Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2013 http://archive.org/details/bootshoemanufactOOrich THE BOOT AND SHOE MANUFACTURERS' ASSISTANT AND GUIDE. CONTAINING A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE TRADE. AND THEIR APPLICATION TO THE MANUFACTURE OF BOOTS AND SHOES. FULL INSTRUCTIONS IN THE ART, WITH DIAGRAMS AND SCALES, ETC., ETC. VULCANIZATION AND STTLPHURIZ ATION, ENGLISH AND AMERICAN PATENTS. WITH AN ELABORATE TREATISE ON TANNING, " SUTOR ULTRA CREPIDAM." COMPILED AND EDITED BY W. H. RICHARDSON, Jr. " Give good hearing to those who give the first information in business. ' ' — Bacon. BOSTON: HIGGINS, BRADLEY & DAYTON, 20 Washington St. 1858. Entered according to Act of Congress in the year 1858, by W. H. RICHARDSON, Jr., In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of Massachusetts. PREFACE. In preparing the following pages, the author has aim- ed to supply a want hitherto unsupplied. No work devoted to the wants of the Boot and Shoe maker, man- ufacturer, or merchant, has ever been compiled. Able articles upon the " Trade," statistical statements, and general comments upon matters of interest local in their character, and having particular reference to the state of the times in which they were written, have been pub- lished, perused and forgotten. But no work, containing a history of this important mechanical interest, together with instructions in the science of the Boot and Shoe manufacture, has ever been written. The Author does not flatter himself that he has, by any means, exhausted so fruitful a subject, but that he has prepared and com- piled important facts and rules, and submitted valuable suggestions which are correct in theory, and practical in their application, he has not a doubt. Within a few years, this important industrial interest has assumed almost wonderful proportions, and it now towers in magnitude and importance, above all its com- peers. New elements have been introduced into the manufacture of boots and shoes, and fortunes have been expended in endeavoring to introduce new methods by iv PREFACE. which to cheapen 1 the process of manufacture, as well as the raw material. The introduction India-rubber and Gutta-percha as articles of mechanical use, has quick- ened the pulses of invention, and has already produced wonderful, and important changes in all departments of the mechanic arts, and more especially in that of boots and shoes. Already have these important vegetable gums, and the thousand uses of which they are suscep- tible, attracted the attention of the world, and last but not least, we are indebted to the discovery and use of Gutta-percha for the successful insulation of the Atlantic Gable, without which substance, the cable could not have been safely submerged. Establishments for the manufacture of India-rubber, and Gutta-percha, into al- most every conceivable shape, have sprung up, as it were in a day. Patents for its use and application, are constantly presenting themselves. Heretofore, it has been the policy of all interested in the manufacture of India-rubber and Gutta-percha, to surround their in- ventions with an air of mystery. "No admittance" has been blazoned upon their laboratories, and no " open sesame " pronounced by the uninitiated, has suc- ceeded in opening the doors to their carefully guarded treasures. In this work, we have endeavored to make clear, sim- ple, but important facts, scientific discoveries and obser- vations, which, from practical experience, we know to be of great utility. A collection of the most approved recipes for the preparation of compounds of India-rub- ber, and Gutta-percha, would alone, make a volume worthy of preservation. But we have endeavored to present all the important rules, practical hints, and observations, necessary to the manufacture of boots and shoes, also an important and economical method of re- . pairing the same. PREFACE. V Herein may be found a history of the discovery of India-rubber and Gutta-percha, its uses and applications, the inventions which they have called into existence, the patents that have been taken out, the " claims " set forth by different individuals, the causes of the failures of many of them, and a brief history of their pretensions. We herein introduce a process of manufacturing boots and shoes, of the most durable character, at about one- half the expense of the old method, by a process so simple that the humblest cordwainer in the land, no less than the wealthy and extensive manufacturer, can at once enter upon the field of competition ; but time and ex- periment will determine the real value and utility of Gutta-percha as a substitute for " pegs" and " stitches/ ' in the manufacture of boots and shoes. Particular attention has been given to the application of Gutta-percha, and India-rubber, in the manufacture of boots and shoes, inasmuch as it is a new field, and much interest is manifested by the " craft " to understand its value and use. Not least in the application of this process of shoe manufacture, is the invaluable benefit to be derived by all who wear thin soled shoes or boots, inasmuch as shoes thus made are impervious to water from the sole, thus allowing the most delicate lady to walk with impunity upon ground, wet by the morning shower, or evening dew. Perspiration of the foot is in no wise confined by this process, as it escapes from the upper portion of the shoe. The system of cutting Patterns, herein set forth, is alone worth the price of the work, as its simplicity, scientific correctness, and application to every description of boot or shoe, enables any mechanic possessing ordinary inge- nuity, to prepare sets of patterns for all classes of work desired. Diagrams, to assist the beginner are explained vi PREFACE. so clearly, that every important rule is at once under- stood. A "Treatise upon Tanning" is also introduced, in which the subject is treated in a comprehensive manner, and compilations from the most approved authorities are made. The history of Vulcanization, Adulterations of India- rubber, (caoutchouc) and gutta-percha, will be found to contain many important facts and suggestions. The author is indebted to various sources for many of the scientific and historical facts herein contained. First, to a Boston gentleman of high standing, long identified with the Boot and Shoe interest, for facts in the early history of the trade in New England. A great number of English works have been carefully examined, and such of their, contents as bear directly upon the elucidation of facts, and theories set forth, copied. The Scientific American, has also furnished us with many important facts and suggestions. All the practical and useful compounds herein describ- ed, with a few exceptions, are the results of long, patient, and laborious investigation ; also the process making boots and shoes by the new method, are from actual tests, and personal experiments. This portion of the work, or rather the facts therein set forth, were fur- nished by a gentleman who has devoted many years to the prosecution of experiments in gutta-percha, and India-rubber compounds. He is acknowledged to pos- sess great practical knowledge, and scientific research in tins department of mechanical art. A general, rather than a scientific compilation has been adopted, so that the work shall be found universal in its application, although addressed especially to the mechanic. All technicalities have been avoided as far PREFACE. as possible, and simple descriptions, and popular terms substituted. The " Assistant and Guide," is dedicated to all inter- ested in the great industrial interest which it represents. It is a humble pioneer in a new field, and is submitted with the hope that it may be found a valuable "assistant" to those just starting in the first years of their appren- ticeship—a "guide" to such as are desirous of per- fecting themselves in the calling to which their efforts are directed, and a " companion " to the merchant, and all who seek for information, in the thousand varied channels through which it flows. w. H. R. jr. Boston, October, 1858. * CONTENTS. Introduction — An account of the various styles of "covering for feet," before the Christian Era; with illustrations, xv BOOK X. CHAPTER I Importance of the Boot and Shoe Trade, -~ 9 CHAPTER II. Rise and Progress of the Boot and Shoe Trade, 14 CHAPTER III. Guttapercha — its Properties, Manufactures, &c, &c, 19 CHAPTER IV. Gutta Percha — its First Application as a Cement in the United States, : 39 CHAPTER V. Gutta Percha for Belts, Harnesses, &c. ; its Application to Wood Work, &c, 43 Testimonials, 45 CHAPTER VI. India Rubber — its Discovery, Uses, &c, 51 Cleaning Processes, Mackintosh Cloth, 56 Cutting Processes, India Rubber Liquid, Braids and Webs, . 59—60 Vulcanized; Comparison of India Rubber and Gutta Percha, 61 — 65 X CONTENTS. BOOK II. CHAPTER I. Preparation of Stock, 68 Middle Soles; Spur or Spring Lifts; To Prepare Leather Soles; To Prepare Counters; Preparation of Stock for Cloth Shoes; Preparation of the Upper Stock; To Prepare Uppers made of any description of Leather, or part Leather and Cloth; Instruc- tions for Lasting ; Cementing Processes after Lasting ; Direc- tions for applying Thick or Thin Soles to Shoes and Boots; Remarks on Finishing; Taps or Soles for Repairing; Prepar- ing the Boot or Shoe to be Repaired; Important Facts for Manufacturers ; Compounds for Heels of Shoes or Boots ; Va- rious Fibrous Compounds for Leather Soles, &c; Practical Hints. • CHAPTER II. Hints and Instructions on Pattern Cutting, 79 Diagrams on pages 82, 83, 84, 85, 87, 96, 97, 99; Fitting up Lasts for the Measurement of the Foot, 88 ; Cutting Boot Pat- terns, 89 ; Scales for Lasts, 91 ; Scales for Medium Proportions of Feet, 93; Directions for Pattern Cutting, 93—101. CHAPTER III. Instructions for Making French Custom Boots, Shoes and Gaiters, 130 BOOK III. CHAPTER I. Discovert of the Vulcanization and Sulphurizatiqn of In- dia Rubber in America, , 106 Nathaniel Hay ward, 109; Importance of the Discovery, 113; Causes of Failure, 114; Charles Goodyear, and Interesting Ac- count of his Trials, 114—124; Results. CHAPTER II. Vulcanization — Lnteresting Reflections, 128 CONTENTS. xi CHAPTER III. t Vulcanization — Tests of Quality of Native Gums, Power to be used in Manufacture, 136 ; Methods of Manufacture, &c. CHAPTER IV. Vulcanization — Importance of Gum Elastic for Educational Purposes, 142 CHAPTER V. Adulteration of India Rubber (Caoutchouc;) English System of Adulteration fully presented, 145—164 CHAPTER IV. Valuable Recipes — Purifying Gutta Percha, Marine Glue; India Rubber Armor; New Gutta Percha Com- position; India Rubber Varnish; Water-Proofing Oil; India . Rubber Teeth; Emery Paper, &c; Cheap Method of Making Leather Water Proof. BOOK IV. CHAPTER I. Gtjtta Percha Patents, First Patent by D. A. Brooman, fully described; Properties of GuttaPercha; Artificial Fuels ; Elastic Applications; Applica- tions in State of Solution; Patent for Improvements in Boots, Shoes and Gaiters, 181 ; Description of Patent, 182—186 ; Patent by Charles Hancock, Improvements in the Manufacture of Gutta Percha and its Application, 186: Description of Process of Making and Applying Varnishes to India Rubber Shoes, &c, 187; Method of Making Gutta Percha light, porous and spongy, 190; Varnishes, 192; Parke's Improvements in Dyeing, 195; Hancock's Patent for Improvements in Preparation of Gutta Percha, and Application to Manufacturing Purposes, 196—200; Re-Vulcanization, 200 ; Lorimier's Patent for Combining Gutta Percha and Caoutchouc with other materials, 203 ; Compounds for Boots, Shoes, &c; Hancock's Specification for Making xii CONTENTS. Water Proof Shoes, &c, 205; Claim for Making Shoes of Gutta Percha with other materials, 208; Cartley's Patent for Var- nishes, 210 ; Burke for Manufacture of Air-Proof and Water- Proof Fabrics, 211; Hancock's Patent for Gutta Percha Heel Tips, 213 ; Varnishes, 214; Gerard's Patent for Dissolving India Rubber and Gutta Percha, 217 ; Newton's Patent Applicable to Boots, Shoes, and other coverings for the feet, 219; N. S. Dodge's Improvements in Treating Vulcanized India Rubber and Gutta Percha. CHAPTER II. American Patents and Claims — Introductory, Synopsis of American Patents, commencing 1813, ending 1858, 232 — 284; Chaffee's Patent, Application of India Rubber to Cloth, 233; Goodyear's Patent, Divesting India Rubber of its Adhesive Qualities, 234; Hayward's Patent, Sulphur Prepar- ation, 237; Chilcott & Snell's Patent for Improvement in the Manufacture of Boots and Shoes, 255; Reynold's Patent for Composition in Tanning, 257; Edward Brown, for Improve- ment in Porous Elastic Cloth for Gaiters, 258 ; Hyatt & Meyer, Improvement in Manufacture of Boot and Shoe Soles of Gutta Percha and India Rubber, 258; J. A. Pease's Improvement in Over-Shoes, 262; Tyer & Helm's Improvement in Man- ufacture of Boots and Shoes, 264; Parmlee's Attaching Metallic Heels to India Rubber Soles, 265; Arthur's Machine for Cutting Boot and Shoe Uppers and Soles from India Rubber, 266 ; Rice & Whorf Improvement in Lasting and Applying Soles to Shoes, 269—272; Tyer & Helm, Making India Rubber Cloth, 271—272; Crockett, Making Sheets of Leather from Currier's Shavings or Buffings, 274; N. Hay ward, Preparing Elagjc India Rubber Cloth, 275; Thomas C. Wales' Water Proof Gaiter Shoes and Boots, 279; Samuel Whitmarsh, Composition for Artificial Lea- ther, 282; Boyden & Frederick's Composition for Varnishing Leather, 283; F. Baschnagel, for Restoring Waste Vulcanized Rubber, 284 ; Descriptive Index of Chemical Patents Issued in 1855-66, 284—285. Remarks.