»5-^^: V i J , - > ^ \ i ^^■^ ,^i«^>;^**^rf EMBRACING SOME It-EADING FACTS & PRINCIPLES OF SCIENCEs AN© A VARIETY or IkJATTEB. ADAPTED TO THE WANTS OF THE ARTIST, MECHANIC, 3IANUFACTURER, ANTD MERCANTILE COMMUNITY: TO VTHICH fS ANNEXED AN ABSTRACT OF TONNAGE, DUTIES, CUSTOM- HOUSE TARES, ALLOWANCES, AND USEFUL MENSURATION TABLES. Coemuerce gnd Mamafactijres — the main anchor of a nation. SECOND EDITION, \riTH ADDITIONS AND IMPROVEMENTS, NEW-^YORKi PRINTED BY J. C. JOHNSON, 1829. * AV^Vt '•«• ^% Northern District of New-York, to wit : BE IT REMEMBERED, That on the eighth day of November, fn the fifty-first year ot the independence of the United States of America, A, D. 1827, John Skepard, of the said district, hatli deposited in this of- fice the title of a book, the right whereof he claims as proprietor, in the words following, to wit. " The Artist and Tradesman's Guide ; embracing some leading facts and principles of science, and a variety of matter adapted to the wants of the artist, mechanic, manufacturer, and mercantile community. To which is annexed an abstract of tonnage, duties, custom-house tares and allowances. Commerce and manufactures — the main sheet anchor of a nation." In conformity to the act of the Congress of the United States, entitled " An act for the encouragement of learning, by securing the copies of maps, charts, and books, to the authors and proprietors of such copies,, durincr the times therein mentioned ;" and also to the act entitled " Ari act supplementary to an act entitled ' An act for the encouragement of Itearning, by securing the copies of maps, charts, and books, to the authors and proprietors of such oopies during the times therein men>< tioned,' and extending the benefits thereof to the acts of designing en~ eravinff, and etchincr, historical, and other prints.'" R. R. LANSING, Clerk of the District Court of the United States, for the Northern District ot New-York ADVERTISEMENT TO THE SECOND EDITION. IN piesenling the American Public with this Edition, it is not presumed, after the care and labour bestowed, that it is free from error or defect, but it is hoped that the errors are not material, or deficiencies more numerous, than works of a similar nature and size, which do not admit of perfec- tion. As the work is designed more particularly to interest the Merchant and Mechanic, it is believed it will be found in its present form more worthy of their patronage. To render it practically useful, rather than to make a dis- play of science and fine writing, has been our greatest object^ ■ The reception which the work has already experienced calls for the expression of the authors gratitude. Numerous testimonials in its favour might be inserted, if they were deemed necessary in accelerating the sale, but in this age of inquiry and improvement, most minds are capable of erecting a standard of discrimination, whereby they can determine in regard to the merits of a Work without the aid or recommendation of others. Nevertheless, it may not be|j|. improper to advert to the fact that the first edition was dispo- sed of in a very few weeks after its publication. Finally, if the Merchant and Mechanic are benefitted by our exertions, and we have the vanity to believe that they will be, we have not " laboured for nought," but shall reap a rich reward in the reflection that we have, in any degree, been useful to those classes of community who are the bone and sinews of our republic. To them we commit, without further remark this little manual. THE AUTHOR. August, 1829. Weights and measures. 1 Gallon measure contains 8 pint^, I pints i6 ounces, 1 ounce, 8 drachms, 1 drack»>^ CO minims. %rEIGHT OF DRY SUBSTANCES, I pound contains 12 ounces^ 1 ounce, 8 drachms, 1 drachm, , 60 grains, 1 scruple, 20 grains. It is customary to distinguish quantities of fluid fron> dry Jubstances, by prefixing the letter f. (fluid) when an ounce or oracbm is mentioned in medical works ; bnt in tlie formulas in this work, it was considered unnecessary, as the slightest acquaintance with the substances to be used will point out what is implied. The reader will also understand that the letters q. s. or q. p. are used to imply (suflicient or proper quantity ;) pp. or ppd, (prepared or previously prepared.) fllE ARTIST & TRABESMAK S GUIDE. CHAPTER I, INTRODUCTION. To the Manufacturer, Chemistry has lately become fruitful of instruction and assistance. In tlie arts of brewingj tanning, dying, and bleaching, its doctrines are important guides. In making soap^ glass^ pottery, and atl metallic, wares, its principles are daily applied, and are capable of a still more useful application, as they become better understood Indeed every mechanic art, in the different processes of which heat, moisture^ solution, mixtuie or fermentatiou is necessary, must ever keep pace iii improvement with this branch of phi- losopli}^; Finally, there is scarcely an art of human life, which the science of chemistry is riot fitted to subserve ; scarcely a department of humf^n inquiry, either for health, pleasure, ornament, or profit, which it may not be made in in its present improved state, eminently to promote. To il- lustrate the science fully, in all its parts, would require more pages than this work is designed to contain ; therefore, wo shall be confined to some of the leading principles, and most useful practical operations, which it embraces* CHAPTER. IL GcjiO'ni pr'mtiples of Chcmistri/^^-Simj^h Substances — - Compound Bodies — Attraction. The science of Chemistry naturally divides itself into three parts; a description of the component parts of bodies, or of elementary or simple substances as they are called, — a de- scription of the compound bodies formed by the union of sim- ple substances, and an account of the nature of the power which produces these combinations. This power is known in chemistry by the name of affinity, or chemical attraction. By simple substances is not meant what the ancient philoso- phers called elements of bodies, as fire, air, earth, and water, nor particles of matter incapable of farther diminution or di- tision. They signify merely, bodies that have never been 1* O THE ARTIST Ax\D decomposed or formed by art. The simple substances of" which a body is composed are called the constituent parts of that body ; and in decomposing it, we separate its constituent parts. If, on the contrary we divide a body by cutting it to pieces, or even by grinding it to the finest powder, each of these small particles will consist of a portion of the general constituent parts of the whole body; these are called the in- tegrant parts. Compound bodies are formed by the combi- nation of two or more simple substances with each olher. At- traction is that unknown force wliich causes bodies to ap- proach each other. Its most obvious instances are the grav- itation of bodies to the earth ; that of the planets towards each other, and the attractions of electricity and magnetism^ But that attraction which comes under the more immediate Cognizance of chemists, subsists between particles of bodies; and when it operates between particles of the same species, it is called the attraction o^ cohesion:, or the attraction of ag- gregation; but when between the particles of dilferent sub- stances, it is called the attraction of coniposition, chemical at- traction, or chemical affinity. The attraction of cohesion, then, is the power which unites tlie m^c^/'oni particles of a body : the attraction of composition, that which combines the constituent particles* When particles are united by the attraction of cohesion^ the result of such a union is a body of the same kind as the particles of whicii it is formed ; but the attraction of composition, by combinipig particles of a dissim* ilar nature, produces compound bodies quite different from any of their constituents. If, for inst^nce^ you pour upon a piece of copper, placed in a glass vessel, some of the liquid called nitrous acid, (aqua fortis) for which it has a strong at- traction, every particle of the copper will combine with a par- ticle of the acid, and together they will form a new body, to- tall}'^ different from either the copper or nitrous acid. If you wish to decompose the compound which you have thus form- ed, presei^t it to a piece of iron, for which the acid has a stronger affinity than for copper, and the acid will quit the copper to combine with the iron, and the copper will be then what the chemists call precipitated^ that is to say, it will be thrown down in its separate state, and reappear in its simple form. In order to produce this effect, dip the blade of a knite into the fluid, and when you take it out, yon will ob- serve, that instead of being wetted with a bluish liquid, like tradesman's guide. 7 that contained in the glass, it will be covered with a thin coat of copper. It will be most conducive to science to consider all those substances as simple, which no mode of decomposing has yet been discovered. Simple substances naturally divide them- selves into two classes. Those which belong to the first class are of too subtile a nature to be confined to any vessels which we possess. They do not seriously affect the most delicate balance, and have received therefore the name of impondcr- able bodies. The second class of bodies maybe confined in proper vessels, may be exhibited in a separate state, and their weights or other properties may be determined. They have received the name oi' jjonderable bodies. The imponderable bodies at present supposed to exist are four, light, heat or ca- loric, electricity, and magnetism. The first three are inti- niatel}' connected with chemistry, but magnetism has with it no known connexion. CHAPTER Iir. Caloric — Sensible Heat Latent Heat Thermometer — BoiVmg Heat — Blood Heat — Interesting Experiments. Chemists have agreed to call the matter of heat Caloric, m order to distinguish it from the sensation which this matter produces. Caloric has a tendency to dift''use itself equally among all substances that come in contact with it. If the hand be put upon a hot body, part of the caloric leaves the hot body, and enters the hand ; this produces the sensation of heal. On the contrary, if the hand be put upon a cold body, part of the caloric contained in the hand leaves the hand to unite with the cold body ; this produces the sensation of cold. Cold therefore is nothing but a negative quality, sim- ply implying the absence of the usual quantity of caloric. Ca- loric is unifoim in its nature ; but there exist in all bodies, two portions very distinct from each other. The one is cal- led sensible heat, or free caloric ; the other latent heat, or combined caloric. Sensible caloric is the nature of heat dis- engaged from other bodies, or, if united, not chemically uni- ted with them. Latent caloric is that portion of the matter of heat, which makes no sensible addition to the temperature of the bodies in which it exists. Wrought iron, though quite cold, contains a large portion of lutent caloric ; and if it b» 3 THF. \R^llf»T ANI' briskly liniiimered for -some time on an anvil, it will hecohiC rod hot, by the action of this species of caloric, which by thd percussion of hammering is now evolved and forced out as sensible heat. Caloric pervades all bodies ; and this is not the Case with any other substance with which we are acquain- t.ed; It cohibihes with diHfereht substances, however, in very difierbiit proportions ; and for this reason onfe body is said to have a greater capacity for caloric than another. When ga- seous substances become liquid, or liquid substances solid, by this change of state, they lose in a great measure their capa- city for caloric. Dui'ng the slacking of quitk lime, the ca- loric which is involved escapes from thd water, in conse- quence of its changing from a liquid to a solid form, by its union with the lime. When solid bodies become liquid or gaseous, their capacity for caloric is projiortiotiably incrfcas* ed. If you place a glass of water in a iTiiXtur& Of equal quantities of snow and salt, during their conversion to a liquid, the water Will be frr. zen in consequence of parting with its caloric to supply the ihcfeaS(?d capacity of the mixture. The portion of caluric necessary to raise a body to any given tem- perature, is called specific caloric. The instrument in com- mon use for measuring the temperature of bodies, is called a thermometer. Fahrenheit's is generally used in the United States. Wheri a thdrnionreter is brought in contact with any substance-, X\rQ mercury expands or contracts till it acquires the same teiriperAUire ; and the height at which the mercury stands in the tube-, ittdicat^s tbc exact temperature of the sub- stance to which it has beien appliccl. It will not show the absolute caloric in substa'iVcoS ; for it cannot measure that por- tion which is latent, or ch'e'j^j'catly conibined with any body. Caloric is the cause of fluidity in all substances capable of becoming fluids-, from the heaviest metal to the lightest gas. It insinuates hself among their panicles and invariably sepa- rates them in some measure from each other. Thus ice is converted info water, and by a further portion of caloric into steam. We have reason to believe that every solid substance on the face of the earth might be converted to a fluid of a very high temperature iu peculiar circumstances. Some bod- ies giye out their superabundant caloric much sooner than others. Iron is a quicker conductor of caloric than glass, and glass than wood. If you take a piece of iroii in one hand, and a piece of wood in the other, the iron fCels cold, the wood tuadesman's guide. warmer, though I he thermomoler shows that their tempera- ture is the same. Substances usually become more dense by the loss of caloric ; but llie freezing of water is a striking ex- ception to this general law of nature, and is a memorable in- stance of the wisdom and provident caie of the Almighty, when he established the laws of the universe. Abstract caloric from steam until but 21*2 degrees remain, according to l-'ahrenheit's scale, and it will become water. Take away 180 de-^ grees more, leaving but 32, and it will become ice. All gases and liquids would become solida, if caloric were abstracted to a certain degree, till at length all things would become permanently solid as the oldest primi- tive rock?. Water requires but 212 degrees of heat for convertitig it into vapour : it has been mode to boil at 67 degrees, which is 31 below blood heat. Therefore it rP(iuires 145 degrees of heat to resist the pressure ot the atmosphere. From the following experiment we are taught, that combined caloric does not excite the sensation of heat, nor affect the thermometer : Put a piece of tinder in the end of the piston of a fire syringe, made of cotton cloth dipped in a very strong solution of salt petre. and well dried — force down the piston suddenly and the tin- der will take fire. Caloric was combined with the air in the syringe before it was compressed, which did not excite the sensation of heat nor inflame tlie tinder. There is so much caloric in the combination of air, water and other substances about us, that if it were capable of pro' ducing the ordinary effects of heat, the whole human family would be burned in a day. From the principle that caloric expands solids as well as gases, the variation in length of pendulums of clocks and balance wheels of watches, according to the varying temperature of the weather, causing them to run faster in cold and slower in hot weather, can he accounted for. That caloric expands liquids is clearly demonstrated by the facts, that spirits guage more in warm, and less in cold weather. The ex- periment may easily be tried by placing a barrel of rum in the sun, nearly full; if the thermometer ranges hiot will keep tea hot longer than a black one — a bright tip coffee pot will keep coffee hot longer than a jap- paned one. We are kept cooler in summer with light coloured clothes and warmer in winter, than with those which are dark coloured ; for our bodies being warmer than the air in cold weather, caloric passes out through our clothes, but the hot rays of the sun in summer pass through oar clothes inwardly. 10 THE ARTIST AND CHAPTER IV. Water — Solid or ice — Liquid or icater — Vtipour or Steam — - in a state of Solidity in Marble — in Crystals — in Spars — ■ in Gems — in Alkaline and lUetalic Salts — in Blortar — Ce- ments^— Plaster of Paris. Water is composed of 88 parts by weight of oxygen, and 12 of hydrogen in every 100 parts of the finid. It is found in four states, namely : solid, or ice ; liquid, or water ; vap- our, or steam ; and in a state of composition with other bod- ies. Its most simple state is that of ice, and the difference between liquid water or vapour and ice, is merely that the water contains a larger portion of caloric then ice, and that vapour is combined with still a greater quantity than water* However long we boil a fluid in an open vessel we cannot make it in the smallest degree hotter than its boiling point, for the vapour absorbs the caloric, and carries it ofl" as it is . produced. It is ov/ing to this that all evaporation produces cold. An animal might be frozen to death in tlic midst of summer by repeatedly sprinkling ether upon him, for its evap- oration would shortly carry off the whole of his vital heat. Water thrown on burning bodies acts in the same way — it becomes in an instant converted into vapour, and by thusdc* priving them of a large portion of their caloric, the fire, as wo term it, is extinguished. Vapour occupies a space eight hundred times greater than it does when in tlie form of water —and the expansive force of steam is found by experiment to be much greater than that of gun powder. There is no rea- son to disbelieve that in time, steam ma}' be applied to many useful purposes of v.hich we have no idea. Water is said to be in a state o{ composition with other bodies, because in many case^ it becomes one of their com- ponent parts. It is combined in a state of solidity in marble, in crystals, in rpars, in gems, and in many alkaline, earthly, and metallic salts, both natural and artificial, to all of which substances it imparts hardness, and to most of them transpar- ency. Near the poles water is always solid ; there, it is similar to the hardest rocks, and may be formed by the chisel of the statuary, like stone. It becomes still more solid in the composition called mortar, and in cements, having parted with more of its caloric in that combination than in the act of freezing. If you take some ground plaster of Paris, fresh 11 calcined, and mix it with a little water, tltc affiiiity of the plaster for .the water is so' great, that in a few minutes the whole will be converted to a solid. CHAPTER V. Earths and Alkalies — Silcx or pure Flint — Alumine — Lime — Potash and Soda-^ Ammonia — Argillaceous and Cal- careous Earth. Earths are such incombustible substances as are not duc- tile, are mostly insoluble in water or oil, and preserve their constitution in a strong heat. Psot withstanding the varied appearance of the earth under our feet, and the mountainous parts of the world, whose diversified strata present to our view substances of every texture and shade, the whole is com^ posed of only nine primitive earths ; and as three of these occur but seldom, the variety produced by the other six be- comes the more remarkable. One of the most valuable earths ■with which we are acquainted is silex or pure flint. It is the most durable article in the state of gravel for the formation of roads. It is a necessary ingredient in earthen ware, por- celain and cements ; it is the basis of glass, and of all nitrous substances. It is white, inodorous, and insipid, in its pure state, and the various colours which it assumes in different substance?, proceed from the diflerent ingredients with which it is mixed, Alumine obtained its name from its being the base of the salt called alum. It is distributed over the earth in the form of cljy, and on account of its aptitude for mould- ing into different forms and its property of hardening in the fire, is emplo3'ed for various useful purposes. In making earthen ware, a due })roportion both of silex and alumine are necessary ; for if alumine alone were used, the ware could not be sufficiently burnt without shrinking too much, and even cracking ; and a great excess of silex would lessen the tena- city and render the ware brittle. Lime is never found pure in nature; it is obtained by decomposing calcareous matters by the action of fire, which deprives them of their acid. In its pure state it is used in many of the arts. It is employed by the farmers as a manure ; and by bleachers, tanners, iron- masters and others in their several manufactures, and in me- dicine. The use of lir^e in agriculture may be attributed to its property of hastening the dissolution of all vegetable and animal matters, and of imparting to the soil a power of rer i.^ TtiE ARTIST AND tainiiig a quantity of moisture necessary for tlie nourishraent and vigorous growth of the plants. Magnesia, besides being the basis of several salts, is of great use in medicine ; and is employed by the manufacturers of enamels and porcelain. The alkalies are distinguished by an acrid and peculiar taste, they change the blue juices of vegetables to a green, and the yellow to a brown, and have the property of rendering oil miscible with water. Tliey form various salts by combina- tion with acids, act as powerful caustics, when applied to the flesh of animals, and are soluble in water. Potash and soda have been called fixed alkalies, because they will endure a great heat without being volatilized 5 and yet in a very high temperature they are dissipated in vapour. They are com- pounds of metallic substances, called potassium^ sodium and oxygen. They have various uses in surgery and medicine, and are employed in large quantities by the glassmaker, the dyerj the soapmaker^ the colourmaker, and by many other manufacturers^ Ammonia is so extremely volatile as to ex- liale at all known temperatures^ AVhen combined with car* bonic acid, it takes a concrete form, and a beautiful white colour, and is known in commerce by the name of volatile salts* With muriatic acid it forms what is termed sal am- monia, which is emplo3^ed in many of our manufactures, par- ticularly by dyers, to give a brightness to certain colours. In tinning metals it is of use to cleanse the surfaces, ajid prevent them from oxydizing b}^ the heat which is given to them in the operation. Ammonia is furnished from all animal sub- stances Ijy decomposition. The horns of cattle, especially those of deer, yield it in abundance, and it is from this cir- cumstance that a solution of ammonia in water has been termed hartshorn. Besides the nine earths above ennntcrated, ^ve have now thorina, which is a raw earthy substance lately di3cover(?d. A new alkali, call- ed lithia, has recently been discovered, which, like potash and soda, is found to be a metallic oxide ; its base is called lithium. Three new vegetable alkalies have also been discovered, called morphia, picrotox- ine, and vanqueline. Clay, as it exists in soils is commonly called ar- gillaceous carthsj and lime in soils is called calcareous earth, CHAPTER VI. Acids and salts — Sulphuric^ Carbonic, and Muriatic Acid — Crystalized Salts — Chalk — Limestone — 3Iarble — Plaster 'if Paris — Muriate of Lime — Magnesia and ^oda — Ni- :\ i'RADESMAN^a GUIDE. IS* irate of Pufash — Phosphate of Lime — Salt ^fountains. The name acid, in the language of chemists, has been given to all substances, whether liquids or solids, which produce that sensation on the tongue which we call sour. Most of the acids owe their origin to the combination of certain substances with oxygen ; and they have the property of changing the blue, green, and jnirple vegetables to red, and of combining with alkalies, earths, and metallic oxides, so as to compose he compounds termed saHs. The acids were formerly di- V'ded into three classes, mineral, vegetable, and animal ; but th? more useful and scientific way of dividing them, is into tw5 classes only. The undecomposible acids, and those wh'ch are formed with two principles, are comprised iu the first class ; while those acids which are formed with more than wo principles compose the second class. Sulphuric acid, rn coniwerce called oil of vitriol, is procured by burning sul- phur in ".ontact with some substance containing oxygen, and becomes iicidified. That peculiar acid which is called mu- riatic is usually obtained from muriate of soda, which is the <^heraical rame of common salt. Carbonic acid is a cojnbina- tlon of carbon and oxygon, formerly called fixed air, on ac- count of its being intimately combined in chalk, brimstone, aTid other sibstances. (See the article carbonic acid gas.) The numbei of acids that are well known amount to more dian forty, aad their uses are so many and important, that it is impossible to name them. They are indispensable to va- rious arts and manufactures ; they are employed for culinary purpos-es, and for medicine; they act an important part in t^ie great laboratory of nature, and form a great proportion of the mountainous districts of the globe in their various com- binations. The precise number of the salts is not known, fcut they probably amount to more than two thousand. The difterent salts are known from each other by the peculiar fi- gure -of their crystals, by their taste, and other distinctive or specific characters. Their crystalization is owing to the ab- straction of the beat or water by which they were displaced, Crystalized salts are liable to changes in their appearance by exposure to the atmosphere. Some have so great an affinity for water, that they absorb it with avidity from the atmos- phere, and thus becoming moist or liquid they are said to de- liquesce. Others having less affinity for water than atmos- pheric air has, lose their water of crystalization by exposure, / 14 THE AIITJST AN2> ' and readily fall into powder. Such salts are said to effloresce. Saiis have not onW the property of dissolving i>i water, but by exposure to great heat they will mylt ; and they require different degrees of heat to put them into a state of tusion, as well as different quantities of water for their solution. Many of the salts are to be found native, and the carbonates, sul- phates, and the muriates, are the most frequent. Chalk, lime- stone, and marble, are all included in the term carbonate of lime. Few salts are more copiously disseminated than the sulphate of lime, particularly in the city of Paris, and hencj its name, plaster of Paris. Of the native muriates, muriate of lime occurs with rock salt, and muriate of magnesia occ;jrs in abundance in sea water; and muriate of soda not only ex- ists in immense quantities in the ocean, but vast mountair.s in different parts of the world, are entirely formed of this salt. Kitrate of potash, known by the more familiar name o/ nitre or salt petre, is collected in various parts of the globe. Phos- phate of lime which is the basis of animal bones, exi its niiive in Hungary, and composes several entire mountainsJn Spain.^ Mountains of salt were probably formed- in very re/note ages, and by processes of which we can form no idea. It may be supposed, however, that the changes have been slow and gra- dual ; for several of the native salts exiiibit mar'ts of regula- rity and beauty in their crystaiization, which cajanot be imi- att^d by art. CHAPTER VII. Simple Comhust'ibles — lAght and Caloric — Hydrogen — Sulphur — Phosphorus — Carbon — Carburcitted Hydrogen — Accidents to iMiners — Curious Experiments — Cast Iron — Wrought Iron — Steel — Classijication oj' simple Bodies, Most of the simple substances are combi istible, or bear some relation to combustion. Light and caloric are evolved during combustion. Oxygen is the principal agent; and hydrogen, sulphur, phosphorus, carbon, and the metals are the subjects, or instruments of this process. Hydrogen gas maybe corhbined with water, sulphur, pho5;phurus or car- bon. When combined with phosphorus it forms ph osphur- etted hydrogen gas; which takes fire when it cojnes in con- tact with atmospheric air. The elastic subst;iiice calhid car- buretted hydrogen gas, is carbon dissolved in tiydrogen , it has also been called heavy inflammable air. I*i is this g aseous" compound which has occasioned so many dreadful accidents tradesman's guide. 15 to miners, who call it fire damp. It is procured from pi') coal by dry distillation, and from its imflammability and bril liant flame, it has been used for lighting streets, shops, manu- factories and light iiouses on the sea coast. The rate at which it is obtained is comparatively trifling compared with oil aud tallow. Phosphorus is a solid imflammable substance, which burns nt a very low tem.perature when in contact with oxygen gas or atmospheric air. Many amusing experiments can be per- formed with it ; but it must be handled with extreme caution. If you fix a piece of solid phosphorus in a quill, and write with it upon paper, the writing in a dark room will appear beautifully luminous. If the face or hands be rubbed with phosphuretted ether, they will appear in a dark place as though on fire, without danger or sensation of heat. Pure carbon is known only in the diamond ; but carbon in a state of charcoal may be procured by heating to redness a piece of wood closely covered with sand in a crucible, so as to pre- serve it while in the fire, and afterwards, v/hile cooling, from the action of the atmosphere. It is capable of forming va- rious combinations, but charcoal is that with which we are most familiar. Carbon is not only a component part, but it forms nearly the whole of the solid basis of all vegetables, from the most delicate flov/er in the garden, to the huge oak of the forest. It not only constitutes the basis of the woody fibre, but is a component part of sugar, and of all kinds of wax, oils, gums, and resins, and of these again how great is the variety ! It is imagined that most of the metals ma}' be combined with carbon ; but at present we know of only its combination with iron. In one proportion it forms cast-iron, in another steel, and in a third plumbago, generalh', thougl] improperly called black lead. There is no lead in its com- position. Cast iron contains about one forty-fifth of its weight of carbon. Steel is combined witii about one part of carbon in two hundred of iron, and ])lumbago, or carburet of iron, has been found to consist of nearly nine parts of carbon to one of iron. Wrought iron differs from cast iron, in being deprived of its carbon and oxygen, by continued heat and re- peated hammering, which renders the metal malleable. Steel is made of wrought iron, by various processes, whereby the metal resumes a small portion of the carbon, and acquires a capacity of receiving different degrees of hardness. The me- t^s are generally procured from beneath the surface of the 16 THE ARTIST AND earth, in a state of combination either with other metals, or •with sulphur, oxygen or acids; though a few of them have been found in a state of purity. Metals are the great agents by which we can examine the recesses of nature ; and their uses are so multiplied, that they have become of the greatest importance in every occupation of life. They are the instru- ments of all our improvements, of civilization itself, and are even subservient to the progress of the human mind towards perfection. They differ so much from each other, that na- ture seems to have had in view all the necessities of man, in order that she might suit every possible purpose his ingenuity- can invent or his wants require. We not only receive this great variety from the hand of nature, but these metals are rendered infinitely valuable by various oiher properties which they possess ; — by their combustibility, their solubility in fluids their combinations with various substances, and by their union with each other, whereby compound and alloys are formed, extremeW useful in a variety of arts, manufactures, and other requisites of life. By combining them with oxygen we can invest them with new properties, and are enabled to employ them to promote the progress of the fine arts, by imitating the master pieces of creation in the production of artificial salts, gems, and crystals, of every colour and of every shade. The following is an enunaeration cf the classification of the simple bodies in general. I. Comprehending the imponderable agents, Heat or Caloric, Light, and Electricity. II. Comprehending agents capable of uniting with inflammable bodies, and in most instances of effecting their combustion, — Oxygen, Chlorine, and Iodine. Many learned chemists have doubted wheiher chlorine and iodine were supporters of combus- tion, any further than they cont'-'in oxygen. They are classed among the simple bodies, because they have not as yet, been resolved into other iagredients. The name chlorine is simply expressive of its greenish col- our, and iodine of its violet colour. III. Comprehending bodies capuble of uniting with o.xygen, and forming with its various compounds, — 1. Hydrogen, forming water. 2. Bodies forming acids. Nitrogen, form- ing nitric acid. Sulphur, forming sulphuric acid, Phosphorus, forming phosphoric acid. Carbon, forming carbonic acid, Boron, forming boric acid. Fluorine, forming fluoric acid. 3 Metallic bodies which have been divided into the seven following clases. 1st. The metals which combine with oxygen and form alkalies. These are potassium, sodium and lithium. The volatile alkali ammonia lias been found by Sir Hum- prhey Davy to be a triple compound of nitrogen, hydrogen and oxygen. 2. Those metals which by combining with oxygen form the alkaline earths, viz. calcium, magnesium, borium and strontium. Calcium is the base of lime, magnesium of magnesia, and so on. The metallic sub- stances are of the colour of silver.'' 3. Those metals which by combin- ing with oxygen constitute the remainder of the earths. These ar^ TRADESMEN S GUIDE. ir siljcum, alumium, zirconium, jjlucinum, gitrium and thorinuin. These arc presumed metals ; for the earths, of whicli they are supposed .to constitute the bases, have been as yet but partially decomposed ; res- pecting some of them but liitle is known. 4t.h. The melals which ab- sorb oxyg-en and decompose water at a high temperature. These are iron, tin, zinc, cadmiuni and manganese. 5th. Tliose metals which ab- sorb oxygen at different temperatures, but do not decompose water at any teniperature. This class is composed of twelve distinct metals, viz. osmium, cerium, tellurium, lilanium, uranium, nickel, cobalt, copper, lead, antimony, bizmuth, and mercury. 6th. Those metals which do net decompose water, but absorb oxyo;en and thcrtsby conveit it into acids. These arc arsenic, qiolybdenum, tungsten, chromium, colum- bium and selenium. 7th. Tli.ose metals which do not decompose water, or absorb oxygen from the atmosphere at aay temperature. These are platina, gold, silver, palladium, rhodium arid iridium:. CHAPTER VIII. Otidcs and Combustion — Gas p'oducing pleasurable sensa- lions — Combustion defined — Interesting Experimcn ts — Jiefieciions. Any metal or coaibustible body^ which is combined with less oxygen than is sufficient to render it acid, is usually cal- led an oxide. Whenever a substance is converted into nh oxide, V'-e say it is oxydized. Tlie mineral, the animal, and vegetable kingdom all furnish matters which are convertible into oxides by an union with oxygen. Metallic oxides are formed in several ways, the chief of which are by theaccess of atmospheric air, by the decomposition of water, and by the decomposition of acids. Iron may be mentioned as a fami- liar example of metals becoming oxydized by atmospheric air* It is well known, that when this metal is exposed to air and moisture it acquires rust, or in other words, its surface is converted to an oxid.e^ in which statOj the metal will bo found to have acquired an increase of weight. Common red lead, which is a true oxide of lead, is made by melting* that metal in ovens so constracted as to have a free access to atmospheric air. Gol(], silver and platina, cannot be oxydized, unless in a very high temperature ; and with respect to other metals, they not only diiTer in their capacity for oxygen, but also in their attraction for it, so that one will often rob the other, tlius re^ cjcing the iirst oxide to its primitive metallic form, if you dissolve some quicksilver in nitric acid, and after dropping a little of the solution upon a bright piece of copper, gently rub it with apiece of cloth, the mercury will precipitate itself upon the copper, which \vill be completely silvered, W'*^ 18 THE ARTIST AND regard to oxide of nitrogen, the first degree of oxydizeraent produces nitrous oxide ; a further portion of oxygen, nitric oxide, and they are both in a state of gas. Nitrous oxide gas bears the nearest resembhince of any other to that of the at- mospheric air. It will support combustion even better than common air ; it is respirable for a short time, and it is absorb- ed by water. Persons who have inhaled this gas have felt sensations similar to that produced by intoxication. In some people it produces involuntary muscular motion, and a pro- pensity to leaping and running; in others involuntary fits of laughter; and in all high spirits, and the most exquisitely pleasurable sensations, without any subsequent feelinjrs of de- iDility. (It is readily procured by exposing crystals of nitrate of ammonia, in aietort, to the heat of a lamp, by which means the ammoniacal salt is decomposed, and this gas is evolved.) Combustion may be defined to be a process by which certain substances decompose oxygen gas, absorb its base, and suffer its caloric to escape in the state of sensible heat. The agency of oxygen in combustion is attributable to its affinitv for co m- bustiblo bodies. The combustible having a greater affinity to oxygen than the oxygen has to caloric, the oxygen gas is decomposed, and its oxygen combines with the ignited bod}', which is caloric, becoming free, is diffused among the sur- rounding bodies. Whenever we burn a combustible body, a continued stream of atmospheric air flows towards the fire place, to occupy the vacancy left by the air that has under- gone decoujposition, and which, in its turn, becomes decom- posed also. Hence a supply of caloric is furnished without intermission, till the whole of the combustible is saturated with oxygen. -As the combustible burns, light is disengaged, and the more subtile parts, v.ovv converted by caloric into gas, are dissipated in that state. When the combustion is over, nothing remains but the earthy parts of the combusti- ble, and that portion which is conv^'rted by the process, into an oxide or an acid, The sinoke which arises from a com- mon fire is chief]y v/ater in the state of vapour, with a mix- ture of carburetted hydrogen and bituminous substances ; part of the water comes fiom tiie moisture of the fuel; and the other part is formed during combustion, by the union of the hydrogen of the combustible vv^ith the oxygen of the atmos- phere. The agency of oxygen in combustion may be de- monstrated by placing a lighted candle under a glass vessel tradesman's GUI OB. 19 inverted upon a plate of water. It vill be seen that the candle will go out as soon as it has consumed all the oxygen con- tained in the included air, and that the \vater will rise up in the vessel to fjll the vacancy. In the decomposition of atmos- pheric air by combustion, it is natural to ask, what becomes of tlie nitrogen gas? As the oxygen becomes fixed in the combustible body, its caloric is disengaged, a part of which combines with ihe nitrooen, and cn.rrics it off in the form of rarified nitrogen gasp' When bodies are burnt, none of their principles are destroyed. We believe that every particle of ?5iatter is indestructible, and thgt the process of combustion jnerely decomposes the body, atid sets its several component parts at liberty, to separate from each other, to form otbor new and varied combinations. It was said of old, that the Creator ivcighed the dust and measured the waiter, when he made t'.ie world. The first quantity is here still ; and .though man can gather and scatter, move, mix and unmix, yet he can destroy nothing ; the dissulution of one thinjr is a prepa- ration for the being, and the bloom, and the beauty of an- other. Something gathers v>\i all the fragments, and nothing is lost. CHAPTER IX. Of the Gases — Experiments, useful and ejitcrtainmg — Vital Air — The cause of the vcriniUion colour of the Bloud^—t Gas so destructive of Life — The cause of Torrents of llain — Infiammahlc Air- — The Phenomena of Lights, such as arc seen on damp grounds, accounted for^— Fatal Accidents resulting from Carbonic Acid-r— Carbonated Waters, called Soda Waters — Death of Pliny, the Na- turalist — To change Vegetable Colours— Contagious Va- pours — To discharge Vegetable Colours — Burn Metals-^— Process of blecuching coloured Goods — To resemble the fling of Musket}'?/ — To produce luminous Appearances-i^ Brilliant Sparks — Phosphorus Bottles — Matches for in- stantaneous Light — Artificial Volcanoes. Oxygen Gas — Vital Air. Put a quantity of oxymuriate 'Of potash into a small glass retort, to which is adapted a bent tube to collect the gas, a,nd wiiich passes beneath a bell^lass .filled with water ; the retort is gradually heated ; the air in 'the apparatus is expelle'd, the salt melts, is decomposed, and ■'we obtain all the oxygen thai enters into the composition of 20 THE ARTIST AND chloric acid and the potash — tliere remains in the ietort a chlorulet of potassium. One hundred grains of the oxymu- riate, yields thirty-nine grains of oxvgen gas. The AtmosjjJicre, is composed of two distinct substances, termed oxygen and nitrogen gas. It is not a chemical com- pound , but a mere mixture of these gaseous substances in the proportion of 21 of the former and 79 of iiie latter. It con- tains, dso, about one part in every thousand of carbonic acid gas, a considerable portion of water in a slate of elastic va- pour, and several adventitious substances. Oxygen is an ele*- ment, or simple substance generally diffused through naturq, though like caloric it does "not exist byitself. It takes itt name from two Greek words, signifying that which produces or generates acids, because one of its general properties is \o form acids by combining with different substances, which are called the bases of the several acids. Its different combinar tions are essential to animal life and combustion. Acted upon or combined with caloric it becomes oxygen gas, wliich is dis- tinguished from all other gaseous matter by several important properties. Inflammable substances burn in it, under ti::e satne circumstances as in common air, but with vastly greater vividness. If a taper, the flame of which has been extin- guished, the wick only remaining ignited, be plunged into a bottle filled with it, the flame will instantly be rekindled, and be very brilliant, and accoirpanied by a crackling noise. If a steel wire, or thin file, having a sharp point, armed with a bit of wood in a state of inflammation be introduced into a jar filled with the gas, the steel will take fire, and its combus- tion will continue, producing a most brilliant phenomenon. Oxygen gas is a little heavier than atmospheric air, and from its being absolutelj^ necessary to the support of animal life, has been called vital air. Nitrogen Gas. Phosphorus is inflamed in a given quan- tity of air-T-this gives up all its oxygen and the nitrogen is set free. For this purpose we sor oii fire a sninll bit of phospho- rus, placed on a brick, which has been previously fixed oa the shelf of a pneumatic trough, and which ought to be sry elevated, that the phosphorus may be above the water in the: trough, and, of course, in contact with the air. As soon a? the phosphorus is inflamed, it should be covered with a large- bell-glass full of atmospheric air, which dips into the water of the trough--the phosphorus, now in contact with the air ot' TRADESMAN S GUIDE. 2t the vessel, robs it of all its oxygen, forms phosphoric acid, which we see under the appearance of a ver}' dense cloud, and a great amount of caloric and light is extricated ; the air dilated by the heat which is produced, partly escapes in large bubbles: at the expiration of one or two minutes, the phos- phorus goes out, and the process is terminated. The appa- ratus is left in the same situation, and the water is seen to rise in the bell-glass until this is cool ; the phosphoric acid is completely dissolved, and the interior of the apparatus, be- fore nebulous and very opaque, regains its transparency. The nitrogen gas, which remains above the water, ought to be shaken sometimes with that fluid to remove any phospho- ric acid it may retain, and particularly to decompose a por- tion of phosphuretted nitrogen gas which always is formed in the process, and which, thus agitated, abandons the phospho- rus. Very pure nitrogen gas can be obtained b}' passing a stream of chlorine gas through liquid ammonia inclosed in a bottle. Nitrogen is a substance diffused through nature, and parti- cularly in animal bodies. It is not to be found in a solid or liquid state ; but combined with caloric, it forms nitrogen, or as the French chemists call it on account of its being so des- tructive of life, azotic gasy in which no animal can breathe, or any comb'.istible burn. It is uninflammable and somewhat lighter than atmospheric air, and though by itself it is so noxi- ous to animals, it answers an important end, when mixed with oxygen gas in atmospheric air. Were it not for this large quantity of nitrogen in the atmosphere, the stimulating power of the oxygen would cause the blood to flow with too great rapidity through the vessels ; the consequence of which would be, that the life of man would not be protracted to the length it now is. The vermillion colour of the blood is owing to the inhalation of oxygen gas. When the dark purple blood of the veins arrives at the lungs, it imbibes the vital air of the atmosphere, which changes its dark colour to a brilliant red, rendering it the spur to the action of the heart and arteries, the source of animal heat, and the cause of sensibility, irrita- bility and motion. With regard to the nitrogen that is com- bined with atmospheric air, the greatest part of it is thrown out of the lungs at every respiration, and it rises above the head, that a fresh portion of air maybe taken in, and that the same air may not be repeatedlv breathed. The leaves of trees 22 THE ARTIST ANf> and o'ther vegetables give out during the day a large portion of oxygen gas, which, uniting with the nitrogen thrown off by animal respiration, keeps up the equilibrium, and preserves the purity of the atmosphere. In tiie dark, plants absorb oxygen, but the proportion is small compared to what they exhale by day. Hydrogen Gas. Put a quantity of filings of zinc into a vessel which has a glass tube adapted to it, and pour upon them sulphuric acid, (oil of vitriol) diluted with six or eight times the quantity of water — an effervescence will immedi- ately take place — the oxygen of it will immediately become united to the metal, and the hj'drogen gas will be disengaged, and may be conveyed by the glass tube into any proper re- ceiver. While it is rusliing ihrongh the tube, it may be kin- died with a taper, and it will burn with a long llame like a andle. Hydrogen gas is only one fourteenth the weight of atmos- pheric air, and occupies a space 1500 times greater than it possessed in its aqueous combination. It is continually emit- ting from vegetable and animal matter during their decay, and is evolved from various mines, volcanoes, and other na- tural sources. From its great levity it has been used to fdl air balloons. In the burning of the gas, the hydrogen unites with the oxygen of the atmosphere, and the result of the com- bination is flame and water. It has been supposed that tor- rents of rain, which generally accompany ihnnder storms may arise from a sudden combustion of hydrogen and oxygen gases by means of lightning. Hydrogen was the base of the gas which was formerly called inflammable air, and when in the aeriform state is the lightest of all ponderable things. Hydrogen gas is procured by decomposing water by the galvanic battery ; in this casQ it is extremely pure. It is also largely procured by decomposing the vapour of water made to pass over iron filings, or wire, in a gun barrel. Nitrous Oxide Gas. (See chapter vi.) Phosphuretted Hydrogen Gas. Take a tin quart ba- sin — make an inch hole through the bottom^have a tin quart decanter with straight sides, let the mouth be soldered to the under side of the basin, so that it may fit the hole in the basin — now introduce through the hole in the decanter, dry newly slacked lime, two parts mixed whhone part of dry pearlashes, occasionally pouring in a little cold water, just tradesman's guide. 23 sufficient for a tliiii paste, until it is nearly tilled to the bottom of the basin — drop in two inciies of a stick of phosphorus, cut into small pieces — stir the whole so as to mix all parts thoroughly — set the decanter part on coals, or suspend it over a lamp— raise a moderate heat : before the mass is to a boil- ing heat bubbles of the gas will appear in the neck and ex- plode ; — now fill the neck with water, and lay on the mouth a piece of lead about two inches in diameter with a hole in the centre about the size of a pipe stem. Fill up the basin with cold water, which must be occasionally changed, bj' dip- ping out when it becomes too warm. Bubbles of gas will rise to the top of the water, explode, Tind form an ascending corona or wreath, but they will sometimes spread over the surface, appearing very small. Break oft' the foot of a wine- glass and use it as a receiver for collecting and turning up large bubbles, and for transferring gases into a cistern. By this experiment we are furnisIvjcJ with an exhibition resembliu^ what is sometimes called Jack o'the lantern, frequently seen in damp grounds, whore animals are putrifjino;. Carbonic Aciu Gas. This is more destructive of life than any other, and it extinguishes liame instantaneously. — Water may be made by pressure, to absorb three limes its bulk of this gas, by which it acquiresan acidulous and not unpleasant taste. Soda water, cider, and other fermented liquors owe their briskness and sparkling to the pressure of this gas. Fatal accidents often happen from the burning of charcoal in chambers, for wherever charcoal is burned, this gas is.always formed. It so often occupies the bottom of wells that workmen ought not to venture into such places without previously letting down a lighted candle — if the can- dle burns they may enter it vv^ith safety; if not, a quantity of quicklime should be let down iii buckets, and gradually sprink- led with water. As the lime slacks it will absorb the gas, and the workmen ma\' afterwards descend in safety. Pulverize a piece of marble — put a wine-glass full into a retort — pour on it a gill of water — when it has soaked a min- ute, pour in slowly half a wine glass of sulphuric acid, diluted with about five times as much v/ater: the carbonic acid will come over in the state of gas, and can be collected in any recieiver placed on a shelf of the cistern. On this principle the carbonic acid for making acidulous waters, improperly called soda water, is obtained. Pass some of the gas into a decanter of pure cold water, u THE ARTIST AND and agitate it until the water and gas are well mixed; pour into a wiue-ohiss of it some of the blue infusion of led cab- bage, and it will become a very light red colour. The in- fusion ought rather to be greenish when put in, by having ad- ded to it an extremely small quantity of an alkali before it is used, otherwise the change in colour made by the acidulous vVater will hardly be perceived. Carbonated waters, called soda waters are made upon this principle. The waters, sold under the name of soda waters, as prepared gcuarally, con- tain both sulphurous acid and muriatic acid. Chalk is com- monly used which conlains generally a little cf the muriate of soda — this being decomposed, furnishes muriatic acid — it is impossible to avoid a little mixture of sulphuric acid, used in the process. To cleanse the gas from these deleteiious impurities, prepare the gas and force it through a condenser, containing a small quantity of water, before the water for use is introduced. Carbonated water, containing but about thrice its bulk of the gas, used with the syrups commonly employed makes an excellent table drink in hot weather. Sulphurous Acid Gas. Put into a glass retort, two parts of sulphuric acid, and one of rnercur}', and apply the heat of a lamp ; the mixture effervesces, and a gass issues from the beak of the retert, which may be received in glass jars filled with mercury, and standing in a mercurial trough. In this process, the mercury in the retort combines with the oxygen of the sulphuric acid ; and the sulphuric acid, having lost a certain portion of its oxygen, is converted into sulphurous acid. This gas is very abundant in the environs of volca- noes. It was the vapour of sulphurous acid which suffocated Pliny, the naturalist, in that eruption of Vesuvius by which Herculaneum was swallowed up, in the year of Christ, 79 — It is composed of 6S parts sulphur and 32 parts oxygen. Sulphurous acid gas is produced by the slow combustion of sulphur. If this gas be received in water the gas combines with it, and sulphurous acid will be the result. Water at 40*^ absorbs one third of its weight of sulphurous acid gas. Sulphurous acid possesses very slight acid properties. In- stead of changing vegetable blues to red, as acids generally , do, it invariably renders them white. Suspend a red rose within a glass jar, and in that situation expose it to the con- fined fumes of a brimstone match ; this will soon produce TllADESMAiN's GUIDE. 25 .1. eiiaiige in its colour, and ai lonsith the flower will becoiup jjuitc white. Muriatic Acid Gas. Pour one part of siilpliuric acid upon two parts of dry muriate of soda, in a turbulated retort, and collect the gas as it becomes disengaged, over mercury in a pneumatic apparatus* Or, take some of the muriatic acid of commerce, heat it in a glass retort", and it may be col- lected as in the preceding mctliod. Proceed as in the first experiment, but instead of collecting the gas over mercury, receive it in a vessel containing a small portion of water. By these means liquid muriatic acid will be formed. Take a small quantity of silver, or a piece of an ore containing silver, and digest it m some purijied nitric acid, which will dissolve the whole of the silver. A single drop of muriatic acid will sej)aiatc a portion of the silver in white flakes, which will fall to the bottom of the glass in an insoluble precipitate. Pro- ceed as in the last experiment, but instead of Using muriatic acid drop in a portion of common salt, wliich will as eflectu- ally precipitate the silver. By these means any ore may be tiivcsted of the silver it contains. T'o remove Contagious Vapours arising from the Beds of the Sick, Remove the sick and other persons from the room — set a tea-cup or gallipot on the floor, half filled with table salt — pour into it strong sulphuric acid, and the room will be filled with muriatic acid gas — after a ^ew minutes open the windows, and the ar of the room will be purified^ To Neutralize Animal EJfiuvia arising from the Beds of the Sick.^ Pour a tea-spoonful of muriatic acid upon a red hot iron shovel, and then pouring a wine-glass of water upon it — the acid will rise up in the state of a suffocating gas, and the water will follow it in \\w state of vapour and absorb it al- most instantaneously, so that the suflbcating gas will wholly disappear. CiiLORixE Gas. Put into a retort a little black oxide of manganese in powder, and pour upon it double its weight of strong muriatic acid, connect the retort with the pneumatic trough, and receive the gas over water, ^-^'hen the ascension "of the gas slackens, apply the heat of a lamp, and it will be disengaged in abundance. Its specific gravity is to that of hydrogen, nearly as 34 to 1. If a small quantity of liquid oxymuriatic is \r)Si7iveZ?/ electrified, and when less than its natural share, to bo negatively electrifif^d. When anj' electrified conductor is wholly surrounded by non- 3* 30 THE ARTfST A^'D conductors, so that tho electric fluid can not pass from k along conductors to the earth, it is said to be insulated. The human body is a good conductor of electricity ; but if a person stand on a cake of resin, or on a stool supported by glass legs, the electric fluid cannot pass from him to the earth, and if he is touched by another person standing on the ground, a sparkling appearance and noise will be exhibited. Two surfaces, both positively or both negatively electrihed, i'epel each other; and two substances, of which one is posi- tively and the ether negatively electrified, attract each other. Opposite electricities always accompany each other, for if any surface become positive, the surface with which it is rub- bed becomes negative ; and if any surface he rendered posi- tive, the nearest conducting surface will become negative. When one side of a conductor receives tiie electric fluid its whole surface is instantly pervaded ; but when an electric or non-conductor is presented to an electrific-d body, it becomes electrified on a small spot only. If to one side of a pane of glass you communicate positive electricity, the opposite side will become negatively electrified, and tlie plate is then said to be charged. These electricities cannot come together, unless a communication, by means of conductors, is made be- tween the sides of the glass; and if their union be made through the human body, it produces an. aflection of the nerves called an electric shock. As the excitation which is produ- ced by rubbing with the hand on a tube or plate of glass, is not only very laborious, but inadequate to ihe production of any material quantity of electric fluid, machines have been constructed of various forms for this pur[>ose. — Some of the experiments which may be made with an electrical machine are necessary for illustrating the laws of electricity, and oth- ers are merel}' entertaining. .If the inside of a glass tumbler be electrified by presenting it to a pointed wire, extending from the prime conductor, and then placed over a few pitch balls laid upon a table, the balls will immediately begin to leap up along the sides of the glass, and then back on the table ; . — they are attracted and repelled bj' the electrified inside sur- face of the glass, the electricity of which they gradually con- duct to the table. If a person having long hair, not tied up, be placed upon an insulated stand, and, by means of a chain, be connected with the prime conductor, when the machine is put ia motion, the hairs on his head, by repelling each other. TRADESMAN S GUIDE. 31 will stand out in a most surprising manner. A jjiece of sponge, filled with wator/and hung to the conductor, when electrified in a dark room, exhibits a most beautiful appearance. If a piece cf seeding wax be fastened to a wire, and the wire be fixed into the end of the conductor, and the wax lighted, the moment the machine is worked, the wax will fly off in the fi- nest threads imaginable. Take a two ounce phial, half full of olive oil, pass a slender wire through the cork, and let the end of it bo so bent as to touch the glass just below the sur- I face of the oil ; then place your thumb opposite to the point of the wire in the phial, and, if in that position, 3'ou take a spark from the charged conductor, the spark, in order to reach your thumb, will actually perforate the glass. In this way holes may be made all around the phial. Substai^ces should be warmed and experiments made when the wind is northerly, and the atmosphere dry, to produce the best efiect. By means of the Leyden Phial, a hundred persons may re- ceive a shock at the same instant, and electric fluid, on the same principle, might be conveyed many miles in a moment of time. The electric fluid may be made to appear in the form of a vivid flash, accompanied with a loud report, with this phial. But the greatc^st discovery that was ever made in electricity, was reserved for Dr. Franklin, of Philadelphia. Franklin brought tlie supposition that a similarity existed be- tween lightning and the electric fluid to the test, and proved the truth of it by means of a boy's kite covered with a silk haudkerchfef instead of paper, and some wire fastened in the npper part, which served to collect and conduct the fluid. When he raised this machine into the atmosphere, he drew electric fluid from tlie passing clouds, whicli descended through the flaxen string of the kite, as a conductor, and was after- wards drawn from an i; on key, which he tied to the line at a small distance from his hand ; from this experiment origina- ted the formation of a conductor to secure buildings from the effects of lightning. When aqueous vapour is condensed, the clouds formed are usually more or less electrical, and the earth belov/ them be- ing brought into an opposite state, a discharge takes place, when the clouds approach within a certain distance, constitu- ting lightning, and the collapsing of the air, which is rarified in the electric circuit, is the cause of the thunder, which is more or less intense, and of longer or shorter duration, ac- 32 THE ARTIST ANb cording to the quantity of the air acted upon, and the dis- tance of the place where the report is heard from the point of the discharge. Galvanism. Galvanism is another mode of exciting elec- tricity. In electricitj' ibe effects are chiefly produced by mechanical action, but the etiects of Galvanism are produced by the chemical action of bodies upon each other. When it was observed, that common electricity, even tiiat of light- ning, produced vivid convulsions in the limbs of recently kil- led animals, it was ascertained that metallic substances, by mere contact, under particular circumstances, excited similar cdmmotions. It was found essential that the forces of metals employed should be of different kinds. Apply one piece of metal to the nerve of the part, and the other to the muscle,- and afterwards connect the metals, either by bringing thenl together, or connecting them by an arch of metallic sub- stance ; every time this connexion is formed, a Convulsion takes place. The greatest muscular contractions are found to be produced by zinc, silver^ and gold. A person may be made sensible of this kind of electric action by the following experiments; If he places a piece of one metal, as a half crown above, and a piece of some other metal, as zinc, below his tongue, by bringing the outer edge of these pieces in con- tact, he will perceive a peculiar taste, and in the dark will see a flash of light. If he puts a slip of tin foil upon the ball of one of his e3^ps, and a piece of silver in his mouth, by causing these pieces to communicate, in a dark plate a faint flash will appear before his eyes. Galvahi supposed that the virtues of this new agent resided in the nerves of the animal,- but Volta sliowed that the phenomena did not depend on the organs of the animal, but upon the electrical agency of the metals, which is excited by the moisture of the animal, whose organs were only a delicate test of the presence of electric influence. The conductors of the galvanic fluid are divided into the perfect, which consist of mctalic substances and char- coal, and imperfect, which are water and oxydated fluids, as the acids, and all the substances that contain these fluids. To" render the Galvanic, or more properly, the \ oltaic power sensible, the combination must consist of three conductors of the different classes. When two of the three conductors are of the first class, the combination is said to be of the first or- der; when otherwise, it is said to be of the second order. If [ TRADE S MAIS S GUIDE. 33 ' , . . a piece of zinc be laid upon a piece of flannel, moisted with a solution of salt water, a circle of the first class is formed ; and then, if three other pieces be laid on these in the same order, and repeated several times, the whole will form a pile or battery of the first order. T^e effects may be increased to any degree by a repetition of the same simple combina- tion. The following is a cheap rnd easy method of con- structing a Voltaic pile. Cast 20 or 30 pieces of zinc, of the size of a cent; take as many cents and as many pieces of paper or woollen cloth cut in tlie same shape, and d'p in a solution of salt and water. In building the pile, place a piece of zinc, then wet paper, the superabundant water being pressed out, after which the copper; then zinc, paper, and copper, and so on, until the whole is finished. The sides of the pile may be sunporied with rods of glass, or varnished wood fixed in the board on which it is built. Having wet both hands, touch the lower part of*the pile with one hand, and the up- per part with the other, constant little shocks of electricity will be felt until one hand be removed. If the hand be brought back, a similar repetition of shocks will be experi" rnced. Hold a silver spoon in one hand, and touch with it the battery in the lower part, then touch the upper part with the tongue ; the bitter taste is extreme. If the end of the spoon bo put under the eyebrow, close to the ball of the ej^e, a sensation will be felt like the burning of red hot iron, but which ceases the instant the spoon is removed. The plates will soon become oxydated, and require cleaning in order to aiiakc them act. CHAPTER XI. Z-ight — Bodies rejlectlvg light — Colours changed hy the ap- plication of the laws of chemical ^ Peroxide of Tin used for various purposes — Important Mordant for Dyihg- — To resemble the irregular discharge of Musketry — Powder — To detect the Carbonate of Lime — Clay unfit for Pottery — Alkaline Salts- — To purify Meat — Sal Ammonia — Double elective Affinity. Glauber Salts. Put a tea spoonful of table salt into a wine glass, which has been previously dried on a plate ; pour upon it a tea spoonful of sulphuric acid. Muriatic gas will escape into the atmosphere, and glauber salts will be formed in the wine glass. By this experiment elective affinity is il- lustrated. Put some sulphuric acid into a tumbler, diluted with six times as much water ; drop in some carbonate of soda until effervescence ceases; and the nauseous taste of glauber salts •16 rilK ARTIST AXb will be recogtiizod. By slow cviiporaiion jt miy be crvs- talized. Silver Boiling Powde.r. V/hite argol, common salt, of each a sufficicier.t quantity ; a small quantity of this powder is put into water, and plate is boiled in it, to which it gives u brilliant brightness. Borax. Common borax. dissolved in about sixteen times its bulk of hot water in a gallipot ; then ponr into it nearly half its weight of sulphuric acid ; stir it on fjot coals five or six minutes, then set it by to cool. Decomposition takes place ; sulpliate of soda is formed, which remHiris in solution : the boracic acid is disengaged, and appears as shining solid scales; pour offthe.solution and rinse the scales several times in cold water : each time wait for them to separate from the water ; when well washed, they are nearly tasteless. Now dissolve some of the scales in alcohol on an earthen plate ; set the alcohol on fire with a lighted roll of pnpcr ; as it burns the sides off, the flame will be tinged with a beautiful green. The salt wliicli this acid forms in combustion wilh soda is mucl) used in bronzing, under the name of borax. It briijcps brass to the liquid state, vvljen thrown upon it at a temperature considerably lower than • Is fusing point. .Epsom Baits, Put sulphuric acid into a tumbler, diluted wilh about six times as much watei t drop in carbonate of magnesia until effervescence ceases; tlius cpsom salts are formed in solution. Pure Silex Powder. Heat a gun fiint red liGt and throw it into cold water in order to render it brittle ; pulverize it very fine and mhs the pov.'der with about five times its bulk ofpearlash, melt the mixture, and keep it in a state effusion fifteen minutes : now dissolve it in two or three times its bulk of water ; pour in diluted sulphuric acid^ a little at a time, as long as it continues to canse a precipitation. After it stands a little while to settle, pour oft the liqjiid part, and wash or rinse the precipitate in hot water several times, until the water poured off is tasteless. This substance is the principal ingrndicntin gun flints, rock crystals, cornelian, &c. On this principle glass is manufactured. Oxydated Tin. Put some tin in an iron ladle and heat it no higher than to melt it ; the surface will immediately ab- sorb oxv;gen from the atmosphere, sufficient to form the pro- ioxid of tin, called the yellow oxide. This may be scraped tradesman's guide. 2T oft* with an iron poker, when another similar pellicle will be formed ; and the succession may be continued until the whele mass is an oxide. If the protoxid of tin be put into a crucible, heated to red- ness, and continually stirred with an iron rod for some time, it will absorb another definite proportion of oxygen. It then becomes peroxid of tin^ called the white oxide,"or putty of tin. The white oxide of tin is an excellent material for sharpen- ing edge tools, as knives, razors, &c. — for polishing burn- ishers, glass lenses, &c. When melted with glass it forms the white enamel used for clock and watch faces, &.c. Acetate, of Alumine, Dissolve equal parts of alum and sugar of lead in water, in separate wine glasses, and mix these solutions. The acids exchange ba«;es ; and the sulphate of lead falls down while the acetate of alumine remains over it in a liquid sfate. This liquid may be poured off for use. It is an important mordant much used in dying-, and it is manufac- tured in this way by caUeo printers. Ezplos'we Powder. Scatter some thin shavings of phos- phorus over the bottom of a broad iron mortar; sprinkle crystals of oxymuriate of potash among them. ISow, putting a leather glove upon the hand, rub the iron pestle smartly around among the shavings and the phosphorus, and a suc- cession of explosions will be made, resembling the irregular ilischarge of musketry. Al! explosive powders are indebted for their powers to the same prin- eiple. Gun powder is composed of 75 per cent, of nitrate of potash, 15 per cent, of charcoal, and 10 per cent, of sulphur. Lime. Put a little potter's clay paste into a crucible, and heat it it in the forge as high as white heat of iron : now pour it out upon a brick on a table, and it will be perceived that it is not melted ; mix some of the same kind of clay inti- mately wilh about an equal quantity of pulverized marble or chalk, and heat it again as hot as before ; pour it out and the whole mass will spread on the brick in the state of melted cinder. On this principle potters reject all clay which contains lime. When clay contains a very small per centum of carbonate of lime, it would be sufficient to cause a kiln of potter's ware to melt. Tiie carbonate of lime can always be detected by pouring a few drops of diluted mu- riatic acid. Ever so small a quantity of lime will caues an effervescence and prove the mass to be clay-marl, unfit for pottery. 38 T {IE ARTIST AKt< Alkaline Salts. Dissolve in separate wine glasses a iittk' cop|)8ras, blue' vitriol, ^vlifte vitriol and sugar of lead ; pour into each a small quaiitity of the solutions of either potash,, soda, or ammorna, and the metallic oxide of the salt will be precipitated, and an alkaline salt formed in each glass. This pnaoiple is ofmuch use in the manufacture of trrticles used ir* medicine and the artS; as will be evident by attending the daily business of the laboratory ^^ - .Liver of SuljjJiur. Take some dry pearlash, and half as iiiuch sulphur, mix them and rub them well together: melt them in a crucible, covered wit!i another. As soon as mel- ted it must be poured out, and corked up tight in a phial ta prevent its deliquencing. Sulphuretted hydrogen gas may he- made with this equally as well as the sulphate of iron. Magnesia^ is found pure, or merely combined with water :; sometimes it fonns one of th-e constituents of 4he soap stone or talcose rocks, of asbestos, and some other minerals. It.i» <]fenera]l3^ obtained from seii watet;V after it is separated from the common salt: it exists in the state of a muriate and sul- f)hate in sea water, from which it is obtained by mixing witli it a solution of common pearhrsh. A double decomposition; takes place ; and while the sulphate of potash remains in sol- ution, the carbonate of magnesia fails down. This is the car- btDnated, or white magnesia of the shops. Valcined 3Iagnesia. Drop diluted sulphuric acid upon carbonate of magnesia of the shops, and it will eflervesce vio- lently ; that is, a bubbling will be c;uised by the escape of carbonic acid in the state of gas : put a little of the same car- bonate of magnesia into a crucible, and keep it about the white heat of iron hfteen minutes : now after it caols, drop on it diluted sulphuric acid, and it will scarcely eflervesce because- the carbonic acid is driven out. If a little of it be dissolved in water it will give the alkaline test with red cabbage, much, stronger than before heating. It is difficult to drive ofFall the carbonic acid by heat, ro that no cf- fervscenco can be produced by the application of sulphuric acid. Tooth Powder. Heat finely pulverized charcoal to red- ness in an iron skillet, and pouring it while hot into a bowl of clean water, is the best of all substances to preserve the teeth from decay, aft^er it has commenced. If kept in a bottle, it will remain under water, defended from gases, and if shaken np and a tea spoonful taken occasionally in the mouth, and the \Ciiih ruhhcd witii it, evevy thing impure will be absorbed* Putrid meat will become purilied by immersing it in a simikr mari- Mer: putrid water is purified by pouring into it heated charcoal powder. 2. Rad. irid, fior. four ounces ; oss, sepicC, two ounces; crcni. tart, one ounce ; ol. caryoph. sixteen drops ; lake 16 orops. 3. Cateciiu, one ounce; cort, peruv. flav., crem. tart, cassia^ l)ol. armen., of each 4 drachms; sang, dracon. myrrh, of each two (irachms. 4. Rose pink, 20 ounces; bol. armen. oss. sepise, crem. tart, of each 8 ounces; tiij^rrh 4 ounces ; rad. irid. ilor. 2 ounces; ess. bergam. half a drachm. 5. Oss. sepice, four ounces ; crem. tart. rad. irid. fior of (eacli two ounces ; alum, ustri, rose pink, of each one ounce. 6. Magnesia, rad. irid. floj., rose pink, cretse ppse, of «aclK two ounces : natr. ppi, six dracJims ; oi. rhodii, tv/o ^rops. {.ringer' B^er Powders. White sugar^ one drachm two :&cruples ; ginger^ five grains ; natn pp, twenty-six grains in «ac1i blue paper : acid of tartar^ one scruple and -a. half in «ach white pa])er. These quctntities are for half a pint of water. Spruce Beer Powders. White sugar, 1 drachm 2 scruples; 2iatr. pp. 26 grains; essence of spruce, 10 grains, in each blue paper, acid of tartar ,!ialf a drachm in each while paper; for %alf a pint of water. Soda, Powders. Carbonate of soda, half a draclim in each i>lue paper : acid of tartar, twenty-five grains, in each white paper; for half a pint of v/ater — a very pleasant and cooling Leverage in summer : sugar, if desirable, may be added to the paper containing the acid of tartar. Portable Lemonade. Acid oftarlar, one ounce ; sugar, •six ounces; essence of lemon, one drachm: rub together, divide into twenty-four papers, for a tumbler of water each. Copperas^ Sulphate of Iron. Put diluted sulphuric acid into a Florence flask, consisting of about five times as much water as acid. Apply a v«ry little heat, so as rather to warm t-han heat the acid. Drop in iron filings uiitil they will fall to the bottom quietly ; pour ofi the limpid liquid into earthen plates. Tills is copperas in solution; and by a slow evapor- ation it may be crystallized. On this principle the copperas i,4 comracrcQ is manuhi.ctured ; but the process is different. 40 t*llE ARtiSt A5?]^ Iron pyrites is moistened and exposed to the atmospfjcre a considerable time in a shallow vat or box ; after it becomes covered with a crust it is dissolved in water or leached, and evaporated,. Blue Vitriol, Boil copper filings in sulphuric acid, and the salt will be formed in the liquid state * this may be eyap* Orated in the usual way. On this principle the blue vitriol of the shops is made, though the operation is not similar ; the native sulphuret i» heated and exposed to air and moisture, and thereby the per- oxide is obtained ; then the salt is readily formed by pour- ing sulphuric acid upon it, Oxt/muriatc of Potash. Mix common salt three pounds, manganese two pounds, and add oil of vitrei two pounds, pre- viously diluted with a sufficient quantity of water, distil into a receiver containing prepared kali, six ounces : dissolved in water, three pounds: when the distillation is finished, evap- orate the liquid in the receiver slowly in the dark ; the oxy- muriate will crystallize first in flakes ; stimulant, from one to two grains ; explodes when struck, or dropped into acid. Salt of SorreL From the leaves of wood sorrel bruised and expressed ; the juice is then left to settle, poured off clear, and crystallized by slow evaporation ; one hundred weight of wood sorrel yields five or six ounces. 