclusively to the attire of women. There is scarcely anything to be said of the mode in which the hair of the older Greek figures is dressed, for it is rarely curled, as on Roman heads, and on Greek female heads its arrangement is alwa3's even more simple than on male heads. The hair of figures of the highest style is always combed quite flat upon the head, on which are traced fine furrows run- ning in a serpentine direction ; that of maidens is either gath- ered in a mass on the crown of the head, where it is fastened, or else twisted round so as to form a knot, and confined on the back of the head (12) by means of a bodkin, though the bodkin itself is not visible. The hair of the first and principal female character in Greek tragedies was always dressed with a sim- plicity similar to this. A single Roman figure is to be found, in Montfaucon, on whose head the bodkin is visible ; it is not the bodkin (13) employed to place the hair in regular ringlets, acus discriminalis, as the learned writer supposes. The knot, formed by the hair of women, lies directly against the back part of the head. 11. Occasionally, the hair of women is dressed as we see it on Etruscan figures of both sexes. It is tied at a distance from the back of the head, and hangs down, beyond the band which confines it, divided into large tresses lying close to each other. On the Pallas in the Albani villa, which has been many times quoted, also on a smaller Pallas which has been carried to Eng- DRAPERY. 29 land, and most usually on figures of this goddess, the hair is thus arranged ; so likewise on the Caryatides in the Negroni villa, on the Etruscan Diana at Portici, and on many other figures. This statement is a refutation of Gori's opinion, that hair thus confined is a characteristic of Etruscan workmanship. Tresses twined about the head, such as Michael Angelo has given to two female figures on the monument of Julius III., are not to be found on a single ancient statue. A head-dress of false hair is seen on the heads of Roman matrons ; that of Lu- cilla, wife of Lucius Verus, in the Campidogiio, is of black mar- ble, and so made that the piece can be removed. 12. A hyacinth ine color was frequently given to the hair (14). On many statues it is dyed of a red tinge, which may be seen on the Diana, cited above, in the Herculaneum museum at Portici, and on a small Venus, three palms high (25^ in. Eng.), in the same museum, who with both hands is wringing her wet hair, and also on a draped female statue with an ideal head, in the courtyard of the same museum. The hair of the Venus de' Medici was formerly gilded ; as also that of the head of an Apollo in the Capitoline museum. This fact is however most obvious on a beautiful Pallas of marble, of the size of life, among the Herculaneum statues at Portici ; the leaves of gold were so thick that they could be peeled off; little pieces which fell off as they were loosened were picked up five years since. 13. Occasionally, women caused their hair to be cut off, which is exemplified in the mother of Theseus, and in an old woman in a picture by Polygnotus, at Delphi. When done by widows, as Clytemnestra and Hecuba, it was probably intended to express the constancy of their sorrow. Children also cut off their hair on the death of their father, as we know of Electra and Orestes, and as we see in two statues in the Ludovisi villa, of which I will hereafter speak. Jealous husbands likewise cut off their wives' hair, partly as a punishment for having cast looks of tenderness upon other men, and partly to compel them by tiiis means to sit at home. On coins and in pictures, heads not only of women, but also of goddesses, are found covered with a net, like that worn even now by the women of Italy when in the house. This kind of head-dress was termed KCKpv- €i^, " snake-like arm-band." Occasionally, instead of arm-bands of this kind, actual snakes encircle the arms of the Bacchanti. Armlets resembling a twisted ribbon are also found ; an example of the kind may be seen on a figure in the Albani villa ; they were called o-tp^tttoL But it is deserving of especial notice, that the Roman consuls, when entering Rome in triumph, were also accustomed to wear armlets. They are not worn however by either Titus or Marcus Aurelius, who are represented on their triumphal chariots, either because the ciis- tom had passed away under the emperors, or because such an ornament on a public monument was not considered appropriate to the dignity of the person and the place ^ (17). 18. Even the legs had their ornament. It consists of a band or hoop, which lies above the ankle, and was peculiar to figures of the Bacchanti. On its surface are grooves, the number of which varies. These Periscelides, as they were termed, or rings about the legs, are worn by the female figures on the gem which represents Theseus holding in his arms the dead body of Laia. Sometimes they are found with five grooves, as for instance about the right legs of two figures of Victoria on a vase of baked clay in the museum of Signer Mengs. The women of Eastern lands, even at the present day, wear hoops of this kind about their legs. 19. The small bell which hangs about the neck and on the breast of the Comic Muse, in a few rilievi in the Mattel palace and the museum of the Roman College, is an extraordinary appendage. It might be intended as an allusion perhaps to the bells which, especially in Italy, are hung about the necks of cattle, to denote the Muse of the fields, or the poetic Muse of herdsmen, becaiise comedy had its origin among herdsmen. A remark may be made in this place on the use of bells by the Bacchanti, because three and even four rows of them are seen hung on the breasts of draped male Bacchanals, figured on two sepulchral urns ; one of them is in the garden of the Farne- sina palace. Precisely such bells, with cymbals and a thyrsus, are represented on four similar works in relief in the Negroni villa. 1 Plate VII., Letter B ; Plate VIII., Letter A. DRAPERY. 83 CHAPTER III. THE DRESS OF MALE FIGURES. 1. From the garments worn by women we pass on, in the second place, to those in use among men, with some remarks on which we shall conclude our observations on dress. The smaller number of male figures and statues than of female to which these remarks apply is owing to the circumstance that they are in general represented heroically, and therefore are nude, rather than to the usage of social life. As the dress of the Roman men was not very different from that of the Greeks, I will notice in it, in connection with the latter, whatever may seem to me to be of advantage. The chapter will therefore contain brief remarks upon the form of the garments worn by the Roman men, —for art is occupied principally with their form, and so much can be understood without figures. Under the head of dress I include arms and armor, without however entering into any investigation in regard to them. I shall, in the first place, speak of the body-garments, and next of the dress of the extremities, — head, hands, and feet. 2. It may be stated, in general, of the dress of men, that, whenever the breast of standing or sitting figures, with a man- tle thrown about them, is bare, that is, whenever such figures are without under garments, philosophers, and not senators, are represented ; the latter are always fully dressed. 3. Though the shirt appears to be the most necessary of all the body-garments, yet it was regarded by some people of the oldest times as an effeminate article of dress. The earliest Romans covered their naked bodies merely with a toga, and in this manner the statues of Romulus and Camillus, on the Capi- tol, were represented. Even at a later period, those who strove in the Campus Martius to win the favor of the people, and thus advance themselves to offices of honor, wore no shirt, in order to display the wounds received upon the breast, as tokens of VOL. II. a 34 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. their courage. But the shirt afterward became a common gar- ment, not only to the Greeks, with the exception of the Cynic philosopher, but also to all the Romans. It is related of Au- gustus, that, during winter, he had worn as many as four shirts at one time. On statues, busts, and rilievi, the shirt is visible only at the neck and on the breast, because the figures are represented with a mantle or toga ; one very rarely sees figures merely in a shirt, as they are found in the illustrations of the Vatican Terence and Virgil. Soldiers were punished for slight offences by being compelled to perform some manual labor merely in an under garment. As they were then not girded and armed, they are said, in Plutarch, to be kv xltojo-lv a^wo-rots, " in ungirded tunics." 4. The shirt is properly a tunic with sleeves. It w^as put on over the head, and, when not tucked up, hung as low as the calf of the leg. Its shape may be seen most distinctly on the figure, above mentioned, of a priest of Cybele, in the museum of Mr. Brown, of London, It consists of two oblong pieces of cloth, which are sewed up on both sides, so that even the seam has been clearly indicated. An opening is left through which to pass the arm, and the portion which falls down from the shoulders to the middle of the upper-arm makes, as it were, a short sleeve. There was however, besides this, a kind of under garment in use which had sleeves, though they reached only to the middle of the upper-arm, as one may see by the beautiful senatorial statue in the Negroni villa (1), Hence such gar- ments were termed KoXoftia, " short-sleeves" (2), Short sleeves of this very kind are also worn by a female figure in a Hercu- laneum painting, and by other figures of the same sex. A cer- tain author maintains that the Roman women, and not the men, wore chemises with sleeves. I should like to see the proof of it. He probably meant to say under garments. I cannot re- member to have observed on any male Greek or Roman figures, with the exception of- theatrical figures, under garments with tight sleeves reaching, like those of women, to the wrist. Ac- cording to Lipsius, only Cincedi and Pueri meritorii wore the garb of men with the above-mentioned long and close sleeves. He could not, in afll probability, have known that theatrical figures, representing comic . or tragic personages, were also dressed in this mannei', — which is shown, among other in- stances, by two small comic statues in , the Mattel villa, and by DRAPERY. 35 another, similar to them, in the Albani villa, and likewise by a tragedian in a Herculaneum painting. But the fact can be seen still more plainly in several figures on a rilievo in the Pamfili villa, which was published in the Ancient Mojiuments. Servants did not wear a mantle, and their shirts were tucked up and confined above the knee. Servants in a comedy wear a short upper vest with half-sleeves over a garment with long close sleeves. I have stated that long close sleeves are not to be found on a single Greek or Koman male figure, with the exception of theatrical figures. But they are pecu- liar to all Phrygian figures, of which we see an illustration in the beautiful statues of Paris in the Altemps (3) and Lancellotti (4) palaces, and also in other figures of him in re- liefs and engraved gems. There are two of the former which represent the elopement of Helen, — one in the Spada palace, the other in the Ludovisi villa. Hence Cybele, as a Phrygian goddess, is always represented with such sleeves, — which is strikingly obvious on a figure of her, in the Campidoglio, wrought in relief. For a similar reason, and to denote that Isis is a foreign and strange goddess, she is the only one of all the goddesses, with the exception of Cybele, who has long close sleeves. Those figures also which are intended to personify barbarian nations have their arms covered, after the manner of the Phrygians, with tight sleeves; and when Suetonius speaks of a German toga, he means to convey the idea of a tunic with sleeves. It is certain that the shirts of the Romans, in the earlier periods of their history, had no sleeves. On a fluted marble vase in the Farnese palace, which exhibits a few dancing female Bacchanals, and Silenus, gloriously executed, the shirt of a bearded Indian Bacchus can be seen, and it de- serves especial notice, because it is laced on the breast, — being the only instance of the kind. 5. The breeches in which not only the figures of individuals of foreign birth, but also comic characters, were usually attired, are to be looked upon as under garments. They were generally used upon the stage for the sake of decency. On the comic fig- ures in marble above mentioned, the breeches and stockings are in one piece, as they usually were among the barbarous nations. This induces me to believe that those servants in comedy who were from countries which the Greeks and Romans termed barbarous are represented as clothed in the fashion of 86 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. those countries. One sees moreover breeches reaching below the knees, which is shown by Fabretti, especially on the figure of Trajan; and Herodian mentions that Caracalla had drawn his breeches down from his thighs to his knees, in preparing to satisfy an exigency of nature, when he was assassinated by Martialis. Breeches were in use among the Greeks and Romans, as we see by Herculaneum and other paintings, — thus affording a refutation of the assertions of some learned men to the contrary. The breeches of the supposed Coriolanus in the painting in the baths of Titus reach to the ankles, and fit the leg like stockings ; their color is blue. Female dancers among the Greeks, as with us, wore tight pantaloons. But they were not in common use among the ancients, nor were they, in any form, a usual and constant article of dress. They are to be considered not as a domestic, but as a travelling or military garment. I will take the occasion to remark that they are not happily used on an heroic figure in armor which is merely symbolical, as, for instance, in one of the four modern rilievi in the gallery of the royal castle at Turin. In this case it is intended to symbolize a hero, not to represent a warrior prepared to mount on horseback. Neither can the breeches of a soldier on the well-known rilievo of Saint Agnes, by Algardi, in the church of Saint Agnes, at Rome, be justified. Like those just mentioned they are too wide, and descend to the middle of the calf of the leg. Instead of breeches, bands were in use among the Romans, which they wound about their thighs. I have observed this kind only in a single instance, the statue of a charioteer (5), that is, of a person who had won the prize in the chariot-races of the Circus, at Rome ; it stands m the Negroni villa. It is impossible to say whether the former or the latter was the kind usually worn by Augustus in winter, and which Suetonius terms Feminalia. These bands descend only to the middle of the thigh, and are there fastened by strings. But even these were considered as an effeminacy, and Cicero censures Pompey for wearing them. They had not got to be customary among the common people even in Trajan's time (6). On the triumphal arch of Constantino, the covering of the thighs reaches to just below the knees of the figures of the emperor. The breeches and stockings of the natives of bar- barous countries are made in one piece, and fastened below the ankle by means of the straps of the sandal. But the stockings DRAPERY. 87 were afterwards made separate from the breeches ; hence the origin of the German word for "stockings," which signifies something lopped off, as Eckhart shows in the Ebnerisch Casket. Michael Angelo has therefore committed an error in the ancient garb worn by his Moses, inasmuch as the stockings pass under the breeches, which are tied below the knees. 6. Over the under garment the Greeks threw a cloak, and the Romans their toga. There were two kinds of cloak, — a shorter one, sometimes termed x^a^ii^'s, and sometimes x^atva by the Greeks, and pahidamentum by the Romans ; and a longer one, which is the cloak of common use. 7. According to Strabo, the chlamys, or shorter mantle, was rather oval than round, and was in general the dress of those who were engaged in military service. It covered the left shoulder, and was clasped on the right. It was made short to allow greater facility of movement. That its shape was oval or round is plainly to be seen on more than one statue, but most plainly on a statue, about the size of life, in the papal garden on the Quirinal hill. Hence this mantle is given to heroic fig- ures, and is especially appropriated to Castor and Pollux, though they wear it drawn over both shoulders and confined on the chest. In a passage in Suidas, quoted from ^lian, this manner of wearing the chlamys is stated to be a characteristic mark by which the Dioscuri are distinguished, x^a/^vSas e'xovTe? cTTt Tcoj/ w/xwi/ e(f)r]fjL/ji.€V7]v eKUTcpav, as I have explained in my An- cieut Monuments. Hence Plato's remark to Aristippus, " You can wear the chlamys, or go in rags," signifies his equanimity in prosperity and adversity. At Athens, the chlamys was also the garb of young persons, but of those who, from the eigh- teenth to the twentieth year of their age, were obliged to stand guard in the city and thus prepare themselves for the duties of war. The color of their mantles was originally black, but, in the time of Adrian, the rich orator, Herod Atticus, supplied them with white ones. In the illustrations of the old Vatican Terence, this mantle is worn by almost all young men of free birth, as a garment of general use. When worn by warriors it was usually made shaggy on the inside and trimmed with a fringe, KpocrawroL, for the purpose of warmth. 8. Another short mantle, termed chltena, is to be distin- guished from the chlamys. It was not clasped on one shoulder, but was placed about both shoulders, and, when taken off, 38 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. carried upon them in the same manner as the inhabitants of warm countries are accustomed to carry their jackets, after hav- ing taken them off. This kind of short mantle is given by Ai°istophanes to Orestes, who carries it upon his left shoulder, as I have already observed, gathered together like a cloth ; and in this manner, and in this garb of persons of humble standing, as figurative of his sad and degraded condition,^ the young hero appears before the tribunal of the Areopagus, on a silver vase be- longing to the Cardinal Neri Casini. Plautus terms this fashion of wearing the chlsena, conjicere in collum pallium, " to throw the cloak upon the neck:' coUedo pallio, ''mth cloak gathered up." 9. When on service in the field, the Greeks did not wear a cloak, nor the Romans a toga, but a lighter over garment, which the former termed chlamys, and the latter Tibenum or Pahidamenhim. This garment was likewise round, and must have differed only in size from the cloak and toga. The asser- tions which have been made in regard to a diff"erent form of it are refuted by visible proofs. For all statues wearing a coat of mail, and even some others, — as a nude Augustus in the Albani villa. Marcus Aurelius on horseback, and two captive kings of black marble, in the Campidoglio, also the busts of the Csesars, — have this garment, which one clearly sees must have been not square, but round ; even the folds alone prove this t#l)e its shape ; for if it were not, it would have been impossible to have arranged them in their present manner. This mantle was fastened, generally on the right shoulder, by a large button, and hung down over the left shoulder, which it covered, so that the right- arm remained free. Occasionally the button rests upon the left shoulder, as in the busts of Drusus, Claudius, Galba, Trajan, an Adrian, and a Marcus Aurelius, in the Campidoglio. The paludamentum was to the Romans what the chlamys was to the Greeks. It was not a coat of mail, as some have supposed, but a garment of a purple color, 'nnras cttoA^, vestiius equestris, " a riding-dress," the shape of which was rather oval than round, and smaller than the cloak ordinarily worn by the Greeks. I am astonished that a member of the French Academy could have a doubt whether the paludamentum was a hauberk or a cloak. It was worn by the Emperors and by the Ceesars in virtue of the honor conferred on them by this title of " Emperor," though neither Tiberius nor Claudius was willing to assume it ; their 1 Plate IX., Letter A. LRAPEEr. 39 successors however were less scrupulous on this point. It is well known that until the time of Gallienus, the Cajsars wore not the paludamentum, but the toga, in Eome. The cause becomes obvious from the remonstrance made to Vitellius by his friends when he wished, with this garment on his shoulders, to make a triumphal entrance into Rome ; such a procession, they said, would make it seem as if he were going to treat the capital of the Roman empire like a city taken by assault. On this representation he assumed the consular toga. The same respect was observed by Septimius Severus before his splendid entry into Rome. Having arrived at the gates of the city on horseback, attired like an emperor, he dismounted, assumed the toga, and walked the remainder of the distance. 10. The longer cloak of the Greeks is familiar to us from many figures. Sometimes it was lined, as was the one worn by Nestor (7) on account of his age, — the lining of which is desig- nated by the word SittA^, — and also that of the Cynics, dtiplex pallium, in consequence of their not wearing any under gar- ments. Sometimes it was not lined; Homer terms such dTrXotSas x^alva';. The form of this cloak was round ; but that of the Gauls and Asiatics was square. 11. I find it necessary to make mention, on this occasion, of an error into which some translators of ancient authors have fallen, in supposing that the text of the original had reference to a cloak. My attention was drawn to this point from observing that Casaubon (8) has taken the word lixdrLov to mean a cloak in that passage of Polybius in which it is said that Aratus agreed that one of those who were willing to betray into his hands the city Cynetha should show himself eV i/xarto) upon a hill in front of the city, whenever they were ready to carry the plot into execution. The learned commentator has rendered the word by palliatus, "in his cloak," when, as I think, he ought to have said, tunicatus, " in his shirt." For it was prob- ably more unusual to leave the city without than with a tunic, and it was requisite that the signal should be something unusual. The word If^aTLov must always be understood as synonymous with the tunic of the Romans ; and, for the purpose of express- ing in Greek Pliny's remark on the statues of Romulus and Camillus, " that they were sine tunica, ' without tunics,' " it would be unnecessary to translate the word tu7iica by l/xaTLw. The word xtToiv moreover in some authors has been wrongly 40 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. understood. It not only signifies the under garment, — as in that passage of Diodorus in which he states that Dionysius, king of Syracuse, constantly wore an iron hauberk over his tunic, rjvayKat^ero (jiipeiv £7rt tov ^iTwva crLSrjpovv OwpaKa, — but at times, and invariably in Homer (9), it also means a shirt of mail, which is proved by one of the epithets, ;;(aA,KoxtTcoi/es, " brazen-shirted," applied to the Greeks, and which signifies the same as x^-^'^^^'^PV'^^'*- This remark applies especially to the passage in which Diodorus speaking of Gelo, king of Syracuse, states that, after his famous victory over the Carthaginians, he presented himself before the people to give an account of his exploits, not only entirely unarmed, but even axLTwv iv i/iartw, " without coat of mail and in his shirt." Translators have not understood the author's meaning. A warrior is also termed /Movox^Twv, " single-shirted," who throws away his arms and cloak, and flees from the field merely in his under garments. 12. So much has been written concerning the Roman over garment or toga, that the very copiousness of the investigations leaves the reader in greater ignorance than at first. As yet no one has shown the true form of it, which it is indeed difficult to point out. The toga of the Romans, like the cloak of the Greeks, and the modern cloak, was of a circular shape. Let the reader recall my previous remarks on the cloak of the Greek women. Dionysius of Halicarnassus says that the toga had the form of a half-circle, rjfXLKVKyov ; it is my impression however that he does not mean to say that it is cut in the form of a half-circle, but that it has this form when adjusted about the wearer. For as the Greek mantle was gathered together, many times doubled, so also was the circular toga arranged in the same way, — an explanation that removes a difficulty which has perplexed com- mentators on the dress of the ancients. The learned have not been able to find any other difference between the toga and the cloak, especially the cloak of philosophers, than that the latter was worn next the skin, and not like the former over a shirt. Others have supposed the Greek cloak to be square, and that they saw the four corners of it in the engraving of the figure of Euripides; whilst another sees the same number of ends on the cloak of the figure near the grotto in the Apotheosis of Homer, in the Colonna palace. But both are wrong: the four ends or tags are not visible on either. The small figure, with the name of Euripides on its base, was supposed to have been lost, but it DRApmr. 41 was discovered not long ago in the wardrobe of the Famese palace. As it was for some time in my possession, I am able to speak upon this point. 13. The toga, like the mantle, was thrown over the left shoulder, and the mass of folds thus formed was termed Sinus, " lap or bosom." It was not usually girdled, — a remark that others also make, though it may have been so under some cir- cumstances, as the passages in Appian (10) to which reference is made would lead one to infer. It is sufficient for the pur- poses of artists — for whom especially I write — to know that its color was white ; for, if they should have occasion to drape Roman fig\ires, they could make use of the statues, and dis- tinguish a senator by a broad purple border to his toga, called Latus clavus. This border cannot have been on the lower hem, as Nori and others suppose ; it must have been placed along the front seams. On some statues and busts, on which the toga is gathered into folds, there are several broad stripes ; of these the uppermost stripe seems to be the border of purple or Lahis clavtis. A toga arranged in this manner passes over the left shoulder, or even over the upper-arm of this side, diag- onally across the breast, and under the right arm, as shown by a statue in the Pamfili villa and two busts in the Campidoglio ; one of the busts has the head of Maximinus, and the other of the younger Philip. Similar busts are to be found in the Bar- berini palace and the Borghese villa. Eubens mistakes greatly when he maintains that a broad band of this kind is to be found only on figures executed during and posterior to the age of Constantine, and consequently that this garment is the one which then and afterwards was termed Ovarium, and now is called Stola. I can assure the reader that busts much more ancient than those from the Capitoline museum, adduced by me, wear the toga gathered together in the broad folds noticed, which is very appai-ent, among other instances, on the bust mentioned as being in the Borghese villa. 14. This is likewise a suitable occasion to notice that ar- rangement of the Roman toga which was called the Cinctus Gahimcs, — a manner of wearing it adopted at sacred ceremo- nies, and especially at sacrifices. The toga was drawn up upon the head, but in such a manner that its left extremity, avoid- ing the right shoulder, fell down upon the left shoulder, and jjassed below and diagonally across the breast to the right side, 42 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. where it was twisted with ;the right extremity, into which it was stuck, yet in such a manner that the toga still descended to the feet. This is shown by the figure of Marcus Aurelius, in a rilievo on his triumphal arch, which represents him en- gaged in sacrifice, and on other similar works. Whenever the Caesars are represented with a portion of the toga covering their heads, an allusion is made to their office of high-priest. Among the gods, Saturn is commonly represented with his head cov- ered beyond the crown of it ; and, so far as I know, there are only two exceptions to the exclusiveness of the remark. The first is a Jupiter, called the Hunter, on an altar in the Borghese villa ; he is riding a Centaur, and his head is covered in the manner mentioned. Jupiter, under this aspect, is called in Arnobius Riciniatus, from the word Ricinium, which signifies that portion of the cloak with which the head was covered. Martianus also represents him in this manner. The second exception is a Pluto among the paintings on the Nasoni sep- ulchre. 15. The apron which was bound by the priests, Vidimarii, around their hips, when slaying the sacrificial victims, was termed Limus ; with this exception they were entirely naked. I should not have touched upon this point, — it being well un- derstood from many rilievi, — if the French translator of Pe- tronius had not mistaken such an apron, worn by the priestess Enothea, incinda quadrato pallio, for a ceremonial dress. As she girded this paUiiim about her, it appears to me that it could not have been a cloak, because that was never girded. 16. The, ornaments and trimmings of the garments of men, as they are not visible on any monuments, have no place in this treatise ; but a supposed Clcmis, in a Herculaneum paint- ing which represents the muse Thalia, is at least to be noticed. On the cloak, where it covers the thigh of this figure, an oblong square band of different colors is attached, and the authors of the Descri20tion of the Herculaneum Paintings seek to prove therein that this stripe is the Clavus of the Romans, — which was a purple border, either sewed upon the toga, or inwrought, and which by its greater or less breadth denoted the dignity and rank of the wearer. This concludes my remarks upon the dress of the body. 17. The covering and attire of the extremities, commencing with the head, will conclude all that I have to say upon the DRAFERY. 43 dress of the ancients. A diadem was worn by the Greeks, but not by the Romans, It must have been made of bronze occa- sionally, as we may conclude from the one on the head of a supposed Ptolemy of bronze, in the Albani villa, about which longish incisions are cut, probably for the purpose of fastening this head-band by hooks (11). The beard was sometimes tied in a knot under the chin, as seen on a head in the Campidoglio and on another Herculaneum head at Portici. The Spartans were not allowed to wear moustaches. 18. The hat came into use in the earliest ages, and was worn by the Athenians not only without the city, but also within it. In iEgina, it was usual to wear a hat even in the theatre, as early as the time of Draco the law-giver. At that time hats were made of felt, as we are informed especially of the hat or helmet of the Spartans, which, according to Thu- cydides, could not turn the point of an arrow. Not only men but even boys wore hats, and at the time when the Athenians had renounced the custom of wearing them in the city, it was not unusual in Rome to cover the head, at least in the house, as Suetonius informs us with regard to Augustus, who always wore his hat when in the house or exposed to the sun. Travel- lers, and those who, when in the open fields, had to protect themselves from the sun or rain, covered their heads with a hat, which was shaped like ours, though commonly the brim was not turned up, and the crown was low, as I observed in my previous remarks on the hat of women. It was provided with strings, which could be tied under the chin, as we see by the figure of Theseus on a vessel of baked clay in the Vatican library ; when the head was bared, the hat was thrown back- wards on the shoulders, where it hung suspended by its strings ; the strings, however, are never visible.-^ Meleager is repre- sented on several engraved gems with his hat thrown back- wards ; and on two similar reliefs, in the Borghese and Albani villas, which show Amphion and Zethus, with their mother Antiope, the hat of Zethus is hanging on his shoulder, — in allusion to the herdsman's life which he had embraced. This work has been explained by me in another place, and for the first time. The hat was a common vestment of the peasantry and herdsmen ; hence it was called the Arcadian hat. In some figures of Apollo, on coins, it is significant of his occupation as ^ Plate X., Letters A, B, C. 44 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. herdsman to Admetus, king of Thessaly ; and Meleager, on sev- eral gems, wears it in his character as a hunter. There is an- other kind of hat, the brim of which forms a long projecting point in front, but is hollowed out on the sides, — in order that the front part may be turned directly upward, — in the way practised with some travelling-hats worn in Germany by those who are engaged in hunting. This kind of hat is worn by an Indian Bacchus, so called, on the cited vase of marble in the Farnese palace. A hunting figure on the cylindrical vase of bronze already described wears a hat with a broad brim slightly turned up, after the style of priests' hats. The Roman chariot- eers, or those who contended in the chariot-races, wore a pecu- liar kind of hat, the crown of which terminated in a point, and which perfectly resembles a Chinese hat. We see them worn by such persons on a couple of pieces of mosaic, which were formerly in the mansion of the Massimi, and are now in Ma- drid, and likewise on an engraving of a work, now no longer extant, in Montfaucon. 19. It was the most usual practice to cover the head with the cloak, or toga among the Romans, and to bare it in the presence of those to whom one wished to show particular re- spect. Hence it was regarded as a discourtesy not to with- draw the cloak from the head. 20. I will take the occasion to say here a few words con- cerning the Phrygian cap, — which was worn indifferently both by men and women, — for the purpose of explaining a passage in Virgil, not hitherto understood. In the Negroni villa there is a youthful male head with a Phrygian cap ; from the back part of it descends a sort of veil, which covers the neck in front and the chin as high as the lower lip, precisely in the manner in which it is arranged on a figure of bronze, with the sole dif- ference that, in the latter case, even the mouth is covered. This head gives a clew to that passage in Virgil, which says of Paris : — Maeonia mentum mitra crinemque madentem Subnixus. Mn. 4. v. 216. His chin around And o'er his perfum'd head a Phrygian cap was bound The explanations and emendations of this passage which have been imagined can be found in the authors quoted (12). DRAPmr. 45 21. The dress of the feet is so various with regard to shoes and sandals, and their form, and the different modes of fasten- ing and lacing them, that a volume of tolerable size would be the result of an attempt to notice them all. 22. As regards the sandals, I shall, in the first place, content myself with noticing a ridiculous opinion which some one has expressed in regard to a cross on the strap between the great and next toes of an antique dismembered foot in the museum of the Vatican library, at that part of it where a clasp, shaped like a leaf of trefoil or a heart, was commonly placed. This clasp unites two straps which, coming from both sides of the foot, meet at its top the strap that comes from the space be- tween the first and second toes. It has been inferred from this cross, that the foot formed part of a statue of one of the mar- tyrs, — for it was found in the Catacombs, — and a big inscrip- tion to this purport has been attached to it. But it evidently belonged to the statue of a young female, and is so beautiful, that, at the time when statues were made in honor of the mar- tyrs, no amount of gold could have produced its like. Every one moreover knows how many pieces of ancient art, nowise connected with the Christian religion, have been found in the Catacombs. After a lapse of some time, a beautiful male foot of a statue which must have been far above the size of life was discovered, having a similar cross-clasp in the same place. This foot is in the museum of the sculptor Bartholemeo Cavaceppi. This same strap (13), which passes between the great and sec- ond toes, is, on a beautiful statue of Bacchus, ornamented with a winged angel's head. 23. The various kinds of shoes worn by the ancients have been discussed at length by others. According to Appian, the shoes of the Romans were different from those of the Greeks ; but we cannot specify the difference. Distinguished Romans wore shoes of red leather, which was brought from Parthia, and was perhaps the Spanish leather of the present day. Such shoes were termed Mullei ; and they were occasionally embroid- ered with gold or silver, as we see on some dressed feet. But shoes were usually made of black leather, and reached to the middle of the leg ; they are to be considered as a sort of half- boot, which they are on the figures of Castor and Pollux. In an illustration of the very ancient manuscript of Cosmas, in the Vatican library, Moses is seen drawing off, before the 46 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. burning bush, such half-boots as those of Pollux and Amycus. On the statue of Jason, at Versailles, erroneously named Quin- tus Cincinnatus, one sees the kind of shoes which may be given to heroic figures.^ They are sandals, having a raised edge around them of a finger's breadth in width, and quarter-pieces behind ; they were laced with straps passing over the upper part of the foot where it lies bare, and continued above the ankle, and there tied. The remark made by Pliny about mon- keys, Laqueisque calceari imitatione venantium tradunt, is proba- bly an allusion to the shoes made from cords, specimens of which may be seen in the Herculaneum museum, and of which I have already made mention. It has been generally under- stood as applying to the snares in which these animals are captured, whereas, on the contrary, the writer means to say that monkeys make cord-shoes for themselves, like huntsmen. Noble Athenians generally wore a half-moon of silver on their shoes, though in some few instances it was of ivory, and, as it appears, on one side below the ankle. Noble Romans wore a whole moon, but as yet this mark has not been discovered on a single Roman statue. I have nothing further to remark, except that the statue of Adrian, in the Albani villa, is repre- sented with a coat of mail and barefooted. The statue has been noticed by me elsewhere, and the fact mentioned that this emperor would frequently walk, barefoot, twenty miles in his^ armor. But the statue can now no longer be recognized ; for the head of it was deemed necessary to another statue, and therefore was exchanged for a head of Septimius Severus ; con- sequently, the significancy of the bare feet is totally lost. 24. The hands of a few figures on sepulchral urns are covered with gloves. This fact is deserving of mention because it con- tradicts Casaubon's assertion, that gloves were not in use either among the Greeks or Romans. They were, on the contrary, known even in the age of Homer, who describes Laertes, the father of Ulysses, as wearing them. 25. As a supplementary remark, I will observe that hand- kerchiefs were not used, at least by the Greeks ; for we learn that persons of rank dried their tears with their cloaks, as did Agathocles, brother of a queen of Egypt, before an assemblage of the people at Alexandria. Napkins likewise were not intro- duced among the Romans until a later period, and then each guest brought his own with him, 1 Plate VIII., Letter B. BRAFERY. 47 26. To the list of articles which constituted the clothing of the body belongs also the armor with which it was covered, namely, the cuirass, the helmet, and the greaves. The statues of Romans were, as Cicero observes, generally represented in armor for the purpose of denoting the military reputation on which they prided themselves ; and one is prepared to imag- ine a statue of Marius, Sylla, and other such warriors, thus arrayed. 27. The ancient cuirass was formed of two pieces, which cov- ered the breast and the back. It was made sometimes of linen, and sometimes of brass. Linen hauberks were worn by the Phoenicians and Assyrians in the army of Xerxes, also by the Carthaginians, — from whom were taken the three which Gelo sent to Elis, — and by the Spaniards. They were worn by most Roman generals and emperors, as by Galba, of whom it is particularly mentioned ; and those which we see on their statues appear to represent hauberks of linen, for the outlines of mus- cles are often marked out on them, which could be more easily done with linen pressed upon a form, than with bronze. The linen was first prepared with a mixture of strong wine or vine- gar and salt, and then folded eight or ten times. But other hauberks are also found, which evidently represent brass ; and a few are perfectly similar to the mail-coats of our cuirassiers, — among which are those of a beautiful bust of Titus, and of two recumbent Captives, in the Albani villa. All these have joints on each side.-"- 28. I will merely observe on this point, in addition to what has been said by others, that helmets were not always made of brass. Some must have been formed of leather or other flexible material ; for the helmet beneath the foot of the statue of a hero, in the Farnese palace, is crushed together, which could not have happened if it had been made of brass. 29. Leg-armor is frequently found on reliefs and engraved gems ; but there is only a single statue which has it, and that is in the Borghese villa. Greaves were also in use among the Etruscans and Sardinians ; but instead of covering the fore part of the leg, where they were generally worn, they protected the calf of the leg, leaving the front undefended. Mention has already been made of a specimen of this kind on a very ancient Sardinian figure in bronze of a soldier. 1 Plate IX., Letter B. 48 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. 30. Statues of the Ctesars are represented with a sword under the arm, even when they are entirely nude ; in this state it is intended to figure the emperors, as it were, in a deified form. But, except in war, the Roman emperors did not wear a sword, more than any other individual, and indignant murmurs were excited against Galba when he wore a sword in Rome. The usual length of a sword, which hung below the left shoulder, was not much more than three palms (26 in. Eng.), as one very evidently sees by a sword suspended on a fragment of a statue of beautiful execution, wearing a paludamentum, or mili- tary cloak, in the Mattel villa ; the sheath is two palms and three digits (19^ in. Eng.). The lower end of the sheaths of most ancient swords is a semicircular flat kuob, called fLVKr)<;, " the mushroom," from its form. The knob of the handle is also generally shaped in the same way, though I have noticed a different form of it on two swords. One of them, held by Agamemnon, on the wrongly named sepulchral urn of Alexander Severus, in the Campidoglio, has a ram's head, and the other, on the cited rilievo of Telephus, in the Ruspoli palace, has an eagle's head, instead of the usual knob. 31. The shield of Pallas on a coin stamped in Lucania, and on another coin of the city of Philadelphia,^ would be deserving of special note, if it was actually quilted on the inside, as the drawings of these coins seem to show by lines intersecting each other on its inner side. I do not know whether the sculptor Adam of Paris — who repaired a statue of Pallas, among other mutilated remains belonging to the Cardinal Polignac, and gave to her such a shield, quilted after the manner of a cushion — had any knowledge of these coins. But I do know that the sculptors of the four above-mentioned large rilievi in a gallery of the royal castle at Turin gave her such a one from a mere caprice of their own, for no other reason than that it had a better appearance. 32. The Roman Fasces also may be considered as weapons, and it may be remarked that the axe in them must have been covered by a case, as are the battle-axes borne by the Prussian grenadiers, over the handle and blade of which a leather cover is drawn. We see examples of such axes in cases in several of the Fasces in the Campidoglio, and the Rospigliosi and Massimi palaces. The blades of these axes were in the course of time 1 Plate XII., Letters A, B. DRAPERY. 49 made of silver, and it therefore became still more an object to cover them. As other weapons were protected by a case, it is yet more probable that that which seems to me to be a cover over the axe of the Fasces may in fact be such ; for the ancients covered not only their shields, but their helmets, with a leath- ern case, which was not removed except when tiiey were march- ing to battle, or whilst under review. The helmet, protected by its cover, was carried at the girdle, as we see on the Trajan column. In this respect the ancient warriors also resembled our grenadiers, who when on a march carry their caps sus- pended, on account of their weight, and walk in their hats. 33. Refined taste and sensibility, as well in observing and teaching as in imitating, are, it is true, less required ii; the drawing of draped figures, than knowledge and accurate ob- servation. But this department of art demands from the con- noisseur not less investigation than from the artist himself. Drapery bears the same relation here to the naked body, as ex- pression does to the thoughts, that is, as the clothing of the thoughts to the thoughts themselves : it is often less difficult to find the latter than the former. Now, as more dressed than nude figures were executed in the earliest periods of Greek art, — and this continued to be the case in regard to female figures even in its most brilliant epochs, — so that fifty draped figures may be counted for every nude one, it was of course the aim of the artist at all times to attain not less to elegance in drapery, than to beauty in the nude figure. He sought to diffuse grace, not merely over the features and actions, but also over the gar- ments, — for the most ancient Graces were represented clothed ; and though in our day the beautiful drawing of the nude body might be learned from four or five of the most beautiful statues, yet drapery must be studied on a hundred. One statue is rarely found to resemble another in its drapery, whilst on the contrary many naked statues are perfectly similar to each other, as are most statues of Venus. Several statues of Apollo likewise ap- pear to be executed after the same model, as, for example, the three similar ones in the Medici villa, and another in the Cam- pidoglio. This is the case also with the greater number of young satyrs (14). Justly therefore may the drawing of draped figures be deemed an essential part of art. 34. There are few modern artists whose drapery is free from errors, and in the previous century all, with the single excep- VOL. II. 4 60 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. tion of Poussiu, were faulty. Even the cloak of Saint Bibiana, by Bernini, is confined over the tunics by a broad girdle. Now this is not only in opposition to all ancient dress, but also to the nature of a cloak, for it ceases, as it were, to be a cloak the moment it is girt. The artist who executed the drawings of the beautifully engraved plates to Chambray's Parallel of An- cient and Modem Architecture has actually dressed Callimachus, the inventor of the Corinthian capital, in a woman's garments. I am therefore astonished how Pascoli, in the Preface to his Lives of the Painters, could assert that the sculptors of antiq- uity did not possess a noble and pleasing taste in drapery, and that in this department of the art they had been excelled by the moderns. Now as he possessed little or absolutely no knowledge of art, — as it appears both from his book and the testimony of those personally acquainted with him, — he must have learnt from others by piecemeal and by repeated question- ing all that he desired to note down ; we may consequently in- fer that his erroneous judgment respecting the drapery of the ancients must have been a pretty general opinion among the artists of his day. What excellence therefore can be expected from those who act and work under the prejudicial influence of such an error, and are blind to the beauty which actually ex- ists in antique figures of only middling merit ] Though it can- not be asserted of many figures — what Corneille said of the Bajazet of Racine, " the Turkish dress covered a Frenchman's lieart " — that the Greek dress covers a milliner's manikin, yet many defects of drawing of the nude body would be concealed by drapery skilfully arranged. THE MECHANICAL PART OF OBEEK ART. 51 BOOK VIL THE MECHANICAL PART OF GREEK ART. CHAPTER I. MATERIALS USED IN ART. 1. In this portion of my subject I shall follow the natural order, which commences with knowledge and observation, and thence proceeds to work and execution. The previous chapters were devoted to drawing generally, and especially to the ideas of the beautiful, and they are consequently capable of applica- tion to painting as well as to sculpture ; the present will include only execution, and the execution merely of works moulded, carved, or cast. This section is divided into three parts, of which the first treats generally of the art of the sculptor in working different materials ; the second relates particularly to the execution of coins; and the third treats of engraved gems. 2. In my reflections on execution, it is my intention to fol- low exactly the same course which Sculpture itself did, for it appears to have proceeded from the softer to the more resisting materials, and from clay even to the hardest stone, as may be seen in the second chapter of the first Book, in which are no- ticed the diff"erent substances whereon the art progressively wrought, with this difference however, that here I shall touch upon the workmanship only in those departments of art of which specimens have been preserved, and I shall consequently omit all mention of works in wood, because there are no figures of the kind remaining. 3. I commence with clay, as the first material employed in art, and especially with models and workmanship in plaster. 52 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. Models in clay were formerly, as now, wrought with a model- ling stick, as may be seen by the figure of the sculptor Alca- menes, on a small rilievo in the Albani villa. But the ai'tist also used the aid of his fingers, and especially of his nails, in rendering certain delicate parts and elaborating them with more nicety of feeling. It is in reference to the nicety and delicacy of this pressure that the celebrated Polycletus was wont to say " that the workmanship was the most difficult when the clay was in or under the nails," "Orav ev 6vv)(i 6 7rr/X6s ylvqrai, or ols av CIS owxa. 6 ttijXos a^LK-qTaL. This passage does not appear to me to have been understood hitherto, and, when Frank Junius translates it. Cum ad unguem exigitur lutum, " When the clay is dried by the nail," he does not make the saying of the an- cient sculptor any the more intelligible. The word ovvx^C^i-v, k^ovvxit,€Lv, appears to signify the last touches, above mentioned, which sculptors gave with their finger-nails to their models. Tlie model of the sculptor was termed Ktvva/3os. The phrase of Horace, .... ad unguem Factus homo, " A man made to the nail," and also what he says in another place, Perfectum decies non castigavit ad unguem (1), "Did not correct to the nail (critically) by ten revisions," refer to the same finishing pressure given to the model, and both passages appear to have been as little understood as the Greek phrase. Horace has always been understood to mean that fitting of the joints of stones or marble which is practised by stone-masons ; this interpretation is adopted by Erasmus and Bentley, and, in the second passage indeed, the latter wishes to read prcesectum instead of perfectum. If my explanation should come nearer to the true meaning, then the old reading remains unaltered, and the sense of the passage is far more noble and appropriate. As these forms of expression, in relation to the finger-nails, sig- nify the last finish bestowed upon the model, so the use of the thumb on wax-figures has a meaning precisely similar. Exigite, ut mores teneros ceu poUice ducat, Ut si quis cera vultum facit. " Require him to form their tender manners as carefully As the artist with his thumb moulds a face in wax." 4. Modelling in clay however is not the execution itself, but only a step preparatory to it, the term " execution '' being un- THE MECHANICAL PART OF GREEK ART. 53 derstood as applying to works in gj^psum, ivory, stone, marble, bronze, and other hard materials. In regard to execution gen- erally, we have no special knowledge of any peculiarity in the manner of working followed by Greek artists different from that of modern artists, and from our idea of it. It is certain how- ever that they made models for their works. A celebrated writer believes that Diodorus, in his remark that the Egyptian artists wrought after an exact measure, but that the Greeks were guided by the accuracy of the eye, means to state the contrary, to intimate that the Greek artists did not work after models. But besides genuine antique models, in clay, of de- tached figures, which exist even now, and of which many have been noticed in the second chapter of the first Book, the con- trary can be proved by an engraved gem in the late Stosch museum, on which Prometheus is measuring with a plumb-line the man whom he is occupied in forming. It is well known how highly were prized the models of the celebrated Arcesilaus, who flourished a few years before Diodorus, and how many models of burnt clay have been preserved and are even now discovered daily. The sculptor must work with the rule and dividers ; the painter should have his measure in his eye. 5. Images of the divinities were anciently made, for the poor, of gypsum. The portraits of distinguished men which Varro sent from Rome into all lands were probably also made of gypsum. But none of these exist at the present day ; there are only rilievi remaining, the most beautiful of which have been preserved on the painted ceilings of two rooms and a bath at Baia?, not far from Naples. I make no mention here of the beautiful reliefs in the tombs at Pozzuoli, because they are ex- ecuted in lime and puzzolana. The less the relief, the softer and more pleasing is its workmanship; but, in order to pro- duce perspective effect by diminishing elevation of the figures, tlie contours of those parts which ought to appear raised are traced out by sinking their outlines below the plain surface. It appears strange to me, that the artist who executed the gyp- sum-works on a small chapel in the enclosure, TreptySoAo?, of the temple of Isis, in the ancient city of Pompeii, in which the fig- ures of Perseus and Andromeda occur, should have conceived the idea of entirely detaching from the background that hand of the hero which holds the head of Medusa. The hand could not have been supported in any other M'ay than by an iron rod 54 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. passing around it, which is now exposed to view in consequence of the hand having gone to decay. 6. Work in ivory, as well as embossed work on silver and bronze, was termed Toreutike, a word which has been under- stood, by modern not less than by ancient commentators and philologists, to mean works turned in a lathe. But the words toreutike, toreuma, toreutos, and toreutes, which were applied to this kind of work and to those artists who practised it, are not to be derived from to^nos, a lathe, — and not one of the passages adduced by Henry Stephens signifies anything turned, as this learned scholar also observes, — but their root is toros, "dis- tinct, clear," and it is said properly of the voice. These words appear to be adopted to signify a raised kind of work different from that on gems, which is called avdyXvcjiov, as I shall notice hereafter ; so that toreuma would properly signify a kind of work in which the figures projected boldly, that is, in conformity to the meaning of the word toros, figures which are plainly visible. In a similar manner, I explain the use of the word toreias by Dio Chrysostom, when speaking of embossed cups, which have e'At/cas Ttvas kol ropetas, that is, which are adorned with embel- lishments of wreaths and other raised work, but which his translator has understood to mean turned work. But as this art, turnery, was employed principally in the manufacture of small articles and ornaments, Plutarch joins the word toreuein with the word XeirTovpyeLv, that is, " to make delicate articles," where he relates that Alexander, the third son of Perseus, the last king of Macedon, was celebrated in Rome for his skill in such works. 7. The most ancient artist of this kind, and especially on silver vessels, would be Alcon, of Mylee in Sicily, if we may believe Ovid, who states him to have lived some generations before the Trojan war, in that passage where he particularizes among the presents made to J5neas by Anius, king of Delos, a cup by this artist, and the names of those who had previously possessed it. But the poet appears to have committed a mani- fest anachronism here, for Mylre was not built till some centuries after the Trojan war, as the reader can learn by con- sulting the History of Sicily by Cluverius, by whom, as well as by the commentators of Ovid, this error on the part of the poet has been wholly overlooked. 8. A general historic account has been given, in the second THE MECHANICAL PART OF GREEK ART. 55 chapter of the first Book, of the different materials used in statuary by the Greeks and other nations ; here it is my inten- tion to speak particularly of marble. Caryophilus has written a special treatise on the difterent kinds of marble mentioned by the ancient authors, and given at length all the passages on the subject which he was able to find, together with their transla- tion. His work is particularly prized by those who look at nothing but the extensive reading which it displays ; but its author, with all his labor, does not inform us in what consists the superiority of the finest marble, and many remarkable passages in ancient writers have escaped his observation. 9. It is well known that antiquarians, when they wish to enhance the value of a statue or its material, say that it is Parian marble ; and it is rare for Ficoroni to notice a statue or column which he does not consider to be made of Parian mar- ble. But this is, as it were, a shop phrase adopted by them, and used on all occasions, and, if the object happen by chance to be formed actually of this kind of marble, the correctness of its application is the result not of knowledge but of accident. I do not know whence Belon got his information that the Pyra- mid or Tomb of Cestius is of marble from Thasus. 10. The finest kinds of white Greek marble were the Parian, — which the Greeks also termed XvyStvo?, from Mount Lygdos in the island of Pares, — and the Pentelic, of which Pliny makes no mention. The latter was quarried near Athens, and where one figure was made from the former, ten were made from the latter, as can be proved from the accounts given by Pausanias. But we do not know the precise difference between the two kinds (2). 11. White marble is of small or large grain, that is, com- posed of finer or coarser particles ; and the finer the grain, the better the marble. There are indeed marble statues which seem to be cast from a milky-white mass or clay, in which no appearance of granulation is visible ; this is undoubtedly the best quality (3). As the Parian marble was the rarest of all, it must have had this character. The Parian marble had also two other properties, which are not possessed by the finest Carrara marble ; the one is its softness, so that it can be wrought like wax, and is fit for the nicest work in the hair, feathers, and the like, whereas the Carrara is brittle, and chips off whenever an attempt is made to elaborate it too much ; the 56 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. other is its color, which approximates that of the flesh, whilst the Carrara is of a dazzling white. The bust of Antinoiis in rilievo, somewhat larger than natural, in the Albani villa, is of the finest marble. Isidorus mistakes therefore when he asserts that the Parian marble is quarried in blocks only of a size suited to form vases. Perrault, who considers the coarse- grained marble to be Parian, is equally in error ; but this he could not know, never having left France. The large grains in this kind of marble sparkle like rock-salt, and a certain species of marble, called Salimun, appears to be the very same with it, and to have received its name from its resemblance to salt (4). 12. Our remarks in regard to the workmanship on stones apply principally to marble and the harder stones, as basalt and porphyry. Most marble statues are wrought from a single block ; and Plato even proposes it as a law of his republic, that statues should be made from a single block (5). It is a remarkable, and not an unusual circumstance, that the heads of some of the best statues in marble were executed separately, and afterwards fitted to the bodies, and that this formed a part of the original plan. This is apparent from the heads of Niobe and her daughters, which are inserted into the shoulders, and there is no ground in this instance for suspecting either injury or repair. The heads of the frequently cited Pallas, in the Albani villa, and of another beautiful Pallas in the same place, are likewise inserted ; also the heads of the fonr Caryatides found four years ago. The arms also were occasionally wrought separately and inserted, as they are in the two statues of Pal- las, and in two of the Caryatides above mentioned. 13. It is evident from the almost colossal female figure of a Eiver, in the Albani villa, formerly in the villa of the ducal house of Este, at Tivoli, that the ancient sculptors draughted their statues, as the moderns do theirs ; for the lower portion of it is merely sketched owt in the roughest manner. On the principal bones, covered by the drapery, raised points have been left ; these are measures, which at a more advanced stage of the execution were cut away, as the case is at the present day. 14. Those members of a figure which were detached, or free at one extremity, were connected, as we see in some few works, by a prop (Puntello) with the figure itself, — corresponding to the practice of the present day ; and this is observed even in THE MECHANICAL PART OF GREEK ART. 57 parts where it could appear neither necessary nor customary, on a Hercules which stands in the garden within the Borghese palace. In this statue, the extremity of the penis rests on a prop of this kind, which is a rod of marble of the size of a small quill, nicely finished off in its entire circumference, and still remaining between the penis and scrotum. This Hercules, in respect to its preservation, may be considered among the rarest figures in Rome ; it is so far uninjured, that only the extremi- ties of two toes are wanting, and even these would not have suffered if they had not projected beyond the sockle. 15. After a statue was completed, it was either perfectly smoothed (6), — which was effected, first with pumice-stone, and afterwards with plumbago and tripoli, — or again retouched with the chisel. The latter was done probably after the figure had passed through the first part of the process of smoothing, namely, with the pumice-stone (7). The artist proceeded thus, partly for the purpose of approaching nigher the truth in the appear- ance of the flesh and drapery, and partly because the light, when it falls upon parts which are perfectly finished, is reflected so brightly as frequently to render invisible, and hide from observation, the most untiring industry. There was reason also for apprehension, lest, in polishing and smoothing, those strokes which most display the artist's knowledge, and the finest touches should be destroyed, for work of this kind is not executed bythe artist's own hand. Hence some ancient mas- ters, those who had leisure and patience to go over their works anew, gently retouched them with the chisel, after having first smoothed them with pumice-stone, partly for the purpose of giving to them with their own hands the final finish, which must generally be said of the workman who smooths them, and partly for the purpose of thereby imparting softness to the sur- face of the naked body, and displaying the art in its fullest splendor. Most statues however, even those which are colossal, were perfectly smoothed, as proved by the remaining fragments in the Campidoglio of a colossal figure supposed to be an Apollo, namely, both feet, fragments of the arms, and a knee- pan, — which must be those of the colossal Apollo brought by Lucullus to Rome from Apollonia. The feet are nine palms long (6 ft. 4 in.), the nails of the great toe seven digits and a half (5J in.), and the toe itself more than four palms (2 ft. 9J in.) in circumference. In a similar manner are the flesh- 58 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. parts of two colossal heads polished, which represent Tritons, and the colossal heads of Titus and Trajan, in the Albani villa. The remark of the philosopher Lacydes, when he refused the invitation of King Attalus, saying kings, like statues, should be looked at only from a distance, cannot apply to all statues, nor can it either be wholly true of every king, for the great works, just cited, are finished in such a manner that they may be examined as closely as an engraved gem. 16. But there are some of the finest statues in marble to which the last finish has been given merely with the chisel, without any preparatory smoothing, as we see, for example, by the workmanship of the Laocoon, of the Borghese Athlete by Agasias, the Centaur in the Borghese villa, the Marsyas in the villa of the Medici, and of several other figures. The Laocoon is the finest of all the statues which have received their last finish from the chisel, and here, in particular, an observant eye can discover with what masterly address and skilful boldness the chisel has been managed, in order not to impair, by polish- ing, the eff"ect of those traits which most evince the knowledge of the artist. Though the outer skin of this statue when com- pared with a smooth and polished surface appears somewhat rough, rough as a soft velvet contrasted with a lustrous satin, yet it is, as it were, like the skin of the ancient Greeks, which had neither been relaxed by the constant use of warm baths, — as was the case with the Romans after the 'introduction among them of eff"eminate habits, — nor rubbed smooth by a scraper, but on which lay a healthy moisture, resembling the first appearance of down upon the chin. The two great Lions in marble, which crouch at the entrance of the Arsenal at Ven- ice, and which were carried thither from Athens, are likewise finished merely with the chisel, as the hair and mane of a lion require to be finished. This manner of finish however more properly belongs to works in marble of this kind and size. The degree of skill and dexterity requisite to finish with the chisel alone could not be acquired in any other way than by long practice, for which modern days do not afford sufficient oppor- tunity. 17. Most statues in marble however were smoothed ; and the process was almost the same as that of the present day. Of the stones which were used for this purpose, one kind came from the island of Naxos (8), and Pindar calls it the best. All THE MECHANICAL PART OF GREEK ART. 59 statues of the present day are smoothed with wax, as was the practice among the ancients ; but it is entirely rubbed off, and does not remain as a varnish, an over-skin on them. The pas- sages quoted (9) have been wrongly understood by all to refer to the process of cleaning statues. 18. Black marble, of which one species was quarried at Lesbos, came into use later than white marble, though there is one instance of a statue having been made from it by an ancient artist of J^gina. The hardest and finest kind is com- monly called Paragon, or Touchstone. Of entire Greek figures from this marble, there have been preserved an Apollo, m the Farnese gallery, the god Aventinus, so called, in the Capitoline museum, — both larger than life, — the two Centaurs already mentioned, less than life, which formerly belonged to the Car- dinal Furietti, but are now incorporated in the said museum, and on the sockles of which the artists, Aristeas and Papias, of Aphrodisium, placed their names. Of the size of life are a young dancing Satyr, and an Athlete holding in his hand a small oil-fl^ask. Both of them are in the Albani villa ; they were dug from the ruins of the ancient city of Antium by the Cardinal Alexander Albani, by whom the villa was built. These two statues, together with a Jupiter and an yEsculapius from the same kind of marble and of the same size, stood in a room not far from the theatre of that city (10). Besides these statues in the Greek style, there are others which were exe- cuted after the Egyptian manner, and which were discovered in Adrian's villa; I have spoken of them in Book II., Chap. III., IT 8. The hardness of this kind of marble is not uni- formly the same ; but the softest, which we call Nero Antico, " black antique," is the blackest. That which is still quarried is usually as brittle as glass. The marble of the Centaurs men- tioned was, on account of its hardness, regai'ded by many as an Egyptian stone, but the slightest trial proved them to be wrong. 19. The Oriental alabaster is still harder than the common white marble, and as, like all the varieties of alabaster, it is formed in lamina3, and is not, like white marble, a uniform mass, the working of it is consequently more difficult, because the layers chip readily (11). Entire figures do not appear to have been made from any kind of alabaster, so far at least as we can judge from those which have remained to us; but the 60 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. extremities, namely, the head, hands, and feet, vrere of another material, probably of bronze, and fastened to the body. The flesh of male bearded heads is polished, but the beard is left somewhat rough ; there is however only a single specimen of this or any other kind remaining in Rome, and this is the an- terior part, or face, of a head of Adrian, which is preserved in the Capitoline museum. 20. Of entire figures there are extant in Rome two Dianas less than life ; the larger of them is in the Verospi mansion, the smaller in the Borghese villa. By entire figures I mean, as stalled above, entire as to that part of the body which is draped ; the heads, hands, and feet are modern, and of bronze. Both these statues are of the kind of alabaster which is charac- terized by the epithet agatino, on account of its resemblance m appearance and hardness to agate ; and the drapery of both is executed with wonderful beauty (12). In the Albani villa is the upper half of a figure, which is also a Diana; the lower half is a restoration (13). But the largest statue of alabaster is a beautiful fragment, clothed in mail, which evinces great skill • it was removed with the Odescalchi museum to Saint Ildefonso in Spain. The head, arms, and legs are of gilded bronze, and the work of a modern artist ; the head is intended to represent Julius Caesar (U). I make no mention, on this occasion, of a seated Egyptian statue, larger than life, of whit- ish Theban alabaster, and which has been previously cited (Book II., Chap. IV., 51 11), though it is the largest of all, because I am speaking here of Greek works only. • 21. The Hermes and busts belong to the class of figures. Four Herma;, of the usual size, and made of flowered —fiorito — alabaster, with antique heads of yellow marble, adorn the Albani villa ; they are the only specimens of the kind known to me. Of busts, or, to speak more correctly, the draped breasts of such images, there are five pieces to be seen in the Capitoline museum, - an Adrian, a Sabina, and Septimius Severus, in agate alabaster; one of Julius Caesar, and another of the elder Faustina, of flowered alabaster ; there is also an- other from an inferior kind of alabaster, on which has been placed a head of Pescennius Niger. In the Albani villa there are thirteen such busts : three of them are of the size of life ; two of the three are made from an alabaster termed cotognmo, because its color resembles that of a boiled quince, cotogna. The torso THE MECHANICAL PART OF GREEK ART. 61 above mentioned, at Saint Ildefonso, is of the same kind of marble. The third of the three, as well as the remaining ten, is less than life, and of agate alabaster. Another such bust, with a female head, is in the house of the Marquis Patrizi-Mon- torio. 22. The Greek sculptors sought to distinguish themselves by their works in both varieties of basalt, the iron-gray and the green-colored. But of full statues there is only a single one known, namely, an Apollo, larger than life, but of moderate skill, which has been represented in an old engraving as a her- maphrodite, and for this reason regarded as such by the estima- ble Count Caylus. This statue is of blackish basalt ; but there is a trunk of a male figure of the size of life, in greenish basalt, in the villa of the Medici; this remnant testifies that it belonged to one of the most beautiful of ancient statues ; it is impossible to look at it without feeling wonder and admiration, not only on account of the scientific knowledge which it displays, but also of its workmanship (15). The heads made from this stone which have come down to our time induce me to believe that only artists of superior skill ever undertook to execute them, for the style of them is the most beautiful, and the finish the most elaborate. 23. Besides the head of Scipio, of which I shall speak here- after, there was in the Verospi palace the head of a young hero, which is now in the possession of the Chevalier Von Breteuil, Maltese ambassador at Rome, and in the Albani villa is an ideal female head, set upon an antique draped bust of porphyry ; but the most beautiful of them all would be that of a youth, of the size of life, owned by the author, were it not that only the eyes, fore- head, one ear, and the hair remain uninjured. The hair of this as well as of the Verospi head diff'ers in its workmanship from that of male heads in marble in this respect, that it is not, like the latter, thrown into waving locks, nor worked by the borer so as to resemble short curls, but is represented as being closely cut and afterwards combed with a fine comb, precisely as it is found on male ideal heads in bronze, on which it seems as if each individual hair was portrayed. But the execution of the hair on heads in bronze copied from life differs from this ; for Marcus Aurelius on horseback, and Septimius Severus on foot, — the latter in the Barberini palace, — have curly hair, like their portraits in marble. The hair of the Hercules in the Capitol is 62 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. thick and crisp, as it usually is on heads of this hero. The hair of the last-mentioned, mutilated head evinces extraordinary, I might almost say inimitable, skill and industry ; the mane of the stump of a lion, of the hardest greenish basalt, in the Bori- oni vineyard, is wrought with nearly equal art. The extraordi- nary smoothness which was given, and which must necessarily be given to this kind of stone, together with the fineness of its grain, prevented any crust from adhering to it; and though marbles of the highest polish have suffered in this way, yet these heads are found in the earth still retaining all their origi- nal smoothness. 24. I have already, in the fourth chapter of the second Book, spoken of the workmanship on porphyry, and shown in what way and with what tools it was mastered. I also noticed at the same time the most beautiful porphyry figures by Greek artists which have been preserved to us. To this chapter I refer the reader, merely adding here a refutation of a common unfounded idea, and an account of the workmanship on porphyry vases. 25. Those ignorant, frivolous writers who believe that artists of the present day do not know how to work porphyry have been wrongly informed, and Vasari only exposes his childish credulity when he pretends that Cosmo, Grand Duke of Tus- cany, invented a liquid by which it could be softened. The manner of working porphyry has never been a secret to modern artists, and some admirable works have been made from this stone in our day, among which may be mentioned the beautiful cover of the magnificently great antique urn in the splendid chapel of the Corsini family, in the church of Saint John of Lateran, This vase is known to have stood formerly beneath the porch of the Pantheon ; there is therefore reason to believe that it may have been used in the baths of Marcus Agrippa, which were contiguous to this temple, and as vessels of this form served as tubs, and consequently had no covers, a cover was made for the vase, in order to adapt it as a sepulchral urn for Pope Clement the Twelfth (16). In the preceding century, when porphyry was more abundant in Rome, heads were carved from it ; among them are those of the first twelve Roman em- perors, in the Borghese palace. 26. But these writers do not seem to have observed certain works, the execution of which is most difficult, I might almost say inimitable. These are vessels which have a belly, and have been I THE MECHANICAL PART OF GREEK ART. 63 hollowed out until their walls are not thicker than a small quill, and of which the brim, foot, and cover are ornamented with grooves and flutiugs, so that they bear every appearance of having been turned on a lathe. Modern artists are far inferior to the ancients in this respect; not that the former were wholly ignorant of the manner of working porphyry, but because the latter engaged in it with greater readiness, and with advan- tages not possessed by the moderns, and thus acquired a partic- ular superiority in it. In the villa of the Cardinal Alexander Albani are the most beautiful vases of this kind in the world, two of which are more than two Roman palms (1.46 ft.) high, and for one of which Clement XI. paid three thousand dol- lars. These vases were found in ancient tombs, encased in Travertino, — a circumstance that explains the perfect state of preservation in which we see them. 27. Attempts have been made in moderp days to turn small articles from this stone, but larger vessels, like those in the Verospi palace, of greenish porphyry, are either not hollowed out, or, if they are hollow, like those in the Barberini palace and the Borghese villa, they are simple cylinders, and have neither belly, nor grooves, nor flutings ; the work is done by means of a copper tube, of a diameter as great as it is intended the bore of the vase shall be, which is turned with a string, without any other apparatus. But the successful result of an experiment instituted by the Cardinal Alexander Albani proved that the art of turning vessels of porphyry of an elliptical shape, after the manner of the ancients, is not a lost secret, for the workmanship of the vessel thus produced is not inferior in any respect to that of the ancients, for it was hollowed out to the thinness of a quill ; but the excavation cost thrice as much as the external form of the vessel, which was on the lathe for thirteen months. 28. It may be remarked here, that neither the head, nor hands, nor feet of statues of porphyry are of the same stone ; these extremities are of marble. In the gallery of the Chigi palace, now at Dresden, there was a head of Caligula, in por- phyry, but it is modern, and a copy of the one in basalt, in the Capitol ; in the Borghese villa is a head of Vespasian, which is also modern. There are indeed four figures, which stand together in couples, at the entrance of the palace of the Doge, at Venice, and are carved from one block, that are made entirely 64 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. from porphyry ; but it is a Greek work of the later or middle ages, and Hierouymus Magius could have had but little knowl- edge of sculpture to pretend that they are the figures of Har- modius and Aristogiton, the deliverers of Athens (17). 29. Pliny informs us that the ancient artists also turned vases from other kinds of stones, and the accoimt which he gives us of the hundred and fifty columns of the Labyrinth in the island of Lemnos, which were all turned, is a proof of the great experience of the ancients in this branch of mechanics, even iu the earliest ages, when that building was erected. These columns were suspended in a peculiar kind of frame, which could be made to rotate, even by a boy (18). 30. Pictures are found wrought in relief on all the different substances above mentioned. I shall dwell upon them particu- larly, as I consider it necessary to vindicate the ancients from an imputation usually alleged against them, which is, that in their rilievi they did not observe perspective distances, and gave equal elevation to every figure in the same work. Pascoli, in the Preface to his Lives of Painters, has repeated the same charge. I cannot sufficiently wonder at the blindness of these fault-finders, when the contrary is so manifest that I might be blamed for my intention of producing proofs to convince the blind. I will not. adduce here rilievi which are to be found in public places in Rome, open to every one's inspection, but will notice a few others, the figures of which have different degrees of perspective distance. Of this class is one of the most beauti- ful works in Rome in the Ruspoli palace ; it has been published in my Ancient Monuments. The principal figure of this work, the young Telephus, is wrought in such high relief that there is the breadth of two fingers between his head and the tablet from which it is carved. Near and lower than Telephus stands a horse, which must necessarily be in less relief because it is more in the background ; and in front of the horse stands the aged armor-bearer of the young hero, who is yet more flat. Opposite to Telephus sits his mother, Auge, to whom he extends his hand ; she is more prominent than the armor-bearer and horse, but less so than her son, at least in respect to her head. Over her hang a sword and shield, which are the least promi- nent of all (19). In a relief which represents a Faun, almost of the size of life, playing with a dog, in the Albani villa, a similar perspective distance is observed ; also in a small sacri- THE MECHANICAL PART OF GREEK ART. 65 fice, with an oblation by Titus, on a work which may be found in my Ancient Mo7i^iments. 31. The repair of ancient works in marble and other hard stones constitutes properly a part of the workmanship, since there are many figures which were injured and restored in ancient times. The repairs and restoration are of two kinds : first, of injured or imperfect places in the marble ; second, of parts mutilated. The first was effected by means of finely pul- verized marble and a cement, with which a hole or excavation was filled, as I noticed, in one instance, on the cheek of a Sphinx, among the ornaments of a shattered altar, which was discovered in the autumn of 17G7 at Capri, an island in the bay of Naples, and which is now in possession of Mr. Hamilton, English ambassador at the court of Naples. 32. Mutilated parts were restored anciently, it is well known, in the manner practised at present, — by inserting rods into holes bored in the part injured and the part to be added, by means of which the restored piece was attached (20). This rod was frequently of bronze, but occasionally of iron, as we may see, among other well-known statues, on the buttock of the Laocoon. Bronze was preferred, because its rust does not injure the marble, whereas iron not unfrequently produces stains, especially if any moisture penetrates to it ; and these spots greatly enlarge by time, as it is apparent on the muti- lated figures of an Apollo and a Diana, which were discovered at Baise, and of which I have already made mention. Half of the breast of the former statue, in particular, is stained yellow by the iron rod, now visible, by which the head was attached ; this extremity, which was a restoration, is now lost. To pre- vent this injurious effect, even columns and pilasters of white marble were fastened to their bases by rods of bronze, which may be seen even now, among other instances, on the bases of the pilasters of the temple of Serapis, at Pozzuoli, 33. Here the reader may with propriety inquire at what period of antiquity so many works of art were mutilated and repaired. Though it must seem strange that it should have occurred at a time when the arts flourished, yet the fact is undeniable. Part of these injuries must have been done either in Greece, — in the war between the Achseans and the J^toli- ans, in which both parties vented their rage upon works of art (21), as it will be related hereafter, — or during the trans- VOL. II. 5 66 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. portation of the works themselves to Eome, and another part in Rome. That some of this mutilation was effected in Greece is rendered highly probable by the statues discovered at Baise ; for this place, in which the Romans erected their most mag- nificent country-seats, never suffered any violence from hostile hands, from the time the arts were introduced among them until they became extinct. Now, as the splendor of the arts suddenly faded after the age of the Antonines, and no attention was paid subsequently even to the restoration of injured works, it is probable that those which are in the condition above stated, and those which may be discovered hereafter, must have been brought from Greece in the sad condition in which we see them, and afterwards repaired. This we are authorized in say- ing of a portion of such works in Rome ; but they also suffered afterwards, in the great conflagration that took place in the reign of Nero, and in the Vitellian disturbances, at which time we know that those who were in the Capitol defended them- selves by throwing statues down upon the heads of their as- sailants (22). 34. It was my intention to speak, in this place, of those works only which were injured and restored in ancient times to their original condition, but not of those which have been dug up broken to fragments, like those which were destroyed when the Northern tribes overran and devastated not only Rome, but also Latium and other parts of Italy, to say nothing of Greece. It makes me sad when I reflect upon the consequences of this fury ; however, we are speaking here not of destruction, but of completion. 35. The mechanical part of engraved gems, or the manner of executing them, finds its appropriate place here ; for gem- engraving is a sort of sculpture, and it may justly be required of me not to omit this portion of the art. I might however refer the reader to Mariette's work on Engraved Gems, since the thoroughness of his investigation leaves little of interest to be added. For he has treated not only of all the kinds of gems on which the art is seen and has been exercised, but he has also endeavored, on the one hand, to explain the way and manner in which, as he imagines, the ancient artists engraved gems, and, on the other, he clearly presents the mode adopted by modern artists. 36. The gems best known and most numerous, the value of THE MECHANICAL PART OF GREEK ART. 67 which is still more enhanced by images executed by Greek art, are the carnelian, the chalcedony, hyacinth, agate, and agate- onyx. The two last were reserved for rilievi or cameos, and the former for deeply cut figures or intaglios. But who is ig- norant of this ? It is, on the other hand, not yet settled by what process the ancients engraved gems. We are informed by Pliny that they made use of small diamond-points set in steel handles, but he does not mention whether these points were used in working the stone after the manner in which car- vers in wood use their tools, or whether they were fastened to a wheel, and thus used ; the latter is the more usual process among modern artists. Both those who use, and those who do not use, a wheel, maintain respectively that they can detect in the engraved gems of ancient artists that particular mode of working which they themselves employ (23). Though it is not for me to decide the question, still my opinion is in favor of those who declare for the wheel, the use of which can apparently be discovered on those stones the work of which is only roughly sketched, not finished. 