— Many of the Patents, described in this chapter, are not here referred to, as they are not particularly applicable to the Shoe and Leather interest CONTENTS. Xlll BOOK V. CHAPTER I. Tanning, 286 Description of the Art; Natural and Artificial Tanning, 289; Extent of the Business in the United States, 290. CHAPTER II. Tanning and the Tanning Woods of America, 293 CHAPTER III. Practical Hints on Tanning, 301 CHAPTER IV. Hibbard's Process of Tanning, 308 CHAPTER V. Tanning Peocesses, : 317 The Preller Process, 318; Tanning Buckskin, 321 ; New Method of Tanning, 322; Dexter's Process, 323^ Fair Leather, 325. CHAPTER VI. Patents for Tanning, 326 Hibbard's Patent, 326; Towle's Patent, 327; Enos & Hunt's, 328. 329 Appendix, Jenkins' Improved Heater and Press; Valuable Recipes for Guttapercha and India Rubber Cement for Boots and Shoes; Varnishes, Gums and Glues, 331; Black Varnish for Boot and Slioe Edges and Heels, 333; Water-Proof Cement, 334; Shellac Varnish, 335; Glues, 336— 339 ; Water-Proof Cloth, 340; Japan- ning Leather, 343 ; Gums, 344. Directory, • INTRODUCTION, The readers of the " Guide " will be interested in an examination of the various styles of shoes, or rather « coverings for the feet," that have prevailed, dating some fifteen hundred years prior to the advent of Christ. Some of the most unique, we have had engraved from Cantrell's designs, which we here furnish, to give correct views. The first attempt, of which we have any account, to give style to the coverings of the feet, produced the°Sandal. These differed in style, though slightly varied in form. Those used by the poorer classes were constructed of flat slices of the palm leaf, which, lapped over in the centre, formed the sole, and a double band of twisted leaves secured and strength- ened the edge ; a thong of the strong fibres of the same plant was affixed to each side of the instep, and was secured round the foot, while those indulg- ed in by the more wealthy classes were made of lea- ther, and were frequenty lined with cloth, the point or end turning up like a pair of modern skates. The sandal reached its greatest perfection among the Ro- mans. The emperor Aurelian gave the royal permis- sion to the ladies of his time to wear sandals of various colors, the men not being permitted, to indulge in so great a luxury. The Roman senators wore buskins of xvi INTRODUCTION. a black color, with a crescent of gold or silver on the top of the foot, while the soldiers wore simple sandlas fastened by thongs. In the reign of Edward the Third, of England, those who worked at the shoe trade, were denominated the " gentle craft," as they produced shoes of the most gorgeous description, the richest contrasts of color were elaborated and the great- est variety of pattern devised. Fig. 1 in this plate displays a beautiful design. It is supposed to be worn by one of the royal family. y if INTRODUCTION. t xvii The English shoe of the middle ages is " beyond all Greek, beyond all Roman fame." The second specimen in the engraving is simpler in design, but not less strik- ing in effect, being colored jet black, and worn with red hose. Another curious fashion of those times was — see Fig. 3. The left shoe was black and the stocking blue, the other leg of the wearer being clothed in a black stocking and a white shoe. This shoe was cut very low over the instep, the h'eel being entirely cover- ed, and a band fastened by a small buckle or button passing round the ankle secured it to the foot. Coming down to the reign of Richard II., boots and shoes were made of great length, so that they were chain ed to the knee of the wearer, that he might walk with some degree of freedom. Of course, only the nobility could afford so expensive a method of locomotion. Extremes were introduced from time to time, as in our own day. During the reign of Edward III., it was enacted that any shoemaker working for the " unprivileged classes,' 1 should not make any shoes, the toes which should ex- ceed two inches in length, under a penalty of twenty shillings. This edict had the effect to widen the toes to a most absurd extent ; this fashion was followed by a proclamation from Queen Mary, that the width of the toes should not exceed six inches. The mania for wearing expensive shoes, in 1588, was only exceeded in folly by the Tulip excitement at a later date in Holland. Large sums were expended in shoe decorations. The poet Taylor alluding to this extrava- gance thus writes of those who, " Wear ufann in shoe strings edged with gold, And spangled garters worth a copy hold.'" In the reign of Charles I., boots, which were made of elegant Spanish leather, of a buff color, were cut so large « xviii INTRODUCTION. and wide at the top, that the wearer was obliged to stride so ridiculously, that it afforded much sport for the satirists of that age. In the time of Cromwell, large boot tops were worn by the Puritans, but were not adorned with lace. Upon the restoration of Charles II. came the enormous French boot, in which the courtiers of " Louis le grand 7 ' delighted to show their legs. The accompanying cut will furnish an idea of the amplitude of the tops. The boot is adorned with lace around the upper part, and that portion of the boot into which the leg is inserted was fitted with pliant leather ; over the instep is a broad band of leather, beneath which the spur was fastened. The shoes in the following cut were such as were worn by the ladies during the reign of William III. The clog beneath the shoe on the left side, was simply a piece of stout leather, evidently intended to protect the feet from excessive moisture. The distinguishing INTRODUCTION. xix mark of gentility in the reign of George I. and II., was red heels. The ladies preferred silk or velvet to leather, and the favorite shoe worn by the ladies of the court were made of figured blue silk vvith bright red heels and silver buckles. The above cut was the style worn in 1180. Ten years later a change occurred by which ladies' shoes were made flat and low, like the slipper of the present day. A picture by Fores was published in 1191, of a shoe worn by the duchess of York. The shoe was made of green silk, ornamented with gold stars, and bound with scarlet silk ; the heel was scarlet and shaped exactly in the modern style. Shoe buckles disappeared about the commencement of the present century, and were succeeded by the plain shoe string. In England the Prince of Wales endeav- ored to preserve the custom, by persisting in their use, in order to sustain the buckle-makers, but imperious fashion was too powerful for even the influence of the great. The accompanying cut represents a variety of shoes worn by females. No. 1 is the sandal of a Russian lady of 1168. The second that of a female of Finland, a low, slipper-like shoe, secured by a band across the instep, having an ornamental clasp, like a brooch, to secure it on each side of the foot ; it was probably a coarsely made piece of jewelry, with glass or cheap stones set around it, as the people of this country at that time were fond of such showy decorations, particularly upon their sh >es. XX INTRODUCTION. No. 3 is a production of the same country, and is simi- lar to those worn by the matrons of the upper classes. No. 4 is the shoe of a Tartarian lady of 157 T. Nos. 5 and 6 are examples of the shoes of oriental ladies, which are sometimes highly ornamented ; the covering part being wrought with gold, silver, and silk, and perhaps set with jewels, real or imitated. The shoes of noble- men are of similar construction. They were no doubt easy to wear INTRODUCTION. xxi Not so are the ladies shoes, for they only were allow- ed the privilege of discomfort, fashion having in this country declared in favor of small feet, and the preju- dice of the people having gone with it, the feet of all ladies of decent rank in society, are cramped in early life, by being placed in so strait a confinement, that their growth is retarded, and they are not more than three or four inches in length, from the toe to the heel. By the smallness of the foot the rank or high-breeding of the lady is decided on, and the utmost torment is endured by the girls in early life, to insure themselves this distinction in rank ; the lower classes of females not xxii INTRODUCTION. being allowed to torture themselves in the same manner. The Chinese poets frequently indulge in panegyrics on the beauty of these crippled members of the body, and none of their heroines are considered perfect without excessively small feet, when they are affectionately termed by them " the little golden lilies." It is need- less to say that the tortures of early youth are succeed- ed by a crippled maturity, a Chinese lady of high birth being scarcely able to walk without assistance. These shoes are generally made of silk and embroidered in the most beautiful manner, with flowers and ornaments in colored silk and threads of gold and silver. A piece of stout silk is generally attached to the heel for the con- venience of pulling up the shoe. The Turkish ladies of the sixteenth century, and very probably much earlier, wore a very high shoe known in Europe by the name of a " chopine." This fashion, spread in Europe in the early part of the seventeenth century, and it is alluded to by Hamlet, in act ii., scene 2, when he exclaims, " Your ladyship is nearer heaven than when I saw you last, by the altitude of a chopine," by which it appears that something of the kind was known in England, where it may have been introduced from Venice, as the ladies there wore them of the most extravagant size. Coryat, in his ''Crudities,'* 1611, says: " There is one thing used by the Venetian women, and some others dwelling in the cities and towns subject to signiory of Venice, that is not to be observed (I think) among any other women in Christendom. 7 7 The reader must re- member that it was new to Coryat, but a common fash- ion in the East. The engraving is intended to represent a singular fashion once adopted by the Venetians. It is called a chapiney. They were of various heights, some half a yard, the tallest being worn by the shortest INTRODUCTION. XX111 women, although the height and ornament usually de- signated the nobility. They were curiously painted and gilded. It required the utmost skill to balance upon the chapines : the ladies always in public, were support- ed by two servants or old women, upon whose heads the ladies placed their hands, and in this ridiculous manner proceeded to their gondolas. The sabot, a shoe peculiar to France, is here represent- ed. They are quite clumsy, but warm and comfortable. Those usually worn are entirely plain, and the color of the wood. The modern styles of boots and shoes do not require any particular description. The Gaiter Boot inaugura- ted a new era in the history of " coverings for the feet," and its introduction is attributed to the Counts* of xxiv INTRODUCTION. Blessington. This boot was found tobe troublesome, owing to the necessity of lacing and mating, the tags breaking off, holes wearing out, and such like annoy- ances. All these difficulties were obviated in a great measure by the introduction of the Elastic Gaiter. American skill and ingenuity has completely rivalled the most elegant specimes of Parisian handicraft, and the importation of French gaiters, which was once quite extensive, has almost or quite ceased. Most of the so- called French manufacture is the product of American artizans. This "amiable deception is practiced in order to gratify the whims of those who lack confidence in the skill and taste of American manufacturers. An anecdote illustrative of this prejudice is general in its application. The incident related, occurred in a Broad- way establishment, New York. A lady, after examining the slippers of the