2. By dropping aqua kali into a saturated solution of ox- alic acid in water, it will precipitate, and may be separated by filtration, if too much alkali is added, it is taken uo, and will require an addition of the acid to throw it down again ; cooling — -used to make lemonade, and whey, as also salt of lemons. Amtnonia, Ammonia is serviceable rn dying, and in stain- ing ivory ; but its principal use is in making the murrate of ammonia, of which it is the bases. It is formed by combin- ing ammonia with muriatic acid. It is known in commerce by the uame of Sal Ammoniac. Convey some muriatic acid gas into a glass jar containing a portion of aramoniacal gas. From the mixture of these two invisible gases a solid substance will be produced ; viz. lhe common sal ammoniac. Sal ammoniac is used by some dyers in what they call com- position, to prevent the tin from precipitating. In tinning metals it is of use to cleanse the surfaces, and to prevent them iTiADESMAN^S GUIUE. 4i from oxydiziiig by tlie heat which is given to them in the op- oraiion. It is also employed ia the uss^y of metals, to disco- -vor the presence of iron. ' Aiiimoniacal gas maybe procured by heating strong liquid anunonia; this gas^ will be disenga- ged in abundance. On account of its jiffiuity for water, it K3ust be received oyer mercury, when it is intended to exhibit it in i\^ state of gas. Pour a little caustic- ammonia into a cUar solution of sulphate of zinc. Tills will precipitate the metal in a white powder. If the pliial be now shaken, the zinc will bo immediately re-dissolved, thus servhig as a test to distinguish zinc from iron and various metals. Drop as much nitrate of copper into vv'ater as will form a colourless solution ; then add a little ammonia, equally colourless, and an intense blue color v» ill arise i\'om the mixture. Take the blue solution formed by the last experiment, add a little sul- phuric acid, and the color will disappear ; pour in a little so- lution of caustic ammonia, and the blue colour will be resto- red. Thus ma^' the liquor be alternately changed at pleas- ure. Dissolve some oxFde of cobalt iri caustic ammonia ; tiiis v^'ili produce a red solution, different in color from that of all otijer metallic solutions. 1. Double elective a^niiy. Take about four parts of rau- nate of lime, and . five parts of sulphate. of soda, weighing l-iiem after being v/ell dried over coals, on plates. Dissolvo tliem in water separately, Np'f/ mix them in a wiu.e-glass, and a prccipitaJje of lime (sfvpsum) will soon setile at the bot- tom, and a solution of the muriate of soda will stand over it. On testing the new compounds with red 'cabbage, they will be.=foand to be neutral salts, exhibiti-ng neither the acid or al- kaline, tejt. On tasting the liquid, it w;lL be found a solution of table salt. Corrosive sablimate of ihe shops is madeupoii this principle, by sul« phtite of mercury, and muriate of soda. Dr. V/allaston constructed a scale, by which the artist of cliemlst can at sight determine what proportions of any com- pounds are required for decomposing each other wiihout loss. For example, Vf a given quantity of sulphuric acid and muri- atic a'cid would require three times as nmch potash as nlu- mine for saturation : though all these acids would ditio'- ■■ iiach other in [he absolute quantity required. 2. Put into two wine-glasses, half a spoonful of muiiatic «-4 4t THE ARTIST AN© acid to each ; weigh two equal parcels of carbonate of soda, about a teaspoouful to each glass. Drop the carbonate of so- da from each parcel into its respective glass, till effervescence ceases. Now weigh what remains of each parcel, and they will be found equal. Try the two liquids with tasting rods, (pine sticks are as good for the purpose as tasting rods,) and the taste of common table salt will be recognized. From this experiment will be learned that the law of definite propor- tions, is of great importance in the arts. It regulates the uni- formity of compound bodies, and prevents the evils which might arise from carelessness or mistake in the manufacture of many articles. For example, in the manufacture of cop- peras, 36 parts of protoxyde of iron will unite with precisely 40 parts of sulphuric acid. And in the manufacture of white vitriol, 42 parts of oxide of zinc will unite with 40 parts of sulphuric acid. These are the uniform proportions in the dry state, and each take ^3-parts of water for crystallization. 3. Mix alcohol and water, or sulphuric acid and water. The qualities and sensible proportions of both these liquids will remain unchanged, being diffused among the water, there will be less of them in a given measure, but they will remain unchanged. Thus, by affinity, some substances unite in in- definite proportions, and their properties and sensible quali- ties are not changed, CHAPTER Xni. Simple Affihiiy-^^Soaps — Pomades. ltd make ^ddp. Melt a little common potash in an iron ladle, then put into it small bits of fresh meat and woollen ragS) and boil them in a short time. The rags and meat will be dissolved and soap formed. On this principle soap is made by boiling any animal substance with lye. It requires very strong lye, or rather potash, to convert rags and some other animal substances into soap. White Soap. Into half a wineglass of water, pour a tea- spoonful of olive oil— no combination takes place— drop in a piece of pearlash of the size of half a pigeon's egg : let it dissolve and stir the mixture, which effects a chemical com- bination, and produces white soap. This experiment illustrates simple affinity. Tj^^fr ''n a clean tin basin, good soft soap, tradesman's guide. 43 until dissolved, with d soft by a little water, conti4rnal{y ruhbiho- the mass in a luor- tar — determent, used when alkalies would be prejadiciaj. Shaving Liquid — Shnving Oil. Sap. Moll, four pouiids; spirits of wine rectified five pints. Essence Roy ale pour fair la harhe. Sap. cast, eight oz.^ proof spirits one pint. . Pomade dc la jeunesse. Pop.ratiim niixed with pearl wliite, or niagestery of bismuth, turns tlie hair black. Pomade Divine. One pound eight ounces of beef's mar- row ; cinnamon, one ounce and a half; stor. calnm. bonzoi- ni, rad.'irid flor. of each onco ounce; caryoph. nuc. m3"rist. of oach one drachm. ^. Sevi, ovilii, one pound ei'jlit ounces ; stor. calrim, hon- 2:>>itii-, rad. irid. l-or., rad cj/pr-M'i, cinnaiu,- caryoph; arom. f)uc. rnosch., of each niiie drachms ; lieep melted in a gentle heat for some time, then strain. •3. Sevi. ovilii four pounds ; cera alb. fuie pound ; ess^ bergam. ess. lemon, of each ono ounce a:; J a half; ol. lav- end., ol. origani, of each four drachms. CHAPTER aIV. The infucnce of Premiums in Scotland -and Ireland— Ba* lance of Trade in favour of Great Britain-^ Middle and Eastern States. It is well undc/rsfocd that arllncers, or artisan?, or mecha- nics, are those who carry ori any iuechanical trade ; thattliey are very numerous in all great trading coar.tries ; still, per- haps, their importance, in socieiy is not generally considered by those, "wlio move (in what is said to he) a njorO exalted sphere ol life ; or more likely, by those who fatter themselres that they have been cast in finer moulds. It is not expected, that this essay will be very pdeasing to theursie oi' those gen-- ilemcn, who me;isure tholr consequence eitiicr by their ca.sh or garb; but we hope it v/:ll contribute in some measi\re to ])roduce a hotter feeling tow'ards so imp6rta,nt a class of conj- munitv, the mechanics, and lead all to examine, if they aro not alloyed with move human vanity tban ordinarily becomes them. As things are constituted at present among the trad- ing countries (f^the world, those whicli subsist upon their na- tural productions, or merely by barteiing or exchanging such tradeSxMEn's guide. - ^ Commoclilies, for those of other countries, have never distin- guished themselves as a tradintr people. The Indians in North America, as well as the Negroes in Africa, are plain instances of the fact. If the Chinese were deprived of their useful artificers, (or, if you please, manufacturers, for, they may as reasonably be called the one as the other, though cus- tom among us has made a distinction,) they would very pro- bably degenerate into the like savage dispositions with the wildest Africans, or American Indians. And this we pre- sume, also, might be the case with the people of the United States. It is the arts which keep the mass of people in use- ful action, and which keep their minds also on useful inven- tion, beneficial to the whole community; consequently, this is the grand preservative against that barbarism, brutality and a slothfulness in trade, which ever attend an indolent and in- active stupidity. The due cultivation of practical manual arts in a nation, has a greater tendency to polish, and humanize mankind, than mere speculative science, however refined and sublime it may be ; and these arts are not only the most na- turally adapted to the bulk of the people, but by giving real existence to their ideas, by their practical inventions, improve their minds more sensibly and feelingly, than any ideal con- templation could do, which ma> have no other being, but in the mind of the speculator. Moreover, it is observable, that those who are fruitful in useful inventions and discoveries, in the practical mechanical arts, are men, not onl}' of the great- est utility, but possess an understanding, which should be most highly estimated. Whether this may be attributed to the constant exercise oi" their intellectual faculties in those things which they see and feel, may deserve the consideration of those who contemplate on the most natural way of improv- ing the mind; The delicate mechanism of a watch, by those great artists, a Graham, or an Ellicot, demonstrate the utility of such arti- sans to a trading country, as their workmanship has been ad- I mired throughout the civilized world. It is the same by other artificers who excel in their peculiar branch. This not only brings credit and honour, but treasures into a nation, in pro- portion as they are stocked with such celebrated mechanics or artificers. An English writer says, " nothing is more ob- vious than that the commerce and navigation of the nation, principally depends on the daily iinprovcmont made by our 4G THE ARTIST AND artificers, in the infinite and amazing variety in our mcclianlc and manufactural arts ; whoreiore, artists, who strike out^new inventions, or who improve the old njecljanics and niannfac- ttjres, are deserving of sonje regard and encouragenieiit, more than they acquire to themselves, by dint of their own pecu- liar profession only." Experience has manifested the ex- traordinary effect of those small rewards given in Scotland and Irelaitd, for the improvement of their manufactures ; though it is not always the cafee, that piemiums operate so powerfully, as the n}otive of emulation ; for that credit and r-eputation, which attends a man's excelling in his employ- ment, has, sometincs, a far greater influence upon the indus- trious and ingenious mind, than pecuniar\'^ rewards only. Yet these are not to he neglected in trading countries ; as it is most coramonly the case, ti)at new inventions or iuiprove-i ments, made by one for the benefit of trade, are soon enjoy- ed equally by all ; the inventors, very rarely, being able to preserve the beiiefit to tiiemselves, scarcely long enough, to recompense for the time and expense they have generally been obliged to bestow upon tiiem. If it was fashionable for persons of leisure to devote a pro-^ portion of tlieir rural retirements to practical or experimental philosophy, it might not only prove a salubrious bodily exer- cise to them, but a great benefit and advantage to our arti- ficers in general, and consequently to the general trade and tarftic of the country. The mechanic inventions are improved by others, besides the common artificers themselves. Tins will undeniable ap-. pear, if we will be convinced by instances ; for it is evident, that various manufactures have been given us by men, who were not bred up in trades that .resembled those which they discovered. The admirable art of composing letters, so fjar from being started by a man of learning, was the device of a soldier ; and powder, to make recompense, was invented by a monk, whose course of life was most averse from hand- ling the materials of war. The ancient Tyrian purple was brought to light by a fisher ; and if ever it can be recovered, it is likely to be done by some such accident. The scarlet of the moderns is a very beautiful colour, and it was the pro- duction of a chomist and not of a dyer. The warmth and vigour which attend new discoveries, is seldom confined to its ^ivfl sphere : but is generally extended to the ornaipent of its tiIadksman's guide. 47 iiciglibour. The ordinary method in which this happens, is the introduction of new arts. It is true, indeed, the increase of tradesmen is an injury to others that are bred up in parti- cular trades, if they are enabled to supply all demands in their various branches ; but there can never be too great a surplus of trades. Tiiat country is still the richest, and most power- ful, which produces and employs the greatest number of arti- ficers and manufucturers. The hands of men employed, are true riches ; the saving of those hands by invention of arts, and applying them to other works, will increase those riches. Where this is done, there will never a sufficient subject for, profit be wanting ; for^ if there is not vent for the productions at home, a market will be opened abroad. Tims, in tliose districts where com- merce and manufactures do not flourish to any degree, exchange is against them, and in favour of those places, where they are more extended ; hence welearn the balance of trade is against ns, and in favour of Great Britain ; but we need not cross the Ailantic to maintain oar position, for the argument is appli- cable to the western and southern in favour of the middle and New-England states; to those who negotiate in bills of ex- change, this subject cannot be new. Vv^here the ways of life are few, ih.e fountains of proik w-ll bo possessed by few ; whence it is raa-nifest that poverty among a people is caused l)y a small number, not by having a multitude engaged in a variety of trades. An English writer asserts, that, " by the increase of artificers and manufacturers, all things will bo dearer, because more must be maintained ; for the liigh rate of things is an argument of the flourishing, and tlie cheapness, ; of the scarcity of money, and ill-peopling of all countries. ■ The first is a sign of many inhabitants, which is true great- ness, the second is only a fit subject for poets to describe, and to compare to their golden age; for, where all things are without price or value, they will be without arts, or empire, or strength." From the sentiments of this zealous promoter of the useful art«, for the benefit of commerce, it is evident that he makes the prosperity of a trading nation to consist in the multiplying of tlie number of new trades ; that Js to sny, in multiplying the different species of mechanics, artificers and manufacture! s ; it is for want of this, that all the old ways Iof gain become overstocked, and then people complain for y/ani of trade, when the" true cause is owing to the want 48 THE ARTIST AND art, or to the want of the invention of a number of new trades, and new arts, in proportion to the increase of population, and in proportion as other rival states strike into the like trades and arts, with similar advantages. Finally, if our labourers are as diligent as our lawgivers, we shall prove the most la- bourious, if not the most wealthy nation under heaven. But the true nieihodof increasing industry, and improvement, and wealth, and respectability, is that which was recommended by the Royal Society of London, " by works and endeavours, and not by the prescriptions of words, or pajjer com- mands.^'' CHAPTER XV. Mineralogy — characters of Minerals — classification of Min- erals — Salt Springs — Platina — Gold — Silver — Mercury Copper — Lead — Iron — Tin — Zinc Manganese — Anti- mony — Arsenic, MINERALOGY. The whole science of mineralogy has been created since the year 1770. All the solid materials of which this globe of ours is composed have received the name of minerals. But it is only very lately that the method of ascertaining the com- ponent parts of these suhstances was discovered, or that it was possible to describe them so as to be intelligible to oth- ers. Nothing at first appears easier to describe than a min- eral, but in reality it is attended with a great deal of difficul- ty. The properties of minerals must be describeJ in terms rigidly accurate, which convey precise ideas of the very pro- perties intended, and of no other. The smallest deviation would lead to confusion and uncertainty. Mineralogy there- fore must have a language of its own, that is to say, it must have a term to denote every mineralogical property, and each of these terms must be accurately defined. The language of mineralogy was invented by the celebrated Werner, of Fry- burg, and first made known to the world by the publication of his treatise on the External Characters of Minerals. The object of this philosopher was to invent a method of descri- bing minerals with such precision, that every species could readily be recognized by those who were unacquainted with the terms cmplo3X'd. For this purpose, it was necessary to make use of those properties only, winch presented them- selves to our senses on inspecting the mineral. These wore tradesmen's guide. 49 called by Werner, external characters, because llicy may be ascertained without destroying the mineral examined. These constitute the first division of the characters of minerals. To the second belong those which are derived from a chemical composition, or discovered by any chemical change which tiie mineral sufiers ; to the third, are refered those properties which are afforded by certain physical characters, derived from circumstances frequently observed with regard to a min- eral, as to the place where it is found, or the minerals by which it is usually accompanied. Werner divides the external characters of minerals into two kinds, viz. general and particular. The general characters are the following : 1. Colour. 2. Cohesion. 2. Unctuos- ity. 4. ^Coldness. 5. Weight. 6. Smell. 7. Taste. — The particular characters are : 1. Asjject of surface. 2. As- pect of the fracture. 3. Aspect of the distinct concretions. 4. General aspect. 5. Hardness. 6. Tenacity. 7. Fran- gibility. 8. Flexib'lity. 9. Adhesion to the tongue. 10. sound. Genera! Characters. 1, Tlie colours of minerals are ex- tremely various. Werner conceives eight fundamental col- ours, and describes all the rest as compounds of various pro- portions of these, The fundamental colours are, 1. Snow white. 2. Ash Grey. 3.' Velvet black. 4. Berlin or Pru- sian blue. 5. Emerald green. 6. Lemon yellow. 7. Car- mine red. 8. Cl;esnut brown. H. With respect to coJie- sion, minerals are either, solid, friable, or fiuid. III. With \ Q?.pect lo imctuosif}/, minernh are distinguished into greasy and meagre ; the first have a certain degree of greasiness in feeling ; the second not. The other four general characters require no particular description. Particular CJiaractcrs. I. In the aspect of the surface of the mineral, tin-ee things claim attention. 1. The shape of the mineral. 2. The kind of sMr/<7Cf. 3. The lustre o^ the surface, which is eitlier splendent, shining, glistening, glim- mering, or dull. II. When a mineral is broken, the. new surface exposed is called the fracture. Three things claim attention: 1. The lustre of the fracture. 2. The kind of fracture. 3. The shape of the fragments. III. Distinct co7?crc?ions are, distinct masses, which may be separated from each other, without breaking through the solid part of the mineral, by natural scams. Three particulars in respect to 50 THE AUTIST AND them are, 1 Their shape. 2. Their surface. S. Their lustre. IV. Under the head of general aspect, three parti- culars are comprehended. 1. The transpurenry. 2. The streak. 3. Tlie soiling, or stain left '.vheii rubbed. V. Min erals arc either, 1. Hard. 2. Semi-hard, or 3. Soft. VI. With respect to tenacity, minerals are, 1. BrittU, when on being cut with a knife the particles fl}'^ away with a noise. 2. i^ectile, when the particles do not fly otf but remain. 3. Ductile^ when the mineral can be cut into slices. VII. By frangibility is meant the resistance which minerals make when we attempt to break them. The degrees are five, 1. Very tough. 2. Tough. 3. Moderately tough. 4. Fra- gile. 5. Very fragile. YIH. With respect Xo flexibility, some are, 1. Elastic. Others, 2. Common. Othe«s, 3. /«-' flexible. IX. Sonie minerals <7^y//ere to the tongue,!. Very strongly. 2. Others, moderately. 3. Others, slightly. 4. And others, very slightly. X. iSome minerals give a ringing sound, others a grating sound, and others a creaking sound, as tin. With respect to electricity, some minerals become electric wiien heated, others when rubbed, others cannot b& renderofl electric. The electricity of some \s positive, of oth- ers negative. CLASSTFf CATION OF jMIXERALS. Minerals are usually arranged under four classes ; earth}'' saline, inflammable and metalic. The earthy contain all such as derive their qualities'fro'm the earths; and they are divided into genera, according to the particular earth, which pre- dominates in each, or more properly into families, according to their reseniblance, in external characters, as the diamond family, the ruby family, tale family, and others. The dia- mond, of which there is only a single species, is the hardest and most beautiful of all the mineral productions. When heated to the temperature of melting copper, and exposed to a current of air, it is gradually but completely combustible. It is wholly converted into carbonic acid, and therefore con- sists of pure carbon. By means of diamond power, this sub- stance can be cut and polished on a wheel, in the same way as orher gems are wrought by emery. It is manufactured by jewellers into brilliants and rose diamonds; employed by glaziers for tutting glass, by lapidaries for cutting and engra- ving on the hardest gems, and in the tiner kinds of clock Avork tuadesiMAn's guide. 51 The rubv family is composed of sev.en species. They are all extremely hard, and several of them highly valued on ac- count of their beauty. The saline minerals comprehend all the combinations of alkalies with acids, which exist in the mineral kingdom; such as ^alt petre or nitrate of potash, common rock salt, or muriate of soda, and sal ammoniac, or the muriate of ammonia. The salt springs in some parts of the United States, owe their origin to beds of fossil salt. The rain water which pen- etrates to tlieir surface, effects the solution of a certain por- tion of them, with which it comes in contact, and thus be- comes in some cases, it is said, ten times salter than the water of the sea. The iiijlammable minerals, comprehend all com- bustible bodies, except metals and the diamond, and include sulphur, resins, bitumens, and graphite. Among the bitumen are found the several varieties of mineral coal, that are used for fuel, gas lights, 4'c. The metalic minerals comprehend all the mineral bodies that are composed either entirely of metals, or of whicli me- tals constitute tlie most considerable and important part. It is from the minerals of this class that all metals are extracted. The ores are found in a native state, either simple, consisting of only one substance, or compound, \vhen composed of two or more substances. Of the metals, the first is piatlna, which is the heaviest. Platina is found among the gold ores of South America^ in the form of small grains or scales. Its colour is between steel grey and silver white, and its ductility and malleability is very great. Gold is never found in a min- eralized state, but it occurs native in many parts of the world generally allov'ed with a little silver or copper, and common-' ly in the form of grains. It is the heaviest metal of all me- tals except platina, and although its tenacity is such that a wire of one tenth of an inch in diameter, will support a weight of five hundred pounds without breaking, yet it pos- sesses less tenacity than iron, copper, platina or silver. It is ductile and malleable beyond any known limits. The gold beaters extend it by hammering a number of thin rolled plates between skins or animal membranes, upon blocks of marble fixed in wooden frames. A grain of gold has been extended to more than forty two square inches of leaf, and an ounce, wl.ich in the form of a cube, is not half an inch either higii, broad, or long, is beaten undor the hammer int-o a sur- 52 THE ARTIST AND face of 146 1-2 square ieet. There are gold leaves, not thicker in some parts, than the three hundred and sixty thou- sandth part of an inch ; but on wire used hy lace makers it is still thinner. An ingot of silver, usually about thirty pounds weight, is rounded into an inch and a half in diameter, and 22 inches long. Two ounces of gold leaf are sufficient to cover this cylinder, and frequently effected with a little more than one. The ingot is repeated drawn through the holes of several irons, each smaller than the other, till it becomes finer - than a hair ; and yet the gold covers it, and does not leave the minutest part of the silver bare, even to the microscope. It has been calculated that it would take 14 millions of filings of gold, such as are on some gilt wire, to make up the thick- ness of one inch. The ductility of it is such, that one ounce is sufifiicient to gild a silver wire more than thirteen hundred miles long. Gold niay be dissolved in nitro-muriatic acid and it thus becomes muriate of gold, which is obtained in small crystals, and is very soluble in water. If white satin ribbon, or silk, be moistened with a diluted solution of gold, and, while moist exposed to hydrogen, or sulpb.uiic acid gas, the metal will be immediately reduced and the silk become gilt with a re- gular coat of gold. The potters dissolve gold to be applied to the common porcelain ; and it is used in a state of solution for staining ivory and ornamental feathers. Jt gives a beau- tiful purple red ; even marble may be stained with it. SUve?', is the most brilliant of metals. You may know when silver is pure, by heating it in a common fire, or in the; flame of a candle; if it is alloyed it will become tarnished but if it be pure silver, it will remain perfectly white. It is exceedingly ductile, of great malleability and tenacit3\ Of the salts of silver, the nitrate is best known, and when melted and run into moulds, it forms the lunar caustic of the apothecar}^ Mejxurif, in the temperature of our atmosphere, is a white fluid metal, having the appearance of melted silver. When submitted to a sufficient degree of cold it is similar in appear- ance to other metals, and may be beaten into plates; at the poles it would probably be always solid. The quicksilver mine of Guanea Velica, in Peru, is 170 fathoms in circumference, and 480 deep. In this profound abyss are seen streets, squares and a chapel : thousands of 55 flambeaux are continually burning to enlighten it. Those who work in the mine are generally afflicted with convulsions. Notwithstanding this the unfortunate victims of insatiaVjle avarice are crowded together, and plunged naked into these abysses. Tyrann\- has invented this refinement in cruelt}^ to render it impossible for an}' thing to escape its restless vi- gilance. Copper, is the most ductile of all the metals except gold. The salts of copper are numerous and much used in the arts connected with chemistry. All the salts are poisonous ; there- forOj great care should be taken noc to taste wantonly the solutions^ Lead, is malleable and ductile, but possesses very litle ten- aeityi It may be mixed with gold and silver in a moderate heat; but when the heat is much increased, the lead rises to the surface, combined with all heterogeneous matters. The ore of lead is so poisonous, that the steam arising from the furnaces where it is worked, infects the grass, in all the neighboring places, and kills the animals whicli feed on it. Culinary vessels, lined with a mixture of tin and lead, which is the usual tinning, are apt to communicate to acid food, per- riicious qualities, and require to he used with great caution.- The same may be said of liquors, and other acid substances kept in glazed ware, and of wines adulterated with litharge,- and such other preparations of lead as are sometimes used,' for the purpose of rendering them sweet. Iron, If utility were made the standard of estimation,- iron would hold the first place in the class of n)etals, and* would be counted more valuable than gold, as it appears in- dispensabl}' necessary to the carrying on of every manufac- ture. There has never been an instance of a nation, ac- quainted with tlie an of manufacturing iron, which did not lit time attain to a degree of civilization, greatly be3'Ond the in- habitants of those countries where this metal was wanting, or its use unknown. It is plentifully and universaily diiTusecl throughout nature, pervading almost every things and is the" chief cause of colour in earths and stones. It may be detect- ed in plants and animal fluids. Tin, must have been known very early, as it is mentioned b}' Homer, and also in the books of Moses. Tin enters into combination with many of the metals, and forms alloys with them, some of which are of grca- importance. It is not very 5* 54 THE ARTIST ^N© ductile, but so nialloable, that it mn}^ be beaten into leaves thinner than paper. Tin foil, as it is usually termed, is about one thousandth part of anincii tliick. It is employed to give brightness to several articles ; used in forming reds and scar- lets. Substances which produced to the ancients only faint and fleeting colours, give us such as are brilliant and durable, by the use of a solution of this metal. Zinc, is one of the most abundant metals in nature, except iron. It is used in China for the current coin, and for that purpose it is employed in its utmost parity. Until recently it was used in Wales for mending roads. When zinc is heat- ed, it readily attracts ox3'gen ; and at a white heat the absorb- tioii of oxygen is so rapid and violent, that the oxide imme- diately sublimes, and for this reason it has acquired the name of flowers of zinc. Combined with copper and tin, the mix- tures constitute some of the most useful compound metals. It is used in medicine, is the hasp of- white vitriol, and its carbo- nate or oxide may be advantageousl}^ substituted for while lead in painting. JFanganesc. is a brilliant metal, of a darkish v/hite colour, inclining to grey, of considerable hardness, and of diflicult fusibility. When exposed to the air it absorbs oxyocn with rapidity, and falls into powder. Its oxides are used in pre- paring the bleaching liquor, in purifying glass, and in glazing black earthen ware. By the application of a red heat the black oxide produces oxygen gas in great abundance. Antimony^ is a brilliant, brittle metal, of a silvery colour, which has not much tenacity, and entirely destitute of duc- tility. It is wholly volatilized by heat ; is susceptible of vit rification. Its oxides are employed in medicine, and in col- ouring glass. Arsenic, is generally found in combinatio.n with sulphur, ox3'gen and many of the metals. Its colour is bluish, or greenish white, becoming on exposure to the air, dark, almost black ; it is extremely brittle, and the softest of all metals ; and is one of the most active of mineral poisons. Beautiful shades of diflerent colours may be given to different substances b}"- solutions of arsenic ; so that the substances which are most injurious to the animal economy, appear to be endowed with properties for embellishing the works of creation, and by im- parting colour to other bodies, is niade to minister in various Wovs to our crrsiificHiior!. How diversified are the means which the Creator iias adopted for the promotion of his bou- evolf;i:t designs ! CHAPTER XVI. The cert of assaying Grcs — Fluxes — in the humid way — in the soft icay — by cupellation — to assay plated metals — par' ting of gold and silver — by aqua fortis — by cementation — * dry parting — to determine the qualify of gold — to obtain siluer pure from alloy — iveight of metals — specific grav- ity of bodies. Before metallic ores are worked in the large way, we sliould know what sort of metal, and what portion of it, is to be found in a determined quaniity of the ore, in order to as- certain whether it will be profitable to extract largely, and in what manner the process is to be performed. Tlie assaying may be performed in the dr}' or moist way; the first is the most ancient, and in many respects the most advantageous, and consequently continues to be mostly used. Assays are made either in crucibles with the blast of tiie bellows, or in tests, under a muffle. The assay weigiits are always imaginary. Sometimes an ounce repre- senis an hundred weight on tiie large scale, and is subdivided in the same, number of parts, as that hundred weight is in the great; so that the contents of the ore obtained by the assa}', shall accurately determine by such relative proportions, the quantity to be expected from any weiglit of the ore on a larger scale. In the lotting of the ore, care should be taken to have small portions, from different specimens, which should be pulverized and well mixed in an iron or brass mortar. The proper quantity of the ore is now taken, and if it contains ei- ther sulphur or arsenic, it is put into a crucible or test and exposed to a moderate degree of heat, till no vapour arises from it ; to assist this volatilization, some add a small quan- tity of powdered charcoal. Fluxes. To assist the fusion of the ores, and to convert the extraneous matters connected with them into scoria, as- sayers use different kinds of fluxes. The most usual and ef- ficacious materials for the composition are borax* tartar, ni-i> tre, sal ammoniac, common salt, glass, flour-spar, eharcoal powder, pitch, lime, litharge, <^'c. in difTcrent proportions. Crude of White Flux. This consists of one part of nilr© and two of tartar, well mixed. 56 THE ARTIST ANC Black Flux. The above crude flux detonates by means of kindled charcoal ; and if it be effected in a mortar slightly covered, the smoke that rises unites with the alkalized nitre und the tartnr, and renders it black. Cornish Reducing Flux. Ten ounces of tartar, three oz. and six drachms of nitre, three ounces and one drachm of bo- rax ; well mixed. Cornish Refining Flux. Deftlagrate, then pulverize, two parts of nitre, and one part of tartar. In working at large^ such expensive means cannot be ap- plied to effect our purpose, as the inferior metals would be too much enhanced in value ; consequently, where the object is the production of metals in the great way, in smelting works, cheaper additions are used ; such as lime stone, felted- spar, flour-spar, cpjartz, sand, slate, and slugs, which are to be chosen according to the different views of the operator. The iron ores on account of the argillaceous earth they con- tain, require calcareous additions, and the copper ones, ra- ther slugs, or vitresccnt stones, than calcareous earth. Humid assay of 3Ietallic Ores. The mode of assaying ores for their particular metals by the dry wa}', is deficient, so far as i elates to pointing out the different substances con- nected with them, because they are always destroyed by the process for obtaining the assay metal. The assay by the moist way is more correct, because the different substances can be accurately ascertained. The late celebrated Bergman first communicated this method. It depends upon a knowl- edge of the chemical aflinities of different bodies for each other ; an^l must be varied according to the nature of the ore — it is very extensive in its application, and requires great patience and address in its execution. To describe the treat- ment of each variety of msiallic ores would take too much of our room ; but to give a general idea, we shall describe the procedure, both in the dry and humid way, on one species of all the different ores. To assay Iron ores. No. 1. The ore must be roasted till the vapour ceases to rise. Take two assay quintals of it, and triturate them with one of flour-spar; three-fourths of a quintal of powilered charco^il, and four quintals decrepitated sea-salt ; this mixture is to be put into a crucible, and the crucible itself exposed to a violent fire for an hour, and when it is cool, broken. If the o[)eration be well conducted, the tradesman's guide. 57 iron will be found at the bottom of the crucible, to which must be added those metallic particles, which may adhere to the scoria. The metallic particles so adhering may be sepa- rated by pulveriziug it in a paper, and then attracting them with a magnet. No. 2. If the ore should be in a calciform state, mixed with earths, the roasting of it previous to assaying, if not det- rimental,' is at least superfluous ; if the earths should be of the argillaceous and silicious kind, to half a quintal of them, add of dry quicklime and flour-spar, of each one-fourth of a quintal, reduced to powder, and mix them with one-fourth of a quintal of powdered charcoal, covering the whole with one ounce of decrepitated common salt ; and expose the luted crucible to a strong forge fire for an hour and a quarter, then let it gradually cool, and let the regulus be struck oft' and weighed. If the ore contain calcareous earth there will be no occasion to add quicklime ; the preparations of the ingre- dients may be as follows : viz. one assay quinial of ore, one of decrepidated sea-salt, one half of powdered charcoal ; and one of flour-spar, and the process conducted as above. There is a great difference in the reguli of iron ; when the cold reg-. ulus is struck witli a hammer, and breaks, the iron is called cold short; when struck red hot, it is called red short, but if it resist the hammer, both in its cold and ignited state, it is good iron. Humid assay of Iron Ore. To assay the calciform ores, which do not contain much earthy or stony matter, they must be^reduced to a fine powder ; dissolved in marine acid, and precipitated with the Prussian alkali, A determinate quan- tity of the alkali must be previously tried, to ascertain the portion of iron which it will precipitate, and the estimate made accordingly. If the iron contains a considerable por- tion of zinc or manganese, the precipitate must be calcined to redness, and the calx of the zinc; when this is separated, the calx should again be treated either with nitrous acid, with the addition of sugar, or with the acetous acid, which will dissolve the manganese, if any ; the renriining calx of iron may then be dissolved by the marine acid, and precipitated by the mineral alkali, or it may be further calcined, and then w^eighed. Zinc Ores. Take the assay weight of roasted ore, and mix it well with one-eighth part of charcoal dust, put it into a strong luted earthen retort, to which must be fitted a recei^ 58 THE ARTIST AND ver ; place the retort in a furnace and raise the fire, and con- tinue it in a violent heat tor two hours ; then cool gradually, and the zinc will be found hanging to the neck of tlie retort in its metallic form. In the hvmid way. D'stil vitiii lie acid over calamine to dryness the lesidiuni must be lixiviated in hot water; what remains utidissolved is silicious earths ; to the solution udd caustic volatile alkali, which precipitates the iron and argil, but keep the zinc in solut.on. The precipitr.te mn^t be re- dissolved in vitriolic acid, and the iron and argil separated. Tin Ores. Mix a quintal of tin ore, previously washed and pulverized, roast till no arsenical vapours arise, with half a quintal of calcined borax, and the same quantity of 'pitch, pu[Aerized ;• put the whole into a crucible moistened with charcoal dust and water, and the crucible placed in an air furnace. After the pitch is burnt, give a violent heat for a quarter of an hour; and on wiihdrawing the crucible, the regulus will be found at the bottom. If the ore be not well washed from earthy matters, a larger quan- tity of borax will be requisite, with some powdered glass; and if the ore contains iron, some alkaline saliS may be added. In the humid way. Let the tin ore be well separated from its stony matrix, by well washing, and reduced to the most snbtile powder ; digest in concentrated oil of vitriol, in a strcmg heat for several hours; when cooled, add a small por- tion of concentrated marine acid, and let it stand one or two hours ; then add water; and when the solution is clear, pour it off and precipitate it by fixed alkali. One hundred grains of this precipitate, well wished and dried, are equivalent to one hundred of tin in its regnline state, if the precipitate consists of [)ure tin ; bul if it contain copper or iron, it must be calcined in a red heat for an hour, and then digested in nitrous acid, which w ill take up the copper ; and afterwards m marine acid, which will separate the iron. Lead Ores. As most of the leads ores contain either sul- phur or arsenic, tlu>y should be well roasted. Take a quintal of roasted ore, and the same quantity of calcined borax; half a quintal of five powdered glass ; a quarter of a quintal of pitch, and asniu".!! clear iron filin.frs. Line the crucible with wet charcoal dust, and put the mixture into the crucible ; place it before the bellows of a forge fire. When it is red hot, raise the fire for twenty minutes, withdraw the crucible; when cold, break it. TnAUESJrAN ."« OllDE. ' 59 hi the humid way.. Dissolve tho ore by boiling it in dilu- ted nitrous acid ; the sulphur, insoluble stony parts, and calx of iron will remain. The iron may be separated by digestion in caustic fixed alUali. The nitrous solution contains the lead and silver, which should be precipitated by the mineral fixed alkali, and the precipitate well washed in cold water, dried, and weighed. Digest it in caustic volatile alkali, which will take up the calx of silver ; the residuum being again dried and weighed, gives the proportion of the calx of lead, 132 grains of wiiich, are equal to 100 of leid in its metallic state. The diilerence of weight before and after the application of the volatile alkali, gives the quantity of silver ; 129 grains of which are equal to 100 of silver in the metallic state. Copper Ores. Take an exact ounce troy of the ore pre- viously pulverized, and calcine it well; stir it all the time wiih an iron rod, without removing it from the crucible : after the calcination add an equal quantity of borax ; half the quantity of fusible glass, one-fourih tlie quantity of pilch, and a little charcoal dust ; rub the inner surface of the crucible with a paste composed of charcoal dust, a little fine powdered clay and water ; cover tiie mass with common salt, and put a lid on the crucible, which place in a furnace; raise the fire grad- ; uall}', till it burns briskly, and the crucible kept in it for half an hour ; stir the metal often with an iron rod , and when the scoria adhering to tho rod appears clear, take the crucible out and suffer it to cool,*whcn it must be broken, and the re- gulus separted and weighed ; this is called black copper, to refine which, equal parts of common salt and nitre are to be well mixed together. The black copper is brought into fusion, and a teaspoonful of flux is thrown on it, which repeat three or four times ; then pour the metal into an ingot mould, and tho button is found to be fine copper. In the humid icay. Make a solution of viti-eous copper ore, in fice times its weight of concentrated vitreous acid, and boil it to dryness ; add as miich water as will dissolve the vitriol thus formed ; to this solution pdd a clean bar of iron, which will precipiifite the whole of the copper in its metallic form. If the solution be contaminated with ir(m,the copper must be redissolved in the same Uianne ,and precipitated again. The sulphur may be separated by filtration. Bismuth Ores. Jf it be mi?ierali:^ed by sulphur, or sulphur and iron, a previons roasting will be necessar}'. The stngro Cv) THE ARTIST Ai\r> ores require no roasting only to be reduced to fine po^vden Take the assay weight and mix it with half the quantity of calcined borax, and the same. of pounded glass ; line the cru- cible with charcoal ; melt it as quickly as possible; when vv'ell done, take out the crucible, and let it cool gradually. The regulus will be found at the bottom. In the humid way. Bismuth is easily soluble in nitrous acid, or aqua-regia. The solution is colourless, and is pre- cipitable by the addition of pure water; 118 grains of the precipitate from nitrous acid, well washed and dried, are equal to 100 of bismuth in its metallic form. -Antimonial Ores. Bore a number of small holes in the bottom of a small crucible, place it in another, a size larger. Jute them well together ; then put the proper quantity of ore in small iunijigjn the upper crucible, lute thereon a cover ; place the-fk;^^eli^n a hearth ; surround them with stones six inches distZnt'*^ll with ashes the intermediate space, that the under crucible may be. covered with them ; but upon the upper, charcoal must be laid : the whole made red hot by the assistance of the hand bellows. The antitnony runs thro' the holes of the upper vessel, being easy effusion, into the other, where it is collected. Humid assay of arseniated antimony. Dissolved the ore in aqua-regia, botli the regulus and the arsenic remain in solu- tion ; the sulphur is separated by filtration. If the solution be boiled with twice its v/eight of strong nitrous acid ; the regulus of antimony will be precipitated, and the arsenic con- verted into an acid, which may be obtained by evaporation to drj^ness. Manganese Ore. To obtain the regulus, mix the calx or ore of manganese with pitch, made into a ball ; put it into a crucible, lined with powdered charcoal, one-tenth of an inch on the sides, and one-fourth at the bottom ; then fill the empty space with charcoal dust; cover the crucible with another in- verted and luted on, and expose it to the strongest heat of a forge for an hour or more. In the humid loay. Roast the ore well to dephlogistigate the calx of manganese and iron, if anv, and then treat with nitrous acid to dissolve the earths. Treat the residuum with nitrous acid and sugar, when a colorless solution of manganese is procured, and also of the iron, if any. Precipitate with Prussian alkali, digest the precipitate in pure water; the Prus- tradesman's guide. w 6i smle of manganese will be dissolved, whilst the Prussiate of iron will remain undissolved. Arsenical Ores. Made by sublimation in close vessels. Beat the ore into small pieces ; put them into a matrass, which place in a sand pot, with a proper degree of heat ; the arsenic sublimes, and adheres to the upper part of the vessel; collect it carefully, and ascertain its weight. A single subli- mation will not be sufficient ; sometimes, as in many cases, the arsenic will melt Vvith the ore, and prevent its total vola- tilization ; in which case, perform the first sublimation with a moderate heat; than bruise the remainder again, and expose it to a strong heat. In the humid way. Digest the ore in marine acid, add the nitrous by degrees, to help the solution. The sulphur will be found on the filter; the arsenic will remain in the solution, and ma}'^ be precipitated in its metallic form by zinc, adding spirits of wine to the solution. Nickel Ore. Roast the ores well, to expel the sulphur and arsenic ; the greener the calx proves during this torrefaction, the more it abounds in the nickel ; but the redder it is, the more iron it contains. Fuse in an open crucible, a proper quantity, with twice or thrice its weight of black flux, the whole covered with common salt. Expose the crucible to the strongest heat of a forge fire ; make the fusion complete, and it will produce a regulus, though not pure. It contains a portion of arsenic, cobalt, and iron. Deprive the first by fresh calcination, adding powdered charcoal ; the second, by scorlfication but it is difficult to free it entirely from iron. In the humid way. By solution in nitrous acid, it is freed from its sulphur ; and by adding water to the solution, bis- muth, if any, may be precipitated ; silver, also, if contained in it, by the marine acid ; and copper, when any, by iron. To separate cobalt from nickel, when the cobalt is in considerable quantity, drop a saturated solulion of the roasted ore in nitrous acid into liquid volatile alkali ; the cobaltic part is instantly redissclved, and as- sumes a garnet colonr, when filtered, a grey powder remains on the fil- ter, which is the nickel. The cobalt may be precipitated from the Volatile alkali, by any acid. Cobalt Ores. Free them as much as possible from earthy matters, by washinir, and from sulphur and arsenic by roj^sting, AVhen prepared mix the ore with three parts of black flux. and a little decrepitated sea salt ; put the mixture in a lined iyl TUE ARTIST AN© crucible, cover ii, an tated after a short time. Wash the powder several times; and put a little liquid ammonia into the water for the lirst washings. Now melt down the powder into a solid mass, which will be pure silver. Silver coin is alloyed with copperas 12 13 to 1. Weight of metals. Phitina is twenty-three times heavier than water. Gold, nineteen; silver, eleven; quicksilver, fourteen; copper, nine; iron, eight; tin, seven ; lead, eleven; nickel, nine ; zinc, seven. Method of ascertaining the specific gravity of bodies. — The instrument generally used for obtaining the specific gra- vities, is called the hydrostatical b-ilance; it does not differ much from the common balance. The way to find the speci- fic gravity of a solid heavier than water, as a piece of metal is this: weigh the body first in air, in the usual way, then v^eigli it when it is plunged in water, and observe how much it loses of its weight in this fluid, and dividing the former weight by the loss sustained, the quotient is the specific jrravity of the body, compared with that of water. A piece of gold may be tried by weighing it first in air, and then in water, and, if up- on dividing the weight in air, by the loss in water, the quo- tient comes to be about seventeen, the gold is good ; if eigh- teen, or nearly nineteen^ the gold is very fine ; if loss than seventeen, it is too much alloyed with other metal. The same principle is universal. Hence we see the reason why boats or other vessels float on water; they sink just so low, that the weight of the vessel, with its contents, is equal to the quantity of water which it displaces. The mothod of ascertaining the specific gravity of bodies, was disco- vered by Arehimedes. Hiero, king of Sicily, having; given a workman a quantity of pure gold, to make a crown, suspected tliat the artist had kept part of the goid, and adulterated the crown with a base m«'tal. The king applies to Archimedes, to discover the fraud. The philoso-- pher long studied in vain, but at length he accide i»ally Jiit upon a method of verifying the king's sn5,nicion. Going one day into a bath, he took notice that trie water rose in the bath, and immediately reflec- ted that any body ot equal bulk with himself, would have raised the iV*ter just as miich : thougi) a body of ecjual weight, but not of equal TltAOEdfMAN'H iiVlBtl. 71 bulk, would not raise it so much. From this idea he conceived a mode tit" finding out what he so much wished, and was so transported with joy, that he ran out of the bath crying out in the Greek tongue, "1 have found it, I liave found it." .As gold was the heaviest of all metals then known, he therefore desired a mass of pure gold, equally heavy with the crown when weighed in air, should be weighed against it in water, conjecturing that if the crown was not alloyed it would counter- poise the mass of gold when they were both immersed in water, as '.veil as it did when they were weighed in air. On making trial, the ma&s of gold weighed mud) heavier in water than the crown did, nor was this all; when the mass and erown were immersed separately in the same vessel of water, the crown raised the water much liigher than tiie mass did, which showed it was alloyed with some other lighter metal which increased its bulk. On this principle is founded the doctrine of the specific gravities of bodies. Half of the civilized employment? of man, consists in work- ing the metals, and minerals ; civilization depends so much on the discovery of the useful metals, that little progress can be made from a savage stale, without the useful trade of a blacksmith. To avoid the inconveniences of exchanging or bartering, men, in earlier ages fixed on metals ; as on gold, silver, cop- per or iron, for a medium of value, so tltat if one man had too much corn and wanted wine, he was obliged to give corn for WMie, hut he might sell his corn for metal, and buy the wine. with the metal, at his convenience. Hence the ori gi of money ; as it was found inconvenient to weigh metal in every transaction, (as Abraham did when he bought the bu- rying place for Sarah,) stamps were put on pieces of metal to indicate that they might be safely received for a settled weight or value. Viewing the metals in ordinary use, we consider them com- mon productions; but no art is so curious as that of extract- ing metals from the earth, or ore, in which they are buried or concealed ; and no discovery or iru'enlion was ever more V'onderful. Workers of metal imitate nature, when they beat and wash their ores. No one on looking at most of the me- talic ores, would suspect them to contain metals, as they are apparently the roughest, coaisest, and least desirable stones on earth. Research is on the wing of activity, and discove- ries of minerals of the greatest utility are daily making. We are willing to believe there are stiH in reserve^ beneath the surface of the earth, in our own country, golden treasures for the enterprising ; if not near our most frequent walks, yet 72 THE ARTIST AND in very many places which liave never experienced the probing effects of a crowbar, or the pressure of the foot of man. CHAPTER XVII. The art of Working Metals — -Compounds of Metals — Use- ful Alloys — Conversion of Iron into Steel — to colour Me- tals — to burn Metals — to refine pewter — Sohlers — bronze of temporary edge tools — test for metals — to tin iron and copper vessels. Method of reducing Iron Ore into malleable Iron. We proceed by stamping, washing, &c. the calcine and materials, to separate the ore from extraneous matter; then fifsing the prepared ore in an open furnace, and instead o^ casting it, to suffer it to remain at the bottom of the furnace till it becomes cold. New method of shingling and manufacturing Iron. The ore being fused in a reverberating furnace, is conveyed, whilst fluid, into an air furnace, where it is exposed to a strong heat, tiil a bluish flame is observed on the surface; it is then agitated on the surface, till it looses its fusibility, and is collected into lumps called loops. These loops are then put into another air furnace, brought to a white or welding heat, and then shingled into half-blooms or slabs. They are again exposed to the air furnace, and the half-blooms taken out and forged into anconies, bars, half-fats, and rods for wire ; While the slabs are passed, when of a welding- heat, through the grooved rollers. In this way of proceeding, it matters not, whether the iron is prepared from cold or hot short metal, nor is there any occasion for the use of finery, - charcoal, coke, chafery, or hollow fire, or any blast by bel- lows, or otherwise: or the use effluxes in any part of the process. To weld Iron ; an improved ?nefhnd. This consists in the skilful bundling of the iron to be welded ; in the use of anex- traordinar}'- large for^ie hammer; in employing a balling fw- nace, instead of a hoUoio-fire or chafery, and in passing the iron, reduced to a meltinsf heat, through grooved mill-rollers of different shapes and sizes, as required. Common ha' dening. Iron by being lieated red hot, and plunged into cold water, acquires a great degree of hardness. This proceeds from the coldness of the water which con-ract« the particles of the iron into less space. t-ilADEiSMAxN^S GUIDE*. 7S Vase hardening. Is a superficial conversion of iron into steel, by cementation. It is performed on small pieces of iron, by enclosing them in an iron box, containing burnt lea- ther, bone dust, or any other carbonic material, and exposing them for some time to a red heat. The surface of the iron thus becomes porfecth' metalized. Iron thus treated is sus- ceptible of the finest polish. 7^0 convert Iron into Steel hy Cementation. The iron is formed into bars of convenient size, and then placed in a ce- menting furnace, with a sufficient quantity of cement which is composed of coals of animal or vegetable substances, mixed with calcined bones, &c. The following are very excellent cements; 1. One part of powdered cliarcoal, one half a part of wood ashes, well mixed together. 2. Two parts charcoal moderately powdered, one part of bones, horn, hair or skins of animals, burnt in close vessels to blackness and powdered; and half a part of wood ashes ; mix them well together. — The bars of iron to be converted into steel, are placed upon a stratum of cement, and covered all over with the same; and the vessel which contains them, closely luted, must be exposed to a red heat for eight or ten hours, when the iron will be converted into steel. Steel is prepared from bar iron bj fusion ; which consists in plung- ing a bar into naelted iron, and keeping it there, for some time, by which process it is converted into good steel. AM iron which becomes harder by suddenly quenching in cold water, is called steel ; and that steel which in quenching acquires thegriatest degree of hardness in the lowest degree of heat, and retains the greatest strength in and atter iaduration, ought to be considered as the best. Inproved prx)ccss of hardening Steel. Articles manufac- tured of steel, for the purpose of cutting, are, almost without an exception hardened from the anvil ; in other words, they are taken from the forger to the hardener, withot undurgoing any intermediate process; and such is the accustomed routine, that the mischief arising has escaped observation. The act of forging produces a strong scale or coating, which is spread over the whole of the blade ; and to make the evil still more formidable this scale or coating is' unequal in substance, vary- ing in proportion to the degree of-heat communicated to the steel in forging ; it is, partially, almost impenetrable to the action of water when immersed for the purpose of hardening; Hence it is that different degrees of hardness prevail in every razor manufactured ; this is evidently a postive defect ; and 7 ^4 TWE AUTIST AN* SO long as it continues to exist, great difference of tempera- ture niudt f^xist likewise, Rasor blades not unlVequentVy ex- hibit ihu fact bere slated in a very suiking manner ; wliat are termed clouds, or parts of unequal polish, derive their origin from this cause ♦, and clearly and distinctly,, of* rather distinctly, though not charJy show Im)W far this partial coat- ing has extended, and wli«n the action of water has Ueeii yielded to, and when resisted. It cannot be matter of aston- jshmeni, that so few imprcrvements luive been made in the hardening of steel, when ibe evil here complained of, so un- iversnlly obtains, as almost to warrant the supposition that no attempt has ever been made to remove it. The remedy, however, is easy and simple in the extreme, and so evidently efficient in its application, thai it cannot but excite surprise^ that in the present highly improved state of oqf manufactures, such a communication slvould be made a* a discovery entirely, new. Instead, thereiore, of the customary mode of harden- ing the blade from the unvil, let it be passed immediately from the hands of the forger to the grinder ; a slight applica- tion of 'he stone will remove the whole of the scale or coat- in"- and the razor will then be properly prepared to undergo the operation of hardening with advantage. It will be easily ascertained, that steel in this state, heats in the fire with greater regularity, and that when immersed, the obstacles be- ing removed to the immediate action of the water on the body of the steel, the latter becomes equally hard, from one ex- tremity to the other. To this ma\^ be added, that asthe low- est pqssible heat at which steel becomes hard, is induhitahlif the bestj^the mode here recommended will be found the only one by which the process of hardening can be effected with a less portion of fire than is or can be required in anj'^ other way. These observations are decisive, and will in all pro- babilit)', tend to establish in general use, what cannot but be regarded as a "very important improvement in the manufac- turing of edged steel instruments. English Cast Steel. The finest kind of steel, called Eng- lish cast steel, is prepared by breaking to pieces blistred steel, and then meltinjr it in a crucible with a flnx composed of car- bonaceous and vitrifij»ble inofredients. The vitrifiable ingre- dient is used only inasmuch as a fusible body, which flows over tl e surface of them^tal in the crucible, and prevents the access of the oxygen of the atmostphere. Broken glass is »oraetimes used for this purpose. t1ftADESMAN''« •CflDE. 75 ^ When thoroughly fusei\ jt is cast into ingots, which by gen ?le heating and careful hammering, are tilled inio bars. By this process! the steel becowies more highly carbunizf-d m pro- portion to the quantity fo flux, and in consequence is more brittle and fusible than before. Hence, it surpasses all other steel in uniformity of texture, hardness^ and closeness ofgrajn, and is the maTer.iaicmplo3'=€d in all she fniest articles ol English cutler^--. To make edge tools f rum Cad S feci and Iron. This nie^ tliod consists in fixing a clean piece of wrought iron, brouj^ht to a welding heal, in the cenue of a mould, zmd then pouring m melted steel, so as entirely to envelop the iron ; and then forgmg the mass into the sisape required. To colour Steel Blue. Th« 5'ecd juust b,- findy polisiied . on its surface, and then exposed l^ an iJuiform deLnoe of heat. There are tiaree ways ef colouring : first, by a flame produc- ing no soot, as spirit of wine ; secondly, by a hot plate of iron ; and thirdl.y., by wood ashes. As a very regular ('egree of heat is necessary, wood .ashes for fire vjtn\ bears the preference. The work must be covered over with them, and carefully watcheJ ; when the •colour is sufficiently heightened, the work is perfect. This powder, and mix it with an equal quantity of quicklime. Put them all together in cold water and mix well ; when done, any iron piece which you shall have made hot, will if you steep it in that prepared water, become as white as silver. To prevent Iron from rusting. Warm your iron till you cannot touch it without burning yourself. Then rub it with new and clean white wax. Put it again to the fire till it has soaked 'm the wax. When done, rub it over with a piece of serge, and the iron will never rust. To Soften Iron and harden it more than it was before. Make a little chink lengthwaj^s in an iron bar, in which pour melted lead. Then make it evaporate by a strong fire, as that of copelling ; renew this operation four or five times, and the bar will become very soft. You harden it afterwards by steeping it, when red hot, in mere forge water, and it will be of so good a temper as to be fit for lancets, razors and knives, with which 3'ou will be able to cut other iron without its splitting or denting. It has been found by experience that an armour can never be good proof against fire arms, if it has not first been soften- ed with oils, gums, wax, and other increative things, and af- terwards hardened by steeping them several times over in binding waters. To preserve the brightness of Ar77is. Rub them with harts marrow, or else dissolve some alum powder, with the strong- est vinegar you can find, and rub your arms with it. By this means they keep for ever bright. Tin alloyed with Copper. Scour a very thin slip of iron bright, which while doing, dip it several times in very dilute sulphuric acid ; bend one end of it so that it will fit the bot- tom of a crucible. Melt some tin in the crucible and dip the bent end of the slip of iron into it ; the tin will combine with the surface of the iron, and if very thin will penetrate entire- l}'' through it. On this principle sheet tin is manufactured. Chinese Sheet Lead. The operation' is carried on by TRADESMAN'S StlfDE. 85 two men ; the one is seated on the floor, with a large flat stoue before him, and with a moveable flat stone standing at his side. His fellow workman stands by his side with a crucible filled with melted lead ; and having poured a certain quantity • upon the stone, the other lifts ihe moveable stone, and dash- 'ing it on the fluid lead, presses it out into a flat and thin plate Vhich he instantly removes from the stone. A second quan- tity of lead is poured in a similar manner, and a similar plate formed, the process being carried on with singular rapidity. . The rough edges of the plates are then cut ofi\ and are sol- dered together for use. This method has been applied with great success to the formation of thin plates of zinc, for galvanic pui poses. To cover bars of Copper^ S^c. with Gold, so as to be rol- led out into shcp-ts. Prepare ingots or pieces of copper or brass, in convenient lengths and sizes — clean them from im- purity, making their surfaces level : now prepare plates of pure gold, or gold mixed with a portion of alloy, of the same size of the ingots of metal, and of suitable thickness. Having placed a piece of gold upon an ingot intended to be plated, hammer and compress them together, so that they may have their surfVices as nearl}^ equal to each other as possible : now bind them together with wire, in order to keep them in the same position during the process required to attach them; now take silver filings, and mix with borax, to assist the fu- sion of silver ; lay the mixture upon the edge of the plate of gold, and next to the ignot of metal. Having thus prepared the two bodies, place them on a fire in a stove or furnace, and let them remain until the silver and borax [daced along the edges of the metals melt, and until the adhesion of the gold with the metal is perfect ; then take the ingot carefully out of the stove, and by tiiis process it is plated with gold, and prepared ready for rolling into sheets. To jjlcite Iron. 1. Polish the surface very clean and level with a burnisher ; and afterwards by exposing it to a bluing heat, a silver leaf is properly placed, and carefull}^ burtiished down. This is repeated till a sutFicient number of leaves are applied to give the silver a proper body. 2. By the use of solder: slips of thin solder are placed be- tween the iron and silver, with a little flux, and secured to- gether by binding wire. It is then placed in a clean vessel, and continued in it till the solder melts ; when it is taken out; and on cooling; is found to adhere firmlv. 8 86 THE ARTIST AND 3. By tinning the iron first, and uniting the silver hy the intermediate slips of rolled tin, brought into fusion in a gen- tle heat. To Tin Copper and Brass. Boil six pounds cream tartar four gallons water, and eight pounds grain tin, or tin sha- vings. After they have boiled a sufficient time, the substance to be tinned is put therein, and the boiling continued, when the tin is precipitated in its metalic form. To Tin fron and Copper Vessels. The iron to be tinned must be previously steeped in acid materials, such as sour whey, distiller's wash, 6fc. then scoured and dipped in melt- ed tin, having been first rubbed over with a solution of sal ammoniac. The surface of the tin is prevented trom calcin- ing, by covering it with a coat of far. Copper vessels must be well cleansed ; and then a sufficient quantity of tin, with sal ammoniac, is put therein, and brought into fusion, and the copper vessel moved about. A little resin is sonvetimes ad- ded. The sal ammoniac prevents the copper from scalding, and causes the tin to be fixed wherever it touches. Lately, zinc has been proposed for lining vessels, instead of tin, to avoid the consequences which are unjustly apprehended. White. Metal. Ten oz. lead, six oz. bismuth, and four oz. regulus of antimony. 2. Two lbs. regulus of antimony, eight oz. brass, and ten oz. tin. Common hard White Metal. Eight oz. copper, and half an oz. neutral arsenical salt, fused together, under a flux com- posed of calcined borax, charcoal dust, and fine powdered glass. Manheim Gold. Three and a half oz. copper, one and a half oz. brass, and fifteen grs. pure tin. Imitation of Silver. Three fourths oz. tin, and one lb copper, will make a pale bell metal which will roll and ring very near to Stirling silver. Yellow dipping Metal. Two parts Cheadle brass, one part copper, with a little Bristol old brass, and one-fourth of an ox. of tin to every pound of copper. This alloy is almost 3f the colour of gold coin. Cheadle brass is the darkest, and lives the metal a greenish hue. Old Bristol brass, is pale and yellow. Common Jewelry. Three parts copper, one part Bristol '5ld brass, and four oz. of tin to every pound of copper. TBADESMAiVs GUIDE. S7 If this alloy is for fine polishing, the tin may be omitted and a mixture of lead and antimony substituted. Paler pol- ishing metal, by reducing the copper to two, or to one part. CHAPTER XVIII. Glass — Discovery — Process of Blanufacturc — Gilding — Silvering — To separate Gold jrom gilt Copper or Silver — Oil-gilding on Wood — To gild by burnishing — By Amalgamation — To siver by heat — In the cold way — To plate Looking- Glasses — Gold and Silver Inks — To pre- pare mefallic Trees — To whiten Foils — To colour Foils — To give Foils a lustre like Diamonds — Laquers. It is controverted among naturalists, to what class of bo- dies glass should be referred ; some make it a concrete juice, others a stone, and others again rank it among semi-metals ; but Dr. Merret observes, that these are all natural produc- tions ; whereas glass is a factitious compound, produced by fire, and never found in the earth, but only the sand and stones that form it ; but metals are perfectly formed by na- ture into certain species, and fire only produces them by its faculty of separating heterogeneous, and uniting homogene- ous bodies ; whereas it produces glass by uniting heterogene- ous matters, viz. salt and sand, of which it evidently con- sists. The chief characters or properties of glass are, that it fuses in a vehement fire ; when fused, adheres to iron ; does not waste in the fire, is ductile, but not malleable ; and while red hot can be cast into any shape. It is friable when cold ; diaphanous, either hot or cold ; flexil^le and elastic ; disun- hed and broke by cold and moisture, and especially by saline liquors ; is only cut by the diamond or emery ; acid or other juices extract no quality from it ; it does not wear by the longest use, nor will any liquor make it musty, change its colour, or rust ; it softens metals and makes them fusible ; receives all metallic colours externall/ and internally ; will not calcine, and may be cemented like stones and metals. It is said 100 weight of sand in the composition yields 150 of glass. The salt is procured from the ashes of a water plant called kali. There are many other plants besides kali, which produces a salt fit for glass. The sand or stones is the second ingre- dient, and what gives it the body ; they must be such as will fuse^ the whitest are the best, consequently, crystals are 88 THE ARTiriT AND preferred to all others. Sometimes manufacturers use a sort of pebble resembling white marble. Flints make a pure crys- taline metal. When stones cannot be had conveniently, sand is used. The glass houses in England are furnished with a fine whit« sand, as is frequently used for sand boxes, with a coarsei- kind for green glas«. For cr3^stal glass, 200 pounds saiid or stone are mixed, finely pulverized, with 130 of salt ; they are then calcined in a reveiberatory furnace for several hours. When the process is completed, it is called frit or hallito. This frit is set off in melting pots in the working furnace, with some manganese added, which destroys the greenish cast natural to all glass. While it is in fusion the workman mixes tbe metal well together ; skimming off the sand, over which is a white salt, called sandiver, which, if suffered to remain, would render the glass brittle and unfit to work,- When the vitrification is completed, and the metal sufficiently clear, it is formed into the articles required, by dipping a hollow iron into the melting jiot, with* which a suf- licicnt quantity is taken out for the intended work : while red hot, it is 'rolled on a marble to unite its parts more firmly, then blowing moderately, swells it, repeating it until of suf- ficient size, then the artist, by whirling it about, lengthens and cools the glass; moulds it in the stamp irons, and flats the bottom, by pressing it on the marble ; after which it is fash- ioned as occasion requires, after being broken from tbe blow- ing iron. As the workman finishes them, another takes them up with an iron fork, atid places them in a tower over the melting furnace to anneal, where, after remaining some time, the}^ are put into pans, which are gradually v/ithdrawn to cool. There is scarcely a branch of manufacture, which de- serves more attention than that of glass ; and although the an has excited the astonishment of the world, still it is highly probable, that in order to bring it to the highest state of per- ieciion, there is abundant room for much improvement. Pliny relates that " gla.ss was first discovered by accident in Syria, at the mouth of the river Belus, by certain merchants driven thither by the fortune of the sea, and obliged to conti- nue there, and dress their victuals by making a fire on the ground, where there was an abundance of the herb kali : the plant burning to ashes, its salt incorporating with the sand and stones, became vitrified." ,Son)c writers assert that the discovery of dass is as ancient TUADEfeiMAN'b GllDE. 89 &s the art of pottery or makin? brick ; for tlip.t a kiln of brick cannot be burnt, or a batcli of [)ottery made, but some of the brick or ware vv'iU be at least superficially turned to glass ; so that it must have been known at the building of Bal^el, and likewise by the Egyptians, among whom ihc Israelites were many years employed in making bricks. Of this kind, no doubt, was that fossil glass, uientioned by Forrant, Impcrat. to be found under ground in many places, where there great fires had been. A writer of eminence, niakts a distinction between glass contained in its own mine or slone, and true glass that is ex- tracted from the same ; that the latter is more artificial than a metal is, when extracted from the ore ; and as to the for- mer, he urges, that as metal, b}^ having its existence in the ore, so glass, by having it in the stone out of which it is pro- 'duced, is a natural production. After what has been advan- ced, the supposition arises, if glass is procured from stone alone, the weight of the metal must be less than the subslance from which it is extracted, whereas it far exceeds, as 100 pounds of sand yield 150 pounds of glass. Considering also, that the salts made use of are of the mos^ (ixed kind, there- fore we cannot sup.pose them to be carried off by tlie fire ; besides, as a proof, iti the coarser J^lasses one may discern, or even pick T)Ut pieces of salt, furnishing a test by ihe tast*^'.