37. I am myself the possessor of such an engraving, in re- lief, on an agate-onyx, an inch and a half in diameter. It was found two years ago in the catacombs, in the same earth too which had been searched on the spot, but which, having been afterwards carried to the Capuchin nunnery, was there sifted anew, that any sacred relics contained in it might by no chance be lost ; in doing this the nuns discovered the stone in ques- tion. It is not only valuable itself, for the exceeding beauty of its colors, but also for the incident represented by it, which, as far as I know, has not as yet been found on any ancient monument. It pictures that scene in which Peleus, the father of Achilles, having been left behind by Acastus when hunting in a wood, fell asleep, and in this condition was surprised by Centaurs who wished to kill him ; one of them is represented here in the act of throwing a large stone upon him ; Chiron however waked him and saved him, though on the gem this is done by Psyche, — thereby intimating that his life was saved. An engraving of this gem will be published in the third volume of my Ancient Monuments. 38. There is every probability that the ancient artists, when engaged on this kind of work, used magnifying-glasses, although we have no proof of it. This useful and necessary invention, 68 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. like many others, was afterwards lost, as was the case, among other instances, with the pendulum, which was used among the Arabians of the Middle Ages to measure time by the regularity of its movements. If it had not been for the discovery of the fact by the learned Edward Bernard, in the writings of this people, we should believe the invention to have been made by Galileo, to whom it is generally attributed (24). 39. To these observations upon the manner of engraving on gems I will adjoin a few special details : in the fii'st place, that the ancients were accustomed to set gems with a piece of gold- leaf beneath them. Pliny states this as having been done to the chrysolite, which was not very translucent, in. order to give it greater brilliancy ; but the same manner of setting was also employed with stones which needed no artificial lustre, as we may see in one of the most beautiful carnelians, the glow of which is equal to that of a ruby, on which is the head of Sextus Pompey, carved by Agathangelus, a Greek artist (25). This beautiful stone, which was set, with gold-leaf beneath it, in a ring, of which the gold weighed an ounce, was found in a tomb not far from the tomb of Ctecilia Metella ; after the death of the antiquarian Sabbatini, to whom it belonged, it was purchased by Count Luneville for two hundred dollars, and now belongs to his daughter, the Duchess of Calabritto, of Naples. 40. After this account of the manner of engraving gems prac- tised by the ancients, I thought that the lovers of art would be pleased to know the names of some of the most beautiful exam- ples, in order to use them, whenever impressions from them are to be procured, as a standard of comparison in determining the degree of beauty of other engraved stones which may fall under their observation. But I must confine myself here to those of which I have seen either the originals or correct casts. I shall speak first of intaglios, and afterwards of cameos, ^Ictto^^ koX 41. Among the heads on intaglios, of which I shall speak first, a head of Pallas, in the imperial museum at Vienna, de- serves particular mention ; this stone bears the name of the artist Aspasius ; also the head of a young Hercules in the for- mer Stosch museum ; and especially a head, which represents him at a similar age, cut upon a sapphire by Gnaius or Cneius, in the Strozzi museum at Rome, and which may be considered as the most beautiful of anything that can be conceived in this THE MECHANICAL PART OF GREEK ART. 69 art. The head of a Medusa in this same museum justly de- serves mention here ; this is not the celebrated Chalcedony of Solon, which represents a certain beautiful woman, rather than ideal beauty, but a small head of her in carnelian (2G). A simi- lar distinction may also be claimed by a head, wrongly named Ptolemy Auletes, in the museum of the king of France, which, as I have shown (in the fifth chapter of the fifth book), is a Hercules in Lydia ; likewise the head of Pompey, engraved by Agathangelus on a carnelian, belonging to the Duchess Cala- britto, of Naples. Of not less merit is the head of Julia, daugh- ter of Titus, cut on a large beryl by Evodus, which may be found in the treasury of the abbey of Saint Denys, at Paris. 42. Of figures in intaglio, a Perseus by the hand of Diosco- rides, in the royal Farnese museum at Naples, is particularly deserving of note ; but we are not to judge of it by the copper- plate engraving, in which the hero has not a single character- istic of youth. Hercules and lole, cut by Teucer, in the Grand-ducal gallery at Florence, has nearly equal merit ; as also an Atalanta of the Stosch museum, and a draped youth, carrying on his shoulder a Trochus or trundling-hoop of bronze, on a translucent white carnelian, in the possession of Mr. Byres, a Scotch student of architecture in Rome. This noble figure, which has the most beautiful ear that I recollect to have ever seen on stones of this kind, has been published by me ; but the copperplate does not give the beauty of the original (27). 43. Among gems cut in relief, which represent the heads of celebrated persons, the first place belongs to a bust of Augustus, on a flesh-colored chalcedony more than a Roman palm (8.80 Eng. in.) high. It was formerly in the museum of the Cardinal Carpegna, but now is in the Vatican library, with which that museum has been incorporated : Buonarroti gives an engraving and description of it. The same rank belongs also to a Caligula, which was purchased in Rome by General Wallmoden, English minister at Vienna. 44. Among the gems remarkable for their figures in relief are, besides the two Tritons belonging to Mr. Jennings, a Jupi- ter slaying the Titans, cut by Athenion, in the royal Farnese museum, at Naples ; and another, a Jupiter visiting Semele, in the museum of Prince Piombino, at Rome. But there are two gems which can dispute precedence with all works in this de- partment of art. One is Perseus and Andromeda; both are TO HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. represented sitting on a bed, and wrought in such high relief that nearly the entire contour of the figures, which are of the most beautiful white color, projects beyond the dark ground of the stone ; this gem is owned by Mr. Mengs (28). The other represents the judgment of Paris, and bears five figures ; it is in the above-mentioned Piombino museum. The drawing and workmanship are as perfect as they can be conceived. In this same museum is a seated Nymph, cut on an agate-onyx (29), about half a palm (4.40 Eng. in.) high; it is perhaps the sole and most beautiful specimen of the kind in the world. THE MECHANICAL PART OF GREEK ART. 71 CHAPTER II. WORK IN BRONZE. 1. In regard to work in bronze I shall make some remarks, first, on the mode of preparing the bronze for casting ; second, upon the moulds in which it was cast ; third, upon the method of casting, and of uniting the different pieces after they were cast, and of flaws ; fourth, upon solders, and also upon inlaid work in bronze ; and finally upon what we term rust, that is, the greenish coating of antique bronze. 2. The bronze was, in the first place, mixed with tin, as the practice is even in these days, that it might melt the more readily, the melting being at times retarded, — which the Ital- ian artists express by the term i^cantare, " to bewitch," — when the tin is not in sufficient quantity. Benevenuto Cellini, a celebrated and experienced artist in this kind of work, relates that he had a statue to cast, and had ordered the furnace to be opened for the flow of the metal whilst he was at dinner ; the workmen informed him that the metal did not run freely ; upon which he immediately seized his tin dishes and plates, and threw them into the glowing metal, which instantly became more fluid. For this reason, and to make the casting of such works easier and more certain, statues were occasionally cast of copper, — as we know by the four horses at Venice of which I shall speak hereafter (1), — because of its readier fusibility. Copper also appears to have been preferred for statues which were to be gilded, because it would have been an inappropriate extravagance to overlay beautiful bronze with gold ; moreover, it is well known that copper is more easily gilded than bronze. 3. In consequence of this necessary admixture of tin, quite small holes, like pock-marks, have been discovered in those bronze pieces which have been at any time exposed to the action of fire. The tin, being the more fusible material, has melted away by the heat, and left the bronze behind, which, without it, is brittle, and rough like a piece of pumice-stone ; 72 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. such bronze is consequently of lighter weight than usual. This diminution in weight is obvious in those coins of the largest size, termed medallions, which have been exposed to fire, be- cause we can weigh them in comparison with others, or from long practice can determine their usual weight by weighing them in the hand. When such coins, which have been de- prived of their tin, — as it were, of their oily ingredient, — are exposed for some time to the air or moisture after having been dug up, they usually become covered with a green coat, by which the ancient bronze is corroded and worn away. 4. Secondly, of the moulds prepared by artists for figures in bronze ; as I wish to make some remarks on them, I introduce here a fact which has been observed in respect to the four an- cient horses over the entrance to Saint Mark's church, in Ven- ice, namely, that each of these figures was cast in two distinct moulds, which joined together lengthwise of the horses ; so that it was not necessary to break the mould after the cast was com- pleted, as must be the case with other casts (2). 5. The third observation, on the manner of casting, and joining the different pieces of the cast, leads us back to the first essays of the earliest ages in this department of art. Many statues had been executed in bronze long before the time of Phidias ; Phradmon, who lived prior to him, had al- ready made twelve cows in bronze, which were carried away from Thessaly as booty, and erected at the entrance of one of the temples. We are informed by Pausanias, that in the earliest ages, before the flourishing days of art, figures in bronze were composed of separate pieces, fitted to each other, and fixstened by nails, — as was a Jupiter at Sparta, the work of Learchus, of the school of Dipcenus and Scyllis. As this mode of casting statues was easier than the other, it continued to be practised even in later periods, of which six Herculaneum female figures, of and under the size of life, are a proof ; for the heads, arms, and legs were cast separately, and even the trunk is not a single piece. These pieces are not united by solder, — no traces of it having been discovered when they were cleaned, — but are joined by tenons, dovetailed in, which from their shape ix] are called in Italy swallows' tails, a coda di rondine. The short mantle of these figures, which likewise consists of two pieces, a front and back, is joined on the shoul- ders, where it is represented as being buttoned. THE MECHANICAL PART OF GREEK ART. 73 6. In this way the ancient artists strove to guard against defects, not easily avoided in casting whole statues by a single operation ; they did however occur sometimes, and were sub- sequently filled up. Defects of this kind are indicated even in the copperplate engraving of the Horses at Venice, in which one may see the pieces anciently inserted, and fastened by nails (3). I myself possess a piece of a probably defective casting, which, with the exception of the head of natural size, is the sole remaining part of a youthful male figure ; the head was formerly in the museum of the Carthusians at Rome, but is at present in the Albani villa (4). This fragment is the pubis, which was cast separately, and afterwards fastened in its proper place. It was probably a second casting, and it is remarkable that, on the inner side of that portion which is covered externally by hair, there are three Greek capital let- ters, I • n ■ X, each an inch in length, which could not have been visible when the statue was entire. Montfaucon has been wrongly informed when he allows himself to state that the equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius was not cast, but wrought with the hammer. 7. The use of solder in antique figures, which is the object of my fourth remark, may be seen in the hair and free-hanging locks, which it was the practice, in the earliest as well as the most flourishing periods of art, to affix by such means (5). The oldest work of this kind, and one moreover of the oldest monuments of art, is a female bust in the Herculaneimi museum at Portici. Upon the forehead, backwards to the ears, there are fifty ringlets, seemingly formed of a stout wire about the size of a writing-quill. They are soldered togetlier in pairs, a long one and a short one together, and hang one over the other; each ringlet is composed of four or five spiral turns. The back hair is bound round the head in one tress, and forms as it were a diadem. It is proved by another head, a male head with a long beard, in the same museum, that the use of solder prevailed in the best days of art. The face turns somewhat to one side, and looks downward. The curled locks on the temples are in this instance also affixed by solder. This ideal head, which is marked with the name of Plato, may be esteemed as a wonder of art, and no idea of it can be conveyed to any one who has not attentively studied the object itself. But the rarest speci- 74 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. men with soldered hair is a male youthful head, a portrait of some individual, in this same museum. There are sixty-eight locks soldered on around it, whereas those in the back of the neck which do not hang free were cast at the same time with the head. These ringlets resemble a narrow strip of paper which, after having been rolled up, has afterwards been drawn out in the form of a spiral spring. Those which hang over the forehead make five or more turns ; of those in the neck some have as many as twelve spires, and all have two incised lines running along their margin. One might believe it to be a head of Ptolemy Aprion, which we see with long hanging ringlets on coins. 8. In the fifth place, of inlaid work m bronze ; of this I have but little to say. Some pieces, filigi'eed with silver (6), have been preserved, as, for instance, the diadem of Apollo Sauroc- tonos, in the Albani villa, and the bases of different figures in the Herculaneum museum. The nails of the hands and feet were occasionally made of silver, — a practice which we see exemplified in a couple of small figures in the Herculaneum museum. Pausanias also speaks of a statue with silver nails (7). This is the proper place to make mention of the four gilded horses erected at Corinth by the celebrated and rich orator, Herod Atticus, the hoofs of which were of ivory. 9. As the color which bronze acquires by time adds to the beauty of bronze statues, it is, in the sixth place, a proper sub- ject of remark. It arises from a greenish coat covering the bronze, and is therefore the more beautiful, the better the metal is. It was called by the Romans certigo, and by Horace, nohilis aerugo, "noble rust " (8). Corinthian brass assumed a light green color, which is seen on coins and some small figures (9). The statues and heads of the Herculaneum museum have a dark green color, but it is not genuine. As all these pieces, when discovered, were very much injured and bruised, and have been re-soldered in the fire and repaired, all the ancient rust fell ofi^, and it became necessary to give them a new coat- ing. Now as this greenish garment is more beautiful the older the bronze- works, we see the reason why the older statues were preferred, even by the ancients themselves, to those of more modern date. 10. Many public statues of bronze were gilded, which the gold proves that remains even now on the equestrian statue of THE MECHANICAL PART OF GREEK ART. 75 Marcus Aurelius, on the fragments of the four horses and chariot which stood on the theatre at Herculaneum (10), par- ticularly on the Hercules in the Campidoglio, and on the four horses at Venice (11). The durability of the gilding on statues which have lain buried many centuries beneath the earth is owing to the thickness of the gold-leaf; for the gold was not beaten so thin by far as it is in modern days, and Buonarroti shows the great difference in thickness. Hence the ornaments of gold in two buried rooms in the palace of the Csesars, on Mount Palatine, in the Farnese villa, are as fresh now as if recently made, and yet these rooms are very damp on account of the earth with which they are covered ; the arched stripes of an azure color, and the small figures in gold, cannot be seen without wonder and astonishment. In the ruins of Persepolis also the gilding remains perfect. 11. Gilding by the aid of heat is of two kinds, it is well known. One process is termed by amalgamation ; the other is expressed in Rome by alio spadaro, " the sword-cutlers' process." The latter is effected by means of gold-leaf ; the former, by a solution of gold in nitro-muriatic acid. In this process, quick- silver is put into the saturated solution, and the mixture is then exposed to a gentle heat, that the acid may be driven off, and the gold unite with the mercury and form a paste. The metal, after having been carefully cleaned, is rubbed over whilst hot with this amalgam, which immediately turns quite black ; but, on again exposing the metal to heat, the gold-color shows itself In this process, the gilding is as it were incorporated with the metal upon which it is laid, but the ancients were not acquainted with it. They gilded only with leaf, after having first coated or rubbed the metal over with quicksilver ; and the long duration of the gilding is owing, as I have already said, to the thick- ness of the gold, layers of which are even now visible on the horse of Marcus Aurelius (12). 12. Gold was formerly laid upon marble by means of the white of egg, but garlic is now used as its substitute. With this the marble is first rubbed, and then covered with a thin coat of gypsum, on which the gilding is laid. Some gilders make \;se of the sap which flows when figs that are beginning to ripen fall from the branches, for it is one of the sourest and most corrosive juices in the world. On some marble statues there are traces even now of gilding on the hair and drapery, 76 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. — traces which were very visible on the beautiful Pallas at Portici when it was discovered. There are heads indeed which were completely gilt ; among others is a head of Apollo, in the Capitoline museum ; and, forty years ago, the lower part of a head was found, resembling the Laocobn, covered with gilding ; but in this instance it was not laid upon g}'psum, but immedi- ately on the marble. 13. In remarking upon the mechanical parts of sculpture, it is particularly necessary to mention inserted eyes, which are iound as well in heads of marble as of bronze. I am now speaking neither of the silver eyes of small figures in bronze, several of which ai'e in the Herculaneum museum, nor of gems which were set in the eyeballs of some large bronze heads for the purpose of imitating the color of the iris, as was the case with the Pallas of Phidias of ivory, and of another Pallas, in the temple of Vulcan at Athens, of which it is remarked that they had blue eyes, yXavKov<; Tov6aXfxov'i, for the subject has been already handled by others, and is nowise remarkable. My remark applies to heads in which the whole eyeball has been inserted ; in these cases it is formed of a snow-white, soft marble, called Palombino (13). These eyeballs were occasion- ally fastened in with particular care, as one may see by a beau- tiful female ideal head, in the house of the sculptor Cavaceppi, which has holes bored in the back and lower parts of the sockets. Eyes of this kind were given not only to the gods, but also to the portraits of distinguished men, and other per- sons (14) ; this fact is proved partly by the eyes which fell out of the statue of one Hiero, of Sparta, before the battle of Leuctra, at which he was slain, and which was supposed to forebode his death, and*partly by several heads in the Hercu- laneum museum ; for not only has the larger of two busts of Hercules such eyes, but also a small male youthful head of an unknown individual, a female bust, and the head of Seneca, erroneously so called. These are among the heads already brought to light ; but a head with similar eyes has been found since, together with the Hermes of marble whereon it stood, on which the name CN. NORBANI. SORICIS is engraved. 14. A particular kind of inserted eyes is seen in the beautiful colossal head, beautiful beyond conception, of the Antinotis at Mondragone, near Frascati, and in a Muse, larger than life, in the Barberini palace, of which mention will be made hereafter. THE MECHANICAL PART OF GREEK ART. 77 The eyeball of the former was turned on a lathe ; it is made of the marble above mentioned, which is as white as milk, but a different whiteness from that of the Parian marble of the head, the color of which in ancient statues more nearly resembles the whiteness of the skin. On the border of the eyeballs, and around on the lids, there remain traces of very thin silver-leaf, with which the eyeball was probably coated before its insertion, with the intention of imitating by the lustre of the silver the true color of the shining white cornea. This silver-leaf must have been cut away, on the front of the eye, as far as the iris extends ; for the circular space of the iris is depressed, and in its central part a still deeper round hole has been excavated, for the purpose of indicating both the iris and the pupil of the eye, which were probably represented by two different gems, imitating the different colors of each. The eyes of the Muse are formed from the same snow-white marble, and are inserted in pi-ecisely the same manner, as we may infer from small pieces of thin silver-leaf around the inner side of the eyelids. 15. The practice among Egyptian artists of inserting eyes had also been introduced into Greek art by the time of Phidias ; for Pausanias describes the eyes of the celebrated Pallas of this artist as being of a sea-color ; hence they would seem to have been made of a stone which we term Aqua marina, "sea-water." It may indeed be inferred from the suppositions which will be offered hereafter in regard to the statue of the Muse with in- serted eyes, in the Barberini palace, that such eyes had been made prior to the days of Phidias. It is in fact probable that this statue is from the hand of Ageladas, the master of Poly- cletus, and the latter was an older man than Phidias. 16. Since of all the ancient monuments those in bronze are the rarest, I hope it will not be considered superfluous if I intro- duce here a list of the most remarkable pieces that have been preserved, — the number of which must have been small prior to the discoveries made in places choked and buried by the eruptions of Vesuvius. It is not, nor could it be, my intention to notice all the remarkable discoveries of this kind existing in the Herculaneum museum, as any one may conceive who has the least idea of this treasury of antiquities, whose wealth con- sists in monuments of bronze. I shall therefore limit myself here to a notice of some of the principal statues of natural size, because many of the other works are mentioned in different 78 HISTORY OF ANCimi ART. parts of this history. But as bronze antiques are rare in Rome, and still more so elsewhere, I will name all the heads and stat- ues which are known to me, merely excluding small figures not more than two palms (17| Eng. in.) high, for of these, especially Etruscan figures, there is an abundance. I shall however men- tion a few, not more than a palm (8.80 Eng. in.) high, because they are works of Greek art and of great beauty. 17. Among the statues of the size of life, in the Herculaneum museum, the most remarkable are a young Satyr, — asleep in a sitting position, his right arm placed upon his head, his left hanging down, — and an old intoxicated Satyr lying on a wine- skin ; under him is spread a lion's hide ; he leans upon his left arm,'and, in token of his jollity, snaps the fingers of his raised rio-ht hand, — an action in which the statue of Sardanapalus at Anchiale in Cilicia is represented, and which is even now prac- tised in a few dances. But still greater admiration is usually given to a seated Mercury, with its body bent forwards and left leg turned backwards ; it leans upon its right hand, and holds a fragment of the Caduceus in the left. In addition to its beauty, this statue is remarkable for a clasp, shaped like a rosette, in the middle of the sole of each foot, on the straps by which the wings are attached to the heels. Now, as this clasp would pre- vent the foot from being put upon the ground except with pain, it would seem to signify that the figure was intended to repre- sent not a walking but a flying Mercury. I have already men- tioned the retracted chin of this statue (Book V., Chap. V., H 28). Of the Caduceus, in the left hand, only an end has been preserved ; the other part was not found. Hence we may infer that this statue must have been brought to the spot where it was discovered from some other place, and that the remainder of the staff was lost there ; for as the statue, with the exception of the head, had suff"ered not the least injury, its staff" ought to have been found with it. Since the finding of these three statues, two young and nude Athletes have been discovered, likewise of full size ; they stand opposite to each other with outstretched arms, preparing to get the most advantageous hold. These statues are in the museum itself, each one in its appropriate cabinet, and may justly be reckoned among the greatest rarities of our time, as well as the four or five female statues, which are represented as if dancing, and which stand on the staircase leading to the museum ; and also the statues THE MECHANICAL PART OF GREEK ART. 79 of the emperors and empresses, which are still larger than the others, and which are gradually receiving restorations. In ac- cordance with my intention of noticing in this museum only statues of full size, I omit the supposed Alexander, and an Ama- zon, both equestrian statues three palms (26.40 Eng. in.) in height, a Hercules, and also many Sileni, — some sitting on wine-skins, and others riding, — which were erected over springs, and discharged the water, together with many other figures of the same or similar size, the smaller ones not being included. I likewise omit twenty-four busts, some of life-size, some larger, and others which are smaller ; all of them may be found in the fifth volume of the Herculaneum Museum. 18. I do not venture to assert that a collection of ancient bronze figures, so large and so valuable, can be brought to- gether from entire Rome, from all its palaces and museums ; it is my belief however that the Herculaneum museum has the superiority in this respect, even if we speak of statues alone. I will notice the most remarkable of these rare works in Rome, — beginning with the Campidoglio. Besides the almost colos- sal equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius, which stands on the piazza of the Campidoglio, there is on the right side of the in- ner court of this palace a colossal head, erroneously supposed to be the head of Commodus, together with a hand (15) which from its size probably belongs to the same statue as the head. In the galleries of the Conservator! of this palace is a well- known Hercules, larger than life, on which the ancient gilding is still perfectly preserved (16), together with the statue of a Camillus, so called, or a sacrificial youth, clad merely in an under garment, which is tucked up in the manner in which these youths are commonly seen represented on diflPerent ri- lievi (17). In this same gallery may be seen a boy, seated, and plucking a thorn from his foot (18); this and the former boy are as large as boys usually are at their age. There also stands the Etruscan she-wolf, with Romulus and Remus, — which has been cited in the third chapter of the third Book of this history, — together with a bust which goes by the name of Brutus (19), and also two geese, or rather ducks, which once were gilded. In the Capitoline museum, opposite to the Cam- pidoglio, is a Diana triformis, but which does not belong here, as it is not more than a palm in height ; it was formerly gilded. To these public works in bronze I add two peacocks, likewise 80 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. anciently gilded, which stand in the Vatican palace, near the large pine-cone of bronze, which appears to have once orna- mented the summit of Adrian's tomb, for it was found within it. 19. Other Roman galleries, museums, and villas have only single or a few pieces to exhibit, among which the best known is the statue of Septimius Severus in the Barberini palace ; the arms and feet are modern. Here also is to be found the above- mentioned Etruscan figure, holding a cornucopia of modern make, and in the museum of this same house is preserved a beautiful female bust. 20. Besides this palace, the museum of the Jesuits is the sole one within Rome which contains works of bronze. Though their number is great, I cannot enter into any details regarding them, because the greater portion are small figures. The larg- est are a child and a Bacchus, which, with the ancient socles whereon they stand, are more than three palms (26.40 Eng. in.) high ; also a beautiful head of an Apollo, of the size of life, of which mention has already been made, and the gilded head of a young man, less than life. There remains nothing else to be noticed, except the figure of a boy running, about four palms (35.20 Eng. in.) tall, which formerly belonged to the antiqua- rian Sabbatini, but which, at his death, was purchased for three hundred and fifty dollars by a merchant, Belisario Ami- dei, in whose possession it now is. 21. Of the villas within and without Rome, there are only three which require to be mentioned, — the Ludovisi, Mattei, and Albani. In the first is a colossal head of Marcus Aurelius, and in the second a defaced head, supposed to be the head of Gallienus (20). The third is, next to .the Campidoglio, the richest museum in bronze figures; and, besides, every piece which it contains has either been purchased or discovered by the Cardinal Alexander Albani, by whom the villa was erected. Of the heads of the size of life, one is a Faun, and the other appears to be the image of a young hero, but it has without evi- dence, and on account of the diadem, by which it is encircled, been called a Ptolemy (21). Each of them is set upon a new bust of bronze, and the second has already been mentioned when I was speaking of that inserted pubis on the inner side of which Greek letters are engraved. Of the five figures to be seen here, two are in perfect perservation ; two others have only heads, hands, and feet of bronze, the drapery being of alabaster ; the THE MECHANICAL PART OF GREEK ART 81 fifth, which is likewise perfect, is the largest and most beautiful of them all. The first two which stand on their ancient socles are about three palms (26.40 Eng. in.) high ; one of them represents a Hercules, and is an imitation of the Farnese Hercules ; it was purchased by the Cardinal for five hundred dollars. The other, a Pallas, which formerly belonged to Christina, Queen of Swe- den, cost him eight hundred dollars. The two composite fig- ures are a Pallas and a Diana (22). The fifth is a beautiful Apollo watching a lizard, or the Apollo Sauroctonos, of which I have frequently made mention in this History, and especially in the third chapter of the ninth Book, when speaking of the works of Praxiteles, among which this figure might be ranked (23) ; its ancient socle included, it stands five palms (44 Eng. in.) high. This statue was disinterred by the Cardinal himself in a vineyard below the church of Saint Balbina, on the Aven- tine hill. Those who know what Cicero, in his oration against Verres, states to the judges, — that, in his time, HS. CXX millia, that is, 3,000 ducats or sequins (6,000 dollars), had been paid for a bronze figure of moderate size, signum ceneum non magnum, purchased at a public sale, — cannot find the prices above mentioned exorbitant, since it is plainly manifest, from the quotation, that antique figures and statues, notwith- standing the incredible number of them in Rome, cost much more then than they do now when they are so rare. We may also infer from the above statement the great value of the Albani Apollo, since it exceeds the dimensions of those figures which Cicero terms signa non magna, for it is as large as life, and has the size of a boy ten years of age. 22. Next to Rome, Florence, with its Grand-ducal gallery, is the richest in these treasures ; for it contains, in addition to many small figures, two well-preserved statues of life-size, one of which is a male adult, dressed in a Roman garb, but having Etruscan writing engraved on the border of its mantle. The other is a nude youth, which was found at Pesaro, on the Adri- atic Gulf, and which apparently represents a young hero. Be- sides these there is the Chimeera, that is, an animafcompounded of a lion and a goat, and of the size of the latter ; this remark- able piece is also marked with Etruscan letters. I omit a Pallas of the size of life, very much injured, though the head is beauti- ful and in full perservation. I do not forget that I have al- ready mentioned these works in the second chapter of the third VOL. II. 6 82 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. Book, when speaking of the art of the Etruscans ; but the object of this catalogue seems to require a renewed mention of it (24). 23. It may probably be thought that I am wrong in placing Florence before Venice, on account of the four horses, of natural size, made of copper, and formerly gilded, which stand over the entrance to Saint Mark's church, in the latter city. It is well known that the Venetians carried them off, at the beginning of the thirteenth century, from Constantinople, of which city they were masters for a short time. Besides this work, the sole one of its kind, there are not in Venice, to my knowledge, any im- portant large figures in bronze ; for I have not myself seen the heads in the Grimani mansion, and I do not dare to speak on the judgment of others ; and the few small figures in the ISTani museum do not belong to this list. 24. At Naples, one admires, in the inner court of the Colo- brano palace, the exceedingly beautiful head of a horse, which Vasari wrongly ascribes to the Florentine sculptor, Dona- tello (25). In the royal Farnese museum there is a large num- ber of small figures, but most of them are modern and of sorry workmanship ; and the same must be said of the collection in the Porcinari mansion, the largest piece in which is a child about three palms (26.40 Eng. in.) tall, but of little merit. The most remarkable figure is a Hercules, about a palm high, which has a lion's skin thrown over the left arm, and resembles an Etruscan work. 25. I do not know what large figures or heads of bronze are to be found in France (26), but a head twice as large as nature, and representing an unknown young man, was carried to Spain in the Odescalchi museum, for which the late queen, a princess of Parma, paid fifty thousand dollars (27). This head is at Saint Ildefonso. 26. At Salzburg, in Germany, there is a statue of the size of life, of which mention will be made hereafter. Moreover, the king of Prussia possesses an undraped figure, which, with uplifted hands, turns its eyes to heaven (28), and in the rarity of its position it resembles a statue of marble, likewise un- draped, and of the size of life, in the Pamfili palace, on the Navona square. Here also may be mentioned the head of a Venus, somewhat smaller than life, set upon an antique bust of beautiful Oriental alabaster, which the prince royal of Braun- schweig obtained from the Cardinal Alexander Albani (29). THE MECHANICAL PART OF GREEK ART. 83 27. Of ancient works in bronze, existing in England, I know nothing except a bust of Plato, which the Duke of Devonshire received about thirty years ago from Greece (30). It is said to resemble exactly the true portrait of this philosopher with the ancient name on the breast, which was sent from Rome to Spain at the end of the last century, and was lost by the wreck of the vessel. An unrecognized Hermes in the Capito- line museum, which is classed among the unknown likenesses, is also perfectly similar to it. 28. I believe that I have now communicated more informa- tion than any other writer before me in regard to the mechan- ical portion of ancient sculpture ; there are however lovers of antiquities who have found neither opportunities nor means of observing and studying such works, and yet have facilities for seeing coins, or even are possessors of them. They perhaps believe that even the ancient mint-masters made use of some peculiar mechanical process, mention of which might be inter- esting ; I confess that I should not willingly pass by even this portion of my subject entirely without remark, and yet I shall be unable to, offer anything new. For coins, even in regard to the mode of stamping, which was different among the Greeks according to the different epochs in art, have been thoroughly investigated, more so even than the marbles, because the for- mer have been scattered over the whole world, and have gained the attention of those whose love for antiquity had nothing but coins to sustain it. But I could nbt entirely omit this part of art without subjecting myself to censure from the lovers of coins, though I cannot, on the other hand, hope to escape it, for every one loves to hear his favorite subject discussed, even though the discussion should consist merely of repetitions. In order therefore to leave no breaches in the mechanical portion of art, I will at least notice what others as well as myself have observed. 29. I have already stated that many of the most ancient Greek coins have been stamped with two different dies, one of which is raised and the other sunk. Barthelemy has more- over conjectured that, in the earliest periods, coins were fas- tened in a particular manner beneath the die, and that the sunken squares which we see on the reverse of some of them were made with no other view than to confine them. It is un- necessary to mention that, not only in the more remote ages, 84 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. but also when art was in its bloom, the impression is generally superficial, but becomes more raised subsequently, and during the times of the emperors ; in the former case, the execution is, in part, very elaborate ; in the latter, gi-and (31). 30. Not only the genuine coins, but also those which were counterfeited in ancient times, deserve our attention. There are two kinds of them, one coated with silver and the other with gold (32). The former, which are made of copper, over- laid with very thin silver-leaf, occur particularly among coins stamped during the times of the emperors. The latter, coated with gold, are more rare ; a coin of this kind, bearing the head and name of Alexander the Great, is to be seen in the museum of the Duke of Caraffa Noja, at Naples, in which the deception is recognized solely by the lightness of its weight, for it is in uncommonly good preservation. 31. I introduce here an inscription, which is in the Albani villa, and has never before been published, because it makes mention of the gilding of coins (33). D. M. FECIT. MTNDIA. HELPIS. C. IVLIO. THALLO. MA- RITO. SVO. BENE. MERENTI. QVI. EGIT. OFFICINAS. PLVMBARIAS. TRASTIBERINA. ET. TRIGARI. SVPER- POSITO. AVRI. MONET^. NVMVLARIORVM. QVI. VIX- IT. ANN. XXXIIIMVL ET. C. IVLIO. THALLO. FILIO. DVLCISSIMO. QVL VIXIT. MESES Iin. DIES XL ET. SIBL POSTERISQVE. SVIS. To God the Greatest. Erected by Mindia Helpis to her excellent husband, Cams Julius lliallus, ivho was manager of the lead-shops on the other side of the Tiber and in the Trigarium, and superintendoit of the chang- ers of gold coins, who lived thirty-three years and six months ; to my sweetest son, Caius Julius Thallus, who lived four months and eleven days ; and to him, and to his posterity. 32. It may be conjectured from the Greek letter H on the socle of a Faun, in the Altieri palace, that when statues were collected in one place, they were designated by their numbers ; this one therefore was probably the eighth. A bust of which mention is made in a Greek inscription was marked with the same letter, to signify that it was the eighth in place in the tem- THE MECHANICAL PART OF GREEK ART 85 pie of Serapis, where it stood ranged among other busts. This fact escaped the observation of the translator of the inscription, and he regarded the letter H as superfluous (34). I believe that also the N on the shaft of an Amazon, in the Capitoline museum, signifies the number fifty, or that this statue was the fiftieth in the place where it stood. 86 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. CHAPTER III. OF THE PAINTINGS OF THE ANCIENTS, 1. Having concluded my remarks in regard to the mechanical part of sculpture, I proceed to consider the art of painting as it existed among the ancients. We can, at the present time, judge and speak of it with more knowledge and instruction in conse- quence of the many hundreds of paintings that have been dis- covered in Herculaneum, as well as in other cities that were buried beneath the discharges of Vesuvius. At the same time we must, in addition to the descriptions to be found in books, constantly infer from those pictures which, according to all ap- pearances, cannot have been more than moderately good, how great must have been the beauty of the best, and like ship- wrecked mariners esteem ourselves fortunate that we are able to collect a few of the scattered planks. 2. In this fifth part, which is divided into five sections, I shall give in the first some account of the principal paintings which have been discovered ; in the second, offer a conjecture whether they are to be regarded as the work of Greek or Roman paint- ers ; in the third, I shall speak of their coloring, in explanation of certain passages in ancient writers who treat upon the sub- ject ; in the fourth place, consider the style of some of the an- cient painters, and conclude with remarks upon painting in mosaic. 3. The number of ancient paintings which have been discov- ered in Rome greatly exceeds the number of those which have been published. Many of them however have perished, partly through the neglect of our predecessors, and partly by the action of the air, the destructive effects of which I witnessed myself on some pieces at whose discovery I was present. When the ex- ternal air gains admission into a damp vault, so completely buried as to have been inaccessible to it for many hundred years, it not only extracts the colors, but also causes the painted plaster to crumble from the walls. THE MECHANICAL PART OF GREEK ART. 87 4. This has probably been the fate of several paintings of which colored drawings are preserved in the Vatican library, in the museum of the Cardinal Alexander Albani, and also else- where. The drawings in the Vatican were, for the most part, made from paintings in the Baths of Titus ; they were done by Sante Bartoli and his son, Francis Bartoli, not, it is probable, from the pictures themselves, on the spot where they were, but, as it appears, from some older drawings which had been taken from them in Raphael's time (1). Of these pictures, four pieces were published for the first time in my Ancient Monuments. The first, taken from the Baths of Titus, is composed of four fig- ures, and represents Pallas as a musician, with two flutes in her hand, which she seems about to throw away, because a Nymph of the river in which the goddess sees herself mirrored, whilst playing, informs her that blowing the flute distorts her face. The second, consisting of two figures, represents Pallas proffer- ing to Paris a diadem, which she holds before him, and with it the sovereignty of Asia, if he would award her the prize of beauty. The third, of four figures, shows Helen, and a female figure leaning on the back of her chair, who appears to be one of her maidens, probably Astyanassa, the best known of them. Paris stands opposite, holding in his hand an arrow of Cupid, — who is between him and Helen, — which he has seized, whilst Helen snatches at the bow. The fourth, of five figures, repre- sents Telemachus, accompanied by Pisistratus as his guide, in the house of Menelaus ; Helen, to enliven the dejected mind of the son of Ulysses, offers him Nepenthe in a cratera, which is a deep cup. It is my intention to publish at a future time, among other monuments of ancient art, some of these drawings of perished pictures, the subject of which it is difficult to ex- plain. 5. The ancient pictures which have been preserved, and still exist in Rome, are the Vemts, so called, and the Eoma in the Barberini palace, the so-styled Aldobrandini Marriage, the pre- sumed Marcus Coriolanus, the (Edipus in the Altieri villa, seven pieces in the gallery of the Roman College, and two in the Albani villa. 6. The figures in the first two pictures are of the size of life ; Roma is in a sitting posture, and Venus is recumbent ; but the latter figure, as also the Cupid and other accessories in the pic- ture, has been retouched in several places by Carlo Maratta. 88 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. The latter was found when workmen were digging for the foun- dations of the Barberini palace, and it is believed that the Roma was discovered in the same place. A written notice, attached to the copy of this picture made by order of Ferdinand III., states it to have been discovered in the year 1656, near the Baptistry of Constantine, and for this reason it is held to be a work of that age. But I learn from an unpublished letter of the Commendator Del Pozzo to Nicholas Heinsius that it was found on the seventh of April of the previous year, 1655; no mention however is made of the place ; it has been described by La Chausse. Another picture, called Rome Triumphant, which consisted of many figures, and was in the same palace, is no longer in existence. The Nymphoeum so called, also in this palace, has been effaced by the mould, and I conjecture that the other met with the same fate. 7. The third of the paintings above mentioned, the Aldohran- dini Marriage, so called, is composed of figures somewhat more than two palms high. It was discovered not far from Santa Maria Maggiore, on the site formerly occupied by the gardens of Macsenas. This picture represents, as I think I have shown in my Monuments of Antiquity, the marriage of Peleus with Thetis, at which three goddesses of the Seasons, or three Muses, are singing and playing the nuptial song (2). To avoid repetition, I refer the reader to my remarks on this picture in the Essay on Allegory. 8. The fourth picture, the supposed Coriolanus, has not become effaced, as Du Bos alleges, but is to be seen even now on the vaulted ceiling of a hall in the Baths of Titus in which the Laocoon formerly stood in a large niche, now filled with rubbish up to its arch. The fifth, the (Edipus, is perhaps the worst of all those now mentioned, at least when considered in the state in which it now exists, and I mention it merely for the purpose of noticing a particular circumstance, which has probably escaped the observation of every modern writer, and which was consequently unknown even to Bellori, by whom it has been omitted in his drawing. In the upper part of the picture, where it has suffered most injury, and as it were at a distance, there are still to be distinguished an ass and his driver, who with a stick is urging the beast along. This must be intended to represent the ass on which Oedipus loaded the body of the Sphinx after she had thrown herself from the preci- THE MECHANICAL PART OF GREEK ART. 89 pice, and carried it to Thebes. But, since this portion of the picture has been repainted, the ass is no longer distinguishable. 9. The seven pictures belonging to the Jesuits (3) were taken, in the present century, from a vault at the foot of the Palatine hill, on the side of the Circus Maximus. The best of them are a Satyr, two palms high, drinking from a horn, and a small landscape, with figures one palm high, which surpasses in merit many landscapes in the Herculaneum museum. One of the two pictures mentioned as being in the Albani villa was discovered in the same place and at the same time with those, and was selected from the whole number by the Abbot Fran- chini, at that time Minister at Rome from the Court of Tus- cany, by whom it was transferred to the Cardinal Passionei; after his death, it was set in the place where it now stands. This piece may be seen as a supplement to the ancient paint- ings published by Bartoli, of which Morghen made engravings. As I believed however that I could give a probable explanation of the figures composing it, a more correct drawing of it has been introduced into my Ancient Monuments. On a base in the centre stands a small, nude male figure ; with the raised left arm it holds a shield, and in the right hand a short mace, with numerous spikes projecting from it all around, of the kind for- merly in use in Germany. On one side of the base is a small altar, and on the other a large coal-pan, from both of which smoke ascends. On each side stands a draped female figure with a diadem on her head ; one of them strews incense on the altar ; the other, with her right hand, seems to be doing the same upon the lighted coals, and in her left she holds a dish containing fruits which look like figs. It is my belief that this picture represents a sacrifice which Livia and Octavia, wife and sister of Augustus, offer to Mars, as the Roman matrons were accustomed to do on the first of March, at a festival from which men were excluded, and which was hence termed matronalis ; for Horace speaks of a sacrifice offered by these two women on occasion of the safe return of Augustus from Spain, though he does not mention to what deity. 10. Another picture in the Albani villa was discovered about three years ago, in a room in an ancient village situate on the Appian way, about five miles from Rome. It is a palm and a half long, and half as broad, and represents a landscape with buildings, animals, and figures, which are executed with great 90 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. freedom, in a pleasing tone of coloring, and at the same time with a correct knowledge of distance in the background. The principal structure is a gate, consisting of a single arch, in which a portcullis is suspended by chains attached to its upper beam, and passing over a roller, by which it may be raised or lowered ; over the arch is a watch-room. This gate leads to a bridge over a river, on which oxen are passing with their driver ; the river empties itself into the sea. On the bank stands a tree, in the branches of which is built a small bower ; on other branches ribbons are suspended, — which were attached to trees as a kind of votive offering ; thus, in the Thebaid of Statins, Tydeus, the father of Diomedes, vowed to hang upon a tree purple-colored ribbons with a white border, in honor of Pallas, and Xerxes ornamented a tree with costly jewels. Beneath the tree are seen tombs, which it was also a custom to construct in such a situation, and occasionally plants grew out of them and from beneath them. A person reposing upon one of them conveys an allusion to a highway, by the sides of which the Romans were accustomed to erect their tombs. 11. I omit all mention of several small ancient paintings which were discovered in the ruins of the palace of the Csesars, and carried to Parma, because they have been effaced by mould. These pieces, after having been removed with the coating of the wall on which they were painted from the Farnese villa, situate on Mount Palatine, in Rome, were carried to Parma, and thence to Naples, and there, like other treasures of the Parmesan Farnese gallery, they remained in damp vaults, en- closed in cases, for more than twenty years, and when at last they were unpacked, scarcely a trace of them remained ; in this faded state they have been arranged in the royal gallery at Capo di Monte, in Naples. They were however of very moder- ate merit, and are no great loss. A painting of a Caryatid, with the entablature which she sustains, found in the said ruins, has been preserved, and it is at Portici, among the Her- culaneum pictures. Some of these paintings were found in 1722, in the Farnese villa, and others on the walls of a large hall, forty palms long (28 ft. 4 in.), which was discovered in 1724. The walls were divided by painted mouldings into several compartments, in one of which a female figure, Helen, is landing from a vessel, and is conducted by a young male figure, Paris, who, with the exception of his mantle, which THE MECHANICAL PART OF GREEK ART. 91 hangs behind from his shoulders, is nude. An engraving of this piece may be seen in Turnbull's work on Ancient Painting. 12. The paintings in the tomb of Cestius have disappeared, consumed by the humidity of the place ; and of those in the tomb of Ovid, — situate on the Flamiuian way, a mile and a half from Rome, — the CEdipus with the Sphinx alone remains ; it is set into the wall of a saloon in the Altieri villa. Bellori mentions two other pieces in this villa, but they are now no longer in existence. The Vulcan, together with the Venus, on the other side of that painting, is a modern work (4). 13. In the sixteenth century, paintings were still to be seen in the ruins of the Baths of Diocletian. An old painting, men- tioned by Du Bos as being in the Farnese palace, is entirely unknown in Rome. A painting which it is my intention to have engraved from a colored drawing in the museum of the Cardinal Albani was probably in the Baths of Titus, and will be explained by me hereafter. 14. No ancient paintings of any value have come to light in Rome itself, since the discoveries mentioned as having been made in the Farnese villa. In the spring of 1760, during the excavations needed for an arched drain in the Albani villa, sev- eral pieces of plaster, probably of the walls of an ancient tomb, were discovered, which had either fallen off or been intention- ally detached, and which presented ornaments and figures that had been painted on the dry lime. On one of the two best pieces a Cupid is to be seen, on a red ground, in a flowing blu- ish robe, and riding on a green marine animal. On the other is preserved the beautiful trunk of a small female seated figure, together with the right hand, which has a ring on the ring- finger, so called. A reddish mantle is thrown over this arm and the lower part of the body. These two pieces belong to the author (5). 15. Finally, when little hope remained of finding works of ancient painting in or near Rome, the memorable discovery was effected of the cities buried by the discharges from Vesuvius, from which a thousand and several hundred of paintings, exe- cuted on the plaster of the walls, have been removed and set up in the Herculaneum museum. Some of them were discov- ered in the ruined buildings of Herculaneum itself; others have been taken from houses in the city of Stabia, and the last 92 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. are those of Pompeii, in which city excavations have been at last undertaken (6). 16. The four largest Herculaneum paintings were found on the walls of niches in a round and moderately large temple, sacred probably to Hercules. The subjects are Theseus after hilling the Minotaur, the Birth of Telephus, Chiron and Achilles, and Pan and Olympus. The Theseus does not give us any idea of the beauty of the young hero, who, on his arrival at Athens, a stranger, was looked upon as a young maiden (7). I should like to see him with long flowing locks, such as he as well as Jason wore when the latter arrived for the first time at Athens. Theseus ought to resemble the Jason described by Pindar, whose beauty excited universal astonishment, and a belief among the people that Apollo, Bacchus, or Mars had appeared to them. In the Birth of Telephus Hercules does not resemble any Greek Alcides, and the other heads have a common confor- mation. Achilles is quiet and composed, but his countenance gives occasion for much reflection. The features show very promising indications of the future hero, and we read in his eyes, which are fixed with great attention upon Chiron, an im- patient desire of instruction, in order that he may more speed- ily complete his course of youthful study, and render memorable by glorious deeds the briefly limited period of his life. On the forehead sit a noble shame and rebuke of his own incapacity when his teacher takes the plectrum from his hand for the pur- pose of correcting his mistakes. He is beautiful in the sense of Aristotle ; the sweetness and charm of youth are blended with pride and sensitiveness. In the engraving of this picture there is a lack of thoughtfulness in the face of Achilles, and his eyes are looking away into the distance when they ought to be fixed upon Chiron. 17. We cannot refrain from wishing that the four designs on marble, in this museum, — one of which is marked with the names of the artists, and of the figures which they represent, — had proceeded from the hand of a great master ; the artist was a native of Athens, and named Alexander. The three other pieces are also apparently from his hand ; but the exe- cution of them does not lead us to form a very high opinion of him ; the heads are common, and the hands not beautifully drawn ; now it is in the extremities of the human figure that we recognize the hand of the master. These Monochromes, or THE MECHANICAL PART OF GREEK ART. 93 paintings of one color, are done in vermilion, which has turned black from the action of heat, which is usually the case. The ancients selected this color for such paintings, of which I shall speak more fully hereafter (8). Among the most beautiful of these paintings may be enu- merated the Dancing-women, the Bacchantes, but especially the Centaurs, — not quite a span high, and painted on a black ground, — in which we recognize the correctness and firmness of a skilled artist (9). Still, there was felt a wish to have pieces of more finish, for these are dashed off with great facil- ity, as if with one stroke of the pencil, and at the close of the year 1761 this wish was gratified. 18. The workmen were employed upon a room in the ancient buried city of Stabia, about eight Italian miles from Portici, and had cleared it almost entirely from rubbish, when they came to earth, near the lower part of the wall, which was still firm, and one of them, giving it a few strokes with a pick, brought to view four pieces of masonry, but two of them were shattered by the blows. The four paintings which I shall par- ticularly describe had been cut out of the wall ; they rested against it and were placed two and two, with their backs to each other, so that the painted surfaces remained outwards. The first supposition of myself and others was, that these paintings had been brought hither from some other place, but the dis- coveries afterwards made in the city of Pompeii proved that they had been removed anciently from the wall of the very house in which they were found. For it may be seen even now, in the excavated buildings of this city, that sometimes entire pictures, sometimes heads of figures, have been cut out of the walls ; and this was done probably immediately after the place had been overwhelmed by the ashes of Vesuvius. The fugitive inhabitants, who, as it appears, still had time before their flight to save a portion of their valuables, returned to their deserted cities after the melancholy event, and, when the raging of the mountain was calmed, opened a passage through the ashes and pumice-stone to their dwellings, and sought out not only their buried movables, but carried away even statues, as the vacant pedestals proclaim ; we even see that the bronze door-hinges and marble sills of doors have been removed. They also strove to rescue from destruction even the paintings on the walls ; bnt. ass somp fpw on1v of them have been cut 94 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. out, it is probable that the inhabitants were prevented from completing their intentions by a renewed discharge of hot ashes from the mountain, and that these same four paintings were left behind for this very reason. 19. These four paintings have painted borders consisting of stripes of different colors, of which the outermost one is white, the middle violet, and the innermost green, and these frames are surrounded by brown lines. All three stripes together are as broad as the tip of the little finger, and on the outside of them is a white streak of a finger's breadth. The figures are two palms and two digits, Roman measure (19 in.^Eng.), high. Although these paintings have been engraved and described, since the first edition of this work, in the fourth volume of the Herculaneum Paintings, I have not felt willing to withdraw the description given by myself, because the said work is not in every one's hands, and more especially because I think that I have offered the true explanation of the third pic- ture (10). 20. The first picture is composed of four female figures, i he principal one has her face turned forwards, and is sitting on a chair. With her left hand she draws aside from her face her mantle or peplum, which is lifted upon the back part of the head ; this garment is of a violet color, and has a sea-green border; the tunic is flesh-colored (11). Her right hand is placed upon the shoulder of a young and beautiful maiden, who, wrapped in a white mantle, leans upon the other's chair, and rests her chin upon her right hand ; her fiice is seen m pro- file. The feet of the former are supported by a footstool, as a si^n of her dignity. Near her is a beautiful female figure, whose countenance is turned forwards, having her hair dressed ; her right hand is placed in her bosom ; the left hangs down, whilst the fino-ers make a movement as a person would in striking a chord upon a clavichord. Her tunic is white, with narrow sleeves reaching to the wrist ; her mantle, of a violet color, has an embroidered hem of a thumb's breadth. The figure which dresses her hair stands higher, and is turned in profile, yet so that the tips of the hairs of the eyebrow of the averted eye are visible ; the hairs of the eyebrow of the other eye are more dis- tinctly marked than in the other figures. The earnestness of her attention is visible in her eye and on her compressed lips. Close to her stands a small low table with three -feet, five digits THE MECHJNICAL PART OF GREEK ART. 95 (2 in. 8 lines Eng.) in height, — so that it reaches to the middle of the thighs of the nearest figure, — having a marble slab, elegantly fluted, on which is a small casket, with twigs of laurel thrown over it ; a violet ribbon, intended perhaps to be placed around the head of the attired figure, lies near (12). Beneath the table is an elegant tall vase ; it reaches almost to the table- slab, has two handles, and is made of glass, which its transpar- ency and color indicate. 21. The second painting appears to represent a tragic poet, who is seated, with his face turned forwards, and dressed in a long white tunic, — which descends to the feet, and has narrow sleeves reaching to the wrist, — of the kind worn by the actors in tragedy. He appears to be about fifty years old, and is with- out beard (13). Below the breast is a yellow band, of the breadth of the little finger, which may be an allusion to the Tragic Muse, who, as it was remarked elsewhere, in the first chapter of the second Book, generally wore a broader girdle than the other Muses. In his right hand he holds upright a staff of the length of a spear, hasta pura, on the upper extremity of which is a ferrule of a finger's breadth, denoted by a yellow stripe, just such a one as Homer holds in the pic- ture of his deification (14). With the left hand he grasps a sword, which lies diagonally across the left thigh ; both thighs are draped by a changeable red cloth, which also falls down over the seat of the chair ; the belt of the sword is green. The sword, in this instance, may have the same signification as the one held by the figure personifying the Hiad, in the Deification of Homer, for this book furnishes the larger number of subjects for tragedy, drawn from heroic history. A female figure, whose right shoulder is bare, and who is draped in yellow, turns her back to him (15). She is kneeling with the right knee before a tragic mask, — which has a lofty head-dress of hair named oyKo?, — that is set upon a frame, as on a base. This mask stands, as it were, in a shallow case or box, the sides of which, from the top to the bottom, are removed, and which is lined with blue cloth ; from its top are suspended white bands, to the ends of which are attached two short cords with knots in them. The kneeling figure writes, with a pencil, probably the name of a tragedy, on the top of the base, on which she casts a shadow ; but instead of letters we see only strojtes. I believe it is the Tragic Muse, Melpomene, more especially because the figure is 96 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. represented as a virgin, for her hair is gathered together in a knot on the back of her head, — a manner of arranging it, which, as I have already stated, was usual only among unmar- ried women. Behind the trestle which supports the mask is seen a male figure, who leans with both hands on a long staff, and fixes his eyes on the writing figure ; the countenance of the tragic poet is also turned in the same direction. 22. The third painting is composed of two nude male figures with a horse. One of them is seated, and faces the spectator ; he is young, and his countenance is full of fire and boldness, and he is listening with deep attention to the words of the other, so that this figure may well represent Achilles. The seat of the chair is covered with crimson clothj or with purple, which is thrown also over the right thigh, on which the right hand rests. His mantle too, which hangs down behind, is red, and therefore appropriate to a young hero and warrior as being a military color, for it was the usual color of the Spartans when on warlike expeditions ; the couches also of the ancients were covered with purple. The arms of the chair are supported by Sphinxes (16), sitting on their haunches, as are the arms of the chair of a Jupiter, on a rilievo in the Albani palace, and as on a cameo where the arms of the chair are upheld by kneeling fig- ures, so that they are consequently tolerably high ; the right arm of the figure rests on the right elbow of the chair. A sheathed sword, six digits long, leans against one leg of the chair ; it has a green belt, similar to that of the tragic poet, to which the sword is attached by means of two movable rings on the upper band of the sheath. The other figure is standing, and leaning upon a staflF, which he has placed with his left hand beneath the right shoulder, — in the same attitude in which Paris stands on an engraved gem, — so that the right arm is raised, as if the speaker were relating some incident ; one leg is thrown across the other ; the head of this figure, and also of the horse, is wanting. This appears to be the youthful hero Antilochus, Nestor's youngest son, in the act of communi- cating to the astounded Achilles the intelligence of the death of Patroclus. This supposition is rendered probable to my mind by the building in which the action is represented ; for it gives one an idea of the tent, constructed of boards, in which Achilles was found when the news was brought to him. THE MECHANICAL PART OF GREEK ART. 97 23. The fourth picture contains five figures. The first is a seated female figure, with one shoulder bared, and crowned with ivy and flowers ; in her left hand she holds a roll of manuscript, to which she points with the right hand. She is dressed in violet, and her shoes are yellow, like those of the figure in the first painting, whose head is being dressed. Opposite to her sits a young female harpist, who strikes with her left hand a harp, named Barbytus, which is five digits and a half high, and holds in her right hand a tuning-fork, which is forked at its upper part, almost in the shape of a Greek Y, only the tines are more curved, as one may plainly see in a tuning-fork made of bronze, — in this same museum, — the tines of which, five digits long, terminate in horses' heads. Another beautiful tuning-fork| made of bronze and much ornamented, is in the museum of Mr. Hamilton, at Naples. It is probable that the instrument which the muse Erato, in a picture in the Herculaneum museum, holds in her hand, is not a plectrum, — which it is claimed to be, but a tuning-fork, for it has two tines, though they curve in- wards ; besides, a plectrum was not needed here, seeing that she strikes the psaltery with her left hand. The harp of our figure has seven pegs on the head, — which was called avrv^ XopSar, — and consequently the same number of strings. Be- tween them sits a Flute-player, dressed in white, who is blowing at the same time two straight flutes (17), of a yellow color and four inches and four lines in length, which enter the mouth through an opening in a band, — called o-to>iov, also -^(ra-^cra€Lv, to paint in white ? Besides, Aristotle does not attribute any perfection to XevKoypacfieLv, or painting in white ; he does not even introduce the style, as the Italian translator has understood it, in opposi- tion to the whole remark, but only to the first portion of his comparison, drawn from painting. 3. Of the second kind of Monochromes, or those which are painted with red alone, there have been preserved the four above-mentioned drawings on plates of white marble, in the Herculaneum museum, which prove that this, the earliest and the original mode of painting, has been steadily retained. The red color of these four pieces has turned to black under the glowing discharges from Vesuvius, as I have shown, yet in such a manner that the ancient red color can be discerned here and there. 4. The most numerous specimens of this kind of painting are the vessels of burnt clay, of which the greater number are painted with a single color, and are consequently to be called Monochromes, as has been shown in the fourth chapter of the third Book ; and vessels are probably painted in a similar man- ner at the present day, in all parts of the world (3). 5. When the art of painting had made further progress, and Light and Dark was invented, the painter advanced another step, and, between light and shade, placed the proper and nat- ural color of every object, which the Greeks termed the tone of color, just as we are accustomed to express ourselves at the present day, when we say the true tone of color. For Pliny says, this brilliancy — as he translates the word, tone — may be something else than light, and between light and dark ; for light and dark does not give the true color of an object (4). So, it seems to me, must we understand this obscure passage, which has been interpreted in different ways. The painter at- tained the perfection of coloring through the harmony of the principal color and of the broken and mixed colors, the blend- ing of which with one another was termed by the Greeks apiioyrj, as Pliny shows in the same passage. The high and THE MECHANICAL PART OF GREEK ART. 107 strong colors were called by the Romans saturi, " saturated," and the cold colors, and those of a lower tone, diluti, " diluted " (5). 6. After these critical remarks upon the coloring of the an- cients, the reader will wish to be informed of the kind of paint- ing peculiar to the ancient artists. This can be done however only in regard to painting on walls ; and the remarks made on such painting are not wholly applicable to painting on wooden tablets, because the mode adopted in the latter, as is the case in more modern art, was different from that of the former. But it may be asserted as generally true, that the art of paint- ing among the ancients was more skilful than that of modern days in attaining a high degree of life and the true color of the flesh, because all colors lose somewhat in oil, and become darker. Of the ancient art of painting on wood we know noth- ing in particular, except that the ancients painted on a white ground, probably for the same reason that the whitest wool, as Plato says, was used when it was intended to dye it of a purple color. 7. Of the kind of ancient painting I have several particular observations to make, relating partly to the preparation for pictures, or the coating and plastering of the walls, and partly to the kind and manner of the painting itself. The coating of the walls for pictures differs according to places, especially in regard to the puzzolana. That which is found in ancient build- ings in the environs of Rome and Naples is different from that of the ancient buildings remote from these two places. As the earth above mentioned is excavated only in these two localities, the first coat on the walls consists of that and lime, thoroughly mixed together ; and hence it is of a grayish color. In other places, the walls are faced with pulverized travertine, or mar- ble, and also, instead of other stones, with powdered alabaster, which is recognized by the translucency of the small fragments. In Greece, the walls were not prepared for painting by a coat of puzzolana, because none was found there. 8. The first coat upon the walls is commonly fully a finger thick ; the second layer, formed of lime mixed and beaten up with finely powdered marble, is almost a third as thick as the first. The walls of tombs ornamented with paintings were usually coated in this way, and the Herculaneum pictures also are on this kind of wall. Occasionally the outer coat is so fine 108 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. and white that it appears to be pure Hme or gypsum, as in the picture of Jupiter and Ganymedes, and is of the thickness of a large straw. In all pictures, whether on a dry or wet ground, the outermost layer is smoothed in a similar way, and with so much care as to have a surface like glass, — a process which, in the second kind of painting, when the ground was very fine, required very great dexterity and rapid execution on the part of the artist. 9. The manner of proceeding at the present day in preparing walls for fresco painting, or painting on a wet ground, is some- what different from that of the ancients. The ground is com- posed of lime and puzzolana ; for lime, beaten up with finely powdered marble, dries too quickly, and would instantly absorb the colors. Moreover the surface is not smoothed, as with the ancients, but is left a little rough, and is, as it were, granulated with a painter's brush, in order to take the colors better ; for it is supposed that they would spread, if laid on a perfectly smooth surface. 10. Something is also to be said of the kind and manner of painting itself, the preparation and execution of the same, which was termed udo tectorio pingere, " to paint on wet plas- ter," and of the painting on dry grounds. The ancient artists must have proceeded almost as the moderns in their prepara- tions for painting on wet grounds. At the present day, after the cartoon has been drawn of full size, and so much wet ground has been laid on as can be executed in a day, the outlines of the figures and the principal parts of them are punctured on the pasteboard with a needle. This piece of the drawing is then laid on the prepared ground, and finely powdered charcoal dusted through the pierced holes; and in this manner the outlines are marked out on the ground. In Germany, this process is termed pouncing. In this manner Raphael also pro- ceeded, as I see by one of his drawings of a child's head, in black crayon, which is in the collection of the Cardinal Alex- ander Albani. The painter next goes over the outlines, formed by the charcoal-dust, with a pointed style, and they are thus pressed into the wet ground. These impressed outlines are dis- tinctly visible in the works of Michael Angelo and Raphael. But in this last particular the ancient artists differ from the moderns ; for in the ancient pictures the outline is found not to be impressed, but the figures are painted, as on wood or linen, THE MECHANICAL PART OF GREEK ART. 109 with great rapidity and confidence. The first kind of painting before mentioned, that is, with simple lines of a white color" also continued in use afterwards, because the figures could be completed with their appropriate and living colors, and the artist drew with a pencil in white what he intended to finish afterwards in colors. This is plainly to be seen on a long frag- ment of a painted wall, which was found at PompeiC from which most of the colored paint has fallen off, so that only the outlmes remain, and these not entire. The ancient painters therefore drew their figures with the brush itself, because, through their more frequent opportunities of painting on walls, they had acquired superior dexterity ; for I have not been able to discover impressed outhnes in a single picture among the many hundreds in the Herculaneum museum which I have examined. 11. It must have been less common among the ancients to paint on moist than on dry grounds, for the larger portion of the pictures in the Herculaneum museum are of the latter kind. This is evident in some few of the figures, the colors of which have separated from the walls, leaving visible not only the ground on which they had been painted, but also the dif- ferent layers of colors. Thus in some, for example, the ground is black ; on this ground there is a panel of a diff'erent shape, or even a long stripe, laid on in vermilion ; and on this second ground figures are painted (6). The figure has disappeared, or has become detached, and the second red ground is as clean as if nothing had been painted on it. This is most observable in the picture of Chiron and Achilles, already cited, in which the ornaments of the Doric order, behind the figures, were painted before the figures themselves ; so that the artist, in this in- stance, has reversed the usual practice. For our artists pro- ceed as the nature of things teaches them, — first putting in their figures, and then sketching the background of their pic- ture ; in that instance the reverse is the case. But other paint- ings, which appear to be of the same kind, are painted on a wet ground, but have finally received a coat of dry colors, like the Ganymedes, and others which have been found in the same place. 12. Some believe that they can distinguish painting on a dry ground by the prominence of the brush-strokes, but without reason, for the same effect is observable in pictures by Raphael 110 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. which are painted on a wet ground. The raised strokes of the brush in this case show that he retouched his works here and there after the ground had dried ; and this has also been the practice of succeeding painters in the same style. The colors of the ancient paintings on wet grounds must have been laid on with a peculiar solution of glue ; for they have, after so many hundred years, remained in a measure fresh, and a wet sponge or cloth can be passed over them without injury. In the cities overwhelmed by ashes from Vesuvius, pictures have been found covered by a tough and hard coat consisting of ashes and moisture, and which could not be detached without great diffi- culty, by means of heat ; but even this accident did not affect them injuriously. Those which are on wet grounds are able to resist the aquafortis with which the pictures are cleaned of the stonelike crust deposited on them. The most beautiful fragments of the ancient paintings in the Herculaneura museum are the Dancing Women, together with the Nymphs and Centaurs. These figures, a palm high, and painted on a black ground, seem to have been sketched as quickly, easily, and carelessly as the first thoughts of a draw- ing. But this rapidity, which astonishes all connoisseurs, had become, through science and skill, as certain as fate. 13. In most of the ancient paintings on walls, the lights and shadows are produced sometimes by parallel and sometimes by crossed lines, termed by Pliny incisuras, "hatching," and in the Italian tratteggiare. This mode of handling is also seen occa- sionally in the works of Raphael, and even now pictures on walls are executed in a similar manner. Others, especially the larger figures of the ancients, are treated after the manner adopted in oil-painting, that is, they are thrown back or brought forward by large masses of retreating or advancing colors ; and in the Ganymedes these colors are blended together in a masterly manner. In the same large manner are executed the so-called Venus in the Barberini palace, and also the four small beautiful pieces in the Herculaneum museum, previously described, and other pictures there, which are elaborately finished. But in some pieces of this museum both kinds of shading are to be seen at once, as, for example, among others, the Chiron and Achilles, of which figures the latter is painted with entire masses, whilst the former, on the contrary, is hatched. U. In regard to the Herculaneum pictures, it is a subject of THE MECHANICAL PART OF GREEK ART. Ill regret that they have been covered with a varnish, which causes the colors to cleave off in flakes. I have, within two months, seen fragments fall from the Achilles. 15. That I may omit nothing relative to the painting of the ancients, I remind the reader of the Diana in the Herculaneum museum, — described in the second chapter of the third Book, — which is wrought in the most ancient style, and of which not only the hem of the robe but also other parts of the garments are painted. Although it is more probable that this statue is an Etruscan, and not a Greek work, yet from a passage in Plato it might seem as if the same practice existed also among the Greeks. He says, by way of comparison, in the words which I quote : Oo-Trep ovv av d t^/aSs avSpiavras ypaej&ovras irpoa-ekOuiv av et Tts £«/'eye, XiyoiV otl ov rots /caAAtcrTOts tov ^ojov to. KaAAto-ra cjidpjxaKa Trpoa-TLOe/xev. 01 yap o^^aA/xoi, KaAAicrroi' ov, ovk 6aTp€L(a ivaX-qXiixfj-evoL eter, dAAa p.iXavi, k. t. X, — Just as if some one who should fi.nd us bepainting statues should censure vs because we did not put the most beautiful colors upon the most beaxitifid parts of the figure ; for the eyes, which are the most beautifid, should be colored, not with purple, but with black, etc. I translate these words in the sense in which I understand them; and they are susceptible of no other interpretation until it can be shown that the word dvS/ata?, which generally signifies a statxie, can be understood to mean also a picture, — a point which I leave for the decision of those whose reading is more extensive than mine. 16. As the explanation of a passage in Aristotle, and of the word AevKoypac^etv, together with an attempted elucidation of an obscure passage in Pliny, gave occasion, in the second paragraph of this chapter, to speak of the coloring of the ancients, so the judgment of this philosopher upon three painters leads me to express my opinion upon their characters. " Polygnotus," he says, "has painted his figures better, Pauson worse, and Diony- sius as they are." I do not know whether Count Caylus has touched on this passage, and, if he has, whether he has hit its meaning ; for I have not at hand his RemarTcs tipon the Painting of the Ancients, inserted in the Memoirs of the Academy, nor the time to look for them; the reader may take the trouble to compare our opinions upon the passage. In this passage, Cas- telvetro has again displayed his want of acuteness ; and his explanation does not deserve either to be translated or refuted. 112 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. Aristotle, as far as I can see, wishes to teach as follows, Polyg- notus has painted his figures better, as the philosopher requires from every good painter, that is, he has elevated them above the common rank and shape of men ; and since he, like most of the ancient painters, represented not only the mythology of the gods, but also the stories of the heroic ages, his figures were consequently also similar to heroes, and copies after a most beautiful idea of nature. Pauson painted his figures worse. This remark is not probably intended as a censure of the artist, because Aristotle quotes him as a great painter, and places him near Polygnotus. The intention of this comparison, drawn from the artists mentioned, is unequivocally plain. Aristotle means thereby to explain more clearly the three different kinds of imitation, /xt/xT/crecov, in the poetic art as well as in dancing. He intended consequently to say that tragedy, which is devoted to heroic actions, is in the art of poetry what the pictures of Polygnotus are in painting ; and the figures of Pauson may be compared with comedy, which represents persons as worse than they are, as he says in the same chapter, '^H fxlv (Kw/xwSta) yap ■^eLpov;, ^ 8e (TpaywSta) fieXnov; ixiixilcrOai povXerai rwv vvv ; and he repeats the same idea in the following chapter, Kw/AwSt'a lxLixr](TL<; cf)avXoT£p(Dv, Comedy is an imitation of the worse ; that is to say, with the object of improving the morals it presents the follies of mankind in a higher degree than they actually exist, in order that their ridiculousness may be rendered the more obvious. We may infer from this that Pauson painted a greater number of comic than of heroic and tragic pieces, and that his talent may have been to represent the ridiculous, which comedy also aims to do. For the ridiculous, Aristotle continues, represents persons in a bad light, tov alaxpov, ov co-n TO yeXotov fxopLov. Dionysius on the contrary, who accord- ing to Pliny was ranked among the most celebrated painters, kept the mean between the two, and was, when compared with Polygnotus, what Euripides is compared with Sophocles. The latter represented women as they should be; the former, as they are. Dionysius imitated Polygnotus in everything, as iElian informs us, except in grandeur, irXrjv tov fieycOovs ; he lacked elevation. 17. This criticism of the character of Dionysius gives, at once, to the notice by Pliny of the same painter, a signification that differs entirely from the sense in which it has been hitherto THE MECHANICAL PART OF GREEK ART. 113 understood. Dionysius, he says, nihil aliud quam homines pinxit, ob id Anthropographus cognominatus, " He painted only men, and on that account acquired the appellation of Man-painter." The meaning is, that he gave to his men a human shape, and did not elevate them above the ordinary condition ; and hence he received this surname. It is evident therefore that he must have given the likeness of particular persons to his figures, even those of a heroic character, and these he probably painted from living models without refining them by any ideal traits, so that he took for his pictui-es what we term Academy-figures. 18. In this treatise on ancient painting, some notice must also be taken of Mosaic-work, as it is a sort of painting, consist- ing partly of small stones and partly of colored glass. Of the former kind, the most common pictures are those which are composed of little white and black square stones ; and even in the very finest of these woi-ks from stones alone the artist seems to have avoided the lively colors, such as red, green, and the like, especially as no marble is to be found possessing either of these colors in its highest and most beautiful tone ; at least, only dull colors are introduced into the very finest Mosaic of this kind, — the Doves, in the Capitoline museum. Those of the second kind however have all possible colors, though in glass-paste ; the two pieces in the Herculaneum museum, exe- cuted by Dioscorides of Samos, and described in the first chap- ter of the twelfth Book, are of this sort. I do not however assert that in Mosaic works of many colors there are not to be found yellow and red stones, and stones of some other colors, as this would be contrary to what we see to be the fact, but merely say that such colors are not found of the greatest brilliancy. 