tradesman, said, " Mr. , why do you not import your slippers from Paris V " Madam," was the reply, "I have already sent out an order, and I expect every day the arrival of an extensive assortment : if you will call in in about a week, I think I can furnish you with just the article you desire." The lady left, promising to return, and Mr. visited his* printer and had a number of "tickets," bearing the name of an imaginary French shoemaker, struck off, and by her next visit he was pre- INTRODUCTION. XXV pared with a " very extensive assortment." She was fitted with a pair, and after extolling- the style, elegance, and comfort of her slippers, insulted the tradesman by enquiring "why he did not make such shoes." The Americans are rapidly securing to themselves a superiority over all other nations in this important man- ufacturing interest, and in a few years boots and shoes of American manufacture will be regarded as the ne plus ultra of the art. BOOK I. CHAPTER L IMPORTANCE OP THE BOOT AND SHOE TRADE. The great importance of the Boot and Shoe Trade in the New England and Middle States, and the vast amount of capital devoted to its development, the energy, brains, and perseverance of its leading men, place this branch of the mechanic arts high on the list of the great industrial interests of the age. It is, therefore, a matter of surprise, that some work has not appeared which should contain important scientific, statistical, and practical information con- cerning the rise and progress of the Shoe and Leather interests. Works upon Tanning have been published, covering many of the collateral branches of that science, and "fugitive articles occasionally appear, giving accounts of new discoveries, or new applica- tions of old methods, concerning the preparation of leather, &c. ; but in the manufacture of boots and shoes, no work has ever appeared which would enable the shoe-maker to make any advancement in his call- ing, other than that which his own observation or genius might suggest. The Boston Board of Trade 10 IMPORTANCE OF THE publish annual Reports in which appear able articles upon the Shoe and Leather interests, but these, of course, are mainly statistical and financial in their character. There is published, also, in Boston, New York, and Philadelphia, simultaneously, the Shoe and Leather Reporter, by J. D. Field & Co., a valu- able journal, devoted exclusively to the trade in boots and shoes, leather, hides and its collateral branches, also market reports and correspondence from various portions of the world. This paper is the only organ, we believe, devoted exclusively to the shoe and leather interests. Systems of measure- ment, the cutting of patterns, preparation of stock, all of which can be gained by study and application, have been, as it were, sealed from the direct investi- gation of the inquiring mind. In other branches of the mechanic arts, volumes have been published, and the ambitious student pursues his investigations from primary principles to ultimate results in regu- lar gradations. In the science of shoe manufacture, we must refer for information principally to English works ; and even these are collateral, rather than direct, in their application. Dodd's British Manufactories, Brande's Encyclopedia, Dictionary of Arts and Sciences, Pen- ny Cyclopedia, Results of the Late Exhibition, (Lon- don,) — all these are the repositories of much that has been written upon the leather interests ; sources of information which none but the man of leisure, or the enterprising compiler, would be likely to trace out. It may be said that the simplicity of this branch BOOT AND SHOE TRADE. 11 of the mechanic arts does not require that degree of study and investigation which the more abtruse and complicated sciences demand, and hence there is no necessity for works upon the subject. This objection is only true in part. It requires the nicest adaptation of skill to make a perfectly fitting shoe or boot, and no man, unless he who is fully conversant with the rules and principles which enter into the preparation of the stock, the correct measurement of the foot, the " cutting out " of the several parts of the stock, the lasting and fitting of the shoe or boot, can be successful in his profession. The making of an easy, elegantly fitting boot, requires a knowledge of the anatomy of the foot, a familiar acquaintance with the angles, lines and curves, which are involved in the perfect adjustment of part to part, and their relative positions. Most shoe manufacturers, and ordinary villag3 shoemakers, learn their trades from their fathers, and the knowledge has been handed down from generation to generation, without change or improvement, and shoes are made to fit lasts, rather than the feet which are to wear them. Hence intelli- gent instinct has taken the place of intelligent knowl- edge, and progressive investigation. The workman knows nothing of the anatomy of the foot, the science of pattern cutting, and therefore works on as though all feet were cast in one mould, with the simple dif- ference which the " sizes " indicate. These " sizes," as is clearly shown in another portion of this work, are regularly incorrect. Hence, in the absence of a correct standard, the system of boot and shoe making 12 IMPORTANCE OF THE is simply the following of established mechanical rules, upon a false foundation. We refer in these remarks to the manufacture of what is known as " sale work." There are many, very many, " custom workers," who proceed by cor- rect rules, and upon scientific principles ; men who understand how to adapt the shoe or boot to the foot, so that when the customer first draws the boot or shoe on, it fits naturally and easily, adapting itself to any, and every deformity or slight irregularity which the foot may present. We make general statements, which every intelligent shoemaker, or large manufacturer, will at once acknowledge. The whole trouble arises from the want of some correct standard by which to be guided in the preparation of the stock for the workman. All this cannot be gained but by study, patient investigation, and* the practical application of scientific rules. The French are generally acknowledged to under- stand the art of boot and shoe making better than those of any other nation, and they have carried the science to a degree of perfection not yet attained by ourselves, except in a few comparatively isolated cases. The whole secret of their success is their patient perseverance, and artistic skill in understand- ing the rules which are vitally essential to success. In another chapter we have devoted consider- able space to the elucidation of the principles of measurement, pattern cutting, and such instructions as will enable the manufacturer — and in this term we comprise all who are engaged in this important BOOT AND SHOE TRADE. 13 branch of our industrial interests — to become a scientific proficient in his vocation. This work, however, as its title indicates, is de- voted more specifically to the application of Gutta- percha, and the various Rubber compounds, in the manufacture of boots and shoes. Yet we regard the principles of their manufacture, as equally important, and as vitally essential, to the perfect fitting of the boot or shoe, whether sewed, pegged, or cemented. CHAPTER II. RISE AND PROGRESS OF THE BOOT AND SHOE TRADE. The Boot and Shoe Trade of New England is of comparatively modern date. The first vessel, the sloop Delight, ever freighted at Boston with a full cargo of boots and shoes, sailed for the port of New York, in the month of May, 1818, con- signed to Spofford & Tileston, then the largest boot and shoe jobbers in New York. This firm then com- menced supplying the shipping demand from that port, instead of Boston. The manufacture, then, was confined to the New England States, but it soon commenced to take a wider scope. The trade in- creased rapidly, but eleven years later, 1829, there were only four jobbing houses in New York. In Boston, the centre of the trade, the whole jobbing trade for 1828 did not exceed but little over one million of dollars. The trade has increased to an almost wonderful extent. It now forms one-third of the whole manufacturing power of the country ; New England and Pennsylvania retaining two-thirds. In the city of Boston there are about two hundred and eighteen wholesale and jobbing boot and shoe 14 THE BOOT AND SHOE TRADE. 15 houses, doing business to the amount of fifty- two millions of dollars annually. In New York there are about fifty-five jobbing houses, whose aggregate sales reach from fifteen to sixteen millions yearly. The domestic and foreign boot and shoe trade of the State of Massachusetts alone, amounts to be- tween fifty-five and sixty millions annually. The shipments from Boston to San Francisco for 1856, were $2,100,000. The manufacture of boots and shoes is the largest domestic trade in the States, and there is no country or nation that can successfully compete with us, either as regards prices or quality. Common styles of goods, such as men's pegged boots and brogans, women's pegged and common sewed shoes and gait- ers, are manufactured in the following villages of New England, viz : Lynn, Haverhill, Worcester, Mil- ford, Natick, Randolph, Abington, the Readings, Dan- vers, Georgetown, Stoughton, Woburn, and several other towns in Massachusetts. The amount of capi- tal employed in the city of Worcester, in the boot and shoe business, is one hundred and seventy-six thousand dollars ; the annual value of boots and shoes manufactured, about one million of dollars. The total value of boots manufactured in Milford, Mass., in 1857, was upwards of two millions of dollars. The amount would have greatly exceeded that estimate had not the financial troubles of the country prostrated this, in common with every other manufacturing interest. According to present indica- tions, the manufactories of Milford, this year, 1858, will nearly, or quite, reach the value of four millions 16 RISE AND PROGRESS OF of dollars. The city of Lynn, Mass., has employed in this business, about five thousand workmen, and its sales for the year 1857, exceeded four millions of dollars. Each New England village, town or city, where this industry is carried on, is devoted to one kind of boot or shoe, and whole communities are built up by this special industry. Some idea of the importance and extent of the boot, shoe and leather interest may be inferred from the fact, that there are forty-one thousand men in Massachusetts who work upon leather, either in manufacturing the article or mould- ing it into various forms. Every eighth man in the State is a shoemaker. The Shoe and Leather Trade of Boston takes its date, as a prominent branch of commerce, about the year 1830, caused principally by the change made in conducting the business. It was formerly the cus- tom for Manufacturers and Dealers in Boots and Shoes to seek a market for their goods, by consign- ment on their own account, to New York, Philadel- phia, Baltimore, Charleston, Savannah, New Orleans, Havana, and other West India Islands. It was found to be remunerative for a while, but on the increase and competition of trade, it became a losing business. The leading houses failed. Since 1828 and 1829, an entire change in the method of con- ducting the shoe business has taken place. Manu- facturers and Dealers now sell their goods on their own account instead of consigning them to other States. The consequence is that Boston is made THE BOOT AND SHOE TRADE. 