- Flint, sand and stone afi'ord different species of glass, and the ashes, as tliey are variable in qualiiy, will proporiinnately al- ter tlio glass, A fixed alkaline salt, sharp and well p.nrihedj mixed v/ith a pure c^lx of flinty -fields a glass clearer than amber ilself. Our representation o-f tlie manufacture of glass, no doubt, is imperfect, though we are flattered it may not be wholl}^ uninteresting. Grecian Gilding. Equal parts of sal ammoniac and cor- rosive sublimate are dissolved in spirit of nitre, and a solution of gold made with this menstruum. The silver is brushed over with it, which is turned black, but on exposure to a red heat, it assumes the colour of gold. Gilding Metal. Four parts copper, one part Bristol old brass, and four oz. of tin, to every pound of copper. To dissolve Gold in Aqva-i\egia. Take an aqna-regia, composed of two parts of nitrous acid, and one of marine acid, or of one j)ait of sal ainmi>niac and four parts of aqua-fortis ; let ll:c gold be granulated, put into a suffcicnt quantity of 90 ^ TitE ARTIST AND this menstruum, and expose to a moclerate degree of heat. During the solution an eflervescence takes place, and it ac- quires a beatiful yellow colour, which becomes more and raore intense, till it has a golden or even orange colour. When the menstruum is saturated, it is very clear and trans- parent. To gild Iron or Steel with a solution of Gold. Make a solution of eight ounces of nitre and common salt, with five ounces crude alum, in a sufficient quantity of water ; dissolve half an ounce of gold, thinly plated and cut; and afterwards evaporate the dr^mess, digest the residuum in rectified spirit of wine or ether, which will perfectly abstract the gold. The iron is brushed over with this solution, and becomes immedi- ately gilt. 2. Pour into a saturated solution of muriate of gold (that is, when there is no excess of acid) about twice as much sul- phuric ether : now* brush upon a clear polished surface of iron or steel some of this liquid. The ether will soon evaporate, and leave the gold covering the surface. To gild silver or copper, heat gold and mercury, together in a crucible, one part of gold to about eight of mcrcur}', until they are com- pletely alloyed : then throw the hot alloy into cold water. Hav- ing wet the silver or copper with diluted nitric acid, brush on the alloy with a fine brush (a wire brush is best) as uniformly as possible. Then drive off the mercury with heat, placing the gilded metal over the hot coals : afterwards the surface must be polished with a burnisher. The onl}' objection made to this method by artists is, that it is very difficult to lay on the alloy evenl}'. But old artists learn to brush over the bare spots while it is heating, being careful to avoid inhaling the mercurial fumes. This method of gilding iron is undoubtedly very perfect ; but it is desirable soma better method should be discovered for gilding the other metals. To coat Copper iclth Silrer. Take a few grains of silver in powder as precipitated by cojjper in a preceding experi- ment, after it is washed and before melting ; about an equal weight of alum or a little more ; six times as much table salt ; also six times as much tartrite of potasii ; pulverize all these articles and rub them well together ; rub the clean bright surface of a piece of copper with this powder, and it will be silvered. tradesman's guide. 9 1 This silvering is not very durable, though it niay be easily renewed. Plating copper is much preferable. This is done by brazing on a thin bar of silver upon a tliicii bar of copper. Then both are rolled out into the proper tliickness for use. To gild by dissolving Gold in Aqua-Regia. Fine linen rags are soaked in a saturated solution of gold in aqua-regia; gently dried^ and afterwards burnt to tinder. The substance to be gilt must be well polished ; a piece of cork is first dip- ped into a solution of coninion salt in v^ater, and afterwards into the tinder, which is well rubbed on the surface of the metal to be gilt, and the gold appears in all its metallic lustre; To gild Ivor I/, Silk, ^c. with Hydrogen Gas, Immerse a piece of white silk or ivory into a solution of nitro-muriate of gold, in the proportion of one part of the acid, three of dis- tilled water; whilst the substance to be gilded is still wet, iumerse it in ajar of hydrogen gas J it will soon be covered by a complete coat of gold. The foreg^oing experiment may be advantageously varied* as follows : Paint flowers or other ornaments with a very fine camel's hair pencil, dipped in the above mentioned solution, on pieces of si!k, satin, &c; hold them over a Florence flask, from which hydrogen gas is evol^ ved, during the composition of the water by sulphuric acid and iron filings; The painted flowers; in a few minutes, will shine in all the splendour of the purest gold, w^hich will not tarnish on exposure to the air pr in washing: Oil gilding on Wood. Cover and prime the wood with two or three coatings of boiled linseed oil and carbonate of lead, in order to fill up the pores, and conceal the irregulari- ties of the surface occasioned by the veins in the wood. When dry, lay on a thin coat of gold size, which is prepared by- grinding some of the red oxide of lead with the thickest dry- ing oil procurable, and mixed previously to using with a little oil of turpentine, till brought to a proper consistence; If the gold size is good, it will dry in twelve hours, more or less,- Then spread a leaf of gold oh a cushion, formed by a few folds of flannel, secured on a piece of wood, eight inched square, by a tigiit covering of leather, and cut into strips of a proper size by a blunt pallet knife ; then take each strip upon the point of a fine brush, and apply it to thfe part inten^" ded to be gilded, which gently press down with a ball of soft cotton ; in a few minutes sweep away the loose particles with 92 TilE ARTIST ANi> a large earners hair brush. In a driy or two the she will bd- completely dried, and the operation finished. To gild by Bunilshmg. Tliis operatioii h chieiiy perfor- med on picture frames, mouldings, &c. Cover the surface to be gilt corefnllj wi{h a strong size, made by boiling down pieces of white leather, or clippings of parchment, till they become a stiff jelly ; this coating being dr}', eight or ten more must be applied, consisting of the same size, mixed with fine plaster of Paris, or washed chalk. When a sufficient num- ber of layers are put on, as the nature c»f the work requires, and become quite dry, apply a moderately thich layer, com- posed of size and armenia b( le or yellow oxide of lead. While this last is yet m(»ist, put on the gol J leaf in the usual man- ner ; i)ressing it with the cotton ball ; and before the size is become perfectly dry, the parts intended to be most brilliant, should be carcfidly burnished by an agale or dog's tooth fixed ill a handle. It is somethncs common, in order fo saVe labour, bat a bad practice, slightly to burnish the bailliant parts, and to deadeji the rust, by draw- ing a briisli ovor tliuui dipped in size. This kind of oilding can only be applied on in-door\vork, as rain, or even a considerable degree of damp- ness will occasion the gold to peel off. When dirly, it may be cleansed by a soft brush, with hot spirit of wine, or oil of turpentine. To Dijc in Gold., Silver 3Icdah through. Take some salt petre, pour over it a sufncient quantity of oil of vitriol, to swim over. When the ebulitiohs arising from tliat mixture sh;di be ended, distil to dryness — there remains a white salr. Dissolve in wliat quantity of warm water ^-ovj think proper, or inay be in need of, v/hioh you know when you see the wa- ter can dissolve no more of it — put into this a drachm of calx or magister of gold. Then put in digestion, in it, laminas cut small and thin, for twenlN-four jiours, over a very gentle fire. At the end of that time, you will find them tiioroughly dyed gold colour, inside and out. Silvering Powder. Silver dust from fifteen to twenty grains, cream tartar, common salt, each two drachms, alum half a drachm. 2. Silver dust, half an ounce, common salt, sal ammoniac, of each two ounces, corrosive'subJimatc, one drachm; make into a j)aste wth water, uisod to silver copper, which is to be cleaned by boiling with argol and alum, then rub it with cither of these powders, and polish with soft leather. tradesmen's guide. 93 T^X) gild Copper^ S^^c. by Amalgamation. Immerse a very clean bripbt piece of copper in a tlilated solution of nitrate of mercury. By the affinity of copper for the nitric acid, the mercury will be precipitated ; now spread the amalgam of gold rather thinly over the coat of copper just given to the mercury. This coat unites \> ith the amalgam, but will re- main on the copper. Now place the piece thus operated upon, in a clean oven or furnace, where there is no smoke. If the heat is a little greater than 600 deg. the mercury of the amalgam will be volatilized, and the copper will be beauti- fully gilt. In the lar^c way of gilding, tho furnaces are so constructed, that the volatilized mercury is again condensed, and preserved for further use, so that there is no loss in the operation. There is also a contrivance by which the volatile particles of mercury are prevented from injuring the gilders. To Gild Steel. Pour some of the etherial solution of gold into a wine glass, and slip therein the blade of a now pen- knife, lancet or razor ; withdrav/ the instrument and allow the ether to evaporate. The blace will be found to be covered I with a very thin coat of gold. A clean rag, or a small piece of very dry sponge ma}' be dipped in the ether, and used to moisten the blade, and used witli the same result. In ihis case there is no occasion to pour the liquid into a glass, which would lose by evaporation; but the rag or sponge may moist- ened with ii by applying either to the mouth of the phial. This coating of gold will remain in the steel for a great length of time, and will preserve it from rusting. This is the way in which s\v*erds and other cutlery are ornamented. Lancets too are in this way gilded with great advantage, to secure them from rust. To heighten the color of Yellow Gold. Six ounces salt- petre, two ounces copperas, one ounce white vitriol and one ounce alum. If it be wanted redder, a small portion of blue vitriol must be added. Tii^se are to be well mixed and dis- solved in water as the colour is v>'anted. To heighteen the colour of Green Gold. One ounce ten pennyweights saltpetre, one oz. four pennyweights sal ammo- niac, one oz. four pennyweights Roman vitriol, and eighteen pennyweights verdigris. Mix them well togetlier, an-d dis- solve a portion in watOi,as occasion requires. The work. omst then be dipped in these compositions, applied to a pru- •94 THE ARTIST AND per heat to burn them off, and then quenched in water or vinegar. To heighten the colour of Red Gold. Four oz. yellow melted wax ; add 1 1-2 oz. red ochre, in fine powder, 1 i-2 oz. verdigris, calciued till it yields no fumes, and half an oz. calc'ned borax. It is necessary to calcine the verdigris, or else, by the heat applied in burning the wax, the vinegar be- "comes so concentrated as to corrode the surfaces and make it appear speckled. To separate '.Gold from gilt Copper or Silver. Apply a solution of borax, in water, to the gilt surface with a fine brush, and sprinkle over it some fine powdered sulphur. Make the piece red hot, and quench it in water. The gold may be easily wiped off with a scratch brush, and recovered by testing it with lead. Gold is taken from the surface of the silver, by spreading it over a paste, made of powdered sal ammoniac, with aqua-fortis, and boating it till the matter smokes, and is nearly dry, when the gold may be separated by rubbing it with a scratch brush. To Silver with Heat. Dissolve an ounce of pure silver in aqua-fortis, and prec-pitate it witlv common salt ; to Vv'hich add one pound of sal ammoniac, sandiver, and white vitriol, and one ounce of sublimate. 2. Dissolve an ounce of pure silver in aqua-fortis, precipitate it with common salt, and add after washing, six oz. common salt, three oz. each of sandiver and white vitriol, and one fourth of an ounce of sublimate. These are to be ground into a paste upon a fine stone with a muller ; the substance to be silvered must be rubbed over with a sufficient quantity of the paste, and exposed to a pro- per degree of heat. When the silver runs, it is taken from the fire, and dipped into a weak spirit of salt to clean it. Silvering on Gilt loork hy Amalgamation. Silver will not attach itself to any metal by amalgamation, unless it be first gilt ; the process is the same as gilding in colours, only no acid should be used. To Silver in the Cold Way. Two drachms tartar, two drachms common salt, one-half drachm alum and 20 grains silver, precipitated from tliejiitrous acid by copper. Make them into a paste with a little water. This is to be rubbed on the surface to be silvered with a cork, &.c. 2. Dissolve pure silver in aqua-fortis, and precipitate the silver with com- mon salt ; make this precipitate into a paste, by adding a lit- let more salt and cream of tartar. tradesman's guide. 05 To Silver Copper Ingots. The surface of the copper on which the silver is to be fixed must be made flat by foiling, and sliould be left rough. The silver is first annealed, and aftei wards pickled in weak spirit of salt ; it is planished, and then scraped on the surface to be fitted on the copper. These prepared surfaces are anointed with a solution of borax, or strewed with fine powdered borax itself, and then confined in contact with each other, by binding wire. When they are exposed to ti sufficient degree of heat, the flux causes the sur- faces to fuse at the same time, and after they become cold, they arc found finely united. Coppear may likewise be pla- ted b}' heatijig it, and burnishing leaf silver upon it; so may iron and brass. The principal difficulties in plating copper are to bring the surfaces of the copper and silver into fusion at the same time, and to prevent the copper from scaling ; for which purpose fluxes are used. To separate Silver from Plated Copper, This process is applied to recover the silver from the plated metal, which has been rolled down for buttons, toys, ^c. without destroying any large proportion of the copper. For this purpose a men- struum is composed of three pounds oil vitriol, one and a half ounces nitre, and a pound of water. The plated metal is boiled in it, till the silver is dissolved, and then the silver is dissolved, and then the silver is recovered by throwing common salt into the solution. Amalgam of Gold in the large way. A quantity of quick- silver is put into a crucible or iron ladle which is lined with €lay, and exposed to heat till it begins to smoke. The gold to be mixed should be previously granulated, and heated red hot , when it should be added to the quicksilver, and stirred about with an iron rod, till it is perfectly dissolved. J f there should be any supeifluous mercury, it may be separated by passing it through clean soft leather, and the remaining amal- gam vvill have the consistence of butter, and contain about three parts of mercury to one of g^old. To gild hy Amalgamation. The metal to be gilt is to be previously cleansed on its surface, by boiling in a weak pickle, which is a very dilute nitrous acid. A quantity of aqua-fortis is poured into an earthen vessel, and quicksilver put therein, when a sufficient quantit}^ of mercury is dissolved, the articles to be gilt are put into the solution, and stirred about with a brush till they become white. This is called quicking ; b ut 96 filE ARTIST A.VD as during quicken by this mode, a noxious vapour continually arises, wliich proves very injurious to the health of the work- men, they have adopted another method, by which they in a great measure, avoid that danger. They now dissolve the quicksilver in a bo'ule containing aqua-fortis, and leave it in the open air during the solution, so that the noxious vapours escape into the air. Then a little of this solution is poured into a basin, and v/itli a brush dipped therein, they stroke over the surface of the metal to be gilt, which immediately becomes quickened. The amalgam is now applied by one uf the following methods: 1. B}^ proportioning if to the quantity of articles to be gilt, and })uiting them in}o a white heat iogethcr, v/orking them about with a soft brush, till the amalgam is unilormly spread. Or, 2. By applying a portion of the amalgam upon ond part, and spreading it on the surface, if flat, by working it about with a harder brush. The work thus managed is put * into a pan, and exposed to a gentle degree of heat ; when it becomes hot, it is frequently put into a heat and worked about v/ith a painter's large brush, to prevent an irregular dissipation of the mercury, till, at last, the quicksilver is entirely dissi- pated, by a repetition of heat, and the gold is attached to the surface of the metal. This gilt surface is well cleansed by a wire drush, and the artists heighten the colour of the gold by the application ot various compositions ; this part of the pro- cess is called colour:ng. To Gild Glass and Procelain. Drinking and other glas- ses are sometimes gilt on their edges. This is done, either by an adhesive varnish, or by heat. The varnish is prepared by dissolving in boiled linseed oil an equal weight, either of copal or amber. This is to be diluted by a proper quantity of oil of turpentine, so as to be applied as thin as possible to the part of the glass, intended to be gilt. When this is done, which will be in about twenty-four hours, the glass must be placed in a stove, till so warm as almost to burn the fingers when handled. At this temperature the varnish will become adhesive, and a piece of leaf gold applied in the usual way, will immediately stick. Sweep off the superfluous portions of the' leaf, and when quite cold it may be burnished, taking care to interpose a piece of very thin paper, between the gold and burnisher. If the varnish is very good, this is the best method of gilding glass, as the gold is thus fixed on more evcnlv. TllADESMAN^S GUIDE. "Ot , It often happens that the varnish is but indifferent, and tha'tby repeated washing the gold wears off': on this account the practice of te'urning it, is sometimes had recourse to. For this purpose, some gold powder is ground with borax, and applied to clean glass, by a va«iel's iiair pencil ; when quite dry, the glass i« put into a stove ■h-eated to about the temperature of an annealing oven : the gum tj'irrns off, and the borax, by vitrifying, cements the gold with great firraness to the glass; when it maybe burnished. Porcelain and other \vares may be platinized, silvered, tinned, and bronzed, i-h ^ similar ^"1 ail per-. . . , To Gild Leather^ Dust the leather over with very fine powdered yellow resin or mastic gum. The iron tools should be arranged (if letters alphabetically) on a rack be*- fore a clear fire ; to be well heated without becoming red rioU Eac^ ^-etfer or stamp must be tried as to its heat, oii the raw side '^f a piece of waste leatlier. Now, press the tool downwa't^d oil th« teaf, if it has acquired a proper Weat ; whTc'i will become iVi^xjVifed and show the figure imprinted on it — the next letter is taken and stamped in like manner ; and so on with the others : the superfl«ious gold may be riib- h 3, Or the best method is, by heating a prepared amalgam 9 j*§ THE AllTlbf A.VD of gold, ill an open clean crucible, and continuing the strong heat until the whole of the mercury is evaporated; at the same time constantly stirring tho amalgam with a glass rod. When the mercury has completely left the gold, the remaining pow- der is to be ground in a wedgewood mortar, with a little water, and afterwards dried. It is then fit for use. Although the last mode of operating has been here given, the operator cannot be too much reminded of the danger attending the sublimation of mercury. In the small way here described it is impossible to operate without danger; it is therefore better to prepare it according to the former directions, than to risk the health by the latter. To Gild Writings, Drawings, S^c. Letters written on vellum or paper are gilded in three ways; for the first, mix size with the ink, and the letters are written as usual; when dry a slight degree of stickiness is produced, by breathing oq them; then apply the gold leaf, making a little pressure, that it may adhere with firmness. The second method is, some white lead or chalk is ground up with strong size, and the let- ters are made by this means with a brush; when dry^the gold leaf may be laid on, and afterwards burnished. The last pro- cess is to mix up some gold powder with size, and to form the letters by means of a brush. It is supposed this last method was used by the monks in illuminating their oiissals, psalters^ and rubrics. To Gild on the Edges of Paper. Leaves of books and letter paper should be gilded while in a horizontal position in the book binder's press. Apply a composition formed of four parts of Armenian bole, and one of candied sugar, ground to a proper consistence in water, and laid on by a brush with the white of an egg:. When nearly dry, smooth the coating by a burnisher; which is generally a crooked piece of sghie, very smooth, and fixed in a handle. Then slightly moisten it by a sponge dipped in clean water, and squeezed in the hand. Take up the leaf on a piece of cotton, from the lea- ther cushion, and apply it to the moistened surface. When dry, burnish it by rubbing over it the agate repeatedly from end to end, taking care not to wound the surface by the point of the burnisher. A piece of silk or India paper is usually interposed between the gold and burnisher. 2*0 Gild i7i Colours, The principal colours of gold for gilding are red, green, and ycllo^^% These should be k?pt in tradesman's «uide. 99 different amalgams. The part wliich is to remain of the first colour is to be stopped ofl' with a composition of chalk and glue; the variety required is produced by gilding the unstop- ped parts with the proper amalgam, according to the asual mode of gilding. Sometimes the amalgam is applied to the surface to be gilt without any quicking, by spreading it with aqua-fortis; but this depends on the same principle as a pre- vious quicking. To Plate L, On tin foil fitly disposed on a flat table, mercury is to bo rubbed with a' hare's foot; it -soon unites itself willi the tin. A plate of glass is then cau- tiously to be slid upon the tin leaf, in such a manner as to sweep off the redundant mercurj^, not incorporated with the tin. Lead weights are then placed on the glass, and in a lit- tle time, the quicksilver tin foil, adheres so firmly to the glass, that the weights may be removed without danger of its falling off. About two ounces of mercury is sufficient for covering three square feet of glass. The glass should be perfectly clean; the least dirt or dust on the surface will prevent the adhesion of the amalgam. Put a drop of mercury into a Vv'iiie glass, and drop into It small pieces of tin foil, which will become liquified and unite with the mercury. Continue these additions until the amal- gam contains about half as much tin as mercury. Next spread a small piece of tin foil very evenly on the face of a smooth- ing iron or a piece of polished marble; pour the amalgam upon it and rub it over the tin foil with the finger for about two minutes. Now press upon it a piece of dry clean glass; press it down with such force as to press out all the uncorabined Baercury; lay a weight upon the glass and leave it half an Jjiour, whep it may be taken up, and it will be found to be a mirror. All looking glasses are made in this way, upon a large scale; , the slab is placed in an inclined position, so that the excess of mercury runs, and is saved for the next, «fec. To silver Glass Globes. One ounce clean lead, one ounce fine tin, one ounce bismuth, and ten oances of quicksilver. Put the tin and lead into the ladle first; when melted, add the bismuth. Skim off the dross, remove the ladle from the fire, and before it sets, add the iquicksilver; stir the whole care- fully together, taking care not to breathe over it as the fumes of the mercury are very pernicions. Pour this through an 100 TUE ARTIST Alg& earthen pipe, into the glass globe, which turn repeatedfy round. 2. Two part* mercury, one part tin, one part lead, and one part bismuth; or fmrr 04j«ices of quicksliver and tin foil. Tho quantity fo tin foil to be added, is so much as will become barely liuid when niixed. Let the globe be cleas and warm, and inject the quicksilver by means of a pipe at the apertme^ turmng it about till it is silvered all oyer. Let the remainder run out, and bang the globe op^ A GoM coloured Ink, Pulverise very £ne one oiwice' of orpine, aad as much crystal; put this powder in five or six whites of eggs, well beaten,, then turned into water. Mix ali ^ell, and it v/ill be prepared to write or paint, producing a gold colour. A Silver coloured InJc. Finest of pewter, one ounce^ quickstlvei', tv/o ounces. They should be roij^ed Uin^tii quite fluid. Then grind it on porphyry with somje gu«i water,, w'heo It is lit to use. The writing wiH appear as if it had beeu done with silver. To prepare the Silver Tree. Pour into a glass globe or decanter, four drachms nitrate of silver, dissolved in a pourwl. or more of distilled water,, and lay the vessel on the cbimjiejf piece ; or vv'here it may not be disturbed Now poor in four drachms of mercury. The silvei- v/ill become precipitated in the most beautiful arborescent form-; resembling real vegeta- tion ► Tb prepare the Tin Tree. Into a vessel similar to that used in the last experiment, with the same quantity of water put inth ree drachms of npuriate of tin,^ adjding ten drops mtriie acid. Shake the vessel until the salt be contpletely dissolved. Replace the zinc (which nrtust be cleared of the eifeets ofthe former experiment,) as before,, an^d set the whole aside to pre- cipitate without disturbance^ In a few hou-rs. tlie effects will be similar to the last, only that the tree will have more lustre. In these experiments it is surprising to observe the laminae shootout as it were from nothing; but this phenomenon seems to proceed from a galvanic action of the motals and the water. To prepare the Lead Tree. Put one half an ounce of the superacetate of lead in powder, into a clear glass globe or de-- canter, filled to the bottom of the neck, with distilled w^ter, and ten drops nitric acid, and shake the mixture well. Pre- pare a rod of zinc with a hammer and file, a quarter of ac^ tradesman's guide. lot inch thick and one inch long. Form notches in each side for a thread, by which it is to be suspended; tie the thread so that the knot may be uppermost, when the meiai han-^s quite perpendicular. When tied, pass the two ends of •!;. thread throus^h a perforation in the cork and ler the;-! be .igniu- tied over a small splinter of wood, wiiich may pass between them and the cork. When the string is tied, let the length between the cork and zinc be such that the zinc may be at equal distances from the side, bottom and top of the ves- sel when immersed in it. Now put the vessel in a place where it may be undisturbed ; introduce the zinc, at the same time fitting in the cork. The zinc will assume the form of a tree or bush, whose leaves and branches are laminal, or plates of a metallic lustre. Glazing the Clay Cake, Lay a sun dried plastic or re- fractory clay cake obliquely across a crucible of such a length as to go entirely into the crucible, but not let it reach the bottom. Heat the crucible until the clay cake is at a white Jieat, then throw a little common salt, (muriate of soda) into the crucible and continue to raise the heat. On taking out the clay cake, its surface will be found covered with a glaz- ing, made of the soda and alumine fused together. Dip a dried cake into mortar, sufficiently diluted with water to be- come a free liquid, which is made of marled clay. Then heat it as before, and it will become glazed. Upon this principle potter bakers glaze their wares. To prepare Copper Foils. When coloured foils are wan- ted, copper may therefore be best used, and may be prepared for the purpose as follows. Take copper plates, beaten to a proper thickness, and pass ihem between a pair of fine steel rollers, very close set, and draw them as thin as is possible to retain a proper tenacity. Polish them with very fine whi- ting or rotten stone, till they shine, and have as much bright- ness as can be given them, and they will then be fit to re- ceive the colour. To whiten Foils, When the yellow, or rather orange col- our of the ground would be injurious to the effect, as in the case of purple or crimson red, the foils should be wjiitened, which may be done in the following manner. ^ Take a small quantity of silver and dissolve in aqua-fortis-, then put bits of copper into the solution, and prec"'pitfite the silver ; which being done, the fluid must be poured oft', and jy2 't'^- ARTTST ANI^ fteEii water added to it, to wash away all the remainder of tlie first lluid ; after which the silver must be dried, and equal weif^ht of cream of tartar and common salt must then be grouud with it, till the \vhi)lc is reduced to a fine powder ; and with this mixture the foils, being first slightly moistened, must be rubbed by the finger or a bit of linen rag, till they bo of the degree of whiteness desired ; after which, if it appear to be wanting, the polish must be refreshed. Tin foils are onlv used in tlie case of colourless stones, when quicksilver is employed ; and they may be drawn out by the same rollers, but need not be further polished, so that the effect is produced by other means in this case. Poils for Crystals^ Pthhles^ or Paste^ to give the lustre of Diamonds, The manner of preparing foils to give colour- less stones the greatest degree of play and lustre, is by i-ais- ing so high a polish or smoothness on the surface^ as to give- them the effect of a mirror, which can only be done, m a per- feet manner, by the use of quicksilver, applied in the same general way as in the case of looking-glasses. The method is as follows : Take leaves of tin, prepared in the same man- ner as for silvering looking-glasses, and cut them mto sn)all pieces of such size as to cover the surface of the sockets of the stones that arc to be set. Lay three of these, then, one upon another, and having moistened the inside of the socket with this gum water, and suffered it to become again so dry, that only a slight stickiness remains, put the three pieces of leaves, lying on each other, into it, and ad'^ipt them to the surface in as even a manner as possible. When this is done» heat the socket, and fill it with warm quicksilver, which must be suffered to continue in it three or four minutes and then gently poured out. Then thrust the stone into the socket, which must be closed with it, care having been taken to give such room for it, that it may enter without stripping oft' the tin and quicksilver from any part of the surface. The work should be well closed round the stone to prevent the tin and quicksilver contained in the socket from being shaken out by any violence. Tho lustre of stones, set in this wa}'', will continue long^er, than when they are set in the common way, as the cavity, round them being filled, there will be no passao-c found for moisture, which is so injurious to the wear of stoncp treated in any other way. This kind of foil gives some lustre. tradesman's tiiior:. 103 CHAPTER XTX. Art of eugyaving — etching — directions — to make blue letters on Sword Blades — to detect false gems. En^rrdxin^ Is the art of cutting metals and precious stones? and representing on them whatever device the artist pleases? and that great numbers of an impression from the same engraving may be taken, in a short time, and at a small price. The French divide the art into several branches, accor- ding to the different materials wrought upon, and the manner of execution. Among us, the first method is distinguished, as cutting in wood ; that on mel;ils, with aqua-fortis, is named etching; that by tb.e knife, burnisher, or scraper, mezzotinto ; that on stones^ carving, or stone cutting ; and that performed with a graver on metals or precious stones, which we shall now at- tempt more immediately to illustrate. The principle on which this art is gounded, are. the same with those of paint- ing, viz. design, which an engraver ought to make his pecu- liar stud}', for without that he will neither be able to imitate the performances of the greatest masters in painting, or de- sign any thing beautiful of his own. In imitating the paint- ings of eminent masters, tiie engraver should studiously con- form himself to the taste and beauty of the copy, in order to preserve that elegance of character which distinguishes the style of one master from another: and in doing which to any tolerable degree of perfection, it is necessary that an engra- ver should understand perspective, and architecture. The former enables him with ease to throw backwards, by the natural degradations of strong and faint, the figures and other objects of the picture, or design he would execute ; the lat- ter will capacitate him to preserve the due proportion of its order. To execute in this art, as well as every other, the materials which are used should be duly regarded. The best workmen prefer the red copper, which is the toughest. His plates should be well polished when he commences to trace any thing on them ; his graver should be of the purest steel, well tempered and never blunt. In conducting the strokes of the graver, care ought always to be taken that they flow freely and naturally. The graver should be conducted according to the various risings and cavi- 104 THE AKTIST AND tics of the nuiscics, which in some measure depends upon a knowledge in anatomy, as well as design. In sculpture the work sliould never be made dark ; as statues, <&c. are com- raonly made of white marble, or stone, the colour reflecting on all sides, does not produce dark shades. In regard to drapery of every kind, if the diversity of stuffs can be repre- sented, it generally adds to the beauty of the piece ; when there is a necessitj^ of crossing the strokes, it must be obser- ved' that the first should be finer than the second and the third than the second which makes the work appear more soft and mellov>'. Stuffs that have a lustre should be imitated by striking with stronger and straighter strokes than others; bein§ generally silk, producing flat and broken folds, should be expressed by one or two strokes, as their colours vary, with finer ones between them. Velvet and plush are repre- sented in the L^ame manner, by fine strokes between others, with this difference ; the first strokes should be much stron- ger than for stuffs, and the finer ones proportionate. Metals or vessels of gold and copper, or armour of polished steel, are to be engraved Vviih fine strokes, between the strong ones, it being the opposition of light and shade, that occa- sions the lustre. With respect to architecture, perspective shows us the strokes which form receding objects tend to the point of view; when the piece is to contain entire columns, they are to be re])resented by perpendicular lines; for in crossing them according to tludr roundness, those strokes which are near their capitals, being opposed to those near their base, produce a disagreeable effect; unless supposed to be at a great distance, which renders the object near parallel. For landscapes, tlie practicers of etching ma}^ form the out- lines by it, particularly of the leaves of trees, which is more expeditious than engraving, and does as well. In this case, care should be taken in finishing it well with the graver, that the etching be imperceptible, because it has not the softness of engraving. In representing steep objects, the first strokes should be frequently interrupted and broken of!', the second straight, cutting the others with acute angles, accompanied with long points. To represent rocks, the second strokes should not form the angles so acute as in representing other objects. Objects receding towards the horizon should be touched very lightly, and charged with little shade, though tradesman's guide., 10^ iho mass should appear dark, as from some shade supposed to proceed from the clouds intercepting the rays of the sun. Ccdms are rej^iesented by straight strokes, running parallel with the horizon, with finer ones between them, and are to be omitted in some places, to make their shining reflection whkh proceeds from the water. By the second strokes also, made more or less strong, and sometimes by perpendicular ones^ the forms of objects, either reflected on the surface of the v^ater, or advaned at a distance on its banks, are repre- sented. The waves of th3 sea, are represented by strokes, bending according to the agitation of the water, with finer ones be- tween them, cutting them with very acute angles. To repre-. .^ent water falling with rapidity from rocks or precipices, must be expressed by first strokes according to the nature of their fall, with finer ones between them, leaving the lights^ formed by the beams of the sun, falling directly on them very bright, and ti^e more so as they approach the fore part of the piece. When the clouds appear thiTjk and agitated, the gra- ver should be turned about a(;cording to their form and agita- tion ; and if they produce dark shades, which require double strokes, the second should cut the first in more acute angles than in figures. Flat clouds, losing themselves insensibly with the sky, niust be formed by strokes parallel with the horizon, waved a little, as they appear more or less thick. A calm serene sky should be expressed by parallel strokes very straight without any winding. Though all the parts of a piece of engraving may be executed according to the rules of 9rt, yet, unless there be a general proportion and harmony diff'used throughout it will not appear beautiful. The princi- pal objects of a ])iece should be wholly sketched out before any part of them are finislied. Engraving seems to be i^ one respect, the same in relation to printing, as painting is to hnnd writing; this art being capable of multiplying copies ad infinitum. No art, perhaps, can have a happier or more influential tendency to the advancement of virtue, religion and industry; nothing has a more familiar eflicac}' to form an universal good taste than prints, though it may be prostituted to the vilest, most debauched and detestable purposes. When this admi- rable art is thus abused, we see no reason why the authors §hould not he as liable to ^Dunishment by the laws, as others ^ 10b THE ARTIST aKd who aro the promoters and perpetrators of vice and immo* rality. As this art is applicable to most others, so, to arrive at any excellence in it, requires a knowledge in various other arts, as georaetry, perspective, anatomy, drawing, painting, sculp- ture, and above, all things, designing. What is ordinarily cal- led genius, is tortainly an innate discernment, and a strong impulse and propensity to excel in any peculiar art; without which, nature soems to be ujinalurally constrained ; and when that is the case, the performances of such persons will also appear forced, uncouth, and unnatural also, like the disposi- tion of the performer ; for as some poet says, — No art v'ithout a genius can prevail. And parts without the help of an will fail. When Marius, being driven from Rome by Sylla, and was a prisoner at Minturna?, a soldier was sent 'to murder him. Upon his coming into the room with his sword drawn for the purpose, Marius said aloud, "durst thou, man, kill Caiu« Ma- rius?" which so terrified^the ruffian that he retired without effecting his purpose. " This story, or one glance of the eye upon his statue that I have seen," says an English writer, *' gives me a greater idea of him than all Plutarch has wrote." And further remarks, " the Odyssey cannot give a greater idea of Ulysses, than a drawing I have of Polydore, when he is discovering himself to Penelope and Telemachus, by bending the bow. And I conceive as highly of St. Paul, by once walking through the gallery of Raphael at Hampton Court, as by reading the whole book of the Acts of the Apos- tles, though written by divine inspiration. Finally, in regard to history, nothing can be more useful than an attemjit to ex- cel in this art, in order to fix in remembrance memorable events. And as it is considered to be but in its infancy, it is to be greatly desired, that every meritorious performance, made in this country, will meet with public encour-igement, not only for the honour of the nation, and rising artists, but for the benefit of traffic; so thai, instead of iniporting im- mense quantities of foreign prints, we may not only supply ourselves, but become exporters of a commodity that is uni- versally vendible. Floric Acid, loith ivhich etchings of any device, name or stanza, c^*c. on glass, common flint, cornelian, ^^c. can be ^erfonncd. Put into the etching box a tea spoonful of thAI)ESM-\x\'s GUIDE. 107 Coarsely pnlveiizetl Hour spar, and set the box into a pan of coals, placed on bricks upon a table ; pour in strong sulphu- ric acid, sufficiently to moisten or moderately uet it ; the iacid will immediately rise up out of the cup, which may be known by its attracting so much vapour from the air as to ex- hibit the appearance of common steam. As soon as it be- gins to appear, which will be in a few seconds, lay over the cup a piece of common window glass, large enough to cover its mouth, which had been previously waxed and written up- on ; let an assistant immediately apply snow, ice, or cold wa- ter to the upper side of the glass, in order to keep it so cool as to prevent the wax which is on the under side from melt- ing; take ofi'the glass in ten seconds, and apply another and so on ; two or three may be applied before the flour-spar and sulphuric acid are renewed. The writing made in wax will appear beautifully etched upon the glass, on scraping off tlie wax. The best method of preparing the glass is to warm, or rather heat moderately, the face of a smoothing iron or piece of polished marble; so that white wax or very fine beeswax will melt on being applied to it. Lay the glass flint upon the melted wax, and on sliding it oft' it will be very evenly waxed; a dozen pieces may be prepared in succession; the writing may be raat^e with the end of a hard stick, &:c. Care must Le taken to lay the glass pci fectly bare through all the strokes, or there will be interruptions in the etchincr. A Wax to lay on Iron and Steel. Take the bulk of a nut of white wax, melt it, and add the size of a musket ball of ceruse of Venice. When both are incorporated, form this composition into small sticks. With them rub your piece of iron or steel, after having previously warmed it sufl^ciently to melt the wax, which spread well over it with a feather. When tlie wax is cold, trace whatever you will on if, and pass after- wards on the lines you have drawn, the following water. A Mordant Water to engrave on Steel. Take the strong- est verjuice you can find; alum in powder, and a little dried salt, pulverized: mix until poifectly dissolved: then pass some of that water on the lines of your drawing, repeatingthc same till it is engraved. Or else take verdigris, strong vinegar, ammoniac and common salts, and copperas, ecjual parts. Set the compound a bojling for a quarter of an hour; then strain it through a rag, and run some of that water on your plate. In about half an hour afterwards it will he perfectly enirra- ved. * ^ ^ 10 3 tttk AktisT Aki3 See Collect's varnish, which is an admirable compb'sitiDh i6 lay on the plate you propose to engrave. To engrave with aqua-fortis. so that the work may appear tike basso relievo. Take equal parts of vermilion and black lead, two or three grains of mastic in drops, mix and grind them on marble, with linseed oil: then put the composition into a shell i then cut some soft quills, and let your steel or iron be well polislfed ; try first whether your colour runs suf^ liciently with your pens; and if it should not, you must add "a little more oil to it, so as to have your pen mark freely, as if you intended writing with ink on paper*, then rub well your plate of steel wiih wood ashes, to clean it \ after which wipe it with a cl»^ah i-ag", and draw your design upon it wiih •Vour pen, prepared as before. If you wish to dralv birds or other animals', you must on!y draVV the outlines of them with Vour pen, then fill up the inside of those lines with a hair pen- cil; that is, you must cover all the space contained between the first outlines dra\vn with the pen', the same colour, which you must lay With a brush to preserve all that part against the mord,acity of the aqUa-fortis. Wheh that is done, let your work dry for a da}' or two', and when dried, take somn fire made with charcoal into a chafing dish, and bakn over it your coioUr by degrees, till it bebomes quite brown. Take care notwithstanding; not to burn itj for fear you sliould scale it, when you come to scratch, with the point of a needle; iihose etchings or places which you wish to engrave with thb aqua-fortis. Aqua-Fortis for Engraving. Take verdigris; alurii; romi vitriol, and common salt, each, three ounces, pounded finelyj put little more than a quart of water into a new pipkin, and the articles mentioned ; infuse two hours, then place theni bvibi a charcoal fire, and when the water has in some degree fevapi^rated, take the pipkin from the fire, let it cool so as td bear your hand without scalding. Then take an earthen cupi and pour over the work intended to be engraven, the liquid;" ^ind continue to do, so for nearly three quarters of ah hour Then pour on it clean water, to wash ofi' every impurity; Try the debtli of the lines of your engraving with a needl^i and if not sufficiiently prepared, the process of wetting it witH the mixture, must be again repeated; care should be takieii} that, the liquid is not too warm, as it will spoil the work;, To engrave on Brass ro Copper with Aqua-Fortis, Add tradesman's guide. 109 more mastic in drops to your colour, and bake the plate until it beconaes nearly black; if a flat work, raise round it a bor- der of wax, to prevent the aqua-fortis from running off, which is to be a separating aqua-fortis, with which, cover the plate to the thickness or a crown; after it has been thus covered for a little while, it becomes green; then tiircw it away, and pour in its place some clear water, now examine the lines; if not of sufficient depth, put on some more aqua-fortis. To engrave prints by Aqua-Fortis. Grind some ceruse with clear water; size with isinglass. Lay this on the plate with a coarse brush, or pencil. When dry, draw on it your design. Or, if you wish to counterproof a copperplate print, blacken the back of the print, and place that part on the plate, prepared as before; go over all the strokes of the print, with a smooth ivory or wooden point, which stamps the back of the print,in all those places, on the plate; then go over the black strokes on the plate, with a pen and ink; afterwards take a steel point, very fine and well tempered, etch the plate with it, in follov.ing all the strokes marked on it, and pour aqua-fortis as heretofore directed. Directions to be observed in engraving ivith Aqua-Fortis, The plate must be well polished and perfectly clean; warm it over a chafing dish, in which there is a charcoal fire. While over the firc,*cover it with varnisht then blacken it with the smoke of a candle,- then chalk yoi?r design. The artists gen- eralJy prefer drawing the outlines of their work, that the spirit and beautj- of the desii^^^ may be preserved. And for this purpose aqua-forti? is often employed to sketch lightly the o\ytimes of tho ilguers, and to have them more correct'. It IS necessp-^y ^o touch a little occasionally with the graver, . certairp^r^s where the aqua-fortis has not eaten in sufficiently. Ij, putting the aqua-fortis on the plate, care should be taken, /ariiig compariitious lor applying to the nielali before the acid is apjiliod ; they generally make use of something tor writing the letters, which wili flovv from the pen like ink. Then lliey surround the whole space to be acted up^n, by aft edging to confine the acid, and pour on the acid, instead of immersing the metal in it, as is more particularly described in this chapter. This is called etching in basso-relievo. To make Blue Letters on Sword JBlades, Take a well ^lolished sword blade and hold it over a charcoal fire^ till it is blue, then wilh oil colour^ write such letters, (or make such figures) as you wish should appear and remain, and let iliem dry ; then warm some strong vinegar, and pour all over iho -blade, which will iiiiallibly take off the blue colour. Afeer 'this process, a little coaimon warm water will take off tha «il colour, and tiie letters or figures will appear and remam of a curious and indelible blue; the same may be done oa any polished steel. CHAPTER XX. Sculpture — the process of casting In Plaster — Composition of Aficient Statutes — Printing — Printers types. To ascertain when the art of sculpture was first practised and by what nation, is bcN'onl human research ; we may safely conjecture, however that it was one of the original propensities of man. This wiU still appear in the an-'enc and irresistible impulse of youth to make representations of ob- jects in wood ; and the attempts of savages to embody their conceptions of their idols ; a command from the Author o' our being, was necessary to prevent the ancient Israelites from making graven images: and the inhabitants of the rest of the earth possessed similar propensities. The descriptions in the Scriptures demonstrate that the art had been brought to great perfection at the period of which they treat. It is necessary to make a distinction between carving and sculp- ture ; the former belongs exclusively to wood, and the latter to stone or marbel. The acknowledged masters of this sub- lime art were the ancient Greeks. Such have been the excel- lence and correctness of their imitations of nature, and the refined elegance of their taste, that many of their works ara mentioned, as effoits never to be exceeded or perhTps imita- 112 THE ARTIST ANr» ted. Statuary is a branch of sculpture, employed in the ma- king of statues. The term is also used for the artificer him- self Phidias was the greatest statuary among the ancients, and Michael Angelo, among the moderns. Statutes are not only formed with the chisel from marble, and carved in wood but they are cast in plaster of Paris, or othei matters of the same nature, and in several metals, as lead, brass, silver, and gold. The process of Casting in Plaster of Paris. Mix the plaster with water, and stir it until it attains a proper con- sistence ; then pour on any figure, for instance, a human liand or foot, previously oiled in the slightest manner possible which prevents the adhesion of the plaster ; in a few minutes the plaster will be dry to the hardness of soft stone, taking the exact impression of every part, even the minutest pores of the skin. This impression is called the mould. When ta- ken from the figure that produced it, and slightly oiled, plas- ter mixed with water as before, may be poured into it, where it must remain until hardened ; if it be then taken from the mould, it will be an exeict image of thp on'g^Jnal figure. '\Tnen the figure is liat, having uo h'bllows, or high projections, it may be moulded in one piece, but when its surface is varied, it must be moulded in many pieces fitted together, and held in one or more outside or containing piece. This useful art supplies the painter and sculptor with exact repre- sentations from nature, and multiplies models of ail kinds. It is ])rac- ticed in snch perfection, that casts of the antique statutes are made so precisely like the originals in proportioh, outline, and surface, that no difference is discoverable, excepting in colour, and materials. Composition of Ancient Statues. According to Pliny, the metal used by the Romans, for their statues, and for the plates on which they engraved inscriptions, was composed in the following manner. They first melted a quantity of cop- per, into which they put one-third of its weight of old copper which had been long in use — to every hundred lbs. weight of this mixture, they added twelve and a half lbs. of alloy composed of equal parts of lead and tin. Metallic Casts from Engravings on Copper. A most im- portant discovery has lately been made, which promises to be of considerable utility in the fine arts ; some beautiful specimens ofmetalic plates of a peculiar composition, have lately appeared — under the name of" cast engravings." This T^RADESMAX'S GUIDE. 11$ invention consists in taking moulds from everj kind of en- gravings, with lime, mezzotinto, or aqiia-tinta, and pouring on this mould an alloy, in a state of fusion, capable of taking the finest impression. The obvious utility of this invention", as applicable to engravings, which meet with a ready sile, and of which great nunsbois are required, will be incalcula- -ble, as it will whollj'- prevent the expense of retracing, which forms so prominent a charge in all works of an extended sale. No sooner is one cast worn out tiian anoihor may be imme- diately procured from the original plate, so that every im- pression, will be a proof. Thus iho works of our most cele- brated ar.'ists, may be handed down, ad injinitum^ for tha improvement and delight of future ages and will afford at th© same time, the greatest saliisfaction to every lover of the fins arts. The art of Printing, deserves to be considered with atten- tion and respect. From the ingenuity of its contrivance, it lias ever excited mechanical curiosiiy ; from its intimate con- nexion with learning, it has justly claimed historical notice; ^nd from its extensive iiitiuence on morality, politics, and re- ligion, is now become a very important speculation. Coin- itigand taking impressions in wax, are of great antiqiiily, and the principle is precisely iliat of printing. Tiie application of this principle to the multiplication of books, cunsiituted the discovery of the art of printing. The Chinese have for many ages, printed with blocks, or whole pages engraved on wood. Cut the application of single letters or nioveabh* types fo-^^^ the merit of the European art. The honor of oiviug li^t to this method has been claimed by the cities of Harlaem,"*Ientz, and Strasburg; and to each of these it may be ascribed in some degree, as printers resident in each, made successive improveraen s in the art. It is recorded by a re- putable author, that Laurens Faustus, of Harlse.m, walking in a wood near that city, cut some letters upon the rind of a beech tree, whi h for fancy's sake, being impressed upon pa» per he printed one or two lines for his grandchildren ; and having thus succeeded, he invented a raoie glutinous ink be- cause he found that ihe common ink sunk and spread ; and then formed whole pages of wood, with letters cut upon theni and, (as nothing is complete, in its first invention,) the back- sides of the pages were pasted together, that they might have the appearance of manuscript^:, written on both sides of the ii4 THE ARTIST AND paper. These bcechen letters, he afterwards exchanged for leaden ones, and these again for tin and lead, as a flexible, and more solid and durable substance. He died in 1440, and by some, his first attempt is supposed to have been made about 1430, but by others, as early as 1423. From this period, printing has made a rapid progress in most of the principal towns of Europe, superceded the trade of copying, which, till that time, was very considerable, and was in many places considered as a species of magic. In 1490, it reached Constantinople, and was extended by the middle of the following century to Africa and America. During the period since its invention, what has not the art of printing effected"? It has blunted the edge of persecution's sword, laid open to man his own heart, struck the sceptre from the hand of tyranny, and awakened from its slumbers, a spirit of knowledge, cultivation and liberty. It has gone forth like an angel, scattering blessings in its path, solacing the wounded mind, and silently pointing out the triumphs of morality and the truths of revelation to the gaze of those, whom the want of precept or good example had debased, and whom ignorance had made sceptical. The fourth centennial anniversary of the invention of printing, was observed at Harlaem in Holland, on tho 10th and 11th July, 1823, with great rejoicing and a splendid festival. Printer's Types. Ten pounds of lead, and two pounds of antimony. The antimony must be thrown into the crucible, when the lead is in a state of fusion. The antimony gives a hardness to the lead, without which, the type would speedily be rendered useless, in a printing press; Difllerent propor- tions of lead; copper, brass and antimony, frequently consti- tute this metal. Every artist has his own proportions, so that the same composition cannot be obtained from different foundries ; each boasts of the superiority of his own mix- ture. Small Types and Stereotype Plates. Nine pounds of lead, and when melted, add two pounds of antimony, and one pound of bismuth. This alloy expands as it cools, and is therefore, well suited for the formation of small printing tj'pes (particularly, wheii many are cast together, to form stereotype plates,) as the whole of the mould is accurately filled with alloy ; conse- quently, there can be no blemish in the letters. 2. Eight tradesman's guide. il5 ^)arts of lead, two parts of antimony, and onc-tbird part of tin. For the manufacture of stereotype plates, plaster of Paris, of the consistence of a batter pudding before baking, is poured over the letter-press page and worked into the inter- stices of the types, with a brush. It is then collected from the sides, by a slip of iron or wood, so as to lie smooth and compact. In about two minutes, the whole mass, is harden- ed into a solid cake. This cake, which is to serve as the ma- trix of the stereotypy plate, is now put upon a rack in an oven, where it undergoes great heat, so as to drive off the su- perfluous moisture. When ready for use, these moulds, ac- cording to tlieir size, are placed in flat cast iron pots, and are covered over with another piece of cast iron, perforated at each end, to admit the raetalic composition intended for the preparation of stereotype plates. The flat cast iron pots are now fastened in a crane, which carries t^iem steadily to the metalic bath, or melting pot, where they are immersed, and kept for a considerable time, until all the pores and cre- vices of the mould are completely and accurately filled. When this has taken place, the pots are elevated from the bath, by working the crane, and are placed over a water trough, to cool graduall}'. When cold, the whole is turned out cf the pots, and the plaster being separated, by hammer- ing, and washing, the plates are ready for use, having recei- ved the most exact and perfect impression. CHAPTER XXI. Painting — historical — laiidscajje or portrait — cartoon of Ra» phael — of Paul preaching at Athens — as applied to pur- poses of building — practical operations — distemper , or painting in water colours — in oil — colouring prints — mix- ing colours. The art of painting gives the most direct and expressive representation of objects; and it was doubtless, for this rea- son employed by many nations, before the art of writing was invented, to communicate their thoughts, and to convey in- telligence to distant places. The pencil may be said to write a universal language; for ever}^ one can instantly understand the meaning of a painter, provided he be faUhful to the rules ot his art. His skill enables him to display the various scenes of nature at one view; and by his delineation of the striking effects of passion, he instantaneously effects the soul of the lib rUE ARTlsr AND spectator. Silent and uniform as is tire adddress wliicii a good picture makes to us, yet it penetrates so deeply into our affections, as to appear to exceed the power of eloquence. Painting is the most imiiative of all the arts. It uives to us the very forms of those, v/hose works of genius and virtu; have commanded or won our admiration, and transmits them from age to age, as if not life merely, but immortality flovvedi in the colours of the artist's pencil; or to speak of its still hap pier use, it preserves to us the linear^ents of those whom we love, when separated from us cither by distance or the tomb. How many of the feelings, which we should most regret to lose, would be lost, but for this delightful art, — feelings tbatl ennoble, by giving us the wish to imitate what was noble ini the moral hero or sage, on whom we gaze, or that comfort us| by the imaginary presence of those whose afiection is the onl5' thing dearer to us, than even our admiration of heroism orl wisdom. The value of painting will, indeed, be best felt by those who have lost by death a parent or much loved friendjj arid who feel that they should not have lost every thing, it some pictured memorial had still remained. Paintings, in regard to tlieir subjects, are called historical, landscape or portrait; and in regard to the painteis, they are divided into schools or countries; as the Italian, G.firsl size is intended to lay down all the threads, and fill bronah ^^ru ''^^'' ^^ P''^''^"^ t^^^ ^^^o^^' ^'''^ passing I toluuf ;vh- J '" *^^ /^^^^^ ^^ ^'y ^^y «" ^ ^««t of simple lia joiom , whicK may not destroy the others; for example, brown 120 THE ARTIST AND red, vvhicli is a natural earth, full of substance and lasting. If mixed with a little white load it will dry sooner. In grinding i this colour, use nut or linseed oil, and it sliould be prepared to lay on as tliin as possible. When this colour is dry, rub it again with the pounce stone, which renders it smoother: la}' another coat of white lead and charcoal black, to render the ! ground greyish, having care in putting on as little colour as ! possible, to prevent the cloth trom cracking, and for the bet- ter preservation of the colours to be laid afterwards. We will observe, that if there was no ground laid on the canvass of a picture, previous to painting it, and if painted directly on the bare cloth without any preparation, the colours won Id appear much more to their advantage, and preserve their brightness much longer. Some of the first mastess impreg- nate their canvass v/iih water colours only, and paint after- wards in oil over the ground. This method renders pieces more lively and bright, because the ground in water colours ! draws and soaks the oil from the colours, rendering them finer; wheieas, on the contrary, oil is the cause of this dulness, by its detention in their colours. It is desirable therefoie, to use as little oil as possible; and in order to keep tlie colours siiff, mix with them a little of the oil of spike, which will evaporate very soon, hut renders them more fluid and trac- table in working. We cannot recommend too much care in keeping the colours (for the least tint might destroy the best design) unmixed, either with brush or pencil. W^hen there is occasion to give more strong; h to some parts of the pic- ture, let it be well dried before it is interrutped again. The custom prevails of grounding the canvass with oil colours; but when the canvass is good and very fine, the less colour which can be laid on for that purpose is preferable. Care is also requisite, that the colours and oils are good. The leadj which some painters use to dry the sooner, soon destroysi their brightness and beauty. In short, he shows his judg- ment in painting, who is not hasty in laying his colours, ^ut lays them thick enough, and covers, at several times his car- nations, which, in terms of art is called empater. Directions f 07' Colouring Prints. All the colours used foj this purpose are ground with gum water, excepting calc"i green. For complexions, a mixture of white and ver^nlion. For the lips, lake and vermilion. For the shades, white and vermilion, and considerame um bor. tradesman's glide, 121 For the hair, white with very little umber; if a carroty co- lour, yellow ochre and brown red ; the shade \^ith bistre and lake, 'mixed together; if light, mix black, white, and umber together. ^For the clothes, if linen, white lead and a little blue ; if stufis, white lead alone, and the shades with a grey colour, made by means ofti mixture of black and white lead togeth- er. If a white cloth, a mixture of wliite and umber together, and shade with a compound of umber and black. If a red cloth, use vennilion in the lighter parts of tlie folds ; lake and vermilion, for the clear shades ; lake alone laid on the vermilion, will form the dark shades. Directions for mixing of Colours. Pale yellow for lights — white massicot. The chiaro ascuro, with the massicot and umber. The dark shade, with umber alone. Orange. Black lead, for the lights; shade with the lake. The lake is used very clear for the lights, m drapery, and thicker for the shades. Purple. Blue, white, and lake, for lights; blue, and lake, onb', for the clear shades; and indigo and blue for the darker ones. The pale blue is used for the lights ; and for the clear shades, a little thicker; but for the darker shades, mix the in- digo and blue together. The gold like yellow is made with yellow massicot for the lights — clear shades, a mixture of black lead and massicot — dark shade, lake, yellow ochre, and a very little black lead: and darkest of all, cologne earth and lake. The green is of two sorts. The first — massicot and blue, or blue and white; for the shade, make the blue predominate in the mixture. The other is made with calcined green, and their shades may he formed by the addition of indigo. For trees, mix green and umber together. The grounds are made in the same way. For the distance, mix blue and reen together. Mountains are always made with blue. The ies are made with blue, but add a little yellow when you 'Ome near tlie mountains, and to make the transition between .* nat and the blue, mix a little lake and blue together to spft- %i it. 't- Clouds are made witli purple ; if they be obscure, mix ike and indigo together. Stones are made with white and 'fellow mixed fogether; and their shades with black. ;^ ■ 11 122 THE -ARTIST A^'D CHAPTER XXII. Paints — Cosmetics — to imitate 3£arblc, — to dye Bones — Co- lours for shoic Boitles — -for 31aps — to imitate Ebony — to imitate Gold, Silver, or Copper — to ivhitcn Bones- -Co- louring principles of Blood — -Meialic Watering. Patent Yelloic. Pulverise coniuion table salt very finely; put it into Wedgwood's mortar; add to it twice as much red lead, pulverised : rub them v/cll together first ; llien add wa- ter a very Utile at a time, and continue rubbing until a paste is formed. The muriate of lead will now be formed, and the soda disengaged; pour in a large quantity of water and wash it seveial times ; the soda will v ash out aixl leave a white mass; dry this mass and then melt it in a crucible, and a beautiful substance- will be formed, called patent yellow, which is one of the most durable pigments. 2. Common salt 100 lbs. litharge 400 lbs. ground together with water; keep for some time in a gentle heat, water being added to stipply the loss by evaporation, the natron then wash- ed out with more water, and the white residuum heated till it acquires a fine yellow colour. ^ Flake IVhite. Made .by suspending rolls of thin sheet lead over vinegar in close vessels'; the evaporation from the vinegar being kept up by the vessels being placed in a heap of manure, or a steam bath. 2. By dissolving litharge in diluted nitrous acid, and adding- • prepared chal'^ to the. solution ; astringent, cooling; used externally : also employed as paint, mixed v/ith nut oil. Protoxid of Lead. Melt some lead in a ladle, and scrape off the pellicle which forms on its surfiice several times, or until a sufficient quantity is obtained ; part of this is oxidated - and part is not ;.now put this into a ladle by itself: and expose it to a low red heat, continuallj^ stirring it with a rod until it becomes of a yellow colour. •', This is the massicot used in the arts ; also for setting a fine edge to razors, for polishing burnishers, &c. J^ed Lead. Put some massicot'mto a iadle ; cov^er it ovej, loosely with an earthen or iron plate, and raise the heat ;- raise up one side in llrb plate, and stir it often, until it be- comes of a bright red ; care nlust be taken not to raise the ' heat so high as to drive off the oxygen, previously acquired ; tradesman's guide. 123 thereby bringing it again to a state of pure melted lead ; it is very difficult to succeed in this operation with small quan- tities. This is the 7-CfZZe«r/ used by painters; and it is on this principle, but with a different apparatus, the lead of the shops is manufactured ; but it is genaially very impure. Florence Lake. Pearl "ashes ojie ounce four drachms, wa- ter a sufficient quantity, dissolve; alum two ounces four drachms, water, q. }). dissolve; filter both solutions and add the first to the alum solution while warm ; strain : mix the sedi- ment upon the strained with the first coarse residuum obtain- ed in boiling cochineal with alum, for making carmine, and dry it. Common Lake, Make a magestcry of alum, as in making- Florence lake ;" boil o|ie ounce four drachms Brazil dust in three pints 'of water, strain ; add the magestery, or sediment of alum, to the strained liquor; stir it v>'ell ; let it settle, and dry the sediment in small lumps. Fine Madder Lake. Dutch grappe madder (that is, mad- der root ground between two mill stones, a small distance apart as in grinding pearl or French barley, so that only the bark, which contains the moist colour is reduced to powder, and the central woody part of the wood left) two ounces, tie it up in a cloth, -beat it up in a pint of water in a stone mortar, repeat it wifh fresh water : in general five points will take out all the colour; boil, add one ounce of alum, dissol- ved in a pint of watei, then add one ounce and a half of oil of tartar ; wash the sediment, and dry; — produces half an ounce. Hose Phik. Whiting coloured with a decoction of brazil wood and akim. Dutch Pink. Whiting coloured with a decoction of birch leaves, dyer's weed, or French berries, with alum. » &tone Blue. Starch coloured with indigo. Litharge. Put some red lead into a ladle and heat it un- til it is partly melted, so that it begins to be agglutinated in a kind of scales. If not so bright a red it is a more durable colour. White Lead. Mako nitrate of lead as before directed, and dissolve it in water in a wine glass; pour into it a solution of pearlash and a white insoluble precipitate will fall down. Let the liquid be poured off, and the powder washed several 124 THE ARTIST AND times. This is the white lead of painters in its purest state* It is generally made by applying the vapour of vinegar to sheet lead, and contains some acetate of lead and other im- purities. Sv gar of Lead. Put some white lead into a Florence flask; put in about ten times as much good sharp vinegar(dis- tilled vinegar is best;) shake up several times and let it stand until the vinegar tastes sweet. Add more vinegar, and con- tinue adding by littles, until it will remain sour; evaporate and crystallize in the usual way. This is the acetate or sugar of lead used in medicire. White Vitriol, Pour diluted sulphuric acid upon zinc; leaving the zinc in escess: after the action ceases, pour off the clear liquids, which is the white vitriol in solution. If this be evaporated slowly, crystal will be formed. ^y a similar process the vitriol of the shops is manufac- tured. Chrome. Chrome is found in the state of an acid, com- bined with iron, called chromate of iri)n, it is sometimes found in granular lime rocks. When chromate of iron is pnlverized and mixed with nitrate of potish and heated to redness, a double decomposition takes place, and the chrom- ate of potash is produced. Dissolve chromate of potash in pure water, pour some of it in a solution of sugar of lead, and the beautiful yellow pig- ment, chromate of lead, will be precipitatedj pour it into nit- rate of mercury, cinnabar red is produced; into nitrate of silver, and common red is produced. The chromate of lead is now in general use as a yellow paint; a very small quantity mixed with white lead, gives the whole a beautiful yellow colour. Almond Bloom. Brazil dust one ounce, water three pints, boil, strain; add of isinglass, six drachms; (or cochineal, two drachms;) alum one ounce; borax three drachms; boil again, and strain through a fine cloth; used as a liquid cosmetic. Blue Vitriol. Boil copper filings in sulphuric acid, and the salt will be formed in the liquid state; this may be evap- orated in the usual v^^y. On this principle the blue vitriol of the shops is made, though the operation is not similar; the native sulphuret is heated and exposed to air and moisture, and thereby the peroxyde is obtained; then the salt is readily formed by pouring sulphuric acid upon it. TRADESMAN S GLIDE. 12 J X''erdig7'is. Cover a gallipot of boiling -vinegar with a ^iece of polished sheet cojiper; after a short time it will be Covered wirh a thin crust of verdigris. Upon this principle, though with a very different apparatus, the verdigris of the shops is made. Colours for Show Bottles. Yellow. Dissolve iron in spt. of salt, and dilute. Red. Spts. of hartshorn q. p. dilute with water and tinge with cochineal. 2. Dissolve sal. ammoniac in water and tinge with cochin- eal. Blue. Blue Vitriol and alum, of each 2 oz. water 24 oz, spts; of vitriol q. p. 2. Blue vitriol, 4 oz. water 36 oz. Green. Rough verdigris 3 oz. dissolve in spts. vitriol, and add 48 oz. water. Add distilled verdigris and blue vitriol to a strong decoc- tion of turmeric; Purple. Verdigris two drachms; spts. hartshorn 4 oz. water 18 ozi 2. Sugar of lead one ounce; cochineal one scruple; water K q; p. 3. Add a little spirits hartshorn to an infussion ot log- wood. Wash Colours for Maps or Writing. Yellow. Gam* \P' boge dissolved in water q. p. French berries steeped in wa- ter, the liquid strained,- and gum Arabic added. 2. Red. Brazil dust steeped in vinegar and alum added; Litmus dissolved in water, and spirits of wine added. 3. Cochineal steeped in water, strained, and gum added. 4. -Blue; Saxon blue dilluted with water q. p. Litmus rendered blue by adding distilled vinegar to its so- lution. 5i Green. Distilled verdigris dissolved In water, and guni added.- 6. Sap green dissolved in water, and alum added. Litmus rendered green by adding kali ppm. to its solu- tion^ English Verdigris. Blue vitriol 24 lbs. white vitriol l6 lbs. sugar of lead 12 Ibs; alum 2 lbs. all coarsely powdered, put in a pot over the fire and stirred till they are united into a mass, ••^11 126 THE AUTIST AND Venetian Crruss. Flake vvliite, cawk equal parts. Hamburg White Lead. Fiako \yhite 100 lbs. cawk 200 Ib's. Best Dutch White Lead. Flake White 100 lbs. ca^yk 700 lbs. English White Lead. Flake Vv'hite reduced in price by chalk, inferior to the preceding. Rouge. French chalk ppd. 4 oz. ol. amygd. 2 drachms, carmine one drachm. 2. Safflower, previously washed in water, until it no lon- ger gives out any colour, and dried, 4 drachms, kali pp. one drachm, ^Vater one pint; infuse, strain ; add French chcdk, scraped fine with Dutch rushes four ounces,' and precipitate the colour upon it Vv'ith loiiion juice a sufficient.quantit}'. Cologne Earthy Umber. Black or blackish. brown, mixed with brownish red, fine grained, earthy,- smooth 4o tlie touch, becomes polished by scraping, very light, burns with a disa- greeable smell found near Cologne ; used in painting both in water colours or in oil, wsed alsg hi liolland, to render snuff fine and smooth : very drtlerent from. the brown oclire — v.'hich is also called iimber,-and is- noKconibustible. Carmine. Boil one bunce'-of cQchincal, finely powdered, in twelve or fourteen pounds of, fain or.- cfistiiled .water, in a tinned copper vc"ss;cl, far ttirco minutes, then add twenty-five grains of alum and continue ^he* boilinj^ fbr-two minutes, then add twenty-five grains of alum and continue tJic boiling for two minutes longer, and let it cool ;-draw off the clear liqaoV as soon as it is only blood waitn, very carefully, into shallow vessels, and put thsm by, laying a sheet-of paper over them to keep out the dust for a couple of davs, b}' which time the carmine will have settled. |n case the carmine does not settle properly, a {qw drops of a solution of tin, i» e. dyej's spirit, or asolution of green vitriol vv'ill throv/ it down imme- diately : the water being then drawn off, the carmine is dried in a warm stove. The first coarse sediment serves to make Florence lake ; ths v/ater drawn off is liquid rouge. 2. Boil 12 oz. of Cochineal powdered, six drachms of alum in 30 lbs. of water, strain the decoction, add Imlf an ounce of dyer's spirit, and after the carmine has settled, decant the liquid and dry the carmine — yields about one and a half ounces, used as a paint by the ladies and by miniature pain- ters. TRADESMAN S GUIDE. 127 Whiting. Prepared from the soft variety of chalk, by diflusion in water, letting the water settle for two hours, that the impurities and coarser particles may subside ; then draw- -ing otV the still milky water, letting it deposite the finer sed- iment; is much finer than the pi*e])ared chalk of the apothe- tarics; but is principally used as a cheap paint. Ultramarine Blue. Lnpis lazuli — one pound is heated to redness, quenched in water, and ground to fine powder : to this is added yellow rosin six ounces ; turpentine, beeswax; Knseed oil, of each two ounces, previously melted together; and the whole made into a mass : this is kneaded in success- ive po'rtions of warm water, which it colours blue, and from whence it is deposited by standing, and sorted according to its qualities. It is a fine blue colour in oil. y Naples Yellow. Lead, one pound and a half; crude anti- 'mony, enc pound ; alimi and common salt, of each one ounce; calcined together, 2. Flake white, t.