19. Mosaic-work was especially intended for pavements in temples and other buildings ; but finally ceilings also were over- laid with it, — examples of which may be seen, even at the present day, in a crypt-porch of the Tiburtine villa of the em- peror Adrian, and also in the larger as well as smaller cupola of Saint Peter's church, at Rome. Such pavements are composed of stones of the size of the nail of the little finger ; and when any of especial beauty have been found, they have been con- verted into table-slabs, — instances of which are to be seen in the Capitoline museum, and in the dwelling-houses of the Romans. The stones of the celebrated Mosaic at Palestrina VOL. II. 8 114 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. are also of the same size. In sumptuous rooms, figures of seve- ral colors were occasionally wrought in the middle and other parts of the pavement floor when it was formed of white and black stones. Of this kind is the Mosaic of a room which was discovered under Palestrina about four years ago. But as such pieces were exceedingly delicate, they not only rested on thin marble slabs beneath, but they were also surrounded by a bor- der of the same kind, and were thus framed in the coarser work. In this way were arranged the Doves of the Capitoline museum, and the two pieces by Dioscorides, found in the pave- ments of two rooms of a building in Pompeii (7). 20. In conclusion, I have a few words to say in regard to the custom among the ancients of protecting paintings from the in- juries which they might suffer from air or moisture (8). This was done by means of wax, a coat of which was put over them, as Vitruvius and Pliny mention, which not only protected the picture, but also heightened at the same time the brilliancy of the colors. Proof of this may be seen in some rooms in the buried houses of the ancient town of Resina, situated near the ancient Herculaneum. On the walls were compartments painted in scarlet of such beauty that it appeared purple ; but when they were brought near the fire for the purpose of detach- ing the crust deposited on them, the wax melted with which the paintings were coated. A cake of white wax was also found lying among colors, in an apartment of subterranean Her- culaneum ; an artist was probably engaged in embellishing it with pictures when the disastrous eruption of Vesuvius occurred and overwhelmed everything. THE RISE AND FALL OF GREEK ART. 115 BOOK VIII. THE RISE AND FALL OF GREEK ART, IN WHICH FOUR PERIODS AND AS MANY STYLES CAN BE DETERMINED. CHAPTER I. THE MORE ANCIENT STYLE OF ART. 1. The third division of this treatise on the growth and de- cline of Greek art relates, not less than the preceding, to its essential ; and several general considerations, found in the pre- ceding books, will here be more nearly and precisely deter- mined by remarkable monuments of Greek art. 2. He who has had the rare opportunity of seeing paintings, and especially drawings of the earliest painters in Italy up to the present time, can form a better idea than others of the origin, progress, and growth of Greek art, especially when he can ran through and overlook, as with a glance, an unbroken series of drawings for more than three hundred years, — for which purpose a portion of the large collection of drawings in the possession of Bartholomew Cavaceppi, sculptor at Rome, is arranged ; and if, by means of them, we compare the progres- sive steps of more modern art with those which are discoverable in the art of the ancients, we obtain clearer ideas of the path by which the ancients attained their perfection. For it be- comes more evident through such a comparison, that, as the path to virtue is narrow and rough, so the road to art, particu- larly that which leads to the truth of art, may and must be hard and undeviating. The p'atriarchs of modern art, even in its infancy, have done what Raphael did in its greatest bloom ; 116 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. they sketched the outlines of their figures with accuracy and precision, and were not so easily satisfied as are those who are termed macJdnists, that is, they who rapidly execute large works, who sketch their figures in the coarsest manner, and trust for the rest to the good luck of their brush. The former, through their severe drawing, finally attained to cor- rectness; and the master is manifest in the firm, scarcely- touched strokes, even of the smallest figure. Hence we can distinguish at the present day some few drawings of Penni, called Fattore, which come the nearest to those of Raphael, whose pupil he was, merely by the frequent breaks in the lines and outlines of his figures, which, in the first thoughts of his master, flow one out of another, like the thoughts themselves, and may be said to have been written. 3. When I speak here of the most ancient style of Greek art, the reader is not to understand those earliest essays of which mention was made in the first chapter of the first Book, but works in which art had already attained a form, and been re- duced to a system. This style might perhaps be compared with the style of Herodotus, the most ancient Greek historian, and of his contemporaries. Aristotle remarks that they have retained the ancient form of expression, in which the phrases are disjoined one from the other, and have no connection, and for this reason their periods also are deficient in that roundness which is desirable. This will serve as a comparison peculiarly appropriate to pictures of the earliest style of art, for they were deficient in that roundness which is produced by light and shade, like the works of the painters who preceded Raphael, and especially those of the Florentine school, in which the same defect is observable. 4. Greek art, like Greek poetry, has according to Scaliger four principal periods, resembling in this respect the division made in Roman history by Florus ; we might even count five such epochs. For as every action or event has five parts, and, as it were, stages, — namely, beginning, progress, state of rest, decrease, and end, in which lies the ground of the five scenes or acts in dramatic pieces, — so it is with the succession of time in art ; but since the close of art is beyond its bounds, so there are properly only four periods in it for consideration here. The more ancient style lasted until Phidias ; through him and the artists of his time art attained its greatness. This style may THE RISE AND FALL OF GREEK ART. 117 be called the grand and lofty. From the time of Praxiteles to that of Lysippus and Apelles, art acquired more grace and pleasingness ; this style should be named the beautiful. Some little time subsequent to these artists and their school, art be- gan to decline among their imitators ; and we might now add a third style, that of the imitators, until art gradually bowed itself to its fall. 5. In the more ancient style we have, in the first place, to study the admirable monuments now remaining ; next, the characteristics deducible from them ; and, finally, the transi- tion to the grand style. No older and more authentic monu- ments of the more ancient style can be produced than some coins, to the great antiquity of which both the impression and inscription bear testimony ; and, since they were stamped under the inspection of the cities to which they belong, we can infer with certainty in regard to the art of the age in which they were made. To these I add a carnelian from the Stosch museum, which is placed at the end of the first portion of this chapter.^ 6. The inscription, as well on the coins as on the gem, reads backwards, that is to say, from the right to the left. But this manner of writing must have ceased a long time before Herod- otus. For the historian, when making a comparison of the man- ners and customs of the Egyptians with those of the Greeks, states that the former, even in writing, did the opposite to the lat- ter, writing from right to left. This statement, which affords some means of determining time by the mode of writing practised by the Greeks, has not as yet to my knowledge been noticed ; and we may infer from it, that, from the age of the historian, — that is to say, in the seventy-sixth Olympiad, — the custom of writing backwards had ceased among the Greeks for a consider- able time. But Pausanias mentioned that the inscriptions under the statue of Agamemnon, at Elis, — which was one of the eight figures by Onatas of those who had off'ered themselves for the lot of fighting with Hector, — was from right to left. This appears to have been something rare even on the most ancient statues, for he does not state it of any other inscription on statues. Now since Onatas flourished shortly before the expe- dition of Xerxes against Greece, — that is, before the seventy- second Olympiad, — and consequently not long before Phidias, ^ First edition, page 140. — Anc. Monuments, No. 125. 118 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. the date may be nearly settled when the Greeks ceased to write backwai'ds. 7. Amongst the most ancient coins to be noticed are those of certain cities in Magna Grtecia, especially those of Sybaris, Caulonia, and Posidonia or Pajstum in Lucania. The first can- not have been made after the seventy-second Olympiad, when Sybaris was destroyed by the Crotonians ; and the form of the letters in the name of the city points to a much earlier date (1). The ox on them and the goat on those of Caulonia are rather unshapely ; the Jupiter on very ancient coins of the latter city, as well as the Neptune on coins of the city of Posidonia, is of a finer impression, but in the style which is commonly termed Etruscan. Neptune holds his trident-sceptre like a lance, in the act of thrusting, and is naked like Jupiter, except that he has gathered his robe together and thrown it over both arms, as if intending it should serve him as a shield, in the same man- ner as Jupiter, on an engraved gem, has wrapped his ajgis about his left arm. The ancients occasionally fought in this way, when without a shield, as Plutarch relates of Alcibiades, and Livy of Tiberius Gracchus. The impression on these coins is concave on one side, and raised on the other; but not like some imperial coins, as well as those of Roman fixnailies, of which the hollow stamp on one side is a fault.^ In the case of these coins, it is evident that two different dies were employed, — as I can clearly prove by the Neptune (2). Thus, where the impression is in relief, he has a beard and curly hair; where it is hollow, he is without beard and with smooth hair. There, the mantle hangs forward over the arm ; here, back- wards. There, an ornament, like two cords loosely twisted, goes round the rim ; here, it resembles a wreath of wheat-ears, but the sceptre is in relief on both sides. 8. Some one asserts without proof that, not long after the fiftieth Olympiad, the Gamma of the Greeks was written, not r, but C ; the assertion cannot however be sustained, for if it was the fiict, our ideas of the more ancient style, derived from coins, would be doubtful and contradictory. For coins are found on which the said letter occurs in its older form, and yet which notwithstanding have an admirable impression. Among them, I can mention a coin of the city of Gela, in Sicily, the name on which is written CEy<<12, with a two-horse chariot, 1 Plate XII., Letters C, D. THE RISE AND FALL OF GREEK ART. 119 and the foi-epart of a Minotaur. Indeed, the contrary of that assertion can be shown by a coin, among others, of the city of Segesta, in Sicily, having the round Gamma, which, as I hope to prove hereafter, was stamped long after this time, in the one hundred and thirty-fourth Olympiad (3). 9. In this place, four cups of the finest gold, in size and shape resembling coffee-saucers, deserve mention. They were discovered in the ancient tombs near Girgenti, and are now in the museum of the Bishop Lucchesi, of that city. They are remarkable, because the decorations on them are in a certain degree like the impressions on those coins; hence also these rare pieces appear to be of equal antiquity. The outside of two of these cups is surrounded by a band, the ornaments of which consist of oxen ; and this band may be termed embossed work. For it was struck with a die cut in relief, and placed on the inner side, for the purpose of driving out the other side in relief The two other cups have an ornament around the rim, consisting of indented points. It is not necessary, in explana- tion of the oxen above mentioned, to go back with the possessor of the cups to the time of Apis of the Egyptians ; for, among the Greeks, oxen wei'e consecrated to the Sun, and they also drew the car of Diana. These animals may even be regarded as a symbol of agriculture, — which the ox on several coins of Magna Grfccia appears to signify, — because oxen drew the plough and did the entire tillage. This same animal was the stamp of the most ancient Athenian as well as Roman coins. 10, That ideas of beauty, or rather the conformation and representation of it by Greek artists, were not original with art, as gold is native in Peru, is proved especially by the oldest Sicilian coins, and the more convincingly by the coins of sub- sequent ages, which exceeded all others in beauty. I base my judgment on very ancient and rare coins of Leontium, Messina, Segesta, and Syracuse, which were examined by me when they were in the former Stosch cabinet ; an engraving of two of these coins of the last city may be seen at the beginning of this third part.^ The head is a Proserpine ; this and other heads on said coins are drawn like the head of Pallas on the oldest Athenian coins, and that of a statue of her in the Albani villa. No single part of these heads has beauty of form ; conse- quently the head as a whole has none. The eyes are long and 1 Of the Vienna edition, p. 451. 120 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. flat ; the opening of the mouth is turned upwards ; the chin is pointed, and deficient in elegance of curve ; the locks of hair are disposed in small ringlets, and resemble the berries of a bunch of grapes, and on this account they are termed so, even by the most ancient Greek poets ; and it is significant enough to say that the sex is almost doubtful, in female heads. Hence it has happened that a very rare female head of this kind in bronze, somewhat larger than life, in the Herculaneum museum, has been regarded as that of a male. Notwithstanding, the reverse of these coins is elegant not only as regards the impres- sion, but also the drawing of the figure. But there is a great difference between the drawing of small and that of large figures, and no conclusion can be drawn from the former in regard to the latter ; for it was easier to draw a neat small figure about an inch high, than to draw beautifully a head alone of just the same size. The shape of these heads has therefore, according to the form described, the characteristics of the Egyptian and Etruscan styles, and it is a proof of the similarity — pointed out in the first chapter of the first R)ok — of the figures of these three nations in the earliest ages. 11. The dying Othryades in the Stosch museum appears to have equal antiquity with the coins just mentioned. From the inscription on the gem, the workmanship is Greek; it repre- sents the dying Othryades, and another wounded warrior, diaw- ing the fatal arrows from their breasts, whilst the former writes at the same time upon his shield, " To Victory " (4), The Argives and Spartans were engaged in a dispute about the jity of Thyrea, and, in order to prevent a general effusion of blood, three hundred warriors were selected on each side to contend together. The six hundred were all slain, with the exception of two of the Argives, and one only of the Spartans, Othryades ; he, though fatally wounded, collected all his strength, and vith the weapons of the Argives erected a sort of trophy. On one of the shields he wrote with his blood, "To Victory," and claimed it for the Spartans. This war happened about the time of Croesus. The historians, among whom Herodotus is the first, who relate this memorable event, differ in their accourt of it ; but this is not the place to enter into an investigation cf it. The workmanship of the gem is elaborate in its execution ; and the figures are not deficient in expression, but the drawing of them is stiff and flat, and the position strained and without Tm RISE AND FALL OF GREEK ART. 121 \ grace. If we consider that not one of the other heroes of \ antiquity whose death is memorable ended his life in a similar ^way, and that the death of Othryades made him an object of respect even among the enemies of Sparta, — for his statue was k Argos, — it is probable that this representation can point to rip one else. If we should assume that this hero, shortly after hi^ death, became a subject for artists, — a supposition that is rei\dered probable by the inscription on his shield, which is written backwards, — and since his death is to be placed bet\\een the fiftieth and sixtieth Olympiad, the workmanship on the gpm would show us the style of the age of Anacreon. Con- sequently the famous emerald of Polycrates, ruler of Samos, whichWas engraved by Theodorus, the father of Telecles, probaUy resembled it in workmanship. 12. \i regard to works of sculpture in this older style, I have observed my usual custom in regard to other works of art, that is, tc mention none which I have not seen and carefully examined \ for the same thing happens to drawings of them as to a storyj which receives an addition from every mouth. Hence I cmmot speak, in my present undertaking, of one of the most antient works in relief in the world, because it is in England. It represents a young athlete standing before a seated Jupitei ; I shall notice it hereafter. 13. The most prominent characteristics of this older style (5) are manifested in the Pallas ^ of the Albani villa (6), which is represented in the Ancient Monuments in the condition in which it existed previously to its restoration. The shape of the face, and the forms of the parts are such that, if the head had been of basalt, it vould be looked upon as a piece of Egyptian workmanship ; and it is entirely similar to the female heads on the most ancient coins of Syracuse, and some of Magna Grajcia. Indeed, we might also show in this figure the Etrus- can style ; for the openings of the eyes are somewhat long, and flat, and turned upwards ; the mouth is likewise turned upwards ; the chin is somewhat small, and the oval of the face consequently imperfect ; the hair is tied in the manner usual with Pallas, low on the head, and at some distance from it. The regis covers not only her breast, but also her back, and reaches down to the thighs in such a manner that it represents a skm, which the segis properly was, and from which it received 1 Plate XIV. 122 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. its name. The JBgis of Jupiter was the skin of the goat Amalthsea, by which he was suckled. The segis of our Pallas has a border trimmed with serpents, and it is bound about her body by serpents instead of a girdle. The Diana of painteri marble, in the Herculaneum museum, is probably quite is ancient as this Pallas, to which it is perfectly similar in tie idea of the face. The reason which induced the Romans to carry away from Greece these and other statues of like antiqnity can have been no other than that which leads me to mertion them here, namely, to set up works of the most ancient ert of the Greeks in order to have the series complete. 14. The lovers of antiquity believe that they recognise this older style in a rilievo in the Campidoglio, an engrav'ing of which is placed before the preliminary DisseHation 72)on the Drawing of the Ancients, in my Monuments. It represents three female Bacchantes, and a Faun,^ with the subscript'on, KAA- AIMAX02 EIIOIEI, CaUimaclms made it. This narce is under- stood to designate the Callimachus who was never able to satisfy himself; as he made figures of Spartan women dmcing, that relief is looked upon as a representation of the kind. To me, the inscription on it is suspicious ; it cannot be considered as modern, but it is quite possible that the fraudulent imitation may have been placed there anciently, like that of the name of Lysippus on a Hercules in Florence ; the name, it is true, is ancient, but neither it nor the statue itself can have proceeded from the hand of this artist, as I will hereafter show. A Greek work of the style of the nlievo in the Campidoglio must, accord- ing to the ideas which we have of the flourisliing age of art, be more ancient. Now Callimachus cannot have lived before Phi- dias, and they who put him m the sixtieth Olympiad have not the least ground for so doing, and err very grossly. But, even allowing this, no X could be in the artist's name, because this letter was invented by Simonides at a much later period, and Callimachus must have been written KAAAIMAKH02 or KA- AIMAKOS, as the name is found written on an old inscription from AmycljB. Pausanias ranks him among the greatest art- ists ; he must therefore have lived at a time when it would have been possible to approach them in excellence. A sculptor of this name was moreover the first one who worked with a drill ; now the artist of the Laocoon, who must have belonged 1 Plate XIII. Note 6. THE RISE AND FALL OF GREEK ART. 123 to the fairest period of art, used the drill on the hair, the head, and the deep folds of the mantle. Callimachus the sculp- tor is said moreover to have invented the Corinthian capital; but Scopas, the celebrated sculptor, built a temple with Corin- thian columns in the ninety-sixth Olympiad. Consequently Callimachus should have lived at the time of the greatest mas- ters, and prior to the artist of Niobe, which Scopas probably was, — a point which will be investigated hereafter, — and ear- lier than the master of the Laocoon. Now this does not well accord with the time to be inferred from the place which Pliny assigns him in the succession of artists. Besides, the piece in question was found at Horta, a district inhabited by Etruscans. This circumstance of itself might give some probability of its being a work of Etruscan art, of which it has all the character- istics. The same reasons that lead us to regard this work as a Greek production would, on the other hand, have induced us to look upon the three beautiful painted earthen vases in the Mastrilli museum, at Naples, — mentioned in the fourth chap- ter of the third Book, — and a cup in the royal museum at Portici, as Etruscan, if the Greek inscription on them did not show the contrary (7). 15. We should be able to give more precise characteristics of this elder style if a greater number of works in marble, and especially in rilievo, had been preserved ; as from them we could discover the method employed by the most ancient artists in grouping their figures, and hereby discern the degree in which the passions were expressed (8). But if, for example, from the strength with which the parts are rendered in the small figures on coins, we might infer that the actions of larger figures would be expressed with a corresponding force, then the artists of this style probably gave to their figures violent actions and positions, just as the men of the heroic ages who were the subjects of the artists acted in conformity to nature, and without putting any constraint upon their inclinations. Such an inference is rendered probable by comparing these works with the Etruscan, which they are thought to resemble. 16. In regard to the execution in particular of works of sculpture of this age, we have to remark that they were proba- bly finished with the most laborious industry, and that they were characterized by nicety much earlier than by beauty ; as we see among other instances in the primeval Pallas, recently 124 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. mentioned, in the Albani villa, the robe of which is elaborated ■with the utmost delicacy^ though the shape of the face is the commonest and worst. Cicero gives us to understand the very- same thing -where he says that some ivory figures of Victory had been brought from the island of Malta, which were of the utmost antiquity, and executed with great skill. For the remark of Aristotle in regard to tragedy is true here ; he says that it attained correctness in its expressions and modes of speech sooner than in its plot, the words and vesture of the thoughts bearing the same relation to tragedy as do in sculp- ture the mechanical part of the art and dexterity in working the marble. We might also conjecture the same thing from the steps by which art has advanced in more modern times. For the immediate predecessors of the greatest men in painting, whose works, though deficient in true beauty, are finished with incredible patience, have sought, partly by the execution of the smallest details, to diffuse brilliancy over their pictures, to which they were unable to impart grandeur. In fact, their great successors, Michael Angelo and Raphael, wrought accord- ing to the precept of an English poet, — " Design with fire, but execute with coolness." The great unity in the finish, which preceded the knowledge of the beautiful, is manifested in dif- ferent sepulchral monuments, executed partly by Sansovino and partly by other sculptors at the beginning of the sixteenth century ; for the figures are all very moderate, but the orna- ments are wrought in such a manner that they may serve as models to our artists, and they will be regarded as equal to antique works of this kind (9). 1 7, The characteristics and peculiarities of this older style may be embraced, in a general way, in the following brief description. The drawing was vigorous but hard ; powerful but without grace ; and the strength of expression detracted from beauty. But as the art of the earliest ages was devoted only to gods and heroes, whose praise, as Horace says, accords not with the soft lyre, this very hardness probably co-operated to give grandeur to the figures. Art, like justice in those days, which inflicted death for the smallest offence, was severe and hard. As we comprehend under the older style the longer period of Greek art, this description is to be understood with some reservations, depending on the different stages of progress during that period, in which the later works must have been very unlike the earlier. THE RISE AND FALL OF GREEK ART. 125 18. According to Atheuseus, this style lasted until the flour- ishing period of art in Greece ; for he states in regard to the poet Stesichorus that he was the first to represent Hercules with a club and bow (10). We cannot however allow the assertion to pass without contradiction; for there are many- gems extant showing Hercules thus armed, which were en- graved in the older style before mentioned. Now Stesichorus lived at the same time with Simonides, namely, in the seventy- second Olympiad, or about the time when Xerxes marched against Greece ; and Phidias, who elevated art to its summit, flourished in the seventy-eighth Olympiad ; the gems in ques- tion must therefore have been executed shortly before or after that Olympiad. But Strabo assigns to these attributes of Her- cules a much earlier origin ; according to him, the invention of them is due to Pisander, who, as some maintain, lived at the same time with Eumolpus, but who is placed by others in the thirty-third Olympiad. He also states that the most ancient figures of Hercules had neither club nor bow. 19, But it is impossible to be sufiiciently circumspect in judging of the age of the workmanship ; a figure which appears to be Etruscan or of the more ancient art of the Greeks is not so always. It may be a copy or imitation of older works, which always served as a model to many Greek artists. As the older style was formed principally through images of divin- ities, it still continued to be imitated, even by artists of the best and later times, when making figures of them, — probably for the purpose of impressing upon them in such a shape a higher antiquity, and thus inspiring deeper reverence. There are works with figures of divinities, which appear to belong to the period of art in question, especially in the drapery and its stiff" parallel folds ; but the ornaments on them are opposed to any such antiquity, and point to a far later style. This is plainly visible in a four-sided altar, or base, in the villa of the Cardinal Alexander Albani ; and several works of a similar kind might be adduced. The more ancient shape of the deities is introduced even on coins, and it may be studied, together with other peculiarities, in a Pallas, draped in the older style, on coins of Alexander the Great. If therefore we see figures of deities which from other characteristics and for other reasons cannot have the antiquity which they show, then the older style would seem to be something adopted in order to awaken 126 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. greater reverence. As it was the opinion of an ancient writer that harshness in the construction and sonnd of words gives grandeur to speech, so the hardness and severity of the older style produce a similar effect in art. This remark is to be understood not only of the naked parte of figures, but also of the drapery, and of the mode of dressing the hair and beard, as they exist in Etruscan and the older Greek figures. 20. In illustration of this statement, I may instance that rilievo in the Albani villa, of which an engraving is placed at the beginning of the Preface of the first Dresden edition ; all the figures of the female divinities in it are draped after the idea which we have of Etruscan figures. But as the Corinthian order of the temple and the chariot-race represented on the frieze of it indicate a Greek work, yet we should hold it to be a Greek work of the older style, if we considered it in reference to the drapery of the figures. Proof of the contrary however exists precisely in the order of the temple, which, according to Vitruvius, was an invention of a later date ; consequently the older style has been imitated. We cannot look for an Etrus- can work in this rilievo, because we know that the Etruscan temples were generally different from the Greek, the former having no frieze, and projecting the beams of the roof, mutuli, far over the columns of the porch, as well as over the walls of the cella, and this projecting part of the beams was in the pro- portion of one fourth of the height of the columns. The object of this projection was to protect the people from the rain, as the cella was not surrounded by a row of columns (11). This comment explains, at the same time, a passage in Vitruvius hitherto not understood (12). 21. The same kind of imitation is still more manifest in a figure of Jupiter in relief, having a beard longer than usual, and hair falling forwards over the shoulders, which is also draped after the manner of the most ancient figures ; and yet, it is a work of the Romans under the Emperors, as the inscrip- tion lOVI EXSVPERANTISSIMO and the form of the letters show. The inscription, without the figure, has been published by Spon. In this case it appears to have been the intention to excite, through such a primeval form, more reverence for Jupi- ter, and to give to him, as it were, a more remote origin (13). 22. The goddess of Hope is found represented in the oldest style in a small figure in the Ludovisi villa, which likewise, THE RISE AND FALL OF GREEK ART. 127 from the Roman inscription on the socle (14), must have been executed in the time of the Emperors, possibly in the second century. The Hope on the imperial coins of which I have seen either the originals or engravings is shaped precisely in the same way. As an instance I mention one of the latter on a coin of the Emperor Philip, the Elder. We may, for example, illustrate this custom by the portraits dressed in the style of Vandyck, a style which is popular even now among the Eng- lish, and which is also far more favorable to the artist, as well as more becoming to the person painted, than the present closcly-titting stiff dress without folds. I also remember that two statues of Victory, which stand on tiptoe with the feet close together, have on account of the attitude been referred to the most ancient times by those to whom it appeared con- strained (15), because they did not understand its signification. But the contrary is proved by the Roman name behind, on the band that passes crosswise over the breast as well as the back. These bands are intended to represent the fastenings of the wings, which were formerly there, and which were probably of bronze and set into the stone (16). 23. The case is the same with the heads erroneously called heads of Plato. They are however merely heads of Hermse, and the shape generally given to these Hermse is that which, it is supposed, the stones might possibly have had on which the first heads were placed (17); but there is a difference in the antiquity of them, which is manifested by the greater or less degree of art displayed in them. The most beautiful of such Hermse was carried in my time from Rome to Sicily, and is now in the museum of the former Jesuits' College, at Palermo ; but of the great number in Rome, that in the Faruesina palace is the most excellent. Perfectly similar and equal to the former Hermes is the head of a male draped statue, nine palms (6 ft. 7 in.) high, which, together with the four Caryatides already mentioned, was found, in the spring of 1761, near the Portian Hill, not far from Frascati, where, according to some previously discovered inscriptions, there had formerly been a villa of the Portia family. It has a tunic of some thin stuff, indicated by the numerous small folds in which it hangs down as low as the feet : over it is a mantle of cloth, which passes under the right arm and over the left shoulder in such a manner that the left arm, which rests upon the hip, remains covered (18). On the 128 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. hem of the portion of the mantle thrown over the shoulder CAPAANAnAAAOC, with two lambdas, A, contrary to the usual mode of writing the name. But this letter may be found in other places also, where it is doubled and superfluous, as for instance on a rare bronze coin of the city of Magnesia (19), with the inscription, MAFNET. HOAAIS, instead of nOAlS (20). The name of the goddess Cybele is also found written Kv^eXXa, just as Petilia, a city in Lucania, is written Petillia (21). In my Ancient Monuments, in which this figure was published, I have discussed it at length ; I therefore con- fine myself here to the following remarks. It had for a long time been a subject of dispute in Rome what person this statue was intended to represent. It could not be designed for the celebrated Sardanapalus, because he wore no beard, and caused it to be removed every day. At last I assumed it as probable from the accounts of two kings of this name in Assyria, the former of whom was a wise man, that it might perhaps be intended to represent him. We cannot moreover maintain, even in regard to a male figure in female dress, that it repre- sents the voluptuous Sardanapalus, since the philosopher Aris- tippus also may have assumed the garments of the other sex ; at least it was a matter of indifference to him whether he dressed himself so, or in the usual manner. The four Caryat- ides, with others that have perished, probably supported the cornice of a room, for there is a round elevation on their heads within the rim of which a capital or basket probably stood. 24. A similar shape was given to the heads of an Indian Bacchus, or Liber Pater, though in this case the nobleness of the forms plainly distinguish the divinity from the common heads of the Hermse. An attempt has been made to imitate a far older style in a female statue of blackish marble, in the Capitoline museum, which is twice as large as life; it was discovered in the villa of Adrian. It stands with the arms hanging down and closely pressed to the sides, as Pausanias describes the statue of Arrhachion, a victor in the Olympic Games of the fifty-fourth Olympiad. But it is clearly manifest from the workmanship that this statue has no such antiquity ; the opposite indeed might be made still more evident, if the head were ancient, as Bottari, in his Capitoline Museum, erro- neously believes, dwelling for a long time on the shape of it. The head, on the contrary, is altogether modern, yet the artist, THE RISE AND FALL OF GREEK ART. 129 though he modelled it after an idea of his own, endeavored to make the large locks of hair correspond to those which have been preserved on the shoulders. After the statue had been restored, the genuine antique head was discovered in the villa mentioned, and purchased by the Cardinal Albani, in whose collection of antiquities it still remains. 25. The characteristics of this older style prepared the way for the grand style of art, and guided the latter to severe correctness and lofty expression ; for in the hardness of the former we see the accurately drawn outline and the certainty of the knowledge where everything lies plain in sight. By pro- ceeding in the same way, art would in modern times have reached its height, if, instructed by the sharp outlines and strong development of all the parts, as shown in Michael Angelo's figures, sculptors had continued to follow in his foot- steps. For, as in learning music and languages, the tone in one case, and the syllables and words in the other, must be sharply and clearly rendered, in order to attain pure harmony and a fluent utterance, even so drawing leads to truth and beauty of form, not through indecisive, faint, and lightly touched strokes, Jjut through manly, although somewhat hard and accurately defined, outlines. With a style like this, and precisely at the time when art made its great advance to per- fection, tragedy rose up in mighty words and strong expressions of great weight, whereby J^^schylus gave dignity to his person- ages, and to probability its utmost extent, and rhetoric itself became poetical in the writings of Gorgias, its inventor. 26. In concluding our examination of this first style, I would call attention to the ignorant criticism of a painter (22), who, like Du Fresnoy, became an author, and who had no better success in art than he. He wishes to inform us that all works from the time of Alexander the Great to Phocas may be called antique ; but the point from which he starts is not more cor- rect than that at which he stops. We see from what has pre- ceded, and it will be shown hereafter, that there are extant even now older works than of the time prior to Alexander ; but antiquity in art ceases before Constantino. They too have much need of instruction who believe with Father Montfaucon that no works of Greek sculptors have been preserved which have an earlier date than the period when the Greeks fell under the dominion of the Romans. VOL. II. 9 130 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. CHAPTER II. THE GRAND STYLE. 1. Finally, at the time when Greece attained its hi<:hest degree of refinement and freedom, art also became more unfet- tered and lofty ; for the older style was constructed upDn a system composed of rules which, though originally derived from nature, had afterwards departed from it and become ideal. The artist wrought more in conformity to these rules than to nature, the object of imitation, for art had created for itself a nature of its own. The improvers of art elevated themselves above this adopted system, and drew nearer to the truth of nature, by which they were taught to throw aside, for flowing outlines, the hardness of the older style, with its prominent and abruptly ending parts of the figure, to make the violent positions and actions more refined and . becoming, and to display in their works less science, and more beauty, loftiness, and gran- deur (1). Through this improvement in art, Phidias, Polycle- tus, Scopas, Alcamenes, Myron, and other masters, made themselves celebrated ; and their style may be called the Grand Style, because their chief object, besides beauty, appears to have been grandeur. But a clear distinction must be made here between hardness in drawing and sharpness, in order not to mistake the sharp rendering of the eyebrows for example, which we constantly see in shapes of the highest beauty, for an unnatural hardness remaining from the older style ; for. the sharpness with which the parts are denoted has its foundation in ideas of beauty, as we have already remarked.-^ 2. But it is probable, and it may be inferred from some re- marks of writers, that the rectilinear still continued to be char- acteristic in a certain degree of the drawing of the grand style, and that the outlines in consequence passed into angles, — a characteristic which seems to have been denoted by the word 1 Plates XV., XVI. TEE RISE AND FALL OF GREEK ART. 131 "square" or *' angular." For as these masters, like Polycletus for example, were lawgivers in proportion, and therefore proba- bly established exactly the measure of each one part, it is not incredible that a certain degree of beauty of form may have been sacrificed to this great exactness (2). But though gran- deur was displayed in the figures of these great masters, still, in comparison with the waving outlines of their successors, it may have exhibited a certain hardness. This appears to have been the hardness which was censured in Gallon, Hegesias, Canachus, and Calamis, indeed even in Myron. Canachus how- ever was younger than Phidias, for he was the scholar of Poly- cletus, and flourished in the ninety-fifth Olympiad. If the conjecture which I shall offer hereafter in regard to two Cane- phori in terra-cotta be accepted, namely, that they are copies of the two celebrated Canephori of Polycletus, a clearer idea of the peculiarity of this style, and of the hardness still clinging to it, might be derived from that rilievo than from other statements and inferences. 3. In regard to the hardness imputed as a fault in the draw- ing of the sculptors before mentioned it might however be shown that the ancient writers have very often judged of art in the same manner as the moderns ; and the firmness of drawing, the correctly and severely rendered figures of Raphael, have to many appeared hard and stiff, when compared with the tender- ness of the outlines and the round and softly treated forms of Correggio. Malvasia, a historian of the Bolognese painters, but a person of no taste, is altogether of this opinion ; so to uncultivated minds the Homeric verse, and the antique majesty of Lucretius and Catullus, sound negligent and coarse in com- parison with the brilliancy of Virgil and the charming sweet- ness of Ovid. If, on the other hand, the opinion of Lucian in art is good for anything, the statue of the Amazon Sosandra, from the hand of Calamis, was to be placed among the four most admirable figures of female beauty. For in his descrip- tion of her beauty he mentions not only the whole dress, but also the modest mien and the soft and covert smile. However, the style of one period can no more be general in art than in writing ; for if Thucydides, of all the authors of his time, had been the only one preserved, we should, from the conciseness amounting almost to obscurity in the speeches of his history, have formed an erroneous conclusion in regard to Plato, Ly- 132 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. sias, and Xenophon, whose words flow onward like a gentle stream (3). 4. The most admirable, and one may say the sole woris ia Rome belonging to the period of the grand style, as far as [ can see, are the oft-quoted Pallas, nine palms high (6 ft. 9 it.), ia the Albani villa, and the Niobe and her Daughters, ia the Medici villa. The former must not however be confounded with the Pallas of the more ancient style, in the same villa, which has also been mentioned before. It is worthy cf the great artists of the age of which we speak, and we are enabled to form an opinion upon it the more correctly, since we ste the head in its entire original beauty ; for it has not been irjured even by a harsh wind, but is as pure and brilliant as when it came from the master's hands. It has, in connection witii the lofty beauty with which it is endowed, the characteristics of this style which we noticed ; a certain hardness is visible, but it is a hardness more easily felt than described. We aiight wish to see in the face a certain grace which it would receive through more roundness and softness. This is probably the grace which, in the subsequent age of art, Praxiteles first gave to his figures, — as will be noticed hereafter. The Niobe and her Daughters are to be regarded as indisputable works of the grand style ; but that appearance of hardness which in the Pallas suggests a conjecture as to its age is not a characteristic of this group, in which are found the principal attributes whereby the style is indicated ; namely, an uncreated ilea of beauty, if I may so say, but specially a lofty simplicity as well in the conformation of the heads as in the whole drawing, in the drapery, and in the execution. This beauty is like an idea conceived without the aid of the senses, which might be gener- ated in a lofty understanding and in a happy imagination, if it could rise in contemplation near to divine beauty ; so great is the unity of form and outline, that it appears to have been produced not with labor, but awakened like a thought, and blown out with a breath ; just as the skilful hand of the great Raphael — which, like a ready tool, obeyed his will — would, with a single stroke of the pen, design a most beautiful outline of a Madonna's head, and, without making any improvements, go on correctly and confidently with the execution of it. 5. Tlie works of the great improvers of art having been lost, it is impossible to determine more precisely the varied learnmg THE RISE AND FALL OF GREEK ART. 133 and the attributes of the grand style. We resemble in this respect those who can recognize, in a much corroded head of an ancient statue, the person represented, as if seen from a dis- tance, but are unable to distinguish either the features or the execution. But we can speak with more confidence of the style of their successors, which I term the Beautiful, for some of the most beautiful figures of antiquity were without doubt executed in the period within which this style flourished ; and many others of which this cannot be shown are at least imitations of them. The beautiful style of art begins with Praxiteles; it attained its highest splendor through Lysippus and Apelles, — the proofs of which will be adduced hereafter. It is therefore the style which prevailed not long before and at the time of Alexander the Great and his immediate successors (4). 6. The principal attribute by which the beautiful style is distinguished from the grand is grace ; and in this respect the artists last named hold the same relation towards their prede- cessors that Guido, among the moderns, would hold to Raphael. This will be shown more clearly when we come to consider the drawing of this style, and the grace which constitutes its pecu- liar character. 7. In regard to the drawing generally, it was a principle to avoid everything angular, even what had hitherto remained in the statues of great artists, like Polycletus. The merit of this improvement in art is, in sculpture, especially attributed to Lysippus, who imitated nature more than did his predecessors ; he therefore gave an undulating form to certain parts of his figures, which were still rendered angularly. In this way prob- ably are we to understand what Pliny means by squared statues, for, even at the present day, the term quadrature is applied to a square manner of drawing. But the forms of beauty of the preceding style remained as a rule even in this, for Nature in her utmost beauty had been the teacher. Hence Lucian, in describing a beautiful woman, takes the figure as a whole, and the principal parts, from the artists of the grand style, but the elegance from their successors. The shape of the face should be like that of the Lemnian Pallas of Phidias ; but the hair, eyebrows, and forehead as in the Venus of Praxiteles ; in the eyes he would wish to see the tenderness and charm which characterized the latter. The hands should be made after those of the Venus of Alcamenes, a scholar of Phidias. 134 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. When, in descriptions of beautiful women, the hands of Pallas are specified, we are probably to understand the Pallas of Phidias, as being the most celebrated ; hands of Polycletus signify the most beautiful hands (5). 8. In genera], we may represent to ourselves the figures of the grand style, compared with those of the beautiful style, as men of the heroic age, as Homer's heroes and men, compared with the cultivated Athenians in the bloom of the republic. Or, to make a comparison with something actual, I would place the works of the former period near Demosthenes, and those of the subsequent age near Cicero. The former hurries us, as it were, impetuously away ; the latter leads us willingly along with him. In the one, we have no opportunity to think of the beauties of execution ; in the other, they show themselves un- sought, and diffuse themselves with a general light over the arguments of the speaker. 9. In the second place, we are now to speak of grace spe- cially, as the distinctive peculiarity of the beautiful style. It is formed and dwells in the gestures, and is manifested in the actions and movements of the body ; it even shows itself in the cast of the drapery, and in the entire dress. The' artists who followed Phidias, Polycletus, and their contemporaries, sought for it more than they, and were more successful in at- taining it. The reason must lie in the loftiness of the ideas which the latter artists embodied, and in the severity of their drawing. This point deserves our special attention, 10. The great masters of the grand style whom we have just mentioned had sought for beauty only in perfect harmony of all the parts, and in elevation of expression, striving more for the truly beautiful than for the lovely. But as only a single idea of beauty in the highest degree and always equal to itself can be imagined, and as this idea was always present to those artists, their beautiful women must consequently always have approximated to their ideal, and been similar to each other, and uniform. This is the reason of the similarity in the heads of Niobe and her Daughters, which varies imperceptibly, and only with the age and degree of beauty in them. " . . . . Fades non omnibus una, Nee diversa tamen, qualem decet esse sororum," — " .... In face they were not all alike, Nor more unlike than sisters well might be." THE RISE AND FALL OF GREEK ART. 135 11. Now, if the fundamental principle of the grand style was, as it appears, to represent the countenance and attitude of the gods and heroes as free from emotion, and not agitated by inward perturbation, in an equilibrium of feeling, and with a peaceful, always even, state of mind, we see why a certain grace was wanting ; no attempt even was made to introduce it. But it demands a lofty understanding to express this significant and speaking stillness of the soul ; for " the imitation of the violent," as Plato says, " can be made in different ways ; but a calm, wise demeanor can neither be easily imitated, nor, when imitated, easily comprehended." 12. With such severe ideas of beauty, art began to be great, as well-ordered states thrive with severe laws ; and the figures were simple, like the manners and men of the age. The im- mediate successors of the great lawgivers in art did not how- ever proceed as Solon did with the laws of Draco, they did not depart from their rules ; but as the strictest laws become more useful and acceptable through a temperate interpreta- tion of them, so the latter sought to bring nearer to nature the lofty beauties which, in the statues of their great masters, were like abstract ideas of nature, and forms modelled upon a system ; and in this way they attained greater variety. This is the sense in which we are to understand the grace introduced by the masters of the beautiful style into their works. 13. But the Graces, who, like the Muses, were worshipped by the most ancient Greeks under two names only, appear, like Venus, whose companions they are, to be of different characters. One is like the heavenly Venus, of higher birth, the daughter of harmony ; she is constant and unchangeable, even as the laws of harmony. On this account, Horace seems to name only one Grace, calling the two others her sisters. The other Grace is, like the Venus, daughter of Dione, more subject to the influence of matter. She is a daughter of Time, and only a follower of the former, or the heavenly Grace, whom she announces to those who are not devoted to her service. She descends from her loftiness and reveals herself kindly, without humiliation, to those who turn their eyes upon her ; though not eager to please, she is not willing to remain un- known. But the former Grace, an associate of all the deities, appears to be sufficient to herself She does not offer herself unsolicited, she wishes to be sought ; she is too elevated ever 136 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. to be much an object of sense ; for, as Plato says, " there is no form capable of expressing the highest." She converses only with the wise ; to the mass she appears forbidding and unamiable. She conceals the emotions of her soul, and brings herself near to the blissful serenity of the divine nature, of which the great artists, as the ancients write, sought to delin- eate an image. Her seemingly austere aspect might even be compared with the more acid kinds of fruits, which, according to Theophrastus, have greater fragrance than the sweeter sorts ; for whatever is intended to impress strongly and to excite must be pungent and savory. The Greeks would have compared this latter Grace to the Doric harmony, and the other to the Ionic ; and we may make the same comparison in regard to the Doric and Ionic orders of architecture, as one which is wholly correct. 14. This grace in works of art appears indeed to have been known to the divine poet ; and he has represented it in the image of the beautiful and lightly dressed Aglaia, or Thalia, — whom Vulcan married, — and who, on this account, is elsewhere termed his helpmate, and who wrought with him in the forma- tion of the divine Pandora. This was the grace which Pallas shed around Ulysses, and of which the lofty Pindar sings ; this is the grace to whom the artists of the grand style sacrificed. She worked with Phidias in the shaping of the Olympian Jupi- ter ; she stood near the footstool of the Jupiter on the chariot of the Sun ; she arched with love, as in the artist's prototype, the proud curve of his eyebrows, and to his look of majesty imparted an air of benevolence and graciousness. With her sisters and the goddesses of the seasons she crowned the head of Juno at Argos, — who was brought up by the latter, — as her work, wherein she recognized herself, and in which she guided the hand of Polycletus. In the Sosandra of Calamis she smiled with innocence and reserve ; she hid herself, with modest shame, on her forehead and in her eyes, and played with unsought elegance in the folds of her drapery. With her the artist of the Niobe ventured into the kingdom of incor- poreal forms, and mastered the secret of uniting the anguish of death with the highest beauty ; he became a creator of pure spirits and heavenly souls, which, exciting no desires of the senses, produced a contemplative consideration of beauty of every kind; for they seem to have been formed, not for the THE RISE AND FALL OF GREEK ART. 137 e:pression of the passions, but simply for the lodgement of tliem. 15. The grand style without grace, and the following style, aie foimd united in a single statue in the Albani villa. It is a beautiful Bacchus, larger than life, of which I have made men- tion in my remarks upon the drawing of the nude figure. The head is not the one which properly belongs to it ; it is that of an Apollo, beautiful, it is true, and of noble conformation, but still too serious in look, and the mouth lacks that sweetness of sl-ape which we should like to see ; so that we can perceive, w.thout a doubt, that the statue of which the head has been adopted for this Bacchus must belong to a far more ancient era of art than the body on which it is placed. 16. The artists of the beautiful style united the second to the first and higher Grace. As the Juno of Homer took the girdle of Venus that she might appear more pleasing and lovely to Jupiter, so those masters sought to combine with lofty beauty a more sensual charm, and to make grandeur more com- panionable, as it were, through an engaging desire to please. This more pleasing Grace was first created in painting and by painting imparted to sculpture. She conferred immortality upon Parrhasius, to whom she first revealed herself. Some time afterwards she appeared also in marble and bronze, for there is an interval of half a century between Parrhasius — who was a contemporary of Phidias — and Praxiteles, whose works, as far as we know, were distinguished by a peculiar grace from those that were executed prior to his time. 1 7. It is remarkable that the father of this Grace in art, and Apelles, to whom she wholly attached herself, and who may properly be termed the Painter of the Lovely Grace, — inas- much as he has painted her exclusively, without her other two companions, — were both born beneath the joyous skies of Ionia, and in the land where the Father of Poets had been endowed, some hundred years before, with the highest grace ; for Ephe- sus was the father-land of Parrhasius as well as of Apelles, who might probably derive his descent from a certain Apelles who went with the Amazons to Smyrna, and even from Homer him- self, for this Apelles was among the ancestors of the great poet. Parrhasius was endowed with a delicate sensibility, which such a climate generates, and had been instructed in art by his father, who had, himself, some reputation ; he went to Athens, and 138 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. there he hecame the friend of the philosopher, the teacher of Greece (6), who revealed her to Plato and Xenophon. 1 8. Of the second or more pleasing grace we may get an idea from the heads of the Leucothea in the Capitoline museum ; and the reader, if he would obtain a clear insight into the qualities which with the ancient artists constituted grace, may compare with those and similar heads the conformation of Correggio, the Father of the Graces. He will be immediately satisfied that, between this more modern grace, not infrequently ornamented, and oftentimes exaggerated, and the pleasing grace of the ancient artists of the beautiful style, the interval is no greater than was perhaps remarked by true connoisseurs in former times as exist- ing between the latter and the exalted grace of the grand style. 19. The variety and greater diversity of expression in the beautiful style did not detract from its harmony and grandeur ; the soul manifested itself only, as it were, beneath a still sur- face of water, and never burst impetuously forth. In the rep- resentation of suffering, as in the Laocoon, the greatest pain is concealed ; and joy floats, like a soft breeze that scarcely stirs the leaves, over the faces of a Leucothea in the Campidoglio, and a Bacchante on the coins of the island of Naxos. Art phil- osophized with the passions, as Aristotle says of reason, crvfxcjiL- Xo(TO(f)€t TOIS TrdOecTL. 20. This grace — the first and lofty, as well as the second and pleasing — upon which I have just oflTered my reflections, belongs, as the reader comprehends, only to ideal and lofty beauties in whose conformation alone it finds fitting expression. Grace is however not thus limited in its agency ; it is diffused also over forms which do not embody the perfect idea of beauty, in order to repair by its influence the deficiency in the latter. This is the humbler grace that belongs especially to children, as in them the forms which beauty shapes ai-e not yet fully de- veloped, and cannot therefore be susceptible of the other grace. We might even term this the comic grace, and that the tragic and epic. 21. The grace which I have termed comic is expressed in the heads of some Fauns as w^ell as of some Bacchantes by a joyous laugh, which draws the corners of the mouth upwards. In all instances where joyousness is found marked by such traits, the face always has a common sunken profile, or a flattened nose. The idea of that grace which is peculiar to the heads of Cor- THE RISE AND FALL OF GREEK ART. 139 reggio, and hence is termed Grazia Correggesca, immediately occurs to us, as they also have the character just pointed out (7). 22. From this we may be enabled, I believe, to explain how cTTixapts, "endowed with grace,". was used by Plato as synony- mous with 0-1/A05, "flat-nosed." Aristsenetus, quoting from Plato, makes the same remark : Kai 6 jneV rts twv vewv ort cti/aos, iiTLxapLPYri//°2, it is one of the oldest gems bearing the artist's name. Cupid is represented on it as lying, with his body raised, and playing ; he has large eagle-wings, — in conformity with the idea of remote antiquity in regard to almost all the deities, — and holds an open shell with two valves. The artists who followed Phrygillus, as Solon and Tryphou, gave to Cupid a more childlike nature and shorter wings ; and in this form, and after the manner of the children painted by Fiamingo, we see Cupid on innumerable engraved gems. The children in the pictures of Herculaneum are shaped in the same way, and are, particularly on a black ground, of equal size with the beautiful female dancing figures. 28. Among the most beautiful children of marble, in Rome, may be mentioned a child playing with a swan, in the Campi- doglio (13), and another riding on a tiger, in the Negroni villa ; also two Cupids in the same villa, one of whom is fright- ening the other with a mask ; and these alone can prove how successful the ancient artists were in imitating childish nature. Besides these figures, there are extant many truly beautiful 142 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. heads of children. But the most beautiful child which has come down to us from antiquity, although in a mutilated con- dition, is a childish Satyr, about as large as a yearling child, in the Albani villa. It is a rilievo, but so much in relief that almost the whole figure is detached. He is crowned with ivy, and is drinking — probably from a skin bottle, though this is wanting — with so much eagerness and delight that the eye- balls are turned entirely upwards, and only a small portion of the hollowed out pupil is visible (14). This piece was discov- ered at the foot of the Palatine Hill, on the side towards the Circus Maximus, together with the beautiful Icarus, on whom Dajdalus is fastening wings, which is likewise executed in strong relief (15). A well-known prejudice, which has almost estab- lished itself as a truth, how I know not, that the ancient artists are far inferior to the moderns in the figures of children, would therefore be refuted by these examples. 29. The beautiful style of Greek art continued to flourish a long time after Alexander the Great, in different artists who are celebrated. This we may infer from the works in marble which will be cited hereafter, and likewise from coins. THE RISE AND FALL OF GREEK ART. 143 CHAPTER III. THE STYLE OF THE IMITATORS. — COMMENCEMENT OF THE DECLINE AND FALL OF ART. 1. As the proportions and forms of beauty had been thor- oughly studied by the artists of antiquity, and the outhnes of figures were so determinate that it was impossible either to go beyond them or fall within them without error, the conception of beauty could be carried no higher. Inasmuch therefore as art could not advance, it must go backwards, because in it, as in all the operations of nature, we cannot think of any station- ary point. The conceptions of deities and heroes were figured in all possible ways and positions ; it was difficult to invent new ones; consequently the path was opened to imitation (1). It cramps the spirit to copy ; and if it did not seem possible to surpass a Praxiteles and an Apelles, so also it was difficult to equal them ; the imitator has always proved inferior to him whom he has imitated. 2. The same result took place also in art which had hap- pened to philosophy ; as among philosophers, so too among artists there arose Eclectics or Compilers, who, being deficient in original powers, sought to unite in one the peculiar beauties of many. But as the Eclectics are to be regarded only as copy- ists of philosophers of particular schools, and have produced little or nothing original, so also no complete, original, and har- monious work was to be expected in art when it took precisely the same course. As the grand writings of the ancients were lost in consequence of abridgments made of them, so also, through the productions of the eclectics in art, the grand original works were probably neglected. Imitation favored the lack of accurate knowledge ; the drawing consequently became timid ; and what the artist wanted in knowledge, he sought to supply by diligence, which gradually displayed itself in details that, in the flourishing times of the art, were omitted, and deemed unfavorable to the grand style. 144 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. 3. Here we feel the truth of what Quinctilian says, that many artists would have executed the ornaments on the Jupiter of Phidias better than Phidias himself (2). Through the effort to avoid any supposed hardness, and thus to make everything tender and soft, those parts which were strongly rendered by preceding artists became rounder, but insipid ; sweeter, but less expressive. Hence art itself became dull, just as an axe sooner becomes dull on wood of the linden-tree than on that of the oak (3). Precisely in the same way corruption has at all times crept also into the style of writing, and thus music, renouncing its manly tones, degenerated like art into the effeminate. The actual excellence in any production is frequently lost by the very care with which it is elaborated, just as the bodily health is impaired by attempts to make it better ; and as flattery is despised, and a firm, unwavering opinion admired, there is rea- son to believe that the true connoisseurs of the day, when com- paring the works of art of which we speak with those of the grand style, and even with those which were still more ancient, pronounced upon them a judgment similar to ours. 4. Shortly before and during the time of the Emperors, ar- tists in marble began to give especial care to the execution of free-hanging locks of hair, and they also indicated the hairs of the eyebrows, though only in portrait-heads. This had never been done before in marble, though it was not uncommon in bronze. On one of the most beautiful heads, in bronze, of a young man, of the size of life — it is a full bust — in the royal museum at Portici, which appears to represent a hero, executed by an Athenian artist, Apollonius, son of Archias, the eyebrows are denoted by slight incisions into the sharply wrought edges of the bones of the orbits (4). This bust however, as well as the female bust of similar size, was undoubtedly made at a time when art was in a flourishing state. But as in the most ancient times, and before Phidias, the pupil of the eyes was in- dicated on coins, so also more elaborateness generally was be- stowed on bronze than on marble. This minuteness however began in male ideal heads sooner than in female ; the eyebrows even of that head in bronze, which is apparently from the hai:d of the same artist as the male head, are rendered after the ancient manner by a sharp arch. 5. The decline of art must necessarily become perceptible on comparison of the works of this epoch with the works of the THU RISE AND FALL OF GREEK ART. 145 highest and most brilliant period; and it is to be presumed that some few artists sought to return to the grand manner of their predecessors. As things in this world frequently revolve in a circle, and return to the point whence they started, it may have happened that artists strove to imitate the more ancient style, which, in the slight curvature of its outlines, approxi- mates the workmanship of the Egyptians. This was my first conjecture in regard to an obscure passage in Petronius relative to painting, which I understood of art generally, and upon the explanation of which commentators have not yet been able to agree. The writer in question, when speaking of the causes that produced the decline of eloquence, likewise laments the fate of art, corrupted by an Egyptian style, which, to translate the words with their true expressiveness, — draws or hrmgs together into narrowness, where he says : Pidura quoque non alium exituni fecit, postquam JEgyptiorum audacia tam magnoe artis compen- diariam invenit, — " Painting also had the same end, after the audacity of the Egyptians invented a compendious way of so grand an art." Some commentators have sought to elude the obscurity of this difficult passage, which lies in the word com- pendiariam, by quoting other phrases in which the same word is found, and with such dictionary-learning as this, Burmann, according to his wont, seeks to divert the reader. Others, on the contrary, have not been ashamed to acknowledge that they had no idea of the meaning of the passage, that they were unable to offer even a conjecture in regard to it, — as Frank J unius declares. But these commentators had, in part, no suf- ficient knowledge of art, and, in part, no opportunity of exam- ining the paintings which have been preserved. Now as more than a thousand pieces have been discovered in the cities buried by the ashes of Vesuvius, I might hazard, perhaps with greater probability, a conjecture in regard to said passage, — a conjec- ture suggested by some of the latter paintings. They are long and narrow bands, little more than a palm (8.40 inches) in breadth, divided into different compartments, within which are represented, on a black ground, small figures shaped in the Egyptian style ; between the compartments on which figures are painted, and on the borders of the pictures, are introduced many kinds of forms and ornaments of the most extraordinary conception. This style of painting of Egyptian figures, inter- woven with extravagant conceits, appears to be the style which, VOL. II. 10 146 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. in Petronius, is termed ars compendiaria of the Egyptians ; and probably it has been so named because it was an imitation of a mode common to the Egyptians, who embelUshed their build- ings in this manner. For in Upper Egypt there are to be found even now palaces and temples in a perfect state of preservation, supported on enormously large columns, which, as well as the walls and ceilings, are entirely covered from below upward by engraved hieroglyphs, which have afterwards been painted over, — as the reader will remember that I mentioned in the second chapter of the fourth Book. With this crowded multitude of signs and small images Petronius compares the embellishments — crammed with little insignificant figures — which were at that time the principal subject of paintings; and this style of paintings would be termed compendiaria, because so many and so diff'erent things were compressed into such a narrow space, and reduced in compendium, " to miniature." Further, if we reflect upon the lamentations of Vitruvius over this art, — in which, as he says, no basis of truth could any longer be found at his time, — and his conclusion, nam pinguntur tectoriis mon- sira potiu.% quam ex rebus finitis imagines certce, — " for mon- sters are painted on the plaster, rather than definite figures of known objects," — we might believe that it was his intention to point out precisely what Petronius says of the audacity of the Egyptians, who invented an abridgment, compendiariam, of so great an art. Now since, according to Vitruvius, the edi- fices of the older times were decorated with representations, drawn from mythology, of deities, heroes, and deeds of fame, in perfect imitation of truth, so through the abuse which, after a time, became prevalent, of crowding together extravagant, ab- surd, and insignificant things (5), must the wings of art, if I may so speak, necessarily have been clipped ; it could no longer soar into the heroic, but became little, as were the works which it produced. The multitude of figures in a picture is also generally a proof of poverty, as, in other things, a superfluity frequently is ; it is the same here as with the kings of Syria, who, according to Pliny, built their vessels of cedar, because they had no firs, which were better. I therefore believe that I find here one of the peculiarities and distinguishing marks of the Egyptian style ; and if this explanation should be adopted, it wilf follow that the artists about and before the time of Petronius had degenerated into a dry, meagre, and petty man- THE RISE AND FALL OF GREEK ART 147 ner of design and execution. As, according to the natural course of things, one extreme is apt to follow its opposite, we might suppose that the meagre style, resembling the Egj^ptian, ■would be the correction of an exaggerated, inflated style ; and we might adduce here the Farnese Hercules, all the muscles of which are more prominent than they should be according to the teaching of correct drawing. 6. We find a style the opposite of this in some works in re- lief, which, on account of a certain stiffness and hardness of the figures, we should hold to be Etruscan or ancient Greek, if other indications permitted. I will, for an example, cite one of them, in the Albani villa, a copperplate engraving of which is prefixed to the preface of this treatise.-^ It represents four draped goddesses, seemingly in procession, of whom the last carries a long sceptre. One of the middle ones, who is Diana, has a bow and quiver suspended across her shoulders, and car- ries a torch ; she grasps with one hand the mantle of the first, who is a Muse, and who is playing on a psalter, and in the other she holds a dish, into which a Victoria, standing near an altar, is pouring a libation. At first sight the style might seem to be Etruscan, but the architecture of the temple is opposed to such a supposition. It appears therefore that this work is the production of a Greek artist, not of the older time, who wished to imitate in it the style of the older time. In the same villa may be found four other rilievi, similar to this, and repre- senting the same scene. Even in the fashion of the garb of the same period there was a fondness for the closely fitting dress ; for though the orators of Rome had formerly made their appearance in public in a garment with sumptuous large folds, yet, under Vespasian, they went abroad in a strait and closely fitting frock. In Pliny's time, artists began to represent male statues in ^poenula, a " strait-coat." 7. "We might also apply the complaint of Petronius to the nu- merous figures of Egyptian deities, the worship of which was at that time the prevailing superstition in Rome, insomuch that the painters, as Juvenal says, lived on figures of Isis. As a consequence of the employment of the artists upon such figures, a style resembling that of Egyptian figures might have crept even into other works. Statues of Isis are even now extant, clothed entirely in the Etruscan manner, which, from their 1 First edition. Compare Book VIII., Chap. I. T 20. 148 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. characteristics, manifestly belong to the times of the Caesars ; among others, I may cite one, of the size of life, in the Barber- ini palace. This opinion will not surprise those who know that a corruption was introduced into art by a single man, as Ber- nini, which still continues ; so much the more readily could the same thing have happened through many artists, or through those who worked on Egyptian figures, who formed the majority. 8. That the style of art in the last period was very different from that of ancient times is intimated by Pausanias, where he says that a priestess of the Leucippides, that is, of Phoebe and Hilaira, caused the antique head of one of the two statues of them to be removed, and a new one substituted in its place, — meaning to make the statue thereby more beautiful ; the new head, he further observes, was wrought in the style of art of the day, — a remark which Gedoyn, to whom the fashions of his time occurred in this passage, translates " after the present fashion " (6). We might term this style a petty or flat style ; for what in the ancient figui-es was vigorous and elevated was now weak and vulgar. We are not however to judge of this style from statues which have derived their names from their heads, because there are a great many on which strange heads have been placed, those properly belonging to them not having been found (7). 9. As art finally drew near its fall, and as also, on account of the number of ancient statues, fewer were made in comparison to preceding times, the principal occupation of artists was to make heads and busts, and in these especially was their skill .displayed during this last stage, until the downfall of art. Hence it is not so extraordinary as it must appear to many, to see not only tolerable, but in a measure beautiful, heads of Macrinus, Septimius Severus, and Caracalla, as the Farnese head is, for the merit of them consists solely in their elaborate- ness. Lysippus could not probably have made a much better head of Caracalla ; but the artist of it could not make a figure like Lysippus ; and herein lay the difference. 10. Contrary to the opinion of the ancients, large prominent veins were thought to show especial skill, and on the arch of Septimius Severus the artist was unwilling to omit such veins even on the hands of ideal female figures, as are the figures of Victoria bearing trophies, as if the strength which Cicero asserts to be a genera] characteristic of perfect hands was required THE RISE AND FALL OF GREEK ART. 149 even in female hands, and must be expressed in the manner before mentioned. Prior to the restoration of the arts, the skill of artists was placed precisely in this particular, and such a vein-work is admired, even when out of place, by the childish, untaught mind ; but the wise ancients would have censured this not less than the representation of a lion with his claws projected, — which, when he is in motion, are turned under- neath, — in order to exhibit the full might of the animal. How delicately the artists of the flourishing times of antiquity ex- pressed the veins even on colossal figures is shown by the aston- ishing fragments of such a statue in the Campidoglio, — said to be those of an Apollo, — and on the neck of a colossal head of Trajan in the Albani villa (8). But it is with art as with man ; when, according to Plato, the passions begin to lose their vigor in man, the pleasure of prattling increases ; so, in art, puerilities step into the place of fallen greatness. 11. The greater number of the burial-urns belong to this latter period of art, and therefore also the larger portion of the rilievi, for they have been sawed off from such oblong urns. Among them I notice six as the most beautiful, but they must have been executed at an earlier date. Three of them are in the Capitoline museum. The largest represents the dispute between Agamemnon and Achilles on account of Chryseis ; the second, the nine Muses ; and the third, a battle with the Ama- zons ; on the fourth, in the Albani villa, is seen the marriage of Peleus and Thetis, together with the gods and goddesses of the Seasons, who bring gifts to the pair ; the fifth and sixth, in the Borghese villa, represent the death of Meleager, and the fable of Actseon (9). But these rilievi, which are particularly elaborated, are distinguished by a raised edge or prominence passing around them. The greater number of burial-urns were made beforehand, and kept on sale, as we are led to believe from the representations on them, for they have no connection with the person of the deceased, nor with the inscription. There is an urn of this kind, among others, in an injured state, in the Albani villa. The front side is divided into three compart- ments ; the one to the right shows Ulysses tied to the mast of his vessel, through fear of the song of the Sirens, one of whom is playing on the lyre, another on the flute, whilst tlie third sings, and holds a scroll in her hand. They have the feet of birds, as usual j but it is a singular circumstance that all three 150 EISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. have a mantle thrown around them. On the left are seated philosophers in conversation. On the middle field is the follow- ing inscription, which has not the slightest allusion to the repre- sentation, and has not yet been published. AOJNJQcoN MdPOncoJV OTJGIC- e*r- TOT/IG' CGBHRA GHCC'TC- AIAKIJJI MARTTPQC' QICI- JOFOT ATX^- CcodJPONA- TTNBOC- 6 MAIC- AArONQCCI' CQBHPAN KOTPHN' CTPTMONIOT- UAI /IOC- AMTMON ^XwN. OIHN- OTK' HNQIKQ' IIOATC BIOC. OTJC: TIC- OTHco QCX.Q TAdiOC' XPHCTHN AAAOC- T* mAIal. " No mortal was ever born of immortals ; of this, Severa, Theseus, and the ^acides, are proofs. It is my pride that I Enclose within my cavity the modest Severa, the Virgin grand-daughter of Strymon. Long years have not produced one so excellent, Nor has any other tomb beneath the sun ever contained One so gentle." 12. It is necessary for me, in speaking of ancient works of low art, to remind the reader that he should study to distin- guish those works which were wrought in Greece itself, or in Rome, from those which were made to order in other cities and colonies of the Roman empire. This caution is applicable not only to works in marble and other stones, but also to coins. The difference has already been noticed in regard to coins, and it is well known that those which were stamped imder the Emperors, out of Rome, do not generally equal those which were executed in the capital itself of the Roman empire. But hitherto this inequality has not been observed in works in marble, though it is evident in the rilievi which exist in Capua and Naples ; among them is a rilievo in the Colobrano mansion, of the latter city, on which some of the labors of Hercules are represented, which appears to belong to the middle period of art. The difference in question is most clearly manifested in the heads of the diflTerent divinities wrought on the keystones of the arches of the outermost corridor of the amphitheatre of THE RISE AND FALL OF GREEK ART. 151 ancient Capua, two of which are still remaining in their places, namely, Juno and Diana. Three others of these stones, repre- senting Jupiter Ammon, Mercury, and Hercules, may be found set into the wall of the council-house of the modern city of Capua, formerly named Casilinum. I shall have occasion here- after to speak of that amphitheatre, and also of the theatre in this city. Most of these figures are cut, not from marble, — because no white marble is found in the lower part of Italy, — but from a hard white stone of which mos,t of the Apennine mountains in those regions, as well as in the States of the Church, are composed. 13, The same difference is observable in the architecture of the temples and other edifices which were erected in the time of the Emperors, in Rome itself, and of those which were con- structed in the provinces of the Roman empire ; it is evident in a temple at Melasso, in Caria, which was consecrated to Augus- tus and the city of Rome, as I shall notice hereafter. We might also mention here the arch near Susa, in the Pied- montese territory, which was likewise erected in honor of Augustus ; for the capitals of the pilasters have a form which appears to have been not common in Rome at that time (10). 14. Nevertheless, it is creditable to the ancients that they continued conscious of the grandeur of art, even until its down- fall. The spirit of their forefathers had not yet utterly de- parted from them, and even the indifferent works of the last period are wrought in accordance with the principles of the great masters. The heads have retained the general idea of ancient beauty, and in the position, action, and drapery of the figures are always manifest the traces of pure truth and sim- plicity. The senses of the ancients were never dazzled by an ornamented elegance, by an affected and ill-conceived grace, by an exaggerated and distorted suppleness, of which even the best works of modern sculpture have their share. We find indeed some admirable works belonging to the third century, — if we may judge from the mode of head-dress, — which are to be considered as copies made from older works. Of this kind are two figures of Venus of the size of life, with their proper heads, in the garden behind the Farnese palace. One of them has a beautiful head of Venus ; the other, the head of a woman of rank, of the century mentioned, and both heads have the same style of head-dress (11). There is in the Belvedere a Venus of 152 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. the same size, though inferior in merit to those, with a head- dress similar to theirs 3 this head-dress was peculiar to the women of that age (12). An Apollo, in the Negroni villa, of the age and size of a youth of fifteen, may be classed among the beautiful youthful figures in Rome ; the proper head how- ever of this figure represents not an Apollo, but perhaps an imperial prince of that time (13). Some artists therefore were still to be found who well understood how to copy the beautiful figures of more ancient times. 15. I shall conclude the third portion of this chapter^ with an altogether extraordinary monument, in the Campidogiio, made from basalt. It represents a large ape, seated, whose forefeet rest on the knees of the hind-feet ; the head is lost. On the right side of the base of this figure is engraved in Greek characters, " Phidias and Ammonius, sons of Phidias, made it." This inscription, which has been noticed by few, was slightly mentioned in the manuscript catalogue from which Keinesius took it without any notice of the work on which it stands, and if it were not for manifest tokens of its antiquity it might be regarded as not genuine. The inscription upon this apparently contemptible work may attract attention to it, and I wish to communicate my conjectures regarding it. 16. A colony of Greeks had settled in Africa, who were called in their language TnOrjKovaa-av, from the great number of monkeys thereabouts. Diodorus says that the animal was held sacred by them, and worshipped, like the dog in Egypt. It entered freely into their dwellings, and took whatever it pleased ; indeed, these Greeks named their children after the animals, which, like the deities in other countries, probably received from them certam honorary appellations. I imagine that the monkey in the Campidogiio may have been an object of reverence to the Pithekoussse Greeks ; at least, I see no other way of reconciling such a monster in art with the names of Greek sculptors ; Phidias and Ammonius probably practised their art, as sculptors, among these barbarian Greeks. When Agathocles, king of Sicily, invaded the Carthaginians, in Africa, his general, Eumachus, penetrated so far inland as to reach the territory of these Greeks, and conquered and destroyed one of their towns. The form of the letters does not permit us to assume that this divinely worshipped monkey may have been 1 Pirst edition. THE RISE AND FALL OF GREEK ART. 153 carried away at this time, as a memorial, as something extraor- dinary among the Greeks, because the strokes of them belong to a later period, and resemble the Herculaneum letters. We are therefore inclined to believe that this work was executed long after the period supposed, and was probably carried from the land of this people to Rome, during the time of the Csesars. This supposition is rendered probable by a couple of words of a Latin inscription on the left side of the base, which consisted of four lines, of which there remain only traces, with the ex- ception of the words, still legible, VII. COS. These words can apply to no one except C. Marius, the only person, during the time of the republic, upon whom the consulship had been so many times bestowed. Before him, Valerius Corvinus is the only instance in which any one had attained the consulship six times. This tribe of Greeks in Africa would therefore, accord- ing to this, have been still in existence about the time of our historian, and still have continued in their superstition. I take this opportunity to mention here a female statue, of marble, in the gallery at Versailles, which has been looked upon as a Ves- tal, and which, it is asserted, was found at Ben-Gazi, — the presumed capital of Numidia, — now Barca (14). 