17 not only the head-quarters for nearly all the manu- factories of New England ; and although the city of Lynn and the towns of Haverhill, Danvers, &c, sell a large portion of their goods at home, a large num- ber of the manufactories have offices in Boston for the sale of their goods. If the domestic trade of Boston had been conducted on the home principle, the expansion of the city would have greatly exceed- ed its present limits. The great industrial and trading interest is a cor- rect type of New England thrift and industry. No branch of our mechanical pursuits is conducted with so much safety, energy and intelligent perseverance, as is the great Boot and Shoe interest. When con- vulsions come which rend in pieces other commercial or internal trading interests, the boot, shoe and leath- er trade, is the last to succumb, and the first to rein- state itself. The great financial crisis of 1857, thor- oughly tried the strength of this branch of trade, and nobly did it sustain itself, even extending the helping hand to such as required assistance. Especially ap- plicable is the latter remark to the merchants of Boston. All this demonstrates the soundness of their basis — the back-bone which enables the Shoe and Leather interest to hold itself up under a pres- sure which easily crushes all departments of trade and commerce built up on a paper foundation. The peculiar characteristics of the boot and shoe trade, its democratic elements, its freedom from all monopoly, gives it a strength and power which cor- porations can never wield. Every man is his own 18 THE BOOT AND SHOE TRADE. director, and as all interested are subject to, and dependent upon, their individual shrewdness and enterprise, it is every seldom that success fails to crown their efforts. The day is not far distant when all our industrial interests will be conducted upon a like basis, and corporations cease to exist. CHAPTER III. GUTTA-PERCHA — ITS PROPERTIES., MANUFACTURE, &C. The almost numberless uses to which this re- markable gum has been, and is applied, has awaken- ed an interest in the public mind concerning its discovery, and its uses, and especially the different applications, and their methods. The discovery of Gutta-Percha is comparatively recent. The first that was known of this wonderful production by Europeans, was in the year 1845. Dr. Montgomerie, an English gentleman, residing at Singapore, observed in the hands of a Malay wood- chopper, a strange material used for a handle to his axe. Curious to learn its nature, he questioned the native, and ascertained that he procured it from a tree in the form of sap ; that upon exposure to the air it became solid ; also, that in immersing it in hot water it became soft and piastre, and could be moulded into any desired form. Dr. Montgomerie at once obtained samples of the material, which he forwarded to the London Society of Arts and Sciences, with a description regarding it. After subjecting it to various tests, the Society were unanimous in their opinion concerning its great value. They awarded to Dr. M. a gold medal for the valuable knowledge 10 20 GUTTA PERCH A, thus communicated to the manufactories of the world. It is observable, however, that this substance may be said to have had two European discoverers, in- dependent of each other ; for the tree, and the gum which exudes from it, were discovered or observed by Mr. Thomas Lobb. This gentleman visited the islands of the Indian seas in 1842-3, on a botanical mission, as agent to Messrs. Yeitch, the scientific and energetic florists of Exeter ; and it was during his rambles that he became acquainted with the gutta- percha tree. In proportion as the value of this substance has become known, so has a desire extended to ascertain the range of its growth in the East. It is now known that the gutta-percha tree abounds in that extreme south-eastern point of Asia, which obtains the name of the Malay Peniasula ; in the neighboring island of Singapore ; i* the important Bornean inland, which Rajah Brooke has been the means of making * so familiarly known to us ; and in various islands which constitute the Eastern Archipelago. There seems very little cause to apprehend any failure in quantity ; for even if the present supply from the neighborhood of Singapore should be exhausted, the capabilities of more distant islands are quite beyond present calculation. It appears that percha (of which the pronunciation is pertsha, not perka or persha) is the Malayan name for the tree which produces the gum ; while gutta is a general name for any gum which exudes from a tree. The tree belongs, of course, to the group in ITS PROPERTIES, ETC. 21 which botanists place sapotaceous or gum-exuding genera. The wood of the tree, being soft and spongy, is applied to many useful purposes. The fruit yields a thick oil, which is used by the natives with their food ; and either from this or some other parts of the tree an ardent spirit is capable of being distilled. But it is the sap which forms the most valuable product of the tree. It circulates in small vessels which run up between the bark and the wood. Thrifty methods are teachable to rude islanders, as to more civilised men, when the advantages have been once made apparent. The natives around Sing- apore, when they first found a market for the solidi- fied gum, proceeded ruthlessly to work ; they killed the bird which laid the golden eggs, by cutting down the trees in order to obtain the gum. But they have now been taught better ; it is shown to them how, by tapping or cutting notches in the branches at certain intervals of time, the sap may be made to flow, without endangering the life of the tree. Ex- periments are now being made to determine whether the gutta-percha tree can be planted so as to main- tain a continuous and inexhaustible store of gum or sap ; should these attempts succeed, the supply would equal any imaginable demand. The gutta-percha is sold at Singapore by weight, according to the apparent quality of each lump ; but, when the consignment reaches England, it is not unfrequently found that a large stone or a piece of heavy wood is imbedded in the heart of it, to in- crease the weight. It would entail a serious loss of time to cut open each lump at the time of purchase ; 22 GUTTA-PERCHA, so that at present Oriental honesty is rather an im- portant element in the commercial value of this article. There is, too, a great amount of difference in the quantity of bark, leaves, and dirt, which be- come accidentally mixed up with the gum. The crude gum is imported to the extent of about two millions of pounds annually. GUTTA-PERCHA IN *TJ1E FACTORY. The extensive and highly interesting establishment of the Gutta-Percha Company, situated near the City Road Basin of the Regent's Canal, is worthy of attention even beyond the general average of such centres of industry, for the peculiar character of the substance operated upon necessitates the employment of new processes, new machines, and new tools. An incessant course of invention has marked the manu- facturing history of this material during the brief period of its existence. If the gutta-percha is to be applied to some new useful purpose, tools and pro- cesses of novel character have to be employed ; if an ftnameiital application is determined on, methods are adopted for developing any natural beauty which the grain of the substance may present ; if an at- tempt be made to supercede leather, or wood, or papier-macho, or metal, by this singular gum, great pains are bestowed on a study of the special qualities to be imitated, and the process of imitation often re- quires operations and tools differing considerably from those before employed. The first process consists in cutting the block into slices. There is a vertical wheel, on the face of ITS PROPERTIES, ETC. 23 which are fixed three knives or blades ; and while this wheel is rotating with a speed of two hundred turns a minute, a block of gutta-percha is supplied to it, and speedily cut into thin slices — much on the same principle as a turnip-cutter performs its work. Woe to the steel edges if a stone be imbed- ded in the block. These slices show that the gutta-percha is by no means uniform in different parts, either in color or texture. To bring about a uniformity is the object of the' shredding or tearing process. The slices are thrown into a tank of water, which is heated by steam to such a temperature a§ to soften the mass ; dirt and heavy impurities fall to the bottom, leaving a pasty mass of gum ; and the mass being thrown into another rotating machine, is there so torn and rent, and dragged asunder by jagged teeth, as to be reduced to fragments. The fragments fall into water, upon the surface of which (owing to the small specific gravity of the material) they float, while any remaining dirt or impurity falls to the bottom. These fragments are next converted into a dough-like substance by another softening with hot water, and the dough undergoes a thorough knead- ing ; it is placed in hollow heated iron cylinders, in which revolving drums so completely turn and squeeze and mix the now purified mass, that all parts become alike, and every particle presents a family likeness to its neighbor. The kneaded state may be considered the dividing line between the preparatory processes and those which relate to the fashioning of the material. The 24 GUTTA-PERCHA, soft ductile mass may be formed either into sheets or tubes. In forming sheets the mass is passed be- tween steel rollers, placed at a distance apart cor- responding with the thickness of the sheet to be made — whether for the heels of a rough-booted pedestrian, or for the delicate " gutta-percha tissue," now so much employed by surgeons. By the time that the substance has passed through the rollers it has cooled sufficiently to assume a solid, firm con- sistency. By the adjustment of a few knife edges, the sheet may be cut into bands, or strips of any width, before leaving the machine. In making tubes and pipes, the soft* mass of kneaded gutta-percha is passed through heated iron cylinders, where a sin- gular modification of the wire-drawing process re- duces it to the desired form and dimensions. From the sheets and tubes thus made, mimberless articles are produced by cutting and pressing. Ma- chines, somewhat like those used in cutting paper, are employed to cut the gutta-percha into pieces. If for shoe-soles, a cutting press produces a dozen or so at one movement ; if for string, or thread, narrow parallel slips are cut, which are then rounded or finished by hand ; if for producing stamped decora- tive articles, the sheets are cut into pieces, and each piece is warmed and softened to enable it to take xhe impress of a mould, or die. But the mode of casing copper wire for electro-telegraphic purposes is, perhaps, one of the most singular applications of the material in the form of a sheet. Several wires are laid parallel, a strip of guttapercha is placed be- tween them, another strip is placed a%f£ them, and ITS PROPERTIES, ETC. 25 the whole are passed between two polished grooved rollers ; the pressure binds the two surfaces of the gutta-percha firmly together and to the wires, while the edges between the grooves indent the gutta- percha so deeply, that it may easily be separated longitudinally, each slip containing its own core of copper. GUTTA-PERCHA BOATS. When Lady Franklin fitted out an expedition in search of her gallant husband, a year or two ago, Captain Forsyth, the commander of the vessel, took out with him a gutta-percha boat, presented for that purpose by Messrs. Seaiie. His account of the be- havior of this boat, under the rough usage to which it was subjected in the ice-bound regions of the north, is most laudatory. He states that " whilst the other boats constructed of wood suffered much by the cut- ting of the young ice, the gutta-percha boat was not in the least damaged, and returned to England in almost as good condition as when she left, although she underwent all the rough work of the voyage." Mr. Snow, who had especial charge of the gutta- percha boat belonging to the 6 Prince Albert,' has* detailed in a $lear manner the remarkable way in which this material resists the rude buffetings of those regions. It must be remembered that the boat had a skeleton of wood and a covering of India rubber. Mr. Snow says, " The severest trial it endured, and endured successfully, was on both my visits to Whal- er Point, Port Leopold. To those unaccustomed to the nature of such ice as was there met with, it will 2 GUTTA-PERCHA, be impossible fully to conceive the position a boat was placed in. The mere transit to and fro, among loose masses of ice, with the sea in a state of qui- escence, would have been quite enough to have prov- ed or not the value of gutta-percha boats ; but when, as in the present case, those masses were all in rest- less agitation, with a sea rolling in upon an opposing current, it might have been well excused — and with- out deteriorating from the previously attested good- ness of the article — if it had not been able to have resisted the severe shocks it received Sliding through and over the ice ; sometimes lift- ed completely out of the water by the sudden contact of a resistless floe ; and at others thrown side-ways upon an adjoining craggy piece ; I think it would have been next to impossible for any other kind of boat to have been otherwise than crushed or «6tove on the instant.'' It was in a right spirit that the explorers gave the name of " Guttapercha Inlet" to the spot where the boat had rendered them such important service. GUTTA-PERCHA MISCELLANEOUS APPLICATIONS. A rare catalogue we should present, if all the use- ful applications of gutta-percha wer# duly set forth. We should have to speak of breast-coating for water- wheels, of galvanic batteries, of shuttle-beds for looms, of packing for