«^elve ounces ; diaphoretic antimony, two ounces; calcined alum, haWan cz. sal ammoniac, one ouncej calcine in. a cov^ered crucible 'with a moderate hoctt for three hours, 'SO thart at thd e«d of that time it may be barely red hot: with a Large poi'tion of dicrphore-tic antimon)' and sal am- -p:it>niac, it verges to a gold eal,o«r..> , ''Si:ticeh^s Green. ~ P'rt^cipitate a solution of two pounds of blue Vitriol iua sufFident quantity of cold water, by a solu- ;ti»n of eleyen ouiices of while arsei.ic, and two ounces of kali ppm. in two gallons of boiling watch, and wash the precipi- tate— used as a paint. Verditer Blue. I\Iade by the renners from the solution of copper obtained in precipitating silver from nitric acid, by heating it in copper pans; this solution they heat and pour upon v/hiting moistCMied with Avater, stirring the mixture every dny, till tlie liquor loses its colour, when it is poured off,' and a fresh portion of the solution poured on until the proper colour is obtained : — an uncertain process ; the col- our sometimes turning out a dirt}' green, instead of a {me blue. French Verdigris. Blue vitriol, twenty-four ounces, dis- solved in a sufficient quantitj' of water ; sugar of lead, thirty ounces and a half, also dissolved in water ; mix the solution ; filter, and .crystallize by evaporation. It yields about ten ounces of crystals; — ^^a superior paint to common verdigris,- 128 THE ARTIST AM) and certainly onght to be used in medicine, instead oF the common.. Pearl poiDcler. Magestry of bismuih ; French challc, scra- ped fine by Dutch rushes; of each a sufficient quantity-— i i^osmetic. Smalt — powder Blue. Is made from roasted cobalt, mel- ted with twice or thrice its weight of sand, and an equalii weight of potash: the glass is poured out into cold water,- ground to powder, washed over, and sorted by its fineness and the richness of ils colour. It is used in painting and getting up linen. Blap.hjiiaTi* s oil colour Cakes. Grind the colours first with oil of turpentine and a varnish made of gum mastic in pow- der, four ounces, dissolved without heat in a pint of oil of' turpentine : let them dry ; then heat a grinding stone by put-, ting a charcoal fire under it ; grind the colours upon it, and add an ointment, made by adding melted spermaceti, 3 lbs. i to a'pint of poppy oil ; take a piece of the proper size, make it into a ball; put this into a mould and press it. When these cakes are used, rub them down with poppy oil, or oil! of turpentine. JBroicji Red. By recalcining green vitriol, previously cal- cine'd to whiteness, hy an intense heat until rt becomes very red, and washing the residuum. Blackman' s Colours in Bladders. Are prepared with tiie spermaceti mixture, like his oil colour 'cakes, but the propor- tion of oil is larger* Kemp\s White, for Water'Colours. Ccckscomb spar, q. ;; p. spirits of salt, a sufficient quantity ; dissolve — add carbo- nate of ammonia to precipitate the white; and dry in cakes for use. Crayons. Spermaceti, three ounces, boiling water, on^ pint; add bone ashes finely ground, one pound, colouring 1 matter, as ochre, &c. q. p. roll out tlio paste, and when half dry, cut it in pipes. 2. Pipe clay, coloured with ochre, &cc. q. p. — make it a paste with alewort. English Verdigris. Blue vitriol, 24 pounds, white vitriol, 16 pounds, sugar of lead, 12 pounds, alum, 2 lbs., all coarsely powdered, put into a pot over the fire and stirred till they are united into a mass. VanhermaiCs Fish Oil Faints. The oil for ininding white trauesman's guide. 129 Is made by puttihg litharge, and white vitriol, of each twelve pounds, into 32 gallons vinegar, adding after some time, a ton of whale, seal or cod oil ; the next day the clear part is poured off, and 32 gallons of linseed oil, and Iwo gallons of oil of . turpentine, are added. 2. The sediment, left when the clear oil is poured off, mixed with'half its qnantit}^ of lime wa;er, is also used under the name of prepared residue oil, for common colours. 3. Pale Green, Six gallons of lime water, whiting, and I road dast, of each one hundred weight, thirty pounds of blue black, 24 pounds of yellow ochre, wet blue (previously ground [ in prepared residue oil) twenty pounds — thin with a qurtppd. I residue oil to each 8 pounds, and the same quantity linseed i oil. i 4. Bright Green. 100 lbs. yellow ochre, 150 lbs. of road Idust, 100 lbs. of wet blue, 10 lbs. blue black, 6 galls. Wnre I water, 4 galls, ppd. residue and linseed oil, seven and a half t galls, of each. \i. 5. Lead Cotonr. 100 lbs. whiting, 5 lbs. blue black, 28 : lbs. white lead, ground in oil, 56 lbs. road dust, 5 galls, lime I water, 2 1-2 galN. ppd. residue oil. ' 6. Brown Red. 8 galls, lime water, 100 lbs. Spanish I brow^n, 200 lbs. dust, 4 galls, ppd. fish oil, ppd. residue and linseed oil, of each four gallons, 7. YclloiD. Put in yellow ochre, instead of Spanish brown, as in the last. 8. Black. Put in lamp black or blue black. 9. Stone Colour. 4 galls, lime water. 100 lbs. whiting, 28 lbs. white lead, ground in oil, 56 lbs. road dust, 2 galls. ppd. fish oil, ppe. residue, and linseed oil, of each, 3 1-2 gal- lons. The cheapness of these paints, and the hardness and durability given to them by the road dust, or ground gravel, has brought them into great use, for common out door painting. Prussian Blue. Red argol and salt pctre of each two lbs. throw the powder by degrees into a red hot crucible ; dry- bullock's blood over the fire, and mix three pounds of this rlol 3ry blood with the prepared salt, aed calcine it in a crucible, till it no longer emits a flame ; then dissolve 6 lbs. of common alum in 26 lbs. of water, and strain the solution ; dissolve also 2 1 2 oz. of dried green vitriol in 2 lbs. water, and strain i,ii{|wlnle hot; mix the two solutions together, while boiling hot; It J 130 THE ARTIST AND _ dissolve the alkaline salt, calcined with blood, in 27 lbs. of water, and filter tliroiigh paper, supported upon linen ; mix this with the other solution, and strain through linen ; put the sediment left upon linen, while moist, into an earthen pan, and add one pound and a half of spirit of salt, — stir the mass and when the effervescence is over, dilute with plenty of wa- ter, and strain again- — lastly, dry the sediment. 2. Mix oneponnd of kali ppd. with two pounds dried blood put it into a crucible, or long pot, and keep it in a red heat till it no longer flames ar smokes, then take out a small por* tion, dissolve it in water, and observe its colour and effects upon a solution of silver in aqua-fortis, for when sufficiently calcined, it will neither look yellowish., nor precipitate silver of a brownish or blackish colour. It is then to be taken out of th3 fire ; and when cool, dissolved in u pint and a half of water. Take green vitriol, one part, common alum, one to" three parts ; mix, and dissolve them in a good quantity of water, by boiling, atul filter while hot : precipitate this solu- tion by adding a sufficient quantity of thf solution of ppd.^ alkali ; and filter — the precipitate v/ill be darker the less alum- is added, but it will be greener from the greater a.dmixture of the oxide of iron, which is precipitated, and which must be got rid of, by adding while moist, spirit of salt, diluting the mixture with water, and straining. 3. Precipitate a solution of green vitriol, with a solution of* ppd. alkali, and purify the precipitate v/ith spirits of salt — - precipitate a solution of common alum, with a solution of kali ppd. — mix the two sediments together, while diffused in warm water; strain and dry. Vermilion. Cinnahar. Put quicksilver in a glazed dish, set it on a sand bath, let it be well surrounded with sand every wa'y ; pour some melted brimstone over it, and with an iron spatula keep constantly stirring till the whole is con* verted into a black powder. With this powder fill the quar- ter part of a retort, with a short 'and wide neck. Place it first on a fire of cinders, — increase it by degrens, and con- tinue it for ten hours ; after which, make a blasting one twelve hourF. By the first fire there wiil arise a black flnme — hy the second, a yel- low, — and by the last, a red. As soon as tijis is the case let the vessel cool, and you will find in the receiver, aiid in the nock of the retort, a very fine cinnabar. Some, instead of a glass retort, use an earthen, ; or stone. tradesman's guide. 131 A Fine Azure. Boil and siiim well, sixteen pounds of chamber lye ; then, add one pound fine shellac, and five ounces of alum, in powder. Boil all together, till you ob- serve the chamber lye is well changed with the colour, which is determined by. steopuig a white mg in it — -if the colour does not please, boil it longer, ijnuergoing a repetrtion until satisfied. Now, put the iiqtior into a tlannel bag — without sutl'ering what runs into the pan under, to settle ; re-pour it into the. bag, and continue the process, till the liquor is quite clear and not tinged ; then with a wooden spatnla take off the lake, which is in the form of curd ; make it into small cakes, and dry them in a slxidc on new tiles; then they are in a stale to be kept for use. To 3Iarhle Wood. Give it a coat of blacking varnish ; repeat it as many times as'youthink necessary; then polish if- 2. Dilute some white vainish, lay it on the black ground, tracing with it, -such invitations as you like ; when dry, rub it lightly with rushes, then wipe it, "and give a last coat of transparent white varnish, when dry, polish it. To. imitate White Marjdc. Break and calcine the finest white marble, gnnd it fine and dilute it with size; lay two coats of this o-n the v.ood, v.iiich, when drv, jjolish and varnish asJicTore directed. To imiintc Block Tdarble. Burn lamp black in a ladle, red liot, then grind it with l>randy. For the bulk of an egg of black, put' the size of a pea in lead, in drops, as much of tallow, and the Srime quantity of soap — grind and mix"; then dilute it v/ith a very weak size water. Give four coats of this,- and then polish. To make Lamp Black for limning. Burn some nut shells Nin an iron pan, and throw them into another full of water ; 'then ^rind them on marble with ^either oil or varnish. Blue. Wh.iling ground v.ilh verdigris will make a very good blue. .^ A Fine Gj'ccn. Grind verdigris with vinegar, and a very small quantity of tartar ; then add a liitle*quicklime and sap green, which grind, with tiie rest, and put it into shells for ieoping. If it. becomes too hard, dilate \x with vinegar. 2. Grind on a marble stone, verdigris, and a third as much jf tartar, with white v/ine vinegar. Sap green. Express thiChlarkbeiry juice, when full ripe; 132 THE ARTIST ANG add some alum to it; put it in a bladder, and hang it In some ; place to dry. To make Lake. Take three parts of an ounce of Brazil wood, a pint of clear water, one and a half drachms alum, eighteen grains salt of tartar ; the bulk of two filberts of mineral ct3'stal ; three quarters of a pound of the whitest sound fish bones, rasped ; mix, bo.il till reduced to one third; strain three times through a coarse cloth; then set it in the sun under cO'ver to dry. A Liquid Lake. On a quantity of alum and cochineal pounded and boiled together, pour drops of oil of tartar, until it becomes a fine colour. A Good Azure. Two ounces of quicksilver; sulphur and sal ammoniac, of each one ounce: grind all together, and put it to digest in a matrass over a slow heat; increase the fire a little; and svhen you see an azured fume arising, take the ma- tarss ofi'. When cool, as beautiful an azure is produced as ultramarine. To dije Bones black. Litharge and quicklime, of each six ounces; boil in common, water, with the bones; stirring them till the water begins to boil; then take it from the fire, and continue stirring the mixture till the water is cold, when the bones will become dyed black. To Di/e Bones green. Pound well together in a quart of strong vinegar, three ounces of verdigris, as much of brass filings and a handful of rue. When done put all in a glass vessel along with the bones you wish to dj'e, and stop it v/ell. Place this in a cold cellar; in a fortnight, the bones will be dyed green. To dye Bones and Ivory a fine red. Boil scarlet flocks in clear water, assisted with pearlashes to draw the colour; then clarify it with alum, and strain the tincture through a piece of linen. To dye bones or ivory in red, you must first rub them with aqua fortis and then immediately with the tincture. To whiten Bones. Put a handful of bran and quick lime together into a new pipkin, with sufficient quantity of water^ and boil it. Boil the bones in this until freed from greasy particles. To Dye Wood red. Soak chopped Brazil wood in oil of tartar; (or boil it in common water ;) give the wood a coat of yellow, made of saflron, diluted in water; when dry, TRADESMAN a; GUIDE. ISS give it several coats of the first preparation, till the hue be- comes pleasing. When dry hurriish it, and lay on a coat of drying varnish with the palm of your hand. If a very deep red Is wanted, boil the brazil wood in water, by adding a small quantity of alum or quick lime. To Dye Wood W/iiie and to produce a fine Polish. ¥\- ne:.t English white chalk ground in subtile powder on marble; then let it dry ; set it in a pipkin on the fire, with a weak si- zed water, having great care not to let it turn brown, — when hor, give nrst a coat of size to your wood ; lei it dry ; then give one or two coats of the while over it. These being dry also, polish with the rushes, and burnish. To Dye in Polished Black. Grind lamp black on marble witii gum water ; ihen put it into a jiipkm, and wiih a brush give the wood a coat of this; when diy, jjulish. To imifa/c Ebony. Infuse nui galls in vinegar, in which you have soaked rusty nails : rub the wood vv-th this, let it dry, polish and burnish. To imitate Gold^ Silver^ or Copper. Rodv crystal pul- verised very fine, put into water, warm it in a new pipkin, with a little size ; then give a coat of it on the wood with a brush. When dry, rub a pie<;e of gold, silver, or copper on the wood thus prepared, .md it will assume the colour of the metal which you rub it v/ith ; afier which burnish. Ivory Black. Is made by burning ivory till it is qvife black, which is usually done between two crucibles, well luted to- gether ; used either as an oil or water colour. Bone Black. From bones burnt in the sanie manner as ivory black ; used by pa nters, cf-c. Burnt cork is also used. Of the Colouring principle of Blood. After having drain- ed the clots of blood through a hair sieve, tincture it in an earthen vessel, with four parts of sulpliuric acid, previously diluted wiih eight parts of water, and heat the mixture at 70" (cent. — 158 deg. Fahrenheit.) for five or six hours: filter the liquor while hof, wliich contains the colouring principles of the blood, albumen, and probably some fibrin ; wash the resi- duum with water, equal in quantity to that (f the acid em- ployed ; evaporate the solutions to one half their bulk, then pour in ammonia suflicient to leave only a slight excess of acid ; stir it, and we obtain a deposite of a purple rv.d colour principally consisting of the colouring matter, and couiaining neither albumen, nor fibrin ; wash this deposite until the wa» 12 .5-i THE ARTIST A^iV tcr contains no more sulphuric acid, or does not preetpifafe^ any longer the nitrtite of barytes ; it is then put on -a tiher^ anJ dropped on blotting paper, from which it is taken by naeans of an ivory knife and dried on a capsule. Prtpared Ox, Gall. The fresh gall is left for the night to- settle; the clear iiuid poured ollVand evaporated in a water bath, to a proper consis'.ence ; used by painters in water col- ours, and thus enables them to form an even surface of colour; and also instead of soap to wasit greasy cloth. Cobalt^ is sold in tlie shops in the state of an imperfect oxide, called Zciffre, The pure metal is reddish gre\-. iMiX finely pulverized flint and borax, and put in a small- quantity of za tire. Melt this mixture with pretty strong heat in a crucible, and a strong blue glass will he produced. Or,, put a little- zatiVe in borax alone, or in pcarlash, and melt the mixture. The smalt sold in shops in powder i^ merely pulverized glass prepa- red as a-bove. Metallic Watcr'mg, or for Blanc Moire. This article of Parisian invention, whicli is much employed to cover cabinet ornametjtal work, dressing boxes, telescopes, &c. is prepared' as follows : dilute sulphuric, acid, with from 7 to 9 parts of water ; then dip a sponge or rag into it,, and wash the surface' of a siieet of tin ; this will speedily exhibit the appearance of crj'stallization, which is th(! moire. This eQbct is not easily produced upon every sort of sheet tin ; for if much hardened by hammering and rolling, then the moire cannot be effected until the sheet has beert heated so as to produce an incipient fusion on the surface, after which the acid will act upon it, and produce en incipient fusion on the surface, after which the acid Vrill act upon it, and produce the moire. Almost any acid will do as well as the sulphuric, and it is said the nitric acid, dissolved in a sufhcient quantity of water, arswers bet- ter than any oth^r. The moire can be much improved by employing the blow-pipe, to form small and beautiful specks on the surface of the tin, previous to the application of tiie acid. When the moire has been formed, the plate is to be varnislied and polished, the varnish being tinted with any gla- zing colour, and thus the red, green, yellow, and pearl col- oured moires/are manufactured. Zaffre. One part of roasted cobalt, ground with two or three parts of very pure quartzose sand ; is either in a cake niADES.MAX's GUIDE. 135 '€.r teduced to powder : used as a blue colour fur painting glass. Purjtle Precipitate; Cassin's Purple. Solution of gold in Trqun-rogia, 1 oz. di:.tiUed water, I 1-2 Jb. ; hang it in the li- quid slips of tm-. 2. By precipitating the diUited solution of gold, by dyer's spirit, will communicate a purple colour to glass, when melted in an open vcssgL In a close vessel the glass receives no co» lour, ' CHAPTER XXIII. ^^arnishes — to give a Dri/ing Quality to Oils — Oils — Japans — Bronzing Liquor— Incisibh Inks. To 7ijake White Copal Varnish. 1. White oxide of lead, ■cerused, Spanish, white, white claj'. Such of these snbstan- =ces as are preferred ought to be carefully dried. Ceruse and claj's obstinately retain a sjreat deal of humidity, whii^h\vould oppose their adhesion to drying oil or varnish, Tiie ce- ment then crumbles under the fingers, and does not assume a body. 2. On iG ounces melted copal, pour 4, 6, or 8 ounces of linseed oil, boiled and quite ^i:v.e from grease ; when well mixed by repeated stirrings, and after they are pretty cool, .pour on JG ounces of the essence of Venice turpentine. Pass jhe varnish through a cloth. Amber Varnish, is made in the same way. Black. Lampblack made of burnt vine tv.'igs, and black thirds, according to the tint intended to be given.- The white used for this purpose is the ceruse, or the white oxide of lead, or Spanish white, which is less solid. Red.: Red sulphuretted ox'sde of mercury, (cinnabar ver- milion,) red oxide of lead, (aiiniuni) dilTerenl red ochres, or Prussian reds, <^'c. Purple. Cochineal, carmine, and carminated lakes, with ceruse, and boiled oil. Brick. Dragon's blood. Chamois Colour. Dragon's blood, with ^i paste c^Tiposed of flowers of zinc; or, what is still better, a little re* vermil- ion. Violet. Red sulphuretted oxide of mercury, n)ilid glazing, and com* muiiicates a slight tint to the wood. If it be required to change this varnish wi:h more copal, or prepared amber, the liquid must be composed of two parts of essence for one of od. Compound Mastic Varnish. Thirty-two ounces of pure alrohol, six ounces of purified mastic, three ounces of gum TllADESMAiN « «Lli)E. 13^ ^andarac, ounces of very clear Veuice turpentine, and four ounces of glass, coarsely pounded. Reduce the mastic and sandarac of fine powder; mix with white glass, from which the finest parts have been separated by a hair sieve; put all the ingredients, with alcohol, into a short necked matrass, adapted to a stick of white wood rounded at the end, the length proportioned to the height of the ma- trass, that it may be put in motion. Expose the matrass in a vessel filled with water, made at firct a little warm, and which must afterwards be maintained in a state of ebullition for one or two hours. The matrass may bo made fast to a ring of straw. When the solution is sufticiently extended, add the turpen^ 'tine, which must be kept separately in a phial, or pot, and which must be melted, by immersing it in a bainucm marias for a moment; the matrass must be still left in the water for lialf an hour, when it may be taken off, and the varnish stir- red till somewhat cool. Next day draw off and filtei through cotton. By these means it will become exceediiigly limpid. The addition of glass may appear extraordinary; but it divides the parts of the mixture, which has been made with the dry ingredients, and the same quality is retained when placed over the fire. It obviates uiih success two inconveniences very tVoublesome to those who compose varnishes. First, by dividing the matters, it facilitates the action of the alcohol, and in the second, its weight, which surpasses that of resins; prevents these resins from adhering to the bottom of the ma- trass, and also the coloration acquired by the varnish, where a sand bath is employed, as is commonly the case. The ap- plication of this varnish is suited to articles belonging to the toilette; such as dressing boxes, cut paper work &c. The following possesses the same brilliancy and lustre, but have more solidity, and are very drying. Camphorated Mastic Varnish for Paintings. Tw^i\ve -t>unces mastic, cleaned and v/ashed, one and a hfdf ounces pure turpentine, and a half ounce of camphor, five ounces white glass, pounded, and thirty-six ounces ethereous essence of turpentine. Make it according to the method indicated for that of the first genus. The campiior is employed in pieces; the turpentine added, when the solution of resin is completed. If the varnish is to be appli«'d to old paintings, or those which have been already varnished, the turpentine 140 THE ARTIST AND may be suppressed, as it is recommended here, only in cas^S of a first application to painiings, and just freed from white of egg varnish. Tlie ethereoiis essence recommended, is t'cat distilled "slowly, without any intermediate substance, according to the second process already given for its rectification. The question by able masters lias never yet been determined respect- ing the kind of varnish proper to be employed for paintintrs. Some artists have paid particular attention to this object, am! make a mystery^ of the means they employ. The real end. may be obtained by giving the varnish, d'islined for painting, pliability and softness, without being too solicitous in regard to what may add to its consistence or durability. The latter quality is particularly requisite m those which are to be applied to articles much exposed to friction, as boxes, furnitu'*e, &G. To make Painter''s Cream. Painters who have long in- tervals between their periods of labour, are accustomed to cover the parts they have priinted with a preparation which- preserves the freshness of the Colours, and which they can remove w!iea they resume their work. The preparation is ag follows: Three ounces very clean nut oil, half ori ounce mastic iri tears; pulverized, and one-third of an ounce s,h\ saturni, iti powder. Dissolve the mastic oil over a gentle fire, and [>our the mixture into a njarble mortar, oVer the pounded salt of lead; stir it with a wooden pestle, and add \yater in small qumtities, till the matter assumes the appearance and consis- 'tence of cream,, and refuses to admit more water. Saadarac Varnish. Eight ounces gum sandarac, two ounce^ pounded mastic, four ounces clear turpentine, four ounces pounded glass, and thirty-. wo ounces alcohol; mix and dis- s"olve as before. Compound Sandarac Varnish. Three ounces pounded copal, of an amber colour; once liquified, six ounces gum. ■sandarac, tiiree ounces mastic, cleaned, two and a half ounces clear turpentine, four ounces pounded glass, and thirty-tsvo ounces pure alcohol. Mix these ingredients; pursuing the ^anje method as above. This varnish is destined for articles subject to friction, sucli as furni"^ lure, chairs, fan sticks, mouldings, <^-c. and even metals, to wliich it may be applied with success. The sandarac gives it great durability. Camphorated Sandarac Varnish for Cut Paper Work, Dressing Boxes, S^c. 1. Six ounces sandarac, four ounces gum clemi, one ounce gum anima, half an ounce camphor, four ounces pounded glass and thirty-two ounces alcohol. tradssjian's etflDE. 141 Make the varnish according to directions already given. The soft resins must be pounded with the dry bodies; camphor to be added in small pieces. 2. Six ounces gallipot or white incense, two ounces gum ani- ma, two ounces pounded glass, and thirty-two ounces alcohol. Make the varnish with the precautions indicated for the com- pound mastic varnish. The two last varnishes are to be used for ceilings and wainscoats, coloured or otherwise : they may. be employed as a covering to parts painted with strong col- ours. Spirituous Sandarac Varnish /or IVainscotting, Small Ar- ticles oj Furniture^ Balustrades, and Inside Railing. Six ounces of gum sandarac, two ounces of shell-lac, four ounces of cojophoniuni or resin, four ounces white pounded glass, four ounces of clear turpentine and ihirty-two ounces of pure alcohol. Dissolve the varnish as before directed for com- pound mastic varnisb. This varnish is sufficiently durable to be applied to articles destined to daily and continual use. — • Those composed with c( pal, in these cases ought to be pre- ferred. 2. There is another composition, which without forming "part of the compound varnishes is employed with success for ■giving a polish and lustre to furniture made of wood : wax forms the basis of it. Many cabinet makers are contented to wax common furniture. This covering by means of repeated friction, soon acquires a polish and transparency which re- sembles those of varnisii. Waxing seems to possess quali- ties peculiar to itself: but like varnish is attended with in- conveniences as well as advantages. Varnish supplies better the part of glazing; it gives a lustre to the wood which it covers, and heightens the colours of that destmed in particu- lar, for delicate articles. These real and valuable advantages are counterbalanced by its want of consistence ; it yields too easily on the shrinking or swelling of the wood, and rises in scales or slits, on being exposed to the slightest shock. These accidents can be repaired only by a new strata of varnish. Waxing stands shocks, but has not the property of giving lustre to the bodies on which it is applied, in the same de- gree as varnish, and of heighieiiing their tint?. The lustre it communicates is dull, but the inconvenience is compensated, by the facility which any accident that may have altered its polish can be repaired, by rubbing it with a piece of fine cork. 142 THE AP.TIST AND The application of wax under some circumstances, tlierefo;*© outrlit to be preferred to that of varnish. This seems to b© the case in particular with tables, exposed to daily use, and all articles subject to constant en)ployment. The stratum of wax should be made as thin as possible, that the veins of the wood may be more apparent ; tiierefore the following process may be acceptable to ihe reader. Melt over a moderate fire, in a very clean vessel, two ounces of white or yellow wax ; when liquified, add four ounces good essence of turpentine ; stir the whole, until entirely cool, and a kind of pomade is produced, which must be rubbed over furniture ^according to the usual methods The essence of turpentine is soon dissi-- pated, but the wax by which its mixture is reduced to a state of very great division, may be extended with more ease, and IB a more uniform manner. The essence soon penetrates the pores of the wood, calls forth the colour of it, causes the wax to adhere better, aad the lustre which then results is equal to that of varnish. Coloured Var/iish fo-' Violin, and other stringed Instru- ments^ also for Plumb Tree^ Mahogany and Rose Wcod.—^ Four ounces of gum sandarac, two ounces of seed-lac, two ounces of mastic, one ounce of Benjamin in tears, four oun- ces of poinded glass, two ounces of Venice turpentine, and thirty-two ounces of pure alcohol. The gum sandarac anJ seedlac render this varnish durable ; it may be coloured with a litile dragon's blood or saffron. Fat Varnish of a Gold Colour. Eight ounces of amber, fi two ounces of gum lac, eight ounces of drying .linseed oil, and sixteen ounces essence of turpentine. Dissolve separ- ately the gum lac, and then add the amber, prepared and pul- verized with the linseed oil and essence very warm. When the mixture has lost part of its heat, mix in relative propor- tions, tinctures of arnotto, terra merita, gum guttse and dra- gon's hlood. This varnish when applied to white metals, gives them a go^d. colour. Fat Turpentine, or Gold Varnish, being a mordant to gold and dark colours. Sixteen ounces boiled linseed oil, eight ounces Venice turpentine, and five ounces Naples yel- low. Heat the oil with the turpentine, and mix the Naples yellow pulverized. Naples yellow is an oxide of lead; it is itibslituted here for rcsius on account of its drying qualities, 145- aiul in jiarticukr, of its color, wlilcli resembles that of gold ; great use is made of the varnish in applying gold leaf. The yellow may be omitted Avhen this species of varnish is to be solid. and ustd on coloured coverino-s ; in this case an ounce of lilharge it> t;ir;h pound of composition n.ay be substituted, without this mixture doing an injury to liie colour of which it is to constitute the ground, Tuiner''s Varnish for Boxwood, Five ounces seed-lac, T^vo ounces fium sandarac, one ounce and -a half gum elemi, two ounces Venice turpentine, five ounces pounded glass, and twenty-four ounces pure alcohol. Tiie artists of St. Claude do not all employ this formula, which reciuried to be corrected un account of its too great dryness, which is here lessened by the turpentine and elemi. This composition is secured from cracking, which disfigures these boxes after having been used for some months. 2. Other turners use gum lac united to a little elemi and turpentine digested sonn; months in pure alcohol exposed to the sun, Jn pursuing this method, substitute for the sandarac, the same quantity of gum lac reduced to powder, and not to add the turpentine to the alcohol (which ought to be very pure) till towards the end of the fusion. Solar infusion re- quires care and attention; vessels of sulljcient size to allow the spirituous vapours to circulate ficely, ought to be em- ployed, because it is necessary that the vessel should be closel}' shut. VV^ithout this precaution the spirits would be- come weakened, and abandon the resin which they laid hold of during the first days of exposure. This periect obiiura- tion will not admit of the vessels being too full. In general, the varnishes applied to articles which may be put in the lathe acfjuire a great deal of brilliancy by polishing; a piece of woollen cloth is sufficient for the opeiation. If turpentine predominates too much in these compositions, the polish does not retain its lustre, because the heat of the hands is capable ot softening tlie surface ol the varnish, and in this state it readily tarnishes. To varnish Dressing Boxes. The most of spirrt of wine varnishes are destined for covering preliminary preparations, which have a ceitain degree of lustre. They consist of cement coloured or otherwise, charged witii landscapes and •figures cut into paper, which produces au effect under the transparent varnish; most of the dressing boxes, and other 144 THE ARTIST ANJ9 small articles of the same kind, are covered with this partic- ular compositon, which, in general, consists of three or four coatings of Spanish white, poured in water and mixed with parchment glue. The first coating is smoothed with pumice stone, and tiien polished with a piece of new linen and water. The coating in this state is fit to receive the destined colour, after it has been ground with water. The cut figures with which it is to be embellished, are then applied, and a coating of gum, or fish glue is spread over them, to prevent the var- nish from penetrating to the preparation, and from spoiling the figures. The operation is finished by applying three or four coatings of varnish, wliich, when dry are polished with tripoli and water by means of a piece of cloth. A lustre is then given to the surface, with starch and a bit of doe skin, or very soft cloth. Gallipot Varnish. Twelve ounces gallipot o-r white in- cense, five ounces glass pounde.J, two ounces Venice turpen- tine, and thirtj^-two ounces essence of turpentine. Make^ the varnish after the white incense has been pounded with glass. Some recommend mastic or sandarac in the room of gallipot; but it is neither more bedutjful nor durable; when the colour is ground wirh the preceding varnish and mixed up with the latter, which, if too thick, is thinned wiih a little essence, and which if applied imnjediately, without any siz- ing to boxes and other articles, the coalings acquire sufficient strength to resist the blows of a mallet. But if the varnish bo applied to a sized colnur, it must bo covered with a var- nish of the first or second genus. Mastic Gallipot Varnish^ for Grinding Colours. Four ounces new gallipot or white incense, two ounc os mastic, six ounces Venice turpentine, four ounces pounded glass, and thirty-two ounces essence turpentine. With the precautions already indicated, add prepared nut oil, or linseed oil, two ounces. The matteis ground with this varnish dry more slowly ; they are then mixed up with the following varnish, if it be for common painting, or with particular varnishes des- tined for colours and for grounds. Mordant Varnish for Gilding. One ounce mastic, one ounce gum sandarac, half an ounce gum guttse, quarter of an ounce turpentine, and six ounces essence turpentine. Some artists who make use of mordants, substitute for the turpen- tine, an ounce of the essence of lavender, which renders this l]^ADi:SATA\"s GUIDE. ' 145 voni'jositlon less drying. In general tlio composition of -^-jQj.^aats admi« of niod'Tications, accoiding to the work lor wl)^<^^i they are destined. The application of them, ',jQ5^-ever, is chieiiy confined to gold. W4ien it is required to ijll up a desjg^n with gold leaf on any ground whatever, the composition wliich is to serve as the means of union hetvveen the metal and the ground.; ought neither to be too thick or ^luid ; because botli these circumstances are equally injurious to delicacy in the strokes ; it will be reqasite, also, that the composition should not drj' till the artist has completed his design. Other Mo7Ylants, 1. Some prepare their mordants with Jew's pitch and drj'ing oil dilated v/it!i essence of turpentine. They employ it for gilding pale gold, or for, bronzing. Oth- ers imitate tJie Chinese, and mix with their mordants colours proper for assisting the tone which they are desirous of giv- ing to the gold, such as yellow, red, «fec. Others employ fat varnish, to which they add a little red oxide of lead. Others use thick glne, in which they dissolve a little honey. This is what they call batfuze. When they wish to heighten the colour of the gold, this glue is employed, to which the gold leaf adheres extremely well. * 2. The qualities of the foll()\nng are fit for any kind of application, and particularly to metals. Expose boiled oil to a strong heat in a pan ; v/hen a black smoke is disengaged from it, sot it on fire, and extinguish it in a few minutes after by putting on the cover of the pan. Then ])our the matter still waim, into a heated bottle, and add to it a little essence of turpentine. This mordant dries very speedily; it has body, and adheres to. an, I strongly retains, gold leaf, when ap[>!i- J to wood; metal, and other .sub- stances. Varnish for Pails and other toarscWo^jd icork. Take arty quantity of tar, and grind it with as nuich Spankli faf-own as it will bear, without rendering it too thick {6 bo used' as 'a paint or varnisli, and then- spread it on the pails, or bthei' wood, soon as convenient, for it quickly hardens by keeping. This mixture should be laid on by a large brush, the woVk to be kept free from dust and insects as possible, till the vai-nish. is perfectly dry. On wood it will have a very good gloss, is an excellent preservative against moisture, on which account, 146 THE ARTIST AKB as well as its being cheaper, it is far preferable to painting not only for pails, but for weather-boardiTg and aH other kinds of wood work for gross purposes. When the glossy brown colour is not liked, the work may bb^iade of a greyish brown, by mixing a small proportion of white lead, ., whiting and ivory black, with the Spanish brown. A Black Varnish for old Straw or Chip Hats. Half an ounce of the best black sealing wax, two ounces of rectified spirits of wine. Powder the wax, put it with the spirits into a four ounce phial; digest them in a sand heat, or near the fire till the wax is dissolved; lay it on warm with a fine soft hair brush, before a fire or in the sun. It prodtfces a stiff-, ness to old straw hats, and gives a beautiful gloss, and resists wet. To make Varnish for Colored Drawings. One ounce Canada balsam, two ounces spirits of turpentine : mix them together. Before th-s compositon is applied, the drawing or print should be sized with a solution of isinglass in water ; and when dry, apply the varnish with a camel's hair brush. To make a Varnish for JVood ivhich resists the action of boiling water. One and a half pounds of linseed oil, boil it in a red copper vessel, not tinned. Suspend ovef it in a small linen basf, five ounces litharge, and three ounces pul- verized minium, taking care that the bag does not touch the bottom of th« vessel ; continue the ebullition till the oil ac- quires a dark brown col(;ur, then take away the bag and sub- stitute another in its place, containing a clove or garlic ; con-_ tinue the ebullition, and renew the clove or garlic seven or eight times, or rather put them all in at once. Then ilirow into the vessel a pound of yellow amber, when it is melted in the following manner ; add t«> the pound of amber, well pul- verized, two ounces linseed oil ; place the whole on a strong fire. When the fusion is complete, pour it boiling into the prepared linseed oil, and continue to leave it boiling for two or three minutes, stirring the .whole up well. It is then left to settle ; the composition is decanted and preserved, when it becomes cold, in well corked bottles. After polishing the wood on which this varnish is to be applied, give the wood the colour required. When the colour is perfectly dry, apply the varnish with a fine sponge ; repeat three or four times, taking care the preceding coat is well dried. tradesman's guide. l-^T To varnish Drawing and Card Work. Boil some clean P'cirehment cuttings in water, in a glazed pipkin, till they pro- duce a very clear size. Strain itand keep it lor use. Give the work two coats of the size, passing the buish quickly over the work, not to disturb the colours. j r> • A Composition for making Coloured Drawings and Prints rasembk Faintings in Oil. One ounce Canada balsam, two ounces spirhs of turpentine ; mix together. Before the com- poj.uion is applied, the drawing or print should be sized with a solution of ialuglass irr water. When dry, apply the varnish with a camel's hair brush. To varnish Harps' and Dulcimers. Prepare the , work with size and red ochre, then taice ochre, burnt umber, and red lead, well ground, and mix up a dark brown colour in tur- pentine varnish, adding so much oil of turpentine that the brush may just be able to pass over the work fair and even. While yet wet, take a muslin sieve, and sift as much Dutch metal, previously powdered upon it, as is requisite to produce the effect, after which varnish, and polish it. To varnish Glass. Pulverize a quantity of gum adragant; let it dissolve for twenty-f'^ur hours in the white of eggs beat up ; then rub it gently on the glass with a brush. To varnish Balloons. Dissolve elastic gum, cut small, in five times its weight of rectified essential oil of turpentine, by keeping them together; then boil one ounce of this solution in eight ounces drying linseed oil for a few minutes ; strain the solution and use it warm. The elastic resin, known by the name of India rubber has been much extolled for a var- nish. Tlie foregoing method as practised by M. Blanchard may not prove unacceptable. To varnish rarijied Air Balloons. M. Cavallp), recom- mends first to soak the cloth in a solution of sal ammonia and common size, using one pound of each hd every pound of wa- ter : and when quite dry, to paint over the inside with some earthy colour, and strong size or glue, when this paint has dried thoroughlj', it will then be proper to cover it with oily varnish, which might dry before it could penetrate quite through the cloth. Simple drying linseed ail will answer the -purpose as well as any, provided it be not very fluid. 'To paint Sail Cloth, ^^c. so as to be pliant, durable, and impervious to water. Grind ninety-six pounds English ochre, ^ith boiled oilj add sixteen pounds black paint, which mix's tare forms an indiircrent black. A poiiad of vcUow so-ao' dissolved in six pints of water over the fire, is mixed while liot with the paint. This composition is then laid upon the^ canvass, (without being wetted, as in the usual way,) as stiff as can be conveniently done with the brush, so as to form a smooth surflice; the next day, or still better, on the second day, a second coat of ochre and black, (without any, or but a very small portion of soap,) is laid on and allowing thl^ coat an intermediate day for drying the canvass is tlien finj«J*<^^» with black paint as usual. Three thiye is allo^rcd for it to dry and harden ; it will not stick tog&ther when taken down,, and folded in cloth, containing sixty or seventy yards each : and canvass finished entirely with the composition, leaving it to dry one day between each coat, will not stick together if laid in quantities. It has been ascertained from actual trials, that the solution of yellow soap is a preservative to red, yel- low and black paints, when ground in oil and put into casks, as they acquire no improper hardness and dry in a remarka- ble manner when laid on with a brush, without the use of the usual drying articles. It is surprising that the adaption of soap, v\-hich is so well known to be miscible witli oily substances, or, at least, tho alkali of which it is composed, has not been brought into, use, in the composition of all colours. Colouring Compositions far rendering Linen and Cloth impenetrable to watir. Begin by washing the stuff with hot water, then dry and rub it between the hands until it becomes perfectly supple; afterwards spread it out, by drav.'ing it into a frame, and give it with tiioaid of a brush, a first eoat, com- posed of a mixture of eight quarts of boiling linseed oil, cal- cined amber and acetate of lead seven and a half grammes, TO which add ninety grammes of lampblack. Use the same ingredients for the secimd coat, except the calx of lead. This coat will give a few hours, according to the season, after- wards take a dry plasterer*s brush aad rub the stuff strongly with it, when the hair, by this operation will become extrcmely smooth. The third and last coat will give a perfect and dura- ble jet black. Or rather take twelve quarts boiling linseed oil, ihirt}' grammes of amber, fifteen grammes of acetate of lead, seven and a half sulphate of zinc, fifteen Prussian blue, and 120 graaimes of lampblack. These coats are used o.l discretion as is done with r>aintiny. TRADESMAN ;j GUIDE. 149 To tMclien Linen Cloth for Screens and Bed Testers, Grind whiting with zinc ; to prevent cracking, add a little honey; then take a soft brash and lay it upon the cloth ; re- peat this two or three tiraes, but letting it dry between the layings ; and lor the last laying smooth it over with Spanish white, ground with linseed oil, the oil being first heated, and mixed with a small quantity of litharge, the better to endure the weather, and to be more lasting. Common Wax or Vas-nished Cloth. Common canvass of an open and coarse texture, is stretched on frames, placed under sheds, v/ith the sides open, to afford a free passage to the external air. fThe cloth is fastened to these frames, by hooks, which catch the edge of the cloth, and by strong pack- threads passing through holes at the other extremity of the hooks, which are tied round moveable pegs at the lower edge of the frame. The mechanism by which the strings of a violin are stretched or unstretched will give an idea of the arrangement of the pegs emploved for extending the cloth in this apparatus. By this means the cloth can be easily stretch- ed or relaxed, when the oily varnish has exercised an action on its texture in the course of the operation. The whole be- ing thus arranged, a liquid paste m^de with drying oil, which may be varied at pleasure, is applied to the clotii. To make liquid Paste and Drying Oil. Mix Spanish white, or tobacco pipe clay with water, and leave at rest for some hours, to separate the aigillacpous pa^is and to produce -a sediment. Stir the sediment with -•» broom, to complete the division of earth. After it has ^ested some seconds, de- cant the turbid water into an c- ^^en or wooden vessel. By this process the earth wiH ^^' separated from the sand and other foreign bodies, w^^ch are precipitated, and which must be thrown away. '^ washed by the same process on a large scale, it is div'-^^ '^ ^^ kneading it. The supernatant water is thrown a?"'^'. ^^^ ?^^^ sediment placed in sieves on pieces of clot^' vv^tiere it drains ; it is then mixed up with oil rendered „^ying, by a large dose of litharge, about a foui th of the weight ofthe oil. The consistence of thin paste being given to the mixture, it i^ spread oyer the cloth, by means of an iron spatula, the length of which is equal to the breadth of the cloth. The spatula performs the part of a knife, and pushes forward the excess of matter, above tlie quantity suf- ficient to cover the cloth. The inequalities of the cloth <50 '^'^'^ Airrts'i A^i> pioduccd by its coarseness, arc. smoollied down by ptimic^ stone. The stone is reduced to powder, and rubbed over the? cloth with a piece ol soft &erge or cork dipped iu water. The cloth must tl:icn be well washed in water to clean it ; and af- ter it is dried a-van;ish of gum lac dissolved in linseed oil boiled with turpentine must he applied to it. This prepara- tion produces yellowish vainished cloth. "IVlien wanted black, mix lampblack with the Spanish white, or tobacco pip© clay, which forms the basis of the liquid paste ; various shades. may be obtained according to the quantity of the lampblack which is added. Umber, Cologne earth, 's^c. may be used to vary the tints, whhout causing any addition to the expense. To prepare fine Printed Varnished Cloth. The process above described may serve to give some idea of that employed for making fine cloths oi the same kind, decorated with a coloured impressipn. The manufactories of German;y have varnished cloths embellished with large and small subjects^ figures and landscape's, well executed, and which are destined lor covering furniture subject to daily use, TITis process, which is only an iiuprovement of the former,, requires a finer paste, and cloth of a mure delicate texture: the stratum of past* is applied in the same manner, and when dry and polished, the cloth is taken from the frame, and re- moved to tho painter's table, vdiere the art of the colourist and designer is (iWylaycd under a thousand forms, and as that in printed cottons, CAhibits a richness of tints and a distribu- tion of subjects, which cfi=.oover taste, and ensure a ready sale for the article manufactured. The processes, however, em- ployed in these tv/o arts, to^ exu.^^t the colourincr parts, are not the same. In the art of coiton .rinting, the ^colours are extracted by the bath, as jn that of dymj, j^^ printing var- nished cloths, the colouring parts are tbe re , ^ ^j^^ ^^^j^j^ of drying oil, mixed with varnish; and the difiei.^^ colours employed in oil painting and painting in varnish. i .., ^^^_ nish applied to common oil cloth is composed of gum lac an, dryin^ linseed oil ; but that destined for printed varnished cloth^ requires some choice, both in regard to the oil and the resinous matter which gives it consistence. Prepared oil of pinks and copal form a varnish very little coloured, pliable and solid. i , -n .• To prepare Varnished Silk. 1. \ arnished silk for urn-? brcllas, 4"c. is prepared in the same manner as tho cloths al- TRADESMAN** GlflDl:. t&i voatly described ; but with some variation in the paste or Tar- nish, The cloth is placed on a frame as before described ; a soft J -iste composed of linseed oil, boiled with a fourth part litharge; tobacco pipe clay, dried and sifted tiirough a silk sieve, six- teen parts, litharge, ground on porphyry .with water, dried and sifted in the same manner, three parts, and lampblack, one part. This paste is then spread in an uniform manner over the surface of the silk by means of a long knife, having a handle, at the extremity. in summer, twenty-four hours are sufficient for its desiccation. When dry, the knots pro- duced by the inequalities of the silk, are smoothed by a pum- ice stone. This operation is performed with water. When finished, the surfcjce. of the silk is washed ; when dry, fat copal varnish is applied. If it is intended to polish the varnish, apply a second stra- tum ; after uhich polish it with a ball of cloth and very fine Tripoli. The varnished silk, tiuis niade is very black, ex- ceedingfy pliable, and has a fine polish. 2. A kind of varnislied silk which has only a yellowish colour, and which suffers the texture of the sturf to appear, is prepared with a mixture of three parts boiled oil of pinks, and one part fat copal varnish, which is extended with a coarse brush or a knife. Two strata are sufficient when oil has been freed from its greasy particles over a slow fire, or v.hen boiled with a fourth part of its weight of litharge. The inequalities are removed b}' pumice stone and water, after which the copal varnish is applied. To recover Varnish. Clean off the filth with a lye made of potash, and tho ashes of lees of wine ; then take forty-eight ounces of potash, and sixteen of the above mentioned ashes, and put them into six quarts of water, and thla complotoc the lye. To polish Varnish. This is effected with pumice stone and Tripoli earth. Reduce the pumice stone to an impalpa- ble powder, and put it upon a piece of serge moistened with water ; with this rub lightly and equall3f the varnished sub- stances. The Tripoli must also be reduced to a fine powder, anD^,^j. ypo„ ?a clean woollen cloth, moistened with olive oil, Jvitli whicv the polishing is to be performed. The varnish Ihen is to be wiped off wiih soft linen, and when quite dry, cleansed with starch, or Spanish white, and rubbed with the palm of the hand. 152 Tilt ARTIST AND Amber Varnish icitli Essence Turpentine, Six or sevett ounces of liquefied amber, and separated from the oily por- tions which alter its consistence. Reduce the amber to pow- der, and if the operation of pounding forms it into a paste, break it with j^our fingers ; then mix it with the essence, and heat the whole in a balneum maricC. It will speedily dis- solve, and the essence will take op, at least, a fourth part of its weight of the prepared amber. When owq coating of it is applied to white smooth wood, but without any preparation, it forms a very pure and durable glazing, which speedily dries, but slower than cop^dl varnish. Ethereal Cojjal Varnish. Half an ounce of ambery copal and two ounces of ether. Reduce the copal to a very fine powder, and introduce it by small portions into the flask- which contains the ether ; close the flask with a glass or cork stopper, and having shaken the mixture for half an hour,, let it rest till the next morning. In shaking the flask, if the sides become covered wnth small undulations, and if the liquor be not exceedingly clear, the solution is not complete. In this case, add a little ether,, and leave the mixture at rest» The varnish is of a light lemon colour. The largest quantity of copal united to ether, ma}' be a fourth, and at least a fifth. The use of copal varnish made with ether, seems, by the ex- pense attending it, to be confined to repairing those accidents which frequently happen to the enamel of toys, as it will sup- ply the place of glass to the coloured varnishes, employed for mending fractures, or to restoring the smooth surface of paint- ings which have been cracked and shattered. The great volatility of ether, and in particular its high price, do not al- low the application of tl.'is varnish to be recommended, but for the purpose here indicated. It h/is been applied to wood with complete success, and the glazing it produced, united lustre to solidity. In consequence of the too speedy evap- oration of the liquid, it often boils under the brush. Its evaporation, however, may be retarded, by spreading over the wood a slight stratum of-essential oil of rosemary or lav- ender, or even of turpentine, which may afterwards be re- moved by a piece of linen rag; vrhat reraaius is suflicicnt to retard the ether. Turpentine Copal Varnish. One and a half ounces --'P^** of an amber colour, and in powder, and eight o-^^c^^ of the best oil of turpentine. Expose tho essence to a balneum tradesman's r.uiiJE. 153 mari^i?, in a wide mouthed matrass, with a short neck ; j^s soon as the water of the hath begins to boil, throw into the essence a large pinch of copal powder, and keep the matrass in a circular motion. When the powder is incorporated with the essence, add new doses of it; and continue in this man- U(!r till \^ou observe there is formed an insoluble ^deposite. Then lake the matrass from the bath, and leave it at rest for som© days. Draw ofi^ the clear varnish, and filter it through cotton. At the moment when the portion of the copal is thrown into the essence, if the powder precipitates itself un- der the form of lumps, it is needless to proceed any further. This effect arises from two causes ; either the essence does not contain the proper degree of concentration, or it has not been sufficiently deprived of water. Exposure to the sun, oaiploj^ing the same matrass to which a cork stopper ought to be added, will give it the qualtities requisite for the soliitioii of the copal. This eftect will be announced by the disap- pearance of the portion of copal ahxady put into it. 2. Three ounces of copal liquefied, and tv/enty ounces es- sence of turpentine. Place the matrass containing the oil in a balneum mariae, and when the water boils, add the pulver- ized copal in small doses. Keep stirring the mixture, and add no more copal till the forrx^er is incorporated with the oil. If the oil, in consequence of its particular disposition can take iip three ounces of it, add a little more ; but stop if the liquid becomes nebulous, then leave the varnish at rest. If it be too thick, dilute it with ^ little warm essence after having heated it in the balneum mariae. When cold, filter it through cotton, and preserve it in a bottle. This varnish has a good eonsistcncc, and 5s as free fiom colour as the best alcohol varnish. When extended in one stratum over smooth wood, which has undergone no preparation, it forms a very brilliant glazing, which, in the course of two days, in summer, acquires all the solidity that may be required. The facility which attends the preparation of this varnish, by the new method here indicated, will admit of its being applied to all col- oured grounds whicli require solidity, pure whites alone excepted; pain- ted boxes, therefore, and all small articles, coloured or otherwise, when- ever it is required to make the veins appear in all the richness of their tones, call lor the application of this varnish, which produces a most beautiful effect, and which is more durable than turpentine varnishes With other r-isinou^mibstances. VamisJifGr Watch Cases in imitation of Tortoise SJielL 154 THB ARTIST AND Six ounces copal, of an amber colour, one and a half ounce? Venic« turpentine, twenty-four ounces piepared linseed oil, and six ounces essence of turpentine. It is customary to place the turpentine over the copal, reduced to sraaU frag- ments, in the bottom of an earthen or metal vessel, or in a matrass exposed to such a heat as lo liquefy the copal • but it" is more advantageous to liquefy the latter alone, to add ih© oil in a state of ebullition, then the turpentine liquefied, and in the last place the essence. If the varnish is too thick, some essence may be added, The latter liquor is a regula- tor for the consistence in the hands of an artist. Resinous Drying Oil. Ten pounds of drying nut oil, if the paint is destined for external, or ten pounds drying lin- seed oil, if for internal articles. Three pounds of resin, and six ounces of turpentine. Cause the resin to dissd'lve in the oil by means of a gentle heat. When dissolved and incorpo- rated with the oil, add the turpentine ; leave the varnish at rest, by which means it will often deposit portions of resin and other impurities; and then preserve it in wide mouthed bottles. It must be used fresh ; when suffered to grow old, it abandons some of its resin. If this resinous oil assumes too much consistence, dilute it with a little essence, if intended for articles sheltered from the sun, or with oil of poppies. In Switzerland, where the princi[)al part of the mason's work consists of stonefc subject to crumble to pieces, it is often found necessary to give them a coating of oil paint, to stop the effect of this decoraposH tion. This painting has a great deal of lustre, and when the last coat- ing is applied with resinous oil, it has the effect of varnish. To give it more durability, the first ought to be applied exceedingly warm, and with plain oil/ or oil very little charged with the grey colour which is added to fat copal varnish and the varnish to watch cases, &c. Fat Copal Varnish. Sixteen ounces picked copal, eight ounces prepared linseed oil, or oil of poppies, and sixteen ounces turpentine. Liquefy (he copal in a matrass over a common fire, and then add the linseed oil, or oil of poppies, in a state of ebullition ; when these matters are incorporated, take the matrass from the fire, stir the matter till the greatest heat has subsided, and then add the essence of turpentine when warm. Strain the whole, while still, warm, through a piece of linen, and put the varnish into a ^wide mouthed bot- tle. Time contributes towards its clarific^on ; and in this planner it acquires a better quality. To give a drying quality to Fat Oil. Eight pounds nut TRADESMAN S GUIDE. 155 X)r Unseed oil, one ounce white lead, slightly calcined, one ounce yellow acetate of lead, (sal saturni) also calcined, one ounce sulphate of zinc, (while vitriol) twelve ounces vitreous oxide Mend, (litharge) and a head of garl* or a small onion. When ^he dry substances arc pulverized, mix them with the garlic and oil, over a fire capable of maintaining the oil in a slight state of ebullition; continue it until the oil ceases to iWow up scum, "till it assumes a reddish colour, and till the head of the garlic becomes brown. A pellicle will then be soon formed on the oil, which indicates that the operation is Cwipletod. Tako xhe vessel from the fire, and the pellicle^ being .prec'ipitated by rest, will carry with it all the unctuous parts whi^h. rei.^ered the oil fat. When the oil becomes clear, separax^ it fvom the deposite, and put it into wide mouthed oottles, where It will completely clarify itself in time and improve In quality. 2. One and aV^alf ounc<^s viticous oxide of lead, 3-8 of an ounce sulphate of zWc^ and sUteen ounces linseed or nut oiL This operation must bt conducted as in the preceding case. The choice of the oil is not a matter of indifference. If it be destined for painting articles exposed to the impression of the external air, or for more delicate painting, imt oil or poppy oil will be reqtiired. Linseed oil is used for coarse painting, and that sheltered from the effects of the rain and the. sun. A little negligence in the management of the fire, has often "an influence on the colour of the oil, to which a drying qual- ity is communicated; in this case it is not proper for delicate painting. This inconvenience may be avoided by tying up the drjdng matters in a small bag : but the dose of litharge must then be do'ubled. The bag must then be suspended by a piece of* packthread; fastened to a stick, which is made to rest on the edge of the vessel in such a manner as to keep the bag at the distance of an inch from the bottom of the vessel. A pel- licle will be formed, as in the first operation, but it will be |i slower in making its appearance. 3. A drying quality may be communicated to oil by treat- ing, in a heat caoable of niaintaing a slight ebullition, linseed or nut oil, to each pound of which is added three ounces of vitreous oxide of lead, reduced to fine powder. The prepa- |l ration of floor cloth, and all paintings of large figures or or- naments, in v.hich argillaceous colours, such as yellow and 156 HIE ARTIST ANt> red boles, Dutch pink,. &c. are employed, require this kind ct' preparation, that the desiccation ma}' not be too slow ; but painting for which metallic oxides are used, such as prepara- tions of lead, coj^er, &c. require only the doses befpre indi- cated ; because these oxides contain a great deal of oxygen, and the oil by their contact, acquires more of a dryinsr qual- ity. 4. Two pounds of nut oil, three pounds co'mmon water, and two ounces sulphate of zinc. Mix these matters an^? subject them to a slight ebullitionj until little water rer^dins. Deca^ the oil, which will pass over with a smsJi quantity at v-'j^i*? and separate the latter, by a funnel. The oil r^mn=^^s nebu- lous for some time, after which it become*' cie;?^ j«nd seems to be very little coloured, 5. Six pounds nut or linseed oil rour pounds common wa- ter, one ounce sulphate of zin^ and one he^^J of garlic or a small onion. Mix tiiese ^natters in a co'^imon iron or cop- per pan, then place them over the fire, and maintain the mix- ture in a state of ebullition during the whole day ; boiling water must be added from time to time, to make up the loss from that by evaporation. The garlic will assume a brown appearance^ Take the j.an from the fire, and having suffered a deposite to be formed, decant the oil, which will clarify it- self in the vessels ; by this process the drying oil is rendered somewhat more coloured ; it is reserved for delicate col- ours. To give a drying quality to Poppy Oil. Three pounds of pure water, one ounce of sulphate of zinc, tvv'o pounds oil of pinks, or popp}^ oil. Expose this mixture in an earthen vessel, capable of standing the fire, to a degree of heat suffi- cient to maintain it in a slight state of ebullition. When one half or two-thirds of the water has evaporated, pour the whole into a large glass bottle or jar, and let it rest, till the oil be- comes clear. Decant the clearest part by means of a glass funnel, the beak of which is stopped with a piece of cork; When the separation of the oil from the water is completely effected, remove the cork stopper, and supply its place by the fore finger, which must be applied in such a manner as to suf- fer the water to escape, and to retain only the oil. Poppy oil when prepared in this manner, becomes after some weeks exceedingly limpid and colourless. To 77iale Varnish for -Silk, ^c. To one quart of cold tradesman's guide. 15? drawn linseed oil, poured off from the lees, (produced on the addition of unslacked lime, on which the oi! has stood eight or ten days at the least, in order to communicate a drying quality, or brown umber burnt and powdered which will have the like effect,) and half an ounce of litharge ; boil them for half an hour, then add half an ounce copal varnish. While the ingredients are on the fire in a copper vessel, put in one ounce Ciiios turpentine, or common resin, and a few drops neat's foot oil, and stir the whole with a knife ; when cool, it is ready for use. The neat's foot oil prevents the varnish from being sticky or adhesive, and may be put into linseed oi^ at the same time with the lime, or burnt umber. Resin or Chios turpentine may be added, till the varnish has attained the desired thickness. The longer the raw linseed oil remains on the unslacked lime or um- t)er, the sooner will the oil dry after it is used; if some monhls so much the better ; such varnish will set, that is to say not run, but keep its ij>lace on the silk in four hours; the stick may then be turned, and var- tiished on the other side. To make pliable Varnish for Umbrellas. Take any quan^ tity of caoutchouc, as ten or twelve ounce's, cut into small fcits, and put into a ladle, such as plumbers, glaziers, &c. melt their lead in, over a common pit coal or other fire, which must be gentle, glowing, and without smoke. When the la- dle is hot, put a single bit into it; if black smoke issues, it will flame and disappear, or it will evaporate without flame ; the ladle is then too hot. When the the ladle is less hot, pat in a second bit, which will produce a white smoke ; this while smoke will continue during the operation, and evaporate the caoutchouc ; therefore, no time is to be lost, but little bits ^re to be put in, a few at a time, till the whole are melted • It should be continually and gently stirred with an iron or brass spoon. The instant the smoke changes from white to hlack, take off the ladle, or the whole will break out into a Violent flame, or be spoiled, or lost. Care must be taken that no water is added, a ^e\v drops of which, on account of Jts expansibility, makes it boil over furiously and with a great noise ; at this period of the process, one quart of the best drying oil is to be put into the melted cautchouc, and stirred till hot, and the whole poured into a glazed vessel through a coarse gauze, or wire sieve. When settled and clear, which will be in a few minutes, it is fit for use. The silk should aK 14 158 THE ARTIST AND ways be stretched horizontall}' by pins or tenter hooks on frames, and the varnish poured on cold in hot weather, and hot if cold weather. The art of laying it on properly, con- sists in making no intense motion in the varnish, which would create minute bubbles, therefore, brushes of every kind are improper, as each bubble breaks in drying, and forms a small hole; through which the air will transpire. This varnish is pliant, unadhesive, and unalterable by weather. Transparent Japan for Tin Ware. Oil of turpentine, eight ounces, oil of lavender, six ounces copal, two ounces, camphor, one drachm. Di-ying Oil. Linseed oil, two pints, litharge or ceruse, one ounce ; dissolve with heat ; added lo paints to make them dry sooner. Le Blond's Varnish for Prints. Balsam copaiva four pounds, copal in powder, one pound; add by single ounces every day to the balsam, keeping^it in a warm place, or iu the sun, stirring it frequently ; when all is dissolved, add Chios turpentine, q. p. Sheldrake's Copal Varnish. Oil turpentine, ret. veri. one pint, sal ammoniac two ounces : mix ; add copal in small pieces, two ounces ; stop the vessel with a cork cut in grooves ; bring it quickly to boil, that the bubbles may be counted as they rise ; and keep it at that ; if the least stoppage or over- heating takes place, it is in vain to proceed. -Then leave the vessel till quite cold, before you open it ; otherwise the var- nish will be thrown out with violence. Sheldrake'' s Oil for Painting. Nut or poppy oil, one pint, boil ; add ceruse, two ounces, when dissolved, add a pint of copal varnish, previously warmed, and stir it till the oil of turpentine is evaporated; gives more brightness than com- mon drying oil, but less than varnish only ; loses its dry quality in time, therefoie, only so' much as is sufficient for a month or six weeks' consumption should be prepared at once. Varnish to be laid on Gilding and Silvering. Grind ver- digris, on marble w^ith common v/ater, in which saffron has been infused for eight hours. A Common Varnish. Saiidarac eight ounces, tercb. Venit; six ounces, spirits wine, rectified, two pints. White Varnish. Gum juniper, one pound, Slrasburg turpentine, six ounces^ spirits wine, rectified, two pint5, used, upon paper, wood, and linen. tradesman'js guide. 159 White Hard Varnish. _ Mastic, four ounces, gum juniper, ter«b. Venit. of each ihreo ounces (to prevent the gums forming an impenetrable mass,) add four ounces pounded glass, spirits wine rectified, two pints, used upon cards, sheaths, &c. White Polishing Varnish. Mastic in tears, two ounces, gum juniper, eight ounces, gum elerni, one ounce, tereb. ar- gent, four ounces, spijits wine rectified, two pints; used upon metals, polished with pumice stone. Transparent Copal Varnish. Spirits wine fully charged with camphor, four ounce^s, copal in fine powder, one ounce ; dissolve, filter; add the filtered liquor to spirits of wine, one part, in which gum elemi one ounce, has been jjreviously dis- solved. 2. Spirits wine rectified, one pint, camphor, half an ounce; dissolve ; pour it upon copal in small pieces', four ounces ; heat it so that the bubbles which rise may be counted ; when cold, pour it oft' and add more spirts to the residuum : used for pictures. 