1 7. If we review and condense the substance of this Book, we shall see in the art of the Greeks, especially in sculpture, four stages of style, namely, the straight and hard, the grand and square, the beautiful and flowing, and the imitative. The first probably lasted, for the most part, until the age of Phidias ; the second, until Praxiteles, Lysippus, and Apelles ; the third probably ceased with the school of the three latter artists ; and the fourth continued until the downfall of art. The period during which art was in its highest bloom was not of long duration ; for from the age of Pericles until the death of Alex- ander, at which time the glory of art began to diminish, there are about one hundred and twenty years. 18. In general the fate of art in modern times is, as regards periods, similar to that of antiquity. In it likewise there have occurred four principal changes; there is this difference only, that modern art did not fall gradually from its height, as among the Greeks ; but as soon as it had reached, in two great men, the utmost degree of elevation at that time possible, — I here speak only of drawing, — it fell again and at once. Until Michael Angelo and Raphael, the style was dry and stiflf ; the 154 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. highest point to which art attained, after its restoration, was in these two men ; after an interval, in which a bad taste pre- vailed (15), came the style of the imitators; this was the period of the Caracci and their school, with its followers, and it extended unto Carlo Marat ti. But, if we speak of sculpture in particular, the history of it is very brief. It flourished with Michael Angelo and Sansovino, and ended with them. Algardi, Fiamingo, and Kusconi came more than a hundred years later. 19. I have not been willing to deprive either the amateur or the artist of the pleasure of making his own reflections and adding them to the doctrines and remarks contained in the five sections of this chapter,^ and which may be still further im- proved by observations drawn from the writings of those learned men, who have ventured into the same field as myself. But let both the amateur and artist be assured — if, under the guidance of this history, they have opportunity and leisure to examine the works of Greek art — that nothing in art is small, and that what may appear easy to have been observed is, for the most part, only like the egg of Columbus. It would be impossible in a month — the usual time which German travel- lers spend in Rome — even to find and cast a glance upon every object which has been the subject of my remarks, although with the book in hand. But just as a little, more or less, makes the diff'erence between artists, so details supposed to be trifling reveal the attentive observer ; and the little leads. to the great. But it is not with reflections upon art as it is with learned investigations in antiquities. In the latter, it is diffi- cult to discover anything new, and what is known is investi- gated with this understanding ; in the former however, there is something to be found even in that which is most familiar ; for art is not exhausted. But the beautiful and useful are not to be apprehended at a glance, as an unwise German painter fancied, after a stay of two weeks in Rome ; for the important and the weighty lie deeply ; they do not flow upon the surface. The first view of beautiful statues is, to him who possesses sensi- bility, like the first glance over the open sea; we gaze on it bewildered, and Math undistinguishing eyes, but after we have contemplated it repeatedly the soul becomes more tranquil and the eye more quiet, and capable of separating the whole into its particulars. We may explain to ourselves the works of art 1 Last five books. THE RISE AND FALL OF GREEK ART. 155 precisely in the way in which we should explain to others an ancient author, for generally it is with them as with the read- ing of books ; we think that we understand what we are read- ing, but if we attempt to explain it intelligibly to another we find that we do not understand it. It is one thing to read Homer ; it is another to translate it as we read. 20. I cannot refrain, at the close of this chapter, from expressing a wish relative to the enlargement of our knowledge of Greek art, as well as of Greek literature and history. I should like to make a voyage to Greece; not to places of usual resort, but to Elis, through which no learned man nor connoisseur of art has ever yet journeyed. The learned Four- mont himself did not succeed in getting into this territory, wherein the statues of all the heroes and celebrated persons of the Greeks were exposed, for he was recalled by his court at the very time when he had approached the boundaries of ancient Elis. The journey must be undertaken with the same full powers which wei'e granted to him by the Porte ; namely, with permission to excavate in all places, as he did, for he employed fifty men in digging and searching among the ruins of the ancient city of Amyclae, in the Lacedaemonian territory, in which were discovered the rare and the most ancient Greek inscriptions known to us. But in regard to works of art, what would be the entire Lacedaemonian territory, in comparison with the single city of Pisa, in Elis, where the Olympic games were celebrated 1 I am assured that the yield here would be abundant beyond conception, and that a great light would shoot up from this soil of art, if it should be thoroughly searched. 156 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART, CHAPTER IV. OF ART AMONG THE ROMANS. 1. If I were to conform to the common opinion, I should continue the treatise on Greek art by an examination of the style of the Roman artists, and here especially of Roman sculptors. For I hear, even daily, our antiquarians and sculptors speak of a Latin art of sculpture, and of a style of workmanship peculiar to Roman artists, when they wish to denote anything of moder- ate excellence ; but I give no more heed to this manner of speaking than to other expressions which error has brought into general use. We know, as well from writings as from remanent works, that there were Roman sculptors and painters, and it is not unlikely that some may have attained great excel- lence in art, and may have been worthy of comparison with many Greek artists; but from such notices and works it is impossible to deduce any system of Roman art, as distinguished from the Greek. Among the Greek artists, on the other hand, even as among Greek authors, there were probably some of middling excellence. Who will hold Nicander to be a great poet, but him who finds beauty only in that which is obscure 1 Art has surely had its Nicander and its Aratus. 2. Those who hold the common opinion in regard to Roman art are like those who do not distinguish primeval works of art from those of a later age ; thus there have been and still are learned men who maintain that the most ancient Etruscan work, — namely, the tomb erroneously called the tomb of the Horatii and Curiatii, — was constructed in later Roman times. If they had compared the shape of this tomb with that of the tomb of the king Porsena, at Elusium, which it perfectly resembles, and had observed that the Appian Way makes a curve around it, they would have been convinced that it is the work of an Etrus- can artist, and that it is more ancient than that very ancient THE RISE AND FALL OF GREEK ART. 157 road, which would have continued on in a straight direction if this vork had not stood in the way. I have already mentioned, in an)ther place, that a celebrated antiquarian regarded a round altar with relieved work on it, in the Pamfili villa, as the oldest piece of Greek art ; whereas it ought rather to be ascribed to a moderate Roman artist, especially since a Roman deity, namely, Juno Sospita, wearing the skin of a roe, — of whom I have pre- vious.y made mention, — is represented on it. The Roman artists are to be considered as imitators of the Greeks, and there?ore they have not been able to form any distinct school and style of their own. 3. There were formerly, and there are even now, some works of an — figures as well as reliefs — with Roman inscriptions, and other statues and relieved works, bearing the name of the artist. Of the former kind is that figure which was discovered, more than two hundred years ago, near the church of St. Vitus, in the archbishopric of Salzburg, and was set up in Salz- burg by the well-known archbishop and cardinal, Matthias Lange. It is of bronze, of the size of life, and in attitude resembles the statue in the Belvedere, wrongly named the Antinoiis or Meleager. A bronze statue perfectly similar to this one, and having exactly the same inscription on the same unusual place, namely, on the thigh, is found in the garden of the royal country-seat Aranjuez, in Spain, where it was seen by my friend, Antonio Raphael Mengs, who assures me that it is an antique. I have not been able, with all the pains that I have taken, to procure the slightest account of the statue at Salz- burg; a correct and detailed notice of it would have enabled us to judge whether either of them was a copy of the other. Thus much I see clearly, that the battle-axe which is held by this statue, in the engraving of it, is a modern addition, made by ignorance. To this class belongs also the statue of a Venus in the Belvedere, which, from the inscription on the socle of it, was erected by one Sallust (1). A small figure, more than three palms (26 in.) high, which represents Hope, is wrought in imitation of the Etruscan style, and has a Roman inscription on the base, which is cited in the first chapter of this Book. It stands in the Ludovisi villa. Also one of the two figures of Victoria, of which mention is made in the same place, has a Roman inscription on one of the two bands which pass cross- wise over the back. 158 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. 4 Of rilievi with Roman inscriptions 1 have slightly noticed one, at the beginning of the third chapter, in the Albani villa, ^v'hich represents a larder. Another worl^ of this kmd is the base on the market-place at Pozzuoli, which was erected m honor of Tiberius by fourteen cities in Asia. The symbolic figure of each city, with the name in Roman fashion below it, is wrought upon it, and therefore it must be a work of a Roman artist. Of this base I shall speak hereafter more circumstan- tially. The third work of the kind is in the Borghese villa, and has been published in the Ancient Monuments. It represents Antiope between her two sons, Amphion and Zethus ; the name of each figure is placed in Roman writing above it. Zethus has a hat hanging on his shoulders behind, — to denote his rustic life ; and Amphion wears a helmet, and holds his lyre half cov- ered beneath his chlamys. In the explanation of this work I have mentioned the helmet, but had not discovered the mean- ing of it in this instance, because Amphion was not a warrior. I therefore contented myself with adducing a statue of Apollo of the earliest date, with a helmet on the head, which stood at Amyclee, as an example of a helmet being given without any reason known to us. I now believe myself able to solve both difficulties, namely, the wearing of the helmet, and also the seemingly concealed lyre of Amphion. The unpublished Greek commentaries upon the Gorgias of Plato which were taken by the learned Muretus from an ancient manuscript of Plato belonging to the former Farnese library, and introduced into his edition of Plato, published at Basle, of which a copy is in the library of the Jesuits, at Rome, — these scholia, I say, lead to the supposition that this rilievo represents a scene in the Antiope, a tragedy of Euripides. The author of these scholia must be pretty ancient, because he mentions in one place that the wall which Plato calls Sia/xeo-ov Tct'xo-us, division wall, still stood at his time ; and he likewise explains what kind of a wall it was, namely, the one by which Themistocles or Pericles united the Pireeus harbor with the small harbor, Munichia. This passage escaped the observation of Meursius, as he does not introduce it among other notices of the Piraeus, found m those authors which have been preserved, though he ought to have done so on account of the particular name applied to the wall; but that Amphion gave heed to the admonition of his brother we are taught by Horace, where he says : — TEE RISE AND FALL OF GREEK ART. 159 Nec, cum venari volet ille, poemata panges. Gratia sic fratrum geminorum, Amphionis atque Zethi dissiluit ; donee suspecta severo Conticuit lyra ; fraternis cessisse putatur Moribus Amphion . . . " Nor be thy tiioughts on verses bent, When he on hunting is intent ; Dirce's twin sons in love were bound, Till discord thus an entrance found; 'Tis said, by Zethus' taste denied, Amphion put his lyre aside. ..." Book I., Epist. 18, v. 40. and this passage, hitherto not wholly understood, is rendered clear by the commentary of the scholiast ; for Horace undoubt- edly alludes to the Antiope of Euripides. After Kallicles had tried to persuade Socrates to renounce philosophical specula- tions, and betake himself to public affairs, — just as Zethus censured Amphion for his love of music, and his withdrawal from all other occupation, — he goes on to say, " It appears that I am of the same opinion in regard to you that Zethus is in regard to the Amphion of Euripides," — klv^w^vu) ovv TrcTrov^evai vvv owep 6 ZyjOos Trpos tov 'AficfiLova tov EuptTrtSot;, — "for I also can say to you what he said to his brother, namely, that you neglect what should be of importance to you." The scholiast of Plato remarks in reference to these words that they contain an allusion to a passage in the tragedy mentioned, in which Zethus says to Amphion, — " Throw away your lyre, seize your arms." I am therefore of the opinion that the artist of the work in question may have wished to signify by the helmet which he has put upon Amphion, as well as by the half-concealed lyre, that Amphion had yielded to the admonition of his brother. I hope that I shall not be blamed for this digression, because it renders Plato more intelligible in the passage before us ; be- cause, in the next place, we can get an idea of a scene from the Antiope of Euripides, of which I publish at the same time a verse ; and because, finally, a valuable monument of ancient art, and of a Roman artist besides, receives thereby a learned explanation. 6. Of the second kind of works by Roman artists, bearing 160 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. the name of the artist himself, there exists a statue of ^scn- lapius of very moderate goodness, in the Verospi mansion, on the socle of which is the name of the artist, Assalectus. But of rilievi there is in the Albani villa a small work which shows a father, clothed as a senator, and seated on a stool, with his feet on a kind of footstool ; in his right hand he holds the bust of his son, and in his left, as a sculptor, a modelling stick ; over against him stands a female figure, who appears to be scatter- ing incense upon a lamp. It bears the superscription : — Q. LOLLIVS. ALCAMENES. DEC- ET- DVVMVIR-. This Alcamenes however was a Greek by birth, but a freed- maii of the Lollius family ; properly therefore he is not to be regarded as a Roman sculptor. A statue is also found in Bois- sard with the inscription, TITIVS" FECIT-. I shall say noth- ing of engraved gems with the names of their Roman artists, an .;Epolianus, Caius, Cneius, etc., etc. 6. These monuments however are not sufficient to enable us to construct a system of art and to define a peculiar style differing from the Etruscan and Greek. It is probable that the Roman artists did not even form a particvilar style of their own ; we may believe that in the earliest times they imitated the Etruscans, from whom they adopted many customs, espe- cially those of a religious character ; and in the later and flour- ishing periods the few artists who appeared were most likely scholars of the Greeks, so that what Horace says of the Romans of his time, — . . . Pingimus atque Psallimus et luctamur Achivis doctius unctis, " . . . . The anointed Greeks we far excel In painting, playing, and in wrestling well," — is to be understood with an allowance, and interpreted as flat- tery of Augustus to whom the ode from which the quotation is made is addressed. 7. In the college of St. Ignatius, at Rome, there is a cylin- drical vase of metal which gives a clear and indisputable proof that the Roman artists, at the time of the republic, imitated in their works the Etruscan style of art. For, in the first place, on the cover is the name of the artist himself, together with the remark that it was made at Rome ; in the second place, the THE RISE AND FALL OF GREEK ART. 161 Etruscan style is manifest not only in the drawing of many figures, but also in the conception of them. The vase is about two palms (17 inches) high, and perhaps a palm and a half (13.2 inches) in diameter. There are ornaments on the band which is below the upper edge, and also on the one at the lower end of the vessel. On the intermediate space, around the ves- sel, is represented the history of the Argonauts, — their land- ing, the combat of Pollux with Amycus and his victory over him, etc., etc. From the last scene I have selected the three figures, Pollux, Amycus, and Minerva, to give an idea of the drawing on the vessel, and an engraving of them is placed at the beginning of this chapter.^ The work on the vase is engraved with a burin. Round the outer surface of the cover is represented a chase ; and on the top of it are fastened in an upright position three figures, cast in metal, half a span in height, namely, the deceased person in honor and remembrance of whom this vase was deposited in the tomb, and two Fauns, whom he holds in his embrace ; these Fauns have human feet, conformably to the notion of the Etruscans, who gave to these demi-gods either this shape, or else represented them with the feet and tail of a horse ; the latter is found even in this in- stance. Beneath the figures is the inscription quoted ; on one side are the names of the daughter and her dead mother ; on the other is the name of the artist (2). The three feet on which the vase stands have each of them a particular representation, cast in metal. On one of them is Hercules with Virtue and Pleasure ; but they are not personified here as females accord- ing to the idea of the Greeks, but as male persons. 8. The preconceived opinion that the Roman artists had a style of their own, and different from that of the Greeks, has arisen from two causes. One of them is the incorrect explana- tion of the figures represented ; expositors desire to find Roman history in scenes that are drawn from Grecian foble, and con- sequently a Roman artist, as I think that I have proved in the Treatise on Allegory, and in the Preface to the Ancient Monu- ments. We have an instance of the kind in the conclusion drawn by a superficial writer from the forced, ungrounded explanation of a gem, engraved in intaglio, in the former Stosch museum. This gem represents the sacrifice of Polyxena, the daughter of Priam, by Pyrrhus, on the tomb of his father, 1 First editi'm VOL. II. 11 V 162 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. Achilles. The author in question however finds not the letst , difficulty in seeing here the Rape of Lucretia. A proof of his explanation is presumed to be in the Roman style of the work- manship, which, he says, is seen distinctly here ; that is, accord- ing to a reversed mode of reasoning, a false premise is deduced from an erroneous conclusion. He would have drawn precisely the same conclusion from the beautiful group of Phsedra and Hippolytus, in the Ludovisi villa, — erroneously supposed to be the young Papirius, — if the name of the Greek artist had not been affixed to the work. 9. The second cause lies in an unseasonable reverence to- wards the works of Greek artists. As many works of only moderate excellence are found to exist, an unwillingness is felt to attribute them to the Greeks, and it seems more just to attribute to the Romans rather than to the Greeks the w.ant of merit in such works. Hence everything which appears bad is comprehended under the name of Roman workmanship, yet without assigning the slightest characteristic of it. From a comparison of the coins which were stamped at Rome in the time of the republic with those of the smallest cities in Magna GrsEcia, or of the southern part of Italy, it cannot be denied that the former appear like the performances of beginners in art. 10. I noticed the same fact again when examining some hun- dred silver coins, which were excavated in January, 1758, at Loretto, where they had been buried at some former time in an earthen vessel, and were consequently in perfect preser- vation. In regard to such coins, which are to be regarded as public works, we may confidently believe that they were stamped by Roman artists at a time when Greek artists had not yet established themselves in Rome. But it is impossible to determine either the beauty of the drawing or the style from works which were not worthy of any great display of skill, such as sepulchral urns, since also they were furnished for persons of moderate means, and most of them were made for sale, as I have already reminded the reader. From such works has been drawn the erroneous idea of the Roman style. Never- tlieless genuine Greek works are to be found among the very worst of them, as the inscriptions on them in the Greek lan- guage show ; and works of this kind seem to have been exe- cuted in the last days of the Roman empire. I believe myself TEE RISE AND FALL OF GREEK ART. 163 therefore to be justified in assuming, as a consequence of such groundless opinions, tliat the idea of a Roman style in art, so far at least as our present knowledge goes, is a mere conceit. It is certain however that even at the time when Roman artists had seen and were able to copy Greek works, they were still far from being able to equal the Greeks. Pliny himself testifies to this, and remarks that there were in the Capitol two colos- sal heads, one of which was executed by Chares, the celebrated scholar of Lysippus, the other by Decius, a Roman sculptor ; but the latter appeared so bad in comparison with the former that it could hardly be regarded as the production of a mid- dling artist (3). 11. As I do not wish to omit anything, I will notice the circumstances under which art was placed at the time of the Roman kings and of the republic. It is probable that under the kings few or none at all of their subjects devoted themselves to drawing, and especially to sculpture, because it was for- bidden by the laws of Numa to represent the deity in human form, as we are told by Plutarch ; so that for the space of one hundred and sixty years after the reign of this king, or in the first one hundred and seventy years, as Varro relates, neither statues nor images of the gods were placed in the temples at Rome. I say in the temples, meaning to be understood thereby that none of them were regarded as objects of religious venera- tion, — for there were statues of the deities in Rome, which I shall directly mention, but they were not of course placed in the temples. 1 2. For other public works the Romans employed Etruscan artists, who were at Rome in the earliest times what the Greek artists afterwards became ; and the statue of Romulus, men- tioned in the second chapter of the first Book, was probably exeicuted by them. Whether the bronze she-wolf svickling Romulus and Remus, in the Campidoglio, is the one of which Dionysius speaks as a very ancient work, or the one which according to Cicero was injured by lightning, w^e do not know ; but we see in the hind-leg of the beast a large fissure, which is p'robably the injury occasioned by the lightning. 1 3. Tarquinius Priscus, or according to others Tarquinius Supierbus, procured an artist from Fregellse, in the country of the Volsci, or, as Plutarch states, Etruscan artists from Veil, to make the statue of the Capitoline Jupiter in terra-cotta ; and 164 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. a Quadriga of the same material was placed on the top of the temple of this god. Others say that the work was execiited at Veii. The statue which was placed in the temple of the god Sanga by Caia Ctecilia, the wife of Tarquinius Prisons, was of bronze. The statues of the kings were standing even in the time of the republic, during the Gracchi disturbances, at the entrance of the Capitol. 14. In the simplicity of manners belonging to the earliest periods of the republic, and in a state whose existence depended on war, there could have been but little opportunity for the practice of art. Even from that article of the alliance made with Porsena after the expulsion of the kings, — by which it was agreed that iron should be used only in agriculture, — we must conclude that sculpture at least could not be practised, since a prohibition of this kind would deprive the artist of his tools. The highest honor that could be conferred on any one was the erection of a column to his name ; and when great merits were rewarded by statues, the height of them at the beginning was fixed at three feet, — a limited size for art. The statue of Horatius Codes, which was erected to him in the temple of Vulcan, the equestrian statue of Clcelia, — which was still standing (4) in the time of Seneca, — both of bronze, and many others made in Rome in its earliest days, must therefore present themselves to our imaginations as of this height. Other public monuments also were made of bronze ; new ordinances were engraved on pillars of bronze, as the one for instance by which the citizens of Rome received pei-mission to build on Mount Aventine, at the beginning of the fourth century of the city of Rome ; so also the columns on which shortly afterwards the new laws of the Decemviri were exposed to public viev/. 15. In the earlier days of the republic, the greater number of the statues of the deities probably conformed to the size and character of the temples ; they cannot have been very stately, if we may infer, partly from the Temple of Fortune, which was completed in the space of a year, and partly from other accounts, and from the temples or the ruins of temples still remaining. These statues were probably made by Etruscan artists. Pliny assures us that this was the case in regard to the Apollo in bronze which afterwards stood in the library of the temple THE RISE AND FALL OF GREEK ART. 165 of Augustus. It was cast by an Etruscan artist under the direction of Spurius Carvilius, by whom the Samnites were defeated, and whose cuirasses, greaves, and helmets furnished tlie metal, in the four hundred and sixty-first year of the city of Rome, that is, in the one hundred and twenty-first Olympiad. This statue was so large, it is said, that it could be seen from the Albanian mountain, now called Mount Cavo. The first statue of Ceres in bronze was made by order of Spurius Cassius, who was consul in the two hundred and fifty-second year. In the four hundred and seventeenth year equestrian statues, as some- thing exceedingly rare, were erected to the consuls L. Furius Camillus and Caius Moenius, after their triumph over the Latins ; but the material of which they were made is not men- tioned. The Romans likewise employed Etruscan painters, by whom a temple of Ceres among others was embellished with paintings, which, when the temple began to fall into decay, were removed with the walls on which they were painted, and transferred elsewhere. 16. Marble, as a material of art, did not come into use in Rome until late ; this is proved even by the well-known inscrip- tion on L. Scipio Barbatus, the worthiest man of his time, for it is cut in the poorest sort of stone, named Peperino. The inscription on the Columna Rostrata of C. Duillius of the same age was also, it is probable, only of this stone, and not of mar- ble, — which is asserted on the pretended authority of a pas- sage in Silius, — for the remains of the inscription now in existence evidently belong to a later age. 17. Until the year four hundred and fifty-four of Rome, that is until the one hundred and twentieth Olympiad, the statues in the city, like the citizens themselves, had long hair and long beards, for in this year, for the first time, barbers came there from Sicily (5) ; and Livy relates that the consul M. Livius, who from some vexation had left the city, and allowed his beard to grow, had it taken off when he was persuaded by the senate to return. Scipio Africanus the Elder wore long hair M'hen Masinissa had the first interview with him ; but all the heads of him in marble and basalt represented him as shaven quite smoothly, namely, in more advanced years of manhood. 18. At the time of the second Punic war painting was prac- tised by the nobles of Rome; and Quintus Fabius, who was 166 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. sent after the disastrous battle at Cannse to the oracle at Delphi, received the name of Pictor, from the art which he cultivated. Two years after this battle, Tiberius Gracchus caused a picture, representing the rejoicings of his army at Benevento after the victory over Hanno, near Luceria, to be painted in the Temple of Freedom, at Eome. The soldiers were feasted by the inhabi- tants of Benevento in the streets of the city, and as the greater number of them were armed bondmen to whom Gracchus, with the approbation of the senate, had promised their freedom in consideration of military service for some years prior to tliis battle, they wore their hats, and had white woollen bands about their heads, — as a sign of their manumission. But among them there were many who had not done their duty satisfactorily, upon whom the punishment was imposed that they should not eat and drink during the war unless in a stand- ing position. In the picture therefore some were lying at table, others were standing, and still others were waiting upon them. The celebrated Pacuvius, the nephew of Ennius, was not less a painter than a poet ; and Pliny relates on the authority of Varro that, before a temple of Ceres had been embellished with paintings by two of the above-mentioned Greek artists, Damo- philus and Gorgasus, ante hanc cedent Tiisccmica omnia in cedibus fuisse, — " everything in the temples was Etruscan, prior to this temple." I understand this remark to mean that all the paint- ing was Etruscan, and it seems to me that Hardouin has entirely missed the sense of it in believing that Pliny intends to say that, before the building of this temple, all figures were of bronze. 19. In this second Punic war, in which the Romans strained all their powers, and notwithstanding the entire destruction of many armies, so that only 137,000 citizens remained in Rome, yet brought into the field, in the last year of it, twenty-three legions, which must seem wonderful, — in this war, I say, the Roman republic, like the Athenian in the war with the Per- sians, assumed a different form ; it made acquaintance and alliances with the Greeks, and a love for their art was awak- ened. The first one w^ho brought Greek statues and works of art to Rome was Claudius Marcellus, after the conquest of Syracuse ; with them he ornamented the Capitol, and the temple dedicated by him, near the Porta Capena. The city of Capua, after it was taken by Q. Fulvius Flaccus, met THE RISE AND FALL OF GREEK ART. 167 with the same fate; all the statues were transported to Rome. 1 • I, t, J 20. Notwithstanding the great number of statues which had been obtained as the spoils of war, new statues of the divinities continued to be wrought at Rome, as about this time the fines collected by the tribunes of the people were spent by them m erecting bronze statues in the temple of Ceres. In the seven- teenth and last year of this war, the sediles caused three other statues, paid for by fines, to be set up in the Capitol, and a like number of bronze statues of Ceres, Liber Pater, and Libera, were not long afterwards made, likewise from fines. At that time L. Stertinius employed the booty which had been collected in Spain in the erection of two arches on the ox-market, on which he placed a row of gilded statues. Livy remarks that the public edifices which were called Basilicse had not then been built in Rome. 21. Statues of wood still continued to be borne in public processions ; this was done two years after the capture of the city of Syracuse, and in the twelfth year of the Punic war. When a thunderbolt had fallen upon the temple of Juno Regma, on the Aventine hill, it was ordered, in order to avert the con- sequences of this evil portent, that two statues of the goddess, made of cypress-wood, should be taken from her temple and carried about in procession, accompanied by twenty-seven vir- gins in long garments, singing a hymn to the goddess. 22. After the elder Scipio Africanus had expelled the Car- thagipians from every part of Spain, and when he was on the point of attacking them in Africa on their own soil, the Romans sent to the oracle at Delphi figures of the gods, which were wrought from a thousand pounds of captured silver, and like- wise a crown of gold, weighing two hundred pounds. 23. At the termination of the war between the Romans and Philip, king of Macedon, the father of Perseus, the last king of the country, L. Quinctius brought from Greece to Rome a large and fresh supply of statues in bronze and marble, together with many artistically wrought vases, all of which were displayed in his three days' triumph, — an event that occurred in the one hundred and forty-fifth Olympiad. Among the spoils were also ten shields of silver, and one of gold, and one hundred and fourteen golden crowns; the latter were gifts from Grecian cities. Soon afterwards, and a year prior to the war with 168 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. Antiochus the Great, a gilded Quadriga was placed above on the temple of Jupiter, in the Capitol, and twelve gilded shields on its ridge. And Scipio Africanus, before he began the cam- paign as his brother's lieutenant against this king, built an arch on the ascent to the Capitol, and ornamented it with seven gilded statues, and with two horses; in front of it he placed two large marble water-basins, 24. Until the one hundred and forty-seventh Olympiad, and the victory of Lucius Scipio, brother of the elder Scipio Africanus, over Antiochus the Great, the statues of the divinities in the temples at Rome were for the most part, only of wood or clay, and there were few public buildings of any magnificence in the city. But this victory, which made the Eomans lords of Asia as far as Mount Taurus, and filled Rome with an inde- scribable booty of splendid Asiatic objects, also added to the magnificence in Eome, and Asiatic pleasures were introduced and became familiar there. About the same time the Bacchan- alia came from the Greeks to the Romans. Among other valu- ables, L. Scipio carried in his triumph one thousand four hundred and twenty-four pounds of enchased and engraved silver vessels, and one thousand and twenty-four pounds of gold vessels, wrought in a similar way. 25. As shortly afterwards the Greek deities under Greek names were adopted by the Romans, and introduced among them, and Greek priests were appointed for . their service, this also gave occasion either to bespeak statues of them in Greece, or to let them be wrought in Rome by Greek artists, and the rilievi in terra-cotta on the ancient temples became ridiculous, as the elder Cato says in one of his speeches. About this time the statue of L. Quinctius, who celebrated his triumph at the close of the Macedonian war in the preceding Olympiad, was erected in Rome with a Greek inscription, and therefore was probably executed by a Greek artist ; so too the Greek inscrip- tion on the base of a statue erected by Augustus to the emperor leads us to a similar conjecture. 26. After peace had been concluded between the Romans and Antiochus, the ^tolians, who had been the allies of the latter, again took up arms, but against the Macedonians with whom the Romans were at this time friendly, and who were conse- quently interested in this proceeding of their enemies. In this war, the city of Ambracia was subjected to a severe siege, and THE RISE AND FALL OF GREEK ART. 169 it finally surrendered itself. Here had formerly been the royal residence of Pyrrhus, and the city was filled with statues of bronze and marble, and with pictures, all of which must be delivered to the Romans, by whom they were sent to Rome, insomuch that the inhabitants of the city made a complaint at Rome that they had not a single deity whom they could wor- ship. M. Fulvius, in his triumph over the yEtolians, carried into Rome two hundred and eighty statues of bronze, and two hundred and thirty of marble. Artists came from Greece to Rome to erect and decorate the building in which were held the games provided by this same consul, and for the first time athletes took share in them, after the Greek custom. When this M. Fulvius was censor with M. iEmilius, in the year five hundred and seventy-three U. C, he began to embellish the city with magnificent public buildings. Yet at that time marble could not have been abundant in Rome, for the Romans were not as yet peaceable possessors of the country of the Ligurians, in which Luna, now Carrara, was situated, and whence formerly even as now white marble was brought. This is evident also from the fact that the same M. Fulvius caused the slabs of mar- ble with which the roof of the celebrated temple of Juno Lacinia, near Crotona, in Magna Grtecia, was covered to be removed, and carried to Rome for the purpose of covering the roof of a temple which he himself was bound by a vow to build. His colleague, the censor M. ^milius, caused a market- place to be paved, and, what appears strange, enclosed by a paling. 27. The pictures and statues with which Rome was filled in countless numbers and of the highest beauty, and the many artists who, as prisoners of war, had been brought hither, finally excited among the Romans a love for art, so that even the noblest among them had their children instructed in it, as we know in regard to the celebrated Paulus ^milius, the con- queror of the last king of the Macedonians, who appointed painters and sculptors to instruct his children in their respec- tive arts. 28. A few years afterwards, and in the five hundred and sixty-fourth year of Rome, the elder Scipio Africanus erected the pillar of Hercules in the temple of Hercules, and placed two gilded bigse on the Capitol ; the sedile Q. Fulvius Flaccus set two gilded statues in it. The son of the Glabrio who 170 HISTORY OF ANCimT ART. defeated Antiochus, at Thermopylse, erected to his father the first gilded statiie in Italy, according to Livy ; this must how- ever be understood as meaning the first of the statues of cele- brated men. In the Macedonian war against the last king, Perseus, the ambassadors of the city of Chalcis complained that all their temples had been plundered by the prsetor C. Lucretius to whom they had surrendered, and the statues and other treas- ures contained in them had been sent to Antium (6). Paulus ^milius after his victory over Perseus went to Delphi, where artists were at work on the base on which the monarch had intended that his statue should be placed, but the conqueror appropriated it for his own statue. 29. These statements refer to art under the Romans at the time of the republic. Those relating to it between the point at which I here stop and the fall of Roman freedom will be found in the second part, because they are more intermixed with Greek history. They have this value at least that, if any one should wish to pursue them more at length, they will save him a poi'tion of the labor which is occasioned by reading the ancient authors with so much care and with reference to the succession of events. 30. Finally, and to return to Greek art, the chief view of this history, we should show ourselves grateful to the Romans for all that we possess of it ; for little has been discovered in Greece itself, because the former occupants of the land neither dug for such treasures nor valued them. Even as oratory, according to Cicero, went out from Athens into all lands, and was carried from the Pirseus, as it were with Attic merchandise, into all harbors and to every shore, so can it be said of Rome, that Greek art, springing up from its ashes, and the productions of Greek art, have been communicated from her to the most remote nations of Europe. Hence she has become in modern times what she once was, the lawgiver and the instructress of the whole world, and she will also send forth to the latest posterity, from the bosom of her riches, works upon which Athens, Corinth, and Sicyon have gazed. However I remem- ber at last what Pythagoras says, that speech should be sealed by silence. t THE HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. VOLUME IV. DEDICATION. This fourth and last volume of the Translation of the History of Ancient Art is dedicated, by permission, to my much-esteemed friend, Mrs. HARRISON GRAY OTIS. In public Mrs. Otis has long been honored by the citizens of Boston for her sympathy with all good and noble works. At her sug- gestion and through her efforts the anniversary of Washington's birthday is observed as a day of commemoration in her native city, and her name will always be honorably associated with this public tribute to the services and virtues of the great Patriot. In her private life she has endeared herself to her numerous friends by many estimable traits of character. Cultivation and refinement added graces to the gifts which nature had lavished upon her ; and her kindliness of heart has a pleasant word and a kind thought for every one. These qualities combined to make her house for many years the most delightful resort for those whom she gathered around her in weekly meetings at her hospitable home. THE TKANSLATOR. BOOK IX. HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART IN ITS RELATION TO THE EXTERNAL CIRCUMSTANCES OF THE TIMES AMONG THE GREEKS. CHAPTER I. ART FROM THE EARLIEST AGES TO THE TIME OF PHIDIAS. 1. The term "history" applies more strictly to this, the second part of the work. It is in fact the history of art among the Greeks considered in reference to those external circumstances which exercised the greatest influence over the destinies of Greece. For art, being nurtured and supported by luxury, and frequently by vanity, is dependent on the times and their changes still more than the sciences, or even philosophy itself. 2. It was necessary therefore to mention the circumstances in which the Greeks from time to time found themselves ; this will be done briefly, and merely with reference to the object in view. From this whole history it appears that art owed its elevation to liberty. As it is my desire to present only a history of art, the lives of artists — which have been written by many others — will have no place here. Their principal works however are mentioned, some of them being considered solely in regard to the art displayed in them, whilst others are cited and criticised in relation to the time at which they are erroneously assumed to have been wrought. For this reason I have also omitted to mention all the artists noticed by Pliny and other writers, especially when a bare statement of their names and works, unaccompanied by other facts, could yield no instruction. Neither have I enumerated all the works of which the date can be determined, but, looking solely to what might be useful, have sought to correct errors, especially the 176 HISTORY OF ANCIENT JET. errors of writers who exercise an influence on the system of art, and who have hitherto given confused or false ideas of it. But an accurate chronological list of the oldest Greek artists, par- ticularly of the sculptors who flourished before Phidias and belong to the period of the most ancient style, has been intro- duced, partly because most of them have been omitted by later authors, who have written merely histories of the ancient ar- tists, and partly because a catalogue of their works clearly exhibits the progress of art in its earliest stages. With this catalogue, as the earliest record which we possess, this portion of the History of Ancient Art begins. 3. Art was practised by Dsedalus in the earliest ages, and there existed even in the time of Pausanias images in wood (1) carved by the hand of this celebrated artist, and he says that, notwithstanding their defects of proportion, there was some- thing godlike in their aspect (2). At the same time lived Smi- lis, the son of Euclides of the island of iEgina, who made a Juno at Argos and another at Samos. He is probably the same person as the Skelmis in Kallimachus (3), for he was one of the most ancient artists, and the poet speaks of a wooden statue of Juno executed by him. Instead of Skelmis therefore we shall be obliged to read Smilis. One of the pu- pils of Dajdalus was Endoeus, who is said to have followed his teacher to Crete (4). In the next following age, sculptors from the isle of Rhodes appear to have flourished, for in dif- ferent parts of Greece statues were erected, all of which bore the name TeXx^Vtai, the Telchiniaji, because the earliest inhabi- tants of this island were called Telchinians. Subsequently to this mythic period there is a wide gap in the history of artists (•5)- 4. But strictly speaking, the precise age of the ancient ar- tists begins with the Spartan sculptor Gitiadas, by whom were executed diff'erent statues of bronze at Sparta, — for he lived prior to the war between the Messenians and the Spartans, which began in the ninth Olympiad, a date corresponding to the twelfth year of the building of Rome ; but the mode of reckoning by Olympiads originated four hundred and seven years after the Trojan war (6). At that time the painter Bularchus made himself celebrated ; among his pictures was a battle-piece which was sold for its weight in gold, Aristo- cles of Cydonia, in Crete, must have lived about the same time, EXTERNAL CIRCmiSTANCES OF ART. 177 because he is said to have flourished before the city of Messena in Sicily changed its ancient name Zancle, and this event oc- curred prior to the twenty-ninth Olympiad. At Olympia there was a Hercules executed by him ; the hero was represented struggling with the Amazon Antiope, who was on horseback, for her girdle. 5. Afterwards Malas, a native of Chios, his son Micciades, and his grandson Anthermus, made themselves famous. The sons of the last were Bupalus and Anthermus, in the sixtieth Olympiad, who counted artists among their progenitors as far back as the first Olympiad. Bupalus was not only a sculptor but also an architect, and the first one who represented the goddess of Fortune in a figure (7). At that time flourished also Dipce- nus and Scyllis, whom Pausanias very erroneously enumer- ates among the scholars of Daedalus ; if so, then it must be a younger Dsedalus, as a sculptor of this name, a native of Si- cyon, who lived after the time of Phidias, is known to us. Their pupils were Learchus of Reggio in Magna Gr^cia (8), Dory- clydas and Dontas, both Lacedaemonians, and Tectaeus and Angelio; the last two made an Apollo at Delos, which is probably the one of which many fragments, together with the base and its celebrated inscription, were still extant at the close of the preceding century on the ;sland of Delos. If we next assume that the golden cup which was made by the sculptor Bathycles of Magnesia, and consecrated to the Apollo at Delphi by the seven wise men, was executed at this time and not earlier, then this artist, who had wrought rilievi on the throne of the colossal statue of Apollo at Amyclge, must have flourished in the time of Solon, that is, about the forty- seventh Olympiad, in which the Athenian lawgiver was archon in his own city. 6. In this same period are to be placed Aristomedon of Argos, Pythodorus of Thebes, and Damophon of Messena. The last made at ^gium in Achaia a Juno Lucina of wood (9), though the head, hands, and feet were of marble. There were also at Megalopolis in Arcadia wooden figures of Mercury and Venus by the same artist. Laphaes, whose Apollo exe- cuted in the antique style was at ^gira in Achaia, must be pretty near to this time. 7. Shortly after this time Dameas distinguished himself. He made a statue of Milo of Crotona, which was erected at VOL. II. 12 178 HISTORY OF ANCmNT ART. Elis (10) This must have occurred after the sixtieth Olym- piad as we may infer from the times of Pythagoras, and espe- cially from the fact that, prior to the sixtieth Olympiad, no statues had been erected at Elis to athletes like Milo. About this same time Syadras and Chartas, two Spartans, were cele- brated in their art. Euchirus the Corinthian was their pupil ; and he was the master of Klearchus, of Reggio in Magna Greecia, under whom the celebrated Pythagoras, also a native of Keggio, studied his art (11). _ 8 Next followed Stomius and Somis, who flourished prior to the battle of Marathon (12), and Kallon, a native of the island ^gina, and the pupil of the above-mentioned Tectseus (13). The last of the three must however have lived to a very ad- vanced age, because he survived Phidias ; for he executed one of the three great bronze tripods, together with a figure of Proserpine under it, — that is, between the three legs, — which the Spartans caused to be placed as a gift to Apollo m his temple at Amycl^, after the victory won by Lysander over the Athenians, near the river ^gos. This victory was ob- tained in the last year of the ninety-third Olympiad. 9. Some time before this Kallon of ^gina, another Kallon, a native of Elis, distinguished himself, especially by thirty-five statues in bronze, which represented the young Messenians of Sicily, together with their teacher and a flute-player, who were drowned in crossing the strait between Messena and Ueggio m Magna Gra^cia (14). I place his age somewhat earlier, because the inscriptions on these statues were made by the celebrated orator Hippias in the time of Socrates, and therefore, as Pausa- nias himself remarks, they must have been placed upon them in a later age than their own. But according to the statement of this same writer, Kanachus was a contemporary of Kallon of ^gina, whereas he is said by Pliny to have flourished in the ninety-fifth Olympiad ; this is probable, because he was a pupil of Polycletus. 10. MenjBchmus and Soidas, of Naupactus, were contempo- raries with Kallon. The latter made a Diana of ivory and gold for her temple at Kalydon ; during the time of Augustus it was carried thence to Patrse. At this period also flourished Hegias, and Ageladas, the master of Polycletus, who, among other subjects, represented Kleosthenes — who won the prize in the sixty-sixth Olympiad — on a chariot at Elis. One of his EXTERNAL CIRCUMSTANCES OF ART. 179 pupils, Ascanis, made a Jupiter at Elis, wearing a crown of flowers (15). 11. Before the campaign of Xerxes against the Greeks, the following sculptors were celebrated : Simon and Anaxagoras, both of ^gina, — from the hand of the latter proceeded the Jupiter which was erected at Elis by the Greeks after the bat- tle of Plataea ; Onatas, also of jEgina, who, besides many other works, made the figures of the eight heroes who came forward to cast lots for the combat with Hector, which stood at Elis (16) ; Dionysius of Reggio, — who made a horse on the ribs (17) of which was placed the inscription, — and Glaucus of Messena in Sicily who lived in the time of Anaxilas, the ruler of Reggio, that is, between the seventy-first and seventy-sixth Olympiads ; Aristomedes and Socrates, who executed a Cybele by order of Pindar, which was placed in her temple at Thebes ; Mendaeus of Pseon, whose Victoria was at Elis ; Glaucias of iEgina, who made a statue of King Hiero (18) standing on a chariot, which was at Elis ; finally, Eladas of Argos, the mas- ter of Phidias (19). 12. Particular schools of art were founded by these artists. The most celebrated of them in Greece were at ^gina, Corinth, and Sicyon, the native land of works of art, and were of great antiquity. The school at the last place was probably founded by Dipoenus and Scyllis, who had established themselves in Sicyon, some of whose scholars I have just noticed. Aristocles, the brother of Kanachus before mentioned, and a sculptor of the same city, was after seven generations still regarded as the head of a school which had existed a long time in Sicyon. 13. The teachers of Democritus, another sculptor belonging to Sicyon, are known by name as far back as the fifth from him. Polemon wrote a treatise on the paintings in Sicyon, and an account of a portico there in which there were many works of art, Eupompus, the master of Pamphilus, whose scholar Apelles was, had so much influence that the different schools in Greece which had been for some time united under the name of the Helladic again parted, so that the schools at Athens and Sicyon, together with the Ionic school among the Asiatic Greeks, became distinct and independent schools. Pamphilus, Polycletus, Lysippus, and Apelles, who went to Sicyon in order to perfect himself in his art under Pamphilus, gave to this school its highest lustre, and at the time of Ptolemy Phila- 180 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. delphus, king pf Egypt, the best and most celebrated school of painting appears to have been in that city ; for, in the splendid shows arranged by this monarch, the paintings of the artists of Sicyon are especially and alone named. 14. Corinth, in consequence of its glorious position, had been one of the most powerful cities of Greece (20) even in the most remote times, and hence it is called by the earliest poets the Opulent (21). Ardices of Corinth, and Telephanes of Sicyon, are said to have been the first who, in addition to the mere outline of a figure, denoted the parts within it (22), But Strabo speaks of paintings by Kleanthes, composed of many figures, which were extant even in his time. Kleophantus of Corinth came to Italy with Tarquinius Priscus prior to the fortieth Olympiad, and first displayed to the Eomans Greek art in paintings. Even in Pliny's time there were at Lanuvium an Atalanta and a Helen from his hand, and beautifully drawn. 15. If we might deduce the age of the school at ^Egina from the celebrated Smilis, a native of this island, we should carry its foundation as far back as the time of Dsedalus. But the notices of so many ancient statues in Greece, wrought in the iEgina style, testify that a school of art had begun in that island even in quite remote times. A certain sculptor of yEgina is known, not by his proper name, but by the appellation of the " iEgina shaper " '(23). The inhabitants of ^Egina, who were Dorians, carried on an extensive trade and commerce, in consequence of which the arts made great progress among them, so that even their ves- sels of terra-cotta, which were probably painted, were sought for and exported. They bore as a mark the figure of a wild ram. Pausanias speaks of the commerce which they had even in the earliest ages ; and on the sea they were superior to the Athenians, who, as well as they, previously to the Persian war, had vessels of only fifty oars, and without a deck. The jeal- ousy between them finally broke out into war, which was discontinued however when Xerxes invaded Greece, ^gina contributed greatly to the victory won by Themistocles over the Persians, and derived many advantages from it ; for the rich spoils taken from them were carried thither and sold, in consequence of which, as Herodotus remarks, it came into pos- session of great wealth. It sustained itself in this flourishing JEXTERNAL CIRCUMSTANCES OF ART. 181 condition until the eighty-eighth Olympiad, at which time its inhabitants were driven away by the Athenians because they had taken sides with the Lacedaemonians. The Athenians occupied the island with their colonies, and the iEginetse betook themselves to Thyrsea, in the territory of Argos. They did, it is true, come again into possession of their fatherland, but they could not again recover their former power. Those who have seen the coins of ^gina — the impression of which, on one side, is the head of Pallas, and on the other, the trident of Neptune — can judge whether in the drawing of the head it is possible to recognize any peculiar style of art. 16. After the fiftieth Olympiad there came a troublous time for Greece. It fell under the control of different rulers during a period of seventy years. Polycrates made himself master of Samos, Pisistratus of Athens ; Kypselus transferred the sov- ereignty of Corinth to his son Periander, after having strength- ened his power by alliances and marriages with other enemies of the freedom of their native land in Ambracia, Epidaurus, and Lesbos (24). Melanchrus and Pittacus were rulers at Lesbos ; all Euboea was subject to Timondas, and by the assist- ance of Pisistratus, Lygdamis became master of the island of Naxos, and Patroclus of Epidaurus. But the gi-eater number of them had not acquired the supreme control by force or with the armed hand, but had attained their end by their powers of persuasion, and had elevated themselves by deference to the people ; they acknowledged, as Pisistratus did, the authority of the laws of their fellow-citizens, even over themselves. The appellation of " tyrant " was even a term of honor, and Aristo- demus, the tyrant of Megalopolis in Arcadia, acquired the epithet ^rja-ros, an upright man. The statues of the victors in the great games, with which Elis was filled even indeed before the flourishing period of the arts, represented so many defend- ers of freedom ; the tyrants were obliged to allow merit to receive its recognized right, and the artist was able at all times to display his work to the gaze of the entire nation. 1 7. In the first edition of this History, I thought of referring to this period a rilievo in marble of two figures, which is in England ; it represents a young athlete of the Games, of the name of Mantho, — as the furrow-like inscription on it denotes (25), — and a seated Jupiter. This period was assigned by me because in the fiftieth Olympiad artists began for the first time 182 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. to work in marble. At this time also there were few marble columns in Greece ; the columns about the temple of Diana, on the promontory of Sunium, were in the time of Themistocles of white stone. But, on account of the form of the letters, it seemed as if this work could not be of later origin, though I declared myself unwilling to venture any opinion in regard to it merely from a sight of the engraving. I have since learned that this piece is to be found in the gallery of the Earl of Pem- broke, at Wilton, and that connoisseurs hold it for a modern deception. A tombstone of a person of the name of Alcman, belonging to the Giustiniani family at Venice, on which some one has wished to find the sepulchral inscription of the primeval poet Alcman, of the thirtieth Olympiad, must have been made several hundred years later. The tomb of the poet was at Sparta. 18. The most ancient gold coin now existing — believed to be of Cyrene in Africa — would likewise, according to the opinion of Father Hardouin, belong to that age. It is said to have been stamped by order of Demonax of Mantinea, who was regent of Cy- rene during the minority of Battus IV., and was a contemporary of Pisistratus. Demonax is represented standing, with a band around his head from which issue rays of light, and a ram's horn over his ear. In his right hand he holds a Victoria, and in his left a sceptre. It is more credible however that this coin was stamped at a later period in commemoration of Demonax, which has been clearly proved by two numismatologists. Ac- cording to the opinion of Beger and Scott, the most ancient of all coins would be the much-celebrated one with the name IAO, because it is attributed to that Phido by whose orders the first coins were struck on the island of iEgina, and who therefore lived nine hundred years before the birth of Christ. But Barthelemy proves from the Boeotian symbol on the coins, and also from its beautiful impression, that it is a coin of Thebes, and was stamped in the best period of art. 19. The most ancient coins are without doubt those which were stamped by different cities in Magna Grsecia, as Crotona and Sybaris, — the latter city was destroyed as early as the sixty-sixth Olympiad, — likewise Thebes and Athens, and those of some cities in Sicily, among which I have mentioned those of the city of Naxos on account of an ill-shaped Hercules with a thunder-bolt beside him. This city was founded about three EXTERNAL CIRCUMSTANCES OP ART. 183 hundred and thirty years after the Trojan war, and earlier than Syracuse. The next coins after these, and of an ascertained date, are those of Gelo, king of Syracuse. A considerable interval must however have elapsed between the former and the latter, since those of Gelo were apparently stamped at a time when art was in its bloom (2G). 20. When the tyrants in Greece, even those who governed Sicyon mildly and conformably to her laws, had at length been destroyed, and the sons of Pisistratus had been driven away and slain, — events which happened in the sixty-seventh Olym- piad, and therefore about the time when Brutus freed his native land, — the Greeks raised their heads higher than ever, and a new spirit entered into the nation. The republics, afterwards so celebrated, had hitherto been inconsiderable petty states, until the time when the Persians disturbed the Greeks in Ionia, destroyed Miletus, and carried away its inhabitants into captiv- ity. This calamity affected the Greeks, especially the Atheni- ans, in the strongest manner, so much so indeed, that when a few years afterwards Phrynichus represented in a tragedy the capture of Miletus, the whole audience burst into tears (27). 21. The Athenians assembled all their forces, and in conjunc- tion with the Eretrians went to the aid of their brethren in Ionic Asia. They even formed the extraordinary resolve of attacking the Persian king in his own dominions. They ad- vanced as far as Sardis, and took and burnt the city, in which the houses were built partly of reeds, or else had roofs of reed, in the sixty-ninth Olympiad. In the seventy-second Olympiad, that is, twenty years afterwards, when the tyrant Hipparchus had been slain, and his brother Hippias had been driven away, they won the astonishing victory of Marathon, — a victory which continues to be wonderful in all histories. 22. This victory exalted Athens above all the other cities of Greece ; and as the Athenians were the first among the Greeks to become more civilized, and to lay aside their weapons, with- out which no Greek in the earliest ages made his appearance in public even in time of peace, so the influence and increasing power of Athens made it the principal seat of the arts and sciences in Greece, and, as Pericles said, she was the instructress of all the Greeks. Hence some one asserted that the Greeks might possess most things in common, but the Athenians alone knew the path to immortality. 184 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. 23. At Crotona and Cyrene the art of medicine flourished, and music at Argos ; in Athens however all the arts and sciences were assembled. But though art flourished in this last city, still it was not neglected at Sparta, for it was practised also here even long before the time of which we speak ; insomuch that persons were sent thence to Sardis in Lydia, commissioned to buy gold there to be used on a statue of Apollo, probably in the drapery, — to say nothing of the wooden statues executed in the earliest age of art which stood in the temples of that city, nor of the statue of a Pallas in bronze, which was consid- ered by Pausanias to be the most ancient figure in metal (28). The Gitiadas previously mentioned, a Spartan, who flourished before the Messenian war, was even celebrated not only for his art, but also for his odes. He executed for the temple of Pallas at Sparta a statue in bronze of this goddess (29). On the base of it were represented the labors of Hercules, the abduction of the daughters of Leucippus by the Dioscuri, and other incidents drawn from fable ; moreover his ode to the same goddess was well known. At Amyclse, not far from Sparta, there were two bronze tripods, — the work of the same artist, — which were placed there by the Spartans in the fourteenth Olympiad. Un- der one of them stood Venus, and under the other Diana, by which I understand that the cup of the tripods rested on these figures in such a manner that they stood in the centre of the three feet. Let the reader also remember Doi'yclydas and Dontas, the two Lacedaemonian sculptors just before mentioned, also belonging to the older period, and likewise Syadras and Chartas. 24. But let us return from Sparta to Athens, and to the history of this period. We know that, ten years after the vic- tory at Marathon, Themistocles and Pausanias humbled the Persians at Salamis and Platsea in such a manner that terror and despair pursued them even into the heart of their king- dom, and the Greeks, in order to keep the Persians fresh in their memories at all times, allowed the temples which had been destroyed by them to remain in ruins, as memorials of the danger to which their liberty had been exposed. We now come to the most remarkable fifty years of Greece, beginning with the flight of Xerxes and reaching to the Peloponnesiau war (30). 25. From this time forward all the energies of Greece seem EXTERNAL CIRCUMSTANCES OF ART. 185 to be in movement, and the great endowments of the nation to display themselves more than ever. The extraordinary men and the great minds which, from the commencement of this great movement, had been forming themselves, now became prominent all at once. In the seventy-seventh Olympiad Herodotus came from Caria to Elis, and read his history before all the Greeks assembled there; not long before, Pherecydes had written the first prose compositions, ^schylus produced the first regular tragedies in an elevated style ; from the date of their invention in the sixty-first Olympiad until his time they had consisted merely of dances by singing persons; and he received a prize therefor in the seventy-third Olympiad. 26. Also about this time persons began to chant the poems of Homer, and Cynsethus, at Syracuse, was the first rhapsodist, in the sixty-ninth Olympiad. The first comedies were likewise now performed by Epicharmus; and Simonides, the earliest elegiac poet, belongs among the inventors of this distinguished period. Then, for the first time, rhetoric became a science, receiving its form from Gorgias of Leontium, in Sicily. The first judicial speeches also were committed to writing in Athens by Antiphon, at the time of Socrates. Now, for the first time, philosophy was taught publicly in Athens by Anaxagoras, who opened a school in the seventy-fifth Olympiad. The Greek alphabet also had been made complete a few years previously by Simonides and Epicharmus, and the letters invented by them were used at Athens in public documents in the ninety- fourth Olympiad for the first time, after an end had been put to the rule of the thirty tyrants. These seemed to be the great preparations for the perfection to which art now advanced with mighty strides. 27. Even the misfortune which had befallen Greece was made to contribute to the promotion of art, for the havoc effected by the Persians, and the destruction of Athens, gave occasion after the victory won by Themistocles to the rebuild- ing of the temples and public edifices. The Greeks now began — with increased love towards their native land, for which so many brave men had suffered wounds and death, and which might now appear to be secui-e against any human power — to think of the embellishment of each city, and the erection of more splendid edifices and temples, by which they sought also to per- petuate the remembrance of the immortal victory at Salamis. 186 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. This was represented on the frieze of a public portico at Sparta, ■which was built from the spoil taken from the Persians, and hence was called the Persian porch. So I understand what Pausanias terms IttL twv k'lovuiv, that is, over the columns of this building, but not, as commentators understand the phrase, that figures of Persians, and of other persons, together with the Persian general Mardonius, and likewise Artemisia, queen of Caria, who accompanied Xerxes, were placed upon the columns, a statue upon each column (31). These extensive preparations rendered artists indispensable, and gave them an opportunity of showing themselves to be equal to other great men. Among so many statues of the deities, the worthy men who had fought for their native laud even unto death were likewise not forgotten ; even those women who with their children had fled from Athens to Troezene shared in this kind of immortality, for their statues stood in a portico in that city. 28. The most celebrated sculptors of this period were Ageladas of Argos, the master of Polycletus; Onatas of the island of ^gina, who made the statue of Hiero, king of Syra- cuse, standing on a chariot, the horses of -which were executed by Kalamis ; and Antenor, whose name has become imperish- able by the statues of the immortal friends and saviours of their country, Harmodius and Aristogiton, which were erected in the first year of the seventy-seventh Olympiad, as the statues of them in bronze, which were erected to them four years sub- sequent to the assassination of the tyrants, had been carried away by the Persians (32). Glaucias, likewise of ^Egina, made the statue of the celebrated Theagenes, who had won a thou- sand and three hundred garlands as the reward of the same number of victories in the games of Greece (33). 29. One of the most ancient statues of Greek art in Rome, belonging to this period of the older style, is a Muse, standing in the Barberini palace.-' She holds a large lyre, as it is called, is twice as large as life, and has all the marks of so high antiq- uity. To judge from these characteristics it might be one of the three Muses executed by three distinguished artists anterior to the time of Phidias. One of them held two flutes, and was from the hand of Kanachus of Sicyon ; the second, with a lyre, XeXvs, was by Aristocles, the brother of Kanachus ; and the third, with another kind of lyre, called fBapfSiTos, was a woi'k of 1 Frontispiece, Vol. III. UXTERNAL CIRCUMSTANCES OF ART. 187 Ageladas, previously mentioned. This information is given to us by Antipater in an epigram ; now if he is the same with Anti pater whose native land was Sid on, as we learn from another epigram, made upon a Bacchus which stood near the statue of a Piso, and therefore probably in Rome, so that we might infer his residence at Rome, it is probable that the other epigram may also apply to three Muses which were in Rome. This fact would therefore bring us nearer to the point which we wish to prove, 30. The difference between the several musical instruments which the more modern languages designate by the word " lyre " cannot be precisely stated ; even the ancient authors confound A,T;pa with x^'^'^S) so that the invention is attributed sometimes to one, and sometimes to the other, partly to Mercury, and partly to Apollo. This circumstance however renders it prob- able that Xvpa and x^A.w, if not one and the same instrument, were at least very similar to each other. But Xvpa in the hand of a Muse among the Herculaneum paintings with the circum- scription TEP^IXOPH AYPAN was a kind of small lyre, and probably it is the same of which the sounding-board was origi- nally prepared by Mercury first from the upper shell of a tor- toise, and hence was called x^'^^?^ ^'^^ ^^^^ form in which it is seen at the feet of the statue of Mercury in the Negroni villa. Hence Aratus calls x^'-^^? the smaller lyre^ probably to distinguish it from the larger lyre termed ^a'p^tro?, and not, as the scholiast of this poet supposes, because it had few stars. But the lyre of the Barberini Muse of which we are speaking is of the larger kind, and the same as that held by Apollo in another Herculaneum painting ; and it appears that this instrument may be the one which was called /3ap/?tTos, and which, according to Pollux, was also named ySapujUtros, that is, with large strings. Hence it was probably a kind of psalter (34). According to this conjecture, the Muse of Aristocles would have held the smaller lyre, x«'^"5, and the one executed by Ageladas the larger lyre, /3ap/3iTo?, and consequently the Barberini Muse would seem to point to the latter (35). I have already spoken of the inserted eyes of this statue. Suidas, by mistake, calls the sculptor of this statue Geladas, instead of Ageladas, — an error not noticed by Kiister in the latest edition of that author's ■works (36). 31. I do not wish to decide whether the statues of Castor 188 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. and Pollux, executed by Hegesias, which formerly stood in front of the temple of Jupiter Tonans, are the same with those which now stand in colossal grandeur on the Campidoglio, though it is certain that they were discovered on this hill (37). A certain hardness observable in that portion of these figures which is ancient, and which was characteristic of the workman- ship of Hegesias, might lead to some conjecture, and we should consequently be obliged to refer these statues to the period of the more ancient style, because this artist appears to have lived prior to Phidias (38). 32. The coins also of Gelo, king of Syracuse, testify to the art of this period, and one of them, in gold, is among the most ancient existing coins in this metal. The age of the most ancient Athenian coins cannot be determined, but the style of the workmanship is enough to refute the assertion of Father Hardouin that none of them were stamped prior to the time of Philip, king of Macedon, for the impression on some of them is very ill-shaped. The most beautiful coin of Athens which I have seen is a so-called quinarius in gold; it is in the royal Farnese museum of the king of Sicily, and it refutes Boze's assertion, who pretends that there is not a single Athenian gold coin in existence. The name lEPON on the breast of a youth- ful head in the Campidoglio, which from this circumstance has been claimed to be a likeness of Hiero of Syracuse, is unques- tionably modern (39). 33. The author possesses a beautiful silver coin on the obverse side of which is impressed an old bearded head, with the circumscription, ©EMI2T0KAHS AOHNAIOS, " Themis- tocles the Athenian " ; on the reverse side, a Victoria stands \ipon the fore part of a vessel, with the circumscription, KATA IIEPSCN, " Against the Persians." But this coin is manifestly spurious, and a work of modern times ; the deception is be- trayed partly by the drawing of the head, and partly by the form of the front part of the vessel, — the like of which is to be found on no one ancient work, — as well as through the lines of the letters, which ought necessarily to have a far more ancient look. I take the occasion to notice a four-sided piece of marble in the Negroni villa which tapers downwards, and which must formerly have supported the head of Themistocles, as proved by his name engraved into it, OEMISTOKAHS O NAYMAX02, " Themistocles the sea-hero." EXTERNAL CIRCUMSTANCES OF ART. 189 34. As regards chronological succession, this is also the place to mention two busts of Herodotus, in the Farnesina. On both of them the names are engraved in the true ancient Greek writing, but they have been placed there at a later period, and it is singular that there is little resemblance be- tween them (40), except perhaps in the beard. The same remark is to be made in regard to the heads of Euripides, for the bust, of which a copy, taken from Bellori's Portraits of Cel- ebrated Persons, is prefixed by Barnes to his edition of the tragedies of this poet, and which is no longer in Eome, has nothing in common with a bust in the Farnesina on which stands the ancient name of Euripides. To this head two others in the same place are perfectly similar. 190 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. CHAPTER 11. ART FROM THE TIME OF PHIDIAS TO THE TIME OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 1. The period in which the arts attained their greatest growth in Greece is the fifty years which immediately followed the Persian war, — according to Diodorus the Sicilian. At that time was laid a foundation for the greatness of Greece on which an enduring and splendid edifice could be erected. The phi- losophers and poets commenced the structure ; the artists completed it ; and history leads us to it through a magnificent portal. At that time the greatest orators, philosophers, and artists flourished. Among the last the most celebrated were Phidias, and his scholars Alcamenes and Agoracritus, also Polycletus, Scopas, Myron and his scholars Pythagoras and Ktesilaus. 2. It must have amazed the Greeks not less than some few who still know their poets (1) to see, a few years after the representation of a supposed perfect tragedy by ^schylus, a Sophocles make his appearance, who reached the highest limit of human powers not by degrees, but by an inconceivable flight. He produced the Antigone, his first tragedy, in the third year of the seventy-seventh Olympiad. Just such a bou:ad art prob- ably made from Ageladas to Polycletus, from the master to the pupil, and it is to be believed — though time has robbed us of the means of judging from their works — that the difference between the Hercules of Eladas and the Jupiter of Phidias, and between the Jupiter of Ageladas and the Juno of Polycletus, would be like that between the Prometheus of ^schylus and the (Edipus of Sophocles. The former, by the loftiness of his thoughts and the stateliness of his expressions, astonishes more than he aff'ects, and in the plan of his fable — which has more of the real than of the possible — he is less a poet than a nar- rator. But the latter touches the heart by deeper emotions, which force their way to the soul not by the aid of words, but of pathetic images, and by giving to his story the highest EXTERNAL CIRCUMSTANCES OF ART. 191 attainable degree of possibility, and by its wonderful compli- cation and development, he fills us with continual expectation, and carries us further than we wish. 3. The happiest times for art in Greece, and especially in Athens, were the forty years in which Pericles ruled the repub- lic, — if I may so express myself, — and during the obstinate war that preceded the Peloponnesian war, which had its begin- ning in the eighty-seventh Olympiad. This war is probably the only one ever carried on in the world in which art — which is very sensitive — not only suffered nothing, but even distin- guished itself more than ever. It is to be regarded as the little quarrels which are wont to arise between lovers, whose affection for each other they refine and strengthen. In this war all the powers of Greece were completely and wholly devel- oped ; and as Athens and Sparta were seeking and setting in motion every imaginable means of directing a decisive prepon- derance to one side or the other, the talent of every one mani- fested itself, and the thoughts and hands of all men were employed, and the Athenians showed the greatness of their genius at that time, when they were reduced to great straits, just as wild beasts exert all their energies when beset on every side. 4. Nevertheless at all times during the war the artists looked forward to the great day when their works should be exhibited before the eyes of every Greek. For all hostilities ceased when, at the expiration of four and three years respectively, the time of the Olympic and Isthmian games drew near, and the Greeks, exasperated against each other, met together to share in the general joy at Elis or Corinth, where even they who were banished from their native land were permitted to appear, and who, in gazing upon the flower of the nation, which was seek- ing to distinguish itself, forgot the past, and looked not to the future 5. In a similar manner, we find that the Lacedsemonians made a truce of forty days on account of the occurrence of a festival which was celebrated in honor of Hyacinthus (2). But in the war between the ^Etolians and the Achseans, — in which the Romans participated, — the Nemsean games were not celebrated for some time. The usages at these games were so unrestrained as not to require concealment of any part of the body of the athletes, — a source of instruction from which 192 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. the artists generally profited ; for the apron about the lower part of the trunk had been done away long before this time, and Acanthus is said to have been the first who ran at Elis without an apron, in the fifteenth Olympiad. There is there- fore no ground for the assertion, made by a certain author (3), that this entire nudity at the games came into use between the seventy-third and seventy-sixth Olympiads. In the war with the Lacedeemonians eight years are especially memorable ; they form a period which in regard to art may be viewed as holy ; for there is reason to believe that the temples, edifices, and works of art with which Pericles embellished his native land were constructed and executed within this term. The eighty- third Olympiad, in which Phidias flourished, falls also within this period. 6. The hostilities of the war above mentioned were settled in the second year of the eighty-third Olympiad, and, as Dio- dorus the Sicilian says, there was peace throughout the whole world ; it had been re-established not only between the Greeks and the Persians, but also among the Greeks themselves in the thirty years' league which the Athenians concluded with the Laced£emonians. About the same time the Romans sent am- bassadors to Athens and other Greek cities for the purpose of obtaining their laws ; and Sicily began to enjoy repose through the treaty which the Carthaginians had formed with Gelo, king of Syracuse, and in which all the Greek cities of the island joined ; and the above-mentioned historian says that at that time there was nothing seen throughout Greece but festivals and merry-makings, 7. A state of repose and joyousness among the Greeks, so general, must necessarily have had great influence upon art, and this happy state of affairs is probably the reason why Phidias is supposed to have flourished in the Olympiad men- tioned. Herein we find an explanation of the meaning of Aris- tophanes, where he says of Peace represented as a goddess, that Phidias and she are related, ottws a-vrrj Trpocn^Koi ^etSias, for in this thought — which the older writers quote as a proverbial saying without understanding it — both the ancient scholiast and the later critics with the single exception of Florence Christian imagine that they perceive something which is en- tirely remote from the meaning of the comic dramatist (4). 8. The death of Cimon gave 9,t last freer scope to Pericles to EXTERNAL CIRCUMSTANCES OF ART. 193 carry out his great designs. He sought to introduce wealth and superfluity into Athens by giving employment to all sorts of men. He built temples, theatres, aqueducts, and harbors, and was even extravagant in ornamenting them. The Parthenon, the Odeon, and many other buildings, are known to the whole world. At that time art began to receive life, as it were, and Pliny says that sculpture as well as painting now began (5). 9. The advance of art ensued under Pericles, as did its revi- val under Julius II. and Leo X. Greece was at that time, and Italy afterwards, like a fruitful soil, not exhausted, but also not neglected, which through special culture pours forth the hitherto locked-up riches of its fertility, and like a freshly ploughed fal- low field, which after a soft rain exhales the sweetest fragrance. Art as it existed before Phidias cannot be brought into full com- parison with it as it was prior to Michael Angelo and Kaphael, but in the former as in the latter case it possessed simplicity and purity ; and these qualities are susceptible of improvement in just that degree in which art has preserved itself in a nat- ural and sound condition ; in this respect it resembles the nur- ture of man. 10. The two greatest artists in Athens were Phidias and Parrhasius (6). The former, in conjunction with Mnesicles, built the great structure of Pericles, the Propyleeum, although such a work was foreign to his profession. The latter assisted Phidias ; he drew the battle of the Lapithse with the Centaurs on the shield of the Pallas which was carved in ivory by Mus (7). This was the golden age of art, when harmony among its follow- ers aided their labors, and the public acknowledgment of decided merit in any ndividual rendered jealousy powerless. Such felic- ity art enjoyed before and also a considerable time subsequent to this epoch. Among the older artists Thylacus and his brother Onsethus, with their sons, worked in conjunction on a Jupiter; a Mercury carrying a ram, in ^gina, was the united work of Onatas of this island, and Kalliteles. Among their successors, Xenocritus and Eubius wrought on a Hercules ; Timocles and Timarchides on an ^sculapius ; Menjechmus and Soidas on a Diana; Dionysius and Polycles — who was celebrated by his Muses in bronze — on a Juno; and a long list might be made of works of this kind which had more than one father. In the island of Delos there was an Isis on which three Athenian art- ists, Dionysodorus, Moschion, and Ladamas, sons of Adamas, VOL. II. 13 194 HISTORY OF ANCimT ART. had worked, as the inscription on the statue, which is at Venice, shows. There was a Hercules at Rome, in the sixteenth cen- tury, which was the production of two artists, as an inscription that was on the statue denoted, and which I found in a copy of PUny, published at Basle in 1525, containing manuscript notes by Fulvius Ursinus and Bartholomew vEgius, in the library of Herr von Stosch, at Florence. The inscription is as fol- lows : — MHNO/IOTOZ KAI JIOAOTOZ 01 BOHQOT NIKOMHJEI^ EUOIOTN " Menodotus and Diodotus, Nicomedians, sons of Boiithus, made me." 11. Phidias flourished, as Pliny relates, in the eighty-third Olympiad (8). There must be a reason for fixing upon this time, as I have noticed more than once in similar cases. The date at which an artist flourished must be determined either as the period in which he produced his best works, or according to the prosperous state of the times in which the so-called flourishing period occurs, and I have remarked that the present instance comes under the latter more than under the former head. I did believe that Pliny placed the bloom of Phidias in the said Olym- piad because he had probably completed at that time the statue of the Olympian Jupiter; but this is a mere supposition on my part not based on any authority. It is more probable that the happy state of the times in tiiis Olympiad determined the period at which the artist was in the height of his fame. 12. In art Phidias was the head and overseer who carried out the grand designs of Pericles ; and his name is consecrated in art, because it was raised by his scholars and their successors to the highest stage of excellence. His greatest works were the statue of Pallas in the temple of the goddess at Athens, and the statue of the Olympian Jupiter at Elis, of which I shall soon speak. Both of them were of gold and ivory (9). Some idea may be formed of the splendor of the Pallas from the cost of the pure gold employed, of which mention is made by Peri- cles himself in a speech to the Athenians ; he says that the weight of the gold amounted to forty talents. Now an Attic talent was equal to six hundred Roman dollars, or more than twelve hundred guilders (10). This gold formed the drapery EXTERNAL CIRCUMSTANCES OF ART. 195 of the statue ; the nude parts, as the head, arms, and feet, were carved from ivory. 13. Phidias had consecrated his art especially to gods and heroes; among the statues of the victors at Elis there was found only a single one from his hand. It represented the beautiful Pantarces — of whom the artist was enamored — in the act of fastening the fillet which was placed around the forehead of the victors in the games (11). An author of more modern times speaks of a Hercules from the hand of Phidias in a small city named Melite, in the Attic territory (12) ; of this statue however no other writer makes mention. The same writer also says that, in the imperial palace at Constantinople, there was remaining the head of an Apollo, who was shining as the sun, by Phidias. 