steam-engines and pumps, of cricket and bouncing balls, of felt-edging for paper making, of curtain rings whose merit is noise- lessness, of window-blind cord and sash lines, of clothes' lines (recommended to the laundress as de- ITS PROPERTIES, ETC. 27 fying all attacks of weather,) of bosses for flax-spin- ning frames, of whips and sticks, of policemen's and ' special constables" staves, of flax-holders for heck- ling machines, of skates, of fencing sticks, of washers for the axles of wheels, of plugs or solid masses used in buildings, of buffers for railway carriages, of gunpowder canisters (which 'keep the powder dry,') of sheet-covering for damp wails, of linings for ladies' bonnets, of jar covers, of sponge bags, of foot baths, of funnels, of goldsmith's bowls, of bob- bins for spinning machines, of covers for rollers, of book covers, of moulds for electrotypes, of coffin linings, of sounding boards, of portmanteaus, of beds for paper-cutting machines, of fine and coarse thread, of envelope boxes, of powder flasks, of port- folios, of a stopping for hollow teeth — a tolerable list, this, which shows how multiplied are the appli- cations for which this singular vegetable product is available. GUTTA-PERCHA — ORNAMENTAL WORK. When softened by heat, this substance will take the impress of a mould or stamp with delicate pre- cision ; and in the course of a few minutes it re- assumes its tough state, retaining permanently the pattern given to it. The power of application is thus unlimited, or limited only by the inclination of the purchaser. Whether the mould be of copper or of brass, of pear tree or of box, an impress can equal- ly well be obtained from it. In practice, all these four materials are employed, and sometimes others, The mould being carved and in a state of readiness, 28 GUTTA-PERCHA, tho piece of gutta-percha (always, or nearly always, in the form of sheet) is laid upon a marble slab, which is heated by steam from beneath ; and the gum being thus brought into a pliant and yielding state, it is placed on or in the mould, a counter mould is laid upon it, and the action of a press forces the ma- terial into the minutest parts of the device. If tha^ pattern be deep and the relief bold, a hydraulic pres- sure of a hundred or a hundred and fifty tons is brought to bear upon it; but if of lighter and simpler character, a hand-press is brought into re- quisition, i In this way, aided by minor manipulation, are produced the varied and ever-increasing specimens of ornamental gutta-percha work. Trays arc pro- duced of every imaginable (or at least of every usable) form and pattern : bread trays, biscuit trays, cotton or work-table trays, counter or card-table trays, pen trays, pin trays, card tray's, soap trays, shaving trays, &c. Then there are work-baskets and hand baskets, flower vases and bouquet holders, plates and platters, decanter stands and watch stands, bas-reliefs and alto-reliefs. The desk fittings admit of much beauty in this material ; inkstands are produced in most diverse forms ; while pen trays, paper weights, wafer boxes, envelope boxes, &c, are beginning to establish a formidable rivalry to the similar articles made in papier-mache. Beauty, pattern, graining, clouding, or whatever we may choose to term it, is produced in a very remarkable way on the surface of gutta-percha. Some specimens of gutta-percha are darker than others, and all have a tendency to ITS PROPERTIES, ETC. 29 darken by age ; and the workman dexterously avails himself of these vary in g tints to produce a pattern. Be softens two or more pieces, of different tints, passes them between two rollers to thoroughly unite and amalgamate them, and then presses them into the mould ; leaving it to the freaks of chance to bring out the wavy lines, the curls, the streaks, the knots, which the intermixture of tints produces. This diversity is not very apparent at first ; but it becomes developed when the substance is polished, and considerably enhances the beauty of the article produced. GUTTA-PERCHA PIPES AND TUBES. Water-pipes have had a few vicissitudes in their history. Those who remember the arrangements for the water-supply of London, in past days, will have been familiar, with the wooden pipes, formed of bored trunks of trees, which were wont to be laid down beneath the paving of the streets. These gave way to iron. The smaller pipes have chiefly been made of lead ; but zinc in one quarter, brown ware in another, glass in another, have invaded the domain of lead. A new competitor now enters the field. Gutta-per- cha claims to be not merely an efficient material for water-pipes, but to possess certain sanitary qualities very important in this sanitary age of ours. It is very strong and tough (say the patentees) ; it pos- sesses much durability underground ; it stoutly resists frost ; and it leaves the water as pure as it finds it. Hence it is applied to pump barrels, to ships' pumps, to locomotive feed-pipes, to syphons and mine-pipes, 30 GUTTA-PERCHA, and to fire-engine pipes. But if the testimony of medical men is to be deemed authoritative, the sub- stitution of gutta-percha for lead as a material for water-pipes is a matter of yet higher import. Dr. Thomas Smith, of Cheltenham, states that " Many serious and alarming disorders, such as mania, epi- lepsy, sudden death, nervous affection, paralysis, con-^ sumption, hydrocephalus, heart disease, owe their origin in some instances, their intractable character in others, to the gradual and continuous infinitesimal doses of lead, copper, &c, introduced into the system through the channel of our daily drink." It appears that the carbonic acid contained in water has a ten- dency to combine with the lead of the pipe which con- tains it, and to generate a compound possessing poi- sonous qualities. That gutta-percha resists such action, all authorities agree ; and although at first the gum imparts a slight taste to the water, this effect seems speedily to disappear. There are many other circumstances which render tubes of this material very advantageous for the con- veyance of water. It bears an amount of friction and hard usage which is frequently surprising. At New York there is a gutta-percha pipe a thousand feet in length, which conveys the water of the great Croton Aqueduct to BlackwelPs Island ; the pipe lies along the bed of the intervening river, and is kept down by upwards of a hundred small anchors, and yet it resists both the friction of the bed and the weight of the anchors. With an immense pressure of water, gutta- percha pipes have been found to remain unharmed, where leather hose would be disrupted. It resists ITS PROPERTIES, ETC. 31 the action of marine insects, which would soon make ravages on stout timber. If water be contained in a gutta-percha pipe, it remains liquid at a tempera- ture which would produce ice in almost any other pipes. For watering gardens and roads, for sprink- ling malt in a kiln, for applying water from a fire engine, these pipes appear to be singularly well fitted, since, with a great power of resisting pressure, they may be bent, or twisted, or lengthened, or shortened, in any required degree. Nor is this material, per se, the only efficient part of such pipes ; for a gutta-per- cha pipe may be firmly united to a metal pipe in five minutes, with no other cement than warm water ; the end of the pipe being softened in warm water, and drawn over the end of the metal, the gum contracts on cooling so as to grasp the metal tightly, and thus form an impenetrable joint. But if water be conveyed thus effectively through tubes of gutta-percha, the qualities of the material are still more remarkably displayed in the conveyance of chemical liquids. Few persons are so ignorant of chemistry as not to be aware that the stronger acids and alkalies play sad havoc with the vessels and tubes which contain them. On the other hand, there is an obstinacy of constitution about this singular substance which enables you to battle a whole host of formida- ble opponents. It does yield, certainly, to concen- trated sulphuric and nitric acids ; but if these acids in a weaker state be the liquids in question, or if muriatic, acetic, or hydrofluoric acids, or chlorine (all of which have a very destructive action), then the gutta-percha stoutly resists them, and renders 32 GUTTA-PERCHA, good service. Carboys, pipes, dye-vats, flasks, fun- nels, bowls, ladles, syphons, troughs, measures, buck- ets — all are now made of this material, for use in chemical works, print works, dye and bleach works, and other establishments where strong chemical liquids are employed. CEMENT EXPERIMENTS. The chemistry of cement is a curious one ; for the stony particles adhere with a force which is in some instances almost equal to the power of stone itself. The so-called Roman cement has long been famous for its cohesive property ; but the Portland cement recently introduced far excels it. In an experiment lately conducted, two solid blocks were prepared, one of Roman and the other of Portland cement ; and they were placed in such positions that weights might be suspended from them. The Roman cement yielded to a disruptive force of eleven hundred pounds, but the Portland cement stoutly maintained its integrity till rent asunder by a weight of nineteen hundred. But this cement has still more strikingly shown its strength when used as a mortar in brickwork. On a recent occasion in Hyde Park, a brick beam was built up with Portland cement as a mortar. The bricks were hollow, and were so ranged as to form a beam about four feet in height by two in width. This beam was rested at the two ends on supports more than twenty feet asunder, and weights were suspended from the centre ; and not till the astonishing weight of nearly seventy thousand pounds was thus applied did the beam yield and break. It was not the actual ITS PROPERTIES, ETC. 33 binding power of the cement alone that resisted this enormous force, for thin slips of iron were introduced at different parts ; but the experiment was intended to show how much strength might be obtained by- hollow bricks ahd Portland cement, aided by a little iron. STEREOTYPING FROM GUTTA-PERCHA. Mr. Muir, of Glasgow, has invented a mode of ster- eotyping, managed in the following way. A page of common type is first set up, and well fixed : a warm cake of gutta-percha is applied to it, screwed down tightly, and allowed so to remain a quarter of an hour ; when this gutta-percha mould is removed, it is brushed over with fine black-lead, and an electro- copper cast taken from it ; the printing is then effected from this cast. It is found that gutta-percha consti- tutes a very convenient and efficient substance for the mould, owing to the readiness with which it can be softened, and its toughness when cold ; while the electro-copper cast is said to bear the action of the printing press throughout a much greater number of copies than an ordinary stereotype plate. The same inventor also practices a plan in which the gutta-percha performs not only its own work but that of the electro-copper also. A mould is taken from an engraved wood-block, in gutta-percha ; and this mould, when brushed over with black-lead, is made to yield a cast also in gutta-percha, in an exactly similar way ; and from this cast the impressions are printed. It seems difficult to conceive that, alter this double process, all the delicate lines of a wood engrav- 2* 34 GUTTA-PERCHA, ing should be preserved on the surface of such a mate- rial as gutta-percha ; and yet, without this preserva- tion, the method would be practically valueless. ACOUSTIC USES OF GUTTA-PERCHA. The conveyance of sound is, perhaps, the most extraordinary service which gutta-percha tubes have yet rendered. There are two qualities required in a speaking tube ; first, that it shall concentrate a large amount of sound into a small space ; and secondly, that it shall not stifle the acoustic vibrations within the tube itself. Any material will answer equally well, so far as the first-named quality is concerned, for it requires simply a trumpet-shaped mouth at one end, and a very small orifice at the other ; but gutta-percha possesses rare qualities in respect to the second kind of service. Whether it is the smoothness of the texture, or the peculiar kind and degree of elasticity, or the relation of the substance to heat or electricity — whatever may be the cause, a tube of gutta-percha preserves sonorous vibrations with a surprising degree of clear- ness and equability ; and the modes in which this quality are brought into useful requisition are also very numerous. There is, for example, the long ear-trumpet , with a wide orifice at one end and a small one