3. Copal, melted and poured into water, three ounces, gum sandarac six ounces, mftstic throe ounces, terib. argent, two ounces and a half, pounded glass, four ounces, spirits wine rectified, two pints ; used for metals, ciiairs, &c. Soft Brilliant Varnish. Gum sandarac, six ounces, gum elemi, fouc. ounces, camphor, four djachms, spirits wine recti- fied, two pints ; used upon wood work and pasteboard. Reddish Varnish. Gum sandarac, eight ounces, lava in tabulis, two ounces, resina nigri, four ounces, tereb. Venit. six ounces, spirits wine rectified, two pints ; used on wood and metals. Red Varnish. Sandarac, four ounces, seed-lac, two oun* ces, mastic, choice Benjamin, of each one ounce ; turpentine two ounces, spirits wine rectified two pints ; used for violins and cabinet work. Nut Oil. From the kernel of the hazel nut, very fine ; substituted for oil of Benjamin, as it will keep better than that of almonds ; it has been proposed in the collage lists, to be substituted for that oil, being nearly equal to it ; is drank with tea in China, probably in lieu of cream ; used by painters as a superior article for their colours. Hemp Oil, From hemp seed, used by painters as a dry- ing oil, 160 THE ARTIST AND Walnut Oil. Makes good plasters, but will not keep ; used by painters; is very drying; they yield about half their weight of oil. Picture Varnish. Mastic twelve ounces, Venit. turpen- tine, two ounces four drachms, camphor, thirty grains, pound- ed glass, four ounces, oil turpentine, three pints and a half; pour off the clear; used to oil paintings. Gold Varnish for Leather. Tumeric, gamboge, of each one scruple and a half, oil turpentine two pints ; add seed- lac, gum sandarac, of each four ounces, dragon's blood four drachms, Venit. turpentine, two ounces, pounded glass, four ounces ; pour off the clear. Copal Varnish. Oil turpentine, tliickened by keeping," eight ounces, copal, two ounces and a half. 2. Oil turpentine, six ounces^ oil lavender, two ounces, copal, one ounce. Common Turpentine Varnish. Resin flav. three pounds, eight ounces, oil terebinth, one gallon. Varnish for Coloured Drawings. Canada balsam, one ounce, oil turpentine two ounces: size the drawing first with a jelly of isinglass, and when dry, apply the varnish ; which will make them resemble oil paintings. Black Japan Leather. Boiled linseed oil, one gallon, burnt umber eight ounces, asphaltum, three ounces, boil and add oil terebinth, q. s. This varnish perhaps is the best in use for iron — for which purpose the oil should be reduced by boiling with a well directed heat, one half. The umber should be finely pulverised on porphyry (a kind of red and white marble, such as painters generally use) and put into the oil, before boiling and add the other ingredients, when nearly cool, after boiling — when asphaltum (or mineral tar) cannot be procured, for one gallon of linseed, put into the spirits of turpentine, a paper of lampblack which after having stood a few hours should be strained through coarse flan- nel and then blended, with the oil after having been boiled and cooled, as beiore directed — for a polishing varnish .idd to the oil, when at its boiling point a quarter of a pound of Gum Shellac — this also furnishes a brilliant coating for iron— particularly for rough castings ; but the as- phaltum, renders it more durable ; in boiling oil in every case great' care is requsite to prevent its burning ; and in general varnishes would be infinitely better,, to boil the oil to the consistence of one half or nearly. Samring Drops. Oil terebinth, sented with essence le- mon. Fiirnitv.re Oil. Oil lini, coloured with rad anchusae. l6l Furniture Var7iisk, White wax, eight ounces, oil tere- binth, one pint. Bronzing Liquor. It is blup vitriol, dissolved in water ; used to bronze tea urns, &.c. the surface being previously well cleaned. Bine or Green Sympathetic Ink. Drop a tea spoonful of zaflre into a third of a wine glass of nitro-murialic acid. After standing awhile, write on paper ; the writing will be blue, unless there is a little iron in the zafire, which will give it a green hue. If a little common salt in solution had been added, the writing would disappear on removing from the fire. Invisible Ink. Whittle off a little bismuth into a wine glass. Drop in a little common nitric acid diluted with h^lf as much water. Violent action will commence ; when it ceases the nitrate will be formed in the liquid state. Dip a clean pen into it and write as with ink ; hold the paper near a fire, but not so near as to heat it, the letters will become invisible ; now dip it into water or hold it in a steam over boiling water, and on taking it out, the letters will become visible, and appear as if written with pale ink. After a short time the writing will disappear and leave not a vestige to prove a forgotten promise. CalloVs Varnish. Two ounces finest linseed oil, Benja- min in drops, two drachm'', white wax the bulk of a filbert, boil all together, till it is redu.ed to one-third, stirring it con- stantly. Wiien done, put it into a large mouthed phial. Warm the plate intended to be engraven, and for which this varnish is designed, and with the finger pass it over he place, leav- ing it slightly coated, and smooth; after whidh smoke the plate on the varnished side, with a caudle, until it is black in every part. Place the plate over a chafing dish, with char- coal fire, and when it has done fuming, the varnish has be- come sufficiently hardened, when it is prepared to chalk, draw and etch, whatever is desired. This varnish was used by Callot, to engrave his most admired subjects. To colour Foils. For colouring foils two methods have been invented. The first by tinging the surface of the cop- per with the colour required, by means of smoks, the other fey staining or painting it with some pigment, or other colour- ing substance. The colours used for painting foils may be .tempered with either oil, water rendered duly viscid by gum *14 1(J2 THE ARTIST AND Arabic, size, or vanish. If deep colours are wanted, oil is most proper, as some nigraents become wholly transparent in it, as lake or Prussian blue; the yellow and green may be laid on in varnish, as these coloras may bo had in perfection, from a tinge wholly dissolved in spirit of wine, in the same manner as in the case of lacquers; and the most beautiful green is to be produced by distilled verdigris, which is apt to lose its col- our and turn black with oil. In common cases, any of the colours may be laid on with the least trouble, in the same manner as the glazmg colours used in miniature painting. Ruhy Colours. For red, where the ruby is to be imitated, a little lake is used with isinglass size; carmine, or sliell-lac varnish, should be used if the glass or jjaste, is of a full crim- son, verging towards the purple ; but if the glass incline to the scarlet or orange, very bright lake, that is, not purple, may be used alone in oil. Garnet Red, Dragon's blood dissolved in seed-lac var- nish, may be used ; for the vinegar garnet, tlie orange lake tempered with shell-lac varnisii willbe found excellent. Amethyst. Lake, with a little Prussian blue, used with oil, and thinly spread on the foil. Blue. ' When a deep colour or the effect of the sapphire is wanted, Prussian blue, that is not too deep, used in oil, and spread more or less tliinly on the foil, according to the light- ness or deepness of the colour required. Eagle Marine. Common verdigris, with a little Prussian blue, tempered in shall-lac varnish. Yellow. Colour the foil with a yellow lacquer; if a full yellow is desired, lay it on as for other purposes. For the slighter colour of topV.zes, the burnish and foil itself will be sufficiently strong v/ithout any addition. Green. If a deep hue is required, the crystals of verdigris, tempered in shell-lac sliould be used. But if the emerald is to be imitated, a little yellow lacquer should be added, to pro- duce a truer green, less verging to the blue. Other Colours. Stones of more diluted colour, such as the amethyst, topaz, vinegar garnet, &c. maybe very cheaply imitated by transparent v.hite glass or paste, even witbout foils. This is done by tempering the colours above enume- rated with turpentine and mastic, and painting the socket m which the counterfeit stone is to be set with the mixture, the socket and stone being previously heated. The ^tone should tradesman's' guise. i6$ be Immediately set, and the socket closed upon it before the mixture cools and grows hard. The orange lake was inven- I ted for this purpose. The colour it produces is that of the \ vinegar garnet, and has been used with great success by a i manufacturer. The colour before directed to be used in oil should be extremely well ground in oil of turpentine, and tem- pered with old nut or popp}^ oil ; or, if time can be given to dry, with stronsfat oil diluted with spirits of turpentine, which f gives a fine polish of iiself. The colours used in varnish, I should also be well ground and mixed — when dragon's blood I in the seed-lac varnish and tlie lacquer, the foils should be j warmed before they are laid out. All the mixtures should j be laid on the foil with a broad soft brush, passed from one i end to the other ; no part crossed or gone over twice, or at i least, until the first coat is dry. When the colours are not i strong enough another coat may be given. I Lacquer f 07' Brass. Six ounces of secd-lac, tw^o ounces of j amber or copal, ground on porphyr}^ iorty grains dragon's blood, thirty grains extract of rod sandal wood, obtained by water, thirty-six grains oriential saffron, four ounces pounded j glass, and forty ounces very pure alcohol. To apply this varnish to articles or ornaments of brass, ex- pose them to a gentle beat, and dip them into varnish. Two or three coatings may be applied in this manner, if necessar}^ I The varnish is durable, and has a beautiful colour. Articles varnished in this manner, may be cleaned with v/ater, and a bit (>f dry rag. Lacquer for Philosophical Instruments. This lacquer is destined to change, or to modify the colour of those bodies to which it is applied. Three-fourths of an ounce of gum guttse, two ounces of gum sandarac, two ounces of gum elerai, one ounce of dragon's blood, opt. one ounce of seed lac, three-fourths of an ounce terra merita, tv/o grains^oriental saffron, tliree ounces of pounded glass, and twenty ounces of pure alcohol. The tincture of saflVon and terra merita, is first obtained by infusing them in alcohol for twenty-four hours, or exposing them to the heat of the sun in summer. The tincture must be strained throught a piece of clean linen cloth, and ought to be strongly squeezed. This tincture is poured over the articles which do not compose tincture, all pounded and mixed with the glass. The varnish is then made according to the directions before given. It may be applied 164 THE ARTIST AND with great advantage to philosophical instruments : the use of it might be extended also, to various, or moulded articles with which furniture is ornamented. If the dragon's blood be of the best quality, it may give too high a colour; in this case the dose may be lessened at pleasure, as well as that of the other colouring matters. Il is with similar varnish that the artists of Geneva, give a golden orange colour, produced by certain compositions, the preparation of which has no relation to that of varnish, and which has been success-* fulJy imitated by sahne mixtures, in which orpiment is a principal in^ gredient. The nails are heated before they are immersed m the var* nish, and they are then spread out on sheets of 4ry paper. Gold Coloured Lacquer Jar Brass Watch Cases, Watch Keys, S^c. Six ounces of seed-lac, two ounces of amber, two ounces of gum guttse, twenty-four grains extract of red san- dal wood in water, sixty grains of dragon's blood, thirty-six grains of oriental saffron, four ounces of pounded glass and thirty-six ounces of pure alcohol, grind the three first articles and the dragon's blood on a piece of porphyry ; then mix them with the pounded glass, and add the alcohol, after for- ming it with an infusion of the saffron, and the extract of the sandal wood. The varnish must he completed as before. The metal articles destined to be covered by this varnish, are heated, and those which will admit of it are immersed in .packets. The tint of the varnish may be varied, by modify- ing the doses ol the colouring substances. Lacquer of a. less dry'nig quality. Four ounces of seed- lac, four ounces of sandarac or mastic, one-half an ounce of dragon's blood, thirty-six grains of terra merita, thirtj'-six grains of gum guttae, three ounces of pounded glass, two oun- ces of clear turpentine, thirty-two ounces of essence of tur- pentine. Extract b}' infusion tlie tincture of the colouring substances, and then add the resinous bodies according to the directions for compound mastic varnish. Lacquer or varnishes of this kind are called changing, because, when applied to metals, such as copper, brass, or hammered tin, or to wooden boxes and other furniture, they communicata to them a more agree- able colour. Besides, by their contact with the common metals, they acquire a lustre which approaches that of the precious metals, and to which, in consequence of peculiar intrinsic qualities or certain laws of convention, a much greater GUIDE. l65 value is attached. It is by means of these changing varnishes, that artists .re able to communicate to their leaves of silver and copper, those shining colours observed in foils. The product of industry becomes a source of prosperity to the manufacturers of buttons and works formed with foils, which in the liands of the jeweller, contributes with so much success to produce that reflection of the rays of the light, which doubles the lustre and sparkling quantity of precious stones. It is to varnish of this kind that we are indebted for the manufacture of gilt leather, which, taking refuge in England, has given place to that of papier mache, which is employed for the ^'ecoration of palaces, theatres, &c. In the last place it is by the efitect of a foreign tint obtained from the colouring part of saffron, that the scales of silver disseminated in confection de hyacynth^ reflect a beautiful gold colour. The colours transmitted by diflerent colouring substences, require tones suited to the objects for which they are destined. The artist has it in his own power to vary them at pleasure. The addition of arnotto to the mixture of dragon's blood, saffron, &c. or some changes in the doses of the mode intended to be made in colours. It is therefore impossible to give limited formulae. To made Lacquer of various Tints. Four ounces gum guttae in thirty-two ounces of essence of turpentine, one ounce arnotto, and four ounces dragon's blood ; also in separate doses of essence. These infusions may be easily made in the sun. After fif- teen days exposure, pour a certain quantity of these liquors into a flask, and by varying the doses, different shades of col- ours will be obtained. These infusions may also be employed for changing alcoholic varnishes ; but in this case, the use of saffron, as well as that of red sandal wood, which does not succeed with essence, will soon give the tone necessary* for imitating, with other tinctures, the colour of gold. To brown Gun Barrels. After the barrel is finished, rub it over with aqua-fortis, or spirit of salt diluted with water, then lay it by for a week, till a complete coat of rust is for- med. A little oil is then to be applied, and after rubbing the surface dry, polish it with a hard brush and a Httle beeswax. 166 THE ARTIST AN15 CHAPTER XXIX. Glue, Pastes, S^^c. Glue is made in Europe, of ears, feet, trimmings, sinews and scrapings of the skins of oxen, calves, slie«p, &.c. old leather, and fresh or raw hides mixed and manufactured to- gether; and this mixture is said- to yield one third of its weight in good strong glue. The best glue is from the hides of old animals; whole skins are seldom used, unless they are injured by the worm, rotted^ or otherwise rendered unfit to make leather; but the smallest pieces are saved for that pur- pose? In making glue of fresh pieces of skin, let them be steeped in water for two or three days ; dried iiides may re- quire longer time ; and bits of leather much longer. While soaking they should be stirred occasionally, then put them to drain in hand barrows, with grated bottoms, or in boxes with sloping sides and grated bottoms; when drained let them he well washed in several waters. The ears and other dirty parts should be steeped and washed by themselves; after they arc washed clean, put them in a weak limewater, in iron hooped tubs. Leather will require to be kept in weak lime- water a considerable time, and a little fresh lime should be added occasionally; ajumed skins, tallowed, greasy, bloody, ar hairy skins, should bo put into a stronger limewater, and kept longer in it. They sometimes require to be taken out, so as to permit the lime to dry on them, and to remain for a considerable time; after which the}' must be soaked and well stirred; then press them out- as dry as possible, and put them, in a copper kettle for boiling, at the bottom of which kettle should be a vV'ooden grate. The copper should be- fillod with the material pressed close^ and as much water poured on as will run among the pieces: make a moderate fire, which in- crease by degrees till it boils. As the materials melt into glue, some decrease the fire without stirring them, others stir them as they dissolve. When the glue, on cooling, forms a pretty thick jelly, it is done : after this a box is made with wooden gratings for the bottom ; the inside of the grating bottom is to be lined with horsehair cloth, and the box to be placed over a large tub. The glue is to be passed through the horsehair cloth, or strainer, quickly, while it is very hot. The dregs are left to drain some time, aiid are called by the itvorkmen glue-dreg; they make an excellent fuel mixed with. tradesman's guide. 167 wood. The room should be kept warm while the'glue Is set- ^ tling. In the tubs there should be cocks to draw off the hot liquid glue: the first glue will be the brightest, but the last will be equally good. Through the cocks it must run into flat moulds, previously wet. When cool, cut it out with a wet knife into squares, and hang it on a line to dry and harden in a draught of air ; — some place it on a net hung on four posts, turning it occasionally : ten days of dry weather, or fifteen days of wet (under cover) are required in Europe, but less time in America. To polish the cakes, v/et them and rub tliem \^ith new lime. Tlie best glue has few dark spots, and no bad snneli ; and shines w^ien broken. To try glue, put it into cool water for three or four days, where it must not dis- solve, but when dried must preserve its weight. The time of boiling is from twelve to fifteen hours, accord- ing to the fire. Violent heat is to be avoided. 2. If bones are digested for seven or eight days, with weak hydrochloric acid, this acid dissolves all the salts that enter into their comj)osition ; the bones are softened, become very lloxible, and at length contain only animal niaitcr. If, in this state, they are put for some moments into boiling water, and after wiping them dry vhey are subjected to a stream of cold and fresh water,. they may be regarded as pure gelatin, or at least, as a substance, which, being dissolved in boiling water, atfords the handsomest size. In order to prepare glue from the clippings of skins of parchment, or gloves; from the hoofs, the ears of oxen, horses, sheep, calves, ^c. after taking off the hair and remo- ving the fat from these substances, we boil them for a long time in a large quantity of water ; the scum is separated, its formation being favoured by adding a little alum or lime; the liquor is strained, and suffered to rest; it is then poured off, and skimmed again, and then heated to concentrate it. When sufficiently so, it is poured into moulds previously wetted, ^ where, by cooling, it forms into soft plates ; whicli at the end of twenty-four hours, are cat into tablets, and dried in a warm .and airy situation. A very stro^ig Glue. Soak the finest isinglass twenty-four hours in spirits of v/ine or strong brandy, then boil all very gently together, continually stirring it, that it may not burn, until it becomes one liquor. Then strain it while hot through a coarse linen cloth into a vessel, when it should be close .stopped ; a gentle heat will melt this glue to use. 168 THE AkTfST AND A Parchment Glue. Put two or tnree pounds of scrapings or cuttings of parchinent into a bucket of water, boil th^" whole till it be reduced to half, pass it through an open linen, and then let the liqaor cool, when it will be a parchment glue. A Strong Paste. Common paste is made of wiieat flour boiled in water, till it be of a viscid consistence, but when tised by book binders and paper hangers, it is requisite to mix a fourth, fifth, or sixth of the weight of flour of powdered resin or rosin ; and when it is wanted still more tenacious, gum Arabic, or any kind of size ma}-^ be added. I^iprder to prevent the paste used in papering rooms, t^c. from being gnawed by rats «fcc. powdered glass is sometimes mixed with it ; but the most effectual and easy remedy is to dissolve a little sublimate say one drachm to a water, which not only prevents rats and mice, but all kinds of vermin being trouble*' some. Of Fibrin. If blood is agitated with a handful of rods/ immediately after having been drawn from the veins, the fibrid adheres to them; it is then only necessary to wash it repeat- edly, in order to discolour it and obtain it pure. Liquid Albumen. This constitutes the white of the (^gg'f in truth this last, besides albumen, contains several salts, and some sub-carbonate of soda, of which it is impossible to divesfr it. Solid Albumen. Pour alcohol on the white of an egg, dis- solved in water, and filtered ; the albumen immediately pre-J cipitates, and is to be washed. Pish Glue — Isinglass. To procure this, the inner mem-i brane of the swimming bladders of some kinds of sturgeotj are washed ; they are then slightly dried and rolled and af-- terwards dried in the air. An inferior kind is prepared by digesting in boiling water, the head, the tail, and the jaws or' certain whales, and abnost all fish without scales. Potatoe Starch — common Arrow Root: may be mad from frozen potatoes in as large a quantity and as good, a those which have not been spoiled by the frost ; very whit crimp to the fingers, and colours them; friable, heavy, sink ing in water ; when held to the light, it has shining particle in it : dissolves in boiling water as easily as the true arro\v^ root: 100 pounds of potatoes yield 10 pounds of starclK IftXDfiSMAN S GUIDE. io^ CHAPTER XXV. The Art of ^Dying — Cotton — Linen— Wo ol^-Silk—Wool^ ien Goods — Mordants— E feds of Salts on Mordants^-to render Colours holding— Solution of Tin in Aqaa-Regia — Muriate of Tin — Acetate of Alumine — Effects if va- rinus Waters on different .Colours — to He-dye or change Colon s — Drying Bath — Sulphate of Arsenic — to Dye Compound Colours— to Dye Straw and Chip Bonnets — Basis fer many Colours, DyixXg is a chemical process, and consists in combining a certain colouring matter vvith fibres of cloth. The facility uith which cloth imbibes a dye, depends upon two circum- stances ; the union of the cloth and the dyestufT or dying material, and the fiuid in which it is dissolved. Wool unites with almost all celouring matters, silk in ihe next degree, cot- ton considerabl}'^ less, and linen the least of all. To dye cot- ton or linen, the dyestuff or colouring material, should, in many cases, be dissolved in a substance for wnich it has a weaker connexion, than vviih ihe solvent employed in the dy- ing oi wool or silk. Thus we may use the colour called o<- ide of iron, dissolved in sulphuric acid, to die wool ; but to <]yo cotton and linen, it is necessary to dissolve it in acetous acid. Were it possible to procure a sufficient number of col- ouring substances, having a strong affinity for clotlis, to an- swer all the purpose the art of dying would be extremely sim- ple and easy. But this is by no means the case. This diffii- culiy has, however, been obviated by A very ingenious con- trivance. Some othen substance is employed which strongly 'unites with the cloth and the rolouring matter. This sub- stance, therefore, is previously combined with the cloth, which is then dipped into a solution containing the colour. The colour then combines with the intermediate substances, whicb being firmly combined with the clorii, secures the permanence ■ofthedve. Substances employed for this purpose aro/«e- nominated mordants. / The method oi colouring a scarlet dye, was discovered by Cornelius Drebble, a citizen of Alemaar, a man extremely well skilled in cheinistry. Among other exuerimB^^s, he left an account of one, concernino the method of dyiv? wool with 3brii:hrfl)me col ;ur ; whi^-h Ins s.^ri-ln-I vv K/ffla-ir, ni^'-r- f^yards put in practice, and by which mcdus bqmrtut; a foriun^. 15 ifO THE ARTiST At^if. Spirit of nitre has been found to improve the rich colour of cochinedl, into the brightness of burning fire; Imt its acrimony corrodes and damages the wool, which is prevented by dul° cifying it with tin, after which, it neither hurts wood or silk. Chemistry is likewise obvious in another point of view. " I once showed," says the learned Boerbaave, " colours which I had prepared from solutions of copper, to some skilful raas-' ter dyers, who were surprised with the beauty of them, and would have given any money to have been able to give col- ours of such brightness to their stuffs, &,c. ; and no wonder, since the blue, violet and green of copper, which may be raised and weakened at pleasure, afford such a variety, that a person who can dye silk, woollen, cotton or linen cloths therewith will gain an immense estate." It has been said by a Spanish patriot, that " good dyers in silk and wool are few every where, and it should be considered," in regard to this art, " we depend upon it as one of the most essential recommen- dations of our manufactured goods, and what procures them the readiest sale, both at home and abroad ; for it will turn to small account that the materials are good, and well wrought up, unless the mixture and colours be answerable and grate- ful to the eye of the purchaser. The most important part of dying is the choice and apph'- cation of mordants ; as upon them the permanency of almost every dye depends. Mordants must be previously dissolved in some liquid, which has a weaker union with the mordant than the cloth has ; and the cloth must then be steeped in this solution, so as to saturate itself with the mordant. The most important and most generally used mordant is alumine ; it is used in the state of common alum, in which it is combined ■with sulphuric acid, or in that state called acecate of alumine. Alum to make a mordant is dissolved in water, and very frequently, a quantity of tartrite of potash is dissolved with it, into this solu-ion the woollen cloth is put and kept till it has absorbed as much alumine as Jiecessary. It is then taken out, was'aed and dried. Acitate of Alumine^ is prepared as a mordant by pouring acetate of lead into a solution of alum, (see page 37, acetate of alumiie.) This mordant is emplojM^d for cotton and I'men^ It answers much better for these than alum; the stuff is more easily saturated with alumine, and takes in consequence, a richer and mote permanent colour. The white oxide of tin rSADESMAN^S GUIDE. 1^1 has enabled the niodorns greatly to surpass many of the .ancients, in the iineness of their colours ; and even to equal the famous Tyrian purple ; and by means of its scarlet, the brightness of all colours is produced. It is the white oxide of tin alone that is the real moidant. Tin is used as a mor- dant in three states : dissolved in nitro-muriatic acid, in ace- tous acid, a«d in a mixture of sulphuric and muriatic acids ; but nitro-muriate of tin is the common mordant used by dy- ers. It is prepared by dissolving tin in diluted nitric acid, to which a certain proportion of common salt, or sal anamoniac is added. When the nitro-muriate of tin is to be used as a mordant, it is dissolved in a large quantity of water, and the cloth is dipped in the solution, and allowed to remain until sufficiently saturated. Ft is then taken out, washed and dried. Tartar is usually dissolved in water, along with the nitro- muriate. Red Oxide of Iron, is also used as as a mordant in dying j it has a v«ry strong affinity for all kinds of cloth, of which the permaaency of rbd iron spots, or iron moulds on linen and cotton is a sufficient proof. As a mordant it is used in two states ; in that of sulphate of iron, or copperas, and that of acetate of iron. The first, or copperas, is commonly used i(^r wool. The copperas is dissolved in water, and the cloth dipped iisto it. It may be used, also for cotton, but in most cases acetate of iron is preferred, which is prepared by dis- solving iron or its oxide in vinegar, sour beer, or pyroligne- ous acid, and the longer it is kept the better. Tan is very frequently employedas a mordant- An infusion of nutgalls, or of sumack, or any other substances containing tan, is made in water ; and the cloth is dipped in this infusion, and allowed to remain tial it has absorbed a sufficient quantity. Tan is also emplo^'ed along v/ith other mordants, to produce a com- porind mordant. Oil is also used for the same purpose, in dying cotton and linen. The mordants with which it is most frequently combined, are alumine and oxide of iron. Besides these mordants, there are several other substances frequently used as auxiliaries, either to facilitate the combination of the tnordant with the cloth, or to alter the shade of colour; the chief of these are, tartar, acetate of lead, common salt, sal ammoniac, sulphur of copper, &:c. Mordants not only ren- der the dye perfect, but also have considerable influence on the coioyr produced.. The sapie colouring matter produceji Jf^ THE APvTiJiT AXtr Yery'dlfferent dyes, according as the mordant is changed. Sup- pose, for instance, that the colouring matter is cochineal ; if we use the aluminous mordant, the cloth will acquire a crim-- son colour ; but the oxide ol iron produces, wiih it, a black. In dying then, it is not only necessary to produce a mordant, and a colouring matter of such a nature, that when combined togetlior, they shall produce the wished for colour in perlec-. lion. But we must procure a mordant and a, colouring mat- ter, of such a nature, that when combined together, they should possess the wished for colour ; even a great variety of colours may be produced with a single dye stuff, provided we change the mordajf^t sufficiently. To determine the effects of various salts or mordants on- colours: 1. 27je di/e of Madder. For a madder red on woollens, tbe-best quantity of u adder is one half, for the wool- lens that are ro be dyed ; the best proportion of salts to be used in tive parts of alum and one of if:'d tartar, for sixteen parts of -he siuff. A viiriation in ihe proportions of the salts wholly ahers ihe colour that the madder naturally gives. If ihe aiuMi is lessened, and the tartar increased, the dyes prove ^ a red cinnamon. If the alum be entirely omitted, the red wholly disappears, and a durable tawny cinnamon is produ- ced. If woollei.s are boiled in weak pearlash and water, the greater part of the colour is destroyed. A solution of soap discharges a part of the colour, and leaves the remaining more beautiful. Volatile alkalies heighten the red colour of the madder, but they make the dye fugitive. 2. The Dye of Logwood, Volatile alkaline salts or acids incline this to purple ; the vegetable and nitrous acids, reiw der it pale ; the vitriolic and marine acids deepen it. 3. Lime Water. In dying brov.-ns or blacks, especially browns, lime water is found to be a very good corrective, an mlso, an alternative when the goods have not come io the shades required ; but practice alone can shew its utilit}' ; it answers well for either woolleiis, silks, or cottons, 4. To render Colours holding. Brown or blues, or shades from them, require no preparation to make them receive the dye, and hold it fast when they have received it. Aluirr and tartar, boiled together, when cold, form a mastic, within ihe pores of the substance, that serves to retain the dye, and re- flect th(^ colour in a manner transpajentiy. Almost all browns ^re deemed fast and holding colour?, without any preparation j TRADESMAN'S GUIDE. ITS the d^'ing materials containing in tliemselves a suflicient de- gree of astringent quality to retain their own colours. Manv reds, are also, equally holding, but none more so than ihose made with ni;idder on woullens prt-paroff wiih ainni and tar- tar. A very fast red is also nuide with brazil' wood, by boil- ing the woollen in alum and tartar, an J sufi'ering the cloth to remain several da} s in a bag, kept moist by the preparation liquor. The cause of the solidity of the ^colour from Brazil wood, dyed after this method, arises from the alum and tar- tar masticating itself within the pores of the wool in quite a solid state. TheiG is not a drug used in the whole art of dying, but may bo made a permanent d^e, by finding out a salt or solution of some metal, that, when once dissolved by acids, or bv boiling water, will neither be allcc- ted by the air, nor be dissolved by moisture. Such are alum and tar- tar, the solution of tin, &c. But thfse salts and solutions do not an- swer with all ingredients that arc used in dying. To Dye Wool and Woollen Cloths of a Blue Colour. — One part of indigo in four parts concentrated sidpburic acid, dissolved ; then add one part of dry carbonate of potas'j, and dilute with eight times its weight of water. The cloth must be boiled for an hour in a solution, containing five parts of alum, and three of tartar, for every thirty-two parts of cloth, then throw it into a wat^r bath, previously prepared, contain- ing a greatei or smaller pi oportion of diluted sulphate of in- digo, according to the shade which the clotli is inten- ded to receive. Boil it in the bath until the colour desi- red is obtained. The only colouring matters employed in xlying blue are indigo and woad. Indigo has a very strong affinity for wool, silk, cotton and linen. Every doth, there- fore may be d^^ed with it without the assistance of any mor- dant whatever. The colour thus induced is very porn>«nent. But indigo can only be applied- to cloth in a state of --^lotion, and the only known solvent is sulphuric acid; TK' sulphate of indigo is often used to dye wool and silk blue.^^nd jsknown by the name of Saxon blue. It is not the orly solution of that pigme"^^ employed in dy- ing. By far the most commot) method ^s to deprive the in- digo of its blue colour, and reduce hi^gracn, and then fo dis- solve it in water bv means of alka>«'S- T^vo diO'ercnt meth- ods are employed for this purnr"^^- "P'-® ^ ^^^ 's, to mix iho iodigo in a solutioji of grecp^'^^^'^^ ^^ ^ron and difierent roe- 174 1'HE ARTIST AiVD tallic sulphurefs. If, therefore, indigo lime, and green snU. phate of iron are mixed together in water, the indigo gradu- ally hjses its blue colour, becomes green, and is, dissolved. The second method is, to mix the indigo, in water, with ccr- tain vegetable substances, which readily undergo fermenta- tion ; th« indigo is dissolved by means of quicklime or alka- li, whch is added to the solution. The first of these meth- ods is usually followed in dying cotton and linen j the second in dying silk and woollen. In the dying of wool, woad and bran are commonly employed, as vegetable ferments, and lime as the solvent of the green base of the indigo ; and by following the common process, indigo may be extracted from it. In the usual state of woad, when purchased by the (Iyer, the indigo which it C(mtains, is probably not far from the state of green pollen. Its quantity in woad is but small, and it is mixed with a great proportion of other vegetable matter When the cloth is first taken out of tbe vat, it is of a green, colour, but it soon becomes blue. It ought to be carefully washed to carry off the uncombined particles. Tiiis solution of indigo is liable to two inconveniences : 1st, It is some-? times apt to run too fast, into the putrid fermentation ; this may be known by the j)Utrid vapours which it exhales, and by the disappearing of the green colour. In this state it would soon destroy the indigo altogether. The inconvenience is remedied by adding more lime, which has the property of moderating the putrescent "tendency. 2dly, SonTCtimes the fermentation goes on too languidly. This def(»ct is remedied b}' adding more bran or woad, in order to diminish the pro-, portion of thick lime. To make Clicmic Blue and Green. Chemir, for light blues a-iid greens on silk, cotton, or woollen, and for cleaning and whitening cotton, is made as follows. One pound of the best oil of 'itriol, poured on one ounce of the best indigo, well poundea and sifted; add to this, after it has been \\ ell stirred, a small K,^^p of common pearlash, as big as a pea, or from that to doub^ the quantity. When the fermentation which is produced, cuges, put it it into a bottle tightly coi li- ed, and It may he used r.^. next day. Observe, if more than the quantity prescribed oi ..earlash should be used, it will deaden and sully the colour. r;|iemic for green as above for blue, is made by only addmg o...f^,,,,j^ more of the oil c f vitriol. tradesman's gcidc. 173 To maJce a Solution of Tin in Aqua-Uegia. Eight oun- ces filtered river water, and eight ounces double aqua-fortis ; mix; add gradually half an ounce of sal ammoniac, dissolved, piece by piece, and two Hrachms saltpetre. Then take one ounce of refined block tin ; put it into an iron pan, and set It over the fire: when melted, hold it four or five feet over the vessel, and drop it into vs^ater, so as to let it fall to pie- ces. Tlien put a small piece of this-granulated tin into the above aqua-regia, and when the last piece disappears, add more gradually till tiie whole is mixed ; mind and keep it firmly corked. When finished it will produce a most excel- lent'yeliow, though should it fail ill that respect, it will not be the worse for use ; keep it cool, as heat will injure it, and even spoil it. To make Muriaie of Tin. Take eight ounces muriatic acid, and dissolve in it, by slow degrees, half an ounce gran- ulated tin ; when this is done, pour of the clear liquid into a bottle, and weaken if if required, wiih pure river water. To fhtermine the effect cf vai'iciis V/aiei^s on different Colours. Snow water contains a little muriate of lime, and seme slight traces cf nitrate of lime; rain water has the same salts in a laigcr quantity, and also carbonate of lime, muriate of lime, muriaie of soda, f)r carbonate ofscda. River water has the same substances, but in less abundance. Well water contains sulphate of Irnie, or nitrate of potash, besides the above mentioned sails. Should the water contain a salt or a mineral acid, in the first instance no acid will be required to neutralize it : or in the second, an alkali. Thus waters of any quality may be saturated by their opposites, and rendered neutral. To discharge rnlonrs. Tlie dyers generallj' put all col- oured silks which are to be discharged, into a copper, in which half a pound or a pound of white soap is dissolved. They are then boiled off, and when the copper begins to be loo full of colour, the silks are taken out and rinsed in warm water. In the interim a fresh solution of soap is to be added to the copper, and then proceed as before till all the colours are discharged. For those colours which are wanted i to be eflectually discharged, such as greys, cinnamon, &-c. I when soap does not do, tartar must be used. For slate col- ours, greenish drabs, 61ive drab, &c. oil of vitriol, in warm water must be used ; if other colours, rock alum miUst be 176 THE ARTIST AN'P boiled in the copper, then cooled down, and the silks entered and boiled off, recollecting to rinse them before they are again dyed. A small quantity of muriaic acid, (filuted in warm w^ater, must be used to discharged some fast colours; the goods must be afterwards well rinsed in warm and cold water to prevent any injury to the stalk. To discka-^e Cinnamons^ Grtens, S^^c. when dyed too fully, take some tartar poimded in a mortar, sifi it into a bucket, then pour over it some boiling water. The silks, &c. may then be run through the clearest of this liquor, which will discharge the calour, but if the dj'e does not take on again evenly, more tartar ma}' be added, and the goods run through as before. 7g Re-Dye^ or change the colour of Garments, Sfc. de- pends upon Jje rngredients by- which ihey have been dyed. Sometimes when these have been well cleansed, more dyo stufl^ must be added, which will afford the colour intended, and sometimes the colour already on tlie cloth must be dis- charged and the articles re-dyed. Every colour in nature will dye black, whether blue, yellow, brown, or red ; and black will always dye black, again. All colours will take the same colour again, which they already possess; and blues can be |i madying will lake a darker hue ihan at first. Yel- \i lows, browns, and blues are not easily disengaged; maroons, reds, of some kinds, olives, Sec. may be discharged. Olive Greys, Sfc. are discharged by putting in two or thre« table spoonfuls more or less, of oil of vitriol, then put in the garments, &c. and boil, and it will become wb/ik?. If chemic green, either alum, pearlash, or soap, will discharge it off to the yiellow ; this yellow may be mostly boiled off with soap, if it has received a preparation for taking the chemic blue. Muriatic acid used at hard heat, will discharge most colours. A black ma}' be dyed maroon, claret green, or a dark brown, but green is the principal colour into which black is changed. To alum Silks. Silks should be alumed, when cold, for when they are alumed hot, they ari deprived of a great part of their lustre. The alum liquor should always be strong for silks, as they take the dye more readily afterwards. To dye Silks Blue. Silk is dyed light blue, by a ferment of six parts, six of indicfo, six of potasli, and on® of madder. For a dark blue, it must previously receive what is called a TRADESMAN S GUIDE. 1/7 ground colour ; a red die stufl', called archil, is used for this purpose. To dye Cotton and Linen Blue. Take a solution cf one part indigo, one part green sulphate of iron, and two parts quicklime. Yellow Di/es. Oxide of tin is sometimes used when very fine veilovvs are wanting. Tan is often employed as subsidia- ry to alumine, and in order to fix it more copiously on cotton and linen. Tartar is also used as an auxiliary, to brighten the colour ; and muriate of soda, sulphate of lime and even the sulphate of iron, to render the shade deeper. The yel- low dye, by means of fustic is more permanent, but not so beautiful as that given by weld or quercitron. As it is per- manent, and not much injured by acids, it is often used in dyin^- compound colours, where a yellow is required. The mordant is ahimine. Wiien it is oxide of iron, fustic dies a good permanent drab colour. Weld and quercitron bark yield nearly the same colour ; but the bark yields colouring matter in ijreater abundance, and is cheaper than weld. The method of using each of these dye stuffs is nearly the same. Yellow colouring niatlers have too weak an affinity for cloth, to pro- duce permanent colours wilhout the use of mordants. Cloth, therefore, bctore it is dyed yellow, isnlwaj-s prepared by soaking it in alumine. To Dye Woollens Yellow. Let them he boiled for an hour or more, with one sixth of its vveighr of alum, dissolved in a sufficient quantity of water as a mordant. Then plunge it v.'ithout rinsing, into a bath of warm water, containing as much quercitron bark as equals the weight of the alum em- ployed as a mordant. The cloth is to be turned through the boiling liquid, till it has acquired the intended colour. Then a quantity of clean powdered chalk, equal to the hundredth part of the weight of the cloth, is to be stirred in, and the operation of dying contined for eight or ten minutes longer. This method produces a pretty deep and lively yellow. For a very bright.,orange, or golden yellov , it is necessary to use the oxide of tin as a mordant. For producing bright golden yellows, some alum must be used along with the tin. To give ilie yellow a delicate green sliade, tartar must be added in difierent propornons, according to the shade, T-o dye Silks Yelloto. They may be dyed different shades; 'pf yellow, either by weld or quercitron bark^ but the last is 178 THE ARTIST AND the cheapest. The proportion is from one to two parts of bark, to twelve parts of silk, according to the shade. Tie the bark up in a bag, and put it into the dying vessel ^vhile the water is cold. When it acquires the heat of about 100° the silk having been previously alumed, should be dipped in, and continued, till it assumes the v/ished for colour. When the shade is required to be deep, a little chalk, or pearlash should be added towards the end of the operation. 2'rt di/e Linens and Cottons Yellow. The mordant should be acetate of alumine, prepared by dissolving one part of ace- tate of lead, and three parts of alum, in a sufficient quantity of water. Heat the solution to the temperature of 100'^, soak the cloth in it for two hours ; then wring out and dry it. This may be again repeated, and if the shade of yellow is re- quired to be very bright and durable, the alternate wetting with limestone and soaking in tlie mordant may be repeated three or four times. The drying bath is prepared by putting twelve or eighteen parts of quercitron bark, (according to the depth of the shade required) tied up in a bag, into a sufficient quantity of cold water. Into this bath the cloth is to be put, and turned in it for an hour, while its temperature is gradually raised to about 120°. It is then to be brought to a boiling heat, and the cloth allowed to remain in ti for only a few minutes. If kept long at a boiling heat, the yellow acquires a shade of brov.'n. To fix, a fine Mineral Colour on JVool, Silk, Cotton, ^*c. Mix one lb. sulphur, tr/o lbs. white oxide of arsenic, and five parts pearlash; and melt in a crucible at a little short of red heat. The result is a yellow mass, to be dissolved in hot water, and the liquor filtrated, to separate from a sediment formed cheifly of metallic arsenic, in shining plates, and in a small part of a chocolate coloured matter, which appears to be a sub-sulphuric acid, which produces a ilacculent precipitate of a most brilliant yellow colour. This precipitate, washed upon a cloth filter, dissolves with the utmost ease in liquid ammonia, giving a yellow solution, v/hich colour is to be rem(*ved by an excess of the same alkali. To prepare tlie Sidphurat of Arsenic. This produces a very brilliant and permanent yellow. Dip into a solution of this more or less dilated, according to the depth of tint re- g^uired, wool, silk, cotton or linen. All metallic utensils must be carefully avoided. V/hen the stuffs come out of this TUADESiMAn's GUIDii 170 batbj they are colourless, but they insensibly take on a yel- low iuie as the ammonia evaporates. They are to be exposed as equally as possible to a current of open air ; and when the colour is well como out, and no lunger heightens, they are to be waslied ajid dried. Wool should be fulled in the ammon- iacal solution, and should remain in it, until it is thoroughly soaked ; then very slightly and uniformly pressed, or else merely set to to drain of itself. Silk, cotton, hemp, and flax, are only to be dipped in tlie dying liquid, which they easily take. They must be then well pressed. The sulphurot arsenic will give every imaginable tint to stuffs, from the deep golden yellow, which has the invariable advantage of never fading, of lasting even longer than the stuffs themselves, and of resisting all re-agents, except alkalies. lience it is pecu- liarly fitted for costly tapesiry, velvets and other articles of furniture wl'ich are not in danger of bemg washed with alka- lyes or soap ; and to which the durability of colour is a most importrnt object. It may also be used with advantage in paper staining. To (lye Woollens Red, Crimson and Scarlet. Coarse woollen stufls are dyed rod willj madder, or archill ; but fine cloth is almost exclusively dyed with cochineal, though the colour it receives from kermes is more durable. Brazil wood is scarcely used, excepting as an auxiliary, because the colour vi^hich it imparts to the wool is not permanent. Wool is dyed crimson, by first impret^nating it with alumine, by means of an alum bath, and then boiling in a decoction of cochineal, till it has acquired the wished for colour. The crimson will be finer if the tin mordant is substituted for alum ; indeed, it is usual with dyers to add a little nitro-muriate of tin, when they want fine crimsons ; the addition of archil and potash to the cochineal both render the crimson darker, and gives it the more bloom. But the bloom very soon vanishes. For the paler crimsons, only one half of the cocljineal is withdrawn, and madder substituted in its place. Wool may be dyed scar- let, b}' first boiling it in a solution of murio-sulphate of tin, then dying it pale yellow with queacitron bark, and afterwards crimson with cochineal, for scarlet is a compound colour, con- sisting of crimson mixed with a little 3^ellow. To carry the Colour into the body of the Cloth. Make the moistened cloth pass through between rollers placed within and at the bottom of the dye vat, so that the web, passing 180 THE ARTIST AM) from one windlass through the dye vat, and being strongly compiesssd by the rollers in its passage to another windlassj qH the remain'ng water is drawn out, and is replaced by the colouring liquid, so as to receive colour .to its very centre. The winding should be continued backwards and forwards from one windlass to the other, and through the roiling pressj till the dye is t)f sufficient inleusit3\ To dye Silks Keel, Crimson, ^'c. Silk is usually dyed red with cochineal, or carthamus, and someiinies with Brazil woodi Kermes does not answer for silk. Madder is scarcely ever used for that purpose, because it does not yield a colour bright enough. Archil is employed to give silk a bloom; but it is scarcely ever used by itself, unless when the colour wan- ted is lilac. Silk may be dyed crimson by steeping it in a solution of alum, and then dying it in the usual way, in cochi- neal bath. The colours known by the name of poppy, cherry, rose, and ilesh colour are given to siiks by means of cartha- mus. The process consists merely in keeping the silk, as long as it extracts any colour in an alkaline solution oi" carthamus^ into which as much loraan juice as gives it a fine cherry red colour, has been poured. Silk cannot be dyed A full scarlet; but a colour approaching to scarlet may be given to it, by first impregiiating the stuff with murio-sulphate of tin, and afier- wards dying it in a bath, composed of four parts of cochinealj and four parts of quercitron bark. . To give the colour more body, both the mordant and the dye m?.y be repeated. A col- our approaching scarlet may be given to silk, Idv first dying it in crimson, then dying it wiih carthimns ; and lastly, yellow without heat. To dye Linens aiifLCottons Red, 6fc. Cotton and linen are dyed red with madder. The piocess was borrowed from the east ; hence the colour is ofien called Adrianople, or Tur- key red. The"*cloth is first inipregnated with oil, then with galls, and lastly with alum. It is then boiled for an hour in a decoction of madder, which is commonly mixed with a quantity of blood. After the cloth is dyed, it is plunged into a soda lye, in order to heighten the colour. The red given by this process is very permanent, and when properly con- ducted, it is exceedingly beautiful. The whole difficulty consists in the application of the mordant, which is by frir the most complicated in the whole art ofdying. Cotton aiay be dyed scarlet, by means of murio-sulphate of tin, cochineal^; Hxid (quercitron bark, used as for silk, but the colour is t^o fading to be of any vulue. Black Dije. The substances employed to give a black colour to cloth, are red oxyde of iron, and tan. These two substances have k strong affinity for ea^h other, and when combined, assume a deep black colour, not liable to be de- stro3'ed by the action of air or light. Logwood is usually employed as an auxiliary, bocanse it communicates lustre, and adds considerably to the fuhiess of the black. The decoc- tion is at first a tine red, bordering on violet 4 but if left to itself, it gradually assumes a black colour. Acids give it a deep red colour, alkalies, a deep violet, inclining to brown ; snlphat'e of iron renders it as black as ink, and occasions a precipitate of the same colour, cloth before it receives black colour, is usually died blue ; this renders the colour much ful" Jer and finer than it would otherwise bo. If the cloth is hoarse, the blue dye may be too expensive ; in that case, u brown cqleur is given, by means of walnut peels* Tc dye Woollens Black, Wool is dyed black by the fol- lowing process. It is boiled for two hours in a decoction of nutgalls, and afterwards kept, for two hours more, in a bath, - composeil of logwood and sulj)hate of iron ; kept during the whole time, at a scalding heat, but not boiling. During tbo operation, it must be frequently exposed to the air ; because tlie green oxide of iron, of wliich the sulphate is composed, )nust bo converted into led oxide, by absorbing oxygen, he* fore the cloth can acquire a proper colour. The common proportions, are fjve parts galls; five sulphate of iron, and 30 of logwood for every lOO of cloth. A little acetate of copper is commonly added to th»^ sulphate of iron, because it is tliouirht to improve the colour. To Dijc Silks Black. Silk is dyed nearly in the same man- ner. It is capable of combinirlg with a great deal of tan ; the quantity is varied at t'ne pleasuie of the artist, by allowing the silk to remain a longer or a shorter time in ihe decoction. To TJTjdr Cottoils and Lintns Black. The cloth previ- ^^ ously dyed blue, is steeped for tv/enty-four hours in a decoc- tion of nutgalls; A batli is prepared, containing acetate of iron, formed by saturating acetous acid with br:>wn oxide of irdii ; into this bath the cloth is put, in small quantities at a ' time, wrought with the hand for a qiiarter of an hour ; th(ni wrung out and dvcd again; wrought in a fresh quantity of the iSi THE ARTIST ANU bath, and 5iftcrT«'ards airnd. These alternate prorossc*: are re|.edted till ihe coli-ur waiiicd is giverj ; ;i dec ciiou of alder baik is usually mixed ^^iih ilie liquor ctMiiaininij ihe i ul- galls. To Dt/e Wool, Sfc. Broicn. Brown or fawn colour, lliough in fact, a compound, is usually ranked anioui; ilie simph; c«d- ours, bi'cause |t is applied t«) cloth b\ a sinijle process. Va- ri JUS ^ubs;anc^i'S are used for brown d\es. Walnut p» els, or ihe green covi'ring of ihe w.dnut, wnen first sepnra;ed, are will e internally, but soon Hssunie a brown, or eveji i bl ick colour, on exposure to the air. They readily yield ilieir co- louring noUer to water. They are usunlly kepi in b^rge casks, covered wi.h water, for aI)ove a year beft^re iliey are used. To die w»).(d brown wi.h thesu, noihing more is necessary, ihin to s!«'ep the cloth in a d«*ci c.ion of them, (ill it has ac- quired the Wislied lor C(d nr. TIk? depth of ihe shade is pro- portioned t'> the slreniiih of iho dec<)^ti(»n. The root of ihe walnut tree C(;n a iis he sairsi' colouriiig matter, but in a smal- ler qiiiuiiity. Tie bark of iho biich also, and many other irees?, may be used l^r tlu; sin e p'r pose. To Dye dompfiund Colours. Compound colours are pro- duced by m xint: tojii' her two s'lUj le ones; or which is the sjme ilruL' by living do; h fi st^of die sMuph; colour, aiul then hy ano iier. These coloirrs vary to infini y, "r'rcfudinfr to the pr<»ponions <»f the ingred en s enjpioyed. Fr«ini blue, red and vellow, red > tivcs^ and trri'fn.sh grcifs nre mine. Frt)ni bliio, lel and \y.o\\\\^ nliius are nrsde Irtiin the liiih'- est to the darkest sU id<"* ; and hv giving a greater shade of red, the slated and laiwndrr grct/s are made. From blue, ;ed and bl ick, gi'tys of all shades are made, such as sagfy jngi'on^ slate uiu\ lead gnys. From yelb)w, blue an I brown, a e m ide olircs of all kinds. From br wn, blue a:'d black, are j)i educed brown olives, and their shades. Fion) red, \elli»w and brown, are derived the orange^ gold col'iiir^ dead carnations^ cinnamon, fawn and tobacco, by usine two or three of the crd<»urs required. From yellow, red and black, browns t.f every shade are made. From blue and yellow, grvpvs of all shades. From reH and bhu'. jwrphs of all kinc's are foi med. 2 « Dye different shades of Oreai, Weol, silk and linen tradesman's glide. 183 Rrc'n^inll;' dycj ^roor^ by fi'v'ng ij-^ni firs' n I)l;o olo-"-; iwl ;it Ci \v ir..s liy.iii ii -in ,fli.,\v; vvii m .ii.> y< .! ,\v .s .i.st ^ ven sewi'.il inco.ivcn.ojH cj ii)l jmv : lu- y« ii* v. j; ;»• !j t,i';-;!!.- • s ji^'^iiM ill .llj l)hj a ini'u rui n. .., r, i:ieji rfii.Kfii.i^ i: ii.>.'iv!..> i >. ii))%»', vxc.A iiy- injf ir.{;- I. A ly «'f Jij usi il }). v)j(j.i-;cs j'iij- togc;li(u-, atui lo dye il;e clo.h ai Ofice ; this produces w li-t is kuown by the n inn^ of S ixou, or English green. To J)jc Violet^ /*u/'/jk ami Lilac, Wool is g(»nendly first fl'eJ blue, aud alurvvinds scarlet, iu the usual jnaurter. By nieiiiA of c;)c!r:ne:d mixed with sulphate of indigo, the pro- cess ma}'^ be performed at once. Sdk is first d (.'d crinis(»n by moans of cochineal, and then flipped into ;be indij:<» val. ( ot'on ;;nd li::en are first died blue, an,'! iIk'u dipped iu a dec(»ciion of logwood, but a more perm/iieut colour is uiveu by means of oxide il dark Brown. Ifclith is prr- vii'us'y cfim'iiued wth b/owi ox de of iri>n, and aferward^ <*y dye I w wiili q uTciiron Inrk, the result h 11 be a drnb of ditfertMit sli ide-, according to tlie p-». tio i of m ir«l mt employ-^ od. When the pr*;) ortioa is smill, th;; colour incTne* to ol- ive, or veil >w ; on the ct)utrtry, tht! drdi m ly be deepened, or sad hnad as the dyers tc.ni ir, by mixing a litile sum'tch with the bsrk. To Djf- O/incs, naff la Greens, Purpirs, Brow^ts, Cinna^ irnnx, or Sn tjfi, T ike Cv);nni »u iron 1 quor, or alum dissol- \Oi\ ill it, a qi'Miti'y of cnclj act (Wfling to die shade wan!edj undo inro a pas:c or liquid by adding flour, gum, glue, lin- seed, or one or more of them. Then put the composition IS 4 THE ^RTfsT ANS>^ into a tub Gonnecled with a machine used for such purposesj lake them from the machine, and hang them up in a very cool room :. where they shourd remaii> until dr}'. Take cow's manure, put it into a large copper of hot water, and mix well together ; througli which pass tlie cloth, until thoroughly sof- tened. After th's process, cleanse the goods; then take a liquor made of nuiclder, logwood, sumach, fustic, Brazil wood, quercitron bark, poach, or other woods, to produce the colour wanted, or more of them; and if necessary dilute this liquor with water, according to the shade or fidness of the colour wanted to be died. Then work the goods through this li-» qiior ; after which pass ihem through cold or warm water, according to colour, the proper application of which is well known to dyers, adding a little alum, copperas, or Roman vitriol, or two or more of ther^i first dissolved in water. Thew wash them off in warm water, and dry them. But if the co- lour is not sufficiently full, repeat the same operation tiU it rs brought to the colour required. To Dye a Black upon Cotton, Linen, and mired Goods, as effected by tar and iron liquor of the best quality, adding to each gallon of the mixture, a pound of fine flour. Some take common iron liquor, and add three quarters of fine flour, and by boiling, bring it to the consistence of a thin paste, or in- stead of ilour, add glue or linseed, or gum, or all af theiw mixed together, and brought to a proper thickness. Theresa of the process is conducted in a similar manner to tlie last. To Dye Crimson, Red, Orange, or Yellow. Take red li-^ quor, such as is ge-aerally made i'rom alum^, and dilute it with water according to the strength or shade of colour wanted t» dye, bringing it to the eobtaiiied Irom a mixtiir-of two parts of iron filings and one of* brimstone, niehed in a pot/ the brimstone is bruisf;d, introduced into a matrass, and the gas is rr>noved by siilpliuric acid, extended in water to a mild heat. The ga? absorbs abuiidajitly in cold water. To Dije Cotf-jn Clo/h Black. Take a quantity of Mo- lacca nuts, a'id boil them in water, in close earthen vessels, with the leaves of the tree.- During the boiling, a whitish substan<^, formed from the mucilage and oil of the nuts, will rise f^ the surface; this must be taken off and" preserved. TJ-"t3 cloth intended to be black must be printed with this ?cum, and then died, after which, let it be passed through limc-wattr, wiien the painted figures will be changed to a full and permanent black. To Di/e Wool a permanent Blue Colour. Take four ounces of the best indigo, reduce it to a fine powder and add twelve pounds of wool, in the grease; put the whole into a co})per large enough to contain all the wool to be died. As *i6 156 Ti?£ Altti^f &n^ -soon as the rrqMisite ro)o«r is ohtninod, let the wool ha w?fl tVHs-lieti ait. I (Umd. Tl.e l.qui.r ir-mcjinit.g, may be ;i^hiu ustc, to piuJuce ligii.e. biu^s. 'I hir G«l«.wr vViH l«r \f, _v bf-amiiul, Mriii j.«;rTi t{i»'!i. as iiife fuvest l.liu' jjiuduced by wo;.»j ; and ibtr wuul, by ib;S nieibud will lohe ie>s in wcijbi, ibuH it it batl ht}tii\ pr«?vlonsh' seciriea^ To produce the f-wiss deep and jpoie Red iopical Mordant, When \\\e cloth has beei> ir^'vu by s.c»,'ping and boiling in soap niuj wutcr, fViin ;hif (Jas(e nscid by ibe weaver, and any other jniptiniies it iiiny hi\e acquired, injnier.se it tb«»rtjui:hly, or a^ it «- ri'llt^il, jiHiUj) or p:?d SI in ,\ s».}ii.i(»n of any Hlknli, and o i Mj gic i^<^ U .::i:ng ^m linjx'ifett si>;f|) diss Ivt-d in waif;r, or in a svilu i<,;. of s.stia ai.d ,«i;illij:oii oil, in \\xv proporlion of o'-.o u i! n t To i ;<) .ws^n.y ji.:Uo:js rf s^txia le«^s, a-: ilii' strengih o( Ui iv t;<'<.id a hiif ; ihen 6iy u;e cloili in the stove, and M ju'ii ;!u' (.rorcss several times, which may he varied at plcis'je, ccoMliMji to .he histie and duiab.li.y of the colmir Win ed, s ove di\ln«i jlie cIimIi bciueen every iri.inersion. To ilie fibi ve solu ions a l;;.le shrep's niMJJUje for the first ihree in!m»'5S:on^ ; iifer the clo.h hits been inmseised in iliese li- qiti! -, 8.ee|> it in a q-mitity «»f \va er, ior uvehe houis, at llOfiep. F.hreiihei;; d.e cloth being again stove dried is ii)mers(d in a soUitic.n o( «e aie cnllid the white liquors, Sreep iho cloth lor twelve hoars, at I'i.i ilvg. Fahrenheit, which forms what is called iV»o whi;e steeo, The ei'ith be-ng now thoroaghly was!i;'d in c-.la wa-.er, an 1 dried, is ready to receive, firsr, the pink mtiidant, Ci-mposed as f d- Inws : eqnal quantities by measniemeni tf a cer<'C!ion of jralls, at the strength of four to six, and a S( Inlion i>.f alnm at one half degree, the alum beinij previously saturated vviih whiten'ng, or any other alkali, in the propor.ic'U of one fj-nice to the pound weight of aljm ; ni'X them together, and ra'me the ten^perat ire to 140 deg. of Fahrenheit, or as hot as can be handled. By immersion, as formerly mentioned in this mixture, the clo.h when died and cleared, exhibits a beauti- ful pink, equal, if not superior to that produced by cochi- neal. jTo dye Silks and Satins Drntcn^ in the small tray. Fill the copi>er with river water ; when it gently boils, put in a TRADBSMAxN 5 UUIDS. IS* ^ qn-irtcr ofa Dound of chipped fustic, two ounces of maddor, una ounce of suniarh, ai»d haifaii ounce of cauiwood, but if it is not required to be so red, the camwood may be omitied. These sljould boil at least, from half an hour to two houis, that the iugredienis may be well iucorporaied. The copper must then be cooled down by pouring in cold water; ihe goods may then bo put in and simmered gently from half to an hour. If this colour should n|>pear to want darkening, it may be done by taking out liie goods ; and adding a small qiianlily of old black liqiior ; a small piece of green copperas may be used; rinse in two or lljiee walers, and liang up lo dry. To dye Silk Fawn Colour Drabs. Boil one ounce fis'.ic, half an ounce of alder bark, and two diaclims of arthd. Fiom one to four drachms of ilie bosi madder must be adced to a very small quantity of old black liquor, if it required daiker. To (lit a Silk Shawl Scat hi. Dissolve two ounces of .white soap in bt)iling water, handle lh(^ shawl ihri*u^h ihe liquor, »ubbing such jdaces With the hands as may a| j;i!ar djny. A srcond or third l.quor may be used, if icquiu'd ; af.er wh cli rinse out ihe shawl in warm waier. Then take Irall'an ounce of the besi Spanish arnotto, dissolve it in h«>t Wa^er; pour the solution into a pan of warm water, handle the sImwI in it a quarter of an hour, then nnse it in clean water. In ihe nit-anw h le d;ssi.l\e a p.ece of i h.ni, ot .he size of a horse beiiu in warm water, lei the .^hawl lelnain in this half an hour, then rinse it in cleaii water. Now l)oil a quarter of an ounce o^'ihe best cocliMieal fur twenty minutes, dii it out of the cfi()| er iiui> a pan, let the •■hawl remain in this from tweniy minutes tt» half an h«»ur, when it w.ll Lect me u bhud red ; thcMi take i' out and add to the liquor in the pan, a quart njore otj» of the copper, if theie is as nujch le- maiuing, aod about half a small wme glass full <;f the solution of tin ; when ctdd, rinse it out slightly in cold water. To dijz a Silk Shawl Crimson. Take about a tah'e- jpoonful u.itict's i?}" c.)t:ik, Acct I c (if i!>t:i, is iiKs.) a i)i .iJ dk in f"i\K|Hmi n.5(' ; Imi pne s.ni.ile ni xrurc of al.un an I aci- a o of lo »«l, .s founii so iiu- S'VdT bost as a mardan . TIk^ nio.danis an; apjJiiMl to ihi; cliiili, eitluM' With a pcMci', or by means ol' block;, on vvh.chi tbo pirtorn, accordinti: lo whch Ino coUon is to be prinicd is nppLed, is cut. As tliey an? applii-d to only particnl ir parts; oi the cloth, caro mast hn taken tirat n<)n{,' of thcMii spread to ll»o jj.art of the; cloth which is to hi', left white, and iliit they do not in:erf wiih flonr or staJch, when they are to bej put on wiih ih;^ penc I. The thicken'ng should nev(?r be\ greater than is safficienr to prevent tin.' spreading of th'^ morH dan's; when carri(?d too i'lv, the cotton is apt not to be saffi-' ciently satnr;«red with the m )rdan;s, and of course the dye', takes bjit imperlecily. In order that the parts of the cloih! impregnated with nionlants may be d stingnislied by their coloar, it i^ nsn d to tinsre them with some colouring m ttlor. A decociioii of B-az 1 wood i- generally used for this pur- pose. Af;er the in.ardants have heen apjdied, the cloih must be completely dried. It is piop? r for this pur|)'»se to enjploy b.eat, which will contribute towards the separation of tho acetous . acid fiom its base, and towards its evaporation; by which means th-e mordani will combine in a u:reat(!r prt>por tion, and more intim Kely with the cloih. When the clo;h is sufficiently drie.I, it is to be wis'aed wiih wirm wa^or and cowdnno-, till the fi()ur or gum employed to t hi. -ken the mor- il mts which are uncomb*ne:l v>'i:h the clotli, are remr»ved. Afior this the clo h is tf> be thoroujhly riast'd in clear water. Indigo not requiris^ji any mordant is ccnnnoniy a[){J e i ni once, eilher by a black or pencil. Ii is prepared by boiling' it wi;h potas'n, m tde cair^iic by q licklinw and orpi'iien' ; the s >lati an is if «mw irds thickeae 1 with iram. Ir muJt be care-' " f diy sccln led f.oiij the ai', othe;w sj* the and go woul 1 soon becoai* regenera;ed, thus rendering the solution useles«.^i Sonic have used coarse brown sugar irtstcad of orpiment. It I ■ tradesman's guide. 191 is pqually offirncions in flrromprs'iig the inrlico, pnd loiu'ci- : iiig ii solublr, wli.le it I.kewnf scixcs a 1 il:e j nr|,<.ies of j To paint Yr/fmr, For y<'ll«>\v, tlie l.lock is l;(\smenr< d \ vviiJi a<:eiriie «it" HlLimliie. 'Jlic clo'.li at';«'r rccc'vng litis iiior- i dun', is dyed vvih fiiit'jciiioi! buik, and is I'lcn blea( lit^:!. I JSonknn VcUou'^ is one ot" ilio niosr rominon t'« li u s on i prinis, is a kind oT nankcon \ <•!!(. w, «.j vaiions ^ilat!t's ut uii J lo a deep ycUcw'^li bi< \vn or diab. Ii is penally in strip* s \ or sjio;s. To |)ro(!uce it, beyn)car a I Uk k, rut in:o tie lljiuie t[ of a print, witb acetaie (iliron, tliicktncU ui i; ^j ni ax fin r ; r.nd J'pply to the cotton, w liicb af"cr lein^«lrird « n(f deai sjd ill ll:e ii>nal manner; is Iui'|:r d iiuo a po1;:^h }\e. The : qiian.jiy of aceiaie ol" iion is always pioj r.nioi.ed to li.e deptli of ilie siiade. /?t'r/, is c« nununiratrd by tbc srme prcce-fs, oi:!y maccer -is subs isuted lor iiie baik. Illin'. Tbe fine I «iJit iifues wli'cb a[)p,ear so freqneii'ly on prill el c«»ttoiis, are produced by applyi!j<» to ihc cI-kIi a Idock b smC'iied \v t!i a c< nij osili* n, < 01 s st liiJ jja'sily < i' w \, ulii
  • o prepared as above, tin n s;ir in!o it by degrees, one gallon of the sohi-ioii of tin, neniralzed ly 3S much caustic alkali as can be added ' without |)recipitaiing ihe tin from the acids. I'oi a lighter sha('e of g; een, less indigo will lie necessary. Tbe goods are to be dipped in the way of dippiug China blues ; they must not however be al- ly2 TMl^ ARTIST A\D lowed to drain, but moved from one vat to another as quickly as possible. They are lo be cleansed in the usual way: in a sour vat of about orie hundred and tifiy gallons ol water to one gallon of sulphuric acid ; they are then to be \a ell wash- ed in decoctions of weld, and olher yellow colouring drugs, then brannod or bleahcod till they become white in those parts which are required colourless. To print Dove Colour and Drab. Dove colour and drab are given by acetate of iron, and quercitron bark, the cloth is afterwards prepared in the usual manner. To print difcrent Colours. When diff>.'rent colour? are to appear in the same urint, a greater number of cperations are necessary. Two or more blocks are employed : upon each of which, that part of the print only is cut, wliich is to be of some particular colour. These are besmeared with different mordants, and applied to the cloth, which is after- wards dyed as usual. Let us suppose for instance, that those blocks are apphed to cotton, one with acetate of alumine, another with acetate of iron, a third with a mixture of those two mordants, and that the cotton is then dyed with quercit- ron bark, and bleached. The parts impregnated with the niordants, would have the following colours t Acetate of alumine, Yelh w. " iron, Olive, drab, dove. The mixture, Olive green, olive. If thd part of the 3'ellow is covered over with the indigo liquor, applied With a pencil, it will be converted into green. By the same liquid, blue may be given" to such parts of th«3 print as require it. If the cotton is dyed with madder, in- stead of quercitron bani ; the print will exhibit the following colours : Acetate of alumine. Red. " . iron, Brown, black. The mixture, Purpli. When a grc^ater number of colours are to appear ; for in- stance, when those communicated by bark, and those by mad- der are wanted at the same time, mordants for i)arts of thd pattern are to be applied, the cotton then is to be dyed in the madder bath, and bleached ; then the rest of the mordanis, fo fill up the patterns, are ^dded, and the cloth is again dyed with quercitron bark, and bleached. The second dying does not so mnch affect the madder col- TRADirSMAN g ©VIDE. 19S ours ; because the mordants, which render them permanent^ are aheady saturated. The yellow tinge is already removed, by the subsequent bleaching. Sometimes a nevV mordant is applied to some of thfe madder colours, in conseqiienco of which, they receive a new permanent colour from the bark; After the last bleaching, new colours may be added, by means of the indigo liquor. The following taljle will give an idea hich ma}' be given to cotton by these pro- of the colours w cesses. I. Madder Dye II. Blaclz Dye III. Indigo Dye. Acetate of alumine, Red; " iron, Brown, black. " diluted, Lilac. Both mixed, Purple; Acetate of alumine^ Yellow. '* iron. Dove, drab; Lilac and acetate of alum. Olive; Red and a<-,etate of alum. Orange. Indigo, Blue. Indigo and yellow. Green. To prepare a Substitute for Gum., used iii Calico Print- ing. Collect half aton weight of pelts or skins, or pieces of. rabbit or sheep skirs, and boil them for seven or eight hours, in 350 gallons of water, or until it becomes a stong size. Then draw it off, and when cold weigh it. Warm it again, "and to every hundred weight, add the strongest sweetwort^ that can be made from malt, or twenty pounds weight of su- gar. When incorporated, take it off, and put it into a cask, for use. This substitute for gum may be used by calico prin- ters in mixing up nearly all kinds of colours. By using only a sixth part of gum with it, it will also improve tiie gum, and be a saving of 200 per cenf.^and without gum, of 400 per cent. It will also improve and preserve the paste so much used bj' printers. To prepare Arnotto for Dying. Arnotto is a colouring fecula of a resinous natine, extracted from the seeds of a tree very common in the West Indies, and which in height never^ exceed.s fifteen fef!t. The Indians employ two processes to obtain the red fecula of these seeds. They first pound them, and mix them with a certain quantity of water, which in the course of five or six days, favours the progress of fermentation. The liquid then becomes charged with the colourine part, and tlve superfluous moistui-e is afterwards 17 194 THE ARTIST AND separated by slow evaporation over the fire, or by the heat of the sun. The second process consists in rubbiijg the seeds between the hands in a vessel filled with vv'ater. The colour-, ing part is precipitated, and fo»nis itself into a mass like a cake of wax ; but it" the red fecuia, thus detached, is much more beautiful than in the first process, n is less in qnaniisy. Besides as the splendour of it is too bright, .'he Indians are accustomed to weaken it b^ a mixture of red sandal wood. The natives of the East India islands used formerly to employ ar- notlo tor painting their bodies, die. At j)resent in Europe il is only (•mployed to give the tii st tints to woollen stuffs, intended to be dved red, blue, yellow, green, &c. In the art of the varnisher, it forms part of the Composition of changing varnishes, to givo a gold colour to the melals on which these varnishes are applied, To prepare Dying Materials, 6fc. Arnotto ought to be chosen of a flame colour brighter in the interior part than on the outside ; soft to the touch, and of a good consistence. The paste of arnotto becomes soft in Europe ; and it loses some (Jf its odour, which approaches near to that of violets. Of Litmus. The Cape de Verd islands produce a kind of lichen or moss, which yields a violet colouring part, when exposed to the contact of ammonia disengaged from urine, in a state of putref iction, by a mixture of lime. When the processes are finished, it is known by tiie name of litmus. This ariicle is prepared on a large scale at London, Paris, and Lyons. In the latter city, another kind of lichen, which grows on the rocks is prepared. Tlie ammonia joins the resinous purt of the plant, developes its colour' ing part, and combines with it. lo this state the lichen forms a paste of a violet rcil colour, interspersed with whitish spots, which give it a luarbled appearance. Litmus is employed in dying, to communicate a viulbt colour to silk and woollen. OF Saffron. The flowers of this plant contain two col" curing jjarts, one soluble in water, which is thrown away ' the other soluble in alkaline liquors. The laller colouring l)arts becomes the basis of v^arious beatitiful "shades of cherry colour, rose colour, &/C. It is employed for dying feathers, and constitutes tiie vegetable red, or Spanish vermixlion, em- ployed by ladies to heighten their complexion. Carthamus cannot furnish its resinous colouring- part, provided with all its qualities, until it has been deprived of that which is soluble in water. For this purpose, the dried flowers of the carthar- mus arc enclosed in a lined bag, and the bag is placed in a 19:> stream of running Wtitcr. A man with wooden slices gets \:noii .he -bag every eight or tei) liours, and treads \\ on the b;.nk until the w a '.er .expressed from it is- colourless. Those nu'Ui flowers, afie, bejng strongly squeezed in the bag, are spread out on a piece of canvass, exiended on a frame, placed over a wooden box, and covered wiih five or six per cent, of their weight of carbonate of soda. Pure wa or is then poured over ihem ; and this process is repeated several times, that the alkali may h>!ve leisure to become charged wijh the col- ouring pari, which it dissolves. The liquor when filiered is a dirty red, and almost brown colour. The colouring part thus held in solution, cannot be em-ployedjor colouring bodies until it is [ree ; and to set it at liberty, tha soda must be brought into contact with a body which has more affinity for it. It is on this precipitation, by an intermt^diate substance, that the process for making Spanisji vermilion is founded, as well as all the re- sults arising from the direct application of this colou'^ing part in the art of dyi,ng. Of Woad. The prepai-ation for colouring 1s effecled from the leaves of the plant, by grinding them to a paste, of which balls are ma<^e, [>laced in heaps, and occasionally sprinkled with water to promote the fermention ; when this is finished, the woad is allowed to fall into a coarse powder ; used as a blue dye stuff. Of Indigo. This dye is derived from the leaves of the young shoots of several species of the plant, by soaking them either in cold water, or still better, in water kept warm, and at about I6O0 Fahrenheit, till the liquor becomes a deep green; it is then drawn off, and the blue sediment dried, and formed into lumps. Of Potatoe Tops, dfc. Cut off the tops when they are in flower, and extract the juice, by bruising and pressing them. Linen or woollen imbued in this liquor .fort3'-e>ght hours, "~ will take a brilliant, solid and permanent yellow. If the cloth be afierwards f)lunged in a blue dye, in will acquire a beauti- ful permanent green colour. As to the mode of execution, ^it should pass through the bands of a chemist or skilful dyer, to derive all the advantages it is capable of furnishii g. To prepare cotton and linen to receive certain colours, parfci<:u- larly the red madder, atid cross wort, the article of sheep's inanure is made use of, as it forms, by impregnating the stuffs 196 THE ARTIST AND • with an animal mucilage, of which it contains a large quantity, and thus assimilating them to wool and silk. To Print Carpets. These carpets are made of knitted wool, by means of a machine ; they are afterwards pressed aiKl receive all the colours and designs wished for. These designs printed on the tissue, by raeai^ of wooden boards, are extremel}'- neat ; the colours are very brilliant, and resist rubbing extremely well, provided they traverse the tissue from one part to another. They are warm, and have the advan- tage of being cheaper than others. Tiiey are also as durable, and are not crossed by seams disagreeable to the eye. CHAPTER XXVIl. Bleaching — by Oxy muriatic Acid — bleach Jield ni Ireland — improved bleaching Liquor — by Alkalized Steam — to bleach Wool^ Cotton and Straw — to lohiten Wax — of purifying Tallow — imitation of Wax Candles — to extin- guish Vegetable colours bicaching Salts- — bleaching JJquid, The mode of bleaching which least injures the texture of the cloth formed of vegetable substances, is that effected by merely exposing it in a moistened state to the atmosphere^ having been steeped in a solution of potash or soda, but the length of time and other inconveniences attending this pro- cess, led to more active chemical processes. It is by the combination of oxygen with the colouring matter of the cloth, that it is deprived of its hue, and the difierent processes em- ployed must be adapted to prepare it for this combination, and render it as perfect as possible, without destroying its tex- ture, an effect which, however, must necessarily ensue in a greater or less degree, Irom the union of oxygen with all bodies. To bleach linen, &.c. by oxymuriatic acid, it is necessary to ascertain its strength, in which a solution of indigo in the acid is employed. The colour of this is destroyed by the oxy- genated muriatic acid ; according to the quantity of it that can be discoloured by a given quantity of the liquor its strength is known. In this country, machinery is employed for rin- sing and beating ; the apparatus must be arranged according to the objects to be bleached ; the skeins of thread must bf suspeudeci in the tub destined for them, and the c.loih niUo^ TRADESMAN'S QVWE. 197 be rolled upon reels in the npparatiis. When every thing- is thus disposed, the tubs are tilled with oxygenated muriatic acid ; by introducing a funnel, which descends to the bottom of the tub, in order to prevent the dispersion of gas. The cloth is wound en the frame work, on which the skeins are suspended, is turned several times, until it is judged, by taking out a small quantity of the liquor from time to time, and trying it by the test of the solution of indigo, that it is suflicientiy exhausted. Tbe weakened liquor is then drawn off, and may be again used for a new saturation. In bleaching with the oxymuriate of lime, a large quantity of lime is combined with the oxy- muriatic acid gas, to effect which, the lime is meclianicrill}^ suspended in water, into winch the gas is made to p;iss, and agitated ; so as to present fresh matter to the gas. By this means the ox3^muriate of lime is formed in a very convenient manner ; it is dissolved in water, and used as a blenching liquor. This liquor is preferable to the oxygenated muriatic acid and potash. At the great bleach field in Ireland, four lyes of potash are applied alternately, with four weeks exposure on the grass, two immersions in the oxymuriate of lime, a lye of potash between the two, and the exposure of a week en the grass, between each lye and the immersion. During summer two 13'es and fifteen days exposure are sufficient to prepare cloth for tlie oxygenated muriate; the three alternate lyes, with immersions in the liquor, will be sufficient 10 ccmj-lete the I'leaching ; nothing then w^ill be necessar>, but to wind the cloth tlirough the sulphuric acid. The oxygenated muriatic gas may also be combined v.'iih lime in a dry state, or the water may be evaporated, when it is employed for the formation of oxyniuriates, which may then be very conveniently transported to any distance without injur\ vo its detersive power. To prepare the sulphate of lime, take subphwr or brimstone in fine powder, four pounds; lime well slacked and sifted, twenty pounds; water sixteen gallons; these are to be well mixed, and boiled for half an hour in an iron vessel, siiring them briskly from time to time. Soon after the agitation of the boiling is over, the solution of the suiphuret of linie clears, and may be drawn off free from the insoluble matter, which is considerable, and which rests upon the bottom of the boil- er. The liquor in this stale, is nearly the colour of small 19S THE ARTIST AND l)eer, but not so transparent. Sixteen gallons of fresh water are afterwarvds j3oureci on the insokible dregs in tb« boiler, in order to separate the whole of the sulphuret from them. When this clears, being previously agitated, it is drawn olf and mixed with the first liquor, 'i'hirtj'-three'gailons more of water may be added to ihe liquor, thus reducmg'it to a proper standard for sleeping the cloth ; and which furnishes sixty gallons of liquor fiom four pounds of brimsione, mak- •ing allowance for evaporation. When linen is freed from the weaver's dressing, it is to be steeped in the solution of sulphuret of lime (prepared as above) for about twelve or more hours, and then washed and dried. This process is to be repeated six rimes, that is, by six alternate immersions in each liquor, which has been found to whiten the linen. Steam has lately been employed with great success. The process was brought from the Levant. Chapel first make it known to the public. The cloth is fust immersed in a slight alkaline caustic liquor, and placed in a chamber constructed over a boiler, into which is put the alkaline lye, which is to be raised into steam, after the fire has been lighted, and the cloth has remained exposed to the action of the steam for a sufiicient length of time, it is taken out and immersed in the oxygenated muriate of lime, ^.nd then exposed foj two or three da3's on the grass, This operation, which is very expeditious, will be sufficient for cotton; but if linen cloth should retain a yellov\ tint, a second alkaline caustic vaponr bath, and two or three days on the grass, will be sufficient to give ii the nece;- sary whiteness. To bleach b}^ alkalized steam, the high temperature swells up the fibres of the cloth; the pure alkali which rises with the elastic fluid, seizes with avidity on the colouring matter ; and seldom does the tisssue of the flax or hemp resist the pen- etrating effect of this vapour bath. - ' The alkali appears to have .a much livelier and more cau- stic action, when it is combined with caloric, than in ordinary^ l3'es, where the temperature never rises above 162° Fahren- heit. By making the cloth pass through the Ij^e of OA3'gen- 'ated muriate of lime, an union is effected between the solution and the carbon, arising from the extractomucous matter of the flux ; carbonic acid is formed ; the water, even, in which this new compound is diluted, concurs to promote the com- bination ; if the cloth is then exposed on the grass, the car- bonic acid is dissipated, and the cloth is bleached. tradesman's ttUIDE. 