14. In the same eighty-third Olympiad the five years' truce terminated, and the war broke out anew, but the operations in building were continued in Athens, and labor suffered not the slightest interruption. For in the eighty-seventh or, according to Dodwell, the eighty-fifth Olympiad, Phidias had completed the world-renowned Pallas, which was consecrated by Pericles in her temple (13). Of the statues and other works in this temple, Polemon, surnamed Periegetes, had written four books. A year previous to the dedication of the temple of Pallas, Soph- ocles brought upon the stage his (Edipus, the masterpiece of all tragedies, so that this Olympiad may be as memorable to the artist as to the scholar on account of one of the most perfect works of art. 15. The most celebrated pupils of Phidias were Alcamenes of Athens and Agoracritus of Paros. The former was regarded as next to the greatest artist of his time, and obtained the honor of making the rilievi on the posterior pediment of the temple of Jupiter at Elis, on one side of which was represented the battle of the Lapithse with the Centaurs at the marriage of Pirithous, and on the other Theseus slaying the Centaurs with an axe. In this particular the translation of Pausanias is in- correct, for the words, ra Iv rots aeTOL<;, the tilings in the gables, — which, although in the plural number, signify only one gable, — have been understood of the arched ceiling, in ipsa testudine, which no oblong temple such as this had, for the ceiling on the interior was flat. In a similar manner the translation of the following words in a passage just preceding the last gives a wrong 196 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. idea, /cai av6i7/ao9, She of the Beautiful Legs, which Nero carried with himself wherever he went, and it was a question whether they might not perchance be the same. The Amazon of Strongylion how- ever was in bronze, and not in marble, and moreover it must have been a figure of middling size. 18. Besides the silver cup above mentioned, which probably belongs to this age, there are two statues of captive kings, — one on each side of the Roma in the Campidoglio (17), — and probably also the reputed statue of Pompey in the Spada pal- ace (18), which are to be regarded as indisputable works of artists of this period. The two former beautiful statues in black marble represent Thracian kings, of those Thracians who were called Scordisci, and who, as Florus relates, were captured by Marcus Licinius Lucullus, brother of Lucullus the Magnifi- cent. Being exasperated by their perfidy, he caused the hands of both of them to be cut off (19), just as the statues represent 286 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. them ; of one the hands are cut off above the elbow ; of the other above the wrists. They are consequently similar to the statues of captives in the mausoleum of Osymandyas, king of Egypt, which were without hands, like twenty colossal statues in wood (20) in the city of Sais in this same kingdom. In the same manner the Carthaginians mutilated those whom they found on board of two vessels captured by them in the harbor of Syracuse, and Quintus Fabius Maximus, when in Sicily, caused all deserters from Roman garrisons to be treated in a similar manner. 19. The statue of Pompey in the Spada palace is regarded as the one which stood in the Curia (senate-house) near his theatre, and in front of which Caesar was assassinated. It was not indeed found in the place on which it formerly stood, for the market-place called Campo di Fiori, and the Chancery (21) lie between that spot and the street where it was dis- covered. We know from Suetonius that Augustus removed the statue in question to another place. I remember that some one questioned how it happened that the senate was assembled in public deliberation near the theatre of Pompey. Casaubon explains this circumstance from Appian, who says that when plays were performed in this theatre it was custom- ary for the senate to assemble in one of Pompey's buildings, near the theatre ; but the day on which Csesar was murdered was a festival Anna of Perenna. 20. However often I examine this likeness I am surprised to see it wholly nude, that is to say, represented heroically, or in the form of deified emperors, which must have appeared extraordinary to the Romans also in regard to a private per- son like Pompey. We may infer at least from this circum- stance that it cannot be a statue which was erected to him after his death, because his faction was utterly destroyed. I even believe that this is the sole instance in which the statue of a Roman citizen of the days of the republic has been hero- ically represented, for Pliny informs us that it was customary among the Greeks to represent their celebrated men nude, whilst on the contrary the statues of Romans, especially of warriors, were represented in armor or with a coat of mail. 21. From these considerations a doubt might suggest itself in regard to the correctness of the name bestowed upon this statue, although it is based on the comparison of the head GREEK ART AMONG THE ROMANS. 287 with that on some few and very rare coins of Pompey the Great in our possession. I cannot however refrain from men- tioning that I am luiable to find in the statue the character- istic which Plutarch notices in the portrait-figures of this celebrated man, namely, avaa-roXri r^^ Kofj.rj's, that he wore his hair smoothed upwards from the forehead, like Alexander the Great, whereas it is smoothed downwai-ds over the fore- head, as on the coins of his son Sextus. Hence I am sur- prised how Spanheim, when he produces a rare coin of Pompey with the hair smoothed downward, could believe that he ex- hibited here dvaaToX.r]v r-ijs KOfurji;, against all appearance, and translate it exsurgens capillitium, " hair standing up " (22). 22. The liken ess of Sextus Pompeius, the elder son of Pom- pey the Great, engraved on a gem bearing the name of the artist, deserves mention in this place not less than the statue of Pompey himself. The stone is the most beautiful sort of carnelian ; it was found at the beginning of the present cen- tury not far from the tomb of Ctecilia Metella ; when found, it was set in a gold ring weighing an ounce; and, although the beauty of the stone needed no borrowed lustre, still a thin leaf of gold was placed beneath it, as I have already noticed in another place. The name of the artist, — otherwise un- known, — Agathangelus, that is, A Messenger of Joyful Tidings, is as usual put in the genitive, but not written conformably to Greek orthography. Instead of APAOANrEAOY, it should be written ArAOAPrEAOY, because the N before the V is changed into another gamma (P). Such a mode of writing is found however, and not rarely, in similar cases; and I can adduce here from the celebrated mosaic at Palestrina the word AYNS (the ivild least of this name), which should be written AYPH, because H is compounded of T and 2 ; also, from ancient in- scriptions, the word HANKPATIASTHN, instead of nAFKPA- TIA2THN; and the learned Henry Stevens remarks that in an ancient manuscript the word ayycAos is particularly written ai/yeAos. The name given to the head is evidently correct, as we may see from a rare gold coin of Sextus Pompey about the head of which stand the abbreviated words, MAG. PIVS. IMP. ITER, that is, Magnus Pius Imperator iterum. On the reverse are stamped two small heads, one of which is the likeness of Pompey the Great, the other represents his grandson, the son of Sextus. Around them we read, PEAEF. CLASS. ET. 288 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. ORAE. MARIT. EX. S. C, By decree of the Senate, Admiral of the Fleets and Supeiintendent of the Coasts. Forty scudi (dol- lars) were paid for this coin. The chin and cheeks of the head on the gem are covered with short hairs, as when a person passes many days without being shaved. This may probably be a sign of his sorrow for the death of his father, even as Augustus, after the destruction of the three legions of Varus in Germany, did not allow himself to be shaved. This valuable stone is in the possession of the Duchess Ligni- ville Calabritto, at Naples.^ 23. It would seem to me wholly superfluous to make any mention of the so-called statue of Caius Marl us in the Capito- line museum, if, in the latest description of the statues in this collection, it had not again been put forward as a likeness of that celebrated man. Even Faber, who usually does not make many scruples about baptizing, had already shown that this statue cannot represent Marius, because there is a case for writings at the foot of it as an attribute of a senator or a learned man, but not of Marius, who could not be regarded as a senator, and was far from having any erudition. Not- withstanding in the work above mentioned this statue is again presented with the name of Marius confidently affixed to it, though with the exception of what Cicero and Plutarch say of his grim aspect we cannot have any idea of his face from any other memorial ; for the coins which have been made known hitherto, and cited by authors as his, are all counterfeit and false. The name of Marius has been given by Fulvio Orsini to a head on an engraved gem because it conformed to the idea of such a face ; and equally as ungrounded are the names of the heads in the Barberini palace, and in the Ludovisi villa, and likewise of a statue in the Negroni villa, which are cited in the explanations of the Capitoline museum as supposed proofs of the correct naming of the above-mentioned statue in the Campidoglio. Of the supposed trophy of Marius I shall speak in reference to art under the Emperor Domitian. The appellation of Marius which has been given to the Capitoline statue was engendered in the brains of the same ignorant men who bestowed upon another statue there the name of Cicero (23) ; at the same time a wart has been inserted quite visibly into the cheek to signify a pea, cicer, in allusion to the name, 1 Plate XIV. OREEK ART AMONG THE ROMANS. 289 Cicero. But the most laughable circumstance of all is, that the name of this celebrated man has been confidently engraved upon the base. 24. The genuine head of Cicero, with the ancient name at the lower end of the bust, was probably made not long after this date. It is m the Mattel palace. Although the letters may not appear nice enough for those times, still we must dis- tinguish the public inscriptions, which were engraved by work- men specially employed for the purpose, from a name placed by the sculptor himself upon his work, for we cannot expect that he would copy letters with particular elegance. I must caution the reader that the nose, the upper and lower lips, and the chin of this head are modern restorations (24). The most beautiful head of the younger Brutus that is to be found in Rome is probably the one in the possession of the Marquis of Rondinini (25). 25. If a beautiful statue above the size of life in the Pamfili villa really represented the noted Publius Clodius, the great enemy of Cicero, as it is given out in some books, the order of time would require me to speak of it here. It is a figure in female drapery ; the breasts are quite flat, and the hair is in short locks. These two facts, especially the lattei", which is not usual with women, are the grounds of the name. It is understood to be Clodius in disguise, as when he introduced himself clandestinely in a woman's dress among those engaged in the secret worship of the goddess Bona, — which no one of the male sex was permitted to witness, — in order to get access to Pompeia, the wife of Julius Caesar. We must acknowledge however that this baptismal name, although learned and well contrived, has no foundation. The beautiful Phsedra with Hippolytus, in the Ludovisi villa, wears her hair in short locks in precisely the same manner. VOL. II. 19 290 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. CHAPTER II. UNDER THE ROMAN C^SARS. 1. When Rome and the Roman dominions acknowledged at last a single ruler in their monarchs, the arts established them- selves in this city as their central point ; and the best masters turned themselves in this direction because there was little opportunity in Greece for employment and work. Athens together with other cities was deprived by Augustus of its special privileges because they had taken part with Antony. The Athenians were dispossessed of Eretria and the island of -3^gina, and though they erected a temple to Augustus, of which the Doric portal is still remaining, we do not find that they were regarded more graciously. Towards the close of his rule they attempted a revolution, but were soon reduced to obedience. 2. The decline of the arts in the cities of Greece is visible in the coins, and most clearly in the largest of them, made of bronze, which we call medallions ; for those which have a Greek circumscription are all of a worse impression than those with Roman letters ; so that if fifty scudi (dollars) are occasionally paid for a rare Latin medallion, the Greek are generally not to be valued at more than ten dollars. 3. Augustus, who is styled by Livy the builder and restorer of all temples, was even in this way a promoter of the arts, and, as Horace says, veteres revocavit artes, "recalled the ancient arts" (1). He purchased beautiful statues of the deities, with which he ornamented the squares and even the streets of Rome, and he placed the statues of all the distinguished Romans who had aggrandized their native land — represented as triumphing — in the portico of his forum, and those which were already there were again repaired ; even the statue of ^neas was in- cluded among them. From an inscription found in the tomb of Livia it appears that he appointed a superintendent over these or over other statues. GREEK ART AMONG THE ROMANS. 291 4. One of the statues of Roman heroes which Augustus placed in his forum might, according to the common opinion, be the statue called Quintus Cincinnatus, which was formerly in the Montalto villa, afterwards Negroni, and now stands at Versailles (2), This is an entirely nude male figure in the act of tying a shoe upon the right foot ; the left foot is bare ; the other shoe lies near it. Behind and at the feet of the statue is a large ploughshare ; this appears to have been the principal ground of the name bestowed ; for Quintus Cincinnatus, it is well known, was taken from the plough and made Dictator. But the ploughshare is not seen in the engraving of the statue in the work published by De Rossi ; and MafFei, who explains the statue by the engraving, and finds no drawing of the ploughshare, has notwithstanding adhered to the name by which it is known ; and he relates the history of the Dictator, but as he does not mention the ploughshare, he adduces no proof in support of the name adopted. No more is an engraved gem, which the same MafFei introduces in another place, to be ex- plained as a Cincinnatus ; in fact it appears to be the work of a modern artist (3). 5. It can on the contrary be shown that, notwithstanding the ploughshare, the name Cincinnatus is not in the least degree appropriate to this statue because it is undraped ; it consequently cannot represent a Roman consul, for the Romans draped the images of all their distinguished men, — with the exception of the statue of Pompey, — and in this respect dif- fered from the Greeks. Experience justifies me in making this assertion. The statue therefore of which we speak is a heroic statue, and, if I do not mistake, it represents Jason at the time when he together with others received an invitation from Pelias, his father's brother, to whom he was a stranger, to assist at a solemn sacrifice to Neptune. He was summoned while he was occupied in ploughing, — this is denoted by the ploughshare near the statue, — and, as he was obliged to ford the river Anaurus, he forgot in his haste to put the shoe on his left foot, and laced it only upon the right (4). When Jason presented himself m this state before Pelias, the latter received a solution of the obscure answer given him by the oracle, — to beware of him who should come to him fiovoKp7j7n<;, single-shoed. This is according to my belief the true explana- tion of said statue (5). There was even a figure of Anacreon 292 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. represented with only one shoe, because he had lost the other whilst intoxicated. 6. Julian, in his satire against the CsDsars, says that Augus- tus has given many statues to the Romans by introducing the custom of deifying the emperors ; and as they were reverenced as beneficent beings, flattery had a visible pretext for multiply- ing the statues and likenesses of them. Tiberius permitted images of himself to be placed in houses as an ornament. One of the true statues of Augustus is that which stands in the Campidoglio. It is larger than life, and at the feet of it lies the prow of a ship. It represents him of an age which cor- responds to his victory ever Sextus Pompey ; for at the battle of Actium, five years previous to this victory, Augustus was younger than his statue exhibits him (6), which cannot there- fore well be supposed to represent him at that date. In all probability this is the statue which was erected to him by order of the senate after the above-mentioned naval victory over the younger Pompey, with the inscription, OB. PACEM. DIV. TVRBATAM. TERRA. MARIQVE. PARTAM., " To the res- toration of peace on land and sea after long interruption," which is lost together with the base on which it stood. Another genuine statue of Augustus is in the possession of the Marquis Rondinini at Rome, for it cannot be stated with cer- tainty that the heads of the other statues of this emperor belong to them ; the most beautiful of them is in the villa of the Cardinal Albani (7). A seated statue with the head of Augustus in the Campidoglio, which is claimed to be a statue of him, absolutely does not deserve mention. The book- bepraised Livia, or, according to others, Sabina, wife of Adrian, is represented as the Tragic Muse, as the buskin denotes (8). Maffei speaks of a head of Augustus with a civic crown, or a crown of oak-leaves, in the Bevilacqua museum at Verona, and he doubts whether another similar head can be found else- where ; he might have learned that such a head of Augustus was in the library of St. Mark at Venice ; but in the Albani villa there are three different heads of Augustus with crowns of oak-leaves, and a beautiful colossal head of Livia. A small head of Augustus in agate, in the museum of General von Walmoden, has a similar crown ; it is an irreparable loss that so much of it has perished ; only the eyes, forehead, and hair are preserved to enable us to recognize it as a like- GREEK ART AMONG THE ROMANS. 293 ness of him. This head, if entire, would be as large as a pomegranate. 7. Two recumbent female statues — one in the Belvedere, the other in the Medici villa — bear the name of Cleopatra because the ornament about the arm has been regarded as a serpent. They represent perhaps sleeping Nymphs, or Venus (9), as a learned earlier writer has already discovered. Conse- quently they are not works from which any inference can be drawn in regard to art during the reign of Augustus ; some one however remarks that Cleopatra may have been found dead in a similar position (10). The head of the former has nothing remarkable about it except that it is somewhat awry ; that of the latter, of which certain critics make a miracle of art, and compare it with one of the most beautiful heads of antiquity, is undoubtedly modern, and chiselled by an artist who had not learned to know even remotely the beautiful either in nature or in art. In the Odescalchi palace there was a figure similar to those, and larger than life, as they are, which has been removed to Spain with the other statues of this museum, 8. Besides the works in marble we have genuine monuments of this period in some of the engraved gems, which show the name of Dioscorides,^ who engraved the heads of Augustus with which this emperor, and others after him, — with the exception of Galba, — were accustomed to seal. A gem of this kind with the likeness of Augustus belonged to the Massimi family at Rome ; it was broken into three pieces on an attempt being made to set it in gold. This head of Augustus is re- markable by a length of beard which is not found on other heads of him ; hence we may infer that it represents him at the time of the destruction in Germany of the three legions of Varus, for we know that he allowed his beard to grow in sign of his great sorrow over this loss (11). In the Albani villa may be seen a head of the Emperor Otho with a similar beard, with whom it is something not less unusual than with Augus- tus. This is also the proper place to notice the extraordinarily beautiful head of Augustus which was formerly in the Carpegna museum, and is now in the museum of the Vatican library ; it is cut from a chalcedony, and is more than half of a Roman palm in height (4 3-8 in.), as the engraving from Buonarroti 1 Plate XV. 294 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. shows (12). Another celebrated artist in gem-engraving was Solon, from whom we have among other stones the supposed head of Mtecenas, the famous Medusa, a Diomedes, and a Cupid. Besides these published gems there is in . the Stosch museum one of the most beautiful heads of Hercules that was ever engraved on a gem ; and the author possesses a brolten, beau- tiful carnelian, which represented a Victoria sacrificing a bull ; the Victoria and the name COAfiN have been preserved unin- jured. Of the engraved gems representing the Queen Cleo- patra with a serpent at her breast, all that have as yet come under my inspection are modern works, and the alto cut gem of Assemani, superintendent of the Vatican library, which is viewed as a wonder, is probably the most modern of them all, and executed by an artist who was very far removed from a knowledge of the beautiful. I therefore conjecture that even the gem which Maffei adduces may be modern. 9. The almost colossal head of Marcus Agrippa, son-in-law of Augustus, also belongs to works of this period, for it is beau- tiful, and gives the clearest idea of the greatest man of his day (13); it stands in the Capitoline museum. But whether a heroic, badly restored statue in the Grimani family at Venice represents this illustrious general, I leave to others to decide who have the opportunity to scrutinize the likeness in the head, and ascertain whether it belongs to the statue. 10, But we probably possess a still better monument of a Greek master of the age of Augustus, for in all probability one of the Karyatides of Diogenes of Athens, which stood in the Pantheon, is still in existence, if we apply the word " Karya- tides " to male as w-ell as to female supporting figures, though the former are properly termed Atlantes. It stood unrecog- nized in the court-yard of the Farnese palace, and a few years ago it was sent to Naples. It is one half, as low as the middle, of a male uudraped figure without arms. It bears on its head a sort of basket, which is not wrought with the figure out of one piece ; on this basket are observable traces of pro- jections, and according to all appearance acanthiis leaves have been represented there, by which it was draped in the same way in which the basket was overgrown which suggested to Kal- limachus the idea of a Corinthian capital. This half-figure is about eight Roman palms in height (70 in.), and the basket two and a half (21.8 in.) in height; it was therefore a statue GREEK ART AMONG THE ROMANS. 295 which had the right proportion to the Attic order of the Pan- theon, which is about nineteen palms (13 ft. 10 \ in.) high (14). The figures which some authors have hitherto regarded as Karyatides of a similar kind are only proofs of their great ignorance. An engraving of this figure may be seen in my Ancient Monuments. 11. Among the architectural works of the time of Augustus there still remains a large round sepulchre of the Plautia fam- ily. It is constructed of large square blocks, and was built by Marcus Plautius Silvanus, who was consul at the same time with Augustus ; the epitaphs are placed in front of it between half-columns. It is not far from Tivoli, near the last bridge over the Anio, The inscription in the middle and in larger letters consists of a memorial of the builder himself, and a list of the oflSces which he had filled, of his campaigns, and of the triumph which he celebrated after his victory over the lllyrians ; it concludes with the words, VIXIT. ANN. IX. Wright, in his Travels, says that he cannot comprehend how a man, after so great deeds, and especially a consul, can say that he has lived only nine years ; he believes that an L has been omitted before the number IX., so that he may have lived fifty-nine years. But he and others of the same opinion are wrong ; there is nothing wanting to the number, and the letters together with the figures, which are fully a span in length, have been very well preserved. Marcus Plautius counted those years only which he had spent in repose at his country-seat, which was probably situated in the vicinity, and reckoned the remaining previous portion of his life as nothing. Just so long the Em- peror Diocletian lived at his country-seat near Salona, in Dal- matia, after he had withdrawn himself entirely from the cares of government. Similis, one of the noblest Romans of the time of Adrian, caused a similar inscription to be placed on his tomb, — that he was so old and had lived seven years ; in other words, he had enjoyed repose for such a length of time in the country. 12. I take the occasion to remark that, of the different paintings found in the tomb of the Nasones, — to which fam- ily Ovid belonged, — and which have been engraved by Sante Bartoli, there is one still in existence in the Altieri villa, namely, (Edipus with the Sphinx. It is generally believed that all of them have perished, and Wright has even allowed him- 296 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. self to make such an assertion. In the upper part of the pic- ture is seen a man with an ass, which Bartoh has omitted as having nothing to do with the scene represented, whereas the ass is the most learned part of the picture. For, after the Sphinx had thrown herself down from the rock, CEdipus loaded an ass with the body, and thus brought to Thebes a proof that the riddle had been solved. 13. In order however to form a correct judgment upon this and similar pieces of painting, we must reflect that the gran- dees of Rome had not only their tombs but also other build- ings embellished with paintings, executed by their own painters, who were their freed men and in their employ. Such a freed painter is found noted down among the emperor's servants in a list on a marble tablet which was found in the ruins of an- cient Antium by the Cardinal Alexander Albani, and is now in the Capitoline museum. It may be regarded as one of the causes of the decline of art in Rome that it had fallen into the hands of liberated slaves. Petronius, in his lamentations over it, even asserts that^ not the faintest trace of painting as it bloomed among the Greeks was left in his day. 14. Although we cannot form any general conclusion in regard to the architecture of the time of Augustus from a single specimen of that age on the outside of Rome, still it deserves mention on account of an unusual license. It is a temple at Melasso in Caria, built in honor of Augustus and the city of Rome, as the inscription on the entablature de- notes. Pillars of Roman order in the porch, Ionic columns on the sides, and the lower extremities of them ornamented with carved leaves after the manner of a capital, are opposed to rule and good taste. This building however is not the sole one where the characteristics of two orders are united in one. In the smaller of the two Nymphaea, as they are called, by the lake of Castello, we see Ionic pilasters with a Doric frieze ; and a tomb near the city of Girgenti in Sicily, which is com- monly supposed to be that of the tyrant Theron, has on Ionic pilasters not only Doric triglyphs, but on the cornice of the entablature the usual rows of dentils. 15. Already, in the reign of Augustus, there had begun to be a decline of good taste in the style of literature. It appears to have crept in especially from a desire to please Maecenas, who preferred the ornamental, playful, and tender style of GREEK ART AMONG THE ROMANS. 297 composition. Tacitus say in general terms that, after the battle of Actium, the times had ceased to produce great minds. At this date a bad taste already prevailed in orna- mental painting, as Vitruvius laments that in opposition to the aim of painting, which is truth or verisimilitude, things contradictory to nature and sound sense were represented, and palaces were built on the stems of reeds and lamp-stands, with the idea of imitating, in the long, disproportionate, and spindle-shaped columns, the antique shaft or lamp-stand. Among the Herculaneum pictures are some pieces of ideal edifices which were probably executed about this time or not long afterwards, and which show this corruption of taste. The columns in them have double the proper length, and already we see a beginning made of twisting columns, con- trary to the principle of a supporting shaft, and the orna- ments are absurd and barbarous. Of a similar extravagant kind were the columns of an edifice painted on a wall forty palms in length (30 ft.), in the palace of the Ctesars, the Far- nese villa, and the Baths of Titus (15). 16. Memorable as the name of Augustus and the extant monuments of his time are in the history of art, the name of Asinius Pollio, one of the greatest lovers of art, has become not less celebrated by the account, given by Pliny, of the best works of ancient art which were collected by his orders in vari- ous parts of Greece, and erected in public places. The histo- rian speaks of several of them by name ] among them were — in addition to the great work of the Bull in tlie Farnese palace of which I have previously spoken — the Hippiades of Stepha- nus, which probably represented Amazons on horseback, tTTTrct?. I notice the Hippiades at this time particularly not so much on account of the artist, whose age cannot be given, as because I believe that he may be the same Stephanus whom Menelaus, the artist of a group of two figures of the size of life in the Ludovisi villa, mentions in the Greek inscription as his master. I shall hereafter introduce an explanation of this work, 17. At the proper time I shall give an account of a beautiful rilievo which was discovered in the ruins of the villa of another Pollio, with the surname of Vedius, who is also to be counted among the celebrated persons of that age, and to whom Augus- tus bequeathed this villa, which was situated on the Posilipo, near Naples. The ruins of it cover an amazing extent of sur- 298 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. face. But the most remarkable thing among them is the reser- voir, piscina, of murcenas, sea-eels ; it is surrounded by walls, and situated on the sea-shore. When Augustus was on one occasion dining with this Pollio, one of his slaves broke a costly porcelain vessel, vas murrhinum ; whereupon he ordered him to be thrown to the fishes for food, ad murcenas, as he said. But the emperor ordered all the vessels of this kind to be broken in pieces, in order that Pollio might not afterwards offend in a similar way. This reservoir is in perfect preservation, so that even the two grates of bronze through w^hich the sea flows into it appear to be the ancient grating of the time of Augustus. I do not know whether any author has made mention of this par- ticular portion of the ruins, or whether it has been the subject of general remark before my own. 18. We find scarcely any mention of the names of artists ■who distinguished themselves under the reigns of the nearest successors of Augustus. Under Tiberius,^ by whom few build- ings were erected, the condition of artists must also have been very bad : and as he confiscated the property of wealthy per- sons under every sort of pretext in all the rich provinces, and therefore also in Greece, no one was ready to expend anything upon works of art (16). The temple of Augustus is the sole new building which he ordered to be built, yet he did not com- plete it. As he was desirous of placing in the library of the Palatine Apollo a statue of the god, he ordered one to be brought from Syracuse, where it was known under the appel- lation Temenites, from the fountain Temenitis, which gave its name to the fourth part of the city of Syracuse. It is known that, in order to get possession of a lascivious picture by Par- rhasius, he relinquished a considerable sum of money of his inheritance, when the choice between the two was left to him, but the love of art seems to have had the smaller share in his estimation of the picture. Statues became things of contempt because under this emperor they were the rewards of spies. The heads of Tiberius are rare, far more rare than the like- nesses of Augustus ; there are however two of them in the Capitoline museum ; likewise a statue in the Albani villa has a head of Tiberius (17) which represents him in youth, whilst the Capitoline heads present him in a more advanced age (18). The head of Germanicus, the son of Tiberius's brother, is one 1 Plate XVI. GREEK ART AMONG THE ROMANS. 299 of the most beautiful imperial heads in the Campidoglio (19). There was formerly in Spain the base of a statue which was erected to Germanicus by the sedile Lucius Turpilius. 19. The sole remaining public monument of art of the time of this emperor is a square base on the market-place at Poz- zuolo. It was erected to Tiberius in this spot by fourteen cities in Asia which were rebuilt by him after they had suf- fered severely from an earthquake, as we learn not only from history but from the inscription on the base (20). The cities themselves are likewise symbolically represented on it, and each one is distinguished by its name under its figure. 20. I do not know whether those who have written at length upon this work have offered a conjecture in regard to the doubt which has occurred to myself and others, why the said cities erected this work at Pozzuolo, and not rather at Rome. The cause probably is that they wished to place the testimonial of their gratitude on a spot where it might be seen by the em- peror, who dwelt at Caprese, which was not to be expected if it were at Rome, whither he had no intention of returning. On the other hand Tiberius made excursions from his island to the shores of Puteoli, Raise, and Misenum, and he died in the villa of Lucullus on the promontory of Misenum. 21. In this place it would be necessary to mention the statue of Germanicus, as it is called, — which was formerly in the Montalto villa, afterwards named Negroni, and is now at Ver- sailles, — provided the head perfectly resembled Germanicus, or it could be ascertained by an examination on the spot whether the head belongs to the statue. On the socle is the name of the artist, Kleomenes (21), and upon it lies a tortoise. A mantle which hangs over the left arm of the undraped fig- in-e falls down towards the animal, and must have some espe- cial meaning. Rut I do not find even a pretext for a supposi- tion, for the tortoise in this instance, unlike the one on which the foot of the Venus of Phidias was placed, or any other known symbolic tortoise, has no significance whatever (22). 22. Caligula, by whose order the statues of the celebrated men which Augustus had placed in the Campus Martins were thrown down and broken to pieces, who caused the heads to be separated from the finest statues of the gods, and his own likeness substituted, who even wished to destroy and annihi- late Homer, cannot be regarded as an encourager of the arts. 300 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. 23. Caligula sent Memmius Regulus — who was forced to resign to him his wife Lollia Paulina — to Greece with direc- tions to convey to Rome the best statues of every city. This he consequently did, having sent a large number thither, which the emperor distributed among his country-seats with the remark, "The most beautiful must be in the most beautiful place, and that is Rome." Among other statues he took from the Thespians their celebrated Cupid by Praxiteles, which Claudius restored to them, and of which Nero again deprived them. This order extended even to the Olympic Jupiter of Phidias ; but persons at Athens who were skilled in construction gave it as their opinion that this work, which was composed of gold and ivory, could not be started and moved from its position without receiving injury. The undertaking was therefore left untried. The injury inflicted on this statue when it was struck by light- ning, in the time of Julius Csesar, could not of course have been of much extent. 24. The likenesses of this emperor in marble are very rare ; two only are known in Rome. One of them, in black basalt, is to be found in the Capitoline museum (23) ; the other, in white marble, is in the Albani villa: it represents him with his mantle drawn upward over his head, like a high-priest. The most beautiful likeness of him is unquestionably a gem cut in alto, which General von Walmoden, of Hanover, bought at Rome the present year, 1766; in fact this specimen may be classed among the most admirable pieces of this kind of work- manship. 25. What sort of a connoisseur Claudius was is shown by the circumstance that he caused the head of Alexander the Great to be cut out of two paintings, and that of Augustus substituted. He wished to be called a patron of the learned, and with this view he enlarged the Museum or residence of the scholars at Alexandria, and his ambition was to have the fame of being called another Cadmus through the invention of new letters, and he brought the inverted ^ into use. The beautiful bust of this emperor, which was found at Fratocchie, went to Spain, through the Cardinal Gerolamo Colonna. When Madrid was captured by the Austrians, Lord Galloway sought after it, and learned that it was in the Escurial, where it was found sus- pended, as the heaviest weight to the church-clock ; he there- fore sent it away to England. Whether it arrived there, or what has befallen it since, I do not know (24). GREEK ART AMONG THE ROMANS. 301 26. The group of Paetus and Arria, as it is called, in the Ludovisi villa, would be a very important work of the time of Claudius, if the conception and style of the work could be made to agree with its name. It is known that Csecina Psetus, a noble Eoman, was discovered to be a participator in the conspiracy of Scribonianus against Claudius, and con- demned to death, and that his wife Arria, in order to give him courage to die, thrust the dagger into her own bosom, and then, having drawn it from the wound, handed it to him with the words, " It is not painful." Lovers of art know this work, and are aware that it is composed of a male uudraped figure with a beard on the upper lip ; with the right hand he thrusts a dagger into his breast, and with his left he grasps beneath the left arm a female draped figure who has dropped upon one knee, and is wounded in the right shoulder, which is shown by a couple of drops of blood on the upper arm. At the feet of these fig- ures lies an oblong shield, and beneath it the sheath of a dag- ger (25). 27. It is evident that this group cannot represent any inci- dent in Roman history, in the first place from the principle already mentioned, which I have learned from experience, and proved in the Essay xipon Allegory as well as in the Preface to the Ancient Monuments, namely, that no representations con- sisting of whole figures, whether in statues or on rilievi, are to be found drawn from true history, and that the ancient artists have never passed beyond the limits of mythology. In the second place we cannot seek for any Roman incident here, because it would be contrary to the statement made by Pliny, and already quoted, that all figures of Roman personages were draped, whereas this one, being nude like a hero, must have refer- ence to some event in the heroic age. Neither are there any bet- ter reasons for supposing a Roman senator to be represented here, because the shield and dagger are not appropriate, and the mus- taches were not fashionable at that period ; and it cannot, above all, be Psetus, because he had not the courage to follow his wife's example, since he was condemned to open his own veins (26). Further, as we do not find that statues were erected to Thraseus and Helvidius Priscus, as conspirators against Nero, — although they were reverenced by some few as holy, — so it is not credi- ble that this honor was actually conferred or can have been con- ferred on Psetus. Mafiei, having recollected that Partus did not 302 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. kill himself with the dagger over the body of his wife, and therefore rejecting the common name of this work, has recourse to the history of Mithridates, the last king of Pontus; he believes that the group represents the eunuch Menophilus and Dripetina, a sick daughter of this king, who had been entrusted to his care, and whom he slew at the same time with himself in order that she might not be violated by the enemy. But this conceit is worse than the name by which it is now known; for the supposed eunuch not only shows everything which denotes a man, but ho has also mustaches, as I have stated. 28. Gronovius believes that this group represents Macareus, the son of iEolus, and Canace his sister and beloved, who according to Hyginus slew themselves one after the other. 1 on the contrary think that I recognize the life-guardsman of tEoIus, king of Etruria, whom he sent to his daughter with a dagger, after he had learned her incestuous familiarity with her brother, that she might put herself to death. For the male figure can no more represent the brother of Canace, who was a youth, than it can a hero of antiquity, because there is nothing noble in the face itself, and it appears less noble in consequence of the beard upon the upper lip, worn after the fashion of barbarian captives. On the contrary the fierce looks and barbarous fea- tures as well as the stout, strong frame show that it was the artist's intention to express a life-guardsman, the men of this class being generally represented as bold, fierce men ; and, in the representation of the fable of Alope, this is precisely the aspect of the life-guardsmen of King Cercyon, who like our figure are also nude. The explanation now offered is strength- ened also by the female figure; for the smooth hair without locks, after the manner of the hair of figures of foreign nations, and likewise her shaggy mantle, by which the same nations are indicated, point to a person who was not a Greek. This ex- planation may perhaps not be entirely satisfactory to the reader ; yet as on the one hand I am confident that it would be difficult to give a more apt explanation, so on the other I believe that the close of the story of Canace has been lost, as well as that of the fable of Alope, a loss which I have made an attempt to repair from an ancient monument. All that we know is drawn from the brief notice by Hyginus, and from the letter which Ovid feigns to have been written by Canace to her brother Macareus, in which GREEK ART AMONG THE ROMANS. 303 she informs him that their father ^olus has sent her a dagger by one of his life-guard, the object of which is known to her, and that she will use it to shorten her life. Now as this letter preceded her determination, and no other author mentions the life-guards- man, we may imagine, while contemplating the monument be- fore us, that the soldier who delivered the dagger with a sad countenance, without any knowledge of the purpose for which it was sent, may have thrust it into his own breast when he saw that Canace had killed herself with it (27). 29. Having been induced by the erroneous name applied to this group — which has the merit of a much earlier period of art — to enter into an exan^ination of it in this place, I will add to it another beautiful group which is to be found in the same villa, and like the former belongs among works of the first rank. This group was wrought by Menelaus, a pupil of Stephanus, as the Greek inscription on it informs us ; and this Stephanus is pi'obably the one whose Hippiades or Amazons on horseback were celebrated, as above mentioned. The connoisseur of art will understand from this notice that 1 mean the celebrated group which passes under the name of Papirius and his mother, whose history is related by Gellius. This name has been adopt- ed by all without a doubt, because the explanation of the rep- resentations in antique works has hitherto been sought mostly in Roman history, whereas they should have been drawn from Homer and heroic history. 30. This presumption, and the reflection that the work in question is by a Greek artist who would not have selected an unimportant incident in Roman history when he could display his skill in more elevated representations, discards in a measure that appellation. I would also remark that a doubt might per- haps arise in regard to the story of Papirius, which Gellius took from a speech by the elder Cato, but wrote it down from mem- ory and without having the speech itself before his eyes. A doubt might, I say, ai'ise in regard to this story from what he himself adds to it, namely, that the senators were accustomed to carry their sous with them into the senate chamber when the latter had put on the prcetexta, that is, when they had reached the seventeenth year of their age. This doubt might be sug- gested by Polybius in that passage in which he refutes two Greek authors who assert that the Romans took their sons with them into the senate chamber even from their twelfth 304 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. year ; for he says that the thing is neither credible nor true, unless, he jestingly adds, fortune has bestowed upon the Romans this favor also, that of being wise even from their birth. Al- though Polybius, as a far older author, would deserve more belief, still 1 do not wish to hisist on his authority in disproval of Gellius, because that which could not happen in the twelfth year of boys might occur in the seventeenth year of youths, although Gellius is the sole one who mentions this practice. Polybius however ought to have been quoted by James Grono- vius in his notes to Gellius, and the syllable-sifting which he in- troduces on this occasion, as usual, omitted. 31. My principal reason for rejecting Roman history in this scene is aftbrded by the figure of the supposed Papirius, which is naked and consequently heroic, as the Greeks represent their heroes, whereas the Romans not only draped the statues of their celebrated men, but gave to them even the corselet, as Pliny informs us, when he says, Grceca quidem res est nihil velare ; at contra Romana ac militaris thoraces addere, " It is a Greek custom to conceal nothing ; on the other hand, it is a Roman and a military practice to put on coats of mail." 32. The story of Papirius therefore being i-ejected as un- grounded, we might believe that we here find represented Phsedra when she reveals to Hippolytus her love, because the expression in his countenance might be explained by abhor- rence of such a declaration. There is not in this expression the slightest trace of the roguish laugh which a modern writer has been willing to find because he adhered to the usual name (28). It occurred to me that this might be the subject, be- cause the story was represented very frequently, not only in ancient times, but it is found even now repeated in several rilievi, two of which are in the Albani villa and one in the Pamfili villa. Nevertheless it was a suspicious circumstance that Phfedra herself should in this way have disclosed to Hip- polytus her love, — a disclosure however which did not happen in the manner stated by Euripides. Also I could not divest myself of the doubt suggested by the short-cut hair as well of the supposed Phaedra as of the Hippolytus, which in the latter is as short as it is usually worn by Mercury ; for young per- sons of this age commonly wore longer hair, and on the former figure such hair is altogether unusual. 33. As I was studying this work anew with this doubt in GREEK ART AMONG THE ROMANS. 305 my mind, a light seemed to flash upon me even from the very- singularity which had hitherto appeared mysterious, namely, the shortened hair, I therefore believe that in this group I see the first interview of Electra with her younger brother Orestes, for they two could not be represented in any other manner than with such hair. Electra wished to have her hair cut off by her sister Crysothemis, — which we must assume as having happened, — that she might lay it together with the hair of her sister upon the tomb of their father, Agamemnon, as a token of their continuing sorrow. The same thing had already been done by Orestes before he discovered himself to Electra ; indeed his hair, which was found by Crysothemis upon the said tomb, gave occasion to suspect his presence. Then, when Orestes had made himself fully known to Electra, she seized his hand and said, ere x^po-tV, / hold thee hy the hand. This particular action is represented in this group, for Electra holds with her right hand the hand of Orestes, while her left is placed upon his shoulder. Here can be seen repre- sented generally the whole of the affecting scene of the Electra of Sophocles which contains this interview, — a tragedy which the artist appears to have had in view more than the Choephoroe of -^schylus. In the countenances of both figures have been portrayed most clearly the emotions of this first interview of Electra, and Orestes; for his eyes are apparently filled with tears, and the eyelids seem swelled by weeping ; and so it is with Electra, though in her features joy is mingled with tears, and love with sadness. 34. Now, as Electra and Orestes are the true figures of this group, I must say that I have discovered them by the very same sign whereby according to J^schylus the latter made him- self known to the former, namely, by the hair, for he directed his sister's attention to it in order to remove all doubt from her mind. Although in the plot of a tragedy this mode of effecting a recognition, dvayvw/jto-t?, between two persons, is, according to Aristotle, the smallest and least weighty among the four modes of such recognition, yet in this instance it has contributed more than any other indication to the discovery of the subject most probably intended to be represented (29). 35. This being assumed as proved, I propose to apply the name of Electra to a beautiful statue in the Pamfili villa, which with the exception of the left arm has remained in a VOL. II. 20 306 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. state of perfect preservation, and has the same size, the same expression precisely, even indeed similar traits of countenance as that Electra, but differs in the attitude. The name is justi- fied here by the very same characteristic, namely, the short-cut hair, of which moreover the execution is exactly the same as in the other statue. This mode of wearing the hair, which, even at the time of the discovery of the statue, was viewed as extraordinary, and api)arently denoted a male, not a female figure, gave occasion to those whose knowledge did not extend beyond Eoman history to bestow upon it a highly ridiculous name. It was supposed that this was a representation in woman's clothing of the celebrated Publius Clodius, and under this name the statue has been quoted in different books. Now, as I believe that I restore to this statue its true appellation, and as the antique socle is wanting, I imagine that this Electra and the figure of Orestes which has been lost, formed a group in such a manner that her left arm was placed on the shoulder of Orestes (30). 36. I hope the reader will not take in ill part the episodes by which the thread of our history has been interrupted, nor withhold his indulgence from those which will follow. I have been obliged to seek out such digressions in order to commu- nicate instruction, because no monuments quite so remarkable as the subjects of them have come down to us from the times of which properly we treat ; but those portions of the preced- ing investigations which have arisen naturally out of the topics under discussion are to be regarded as matters pertaining to art during the reign of Claudius. GREEK ART AMONG THE ROMANS. 307 CHAPTER III. UNDER THE ROMAN C^SARS. -(Continued.) 1. Nero, the successor of Claudius, exhibited an extravagant longing in regard to everything which belongs to the fine arts. But it was a craving like avarice, which seeks to accumulate rather than to produce. We can form an idea of his vitiated taste from the fact that he caused a bronze figure of Alexander the Great, executed by Lysippus, to be gilded ; but, as it was the common remark that the statue had lost much by the pro- cess, the gilding was removed ; there still remain however the marks which were made for the purpose in the bronze (1). Other proofs of his taste are also to be found in the rhyme of the caesura and at the end of the verse, after which he labored, and in the inflated metaphors which he freely introduced ; both these traits have been turned into ridicule by Persius. Probably Seneca, who excludes painting as well as sculpture from the liberal arts, had a great influence on his taste. 2. We are unable to form any definite judgment of the style of art under this emperor, for we have probably nothing re- maining from his reign except a couple of mutilated heads of him, the supposed statue of Agrippina, his mother, and a bust of Poppsea. The pretended likenesses of Seneca cannot repre- sent him, as I will hereafter show. Genuine heads of Nero are very rare, and of the one in the Capitoline museum only the upper half is ancient, and of the face only one eye. In the su- perb collection of imperial portraits which are displayed in the Albani villa, the head of Nero is wanting ; from this fact may be inferred the rareness of likenesses of him. What therefore shall we say of a head of him in bronze, in the Mattei villa 1 As it is a bad modern work, it would not be worth mention any more than another modern head of him in the Barberini palace, if Keyssler, on the authority of worthless books which he copied, had not commended it as a rare antique. A quite modern head 808 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. of Nero has also been placed even in the Capitoline museum by the ignorant directors of it near the restored head just men- tioned ; and here likewise is exhibited a modern head of this emperor, wrought in relief after the manner of a medallion. Here let the reader bear in mind that all heads of emperors ■wrought in relief in such a manner are of modern origin ; this I have found to be true in all similar pieces which have been made known. A genuine head of this emperor, but of moderate execution, larger tiian nature, is in the Kuspoli palace (2). 3. Three statues are known under the name of Agrippina. One of them, and that the most beautiful, is in the palace called the Farnesina ; the second, a presumed seated Agrippina, is in the Capitoline museum, but it does not equal the other ; the third stands in the Albani villa (3). A similar position is the motive of the name given to a figure with clasped hands on an engraved gem, for in Poussin's drawing of it on a large scale in the Albani library I find no resemblance to Agrippina. The beautiful bust of Poppsea, the wife of Nero, in the museum just mentioned, possesses a very rare peculiarity, for in one single piece there are two different kinds of marble ; so that the head and neck are white, but the draped bast is paonazzo, that is, has violet spots and veins (4). 4. Far more worthy of note in point of art than the heads of Nero are those which bear the name of Seneca, of which the most beautiful one is of bronze, in the Herculaneum museum ; and Mr. John Dick, consul for Great Britain at Leghorn, has one in marble in a very good state of preservation, in addition to those in the Medici and Albani villas. The one belonging to Mr. Dick was in the Doni mansion at Florence, and was pur- chased by him for one hundred and thirty sequins ($2G0). Be- sides these heads, there was formerly in Rome a bust in the shape of a Hermes which resembled them ; it was carried to Spain with other antiques by Guzman, a viceroy of Naples ; but the whole collection is said to have been lost by the wreck of the vessel. All these heads have been generally received as likenesses of Seneca in honest reliance on Faber, who, in his ex- planations of the portraits of celebrated men collected by Ful- vius Ursinus, pretends that a similar head with the name of Seneca may be found on a medal with a raised edge, named on this account contorniato ; but neither he nor any one else has ever seen this coin. Since therefore the name applied to these GREEK ART AMONG THE ROMANS. 309 heads has so uncertain a foundation, my doubt iii regard to them has been increased hj asking myself how it happened that figures of this man, who was little esteemed, should have been multiplied in such a manner, even during his life, that it is im- possible to find so many of any other celebrated man ; for the Herculaneum bust must have been executed during his life- time ; and all those which exist in marble point to a period when the arts flourished. It is also not to be believed that the enlightened Emperor Adrian would have set up the likeness of so unworthy a philosopher in his villa, wherein a short time ago a fragment of such a head of great art was discovered, which is now in the possession of the sculptor Bartolomeo Cavaceppi. I am therefore of opinion that said heads give us the likeness of a more celebrated and more worthy man of an earlier age. It is not the place here for moral complaints ; but I cannot refrain, when I see so many heads of this sham phil- osopher, from regretting the loss of the likenesses of men who have done honor to human nature, — of an Epaminondas, a Leonidas, a Xenophon, and others. But he from whom the wisest have torn the mask of virtue, and who in his writings appears as a pitiful pedant, has been so fortunate that the honor conferred upon the artistic merit of his portraits has been extended also to him. The artists ought to have avenged themselves on him, since he excludes painters as well as sculp- tors from the followers of the liberal arts. 5. On this occasion, while speaking of the heads of Seneca, I might be censured by those who are acquainted with the sup- posed statue of him in the Borghese villa, if I were to pass by it without mention ; and although I might refer the reader to my Ancient Alonuments, in which I have explained myself at length in regard to this statue, still it may seem not super- fluous to repeat here what I have stated there, and also com- municate the observations made by me since that time. The Borghese undraped statue of black marble has in position as well as in countenance complete similarity with a statue like- wise undraped, of the size of life, but in white marble, in the Pamfili villa, to which a small figure in the Altieri villa with- out a head bears a perfect resemblance. This, as well as those, bears in the left hand a basket like two small figures dressed as servants in the Albani villa. Now as a comic mask lies at the feet of one of them, and as the figm'e consequently represents a 810 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. servant in a comedy, — who, like Sosia in the Aiidria of Ter- ence, was sent to purchase for the t;p,ble, — we can conclude that the Borghese figure also, as well as the Pamfili and that in the Altieri villa, represent persons of this kind. Besides there does not exist the slightest ground of likelihood for the name applied to the Borghese statue, not even in a resemblance to the supposed heads of Seneca, because the forehead of the former, as well as of the Pamfili statue, is perfectly bald, where- as the heads of the pretended Seneca are covered by hair. But an imagined reason for the name may also have been found in the following circumstance : when the said Borghese statue was in the hands of the restorer, he inserted the thighs, as the legs were missing, into a block of African marble which was made to resemble a tub, for the purpose of denoting the bath- ing-tub in which Seneca caused his veins to be opened, and in which he died (5). 6. Not less beautiful than all the supposed heads of Seneca is a head in profile, executed in rilievo, which was formerly in the possession of the celebrated Cardinal Sadoletus, who wished to find in it a likeness of the poet Persius, who died during the reign of Nero in the twenty-ninth or thirtieth year of his age. This head is wrought of a kind of white marble called Palom- hino ; it is somewhat more than a full span in breadth on all sides, — the tablet included on which it is carved in relief, — and is now to be found in the Albani villa. Sadoletus supposed it to be a head of Persius from the crown of ivy which encircles it, and because he fancied he could discover in the countenance a certain modesty for which Cornutus in his Life of him com- mends him. From the ivy it is probable that a poet is repre- sented here, but it cannot be Persius, because the marble shows a man between forty and fifty yeai's of age (in the engrav- ing he appears much younger), and because the beard especially on a man thirty years of age, does not correspond to the time of Nero. This work among others will serve to show how ground- less are the names bestowed upon many heads which have been generally received as the likenesses of celebrated men. A copper-plate engraving of this supposed Persius was afterwards prefixed to an edition of his Satij'es. 7. In forming an opinion of art tinder Nero, we may infer a considerable decline in it from the statement by Pliny that during his reign the art of casting in bronze was no longer GREEK ART AMONG THE ROMANS. 311 understood, — just as in Rome at the present day the art of casting types is in a measure lost, — and he refers to the colossal statue of Nero in bronze, executed by Zenodorus, a celebrated sculptor from Gallia, of which the casting was a failure (6). We are not, however, to infer from this, as Donati and Nar- dini have done, that this statue of Nero was in marble. From the statement made by Pliny, and from the pieces inserted into the four horses of bronze, — over the porch of St. Mark at Venice, — and fastened with nails, it has been inferred that the patches were rendered necessary by an unsuccessful casting, and that therefore these horses were executed in the time of Nero. 8. In Greece the state of things was not very favorable to art ; for although Nero, so far as it was in his nature, sought to allow the Greeks the enjoyment of their former freedom, yet notwithstanding he perpetrated outrages against works of art, — causing the statues of the victors in the great games to be thrown down and cast into unclean places ; indeed with every outward appearance of liberty the best works were carried out of the country. For Nero was insatiable in his craving for them, and with this view he despatched to Greece Acratus, — one of his freedmen and a bad man, — and a half-learned man, Secundus Carinas, who selected for the emperor whatever pleased their fancy. 9. Nero pillaged Greece still more thoroughly than Caligula ; but the Olympian Jupiter, and the Juno at Argos from the hand of Polycletus, which was likewise of gold and ivory, — the greatest works in Greece even in respect to size, — re- mained undisturbed ; for it was no common undertaking to remove from its place a statue sixty feet in height, as the Jupiter was, and to transport it across the sea. From the temple of Apollo alone, at Delphi, five hundred statues in bronze were carried off. Now as this temple had already been plundered ten several times, and especially by the leaders of the Phocseans in the so-called sacred war, so that many statues had been taken away, we can infer how great were its treasures, when we consider, moreover, that even in the time of Adrian there was an abundance of beautiful statues in it, some of which are noticed by Pausanias. A large number of these statues was employed to embellish the so-called golden palace of the em- peror. If we consider the many thousand statues which had 812 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. been already carried out of Greece from the time even of the Roman republic to Nero, — Marcus Scaurus alone having re- ceived thence three thousa,nd statues to be ranged around his theatre, — we must be astonished at its inexhaustible wealth in works of art, especially as only the most remarkable ones are recorded by Pausanias. In the great burning of Rome, in which four only of the fourteen sections of the city remained uninjured, an infinite number of works of art perished ; and as very many traces of ancient repairs are to be found, many of these injured and mutilated works might have suffered at that time. On the seat of the celebrated Torso in the Belvedere we see a place roughly cut, — which must be the case where restorations are made, — and also the iron by which the affixed part was fastened to the original. It is remarkable that during the reign of Nero painters painted upon linen for the first time, the occasion of which was a figure of him one hundred and tw^enty feet high (7) ; and also that this prince, who was foolishly fond of everything called Greek, employed Amulius, a Roman artist, to decorate his palace with paintings. 10. It is credible that the statue of the Apollo in the Bel- vedere, and the wrongly named Gladiator by Agasias of Ephesus, in the Borghese villa, were among the statues brought from Greece (8), for both of them were discovered at Antium, now called Porto d' Antio. This town was the birthplace of Nero, and on the embellishment of it he spent a great deal of money. Even at the present day extensive ruins are visible along its shores. Among the porticos there was one which was orna- mented by a painter, a freedman of the emperor, with figures of gladiators in all possible positions (9). 11. Among all the works of antiquity which have escaped destruction the statue of Apollo is the highest ideal of art. The artist has constructed this work entirely on the ideal, and has employed in its structure just so much only of the material as was necessary to carry out his design and render it visible. This Apollo exceeds all other figures of him as much as the Apollo of Homer excels him whom later poets paint. His stature is loftier than that of man, and his attitude speaks of the greatness with which he is filled. An eternal spring, as in the happy fields of Elysium, clothes with the charms of youth the graceful manliness of ripened years, and plays with softness and tenderness about the proud shape of his limbs. Let thy GREEK ART AMONG THE ROMANS. 313 spirit penetrate into the kingdom of incorporeal beauties, and strive to become a creator of a heavenly nature, in order that thy mind may be filled with beauties that are elevated above nature ; for there is nothing mortal here, nothing which human necessities require. Neither blood-vessels nor sinews heat and stir this body, but a heavenly essence, diffusing itself like a gentle stream, seems to fill the whole contour of the figure. He has pursued the Python, against which he uses his bow for the first time ; with vigorous step he has overtaken the monster and slain it. His lofty look, tilled with a consciousness of power, seems to rise far above his victory, and to gaze into infinity. Scorn sits upon his lips, and his nostrils are swelling with suppressed anger, which mounts even to the proud fore- head ; but the peace which floats upon it in blissful calm re- mains undisturbed, and his eye is full of sweetness as when the Muses gathered around him seeking to embrace him. The Father of the gods in all the images of him which we have remaining, and which art venerates, does not approach so nearly the grandeur in which he manifested himself to the understanding of the divine poet, as he does here in the coun- tenance of his son, and the individual beauties of the other deities are here as in the person of Pandora assembled together, a forehead of Jupiter, pregnant with the Goddess of Wisdom, and eyebrows the contractions of which express their will, the grandly arched eyes of the queen of the gods, and a mouth shaped like that whose touch stirred with delight the loved Branchus. The soft hair plays about the divine head as if agitated by a gentle breeze, like the slender waving tendrils of the noble vine ; it seems to be anointed with the oil of the gods, and tied by the Graces with pleasing display on the crown of his head. In the presence of this miracle of art I forget all else, and I myself take a lofty position for the purpose of look- ing upon it in a worthy manner. My breast seems to enlarge and swell with reverence, like the breasts of those who were filled with the spirit of prophecy, and I feel myself transported to Delos and into the Lycsean groves, — places which Apollo honored by his presence, — for my image seems to receive life and motion, like the beautiful creation of Pygmalion. How is it possible to paint and describe it ! Art itself must counsel me, and guide my hand in filling up hereafter the first outlines which I here have sketched. As they who were unable to 314 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. reach the heads of the divinities which they wished to crown deposited the garlands at the feet of them, so I place at the feet of this image the conception which I have presented of it. This description, and especially the expression in the face of the Apollo, is altogether irreconcilable with the idea of an Apollo on a hunt, — which Bishop Spence has been desirous of finding in this statue. But if any one objects to the dragon Python as an antagonist not sufficiently lofty, let the attitude of this Apollo recall the giant Tityus who, while attempting to offer violence to Latona, the mother of the deity, was shot by him when he was hardly a youth (10). 12. The Borghese Gladiator, as he is called, — a statue which, as I have already mentioned, was found in the same place with the Apollo, — appears from the form of the letters to be the most ancient of the statues now in Rome on which the master has announced his name. We have no account of the Agasias by whom it was executed, but his work proclaims his merit. As in the Apollo and the above described Torso of Hercules there exists a high ideal alone, and in the Laocoou nature has been elevated and beautified by the ideal and by expression, so in this statue is found an assemblage of natural beauties in an adult form without any additions from the imagi- nation. The two former figures are like a sublime epic poem in which probability is carried above and beyond truth even to the verge of the marvellous ; but the latter is like history in which truth is presented, but presented in the most select thoughts and words. The face shows plainly that its con- formation is a true copy from nature, for it represents a man who is no longer in the blossom of his life, but who has attained the age of manhood, and in it are discoverable the traces of a life which has been constantly occupied, and hardened by labor (11). 13. Some persons think that it is the statue of a Discohulus, that is, one who casts the quoit, or a disk made of metal. This was the opinion of the celebrated Von Stosch, which he com- municated to me in a letter, but he had not sufiiciently con- sidered the position in which a figure of this kind needs to be placed. For he who is about to cast anything must draw the body backwards, and, when the throw is going to take place, the effort is supported upon the right thigh, and the left leg is GREEK ART AMONG THE ROMANS. 315 inactive ; but the contrary is the case here. The whole figure is thrown forwards and rests on the left thigh, and the right leg is stretched backwards to its utmost (12). The right arm is modern, and a fragment of a lance has been put into the hand ; on the left arm is seen the rim of the shield which he carried. If we consider that the head and eyes are turned up- ward, and that the figure seems to be protecting itself with the shield from something which is coming from above, we might with more reason hold it to be the representation of a warrior who, in a dangerous situation, won for himself especial merit, for the honor of a statue was probably never granted by the Greeks to the combatants in public exhibitions, and this work appears to be more ancient than the introduction of gladiators among the Greeks. 14. Of art under the immediate successors of Nero, — Galba, Otho, and Vitellius, — there is nothing to remark except that heads of these three emperors are very rare (13). The trunk of a statue of Galba, of great art and twice the natural size, is in the possession of the sculptor Bartholomeo Cavaceppi. The most beautiful head of Galba is in the Albani villa ; and here and in the Capitoline museum are heads of Otho. The larger number, however, of those which represent Vitellius are mod- ern, as is the one in the Giustiniani palace, which has been pro- nounced an antique by more than one unskilled author, but it is a frightful piece of work of modern date. The coin of this emperor with the image of his father and the inscription L. VITELLII. COS. nr. CENSOR, is extremely rare. On the other side, in front of the breast of Vitellius projects a sceptre, on the knob of which an eagle sits. Thirty dollars were paid for this silver coin. In the disturbances which occurred in his reign, .lulius Sabinus defended himself in the Capitol by form- ing a barricade of statues. Some one who has had an oppor- tunity of making the comparison remarks that the heads of the emperor on Greek coins are not to be compared to the heads of him on Roman coins. This observation renders it probable that all good Greek artists had gone to Rome. I remember to have seen among others the rare Greek coin on which are the heads of Claudius and Pompeia ; the impression has almost the rude- ness of barbarism. 15. Finally Vespasian succeeded to the throne which had been occupied by men so infamous. His reign, notwithstanding 316 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. all his parsimony, appears to have been more advantageous to the arts than the monstrous extravagance of his predecessors. He was not only the first emperor who established a respectable salary for the teachers of Greek and Roman rhetoric, but he drew around himself poets and artists by the inducement of recompense. Two Roman painters, Cornelius Pinus and Accius Priscus, were celebrated in his reign ; the temple of Honor and Virtue was embellished by paintings from their hands. In the temple of Peace (14), erected by him, a great many of the statues were set up which Nero had brought away from Greece (15), but here were suspended principally the paintings of the most celebrated artists of all ages, and here was, to use the expression of the present day, the largest public gallery of paintings. It seems however that they were not kept in the temple ° itself, but over it, in the upper halls, to which one ascended by a winding staircase still in preservation (16). There were temples also in Greece which served as mvaKoOr^Kai, that is, as galleries of pictures. Finally under Vespasian Greece was humbled so far as to be declared a Roman province, and the Athenians were deprived of even the small privilege which they had until now retained, — the privilege of striking coins without an image of the emperor. 16. Under this emperor the Sallust Gardens were the most populous place in Rome, for he resided there most of the time, and there gave audience to the whole world ; hence we have reason to believe that he embellished these gardens with works of art. A large number of statues and busts have been found at all times by digging on the site of them, and in the autumn of 1765, when a new vault was opened there, two figures were found ; they were in good preservation with the exception of the heads; these were wanting, and have not been found. They represent two young maidens in light tunics, which, being loosened on the right shoulder, fall down to the middle of the upper arm. Each of them lies on an oblong socle, half stretched out, and with the upper part of the body raised and supported on the left arm ; below them is lying an unstrung bow. They are perfectly similar to a maiden in marble playmg with dice which was in the collection of the Cardinal Pol- ignac (17); the right and disengaged hand is also, as in this figure, opened for throwing the dice, and stretched downward, but of the dice no trace is to be found. General von Walmo- GREEK ART AMONG THE ROMANS. 817 den, of Hanover, during his residence at Eome, bought these figures at auction, and restored them by the addition of heads. At the same time, a large candelabrum of marble was also dis- covered there ; the shaft of it, which is covered with leaves artistically wrought, displays on two round members or capitals a number of small flames, as an allegorical ornament (18). Of the triangular base of this candelabrum only two fragments were found, the beauty of which leads us to regret the loss of the other. One fragment exhibits a Jupiter with a pointed beard, as he appears on antique Etruscan works ; but the drapery and the ornaments of the members of the base point to a blooming period in Greek art, and likewise in this figure to the imitation of the more ancient style of representing the divinities in order to render them by this means more vener- able. On the second fragment is the upper half of a young Hercules in the same attitude in which he is seen on more than one marble and on engraved gems taking the tripod from Apollo. This mutilated work was purchased by Signore Ze- lado, a Roman prelate. 17. The arts found a great friend and admirer likewise in Titus, the son and successor' of Vespasian. He did more in two years to benefit them than Tiberius during a long reign. Suetonius remarks that Titus ordered to be made an equestrian statue in ivory of Britannicus, the brother of Nero, with whom he had been educated, which was carried round the Circus every year in solemn procession (19). Of the artists of this period we know Evodus, the master of the above-mentioned beautiful head of Julia, daughter of Titus, which is engraved on a beryl ; it is in the treasury of the Abbey St. Denis, at Paris. A beautiful colossal head of Titus may be found in the Albani villa (20). 18. In the reign of Domitiau the Greeks appear to have been regarded with more favor, for whilst no coins of Corinth of the reigns of Vespasian and Titus exist, a great number, on the contrary, even of the larger size of those of this city of the time of Domitian, are remaining. From what Plutarch relates, — that the columns of Pentelic marble which were executed at Athens by order of Domitian for the temple of the Capitoline Jupiter lost their beauty of shape after they wei'e brought to Home, and wholly finished, — one might infer that good taste had very much diminished ; but the contrary of this may be 318 HISTORY OF ANCimi ART. proved from the works that have been preserved in Rome, and especially from the figures in relief on the frieze of the temple of Pallas, which this emperor caused to be erected on the Palladium forum (21). This frieze has been drawn and engraved by Sante Bartoli. The figure of Pallas, wrought in relief, and of the size of life, which stands in the middle over the entablature, suffers from the nearness at which it is now viewed, — because the pavement has been raised to half the length of the columns, — and it appears, in comparison with the crowded ornaments of the entablature, as if it were only sketched. 19. A still more honorable work for these times would be the celebrated Trophies of Marius, as they are called, if we are willing to admit the genuineness of an inscription which was formerly under them, prior to their removal from their ancient site. The inscription denoted that a freedman, whose name^ though in a mutilated state, was still legible, had caused these two works to be erected in honor of Domitian. They must be viewed as trophies of the war with the Dacians ; for after Domitian, through his generals, had extricated himself with trifling advantage from this contest with the Dacian King Decebalus, so many testimonials of honor were notwithstanding decreed to him, — as Xiphilinus informs us from Dio, — that the whole world was filled with gold and silver statues and likenesses of him. Others indeed have believed that these trophies were erected in honor of Augustus, and draw this infer- ence from the place itself on which the monument formerly stood, which was a castellum or reservoir of the Julian aqueduct of Agrippa, that is to say, a structure whence the water was distributed in different directions ; especially since it is known that Agrippa ornamented with statues and works of art build- ings of this kind attached to his aqueduct leading to Rome. But if it be admitted that this aqueduct had been repaired by Domitian, — a conjecture which is not invalidated by the silence of Frontinus, — then the probability in favor of my opinion, that they are works of the time of Domitian, is in- creased by the comparison which I have made between them and fragments of other trophies that have been discovered in the Barberini villa at Castel-Gandolfo, and been built into the walls there, that is, on the spot where the celebrated villa of this emperor was situate, showing entire similarity of work- manship and style in both (22). GREEK ART AMONG THE ROMANS. 319 20. The excellent workmanship of these Trophies, and the exceedingly beautiful ornaments on them, are conformable to the idea of art which prevailed at this time, and might, with the rilievi on the above-mentioned frieze of the temple of Minerva, situated on the Palladium forum of Domitian, be regarded as the productions of a master hand, Fabretti how- ever maintains that they are really the Trophies of Marius, and charges with ignorance those to whom they appeared as works of the time of Trajan ; he finds the workmanship so coarse and unfinished that he compares them with the figures on the Arch of Constantine, which were executed in times of barbarism. In refutation of his remarks it is necessary to have only eyesight to find precisely the opposite of what he asserts ; and with all his learning he shows so little insight into art that he views as an antique the head of the so-called mourning Province of Dacia (23) below the Eoma in the Campidoglio, as well as the modern frieze in the inner court of the Santa Croce palace. The objections adduced by this learned man in respect to the weap- ons on these Trophies are not more valid against those who ascribe them to the time of Trajan, than against me who assign them to the reign of Domitian. For upon all trophies and other monuments of subjugated nations Roman and barbaric arms are intermixed and cast promiscuously upon one another, as we see particularly on the basement of the Column of Tra- jan, where it appears to have been the design of the artist to give variety to his composition and thereby make it more beau- tiful. Among the arms upon the Trophies of which we speak, the sculptor has contented himself by giving to the shields an outlandish form, but otherwise has ornamented them in a manner always allowed to those which it was intended to suspend in temples. On each side of the Trophies, above and below, is seen a wolf, — an animal which, as well as the eagle, was one of the Roman military ensigns. The helmets are like- wise Greek or Roman in shape ; on the top of two of them sits a Sphinx, which on one carries a horse-tail, and on the other a plume. The swords also have the ancient Greek form, and the sheath terminates at its lower part in the mushroom, as it is called. Considered under this point of view, I see no reason for denying these works to the time of Trajan, but I have also equally as little hesitation in ascribing them to the reign of Domitian, especially since we can produce the inscription above 320 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. mentioned. A modern writer believes that they were erected after the battle at Actium for no other reason than that he imagines he finds a representation of water in the undulations which have been hollowed out upon the base. 21. The likenesses of Domitian are very rare, because the Eoman Senate ordered them to be utterly destroyed; hence with the exception of the beautiful head of him in the Capit- ^ oline museum, there is even in Rome until the present day only a single statue which has been acknowledged as his (24), and that is in the Giustiniani palace. It has been asserted that this is the one which according to Procopius was erected to him after his death by his wife Domitia by permission of the Senate, all other statues of him having been thrown down. This is a mistake. The latter statue was of bronze, and in existence even at the time of the writer above mentioned, whereas the formev is of marble (25). Moreover it is not true that this statue has suftered no injury, for it has been broken in two below the breast, and the arms are modern ; it is even doubtful whether the head belongs to the statue. I have said that only this statue, which is harnessed in armor, has been acknowledged as an image of Domitian, because a nude and heroic statue of him in the Aldobrandini villa has not been noticed. 22. At last in the spring of 1758 another undoubted heroic statue of Domitian was found at a place called alia Colonna, which is situate between Frascati and Palestrina, precisely on the spot where shortly before a Venus had been discovered, and in the previous century Inscriptions, which denoted that here had been a villa of a freedman of this very emperor. It was without legs or arms, — with the exception of a hand which has been preserved over the hip, — and was found at a small depth below the surface ; hence it is very much corroded. There are visible signs of the great violence that had been exercised upon it in the shape of cross cuts and deep thrusts, from which we may conjecture that this statue also had been thrown from its base and hacked and broken in the rage that was felt towards the memory of Domitian, for even his name was hewn out and obliterated from the inscriptions on which it was found (26). The head, which was detached, was found much deeper, and hence it had suffered less. This statue is nude and of great beauty (27). The head had been encircled by a crown of bronze ; the pins to which it was fastened are GREEK ART AMONG THE ROMANS. 321 still visible. The Cardinal Alexander Albani caiised it to be restored, and it now stands, together with other statues of emperors, beneath the larger portico of the palace in his villa. 23. Of the time of Nerva there remains nothing except a portion of his forum, and especially the superb Corinthian columns of a portico, together with the roof of it, and a few heads. In regard to the ceiling of the portico, — which is decorated with the so-called Meanders, — I observe that it corroborates the explanation given by Hesychius of the word ixalavhpos, which he understands to mean K6(Tfji.o<: rts 6po4>iK6<;, that is to say, an ornament of ceilings. I make the remark because a more modern critic, whose name escapes my recollec- tion just at this moment, wishes to read ypa^t/cos instead of opocfyLKO's, a presumed emendation which he supposed would give a more general signification to this ornament, and make it apply to painting of every kind. In fact Meanders are found in great number upon all ancient paintings and vases, but are very rare on the ceilings of ancient buildings. There is not another example in Rome of this ornament than that on the ceiling of the portico above mentioned, and in edifices outside of Rome only one ceiling at Palmyra is known to me (28). 24. A very beautiful and rare head of this emperor is in the Capitoline museum. It is very erroneously pronounced by the commentator of this museum to be a work of Algardi, whereas he restored merely the tip of the nose and ear, and proceeded so cautiously in the renovation of this image that he scrupled to allow the dirt which had accumulated between the hairs to be rubbed away (29). The Cardinal Alexander Albani, through whom this head went into the museum where it now is, re- ceived it from the brother of the last deceased Prince Pamfili, the last of his house, in whose villa the bust stood. But the Marquis Rondinini possesses a bust in perfect preservation, together with its ancient socle, which is probably also a bust of this emperor, and is one of the few heads which have not had the nose injured. 