at the other ; and there is the portable ear-trumpet , differing from the former only in bringing the speaker and the hearer closer together, by a 4 French-horn ' system of twist- ing in the tube. There is the ear-cornet, so small and neat that one may be almost invisibly attached to ITS PROPERTIES, ETC. 35 or near each ear. There is the paraboloid trumpet, in which the sound is echoed from a large concavo receiver before it enters the tnbe. There is the trumpet with a long flexible tube, or with several tubes, so that several persons round a table can com- municate in turn with the user. In short, there have been almost as many useful variations of the principle as there are variations in the social inconveniences of those who require such aid. I A different group altogether is formed by those contrivances which are intended -to aid — not par- tially deaf persons — but those whom noise or dis- tance would otherwise disenable from conversing together. Drivers of omnibusses now sometimes com- municate with the conductors, and captains of steam- boats with the engine-men, by gutta-percha tubes. But these are trifling services compared with such as the tubes render at greater distances. The Domestic Telegraph, as it has been called, is simply a gutta- percha tube conducted from one apartment to another : it is employed as a medium of transmitting messages, and saves many a weary footstep to those who are at the beck and call of others. The Medical Man's Midnight Friend (a lack-a-daisical sort of a title) is a gutta-percha tube extending from the 4 doctor's ' street-door to the doctor's bed, by which a message can be transmitted to the awakened practitioner, instead of merely the sound of his bell. In factories and large establishments such speaking tubes are advancing extensively in favor ; for the communica- tion between distant buildings is most complete. In printing offices, spinning and weaving mills, in un : on 36 GUTTA-PERCHA, poor-houses, in hospitals and infirmaries, and in various other establishments of magnitude, the advan- tages are so self-evident that the use is becoming very general. The church acoustic apparatus is in many respects the most interesting and remarkable of these highly curious applications. Let us conceive, for clearness of illustration, that in a remote pew of a church is a person who, though not deaf, yet fails in ability to hear what is said in the pulpit or reading-desk. A gutta-percha tube is laid down either on or beneath the floor from the pulpit to the pew — the material bends so easily that it may be carried in any form — and a small ivory or hard wood ear-piece is attached to one end, while the other end expands in trumpet- form. Now the remarkable circumstance is, that the required effect is brought about without necessitating the approach of the speaker's mouth to the tube ; his head may be two or three feet above, or below, or behind, or at the side of the trumpet-mouth ; and yet the sound will reach the remote end of the tube in audible quantity. The truth is, that if the tube receives a mouth-full of sound (which it can in any direction round and near the speaker), that quantity is so economised, and so faithfully conveyed to the other end, that it becomes condensed to an audi- ble pitch ; if the trumpet-mouth be large, and the ear- piece very small, we may liken the action to the condensation of many threads of sound into one ; and the ear of the auditor becomes sensible to this con- densed power. In practice, the trumpet-moutth is usually fixed to the front of the pulpit, mouth upper- ITS PKOPERTIES, ETC. 37 most, and is stamped or moulded in an ornamental form consistent with the decorations of the pulpit. Beyond all this, the sound may be laid on, like gas, to any pew or any quarter of the church ; for there may be a tube (which we will call the main-pipe) laid along the centre aisle, and lateral tubes may spring from this to any required spot. Some clergymen have what they call a deaf pew ; that is, a pew in which those are congregated who may be collectively benefitted by this admirable apparatus. This con- trivance has been used at some of the great meetings (four thousand strong) at Exeter Hall, by those to whom the speeches would otherwise have been little else than dumb show. Gutta-percha has been discovered in the British province of Mergui, and though not precisely identi- cal with the gutta-percha of commerce, it possesses all the valuable properties of that substance, includ- ing plasticity in hot water, and the power of insulat- ing electric currents. The tree from which the true gutta taban is pro- duced (erroneously misnamed gutta-percha, a gum yielded by a different tree,) is one of the mosi; com- mon in the jungles of Johore and the Malay Pen- insula. It is not found in the alluvial districts, but in undulating or hilly ground. There is a great uniformity in the size of the full grown tabans, which rise with perfectly straight trunks from sixty to eighty feet in height, and from two to three feet in diameter, the branches being few and small. The natives, after felling the tree, make an incision round it } from which the milk flows. This is repeated at 38 GUTTA-PERCHA, distances of six to eighteen inches along the whole trunk. It appears that the taban, or milky juice, will not flow freely like India rubber, but rapidly concretes. Its appearance in this state, before being boiled, is very different from that of the article as imported and shipped. It has a dry, ragged look, resembling shreds of bark, and instead of being dense and tough, is light, and possesses so little co- hesion that it is easily torn to pieces. Various statements are made as to the produce of each tree, which is somewhat surprising, consider- ing the uniform size of the trees. It takes twenty trees to produce one picul of 133 lbs., and as the exports of guttta-percha, from the commencement of the trade up to the close of 3 853, amounted to 3,107 tons, it follows that upwards of one million & trees must have been destroyed to obtain that quan- tity in nine years. The natives, however, do not appear to be under any apprehension that the trees will be extirpated, and smile at the probability when suggested ; for it is only trees arrived at their full growth, or at least at a very considerable age, that repay the labor of felling them and extracting the gutta ; and those of all inferior ages which are there- fore left untouched, will, it is supposed, keep up the race. The collection of the gutta has widely extended, embracing now the Johore Archipelago, Sumatra, Borneo and Java. Unfortunately, the quality has deteriorated by the admixture of other inferior gums, the products of different trees, which are often used to adulterate the taban. CHAPTER IV. GUTTA-PERCHA — ITS FIRST APPLICATION AS A CEMENT IN THE UNITED STATES. Gutta-percha, as a cement, was first introduced to our notice in 1849. A medical gentleman having received a severe cut upon one of his fingers, dis- solved a portion of the gutta-percha in chloroform, | then with a fine brush, first immersed in the solution, passed several times around the finger in order to * produce the required thickness ; then, immersing his finger in water for a short time, thus formed a neat and durable covering, air and water proof. Thus protected, it healed quickly without soreness or far- ther trouble. With this cement and crude gutta- percha, we first applied it to Boots and Shoes, and found it held very firmly the fibre? of cloth and leather together. A sample in sheet form, we ap- plied with a warm iron. It held with great tenacity, and with an additional quantity, we applied it with entire success, in the repairing of about five hundred pairs of shoes. These shoes had cloth uppers, with- out " foxing " around the heels, and were badly cut in taking out the " raw " in finishing the knife work around the heel. We have continued the use of 39 40 GUTTA-PERCHA, gutta-percha as a cement for shoes, also as a water- proofing substance between the inner sole and the outer sole, and our experiments were fully successful. This process also prevented the boots and shoes from " squeaking," that horror of nervous temperaments, at the same time adding greatly to the durability of the leather, OBSERVATIONS CONCERNING GUTTA-PERCHA AND RUBBER IN THEIR USES IN THE MANUFACTURE OF BOOTS AND SHOES. Among the many advantages we have observed in our experiments in the use of gutta-percha in the manufacture of boots and shoes, are its exceeding fine grain, its perfect water and oil repellent proper- ties, which render it far superior to all rubber ce- ments and combinations ever offered to the public. Gutta-percha is proof against water, acids, and oily substances, dampness and decomposition. It is very tenacious, clean, and sweet, and will stand all weath- ers, and will not become sticky. The boots or shoes made with it, may be worn in damp or dry localities, through water, oily or acid combinations, without injury to the cement. These statements are corrob- orated by actual tests of the severest nature. No one will doubt who will investigate the subject of the application of gutta-percha to boots and shoes. It is worthy the study of all engaged in the manufac- ture of these articles, and will amply repay the closest study and investigation. Nor can it be doubted that it is destined, in a very brief period, to supersede all other improvements in the manu- facture of boots and shoes. ITS PROPERTIES, ETC. 41 In 1855, the " The North American Patent Boot and Shoe Co." tested gutta-percha as a cement after they had abandoned a rubber filament or cement as useless. They continued to manufacture boots and shoes by the use of gutta-percha, and found, after a long and satisfactory trial, through all seasons of the year, that it remained firm and uninjured, not being in the least affected by the oleaginous substances or fluids used in preparing the various kinds of upper leather or sole leather. The oily matter here referred to, destroys all the rubber cements, and the Company found that gutta-percha continued as firm and tena- cious after their tests, as when first applied to the shoe, and was not affected by other chemical com- binations used in the construction of the shoe. That Company spared no pains or expense in perfecting part of the manufacture of the shoes, whereby they were enabled to produce a quality of goods never before equalled in lightness, style, or practical utility, exceeding, as they did, the most sanguine expecta- tions of all interested. They fully demonstrated that shoes thus manufactured were far superior to the sewing or pegging process, or rubber cements ; thus proving conclusively that the process is destin- ed to produce an entire revolution in the manufac- ture of every description of fine shoes and boots. Gutta-percha cement applied to sole leather ren- ders it water-proof just in proportion as it is mixed with its fibres, and the quantity applied ; at the same time improving the leather more than one hundred per cent, as it adds to its solidity and durability. The mixing, mingling, or saturating the fibres of the 42 GUTTA-PERCHA. leather, or other fibrous substances, as cloth, with the cement, gives it its firm and tenacious hold on the various substances to which it is applied in the man- ufacture of boots and shoes, and all other combina- tions that require a tenacious cement, PROCESS FOR MANUFACTURING BOOTS OR SHOES BY SIMPLY CEMENTING THE EDGES OF THE IN SOLE AND OUTER SOLE. Objections are sometimes urged against the gutta- percha sole as being liable to sweat the feet. This objection we regard as purely mythical, as no such result will follow unless the feet are encased in rub- ber or gutta-percha. The top of the foot being covered with leather, thus allowing the perspiration to escape, the gutta-percha sole acts only as a pro- tection, thus avoiding the unpleasant effects realized in wearing India-rubber shoes. Shoes or boots may be made, if desired, by cementing the edges of the inner sole and outer sole only. This process obviates the objection just alluded to. We have manufactur- ed shoes in this manner, which have worn at least one-third longer than when pegged or sewed, the materials being the same. For perfectly dry walking they are a very desirable article. Only about one- fourth the quantity of cement is required when man- ufactured in this manner. CHAPTER Y. GUTTA-PERCHA FOR BELTS, HARNESSES, &C. Belts of leather may be put together by this ce- ment, which adds greatly to their wear and durability, not being in the least affected by dampness, neither by the oils which may come in contact with them from the machinery. In cutting up belt for