199 To Bleach Cotton. The first operation consist in scour- ing it in a slight alkaline solution ; or what is better, b> ex- posure to steam. It is then put into a basket, and rinsed in ruoning water. The immersion of cotton in an alkaline lye, however it nity be rinsed, always leaves -with it an earthy ileposite. It is well known that cotton bears the action of ticius better then hemp or fl.-ix ; that time is even necessary hetore the action of then can be prejudicial to it, and by ta- king advantage of this valuable propejty in regard to bleach- ing, means have been found to free it from the earthy depo- site, by pressing down the cotton in a very weak solution of bulpiiuric acid, and afterwards removing the acid by washing, leal too long remaining in it should destory tiie cotton. To eztiiigaish Vegetable Colours. Obtain chlorine as fol- lows: fill a strong quart decanter one third full of water, put in a pulverized mixiure, consisting of half a^^gill of red lead, and a gill of common table salt, well rubbed together; shake it up, ihen put in two thirds of a wine glass of sulphuric acid ; pat u\ the ground stopper loosely ; shake the decanter half a niinutej the atmospheric air and some gas will escape; now lix your stopper pe.-fectly tight, then plunge the decanter into a lub or cistern of cold water, keeping the mouth a little above the water; briskly agitate it, keeping it under the wa- ter, once each -niiuite for lifteen minutes. Now take it out and let ihe""excess of red lead and salt settle; a yellowish green liquid is produced, nearly pure, but containing some muriatic acid ; pour a little into a wine glass, and it is ready for use to wash out writing from paper, or extinguish the co- Jour from calico. The liquid chlorine obtained in this Vv'ay, should be kept in a dark and coo! place. It is used for taking spots out of lin- en, &/C. It has been used for fraudulent purpose, to oblite- rate writing, that something different might be substituted. Bleacliing Liquid — Kau cle Javelle. Common salt, two pounds; manganese, one pound; water, , two pounds; put into a retort; and add gradually, oil of vitri( 1, two pounds : pass the vapour through a solution of prepared kali, four oun- ces, in twenty-nine ounces of water, applying heat towards the last. Specific gravity is 1,087. Stimulant, antisypilitic ; used to bleach linen and take out spots, and to clean books from what has been scribbled on their margins. 200 THE ARTIST AND To Bleach Wool. The first-kind of bleaching to which wool is subjected, is to free it from grease. This operation is called scouring. In Kiannfactones it is generally perfor- j med by ammoniacal lye, formed of five measures of river water, and one of stale urine ; the wool is imnimersed for about twenty minutes, in a bath of this mixture, heated to fifty-six degrees ; it is then taken out, suffered to drain, an4 then rinsed in running water; this minipulation softens the wool, and gives it the first degree of whiteness ; it is then repeated a second, and even a third time, after which the wool is fit t(» be employed. In some places scouring is per- formed with water slightly impregnated w'th soap ; and, in- deed, for valuable articles, this process is preferable, but too expensive for articles of less value. Sulphurous acid gass unites very easily with water, and in this conbination it may be employed for bleaching wool or silk. The most economical way of preparing sulphurous acid, is by decomposing the acid, by the mixture of an}' combustible matter, capable of taking from it any part of its oxygen. When the chemist is desirous to have it in great purity, it is obtained b}' means of metallic substances, and particularly by mercury, but for the purpose of which we are treating, where great economy is required we should recommend most com- mon substances. Take chopped straw, or saw dust, and in- troduce it into a matrass ; pour over it suljihuric acid, apply- ing at the same time heat, and there will be disengaged sul- phurous acid gas, whicli may be combined with water in an apparatus. The pieces are rolled upon reels, and are drawn through the acid by turning them until sufficiently white. They are then taken out and left to drain on a bench covered with cloth, lest they should be stained in consequence of the decomposition of the wo»d by the sulphurous acid; they are then w^aslied in river Vv^ater, and Spanish white is emploj^ed, if it shoidd be judged necessary. This operation is performed by passing the pieces through a tub of clean water, in which about eight pounds of Spanish white has been dissolved. To obtain a fine whiteness, the stuffs are generally twice sul- phured. According to this process, one immersion, and reel- ing two or three hours, are sufficient. Azuring or bluing is performed by throwing into the Spanish white liquor, a solu- tion of one part Prussian blue to four hundred of water ; shak- ing the clpth in the liquid and reeling rapidly. The opera- tradesman's guide. 201 tion is terminated by a slight washing witli soap, to give soft- ness and pliability to tlie stufis. A preparation of an improved bleaching liquor is ]irepared as follows: by a uissoluiion in water of the.oxygenaied nmri- ates of calcareous earths, baryies, sa-ontiies, or magnesia. The earth should be prepared in the dry way, by bringing them in a solid form, in powder, or in paste, in contact vvith the oxygenated muriatic acid gas. So prepared, dissolve them in water, and apply them to the substances required to be bleaciied. By this mode, colours may be removed from linen, cotton, vegetable and otber-snbstances. Bleaching Salts, used in Manufactories. Pass into water, in which finely pulverized and newly slacked lime is suspen- ded by continual agitation — a stream of oxymuriatic acid gas will come over. In the large way, a dry powder of newly slacked lime is agitated in a strong cask, which is absorbed by lime. Some prefer passing the gas into hogsheads of wa- ter, in which the lime is suspended by agitation ; for an ex- periment it may be pressed from a bladder may be held in the hand, and the receiver siiaken continually. 2^0 bleach Straw, Sfc. Cover the bottom of a small plate a quarter of an inch deep with water. Put a small piece of common brimstone upon a sheet iron bench set in the plate, which is sufficiently heated to inflame the brimstome, and shut it over a tubulated bell glass, or a tumbler with a liole in the bottom. This vessel must be of a size just to shut down within the rim of the plate. At first take tlie stopper out and raise the bell glass a little above the water, to give passage to a current of air. Regulate this by the progress of the burning sulphur. After the bell glass appears well filled with a white vapour, shut it down close and tighten the stopper. The water in the plate will absorb the sulphurous acid gas in about five minutes. Pour part of this water into wine glasses, and you will perceive the nauseous, sulphurous, astringent taste, peculiar to this acid. In the mean time wet several substances, coloured with vegetable colouring matter, and it will extinguish many of them if not all. A yellow straw braid becomes whitened in it ; and some colours on calico will be extingviished. The liquid sulphurous acid loses this property b}^ keeping. It is used by milliners both in the liquid and in the gaseous state for bleaching straw bonnets. If the old straw braid is 202 THE ARTIST AND soaked a while in water and then suspended inside of a hocr^-- head or barrel wiihont a head, and brimstone is intlated at {\r. bottom of" a c isk, and sMiFered^t-o cmnmence buMiin^^ thro- ougldy, then the top covereii over, the siraw will soon be- come whitened by the action of this acid. To White7i Wax. Melt it in a pipkin without boilinir. Then take a wooden pestle, which steep in the wax two in- ches deep and plunge immediately in cold water, to b)oseii the wax from it, which will co'.ue off like sheet of pape:. When 3'ou have got all of your wax out of the pipkin, aiiii make into flakes, put it on a clean towel, and expose it in air, on the grass, till it is white. Then melt it and strain it through a muslin, to take all the dust out of it, if there he any. 3Iethocl of purify mg Tallow to make Candles. Take five- eights of tallow and three eights of mutton suet; melt thoin in a copper caldron \vith half a pound of grease ; as soon ;is they are melted, mix eight ounces of brandy, ojne salts of tar- tar, one cream of tartar, one sal ammoniac, and two of pure dry potash : throw the mixture into the caldron and make the ingredients, boil a quarter of an hour; then let the whole cool. The next day the tallow will be found upon the sii:- face of the water in a pure cake. Take it out and expose it to the action of the air, on canvass for several days. It will becom% white, and almost as hard as wax. The dew is vei y favourable to bleaching; make your wick of fine even cotton, give them a coat of welted wax; then cast your mould can- dles. They will have much the appearance of wax, and on; of six to the pound, will burn fourteen hours and never run. To make Mutton Suet Candles in imitation of Wax Can- dles. 1. Throw quicklime in raelted mutton suet; the lime will fall to the bottom, and carrj'^^ with it every impurit}', so as to leave it pure and fine as wax itself. 2. Now if v*'ith one pari of that suet you mix three of real wax, you will be unable to distino^uish the mixture ; even in the casting and moulding wax figures or ornaments. CHAPTER XXVIII. Distillation — to produce hiflammnhlc Spirits — of 3Ialt — of Hops — of ibater for Brcicing — Brewi?7(r Vessels — what is procured by distillation — Bodies proper for distillation. J?y tb(J distillation of spirits is to be understood the art by tuAdesman's GuUii:. 20$ which all inflamuicible spirits, brandies, rum, arracs, and tho like, are procured from vegeUible substances, by the n)eans of a previous fermentatiun, and a subsequent treatment of llie feinienfed" liquor by the alenib.c or iioi still, with its proper uorm and refrigeratory. Bui as ills im|jossilile4u fXiT'ict \iiious spirits from any vegetable subject Avi'lioui feinienta- tion, and previous to this, brewing is ofien necessary, it will !)c requisite to consider these operations. To extract spirits is to cause such an action by heat, as to Criuse them to ascend in vapour from the bodies which detaiii them. If this he it be natural to bodif^s, so that the opera- tion be made without any adventitious means, it is called fer- n)entation, which will be hereafter explained ; if it be pro- duced by fire or other heating power in which the alembic is placed, it is called -digestion, or distillation; digestion, if the heat only prepares the materials for distillation of their spirits ; and distillation when tiie action "is of sumcient efficacy to cause them to ascend in yapoiir and distil. This heat i« that which puts the insensible parts of a body, whatever it be, into moti6n, divides then), and causes a passage for the spirits en- closed herein, by disengaging them from the phlegm, and the earthy particles by which they are enclos(;d. Distillation considered in tbi^. point is not unworthy the attention and countenance of the learsied. This art is of infinite extent: v.'hatever the whole earth produces, flowers, fruits, seeds, spices, aromatic and vulnerary plants, odoriferous drugs, &,c. are its objects, and come under its cognizance ; but it is gen- arally confined to liquids of taste and smell, and to the sim- ple and spirituous waters of aromatic and vulnerary plants : with regard to its utilit}', we sHuili omit saying any thing here, as sufficient proofs of it will be given in some of the articles respecting it. Of Breicing in order to the Pioduction of Tnfammable Spirits. By brewing is meant the extracting a tincture from sotne vegetable substance, or dissolving it in hot water, by which means it becomes proper for a vinous fer«)entation ; a solution or fermentable tincture of this kind may be procured, with proper nianagement, from any vegetable substance, but the more readily and totally it dissolves in' the fluid, the bet- ter it is fitted for fermentation, and the larger its produce of spirits. All inspissated vegetable juices therefore, as sugar, Injucy, treacle, manna, &c. arc very proper for this use, as >04 THE ARTrST ANB they totally dissolve in wa'ter, forming a clear and uniform so- lution; but malt, from its clieapness, is generally preferred in England ; though it but imperfectly dis:%olves in hot water. The worst sort is contmonly chosen for this purpose, and the tincture without the addition of hops, or the trouble of boil- ing it, is directly cooled and fermented. But in order to brew with malt to the greatest advantage, the three following particulars -should be carefully attended to: 1. The subject should be well prepared, that is, it should be jnstl3/;^rnalted and well ground: for if it be too little malted, it will prove hard aijd flinty, and consequently, only a small part of it dis- solve in the water, and on the other hand, if too much malted a great part of the finer particles or fermentable matter will be lost in the operation. With regard to grinding, the malt should be reduced to a kind of coarse meal, for experience has shown, that by this means the whole substance of the nialt may, through the whole process, ccnitinue mixed with the tincturp, and be distilled with it ; whereby a larger quantity of spirit will be obtained, and also great part of the trouble, time and expense in brewing saved. This secret depends upon thorouglily mixing or briskly agitating the meal, first in cold water, and then in hot, and repeating the agitation after the fermentation is finished, when t!ie thick turbid wasli must be immediately committed to the still. And thus the two operations of brewing and fermenting may very commodiously be reducid to one, to the great advantage of t!ie distiller* The second particular to be attended to, is that the water be good, and properly applied. Rain water is the best adapted to brewing, for it not only e'ful to scrape, scrub and sccnr oO' the rcnjirins of the burnt matter, otherwise they find the same accident liable to happen again in the same place. But beyond Jill other methods in use on this occasion, would be the woi king the stills, not by a dry heat, hut in a balneum mariae, winch mi(>ht be possibly con- trived by the basin beirjg large and capableof woi king a great many stills at once, so as to be extremely worth the proprie* tor's attention in all respects. Another requisite u be ol* served is, ihat the water in the worm tub be kept cool; this may be effected by j>lacinfj in the middle of the tub a wood- en pipe or gutter, about tiiree inches square within, re'iching from the top nearly to the botion?. By this contrivance cold water may, as of;en as necessary, be conveyed to the bottom of the warm tub, and the hot water at the top forced either over the sides of the tub, or, what is better, through a leaden pipe of a moderate size, called a waste pipe, soldered into the top of the tub, and extf nd( d to the gutter formed to carry away th(! water. To choose good Malt. Malt is chosen by its sweet smell, mellow taste, full flower, round body and thin skin ; there are two sorts in general use, the pile and 'the brovvn. The for- mer is more generally used in gentlemen's houses and private families, the latter in public brew houses, as seeming to go further, and make ll^^ liquor higher coloured. Others again mix one third |)rown with two thirds pale; but \\\is depends TRVDiS9MA.\\ UUrDK. SO? npon the liking of the drinkers. The s\vee(est malt ig that which i> dried with coak or cintieis. In grinding it, see that ihe ijiili be clean from dust, cobwebs, &c. Set it so as to cr»!sh every grain, Wiihout grinding it to powder; fur you had better hcive -some small grains bip tiirough untouched, than to have ihe whi>!e ground lou small, which will causo it to take loge.her, so ihat you cannot get the goodness out of it. Hops. Hops are chos^'n by their bright green colour, sweet smell anri clamminess wiien rubbed between tlie hands. Water for Brewing, Water out of rivers or rivulets is bes!, except pidlnied by the nieliing of snow or land water from clay on ploui{hed hinds. Snow water will take near one-fifih part more of mrth to ni.ike the beer ^ood. If you have no river waJer, a [)ond th;U his a bottom n(jt over mud- dy, and is fed by a sjning, will do ; for the sun will sofieu and rarity it. Yery hard water drawn from a deep well into a vide cistern or reservoir, and exposed to the air or sun, in two or three days has been brewed with success, by the addi-. tion of malt. Rain water comes next to river for brewing. In short, all water that will rai.se a lather with soan, is good for brewing. Brewing Vessels. To a copper that holds ihiity-slx gal- ions, the mash tun ought to be at least large enough to con- tain six bushels of m,dr, and the copper of liquor, and room for mashing or stir-ing it. The undo: back co'olers anid working tuns, may he rather fitted lo the convenience of the room, than to a particular size, for if one vessel be not suffi- cient to hold your liqnor, you may lake a second. Of ichat is procured bij Distillatiori. By distillation aio procured spirits, essence, sim;j!e waters, and phlegm. Spirits are very difficult to be defined, We consider them as the most subiile and volatile pans of a body. All bodies, with- out exception have mo-e or less spiriis. These twrts are an igniied sul'SiHi.ce, and consequonly by their own Ufittne dis- posed to violent motion. These vohiiile r.articlcs are more or less disposed to separate their^^elvcs as the bodies are more or less porous, or ab<»und wiih a greater or less quantity of oil. By the term essence, we understand tiie oleaginous parts of a body. An e-sential oil is found in all bodies being one (d" their constitu^-nt principle?. We have observed in all disiillations, spirits of wine excepted, a aoft unctuous sub- stance floating on the phlejm ; and this sitbstance is erJl, 50S TMl ARTIST A.VP iv-hich we call essence, and this is what wM endeavour to ex- tract. Simple waters are those distilled from plants, flow- ers, See. without the help of water, brandy, or spirits of wine. These waters are commonly odoriferous, containing the odour of the body from whence it is extracted, aiwi eveii exceeds in smell the body itself. Phlegm is the aqueous pafticles of bodies, but whether an active or passive principle, we shail leave to the decision of chemists. It is of the last impur- taivce to a distiller to be well acquainted with its nature. Many mistaking for phlegm, several white and coloured drops, which first fall into tiie receiver, when the still begins to work. These however are often the most spirituous par- ticles of the matter in the alembic, and consequently ought to 6e preserved. What has given occasion to this mistake, is »ome humidity remaining in the head, &.c. of the alembic. And had it been tliorougly wiped, the first drops would have been equally bright with any, during the whole ojieration. The following,' remark deserves attention. In bodies that have been digested, the spirits ascend first. Whercnis in charges not digested, the phlegm ascends before. the spirits. The reason of this is very plain and naturaL In substances previously digested, the action o-f fire no sooner causes the- matter In the alembic to boil, than the spirits, being the most volatile parts, detach themselves, and ascend into the head of the alembic. But when the matter to be distilled has not un- dergone a proper digestion, the spirits being entangled in tlie phlegm, are less disposed to ascend till the phlegm itself sep- arates and gives them room to Qy upwards. The phlegm be- ing aqueous, rises fiist — this is more particularly abservable ia spices. We are, hov/ever, inclined to believe, that v/eie the operation performed in an alembic, when the head was at a great distance from the surface of the charge, ibey woald not ascend high enough to come over the helm, but fall back again by their own gravity, "and by that means leave the so!- rits at liberty to ascend. But in tlic common refrigeratt/ry alembic this always happens. If this observation be not readily admitted, we appeal to experience^ which we desire may be the test of every thing we advance. Another obser- vation which has verified the above assertion by innumerable instances is, that when we have not time sufficient to digest the substances, we should bruise them in a mortar ; bnt nol- •\Yithstanding the trituration, the phlegm will first come over md after trards the spirits. But wo desire to be unj stood, thctt we speak here only of tlie vulitile parts of the plants] not drawn with vinous spiriis, but contained in a simple wa- ter. Anoth<^r remark we must add, and which we hope will be acceptable ic. the curic^us, as ii has not yei been made public, though doubtless ihe observation has ofieii occurred to oth- ers ; it is this: that iij, mixed charges, consisting of flowers, fruits, and aromatic plants put into ihe alembic, wiihout any previous digestion, the spirits of ihejlowers ascend tirst; and siotvviihstandiMg the mixture, they contracteii nothing of the smeii or taste of the fruits and pi;ints. IN'ext after the soirits of the flowers, those of the fruits ascend, not in the least im- pregnated with the smell or taste of either of the flowers or pi itits. And in the last place the spirits of the plants distil no less neat than the fortner. S'lould this appear stranire to any one, experience will cotivince him oi the truth. Another observation we have made on aromr.tic herbs, is, that whether they are or me not digested, or il' the spirits or p'llegni as- cend first, the spirits contain very little of the taste or smell of the pdants from whence they were extracted ; and wo have always been obliged to put to these spirits a greater or less quantity of the phlegm, in order to give the spirits we had drawn, the taste of an aromatic odour of the plants, the phlegm containing the greatest quantity of both. This ob- servation we insert as of great use to those who practice dis- tillation. As the term digestion often occurs in this essay, wo can- not avoid pointing out its advantages, and even show the iipcessitx of using it in several circumstances. Substances are said to be in d gestion when triey are infused in a nien- stiuum over a very slow fire. This preparation is often ne- cessary in distillation, for it tends to open the bodies, and thereby free the spirits from their confinements, whereby they are better enabled to ascend. Ccid digestions are the best ; those made by fire, or in hot materials, diminish the quality of the goods, or some [jart, as the m(;st volatile will be lost. In order to procure essences, the bodies must bQ prepared by digestion. It is even of absolute Decessitv for extrricting the spirits and essenrrs of spices. Bodies proper for Distillation. Tliis article ah: ne misht make a v-olurae, wero a panicuhir enumeration of all its parti IS* 2ia Tm: AttTisT Afi^ made ; but as it has been already observed, we shall confine? ourselves to the distillation of simple and compound waters. If we acquit ourselves to the satisfaction of the public, we shall enjoy the pleasure of having treated on one part entirely new i and the only one, indeed that has been overlooked. The bodies proper for distillation, are flowers, fruits, seeds, spices and aromatic plants. By distillation and digestion, we extract the colour and smell of flov»ers, in simple v/aters and essences. We extract from iruits, at least from some, colour, taste, &c. From aromatic plants ihe distiller draws spirits, essences, simple and compound waters. From spires are procured essences, or in the language of the chemist, oils and perfumes, and also pure spirits. From seeds or berries are drawn simple waters, pure spirits, and from some, as those of anise, fennel and juniper, oil. The colour of llow- ers is extracted by infusion and likewise by digestion in brandy or spirits of wine ; the smell is extracted by distilla- tion; the simple water with brandy or spirits of wine. What is extracted of the colour of flowers by infusion in water, by a gentle heat or by digestion in brandy or spirits of wine, is called, in the distiller's phrase, tincture of flowers. The co- lour of fruits is extracted in the same manner, either by in- fusion or digestion, their taste is also procured by the same processes. But let it be observed that the time of these ope- rations must be limited; for otherwise the fruit, after fermen- tation, would render it acid. The t'\s!e is also extracted by the alembic, pure spirits, odours, simple waters, but these re- quire different nieihods of distillaiion. The first by water or brandy only, the second by rectified spiri!, which will give them the greatest excellency they are capable of receiving. The plants themselves with their flowers nuiy also he dis- tilled, which is still better. From spices are drawn spirits and oily or spirituous quintescences. The spirits are drawn by brandy, or spiiits of wine, with very little waier ; tiie oils are distilled per descensum: and the spirituous quintesences by pounding the spices, and after infusing them in spirits of wine, decanting it gently by inclination. From seeds are extracted simple waters, spirits and oils. Very few of the first and last soirits being what is generally extracted fi-om seeds and berries. Some distillers, through a notion of fru- gality, distil seeds with water, but their liquors are not to be ompared with those which are distilled with spirits. When tradesman's «uide. 211 oils arc drawn frorn seed, the operation is performed either by the balneum niariae, or vapour bath. CHAPTER XXIX Fermentation — Rectification — Filtration, Fermentation. The tincture, or the wash, as distillers call it, being, prepared as you will find desciibed under the head Oi" Brewing in order to the production oj injianimablc spirits, it is next to be fermented ; for without the operation no vinous spirit can be produced. By fermentation is meant that intes- tine motion performed by the instiumental eiiicacy of water, whereby the salt, oil, and earth of a fermentable subject are separated, attenuated, transposed, and again collected, and recomposed in a pr.rticular manner. The doctrine of fermen- tation is of the greatest use, and should be well understood by every distiller, as it is the very basis of the art, and perhaps, if more attended to, a much purer spirit, as well as a greater quantity of it niiglit be procured, from the same materials than at present. We shall therefore lay down a concise theory of fermentation, before we proceed to deliver the practice. Every fermentable subject is composed of salt, oil, and a subtile earth ; but these particles are so small, that when asunder, they are imperceptible to the senses ; and therefore, when mixed with an aqueous fluid, they leave it transparent; neither have fermentable bodies any taste, except thai of sweetness. These particles are composed of salt, oil and earth, intimately mixed in an actual cohesion, connexion and union ; and therefoie, when any one of these principles too much abounds in any subject, so that an intimate union is pre- vented, the wliole efficacy of the fermentation is either stopped or impaired, or at least limited to one certain species. This equal connexion of salt, oil and earth, into a single compound particle, ibrras a corpuscle, soluble in water ; or to speak more philosophically, this compound corpuscle is, b}^ means of its saline particles, connected with the aqueous corpuscles, and moved tip and down with them. But when these corpus- cles are not thus connected with the water, a number of them join together, and form either a gross or a loose chaflTy and spungy matter. When these compound particles are diluted with a small quantity of aqueous fluid, they feel slippery, clammy, and unctuous to the touch, and effect the taste with 9. kind of rosy sweeiness, and when a pr oper quantity of the 212 THE ARTIST AffD jQuid is added, a commotion is presently excited, and after- wards a subti'e separation first begins in the wliule substance, for before the addition of water, the subject m.iy remain in dry, solid, and large pieces, as in mujt, sugar, &,c. which be- ing reduced to p.iwder, each grain thereof is an agreement of many compound corpuscles; then being put into water, dis- solve and separately float therein, tiJl at iengtii they become so small as to be invisible, and only thicken the consistence of the liquor. These corpuscles being thus separated frwm one another, there next ensues a sepaiation of their component particles ; that is, the salt, the oil and the earth are divided by the in- terposition of aqueous panicles. The first commotion is no more than a bare solution ; for the saline particles being easily dissolvable in v ater, they are immediately laid hold of by the aqueous particles, and catried about uiih them. Bui the succeeding separation or fermentative motion is a veiy difilerent thing; for by this, the saline particles are divided from those of oil and earth, parti;/ by the impulse of the others in their motion, and partly by the force of the aqueous parti- cles, which are now continuall}' meeting and dashing against them. This motion is performed by the water, as a fluid or aggregate of' an infinite jiumber of particles in actual and per- petual motion, their smallness being |)roporiionable to that of the fermenting corpuscles, and their niotion, or constant sus- ceptibility of motion, by the warmth and motion of the air, disposing them to move other subtile moveable corpuscles also. The certain agreement of figure or size, between the aqueous particles, and those of the salt in the fermentable subject, tends greatly to increase this commotion : for by this, means they arc readily and very closeW connected together; and move almost like one and the same compound corpuscle, while the water is not at all disj)osed to cohere immediately with either the oil or earth ; and thus an equal concussion is excited in the compound corpuscles of the fermentable subject which concussion at length strikes out the saline particles, loosens the others, and final!}' produces a separation of the original connexion of the subject. An aqueous fluid, therefore, is the true, and indeed the only instrument for procuring a fermentable motion in iwse compound corpuscles of the subject, for were an oil; fluid poured upon r,ny faiir.Gntablc subject, no vinous fermer iation TRADESMAm'« G¥IDE. 213 woukl ensue ; as the oil could neither give a sufficient impulse on the compound corpuscles which are grosser than its own constituent particles, nor divide the oily or saline particles of the subject, from their connexion with the others, which de- tain, and as it were, envelope or defend them from its action. T.'ie compound corpuscles of the fermentable subject being ' affected by the perpetual motion of the particles of the aque- ous fluid, a proper degree of motion is necessary, or that the particles move with a proper degree of velocity, which de- pends on external heat. A considerable degiee of cold, in- deed, will not absolutely prevent fermentation, though it will retard it ; and a boiling heat will prevent it still more. A ; tepid or middle degree of heat, between freezing and boiling is therefore the most proper for promoting and quickening the operatiop. The admission of air, also, though not of abso- lute necessity, 3-et greatly promotes and quickens the action, as being a capital instrument in putting in a proper degre« of motion the oily particles of the subject"; but whilst the air thus contributes to hasten the eflect, it causes at the same time by its activity, some remarkable alterations in the oily -particles; for it not only moves but absolutely dissolves and displaces thein from their original connexions ; and thus car- ries them off itself from the whole mass. And, therefore, t'lough the consideration of the .air does not so properly belong to fermentation in general, yet.it does in particuhr cases ; as having an accidental power to alter every species of this operation, consequently its agency ought to be well understood, either to procivre alterations at pleasure, in the fermenting mass, or to^p. event or correct impeading dangers. The oily particles tlms separated and dissolved by the air, are also elastic, though they probably derive that property from their intercourse with (he air itself, and these beiijg rendered extremely minute. Wlten, tht-ref>re, an aqueous fluid is ad- ded to a fermentable subject, exposed to a temperate heat, a fejmontative struirale immediately arises, the saline p^rt of the compound particles- beinfj disscdved by the continual in- testine motion of the W'lter, and carried up and down with it • in all directions, amidst an infinite number of other particles, as well fermentable as aqueous ones, whence by this collision and attrition, the saline particles are dissolved and separated from their connexion with the oily and earthy. And as the ' oily narticles are the most subtiU and elastic, thev would by 214 THE ARTIST ANI> tliis means, bo thrown up to the stirface of the liquor, and carried olf by the air, were they not closely connectod with the earthy ones, wiiose gravity prevents their evyporaiion, and bv coming in coiitiict wit'i oihcrs rf ihe same kind, iorni aggregations, and sink down wiili tiie oily panicles to the bot- tom. But before these can form a bulk t-oo large to be supported b}' the water, many of the oily particles are, by their Irequent collisions with the aqueuus tidiil, separated from the eanhy ones, and by degrees more strt)ngly connected again with the saline ones ; whilst on the oilier hand, the same saline pdrii- cles imbibe some of the eaiiliy ones, which being left single upon their separation from ihe oily panicles, float about sej)- arately in the fluid. And hence proceed ihe several different consequences of fermentation ; namely, 1. Fiom the separa- tion of the saline particles of the fernn ntable subject, pro- ceeds the tart, saline or acid taste of the liquor which is more sensible at first, before the liquor is duly composed and set- tled, or the due arrangement and connexio.i of the saline par- ticles with those of the oily and earthy kinds, completed ; after which the liquor becomes milder, softer or less pungent. 2. From the oily particles being set at liberty, proceeds the strong sme.l of the liquor, and the head or shining skin upon the surface. 3. The earthy particles colleciing together in clusters, cause the fluid to appear turbid, and afterwards a visible, earthy or clay like matter, to be precipitated ; and some of the earthy parts in their motion, -arriving at the head or oily skin on the surface cause it to thicken, and afterwards taking it down along with it,-'«thus consi-ilute the lees waich abound in oil. 4. From this new snuggle or collision, whi>h is productive both of solution and a new connexion in the sa- line and earthly corpuscles, proceeds the ebullition in fermen- tation ; and lastly, by tiie same repe;^tod co.d.tion of ihe o;ly with the aqueous and s din« j)articles, the inflammable spirit is produced. Having thus laid down a consise theory of fermentation, we sliall now proceed to ihe practice. The wash bemg brought to a tepid or hike- warm state in the backs, a proper quaiiiity of a good conditioned ferment is added ; but if the ferment be soiled, it should be pre ionsly broke into small pieces, and gently thinned, eiiher wlih the h.ind, wisp, &t. in 9 little of th« tepi be added at profier isitorvals, till at leiigih the whole quiiutiiy is properly set to working t'ge.her, and thus by dividing the business into parts, it may much more speedily and eiTecmallv bo performed, than by attempting it all at once. — - The whule quantity of liquor being thus set at work, secured in a proper degree of warmth, and defended from a too fre,; intercourse of the external air, nature itself, as it were, finish* es the process, and renders the liquor fit for the still. By ferments is meant any substance, which being added to any rightly disposed lermentable liquor, will cause it to ferment much soi).ier and faster, than it would of it^^elf, and conse- quenily render the operation shorter, in contradiction to those abusively called so, which only corrects some fault in the li- quor, or giv< s it some tiavour. Hence, we see, that the prin- ciple use of ferments is to save time, and mi'.ke Iesj)atch in business, whilst they onl5' occasion dly,- and as it were by ac- cident give a flavour a'ld increase tne quantity of spirits. — And accordingly, every fermentable spiiit may without the addition of any fprment, by a proper management of heat alone, be brought to fermetir, and even more pcrfectly% th-ough much slower thr.n with their assistance. These ferments are in general the flowers and faeces >f all ferment ble 1 quors, generated atid thrown to ;he sitrface, or deposited at the hot: torn, either during the act of fermentation or ifter the opera- tion is finished. Two (if these are procurable in large quan- tities, and at a snmll expense: beer yeast and wine lees; a prudent and artificial management, or use of which might ren- der the business of distillatitm, much more certain and ad- vantageous. It has been esteem"d very ditficult and a great discouragement in the business of distillaiiori, to procure a sufficient stock of these materials, and preserve them af ah times ready for use. The \vhole secret consists ifi dexterous- Iv freeing the matter from its superfluous moisture ; because in its fluid state, it is subject to a further fermentation, which is productive of corruption, in which state it becomes intol- erably foetid and cadaverous. The method of exposing it to 216 - TMK ARTIST AXi) the air till it has acquired a proper consistence, is subject id great incouvenieiices : and so peculiar and careful manage- ment is necessary, that it rarely succeeds. The best way therefore, is to press it very slowly and gradually, in a thick, close and strong canvas bag, after the manner of wine lees, by the toil press, till it becomes a kind of cake, which though solt, will easily snap, or bretdv between the fingers. Being reduced to that consistence, and closely packed up in a tight cask, it will remain a long lime uncorrupted, preserve its fra- grancy, and consequently fit to be used for fermenting the fin- est liquor. The same method is also practicable and to the simc ad- Vantage, in the flowers of yeast or wi:.e, which may be thus commodiously imported from abroad ; or if these cannot be procured, others of equal efficacy maN' be procured from fresh wine lees, by barely mixing and stirring tiiem into a p»roper warm liquor, when th.e lighter and more volatile and active parts of the lees w^ill be thrown to the surface^ and may easily be taken off and preserved by the above mentioned method^ in any desired quantity. And hence, by a verj* easy process an inexhaustible supply of the most useful ferments may bo readily and successively procuredj so as to prevent for ihe fu- ture, ail occasion of complaint for the v/ant of tiiem, in the distiller's business. Experience has demonstrated, that all ferments abound much more in essentials, than the liquor which produced them ; and consequently, they retain in a very high degree, the smell and llitvour of the subject. It is therefore requisite, before the ferment is applied, to consider what flavour is introduced, or wliat species of ferment is most proper for the liquor. The alteration thus caused by fer- inenis, is so considerable as to render any neutral fermentable liquor of the same flavou^ of that which yields the ferment; This observation is of niuch greater moment than will readily be conceived, for a new scene is hereby opened, both in the business of distillation, anji others depending upon fermenta- tion. It must, however, be observed, that its benefit does not extend to malt treated in tiie common method ; nor to any other subject but what atTords a spirit tolerably pure and tasteless. For otliei wise, instead of producing a simple, pure and uniform flavour, It causes a compound, mixed and unnat- ural one. How far the line distiller may profit by it, well de- serves his attention, and whether our native cider spirit, crab Tl^\DiiSMAN^S GlIDfe. Si? •jjint, &.C. which have very little flavour of their ow», may not hy this artiljcc, he brought nearly, if not entirclj'-, int© ?liO state of some foreign hrundies, so highly esieemed, is re* con) mended to experience. It is common witli distillers, in order to increase the quantity of spirit, to give it a particular flavour, to inajnove its vinosit}^ to add several things to the liquor euriug the time it is in a state of fermentation^ and tlrjse a-ddilions may pioperly be reduced to salts, acids, aro- Fuatics, and oils. All rich vegetable juices, as treacle, hone}^ irits ; tliat intention being pcrfermed by aroniatics and oils. All pungent aromatics have a surprising quality of increasing th(! quantity of the spirits, as well as in altering or improving the flavour; but their u^e requiies that the fermentation should be performed in close vessels, and if a large quantity be intended to be added, care must be taken not to do it all at once, lest the oiliness of tiie ingredients sliould check the opcrat^oii. But if tlie llavour be the principal intention, they 5:iiould not be added till tjje operation is nearly hnished. Af- jer the snnu' manner a very considerable quantity of any es- sentinl vegetable oil may be converted into a surprisingly large' quantit}' of inflammable spirits 5 but great caution is here also necessary, not to drop it too fast, or add too larger a quantity at a time, which would damp tiie fermentation, it being the surest method of checkinjr, or totally stepping this operation at any point of time required. 1'lie best method therefore, of adding the oilj so as to avoid all inconveniences, is to rub the oil in a mortar with sugar, which the chemists call making an olaesaccharum, by which means the tenacity of the oil will be destroyed, and the wiiole readily mix with tiie liquor, and immediately ferment with it. The distiller would do weii to consider these observations attentivcl}', as be may thence form an advantageous method of increasing the quantity of spirits, and at the same time greatly improve their qualitv and llavour. But in order to put these observa- 19 2ii Tll£ AHTIST AKS tions in practice, particular regard must be liiid to the con- taining vessel in which the fermentation is performed, the ex- elusion of the air, and the degree of the external heat or cold. With regard to the containing vessel, its purity, and the provision for rendering it occasionally close, are chiefly to be considered. In cleansing it, no soap or other unctuous body should be used, for fear of checking the fermentation ; and for the same reason, all strong alkaline lixivium should be avoided. Limewater, or a turbid solution of quicklime may be employed for this purpose, without producing any ill effect i it will also be of great service in destroying a prevail* ing acetous salt, which is apt to generate in the vessels when the warm air has free access to them ; and fends to prevent the order of fermentation, and instead of a wine or wash, produce a vinegar. Special care must also be had that no remains of yeast, or cadaverous remains of former fermentexl matters hang about the vessels; which would infect whatever should be afterwards put into them, and cannot, without the utmost difficulty, be perfectly, sweetened and cuied. The occasional closeness of the vessels ina}'^, in the Targe way, be provided for by covers properly adapted ; and in the small way, by valves placed in light casks. These valves will oc- casionally give the necessary vent to preserve the vessel, dur- ing the height of the fermentation ; the vessel otherwise re- maining perfectly close, and impervious to the air. It is a mistake of a very prejudicial nature in the business of fer- mentation, to suppt3se that there is an absolute necessity for a free admission of the external air: the express contrary is the truth, and very great advantages will be found by practis- ing according to this sujjposition. A constant- influx of the external air, if it does not carry off some part of tlie spirit already generated, yet certainly catches up and dissipates the fine subtile or oleaginous and saline particles, whereof the spirit is made, and thus considerabiy lessens the quantity. By a close fermentation, this inconveniance is avoided ; all ailr except that included in the vessel, being excluded. The whole secret consists in leaving a moderate space for the air at the top of the vessel unpossessed by the liquor ; when the liquor is once fairly at work, to bung it down close, and thus suffered to finish the fermcntatton without opening or giving it any more vent than that afforded it by a proper valve placed in the cask, which however, is not of absolute neccs- SJty, when the empty space, or rather that possessed by the air, is about one tenth of the guage ; the artificial air, gener- ated in the operation, being then seldom sufficient to open a strong valve, or at most not to endanger the cask. This method may be practised to great advantage by those whose business is not very large ; but it requires too much time to be used by the hirge dealers, who are in a manner forced to admit the free air, and thus sustain a considerable loss in their quantity of spirits, that the fermentation may be finish- ed in the small time allowed for that purpose. It may how- ever be said, that the silent, siov.% and almost imperceptible vinous fermentation, is universally the most perfect and ad- vantageous. During the whole course of this operation, the vessel should be kept from all external cold, or considerable heat, in an equal, uniform, and moderate tem- perature. In the winter, stove rooms, such as are common in Germany would be very convenient for this purpose, the vessel being placed at a proper distance from the stove ; but at other seasons no particular apparatus is necessary in Eng- land, or even in the central part of the United States, if the place allowed for the business be but well defended from the summer's heat and the ill effects of cold, bleak, northern winds. The operation is known to be perfect when the his- sin-r, or small bubbling noise can be no longer heard upon ap- plj^ing the ear to the vessel; and also, by the liquor itself appearing clear to the eye, and having a pungent sharpness on the tongue. And that it may fully obtain these proper- ties and be well fitted to yield a pure and perfectly vinous spirit by distillation, it should be suftored to stand at rest in a somewhat cooler place, it practicable, than that in which it was fermented, till it has thoroughly deposited, and cleansed itself of the gross lee, and become perfectly transparent, vin- ous and fragrant, in which state it should be committed to the still; and the spirits obtained will not only exceed that ob- t.ained in the common way in quantity, but also in fragrance, pungency and vinosit3^ Rectification. The principal business is to separate th^ spirit from the essential oil the spirit contains. Care should be taken in the first distillation ; the spirit, especially malt spirit should be drawn by a gentle fire, which will keep a great part of the essential oil from mixing with the spirit, as \i ip abundantly proved eesier \q keep asunder then to separate 220 TJIE ABTIST AiVI? wten mixed, as this Js ahnost impossible. To draw low wUi^y the hc»t mctliod of separating the oil from the spirit is by rc- disiillitfon and percolation. To rectify low wiries, they should be put into a tail body, or alembic, and gently distillea in balneum, niariae ; by this means both the oil and the phtegui will remain in the body, hut if the spirit should he Coui'.d cvfier this operjttion, to ronUiin some of the essential; oil,, it yiust ho let down with fair water and' i-e-dislilled in the same manner. And thus it ia;iy be brought to any degree cf purity,, especi- ally if ju wo^:kins', t ho spirit be suffered to fill iato a proper quantity of the behioura marlse. But it must be remembered, that it is mu^h more difficult to cleanse alcohol or proof spirit, than how wines, because the oifls more intimately mixed with the two former than with the latter; this oil may however be separated jfrom proof spirit, &,c. by the method abeady pro- posed,, espccialFy if it be previou-sFy filtrated through paper, thick flannel, sand, stone, &:c. But this method, though is eflectually answers the intention, is generally rejected by dis- tillers, because of the slowness of the operation,, and others substituted iii its stead;; though instead of freeing the spirit from the oil,, they only abolish the natural Sayotjr of the spirit^ and make a more intimate mixture between the panticl.es of the spirit and those of the essential oiL It is impossible to enumerate all the methods practised by distiUers^ as idraost «very one pretends to have a secret nostrum for this purpose^ The principal methods In use for rectifying ijjail.t spirits are howe-vcr rec'ucible to thiee, nan.ic]y, by niixcd alkaLine salts, by acid spirits mixed with alkaline sahs, and by sa?lne bodies. and flavouring additi^ons.. The method of rectiiyiug by alka- line salts is thus pert'brmed. To every pFec® of proof spirit add fourteen pounds dry salt of tartar^ tix,ed aitre,. or calcined tartar; lute on the head^ and distU by a gentle heat, but bo^ careful to leave out the faints. By this m.etliod a large pro- portion of the fotid oil will be left in the still, andwhat comes, over with the spirit will be greatly attenuated. But this oper-. atjon is generally performed in a very diflerent manner ; for instead of flistifjing the spirit in a gentle and equable manner, the still is worked in its l^uU force ; by which means the oil,, which shouUl have remained m the stiil, is driven over and, intimately mixed with the spirit, and consequently iho whole, operation frastratod, and tha spirit rendered much harder ta cic[\nse than, it was h.efore^ But gven when the anerati^o^u i.% TRADESMAN S GUIDE. $21 performed according to the rules of art, it is far from being perfect, for it is well khown that part of the fixed salts become volatile in the operation, j^asscs over the helm, and intimately mixes with the essential oil still contained in the spirits ; bv this means the oil becomes more perfectly united with the spirits, and consequently much harder to be separated by repeated distillations : nor is this all ; for the still being worked in its full force, the bitter oil of the malt formed into a kind of liquid soap in th(! still, by means of the afkaline salt, is brought over the helm with the faints and suffered to mix with the spirit, whereby it is rendered almost as nauseous and ill tasted as before the operation. Besides, if this operation were performed in its utmost perfection, it would never answer the intention, for the alkaline salts destroys the vino- sity of the spirit, and consequently depri\ es it of one of its most valuable properties. Our distillers are well acquainted with this defect in the operation, and endeavour to supply it by an addition of acids. This is what we call the second xncthed by alkalies and acids. The operation of rectifying by the method of fjxed alkalies and acids is the same as that above descrihed : the spirit is diawn over from fixed alkalies as before, but in order to mor- tify the alkali in the spirit, and restore its vinosity, a proper quantity of some acid spirit is added. Various kind$ of acids are used on this occasion, but principally those of the mineral kind, because of their cheapness ; as the oil of vitriol, spirit of nitre, oil of sulphur, &c. We woidd however caution youn'^'- dis- tillers from being too busy with these corrosive acids. The sulphurous spirit of vitriol, dulcified spirit of nitre, or Mr. Boyle's acid spirit of wine will rectified well much better answer their purpose. The third method of rectification, is that by saline bodies and flavouring ingredients. There is no diflerence in the operation, between this and the two foregoing methods : fixed alkaline salts, common salt depreciated, or dried calcined vitriol, sandiver, alum, dec. is put into the still with the low wines and the spirit drawn off as before. When the quantit\'' is drawn off, the flavouring ingredients are added to give the spirit the flavour intended. But as the spirit is not by this means rendered sufficiently pure, the disagreeable flavour of the spirit generally overpowers that of the ingredients, where- by the whole intention is cither dostroved, or a compound *19 22^ fnti AiifisT A^t^ flavour produced, very different from that intended, .§om^ distillers, instead of alkaline salts, use quicklime in rectifying tlieir malt spirit: this ingredient cleanses and dephlegroates the spirit considerably ; hut like that rectified from all alka- line salts, it requires an alkaline disposition, and ako a nidor- ous flavour. Acids, therefore, are as necessary to be mixed with those spirits rectified with an alkaline salt. If chalk-, calcined and well purified bones ol animals, &.c. were used instead of quicklime, the spirit would have much less alklaliue or nidorour flavour ; and consequently, the flavouring ingred- ients might be added to it with more success than can be ex- pected from a spirit rectified from alkaline salts. But perhaps if neutral salts were used instead of the alkaline ones, the spirit might be rendered pure without contracting an alkaline flavour. Soluble tartar might be used for this purpose, though the spirit acquires as little saponaceous flavour. Dr. Cox has mentioned another method for this purpose, namely, to deprive the volatile salts of their oil, by rendering them neutral with spirit of salt, and afterwards subliming them with salts of tartar. The acid may be varied if the spirit of salt should not be found so well adapted to the purpose as could be wished ; but fine dr^^ sugar seems the best adapted to the purpose of rectifying these spirits; as it readily unites with the essential oil, detains and fixes it, without imparting any urinous, alkaline or other nauseous flavour to the spirits rectified upon. We shall conclude this article with remarking that there Is no other method of rectifying to perfection, besides what is first laid down, viz. by gentle distillation : but then it must be remembered, that the whole process must be of a piece, viz. that th(i first distillation from the wash must be preformed in a gentle manner, for otherwise the essential oil will be so in- timately blended with the spirit as not to be easily separated by re-distillation. Another good property attending this me- thod is its universality ; all kind of spirits, from whatever in- gredients extracted, require rectification ; and this is adapted to all kinds. Of Filtration. Filtration consists in passing liquors tlirough a porous substance in order to free them from those particles which obscure their brightness. Nothing is finer than a li- quor newly distilled, but the syrup and colouring par-tic/es, render it thick and opaque: in order therefore to restore Tradesman's cuint;* 220 their brightness they are filtrated, which is done by passing them through sand, paper, cloth, &:.c. Ail the attention of ihe distiller in ordinary operations, cannot always prevent some aqueous particles from rising wilh the spirits, either in the beginning of the process, in those conijjositions where they ascend lirst, or at the conclusion when they rise last ; as this is almost unavoidable, so it is soinetinii^s necessary. In distilling flowers, n aromatic ph.nts, fresh gathered, the phlegm rises first; and this part cannot be taken out of the receivej, \^iihout depriving the spirits of a considerable part of their fragrancy. In distilling spices, their odour being more entanirled, will remain in the alembic, till part of the phlegm is diawn oil. But when instcid of these substances their quintessence is used, the necessity ceases. But ihe phlegm commonly cau- sing a cloudiness in the liquor, it may be rendered tolerably fine by pouring it gently ofl' by inclination, without the trou- ble of filtration ; the aqueous particles, by their gravity, fal- ling to the bottom ; but to render it entirely bright and fine, ]iut some cotten in a tunnel, and pour the liquor through it, by which means the aqueous particles will be retained in the cotton. You must however remember to cover the top of t lie funnel, to preverjt the' most volatile parts of the spirits from evaporating. CHAPTER XXX. Colouring Spirits — Imitation Spirits — Areometer. Colouring Brandy.-^— The art of colouring spirits owes its rise to observations on foreign brandies. A piece of French brandy that has acquired by age a great degree of softness and ripeness, is observed at the same time (o have acquired a yel- lowish brown colour; and bonce our distillers have endeav- oured to in)itate this colour in such spirits as are intended to pass for French brandy. A great variety of experiments liave been made on various substances, to discover a direct and sure method of imitating the colour to perfection. To do this it is necessary to know from whence the French bran- dies themselves acquire their colour, for, till we have made this discovery, it will be in vain to attempt an imitation ; be- cause, if we should be able to imitate exactly the colour, which is indeed no difficult task, the spirit will not stand the test of dilferent experiments, unless the colour in both ho 224 THE ARTfST AND produced from the same ingredient. Tiiis being undeniabiV the case, let us try to discover this mighty secret, the ingredi- ent from whence the French brandy acquires its colour. We have already observed, that this colour is only found in such branuirs as have acquired a mellow ripeness by age ; it is thereiore ;> n given i; by the disliih?r, but has gained it by ly- ing long in li.e cask ; consequenlly the ingredient from wiience this colour is extracted, is no other than the wood of the cask, and the brandy in reality is become a dilute tincture of oak. The common experiment used to prove the genuineness of French brandy proves that this opinion is well founded. Tlie experiment is this: they pour into a glass of brandy a few drops of a solution of calcined vitriol of iron in a diluted spirit of sulphur, or any other mineral acid, and the whole turns of a blue colour, in the same manner as we make ink of a tincture of galls and vitriol. Since, therefore, the colour of French brandies is acquired from the oak of the cask, it is not difficult to imitate it to perfection. A small quantity of the extract of oak or the shaving of that wood, properly di- gested, will furnish us v/ith a tincture capable of giving the spirit any degree of colour required ; but it must be remem- bered, that as the tincture is extracted from the cask by the brand V, and that this is alcohol and water, it is necessary to use both, in extracting the tincture, for each of these msnstruums dissolve different parts of the wood. Let therefore, a suffi- cient quantity of oak shavings be digested in strong spirits vine and also, at the same time, other oak shavings be di- gested in oak, let both be poured off from the shavings into different vessels, and both placed over a gentle tire till re- duced to the consistence of treacle. In this condition let tlie two extracts be intimately mixed together: which may be done efiectually by adding a small quantit}^ of loaf sugar, in fine powder, and well rubbing the whole together. By this means a liquid essential extract of oak will be procured, and always ready to be used as occasion shall require. There arc ather methods in use for colouring brandies ; but the best besides the extract of oak above mentioned, is burnt molasses and burnt sugar. The molasses gives the spirits a fine colour nearly resembling that of French brandies; but as its colour is but dilute, a large quantity must be used ; this is not however attended with any bad consequences, for not- withstanding the spirit is really ^veakened by this addition, TliADESMAN S TiVIDE. 225 tlioujrh scarcely perceivable providecl the molasses is well pre|j;n-ccl, yet the bubble proof, the general criterion of spirits, is greatly mended by the tenacity imparted to. them by the treacle. The spirit also acquires from this mixture, a sweet- ish or luscious taste and a fulness in the mouth, both of which properties rendev it very agreeable to the palates of the com- mmi people, who are in fact, the principal consumers of these spirits. A much smaller quantity of burnt sugar than of ■ molasses will be sufiicient for colouring the s;!me quantity of spirits: the taste is also very ditTereat ; for, instead of the sAvcetness imparted by the treacle, the sj)irit acquires from the burnt sugar, an agreeable bitterness, and by that means re- commends itself to nicer palates, which are ofilended wilh a luscious spirit. The burnt sugar is prepared by dissolving a . proper quantity of sugar in a liitle water, and scorchins: it over the fire till it acquires a blacly colour^ Either of ihe above ingredients, molasses or burnt sugar, will nearly imitate the genuine colour of the French brandies, but ne^ither of them will succeed when put to the test af the vitriolic solution. To procure a colouring matter from molasses — place tlio vessel, eitb-: ^ er of tin, copper, or iron (an iron skeilet will aoswer) conlainino- the molasses, over coals, when it should be kept boiling until it becomes reduced by evaporation three fourths or more — during the process it should 'nnt bestirred, olliorwisc it will not become sufficiently scorched ■r^H. very material object. Imitation Draadi/. V/e have observed in the article on rectificaii on, th:\\ the common method of rectifying spirits from alkaline salts, destroys their vinosit}', and in its stead introduces a lixivious taste. But as it is absolutely recessary to resjtore, or at least to sustitute in their room, sonic degree of vinosit}', several methods have been proposed, and a multi- tude of cxporiments performed, in order to discover this great desideratum : but none have succeeded equal to the spirits of nitre 2 and accordingly this spirit, either strong or dulcified, has been used by most distillers, to give an agreeable vinosity to their spirits. Several difficulties, liOAvever, occur in the niethod of using it, the principal of which is, its being apt to quit the liquor in a short time, and consequently depriving the liquor of that vinosity it was intended to give. To re- move this difficulty, and prevent the vinosity from quittfng the goods, tho dnlcified sph^it of nitre, which is much better than t}|9 Strong spirits, should he prepared by a previous digestioa^ 22^ THE ARTIST AND continued some time with alcoliol; the longer the digestion is, continued, the more intimately will they be blended, and the compound rendered the milder and softer. After a pro)3er digestion, the dulcified spirit should be mixed with the bran- dy, by which means the vinosity will be intimately blended wiiii ihe goods, and disposed not to fly off for a ver^- consid- erable time. No general rule can be given for ihe quantity of this mineral acid requisite to be employed, because differ- ent proportions of it are necessary in diiTerent spirits^. It should however, be carefully adverted to, that tiio' a smdU quantity of it will undoubtedly give an agreeable vinosity re- sembling that naturajly found in the fine subtile spirits drawn from wines, yet an over large dose of it, will not onl}^ cause a disagreeable flavour, but also render the whole design abor- tive, by discovering the in>position. Those therefore, who endeavor to cover a foul taste in goods by large doses of dul-. cified spirit of nitre, will find themselves deceived. But the best, and indeed the only method of imitating French brandies to perfection, is, by an essential oil of wine ; lbi> being the very thing that gives the French brandies their flavour. It must however, be remembered, that in order to use this ingredient to advantage, a pure tasteless spirit must be first procured ; for it is ridiculous to expect that this es- sential oil should be able to give the agreeable flavour of the French brandies, to our fulsome malt spirit, alriady loaded with its own nauseous oil, or strongly impregnated with a lix- ivous taste from the alkaline salts, used in rectification. How a pure insipid spirit may be obtained, will be found in tiie chaptet on distillation. It onlv therefore remains to show the n*eihod of procuring the essential oil of wine, which is this. Take some cakes of dry wine lees, such as are used by hatters, dissolve them in six or eight times their weight of water, distil the liquor with a slow fire, and separate the oil by a separating glass ; reserving for the nicest uses, that only which comes over first, the succeeding oil being coarser and- more resinous. Having procured this fine oil of wine, it ma}- be mixed- into a quintessence with pure alcohol ; by which means it, "may be preserved a long time fully possessed «f all its flavour and virtues; but without such management, it will soon grow resinous and rancid. When a fine essential oil of wine is thus procured, and; also a pure and insipid spirit, French brandies may be imi- tated to perfection with regard to the flavor. It must, how- ever, be remembered, and carefully adverted to, that the es- sential oil be drawn fioni the same sort of lees as the brandy to be imitated was procured from: we mean in order to imi* tate cogniac brandy, it will be necessary to distil the essential ,oil from cogniac lees ; and the same for any other kind of brandy. For as dilTerent brandies, have different flavours, and these flavours are oXving entirely to the essential oil of the grape, it would be preposterous to endeavdr. to Itnitate the flavour of cognhrc brandy, with an essential oil procured from the lees of Bordeaux wine. When the flavour of the brandy is well imitated by a proper dose of the essential oil, and the whole reduced into one simple and honiegeneous 'fluid, other difficulties are still behind ; the flavour, tbough the essential part, is not however the only one; the colour, the proof and the softness must be regarded, before a spirit, 'that perfectl}' resembles Frencli brandy can be procured. With regard to the proof, it may be easily hit, b}' using a spirit rectified above proof; which after being intinujtely 'mixed with the essential oil of wine, may be let oown lo a proper standard by fair water. The softness may in a great mPiasure be obtained by distilling and rectifying the spirit with a gentle fire; and what is wanting of this crite- rion >n the liquor, when first made, will be supplied by time ; for it must be remembered, that it is time alone that gives this property to the French brandies ; they being at first like t)ur spirits, acrid, foul and fiery. But with regard to the colour-, B, particular colour is necessary to imitate it to perfection ; and how that may be done is considered in ihe article oti colouring spirits. Our observations respecting- the methods of imitating spirit, are not made with a view to favour impositions, by palming them off as rt-al ; but vvc are not sensible of the impropriety of selling them as imitation Spirits. We will further suggest to those, who, in order to reduce the price of spirits, mix some of the pure (the spirit which they wish to imitate) with neutral s[)irit, that quite an im- provement can be made in imitating French brandies, by adding a small quantity of rich mountain Mahiga wine, com- monly called sweet loine. The experiment will convince us of the fact, though we still adhere to our first position, that 22§ Tlir: AHTIST A\T) the essential oil obtained from the Ices of wine to be the best J but to those who do not deal largely, this last nictiicd may be substiuued advantageonsl}'. The reader is also referred to remarks on apple spirit. St. Croiz Rum. For imitations that which is high scented, sweet favoured and colourless slioidd he selected. This \Vili workup a great quantity of neutral spirit advantageously". St. Croix Rum of prime quality is a very scarce staple, and when obtained it is generalh' apprized ver}^ highly — par- ticularly by most of tiie city dealers, v/ho aj-e well acquainted with its worth for the purposes before mentioned. rsutralized molasses spirit (commonly called neutralized N. E. Rum.) uhdoubtedl^' furnishes lis wiih the best bod\- for imitations. Wq are convinced that grain spirits fail to produce good imitations, and the same objections arise against their use, in regard to rum, which we have already inferred respect- ing brand'es— ihougli we are confident a great improvement miglit bo niade in rendering lliem more insipid-— aiid ihal it is a subject of great importance to the distiller. As the mo!;!sses sj)iru is manr.fV.ctured f:om the same in- gredient tliat produces the spirit whic'i we wisli to imitate, and enter into combination, in order to give it the favour, is obtained, and as it is the esscnti-d oil, v/nich gives the flavour to ail 3};>irifs, the difieretice tlien,in these spirits must proceed from tijo difi'erent j^rocesscs of maniifactiire and also tiie quality of the cane must be taken into cons;der;ition, even as v.-Q linvc stated respecting the grape. Enough has already been said, to convir-ce the reader qijitc a different ilavoured spirit nuist be produced, by mixing grain spirits, with that obtained from cane, than they are intended to represent, when tiicy are blended togelher. T4ie best neutralized molasses spirit, can be obtained for ten cents per jrallon more than that which is usually put np for the trade. It need not he said that the Boston niarket furnishes the best new rum, and that it produces also the best neutralized, of any wliich wo liave ever seen. It can easily \^^ obtained at Co per cent, above proof; tiiere are considerable quantities manufactir.-ed of a very ordinary quality'; consequo^itl}' much rare is rc^quired in selecting it. The purch.aser will do well to observe, tliat the best is colourh^ss, and free from a burnt or smoky Ikvour, which in either case, renders the spirit unfit - to mix. tradesman's guide. 229 For a barrel of imitation^ from one to ten gallons of the pure, spirits mixed with the neutralized; and of the latter quan- :«iy, hut few palates can detect, provided the goods aie of me hest quality. When neutralized rum cannot easily be obtained, neutral- ised whiskey (or pure spirits) are substituted. The lye of walnut, (or hickory) ashes is insipid, and has Ikte singular property of neutralizing spirits. Spirits render- ea tasteless by this piocess are not in the least injured, but rather acquire a degree of strength. Could ti discovery be made to deprive spirits of their intoxicating power, how much of the worlds wretchedness would be alleviated! It is without doubt to be considered as the most wise ex* periraent which can be made to abstain entirely from using ardent spirits unless for medicinal purposes. Who has not seen, by its too frequent use, the noblest structure^ body, tiiind and all, swept by tiieir enticing channels over a fathom- less cataract ■? Who can be so insensible to the calls of human* jt}', amidst the scenes of misery which an inordinate love of erdent spirit produces, that will not come to the determina- lion accompanied with a rigid adherance, to aid in paVing the way of reform ? St. Vincents is next in quality to St. Croix, and admits of the same process as described above, in order to reduce the price. However, it must always, be considered that much dopends on the quality of the goods which you bjend with the neutralized spirit ; much care and experience is required to select that which is high scented and fine flavoured : the difference of cargoes in this respect, is more than we are gen- erally inclined to admit. Grenada Rum, can be imitated very well, with the neu- tralized molasses spirit, and a small quantity of very high fla- voured Jamaica spirits. Jamaica Sp'wits^ if highly scented, are ver3'imuch improv- ed b\' adding the neutralized molasses spii it ; the compound wo lid be preferred by most palates, after acquiring a suffi- cient ripeness. Neutralized molasses spirit of the first quality vnW pass for better inward Island rum, than any rum of the Islands can, v.ith IJiC least addition ot grain spirit. Holland Gin^ can be reduced in price, and a very fair fla- 20 230 THE AllTIST AltD vour retained, by mfxing it with that which is manufactared in our country : some of the American is very nearly as good as imported ; and would be quite, if the manufacturers were as careful as the Hollai'ders in manufacturing it : age, how- ever, is a very necessary qualification to recommend all spirits. Netitralized Mhiskcy mixes with gin better than any other spirit-; and if it must he resorted to, in order to reduce the f)n'ce of the Holland gin, we would recommend a very small quantity of the oil of juniper, to be added, (first mixed with high wines, and then added to a small quantity of gin, when the wholt! may be put into the cask,) though we should pre- fer a few fresh juniper berries, when they can be easily ob- tained : mash them and digest in alcohol a short while, then pour the tincture into the cask. We have been infoimed that huge butts have been contriv- ed so as to contain two or three others, for the purpose of hold- ing diflerent qualities of spirits, but in such a manner as to appear to be drawn from only one cask. \N e may therelore infer, that such casks are soni^^fimes intended for deception, and wiih the next parcel of low wines. Ijistead of these trials, the head of the still may have a bulb ofa thermometer inserted into it» and by observing the temperature of the steam, an accurate judgment may be formed of the stretigth of the spirit that dis« tils over. It is eomputed that one hundred galloni of naalt, or cori» 23i tttB ARTIST AND wash, will produce about twenty of spirit, containing aliout half its weight of water ; molasses wash twenty-two gallons,, cider wash fifreen gallons. The best French wines yield from twenty to iwenly-five gallons. The spirit thus obtained is used for pharmaceutical purposes, mixed with water, to separate the oil it contains, and re-distilled several times in. tall vesssels, with a very gentle heat until its specific gravity is reduced to 0.82; though that usually sold is only 0.837, at 60^ Fahrenheit. By distilling spirits of wine with purified pearlashes, salts of tartar, muriateof lime, or common salt, all previously heated to redness, and cooled, its specific gravity may be reduced still lower, even as low as 0,r92, at 68° Fah* but there is reason to think that it not only parts with water, but undergoes some, change, or acquires some impregnation, by these additions, as its taste is altered. The spirits of wine from which every particle of water is separated, is called by the Arabic name of alcohol. Sugar Spirits. It is meant by sugar spirits, that extracted from the washings, scumming, dross and waste of a sugar baker's house. These recrementitions or drossy parts of the sugar are to be diluted with water, in the same manner as molasses or wash, and then distilled in the common method ; and if the operation be carefully performed, and the spirits well rectified, it may be mixed with foreign brandies and eveet arracd in a large proportion, to great advantage ; for these spirits will be found superior to that extracted from treacle, and consequently more proper for these uses. Cherry Brandy. This liquor is greatly called for in the coun try, and is made in dififerents ways. Some press out the juice of the cherries, and having dulcified it with sugar and water, add as much spirits to it as the goods will bear, or the price it is in**, tended to be sold for. But the common method is to put the cherries clean picked into a cask, with a proper quantity of proof spirits, and after standing eighteen or twenty days, the goods are drawn off into another cask for sale and about two-, thirds of the first quantity of spirit poured into the cask upon the cherries. This is sufi'erecl to stand about a month to ex- tract the whole virtue from the cherries, after which it is drawn oft' as before ; and the cherries, pressed to take out the spirits they had absorbed, The proportion of cherries is not very nicely observed : the general rule is to let the cask be about h^lf (iUed with cherries and then filled up with proof spirits, tradesman's guide. 