25. According to Fulvius Ursinus, the seated figure of a Greek teacher of language would be of the time of Nerva. The inscription on the socle calls him M. METTIUS EPA- PHRODITUS ; the statue was erected to him by his brother. Fulvius Ursinus, by whom it was made known, believes that it may represent a certain Epaphroditus of Chseronea, who accord- VOL. II. 21 822 BISTORT OF ANCIENT ART. ing to Suidas lived in tlie reigns of Nero and Nerva. This fig^ure, which is not quite half the size of nature, stands in the court of the Altieri palace in Campitelli, at Rome. 26. Under Trajan Rome and the whole Roman empire re- ceived new life, and he began, after so many disturbances of the peace, to encourage artists by the great works which he under- took. The honor of a statue, which he did not arrogate to him- self alone to the exclusion of others, but shared with deserving men, may have been very serviceable to art ; indeed we find that' on the death of young persons of great promise statues were erected to them. A statue of a senator in a sitting posi- tion, made by one Zeno, the son of Attis of Aphrodisium, which stands in the Ludovisi villa, apparently belongs to this period. The name of the artist is on the border of the mantle, and has hitherto escaped observation (30). There is reason to believe that a school of art had been opened at that time, in the said city of Caria, — if, among many others of a similar name, we select the most celebrated, — because several different names of artists of Aphrodisium have come down to us. Another Zeno, of Staphis in Asia, who placed on the tomb of his son of a similar name an image of him in form of a half-draped Her- mes, as appears from the inscription on it nineteen lines in length, cannot have flourished at a much later period (31). The strange head which is placed upon this Hermes does not permit a more probable inference in regard to the date of it. Tliis monument may be found in the Negroni villa. But I do not know where to place one Antiochus of Athens, the artist of a Pallas twice as large as life, which stands in the Ludovisi villa. The statue is bad and clumsy, and the writing appears older than writings of this date (32). 27. The greatest work of the age of Trajan is his column, which stands in the middle of the forum (33) constructed at his order by Apollodorus of Athens. In commemoration of the event a rare golden coin was struck, which presents on the re- verse of it a view of one of the buildings of this square. If any one has an opportunity to study the figures on the column from a plaster cast, he will be amazed at the infinite variety in the many thousand heads which it exhibits. The head of the co- lossal statue of this emperor which stood upon the column was still in existence ia the sixteenth century, but no later notice of it is to be found. The noble Venetian abbot, Farsetti, who GREEK ART AMONG THE ROMANS. 323 with royal expenditure caused casts to be taken of the best an- tique statues in Rome, and thought to make himself a bene- factor to his native land by founding an academy of painting at Venice, had also formed the design of having a new cast taken from the whole column. The bargain indeed was concluded for nine thousand dollars ; the expense of the scaffolding would have been borne by Signore Farsetti. 28. Of the buildings in the forum of Trajan by which that column was surrounded, and of which the roof or arched ceiling was of bronze, some idea may be formed from a pillar of the most beautiful white and black granite, discovered there in Au- gust, 1765, of which the diameter was eight palms and a half (G ft. 2 in.). It was disinterred by the workmen employed in digging for the foundation of a flight of steps to the imperial palace, and with it was found also a fragment of the upper moulding or the cornice of the architrave, of white marble, which rested upon the column, and is more than six palms (4 ft. 3 in.) in height. Now as the cornice is a third part and even less of the entablature, this latter must have been more than eighteen palms (13 ft. 1 in.) in height. The Cardinal Alexander Albani had this fragment removed to his villa and arranged ; and he put upon it an inscription denoting the place where it was found. Five more columns of similar size were discovered lying in the very same place, but they were left buried in the earth, because no one was willing to bear the expense of bringing them to the surface ; upon these columns the foundation of the flight of stairs above mentioned is placed (34). After the Column of Trajan, the colossal head' of this emperor in the villa of the Cardinal Alexander Albani may be considered as the noblest work of art which has been preserved. It is five Roman palms (3 ft. 7 in.) from the pit of the neck to the crown of the head (35). 29. As Apollodorus came from Athens by order of Trajan to conduct the erection of this forum, it seems that in everything relative to art the Greeks were always preferred. Indeed their language was more liked in Rome than even the Roman, — which is shown among other proofs by the histories written in the Greek language by Roman authors. Hence it happened that the Romans allowed tombstones with Greek inscriptions to be placed upon their tombs, and on the socle of a Roman statue which was extant in Rome in our fathers' days stood the 824 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. ■words, KAAOS TEAf2 NH2ANTI, To the upright tax-gatherer, — who must have been a Roman. A short time ago the follow- ing Roman inscription in Greek letters was found ; it is not, to judge from the form of them, of a very late time of the Roman Emperors : — J. ^ M. TITIAI. G/Jnizll. MJPKOTC. TlTIOrC. ZHNOBIOm KON lOrn, BC'NQ MGPeNTI. 0HKIT. that is, D. M. TITIAE. HELPIDI. MAR CVS. TITIVS. ZENO BIVS. CONIVGI. BENE MERENTL FECIT. To God the Greatest. Erected by Marcus Titius Zenobius to Titia Elpis, his well-deserving wife. This monument is now in the villa of the Cardinal Alexander Albani. 30. The Arch of Trajan at Ancona deserves mention in this place in an architectural point of view, for into no other antique building are marble blocks of so astonishing magnitude intro- duced. The base of the arch to the foot of the columns is of one single piece ; its length is twenty-six Roman palms and a third (19 ft. 2 in.), its breadth seventeen and a half (12 ft. 9 in.), hnd its height thirteen palms (9 ft. 5 in.). On the top of the arch stood an equestrian statue of the emperor ; one hoof of the horse is still preserved in the council-house at Ancona. The piers of the bridge built by Trajan across the Danube served after the bridge was pulled down merely, as Dion says, to prove the wonderful strength of the human faculties. 31. Of public works of art constructed during Trajan's reign there now remain — in addition to the beautiful fragments of his arch from which Constantino constructed his own (36) — fragments of great works in relief which are lying in the Bor- ghese villa, and which appear to have belonged either to another triumphal arch of this emperor, or to another public building of his forum, such as the Basilica Ulpia, of which the rare gold I GREEK ART AMONG THE ROMANS. 325 coin mentioned above was intended to give a view. These rilievi represent warriors with their standards in figures eleven palms (8 ft.) high ; the leader can be distinguished among them but not recognized, because the head has been pared off. But the bust of Trajan is distinctly visible on one of the round shields of the standards, and on another of these fragments is a standard having two shields, on the lower one of which appears to be the image of Nerva, and on the upper that of Trajan again. Under Caligula the Roman ensigns bore two shields, namely, one of himself and another of Augustus, by whom the Parthian king Artabanus was conquered. Under Tiberius too the standards bore, together with an image of himself, the escutcheon of Sejanus also, which only the legions in Syria refused to suspend upon their standards. To these same struc- tures apparently belonged the two captive kings in marble which stand in the Farnese palace, for they were found in the forum of Trajan (37). These are the figures which the great designer Polidoro da Caravaggio, the pupil of Raphael, has frequently introduced into his works. 32. The great care is well known which Trajan manifested in repairing the injuries done to works of art. It is a foolish thought on the part of MafFei, when he supposes an armed war- rior on horseback, — engraved in alto on a gem, — who is in the act of thrusting a spear through a naked figure that Jies on the ground, to be Trajan ; neither Trajan has thought so unworthily of himself, nor any Roman of him. A remarkable monument of the art of this age is a beautiful nude Venus, whose robe is lying upon a tall vase near her. The head of this statue, which belongs to it and has never been detached, resembles Marciana the sister of Trajan. It stands in the garden behind the Farnese palace. In the same place stands a Venus similar to it, differing only in the vase at her feet, upon which the mantle lies. This Venus has her usual beautiful face, but the head-dress is exactly like that of the former, that is, the head is surmounted by a braid wound round it so as to resemble a capital, as on the heads of Marciana on coins. The side-hair is arranged in peculiar turns, and kept in place by a thin ribbon which passes through each lock. On the forehead there is fastened something like a flower formed of precious stones, which we commonly term an Agraffe. A gloriously beautiful draped Marciana stands in the Negroni villa (38). I cannot 326 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. refrain from mentioning here a rare gold coin which on one side has the head of Plotina, wife of Trajan, and on the other the head of Marciana, sister of Trajan. More than two hundred dollars were paid for it. It is now in the museum of the col- lege St. Ignatius, in Rome (39). 33. Greece itself seems to have had no share in the great works constructed by order of this emperor. Among the Greeks there was not even an opportunity for the practice of the arts, since it is not probable that statues were erected in any Greek city to any persons except the emperors. But if at that time the Greeks wished to show such honor to an individ- ual, they laid hands on the statues of former celebrated men, and contented themselves by changing the inscription upon them so that a statue representing a Greek hero was dedicated in defiance of the likeness to a Roman prsetor, or any other person, — a proceeding for which Dio Chrysostom reproaches the Rhodians in a special discourse. This preacher lived in the times of which we now speak. GREEK ART UNDER THE ROMANS. 327 BOOK XII. GREEK ART UNDER THE ROMANS. CHAPTER I. UNDER THE ROMAN CiESARS. 1. Trajan was succeeded by Adrian, the greatest friend, patron, and connoisseur of art, who is said even to have exe- cuted statues with his own hand ; so that this emperor, as a shameless flatterer says, may stand as a statuary and artist by the side of the celebrated sculptors Polycletus and Euphranor. If from his prepossession in favor of the earlier mode of writing the Roman language, we could draw an inference in regard to art, we should say that he sought to renew the ancient style in the latter also. Together with this love for art he had a boundless desire to see and know everything. This was the principal reason of the great journeys which he made in the sixth year of his reign to all the Roman provinces, so that coins are extant of seventeen countries through which he had travelled. He went even to Arabia and Egypt, the latter of which he had, as he himself says in a letter to the consul Severianus, thor- oughly studied. 2. In the person of Adrian art was elevated to the throne, and the Greeks, so to say, with it ; for Greece had never expe- rienced a more favorable time nor had a more powerful friend since the loss of its freedom. He proposed to replace Greece in its previous state of freedom, — since he proclaimed it to be a free land, — and sought to restore to the Grecian cities their former splendor. With this view he began to build not only in Athens, as vigorously as Pericles had done in former times, but even in all the celebrated cities in Greece as well as in Asia Minor, ornamenting them with public edifices, aque- ducts, and baths. A temple which he caused to be erected at Cyzicum was counted among the seven wonders of the world, 828 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. and the astonishing ruins there, which for a long time have been used by the inhabitants of the place for building purposes, are probably the remnants of it. He surrendered to the Par- thians an extensive region, that he might, as it appears, have leisure also for the execution of his great plans. 3. But Adrian exhibited a very striking preference toward Athens, partly because this city had been the seat of the arts, and partly because he had dwelt there many years, and had administered the office of archon. He restored to the Athe- nians the island of Cephalonia, built the temple of Bacchus, and completed that of the Olympian Jupiter at Athens, after it had lain in an unfinished state during seven hundred years from the time of Pisistratus, and it was a work of many stadia in circumference. In it he caused to be placed among other statues made of gold and ivory a colossal statue of Jupiter of the same materials, as we are informed by Pausanias (1). In this tem- ple every Roman city erected a statue to the emperor himself. 4. The zeal of Adrian for art awakened a similar enthusiasm among the Greeks also, so that the orator, Herod of Athens, on this account surnamed Atticus, alone erected statues in several Greek cities, and also built at his own expense outside of Ath- ens on the banks of the river Ilyssus an entirely new stadium of white marble, together with a theatre at Athens and Corinth. 5. The delight of this emperor in building and giving en- couragement to art was not however confined merely to Greece, but the cities of Italy were able to boast of similar munificence. In regard to buildings erected by Adrian in Italy outside of Rome, I limit myself to quoting an inscription which has proba- bly not been correctly understood; it is supposed to refer to the amphitheatre at Capua, because it is said to have been found near this edifice, but it is applicable to the theatre of the same city which is not more than fifty paces from the am- phitheatre. Mazzocchi, by whom the inscription has been re- stored, understands that the half-projecting columns of the amphitheatre are meant to be the columns which, accord- ing to the inscription, Adrian added, not reflecting that these columns, as in all amphitheatres, are hewn out of the same piece with the courses of stones from which they project. Also the same author has not considered that in such a build- ing there is no place for statues, that only theatres can be orna- mented with them and with columns. Of both these assertions GREEK ART UNDER WE ROMANS. 329 we have proof in a few columns of yellow antique, two palms and three quarters (2 ft.) in diameter, and many statues, which were dug out a few years before from the theatre at Capua, where the excavation is still visible. These columns together with the statues stand at Caserta, and are intended for the royal palace in that place. Among the statues the most beau- tiful is a Venus Victrix, who has the left foot placed upon a helmet. With the exception of the arms, which are wanting, it is in perfect preservation. 6. In Rome itself Adrian built the splendid tomb which is now know by the name of St. Angelo. Besides the colonnades by which it was surrounded, the whole building was overlaid with white marble, and ornamented by a row of statues. Afterwards it was used as a fortress, and when the Romans were besieged in it by the Goths they defended themselves by throwing the statues down upon their enemies. Among them was the cele- brated Sleeping Faun now in the Barberini palace ; it is larger than life, and was found by the workmen employed in clearing out the ditch of the castle. The statue of the emperor on a chariot with four horses, which is said to have stood on the summit of this, his tomb, would have been one of the greatest works in sculpture that were executed by his orders; and, if we may believe the writer who makes the statement, the work was on so vast a scale that a stout man could creep into the cavities formed by the hollow eyes of the horses. It is even pretended that it was hewn from a single block of marble. But the whole story seems to be a Greek lie of the time of the writer, corresponding with the account given by another Greek author of these times of the head of a statue .of Juno at Con- stantinople which four yoke of oxen could scarcely draw. Adrian caused statues to be erected to all his friends, not only when they were dead but even during their lifetime, and on the forum at Rome. 7. Of the many works executed by Adrian in the four years that intervened between his return to Rome and his death, the greatest was probably his villa near Tivoli, the ruins of which embrace a circuit of ten miles. They include in addition to many temples and other buildings two theatres, one of which gives a very distinct idea of the arrangement of all the ancient theati'es in the world, because the entire scena is preserved. He even caused to be made here a representation of the most 330 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. celebrated regions and edifices in Greece, including the places which were known under the name of the Elysian Fields. Among other buildings the Hundred Chambers, as they are called, are celebrated and worthy of being seen ; in these the imperial guard was placed. They were apartments having no communication one with another except by means of a wooden corridor on the outside, in which sentinels could be stationed and the passage closed. There are two rows of arches one above the other ; in the angle formed by them is a round tower, in which it is supposed that the corps de garde was stationed. By means of a wooden floor, which rested on pro- jecting stones that are still visible, two rooms were formed in each arch ; in one of these is found at the present day the abbreviation of a soldier's name done in black, as if written by a finger. This building was constructed with such lavish splendor that a very large pond in which naval battles are supposed to have been represented was lined throughout with yellow marble. On digging in it there was found in addition to many skeletons of goats, a large number of heads in marble and other harder stones, many of which were bruised from strokes with an axe. The Cardinal Polignac retained the best of them. There were long corridors for walking laid in mosaic, large fragments of which are still to be seen ; the floors of the rooms were covered with the same kind of work, though com- posed of smaller stones. An infinite number of tables in mo- saic — some of which are in Rome, and some elsewhere — was found beneath the rubbish of these ruins. All the museums of entire Europe have been enriched with statues that have been dug out from this place in great numbers within the last two and a half centuries. Excavations are still going on and statues are found at the present day, and there will still remain discoveries to be made by future generations. The Cardinal of Este, who built his villa on the ruins of the villa of Macsenas at Tivoli, embellished it with a countless number of statues that were found there. They were by degrees purchased and re- moved by the Cardinal Alexander Albani ; and the larger por- tion of them have been incorporated by him into the Capitoline museum. 8. In addition to the most exquisite works in marble which have come from this same villa of Adrian, and of which I shall speak hereafter, I mention in the first place the celebrated pic- OREEK ART UNDER THE ROMANS. 331 ture in mosaic representing a cup full of water, on the edge of which sit four doves, one of which is about to drink. The value of this work consists principally in the fact that it is composed throughout of gems of the very smallest size, and may therefore be regarded as probably the sole specimen of its kind ; for in all other such pictures, — even in those which I shall describe hereafter, — the assistance of glass- paste has been used for the purpose of bringing out colors which it is difficult to find in gems. It was found set in the centre of the floor of a room which was laid with coarser mosaic, and around it was a stripe of flower-work as a border, about a hand in breadth, and of work equally as fine as the centre. Of this stripe, which went round the room forming a square on the floor, the Cardinal Alexander Albani caused a piece a palm broad (8.75 in.) and four palms long to be set in a table-slab of Oriental alabaster in his villa ; and his Royal Highness, the Electoral Prince of Saxony, when he was in Rome, received from him a similar table-slab containing a piece of these bands still longer, but of the same breadth and workmanship (2). 9. This picture was bought for the Capitoline museum by the Pope, Clement XIII., from the heirs of the Cardinal Fu- rietti, by whom a treatise was written for the express purpose of describing it. He has endeavored to show that this is the same piece which was placed by one Sosus in the pavement of a temple at Pergamus, because it was similar to this. But repetitions exist of innumerable antique works, and many of the copies perfectly resemble each other. It is foolish however to pretend that Adrian, by whom almost all Greek cities, even in Asia, were embellished with temples, public edifices, and statues, should have caused a small piece of mosaic to be removed from the pavement of a temple at Pergamus to orna- ment a pavement in his villa. The chief reason of its former possessor for his belief is that this mosaic was found to be inserted in a singular manner in the pavement, as I have re- marked, and from this circumstance it has been inferred that it was not executed at the place where it was discovered, but had been carried thither from some other place. This opinion has but little weight the moment we reflect upon the great labor of raising from the original pavement a work composed of innumerable small stones, and transporting it from Asia to Rome. In this case it must be assumed still further that the 332 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. above-mentioned stripes of flower-work, of equally fine work- manship, must also have been brought from Pergamus, — a supposition which appears wholly incredible. But the ground- lessness of the assumption is made especially clear if we con- sider that a mosaic of such a kind, and of so fine and laborious workmanship, could not possibly have been executed like the pavement of coarser workmanship and at the same time with it, and consequently it was requisite to execute the former separately, and insert it afterwards in its place. That this was a customary manner of proceeding we see in two equally fine pictures in mosaic which were excavated from the ruins of the ashes-buried city of Pompeii ; for they were set in the middle of a floor of coarse mosaic in such a manner that they were lined by thin slabs of marble not only on the sides, but also on their \mder surface. These two valuable pieces of equal size and two palms (17| in.) high were executed by the same artist, who was named Dioscorides. He was a native of Samos, as we learn from the following inscription on them in small black stones : — MOZKOrpIJHi: ZAMIOi: Er°IHZE, Dioscorides the Samian made. 10. The reader will not, I believe, be displeased to read in this place a description of these two pictures. The first one was found, on the 28th of April, 1763, in the buried city of Pompeii, in the centre of the pavement of a room. It indicates the magnificence of the ancients, and of the building in which it was formerly placed. It consists of three female figures, — having comic masks before their faces, and playing upon instru- ments, — and a child. The first figure on the right hand rep- resents an old woman playing the tambourine ; the second, having likewise a mask of advanced age, is standing, and strik- ing together small cymbals ; the third, a younger figure which is seen in profile, is sitting, and playing upon two flutes at the same time ; the child is blowing a reed-pipe. The small stones for the groundwork of this picture are not larger than a section cut from the very top of a quill, and they diminish in size in the figures until they can no longer be distinguished by the unassisted eye. Even the hairs of the eyebrows are expressed on the masks. GREEK ART UNDER THE ROMANS. 333 11. The second picture was discovered on the 8th of Febru- ary, 1764, and entirely exposed in my presence. In this also are executed three female figures with comic masks before their faces, and a boy without a mask. The first figure on the right sits on a stool without arms ; it is covered by a tapestry worked in small squares of three colors, yellow, red, and carnation, from which long tassels hang down in rows ; upon it lies a cushion, worked in stripes of the same colors. This figure is listening attentively to the one sitting near, and appears to be wringing her two hands, as one is accustomed to do in astonishment or perplexity. The second figure is sitting before an elegant table, supported by three legs, on which is a white casket ; near the latter lies a cup or crater with a foot formed by three lion's- paws ; by her side lies a sprig of laurel. This figure has a yel- low robe thrown around it, and is reciting something, as the action of one of the hands denotes. Both figures wear youthful masks. The third figure, with the mask of an aged woman, holds a cup in one hand, and has likewise a yellow drapery, which is drawn up upon the head. Near her stands a small boy wrapped in a mantle (3). 1 2. The life and reign of Adrian are more celebrated in what- ever relates to art than the reigns of other emperors ; they have indeed by this means become immortal ; consequently the art of design of this epoch demands a more circumstantial consid- eration, especially since we have regarded it as it existed during the reign of Adrian as the last school of the kind, and which survived scarcely fifty years after his death. The reader will here recollect the remarks in the first chapter of the first part of this History (Bk. II., ch. 3), upon the imitations of Egyptian works made by his direction ; I must at least touch upon the subject again in this place. 13. We see from such works that Adrian had grasped the art of sculpture in. its entire compass ; and it is probable that he likewise caused imitations of the Etruscan style to be made. But with those statues he garnished a temple of his villa, the one which of all the temples erected there has remained in the best state of preservation ; probably it is the building which Spartianus calls the Canopus. In this villa there must have been hundreds of such figures executed after the Egyptian manner, since — leaving out of the account those which have been broken into fragments, or still lie buried in the rubbish 334 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. and those which have been carried away from Rome — there is still a considerable number remaining here. Through such works Adrian carried sculpture back as it were to its earliest stages, and to the elements of drawing, which exacts greater accuracy and is more open to critical examination in figures of this kind in proportion to their simplicity and freedom from ornament. But as he caused the closest imitation to be made at the outset, it appears to have been his intention to proceed step by step in his imitation, not only changing as the more ancient Egyptian style changed, but also exhibiting the pro- gress which the art of the Egyptians might be supposed capable of making, provided that it had not been shackled by the laws. (4). For, as I have previously remarked, figures are found wrought from red granite in the most ancient style of the Egyptians, and it is proved that they are imitations by the two statues larger than life at Tivoli, the heads of which show a true likeness of Antinous (5). Further, we notice statues which exhibit the second style of the artists of this nation, for the black marble of which they are made is a proof that they did not originate in Egypt ; and finally there are figures of this same marble which have been designed indeed in the Egyptian style, but in which the position of the arms is freer. Examples of both these kinds are contained in the Capitoline museum and the Albaui villa, and more perhaps of such imitations have been preserved than of the genuine Greek style, which Adrian appar- ently was striving to restore to its former perfection. 14. I begin the account of these works with the two Cen- taurs of black marble, — formerly in the possession of the Car- dinal Furietti above mentioned, — which, together with the mosaic of the Doves previously mentioned, were bought by Clement XIII. for thirteen thousand dollars, and incorporated into the Capitoline museum. These Centaurs are not, as it is commonly pretended, wrought from Egyptian stone, by which the value of them would be enhanced, but from a hard blackish marble which is called Bigio, "gray marble" (6). I mention these statues first among the works of art of Adrian's reign, not because they are the best of the time, but rather for the contrary'- reason, and because the names of the Greek artists Aristeas and Papias, of Aphrodisium, are engraven on the so- cles. They were found in the Tiburtine villa of Adrian, very much damaged and broken, and consequently required much GREEK ART UNDER THE ROMANS. 335 restoration. Children must have ridden on them as on the Centaur in the Borghese villa, as we may infer from a large square hole on the backs of them in which the riding figure was fastened ; and as these children were not wrought from the same block with the Centaurs, they were probably of bronze. From the crooked stick, named kayw/SoXov, that is, which is throwji at hares, held by the younger Centaur, it seems as though it may represent Chiron in the character of a cele- brated hunter who educated Jason, Theseus, Achilles, and other heroes, and instructed them in the chase. These statues how- ever are not an example of the highest brilliancy attained by sculpture under Adrian ; they are valuable rather because they compose a pair, and are signed with the names of the Greek artists, 15, The glory and the crown of sculpture in this age as well as in all others are two likenesses of Antinous, One of them, in the Albani villa, is executed in relief ; the other is a colossal head in the Mondragone villa above Frascati, Engravings of both are to be found in my Ancient Monuments. 16, The former, which represents the half-figure of the favor- ite of Adrian, was likewise disinterred from his villa, but it is only a fragment of a larger work. There was not only an en- tire figure larger than life, — as we may infer from the inner side of it which has been hollowed out for the purpose of les- sening the weight of the marble, — but it probably stood on a chariot. For the right hand, which is empty, is in a position that leads one to conclude that it must have held the reins, the other end of which was probably in the grasp of the left hand which now holds a crown of flowers, placed in it at the time the work was restored. In this magnificent work would therefore have been represented the Consecration or the Deification of Antinous, as we know that the figures of the individuals who were outraged by such excessive, despicable flattery were placed upon cars, — to signify their elevation and translation to the gods (7). 17, The colossal head of this same young man, in the Mon- dragone villa, is three times larger than natural, and in so un- injured a state that it seems to have just come fresh from the artist's hands ; and I hold it no heresy to say — so grand and lofty is the art displayed in it — that, next to the Vatican Apollo and the Laocoon, it is the most beautiful work which 336 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. has come down to us. If it were permitted to make casts in gypsum from it, our artists might study it as one of the high- est models of beauty ; for since colossal forms require a great artist who knows how to pass as it were beyond the limits of nature without losing softness and tenderness in the unusually great outlines, it is consequently a proof of skill to be able to copy them. Besides its beauty, the hair and the execution of it have not their equal in all antiquity ; so that one may say this head is one of the most beautiful things in the world. As it was originally mortised into a trunk, I leave it to the reader or the spectator to reflect what a work the whole figure must have been. The eyes are inserted, and are covered with silver- leaf, as I have pointed out in that portion (Book VII., ch. 2) of the 'fourth chapter which treats of the mechanical part of art. 18. Both heads have a garland of lotus, which was called at Alexandria Antinoeia, — as being the garland peculiar to An- tinoiis. On the bust the garland is composed apparently merely of the flowers of the plant ; but on the large head the stalk of the lotus is twined in different directions among the hair, which is bound by a fillet, and its flowers were formed of another material and soldered to it, as we can see from the holes bored on each side of the stalk. On the top of the head is a square hole three fingers in breadth, in which probably stood a large lotus-flower. 19. Besides these heads, a statue of Antinoiis, the most beautiful one, the head of which is crowned with ivy like Bac- chus, is in the Casali villa, within the bounds of which, that is to say on Mount Coelius, it was disinterred ; another statue on which a head of Antinoiis was set was sent a short time ago from Rome to Potsdam ; a bust of him, formerly in the collec- tion of Christina, queen of Sweden, stands now at St. Ildefonso in Spain. Generally speaking, there are no heads more numer- ous than the likenesses of this Bithynian. The most beautiful of the busts, properly so termed, which I have seen, is that in the choice museum of the Bevilacqua mansion at Verona ; it is a matter of regret that the left shoulder is wanting. Of heads engraved on gems, one of the most beautiful was in the museum of °the Zanetti brothers at Venice, from whom it was purchased by the Duke of Marlborough (8). 20. The Antinous of the Belvedere, as it is called without reason, is commonly pronounced the most beautiful monument GREEK ART UNDER TEE ROMANS. 33T of art of the reign of Adrian,— on the erroneous supposition that this statue represents his favorite ; there is more proba- biUty that it represents Meleager, or some other young hero. It is placed among statues of the first class, as it deserves, more on account of the beauty of individual parts than of the perfection of the whole ; for the legs and feet together with the belly are far inferior in form and workmanship to the rest of the figure. The head is indisputably one of the most beautiful youthful heads of antiquity (9). In the look of the Apollo majesty and pride predominate ; but here is an image of the grace of sweet youth, and of the beauty of the flower of life, stamped with pleasing innocence and soft attractions without an indication of a single passion which could possibly disturb the concord of the parts and the youthful stillness of the soul. This state of repose, and, as it were, of enjoyment of itself, in which the senses are concentrated and withdrawn from all out- ward objects, is impressed upon the whole bearing of this noble figure. The eye which, as in the Goddess of Love, is moder- ately rounded, but without desire, speaks with captivating innocence ; the small mouth with its full lips breathes emotions which are apparently unfelt ; the cheeks of lovely fulness, and the softly prominent chin, roundly arched, complete the descrip- tion of the admirable outline of this noble youth. But in the forehead we see more indeed than the youth ; in its height and prominence like the forehead of Hercules, it proclaims the hero. The breast is strongly arched, and the shoulders, sides, and hips are wonderfully beautiful. But the legs are wanting in that beauty of shape required by such a body ; the feet are coarsely executed, and the navel is scarcely indicated ; and in general the style is different from that of the time of Adrian. 21. Among the portraits of Adrian himself the most beautiful one in marble is a colossal head in the Borghese palace (10). In the museum of the Bevilacqua family at Verona there is a perfectly preserved bust of him at a younger age, and with a short beard. It is remarkable on account of the hair, which does not lie in locks over the forehead as usual, but is uncurled. The most beautiful head of this emperor is a cameo. The gem on which it was engraved was once in the royal Farnese museum at Capo di Monte in Naples, and passed thence into the hands of the Count Von Thoms, son-in-law of the celebrated Boer- haave, how and in what way I leave the reader to conjecture * VOL. II. 22 ' 338 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. but it is now in the museum of the Prince of Orange. A small equestrian statue of Adrian, as it is claimed, two feet high, in the Mattel villa, scarcely deserved mention, far less to be the subject of a fiery pamphlet, especially as the author at the time he wrote had not seen the figure itself ; moreover it does not bear the slightest resemblance to the emperor (11). A torso of a statue in mail with the head of this emperor, and another similar torso with the head of Antonius Pius, stand in the Euspoli palace, and it is commonly asserted that these were statues that had consisted of two pieces, one of which was fitted into the other, because both fragments are smoothly wrought below the edge of the coat of mail. Ficoroni adduces this as a rare instance, and it would be important if it was true. But it is easy to see that these stumps have been cut off by a more modern hand as high as the harness for the purpose of dimin- ishing the cost of restoration of those parts which were wanting. I take the occasion also to remark that the large imperial medallions of bronze were first stamped during the reign of Adrian. This being admitted, it follows that all those in the royal museum at Vienna (12) purporting to be of earlier em- perors are confessedly counterfeit. Of the medallions of Adrian in this cabinet one of the most beautiful is hollow, and for many years this rare piece hung instead of a bell at the neck of a mule belonging to a muleteer in the subiirbs of Rome (13). 22. If it had been possible to restore to art its former bril- liancy it would have been done by Adrian, who possessed the requisite knowledge, and spared no exertions for the purpose ; but the spirit of liberty had departed from the world, and the source which had given birth to lofty thoughts and glorious deeds had disappeared. Even the diminishing superstition of the age, and the increasing spread of the Christian religion, which strictly speaking began during this emperor's reign, may be assigned as one cause of his want of success. Learning, which Adrian wished to encourage, was wasted on useless trifles, and eloquence, which was taught by salaried orators, was for the most part nothing but sophistry; the emperor himself wished to suppress Homer, and to install Antimachus in his place (14). With the exception of Lucian, the style of the Greek writers of this age is sometimes unsuitable, and some- times so elaborate and artificial as to become obscure ; such for example was that of Aristides. Notwithstanding all the privi- GEUEK ART UNDER THE ROMANS. 339 leges granted to the Athenians, they were compelled by cir- cumstances to offer for sale certain islands which they had hitherto maintained. Art could not improve any more than science, and the style of the artists of this period is visibly different from that of an earlier age, — a change which was observed at the time, as we learn from some remarks made by contemporaneous writers and quoted above. The assistance which Adrian rendered to art may be likened to the food pre- scribed by physicians to their patients, preventing them from dying, but affording them no nourishment. 340 EISTOEY OF ANCIENT ART. CHAPTER 11. UNDER THE ROMAN C^SARS. — (Continued.) 1. The arts were esteemed by the Antonines, and Marcus Aurelius moreover encouraged them by the erection of statues to deserving men. He honored with three statues the memory of Vindex, who fell in the war with the Marcomanni, and he caused statues to be ei'ected on the Forum of Trajan to all those who had fallen in the German war distinguished by their valor. He understood drawing, in which he was instructed by Diog- netus, a wise painter, who was also his teacher in philosophy. But good artists began to be rare, and the esteem in which they were once generally held died away, as we are authorized to infer from the opinions of the time. The sophists, who were now as it were raised to the throne, and for whom the Anto- nines founded pi'ofessorships, and paid large salaries for their lungs and voices, men without any special sense or taste, bawled out against everything which was not learned, and a skilful artist was in their view nothing but a handicraftsman (1). Their opinion of art was the same as that which Lucian in his Dream puts into the mouth of Learning ; young persons were taught indeed that it was an indication of a mean spirit even to wish to become a Phidias. Hence it is almost a matter of wonder that Arrian, a writer of this period, regarded it as a misfortune that he had not seen the Jupiter of Phidias. 2. The reign of the Antonines is in art like the apparent im- provement shortly before death of persons dangerously ill, when life is reduced to a thin thread of breath ; it resembles the flame of a lamp which, before it is entirely extinguished, gathers the remaining oil together, flares up into one bright blaze, and then instantly disappears. There were artists still living who had been educated during the time of Adrian, and to these the great works of the Antonines and their court, but even more their judgment, and the good taste yet remaining, gave oppor- GREEK ART UNDER THE ROMANS. 341 tunities for the display of their skill ; but after this period art sunk at once. Antoninus Pius built his magnificent villa near Lanuvium, the ruins of which are witnesses of its vastness. Of the sumptuousness of it a proof may be found in a silver cock from which the water flowed into the baths. It was dug out about forty years ago at the place above named; it weighed between thirty and forty pounds, and bore the inscription, FAVSTINAE NOSTRAE. In the baths of Claudius also the waters ran through silver pipes. 3. In the ruins of that villa a beautiful female statue, nude to the thighs, and without a head, was discovered by the Car- dinal Alexander Albani in the year 1714; the left hand is resting upon a rudder, which is supported on a Triton. A por- tion of the base has been preserved, and on it are three knives or daggers wrought in relief. Hitherto these have been viewed as the three points which were in ancient times attached to the bows of ships, and were named tfx/SoXot and rostra, "beaks," because they were used for striking. But on the ship with two rudders which stands in the garden of the Barberini house at Palestrina, and which was first published by me, daggers exactly like those are found, not on the bow, but on that part of the stern where it begins to curve upward. 4. This statue might represent a Venus with the epithet of EvTrJVoia, Of the Lucky Voyage, as the name by which she was worshipped in the island of Cnidus, but it is more probably a Thetis. As it has one leg raised, and Isis is represented in a small figure in the Ludovisi villa on the stern of a vessel, like- wise standing with one leg raised, I have concluded that Thetis may have been figured in a similar manner ; and this conjec- ture was considered sufficiently reasonable to warrant the restoration of the base of the statue after the model of the boat at Palestrina. Consequently the base of it was originally alle- gorical, even as it is at the present day, — an opinion which is confirmed by the base of a statue of Protesilaus which had the shape of the bow of a vessel, because this king of Phthya in Thessaly was the first to spring from his vessel upon the Trojan shore, and to be slain by the hand of Hector (2). 6. This Thetis must however be ascribed to an earlier age of art than that of the Antonines, since it is unquestionably one of the most beautiful of ancient figures. In no other female statue, the Venus de' Medici itself hardly excepted, is visible in 342 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. an equal degree the youthful bloom of spotless years on the verge of their maturity, — as manifested in the gentle swell of the timid modest breasts, — yet clothed in a shape so noble and slender, although tall beyond the usual growth of such an age. From this body, worthy of the Goddess of Youth, there rises in the imagination of every one who views it a head that resem- bles the opening bud of a vernal rose; and we seem to see Thetis ascending from the bosom of the ocean, just as a beauti- ful woman seems most beautiful at the moment when she rises from her bed. But the connoisseur of the loftier beauties of the Greeks replaces the lost part with ideas in which are blended youthful Niobes and the Borghese Venus, infusing into the expression somewhat of the animated glance and soft allure- ment of the latter, and still preserving the look of innocence ; the hair however is not tied in a double knot on the forehead as usual ; but, collected together on the crown of the head, and twisted round and through itself, ends as it were in a chap- let of flowers in a tangled wreath, in likeness of the images of the beautiful Nymphs in the foot-race and chariot-race on a vase, described by me, belonging to the Hamilton collection. Scarcely any one would desire from sensual motives to see our goddess entirely nude, because he would thereby deprive him- self of that trait in which the ancient artist, in carrying owi his conception of the unveiled beauty, has exhibited the subtilty of his knowledge and the delicacy of his hand. For he has exe- cuted a robe, which is thrown over the left arm, whereon the Graces and Art seem to work in harmony, — the latter, with soft breaks in the flowing folds ; and the former, in the trans- parency of them, that they may cover and yet not fully hide. Beneath this robe we see the most beautiful female thighs ever shaped in marble, so beautiful indeed that I may be pardoned for believing that this may have been the statue from which the poets have named the most perfect shape of these limbs o-<^vpa T^s ©eViSos, thighs of Thetis. The poetic master of this Nereid carries us even beyond the divine Homer, for he brings her direct from the waves of the sea, yet unagitated by mortal love, before she surrendered herself to Peleus, before three gods had cast their eyes upon her youth, and before the first vessel had ventured itself upon the waves of the ^Egean, — for that part of a vessel on which she stands is only a symbol whereby to recognize her more readily. GREEK ART UNDER THE ROMANS. 343 6. One of the most beautiful works of this time is a colossal head in marble apparently of the younger Faustina. I say apparently, for the likeness especially of youthful and female heads is not readily recognized in colossal heads; in this in- stance the distance from the chin to the hair on the forehead is two spans. This head was, as one may see, mortised into the body in the manner already described by me. The statue must have been of bronze or marble, for one of the feet, which has been preserved, was likewise attached in a socket, so that the extremities were of marble ; portions of the arms are also remaining. This beautiful head, which has not suffered the slightest injury, was discovered at Porcigliano, not far from Ostia, in the ruins it is believed of Pliny's villa, named Lauren- tium. On the same place were found several very beautiful models in terra cotta ; among others a torso of Venus, and a draped figure about two palms high, also two feet with soles attached exactly resembling the foot of the statue above men- tioned, and which probably served as models for it. These pieces may be found in the house of the Baron Nero, a Flor- entine patrician. There is a head in the Ruspoli palace exactly resembling the younger Faustina in the Capitoline museum. 7. I mention here a very rare silver coin of the elder Faus- tina with the circumscrij^tion PVELLAE FAVSTINIANAE ; on it she is represented as giving to some young maidens their livelihood, in accordance with a charitable plan established by herself. This coin, whenever it is found in a good state of preservation, can be sold for fifty dollars (3). But I mention it here for the purpose of directing attention to a rilievo in the Albani villa whereby the same beneficence on the part of the empress seems to be represented, for a female figure is standing with another on an elevated platform, and with out- stretched hand is giving something to maidens arranged in a row below. The following inscription, in which the inhabitants of Ficulnea, a village not far from Rome, testified their grati- tude to the Emperor Marcus Aurelius, has reference to the same mode of kindness extended to poor lads and maidens. It was discovered a short time since, in July, 1767, on the very same spot on which it had been erected, and it now stands in the Albani villa (4) : — 344 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. IMP. CAESAEI. DIVI. ANTONINI. PII. FILIO. DIVI. HADRIANI. NEPOTI. DIVI. TRAIANI. PARTHICI. PRONEPOTI. DIVI. NERVAE. ABNEPOTI. M. AVRELIO. ANTONINO. AVG. P. M, TR. POT. XVI. COS. III. OPTIMO. ET. INDVLGENTISSIMO. PRINCIPI. PVERI. ET. PVELLAE. ALIMENTARI. FICOLENSIVM. To the Emperor Caesar, son of the divine Antoninus Pius, grandson of the divine Adrian ; great-grandson of tlie divine Trajan, the Parthian; great-great-grandson of the divine Nerva, Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus, Pontifex Maximus, who held the tribunal power sixteen years, thrice consul, the best and most indulgent ruler, from the lads and maidens of Ficulnea, who are fed by his bounty. 8. We perceive that artists were beginning at that time to pay more attention than formerly to portraits, and to make heads instead of figures. This tendency was promoted by repeated orders of the council at Rome that every house should contain a portrait of one or another emperor. Some are found,, probably belonging to this period, which may be called miracles of art in regard to execution. Three busts of Lucius Verus, and as many of Marcus Aurelius of extraordinary beauty, especially one of each, larger than life, in the Borghese villa, were found forty years ago covered by large tiles on the road to Florence, four miles from Rome, at a place named Acqua Traversa. One of the rarest heads of Lucius Verus is a likeness of him as a youth with the first down upon his chin, in the Ruspoli palace (5). 9. The equestrian statue of Marcus Aui-elius is so well known that little need be said in regard to it (6). The inscrip- tion beneath the copperplate engraving of an equestrian statue in the gallery of the Earl of Pembroke at Wilton, England, is ridiculous : " The first statue of Marcus Aurelius on horseback ; the artist who executed it was in consequence employed to make the great statue of this emperor, the horse of which is different from that in this engraving." The subscription on a half-draped Hermes in the same place is remarkable for a simi- lar shamelessness of assertion ; " One of the captives which sustained the architrave of the door of the palace of the vice- king of Egypt, after the conquest of the kingdom by Cam- byses." The equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius stood on GREEK ART UNDER THE ROMANS. 345 the piazza before the church of St. John Lateran (7), because the house in which the emperor was born was situated in the vicinity ; but the figure of the emperor must during the Mid- \dle Ages have lain buried in the dirt. For, in the Life of the Icelebrated Cola di Rienzi, mention is made only of the horse, ind it was called the horse of Constantino. On the occasion of a great festival, at the time when the popes held their seat at Avignon, red wine for the people's use ran from the head of the horse, and also from his right nostril, and from his left nostX'il water. At that time no other than river-water was used in Rbme, the aqueducts having fallen into decay, and in places remote from the river it was sold just as it is at present on the streets of Paris. 10. The statue of Aristides the rhetorician in the Vatican librarj belongs to the period of which we speak, and among seated j draped figures is not the poorest. In the Bevilacqua museuija at Verona there are two perfectly preserved busts which strongly resemble this portrait ; one of them wears the toga, and the other the paludamentum or general's cloak, which would not be an appropriate garment for this Ai-istides. From the description of an armed Venus which was made by the order of the celebrated Herod, surnamed Atticus, the expres- sion of which was not sweet and loving, but somewhat mascu- line, and joyous as if after achievement of a victory, we may infer that a knowledge of the beautiful and of the style of the ancients had not entirely disappeared from the world. So too there were still to be found connoisseurs of noble simplicity and unadorned nature in writing and oratory, and Pliny, who states that those passages in his Etdogy which cost him the least trouble were more admired by some than the most elabo- rate sentences, was hereby encouraged to hope for the restora- tion of good taste. But nevertheless he himself adhered in the Eulogy to the artificial style which nothing but its truthful praise of a worthy man made endurable. The Herod above mentioned caused statues to be erected to some of his freedmen whom he loved. Of the great monuments which this man built in Rome as well as at Athens, and in other Greek cities, there are still remaining two columns of his tomb of a kind of marble called Cipollino, three palms in diameter. The inscrip- tion on them, which has been explained by Salmasius, has made them famous. A French author must have been dream- 346 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. ing when he informs us that the letters composing it are not Greek, but Latin. In September, 1761, these columns were carried from Rome to Naples, and are now set up in the court of the Herculaneum museum, at Portici. The inscriptions on his celebrated villa Triop£ea, which now stands in the Borghese villa, have been published by Spon. 11. At that time statues were also erected to the victors in the chariot-races of the Circus. Some idea of them may be obtained from pieces of mosaic work with the names of the per- sons inscribed thereon in the Massimi house ; but a more dis- tinct notion is derived from a rilievo representing such a victor, almost of the size of life, in a chariot drawn by four horses, from a large oval funeral urn in the Albani villa, whicl has been published in my Ancient Monuments, and especially from an actual statue in the Negroni villa. In the restoration of this figure it was converted into a gardener on accouit of a curved knife in the girdle, which is worn in the same tvay by the victor of the rilievo as well as of the urn just mentioned, and for this reason a hoe has been put into its hand. Most of these persons belonged to the populace, with whom it was some- what customary to wind and lace a girdle around the breast as low down as the belly. Lucius Verus even caused a portrait- statue of his horse, named Volucris, to be erected iu the Cir- cus. In connection with the works executed during the reign of Marcus Aurelius, the one that occurs to me most promi- nently is a treatise written by himself, of which the ideas — their sound morality excepted — and style are common, and not sufficiently worthy of a prince who dabbles in literature. 12. During the reign of Commodus, the son and successor of Marcus Aurelius, and subsequent to it, the last school of art, of which Adrian had been almost the founder, went to decay; and even art itself may be said to have perished. The artist from whose hands came the wondrously beautiful head in the Campidoglio of this emperor in his youth is an honor to art. It seems to have been executed somewhere about the time when Commodus ascended the throne, that is, in the nine- teenth year of his age. As none of the heads of subsequent emperors are to be compared to it, it may serve as a proof that the artist of it did not have many equals (8). The bronze medallions of this emperor are to be regarded as among the most beautiful of such medals bpth in drawing and execution ; GREEK ART UNDER THE ROMANS. 347 the dies of some of them are cut with so great fineness, that on the feet of the goddess Roma, who is sitting on a pile of armor and reaching a ball to Commodus, we see executed the small heads of the animals from whose skins were made the shoes usually worn. But it is impossible to infer with certainty from a work on a small scale as to the execution of one on a large scale. He who knows how to make a small model of a vessel is not consequently fitted for the building of a ship which would be able to live in a raging sea ; for if this was the case, many figures on the reverse of coins of subsequent emperors, which are not badly drawn, would lead to erroneous conclusions as to the general excellence of art at that time. A figure of Achilles which would appear tolerable when drawn in little, ^will, when executed of the size of life by the same hand, look more like that of Thersites. A similar diff'erence is also observable in diminishing and enlarging figures ; for it is easier to draw a small copy from a large object than it is to draw a large copy from a small object, just as one sees farther when looking down- ward from a height than when looking upwards. Sante Bartoli has acquired celebrity as a very good draughtsman of ancient works from his small figures of the size of those which he drew on the columns of Trajan and Marcus Aurelius (9) ; but when he departed from this measure, and drew figures of a larger size, he became very unlike himself, as shown by the rilievi which he published under the title Admiranda Antiquitatis. It is also probable, when we find the reverse faces of coins of the third century executed in a style superior to the idea of the times, that the ancient dies have been used. 13. It has been supposed that the likeness of the Emperor Commodus might be found in the figure of a Hercules in the Belvedere, because the latter carries a child on the lion's skin. It is thought that in this child an allusion is intended to the one who served as a plaything to the emperor, and who was the cause of his assassination, having seized a list of the conspira- tors against Commodus, and dropped it out of the window. The lion's skin also with which Commodus on his coins is seen covered has given occasion to the erroneous appellation. The child borne by this statue is the young Ajax, the son of Tela- mon. Hercules took the newly born babe in his arms, and laid him on the lion's hide with the wish that he might become even greater than his father. In the plaster cast of this statue the 348 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. highly significant child has been omitted ; the three apples from the garden of the Hesperides have been put into his hand instead of the child, Wright, who has on this point copied the words of his blind guide, says this figure of Commodus may be good, but it clearly shows the difference between the Greek and Roman taste in sculpture. This silly criticism is based solely on the name, and he would have been enabled to discern Egyptian art in the statue if perchance it had happened to bear the name of Ptolemy. There is no doubt that this Hercules is the work of a great Greek artist, and one of the most beautiful in Rome. The head is unquestionably the most beautiful head of Hercules known, and the hair is executed in the highest style of art, and as it is done on the Apollo (10). A heroic figure, carrying a dead boy on its shoulders, has received the name of Commodus, because the head, which has been regarded as ancient, though it is in fact modern, represents this emperor, who is here figured in the character of a gladiator. But there is no better foundation for the name in this than in the other instance. That writer came nearer to the truth who gave the name of Atreus to this statue, as seen in a very bad engraving of it in a collection of engravings of statues which appeared in Rome in folio, in 1623, — Atreus, who slew the son of his brother Thyestes (11). James Gronovius is not therefore the first who bestowed upon it this name, as he supposes. 14. The Roman Senate resolved to blot out the memory of Commodus, and their resolution applied especially to images of him. The numerous heads and busts of him which were disin- terred when the Cardinal Alexander Albani was digging for the foundations of his sumptuous villa on the sea-shore, at Nettuno, showed with what rigor the decree was executed. In every instance the face had been cut away by a chisel, and the like- ness could be recognized only by some other signs, just as in a shattered stone we recognize the head of Antinoiis by the chin and mouth. There is in the Altieri villa a head of this young man which was restored as an Antinotis solely on the indication of the mouth, the only part of it which had been preserved. 15. It is no wonder that art began to lean visibly towards its fall when we reflect that even the schools of the Sophists in Greece ceased with Commodus. To the Greeks even their own language was unknown, for there were few among them who were able to read their best authors with a true understanding GREEK ART UNDER THE ROMANS. 349 of their meaning ; and we know that Oppian in his poems was obscure to the Greeks in consequence of imitating Homer, and adopting his expressions and words ; even Homer himself was uninteUigible. Hence the Greeks needed dictionaries of their own language, and Phrynichus sought to teach the Athenians how their forefathers had spoken ; but of many words it was no longer possible to give a precise definition, and their derivation after the root-words were lost was founded on conjectures. 16. The pubhc structures which were erected by Septimius Severus some time after the death of Commodus show how much art had degenerated since that event. He succeeded Commo- dus in the government after the lapse of a year, during which interval Pertinax, Didius Julianus, Clodius Albinus, and Pes- cennius Niger had reigned for a brief space, and then been slain. The Athenians were made to feel at once the anger of Severus on account of an insult which had been offered to him at Athens, when he was on a journey to Syria at some former time ; he deprived the city of all the privileges and immunities which had been granted to it by previous empei-ors. The rilievi on his arch, and on another arch erected in his honor by the silver- smiths, are so bad, that it seems astonishing how it was possible for art to decline so utterly in the short space of twelve years since the death of Marcus Aurelius (12). The figure in rilievo of the gladiator Bato of the size of life, in the Pamfili villa, is additional proof of the deterioration ; for, if this is the gladia- tor of that name whom Caracalla magnificently honored, it fol- lows that the sculptor employed to execute the work was not an inferior artist. Philostratus mentions a painter by the name of Aristodemus, who distinguished himself about this time ; he was a pupil of one Eumelus. 17. Artists still found constant occupation at this time. Statues were erected to Plautian, the favorite and prime minis- ter of the Emperor Septimius Severus, not only at Rome, but also in other cities of the Roman kingdom, as well by private individuals as by the Senate, insomuch that they were larger and more numerous than those set up in honor of the emperor. In the reign of this emperor an incident occurred at the obsti- nate siege of the city of Byzantium, — which had been seized by the party of Pescennius Niger in opposition to the imperial party, • — similar to what had happened during the siege of Rome by the Goths, when the citizens threw statues down upon their 850 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. enemies ; the Byzantines precipitated from the walls upon the heads of the besiegers entire bronze statues not only of stand- ing but of equestrian figures. 18. An unfavorable prejudice respecting the art of this time has however come to be regarded almost as a truth ; this deroga- tory opinion is based in an especial degree on the bad workman- ship of the arch of Septimius Severus. But, when we look upon undisputed better works of later date, we are compelled to acknowledge that if probably not the best, neither was the poorest artist selected, — an occurrence which sometimes happens even now, — and employed to do the work on the arch, the most prominent monument of that reign. We should draw a conclusion quite as erroneous if we inferred from the last two pictures in mosaic which were set up in St. Peter's Church in Rome that no better painter was known in the city at the time, as we nevertheless would be obliged to conclude ; or if we should infer as to the general taste in architecture during the time of Benedict XIV. from two churches that were built in Rome during his popedom of which the style and ornamen- tation are disgusting. Still more extraordinary is the marble statue of the Pope Leo X., the father of the arts, in the Campi- doglio, executed by one Giacomo del Duca of Sicily, and a scholar of Michael Angelo, which may be pronounced a positive abortion. There cannot have been a worse sculptor than he neither then nor since, and yet he was selected to execute this statue for the most honorable spot in Rome. 19; When we look upon the works above mentioned it seems scarcely possible that an artist still existed capable of producing the bronze statue of Septimius Severus in the Barberini palace, although it cannot be regarded as beautiful (13). The presumed statue of Pescennius Niger in the Altieri palace, who organized a revolt against Septimius Severus, and was defeated by him, would be still more rare than the bronze statue and all the coins of this emperor, if it could possibly represent the person supposed ; but the head more resembles Septimius Severus. 20. By order of Caracalla statues were erected in all cities to Alexander the Great ; and in Rome a few were furnished with heads having two faces, one of Alexander, the other of Caracalla. Of the ancient generals he especially admired Sylla and Han- nibal, and likewise honored their memories with statues and busts. In the Ruspoli palace there are two heads of him taken GREEK ART UNDER THE ROMANS. 351 when he was a child (14). The sole statue of Macrinus, who succeeded him, is in the Borioni vineyard, 21. Of the time of Heliogabalus a female statue of the size of life is preserved in the Albani villa (15). It represents an aged woman with so masculine a face that only the clothing indicates the sex; the hair is combed very simply upon the head, and drawn up behind, and tucked underneath. In the left hand she holds a roll of manuscript, which is somewhat extraordinary in female figures, and hence it is believed to be the mother of the emperor, who made her appearance in the privy council, and in whose honor a senate composed of women was instituted at Rome (16). 22. Alexander Severus, who succeeded Heliogabalus, caused the statues of many distinguished men to be brought from all places, and erected in the Forum of Trajan (17) : but his own image in marble has not descended to posterity ; at least not a single one is to be found in Rome (18). There is in the Campi- doglio a large funeral urn on the cover of which are seen in a recumbent position the figures of a man and his wife of the size of life. For a long time it was believed to be the one in which the emperor had been deposited, and his likeness, it was supposed, might be seen in the male figure on it. There are however more reasons than one why it must have preserved the ashes of far other individuals. The male figure has a short beard, and represents a person of more than fifty years of age, whereas Alexander Severus died in the thirtieth year of his age, after a reign of fifteen years. But the female figure, whose supposed resemblance to Julia Mammsea, the mother of this emperor, has furnished the real ground for the erroneous appel- lation of this monument, is the portrait of that man's wife. On the body of the urn, in front as well as on both sides, we see in high relief the beginning of the Iliad, — the sorrow of Achilles because Briseis was taken from him, — and on the back the end of the same poem, namely, Priam before Achilles, hav- ing come to ransom the body of Hector. Those who incline to refer everything to Roman history suppose that they find on the front side the covenant of Romulus with Titus Tatius, the king of the Sabines ; and another has imagined the ball of thread which the two maidens of Achilles hold to be a hand-mill, though it does not resemble even a pepper-mill. 23. That name having been supposed to be correct, the raised 352 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. figures on the beautiful glass vase which was found in the urn, and of which I made mention in the first chapter of the first part (Book I. ch. 2) as an allusion to the name of Alexander Severus, have been made to apply to the birth of Alexander the Great. It is not the place here to enter upon an explanation of the raised figures on this vase, and I refer the reader to the representation of it which Bartoli has given to us in his work on ancient tombs ; I will merely state in a few words that the incident of the representation is probably the fable of Peleus and Thetis, according to which the latter changed herself even into a snake in order to escape the pursuit of her lover. This idea was indicated on the Chest of Cypselus by a snake creeping from the hand of Thetis upon Peleus, — a point upon which I will explain myself more clearly in the third volume of my Ancient Monuments. 24. The seated figure of Saint Hippolytus of the size of life in the Vatican library (19), which is unquestionably the oldest Christian figure in stone, is of the time of Alexander Severus ; for during his reign the Christians began to receive more con- sideration than formerly, and he allowed them to perform public worship on the place where the church of Santa Maria in Tras- tevere now stands. 25. But the statue of the Emperor Pupienus, which formerly stood in the Verospi palace, and is now in the Albani villa (20), shows that art still continued to be practised successfully by some of its followers. This figure is seven feet and three inches high, and has sustained no injury except of the right arm, which is wanting as far up as the elbow. It has even retained the fine clay-like coat with which the statues of the ancients became overlaid when lying underground. The left hand grasps a dagger, and a large horn of plenty stands upright near the shaft against which the right leg rests for support. The impression received from the first look at this statue does not seem to correspond with its age, for though it displays a grandeur and splendor in its single parts, yet we fail to discover the science which distinguished the older artists ; the principal colors are there, but the middle tints are wanting, and the figure consequently appears heavy. They mistake therefore who assert that the art of sculpture had entirely perished at this date. The base of a statue of the Emperor Gordianus which was once in the Farnese palace is now no longer in being. GREEK ART UNDER THE ROMANS. 853 26. The really precise time at which the entire downfall of art occurred was previous to the age of Constantine, at the time of the great disorder occasioned by the thirty tyrants, who stirred up a rebellion during the reign of Gallienus, that is, at the beginning of the latter half of the third century (21). Connoisseurs in coins remark that no coins were stamped in Greece subsequently to the time of Gallienus ; but the smaller the value and the poorer the impression of coins of this age, the oftener is the figure of the goddess Moneta found on them, just as "honor" is a word frequent in the mouths of those whose honor is questionable. The head of Gallienus in bronze, wearing a crown of laurel, in the Mattel villa, is valuable merely on account of its rarity (22). 27. The reign of Gallienus is generally assigned as the date of the entire downfall of art, and yet works are found which prove the contrary, and give a favorable idea of its condition. One of them is a rilievo, and it represents in figures almost half as large as life a hunting scene at which the emperor is present. This work, which is in the Mattel palace, needs men- tion here for another reason ; from an error in observation made by Fabretti on the shod foot of the horse, he thinks he can show that horseshoes were in use in the reign of Galli- enus ; but the learned man did not notice that the whole leg of the horse is new. The other monument of the time of Galli- enus, which speaks in favor of the art then existing is a por- trait-bust of him, with the genuine ancient name at the foot of it. This piece was carried to England ; but the Cardinal Alex- ander Albani, in whose villa it now stands, was fortunate enough to bring it back to Rome. The Cardinal acknowledges that he shared the common prejudice in regard to the utter downfall of art in this reign, and that this belief induced him to part with a beautiful bust of Trajanus Decius, who reigned shortly before Gallienus, as he could not persuade himself that it represented him because it surpassed in merit the standard of his time. 28. Mention is made of a statue of Calpurnia, the wife of Titus, who was one of the false emperors or tyrants previously mentioned ; but it was probably so bad, that an obscure word, the explanation of which gives much trouble to the learned, cannot contain matter of such importance as one writer has sought to find in it (23). VOL. II. 23 354 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. 29. It seems as if the barbarians had invaded Rome unex- pectedly and suddenly. This conclusion might be drawn from the numerous columns and large cups of alabaster and marble, together with pedestals and uuwrought blocks of foreign mar- ble, which were found on the site where once was the ancient harbor, or place where goods were landed, on the Tiber, at the foot of the Aventine Hill, and where the Sforza-Cesarini family has a vineyard, in which are still standing great remains of the ancient storehouses. These works had probably been ordered and purchased abroad on speculation, and shipped to Rome for the purpose of being introduced into buildings ; but all such plans were cut short through the consternation occasioned by the irruption of the northern tribes into Italy (24). One of the columns of Fiorito or flowered alabaster, eighteen feet and three inches high, disinterred at that place, is the largest and most beautiful known column of this stone ; it is in the Albani villa. Here are also two large cups of similar alabaster, seven feet and three inches in diameter, which were found in the same locality, broken in pieces, together with fragments of more than ten other such basins. In the middle of one of them is the head of Medusa, and in the other the head of a Triton, or perhaps a River-god. As they have no outlet, they must have been intended for the purpose which they now serve, merely for the embellishment of a building. But it is evident that these works could not have lain there long before the time of which we speak, because the inscriptions engraved on one of the ends of each of two large blocks of uuwrought Cipollino marble are in letters of which the shape points to this date. On one of them was the consulship together with the name apparently of him who ordered them to be shipped, and the number of them : — . . . RVIANO III COS . . . EXRAT . . . VALENTIS . . . LXXXIIIL When restored it reads, — SERVIANO III COS. EX RATIONE VALENTIS NVM. LXXXIIII. In the third consulship of Servianus, To tlie order of Valens. Number eighty-four. GREEK ART UNDER THE ROMANS. 355 On the end of the other block was engraved, — SVB CVRA MINICI SI. PR. CRESCENTE LIB. NI. the explanation of which I leave to those who are skilled in such matters (25). No consul of the name of Rulianus is known ; there were several consuls of the family of the Fabii who bore the surname of Rulianus ; but they lived at a much earlier period of the republic. These inscriptions were sawed from the blocks, and are now in the Albani villa ; two columns were wrought from the remainder of the blocks which in the year 1767 were carried away to England. 356 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. CHAPTER III. UNDER THE ROMAN C^SARS. — (Continued.) 1. The condition of art afterwards under Constantino the Great is shown by statues of him, — one under the portico of the church of Saint John Lateran (1), two others on the Cam- pidoglio, — and some rihevi on his arch, of which every portion that is good was taken from the arch of the Emperor Trajan (2). It is therefore scarcely credible that the ancient painting of the goddess Roma in the Barberini palace was executed during the reign of Constantino. Mention is made of other discovered paintings, representing harbors and marine views, which from the inscriptions beneath them might have belonged to this period ; but they are no longer in existence : drawings of them, executed in colors, are in the library of the Cardinal Alexander Albani (3). But the paintings in the oldest Vatican Virgil are not too good for the time of Constantino as some one supposes, who when he wrote did not have the recollection of them fresh in his mind, and formed his opinion from the engravings of Bartoli, who has made everything of indifferent merit appear to belong to a flourishing age of art (4). He was not aware that it could be shown from a contemporaneous manuscript memo- randum in this book that the copy in question was made in the time of Constantino (5). The antique illustrated Terence in this library appears to belong to the same age, and the cele- brated Peiresc mentions, in one of his unpublished letters in the library of the Cardinal Alexander Albani, another ancient manuscript of Terence of the time of the Emperor Constantius, the son of Constantino the Great, the painted figures in which were of a style similar to those of the other. 2. A still clearer proof of the downfall of sculpture as well as of architecture during the reign of Constantino is found in the temple of Bacchus so called, near the church of Saint Agnes outside of Eome, or, as the accounts and its appearance GREEK ART UNDER THE ROMANS. 357 indicate, the building which was erected by this emperor at the request of his daughter Constantia, because she was baptized here, and wished to be buried here (6). It is evident that the building cannot be older, and that it belongs to an age in which more ancient buildings were destroyed that the materials might be used in rebuilding, because the bases and capitals of the columns are all different, so that not a single one corresponds to another. Hence I am astonished at the blindness of Ciam- pini, who maintains exactly the reverse, and finds here in every piece the most perfect proportion, because he wishes to show that the edifice is actually an ancient temple of Bacchus, but consecrated by Constantino to a better use. This writer, though otherwise learned, shows so little knowledge of art that he believes that the five beautiful marble candelabra six feet high, two of which are in this church, and the other three in the church of Saint Agnes, must have been executed at that time for the building in question (7). These candelabra are on the contrary executed with so great skill that they can be ascribed only to the best artists of the times of Trajan or Adrian. On the great urn of porphyry in which the body of Constantia was laid, as also on the ceiling of the outer corridor of the temple above mentioned, are represented — in the latter place in mo- saic — the wine harvest and the wine-presses ; on the urn small winged Genii are at work, and on the ceiling Fauns ; in these images we perceive the reason why the building is called the temple of Bacchus (8). But we know that the Christian re- ligion was not at that time wholly purified from heathenish usages, and that no scruple was made in mingling profane with sacred things ; in regard to art however the pictures are what was to be expected from the age. This is also manifest when we compare this urn with another of the same monstrous size and of the same kind of stone, standing in the cross-passage of the church of Saint John Lateran, on which is represented a battle of horsemen (9), some of whom are lying on the ground ; the body of Helen, the mother of Constantino, was placed in it. 3. The reader will remember that when I speak of the fall of art in ancient times, my remarks are to be understood as apply- ing especially to sculpture and painting ; for when these de- clined, and approached their setting, architecture still flourished in a certain degree, and works were executed in Kome which for 358 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. magnificence and splendor had never been equalled in Greece in her best days ; and at a time when there were few artists able to draw a figure correctly, Caracalla erected the astonishing Baths of which even the ruins in the present day appear won- derful (10), and Diocletian constructed his Baths, in which he strove even to surpass those ; and it must be acknowledged that that portion of them which has been preserved fills us with amazement. But the entablature of the columns is suffb- cated by the heaps of carved work, as were the spectators at , the plays exhibited by him by the deluge of flowers which was showered upon them. Each side of his palace at Spalatro, Illy- ria, is seven hundred and five English feet in length according to the latest measurement by Mr, Adams. This astonishing edifice had four principal streets, thirty-five feet broad, and the street from the entrance to the square in the centre is two hun- dred and forty-six feet long, and the street which crosses this Is four hundred and twenty-four feet long. On each side of the streets were covered arches twelve feet in breadth, some of which are still in perfect preservation. These details I extract from the manuscript memoir of Mr. Adams on the antiquities at Spalatro, which was afterwards published with the engravings in a splendid volume. The great palaces and temples at Pal- myra were erected not long before, the magnificence of which exceeds all other buildings remaining in the world ; the carved work and ornaments on them fill the spectator with wonder. There would therefore be nothing contradictory, as Nardini thinks, in supposing that the two astonishing fragments of a beautiful carved entablature in the garden of the Colonna pal- ace might be portions of a Temple of the Sun which the Emperor Aurelian built in this vicinity (11). To comprehend this we must reflect that architecture occupies itself principally with rule and measure, that everything in it is determined accord- ing to them, and that it is governed by more direct precepts than drawing, and therefore could not so easily deviate nor fall. Plato however acknowledges that even in Greece a good architect was rare. It is notwithstanding almost inconceivable that the upper tapering ends of two columns of the porch of the Temple of Concordia, falsely so called, which Constantino, according to an inscription no longer extant, caused to be restored, were placed upside down on the lower half of them (12). GREEK ART UNDER THE ROMANS. 359 4. Constantine the Great, after peace was established in his kingdom, sought to encourage the different branches of knowl- edge; and Athens, wherein the teachers of oratory opened their schools anew to great throngs, became the central point for students, who flocked thither from all parts of the kingdom. We see by the four distinguished church fathers — Saint Gre- gory of Nazianzen and Myssenus, Saint Basilius and John Chry- sostom — that the Greeks even of Cappadocia, and at a later date too than the reign of Constantine, were not deficient in ex- traordinary talents, though the uprooting of the pagan worship had impressed a different aspect on the world. No violence had as yet been exhibited towards works of art (13), and stat- ues were carried to Constantinople from many places in Greece and Asia Minor, — from Ephesus out of the temple of Diana, and from Athens as well as Rome ; even in the temple of Saint Sophia there were standing for quite a long time after this date four hundred and twenty-six statues, most of which were the works of ancient Greek masters. An anonymous Byzantine writer even names the places whence the statues were brought which stood in the Hippodrome at Constantinople, — among which I am astonished at not finding Elis (14). And as the holy fathers above mentioned restored oratory and beauty of language after their great decline to such a degree of excellence and beauty that their names may stand by the side of those of Plato and Demosthenes, and all heathen writers of their time seem dull in comparison with them, even so it would not have- been impossible that some similar change might have happened in art. In Rome on the other hand art had reached such a stage that, when commissions were given for statues or heads of a certain kind, the artists took the figures of the ancient masters, and fitted them for the parts intended to be repre- sented by them, because they .were too unskilful and incompe- tent to execute any idea of their own, just as the ancient Roman inscriptions were used on Christian monuments, — the Christian inscription being placed on the reverse (15). Flami- nio Vacca mentions five undraped statues which were found in his time, all of which had been re-wrought by a barbarian hand. In 1757 half of a head was found among the fragments of an- cient things in the Albaui villa, on which was visible at the same time the hand of an ancient master and that of a bar- barian ; as the latter- did not probably feel satisfied with the 860 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. success of his work, he did not finish it : the ear and the neck show the style of the ancient master. 5. After the time of Constantine we do not find much fur- ther mention made of art. It is on the other hand to be con- jectured that, as the destruction of the statues of the gods beg an in Constantinople shortly afterwards, works of ai"t in Greece may have met with a similar fate (16). In Rome a superintendent was appointed to prevent such mischief, who was called Centiirio Nitentium Rerum, " The Centurion of Beau- tiful Objects," and he had under his command soldiers whose duty it was to make their rounds by night, and to take care that no statues were mutilated or broken. For, as the Chris- tians began to be powerful, the temples of the pagans were pil- laged (17), and the eunuchs, who ruled instead of their masters in the courts of the Constantines, decorated their palaces with marble from the temples. The Emperor Honorius sought to repress these disorders in Rome by a decree prohibiting sacri- fices, but ordering that the temples should be preserved (18). Yet even at that time statues were still erected to celebrated men, as, during the reign of the Emperor Honorius, that honor was conferred on Stilicho and the poet Claudian ; the base of the statue of the former was in existence two hundred years ago. At Constantinople two columns, with rilievi on them after the style of Trajan's column in Rome, were still in exist- ence until the beginning of this (the eighteenth) century, one of which had been erected in honor of Constantine, and the other of Arcadius. The rilievi on the latter have been en- graved from drawings executed by Bellino, a Venetian painter whom Mohammed II. had invited to Constantinople, and it seems that the artist beautified the work on it to suit his own ideas ; for the little of the other column which is drawn gives a very unfavorable idea of it, and is exceedingly difi"erent from the workmanship on the other. Of the column of Arcadius only the granite base is now to be seen in the quarter called Concajui ; the column itself was at the beginning of this cen- tury removed from Turkey, because it had been frequently shaken by repeated earthquakes, and fears were felt that it might be overthrown and cause serious damage. The other, which is called the burnt column, stands near a locality named Visirkham ; it is composed of seven large cylinders of porphyry, the base not included. An image of Constantine formerly GREEK ART UNDER THE ROMANS. 