harness leather, there is usually great waste and loss of stock, as portions of the sides are very thin, and unfit for use. But by this process every particle may be saved. Cut the stock the proper width, stretch it, then raise a strong thick fibre on all the thin parts and the laps. Apply the cement hot with a brush to all the thin portions and laps. Let it dry until the solvent has evaporated ; then heat the parts suffi- ciently, and press together with a vice or clamps. On all the thin places apply a piece of the cemented leather until the belt is of an even thickness ; press firmly together, then shave off* the projections with a knife or cutting machine. Trim the edges : you will thus produce a firm, smooth belt, without a stitch , rivet , or lacing. All portions of a harness or saddle may be cemented in the same manner. This process is exceedingly simple, at the same time eco- 43 44 GUTTA-PERCHA, nomical — a saving of time and money, and adds greatly to their durability. GUTTA-PERCHA IN ITS APPLICATION TO WOOD WORK, &C, — IMPORTANT TO SHIP AND BOAT BUILDERS. It may be applied to vats, drains, cisterns, sinks, etc., to great advantage. All square joints should be first prepared by raising a fibre, as in veneering work. Apply the cement hot, as glue is spread. In a few hours the solvent will evaporate ; then heat the parts sufficiently to melt the cement ; press togeth- er firmly. The gutta-percha will be found to be an excellent cement for all leaky places in stone, brick or wood work. Mix it with sand, or any fibrous substance, apply hot, or melt it in with a hot iron. The pure gutta-percha will cement broken stone, marble or brick, so firmly that it will remain for years. It is undoubtedly the best cement ever yet discovered. Ornamental work, centre-pieces, etc., may be thus cemented to their position. It is a well known fact, that sub-marine wires, enclosed in the gutta-percha tube, are indestructible , as all sea insects, worms, &c, never molest it. In caulking all ships, boats, ne pair in use to see how long they would lasff I will never wear another leather sole so long as I can obtain gutta-percha soles, and I walk from twelve to twenty miles a day. C. Wright, Boot and Shoe Maker. To the Gutta-Percha Co. Outta-Percha Company's Works. Patent Gutta-Percha Soles. — The applicability of gutta-percha soles for boots and shoes having been extensively and satisfactorily tested, we can unhesi- 46 GUTTA-PERCHA, tatingly recommend the material prepared for the purpose, its merits having been acknowledged by all who have tried it. Indeed, experience has proved that gutta-percha soles wear twice as long as leather, with great additional personal comfort, and they re- main perfectly impervious to wet, until quite worn through. London, Nov. \th, 1847. Gentlemen : — I have given the gutta-percha boot soles what may be considered a fair trial, namely : three monitis constant wear on a rough, gravelly road, and can bear testimony to its usefulness. With proper care in putting them on, and a little attention afterwards, I am persuaded that it will last longer than leather, and being impervious to wet, will be found invaluable to persons subject to damp or cold feet. W. Diar, Principal Officer of H. M. Customs, Whitstable. Manchester, England, March 8, 1848. To Mr. Henry Statham : Dear Sir : — It is with pleasure that l*bear testi- mony to the good qualities of gutta-percha soles. You are aware that my occupation requires me to be on foot a great deal, upon all kinds of roads, and in all weathers, and since I began to wear gutta-percha soles, I have not had to complain of wet or cold feet. The pair I have on now have been in almost daily use for more than four months, and my fear is, that the upper leather will be worn out first. I am quite sure that I save from thirty to fifty per cent., in the cost of shoes, in consequence of my family wearing gutta- ITS PROPERTIES, ETC. 47 percha soles, and, so long as 1 can get them, I intend to wear them in preference to anything else I have seen. Yours respectfully, Thomas Whitehead, Gas Office, Town Hall, King Street. London, April 1, 1848. Gutta-percha Boot and Shoe Soles for Summer Wear. — The fact of the total imperviousness of these soles to water, enables the most delicate, by the use of them to escape the suffering which the proverbial uncertainty of our climate, even in summer, so often inflicts upon the incautious. All injurious effects may be entirely prevented by a sole so thin and light, as to afford to the wearer a degree of ease and comfort, unattainable in conjunction with security against damp. A.t the same time the remarkable non- conducting 1 properties of gutta-percha, afford a most valuable protection to those who are subject to suf- fering or inconvenience by walking upon heated pavements. Mo instance of failure has ever come to the knowledge of the company, which may not be ascribed to the neglect of the wearer. The following article from the London Weekly Despatch will be read with interest. The writer has, evidently, not only a knowledge of the subject upon which he writes, but an appreciation of the value of gutta-percha, and its invaluable importance in the mechanical arts. " We have lately visited the extensive works belong- ing to the Gutta-Percha Company, in Wharf-road City-road, and confess that we were delighted and 48 GUTTA-PERCHA, astonished. The premises in which the business of the company is carried on cover a large area of ground. Several floors of the building are devoted to the operations of the workmen, amounting to nearly* one hundred and seventy individuals, including a sprinkling of stout, hearty-looking boys. The base- ment is occupied by two steam-engines, without whose presence the works would by no means be complete. These groan from " early morn to dewy eve," in turn- ing lathes in the engineering department, in knead- ing the gutta-percha, cutting out soles and heels for boots and shoes, rolling out driving-bands of every dimension, and heating the steam-chests by which the gutta-percha is rendered pliable and fit for the hands of the workmen. On the principal floor there are several hydraulic presses, used in the process of man- ufacture ; and we had the good fortune to witness the production of a complete dessert service of the most chaste and elegant pattern, and in imitation of gnarled oak. The subjects of adornment were brought out in high relief, and after undergoifflb; the process of varnishing, were surprftingly beautiful, light, and incapable of being fractured or broken by a fall or blow. Some of these sets were of the vine-leaf pattern, in close imitation to nature. These things were pressed out with some rapidity, but not without great manual labor, notwithstanding the aid of the powerful presses alluded to. Inkstands of the most beautiful charac- ter were also fashioned in a short time ; indeed, all sorts of ornaments, elaborated with the most ingenious devices, were made during our stay. We observed a ITS PROPERTIES, ETC. 49 vast deal of ornamental work, intended to supersede the labor of the carver. There were frames of large dimensions ready for the reception of pictures. We were particularly struck with the appearance of one intended for a large pier-glass. The foliage was of the most sumptuous workmanship, and possessed a sharpness and finish which the hand of man could scarcely accomplish. A design for a bible cover was exhibited. The subject harmonized with the nature of the book it was intended to enclose, and was in bold relief. It is believed that gutta-percha will, in a short time, be in general use among book-binders, not only in the shape of massive covers, but to super- sede the present cotton binding, which has so pretty an appearance, but is not of that lasting character as to induce persons to adopt it in cases where strength and durability are required. In other portions of the factory, workmen were employed in making instru- ments used by surgeons, to be employed in cases of a delicate nature ; others were finishing off the numer- ous objects just turned out of the moulds. Amongst the other articles of curiosity, we observed several yards of gutta-percha rendered exceedingly thin by machinery, and intended for ladies' dresses. It was of a light pink color, by no means displeasing to the eye, and possessed of great strength. By the aid of delicate machinery, the gutta-percha was run out into thread, to be used in the manufacture of ladies' work bags, fishing nets, and for a hundred other purposes. Large tubing, and some with an inconceivably small bore, was run out to lengths of various dimensions. Wagon and cart harness, of enormous strength, com- 3 50 GUTTA-PERCHA. bined with lightness, we observed hanging up in the establishment, besides gentlemen's riding-whips, and things of every kind. Greatly as we were delighted with all these things, we had yet another treat to come, which infinitely surpassed anything we had seen. We were shown several specimens of enormous panelling, on which the carving of the original design was brought up with remarkable fidelity. Consider- ing that gutta-percha is an indestructible material, we have little hesitation in stating, that the mansions of the nobility will soon be decorated with ornamen- tal work produced by this new system of multiplying objects, produced by the ancients to their glory and eternal honor. ■ CHAPTER VI. - INDIA-RUBBER, ITS DISCOVERT, USES, &C. This important gum is known by a variety of names. Caoutchouc, gum-elastic, and India-rubber. It is a product of the syringe tree of South America. This substance was first brought to Europe in 1735, by some French astronomers, who were sent to Brazil to make astronomical observations. It is found abun- dantly in Peru, Brazil, and Quito, and has recently been discovered in Asia. Considerable quantities of it are now obtained in Java, Penang, Singapore and Assam. In some places hundreds of miles are cov- ered with trees. They are very lofty, rising to the height of fifty or sixty feet, without branches, but covered with a rich tufted foliage. The bark is exceedingly smooth, its leaves deep green, thick and glossy, and six or seven inches in length. The fruit consists of white almonds and is regarded by the natives as very delicious. The process of obtaining the liquid is very simple. A longitudinal gash is cut in the bark of the tree with a hatchet, a wedge i« then inserted to keep the aperture open ; the gum 51 52 INDIA-RUBBER. then oozes out in the form of a milky juice. A small clay cup is attached to the tree into which the sap flows. In the space of four or five hours the milk ceases to run, and the quantity received is about five table spoonsful. The cups are now emptied and the process of smoking is commenced ; this with the forming process must be done as soon as the milk NATIVES GATHERING GUTTA-PERCHA. coagulates. A fire is built upon the ground made of the nuts of the wassou palm tree ; over this fire an inverted earthen pot, with a hole in the bottom is placed, from whence issues a jet of pungent smoke. The smoke changes the color of the gum very slightly at first, but by exposure to the atmosphere it becomes first brown, then quite black, presenting the appear- ance which we see it has in articles of commerce. The sap of the tree is laid on a mould in succes- sive layers, which are allowed to dry, and are formed into bottles and cakes, in which form it is exported. The natives of South America are very ingenious in the uses to which they apply it. Boots, shoes, ITS DISCOVERY, ETC. 53 syringes, and tubes, are among the many articles of domestic use into which it is converted. The tubes they use as torches, which burn very clearly, and emit but little odor. According to the cele- brated- chemist, Faraday, its composition is carbon, 87.2, hydrogen, 12.8 — a hydro-carbon. It melts when exposed to a heat of 248°, and is resolved into vapor at 600°, and can be condensed into a liquid called caoutchousine. In 1770, a cubic inch of India- rubber was sold in London for seventy-five cents, to erase pencil marks. It was not used to make water- proof fabrics until about the year 1800. These were first invented by Charles Mackintosh, of Glasgow, who applied a naptha solution to the surface of two pieces of cloth, then laid them together, passed them between rollers and thus cemented them together. A " Mackintosh " was the name applied for many years to a water-proof coat. Dr. Ure, although well aware of Mr. Mackintosh's invention, coldly passes it over in his dictionary. It is supposed that personal feeling was the cause of this, as Dr. Thomson and Ure were once rival chemists in Glasgow, and Mack- intosh was the friend