233 Some add to every twenty gallons of spirits, half an ounce of , cinn.iiiion, an o^.iice of cloves, and about three pounds of su^jtr; by which ibe tlavour of the goods is considerably in- creased. But iu. order to save expense, not n.ily the spices and the sugar are omitted, bur also a great part of the cherries, and the deliciency supplied by the juice of elder berries, iouieiiuies adding molasses to sweeten instead of sugar, when the elder berries are not made use of. Raisin and Apple Spirits, S^c. By raisin spirits are to be understood ihate xtracted from raisins after a proper fermen- tation. In order to extract the spirits, the raisins must be in-» fused in a proper quantity ':^^f water and fermnted in the man* ner described in the article on fermentation. When the iermcntation is completed, the whole is to be thrown into the still, and the spirits extracted by a strong fire. The reason why a strong fire is directed, is because by that means a greater quantity of tlie essential oil will come over the helm with the spirits, which will render it much fitter for the dis- tiller's purpose ; for these spirits aie generally used to mix with common malt goods : and it is surprising how far it will go in this respe^-.t ; ten gallons of it being sufficient to give a determining flavour and agreeable vinosity to a whole piece of malt spirits. It is therefore well worth the distiller's at« tentionto endeavour at improving the common method of ex- tracting spirits from raisins ; and perhaps the following hint merits atttention. When the fermentation is completed and the still charged with fermented liquor as before directed, lot the whole be drawn off with as brisk a fire as possible; but instead of the cask or can, generally used by our American distillers for a receiver, let a large glass, called by chemists, a separating glass, be placed under the nose of the worm, and a common receiver applied to the spout of the separating glass; by this means the essential oil will swim upon the top of the spirits, or rather low wine, in the separating glasss, and mny easily be preserved at the end of the operation. The use of this limpid is well known to distiller ■;, who have made their business u scientific study; for in this resides the whole flavour, and consequently may be used to the great- est advantage in giving that distinguishing taste and true vinosity to the common malt spirits. After the oil is separa- ted from the low wine, the liquor may be rectified in balneum marise, into pure and almost tasteless spirits, an(} therefore *20 334 IHIB ARTIST AND well adapted to hkiI c the finest compound cordials, or to imitate or mix with the Hnest French hrandie-^, ai racks, Alc. Ill ihe same minnor, spirits may he ohtaincd iVom ci(!er. But as its paslicular (1 ivour is not so desirable as ihai ohiained from raisins, it should be distiibni in a more genile way, and carrfnlly rectified in the manner shown in the article on rec- lification, by which means, very pure and almost tasteless nnd insipid spirits will be (d)tain« d which may be used lo very great advantage in imitatinn the best lirandies «f Fr.nK e, or i.t inakiii:; the fmfst c.»rnpouiul waters or cordials. Anise Sf.cfl Cordial. Take of anise s«'ed bruisod two pounds, proof >pirit tweivr niui a half i^.illons, u'a:er one gal- lon ; draw off ten jr dions wiih a moderate heat. 'I'his water should never be re«luc»;d belou proof, because the large quiiniity of oil with which it is impregnated, wdl render the goods milky and foul, when brouglu down below proof. But if lherhly ini|)roved by putting three and a half ounces finely ftowdormi charcoal, anci four and a half ounces gr«)und rice, imn h quart of spirits, and letting it stand fifteen diys, fjHqnenfh' stirring it ; then let the liquor be siiained, and it u 11 be foim I ner.rlv of the same flavour as biandy. Clove Cordial. Cloves, bruised, four pounds, pimento li;ilf a pound, proof spirit sixteen gallons. Digest the mixture twelve hours in a gentle heat, and then *dryw ofl" fifioen galh>ns with a pretty brisk fire. The water n>ay be coloured red with tincture of cochineal, or other col- ouring matter. Raisin Wine. Raisins one hundred weight, water sixteen gallons, soak for a fortnight, stirring every day ; press, put the liquor in a cask with the bung lo«.se, till it has done his- sing ; than add four pounds of brandy and hung up close. Some use little more than half, or two-thirds o( this quantity of raisins. Gooseberry Wine. Ripe berties, brusied, ten gallons, water thirty gallons, soak twenty-four hours, strain: to each gallon add two pounds of sfigar and ferment. . 1. Bruised berries eighty pounds, water ten gallons, soak for a day, strain ; to each gallon add six pounds of loaf sugar, and ferment. 3. Juice ten gallons, water twenty gallons, sugar seventy pounds, ferment. 4. Berrios f)ne hun tier ihat term is over you will find it better than ever. This melliod has gone through manv experiments. To prevent tartness in Wi3ie. Take in the month of March uvo basins full of river sand, and afier having diied it ' in the sun or in the oven throw it in the < ask. Methegiin. Honey one hundred pounds, boiling water a se.tliritMii quantity to lill a half hogshead or thirty-lwo gallon cask, stir i; well for a day or two ; add yeast, and I'eiment. Some boil she hon^-y in the water lor an hour or two, but this I'inders it^ duo termeiUatioii. Mead^ is nride Iro-n the honey-combs from which honey lias been drajnod out, by boiling in vvater,;!ud then iernient- ing, ceiiemlly confounded with raeihegliu. 'Hattijia rles Crrisis. BioreHo cherries with their kernels b.oi-o'i, eirrht ponuos, proof spiriis eight |)iuts ; digest for a iiKui h ; siiain with expression ; add sugar one pound eight ounce. ♦- Rofafin de Grenoble. Small wild black cherries with their kernels bruised, twelve poiiuds, proof spirits six gallons ; digest for a month; strain ; add sugar twelve pounds; a little . citr< n peel may be added at pleasure. .„ Ratafia de Noyeaux. Peach or apricot kernels, with their i/. shells bruised, in numlier .120, proof spirits four pints, sugar ten ounces. Some reduce spirits of wine rectified to proof, ' with the juice of a|iricots or peaches to make this liquor. ;> Chreme de Noyean — Enj^lisJ?. Bitter almonds blanched four ounces, proof spirits two pints, sugar one pound. 240 THE ARTIST AND Chreme de Orange — English. Oranges sliced in numlier thirty-six, sjiirits of wine rectified, two gallons, srjzpr eighteen pounds, water four gallons four pints, tincture oi" saffron one ounce four drachuiSi orange flovvcn- water four pints ; «iigest for a fortnight ; strain. All the aforementioned liquors are siimulent and taken ad iibitum for pleasure. Chreme des Barhadoes. Orange peels, lemon j.eels, of each three in number, cinnamon four ounces, mace two drachms, cloves one drachm, rum eighteen pints ; distil in ba'neum mariae, and add sugar p. ffeq. Chreme des Barbodoes — English. Lemons sliced in num- ber twenty-four, citrons sliced, in nmuber six, spirits wine rectified two gallons four pints, fiesh balm leaves eight oun- ces, water three gallons four pints; digest for a iornight ; Strain. Brandy Shrub. Brandy nine pints, lemon juice, orange juice, of eacli one pint, orange peels four in number, lemon peels two in number, sugar two pounds, water five piats. The same formula will answer for making rum shrud, using rum instead of brandy. Hum Shrub. Concrete acid of temons eight ounces, wa- ter five gallons, raisin wine four gallons, rum ten gallons, Drange flower water four pints, honey six pounds. Brown Spruce Bcer^ as tiic white, using molasses in lieu ,of the sugar. In regard to the white and brown spruCe and ginger beer and the wines, it is said the purer kinds are mix- tures of spirits of wine, water, and extractive matter : the spirits may be separated by careful distillation, or if the ex- tractive matter be first got rid of by the addition of extrac- tum saturni and filtration, the spirits may be separated by ad- ding very pure kali ppm. when it will swim upon the liquor; the spirit constitutes from twelve to twenty-five per « ent. of the proper wines, and from two to eight per cent, of me malt liquors. The fermentation of these liquors is usually hastened by the addition of yeast, crude tartar, or bruised vine leaves, but this is seldom necessar3'^ for wines, if the liquor be kept in a proper warmth ; but malt liquors are more sluggish. If the fermentation is in danger of proceeding too far, it may be stopped by drawing ofi' the liquor clear into another vessel in which some brimstone has been newly burned, or in ^Vte ca^fe of red wine, some iiutQieg powder upon a hot shovel, T)r which has been washed with brandy; the sediment left in the old cask, may be strained through flannel er paper till clear and added to the otiior; instead of this a part only may be drawn out of the cask and some rags dipped in melted brimstone and lighted, aiay be held by a pair of tongs in the bung hole slightly covered^ so as to impregnate the liquor "vvith the fumes; about o!ie ounce of brimstone to a htigshead, tlren nitwrning what had been drawn out, and bunging up very close ; or a smal-i quantity of oil of vitriol may be pour- ed in: lastly the addition of bhick manganese has been pro*' posed O'Q theoretical gro-unds. If the ferm«titation has proceeded too far, and the liquot sours, the fermentation must be stopped as above, and some lumps of ciialk, or burned oysier shells added, to saturate the acid already generated; If the liquors do not become clear soon enough, for each thirty gallons dissolve one ounce of isinglass in two poinds of water; Strain, and mix this with part of the liquor; beat it up to a froth, and pour it into the liquor. Stir tiie whole well and bung it up: instead of isinglass some use hartshorn shavings in ratlier larger quantities. Red wines are fined with twelve eggs to the pipe, beaten up to a froth, and well stir- red and mixed in with the wine. If Jiie liquor has acquired a bad flavour, the best way is to let the fermentation go on, and convert it at once into vine- gar. To make treacle Ihcr. Boil two quarts of water, put it into one pound of treacle, stir them together till they are well mixed ; then put six v,x eight quarts of cold water to it, and about a tea cup full of 3'east or balm ; put it in a clean cask or tub, cover if over with a coarse cloth two or three times double ; it will be fit to drink in two or three days. The second or third time o\' making, the bottom of the first beer will do instead of yeast ; if you make a large quantity, or intend it for keeping, you must put in a handful of hops and another of malt for it to iaeiX oUj and when done work- ing, stop it up ch)So. The above is tlie best and che;^pest way of muking treacle beer, thougn some people add raisins, bran, wormwood, spices, such fruit, &c. as arc in season ; but that is just as you fancy. Indeed, many pleasant, cheap, and \rho!cst»mo 21 ii42 THE ARTIST ANP drinks may be made from fruits, &>c. if they are bruised arid boiled in water before the treacle is added. London Porter. For five bariels : malt eight busliels, a sufficient quantity of water, mash at twice: add in the boiling, hops eight to twelve pounds, treacle six pounds, liquorice root eight pounds, moist sugar sixteen pounds, one half of which is usually made into essential bina3 and the other half into colourj capsicum four drachms, Spanish liquorice two ounces, linseed one ounce, cinnamon two draclims, heading two drachms; cool, add one to two gallons of yeast when it has got a good head, cleanse if with three ounces of ginger ; coculus indicus one ounce; then barrel and finish the working; fine with isin- glass. The public brewers use a mixture of pale amber alone, which is best for private families. Six^ounds of sugar is esteemed equal in strength, and one pound coriander seed in intoxicating power, to a bushel of malt; the sugar enployed is burnt to coloar the beer instead of drown malt, and it has been proposed to use roasted coffee for the purpose. The other substances are merely to flavour the liquor and may be varied at pleasure. The desire to evade the duty on malt in England produced the discovery of its being necessary to malt onl}' one-third of the corn, as this proportion will convert the other into its own nature during the process. Artificial Spa Water. Prepared natron seven grains, magnesia alb» one scruple, iron filings three grains, common salt one grain, water three pounds, and impregnate it with gas from marble powder and oil of vitriol, of each ten scruples, sufficiently diluted with water. Artificial Pyrmont Water. Epson salts fifteen grains, common salt five grains, magnesia alb. three grains, iron filings five grains, water three pounds, and impregnate it with the gas from marble powder and oil of vitriol, of each seven drachms. Artificial SJieltz Water. Common salt one drachm, mag- nesia alb. one scruple, natron ppm. fifteen grains, chalk seven grains, water three pounds, and impregnate with the gas from marble powder and oil of vitriol of each six drachms. Of Cherry tree Bark. The bark of black cherry tree, has been used instead of black cherries in the manufacture of cherry brandy, steeped in water with elder beriies, sweetened with molasses, adding a proper quantity of rum but on account tradesman's guide. 243 of the following communication througli a very respecta- ble source, we shall omit giving a particular formula. A medical gentleman says the hark of this tree is poisonous. He relates the case of a young lady, to whom he was lately called, and who in consequence of drinking about half a pint of cider, taken from a ciosel}' stopped hottle, filled the even- ing previous with cherry bark fresh Irom the tree, was seized with vertigo, stupor, and syncope, followed by great difficulty of respiration and vomiting. Similar effects were produced in a slighter degee upon another person, who took from the same bottle a small draught of cider. The French chemists have recently ascertained that the deleterious principles by the peach is analagous to prussic acid. This acid in its concentrated state, if a feather be dipped into it and drawn across the eye of an animal produces in- stant death. Two drops, have been known to kill a vigorous dog in a very few minutes. Of Adulterated Wines, The Wines of Commerce in their purity, cannot be found at the corners of every street. Some are in the practice of mixing colmenar with Sicily Madeira — • this compound makes a very pleasant wine. If Siciij' Ma- deira is put upon Maderira lees, it becomes greatly improved i — age, however, is a requisite qualification to all wines. We have no particular formula for compounds, nor is it necessary, since the dealer must consult the taste of his cus- tomers; nor are we^ableto point out a particular methed where- by spurious wines can be detected as a certain test, but we would recommend dealers to obtain the certificates which should accompany the casks, which may perhaps in time les- sen their risk. We arc told that empty Rum, Wine, Gin or Brandy cask, with the original certificates, ar« considered very valua- ble by the city dealers — ^rum hhds. with the certificates have frequently been sold at from <^10 to $12 each. Wine qr, casks, $4 and $5. Brandy pipes $12 and $15: though there is a penalty incurred by the transaction; and we observ- ed a notice last May, issued from the customs-house, New- York, that thereafter the law would be rigidly enforced, [See laws restive to spirits^ wines, teas &.c.] :44 TfIR AnffST ANP A TABLE Presenting a comparative view of the properties of some of the most celebrated Minerals, both in America and Europe, mimbered from 1 to 27 in ehisiue ; sheioing the number and quantity of articles in four Pints, or ^15,5- Cubic Inches, rfihe Water of each Spring — the quantities in Grains and Decimal Parts oj a Grain, from the latest Authorities. NAM^S QF SPRINGS. No. Tem- Tncheg car- Inches pers.-. bonic acid a^Ipte?' ture. ga». retted hydro- gen ga» f Congress^ 1 50 271.089 1 " Columbian, 2 50 118. Washington, 3 48 123.5 ^ HamiltoR;,. ' 4 48 142. ^ Saratoga Flat R.^ck, 5 48 126.25 Waters. \ Higb Rock^ 6 48 121.36 [ President, 7 51 157.132 1 Red Springs 8 48 75.25 ' i Ellis^ Spring, 9 47 1112.25 l^ Taylor's Wasli^too ,10 48 J125.5 C Balistoa Spa^ 11 50 105.. j Low'^s Springs 12 52 iio. Ballston J Sulphur, 13 52 72, 3^ Waters. (^ New Sprin-g, 14 50 159.5 Saratoga Sulphur^ 15 50 2 J. 75 5.5. ^ Saline Spa, 16 55 15.18 CffELTEN- J Chalybeate Spa, 17 53 12. HAM. 1 Moutp'r Wells, ], 18 53 8.5 Engjaud. [. . . No. 2. 19 52 3.95 5.& Spa, in Germany, Pouhon Spring .20 51.16 Germany- — Pyrmont^ 21 104. Harrogate — England, 22 4. 1 9.5^ Aix-la-Chapelle, or, Aken Watar 2i 143 some. njAiqb^ Bristol Hot Well, England, 24 74 15. Bath — King's Bath, Englar«d, 25 116 4. Bohemia — Carlsbad, 26 27 165 20. 1 Germany-— S altzcr WateFj TO. 1 THADMMAN^S CVIDS. S4} NOTE. Besides thosejngredients mentioned in the table, the Salina Spa contains Carbonate and muriate of magnesia lt.5 sulphate ot soda and magnesia 240. Chalybeate Spa, muriate of lime 1.275. Montp'r Well, No. 1. muriate of lime 18. muriate of magnesia 49.122 muriate of magnesia 20. No.2 muriate of lime 1206 sulphate of3mag\iesia 24,06 muriate of rangnesia 14.5 h3^drogen sulphate lime 16.375 Germany Pyr- mont sulphate of magnesia 22.28 Harrowgate, Eng. muriate of lime 6.5 sulphate of magnesia 5.25 muriate of magnesia 45 5 Bristol Hot Well, Eng. muriate magnesia 3.625. all of which are included in the total quantity. No Muriate Carbon- Carbon- Carbon- Carbon-I Sul- Total quanti- 1 ty. of ate of ate of ate of ate of phate o: Soda. Soda. 1 Lime. 1 ' Magne-i I^-on. sia. 1 Lime. r~ 235.75 8.25 89.238 1,678 3.084 338. 2 100.75 11.25 60.5 0.75 3.75 117. 3 115.75 ' 8.25 63.75 1.25 3. 192. 4 134.75 12.25 73.75 3.75 1.5 226. 5 97.4 5.6 53.5 0.75 3.75 161. 6 105. 9. 57.5 0.25 2.25 174. 7 67.5 9.5 53.75 1.25 3. 135. 8 58.76 12.24 48.5 1.5 3. 124/ 9 94. 5. 55.25 3.75 158. 10 156.77 13.23 70. 2.75 2.05 249. 11 79.5 4.5 37.25 1.25 3.75 126. 12 71. 5. 32.25 0.75 3. 112. 13 32. 3. 15. 2. 52. 14 79.25 6.5 30.77 4.25 3.75 124.5J 15 11.8 0.7 16.55 0.95 30. 1( 2.5 2.5 20. 277.5 17 1.01 0.68 0365 9.605 18 109.87 3.575 42505 283,085 19 91.625 9. ■2.875 33.25 250.25 20 .688 5.88 5.88 17.84 J.25 32.*28 21 6.24 1 7.1)4 40.12 2.24 34.32 123.04 22 307.75 19.25 2.75 377. 23 20. 48. 19. 87. 24 2. 6.75 5.876 23.875 25 26. 11.25 trace. 15.75 66. 26 22.12 47.04 16.60 trace. 251.8 27 70. 16. 12. 20. 108, 240 THK AATrhT AMP CHAPTER. XXXI Useful Receipts. Lemon Bicr. Three poui>d& of lump sugar, ten oiiuces^ bruised ghiger, one ounce er8an> tartar, lemons number four pour on them four gallons boiling water, add eight ounces of yeast, vrork for four days, then boltle in half pints, and tie the corks down. 2* Six pounds of moist sugar, five ounces of ginger, tv/a ounces of cream tartar, lemons number four, eiglit ounces of yeast, seven gallons ol watt;!-, work two or three days» siraiup add one pound of brandy, btjng very close, and in fourteen daj's bottle it; a cooling effervescent drink in summer. To fine, Spirits. Mix a small quantity of wheat flour in water, as if far making paste, and pour the same into the ves- sel. The vrhole is then to he well roused, and in a short time the contents will become bright. Ccdrai. Lemon peeks in number twelve, spiri???- wine rec- tified two gallons; distil in bahieum mariae, and add simple syruj^ p. a?q- Parjait Amour. The same coloured wi:h a little cochi- neal. Wine Test. When wine becomes partly acetous, called pricked wine, the di&agr?eaLle tasle is often corrected by sugar of lead ; it is then poisonous, and th^' fraud oiiglu to be de- tected. This may be done by dropping it into a little water^ «harged with sulphuretted hvdrogen gas; it will immediately become a dark brown. To turn Wine into Vinegar in less than three hours. Put in the wine a red beet, atid it will be quite sour and true vine- gar in less then three hours. To restore such JVine to its first taste. Take off the red bept and in its stead |;ut a cabbage root into that wine, a'nd it will return to its pri.nary taste in the same space of time. Escuhcs. Usquebaugh. SafiVou one ounce, juniper berries four drachms, dates v.'ithout iheir kernels, raisins, of each three ounces, jujebs six ounces, anise seed, niace, cloves, corir ander seed, of each one drachm, cinnamon two drachms, proof spirits twelve pints^ simple syrup six j)oi;nds; pocloral, emmenasfogne. Scotch Hfcvrclade. Juice of Seville oranges two pints, yellow honey two pounds, boil to a proper consistence. TftADESMAN^S GUIDE. 24? I^ssencc of Spruce is prepared by boiling the Iwigs of K^cotch fir in water, ami evaporating the decoction till it grows thick; used to flavour treacle beer instead of hops, Essence of Malt is prepared by infusing malt in water, first boiled, and then cooled til! it reflects the image of a person's I face in it, pouring off the intusion, and evapora-ting it to the consistence of new honey ; used in sea voyages and places where mall cannot be procured to make beer. J}uver''s Sudorific Powder. Take of ipecacuanha in powder, opium puiified, each one part, snlphate-of potash ei^ht parts, triturate them together in a fine powder. 4^ The sulptiate of potash from the griitiness of its crystals, is perhaps better fitted for tearing and dividing the tenacious opium than ?ny other £;dt ; this seems to be its only use in the preparation. The operator ought to be careful that the opium and ipecacuanha be equally diffused through the whole mass of powder, otherwise different portions of the powder niusT diiTer in degrees of strength. This powder is one of the most certain sudorifics, and as . such, was recommended by Pr. Dover as an efi'ectual rem- edy in rhcum-uism. Modern practice confirms its reputa- tion, not only in rheumatism, but also in dropsy, and several other diseases, where it is often dificult b}' other means, tq ^ procure copious perspiration. The dose is from two to fivei grains, repeated according to the ptitient's stomach and strength. It is proper to avoid drinking immediately after ta- king it, otherwise it is apt to be rejected, before any other efl'ect c/jn be produced. Pers])iration should be kept up b^^ diluents. Plummer''s Pills. These pills are dijijihoretic, alterative, purgative, and beneficial in cutaneous eruprions. T^ike of calomel, sulphate of aniiniony, of each one drachm, gum gfiaiacum two drachms. Mix them assiduously wiih mucilage, and divide into si e one pound, proof spirits four gallons, water a sufficient quantity, distil ten gallons, water a sufficient quantity, distil ten gallons, to which add opium seven ounces and four drachms, camphor six ounces, kali pp. one ounce, coral rubr. four ounces. 2. Castor N. A. two ounces, opium, anisi, of each one ounce and four drachirs, camph. eight ounces, sem. foen. dulc. two ounces, tinct. antim. four ounces^ proof spir'ts ten pints add rad. valerian and cochineal in powder. 3» Castor, camphor, of each four ounces, coccin. one ounce, spirits of wine rectified, two gallons, water one gal- lon. 4. Opii camph. of each one pound, castor, ol. anisi, santal. rubr. of each four ounces, treacle ten pounds spirits of wine rectified five gallons, water four gallons. 5. Opii camph. of each ten drachms, coccin. one drachm, kali ppt. four scruples, ol. foenic. dulc. one drachm, (or seeds three ounces,) proof spirits fourteen pints, water two pints: produce fifteen pints. - o. Castor one ounce, ol. anisi one drachm, camph. five drachms, coccin. one drachm and a half, opii six drachms, proof spirits one gallon. 252 THK ARTIST AND Daffy''s Elixir, Elixir Salutis, FoL sennae four ounces, ras. lign. sant. rad. enulae sice, setii. anisij seni; carui^ sem. coriand. rad. glycyrrh. of each two ounces^ raisins stoned eight ounces, proof spirits six pounds. This is now sold by the name of Dicey 's Daffy. 2. Tincture Semice. Tinct. Senncd^ P. L: Foi; sennae one pound, sem. card. min. half an ounce, raisins sixteen ounces, proof spirits one gallon, 3. T. Stjuioe, P. D. The same but omitting the raisins. 4. Sennet Coniposita. Foi: sennae two ounces, rad, jalap one ounce, sem. coriand. half an ounce, proof spirits tiiree pounds and a half by wrty pounds, sennae fifteen pounds, sant. subr. five pounds, sem. carui, sem. anisi, sem. coriand. of each five pounds, cineres Russici eight ounces, spirits of wine lettified ten gallons ; iligest three days, then add proof spirits eighty gallons, treacle forty-six pounds. 7. Rad. rhei fourteen pounds, sem. anis ten pounds, sennse parvae eight pounds, rad. jalnp four pounds, sant. rubr. three pounds eight ounces, ciner. Russ. two pounds, spirits of wine rectified thirty-ei'iht gallons, water eighteen gallons; 8. Swinton''s Daffi/. Rad. jalap three pounds, foi. serinee twelve ounces, sem. coriand. sem. anisi, rad. glj'cyrrh. rad. enulae, of each four ounces, spirits of winei rectifiedj water, of each one gallon. 9. Rad. enulae, ras. guaiaci, sem. coriand. rad. rhei, rad. glycyrrh. sem. anisi. of each three ounces, raisins one pound eight ounces, proof spirits ten pints. 10. Rad. jalap three pounds, foi. sennae one pound, sem, anisi six ounces, sem. coriand. four ounces, cort; auratit sice, two ounces, proof spirits two gallons. 1 1. Foi. sennae seven pounds, rad; jalap five pounds sem. anisi fourteen pounds, sem. carui four pounds, sem. foenic. dulc. four pounds, brandy coloured two gallons, spirits of ■wine rectified twenty-six gallons, water tWent3^-four gallons; let it stand three weeks, strain washing out the last oortions with water two gallons, then add treacle twenty-eight pjunds. A comraon remedy in flatulent cholic, and used as s purge by j; ¥kADESMA.\'s QmoE, 253 fhocG accustomed to spirit drinking; do*:e one, tv/o or three table spoonfuls. Anli'AUriiiGn, Hog's hird ten pounds, camph. four oun- ces, black Jead a sufficient quantity to colour it ; used to rub on iron to prevent rust^ and dinjinish fricliom Issue Peas. CercC fi. on-e pound, rad, circum. eight oun« ces, rad. irid. flor^ four ounces, tereb. Venit. asufficient quan- tity, make into peas. 2. Cerae flav. six ounces, rad'. irid, flor. two ounces^ ver'^ million four ounces, (ereb. Vcn, a siifRcicnt quantity, form int© peas. 3. Corae fl. six ounces, asruf^. aeris. rad. helleb, albi, of of each two ounces, cantharidr.m one ounce, rad. irid. flor. one ounce and a half, terebo, Ven. a s\)fficient quantity ; this last is caustic and will open issues of itself, the others are used to put into issues that begin to close up to keep them open longer. Issue Plasters. Cera? fl. half a pound, minii, tereb. Cliiae, of each four ounces, cinnab., rad. irid. iior. of each ^rie ounce, mosch. four grains; melted, spread upon linen, polished with a moistened calendering glass rubber, and lastly cut into small squares. 2. Diachyl. simpl. one pound, rad. iiid. Hor. one ounce, -spread and polished. 3. Diachyl. sinipl. two pounds, pic. Burg. Sfwcocollse of each four ounces, tereb. com. one ounce, spread and polished- Cora Plaster. Cere ^. two pounds, pic. Burg, twelve ounces, tereb. comnio six ounces, serug. ppse. three ounces, spread on cloth, cut ard polished. Almond Paste. Almonds blanchc^d four ounces, lemon juice two ounces, oil of almonds three ounces, water one ounce, proof spirits six ounces. 2. Bitter almonds blanched, one pound, white of four eggi, rose water, spirits of wine rectified, of each a sufficient quan* tity. Broivn Almond Paste. Bitter almonds blanched, pulp of raisins, of each one pound, proof spirits a sufficient quantity; cosmetic, softens the skin and prevents chaps. Almond Paste. Amygd. dulc. decoct, one pound, araygd, amar. decoct, half aii ounce, sugar one pound, aq. flor. aurant. a suflicient quantity ; beat to a paste sufficiently thick aot to stiqk to ihc fingers. 254 THE ARTIST AKl^ Ready made Mustard. Flour of black mustai^d seed vrelj sifted from ihe bran liiree pounds, salt oae pound, make it up with currant wine and add three or four spoonfuls of sugar to each pint. Blacking Paste. Rape oil three ounces, oil vitriol three ounces, mix, the next day add treacle, ivory black, of each three j)ounds, stone blue six ounces, vinegar u sufficient quan- tity to form a stiff paste ; this will fill one dozen tin boxes. 2. Rape oil three ounces, treacle, brown sugar, each nine ouuces ; mix, adding ivory black three pounds, flour paste- two pouiids ; when the paste is quite smooth thin it to the consilience of honey with a sufficient quantity of vinger : used for making blacking for leather. Jcmts'' Ai^ahjAic Pills. Fil. Rufi. one pound calc. anti- raonii lota eight ounces, gum guaiaci eight ounces, m. and make thirty-two pills from each draclmi. 2. Pill Rufi. p'-dy. antimouialis, gum guaiaci, of each one scruple ; make iuio twenty pills. Andtrsoti's ScoUh Pills. Aloes Bbds. one pound, rad, helleb. nigr. rad. jalapi kali ppi. of each one ounce, oil anis© four drachms, syr. simp, a sufficient quantity. 2. Ah.'es Bbds. tW'O pounds eight ounces, water eight oun- ces ; sofceu, add jalap sem. anisi pulv. ebor. ustri, of each eight ounces, oL anisi one ounce. 3. Aloes^(Bermudas) one pound, rad. jalap, flour sulphur ebor, usiri, glycyrrh. of euch two ounces, oil anise one drachm, gamboge two drachms, sap. castil. four ounces, syr. sp. cervin. a sufacient quantity. Ward's Antimonial Pills. Glass of antimony finely levi^ gated, fi)ur ounces, dragon's blood one ounce, mountain wine a sufijcient quantity, make into pills of one and a half grains each. Sfper^s Opodeldoc. Sapo cast, three pounds, spirits wine rectified three gallons, camph. fourteen ounces, oil rorisra* tiitee ounces, ol. origani six ounces, aquae amnion, pur. two pounds. 2. Sap. alb. one pound, camphor four ounces, oil rorism. fo:ir drachms, spijits wine rectified two pints. 3. S-ip. aib. one pound, camphor foui ounces, ol. origan. ol. roiism. of each four drachms, spirits wine rectified q. v. is. will hear near six pm^s. 4. Sap, alb. three pounds, caniph. oil. rorism. of each sii TRADESMAN'S Gl^lDE. 255 tfe'uiace^, spir. am. camp, fourteen ounces, spirits wine rectified four gallons and a half. 5. Sap, alb. four ounces, caraph. one ounce, ol. rorism. twd drachms, oil origani thirty drops, spirits wine rectified one pint, "water halfa pint. Squire's Elixir, Opium four ounce«5, camphor one ounce, x:ocind, one ounce, ol. foeniculidulc. two drachms, tinct, serpt, one pint, spirits anisi two gallons, water two pints, and add aur. musiv. six ounces. 2. Rad. glycy. one pound, kali pp. four oviaces, cochineal one ounce, water twelve pints; boil till reduce'^ to one gal- ion, then add tinct. opii twelve ounces, camphor one ouace, :?pirits wine rectified four pints, aur. musiv. twelve oaaces. 3. Opii one ounce and four, drachms, caniph. oae (.unce, coccin: kali. pp. of each one drachm,'barnt sugar two ounces, tinct. serpent, oae pint, sp. anisi two gallons, aur. musiv. eight ounces. Ink Powder. Green vitriol one pound , galls two pounds, gum Arab, eight ounces: two ounces make a pint «»f iuk. Marking Ink. Lunar caustic two drachms, distilled water six ounces, dissolve and add guiu water two drachms, dissolve also natron ppm. half an ounce in water, four ouhcos, and add gum water half an ounce; wet the linen on which you in- tend to write with this last solution, dry it, and then writ© upon it with the first liquor, using a clean pen. Red Sealing Wax, Gum lac two pounds, vermilion four «uuces, oL tereb. oL olive, of each eight ounces, roll in cakes and polish with a lag till quite cold, 2. Shell-lac five pounds, resinse fl. three pounds, ol. tereb one pound, vermUion twelve ounces, chalk ppd. four ounces. 3. Resinse fl, six pounds, shell-lac two pounds, t leb. Venit. two pounds, vermilion eight ounces. 4. Shell-lac, rasinae fl. of each four pounds, tereb. Ven, ohq pound ; add vermilion or bole Armen. ppd. q. p. Black BalL Beeswax eigiit ounces, tallow one ounce, gumArab. one ounce, lampblack q. p. Court Plaster^ or Slicking Plaster. Black silk is stained and brushed over with a solution of one ounce of isinglass in twelve ounces of proof spirits, to whicli two ounces of tine. Ben?oini is added, when dry this is repeated five ua-as more, after which two coats are given it of a solution offou'- ounces «f tereb. Chije. in six ounces of tine. Benzoini, which renders '2j6 YKlE AilTIST ANB- it loss liable to crack ;.. but soii>o finish it with a simpfe finc- tuie of black balsam of Peru. Lip Salve, Cer» alb. four ounces : ol. olive five oimces ; spermaceti four djaclmis j. cl. luvendo tv/euty drops, rad. an- chiisee two ounces^, 2. Ol. olive opt. two onnces, cera all spr*^ina*-€ti. eacf> three oz. rad. anchusee six dracbnis; iaelt», s-train ; sdd oL Hgn. rhod. three drops. 3. Ol. aaiygd. six ounces^ >pereraaceti three onnces^. cera- alb. iwo ounces; rad. aachusoa ona oimce ;l^ baisan Peruv, two drachms.- 4. Ol. amj'gd. spreniaceti, cer?i alb. sacch. caimdi albi,. of «ach p. seq. this is white— the others are red.. OL Succini Rtductmn^ Q\,suozm, oi»e pound, petrol bbd, two pouads. British Oil. OL tereb eight oimces^.petrol bbd. four oun- ces, ol. rorism. four draei»ms. €>t. tereb. £ e pounds^ aspbiilt. twelve- oances^. o}> later-iti^ eight ounces. Ol. tereb. five pounds^ dl. laterit_ ver. eight ounces. Huile Antique, a la Violette. Oil of Ben. olives, or almonds^ scented with ovia. in the same manner as in tiiaking sesent.© de jasamirr, and then pressed out o-f ih^ wool or ctjltoifi, Ilmle Antique au melle jleurs. Oil of Ben. or alnmnds, saixed with different essences to the fancy of t lie perfumer. C HAP TEE XXXI L Cotmrierce end Marrdfaetures. Commerce is the tnterchaiige cf eoramodi:ics, m tbo dis-' posal of produce of any kind for ollmr artisles^^or for some? represenJatiTe of value for which other articles oan be pro-. cu-red, with a view of making a profit by the transaetion.. The^ Term is usually restricted to the mercantile iatercmire be- twen diflferent coL'.nlries, The internal dealings bet^veen in- divickials of the same country, either for the supply of imme-. diate consunipiion, or for ca^rvying on n)anufaEtures,. is more commonly denoiuii^ated trade. Those -vvho engage their cap- ital in commerce or trade^ act as agents. between tho produc- ers and the consumers of tl>e fruits of the earth;- t^'ey pur- chase them of the former, and sell them to the latter ; and \% isbv the profits on the salo that e; pital so employed yields a revenue or irvcomec. Cotpjiicrc© oi: trads iacreasjes tUo wealXsi, 01 a nation ; not by raising produce, like agriculture, nor by working up raw materials, like manufactures; but it gives an additional value to commodities by bringing them from places where they are pleniiful, to those where they are scarce ; and hy providing the means for their mere extended distribu- tion, both the agricultural and raanulacturing classes are incited to greater industr}'. Agri( ulture, never arrives at any considerable, much loss at its highest degree of perfection, where it is not connected with trade; that is, where the demand for the produce is not increased by the consumption of trading cities. Though it should be remembered that agriculture is the immediate source of iiuman provision : that trade conduces to the pro- duction of provision only as it prcrr^oles agriculture ; cnd-tl.at the whole system of commerce, vast and various as it is, has no public importance but its subserviency to this end. The province of a trader is not so contemptible as some would ahect to make it. INiany preler to educate their chil- dren fur what are called the professions, as law, divinity, and ])hysic, rather than merchandise ; but if such preferment is merely given, as a most likely means o? acquiring cither hon- our, prcfern)ent, or riches, we will be enabled to convince them in this cha})ter, their estimation is miidc by a wrong s!andr.rd. Solon, a philosoplier and ruler of A'hens whoso fortune Sisving been reduced by his fathers, asHermippus informs us, in the indulgence of his great and munilicen: S[)irit, though he might have been supported by his friends, yet as he was. of a. family that hid long been accustomed to assist others, he Vvas ashamed to accept assistance and therefore engaged himself "n merchandize. Some however have written that this prefer- ment was merely to gratify his curiosit}', and extend his knovvledge rather than to make a fortune. For be professed bis love of wisdom, a'nd when iar advanced in years made this declaration, " I grow old in . the pursuit of learning.'* But that he was not exc-ossively attached to wealth we may gather from the following verses — and Plutarch writes, "the truth is, that Solon v/as never rich; it may be, because hQ was always honest." The man that boasts of golden stores, Of grain that loads his bending floors, Of fields with freshening herbagS tns Artist iSNf- "Where bound'mg steeds and hcrc«j are see&^ . ] call nut happier than ll e gwain "V\'ii.,se limbs are sound, whose food is pliiiu, V. bo;58 joys a blooming wife endears, Whose huu?3 ^vsLniling off^sprirvg cheers. Piutcirch fivrlher states; *'It is evident from the Vyriting^r- of this giecit man thai lie was a pev^on not only of exalted virtue, hut of a pleasant ami agreeahle tesnper. He consid- ered men as men ; and keeping boih their capaciiy for virtue, and their proncness to evil in view,, adapted his laws so as to strengthen the one, and to check and regulate the other/' But that Solon desired to be rieh appears from the follow-^ ing lines, found in some of his works. The flow of riches I desire, And fain would life s true goods acquire ? Bat let me justly Ihem attain, Lest vengeance follow in their train. A good man ar.d indeed a valuable niembrr of society, should neitlier set his heart upon superlluiiies nor reject what is necessary and convenient. And in the times of Solon as Hesiod states, no business was regarded as a disparagenjent,, Neither did any trade cause a disiidvantajjeous distinction, Tiie profession of ruerchandize was honoraFde, as it brought home the produce of barbarous climes, engaged the friendshp,^ of Kings, and opened a v-ide tield of knowledge and experi^' ence. Nay some merchants have been founders of large eitles. Protus, for instance, who built r\larseilles, for whom the Gauls about the Rhone had the highest esteem. Thales also and Hip pocrates the mathematician are said to have applied themselves to commerce ; and tiic oil which Plato sold in Eg3q:)t defrayed the expences of his travels. it is related that the interest which Thales is said to have taken in traffic, was to show tl;e ease with which riches might be acquired, and foreseeing by his meteorological skill, an abundant crop of olives, he bought tke whole produce hefora hand and made an immense fortune by the speculation. It was usual to trade into Egypt with the oil of Grrece and Judea It is said in the prophet ITosea (XII, I.) " Ephraim canieth oil into Egypt."' This indeed was t}»e only produce of Attica, which from its abandance, Solon allowed to be exported. The celebrated Mr. Locke observed, that trade was a surer and shorter way to riches than any other. And after recom- - 1159 ftienciing pcojile to bring up their children to some trade, sa_ys, if the niislaken parent, frightened with the name of trade J sh:ill have an aversion to any thing of this kind in their cl^il- dren, he recomnientis teaching theny merchants' accounts, as a science well becoming aiy gentleman. Lotd Bacon has observed, " that trade enables the subifct to live happily and |)len;ifal!y, that the country was mch enr-cl'.ed by ihe trade of merchandize," and he stiJed lie me' ch aits " I'ena porta.,'''' and said, "if they flourish nc, a kingdom ma\' have good limbs, but will have empty veins, nd tionrish litje. The learned Bishop of Gambray, said of the PhoenicinSy *' Irade which ii>ey carry to the fartlicrest quarters of he earih, has so enriched them that they suii-.ass the most fliar- ishing j)eoplc in glory." i And again, iristructing Telemachus, how to establiii a flourishing trade in Ithaca,' ' do as those people, receive Hth kindness and wiih ease all strangers ; and never sufier y ur- self at any time to be overcome wi-h pride and- avapce. Make yourself beloved by all strangers ; and even ear with slight inconveniences, from them; keep a strict iknd over the fraud, negligence, and vain glory of the merchaits, wliich ruins commerce in ruining the traders tliemselvls." The mercantile station affords as large a prospect for opn^nt acquisitions, and estates got by trade have, undoubtedly, tpen far more numerous, than those by any other \vi\y whate er. The relation which the merchant stands in to commuijty, is not infsiior to any in point of importance. Their zeapus attachment to their Gountr\'', where they have been protected in tlieir commorce, can be fully maintained. History wr- nishes remarkable instances of this fact. We sh^ll only mention a few, which are sufficient to endear the charaae? of a mercliant to every nation. Charles V. Emperor of Germany having been reduced to great distress by the unhappy expediiion of Tunis, expe^'i enced a powerful aid in cash from the Fuggers, a single family of merchants only, but at the same time the most opul'int and distinguished in Augsburg. To give a demonstration of their zeal to the interests of their country, and their inviola- ble attachment to his majesty, these merchants requested the emperor, one day as he was taking an airing by their house, to do them the honour to reirale himself. When the colla- 5^Q. Tim Antisr AN^a tion was over, they desired his permission, to burn a faggot of einnanion in the hall, where the entertainment was made, not only with intent to administer all they could to his delight, but to give further proof of their affection to his person and gcvernmcnt, bound up those bonds of security, which they lifd taken for their raone\', with the faggot, and set fire to thm before his face. fames Coeur, a merchant of Bourges, by the wisdom of his causel, and ihe certainty of his cash, humbled the house of Brgundy, secured the crown of France to the lawful heir, Ciarles VII. and by him to the branches of Valois and Bcjrbon, who succeeded.* The merchants of St. Malo, being highly exasperated at thi demand made at the Congress of Gertruydensburg lo Levis XIV. to employ his troops to compel his grandson Phlip V. then King of Spain, to abondon the crown, united all heir profits together, which they had made in the Spanish Coonies of America, and produced thirty-two millions of gol. at the foot of the throne : and at a tim»3 when the finan> ces^f France were totally exhausted by a series of unsuccess- ful events. This succour being timely applied, vigorously renewed the war, and answered the wishes of the nation. ^ir Thomas Gresham, the founder of a college in London, for the promotion of the liberal arts, and of the Royal Ex- chaigo, for the convenience of the traders of the metropolis, is mother instance of the ability of private merchants to sup- port government under the greatest emergency. This worthy citken of London lived in the time of Edward VJ. who was corsiderably indebted to the merchants of Antwerp, for moiey borrowed to supply the exigencies of'the state. Tlie pa;ment of the interest, at that time, being considered as most likely to cmbaiass the country, many expedients were pr(jected by the king and council, to discharge those debts : wKch were, either to transport so much treasure out of the country, as would liquidate them, or remit tli«^ same by way of exchange. The former was impracticable wifhout being runous to trade; and on account of the diflorence of ex- chinge, the latter appeared equally perplexing. Besides, the creditors insisted on their money, or a compliance with such usurious terms, as would have brought the greatest indignity upon the nation. Under these circumstances, Sir Thomas undertook the affair, and by his great knowledge and skill in tradesman's guide. 2G1 tlie exchanges, exonerated the nation from the incumbrance ; and by Avliich negotiaiions, ihe king saved not less than an hundre<] thousand pounds. By raising the exchange in fa- vour of England at this critical time, the price of all foreign eonniicdities fell proportionably ; and in a very little while between three and four hundred thousand pounds steiling more was saved to the nation. With Queen Elizabeth, he was in so high esteem, that she knigiited him, and honoured h'm in every respect, and came in person lO the Exchange, which he had erected for the convenience of merchants, and the honour of the city of London, and caused tiie s<-me to be proclamied^by heralds and a trum{)et, the Royal Exchange^ and Sir Thomas was afterwards honoured by the appellalioa of royal merchant. The building has been described as a stately pile, which was burnt, ^own in KJdG, but was rebuilt, aud is now represented, as built of the most beautiful stone, stupene'cus and ele*rant arch work, all ot the most curious and admirable architecture, tcgeiher with its hiarh lower in which are hung a har»Joiuus chimu of twelve bells rcnd'-ripg' it the liobiest structure for a meeting place for i;ierclmnts in the world. Thomas Sutton, Esq. another distinguised English mer- chant, and founder of the Charter House in Eondcn, did an act of benevolencG worthy of a great prince a few years after the d jath of Sir Thomas Gresham, in being the grand instru- ment of getting tiie Spanish bills protested at Genoa, which retarded for a whole year the sailing of the Spanish Armada, designed to invade England ; by which mepns the plan was defeated. Thus we learn the worth of some private mer- chants; an^ abhough great statesmen, admirals, ai-d generals^ with the aid of the public purse, and ten thousands to co^ \%: operate with them, majr perform great achievements, yet we find that one funily of me^rchants has been the support of an emperor +n great distress ; c';nother single merchant, gave the crown to the house of Bourbon; that one was the principal cauio of defeating the Spanisk Armada; and acother, the restorer of the public credit of England. Nor has the secu- rity of states and empires been only owing to the occasionally zealous exertions of the wisdom and power of the merchantSg but they are ia a gveat measure the daily and perpetual sup« poll of all trading countries. For, as nations are a\ present circumstanced, those which %X^ ?o situated, subslitin^ chiefly within themselves, withoin S62 THE ARTIST ANB any intercourse or commerce with others, can never be abl^ to maintain so great a share of power, as those which carry on an extended foreign traffic. Domestic trade, only shifting property from hand to hand, cannot increase the riches and power of a nation ; whilst foreign trade under wise laws and regulations, bringing in a coiiStant balance of treasure in fa- Tour of a nation, will proportionably augment its weight of interest, and at length give ii the balance of power. Our own country, though in commercial infancy can boast of many specimens of mercantile worth. Who has not heard of the private.and public virtues which adorned the charac- ter of a Phillips, a Gray — and thoU;;Ii it is not fashionable to eulogize the living, still we cannot forbear adding a Gerard. Yes, many, very many families, many widows and orphans, have so often felt thoir charities, that exclusive of the many great and important services which they have rendered their country, tables of stone are not needed to tell the passing stranger, * they went about doing good.' Truly, are not such men to be estimated as the goiJ and silver, the most intrinsic if not appreciated coin of a.ny country — while it should be de- pricated that others perhaps of equal wealth, like the Jew in Shylock — live only to count their encreased gains, and throw a deadly blast, throughout every region which becomes sub- ject to their sweeping avarice, or unhallowed disposition — What a fit subject for the artist pencil ! The merit of persons of distinguished character in trade, cannot, in gene al, be measured by those who are not welt acquainted with trading negotiations; as they pass through life without much noise, the world is little acquainted with their important services and utility to th« state. Whilst the histories of great public capacities are trans- mitted to posterity with all the pomp and magnificence of rep- resentation : yet certainly that is one of the most profitable admonitions, which is drawn from the eminent virtues of men, who move in a sphere nearer levelled to the common reach, than that which is derived from the splendid portrait of the transactions and victories of great statesman and comman- ders, which serve but for the imitation of few, and aim rath- er for ostentation, than for the true iasi ruction of human life. It was from the practice and example of private con- dition, that we are more naturally taught to excel in our pri- yats capacities ; and, bad we the genuine histories of mnny 26S cmiueiJt merchants, giving a lively idea of their rise and progress in business, and of the inaportant service they haVe been to their respective communities, they would naturally incite the trading class of community to emulate their accom- plishments : and this would prove a more effectual means to produce a race of skilful traders, than romantic narratives of a race of heroes. The philosopher may arrive to a high pitch of improve- ment in agriculture, arts and sciences; the husbandman, arti- san and manufacturer, may reduce this speculative knowledge to practical uses, with the greatest skill and dexterity on their parts ; governments may enact the wisest laws, and give all desirable encouragement to commence,. yet what will these avail without the penetration and sagacity of the merchant, to propagate the produce of our lands, and the labour of our artists and manufacturers into foreign coun* tries, with advantage to the state as well as to himself? Sir F. Brewsler, an eminent English merchant, observed, *' we see how all the arts and science have improved in thi? country, with in the compass of one century, but amongst them all the merchant's part the least." And further, that any countryman but our own, would be astonished to ob- serve more heads engaged in Westminster hall, to divide the gains of the nation than there are heads on the Exchange 10 gather it. x\nd further, he says, '* I think it a moral dis- temper that so few men of classical learning are educated to -practical commerce: for there is scarcely a boy, whom a country school master flatters, because he learns his grammar "well, whose kindred do not think it a pity so hopeful a youth 'should be lost in trade, and that the university is the only fit soil for him to be planted in." We do not introduce these remarks of Sir Francis as appli- cable to this country, for we do rejoice in the belief that its mercantile character is increasing in dignity, that young men of the most promising talents, are embaiking in meichandize^ and that the feeling which hitherto was so unnaturally excit- ed against it, has nearly subsided. We believe that there is a dignity or as some will have it a respectability of character to be sustained in all professions; though — " It is a matter of curious investigation, to examine the dis- tinctions which society has made, amongst the different trades 264 tHE ARTIST AND and prnfessions. ' A saint in crape is twice a saint in lawn,* says Pope ; and yet he tells us, ' that honor atid shame from no condition rise ,' the latter is true by the laws of nature ; the former by the usages of socioly. Whether a lawyer is more respectable than a doctor, or a merchant than a farmer, is a qilestion that has not yet been settled by her high ui'ghtiness, Fashion ; but with respect to the different pursuits of trade, she has drawn the distinction, having consulted neither reason or rhyme, and governs solely by her own whims. A butcher, for instiince, is considered as superior to a baker ;— and why I Thoy both cater for the appetite of min: one furnishes the slaughtered calf, and the other the generous grain, which alike support life ; one deals in fire, and the oilier in sword ; are they not on a par? A shoemaker is more respectable tliaii a cobbler ; — why ? one nialies your shoes, and the other mends them — they Loth use awls and waxed ends; where is the diftorence ? 'Ms a hatler more exalted than a tailor? The one covers ' the dome of thought, the palace of the soul !' his vocation is certainly of the head ; he surmounts the crown ; bur then the- tailor adorns the graceful form and manly chest ; the waist- coat that he makes covers the heart, the seat of sensation and the abode of pqssion. He makes you either a gentleman or a clown, accoj-ding to his will. You are at his mercy with regard to the fir of your habilimants and the effect of your ap- pearance in Broadway. Thus extensive is his power ; and is not power respectability? A milliner is more respected in society than a mantna-maker ; the one makes hats and the olher dresses. Why is a female hatter greater than a female tailor? Why is a grocer considered inferior to a seller of ^ry goods? Is not a bottle of mustard as respectable as a yard of tape ? Is not a pound of cheese as honourable as a paper i>f pins? A bunch of onions as a skein of thread ! Is not su- gar equal to broadcloth, and molasses to ginghams ? Cer- tainly. "Again, why is a saddler superior to a shoemaker? H© covers the backs of horses, while the latter covers the feet of raen. And is not the foot of lordly man and lovely woman, an object of greater moment than the back of Eclipse himself? How and why then are these distinctions made ? It is easier to ask than to answer the question ; to do the latter, surpasses eur wisdom. Cut ars these distinctions r^asoQable and natu 265 fa] t No. Honest industry is alike respectable in every voca- tion. The faithful mason, who piles one brick upon another, is the equal of him who makes the bricks, or him who burns the lime which is used in njaking the mortar; [and we may add, or him for whose comfort his labour is destined to eflect.} The industrious mechanic is the prop of society, and so long as he labours diligently and honestly in his occupation, he is entitled to respectability and he will receive it." Neverthe- lesSj it must be acknowledged, and to the degradation of hu- man nature be it said, there are many in all professions, dis- honouring them by the flattery of some, and their own Unnat- ural conceit. Channels and Progress of Trade, England possesses 30,000 miles of roads, nearly 4,000 milesof canals, and about 300 miles of railways. France, which is more than twice as* extensive, does not afford above 45,000 miles of roads, 1500 miles of canals, 114 miles of railways, of which latter 78 are still in a course of completion. The amount of Tobacco imported into Great Britain the last year was 33,0000,000, tvveniy-two of which was from America, and almost exclusively in American shipping. WhaL Ships. The ship Pacific, re'^entlv from the Pacific^ 'has arrived at New Bedford with about 3,000 barrels of whale oil, which is considered to be the largest quantity of sperma- ceti oil, ever obtained in a twenty-six mouths voy^ige. Cftal. Tiiirly-five thousand three hundred and sixty-two tons have been discharged at Philadelphia, the present sea- son, brought down the Schuylkill. The amount of coal sent down the Lehigh is 4,956 tons. And it is hoped 99,000 tons will be received in that city befoie navigation closes. Oidy a few 3'ears since we were cie[)endent on England for this va- luable article. Tea. The first order of the East India Company to theii? agents in India, for the importation of tea, appears lo have been made 1667, and is in these woids: — " To send home by these ere ships, 100 lbs. weiglit of the best Tea you can ^.et.''' The quantity put up for sale by the Company at their quar- terly sales in June, 1829, was 7,800,000 lbs. ; and at the pre- ceding sales of September, December, and March, 7,900,000, 800,000,000 and 900,000,000. The duty to gr venmt n' the last year was £3,283,202- -considerably more iban was pro- duced by any other article of consumption in Euglund, 23 266 THE ARTIST AKD Depression of Trade, The following article exiracted from a Boston paper is worthy of being read with attention as ap- plicable to the present times. " The truth unfortunately is, we have been living beyond our circumstances. The laudable economy and industrious habits of our ancestors, have been lost sight of, and we havo yielded up to the pleasing, but dangerous innovation of foreign luxuries, and their attendant habits. We must measure back our ground. There is no other course which we can now pursue with any hope of success. The flame must again be kindled on the altar of patriotism ; and self denial and rigid economy take the place of luxury and extravagance. The Jierves of our effeminate young men must be strengthened by toil, and our females, instead of reclining on the sofa, and humming over the piano, must learn to direct their attention to matters of more importance. They must shake off, an un- worthy the daughters of freemen, the tinsel of fashion, and the shackle of talse refinement, and cherish the proud and sterling patriotism of their grand mothers." Manutacturcs arc tiie arts b}- which natural productions are brought into the state or form in which they are consumed or used. They require in general great expenses for their tirst establishment, costly machines for shortening manual la- bour, and money and ciedit for purchasing materials from dis- tant countries. There is not a single manufacture in Great Britain which does not require, in some part of its process, productions from different parts of the globe. It requires, therefore, ships, and a friendly intercourse with foreign nations, to transport commodities and exchange productions. They would not be a manufacturing, unless they were a commercial nation. The two sciences which most assist the manufactuer, are mechanics and chemistry; the one for building mills, working mines, and in general for constructing machines, either to shorten the labour of man by performing it in less time, or to perform what the strength of man alone could not accomplish ; the other for fusing and working ores, dying, bleaching, and extracting the virtues of various substances for particular occasions. It must be observed that though a farmer does not so fre- qiientlv and rapidly amass wealth as a merchant or manufac- turer, yet neither is he so often ruined. The risks a man en- counters in trade are much greater than iH farming. Th© 267 manufacturer as well as the merchant is liable to severe losses arising from GOiitingencies in trade ; they both must there- fore liave a chance of making proportionably greater profits. The chances of gain must balance the chance of loss. If he be so skilful or so fortunate as to make more than his arerage share of gain, he will accumulate wealth with greater rapidity than the farmer ; but should either a deficiency of talents or unfortunate circumstances occasion an uncommon share of losses, he may become a bankrupt. The rate of profits, there- fore, upon any employnient of capital, is proportioned to the risks with which it is attended ; but if calculated during a suf- ficient period of time, and upon a sufficient number of instances to aftbril an arerage, these different modes ol employing cap- ital, will be found to yield similar profits. It is owing to this that the distribution of capital to the several branches of agriculture, commerce, and manufactures, preserves a due equilibrium, which, though it may be accidentally disturbed^ cannot whilst allowed to pursue its natural course, be Perma- nently deranged. An abundant harvest may occasionally raise teh rate of agricultural profits, or a v»ry bad season may reduce them below thoir lev^l. The opening a trade with a new country, or the breaking out of a war, which impedes foroign commerce, will effect the profits of the merchant and manufacture : but these accidents disturb the equal rate of profits, as the wind disturbs the sea ; and when they cease, it returns to its natural level. The division of labour has tended greatly to improve every branch of manufactures. Its utility is exemplified in the manu- factare of pins. If a piece of metal were given to a man to make a pin, he could scarcely do it in a day. In pin manufactories, however, each pin passes through twenty-five hands i one draws out the wire, another straightens it, another cuts, an- other points it, three or four prepare the head, two or three puts it on, &c. Twenty-five persons thus make a hundred and twenty-five thousand pins in a day, or five thousand to each person. Labour likewise divides itself numerously in every branch of the elegant and useful arts, as in building, the arts connected in furnishing a house, in branches connected with the clothing of a man, in the iron and metallic trades, and in eonnexion with books and literature. A pack of wool weighing 240 pounds employs 200 pt^rsona S6i THE ARTIST AND before it is ready for sale, in the form of stuff?:, cloths, &,c. To be made inio ftockujgs, it wdl occa;. yards square, h is been v dued at 25, 000 pounds sierkng; and a sh iwl, which coatained but a few ouiices ofwjoi, has been said to bring 150 guineas. As it is with individuals, s<> it is wiih nations. VVna; one possesses in suueifluiiv, It is desirous 'o exrhanj^a for some article it wants, wiih any oiher nation which possesses ihar sijperflui;y. The Phceuicians, or Philistines wei« the hrsi people on record, who empl(-yed ships to carry the produce nnd raanu- fac.ures of one nation to another. They were followed by the Carthao-enians; and thesp by the Venetians, Genoese ai;d Han>e Towns. The Uiiired Stages of America, witli che advantage of the possession of raw mateiiah wf every kind, are rapidly advancjug in the maoufucturing system; having numerous fine ports and ships, and a trade extended to ail pans of the world, with lliose advaniages counected with the enterprise, persoverance iud industry of our merchants, manu- facturers and mechanics, wh«» can doubt the time is not far distant, when this country will riv ;1 every other on the whole face of the globe in commerce and manufactures. Progress of Manufacturrs. — Late discf^verips S^c. Flint Stone Ware. The manufactu'-e of :;ks * tide is very extensively carried on, by Mr. H-'n '.•• *on of Jersey City, opposite New- York. It is equal to the best English and Scotch stone ware, and wdl be supplied to ihe trade at S3 1-3 per. ct. less, than like foreign .irricles, whan iin;jorted. China JVare, Btautifidly painted and enammelle'd, is now extensively manufactured at Pliil idelphir* by Mr. Tuc- ker, who has been srrug^lin r wiih many difficulties for a long time, but at length as we are infuraed, basso far overc<»me them as to produce very superior ar ides at moderat*^ prices. Iron. The quantity of this meial manufactured in F- mk- iin, Venango couwy, Pa. in 13;>8, l600 tons, of bl-'om, fOO fQfiSi of bar iron 100 tons. The pig metal sold at Pittsburgh fRADESMAN^S iiVWt* %^ Wheeling and Steubeuville at from 35 to 40 dollars pr. ton. The bio.ims at Piltsburg $100 pr. ton, and the bar iron at the the works, at from $125 to $140 pr. ton. Several new uirnaces are erecting it is said in the county' and the demand rapidly increasing. A Furnace with proper management will make from 800 to 1000 tons per annum, at an expence of from $22 to $25 per ton, according to the price of provision ; and with the ore, timber, ifec. convenient and good at about from 13 to 20 dollars. Under proper management and good materials, a furnace will clear at present prices, ten thousand dollars per annum. Lead and Silver Mines, A lead, or rather silver mine has recenib' been discovered in the Town of Eaton in New Hampshire. A shaft has been sunk into the mine 50 feet be- low the surface, and a horizontal excavation running from the bottom about 50 feet more, has been made. Tno ore already raised amounts to several hundred tons, the expence of obtaining which, does not exceed 3 or $4000 and from several analyses of d'flferent kinds of the ore, there were found to be from 90 to 120 ounces of pure silver to the ton. It is understood to be o^rned principally by a company of genflomen iii<(|Poston and Baltimore. Upper 3Iississijfpi h^.ad Mines. Congress seeing that im- mense quantities of lead were made and could be manufac- tured in ihese mines, and those below, sufficient for home' con- sumption, very justly r.dded to the duties which hud already been iaiposed on ie^d, a per centum amply sufficient to pro- hibit any further importation. This law passed in the win- ter of 1828, but took effect not until the following October. During this interim, advantages were taken by the British merchants and large quantities of lead were imported into the United States, nearly enough for one year's supply; and since the Igw took effect, about eight millions pounds of lead in the ore liave been imported from the mines of Spain, and f.nr,elted in the United States. This, added to the unusual quantity brought between the time of the passing of the law above mentioned, and its taking effect, together with the ira- iTjense quantity manufactured in our mines during the same period, every man must perceive would fill our markets with a surplus, which readily accounts for the sudden depreciation 23* in the price of lend. Insuiiciions have been given to the custom hk)Us>e oihcets in the easiern ciiies, to charge ply our own coualry, at leas', from uur owii mines. Tiie diniiniuion in our manafociure m coubeqiiuace of he low pfice of lead, will no doubr l:ef'>rc anotlicr year, render thit article very scarce in tiie easiern inaiive^s. riicre will not during che }li•e.serl^ ye*r, be one eighih me qua.uity ma'ie, thai there was du'ing tiie two preceamg. Then deduct seven-eights fro-n the qujutiiy u,-.jdiy mice at oar OTvn mines, and all that has b<'en in oar markets du'.ns, -he last year or tv.o, and w* can foiin s.»irie idea ot the future state of the market. Tiie co!)su.npii(»n of lead in the Uniied States, according to the i>esi data which has come under our observation, amounts to about 26,000,00J, of wnich more than half (»f that quantity for the las- ye.ir Ua> been miponed ; and dudng the same period there were abou' 10,090 aiiners in the Uoper M;ss!ssipjii actively engaged in the mnufaciuie of If^a^d. li is not svrange ihen, that such extraordinary »:xer- tiouj of our (^wn industrious ciiizen^, and 'he strong efforts of foreigners to crowd lead inio our m iikers, should produce a temporary stagnation in this trade. But these .wo powe-ful causes have been removed ; and it mus: and wdl as suddenly rise as it has fallen, thf expressed o union of speculators to the contrary notw distanding. Penknife Manufactnry, Mr. Moses L. M >->e. an indent- ous mech inic, -ind tlie inventer of several valuab e m ichines, has commenced the manufacture of Penknives in Worres'er, M.;ss. and intends t) employ 50 hands, 'hey are well made, wiih a hitrh polish, and unless ex am ned very closely, it wjuld be difficult to distir»n wheels, and wheels at right angles to drive them, an I the latter set in motion by the former given at the head of the machine. The top rollers are lever weighted on the bottom rollers, and the latter gives motion to the former, by ihe snid motion at the head of the machine. The rollers lie in a horizontal position, their ends leaning or resting in stands, and their whole range forming a level flat surface up- on the top, as well as the bottom. The machine has two openin.. Ii Is w^il worthy ae atrention of the curious, parii( uiaily :hvSQ skilled in mecha- ics." Turkey Red. The use of Turkey red in calico printhg has been successfidly introdiics^d at Lowell. The Fieich have lon^ had an aavantage of th ^ ^•'■'•' "* --'ploynunt ■ of this cnloiir. We should notice ranny othpr iuj^.oii-iiii .i;id useful invm- tions, if our limits peraiated, vvhich we desigu to do at sine fu;:ire period m another ed'tion of this work, not only noticng evef-y recent ia^provoment in this country, but also, in Eur«.j>e, so far as our knowledge vmy extend. On the reported distress aj.ijug the ma»iufacturcrs, we think the following rem »rk« with some dight alterations, wor- thy of insertion, from Nile's Register: — Perhaps ihere is no cla s of coniaiunliv more sinned ag-Vmst th m the nfanufictureis. They are represenred as miy best suit their enemies — as overgrown capilnhsts, living on the labour of the poor, as needy ad venturers who may involve the while couutiy m ruin. Whi^o it must be admiticd th^t m?^ny branch?is of thoso manufactures have not been profited.) fur Sf)me time pis; — it appears to be mdmfest thai the uiiiic-alties under which the eas^u'T raanufactirrers have laboured were consuram :it-;d by a su.lden and ruinous coniraction of the circuloting medium m that quarte; ; for it is no less remirkable than tt ae, that oth- ers, less favournblv ciicunistanced, have, wiih appaient ease, resisted or rep(dlpd this pressure, and mnintained a full ana uninierruptod operation, in the midst of sacrifices of goods by forced sales. Bir, if ihfty can *' keep steady** a liitle whih^ time enough to peimit the business to settle down niot its aiiural state, as it must, nil will he well, and an enlivening eirciilatjon so:>n hp felr \\u\ eij yed. No one thinks ofproclaiming through the land the misfor- 27S- tunes of the merchant, when arr«sted in his business — unless influenced with a spirit of deep felt sympathy and accommo- dation — and this is as it should be — but on the other hand when the manufacturer fails, all sorts of dogs of British breed are let loose upon, bark at him, and would bite his heels if thry dared. Their noise, however adds to t're difficulties en- countered, and hence forced sales of property, and the neces- sity of curtailing the progress of expenditure. But such things haye happened before. They cannot be altogether avoided even by the most prudent, and especially so long as our com- mercial intercourse is so intimate with the old world, particu- larly Great Britain : for a pressure in Laucastershire or Yokshire reaches the United States almost as soon, and with nearly the same force, as it reaches the southern or more nor- thern countries of that small island ; and our market is made the last resort of desperate speculatois, insolvent persons, or for closing up concerns ; which it is desired to accomplish speedily, though atttnded with loss. And whenever a pres- sure comes upon us, there is a sudden reduction of the circu- lating medium — the bank of the United States gathers in its strength, and the state banks reserve their's for self preser- vation, and individuals whose credit was good for thousands yesterday, may be unable to raise a few hundred dollars to- morrow ; and the failure of one person to fulfil his engage- ments, proceeds through a community to an incalculable ex- tent — -reaching the most wealthy as well as the poorest of the labouring classes— though some districts are more effected by such actions and reactions than others. All manufacturers at the present time, are effected in some <3egree, by the general dullness of business. We believe that the cotton business will very soon revive, and hope that all will be encouraged to hold their ground, notwithstanding we are informed many " respectable establishments have ceased their usual business," neither be alarmed, though much is said " of reduced prices" and " pinching times" and " scarcity of money" — for such things have been said, if not felt, before — and unless it be in the growth and manufacture of wool, there h good reason to believe that the storm will speedily pass over ; and in respect to those important branches, anif change in the present condition of Europe must operate ad- vantageously for them ; for " when things get to their worst, thoy must mend," The long continued state of peace amon^ ^274 THE AJITTST ANtt the nations with whom we have ihe most intimate connec- tions, after such a long period of war, has not. only mattirially altered iheir rel.iti^^ns one wrih lije other, bni pl-iced ihe Uni- ted State-- under new circumstances, to which wo shall not be recunr.iled, until the generations «»f men who eommencftd bu- siness at the breaking out of the French revolution shall have ceased tn inflitnce il.e public mind. A little while ago we were the m^rch mts and carriers for millions of persons, whose iwa merclia.ns i)o\v (xu their own business, in their own shi'ps, and labour hns necessarily sought new occupations. The.-.e are noi adju».ied and se tied as they will be in due lime : and are obstru». ed ioo, by a constant re- currence to opinion* and rules of action established, when nearly all Europe was in a ssaie of war, entirely inaj-plicable when Europe is m h s ute of peace. The want ot sensibility as to these things, has greatly coiuribn ed lo bring about thug© seasons of adve sity through \\hich w^ have passed. The manufacturers are component parts of the tr:iding com- munity ; and, if the [iropoiiion which they bear to the whole of that community wese asctirtained, it would not be found that failures among ihem are more fiequeni than to o'her clisses of ihat communiiy. — They are hable to the various fortunes of all deal.ng men — at one period depressed, at and anoiher, prosperous. Scarcit}' and abundance effect them like others. The ma- kers ot low priced cottons are emb.urassed jus? now, but their business wdl soon regulate itself and time will provide a rera- edv'. The wofdlen ra;w price of wool at piesem in Euiiland influ- ences the price in our market. So long as the effects of bankrupts in Europe are sent to this country for forced sah;s, rh ir their accouiits may be clo- sed, our markers must be viriablo, but wi h increased expe- ri-nce 've shall not be so much onibaras-.ed by thnt variable- ness as we have been. Let not the f'*iends of Americ.-in industry he dscour iged. - Let them carefully investigate the fac s 'hac belong to their igvgrai concerns, and prepare for ihe approaching contest, 275 (the oppo?crs of the tarifl.) My opinion is, that no change of the present law, should yet be asked for. There are cer- tain things which must '* regulate themselves" among them, thegro.vin^ as we'l as the spiksning of cotion. — The planicrs will severely discover this a* an early day. Even the pre- sent low prices cannot be paid on the present price of goods manufactured from it. The fact that s«»nie, too many of the manufacturers, were straightened to meet their obligations, has had a more exten- ded and ruinous tendency from an idea that the protecting system would be abandoned at the next sess'on of Congress — we do not b< lieve in such a result. We think there is force enough to resist the rosolu'iion *o effect the destruction of this system— but the apprehension of it has been, and still is rendering incalculable mischief to the United States. CHAPTER XXXIV Laws relative to Spirits^ Wines, Teas, £;•€* Extracted from Ingerso.^s Digest. 