361 stood upon it, which, after it had repeatedly suffered by fire, was repaired by the Emperor Alexius Com menus, as related by a Greek inscription on it. 6. Some sixty years after Byzantium had become the capital of the Roman kingdom, Athens was, as Synesius relates, stripped of all its glory, and there was no longer anything in it remarkable but the names of ancient ruins. Although per- mission had been granted to the Athenians by the Emperor Valerian, prior to Constantino, to rebuild the walls of their city, which had lain in ruins since the time of Sylla some hun- dred years, still they were unable with their defences to repel the Goths who, during the reign of the Emperor Gallienus, overran Greece. The city was pillaged ; and Cedrenus relates that the Goths had collected together a pile of books for the purpose of burning them ; but, on reflecting that it might be better for them to occupy the Athenians with books, they were restored to them (19). A similar melancholy fate befell works of art in Rome ; treasures, the like of which no age nor artists either of the present or any future time can produce, were de- stroyed with brutal fury by the barbarians in their many con- quests and plunderings of the city, and even by the Romans themselves (20). The magnificent temple of the Olympian Jupiter had been destroyed prior to the time of Saint Jerome (21). When, during the reign of the Emperor Justinian, Theo- datus, king of the Goths, in the year 537, laid siege to Rome by his general Vitiges, and the Mole of Adrian ^ was assaulted, the besieged defended themselves by throwing statues down upon the heads of their enemies (22). The celebrated Sleeping Satyr in the Barberini palace was probably of the number of these statues, for it was found without thighs, legs, and the left arm, in the ditch surrounding the castle when it was cleared out by order of the Pope Urban VIII., together with the bronze statue of Septimius Severus, not in the ditch of Castel-Gaudolfo outside of Rome, as Breval erroneously alleges. 7. It is stated in many books that a statue of almost colossal size in the Giustiniani villa is an image of the Emperor Justin- ian ; and the Giustiniani family, which deduces its origin from this emperor, has made a new attempt to maintain its claim by placing an inscription on it within a few years. The statue, which is of moderate merit, must be regarded as a wonder of 1 Now the castle of Saint Angelo. — Tr. 362 HISTORY OF ANCIENT ART. art of this period ; the head is modern, and copied from a young Marcus Aurelius. 8. A seated statue less than Hfe size, in the Borghese villa, has been erroneously regarded as Belisarius begging ; it has received this name on account of the position of the right hand, which lies upon the knee, forming a hollow, as if for the purpose of receiving something into it (23). It might be said that we have in this figure a representation of one of those per- sons who collected alms for Cybele, to whom alone, according to the laws of the twelve tables, permission in Rome was accorded for such a purpose (24) . These persons were named M.-qTpayvpTaL, from Mi7T?/p, the mother of the gods, and M-qvayvpTai, to beg monthly, because they collected alms one day in every month. But the statue in question appears to have a far more learned signifi- cance than this. We know that Augustus played the beggar one day in every year, and held out his hollowed hand, cavam manum, for the purpose of receiving charity. This act was intended as one of propitiation to Nemesis, who humbled, as it w^as believed, those who were exalted in the world. For the same reason whips and shackles, with which Nemesis is repre- sented, as it may be seen on a beautiful seated statue of her in the Vatican garden (25), were suspended on the triumphal cars, and for the purpose of reminding the victors that their glory is transitory, and that the vengeance of the gods may come upon them in the pride of their prosperity. These are the probable reasons why the hand of this statue was made open as if to receive alms. The opposite position to the hol- lowed hand, namely, that in which the fingers are curved as if to gripe, is used by Aristophanes to denote theft : — * AyKvXais rats x^pf i'' apird^uv ts of Fulvius Ursinus, in the Vatican library : COAflN AIAT- MOT TTXHTI enOHC€ MNHMHC XAPIN : — Solon, the son of Didymus, made something for Fortune, as a memorial. It is also found in another inscription in the Altieri villa, and in the work of Count Caylus {Rec. d' Antiq. Grecq., Tom. II. pi. 75). It is not therefore very uncommon, as Gori thinks {Mus. Flor. Stat., tav. 26, p. 35), still less is it so great an error as Marietta (Traiti des Pierres Gravies, Tom. I. p. 102) supposes, when he infers from it that the inscription on the Venus de' Medici is spurious. — W. 5. Such paintings are called at the present day Grotesques or Ara- besques, and probably those described and censured here by Vitruvius were similar to those which were discovered in the time of Leo X. in the Baths of Titus, at Rome, and were imitated by Raphael in the Loggie of the Vatican. These paintings on the walls of said Baths, having been discovered anew in 1770, were published in a large folio by Ludovico Mirri, and explained by Carlettii. (Ze Antich. Camer. delle Terme di Tito.) — A. 414 NOTES. 6. Tom, I. p. 288. En la representant comme les femmes se mettent aujourd'hui. — F. 7. See Book XL ch. 3, § 33. There began in the time of Pliny, earlier indeed, a practice which was not only much ridiculed, but also was very injurious in its effect on art. It consisted not only in consecrating statues to other gods than those for whom they were originally intended, by a change in the inscriptions, /*6to- ypoKpeiv (fjLfrMypdcpeiv), but also in removing from ancient statues and figures the original heads, and replacing them by new heads of the gods, heroes, etc., to whom it was desired to pay homage, /jierappv6iJ.iCeiv. (Plin., lib. 35, cap. 2, § 2.) — Germ. Ed. 8. These colossal fragments may be found in the court of the palace of the Conservatori. Two feet, of which the handling is extraordinarily soft and flowing, are of the utmost beauty ; the heels of both are wanting. The hand of similar colossal proportions, which is arranged above the feet, lacks the thumb. All the parts are more strongly expressed here than in the feet, probably on account of the greater distance at which the hand of the colossus, when upright, would be viewed by a spectator standing near to it. The veins are denoted both on the feet and hand ; hence we may entertain some doubt whether these pieces really belonged to an Apollo, as mentioned in the modern inscription attached to them. In the same place are found other enormously large fragments of marble, namely, an elbow, on which likewise the veins are expressed, a knee, pieces of a foot and leg. To these probably belonged also an enormous head, which passes for a likeness of Domitian. The whole of the back part of it is wanting ; the face together with the ears is well preserved, and the execu- tion is good and flowing. But it is lacking in ideal grandeur of style and forms ; the eyes are disproportionately large, and notwithstanding the corners are small and pointed ; the mouth is small ; the lips thin. We might almost assert that the master of this monument did not possess the ability and skill requisite to such a colossus, and that the individual copied was also not a suitable model for such a work. — Germ. Ed. 9. These sarcophagi vary greatly in the degree of skill Avith which they are executed, and certainly proceed from diff"erent ages. The first bears the name of the Trojan marble. It is very large ; on the cover are two recumbent figures of the size of life, wi-ought in very high relief. A simil- arity is imagined to exist between their features and those of the images of Alexander Severus and his mother, Julia Mammma, and hence this monu- ment is held to be their funeral urn. But in Book XII. ch. 2, § 22, the author satisfactorily refutes this supposition. The workmanship is not above mediocrity, and is undoubtedly of a time when art had already greatly degenerated. The bas-reliefs also on the four sides are nothing more than copies of older and better works of art. A copy of this monu- ment may be found in the CapitoHne Museum (Tom. IV. tav. 1-4), and in Piranesi (Le AntichitA Eomane, Tom. II. tav. 33-35), in which may also be seen an engraving of the celebrated Barberini vase, so called, now in the British museum, which was found in this large sepulchral urn. The workmanship of the second (Mus. Capitol., Tom. "VI. tav. 26 ; Monuments Antiquezdu Music Napol, Tom. IV. pi. 22-23), although bet- ter than that of the first, can by no means be termed excellent. But the NOTES. 415 figures of the Muses collectively are extraordinarily valuable on account of their noble attitudes and well-arranged drapery. They were probably copied from statues formerly very celebrated, because we can perceive from the arrangement of the folds in their robes that some of the figures were in- tended by th& artist who conceived them to receive the light from one side, and others from the opposite side, in order to form unbroken and eff'ective masses of light and shadow, whereas the workman of the sarcophagus omit- ted to group the figures with that regard to the principles of illumination and masses which was required to produce the necessary effect. The corners of the cover are ornamented with masks ; between them is a long slender bas-relief which represents Fauns and Nymphs, in groups ad- mirably conceived and arranged, lying down and drinking. Hence it is probable that this monument is merely an imitation of older and more admirable works. The third is in regard to the skill shown in the execution about equal to the one just described. But in the design of the whole there is more con- nection, a higher, nobler spirit ; the forms, hair, arrangement and cast of the drapery seem to point to an original of the time when the grand style prevailed. The cover is embellished at the corners in a similar manner with masks, between which is a long slender bas-relief representing figures of vanquished Amazons with their weapons, arranged with an unsurpass- able excellence. [Mus. Capitol., Tom. IV. tav. 23.) The skill shown in the execution of the fourth, in the Albani villa, is not deserving of especial praise, yet there is much that is pleasing in all the figures ; and as a whole it has a rich and decorated look. In the repre- sentation on it we also see with the author the NuptMls of Thetis and Peleus, although Zoega (Bassi Rilievi, Tom. II. tav. 52, 53) will not con- cede to the figures any heroic signification, seeing in it only an ordinary marriage. Zoega was the first to notice that this monument was wrought, not from Parian marble, but from the alabaster of Volterra. The sarcophagus in the Borghese villa, showing the Death of Meleager in high-relief {ScuUure del Palazzo delta Villa Pinciana, Stanza 3, No. 12), has especial value from the fact that the figures are admirably conceived and, on the whole, very beautifully arranged ; and as this subject, represented in a similar manner, is found on several antique sarcophagi, it may well be that all of them are copied from one celebrated ancient work. This Bor- ghese monument may have but little superiority in point of execution over the Trojan marble mentioned above ; on the other hand, there is scarcely a better executed monument of this kind than the other Borghese one having on it the fable of Actseon. (Stanza 7, No. 16-17.) Drapery and figures are absolutely in the best style, and in every part the hand and mind of a skilful master are visible. • — Germ. Ed. 10. An exception to this remark may be found in the temple at Nismes, in France, known by the name of the Maison CarSe, "the square house,'' which Barthelemy {Mini, sur les Aiiciens Momiments de Rome, Acad, des InscripL, Tom. XXVIII. Mem., p. 580) thinks will bear comparison with the most beautiful remains of Rome or Athens. All connoisseurs and learned men agree with him generally in this opinion. (Clei'isseau, Anti- guitis de France, Premifere Partie, Antiq. de Nismes, Princ.) This temple was dedicated to Lucius and Cains, the adopted sons of Augustus, as shown by the following inscription on the front of the temple : — 416 NOTES. C. CAESAEI. AVGUSTI. F. COS. L. CAESARI. AVGVSTI. F. COS. DESIGNATO. PRINCIPIBVS. IVVENTVTIS. "To Caius Cffisar, Son of Augustus, Consul Elect ; to Lucius Cssar, Son of Augustus, Consul Elect ; Imperial Princes." — F. 11 Both are portrait figures ; only the former has its original head ; the head of the latter is bad and modern. Both figures were restored m 1780 by the skilful sculptor, Carlo Albicini, that they might be received into the royal museum at Naples. — F. „ . , • ^i, 12 This figure more probably represents Sallustia Balbia Orbiana, the wife of Alexander Severus, of whom mention has already been made. — F. (Compare Book VIII. ch. 4, § 3, note.) _ 13 If the head here mentioned is the portrait of an imperial prince, and therefore a copy from nature, we must acknowledge that the artist by whom it was executed was something more than a mere imitator, ihe same may be said of the beautiful head of a Roman matron, of the busts of Macrinus, Septimius Severus, and Caracalla, previously mentioned by the author, in which he found traits of especial beauty and finish. — A. 14. Thomassin, Bccueil des Stat. Group., etc., de Versailles, Tom. 1. pi 9. The Musee Frangois, by Robillard PeronviUe, contains {Livraw. 52) a still better representation of this statue. Visconti states m the accompanying explanation that it was found at Ben Gazi, a village on the coast of Barbary, that it is about six feet in height, made of Pentelic marble, and one of the best preserved monuments of antiquity, for there is no visible injury about it except the loss of a small bit of the drapery. According to his belief it is a portrait of Julia, the wife of the Emperor Septimius Severus. — Germ. Ed. 15. Giulio Romano and the other admirable pupils of Raphael certainly cannot be censured for bad taste. Sebastian del Piombo, Pellegrino Tibaldi, and Daniel di Volterra were, it is true, imitators of the style of Michael Angelo^ and severe judges may perhaps say that their works showed mannerism, but notwithstanding they are great artists. It is the same in sculpture. The younger Sansovino (let the reader think of his youthful Bacchus in the Florentine gallery) and several other meritorious artists were, it is true, inferior to Michael Angelo, but it would not be just to accuse them peremptorily of a want of taste. — Gekm. Ed. CHAPTER IV. 1. Sallustia and Helpidus, freed slaves, dedicated this statue Veneri Felici " To happy Venus," that is to say, to their mistress, Sallustia Bal- bia Orbiana, wife of the Emperor Alexander Severus, as shown by the in- scription : — VENERI FELICI. SACRVM. SALLVSTIA. HELPIDVS. DD. (Mus. Pio-Clem., Tom. II. tav. 52.) —F. NOTES. 417 2. DINDIA. MACOLNIA. FILEA. (filia) DEDIT. NOVIOS. PLAY- TIOS. MED. (me) ROMAI. (ROMAI. (Romee) FECID. (fecit) :— "Din- dia Macolnia, the daughter, gave; Novius Plautius made me at Rome." This inscription shows the most ancient form of Roman letters ; it seems to be even older, more Etruscan at least, than that of the letters in the in- scription of L. Cornelius Scipio Barbatus in the Barberini library, — which is however the most ancient Roman inscription in stone, — of which I have spoken in the Notes upon the Architecture, of the Amients. — W. 3. Lib. 34, cap. 7, § 18. It may be inferred also from the small number of Roman artists that the Romans did not have any style that was peculiar to them. Pliny (lib. 35, cap. 4, § 7), the greatest zealot for Rome, mentions very few Roman artists, and these are mostly of the time of the Caesars. The native rudeness and sternness of character of the Romans, in connection with their constant occupation in war, closed their senses against any feeling for the fine arts, and made it impossible for them to originate any peculiarity, or acquire any distinction in tliis direction. The arts were at almost all times held in contempt among the Romans (Cic, Tusc, lib. 1, cap. 2. In Ferr.f Act. 2, lib. 4, cap. 59. Valer. Max., lib. 8, cap. 14.) Excudent alii spirantia mollius sera, Credo, equidem, yivos ducent de marmore vultus Orabunt causas melius, coelique meatus Describent radio, et surgentia sidera dicent ; Tu regere imperio populos, Romane, memento ! Hse tibi erunt artes. Virg., ^n., lib. 6, vers. 848. "Others, perchance, may brass more softly mould, Or skilful draw from marble forms that live. Plead causes better, or with rod define The heavenly movements and the rising stars ; Not these thy arts, 0 Roman I thine shall be With power imperial still to rule mankind." 4. Pliny, Livy, Seneca, and Plutarch speak of the statue of Cloelia as though it was actually in existence during their lifetime. Dionysius (Antiq. Rom., lib. 5, cap. 35), who lived so many years in Rome during the time of Augustus, assures us that it was no longer to be found, and that according to the tradition it had been destroyed by a fire which hap- pened in its vicinity. For the purpose of removing the contradiction, we might assume that the statue had been remade after the time of Dionysius, if it were not that Pliny and Plutarch speak of it as an ancient work. Perhaps when the fire occurred the statue was removed to a less noted place, and was not again set up in public until after the death of Dionysius. (Consolat ad Marciam., cap. 16. Plutarch, in Poplic, cap. 19.) — F. 5. Varro, De Re Rustica, lib. 2, cap. ult. Plin., lib. 7, cap. 59, § 9. The custom of shaving the beard was general until the time of the Em- peror Adrian, who concealed by means of his beard the mother-marks on his face. — Germ. Ed. 6. Liv., lib. 43, cap. 8, not. 7. The number of statues in Rome became gradually so great that, in the VOL. II. 27 418 NOTES. words of Cassiodonis {Variar, lib. 7, form. 15), there were in Rome two populations equally numerous, namely, one of statues and one of men, — F. BOOK IX. CHAPTER I. 1. Paxtsan., lib. 2, cap. 4 ; lib. 9, cap. 40. In the latter passage Pau- sanias cites among other works of Dsedalus still in existence in his time also a work in stone, of which mention had already been made by Homer (Iliad., lib. 18, vers. 590), which represented the chain -dance of Ariadne. But as according to concurrent tradition all the other works of Daedalus were of wood, it may be conjectured that the work made of stone was by a later hand, and, as the true author of it was not known, it was, after the usual manner of the Greeks, attributed to Daedalus as one of the oldest heroes in art. — Germ. Ed. 2. Probably the case is the same with Daedalus as with Homer. As the latter has been the representative of the oldest epic poets, and as all the fragments of the earliest epic songs have been attributed to him ; so also a multitude of inventions and works have been piled upon Dcedalus, all of which indeed belong to the mythic age, but probably to seven cen- turies later than his time. This is evident also from the fact that Dipoenus and Scyllis — who, according to Pliny (lib. 36, cap. 4, sect. 4), lived prior to the reign of Cyrus, about the fiftieth Olympiad, five hundred and eighty years before Christ — still passed for scholars of Daedalus (Pausan., lib. 2, cap. 15). — Germ. Ed. 3. Fragm. 105, pp. 358, 359. Bentley's notes upon this passage show how many conjectures in regard to this name have been made by others as well as by himself. — W. 4. Pausan., lib. 1, cap. 26. In the Parthenon at Athens was the statue of a seated Minerva, the votive gift of a certain Kallias, and a work of Endceus. At Erythrae, in Ionia (Pausan., lib. 7, cap. 5), a colossal statue of a seated Minerva Polias of wood passed for the work of this artist. She held in both hands a distaff, and on her head she carried a globe, or, as others explain the word ir6\ov, a sundial. Hejaie (0;msc. Acad., Vol. V. p. 343) proposes to read TrtKov, "a hat or ccq}," instead of 'ir6\ov. The statue of a Minerva Alea of ivory (Pausan., lib. 8, cap. 46) must likewise pass for a work of Endceus, since, according to Heyne {loc. cit.), "EySoiov is the correct reading. Athenagoras {Legat. pro Christ., cap. 14, p. 292) mentions also a Diana at Ephesus by the same artist. — F. and Germ. Ed. 5. In the first edition we read, "And until the eighteenth Olympiad mention is found of none of them." In order not to interrupt the connec- tion, these words have been taken from the text into the Notes. The Homeiic songs and single hymns of the Homeric ])oets furnish much material to fill up the gap noticed. It is remarkable however that nowhere in the Homeric songs is mention made of a statue or figure of marble or NOTES. 419 other kind of stone, at a time indeed when the arts of building, casting, and hammering images out of metal had already arrived at a considerable degree of refinement. — Germ. Ed. 6. Plin., lib. 35, cap. 8, sect. 34 ; Ub. 7, sect. 39. The correctness of this statement has been much doubted. (Mem. de VAcad. dcs Inscript., Tom. V. p. 253.) It is remarkable that Pliny, without citing any picture from the earlier ages, should suddenly begin with the battle-piece of Bularchus. Yet we may infer, in part from this circumstance, that even the Greek writers from whom Pliny derived his information contained no more definite accounts in regard to the beginning of the plastic arts than they did of the arts of rhetoric. It is also difficult to determine the date of the battle represented by Bularchus, as history mentions several wars of the Magnetes with the Lydians. — Germ. Ed. Several instances of the high prices which works of art brought among the ancients can be cited from PUny. The whole wealth of cities scarcely sufficed to purchase a picture by Apelles, Echion, Melanthius, and Nico- machus (Plin., lib. 35, cap. 7, sect. 32). M. Agrippa paid for two paint- ings, the Ajax and the Venus, ten hundred thousand sesterces ($44,250) (Plin., lib. 35, cap. 4, sect. 9). Attains purchased a picture by Aristides for six hundred thousand sesterces (|26,550) (Plin., lib. 35, cap. 4, sect. 8), and another by the same artist for one hundred talents (|120,442) (Plin., cap. 10, sec. 36, not. 19). Nicias refused to sell to Attalus his picture of the Necromancy of Homer for sixty talents ($71,077), preferring to make a gift of it to Athens, his native city (Plin., cap. 11, sect. 40, not. 28). Winckelmann cites similar instances in the third chapter of this book. The same value was also attached to statues and works of sculpture. Lucullus ordered from Arcesilaus a statue of Felicity for sixty million sesterces ($265,500) (Plin., cap. 12, sect. 45). The Diadumenus, "He that ties a band around his head," of Polycletus was estimated at one hun- dred talents ($120,442) (Plin., lib. 34, cap. 8, sect. 19, not. 2) ; and Nico- medes, king of Bithynia, was willing to pay all the heavy debts of the in- habitants of Cnidus, if they would surrender to him their statue of Venus by Praxiteles (Plin., lib. 7, cap. 38, sect. 39 ; lib. 36, cap. 5, sect. 4, 5). — A. 7. Pausan. , lib. 4, cap. 30. A few years ago there was found at Salone, not far from Rome, directly on the road to Palestrina, a beautiful pedestal with the inscription BOTriAAOS EIIOIEI, Boupalus made, and near it the figure of a Venus, very beautifully executed, sitting on her heels, which has been taken into the Pio-Clement museum. Visconti (Tom. I. par. 10, p. 17) remarks of this Venus that, even if the pedestal really belonged to the figures, it would not on that account be possible to admit that a work so elegant and pleasing came from the hand of Boupalus, but the name must either denote a later Boupalus, or have been falsely placed upon the base in ancient times. — A. 8. According to Pausanias (lib. 3, cap. 17) there was at Sparta an image of Jupiter in bronze, the oldest work in this metal, executed by Learchus ; each portion of the statue was cast separately, and then fastened firmly by nails to the others. — Germ. Ed. 9. Pausan., lib. 7, cap. 23. This statue was wrapped from head to foot in a thin drapery. — Germ. Ed. 420 NOTES. 10. Pausan., lib, 6, cap. 14. Milo had been victor six times at Olympia ; one of these victories he obtained in the sixty-second Olympiad (Euseb. Chronic, p. 41). The passages of the ancients in regard to Milo have been industriously collected by Father Faber {Agonist., I. 27, in Gronov. Thes., Tom. VIII. p. 1903). — Germ. Ed. 11. Pausan., lib. 6, cap. 4 (Book IX. chap. 2, § 31). Pythagoras of Reggio must have been celebrated especially after the seventy-third Olympiad, as he executed the statue of Astylus, who con- quered in the stadium in the seventy-third, seventy-fourth, and seventy- fifth Olympiads (Pausan., lib. 6, cap. 13; Euseb., Chronic, p. 41), and that of Euthymus, who won the prize in boxing (Pausan., lib. 6, cap. 6) in the seventy-sixth and seventy-seventh Olympiads ( Plin., lib. 34, cap. 8, sect. 19, not. 4). — Germ. Ed. 12. Pausan., lib. 6, cap. 14. Among the older artists whose age can be determined with great proba- bility we may enumerate also Kritias, to whom Pausanias (lib. 1, cap. 8) attributes the images of Harmodius and Aristogiton, and according to Pliny (lib. 34, cap. 4, sect. 9) they seem to have been erected immediately after the expulsion of the Pisistratidse. — Germ. Ed. In Lucian (Philopseudes, not. 18) the TvpavvoKrSyot, the Tyrannicides of Kritias tov vriffiiirov, the islander, are mentioned, but he must not be con- founded with the Attic Kritias of Pausanias (lib. 6, cap. 3), who was prob- ably a citizen of iEgina. (Miilleri ^gineticor. , p. 102. ) — S. 13. Pausan., lib. 2, cap. 32. Kallon of jEgina belongs to a later period, as he was a contemporary of Kanachus of Sicyon, and is cited by Pliny (lib. 34. cap. 8, sect. 19) among the artists of the eighty-seventh Olympiad. This is probably the Kallon to whose works Quintilian's (lib. 12, cap. 10, not. 7) remark, duriora et Tuscanicis proddraa, "harder and resembling the Etruscan," was probably intended to apply. — Germ. Ed. 14. Pausan., lib. 5, cap. 25. By their teacher is to be understood the x<'po5jS£{(r/caAos, he who taught music and dancing. — Germ. Ed. 15. In the first edition the following passage occurs : " In this period Iphion of iEgina might be placed, who made a statue of Angelia, the daughter of Mercury ((SfcAo?. Pindar. Olymp., YIll. vers. 106)." Winckel- mann has himself corrected the error in the Notes in the following manner : " I have been led into an error in regard to a supposed Iphion of Mgina, by an inaccuracy in the text of the more ancient scholias of Pindar. It is asserted there that Iphion made an image of Angelia, the daughter of Mer- cury, but this statement must be understood not of the Iphion whose an- cestor Pindar celebrates in song, but of the poet himself, who introduces 'Ayye\ia, Angelia, a message, personally as a daughter of Mercury, the messenger of the gods, and represents her to be a daughter of the god. The more modem scholias of Pindar explain this point more correctly, and in accordance with them the former reading must be emended ; the mistake lies in the word oStos." — Germ. Ed. 16. Pausan., lib. 8, cap. 42. Onatas is not mentioned by Pliny ; he was the son of Micon of ^gina, and lived at the time of Hegias and Ageladas. In the temple of Minerva NOTES. 421 Area at Plataea there was a painting on a wall by liim (Pausan., lib. 9, cap. 4) of the first campaign of the Argolians against Thebes ; the companion- picture was Ulysses taking vengeance on the suitors, by Polygnotus ; and Phidias executed the colossal image of the goddess in wood and marble. The work cited in the text is described by Pausanias (lib. 5, cap. 25). According to his account there were originally nine statues of the Greek princes who were casting lots for the fight with Hector ; they stood together on a platform ; yet when Pansanias saw the work there were only eight of them remaining, because, as it was said, Nero had removed to Rome the statue which represented Ulysses. Opposite to the eight champions, on a separate pedestal, stood Nestor, casting the lots into a helmet. Moreover there was at Olympia a Hercules also, armed with club and bow, by Onatas, dedicated by the Thasians, and a chariot with the statue of Hiero of Syra- cuse, the horses of which with the boys seated on them were executed by Kalamis. Dinomenes, the son of Hiero, erected this votive gift (Pausan., lib. 6, cap. 12). A young Apollo by Onatas was especially beautiful (Brunck., Anal, Vol. II. cap. 14, not. 30), and probably is the same of which Pausanias also speaks with praise (lib. 8, cap. 42). All the works of this artist were of bronze. — Germ. Ed. 17. Bentley's Dissert, ujjon the Hp. of Phalaris, p. 72, It seems as if Winckelmann intended to put into the text the inscription which Pausanias communicates (lib. 5, cap. 27). The meaning of it w^as, " Phormis, of Msenalum in Arcadia, now a Syracusan, gave this monu- ment. " — Germ. Ed. 18. Pausan., lib. 6, cap. 9. Not King Hiero, but Gelo. Pausanias believes that the quadriga, together with the portrait-statue of Gelo, executed by Glaucias, was dedi- cated, not by the ruler of Syracuse, but by a private individual of the same name, because the inscription on the votive gift speaks of Gelo, not as a Syracusan, liVpaKovtrios, but as Ti\Q>os, of Gela. But Gelo was a native of Gela, and he probably wished, as ruler of Syracuse, to honor his native city by that epithet. Near this quadriga was the statue of Philo of Corcyra, whom Simonides has celebrated also in song (Brunck., A-nal., Vol. I. p. 140, not. 72), a work of Glaucias ; so also a portrait-statue of Glaucias in a fighting posture (Pausan., lib. 6, cap. 10), and of Theogenes (loc. cit., cap. 6 and 11), the celebrated Olympic victor between the seventy- fifth and seventy-sixth Olympiads. — G erm. Ed. 19. Schol. Aristoph. Ran., vers. 504. (Let the reader compare Book IX. chap. 1, § 30. ) Eladas is probably the Ageladas who has been previously mentioned, so that in the scholia we must read 'AyeAaSow instead of 'EAoSow. — Germ. Ed. Suidas calls him Geladas. — S. 20. Thucyd., lib. 1, cap. 13. Corinth was situated on two seas, and gathered to herself the riches of eastern and western commerce. The position of the city is more accurately described by Strabo (lib. 8, cap. 22). — Germ. Ed. 21. Homer {Iliad, lib. 2, vers. 570) terms Corinth the rich a. 3, cap. 16, § 13 ; lib. 7, cap. 19, § 4.) - Germ. Ed. 33. Pausan., lib. 6, cap. 11. See § 11. Xi'Xiouj, a thousand, seemed to Amasseus as well as to me altogether too much, and he consequently omitted it in his Latin transla- tion of Pausanias. — E. , . t, ^ i. ^.u c *• 34 It seems to me that Hunt is in error when, in his Preface to the hrst edition of Hyde's work on The Religion of the Persians, he wishes to de- rive the word "Barbiton" from the Persian language. For his proof is drawn from a statement relative to King Cosroes, and therefore belonging to a period when the Greeks had been long known to the Persians, who may consequently have appropriated the name of a Greek instrument. — W. 35. Although the grounds are not sufficient to authorize the conjecture 424 NOTES. that the said Muse is a work of Ageladas, yet the grand style thereof is a sure guaranty that it belongs to an age which immediately preceded that of Phidias and Polycletus. Compare Book VIII. chap. 2, § 1, note 1. — Germ. Ed. 36. Suid., vid. Ti\a5a.s ; Tzetz., Chil. VII. Hist. 154, vers. 2 ; CUl. VIII. Hist. 192, vers. 376 ; Schol. Arist02}h. llan., vers. 504. Eladas and Geladas are corruptions of Ageladas, as Meursius has already re- marked. (Pirfeus, Tom. I. cap. 4, col. 554.) — Germ. Ed. Compare Book IX. chap. 1, § 11. 37. Visconti (^Mus. Pio-Clcm., Tom. I. tav. 37, p. 73, not. 6) shows that Winckelmann has here fallen into a double error : in the first place, by supposing that the Dioscuri of Hegesias were made of marble, when they were of bronze ; and in the second place, by asserting that they were found on the Capitol hill, although Flaminio Vacca (Mem., not. 52) re- lates that they were discovered in the quarter of the Jews, ghetto deqli Ebrei. — F. 38. Although the colossal figures of Castor and Pollux, which stand at the head of the flight of steps leading to the Capitol, are by no means very excellent, yet they must be classed as decided examples of the antique severe and powerful style ; it is impossible however to deny to them an ex- pression of grandeur generally in the forms and proportions. Both heroes and the horses have been broken into many pieces, and put together again without suitable care. The deficient parts have been restored negligently, and the entire head of the figure which stands on the left of the spectator is new. — Germ. Ed. 39. Mus. Capitol., Tom. I. tav. 33. It is the image of a young hero, perhaps of a young Hercules, — a sup- position which is rendered probable by the short curly hair, powerful fore- head, and other portions of the face. About the head is a twisted fillet, the ends of which fall down to the shoulders. The upper portion of the head, or the crown, is a modern restoration ; likewise the tip of the nose, and also the breast, on which the name is engraved. — Germ. Ed. 40. Visconti (Iconograph Grecque, Tom. I. p. 227) says that the head of Herodotus is not, it is true, of superior workmanship, but that it is unique in regard to the name engraved on it. It is one half of a double Henues which was sawed in two ; the other half represents Thucydides, likewise with his name. Both have been removed from the Farnesina to Naples. The author seems to suppose that both halves are portraits of Herodotus. — Germ. Ed. 41. Fulv. XTrsin., Imag., no. 60. The head of Euripides, with the ancient inscription of the name, is like- wise in Naples, and we should be obliged to acknowledge that it possesses more artistic merit than any other similar head if Visconti (loc. cit., Tom. I. p. 81) did not regard a head in the museum at Mantua as still better. It is indeed very beautiful, and has the superiority of being in perfect pre- servation with the exception of two locks of hair, whilst the nose of the other has been repaired. Engravings of both of them, as well as of Hero- dotus and Thucydides, may be found in Visconti. — Germ. Ed. NOTES, 425 CHAPTER II. 1. "WiNCKELMANN during his whole life stood in lofty solitude, like a mountain. No answering sound, no emotion, no throb in the entire wide domain of knowledge, kindly encouraged his exertions. At the very mo- ment when trusty companions were gathering around this excellent man, he was hurried away. And yet how much he accomplished. — Schelling. 2. Pausan., lib. 4, cap. 19. Also when the news of the death of Sophocles was received, Lysander granted a truce to the Athenians. — Germ. Ed. 3. Baudelot de Dairval, Epoque de la Nuditi des Athletes dans les Jeux de la Grice, Acad, des Inscript., Tom. I. Hist., p. 191. Baudelot was led to this assumption by a passage in Thucydides (lib. 1. cap. 6), which, as bethinks, contradicts the passage in Dionysius Halicar- nassus (Antiq. Rom., lib. 7, cap. 72), to which the author refers in the previous line. Moreover he believed that his conjecture was coniirmed by finding that the image of Victoria on the reverse of the first commemora- tive coins of Gelo and his brother Hiero, who were frequently crowned as conquerors in the gymnastic games of Greece, wore a tunic or shirt, and in the later ones, on which they were represented as kings, was without a shirt. We will merely remark that the words of Thucydides, koI ov ttoAAo iri) iireiSi} vevavrai, and ceased not many years before, where Meursius {Miscell. Lacon., lib. 4, cap. 18 ; Op., Tom. III. coll. 324) unnecessarily wishes to read fcal iroWa, etc., leaving out the "not," are so general in their statement as to the precise time, that nothing can be proved by them against Dionysius, especially as the Greeks like the Romans occasionally comprehend in expressions such as "lately," "not many years," etc., a term of several centuries. — Germ. Ed. 4. In Aristophanes, Mercury is telling how the newly restored peace was broken. " First, the storm broke out over Phidias ; then Pericles be- gan to be apprehensive for himself, and by means of the war threw every- thing into disorder." The simple Trygseus interrupts him : " By Jove ! I have never known, never even heard, a woi'd of all this ; but what has Phidias to do with the Goddess of Peace ? Sttcds aZrri irpoff^Koi ^eiSias ; " The Chorus adds : " Neither have I. The goddess is a beauty, because she is a kinswoman of Phidias. How much indeed thei-e is in the world which people do not know ! " The satirical hit about beauty is meant, I think, to fall here ; Phidias was a small, bald-headed man, and his exter- nal appearance was not prepossessing, as it may be inferred from Plutarch. (Pcricl., cap. 13.) — Heyne. 5. Plutarch., In PericL, cap. 12, 13. Architecture had already made great advances in the age which preceded the Persian war, and many works highly esteemed by the ancients were called into existence. To this number belong the temple at Delphi (Herodot., lib. 5, cap. 62), the temple of Apollo at Delos, the temple of Juno at Samos, built by Polycrates, the temple of Diana at Ephesus, etc. About the same time also the Ionic order was invented in Greek Asia, where hitherto only the Doric order had been in use. — Germ. Ed. 6. Polygnotus might have been included in this sentence with as much 426 NOTES. justice as Parrhasius, for he likewise had obtained a high reputation in art, and was undoubtedly nearer to Phidias in point of time. According to Pliny (lib. 35, cap. 9, sect. 36, not. 3), the age of Parrhasius seems to be about the ninety-fifth Olympiad, therefore nearly fifty years later than the time of Phidias The age of Polygnotus is not determined with entire precision by Pliny (lib. 35, cap. 9, sect. 35) ; he includes him among the painters who had become celebrated prior to the ninetieth Olym- piad, and we may hold him to be not much younger than Phidias. — Germ. Ed. 7. Pausan., lib. 1, cap. 28. According to this passage it was not the Pallas of gold and ivory whose shield Mys had ornamented with the battle of the Lapithse and Centaurs after designs by Parrhasius, but a Pallas of bronze, also executed by Phi- dias, which was probably still more colossal than that in the Parthenon, because Pausanias relates that the mariners as they sailed around Sunium saw the crest of her helmet and the point of her lance. Hence Demos- thenes terms her the great bronze Athene, rr)v xO'^i^hv r^v fieyaKriv 'A6rjvT]v (De falsu Legal., p. 428). She must therefore have towered above the walls of the Acropolis, and have been of unusual magnitude if the parts men- tioned could be seen at so gieat a distance, for Sunium is probably five hours' distance from Athens. The spoils obtained at Marathon paid the cost of this statue, and in the time of Alaric she still looked over the walls like a guardian champion, vpofiaxos (Zosim., Histor., lib. 5, cap. 6), in full armor, and as if she would assail advancing enemies. It is neither proba- ble, nor can it be shown from passages in ancient writers, that her shield or the images which embellished it were of ivory, especially as the statue stood in the open air. The work of Mys was therefore undoubtedly of bronze, like the rest. — Gekm. Ed. Compare Book XI. chap. 1, § 16. 8. Plin., lib. 36, cap. 5, sec. 4, not. 3. The word /onM< in Pliny, and the word ^K/tao-e, are not always to be understood as meaning the highest celebrity of an artist ; it is no more than our phrase, lived about the time. Occasionally the idea was also ex- pressed iyvdpi^ero, which in Hieronymus is translated clarus habct%ir, " is considered famous" ; in other places far more awkwardly by agnosci- tur, " is known," as, for example, Melissus physicus agnoscitur, " Melissus is known as a natural philosopher." — H. 9. Let the reader consult the splendid and valuable work on this point, Jupiter Olyvipien, by Quatremere de Quincy. — E. 10. Thucyd., lib. 2, cap. 13. The weight of the gold, according to Thucydides, was forty talents ; according to Diodorus (lib. 12, cap. 40), fifty talents ; and according to Philochorus {Schol. Aristoph. ad Pac, vers. 604), forty-four talents. — H. This learned man (Heyne) has also objected in regard to the calculation of the value of the gold, that Winckelniann has not onlj' rated the Attic talent too low, but has computed the value in silver talents instead of gold talents, the value of which latter was ten times greater than that of the former. The forty talents of gold in the garment of the statue, if com- puted as gold talents, would therefore have been equal to $295,400. — Gkrm. Ed. NOTES. 427 11. Two different statements of Pausanias are mixed together here. In the eleventh chapter of the fifth book he is speaking of a youthful figure near the throne of the Olympian Jupiter which, as it was believed, resem- bled Pantarces, and of which the position was that of a person attempting to tie a band around his head. In another passage (lib. 6, cap. 10) men- tion is made, on the other hand, of an actual portrait statue, probably of bronze, which was erected to Pantarces as conqueror in wrestling ; but we do not learn definitely whether the statue was executed by Phidias, nor in what position the beautiful youth was represented. — Germ. Ed. 12. Tzetz., Chil. VIII. cap. 192. His words are : — reXaSoC Tov ^Apyeiov jxev naOririjs ^tiSlas, Tov iv Mf\'iTTi 'ArriKi]! irXatrivTos 'Hpo/cAe'o. " Phidias was the pupil of Geladas, a citizen of Argos, Who made a statue of Hercules in Melite, a town of Attica." Melite (according to Philochori Fragm., pp. 37, 55) was not a city in the Attic territory, but a portion of Athens ; the work itself, according to the passage quoted, and the scholiast of Aristophanes (Meursius, De Fopu- lis Atticis 171 Gronovii Thesauro Antiq. Grocc, Vol. IV., vid. M6\/t7;), was also not from the hand of Phidias, but from that of his teacher, Geladas. — S. 13. Schol. ad Aristoph. Pac, vers. 604. This scholia contains a passage borrowed fram Philochorus, which has a very important bearing on the history of Phidias, but is unfortunately very much mutilated. — H. Heyne (Antiquar. Aufsatze, St. 1, Seite 200) makes it quite probable that Phidias began his work on the Pallas of gold and ivory in the eighty- third Olympiad, and finished it ten years afterwards, therefore in the sec- ond year of the eighty-fifth Olympiad. In the fourth year of the eighty- fifth Olympiad he began the work on the Propylseum, which lasted into its fifth year, that is to saj% the fourth year of the eighty-sixth Olympiad. — Germ. Ed. 14. Pausan., lib. 2, cap. 30. The word "triform" in the text stands for three-bodied, ayiXixaTa "EKir-qs rpia vpoaexoiJ^fva aWiiKois, three images of Hecate joined to each other. 15. Plin., lib. 36, cap. 5, sect. 4, note 3 ; Pausan., lib. 1, cap. 19. It is asserted of this Venus, which had received the epithet of Venus in the Garden, from that portion of the city of Athens in which it was erected, in a temple, that Phidias himself had given the last touch to it, and it was regarded as one of the most remarkable works of art. No ancient author gives any information in regard to its attitude, but it is supposed to have been dra])ed. The form of her breast, the clieeks below the eyes, the hands and feet, were looked upon as marvels of beauty (Lucian., Imacjin., cap. 6). This artist also executed a very celebrated image of Vulcan (Cicero., De Nat. Dear., lib. 1, cap. 30 ; Valer. Max., lib. 8, cap. 11, not. 3). The god was standing and draped ; it was perceptible through the drapery that he limped, but the infirmity was indicated so slightly that the beauty of the figure was not impaired by the defect. Besides his contest with Agoracri- tus hi making a statue of Venus, he defeated Alcamenes also, who is said to have challenged him in the execution of a Minerva. — Germ. Ed. 428 NOTES/ 16. The wrong translation of this passage in Pausanias (lib. 1, cap, 33) renders /xeKias by fraxini, and this again is erroneously translated by "beech," whereas it signifies "ash." But in the passage cited, we must, according to Hesychius, read fi7}\4as, apple-twig, instead of yueAtas, ash- twig. — Germ. Ed. 17. In the Pancratium. — Germ. Ed. 18. A portion of the History of Art which Winckelmann scarcely touched, because he had no materials for the purpose, has since been so fully illusti-ated that it would be a defect in the present collection of statements and inquiries in regard to art if no notice should be taken of it. At a very early period in antiquity figures were clothed, for they were covered by actual cloth, of which permanent traces still exist in Asia and among us. Not only the wooden figures in the tomb of Osyniandyas, but the idols of which Baruch speaks were certainly so clothed. This practice, which is both the C3.use and the eff'ect of incompleteness of art, continued to recur occasionally even am.ong nations which had reached the highest stage of the plastic art ; for we find that the Greeks, even at the time when they were able to dispense with this accessory, frequently clothed with costly stuffs not only the wooden -jointed figures, but now and then also statues of marble and bronze. The intention was to create an exalted idea of the power of the deities, and persons were appointed and paid to take care of the clothing, siLas habebant ornatrices, vestitorcs divinorum simu- lacrorum. The welfare of art is forced to yield to the interests of religion, and only a fortunate conjunction of circumstances ever unites the two in pursuit of a common object. "Whatever may have been the cause, artists afterwards executed colored rilievi as well as statues ; of the former there were, according to Diodorus, examples in Babylon, and they are still found in Italy ; of the other. Pan- sanias mentions several by name. The Venus de' Medici had gilded hair ; the hair of another Venus in the Herculaneum museum, who is pressing her hair with both hands, is colored ; this is also the case with a draped statue with an ideal head in the same museum. The celebrated Diana of the ancient style in the Herculaneum museum has hair similar in color to the trimming of her dress. The two following passages are likewise appro- priate here : — " Levi de mannore tota Paniceo stabis suras evincta cothurno." Virg., Eclog. VII. vers. 31. Thou Shalt stand an entire image of polished marble, Thy legs girt with the lacing of the reddish-purple buskin. " Marmoreus que tibi, Dea, versicoloribus alia In morem picta stabit Amor pharetra." Catalecta, Vol. V. p. 219, Ed. Heyn. To thee, 0 Goddess, a marble Cupid with variegated wings And quiver painted as usual shall be erected. Hermae, busts, and statues of different kinds of marble in the same image, or heads of bronze on marble bodies, are still in existence. The nails of the hands as well as of the feet, and the lips, were occasionally of silver ; the eyes of colored stones, often of precious stones, traces of which are still visible in the colossal heads of Antinoiis at Moutdragone and of the NOTES. 429 great Barberini Muse. Statues were also delicately painted by an encaustic process. Myron and Polycletus were rivals, not only in their art, but also in the materials of it. The former used no other metal for casting than the so- called Mixture of Delos ; the latter, that of ^gina. The Corinthian bronze was bright colored, undoubtedly hardened, and mixed with gold and silver, but notwithstanding its costliness the skill exercised upon it was still greater. Alcon made a statue of Hercules of iron alone ; Aristo- nidas mixed iron and bronze, and produced a blush in the face of his statue of Athamas. So too Silanion, by the addition of a little silver, gave to the face of his Jocasta a look of sickly paleness ; and Praxiteles diffused over the whole face of an Eros in bronze, where not covered by hair, a bright red hue, and the face of another Eros by the same master showed a soft redness. Kallistratus relates something like this of the celebrated statue of Opportunity by Lysippus, and of the statue of Bacchus by Praxiteles. The practice of coloring objects of sculpture is so little in accordance with modern taste, that for a long time it was denied also as a practice of the ancients, because a belief in it was an imputation on their perception of beauty. But the process will present itself to us in a different light as soon as we think, not of statues represented in colors entirely after nature, — which would always be unpleasant, by destroying the illusion, — but of those to which art has given, if we may so say, only a semblance of color. The loftiest works of art of the Greeks, the Minerva in the Parthenon at Athens, the Olympian Jupiter at Elis, — both by Phidias, — the Juno of Polycletus at Argos, the iEsculapius of Thrasymedes at Epidauinis, etc., are all examples of this colored mode of sculpture. Before the time of Phidias the statues of gold and ivory seem not to have exceeded the usual size of man, according to the accounts given us by Pausanias. But this great artist, after executing a Minerva of gold and ivory at Pellene in Achaia, another at Platsea from the spoils of the victory at Marathon, of which the body was of gilded wood, and the face, arms, and feet of Pentelic marble, and the whole size equal to that of his bronze Pallas on the citadel at Athens, and the statue just named, whose helmet and spear could be seen by the mariners sailing around the promontory of Sunium, created the immortal colossal images of the Minerva in the Par- thenon at Athens, and the Olympian Jupiter at Elis of gold and ivory. It is not yet ascertained which of the two works was executed first, nor the date of their beginning ; for it is highly probable that Pliny, in giving the time when the great artists lived, has regarded, as Heyne shows, not so much the period in which they had their greatest reputation or made their principal works, as other historical epochs which he found in the writings used by him in his great compilation. Thus he places the bloom of Phidias in the eighty-third Olympiad, which is the date when Pericles began to govern, — his rival Cymon having died in the fourth year of the eighty- second Olympiad, — and was able to begin the embellishment of Athens, the superintendence of which he intrusted to Phidias, About this time the artist must have begun his Minerva of gold and ivory for her temple at Athens, because it was finished in the third year of the eighty-seventh Olympiad, as Pericles enumerates among the other resources for the war also the forty talents in gold, (about $500,000), in the garment of the god* 430 NOTES. dess, which could be taken off. It must indeed have been finished several years earlier, for in the comedy of Aristophanes, Tlie Peace, Mercury names as the first among other secret causes of the war an accusation against Phidias, wliich at first was based upon embezzlement of the gold, but after- wards on the crime of having put his own likeness and that of Pericles on the shield of Minerva. The accusation had its effect ; although Phidias did not die in prison, as Plutarch relates, he was obliged to flee. Accord- ing to Eusebius, the artist completed the Minerva of the Parthenon in the second year of the eighty-fifth Olympiad, and he placed his name below it. If Phidias made the Jupiter at Elis before the Minerva of gold and ivory at Athens, where did he get the time to work on the Minerva at Pellene, on the large statue of bronze at Athens, and on the thirteen statues at Olympia, — fifteen works in all from the spoils of the victory at Marathon ? Besides, it is usual to advance in excellence with increase of practice, and the Olympian Jupiter far excelled, by the unanimous assent of the an- cients, all the other works of the same master. Moreover Phidias intro- duced conspicuously as a rilievo, on the front of the throne of Jupiter, the beautiful youth Pantarces, whom he loved, in the act of binding a fillet around his head, having won the prize in wrestling ofi"ered to youths, in the eighty-sixth Olympiad. As the incident was the occasion of the representation, it could not have taken place at an earlier date. The Minerva in the Parthenon stood upright ; the eyes and the rest of the face, the hands and the feet, were of ivory, not of gold. Phidias pro- posed white marble for the nude parts, because it retained its whiteness longer than ivory, and also because, he added, " it is cheaper," but at these words the assembly ordered him to be silent. The garment down to the feet was of gold ; the other accessories were probably of gold and ivory. The noble metal on the goddess is reckoned by Thucydides at forty talents, at forty-four by Philochorus, and at fifty by Ephorus in Diodorus, — a difference which probably aiises from the fact that the first has computed the value only of the robe of the goddess, which was so constructed that it could be taken off" and weighed ; the other two included also the gold of the helmet, shield, and other accessories. In determining the value the accounts expressly state talents of gold ; now in the age of Pericles gold bore to silver the proportion of one to thirteen, or, which we now assume with more probability, of one to eleven and a half. The value of the gold therefore, reckoned only on the statement of Thucy- dides, amounts, according to the first proportion, one to thirteen, to 2,720,000 francs (|544,000), and according to the second to 2,406,000 francs (|481,200), of which sum each double louis d'or (equal to an American gold eagle) would have to furnish a golden surface of four hun- dred square feet. It is not known whether the metal in the garment of the goddess was cast in sheets or hammered ; the latter is the more probable. The goddess wore a helmet, on the top of which was a sphinx, on the sides of it were grifl[ins. The pupils of the eyes were formed of a stone which in color resembled ivory. It may perhaps have been a chalcedony, a gem which is somewhat lighter in color and more brilliant than ivory, just as the artist of another Pallas in the temple of Vulcan at Athens gave to her blue eyes. In the middle of the iEgis was a head of Medusa, of NOTES. 431 ivory. According to an amended reading of Pliny, the Mgxs was painted by Paneenus, a brother-in-law of Phidias ; but according to the usual read- ing it was the work of Colotes, who was an assistant of Phidias in the exe- cution of his Jupiter at Elis. In her left hand she held a Victory, nearly six feet high, the nude parts of which were probably also of ivory, but the clothing and certainly the wings were of gold ; in her right hand she held a spear, beneath which lay a bronze dragon. The shield, which stood at the feet of the goddess, and undoubtedly served as a support to the hand whi(;h held the great Victory, was embellished within and without with figures iu raised work. Within, was the battle of the gods and giants ; without, was that of the Amazons, and here were found the por- traits of Pericles and the artist, the latter of which had such a connection with the mechanical arrangement of the whole work, that it was a sort of key to it. Even the edges of the soles of the goddess were embellished with small figures in relief, representing the battle of the LapithiB and Centaurs. On the sides of the pedestal was seen the story of the birth of Pandora, likewise in relief. The height of the Minerva, according to Pliny, was twenty-six ells, or thirty-seven French feet (39.44 Eng. ), not including the base ; with the base the whole height must have been forty-five feet. After the completion of this splendid work, and during the prosecution above mentioned, which threatened the life of the artist, Pliidias fled to Elis, where he found an opportunity to immortalize himself by a still more glorious monument, and to avenge himself of the ingratitude of his native city by his Olympian Jupiter, which he executed for the magnificent tem- ple of Doric architecture at Elis. — E. We feel compelled to look upon the colossal figure on Monte Cavallo at Rome, on tlie base of which may be read the words Ophus Phidice, " The Work of Phidias," as one of the most wonderful and authentic monuments of the high style of Greek art. It is now generally assumed that the two statues represent the Dioscuri, and the one of which we speak. Castor. (PI. I.) This monument excels every other ancient work of art in the true gran- deur with which its signification is presented, in the style of its forms, at once noble and powerful, and in expression. The drawing is excellent and correct, and evinces the thorough science of the artist. The character of the limbs, and their nice adaptation to the grandly constituted whole, de- serves yet greater praise. The proportions in general are excellent. How otherwise could the figure have obtained its vigorous, powerful character ? The artist has indeed taken less pains with the details or the proportions of single subordinate parts. Thus the space between the upper eyelid and the edge of the bone of the socket of the eye is too narrow ; the wings of the nose are small and mean, etc. At the time when this monument was exe- cuted, the rules of proportion for such subordinate parts were probably not entirely settled. As there is no reason for denying it to be the work of Phidias, he probably executed it before Polycletus had perfected the rules of proportion, and created his canon. In the handling, even in the few places where the epidermis has re- mained uninjured by air and moisture, there is no display, no pretension 432 NOTES. to bold dexterity in the use of the chisel. The great divine artist, forget- ting himself, thought solely of the means by which he could present in marble the ideal floating before his soul, not troubling himself whether the artistic dexterity with which he accomplished his purpose should be in- stantly visible. We find in all genuine monuments of the high style a similar renunciation of the fame of technical skill. The hair on this work of art is somewhat wiry, but yet on the whole treated more broadly and freely than is usually the case with statues of this style which can be examined more closely. On the back of the head of the hero and also on the shoulder-blades may be noticed some inserted pieces ; these are probably the places to which was formerly fastened a large nim- bus for the purpose of protecting the head from the effects of the weather. The little finger of the right hand is new, so also the tip-joints of the fore, middle, and ring fingers. — Germ. Ed. 19. Hence Polycletus is also named 6 nXdffrris, he who moulds, and Phidias, 6 y\6ct>evs, he who engraves. (Dionys. Halic, Jud. de Dinarcho, Tom. II. p. 115.) — Germ. Ed. In Plutarch (PericL, cap. 31), Phidias also is termed, & irXiar-qs, he who moulds. — S. 20. Plin., lib. 34, cap. 8, sect. 19, not. 2. The Diadumenus, "he who ties a ribbon about his head," was repre- sented as a tender, delicate youth, molliter juvcnis ; the Doryphorus, "he who carries a spear," as a vigorous youth, viriliter puer, and perhaps was a different work from the canon of Polycletus, for the words of Pliny (lib. 34, sect. 19, not. 2), fecit et quern canona artifices vacant, may according to the connection be translated thus, — "he executed also another statue, the Doryphorus, which ai-tists term the canon." — Germ. Ed. 21. Pausan., lib. 5, cap. 11. This statue undoubtedly was very frequently copied in ancient times, and the one in the Farnese villa is probably made after a copy at least of the Diadumenus. It is an undraped figure, somewhat smaller than life, tyin" around its forehead a band, which, somewhat singularly, has been preserved, together with the hand that holds it. A similar small figure, wrought in relief, was a few years ago to be found on a small funeral urn in the Sinibaldi villa with the inscription, DIADVMENI ; on the marble bases of the antique candelabra in the church of St. Agnes outside of Rome, and also on two similar bases in the Borghese villa, Amorini, tying ribbons about their foreheads, project from elegantly wrought leaves. Just such a child is on a piece of an antique frieze in the possession of an amateur in ^ Tlfe Tbove-mentioned figure in the Farnese villa on the Palatine has been removed thence for some time, and must be sought m Naples. Vis- conti (Mus. Fio-Clem., Tom. VII. p. 90) also mentions it, and remarks that an engraving of it may be found in a work bearing the title hmgni. ores Statuarum Urbis Romce Icmes, No. 74. This work is not known to us, but we have found a copy of the same monument m another work, probably not very much unlike it, Antiquarum Statuarum UrUs Eomce, Jo. Baptistfe de Cavalleriis, No. 97. The cippus which was formerly in the Sinibaldi villa may be found at present in the Vatican museum, together with two of the candelabra pedestals from the church of St. Agnes, in which NOTES. 433 a third one stUl remains. "Where the fragment of an antique frieze may be found at present we do not know. — Germ, Ed. 22. This rilievo of terra cotta is now in the British Museum. — Germ Ed. 23. The boy afterwards went to London, into the collection of Lord Townley, and may now be found, together with the other antiques of this celebrated amateur, in the British museum. — F. and Germ. Ed. 24. In the Notes to the History of Art, p. 91, whence we have taken a few lines relative to the boy formerly in the Barberini palace, and incor- porated them into the text for the completion of the sense, it is further said, " The celebrated Borghese Gladiator, so called, should therefore be named Alexeter, from a statue by the same artist, which Pliny (lib. 34, cap. 8, sect. 19, not. 2) calls Alexetera, arnm sumentem, ' taking arms.' For the word 'Alexeter ' means * one who protects from violence,' which is the true signification of the attitude and action of this figure." It is strange that the author does not mention in this place the celebrated Amazon of Polycletus, since probably we still possess some antique copies of this masterpiece. — Germ. Ed. Book V. chap. 11, § 21, note. An outline representing this figure may be seen in Vol. IV., Plate III. o o 25. Plat., In Protag., p. 328. Fea is correct in his remark that Paralus and Xanthippus were sons, not of Polycletus, but of Pericles. The sons of Polycletus, whose names are not mentioned by any ancient author were according to Plato, of the same age with Paralus and Xanthippus, but were not to be compared with their father in skill. — Germ. Ed. 26. Plin., lib. 34, cap. 8, sect. 19. Heyne (Antiquar ' AufsaUe, St. 1, Seit. 230), in order to remove the contradiction of Pliny in regard to the time in which Scopas lived, has endeavored to make it probable either that his name was inserted by a strange hand into the passage cited, or that the error may even have originated with Pliny himself. That the statement which assigns to Scopas a later date is the more cor- rect one, we have proofs in the refined taste, the tenderness, sweetness, and variety which we perceive in the design, in the forms of the limbs, and in the arrangement of the drapery of different monuments, which for cogent reasons may be looked upon as antique imitations of celebrated works of this artist. Among such presumed imitations the Bacchante of the Borghese villa {Sculture, Stanza 2, No. 14) seems worthy of the first mention, for in regard to execution it is one of the most admirable bas-reliefs which have come down to us from antiquity, and the figure coincides with what Kal- hstratus (Philostr., Oper., p. 892), in his description of different statues, relates of the Bacchante of Scopas, so that we may almost assume it as certain that the master of the bas-relief imitated in his work the statue of Scopas. An outline of this Bacchante may be seen in Plate IV — Germ. Ed. 27. Denkmale, Th. 4, kap. 14, No. 3. AnmerJc, iib. die Baukunst der Alien, kap. 1, § 39. The usual reading in Pliny is not uno a Scopa, but una a Scopa. Winck- elmann's proposed emendation might give occasion to opposition ; the word singuloi must still necessarily stand in the phrase ccelatce uno e scapo if it VOL. II. 28 * 434 NOTES. is intended to signify that all the columns were wrought from one block. — Gkum. Ed. When the phrase ex Us xxxvi. ccelatoz precedes, Latin scholars have no need of sincjulm, and uno e scapo is very well expressed. — E. 28. It was the opinion of Mengs that the Family of Niobe were on the whole only copies from better originals. {Opere di Mengs, Edit, di Carlo Tea, pp. 359, 367.) . . ^. . „ ^. The Capitoline museum has among its antiquities a repetition ot tlie fourth son and of the fifth daughter of Niobe ; but it is proved in regard to this so-called daughter of Niobe at Florence that she does not by any means belong to the family, but properly represents a Psyche. In a note by Fea (Tom. II. p. 299), he makes mention, in addition to these repeti- tions, of one in the Colonna house, and of another of still smaller proportions in the Albani villa ; moreover there is said to be still another in Verona, and also in Enghind. The author himself in the first edition (p. 336) made mention, although only indefinitely, of the figures (two sons) which were to be seen in the Medici villa, but which are now set up with the rest of the Family of Niobe at Florence, and also of the son lying dead, in the Dresden collection of antiques. The merit of this figure is in no wise inferior to that of the similar figure at Florence, but it is not in so good preservation (Becker's Augusteum, taf. 36). An amateur in Vienna is said to be the possessor of another repetition of a son of Niobe ; it was brought there from Prague, and is very beautiful. — Germ. Ed. 29. Mengs owned the gypsum-cast {Opere di Mengs, p. 361) ; the marble went to England. — F. 30. Probably the Antinoiis, so called, which formerly was obliged to pass as Meleager. — Germ. Ed. 31. Pretty good copies may be seen in Fabroni, Dissert, sidle Statue della Niobe, and also under Plate XI. of this volume. The heads of the two figures, as well in regard to workmanship as to the conformation of the parts, seem to bear a close relation to the children of Niobe. We observe, especially in the head of the victorious athlete, an uncommonly strong family resemblance to the two beautiful daughters of Niobe, that is to say, the third and fourth. The conformation of the eyes and of the bones of the forehead shows absolutely the same style ; the mouths and chins are likewise seen to resemble each other ; even the hand- ling of the hair is quite the same. It is moreover a fact deserving of careful notice, that the hair on the right side of the head is more elaborately exe- cuted than that on the crown and the left side, — a circumstance which is in part a sure proof that this head cannot have belonged originally to either of the two combatants, and partly increases the probability that it may be the head of a son of Niobe, because the figures of that family of statues were wrought mostly for niches, and were intended to be viewed only from one side. On the other hand, all the parts of the group of wrestlers, as a work originally designed by the artist, to be set up in a detached position, must have been open to examination from every side, and consequently must have been finished on every side with equal carefulness. The head set on the conquered wrestler is of a similar character in the outlines of the eyes and the formation of the bones of the forehead ; but it seems to be executed on the whole not a\together with so much accuracy / NOTES. 435 and precision, because it has suffered, it may be from time and accident, more than the other. The face is somewhat longer than that of the con- queror. However they resemble one another as brothers. The right side also of this head, which is turned towards the ground, is finislied with more care than the left, — a care which would have been superfluous if the head belonged originally to the figure. The marble of both heads is very soft, and of a close, fine grain, as in the figures of the Family of Niobe to be regarded as originals, and is essen- tially different from that of which the bodies are wrought. Of both heads the nose is a modern addition ; the restored part on the head of the victorious wrestler is greater than on that of the conquered ; the neck also of the former seems to have been retouched somewhat in order that it may fit better to the trunk. The liead of the conquered wrestler makes, it is true, a better union with the body, but the difl'erence in the workmanship is very obvious if we compare the face and neck with the adjoining parts of the trunk, the collar-bones, and the breast. Yet the modern artist who conceived the idea of adapting these two heads to the figures of the two wrestlers does not merit any severe censure, for the proportions of size seem not only to have been observed, but even the expression of the features corresponds in some measure to the action of the figures. The head of the victor has indeed the same expression of passive lofty suffering, the same elevated and tragic character and senti- ment, which we perceive in the children of Niobe ; the face of the con- quered exhibits a somewhat greater degree of pain and anger, and thus the relation of the expression of the faces to the action continues to be appro- priate. — Geum. Ed. 32. The horse stands at Florence apart from the Family of Niobe, be- cause it is acknowledged that it does not belong to it ; it is also asserted that it was found in a different place fi'om the Family of Niobe, and at a different time. Considered by itself it is a well-executed work ; the action is lively, and the head is full of expression, but the body is somewhat too slim. It seems to be in the act of rearing, and was originally restrained by the bridle, which is still visible. It is a matter of doubt whether a rider stood near it, or whether it made one of a two-horse or four-horse span. The restorations, in addition to the cloud of dust, are the front part of the nose, all four legs, and the tail. — Germ. Ed. 33. Propert., lib. 2, Eleg. 23, vers. 14. Also on a funeral urn of moderate size in the Pio-Cleraent museum, Niobe with her children is represented in relief. The execution of this monument, as usual with funeral urns, is not of extraordinary skill, but the arrangement is admirable, and indicates a glorious original of the beautiful style. (Mus. Pio-Clem., Tom. IV. tav. 17, p. 33.) — F. and Germ. Ed. 34. Pythagoras is said to have executed not only the hair more carefully than his predecessors, but also to have been the first to mark the sinews and veins: H ic prhnus nervas et venas expressit. (Plin., lib. 34, cap. 8, sect. 19, not. 4.) According to Pliny he executed the figure of a man who limped, which expressed in so forcible a manner the pain occasioned by a sore, that the spectators sympathized with the visible suffering. The figure probably represented Philoctetes, and a copy of this statue perhaps still exists in au intaglio which Winckelraann introduces in the Monuments, 436 NOTES. No. 119. Moreover an Apollo slaying a serpent with arrows, Europa seated on the bull, and the mutual fratricide of Eteocles and Polynices, were among his celebrated works. (Tatian., Orat. ad Chrcecos, cap. 53, p. 116 ; cap. 54, p. 118.) — F. and Germ. Ed. 35. Plin., lib. 34, cap. 8, sect. 19, not. 14. We have the means of obtaining a better knowledge of the art of Ktesi- laus than of that of Pythagoras, for it is hardly to be doubted that the Amazons found in collections, which with an expression of pain on the countenance point to a wound in the breast, are copies from the anciently celebrated Amazon of Ktesilaus, who executed it in competition with Phi- dias, Polycletus, Kydon, and Phradmou for the temple of Diana at Ephe- 8us. His work was surpassed by those of Phidias and Polycletus, but was preferred to those of Kydon and Phradmon. Among the copies of the Ama- zon of Ktesilaus still in existence, that in the Capitoline museum with the name CXiCIKAH has very great merits, and it consequently gives us some idea of his skill ; yet when we compare it with the copies from the Amazon of Polycletus, we recognize the correctness of the judgment of the ancients upon the five celebrated works mentioned and their masters in the nobler character and greater beauty in the forms of the work of Polycletus. "We also observe the same age and the same style in the handling of the hair and in the arrangement of the drapery ; indeed there is scarcely a percep- tible difference in the ideal of the features. — Germ. Ed. An outline of this wounded Amazon may be seen in Plate V. of this volume. 36. It is difficult to say to Avhat age this monument of ancient art prop- erly belongs. The skilful arrangement of the whole figure, the natural presentation of a dying man sinking to the ground whose vital powers are gi-adually departing, the knowledge and the spiritual expression in the face harmonizing so admirably with everything else, are qualities which make the work worthy of the Greek chisel, and of the reputation it has won. On the other hand, there is not one of the monuments of purely Greek art •which has forms of so little elegance, we might say so entirely natural ; and the shape as a whole is not pleasing, notwithstanding the great skill and knowledge with which it is executed in other respects. The outlines may be called flowing, yet the folds of the skin and the angles formed by the bent limbs are rendered deeply and powerfully. It was obviously the prime idea of the artist to give a truthful copy of a common but physically strong man with perfectly developed limbs. The expression, so artistically sustained throughout all parts of the work, 60 poetically conceived, might undoubtedly have been esteemed worthy of a nobler vestment, and it is uncommonly successful, especially in the head. The breath seems to be crowding from the open mouth ; the eyes are fixed and growing dim ; the forehead is knit as if in the shudder of death ; and the hair stands up. Although this work is smoothly polished, still the m- dications of a boldly handled chisel are visible in several places. The res- torations are the tip of the nose, the right arm from the shoulder down, the left knee-pan together with the toes of both feet, and the portion of the sole on which the right hand rests, with a sword and a double horn. All these restorations have been made by a master's hand, and are said, not im- probably, to have been done by Michael Angelo. .(See Frontispiece of this volume. ) — Germ. Ed. NOTES. 437 37. Copies of the Dying Gladiator are given by Bottari in the CapitoUne Micseum (Tom. III. tav. 67, 68), by Maffei {RaccoUa di Statue, tav. 65), and by Moutfaucon {Antiq. Expl., Tom. III. Part 2, p. 155). — Gekm. Ed. 38. But this is precisely the point to be proved, especially since it was stated shortly before that the heralds carried a staff and spear, and that not a single passage can be found in any author to show that they used horns. The staff has always been the badge of heralds when they wished to an- nounce peace (Thucyd., lib. 1, cap. 146, and Scholium to this passage; Servius, Ad ^neid., lib. 4, vers. 242). The lance served as a sign of the declaration of war (Polyb., lib. 4, cap. 52). The herald was regarded as a sacred personage, a messenger as it were from the gods ; no enemy there- fore was allowed to do him an injury, nor was he permitted to harm his foes in any way (Diodor. Sic, lib. 5, cap. 75 ; Suidas, vid. K-npvKeiov). On this account they went unarmed (Chrysost., Orat. 37, p. 83) ; conse- quently they did not carry even a shield as a weapon of defence, nor a sword as a weapon of offence. From these facts we should be authoi ized to conjecture that the figure on the vase in question represents something quite different from a herald, because a sword hangs by its side, — even if we admit it to be a production of Greek art. From the testimony of Pollux (lib. 4, cap. 12, segm. 94), it is clear that the heralds made use not of horns, but of their voices only. — F. 39. Hence Petronius says of Myron (cap. 88) : " His skill embraces almost the souls of men and animals." — Germ. Ed. 40. Quintil., lib. 2, cap. 13. Lucian., In Philops., cap. 18. If we compare with these passages the statue almost entirely uninjured, to- gether with several other trunks of similar figures, — among which the Dying Gladiator, so called, in the Capitoline museum, is wrought in the most ad- mirable manner, — which were disinterred about 1730 in the Palombara villa at Rome, and came into the possession of the Massimi family, it is very evident that they must have been copied from the mentioned master- piece of Myron. On the other hand, light is thrown by these copies upon the passage from Lucian ; and Fea correctly remarks (Tom. II. p. 212) that, under the word rijv $iaK6((>opoy must be understood the hand holding the quoit, and under the word erepqi, the left half-hent foot. The ancients speak of the Discobulus as a work in bronze (Plin., lib. 34, cap. 8, sect. 19, not. 3 ; Lucian., Philops., cap. 18-20), and this masterpiece seems to have been still in Athens in the time of Lucian. — Germ. Ed. 41. Brunck., Analecta, Tom. III. p. 196, not. 127, 128. It stood at Athens, and was seen there by Cicero ( Verr. Act. 2, lib. 4, cap. 60). In the time of Procopius {De Bella Goth., lib. 4, cap. 21), it was at Rome. — Germ. Ed. 42. Plin., lib. 34, cap. 8, sect. 19, not. 3. This passage has given occasion to the error of making Myron the con- temporary of Anacreon and Erinna. Although we do not possess any indisputable original of Myron, there are still in existence some very good copies in marble of his Discobulus. The one found in the Palombara villa, which came into the possession of the Massimi family, may not indeed be the best in execution, but it is in a state of better preservation than any other, for with the exception of a piece of the right leg below the knee to the ankle-joint, it has received no restor- 438 NOTES. ation ; hence it was recognized at once as a copy of the Discohulus, on ac- count of its correspondence with the passages in Quintilian and Lucian. A similar piece, which was found in Adrian's villa near Tivoli, and repaired after the slightly injured figure just mentioned, is in the Pio-Clement mu- seum ; a similar fragment was converted into a Diomedes with the Palla- dium, and has gone to England. Yet another trunk with a head set upon it which does not belong to it, with a restored right arm, left thigh and leg, together with the right leg from the knee downward, is at Florence, and has heretofore passed for a son of Niobe.' In the Pamfili villa may be found a statue composed of fragments of just such a figure, especially well exe- cuted legs, mixed with other fragments and soiTy restorations. Finally, in this class belongs also the torso in the Capitoline museum, which was re- stored by Monot, and is known under the name of the Dying Gladiator. It is executed in the best manner from the original by Myron, and is really admirable. The back may be regarded as a masterpiece ; the hips and the contraction of the left side deserve no less praise. A closer examination of the workmanship of the hair about the jirivate parts may also prove of es- pecial interest to the antiquarian inquirer, as an exanqile of the taste of the more ancient style ; it is arranged in numerous flat locks, and even the se|)arate hairs of these curls are executed with great industry. Even the Florentine figure, although the handling is softer and more flowing, and therefore denoting that the work may have been executed at a later date, shows in the same parts a trace of the same manner in the execution of the hair, which is quite short, curly, and arranged in rows of many small ringlets. The outline of a Discohulus may be seen in Plate VI. Visconti thinks that he finds an ancient copy of the cow of Myron among the animals in the Vatican {Mus. Pio-Clem., Tom. VII. tav. 31), but the composition of this monument does not show mind and skill sufii- cient to awaken that degree of interest which would be expected from a copy of Myron's cow. We are more disposed to believe that the group of a cow suckling her calf, which occurs on coins of Dyrrachium and Karystus, is a copy of Myron's work. The cow of the Aldobrandini villa, cited by the author, is reported to have gone to England about 1730, and it is not known even from good engravings. A dog is also mentioned by Pliny (lib. 34, cap. 8, sect. 19, not. 3), among other works of Myron, and it may be conjectured that one of the two seated large dogs (Book V. chap. 6, § 23, note) is a copy from Myron. The powerful style, imited with an extraordinary de- gree of naturalness, favors at least the conjecture. — Gei!M. Ed. 43. The artist Kalamis, whose name has been frequently cited, and who is celebrated for his Sosandra (Lucian., Imag., cap. 6), deserved to have been mentioned here. According to Pausanias (lib. 1, cap. 3), he executed a statue of Apollo "AXeft'/faKos, He that repels evil, as late as the time of the Peloponnesian war. If, now, we compare with this statement another (Pausan., lib. 6, cap. 12), that Kalamis executed the horses and the boys sitting on them of the votive gift of Hiero I., which was sent by his son Dinomenes to Olympia (Olymp. 75, 1st yr. ), and that the boys in bronze, stretching their right hands to heaven in a suppliant position, which were made from the spoils obtained by the Agrigen tines from the conquest of the NOTES. 439 city of Motya, and consecrated by them to Oljonpia, passed for a work of Kalamis, — we ascertain nearly the time when this artist, whose birthplace is unknown, lived, and that he must have reached a great old age. Accord- ing to Quintilian (lib. 12, cap. 10, not. 7) and Cicero {De Clar. Orator., cap. 18), we may conjecture that he lived earlier than Myron. — Germ. Ed. 44. Reinold., Hist. Lit. Gr. et Lat., p. 9. 45. Let the reader consult what Spanheim {De Freest, et Usu Numison., Dissert. 2, § 3, p. 96), Cuper, Schott, and others (Chishul., Inscri]^. Sig., p. 23 ; Marehand, Diction. Hist., Art. " Archelaus ") have said upon the word KHP0N02. — W. 46. Anotlier Deification of Homer has been represented on a vase of silver of the shape of an apothecary's mortar, among the articles discovered at Herculaneum. The poet is carried through the air on an eagle, and on each side of him is a female figure, seated on ornaments of foliage, with a short dagger at her side. The one on the right has a helmet ; one hand grasps her dagger, and she sits in deep thought, her head resting on the other hand. The other has a pointed hat, like that given to Ulysses ; she likewise has one hand on her dagger, the other holds a rudder. The former figure probably signifies the Iliad as the tragical portion of Homer, and the latter the Odyssey. The rudder and the conical hat without a flap, like that worn by the sailors of the Levant, symbolize the extended wanderings of Ulysses on the sea. The swans below the ornaments over the deified figure also have an allusion to the poet. Bajardi, in his cata- logue of Herculaneum discoveries ( Catalog, de' Monument, de' Ercolano, Vasi, No. 540, p. 246), has, without any apparent evidence, given to this representation the title of Deification of Julius Casar ; now the beard alone of the figure upborne by the eagle should, without any other indica- tions, have made hira hesitate in adopting this fanciful title. If it were not for the beards, Ca)dus would interpret it to signify the deification of a Csesar (Rec. d'Antiq., Tom. II. pi. 41, p. 121), but he formed his opinion from a drawing which showed merely the figure on an eagle. — W. CHAPTER III. 1. Xenophon., Hist. Grme., lib. 100, cap. 1 to 4. Through the influence of Thrasybulus, and the spirit of wise moderation which he sought to diffuse everywhere, Athens now enjoyed, though only for a brief period, a state of repose which was favorable to art and knowl- edge, and harmony began to prevail to a degree which had not existed there since the death of Pericles. (Lysias contra Nicomach., pp. 849, 850 ; contra Poliuch., p. 609.) — Germ. Ed. 2. Brunck., Analecta, Tom. II. p. 15, not. 35. The author seems in this passage to make Kanachus the pupil of Poly- cletus of Sicyon, but he was the scholar of Polycletus of Argos (Pausan., lib. 6, cap. 13), who was a brother and pupil of Naucydes, and entirely different from the master of the celebrated Juno. (Pausan., lib. 6, cap. 6 ; lib. 2, cap. 22 ; lib. 5, cap. 17.) — Germ. Ed. 440 NOTES. But in Pausanias (lib. 2, cap. 22) we read aSe\(phs UepiK\eiTov fJa^KvSris, Naucydes, brother of Pericletus, and this Pericletus is by tlie same histor- ian (lib. 5, cap. 17) called pupil of Polycletus, the Argive. In the former passage some indeed wish to read Polycletus instead of Pericletus, and Clavier has so translated it. — S. 3. The author (Book IX. chap. 1, § 29) ascribed this Barberini Muse to Ageladas, the teacher of Polycletus ; as he now says that we can form from it an idea of the style of Kanachus, he means to intimate the return of this artist to the older styles. — Gebm. Ed. 4. Pausan., lib. 4, cap. 30. The Modius on the head is more appropriate to the statue of Fortune than the Nimbus, it6xos, and the goddess wears this symbol on several ancient monuments (Book V. chap. 1, § 30 ; Book IX. chap. 1, § 5). It was the custom to put Nimbi or small moon-shaped bodies, called by the Greeks menisci, on the heads of statues set up in the open air, for the purpose of covering them and protecting them from dirt. ( Aristoph., Av., vers. 1114, and Schol. to this passage.) Afterwards these Nimbi became a simple ornament of the images of the deities, of the Ciesars, and of the Christian saints. (BuonaiToti, Osservaz. supra Alcim. Framment. di Vasi tav. 9, pp. 60, 61. Borgia, De Cruce Velit., § 14, p. 50 ; § 34, p. 126.) — F. 5. This passage reads thus in the first edition (p. 341) ; '* Naucydes wrought for the city of Corinth a Hebe of gold and ivory, but they (Kana- chus and Naucydes) did not attain the celebrity of their predecessors." Pausanias (lib. 2, cap. 17) says only that this Hebe stood near the Juno of Polycletus, but not that it had been placed there by Naucydes himself. It seems also not to have been in existence in the time of Pausanias. — Geiim. Ed. 6. According to Visconti's conjecture {Mus. Pio-Clem., Tom. III. p. 34, tav. 36), the Discobulus in Repose (Plate VII.) may have been copied from a work of Naucydes that was celebrated in ancient times. (Plin., lib. 34, cap. 8, sect. 19, not. 19.) This at least may be regarded as an established fact, that the beautiful statue in question is a copy from a superior work of art, because there are in existence two other similar figures of great merit, but not in so good a state of preservation. One of them formerly stood in the Vettori house at Rome, but it has since been taken to England (Cava- ceppi, Raccolta, Tom. I. tav. 42) ; the other is in the Borghese villa (ScuUure, Stanza 7, No. 9). The hand with the disk attached, in the latter place, is an antique fragment of a fourth similar figure. — Germ. Ed. 7. Plutarch., in Lysand., cap. 15. Plin., lib. 34, cap. 8, sect. 19, not. 17. Pausanias (lib. 7, cap. 18 ; lib. 9, cap. 32) saw the statue of Autolycus still in the Prytaneum at Athens, but he does not note the name of the artist. — Germ. Ed. 8. Tatian., Oral, ad Grcee., cap. 56, p. 121. The base on which the Ganymedes of Leochares formerly stood in Eome is now in the Medici villa (Spon., Miscell. Erud. Antiq., § 4, p. 127), with the inscription : — NOTES. 