25. Sec. Xlil. The surveyor or chief officer of inspec- tion, shall give the proprietor, or consignee, of any distilled spirits, wines or teas, or his or her agent, a porticularcertificate, which shall accompany each cask, chest, vessel, or case, of distilled spirits, wines, or teas, wherever the same may be sent wiiiiin the limits of the United States, as evidence that the same has been lawfully imported. Form as follows: A'o. District of , Port of . I certify that there was imposed in this district, on the [here insert the date of importaiion] by [iiere insert the name of the proprietor, importer, or consigne(<] in the [here insert the name of the vessel, the surname of the master, and wheth- er a vessel of the United St^ites, or a foreign vessel] from [here insert the place from whic4i imported] onf* ! here insert -whether cask, chest, vessel or case, by the proper name] of [here insert whether spirits, wines, or teas and the kinds of each] numbered and marked as- per margin ; the marks of the inspector to be inser'.ed in the margin] containing [here insert the number of gallons, and rate of proof, of spirits, or gallons, if winesj or number of pounds weight net, if teas.] A. B. Supervisor. Countersigned by C. D. Inspector, 276 THE ARTIST A.VB 26. Sec. XLIII. The proprietor, importer, or coiisigned or his or her agent, who may receive said certificate, shall, upon the sale and delivery of any of the said spirits, wines, or teas, deliver to the purchaser or purchasers thereof, the certificate or certificates which ought to accompany the same oil pain of forfeiting the sum of fifty dollars for each cask, chest, vessel or case with which such certificate shall not be delivered : and if any casks, chests, vessels or. cases contain- ing distilled spirits, wines, or teas, by the foregoing provisions ought to be marked and accompanied with certificates, shall be found in the possession of any person unaccompanied with such marks and certificates, it shall be presumptive evidence that the same are liable to forfeiture ; and it shall be lawful for any officer^of the customs or of inspection to seize them as aforesaid ; and if upon trial, the consequence of such seiz- ure, the owner or claimant of the spirits, wines, or teas, seized shall not prove that the same were imported into the United States according to law, and the duties thereupon paid, or se- cured, they shall be adjudged to be forfeited. 27. Sec. XLIV. On the sale of any cask, chest, vessel or case which has been, or shall be marked pursuant to the provisions aforesaid as containing distilled spirits, wines, or teas, and which has been emptied of its contents, and prior to the delivery thereof to the purchaser, or any removal thereof, the marks and numbers which shall have been set thereon by or under the direction of any officer of inspection, shall be defaced ani^ obliterated in the presence of some ofiicer of inspection or of the customs, who shall, on due notice being given, attend for that purpose, ai which time ihe certificate, which ought to ac- company such cask, chest, vessel, or case, shall also be re- turned and cancelled; and every person who shall obliterate, counterfeit, alter, or deface any mark or number, placed by an officer of inspection upon any cask, vessel, or case, con- taining distilled spirits, wines, or teas, or any certificate there- of; or who shall sell, or in any way alienate or remove any cask, chest, vessel, or case, which has been emptied of its con- tents, before the marks and numbers set thereon, pursuant to the provisions aforesaid, shall have been defaced or oblitera- ted, in presence of an offiecr of inspection as aforesaid; or who shall neglect or refuse to deliver the certificate issued to accompany the cask, chest, vessel, or case, of which th» I ^TRADESMAN'S GUIDE. '27T fesy.vVis and numbers shull hove brjcu defaced cr obliterated, in the i:ia'.H)or aforesaid, on being thereto required by nn officer t>f iuspecUon or of the custoais, sli ill for each aad ever}'- sJich offence, forfeit and .jiay one iiundred dollars, with costs of suit, 124. "Sec. XIX. W4ien aiDV ^oods, wares or merchandize, shaH be adniiited to esiiry upon invoice, the collector of the port in which the same are entered, sbaU certify such invoice iuider his oflicial seal ; and no other evidence of the value of e included in the same entry, shall be made ; and if any package is found to contain any article net described in the invoice, the whole package shall be forfoited ; and in case such goods, wares, or merciiandize, shall be subject to an ad valorora dut3% ^'-^ same proceedings shall bo had, and the ssmo penalties shall be in-' curicd, as in the eleventh section of tliis act: provided that nothing herein contained shiiii save from forfeiture any pack- age, having in it any article not described in the invoice* CHAPTER XXXV. Credits, None will deny, that every considerable trader ought to have some stock, or cash capital of his own : the most judi- cious traders, like bankers, are always careful to keep their 24 278 THK Ar:Ti5T a.v» dealings within the extent of their capital, that no disappoint- meu' nvdy incapacitate them to support their credit. Yet tra- ders of worth, judgiiient and economy, are sometimes under the necessity of borrowing nrioney, to carry on their business to the best advantage ; as when the merchant has commodi- ties on hand, which he wishes to keep for a rising inarliot, or on account of monies accruing to him, which he is 'disappoin- ted in receiving. On occasions like these, taking up money at interest, is not disreputable, but a great convenience ; thus enabling hini to carry on his biisiness more successfully ; but the boirowv-'.r ought to be well assured, that he has sufficient eflects wi/bin his power to liquidate the obligations in due time. But, if the trader borrows money to the extent, of his cre- dit, and launches out into trade, employing it as his own, such mnnagemcnt is extremely precarious, and is generally at- tended with the most preposterous conseq'ionces : for trade is subject to losses and disappointments; and when once a tra- der brings his credit into doubt, it may and will draw all his creditors, at the same time, upon him; consequently render- ing him incapable of drawing in so much of his scattered ef- fects as will discharge Ids debts, and thereby ruin his credit, although h(i miaht h;jve believed he had more than enough to satisfy the whole world. As, therefore, a wise man will trade so cautiously, as not to hazard the loss of his own proper estate at once, much more, should an honest man be careful not U) involve tha estates of others, in his-personal trading adventures. But he that knows he has lost his own fortune, and endeavours to recover it by trading with the stock of other men, although he may be ac- tuated by good motives, still cannot have a pretence to the character of being judici ais. The dealing for goods on a credit, was, probably, at first introduced, by trusting young men commencing in trade, whose chief, and perhaps only stock, might be the opinion of their capacity, industry, and honesty: and as this U continued to retailers, and those who trade on a small stock, it may be reckoned a Qommendable, and uset\d practice; but whether the practice of this liberal- ity should be extended to the wholesale trader, in so unlimi- ted a manner, as is customary in most of our trading cities, is a consideration which admits of great doubt. This maxim may, however be advanced with some conlidencc, that a racr- thadesman's guide. 579 cliaiit should never pvirchase goods on short credit, with in- tent to meet th(i tiaie of payment by remittances iiom Cdsh sales of the same goods, as consequencf-s might follow, not only ruinous to those who try the experiment, but injurious to trade in several ways. Under sucii circumstances, ihe tra- der finding his expectances failing, is induced to oflcT his ar- ticles at reduced prices, as a last resource from impending ruin ; but ten to one, and a most fortunate occurrence, if he does not find his financial system on the debit side of profit and loss. There may be, and certain!}^ are, cases when a merchant may be justified in forcing sales, though it has ever been found, as a general principle^ unwise ; it disturbs tl-e whole current of trade, and dnves it out of its natural chaiinel ; hundreds falling into the stream, in this way, float among breakers, and finally split on rocks, or are cast on quicksands, hardly ever to be recovered, The forcing of trade produces a general introduction of goods of an ordinary quality. Is it not a fact, that when one among a number of traders, intro- duces a financial tiade, his neighbours are induced to replen- ish their stock with inferior arfi^ies (in order to retain their customers,) which will afford them the sunie profit at lo.ss pri- ces, as when accustomed to keep prime articles ; and after obtaining the reputation of selling goods of indifferent quality, other places leceive the trade, which otherwise migiit not have been thus imprudently lost ? *' Cheap Stores" are not always found to have the cheap- est goods, if we reckon hy principles of profit to the purcha- ser j for the quaiiiies of most goods correspond v/ith the pri- ces. \x is observable thai those merchants generally succeed ihe best, who have the reputation of keej/mg prime arti*:les, and are not so very tenacious of acquiring the fjime of selling remarkably cheap. It is no doubt to be considered an established principle among traders, when they have occasion to mal e use of their credit, it should be for the borrowing of money, but never for fhe buying of goods ; thus enabling th>3Ui to purchase at the best possible advantiige. Tnere is another evil in trade, v/hich we have seen and which we believe deserves some consideration. Some traders exhibit a v/ondcrful degree of diffidence or modesty, fearing to offend, in collecting their dues; particularly^ vUien they gre agaiDsl persons of acknowledged responsibility, who cer» 2^0 THE AirrrsT Ar?i> taiuly oiTght to bs the most prompt, and willing as thej | ia re^p.^ct^Q ^j:q4u-v ■Tradesman's guii>e. 2S1 Suspicion of the capaVuiiiy of a person to fulfil his engage- teenis, is hardly less taial ihan ihat of female chastity. Advantages of I'vomptntss. A merchant, u-hose policy cxpivtid at V2 o'clock, calied at the insurance office, at half pase^ll, and ohtaincd a renewal of it. At 2 o'clock the same day, his store and goods were reiJuced to ashes ! This cir- ciuiistances occurred at the late destructive fi* e in Augusta, Geo. What would hav<' become of that man's fortune, if he had thought it *' would do as well after dinner." A gentleman in this state, n( t three years sinee, was in the practice of renewing his policy, as soon as it had expired ; but at leugth, neglecting it for a few days, his store and val- uable contents, were destroyed by fire. From this circun^.- stance we are taught the truth of the old proverb, that " de- lays are dangerous," We shall close this chapter with the following Rules, from die private papers of Dr. West, which were according to his luemorandum, thrf>wn togetlier as general ivay marks m the Journey of life. They we» o advantageous to iiim, and while the}' exhibited an honourable testimony to his moral worth, may be useful to others. Never to ridicule sacred things, or what others may es- teem such, however absurd they appear to me. Never to resent a supposed injury till I know the views and motives of the author of it. Nor on any occasion to retal- iate. Never to judge a persons character by external appearance. Always to take the place of an absent person who is cen- sured in company, so far as truth and propriety will allow. Never to think the ^'orse of another on account of his dif- fering from me in political or religion opinions. Never to dispute if I can fairly avoid it. Not to dispute with a man more than seventy years ohd ; nor w\\\\ a woman ; nor with an enthusiast. Not to efiect to be witty, or to jest so as to wound the feel- ings of another. To s^y as little as possible of myself, and those who are near to. me. To aim at cheerfulness without levit)'. Not to obtrude my advice unasked. Never to court the favor of the rich, by flattering titliOi their vanity or their vices. 24* To respect virtue though dolhed in rags%f To speak with calmness and deliberaiion on all oCt^iHotiS^ especially in cirGimistaftces which tend ta iritate. Freqiienily to rc\iew iv.y conduct and note n>y f»!lii>gs. On all occasioi>s to iiG>pe in pruspeci ih-c eud of litb and s fuiure state. Not to flatter myself I eaa aci op to these rude^ however honestly I may aii« at it. CHAPTER XXXW i^ugar-j Tea, t^'c On iJie qiialifi/ of Sugars, with Practical Remarks. Nol having aiiihonty., excepting that founded on our own experi- ence, we enter upon the subject laid oat for us with soin© diffidence, as ihtre are niany whom we consider our suj)eri- ors ; however, we arre willing to abide the test on close in- vestigation. Sugars. Havannas arc undoobterlly prcferablG to any hrought to our market, and arc iiot only as profitable to tlie retailer but moat profitable to the consumer. Either whit© lor brown is from ten to fifteen per cent, sweeter ; besides the ilavour approximates nearer to that of the loai sugar of the; shops: they are imported in boxes, vveighirrg from three to four hundred pounds, free from /V;^;/, and perfectly dry. Gen- erally every pound, throughout the chest, will corresjiond with the sansple. Chests weighing four hundred pounds, have been known to gain forty pounds ; usually twenfy-livo pounds in the tare. There is a difference in the quality of these sugars, of ten per cent, perhaps more. Some of ihe Brazils are veiy fair and profitable. Kefiners generally g^ive these sugars a preference. Of the biowns, St. Croix lead in price in soine of our markets ; they certainly are very superior sugars, very clean, richly grained, and of a lively colour, hut wanting in that tine Ilavour which distinguishes the Havannas. The Calcutta sugars are mixed advantageously with the ordinary sugars of the islands. These mixtures require some care, or the improvement miizht be called a deception. Some of these sugars have a very had flavour, and should be avoid- ed by the purchaser : but those of prime quality are very fair !nd saleable ; they are imported in bags weighing from one pounds. There are many other kinds we slioulJ be glad to notice, if our limits would would permit, but we Cbu oiily indulge onrselves in a iew brief remarks. The islands furnibb sugars of various qualities, precisely as tboy do of spirits. We have the be^i rum from Si. Croix, (unless Jamaica may be piefered) so it is wiih respect to su- gars ; the difierence probably aiisesina great measure on account of the sweetness of the cane, and the same infer- ence can be drawn in regard to ihe flavour of sugars, as will bo found in the article on flavouring spirits ; though much undoubtedly may be attribuied to the manufacturer. Vast quaiitiiies of sugars are seni into comnjcrce, uainerchnntable, or rather before they have ripened^ or been properly arained. Tliis is almost un'versally the case with New-Orleans, which on opening appear SGvy bright, but the air soon decomposes it, and if not of suiTicieat ripeness or age, the retailer of pounds generally finds it a most unprofitable article. We can draw a very fair conclusi;)n of the ripeness of a piece of goods, particularly when it has lain some time in the warehouse. If we discover molasses issuing from the cre- vices, between the staves and about the heads, and it is evi- dent much has been deposited on the floor about the cask, tiien, it is also evident it will fall short of the c^ustom-house weight. In every case the draining head or side should al- ways be uell probed indeed every part should bo carefully examined, or we shall not be certa'n of its average quality. Much exp!>rienco and care are required in selecting sugars: perhaps it may not be unprofitable to examine when purchas- ing, if the casks may not be overcharged with hoops, thick heads, staves &c. Those casks which contain the largest quaiiiit}^ usually produce the greatest gain in the tare. The allowances and tares on si*igar will be found under their res- pective heads. Of Teas. Tea is distinguished in name, as it diflers in colour, flavour and size of its leaf; though its quality is gen- erally reconrnized under the title of choj). It is said the Chinese neither drink it in the manner we do, nor so strong, but use it only as their common drink. It is reckoned among them a singular diluter and purifier of the blood ; a great /?trengthener of the brain and stomach, and promoter of digestion, perspiration, &.c. They drink it in great quantities in hioh fevers, cholics, &c. think it a sur^ though slow remedy in chronic diseases. 1S4 THE ArttlsT ANi> It is perhaps unnecessary to remark, that there are few ftf-* tides ill coranierc i, more variable in quality than teas ; and in regard to whicii we ^yill only observe, that every cargo generally contains several chops, (qualities,) and that we have frequently seen You ig Hyson Tea, varying to 40 per cent ; consequenily no article should be selected with more care ; but our present object is more particularly to allude to the sub- stitution of tares not according to law. We have been furnish- ed wiih abund.int evidence that rhe practice of reweighing teas, after they hove passed through the custom house, is incorrect, and most generally, attended with great loss to the retailer of pounds. We believe that we are perfectly familliar with the arguments adduced in favour of the practice, the futility of which we shall now attempt to show : 1st Government regulates commerce; by its officers the duties on imj)orted goods are secured, and at the time of en- try the actual or lamful tares are determined, on all goods subject to be v/eighed and marked. 2. That the custom-house marks are the only correct and proper marks, must be obvious from the following reasons, viz. in order to secure the full amount of duties ; and not- withstanding the willingness of the importer to have his teas marked less than the boxes or chests contain (which we do not believe,) none will pretend that the custom officers do ac- tually exempt a few pounds, on every box from duties, under existing commercial regulations, and that too, as may be sug- gested, to favour the importer. Again, we are nnt led to understand by the tarriff that a duty of 40 cents, (the duty on Young Hyson tea,)shall be se- cured on the boxes in which tea is imported ; but that in con- sequence of general average, (see note in the table of tares &c. and also, laws ^fcc.^i some chests will fall short, while otiiers will exceed the custom-house mark (or black mark, as sometimes called by dealers, )on re weight, unless tares are sub- stituted varying from those estimated according to law ; but when teas are entered according to invoice, we should sup- pose this variation would not occur, nor have we reason to believe it does, particularly when the inspector takes into con- - sideration, the difference of the catty pound, (about 18 oz. avoirdupois) and our weight ; for it musr be understood that boxes or chests, independant of their contents vary in weight, frequently from 1 to 8 pounds ; thus, if one chest v/eighs IS 285: aiiotljer 22 and a third 2G, the average weight is twenlj'-two, and uccordijig to the principles of the cusiom-huuse, (uuless the leas a.e entered according to invoice) each chest would be marked, exclusive of the average tare, v/hich is deducted (sec form of certificate in abstiact of Laws, &c.j It is said by some that the custom-house tares are a rough calculaiion; but is the systematic tare, of 19 lbs. without any allowance for draft, after the box or chest has received an addinon weight of hoops to be more appreciated, and this too, on quarter chests, wiibout distinction — jnd 10 lbs. on catty boxesi ? And would it not be surprising to one, unacquainted vvitli mercanille transactions to learn that a' dealer liad bought a chest of tea, and fhat in the same market, it would not sell for so nnn}' pounds, if thrown into the commission merchants hynds, as he was charged l The facis in regard lo the sales of leas are, as we learn, some country merchan;s buy their teas at ihr black mark, or custom-house mark, otheis, black teas at the black mark, and green teas, by having one pound add- ed To he black mark ; others, wi:h an addition of one pound on both J,neea and black teas — others, by rewe^ght and a de- duct :(jn oi'20 lbs. on qr. chests and 10 lbs. on catt}' boxes oth- ers by reweighr, (vvhich by some is si;id to be custo'^ary) 19 lbs. on qr. chesis without distinction. By this last substicii- tion, in some very few instances the vendee will gain perhaps one or two pounds, bui will generally loose from one to 10, most frequency, four and five— but, we will ask, do these de- viations occur when teas are sold in lots, by the importer:, either at private or auction sale '? a merchant in Boston, who has been in the tea trade for more than 30 years, writes— ■ ' the trade have always ob ain«d their teas at the blrick mark, and I have not any knowledge of a deviation in other markets, and indeed, ther*^ can be none, unless by stipulation." There would be many difficuliios unavoidably arising, pro- vided taiesare substituted, in every case when sales are ef- fected, varying from those established by law, besides the prt>bability that a substituiion would not be as likely to be so correct, unless the goods are emptied from every package in order to prevent a general average, which in regard to teas, is. not desirable, if practicable, some of which we conceive ip feie as follows : I, Suppose w§ should re-ship t?as to any port withing tho J^ 286 THE ARTIST AN» risdiction of the United States, and either on her passage, or at her port of eniry, the vessel's papers are demanded by the revenue officer, (lor it musi be renienrjbe^ed the law is expli- cit, requiring the supercargo oi masier, not only lo produce the certificate of his clearance, but a certificate of each chest of tea, which on failure, boiii the vessel and cargo are liable at least to be deiamed, if not forfeited ;) wc are already ap- prised of the difiiculties which mighl arise, if not the probable result, (proViUcd Jie certiliciite oi her clearance only can be procured,) if it could not be proved the teas had been regu- larly entered at a custom-house. Is it not reasonable then,*^ that every -purchaser of a chest of tea, should be entitled to a certificate'? 2 Provided our teas are insured, in case of damage how do we prove the qu:'niny sh.pped'? We answer, if our invoice of shipment is correct, we can prove the quantity b}^ the cus- tom house books, if in no other way, in case the cerificatcs are lost. And on the othei hand, if our invoice show teas of a number, wiih a quantity which the custom-house books do not recognizP, the coJiscqutnces which follow, might, at least, give rise to much litigation. All those diSiculties are however, obviated, by a demand made for the certificates at the time cf the delivery of the goods. A ceitificate for each chest is made, signed by thesnpervi- sor of ihe port where it was landed, which corresponds with the custom-house brand on the chest, viz. the number of pounds of tea, time of ontsy &-c. The number of pouiids the chest contains is put on with a pencil brush; though sonieiimet. wc have seen printed figures : a CRiMul examinanon will discover to us tliis mark, called by dealers iho black mark, nidess rubhed out, which may some- times be done hrough motives which cannot be commended. From what has been said, it follows, thni the substitution of tares varying from those esiabliahed by law, cannot bo- practiced wiih impunity. Finally, we recommend country dealers to attend cargo sales; the advantages to be derive.! by atiendins ihosc sales are unnecessary lo demoustraf^e any fur'her ilian that others can become possessed of e\ery desirable informaiior. respect- ing taios, but also the qualities and standard uricer, of almost ^very staple article, 287 We have good authority for stating, though personally unacquainted with the fact, teas of a rich quaUty are sometimes emptied and the chests, filled with ordinary kinds ; and so nicely done that few are able to detect the deception. However, it is not to be believeu there are many so destitute of every good principle as to be engaged in the prac- tice. Those who feel no compnnclion in making " wooden nutmegs and horn flints," perhaps, might not think it amiss to make a little money in this way. Of Tobacco. We have something to say respecti ng this great staple article ; and to be short, we advise purchasers to look out. Our ever to be respected master used frequently to say, that " goods well bought were half sold," and that " a penny saved was as good as a penny earned." It matters not to our present purpose ; whether we were, or otherwise, attentive to his sage advice; though we have no doubt if we had attended to it strictly and systtmaticalhj^ we should at least have saved so much, as would have kept our teeth free from expense, in regard to this article, all our lives. The grand question is easily «olved; are we compelled by the laws of our country to pay for staves and hoops, when we purchase tobacco? and are such practices to be suffered with impunity 1 Thus we leave the article for every one to make his own comments. Of Flour. We will not be too prolix on this article. The old and lawful rule, which we have never he^rd contradicted, is 196 pounds of flour to the barrel. Have there not been hundreds of barrels, after inspection, sold in the United States, when the barrel and contents would not weigh more than 200 pounds'? Of Coiton. This article is susceptible of being charged with a considerable oer r.cntum of moisture, which without close ecamination is not easily delected. It seems that there should be a general test for detecting impositions of this kind, but we are unalJle to point it out at the present moment. We should be glad to extend our remarks to various arti- cles in merchandise, which require much sagacity in purcha- sing, besides those mentioned above. But we trust enough har- alre.idy been said to draw the conclusion, that for the sake of money^ many overleap the bounds of right, and it should seem, subject themselves to the loss of respect and contidence, notwithstanding they may evade the laws of the country. TilE AtlTtST AKD CHAPTER XXXVIT MENSURATION,-^! OG TABLE t)iainfter 10 ft. in 11 ft. in t2ft.in 13 ft. in 14 ft. in 15 ft. in \n inches, leng th. length 1. leno-ih . length lenath. length. 15 90 99 108 117 126 135 16 .100 110 120 130 140 150 17 125 137 150 162 175 187 18 155 170 186 202 216 232^ 19 165 179 197 214 230 247 20 172' 189 206 224 246 258 21 184 202 220 238 256 276 22 194 212 232 263 294 319 23 219 240 278 315 332 353 24 250 276 300 325 350 375 25 280 308 23G 364 392 420 26 299 S23 346 375 404 448 27 327 367 392 425 457 490 28 360 396 432 462 504 540 29 376 414 451 488 526 564 30 412 452 504 535 576 618 31 428 ■ 471 513 558 602 642 32 451 496 541 587 631 67 G 33 490 539 588 637 686 735 34 532 585 638 691 744 798 35 582 640 698 752 805 863 36 593 657 717 821 836 SS9 This Table shows tlio niimhpr of font of boa rds, any log will malic when the diameter is from 1 5 to 36 inclios at the sma Uesi end, and from 10 to Mfp^t in lenoth. SOIJD MEASURE OF SQUARE TIMBER. By tlie following table the solid contents, and the vahio of an}' piece or quantity of timber, stone, &c. may be found at sight, irom six to twent3'-five and a li;df inches, the side of the sq lare, ox one fourth of the girth, from fourteen to eighty feet in length. It rises from six, half an inch at a time, tu twenty- five and a half inches, and from fourteen, one foot at a time, till it rises to eighty; The number of inches wiiich the side of each stick mea- sures, are placed at tlie top commencing next to the left hand column on tiie first of each page. Th^se columns give t!ie contents of earh stick, and the first column of each page which runs from the top to the bottom, the length. Half feet are not reckoned ; that is, when a stick mcasuj-es thirty cubic 285 fcot and five Inclioa, it is called only thirt}' feet; if tUirty feet ynd 7 inches, it is reckoned 31 feet. We believe ihis ineihod is practised ia all tiie cities in the Cuiitd States and Canada. 4eet side side side side side side side side side sids sitk' side side side , in (> 6 1-2 7 7 1-2 S 81-2 i) 9 li> 10 .10 1-21111 1-2 12 12 l-.^i ieiigt. in. inch inch iacli jncliinch inch iacjiiach inch inch inch inch in ^-1 3 4 .5 5 6 7 8 9 9 10 12 x3 14 15 15 4 4 'J5 S ^78 9 lb 1,1 12 14 15 16 16 4 5 ^ 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 16 17 17 4 5 6 a .7 .8 9 10 12 13 14 15 l7 18 18 4 5 G 7 :8 9 10 11 13 14 15 16 18 19 19 5 6 6 7 .8 9 10 12 14 14 16 17 19 21 20 5 () 7 8 9 10 11 12 14 15 17 18 20 22 2; 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 13 15 16 17 19 21 23 22 5 6 7 8 10 IL 12 14 16 17 18 20 22 24 23 6 7 ■8 9 10 11 13 14 16 17 19 21 23 25 34 6 7 B 9 10 12 13 15 17 18 20 22 24 26 25 6 7 . 8 JO 1,1 12 14 15 17 19< 21 23 25 27 26 6 8 9 10 11 13 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 »»-r 7 8 9 10 12 13 15 17 19 20 22 25 27 29 28 7 8 9 Jl 12 14 16 18 20 21 23 25 28 30 29 7 9 10 11 13 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 29 31 30 7 9 10 11 13 15 17 19 21 :.^ 25 27 30 33 31 8 9 10 12 14 15 17 19 21 23 26 28-31 34 32 8 9 11 12 14 16 18 20 .-^-2 24 27 29 32 35 S3 8 10 11 13 14 16 18 -y 23 25 27 30 33 36 34 8 10^ 11 13 15 17-19, 22 24 26 28 31 34 37 35 9 10 12 13 15 17 10 22 2^. 27 29 32 35 38 36 9 il 12 14 IG 1$ 20 ^3 25 27 30 33 36 39 37 9 H 12 14 16 18 21 £3 26 25 31 34 37 40 38 9 n 73 27 19 '^^ 24 27 29 32 35 38 41 39 10 11 13 15 17 19 ^2 24 27 SO 33 36 39 42 40 10 12 13 15 IS ro 22 25 .28 30 33 36 40 43 41 10 12 .14 16 )3 21 23 25 29 31 34 37 41 44 42 to 1^ J.4 16 ■1,8 21 23 26 29 32 35 3S 42 4? 43 11 13 14 17 19 21 24 27 SO 33 36 39 43 46 44 11 13 35 17 19 22 25 27 30 34 3 7 40 44 48 45 11 13 15 17 20 22 25 28 31 35 38 41 45 49 46 11 13 15 18 20 23 20 29 32 35 38 42 46 50 47 12 14 16 18 21 23 26 29 33 36 39 43 47 51 43 12 14 16 19 21 24 27 SO 33 37 40 44 48 52 49 12 14 16 19 22 24 27 30 34 38 41 45 49 5S 50 12 15 X7 19 22 25 28 31 2-5 34 38 42 46 50 54 290 THE ARTISl ' ANS 5 r s .S S3 —It .5 c 2 .s i .9 ^ 2 .5 .5 2 t— t .s 1—1 '"' o o ^ Z Oi Gi _c CO «• i> t^ CO 00 o o ^^ ^H ri ,_! I-" r-t c « • ;» V o o o O « OJ » ,•■ •c 'a -o -c "1 :e .'2 ts '2 '2 "H "S :h ^ fa "S "SS •5 -3 "Z 'to '3 •s "w ■» •S S? 5 B 51 13 15 17 20 22 25 28 32 35 39 43 47 51 55 52 13 15 17 20 23 26 29 32 36 40 43 48 52 56 53 13 16 18 20 23 26 30 33 37 41 44 49 53 p7 54 13 16 18 21 24 27 31 34 37 42 45 50 54 58 55 14 16 18 21 24 27 31 34 38 42 46 51 55 59 56 14 16 19 22 25 28 32 35 39 43 47 52 56 60 57 14 17 19 22 25 28 32 36 39 44 48 53 57 62 58 14 17 19 22 26 29 33 36 40 44 49 54 58 63 59 15 17 20 23 26 2f 33 37 41 45 49 55 59 64 60 15 18 20 23 26 30 34 37 4U 46 50 56 60 65 61 15 18 20 24 27 30 34 38 42 47 51 56 61 66 62 15 18 21 24 27 31 35 39 43 47 52 58 62 67 63 16 18 21 24 28 31 35 39 44 48 53 59 63 68 64 16 19 21 25 28 32 36 40 44 49 54 59 64 t.9 65 16 19 22 25 29 32 36 41 45 50 54 60 65 71 66 16 19 22 26 29 33 37 41 46 51 55 61 66 72 67 17 20 22 26 30 33 37 42 46 52 56 62 67 73 68 17 20 23 2^ 30 34 38 42 47 52 57 62 68^74 69 17 20 23 27 SO 34 39 43 48 53 58 63 69 75 70 17 21 23 27 3i 35 39 44 48 54 59 64 70 76 71 18 21 24 27 31 3^ 40 44 49 54 59 65 71 77 72 18 21 24 28 32 36 40 45 50 55 60 66 72 78 73 18 21 25 28 S2 36 41 46 50 56 61 67 73 79 74 18 22 25 29 33 37 41 46 §1 57 62 68 74 80 75 19 22 25 29 33 37 42 47 52" 57 63 69 75 81 76 19 22 26 29 34 38 4i 47 53 5b 64 70 76 82 77 19 23 26 30 34 38 44 48 53 r>9 64 71 77 83 78 19 23 26 30 34 39 44 49 54 59 65 71 78 84 79 20 23 27 31 35 39 45 49 -5 60 66 72 79 86 80 20 23 27 31 35 40 4& 50 55 €i 67 73 80 87 ^ S .3 .2 .« .3 .5 .5 .5 Cc^'5'C'ii' 3_;;i S_L 5_1 •"'co'^'^^'^'^'^o *^ ^^ ^ ^^ "^ <^ Ci^l— 't— I,— (t-H'— (t— l,_l I— I — I— < T^ l-^ 1-^ ""jjOjajtjQjOoa a> « « a. o.o ^•^TS-o'O'a'a'a'o ts ^ "O "O 15^2 &N *« *<« 'S '« 'K '» *« 'w sS *w 'm 'w '« * 14 16 17 19 20 22 23 25 25 28 30 31 33 35 37 15 17 19 20 22 23 25 26 28 30 32 34 35 37 39 16 19 20 22 23 25 26 28 SO 32 34 36 38 40 42 17 20 21 23 25 26 28 30 32 34 S6 38 .40 42 45 IS 21 23 24 26 28 30 32 34 3.. 38 40 43 45 47 19 22 24 26 27 29 Si 34 36 38 40 43 45 47 -0 20 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 38 40 42 45 47 50 53 21 25 ^6 18 30 33 35 37 39 42 44 47 50 dZ 55 23 26 28 30 32 34 36 39 41 44 47 49 52 do 58 25 27 29 31, 33 36 38 41 43 46 49 52 54 57 60 24 28 30 32 35 37 40 42 45 48 51 54 5"^ 60 63 25 29 31 34 36 39 41 44 47 50 53 56 59 62 66 26 30 33 35 38 40 43 46 49 52 55 58 62 65 68 27 32 34 37 39 42 45 48 51 54 57 6l 64 67 70 28 33 35.38 41 44 46 50 53 56 60 63 66 70 74 29 34 36 39 42 45 48 51 55 5S 62 65 69 72 76 30 35 38 41 44 47 50 53 56 60 64 67 71 75 79 31 36 39 42 45 48 51 §5 58 62 66 70 73 77 ^^ S2 38 40 43 46 50 53 57 60 64 68 72 76 SO 84 33 39 42 45 48 51 55 58 62 66 70' 74 78 82 87 S4 40 43 46 49 53 56 60 64 68 72 76 81 85 90 35 41 44 47 51 54 58 02 66 70 74 79 83 87 92 S6 42 45 49 52 56 60 64 68 72 77 81 85 90 95 37 43 47 50 54 58 61 66 70 74 78 83 88 93 97 38 44 48 51 55 59 63 67 72 76 81 85 90 95 100 39 46 49 53 57 61 65 69 73 78 S3 88 92 98 103 40 47 50 54 58 62 66 71 75 SO 85 90 95 100 105 41 48 52 j5 60 64 6S 73 77 82 . 87 92 97 103 108 40 40 ^S 57 61 65 70 74 79 84 89 94 100 105 HI 43 50 54 58 63 67 71 76 81 6«5 9i 97 102 108 113 44 51 5i 60 64 ^^ "^-^ ^^ ^^ 88 93 99 104 liO ll6 -x<^ ^^ ui oi 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 101 107 113 119 46 54 58 62 67 72 76 82 87 92 98 i03 109 1^5 P21 47 55 59 64 68 73 78 83 89 94 100 106 111 118 124 48 56 60 65 70 75 80 8". 91^ 96 102 108 114 120 ^27 49 57 62 66 71 76 82 87 92' 9S 104 110 116 123 129 50 -iS f^i^ 6R 73 78 83 89 94 100 106 112 119 125 132 -£C Tnr; artf^t v^r* 5 8 g 5? o? S? gj S5 SI Ci ."S .-H Sm "m 'm 'ro 'i» ■« ■« 14 39 41 45 45 47 49 51 53 56 5g 61 6S 15 41 44 46 48 50 52 55 57 60 62 65 67 16 44 46 49 51 54 56 j9 6l 64 f6 69 7^ 17 47 49 52 54 57 60 62 65 68 71 74 77 18 50 52 5^ 58 60 63 66 69 72 75 78 81 19 53 55 bS 61 64 67 70 73 76 79 82 86 20 5^ 58 61 64 67- 70 73 76 SO 83 87 90 21 58 61 64 67 70 74 77 80 84 ST 91 9^ 22 61 64 57 70 74 77 81 84 88 91 95 99 23 64 67 70 74 77 $1 84 83 92, 96 lOO 104 24 65 70 73 77 80 84 88 92 96 100 204 lOa 25 69 73 76 80 84 S8 92 96 100 104 108 113 26 72 76 79 83 87 91 95 9*9 104 108 115 117 27 75 79 82 S6 91 9j^ 99 103 308 112 117 122 28 78 81 86 90 94 98 103 107 112 ll6 121 126 29 80 84 89 93 97 102 106 111 ll6 121 126 131 SO 83 87 92 96 101 405 llO 115 120 125 130 2 35- 31 86 90 95 99 104 109 114 119 124 129 134 140 S2 89 93 98 102 107 112 117 122 128 1^3 139 144 33 91 96 100 106 111 116 121 126 132 137 143 149 34 94 99 1G4 109 114 119 125 130 136 141 147 153^ 35 97 10:2 107 112 117 123 128 134 140 M6 152 158 36 100 105 110 115 121 126 132 138 144 150 156 l62- 37 103 108 lis 119 124 130 136 142 148 154 160 l6v7 38 105 til 116 122 127 133 139 145 152 158 l65 171 39 108 114 119 123 131 137 143 149 156 1 62 169 176 40 111 116 122 128 134 140 147 t53 l60 l66 173 ISO 41 114 119 125 131 137 144 150 157 164 171 17S 185 42 116 122 128 135 141 l47 154 l6l 1(38 175 1S2 189 43 119 125 131 138 144 i^i 158 i65 172 179 186 194 44 122 128 135 141 148 154 161 loo ^^a ik^ loj igs 45 125 131 138 144 151 158 l65 172 1.^0 187 195 X'as 46 128 134 141 147 154 l6l 169 176 184 192 199 207 47 130 137 144 150 158 165 172 180 188 196 204 21^ 48 133 140 147 154 l6l 169 176 184 ^92 200 208 217 49 136 143 150 157 164 172 180 188 196 204 212 221 ^O 139 i46 1^3 1^50 l6S ITfy 1«3 1Q9 erOO 90P 917 99^ 29$ ■^ « -H -S .5 .5 .5 B O •- ^ .„ i-H — 1- .- r^ .- r-1 •- — •^ M j^ ^ ^ O O CO O *>• l^ "* o JiS ^ ^ Ji; ''^ °° ^C O 05 »4L>c>v a> v« uoa> a> :i4 55 153 160 168 176 I60 193 202 211 220 229 23b ;,iS 56 155 103 171 180 188 Ir)7 205 215 2-^4 233 243 2 ,-3 57 158 160 174 183 191 200 2J9 219 528 237 247 267 58 161 109 177 IS6 102 2;M: 213 222 232 242 252 262 59 1(34 1V2 180 189 FJS 207 217 226 2^6 246 256 2b6 6t) \m 175 184 193 202 211 220 230 2i0 2^0 26o 271 25* ^4 'ilf£ AKTIST Ai^ji- CHAPTER XXXVflL GUNTER^S RULE. This Rule, ti.e invention of Edward Gunter, though in com- mon use, sliii thcr« are not many who have a perfect acijU n- tance with it. It is, indeed, a if ady rieckoner, as ihe following illustrations will exenoplily. It requires but little praciice to render the rule familiar and easy ; and truly, we recom- mend it as a useful study, particularly to those who are en- gaged in the mechanic arts. It is confidenily believed noiie among the few who have been taiight this rule, have regret- ted the time which has been devoted for the purpose. Of ike Lims. The first Line, marked S R corresponds to the Logarillims of natural Sines of every point of the maiinej-s compass and is numbered from the left hand onward to the right from 1 to 8 inclusive where a brass pin is fixed ; this line can be divided into halves and quarters. The second line T R corresponds to the Lofrarithms of the tangents of every point of the compass and is numbered at the right hand 1. 2. 3. 4. where a brass pin is fixed ; thence, towards the left hand wi[h 5. 6. 7. This lii-c is. divided into halves and quaiters, jike tlie preceding. The third line N U M corresponds to the Logarithms of numbers, beginning at the left hand wiih 1 ; thence onward to the ri?;ht hand are 2 to 9 inclusive; and in the middle, 1 ; at which point a brass pin is fixed ; then 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9> and iO. at the end, where there is another pin. These ntim- bers and the intermediate divisions, depends on the estimated values of the extreme numbers, 1 and 10. Tiiis line is un- 'doubtedly the most important, and therefore, requires a m.oie particular illustration. IJusfration 1. The first one niay be considered 1. 10. 100. or 1000: — 2 in the same manner, 20, 200, lici contents in feet. 3. To find the solid contents of a piece of timber 1,25 feet wide, and 0,5G f^et oe p. and 36 feet long. Extend from I to 7, which extent will reach from 36 to 25,2, the solid contents. ,.. Tho tonnage of bales may bn ascertained by this method, by being •livided by 50, gives the answer. A TABLE OF BOARD MEASURE Extending froii 4 to lOO foet in length and 36 inches in width. illustration. — Draw out the slide to the place where 36 coincides v/ith l2 on the fixed part : — count the first 1 on the fixed part lO ; begin at 4, on the fixed part 4, so on to lO at the center, and thus to 100 on the right h ind to A — begin on the slide at 4 and reckon at diiTerent lengths— Fixed part -^ vc o !» oo o cj o o ^o o co o o uo o o o ».t) o o o ^ « — -— !?? 2^ CO CO -^ o o o '^ t>. i> 00 cr. o Rlirta CJiOCiO'^-^O^VOOLOQOOOl.OOOOVOOtrO oJiae, ^_^oic^cocO'«rot^5iOO?ko;ocooi-e>'^t-o Miscellaneous Examples. 1. There are 42 feet in a board 14 feet long, 36 inches wide ; how many feet in 27 hoards of the s< ine dimensions? draw the slide to the place where 27 coincides with rhe centre 1 ; opposite 42 on the fixed part is the answer 1 134, on the slide. 2. A logT? feet long, 24 inches in diameter, cuts 15 boards, 20 inches broad — draw out the slide to the place where 20 will bo oposite 12 — 20 is the answer for one board — draw out the slide lill 15 comes against the center 1 on the fixed part, and against 20 on the fixed part is 300, the answer in board measure, on the slide. 3. A log 2 feet in diamctor and under — 2 inches on each side allo^^'od for clali, 1-5 for sawcfvlf, 1 hoaj'd for wauc — from 24 to 36 inches in diameter, 3 inches for the slab, 1-5 for sawcalf, ana two Doards for wane. 4. A losf 28 inches at the small end, will cut \S boards only 16 measured— draw out the slide till 22, the breadth of the board comes against 12— -and against 14, the 1 neth on the fixed part, is ^ho answer 25 3-4 for one borrd rn the slide- Bovy draw out the slide till 16, the number of boards, com*^' 298 THE ARTIST A^fD against the center I : to find tlie residue, say the log is 14 feet long, the an-wer m the slide is 414 feet. ■5. A log 14 feet long, 36 inches at the small end slabed, ■ leaves the board 30 inches wide ; 1-5 for sawcslf, leaves ^4 and 2 wane leaves 22 — draw out the slide till 30 comes against 12 on the fixed part, and under 14 on the fixed part, is found 35 on the slide; then draw out .he slide till 22 comes against the center I ; and against 35 will be found 770 on the slide, which is the answer for a log 36 inches in diam- eter and 14 feet lotjg. 6. A log ^:0 inches at th^ small end, and 16 feet long cuts 13 boards which are l6 inches wide, and only 12 measured — how many feet— answer — ^55. 7- A log 16 inches in diameter 14 feet long cuts nine boards^ and only 8 measured ; makes 1 12 feet on the slide, J Method of measuring Square timber in solid feet. Illustration. Draw out the slide to ihe letl hand, till the length of the timber found on the slide coincides with 12 on the girt line — then opposite the inches, the stick is square on the girt line, and the number of cubic feet on the slide is found. Example. To measure a stick of timber 60 feet long and from 5 to 40 inches square — draw the slide to the left hand, till 6 on the slide calling it C>0 ; coincides with 12 on the girt line, and against 5 on the slide, is 10 42- 100th on the girt line, the same answer is found by drawing the slide to the right, but the divisions are not so easily distinguished without muck practice. By letting the slide remain all the questions proposed above may be solved in a short time ; the answers are as follows^ gOmputiiig the timber at 60 feet in length. tradesman's guide. . 299 Inches. Cubic feet. Inches. Cubic feet. Inches. Cubic feet* square, in the^lick. square, in the stick, square, in the stick, 5 10,42 13 70 1-2 23. 220 6 15. 14 82 231-2.2313-4 7 20.42 14 1-2 88 » 24. 242 7 1-2 23 1-3 15 94 24 1-2 250 8 262-3 15 1-2 100 1-2 25. 260 8 1-2 30 1-10 16 106 1-2 26. 28" -^ - 9 33 1-2 17 l^^O 1-3 27. 303 9l-i37i-3 18 135 28. 327 10 412-3 18 1-2 142 29. 352 io 1.246 19 150 30. 375 11 50. 42 19 1-2 158 31. 402 11 1 -2 55 20 1 66 2-3 32. 4^6 12 60 20 1-2 174 2-3 35. 510 121-2 65 1-& 20 3-4.180 38. 6o2 21 184 2-3 40. 66^ 23 202 To measure TIeivn, Timber that is not square. Example. I. The solid feet in a stick of timber, 50 feet in length, and 7 by lO inches — is required — draw out the slide till 50 coincides with I2 on the the girt line, and against the thickness 7 inches found on the girt line, 17 is found on the slide, which is the answer at 7 inches square— 3 times 7 — 21 inches will remain, and 50 feet long yet to find, which to ob- tain draw the slide to the right, till 2l on the slide coincides with I - on the line marked A; then against 50, the length found on i^ , is 87 1-2 on the slide — ibis must be diviaed by I2and and it will give 7 feet 3 1-2 inches or 7 1-4 which being ad- ded to the 17, gives ^^4 1-4 feet, the contentn of the stick. 2 To find the solid feet in a stick 45 feet long 27 inches wide, 22 inches thick — draw out the slide till 45 on the slide- coincides with 12 on the girt line; then over 22 found on the girt line will he l5l 1-2 on the slide, which gives the dimen- sions of a stick 45 feet long and 22 inches square — now 5X 22, remain=IlO, which find on the slide, and let it coincide with I^ on '\ ; then opposile 45 on A is 413 on the slide, which being divided by 12 gives 34 1-3 added to I5l 1-2 gives nearly 186 for the answer. - 5 To find the solid feet in a stick of timber 60 feet long 30 inchos wide and 14 inches thick — draw out the slide till 60 on the slide, coincides with I2 on the girt line, then over 300 THE AliTlST AND 14 on the girt line is 81 2-3 on the slide ; by doubling this it gives the con'enis, equal to 28 by II and .he"^ ioi". is /by II, which is 1-7 or 14, divide 81 2-3=11 -3— then add 81 ;.-3, 81 2-3, II J'3 = I75 the answer — ,)r lind iiie ivern ra square = '0,5. Then find -iO.5 on the girt line, and directly ove. i^ on the slide is 175; observing to draw oul the slide till the length oCthe stick in feet coincides wiih I.' on the gut line. 4 To find the solid feet of a stick of timber, 55 feet long 25 inrhes wide and 20 thick. Draw out the slide tiil 55 coincides with l2 as i>erorc,-then over 20 on the girt line is nearly 153 — which bei"g divided by 4 and the quotient added, l9l 1-3 feet is tho answer. Or for the 5 inches left say 5 times 20 is 1 00 — the square r^-ot of which is 10; no«^ look on the slide over lO — 33 1-3 is found as before— Or cast it into a square — as 9 by 4 multiplif^d gives; 36 — -the square root of which is 6 t'l^j ojtswer-^or (*ast the log into board inoasure, by dratvmg the slide agniiist 30 the width, on the slide under 12 on the fixed pait A — then under 60, the length on the Oxed part, is 150 on the slide, ihc number of square feet in one board — then lay ]4, the width on the slide, under 1 on (he fixed part, then against 150 ou the fixed part, which gives 2l00 feet boards ou the slide — - now divide by 12 hy drawuig 1 on the slide, against 1 2 on Jic fixed part, then against 2j00 on the fixed pait will be found 175 on the slide, the answer in cubic feet. Method of Gauging round thilier. Illustration. Let the gauge puint, on *he girt line be 13,54 inches — to find the contents of a sii^k, bruig ilje length of the timber found on the slide to coincide with tlie gague point — ■ then the diameter in inches or parts, lound on ihe girt line, will coincide with the nnuibei of cubic feet on tho slide. Ex. Su])pose a Slick !2 feet long and J5 incl^.es in diam» eter — how nianv cubic fe^t atran^t 15 inciies is 15 feet and in lik- manner a'i^ainst 20, 26 1-2— 30,59— 35,80,S f.>et. Some rules are incorrect, but the follcu'Jnjr trial wiil prove them. Pass ihe blide to iJie right hand till 1 i.n flie slide c.tincides witli 2 uii the fixed part, when 2.)n iho slide sh, then 2 uill c oinc . .. tt^ wit.h the eenter 1 — til! 1 CiiJnri Jus with 5 1-2 — then 2 will co- incide with 11 — till i coincides with ti — then 2 will coincide with J2, and j-,alifiu(> to do the same till yc a hav- .jonci tliroiijj'h tht line, uiid if the rulo is correctly graduated, tiio result will be as above statod.. tradesman's GUIDli. 301 The Hue marked SIN, corresponds to the Logarithmick sines of the degrees of the qiiadran*, and begins at the left liand,aiid s numbered onward to the right, thus, 1. 2. 3. 4. 53 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. then 20. 30. &c. ending at 90o at a brass centre pin, similar as at the right hiad of the lines. The line marked V S corresponds to the Log. Versed Sines of the degrees of the quadrant, and begins at the right hand opposire 90*^ on the sine ; and numbered on-vard to the left, thus, 10. 20. 30. &c, ending at the left hand, at about 169°. Each of the subdivisions from 10 to 30 is, generally, two degrees — from thence to 90, are single degrees, thence to the end, each «legree is divided into lo minutes. The line marked TANG corresponds to the Log. Tangents of the degrees of the quadrant and begins at the left hand, and is numbered towards the right, thus, 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. to 10. 20. 30. 40. and 45. at a fixed brass pin under 90° on the sines — from thence, it is numbered l^ackwards 50. GO. 70. 80. to 89 ending at the left hand wiiere it begins at one degree. The subdivisions are much like those of the sines. If jou have an extent in your dividers to be set off from any nnniber less than 45 d eg. on the line of tanoents towards the right, and is found to reach beyond the mark 45 dwfj. observe how far it extends beyond that mark, and set it off towards the left, and mark the degree it ialls upon, the number sou2:ht, which must exceed 45 deg. On the contrary, if yaw are to set off a distance to the right, from a number greater than 45 deg. you must proceed as before, remembering that the cinawor vv'ili be lessthan 45 dtg. and considerinir the degrees always more than 45 deg precisely as if they were marked on the continuation of the line to the right hand of 45 deg. The line marked MER, (meridional parts) begin at the right hand ; is numbered 10. 20. 30 to tlic left hand, ending at 87 deg, which with the line marked E P (equal parts) are used together, only in Mercator's sailing. The upper line shows the degrees of the meridian, or latitude, in IMercators chart, which corresponds to the degrees of longitude on the lower line. Grindstones^ are usually sold at the quart ies by the stone which is computed at 24 inches diameter and 4 tliick. Rule, multiply the square of the diameter, in inches, by the thick- ness in inches, and divide the product by 2304 which gives the answer. To find the nmTtber of stone in one of 36 in. diameter and i^ 8 in. Thick; 36 by 36—1296 square, by 8, 10368,which divided by 2304—4 l'% ans. ^'^ Bi/ the Gunters rulc^ by means of the line of numbers. Extend from 48 to the diameter ; continue that extent three times its length from the thickness and it wilF reach to the number of stones required ; so in the foregoing example, extend from 48 to 36 the diameter ; continue that extent three times its length from the thickness which is 8 incbesj and it will reach to 4. 5. or 4 \-2 the answer. "There is aline marked ML on the Gunters rule which is joined to a line of cords and shows how many miles of eastings and westings cor- responds to a degree of longitude in every degree of latitude ; and as this is found also on most of the plain scales, it is not deemed necessary to explain its uses, or the common problems of nautical astronomy par- ticularly as they arc more acurate to perform by Logarithms. Of the sliding Rule. This Rule is of the same dimensions of the common Gun- ter's Rule. The fixed part, has similar lines, which is used with dividers in the same manner, as has been described, it being sufficient to observe there are two lines of numbers, viz, a line of Logarithmick sines, and a line of logarithmick tan- gents on the slide. The slide is designed to be shifted so as to fix either face,. of it on either side of liie fixed part of the rule, as the naturo of the question required to be solved may be, which if questions in arithmetic, trigonometry, ifec. let the proportion be so sta- ted, that the first and third terms are alike, and of course ths second and fourth terms will agree— then bring the first term of the analogy on the fixed part opposite the second term on the slide, or, the first and third term may be found on the slide, and the second and fourth on the fixed part. In raultiplicatinn and division, unity should be considered as one of the terms of analogy. Multiplicaton. — By multiplication, set 1 on the line of num^ bers of the fixed part opposite one of the factors on the line of nunjbers on the slide — then against the other factor on tha fixed part will be found the product on the slide. Miscellaneous Examples. To find the product of 5 by 12— draw the slide out till 1 ©n the fixed part coincides with 5 on the slide — then opposite 12 on the fixed part will be found 60=the product on the slide. The product of 50 by 12 required — not moving the slide, tradesman's GUIIIE. 305 count 5 to be 50 — count 12 -as before — -then opposite 12 on the fixea part will be found 600 on the slide. Place the slide as before; estimate 5 for 500 and 12 at 1200, and the slide gives 600,000 for the answer. The product of 17 by 25 — draw out the slide till 1 on the fixed part coincides with l7 on the slid^ — then opposite 25 on the fixed part is fourd 425 on the slide. 17 by 17 — draw out the slide till 1 on the fixed part coin- cides with 17 on the slide — then opposite 17 on the fixed part is 289 on the slide. Place tiie slide as before- — opposite 50 on the fixed part will be found 850 on the slide. Tiie slide laying at 17 as before, reckon 50 or 5 to be op- posite 500 on the fixed part, and 8500 is found on the slide. Place the slide as before, count 17 to be 1700, count 3 to be 300 on the fixed part; then, opposite 300 on the fixe«l part will be found 510,000 on the slide. 211-2 by 20— draw out the slide till the center 1 on the fixed part coincides with 21 1-2 on the slide — then opposite 20 on the fixed part will be foufld 430 on the slide 5 by 2 1-2 — reckon the first 1 on the fixed part to be 1-10 —the center 1 count 1 — draw out the slide tiU 1 on the fixed part coincides with 5 on the slide — opposite 2 1-2 on the fixed part will be found 12 1-2 on the slide. Division. Illustration. — Place the divisor on the line of numbers of the fixed part opposite 1 on the slide, then against the divi- dend f )und on the fixed part, will be found the quotient on the slide. Ex. 1. Required to divide 60 by 5. Set 5 on the fixed part against 1 on the slide ; then against 60 on the fixed part is 12 == the quotient on the slide. Ex. 2. 400 by -7 — set 27 on the fixed part opposite 1 on the slide; then against 400 on the fixed part will be found l4 22-'i7 or about 14 4-5 on ihe slide. Not moving the slide, and placed as in example 2, we have the follovv ing result having gone the length of the fixed part to A, on the statement : Divisors 27 — dividend 400=;quotient T4 4-5 or 22-27-:-500 = 18 1-2 or 18 14-27-:-600=:22 2-9 or 22 l-4-:-700=25 25-27 or 26. nearlv-:-800=29 17-27 or 29 2-3-:-850=31 13-27 or 31 l-2-:-900r=33 1-3-:- 1000=37 1-27 or 37, To divide any number from 700 to 6000, that is, at B on 2€* W4 THE AtlTlST ANO the slide, the full extent of the slide. From the stateriierjt difjvv out the slide ou A, tr) the left hand uf the cenlre 1, to .ne tigure 6, representing 60 on ihe fixed part, over 1 on the slide, then agahist 7 rep resent in;: 700 on rhe fixed pair, will be found 11 --3 on the slide ; not moving the slide we will find the following answers: — Divisors called 60 — ii.v:denJ 700. quotient, 11 2-3-:-800 = '3 !- '-:-9O0=.5-:-.0OO=:-6 :-3-:-'iOOO=331-3-:-30jO 50-:-4000=oo ^-3-:-5000— 33 l-3-:-b000— 1^0. Ending at B on the right hand of the slide. Bi/ the Rule of Three. 3Iisscellaneous Examples. If 3 lbs. beef cost 21 cts. what will from 30 to iOO lbs. ?— -bring 3 on the letter A, of the fixed pa t, on the line of numbers against 21 on thj line marked B on the slide — .hen cigamst 30 on ihe fixed p ri on A, will be found on the slide, $-.10 — nd oppos'ie So lbs. will be $2.15 40 — 2.80; 50—3.50; 60— i.^O ; 75—^.25; ■90—5.30; 100—7.00. If 4 i-i yds. co6i $23, whit wll 20 yds. ? Drnw out the slide, t«li 23 coincides wuu 4 1-2 on thn Ci\^<\ part — than op- posi'-e 20 on the fixe I part will be found $10-, on the slide — hy not moving the slide a^ A, on Mie fixed part, lOO yds. wHl be found to tiie answer on .he slide=:$ j.ll. If 4 los. of sug-ir coif $A.53, wiiai wih 10 lbs.? bring 4 on [he line of n jraiv^rs oi h'3 ixad p irt, o;ip.>si.e $l.jJ un the line of numhois on the slide — -*'ien ooposire 20 on the line of numbers, on he fixed pnrt will be fuuud $7.50 on 'he slide — b}' not moving the slide opposne 40, on A is found - — 15.00 on the slide, and against 80, on A is found $30, and at A, iOO lbs. on ihe shde, oh 15 is found $37.50— A BCD on ;he right of the scale. To find iho circamferance of a circle the diameter of which is iO. Draw out the slide till 22 on the slide coincides with 7 on the ftxcA pari, then against 20 on ihf^ fixed part is found 6^6-7 or 6* 3-4 on the slide — let the sPde remain, and against 25 on the fixed part, is 78 4- T on the slide — and against 60 on the fixed part iS 183 4-7 on the slide — and against 100 at A, on the fixed part, is 3'4 -'-7 on the slide. If I yd. cost $9.00 what will 5 ^Q cost? — draw out th« «lide, till 9 on 'he slide coincides with 16 < n the fixed part, then, opposite 5 on the fixed part isfoundon the slide $2.83 i?RADESMAN^S GViVjE «^"^* JExamples. Board Measure. To measure a board or plank 12 feet lonjj and 12 inches wide : — 12 on the fixed part to the right of the centre 1 is reckoned 12 feet in length — but 12 on the slide givis 12 to I'i, or 12 feet. 12 feet long and 19 inches wide — draw out the slide till 19 coincides with 12 on the fixed part ; that u.akes the board 19 feet=the answer on the slide — 19 inches the answer in feet. 14 feet long — 20 inches wide — draw out the slide till 20 inches coincides with 12 on the fixed part, and against 14 on the fixed part, is "zS 1-3 feet the answer. 22 feet long 20 inches wide — draw out the slide till 20 in* ches coincides with 12 on the fixed part, and against 22 oh the fixed part is 36 3-4 feet on the slide, the answer. GUAGING. Illustrations. First, find the number of cubic inches in the body, the contents can be determined in gallons, bushels, &c. by dividing the number of cubic inches in a gallon, bush- els, &-C. respectively. A wine gallon by which mo >t liquors are measured, contains 331 cubic inches. A beer, ale, or milk gallon contains 282 cubic inches. A bushel ot corn, malt, &c, contains 2150,4 cubic inches. This measure is subdivided into 8 gallons, each of which contains 268,8 cubic inches. In the following rules, the dimensions of a cask is supposed to bo given in inches, and decimal parte of an inch. To find the number of gallons or bushefs in a vessel of a i To Gauge, a Cask. — 'TUuitration. Measure the hearJ di- aaietcr, :)9.05 for beer and by 2738 for "bushels. The dcciuiil, (>2 is oonnnonly used by jraii^ors, to find the mean diameter; but if the st:i/e:i 'ire trjirly straia-!U, it would bo rnor;^ acci!>- rate t<» uats 53'ir Icsj, hatif ou ihn oontrary ili.-y arc very curvious, tvl, fi'i or more should be uy.d, b;U \\\\rx\ the staves are straight, the deeimal 51 may be most pro!>er la QVtsry case great atleatiou ahouid be glvea to the iiiuke of the eatsk. El ample. Suppose the bung diamotei-of a cask h 31.5 flie head diameter 30.7, after avowing for the thickness of the heads^ — 50.3 inches the length, how nian}'^ wine ealions does it contain'? C4.5 b-'ing rliafneier, substVacted by '30.7 the head t!l?ji!e[er— prcdncl 3.S nuitipdied by the rlecimal. 02— procliKt 2.35G 30.7 he:id diameler. C3 056 inG.?.;i do. 3J.05G These figures nmitlph^d make 109:2.09D.I3f) \ call the deciaia! 59.03 lo!i!:;i!i on the inside, 327 SOI 9S340CO 54G335 tiJ4.]2 [ 0-?5U03.10t ' :219.C aas, - Gaugers use callipers lij taking di'.ncnsion? of ca-iks but a comruDn rule or a staiF may bo used : but a n-jore expeditious way is hy tlie line -el numthers on Gunter's Scale, or the Sliding Rule. To Gauge casks hy the line of nirmhers on the Gunfer'^t scale or sUdiiig rule. Illustration, Make marks on the scale, on «he G-r-lliners, 5d^ THE ARTIST AN'* at the points 17.15 and 18.95 inches and at 52.33 inches, wliich numbers are the square foots of 294.12, and 359.05, and of 2738 respectively — grnorally a brass pin is fjxed od the callipers at each of ihesc points — having youi scale thus prepared — extend fiom 1 towards ihe loft hand to 62, or less, if the staves be nearly straight — that extent will reach from the difference between the head and bung diameters to a number at the left hand, which number added to the head diameter, will give the nican diameter — then put one foot of the compasses on tiie guage point-= 17.15, for wine gallons. 18.95, for beer galh.ns, and 52.33 for bushels — and extend the other foot of tiie compasses to a number denoting the mean diameter — this extf'nt turned over twice ay from the length of the cask, will give the number of gallcns or bushels respectively. In the preceding illustration, tiie extent from 1 to 62, will reach froift 3.8 to 2.4 nearly, whlrh ndd*-(i to o0.7 gives thp mean diametcr=33.1, then the extent fro^ii tlie iing whether some arc tliinner or thicker than they ought to be, in wliich case make the necesiary ailo^V"^ ance. ^ Examph, How many gallons will a cask contain the bung diameter of which is 34.5 inche.^, the head diameter 30.T. TSADESMAX'S GUlDi:.. 309 V . 34.5 30.7 2 1 65.2*' ^ 3-2.6 5 33.1 mean diameter. ~ Length of the cask within— 59.3 — now draw out the slide till 59.3 on tlie slide coincides with the j;auge point" on the girt line, for wine gallons, and against 33,1 on the girt line is found on the slide w20^9 wine gallons. The guage point for bushels is placed on the girt Tin at 13 85-1000 inches, as it would run off the rule on the right. For the points for gallons, reverse it back to the left of those points. Illustration. Draw out the slide, till the length of a Sf|uare box coincides with the gauge point onMhe girt line, opp* site 13 383-1000 inches ; then, against the number of inches the box is square, found on the girt line ; and oji the slide the number of bushels. Example. Suppose a box 7.75 inches square and 30 feet in length, also begining at 7.75 and extending to 40 inches square, •srausnq <^* T ^ T ^^ ^ ^ ^ ^? ^^^ VVili be found S c- :o ^ o i^ x o -^ io o -^ — o o od t^ ^ O r-i ,_,,-, r_, ,-H CJ G^^ If the box. is more than 40 inches, sny GO inches and 20, feet long, draw out the slide to the left hand till 20 feet, the -length found on the slide, coir.cides with the gauge poi«t, found on the girt line, viz. 13.385 inches — then aguinsr the width of the box, namely 60 inches, found on the g^.w line, is found on the slide 399, calling the figures on the giit iTne, tens, and those on the slide will be hundreds, ^nd thus of r.ny other number. Sup})ose a box 30 feet long from 40 to 245 inches squore, Against 40 will be found 267 bushels, 60 598 1-2 100 . 1675 120 2500 150 3790 190 6000 ■15 9950 •ilO THE ARTIST A>^J To find the number, of bushels a cylindrical cdarw c-jiifdicii- or how many bushels of timber a log will make providing it be a perfect cylinder. . lliustratioit. Draw out the slide until the gauge pohitj 15,G0l. oruearer 15,000. 1 5, found on the girt line, shall coin- cide wilh the length of the cyliiidfir in feet, found on the slice, then opposite the diainctor of the cylinder, found on the girt line in inches, are the number of bushels,, foun^ on the slide. Eiamjjle. Suppose ihe cylinder SCO feet is laid to the j;uage point — ihea again-^t 7, or 70 inches for a diamclcr is found 0411 bushels, which J!- tiie r.nS\ver on the slide. rjeihcd for cutting off any i.un^ber of cubic fort of rny diameter, of round titaber, }l]ui>l ration., Sujrpose the number of feet to be cut ofi' is 3 and the dian.oter 7 1-2 inches — draw out ihc slide until 3 v«i!i coincide v^'iih 7 1-2 on the fixed part, then against the gauge point l3.51 inclios K found the length to bo cut off. E'xa?nple, If $?. 15 buy 1 foot of timber, how much will $10 buy? Ans. LCy^ cubic' feet. Th.is tinsber is 4.3 inches in diamclor ; what is the length of t!ie stick ?-— lay 4.C5 feoi on the slide, opposite 4.3 inches »jn the girt line and cpposiie 15.54 inches on the girt line \^ ill be found 46.5 feet, die lengih of the stick on th,e slide. For sniiare tiiiiliT drav.- out the slide fo that \he nnriibcr of inches UiH stick when square, found on liie fixod pari, coincides >vith th» nnin- l>f?r of feet on the slide — Ihti) iigainst 12 is found tlio niiinler of f < ♦ t in length to be cut off. The method of casling interest on the sliding rule fi.r on>? year. llhistntfiov. The principle or nuiiiber of doliurs is found on A — put the per cent on the slide agaij'st the center I--- llien opposi'o the principal is found the interest, estimating dollars ascents. To ascertain the interest for days find the uiiUibcr, of dfsys for one 3"ear, or 365, on ii»e fixed part A, vv'lien the slide must be drawn so far that the interest ior one year be found to coincide with oQ,b days — now on the fixed part A observe the number of da3's you wish to get (he inter= est for, and under that on the slide, is found the interest for the day required. Exair.plc.s. Wiiat is the interest of 333.33 for one year, and twenty-five days at 6 per cent. 1st. For one year by fol- IRADESMAN S GUIDE. 311 lowifig the above direction, is found $20 — then notiee 365 days on A and draw out the slide till $20 coincides with it, or under 36j days, then look for 25 days on A, and on B, under 25 will b-e $1,33 1-3, the answer for 25 days. What is the interest of f lOOO for one year and 36 days at 7 percent. — draw out the slide till Ton the slide coincides with the centre 1 and against 1000 on the right hand at A will be found 70 oii the slide. Then lay 70 on tho slide against 365 days on the fixed part and against S6 on the slide will be found $0.S3, Ans. $,76.8S. S ^ S tx) - ^ § =: .-^ g 5 , S^o-^ t ^'^^ ^ H o g -ir «^ --, o c 3 ^-5 ii £ 2 (J Qj O O rn eS P- ^ i-< C5« G^ CO CO ^ - jK S2- C-i -^ "^ Tf Cs» G^i (is{ ^ -, - K 1^ o P r. o 3 O -5 S '^^^ ^ 2, „ , . . ^ . "5 "o ^ ^ R- ^ ^' "5 "-^ '-^ ^• 00 C:> O .r> o o O o o' OJ "2 O w :3 5 . : ___ 2 7 0J2 THE ARTIST A^D aOJAD MEASURE OF ROf'ND TIMBEti. s ft. 9 ft. 10 ft . 11 ft. 12 ft. 13 ft 14 ft. 15 ft. 16 ii- long long long long long long long long long diais. O o 9 o 9 p 2 Cl 2 p ia. 1 inch, g 3 3 1 3 a 3 3 a S 2 3 a 1 3 3 w (A w S" M ST w « w 6 i.6 1.8 2.0 2.1 2.5 2.5 2.7 2.9 3.1 7 2.1 2.4 2.7 2.9 3.2 3.5 3.7 4.0 4.2 8 2.8 3.1 3.5 3.8 4.2 4^. a 4.8 5.2 5.5 9 3.5 3.9 4.4 4.8 5.3 5.7 6.1 6.6 7.0 10 4.3 4.9 5.4 6.0 6.5 7.1 7.6 8.1 8.7 11 5.3 5.9 6,6 7.4 7.9 8.5 9.3 9.8 10.5 12 6.3 7.1 7.8 8.6 9.4 10.2 11.0 11.8 12.5 13 7.3 8.5 9.4 10.0 n.i 1 1 .9 12. S 13.8 14.6 14 8.5 9.6 10.6 11.7 12.8 13.9 14.9 16.0 17.0 15 9.8 11. 1 12.4 13.6 14,9 16.1 17.2 18.5 19.7 16 11.2 12.6 14.0 15.3 16.8 18.2 19.5 20.8 22.3 17 12.6 14.1 15.7 17.3 18.9 20.1 21.8 23.5 25.0 18 14.1 15.9 17.7 19.4 21.3 22.8 24.5 26.4 28.2 19 15.7 17.7 19.7 21.6 23.5 25.5 27.3 29.3 31.3 20 17.5 19.6 21.6 23.9 26. 2 28.2 30.3 32.5 34.6 21 19.2 21.5 23.8 26.3 28.7 31.0 33.3 35.8 38.1 22 21.0 23.6 26.3 28.8 31.5 34.0 36.6 39.2 41.8 23 22.9 25.9 28.8 31. ;> 34.5 37.3 40.2 42.8 45.7 24 25.0 28.4 31.3 35.3 37.6 40.6 AZ,6 46.7 49.6 25 27.2 30.7 34.0 37.3 40.7 44.0 AlA 50.7 53.9 26 29.4 32.1 36.8 40.4 44.0 47.7 51.3 54.8 58.3 27 31.6 35.6 39.7 43.2 47.4 5 J. 3 ^5.0 .^8.9 63.0 28 33.9 38.4 42.5 46.6 51.0 55.2 59.2 63.7S 67.6 29 36.3 41.0 45.5 50.0 54.5 5S.9 63.4 68.0 72.4 30 39.0 43.9 49.0 53.5 ^.8.4 63.4 6S.0 73.3 77.7 31 41.8 47.0 52.2 57.2 62.5 67.7 72.7 78.2 83.3 32 44.5 r»2.2 55.6 61.2 66.7 72.4 77.5 S3.5 88.7 33 47.2 53.3 59.1 65,0 71.0 76.8 82.5 S8.6 94.5 34 50.3 56.3 62.9 Gi^O 75.3 81.4 87. 5 94.3 99.6 35 53.0 59.8 66.5 73.0 79.8 86.4 92.8 99.5 106.8 36 56.0 63.2 70.5 79.0 84.4 91. S 98.0 105.5 112.9 37 59.4 67.0 74. f> 81.S S9.5 96.8 \0A.1 112.0 119.5 38 62.8 70.6 78,8 86.3 94.4 102.5 110.0 117.7 126.0 39 66.3 74.4 83.3 91.0 99.3 108. 3 115.9 124. T 132.6 40 69.6 78.3 87.3 95.7 104.4 113.4 124.0 ISO.S 139.5 TRADESMAN S GUIDE. iJlg MEASURE OF ROUND TIMBER.— Continued. 17 ft. 13 ft. 19 ft. 20 ft. 21 ft. 22 ft. 23 ft, 2i ft. 25 ft. 26 U long Ions loniT long long long long long long long O 2 1 O o 3 "? 3 ST O o 3 O 3 a o 3 et 3 O m 3 O o 3 c 3 9 1 CO 3.. 3 3.5 3.7 3.9 4.1 4.3 4.5 4.7 4.9 5.1 4J) 4.8 5.1 5.3 5.7 5.9 6.1 6.4 6.7 6.9 .7.9 6.3 6.6 7.0 7.3 7.7 8.0 8.4 8.S 9.1 7.5 8.0 8.4 9.0 9.4 9.7 10.2 10.3 11. 1 11.5 9.3 9.8 10.4 11.0 11.5 12.1 12.6 13.2 13.7 14.2 1 1.2 n.9 12.6 13.3 13.9 14.6 15.3 15.9 16.6 17.3 13.4 14.2 15.0 15.8 16.6 17.4 18.2 19.1 19.8 20.5 16.7 i/'.l 17.6 18.5 19.5 20.4 21.3 22.2 23.0 23.9 18.3 19.3 20.7 21.4 22.5 23.6 24.5 25.7 26.7 27.8 21.1 22.3 23.6 2-1.7 26.2 27.4 28.6 29.7 31.0 32.3 23.8 25.2 26.7 2S.2 29.5 31.0 32.3 33.7 35.0 36.5 26-8 28.3 30.0 31.6 33.3 34.9 36.3 38.0 39.6 41.0 CO.l 31.9 33.0 35.4 37.2 39.0 40,7 42.5 44.S 46.0 53.5 35.4 37.5 39.4 41.5 43.3 45.2 47.3 49.4 51.2 37.2 39.2 41.5 43.7 46.0 48.3 50.3 52.5 54.7 56.7 4v0.9 43.1 45.6 48.4 50.4 53.0 j5.2 57.7 60.0 62.5 41.7 47.4 50.2 52.7 55.2 58.1 60.7 63.5 G6.0 68.7 49. 1 51.8 54.8 57.7 60.8 63.7 66.2 69.5 72.3 75.2 53 3 56.1 59.5 62.9 66.2 69.4 72.3 75.4 78.6 81.9 57.7 61.4 64. S 68.3 71.8 75.3 78.5 82.3 85. 7 88.5 (2.6 66.4 70.2 74.0 77.6 81.5 85.3 88.7 93.5 96.0 67.5 71.5 75.4 79.5 83.5 87.7 91.5 96.0 99.2 103.4 72.6 77.2 81.3 85,6 90.0 94.5 98.5 103.2 ior.3 111.3 7i .7 82.4 87.2 91.5 96.3 101.0 105.6 110.7 114.8 U9.5 •83.5 88.4 93.5 98.5 103.4 108.8 113.5 118.6 123.3 128.0 ^9.4 94.5 99.5 105.3 111.0 116.0 121.4 126.8 131.5 1S7.0 <)5.5 101.0 106.8 112.4 118.0 124.0 129.5 135.5 140.6 145.5 101.5 107.3 113.4 119.5 125.4 131.5 138.0 144.0 149.0 155.0 107.5 113.8 120.0 126.7 133.0 139.4 145.7 152.5 158-6 164.0 114.0 120.5 127.2 135.0 141.0 147.7 154.7 161.5 167.5 174.0 120.6 127.5 135.1 142.2 149.0 156.5 163.5 171.0 178.0 185.0 127.6 135.3 143.0 150.9 157.6 164.5 173.5 181.5 ISS.O 195.5 134.8 142.6 150.8 159.0 166.5 174.5 183.0 191.0 198.0 206.0 142.0 150.5 159.0 167-9 170.0 184.4 192.5 202.0^08.5 217.0 149.5 158.0 167.0 1760 185.0 193.5 204.0 213.2 218.5 228.0 314 tHE ARUsT AN& MEASUllE OF ROUND TIMBER.— Continued. ■37 ft. 28 ft. 29 ft. 30 ft. 31 ft. 32 ft. 33 ft. 34 ft. 35 ft. 36 ft long long \onrr lonjj long long long long long long one GO o o 000 00000 o o coo acJ3D3 3 B aat 5.3 5.5 5.7 5.9 6.1 6.3 6.5 6.7 6,9 T-i 7.2 7.5 7.8 8.0 8.3 8.6 8.8 9.1 9.4 9-6 9.4 9.7 10.1 10.3 10.8 11.1 11.5 11.9 12.3 12-6 11.9 12.4 12.8 13.1 13.7 14;2 14.6 15.1 15.5 15.q 14.8 15.4 15.9 16.4 17.1 17.6 18.2 18.7 19.3 I9.7 17.9 18.6 19.2 19.8 20 6 21.2 21.7 22.5 23.2 23-7 21.3 22.1 23.0 23.0 21.1 25.4 26.1 26.7 27.7 28.4 24.9 25.8 26.7 27.7 28.6 29.5 30.6 31.4 32.3 33.3 28.9 30.1 3L2 32.1 33.3 34.3 35.4 36.5 37.6^ 3S.7 33.5 34.7 36.1 37.3 38.5 39.7 41.1 42.2 43.3 44.5 37.9 39 3 40.7 42.0 43.4 45.0 46.3 47.7 49.2 50. j 42.6 44.2 45.6 47.2 48.6 50.5 52.0 53.4 55.2 56.5 47.8 49.7 51.3 52.7 54.6 56.5 58.3 60,1 62.0 63.6 53.3 55.1 57.0 5S.8 61.1 63.0 65.0 67.0 69.0 70.9 59.2 61,3 63.5 65.5 67.2 702 72.2 74.4 76.7 79.0 65.0 67.2 69.7 72.0 75.5 76.7 79.5 81.7 81.4 S6.5 71.5 74.0 76.5 79.0 82.0 84.5 87.2 89.5 92.5 95.4 78.5 81.0 83.7 86.5 89.5 92.4 95.5 98.3 101.2104.5 86.3 83.0 91.2 94.2 97.5100.8104.0107.0 110.8 113.5 92.5 95.6 99.0 102.7 106.0 109.5 113.0 115.7 119.5 123.0 99.7 103.5 107.5 111.2 114.7 118.5 122.0 125.8 129.5 133.0 107.7 111.7 115.5 119.4 123.3 127.5 131.5 135.2 139.5 112.5 116.0 120.0 121.7 128.8 132.7 137.5 141.5 145.5 150.3 151.4 124.2 12S.7 133.0 138.0 142.0 146.4 150.6 155.5 161.0 165.0 133.2 136.0 143.1 148.0 152.4 157.0 162.6 167.0 172.5 177.5 142.3 147.5 152.7 158.3 163.0 169.0 174.0 179.0 182.4 190.0 152.1 157.3 163.0 169.0 174.0 180.0 185.5 191.0 197.0 202.0 161.8 167.0 173.0 179.7 185.4 191.2 197.0 202.5 208.0 214.0 171.5 178.0 184.0 190.5 196.0 202.5 20S.2 214.3 220.0 227.0 182.0 188.7 194.7 202.5 208.2 214.0 220.5 227.0 2^34.0 210.0 192.5 199.0 206.0 213.0 218.5 226.5 233.5 210.0 247.0 255.0 206.0 211.0 217.5 225.0 232.5 240.0 247.5 254.3 262.5 269.5 214.1 222.1 228.5 236.1 244.0 253.5 261.5 268.0 276.4 284.0 226.3 234.6 242.0 251.0 258.0 267.0 275.0 233.2 292.5 313.0 237.5 245.3 254.5 263.7 272.0 280.0 238.5 297.3 306,4 316.2 liLVBESMAN S GJUIDE. 2x3 IVIEA SURE OF ROUND TIMBER- -Continued. S7 t\ . 38 fi. 39 ft 40 ft. 41ft. 42 ft- 43 ft. 44 ft 45 ft. 46 ft long. long. long ieng long long long long long long ■9 5 1 § 2 9 o n o 1 3 1 s f O o s s 1 CI § 9 7.3 7.4 7.7 7.8 8.0 8.2 8.4 8.7 8.8 9.0 9.9 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 11.3 11.5 11.7 12.0 12.3 12.9 13.3 13.7 14.0 14.3 14.7 15A 15.4 15.7 16.1 16.3 16.8 17.3 ir.7 18.1 19.0 19.1 19.4 19.8 20.4 20.3 20.7 21.6 21.7 22.3 22.9 23.5 24.0 24.5 25. § 24.4 25.2 25.7 26.4 27'.7 28.7 29.0 29.2 29.6 30.5 29.2 29.9 30.8 31.5 32.2 33.0 33.9 34.7 35. 4 36.4 S4.0 S5.0 3G.1 36.8 37.7 38.7 39.7 40.5 41.4 42.5 39.6 40.7 41.7 42.7 43.5 44.7 45.9 46.9 48.0 49.4 45.8 47.0 48.4 49.5 50.6 51.7 52.3 53.2 55.5 .^7.0 51.7 53.3 54.5 55.7 57.0 58.5 60.3 61.5 62.8 64.6 58.2 59.7 62. 5 62.9 64.2 66.0 67.7 69.4 70.7 72.7 65.4 67.0 69.0 70.5 72.3 74.2 76.0 77.6 79.5 81.5 72.8 74.7 76.7 78.7 80.4 82.5 S4.6 86.5 88.4 90.8 81.0 83.3 85.5 87.5 89.0 91.5 94.5 96.3 98.5 100.5 SB. 8 91.3 93.7 96.0 98.4 100.8 103.4 105.5 108.3 110.5 97.7 100.5 103.2 106.0 108.6 111.0 113.5 116.0 118.4 121.5 307.3 110.0 113.0 115.5 119.5 121.3 124 5 127.3 129.5' 133.0 116.6 1 19.5 123.0 126.0 129.0 132.0 135.0 138.7 141.5 144.5 127.0 130.0 133.3 137.3 140.4 143.5 147.3 150.5 153.7 157.0 137.5 141.5 144.4 148.0 151.5 155.0 159.0 162.7 166.5 170,5 147.5 151.0 155.5 155,5 158.5 I6O.O 167.0 171.0 175.0 183.0 159.0 163.0 167.0 172.0 175.2 180.2 184.7 188.5 393.0 197.0 170.7 174.5 178.0 182.0 188.0 192.8 197.0 201.5 206.0 21 l.O 183.0 187.5 192.5 197.0 202.0 206.5 211.5 215.0 221.0 225.0 195.1 200.5 205.0 2110 214.5 220.0 225.2 231.0 237.0 242.0 207 2 212.4 218.0 224.0 228.0 334.5 241.0 245.4 252.5 257.5 221.0 226.5 232.5 238.2 243.5 249.0 256.1 262.0 267.5 273.0 234.0 239.0 246.0 253.0 258.0 264.0 271.5 276.5 283.5 289.0 247.0 254.0 262.0 268.0 274.0 282.1 287.0 294,0 301.5 307.5 262.5 267.5 276.0 284.0 289.0 296.0 304.0 310.3 317.5 325.0 276.5 280.0293.5 300.0 307.0 314.5 322.7 328.0 336.5 344.0 292.5 300.0 309,0 316.5 324.0 332.1 337.5 345.0 355.0 363.2 309.0 316.5 326.2 334.0 341.2 349.0 357.1 366.4 375.0 384.0 325,0 333,0 341.4 349.5 359.0 367.3 377.0 385,2 394,0 403, ^ 316- THK ARTIST ANB By the foregoing Table the solid measure of any stick of roiind limber, can be found at sight from C to 40 inches in diameter, and from 8 to 4b feet in length It rises one inch in diameter and one foot in length at a time. The left hand column on the first page gives the inches in diameter; and the other columns the contents, which are given in cubic feet and tenths of a foot. Over the top of the columns is placf^d the lengtli at the top, ttien the inches in diameter at the left hand column and against it under the length, to the right will be found the contents A TABLE, Showing the rates a boat weighing witli its load fifteen tons, ^and a Avagoii of the same weight, is impelled ^ the one on a. canal aed the other on a railway, whi^ is stated in }30unds and in horse power- — reckoning one horse power equal to 180 pounds. Boat on a Canal. . Wagon on Railroad. Miles per hour, power in ibs. Horse power, power in pounds. Horse power 2 33 1-5 100 1-2 4 133 2-3 102 1-2 6 300 1 3-4 105 1-2 8 533 3 109 1-2 12 1200 7 120 2-3 16 2133 12 137 3-4 20 3325 18 156 1 Dr. Armstrong observes, that a horse travelh'ng at the usual rate that wagons move, would with ease, under favourable circumstances, draw twenty tons ; but Mr. Fulton says, that five tons to a horse is the average work on railways, descend- ing at tlje rate of three miles per hour, and one ton upwards with the same speed. Mr. Telford, an experienced engineer, observes, that on a railway well constructed and laid with a declivity of fifty feet in a mile, one horse will readily take down wagons containing twelve or fifteen tons, and bring back the same with four tons in them. % The iollowing is a list of tlie average weight of }3njcs ol" different diameters in the clear, witii tiie thickness icqi.niP»i to hear a pressure of 300 feet hegid of water. Diameter ThickMess of pipe Weight per running yd in inche'?. in inchos cwt. qrs. lbs.' 2 4- Hi I 2 3 ^i-l6 1 iB 4 5-16 2 4 G ■ 6-16 I 8 8-16 r 1 '.li 10 9-16 o H 12 9-16 '} 2 18 16 10- Ki 3 2 'iO 10-16 5 u ll2lbs. 1 Ih 2 GO CI 300 ' 3 1000 4 1800 7 9 CHAPTER XLI. Allowances for Drafts, accnrding'to Laic On ::ny quantity <'f • 100 lbs. or Ahov^lOO lbs. and not exceeding 200 do. 300 do. '* 1000 do. " ISOO do. Usual allowance at the Custoni-iXouse, wliich is consid- ered equal to that of the law : — Sugar, Barrels, 2 lbs. do. Tierces, 4 lbs\ do. Hogsheads, 7 lbs. iko. Boxes, 4 lb. do, cfjses, 1-2 per cent. All other goods lialf per cent, except teas, which huve the turn of the beam. Ailoiccnice for Leakage and Breakage. Two per cent, allowed on the gauge on all merchandise. Ten per cent, on all Beer, Ale, and Porter, in bottles. Five per cent, on all other liquors in bottles, to be deduc- ted from the invoice ; or it shcdl be lawtul to compute .he duties by tale, at the option of the importer, nt the time of entry. Tares accordiag to Law^ and Actual Weight. (x[/^Those tares not marked actual are according to law. Almonds, per cent actl. Alum, casks, 12 do do Bristles, cronstadt, 12 per cent actl Buttor, do Efccf, do Cordage, raatts,, 1 3-4 p. c. actual Camphor, crude, in tubs, 35 do do do refinded, do Candles, boxes, 8 do Cassia, matt?. 8 do do do chests, ICOlbs. 20 do d« 31& THE AHTIST ANO Cinnamon, clioats, actual do mats, do Cloves, do Coooa. bags, 1 per cent, do casks, JO do do ccroons, 10 do do Chocolate, boxes, 10 do Coffee, bags, 2 do do do double, 4 lb do do bales,. 3 per cent do do casks, 12 do do Cotton, bales, 2 do ) do ceroons, /» do CurrantSj casks, 12 do do | Cheese, liamners I or baskets, 10 do do boxes, " 20 do Copper, casks, 12 do ' Candy Sugar in I baskets 5 do do I do Sugar in boxes 10 do do } Corks, sacks, 12 and 15 lbs. do Figs, boxes, GO lbs. lbs. actual do half do 3<> 5 1-4 do do qr- do 1.5 3 1-4 do do" drum.s, 1;? per cent. do do frails, 5 do do Flour, Wiicat, do Glue, acfual. Ginger, do Guunowder, " do Indigo^ bags or mats 3 per ct. nqi'I. do cerooiis, 10 do do do barrels, 12 do do do other casks, !5 do do do cases, 2 J do do Looking- Glasses, French, SOpcr ct. nctucil. Lines, do Lard, do Mice, cask:^ orkogs,33 per ct. act'l. Nutmegs, liggers, 21 per ct. act'l. Nails, casks, 8 do Ochre, French, 12 per ct. act'l. Pepper, bags, 2 per cent, do bales, 5 do do casks, 12 do j Pimento, bags, 3 do ! do bales, 5 do actual! do casks, 16 do Prunes, . actual. Pork, do Rairjias, Malaga, boxes, G lbs. 7 lbs. act'l. do do jars, 5