441 TANTMHAHS AHOXAPOTC A0HNAIOT. The mode of the inscription communicating the name of the work, A work of Leochares, instead of the simple phrase, Leochares made it, and moreover the shape of the letters shows that it is not coeval with the artist ; the base was probably not brought from Greece at the same time with the statue, but was made in Rome. Besides, the Greek sculptors did not always put their names on the socle of their statues, but sometimes also on the base. Some of these, with the name of the artist or of the person repre- sented, which were left in Greece when the statues themselves were trans- ported to Rome, have been communicated by Pausanias (lib. 8, cap. 38, 49), but it may be that the inscriptions were placed upon the bases after- wards, in order to perpetuate the names of the statues carried off. A base of this kind, on which stood the statue of Menippus, a victor in the Games, according to the inscription on it, has been found in our time ( Caylus, Eec. d' Antiq., Tom. II. p. 105) at Sparta. — W. Antique copies in marble of the Ganymedes of Leochares (the original was in bronze) are still extant, in addition to the marble base just men- tioned, which at the present time is set up at the entrance of the Gallery at Florence. One of them has been published by Visconti {Mus. Pio-Clem., Tom. III. tav. 49, p. 65) ; the other, though not in so good a state of pres- ervation, is perhaps of better execution ; it is in the library of St. Mark at Venice. — Germ. Ed. 9. Plin., lib. 34, cap. 8, sect. 19. The following passage is found in the Notes to the History of Ancient Art, p. 97 ; it relates to the period following the restoration of liberty to Athens by Thrasybulus. It was not taken into the text, partly because the event occurred at an earlier date, and partly because it interrupts the connection. " To this time of general rejoicing in Athens may, I believe, apply the remark of Plutarch, that the Athenians expended more money upon a few tragedies of Euripides, as, for example, the Bacchanti, the Phoenician Women, the (Edipus, the Antigone, the Medea, and the Electra, than upon the entire Peloponnesian war." — Germ. Ed. See Book IX. chap. 11, § 19. 10. Thouin (De Vita Sua, Tom. VII. lib. 1, p. 14) speaks of a sleeping Cupid in the possession of the ducal house of Este of Modena, which was held to be a work of Praxiteles. Others relate the well-known story of a Cupid executed in the same city by Michael Angelo, and supposed to be the one which he, as it is said, buried, and afterwards sold as an anti(iue statue. (Condivi, Vita di Michael Angelo, p. 10.) It is added that he requested that his Cupid should never be shown except at the same time with the antique Cupid, in order to prove the superiority of the ancient artist over the modern. But there is no more reason for assuming the first Cupid to be the work of Praxiteles than for claiming the same origin for a Cupid in Venice which is allowed to pass under the name of this great artist. A small Venus with a Cupid is wholly unworthy of Praxiteles, though some one (Bernini, Vit, del Caval, Bernini, p. 17) wishes to per- suade us to the contrary. — W. 11. Three of the celebrated works of Praxiteles, the Faun (Plate IX), 442 NOTES. the Apollo Sauroctonus (Plate X.), and the Venus of Cnidus, are especially deserving of note, because it is possible by means of copies and imitations of them still extant to form a clear idea of the originals. We intentionally make a distinction between copies and imitations, because the young Fauns already mentioned by us, resembling each other in character, shape, and attitude, with some trifling points of difference, seem to us to be actual copies of the Periboetus. It is nearly the same thing also with the num- erous figures of the young Apollo watching a lizard, for we may justly hold them to be copies of the Sauroctonus, Not less inclined are we to regard the images resembling in attitude and features the Medicean Venus as imi- tatiwis of the Venus of Cnidus ; for the successors of Praxiteles, when they found the ideal of the goddess set up by him to be unsurpassable, adopted as a canon the attitude, conformation of face, etc., which he had given to* her, but in the execution of their figures they practised their art each one according to his opportunities and especial aims. This may be the reason why the goddess in so many images with similar gesture and similar feat- ures appears sometimes older and sometimes younger ; why like the iledi- cean she often has a dolphin ; often, like the former Capitoline Venus, has a vase near her with drapery thrown over it ; at times also, like the Venus of Menophantus, modestly holding the end of some drapery in the hand which is in front of her private parts. We have no other guaranty for the opinion that the young leaning Fauns are copied from the Periboetus of Praxiteles than the probability tliat repe- titions so very numerous must have been copied from one of the most cele- brated works. The elegance of the attitude, the noble style in the forms, the finely sustained ideal of the features, correspond to the manner of Praxiteles. Visconti also tliinks that he perceives in the repetition in the Capitoline museum that a statue in bronze must have served as the original of it. The position of the feet, and the taste and style prevailing through the whole figure, enable us to see a certain relationship between it and the Apollo Sauroctonus. Of the Apollo Sauroctonus Winckelmann knew only three or four copies, but there were more in existence even in his time. Since then several others have been discovered, so that the number of them is only a little less than that of the copies of the Periboetus. It appears moreover from what Pliny mentions of the Apollo Sauroctonus and from the epigram of Martial (lib. 14, Epigr. 72) in regard to it, that these youthful figures were copied from that masterpiece of Praxiteles. The still more numerous figures of Venus, which in gesture, features of the face, and elegance of the liair, are similar to the Venus de' Medici, for- merly passed and would still generally pass for copies or imitations of the celebrated Venus of Cnidus, which Pliny acknowledges to be the best of all the works of Praxiteles, if several of the most distinguished antiquarians did not favor another opinion, according to which the Venus found on rare medallions of the Cnidians, struck in honor of Caracalla and Plautilla, in an attitude somewhat different from the other, is supposed to be really the true image of the celebrated statue of Praxiteles. On the coins in question we see a naked Venus whose right hand is placed in front of the private parts, and whose left holds a garment which she seems to have just lifted from a vase standing by her side ; she is in NOTES. 443 the act of covering herself with it. The folds of the garment fall down upon the vase, and leave scarcely a doubt that the statue copied must have been a marble one, and that the garment served as a support ; and this latter circumstance seems applicable to the Venus of Praxiteles. Besides, no indication can be anywhere found to explain why the Cnidians should have copied on their coins any other Venus than the world-renowned one of Praxiteles. Moreover there are extant several ancient marble statues in an attitude nearly similar, which favor the supposition that they and the Venus on the mentioned medallions were copied from an original which was celebrated in antiquity. These grounds have been adduced by those who believe that they see copies of the Venus of Cnidus by Praxiteles in the just-mentioned Venus on coins and in marble. But notwithstanding the earlier opinion is ren- dered highly probable by the passage in Pliny just quoted, and the state- ments made by Lucian, taken iu connection with a consideration drawn from the spirit and rules of art. According to the accounts in Pliny and Lucian, it is certain that the Venus of Cnidus by Praxiteles could be viewed on every side, that it was finished throughout with equal carefulness, and presented beautiful views from every point, u^dicula ejus iota aperiiur, ut conspici possit iindique effigies Decs, favente ipsa, ut creditur, facto ; nec viinor ex quacu7)ique parte admiratio est : — " Her little house is entirely open, so that the effigy of the goddess can be seen on every side, she herself, so it is believed, being pleased with such an exhibition of herself ; and she is equally admirable from whatever side she may be viewed" (Plin., lib. 36, cap. 5, sect. 4, not. 4). Lucian says : "The temple of the goddess has a door on each side, partly for those who wish to view the goddess particularly and from be- hind, and partly also that no portion of her may be unadraired. Hence those who come through the other door can easily and fully contemplate the beautiful shape from behind. As we were desirous of seeing the god- dess thoroughly, we went into the back part of the chapel {Amor. cap. 13), for the goddess, wrought from Parian or, according to another account, from Pentelic marble, stood in the middle of the temple." It is manifest therefore from these statements that the statue was set up detached from everything, and that it was also finished by the master with such intention. For the attainment of this object a far more perfect prep- aration of the limbs was required than we see in the Venus on the coius of Cnidus and in statues similar to her, for these statues, as well as the origi- nal of them, were as it appears originally intended for niches or for stand- ing against a wall. Consequently the artist, in the composition of his figure had regard principally only to the good effect of the front ; the views from the sides and from the back received less attention because his intention did not extend to them, and also because the erect position was not favorable to such views. On the other hand, the glorious forms of the back of the Venus of Cni- dus by Praxiteles have been an object of admiration, as we know to a cer- tainty, also the fulness of the sides below the ribs down to the hips, the beautiful outlines in the curve of the fleshy parts of the buttocks, neither too thin nor yet superfluous, the lovely hollows in the loins, and especially the beautifully sustained Hue described by the hip, and the straight stand- 444 NOTES. ing leg down to the foot. In this Venus therefore the spectator especially admired and prized those parts which in the other statue were withdrawn from observation and neglected in the finish, because the artist had a dif- erent object in view ; hence the circumstantial description of Lucian is not applicable even remotely to those pretended copies of the Cnidian Venus, but is entirely appropriate to the Venus de' Medici and figures similar to her. That the slight stoop in the attitude of these statues also agrees with the statue of Praxiteles is probable enough from the rapture felt by Kallis- tratidas at the sight of the parts behind, and especially of the ircui'iKa fiepv, the private parts. Of the Venus of Cos, which acccording to Pliny was somewhat draped, it cannot be positively asserted that any copies are in existence, though it may indeed be presumed. It was undoubtedly an admirable work, though excelled by the Venus of Cnidus, probably in the style of the Flor- entine Venus Urania so called, and of the one at Dresden, the thighs draped, and the upper part of the body bent slightly forward ; now as there are several other similar figures besides the two mentioned, the work which served them collectively as an original must have been highly es- teemed. Copies are likewise to be found of the celebrated Cupid of Praxiteles at Thespise, and of the other which stood at Parium, on the Sea of Marmora ; but as there are numerous repetitions of several statues of Cupid, it is doubt- ful which of them is copied from Praxiteles, and still more doubtful which of the copies represent the Thespian and which the Parian, The Genius so called in the Pio-Clement museum (Tom. I. tav. 12) and the one in the Borghese villa, as well as the Cupid trying his Bow, have been repeatedly declared to be copies of one or the other of the above-men- tioned works of Praxiteles. In regard to the Genius so called in the Bor- ghese villa there is no valid reason why it may not be a copy from the Cupid of Parium. The Genius in the Pio-Clement museum deserves on account of its pure beauty to be regarded as worthy of an origin not less noble ; but the exe- cution is somewhat angular and hard, which does not seem consistent in a copy from a work of Praxiteles, but rather denotes an original of a some- what earlier date. The Cupid trying his Bow in the Capitoline museum, according to Visconti's opinion, is not a copy, as it was believed to be, from the Thespian Cupid of Praxiteles, but probably a copy from the bronze figure which Lysippus also made for Thespise. This conjecture is supported partly by the action, which seems too hazardous for a marble statue, and partly by the observation that in other probable copies from Praxiteles we notice only easy positions. (Plate XII.) It is conjectured that Praxiteles's ideal of Bacchus and Diana was repre- sented by him as consummately as that of Venus and Cupid. This conjec- ture seems to be based upon the very character of his style, in which the most elect beauty, the highest grace, and soft and flowing outlines are united with dignity and worth. Pliny, Pausanias, and other ancient au- thors, mention several celebrated images of the Bacchus and Diana of Praxiteles, and hence it is very probable that, among the statues of these deities still in existence, there are extant copies from them, although no investigations have hitherto been successful in positively determining them. — Germ. Ed. NOTES. 445 12. According to the Roman law {Institut, lib. 1, tit. 22, princ.) pu- berty began with males after the fourteenth year, and with females after the twelfth, and puber or pubes is one who has reached this age ; hence this epithet is very appropriate to the Apollo Sauroctonus, who seems to have the shape of a youth of about fourteen years of age. If there is no instance in which ancient art has formed an Apollo with a beard or with hair about the private parts, then it follows that puber cannot have the signification given above. Puber in Pliny signifies about the same as fioiirais, a boy who has attained his virility (Brunck., Analect,, Tom. II. p. 14, not. 30. Plin., lib. 34, cap. 8, sect. 19, not. 2). — F. and Germ. Ed. 13. This opinion is too favorable to the statue. (Compare Book VII, chap. 2, § 21, note 22.) Of the two repetitions in marble in the Borghese villa, one is very meritorious (Sculhire, Stanza II. tav. 5) ; the outlines are tender and flowing and the forms elegant ; but there is a degree of care- lessness in the handling, and a want of expressiveness, especially in the left eye and in the corners of the mouth, where the borer has been used, and in the collar-bones, that shows it to be a copy. The tip of the nose, the hands, and the left arm, are modern. The other, which stands in the garden of the villa, is in no wise superior. A beautiful figure of this kind is in the Pio-Clement museum (Tom. I. tav. 13) ; and in the group called Castor and Pollux at St. Ildefonso in Spain, the younger youth, who leans against his companion standing upright, must have been originally such an Apollo Sauroctonus upon which has been placed a head of Antinoiis ; the arms are modern restorations. In the Florentine gallery there is a beautiful torso of such an Apollo, into whose hand a lyre has been put by the restorer of the extremities. — Germ. Ed. 14. Instead of again repeating here the anecdote in regard to the trick played by Phryne upon Praxiteles in reference to his Cupid (Pausan., lib. 1, cap. 20. Athen., lib. 13, cap. 6, not. 59), we much prefer to cite it as a voucher that in the age of high art no private individual in Greece wished to own a statue ; for even Phryne dedicated the Cupid to Thespise (Pausan., lib. 9, cap. 27. Cic, Ferr., 2, lib. 4, cap. 2, 3). — Germ. Ed. 15. Cic, De Divinat., lib. 1, cap. 36. The two oldest manuscripts, the one in the library of St. Mark at Venice, and the other in the Laurentian library at Florence, have the reading of the printed volumes. — W. In the Preliminary Treatise to the Monuments (chap. 4, § 157), the author remarks that we must also in a passage of Pliny (lib. 33, cap. 12, sect. 55) read Pasiteles instead of Praxiteles, since it is highly probable that the historian intended in this place to speak of the former artist, of whom he makes mention in the passages just cited. — Germ. Ed. 16. According to Pliny (lib. 36, cap. 5, sect. 4, not. 6) the Symplegma stood at Pergamus. Kephissodorus, or, as he is more correctly named by Tatian {Oral, ad Grrnc, cap. 52), Kephissodotus, was also a moulder in bronze, and he was especially celebrated for his statues of Hetairse and his statue of iEsculapius, which was seen by Pliny. — Germ. Ed. 17. We have already mentioned (Book IX. chap. 2, § 28, note) the cir- cumstances connected with the heads of the two wrestlers at Florence. If one of the celebrated Symplegmata of which Pliny speaks has been pre- served in them, we should rather conjecture it to be that of Kephissodotus 446 NOTES. than of Heliodoras (Plin., lib. 36, cap. 5, sect. 4, not. 10), althongh the words of Pliny (loc. cit. not. 6), digitis corpori verius quam marmori impressis — " fingers impressed upon flesh rather than upon marble" — seem to denote a hug and impress of the fingers on the body, which is not strictly the case with the Florentine wrestlers. (Plate XI.) The artist of these two figures manifestly aimed to produce the delicate, tender, and soft, rather than the lofty and beautiful. Flesh lies on flesh, and* the parts press and fit themselves with wonderful pliability one to an- other. The limbs and muscles are all in violent tension, but they are moved with exceeding elegance and carefulness. They who have claimed these figures as members of the family of Niobe should have considered this trait as well as the roundness and softness in the treatment of the flesh, and thus they would have recognized the difi'erent styles of the two works. The artistic relation of the two wrestlers is not only beautiful but astonishing ; the whole is in equilibrium ; all the limbs, from whatever point of view seen, are wisely distributed ; no view is empty, no one is crowded, and the beautiful triangle of the group is everywhere visible. This monument has yet another glorious characteristic of art in common with the best works of antiquity, namely, that the will of the figures and the future moment of the action is denoted by the play of the muscles. We see how the wrestler who lies underneath is striving to get up, how the muscles of his back and thighs are powerfully swelling for the purpose, how the left arm with the hand planted firmly against the earth supports and seeks to lift the weight of the body. So too we see how the conqueror vigorously presses his adversary and holds him down, and how in the muscles of the right breast and in the hip the future blow or push is already prepared which he intends to return to his opponent. The pleasing character of the style, the tenderness and smoothness of the technical treatment where the outlines are continually turning and bending, twining about, and flowing into one another with wonderful soft- ness and charm, together with the perfect art of the composition, seem to us sufficient grounds to conjecture that this work may have originated in the times of Alexander the Great, or under his immediate successors. Both figures have been broken several times, and it was necessary to patch the breaches in divers places with small pieces. We doubt whether the right hand together with the arm of the victor is antique, and we have a similar doubt in regard to the left hand of the defeated. The marble is of coarse grain, but of a soft, pleasing color, and more translucent than that of which the heads are wrought. The socle is made of a poor white marble with dirty spots, and seems to be a modern addition. The marks of the chisel are seen but rarely on both figures, and only in a few not conspicuous places. — Germ. Ed. 18. Two years ago a head, having on it the name of Eubuleus, the .son of one Praxiteles, was lost from the Negroni villa. The form of the let- ters of the inscription as it is seen in books (Stosch, Pierr. Gravies, Pref. p. 11) is somewhat different from the actual. I give the inscription from a correct drawing : ETBOTAET2 nPAEITEAOTS. The mode of writing does not indicate the age of the celebrated Praxiteles. — W. The monument mentioned (probably not a head, but perhaps a Hermes) NOTES. 447 is not lost, for Visconti relates (Mus. Pio-Clem., Tom. VI. p. 36) that it passed from the Negroni villa into the possession of the Roman sculptor, Carlo Albaccini, and he has not a doubt that this Eubuleus was a son of the celebrated Praxiteles. — Germ. Ed. 19. Quintil., lib. 12, cap. 10, not. 4. In this passage Quintilian is speaking of Zeuxis and Parrhasius, but not of Apollodorus. Plutarch {De Gloria Atheniens, princ.) says of Apollodorus that he was the first to introduce into his pictures the mixture of colors and the use of light and shade. — Germ. Ed. Compare Book IV. chap. 1, § 30. 20. I'lin., lib. 35, cap. 10, sect. 36, not. 8. By his advice the authority at Sicyon decreed that the free-bom boys should learn drawing before anything else, and that it should be accounted the first of the liberal arts. — Germ. Ed. 21. Plin., lib. 34, cap. 8, sect. 19, not. 16. The works of Euphranor probably had heads too small and bodies too slender only in comparison with the works of his contemporary Praxiteles, and those of the most excellent artists in painting and plastic who immedi- ately followed him. As Euphranor himself had written upon symmetry, and as a universal artist had worked in color, marble, and bronze, since he had executed Colossi and engraved beakers (Plin., lib. 35, cap. 11, sect. 10, not. 25), he cannot have been wanting in an accurate knowledge of the rules of proportion as established by the more ancient artists. The anecdote in relation to his Paris may teach us at least that the character befitting Paris was admirably presented, and beauty, grace, and dignity were united in his figure. There is nothing improbable in Visconti's conjecture (Mus. Pio-Clem., Tom. II. p. 69) that the celebrated Paris in marble, which was carried from the Altemps palace into the museum of the Vatican, is an antique copy of Euphranor's Paris in bronze. For among known monu- ments there is not one which represents Paris so worthily and heroically ; his gesture — for he seems in the act of presenting the apple to the goddess — might perchance induce a panegyrist to say that we recognize in him the judge of goddesses. The noble beauty and soft features of the face pro- claim a lover worthy of the most beautiful woman in the world, and the powerful forms of the limbs denote a hero who might easily conquer another hero. — Germ. Ed. 22. The words of Pliny should not be interpreted to mean that Parr- hasius possessed little knowledge of the structure of the human body, or of that which we call anatomy. If it were so, how could he have excelled in outline ? That he was a great di'aughtsman we may infer with much prob- ability from the fact that his pencil-drawings and sketches on tablets and parchment were valued in ancient times (Plin., lib. 35, cap. 10, sect. 36, not. 5). Hence it is probable that the statement that Parrhasius expressed the shape of the body within the outline less perfectly than he made the outline itself imputes no fault to his skill, but merely says that he could not be surpassed in the tender, flowing, and vanishing lines of the contours of his figures, but that in the representation of the parts which lie within the outline liis contemporaries may have had as much merit as he, — a statement which, especially in its application to those who were younger than he, as Timanthes, Euphranor, etc., is also conformable to the law of 448 NOTES. progress in art. The words of Pliny confirm this explanation, and Quin- tilian (lib. 12, cap. 10, princ.) seems, in the passage in which he compares the pictures of Zeuxis with those of Parrhasius, to express precisely the same idea ; for Zeuxis gave to the limbs of his figures more fulness and expression of bodily power, — nam Zeuxis plus membris corporis dedit, — but Parrhasius made the whole outlines so admirable that he was named the Law-giver, — Ille vera ita circumscripsit omnia, ut eum Icgum latorem vocent. — Germ. Ed. 23. Timanthes, the contemporary of Parrhasius (Plin., lib. 35, cap. 10, sect. 36, not. 3), should on account of his merit have been mentioned here. All his pictures were remarkable for their invention, and they had the pecu- liarity of suggesting even more than they represented. Hence he ranked higher as an artist for fertility of invention than for technical skill, although his pictures always received the highest degree of finish (Plin., loc. cit., not. 6). With his Ajax he excelled Parrhasius himself (Plin., loc. cit., not. 5) ; but the most celebrated of his pictures was the one which represented the sacrifice of Iphigenia (Quintil., lib. 2, cap. 13. Valer. Max., lib. 8, cap. 11, not. 6. Cicer., Orat., cap. 22. Eustath., Ad Iliad, lib. 24, vers. 163). — Germ. Ed. 24. Aristot., lib. 3, cap. 7. In this passage neither ethos nor ethikon signifies action, but Aristotle shows in the whole chapter that a speech can be termed appropriate only when it is ethike, that is to say, only when it is suitable to the place and the circumstances, and conformable to the character of the speaker. — Germ. Ed. 25. Lib. 35, cap. 9, sect. 36, not. 2. Aristotle in his Poetics (cap. 6, § 12), particularly excludes the significa- tion of action from the word where he says, " Without action, &v(v irpi- |e«s, there cannot be a tragedy ; but there may be fiveu ^$os, without morals." When therefore a well-expressed character, ^6os, mores, is attri- buted by Pliny to the Penelope of Zeuxis, he does not mean to say that the figure was represented in lively action, — which would not have been decorous in a Penelope, according to the opinions of the ancients, — but to allude to the higher moral expression which the artist had skilfully intro- duced into his work. — Germ. Ed. ■^Hfloj, cujics nomine caret sermo Romanus, mores appellantur. Sed ipsam rei naturam spectanti mihi, non tarn mores significari videntur quammorum qucedam proprietas, "'H9os (ethos), a word which is wanting in the Latin language, means mores, morals. But it seemed to me on careful consideration that it did not so much signify morals, as a certain propriety of conduct." Quintil., lib. 6, cap. 2, not. 8, 9. 26. Dati, Vite de' Pittori, p. 68, 27. Seuec, Epist., 86. The passage rans thus : Pauper sihi videttir ae sordidus, nisi parietes magnis et 2'>i'etiosis orbibus refulserunt ; nisi Alex- andrina marmora Numidicis crustis distincta sxint; nisi illis undique op>erosa et in pictures modum variata circumlitio prcetexitur, — "He seems to himself to be a poor, mean fellow, unless the walls of his house are reful- gent with large and precious medallions in marble ; unless the marbles of Alexandria are inlaid with plates of Numidian marble, and embellished with elaborate borders in varied colors after the manner of pictures." NOTES. 449 Lipsius thought quite correctly that the words in piduroe modum varicUa circumlitio might be interpreted *' Mosaic work." — Germ. Ed. Quatremere de Quiucy, in his Jupiter Olympien, thinks that circumlitio was a kind of encaustic painting which in ancient times was frequently applied to statues, — as he attempts to show in several places in his book. The object was not to give to them the semblance of reality, but, as it were, the faintest approach to a resemblance to color. — E, I offer an opinion here with much diffidence in regard to the meaning of this passage, and especially of the word circumlitio. If it had been applied to a painting, instead of a marble table or slab, there would be no hesita- tion as to its interpretation, literally a placing of colors around a canvas or a wall in stripes or meanders. Now, as I understand the passage, it will read thus : " The Alexandrian tables of marble were inlaid in the central parts with African marble, and around the circumference were placed other marbles of different colors in stripes or bands, such as we see in the paint- ings of Pompeii. " I have accordingly rendered the passage very nearly in this manner. — Te. BOOK X. CHAPTER I. 1. QtriNTiLiAN (lib. 12, cap. 10, not. 9) expresses the following opinion of him : " We are assured that Lysippus and Praxiteles made the best approximation to nature, for Demetrius, the contemporary of Lysippus, aimed at a likeness more than at beauty, and is censured for the anxious accuracy of his representations of nature. " From the conversation of Lj'sippus with Eupompus, and from the remark of Pliny (lib. 34, cap. 8, sect. 19, not. 6), that Lysippus allowed himself to be directed in his style by the answer of Eupompus, it may be inferred that he did not strive so much to produce in his works the highest ideal of art as to ennoble the reality of nature. Eupompus, on being asked by Lysippus what one of his predecessors he should imitate, pointed to a group of men, and said, "We must imitate nature itself, and not the artist." He avoided common reality, " for he represented men, not as they are, but as they seemed to him to be." (Plin., loc. cit.) He made the body more slender and the head smaller than his predecessors (Plin., loc. cit.), bestow- ing upon the hair especial pains, and by the careful execution which he devoted to the least portions of his works he imparted to them an ele- gance which distinguished them above the works of all his predecessors. — Germ. Ed. 2. Plin., lib. 34, cap, 7, sect. 17. According to the best manuscripts of Pliny, Lysippus executed fifteen hundred works, for he was the most prolific of all artists (Plin., lib. 34, cap. 8, sect. 19, not. 6), and attained a ripe old age (Brunck., Analed., Tom. Ill; p. 45, not. 35, vers. 1. Vellei, Patcrc, lib. 1, cap. 2. Ruhn- ken., not. p. 603). It is probable that when Pliny made this statement in regard to the VOL. II. 29 450 NOTES. numTber of works executed by Lysippus, he reckoned each single statue in the larger groups as a distinct work. On this assumption the statement will seem less incredible, especially when we reflect that Lysippus prepared only the model, and retouched the casting, — which was done under the care of others, — whenever such labor was needed, which was not often the case, so great was the certainty of the ancients in moulding, as we see by ancient statues and fragments in bronze. — Germ. Ed, 3. The opinion is adopted by many antiquarians, and also by Visconti {Mus. Pio-Clem., Tom. VII. p. 93), that the Cupid trying his Bmv, oi which numerous repetitions exist, is a copy of the one executed by Lysip- pus in bronze, and which Pausanias saw at Thespiaj (Pausan., lib. 9, cap. 27). The most beautiful figure of this kind is in the Capitoline mu- seum (Plate XII. of this volume). That the Thespian Cupid of Praxiteles had been copied in ancient times we know from Pausanias (lib. 9, cap. 27), who saw at Thespiae, on the spot where the original formerly stood, only a copy from the hand of Menodorus the Athenian. — Gf;RM. Ed. 4. This name was not noticed by the illustrator of ancient statues (Maffei, Raccolta di Stat., alia tav. 49, col. 49), otherwise he would not have sup- posed the statue to be a work of Polycletus. This Hercules gives no very favorable idea of either artist. — W. The inscription reads not AT2inn05 EnOlEI, but ATSmnOT EPFON, written on the rock against which the club of Hercules leans. — F. 5. As Phaedrus shows (FabuL, lib. 5, Prolog, vers. 5) : — Ut quidam artifices nostro faciunt sseculo, Qui pretium operibus majus inyeniunt, novo Si marmori adscripserunt Praxitelem suo, Myrouem argeato. Plus vetustati nam favet Invidia inordax, quam bonis prsesentibus. — W. " As certain artists of our time contrive, Wliose modern worlcs sell for a greater price If on the marble they inscribe Praxiteles, And on the silver Myron. For carping envy Is more favorable to ancient than to modern merit." 6. The figure of the Hercules in the Pitti palace, at Florence, resembles in its attitude the Farnese Hercules, and is nearly of the same size, but far inferior to it in regard to execution. D'Hancarville speaks of this statue as a Greek monument of primeval antiquity upon which an idealized head of Commodus was afterwards set. The inscription may indeed be ancient, but it was applied with fraudulent intent. Although the head was broken otr, and the present head may possibly not belong to the statue, still it would be quite difficult to recognize in it tlie features of Commodus, as the face is badly damaged. Still less probable is D'Hancarville's opinion {An- tiq. Elrusc. Grec. et Rom., Tom. IV.) in respect to the body and the limbs, because the workmanship on these parts indicates absolutely nothing of the peculiar severe and angular character of the older style of Greek art. At the first view of this Hercules we felt disposed, without any consideration, to hold it for an ancient imitation of the Farnese statue. But Visconti {Mus. Pio-Clem., Tom. III. p. 66) prefers to report them both as enlarged imitations of a small bronze by Lysippus. His conjecture becomes the more probable as the inscription on the statue in the Pitti palace .might NOTES. 451 indicate that it was based on a work of Lysippus, and as the Farnese Her- cules was undoubtedly a freer and more characteristic copy, Glycon might consider himself warranted in attaching his name to it as the master of the Venus de' Medici also did, although he copied the prototype of Praxiteles. The portraits of Socrates, mostly as Hermse, of which quite a large num- ber exist, may also probably be counted as copies of works of Praxiteles. It is known from Diogenes Laertius (lib. 2, cap. 43) that the Athenians caused an image of that philosopher to be cast by Lysippus, with the in- tention of setting it up publicly in the Odeon. In fact the better heads of Socrates proclaim a glorious prototype. According to another statement (Phsedr., Fabul., lib. 2, in Epilog. Brunck., Analect., Tom. III. p. 45, not. 35), Lysippus also executed from tradition likenesses of the seven wise men of Greece, and thus it is possible that the Hermse of Bias and Periander (Mus. Pio-Clem., Tom. VI. tav. 23, 25) are probably copied from the originals by him. Of some few portraits of Alexander the Great we might believe with the best reason that they were executed after originals of Lysippus. But whether the celebrated Hermes with an inscription, which was disinterred at Tivoli, belongs to this number we do not venture to decide, because no external characteristic is visible in it by which we can determine with any degree of confidence that it is a copy of a bronze original, and therefore of a work of Lysippus. "We find ourselves in a similar perplexity in regard to a head of Alexander in the Albaui villa, which is not less beautiful but wears a helmet. We infer from the handling of a naked statue less than life-size among the Gabini antiquities (No. 23), that it belongs to the time of Caracalla. As we know that this emperor honored the memory of Alexander, and that he also caused numerous copies of his portrait to be made, it is probable that said figure was copied from a work of Lysippus. This we may conjec- ture also of the small bronze equestrian statue from Herculaneum {Bronzi di Ercolano, Tom. II. tav. 61, 62), though it is older and of much better execution than the Gabini figure in marble. Whether the dying Alexander at Florence is a likeness of the Macedonian conqueror or not (see Book VIII. chap. 2, § 5, note 4), we feel convinced that it belongs to the art of this age ; indeed we would scarcely desire to have it acknowledged as an authentic likeness of Alexander. For the woikmanship is so wonderfully excellent and full of soul, that it seems more appropriate to suppose it to be an original of some one of the best masters of the time, than a mere copy of a bronze of Lysippus, however glorious. The case is somewhat different with the large head also named Alexander in the Capitoline museum. Visconti {Mus. Pio-Clem., Tom. I. p. 28) holds that the said Capitoline head represents the sun, and in sup- port of his opinion trusts principally to the fact that, in the band which confines the hair, holes are visible in which bronze rays may originally have been stuck; similar holes may be seen also in a statue of the god of the sun — an entire statue, though not of full life size ~ in the Bor- ghese villa (ScuUure della Villa Borghese, Stanz. 3, No. 2). He might also have added that the arrangement of the hair on the Capitoline head has some resemblance to that of this statue. But the individual features of a portrait are very distinctly visible on the said Capitoline head ; 452 NOTES. we consequently offend against good taste, misjudge the spirit of ancient art, and degrade art itself, when we assume that it ventured to present a divinity, in a grand, worthy style of forms, it is true, as we perceive in this work, but absolutely with human, portrait-like traits. But the Capito- line head has, we repeat it, individual features, or, to speak more clearly, it has the appearance of an idealized portrait ; the cheeks are flatter than they usually are in ideal divine shapes ; the nose, of which only the tip has been repaired, is more sunken at the root and more curved on the hack ; the hairs of the eyebrows are rendered, and there is a slight depres- sion in the eyeballs for the purpose of denoting the pupils. The conforma- tion of the face generally indicates manhood, and notwithstanding this head is without beard with the exception of a few thin locks on the cheeks near the ears. But who will believe that a wise ancient artist has commit- ted the indiscretion of conceiving and representing a shaved sun-god ? As a consequence of the grounds adduced, we therefore declare the opinion that the Capitoline head is a god of the sun to be erroneous ; but whether it is really a portrait of Alexander we leave to be decided by further impar- tial investigation. The turn of the head seems indeed a circumstance favorable to such a conjecture, but Visconti has allegorically interpreted this peculiarity in favor of his opinion in a very ingenious way, and ex- plained it as a subtle allusion to the circumstance that the sun in his daily course from east to west shows himself as it were with averted countenance to the dwellers on this hemisphere. However the force of the arguments previously adduced would be no more impaired by such an explanation than by the assertion of Visconti that the physiognomy of the Capitoline head is exactly the same as that of a sun-god witli the motto, Oriens, on golden coins of Trajan. For if this statement was strictly accurate, the artistic taste of the images on these coins would be just as deficient as in the Capitoline head, provided it actually represented the sun-god. But we have no reason to think so unfavorably of ancient art and its artists. If however we agree to admit with Winckelmann that the Capitoline head is a genuine portrait of Alexander, then it may be assumed almost with certainty that it is a copy from a bronze original of Lysippus. Con- sequently this monument might give us some insight into the taste and style of Lysippus. Although the work is well executed, the fine taste and the conception of it are better, freer, grander, and more spiritual than the execution, and we can hence infer a nobler and more perfect original. That this original was of bronze is probable from the rendering of the eye- brows and from the slight depression which denotes the pupil of the eye, because each of these traits, expressed in this way, seems to have been adopted on works of bronze oftener, probably earlier also, than on works of marble. We might further learn from this monument what Pliny meant to say when he praises Lysippus on account of the hair of his works. On this head it is disposed in beautiful large masses of locks, and used particularly as an aid to expression. The artist wished to represent the moment when the head is tunied with a lively quick motion from the right to the left side, and with this intention he gave to the locks of hair the direction aa though they floated, in conformity to the movement of the head to the left side, forwards against the face, but on the right side backwards away from NOTES. 453 it ; and in fact it will be difficult to find in ancient works of art a more beautiful illustration of a skilful application of the hair to the purpose of expression. — Germ. Ed. 7. Lib. 36, cap. 5, sect. 4, not. 11. Pliny makes no mention of the time at which Agesander and his assistants lived ; but Maffei, in his Explanation of Ancient Statues (Tom. I.), has pretended to know that these artists flourished in the eighty-eighth Olympiad, and other writers, as Richardson for example, have copied the assertion. Maffei has, as I be- lieve, taken Athenodorus, a pupil of Polycletus (Plin., lib. 34, cap. 8, sect. 19, princ), for one of the artists of the Laocoon ; and as Polj'cletus flourished in the eighty-seventh OljTnpiad, he has placed his presumed scholar an Olympiad later ; he can have no other grounds. RoUin (Hist. Anc, Tom. II. p. 87) speaks of the Laocoon as if it were no longer in existence. — W. 8. In 1717 the Cardinal Alexander Albani discovered at Nettuno, formerly Antium, in a large vault excavated in the bed of the sea, the base of a statue of blackish marble, now called Bigio. Near it was found a fragment of a hanging mantle, termed chlamys, — a portion of a statue of white marble which had been inserted in this base ; of the figure itself no remnant could be discovered. Oh the base was found the following inscription, A0ANOAYPO2 AFHSANAPOT P0AI02 EnOIHSE. " Athanodorus, the son of Agesander, a native of Rhodes, made." From this inscription we learn that father and son wrought on the Laocoon, and probably Polydorus also was a son of Agesander, for this Athanodorus cannot be any other than the one mentioned by Pliny. This inscription proves further that there were more than three works of art, the number limited by Pliny, on which the artists had placed the word iiroirja-e, made, in a complete and perfect tense. He relates that other artists from modesty expi'essed themselves in an indefinite tense, iirolei, was making. Under the same arch, but farther in the sea, there was found the fragment of a large rilievo, upon which can still be seen represented only a portion of a shield, and of a sword hanging below it, and a pile of stones, against the foot of which leans a slab. Of all the works which have been ])reserved, no one can compare with this in elegance and execution. It is in the pos- session of the sculptor, Bartholomew Cavaceppi. — W. 9. I have found in an authentic manuscript the statement that Pope Julius II. granted to Felix von Fredis who discovered the Laocoon in the Baths of Titus, to him and to his sons as a reward, Litroitus et portionem gabellce portK St. Joannis Lateranensis, — "The right and entrance and a part of the custom's-tax of the Gate of St. John of Lateran." But Leo X. restored this revenue to the church of St. John of Lateran, and bestowed upon him in place of it officiiim scriptorice apostollicce, "the office of apostolic scribe," of which a brief was executed for him on the 9th of November, 1517. — W. 10. Pierres Antiq. Gravies, PI. 55, 56. Visconti {Tconogr. Anc, Tom. II. p. 41) conjectures that the fragment of ahead of Alexander, cut in alto, which was formerly in the possession of Azara, and afterwards passed 454 NOTES. into the collection of the Empress Josephine of France, was executed either by Pyrgoteles himself, or else was a copy of his work. — Geum. Ed. 11. Stosch fmentions several other ancient engraved gems, and espe- cially two by Dioscorides, on which the name of the artist is also in the nominative. — F. 12. There is a story current that the Cardinal paid for it twelve hun- dred dollars, oi', according to others, sequins. Both prices are wrong ; it was given to him by the present canon Castiglione. — W. 13. Book III. chap. 4, § 7. 14. Lib. 35, cap. 10, sect. 36, not. 12. Arnauld (Memoires de Litterature, Tom. XLIX. p. 203) understands the words quoted in the same sense as the author, since he translates them, "He did not allow a day to pass without drawing." Linea therefore sig- nifies here an entire outline of a figure. Bottiger, Idem zur Archaologie der Malerei., Seit. 154.) — Germ. Ed. 15. Diet. Hist, et Critique. Vide Apelles. The ancients mention the works of Apelles with the highest praise (Martial., lib. 2, Epigram. 7. Plin., lib. 35, cap. 10, sect. 36, not. 10. Quintil., lib. 12, cap. 10, not. 7. Cicer., De Claris Orator., cap. 18). We must indeed be content with the mere statements ; but brief as they are, they are more copious and numerous in regard to him than to any other artist. It is shown by them that Apelles was the greatest painter of anti- quity in regard to charm of invention and grace of execution, and possessed extraordinary merit as a colorist (Plin., loc. cit., not. 15, 16. Cicer., De Nat. Deor., lib. 1, 16. Propert., lib. 1, Eleg. 2, vers. 22. Lucian., Imag., cap. 7. Stat., Sylv., lib. 1, vers. 102). From other passages of the an- cients we infer that his paintings exhibited power, finish, and admirable keeping (Lucian., Calumniat., cap. 5. Plin., loc. cit. not. 10. Cicer., Oral., cap. 73), yet he himself conceded that Asclepiodorus excelled him in the last quality, — for mensurce in Pliny seems to signify the keeping, the aerial perspective, the distances of objects. The mention by Pliny {loc. cit., not. 18) of lapis lazuli, by the use of which Apelles gave finish to his pictures, and to all parts of them hannony, tone, and a subdued bril- liancy that was agreeable to the eyes, must lead us to form the most favorable opinion of his skill also in this respect. His Venus Anadyomene appears also to have served very frequently as a model for round works, for a standing Venus is found repeatedly in minia- ture in bronze and on engraved gems, representetl as pressing her hair with both hands on her head, as if she was squeezing the water from it, having just risen from the ocean. In the Colonna gallery at Rome is a beautifully wrought statue of marble of the size of life, and in an exactly similar atti- tude. We may therefore infer that these images of Venus are, in regard to gesture, imitations of the celebrated work of Apelles. — Germ. Ed. 16. Pliny (loc. cit. ) mentions a painting by Aristides which was in the temple of Fides on the Capitol at Rome. It represented an old man with a lyre instructing a youth. We possess something like it in a picture on a vase published by Wilhelm Tischbein (Engravings, Vol. IV.). It is probably a hasty and incomplete sketch of the work of a great master. — Germ. Ed. Plate XIII. NOTES. 455 17. Apelles is said to have remarked that Protogenes equalled, even excelled him, in every particular except in knowing when to stop painting on a picture (Plin., lib. 35, cap. 10, sect. 36, not. 10). Quintilian (lib. 12, cap 10, not. 6) extols Protogenes as a most admirable artist m regard to his careful finish, cura prcestantissimus. When Pliny {Aul. GelL, lib. 15 cap. 31. Cic, Ad Attic, lib. 2, epist. 21. Plin., lib. 7, cap. 38, sect. 39) commends his lalysus as the most glorious of his works, and at the same time states that he laid upon this picture four colors, one upon the other, in order to its permanency, we can hardly understand him to mean anything else than that the painter laid upon it four coats of colors. When moreover Plutarch [Demetr., cap. 22) and ^lian (Far. Hist., lib. 12, cap 41 ) relate that Protogenes worked seven years upon this picture, we may believe that he expended upon it an extraordinary amount of labor, and that he may take in the history of ancient art almost the very place which Leonardo da Vinci occupies in modern times. — Germ. Ed. 18. Strab., lib. 14, cap. 2, not. 5. Zoega, Bassi Bilievi, tav. 70. This Satyr of Protogenes was called Anapauomenus, Tlie Reposing, partly on account of his posture, and partly on account of the undisturbed secu- rity and leisure which the artist enjoyed in the execution of the painting whilst the city of Rhodes was besieged by Demetrius Poliorcetes, and the little garden of the artist on the outside of the city was even included m the circuit of the enemy's camp. (Plin., lib. 35, cap. 10, sect. 36, not. 20. ) — Gehm. Ed. 19. Visconti does not count it among the authentic likenesses of this conqueror. . . The statue of Alexander in marble among the Gabini antiquities, of which mention has been made above in the note to § 10, had not been dis- covered in the time of Winckelmann. The Herculaneum bronze which represents Alexander on horseback has been twice mentioned by him in the text. But he does not seem to be altogether consistent in regard to it. In Book V. chap. 6, § 21, he says : "The conformation is similar in every respect to that of Alexander." In Book VII. chap. 2, § 17, it is on the other hand called a " presumed Alexander." However we believe that no one need be led into error by the apparent inconsistency, but that we may with Visconti assume it as decided that this monument is actually a like- ness of Alexander. — Germ. Ed. 20. Fea seeks to prove that the celebrated Hermes of Cipollino marble, which was discovered during an excavation in the villa of the Pisones at Tivoli, in the year 1779, is a genuine likeness of Alexander. The hair of the head is arranged in the manner described by Winckelmann ; the feat- ures of the face, of which the skin is a little corroded, appear to denote the hero at a manly age, and to correspond to his character as depicted by ancient authors (Plutarch., De Fortitud. Alex. Oral., II. p. 335. Alex., cap. 4. iElian., Var. Hist., lib. 12, cap. 14. Arrian., De Expedit. Alex., lib. 7, cap. 28. Plin., lib. 35, cap. 10, sect. 36, not. 12). The nose of this Hermes is modern. Although Mengs at first sight, and even before the discovery of the inscription, held this monument to be a work of art of the age of Alexander {Opere di Mengs, p. 32), still we hesitate to acknowledge his opinion as sufficiently grounded, especially in regard to the workman- ship, which is certainly good, yet far from being so excellent as we might 456 NOTES. expect in a likeness of Alexander executed in his time. It seems to ns that we may with more propriety consider it as a copy, executed at a later period, of a far better original. At all events, it serves to refute the erro- neous statement of M. Croix {Exam, des Hist, d' Alex., p. 506), who asserts that there does not exist any genuine likeness of Alexander. — Germ. Ed. 21. Bronzi d' Ercolano, Tom. I. tav. 11-13. Under the guidance of the bust in the Herculaneum museum, several heads in marble have since been recognized as portraits of the gi-eat orator. One of the most beautiful of them was put upon a seated statue in the Vatican museum, of which an engraving may be seen in Visconti (Mus. Pio-Clcm., Tom. III. tav. 14)^ An entire standing figure of Demosthenes, belonging to the Duke of Dorset of England, was found in Campania ; an engraving of it may be seen in Tea (Tom. II. tav. 6), who also (p. 254) makes mention of another similar yet less well preserved statue in the Aldo- brandini villa at Frascati. In the museum of the Prince of Piombino, at Home, there may be found according to Visconti {Mus. Pio-Clem., Tom. III. p. 15) an intaglio gem on which Dioscorides has given a front view of the head of Demosthenes. This admirable gem was published by Winck- elmann {Vorlauf. Abhand., Kap. 4, § 172, Vignette No. 16) and by Bracci {Memoire degli Incisori, Tom. II. tav. 69) as the portrait of an unknown. Both of them are wrong in calling the stone a carnelian ; it is a very beautiful amethyst. In the Pamfili villa near Rome is an alto-rilievo shaped like a shield, with the bust of Demosthenes and his engraved name. By the aid of this monument we ought to have been able to recog- nize the likenesses of Demosthenes even earlier than by the Herculaneum bronze ; but as the execution was only of an indifferent character, the monument may have attracted but little attention, and even the antiquity of the inscription was doubted, though Visconti {Mus. Pio-Clem., Tom. VI. p. 53) regards it as a genuine antique, Visconti {Mus. Pio-Clem., Tom. VI. tav. 37) has already made known a Hermes which may well be regarded as one of the most admirable of the still extant portraits of De- mosthenes. — Germ. Ed. 22. It is about a palm and a third high (llg in. ) and a palm in breadth (8| in.), and before "Winckelmann's time it went to England, into the pos- session of Dr. Mead. — F. CHAPTER II. 1. Fr(eltch., Annal. Reg. Syr., tab. 2, not. 1. This ninth paragraph is copied without change from the Vienna edition. In the Notes the author thus expresses himself in regard to the coin in question. " One of the most beautiful coins of this age in silver, and one of the largest silver Greek coins known to me, — for it is somewhat more than two inches in diameter, — is that of King Antigonus, probably Antig- onus First, a king in Asia. On the obvei-se is an old bearded head in very high relief, of which the hair hangs down, not in curling locks, but in straight bands, and a lock of hair falls down upon the forehead as on some comic masks it stands up, and the upper eyebrow-bones have an exaggerated NOTES. 45T curve, which also is usual in such masks. A garland of ivy surrounds this head, which probably represents the god Pan, and which is stamped also on a coin of Gallienus (Tristan., Comm., Tom. III. p. 83). This divinity was especially honored by the Greeks because of the victory over the Per- sians at Marathon, which was ascribed to him. As the prow of a vessel is stamped on the reverse, it seems probable that this coin is commemora- tive of a naval victory obtained by the said Antigonus, which, in imitation of the Athenians, was ascribed to the god Pan. It cannot represent Sile- nus, because he always has a pleasant, quiet expression ; neither has it a curled beard like the statue of Silenus in the Borghese villa, nor a beard ■with a soft wave in it like the so-called head of Plato, and moreover it is represented with pointed ears. On the contrary the head on the coin shows an earnest, severe expression, and has a woolly, stringy beard, which is appropriate to the Arcadian deity, and it is crowned with ivy, probably on account of the close relationship of Pan with the Indian Bacchus. It has not the i-am's horns by which Pan is usually distinguished, but we learn from a Greek epigram of Philodemus {Analed., Tom. II. p. 90, not. 28) that the artists did not always form him after the same model, for the figure of Pan which is there described resembles a Hercules in bust and belly, and a Mercury in legs and feet. On the reverse, Apollo is sitting with a strung bow in his hand on the prow of a vessel, and on two of the beams may be read the words BA2IAEn2 ANTirONOT, — of King Antitronus. Behind the Apollo stands a trident or fuscina, and below the vessel is a dolphin, which is probably intended as a symbol of the surname £if\ 15. Diomedes with the Palladium. A carnelian cut in intaglio bv Dioscorides. See Note 11, Book XI. chap. 11. IQ. A head engraved in high relief by Erophilus, son of Dioscorides It IS intended to represent Augustus, as we conjecture. The present draw- ing IS only slightly larger than the gem itself. This gem is injured by a crack which runs diagonally across the forehead and through the ear THE END. University Press : John Wilson and Son, Cambridge. A SELECTED LIST OF STAIDARD PUBLICATIONS & RE11NDER8 Offered for Sale at remarkably low prices by JOHN GRANT, BOOKSELLER, 25 & 34 George IV. Bridge, EDINBURGH. Robert Burns' Poetical Works, edited by W. Scott Douglas, with Explanatory Notes, Various Readings, and Glossary, illustrated with portraits, vignettes, and frontispieces by Sam Bough, R.S.A., and W. E. Lockhart, K.S.A., 3 vols, royal Svo, cloth extra (pub £2 2s), i6s 6d. W. Paterson, 1880. 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Of these, although the palm of excellence mus beyond a^l douU be awarded to Dunbar,-next to Burns probably the greatest poet of his country. -The voice of contemporaries, as well as of the age that immediately followed, pronounced in favour of him who, ' In barbarous age. Gave rude Scotland Virgil's page,'— . Gavin Douglas. 'We may confidently predict that this will long remain the standard edkion of Gavin DouglL ; and we shall be glad to see the ^^^^ ° old Scottish poets edited with equal sympathy and success. —AtUeiueiun. Lyndsafs (Sir David, of the Mount, 1490-1568) Poetical Works, best edition, edited, with Life and Glossary, by David Laing, 3 vols, crown 8vo, cloth (pub 63s), i8s 6d. Another cheaper edition by the same editor, 2 vols, i2mo, cloth (pub 15s), 5s. W. Paterson. 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So much has recently been done for the history of Scotland, that the necessity lor a more critical edition of the earlier historians has become veiT apparent, the history of Scotland, prior to the 15th century, must always be based to a great extent upon the work of Fordun ; but his original text has been made the basis of continuations, and has been largely altered and interpolated by his con- tinuators whose statements are usually quoted as if they belonged to the original work of Fordun. An edition discriminating between the original text of Fordun and the additions and alterations of his continuators, and at the same time trac- ing out the sources of Fordun's narrative, would obviously be of great importance to the right understanding of Scottish history. The complete set forms ten handsome volumes, demy 8vo, illustrated with facsimiles. Sent Carriage Free to any part of the United Kingdom on receipt of Postal Order for the amount. JOHCf GRANT, 25 & 34 George IV. Bridge, EdinMrgli. 2j 6^ 34 George IV. Bridge., Edinburgh. 1 1 Campbell {Colin, Lord Clyde) — Life of, illustrated by Extracts from his Diary and Correspondence, by Lieut. -Gen. Shadwell, C.B., with portrait, maps, and plans, 2 vols, 8vo, cloth (pub 36s), 6s 6d. Blackwood & Sons. "In all the annals of ' Self-Help,' there is not to be found a life more truly worthy of study than that of the gallant old soldier. The simple, self-denying, friend-helping, brave, patriotic soldier stands proclaimed in every line of General Shadwell's admirable memoir." — Blac/iivood's Mas'azine. De IVilfs {John, Grand Pensionary of Hollaiid) Life ; or, TiL'enty Years of a Parliainentaiy Republic, by M. A. Pon- talis, translated by S. E. .Stephenson, 2 vols, 8vo, cloth (pub 36s), 6s 6d. Longman. Uniform with the favourite editionsof Motley's " Netherlands" and "John of Barnveld," &c. Johnson {Doctor) : His Friends and his Critics, by George Birkbeck Hill, D.C.L., crown 8vo, cloth (pub 8s), 2s. Smith, Elder, & Co. "The public now reaps the advantage of Dr Hill's researches in a most readable volume. Seldom has a pleasanter commentary been written on a literary masterpiece. . . . Throughout the author of this pleasant volume has spared no pains to enable the present generation to realise more completely the sphere in which Johnson talked and X.zxi^t.'" —S aturday Review. Mathews {Charles James, the Actor) — Life of chiefly Autobiographical, with Selections from his Correspondence and Speeches, edited by Charles Dickens, portraits, 2 vols, 8vo, cloth (pub 25s), 5s. Macmillan, 1879. "The book is a charming one from first to last, and Mr Dickens deserves a full measure of credit for the care and discrimination he has exercised in the business of editing." — Globe. Brazil and Java — The Coffee Culture in America, Asia, a7td Africa, by C. F. Van Delden Lavine, illustrated with numerous plates, maps, and diagrams, thick 8vo, cloth (pub 25s), 3s 6d. Allen. A useful work to those interested in the production of coffee. The author was charged with a special mission to Brazil on behalf of the coffee culture and coffee commerce in the Dutch possessions in India. Smith {Captain John, 1579-1631)— 7%^ Adventures a?id Discoveries of, sometime President of Virginia and Admiral of New England, newly ordered by John Ashton, with illustrations taken by him from original sources, post 8vo, cloth (pub 5s), 2s. Cassell. " Full of interesting particulars. Captain John Smith's life was one peculiarly adventurous, bordering almost on the romantic ; and his adventures are related by himself with a terse and rugged brevity that is very charming."— Ed. Fhilifs Handy Gefieral Atlas of America, comprising a series of 23 beautifully executed coloured maps of the United States, Canada, &c., with Index and Statistical Notes by John Bartholomew, F.R.G.S., crown folio, cloth (pub £1 is), 5s. Philip & Son. Embraces Alphabetical Indices to the most important towns of Canada and Newfoundland, to the counties of Canada, the principal cities and counties of the United .States, and the most important towns in Central America, Mexico, the West Indies, and South America. Sent Carriage Free to any part of the United Kingdom on receipt of Postal Order for the amount. JOHN GRANT, 25 & 34 George IV. Bridge, Edinburgli. 12 Joh?i Grant, Bookseller, Little's (/. Stanley) South Africa, a Sketch-Book of Men and Manners, 2 vols, 8vo, cloth (pub 21s), 3s 6d. Sonnenschein. Oliphatit {Lanrence) — The Land of Gilcad, with Ex- cursions in the Lebanon, illustrations and maps, 8vo, cloth (pub 2is), 8s 6d. Blackwood & Sons. "A most fascinating book." — Obsemer. A singularly agreeable narrative of a journey through regions more replete, perhaps, with varied and striking associations than any other in the world. The writing throughout is highly picturesque and eSK.<:.\\\^." —Athenieuin. " A most fascinating volume of travel. . . . His remarks on manners, customs, and superstitions are singularly interesting." — St James s Gazette. " The reader will find in this book a vast amount of most curious and valuable information on the strange races and religions scattered about the country." — Saturday Review. "An admirable work, both as a reeord of travel and as a contribution to physical science." — I'anity Fai?: Patterson {P. JL.) — The New Golden Age, afid Lnfliience of the Precious Metals upo7i the War, 2 vols, 8vo, cloth (pub 31s 6d), 6s. Blackwood Sons. Contents. Vol I.— The Period of Discovery and Romance of the New Golden Age, 1848-56. — The First Tidings — Scientific Fears, and General Enthusiasm — The Great Emigration— General Effects of the Gold Discoveries upon Commerce —Position of Great Britain, and First Eftects on it of the Gold Discoveries— The Golden Age in California and Australia— Life at the Mines. A Retrospect. — History and Influence of the Precious Metals down to the Birth of Modern Europe— The Silver Age in America— Effects of the Silver Age upon Europe- Production of the Precious Metals during the Silver Age (1492-1810)— Effects of the Silver Age upon the Value of Money (1492-1800). Vol II.— Period of Renewed Scarcity.— Renewed Scarcity of the Precious Metals, A.D. 1800-30— The Period of Scarcity. Part II.— Effects upon Great Britain— The Scarcity lessens— Beginnings of a New Gold Supply— General Distress before the Gold Discoveries. "Chi-:ap" and "Dear" Money— On the Effects of Changes in the Quantity and Value of Money. The New Golden Age.— First Getting of the New Gold— First Diffusion of the New Gold— Indus- trial Enterprise in Europe— Vast Expansion of Trade with the East (a.d. 1855- 75)— Total Amount of the New Gold and Silver— Its Influence upon the World at large— Close of the Golden Age, 1876-80— Total Production of Gold and Sliver. Period 1492-1848.— Production of Gold and Silver subsequent to 1848— Changes in the Value of Money subsequent to a.d. 1492. Period a.d. 1848 and subsequently. Period a.d. 1782-1865.— Illusive Character of the Board of Trade Returns since 1853— Growth of our National Wealth. Tunis, Past and Present, with a Narrative of the French Conquest of the Regency, by A. M. Broadley, Correspondent of the Times during the War in Tunis, with numerous illustrations and maps, 2 vols, post 8vo, cloth (pub 25s), 6s. Blackwood & Sons. " Mr Broadley has had peculiar facilities in collecting materials for his volumes. _ Possessing a thorough knowledge of Arabic, he has for years acted as confidential adviser to the Bey. . . . The information which he is able to place before the reader is novel and amusing. ... A standard work on Tunis has been long required. This deficiency has been admirably supplied by the author." — Morning' Post. Sejit Carriage Free to any part of the United Kingdom on receipt of Postal Order for the amoimt. JOHi( GRANT, 25 & 34 George lY. Bridge, Edinburgli. ^34 George IV. Bridge, Edinburgh. 13 B timet (Bishop) — History of the Reformation of the Church of England, with numerous Illustrative Notes and copious Index, 2 vols, royal 8vo, cloth (pub 20s), los. Reeves & Turner, 1880. " Burnet, in his immortal History of the Reformation, has fixed the Protestant religion in this country as long as any religion remains among us. Burnet is, without doubt, the English Eusebius." — Dr Afthokpe. Burnefs History of his Own Time, from the Restoration of Charles II. to the Treaty of the Peace of Utrecht, with Historical and Biographical Notes, and a copious Index, com- plete in I thick volume, imperial Svo, portrait, cloth (pub £\ 5s), 5s 6d. " I am reading Burnet's Own Times. Did you ever read that garrulous pleasant history? full of scandal, which all true history is ; no palliatives, but all the stark wickedness that actually gave the vwmentum to national actors ; none of that cursed Htuneian indifference, so cold, and unnatural, and inhuman," &c. — Charles Lamb. Creasy (Sir Edward S.) — History of Englatid, from the Earliest Times to the End of the Middle Ages, 2 vols (520 pp each), 8vo, cloth (pub 25s), 6s. Smith, Elder, & Co. Criffie — Pike's (Luke Oiven) History of Crime in England, illustrating the Changes of the Laws in the Progress of Civilisa- tion from the Roman Invasion to the Present Time, Index, 2 very thick vols, Svo, cloth (pub 36s) los. .Smith, Elder, & Co. Globe (The) Encyclopcedia of Useful Informatioti, edited by John M. Ross, LL.D., with numerous woodcut illustrations, 6 handsome vols, in half-dark persian leather, gilt edges, or in half calf extra, red edges (pub £i, i6s), £,2 8s. Edinburgh. "A work of reference well suited for popular use, and may fairly claim to be the best of the cheap encyclopaedias." — Athenieum. History of the War of Frederick I. against the Communes of Lonihardy, by Giovanni B. Testa, translated from the Italian, and dedicated by the Author to the Right Hon. W. E. Gladstone, (466 pages), Svo, cloth (pub 15s) 2s. Smith, Elder, & Co. Freemasonry — Baton's (Brother C. J.) Freemasonry and its fttrisprudetiee, according to the Ancient Landmarks and Charges, and the Constitution, Laws, and Practices of Lodges and Grand Lodges, Svo, cloth (pub los 6d), 3s 6d. Reeves & Turner. Freemason7y, its Symbolism, Religious Nature, and Law of Perfection, Svo, cloth (pub los 6d), 2s 6d. Reeves & Turner, F?-eemasonry, its Two Great Doctrines, The Exist- ence of God, and A Future .State ; also, Its Three Masonic Graces, Faith, Hope, and Charity — in I vol, Svo, cloth (pub los), 2s 6d. Reeves & Turner. The fact that no such similar works exist, that there is no standard of autho- rity to which reference can be made, notwithstanding the great and growing number of Freemasons and Lodges at home, and of those in the British Colonies and other countries holding Charters from Scotland, or affiliated with Scottish Lodges, warrants the author to hope that they may prove accept.able to the Order. All the oldest and best authorities — the ablest writers, home and foreign — on the history and principles of Freemasonry have been carefully con- sulted. Sent Carriage Free to any part of the United Kiiigdom on receipt of Postal Order for the amount. JOHN GRANT, 25 & 34 George IV. Bridge, Edinburgli. 14 John Grant, Bookseller, Arnold's {Cecil) Great Sayings of ShakesiJeare, a Com- prehensive Index to Shakespearian Thought, being a Collection of Allusions, Reflections, Images, Familiar and Descriptive Pas- sages, and Sentiments from the Poems and Plays of Shakespeare, Alphabetically Arranged and Classified under Appropriate Head- ings, one handsome volume of 422 pages, thick 8vo, cloth (pub 7s 6d), 3s. Bickers. Arranged in a manner similar to Southgate's " Many Thoughts of Many Minds." This index differs from all other books in being much more com- prehensive, while care has been taken to follow the most accurate text, and to cope, in the best manner possible, with the difficulties of correct classification. Tlie most Beautiful and Cheapest Birthday Book Published. Birthday Book — Friendship's Diary for Every Day in the Year, with an appropriate Verse or Sentence selected from the great Writers of all Ages and Countries, each page ornamented by a richly engraved border, illustrated throughout, crown 8vo, cloth, bevelled boards, exquisitely gilt and tooled, gold edges, a perfect gem (pub 3s 6d), is gd. Hodder & Stoughton. This book practically has never been published It only requires to be seen to be appreciated. Dobson ( W. T.) — The Classic Poets, their Lives and their Times, with the Epics Epitomised, 452 pages, crown 8vo, cloth (pub 9s), 2s 6d. Smith, Elder, & Co. Contents. — Homer's Iliad, The Lay of the Nibelungen, Cid Campeador, Dante's Divina Commedia, Ariosto's Orlando Furioso, Camoens' Lusiad, Tasso's Jerusalem Delivered, Spenser's Fairy Queen, Milton's Paradise Lost, Milton's Paradise Regained. English Lite?-ature : A Study of the Prologue and Epilogue in English Literature, from Shakespeare to Uryden, by G. S. B., crown 8vo, cloth (pub 5s), is 6d. Kegan Paul, 1884. Will no doubt prove useful to writers undertaking more ambitious researches into the wider domains of dramatic or social history. Bibliographer (The), a Magazine of Old-Time Literature, contains Articles on Subjects interesting to all Lovers of Ancient and Modern Literature, complete in 6 vols, 4to, antique boards (pub £2 5s), 15s. Elliot Stock. " It is impossible to open these volumes anywhere without .ilighting on some amusing anecdote, or some valuable literary or historical note." — Saturday Review. Book-Lore, a Magazine devoted to the Study of BibHo- graphy, complete in 6 vols, 410, antique boards (pub £2 5s), 15s. Elliot Stock. A vast store of interesting and out-of-the-way information, acceptable to the lover of books. Antiquary {The), a Magazine devoted to the Study of the Past, complete set in 15 vols, 410, antique boards (pub I2S 6d), 15s. Elliot Stock. A perfect mine of interesting matter, for the use of the student, of the times of our forefathers, and their customs and h.abits. Sent Carriage Free to any part of the United Kingdotn on receipt of Postal Order for the atnount. JOM GRANT, 25 & 34 George IV. Bridge, Edinburgh. 2S 34 George IV. Bridge, Edinburgh. 15 Chafers' Marks a?id Monograms on European and Oriental Pottery and Porcelain, with Historical Notices of each Manufactory, preceded by an Introductory Essay on the Vasa Fictilia of the Greek, Romano- British, and Mediaeval Eras, 7th edition, revised and considerably augmented, with upwards of 3000 potters' marks and illustratious, royal 8vo, cloth extra, gilt top, £\ 15s. London. Civil Costume of England, from the Conquest to the Prewit Time, drawn from Tapestries, Monumental Effigies, Illuminated MSS., by Charles Martin, Portraits, &c., 61 full-page plates, royal 8vo, cloth (pub los 6d), 3s 6d. Bohn. In addition there are inserted at the end of the volume 25 plates illustrating Greek costume by T. Hope. Dyer {Thomas H., LL.D.)— Imitative Art, its Principles and Progress, with Preliminary Remarks on Beauty, Sublimity, and Taste, Svo, cloth (pub 14s), 2s. Bell & Sons, 1882. Great Diamonds of the World, their History and Romance, Collected from Official, Private, and other Sources, by Edwin W. Streeter, edited and annotated by Joseph Hatton and A. H. Keane, 8vo, cloth (pub los 6d), 2s 6d. Bell & Sons. ■ Hamilton's (Lady, the Mistress of Lord Nelson) Attitudes, illustrating in 25 full-page plates the great Heroes and Heroines of Antiquity in their proper Costume, forming a useful study for drawing from correct and chaste models of Grecian and Roman Sculpture, 4to, cloth (pub is), 3s 6d. feivitt {Lleivellyn, F.S.A.) — Half Hours among some English Antiqilities, illustrated with 320 wood engravings, crown 8vo, cloth gilt (pub (5s), 2s. Allen Co. Contents :-Cromlechs, Implements of Flint and Stone, Bronze Implements among the Celts, Roman Roads, Temples Altars, .Sepulchral Inscriptions, An- cient Pottery, Arms and Armour, Slabs and Brasses, Coins, Church Bells, Class, Encaustic 'i'iles, Tapestry, Personal Ornaments, &c. &c. King {Rev. C. W.)— Natural History of Gems and Decorative Stones, fine paper edition, post Svo, cloth (pub lOs 6d), 4s. Bell & Sons. ■' Contains so much information and of so varied a nature, as to make the work ... by far the best treatise on this branch of mineralogy we possess in this or any other language." — Athenieum. Leech's {/oh?i) Children of the Mobility, Drawn from Nature, a Series of Humorous Sketches of our Young Plebeians, including portrait of Leech, with Letter on the Author's Genius by John Ruskin, 4to, cloth, 1841 (pub 7s 6d), 3s 6d. Repro- duced 1875, Bentley Son. Morelli {G.) — Ltalian Masters in Gertnan Galleries, translated from the German by L. M. Richter, post Svo, cloth (pub 8s 6d), 2s. Belled Sons. , . . . , , • " Si<'nor Morelli has created nothing less than a revolution in art-scholarship, and both by precept and example has given a remarkable impulse to s:;und knowledge and independent opinion.' —Academy. Sent Carriage Free to any part of the United Kingdom on receipt of Postal Order for the amount. JOHN aRMT, 25 & 34 George IV. Bridge, Edinburgli. i6 Joh7i Grant, Bookseller. Exquisitely beaut if jd Works by Sir J. Noel Patoji at a remarkably lo'o price. Pat on' s {Noel) Compositiofis from Shakespeare's Tempest, a Series of Fifteen Large Outline Engravings illustrating the Great Drama of our National Poet, with descriptive letterpress oblong folio, cloth (pub 2is), 3s. Chapman & Hall. Uniform witli the above. Faton's {Noel) Compositions from Shelley's Prometheus Unbound, a Series of Twelve Large Outline Engravings, oblono- folic, cloth (pub 2 is), 3s. Chapman & Hall. " Smith {J. Moyr)~A?icient Greek Female Costume, illus- trated by 112 fine outline engravings and numerous smaller illustrations, with Explanatory Let'terpress, and Descriptive Passages from the Works of Homer, Hesiod, Herodotus, yEschy- lus, Euripides, and other Greek Authors, printed in brown, crown 8vo, cloth elegant, red edges (pub 7s 6d), 3s. Sampson Low. Bacon {Francis, Lord)— Works, both English and Latin, with an Introductory Essay, Biographical and Critical, and copious Indices, steel portrait, 2 vols, royal 8vo, cloth (originally pub £2 2s,) I2s. 1879. '' All his works are for expression as well as thought, the glory of our nation and of all later ages. —Sheffield, Duke of Buckinghamshire. A 1- u J • °" ""^^ ^""^ "^O""^ known, and his books more and more aelighted in; so that those men who had more than ordinary knowledge in human affairs, esteemed him one of the most capable spirits of l*at age " Burn {R. Scott)~The Practical Directory for the ftji- provemenf of Landed Property, Rural and Suburban, and the Economic Cultivation of its Farms (the most valuable work on the subject), plates and woodcuts, 2 vols, 4to, cloth (pub £x 3s) 15s. Paterson. " ' Martineau {ffarriet)~The History of British Pule in India, foolscap 8vo (356 pages), cloth (pub 2s 6d), gd. Smith, Elder, & Co. A concise sketch, which will give the ordinary reader a general notion of what our Indian empire is, how we came by it, and what has gone forward in it since It first became connected with England. The book will be found to state the broad facts of Anglo-Indian history in a clear and enlightening manner; and It cannot fail to give valuable information to those readers who have neither time nor inclination to study the larger works on the subject. Selkirk (/. Brown) — Ethics and ^Esthetics of Modern Poetry, crown 8v©, cloth gilt (pub 7s), 2S. Smith, Elder, Sl Co. Sketches from Shady Places, being Sketclies from the Criminal and Lower Classes, by Thor Fredur, crown 8vo, cloth (pub 6s), IS. Smith, Elder, & Co. " Descriptions of the criminal and semi-criminal (if such a word may be coined) classes, which are full of power, sometimes of a disagreeable kmd."-Atheme7un Southeys {Robert) Commonplace Book, the Four Series complete, edited by his Son-in-Law, J. W. Warter, 4 thick vols 8vo, cloth (pub 42s), 14s. Longmans. ' Warren's {Samuel) Ten Thousand a Year, early edition, with Notes, 3 vols, i2mo, cloth (pub i8s), 4s 6d. Blackwood' 1853- Sent Carriage Free to any part of the Uttited Kingdom on receipt of Postal Order for the amount. ' JOM GEANT, 25 & 34 George IV. Bridge, Edinburgli. 25 ^ 34 George IV. Bridge, Edifiburgh. 17 Jones' {Professor T. Rymer) General Outlme of the Or- ganization of the Animal Kingdom, and Manual of Comparative Anatomy, illustrated with 571 engravings, thick 8vo, half roan, gilt top (pub £\ IIS 6d), 6s. Van Voorst. Jones' {Professor T. Rymer) Natural History of Animals, Lectures delivered before the Royal Institution of Great Britain, 209 illustrations, 2 vols, post 8vo, cloth (pub 24s), 3s 6d. Van Voorst. Hunter's {Dr John) Essays on Natural History, Afia- tomy, Physiology, Psychology, and Geology, to which are added Lectures on the Hunterian Collection of Fossil Remains, edited by Professor Owen, portrait, 2 vols, 8vo, cloth (pub 32s), 5s. Van Voorst. Forestry and Forest Products — Prize Essays of the Edinburgh International Forestry Exhibition, 1884, edited by John Rattray, M.A., and Hugh Robert Mill, illustrated with 10 plates and 21 woodcuts, Svo, cloth (pub i6s), 5s. David Douglas. Comprises : — Brace's Formation and Management of Forest Tree Nurseries. The same, by Thomas Berwick. Stalker's Formation and Management of Plantations on different Sites, Altitudes, and Exposures. The same, by R. E. Hodson. Milne's Afforesting of Waste Land in Aberdeenshire by Means of the Planting Iron. Maclean's Culture of Trees on the Margin of Streams and Lochs in Scotland, with a View to the Preservation of the Banks and the Conservation of Fish. Cannon's Economical Pine Planting, with Remarks on Pine Nurseries and on Insects and Fungi destructive to Pines. Alexander on the Various Methods of Producing and Harvesting Cinchona Bark. Robertson on the Vegetation of Western Australia. Brace's Formation and Management of Eucalypus Plantations. Carrick's Present and Prospective Sources of the Timber Supplies of Great Britain. Oldrieve on the best Method of Maintaining the Supply of Teak, with Remarks on its Price, Size, and Quality ; and on the Best Substitutes for Building Purposes. On the same, by J. C. Kemp. ^ I Alexander's Notes on the Ravages of Tree and Timber Destroying Insects. Webster's Manufacture and Uses of Charcoal. Boulger's Bye-Products, Utilisation of Coppice and of Branches and other Fragments of Forest Produce, with the View of Diminishing Waste. Stonhill's Paper Pulp from Wood, Straw, and other Fibres in the Past and Present. Green's Production of Wood Pulp. T. Anderson Reid's Preparation of Wood Pulp by the Soda Process. Cross and Bevan's Report on Wood Pulp Processes. Yoshida's Lacquer {Urushi), Description, Cultivation, and Treatment of the Tree, the Chemistry of its Juice, and its Industrial Applications. Sent Carriage Free to any part of the Ufiited Kingdom on receipt of Postal Order for the amount. JOHN aUANT, 25 & 34 George lY. Bridge, Edinburgli. i8 John Grants Bookseller, Johnston's (W. & A. K.) Instructive Series Scmitific Industries Explained, showing how some of the important Articles of Commerce are made, by -Alexander Watt, F.R.S.S.A., First Series, containing Articles on Aniline Colours' iigments, Soap-making, Candle-making, Paper-making, Gun- powder, Glass, Alcohol, Beer, Acids, Alkalies, Phosphorus, Bleachmg Powder, Inks, Vinegar-making, Acetic Acid, Fireworks, Coloured P ires. Gun-cotton, Distillation, &c. &c., crown 8vo, cloth (pub 2s 6d), IS. " Mr Watt discourses of aniline pigments and dyes ; of candles and paper : of gunpowder and glass ; of inks and vinegar ; of fireworks and gun-cotton • excursions over the whole field of applied science ; . . one of the best' is" thai on gilding watch-movements. A systematic arrangement of the subjects has irft.Ilf '/''f avoided, in order that the work may be regarded as a means of intellectual recreation. — Acacfauy. Scientific Industries Explained, Second Series, containing Articles on Electric Light, Gases, Cheese, Preservation of Food, Borax, Scientific Agriculture, Oils, Isinglass, Tanning, Nickel- plating, Cements and Glues, Tartaric Acid, Stained Glass, Arti- ficial Manures, Vulcanised India-rubber, Ozone, Galvanic Batteries, Magnesia, The Telephone, Electrotyping, &c. c^c, with illustra- tions, crown 8vo, cloth (pub 2s 6d), is. Mechanical Industries Explained, showing how many useful Arts are practised, with illustrations, by Alexander Watt containing articles on Carving Irish Bog-oak, Etching, Galvanised Iron, Cutlery, Goldbeating, Bookbinding, Lithography, Jewellery Crayons, Balloons, Needles, Lapidary, Ironfounding, Pottery and Porcelain, Typefounding, Bread-making, Bronze-casting, Tile- making. Ormolu, Papier-mache, &c. c^c, crown 8vo, cloth (pub 2s 6d), IS. ^ "It would form a useful present for any boy with mechanical tastes."— -b-ngineer. Science in a Nut-Shell, in which rational Amusement is blended with Instruction, with nun^rous illustrations, by Alex- ander Watt, crown 8vo, illustrated boards (pub is), 6d. CoNTENTS^-Absorption of Carbonic Acid by Plants. - The Air-Pump. - Amalgams -To Produce Artificial Ices. -Attraction : Capillary Attraction.- Carbon.-Carmine.-How to Make Charcoal. -To Prepare Chlorine.-Contrac- tion of Water-Crystallisation.-Distillation.-Efl-ect of Carbonic Acid on Animal I,ife.-Electricity.--li,vaporation,-Expansion by Heat, &c.-Heat.-Hydrogen Fnn;7-,;n^ iTf .^""^Po^ Oxygen.-^ Photographic Printing.-How to Make a Fountain.-Refractive Power of Liquids.-Kefrigeration.-Repulsion.-Solar Spectrum -Specific Gravity Explained—Structure of Crystals - Sympathetic Sent Carriage Free to atty part of the United Kingdom on receipt of Postal Order for the amount JOHN GEANT, 25 & 34 George lY. Bridge, Edinturgli. 2 5 '^34 George IV. Bridge, Edinlnugh. 19 Stezuart's {Dugald) Collected Works, best edition, edited by Sir William Hamilton, with numerous Notes and Emendations, II handsome vols, Svo, cloth (pub ^6 I2s), the few remaining sets for £2 los. T. & T. Clark. Elements of the Philosophy of the Human Mind, 3 vols, 8vo, cloth (pub ;,^i i6s), 8s 6d. Philosophy of the Active Powers, 2 vols, Svo, cloth (pub ^i 4s), 6s 6d. Prificiples of Political Eco7iomy, 2 vols, Svo, cloth (pub 4s), 5s. " As the names of Thomas Reid, of Dug^ald Stewart, and of Sir William Hamil- ton will be associated hereafter in the history of Philosophy in Scotland, as closely as those of Xenophanes, Parmenidcs, and Zeno in the School of Elea, it is a singular fortune that Sir William Hamilton should be the collector and editor of the works of his predecessors. . . . The chair which he filled for many yejirs, not otherwise undistinguished, he rendered illustrious." — • Atheni£ji>n. ""'■^ Dante — The Divina Cotnmedia, translated into English Verse by James Ford, A.M., medallion frontispiece, 430 pages, crown 8vo, cloth, bevelled boards (pub 12s), 2s 6d. Smith, Elder, & Co. " Mr Ford has succeeded better than might have been e.\pected ; his rhymes are good, and his translation deserves praise for its accuracy and fidelity. We caiinot refrain from acknowledging the many good qualities of Mr Ford's trans- lation, and his labour of love will not have been in vain, if he is able to induce those who enjoy true poetry to study once more the masterpiece of that literature from whence the great founders of English poetry drew so much of their sweet- ness and power." — Athenieiim. Pollok's {Robert) The Course of Time, a Poem, beauti- fully printed edition, with portrait and numerous illustrations, i2mo, 6d. Blackwood & Sons. " 'The Course of Time' is a very e.xtraordinary poem, vast in its conception, vast in its plan, vast in its materials, and vast, if very far from perfect, in its achievement." — D. M. Moiu. Monthly Interpreter, a New Expository Magazine, edited by the Rev. Joseph S. Exell, M.A., joint-editor of the "Pulpit Commentary," &c., complete from the commencement to its close, 4 vols, 8vo, cloth (pub £1 los), los 6d. T. & T. Clark. Vols. I, 3, 4, separately, 2s each. The aim of The Monthly Interpreter is to meet in some adequate way the wants of the present-day student of the Bible, by furnishing him in a convenient and accessible form with what is being said and done by the ablest British, Ameri- can, and foreign theologians, thinkers, and Biblical critics, in matters Biblical, theological, scientific, philosophical, and social. Parket^s {Dr Joseph, of the City Temple) Weaver Stephen ; or. The Odds and Evens of P^nglish Religion, 8vo, cloth (pub 7s 6d), 3s 6d. Sonnenschein. " Dr Parker is no repeater of old remarks, nor is he a superfluous commentator. His track is his own, and the jewels which he lets fall in his progress are from his own casks ; this will give a permanent value to his works, when the produc- tions of copyists will be forgotten." — C. H. Spurgeon. Skene {William F., LL.D., Historiographer- Royal for Scotland) — The Gospel History for the Young, being Lessons on the Life of Christ, adapted for use in Families and in Sunday Schools, 3 maps, 3 vols, crown Svo, cloth (pub 15s), 6s. Douglas. " In a spirit altogether unsectarian provides for the young a simple, interest- ing, and thoroughly charming history of our Lord." — Literary World. " The ' Gospel History for the Young ' is one of the most valuable books of the kind." The Churchfiian. 20 John Grant, Bookseller, Edinburgh. By the AutJioress of'"- The Land o' the Leal.'" £ s. D. Nairne's (Baroness) Life and Songs, with a Memoir, and Poems of Caroline Oliphant the Younger, edited by Dr Charles Rogers, portrait and other illustrations, crown 8vo, cloth (pub 5s) Griflin 026 " This publication is a good service to the memory of an excellent and gifted lady, and to all lovers of Scottish Qon^." —Scotsman. Ossian's Poems, translated by Macplnerson, 24mo, best red cloth, gilt (pub 2s 6d) O i 6 A dainty pocket edition. Perthshire— Woods, Forests, and Estates of Perthshire, with Sketches of the Principal Families of the County, by Tliomas Hunter, Editor of the Perthshire Consti- tictional and Journal, illustrated with jo wood engravings, crown 8vo (564 pp), cloth (pub 12s 6d) _ Perth 0 4 6 "Altogether a choice and most valuable addition to the County Histories of ?>cot\3.\vi."—Glasgotu Daily Mail. Duncan (John, Scotch Weaver and Botanist) — Life of, with Sketches of his Friends and Notices of the Times, by Wm. Jolly, F.R.S.E., H.M. Inspector of Scho(»ls, etched portrait, crown 8vo, cloth (pub 9s) Kegan Paul O 3 6 "We must refer the reader to the book itself for the many quaint traits of character, and the minute personal descriptions, which, taken together, seem to give a life-like presentation of this humble philosopher. . . The many inci- dental notices which the work contains of the weaver caste, the workman's esprit de corps, and his wanderings about the country, either in the performance of his work or, when that was slack, taking a hand at the harvest, form an interest- ing chapter of social history. The completeness of the work is considerably enhanced by detailed descriptions of the district he lived in, and of his numerous friends and acquaintance."— ^iAfwcfZ"". Scots (Ancient)— An Examination of the An- cient History of Ireland and Iceland, in so far as it concerns the Origin of the Scots ; Ireland not the Hibernia of the Ancients ; Interpolations in Bede's Ecclesiastical History and other Ancient Annals affecting the Early History of Scotland and Ireland — the three Essays in one volume, crown Svo, cloth (pub 4s) Edinburgh, 1883 o i o The first of the above treatises is mainly taken up with an investigation of the early History of Ireland and Iceland, in order to ascertain which has the better claim to be considered the original country of the Scots. In the second and third an attempt is made to show that Iceland was the ancient Hibernia, and the country from which the Scots came to Scotland ; and further, contain a review of the evidence furnished by the more genuine of the early British Annals against the idea that Ireland was the ancient Scoti-;. Traditional Ballad Airs, chiefly of the North- Eastern Districts of Scotland, from Copies gathered in the Counties of Aberdeen, Banff, and Moray, by Dean Christie, and William Christie, Monquhitter, with the Words for Singing and the Music arranged for the Pianoforte and Harmonium, illustrated with Notes, giving an Account of both Words and Music, their Origin, 2 handsome vols, 4to, half citron morocco, gilt top, originally published at £\ 4s by Edmonston & Douglas, reduced to I 10 o Sent Carriage Free to any part of the United Kingdom on receipt of Postal Order for the amount. JOM GRANT, 25 & 34 George IV. Bridge, Edinburgh.