and pupil of the former. The fabrics of Mackintosh had a most disagreeable smell, still he was the first person who established India- rubber manufactures in Britain, and perhaps the world. He afterwards removed his factory to Man- chester, England. Various kinds of goods made of India-rubber soon afterwards began to be manufac- tured in England, but they were all decidedly objec- tionable to use, until the grand discovery of sulphuri- zation was made ; for this the world is indebted to an 54 INDIA-RUBBEE, American inventor, Nathaniel Hay ward of Woburn, Mass. This substance, or rather, compounds of it, is n^w manufactured into so many articles of beauty and usefulness, that it forms an object of no small wonder to witness the rapidity with which such manufactures have sprung into existence. The following description of the India-Rubber tree and its fruit is given by Chevalier D. Claussen, inventor of the flax cotton. He says that in the course of his travels in South America, he had occa- sion to notice the different trees which produce the India-rubber, and of which the Hancornia speciosa is one. It grows on the high plateaux of South Amer- ica, between the tenth and twentieth degrees of lati- tude south, at a height of from three to five thousand feet above the level of the sea. It is of the family of the Sapotacce, the same to which belongs the tree which produces gutta-percha. It bears a fruit, in form, not unlike a bergamot pear, and full of a milkv juice, which is liquid India-rubber. To be eatable, the fruit must be kept two or three weeks after being gathered, in which time all the India-rubber disappears, or is converted into sugar, and is then in taste one of the most delicious fruits known, and regarded by the Brazilians (who call it Mangava) as superior to all other fruits of their country. The change of India- rubber into sugar, led him to suppose that gutta-per- cha, India-rubber, and similar compounds contained starch. He therefore tried to mix it with resinous or oily substances, in combination with tannin, and sue- ITS DISCOVERY, ETC. 55 ceeded in making compounds which can be mixed in all proportions with gutta-percha or India-rubber with- out altering their characters. By the foregoing it will be understood that a great number of compounds of the gutta-percha and India-rubber class may be formed by mixing starch, gluten, or flour with tannin and resinous or oily substances. By mixing some of these compounds with gutta-percha or India-rubber, he can so increase its hardness that it will be like horn, and may be used as shields to protect the sol- diers from the effect of the Minie balls, and some of these compounds in combination with iron, may be useful in floating batteries and many other purposes, such as covering the electric telegraph wires, imi- tation of wood, ship-building, &c. A description of the various uses to which Jndia- rubber is applied, will be found exceedingly interest- ing and instructive. The English have thus far succeeded more perfectly, or rather more generally in their application of it, than we, although since 1856, rapid strides have been made in perfecting the manu- facture of the various fabrics in which it is used in our country, especially New England. It must not be forgotten that to an American is due the discovery of the process of sulphurization, which discovery immediately gave a new value, and a new impulse to the application of this wonderful product of the forests of South America. The following account of the various uses to which India-rubber is applied, is taken principally from English sources, and refers to the manufactures of that country. 56 INDIA-RUBBER, INDIA-RUBBER CLEANING PROCESSES. The India-rubber, or caoutchouc, now imported to the enormous extent of six or seven hundred thousand pounds annually, reaches this country In masses of varied shape, but mostly of a dark color. In its imported state it is used for very few purposes ; con- siderable modifications being necessary for its adap- tation to practical service. It requires to be trans- formed into cakes, or sheets, or tissues, or tubes, or solutions, preparatory to its ultimate use ; and this transformation requires operations of a somewhat peculiar kind, owing to the necessity of rendering the whole mass homogeneous in substance. The bottles, and masses, and fragments, as imported, have much inequality in texture, and are, moreover, contaminated with much dirt and refuse. To sepa- rate these, the India-rubber is first cut into very small fragments, and then steeped in warm water, by which the dirt is precipitated. The fragments are dried, and are then thrown into a kind of kneading machine, where immense pressure is employed to bring them to one homogeneous mass. The India-rubber, though put in cold, becomes so hot by the agitation that it could not be safely touched by the hand ; it is neces- sary to supply the machine with cold water, which is made nearly to boil by the caloric driven out of the elastic mass. So thoroughly is the mass pressed, rolled, pricked, cut, and kneaded, by the severe tur- moil which it undergoes, that all dirt, air, water and steam are expelled, and it presents the appearance of a dark colored, uniform, smooth mass. It is put into cast iron moulds of great strength, and brought, by ITS DISCOVERY, ETC. 57 hydraulic or screw pressure, to the form of blocks, slabs, or cylinders, according to trie purpose to which it is to be applied. MACKINTOSH CLOTH. The manufacture of the Mackintosh cloth is a sin- gular one. The material is merely two layers of cot- ton cemented with liquid India-rubber ; but the junction is so well effected, that the three become to all intents and purposes one. The stout and well- woven cloth is coiled upon a horizontal beam, like the yarn beam of a loom ; and from this it is stretched out in a tight state and a nearly horizontal position. A layer of liquid or rather paste-like solution is applied with a spatula, to a considerable thickness, and the cloth is drawn under a knife edge, which scrapes the solution and diffuses it equally over every part of the cloth, which may be thirty or forty yards long. The cloth is then extended out on a horizontal frame- work to dry ; and, when dried, a second coating is applied in a similar way ; and a third and fourth may be similarly applied if ' necessary. Two pieces, thus coated, are next placed face to face with great care, to prevent creasing or distortion ; and, being passed between two smooth wooden rollers, they are so thor- oughly pressed as to be made to unite durably and permanently. Cloth, thus cemented and doubled and dried, may be cut and made into garments which will bear many a rough trial, and many a deluging before rain or water can penetrate. 8* 58 INDIA-RUBBER, INDIA-RUBBER CUTTING PROCESSES. It is as a sheet and as a thread that India-rubber meets its most extensive application ; and both of these are made by cutting from the blocks and slabs. A block is cut into sheets by an ingenious machine, in which a sharp knife-edge has a rapid vibratory motion in a horizontal plane, so adjusted as to cut a thin film from a block of India-rubber supplied to it by a steady motion. The knife requires to be kept cool by a flow of water, or it would adhere to the India-rubber. In this way thin sheets maybe cut, or thicker sheets from which stationers' India- rubber may be obtained, or sheets of any thickness, great or small, according to the purposes required. The separation of the material into shreds or nar- row strips is a very pretty operation, exhibiting much nicety of manipulation. A continuous strip may be cut from a bottle or any other curved mass of the India-rubber. The bottom of the bottle is cut off, and is pressed into a round and tolerably flat form. The cake thus fashioned is fixed to the end of the horizontal shaft, or lathe-axis, and is made to revolve with great rapidity ; and while so rotating, a circular knife, rotating at high speed, cuts through the substance, and advances steadily towards the centre of the disc ; thereby, separating the disc or cake into one continuous spiral thread. This thread can be easily drawn out straightly, and can even be separated into two or more finer threads, by draw- ing it through a hole where one or more sharp-cutting edges encounter it. If a bottle or any other hollow piece of India-rubber can be drawn over a cylinder of 1 ITS DISCOVERY, ETC. 5? uniform diameter, it may be cut into a continuous thread, by a modification of the same machine ; the cylinder being made to revolve, a steel cutter is placed against it, and as the cylinder has a slow longitudinal motion given it, the gum is cut spirally from end to end — just on the same principle as a worm or thread is cut on a bit of iron by the screw- cutting machine. Machines of this kind were in- vented in France more than twenty years ago ; but the machines used in our own country are of Eng- lish invention and of later date. INDIA-RUBBER LIQUID. When once it was discovered that India-rubber may be dissolved in petroleum, in naphtha, or in oil of turpentine, it was speedily seen that a new and extensive sphere of utility was given to it. The coarsest pieces, as imported, the waste from the kneading operations, and the parings and cuttings from other manufacturing operations, are placed in a close iron vessel, to which the liquid solvent is added. A brisk agitation is kept up, and the heat thereby generated in the elastic gum warms the liquid and increases its solvent power, until at length "the whole of the gum is dissolved. This operation is conducted on a somewhat extensive scale ; for the iron vessel is large enough to contain more than half a ton of India-rubber, which requires three days of constant agitation for complete solution. The liquid thus produced has a consistency which fits it to be used as a varnish, or as a water-proofing medium, or as a cement, or for many other purposes 60 INDIA-RUBBER , which the sagacity and self-interest of manufacturers have enabled them to discover. INDIA-RUBBER BRAIDS AND WEBS. If we glance among the stores of the India-rubber manufacturers and retailers at the present day, we find the braids and cords, webs and bands, form no inconsiderable portion of the wares exposed for sale. These, in most cases, require that the India-rubber should be first made into blocks or cakes, next cut into sheets, and then separated into threads, or cords, or narrow strips. Supposing these preliminary cut- tings to be effected, the making of braids and webs is exceedingly curious, for it involves a combination of the India-rubber with other materials. Let us briefly trace the processes. In the first place, the narrow cords are stretched by a kind of wheel, and kept extended till nearly deprived of their elasticity, and till they form a thread of the desired thickness. The thread is then put into a braiding machine which is a complicated and very ingenious apparatus, whereby a sheathing of cotton, silk, flax, or worsted, • is wound round the India-rubber thread. In such a machine several threads are twisted round each other, from three to nearly thirty in number ; eacli • thread has its own bobbin, and all the bobbins revolve round a common centre, giving out their threads in the proportions and order required. Generally speak- ing, the braiding machine is employed in making stay-laces, braid, ^ipholsterers' cord, &c. ; but it is also applicable to making the numerous elastic cords and webs which owe their elasticity to India-rubber. ITS DISCOVERY, ETC. 61 When an envelope of cotton, silk, flax, or worsted, has been given to the thread of India-rubber by the braiding machine, the threads are laid as warp in a loom, and woven into the required kind of web, whatever it may be. Then comes a curious devel- opment of the properties of the material ; in the preliminary stretching, the India-rubber was made somewhat stiff and unyielding ; but by now exposing it to the action of a hot smoothing iron upon a table, the elasticity is restored, the riband or web contracts in length, and the sheathing or envelope corrugates or wrinkles up on the surface. The web thus pro- duced is very soft and elastic. The warp threads may be alternated with others of non-elastic char- acter; and the weft-threads may be either elastic or non-elastic, so that any desired degree of elasticity may be obtained. INDIA-RUBBER VULCANIZED. Why a piece of India-rubber, when it has been somewhat modified by heat and chemical action, should be deemed vulcanized, it is for the inventor to say. Let us take the name simply as an express- ion of a fact, that fire or heat has been brought to bear upon this substance as a means of affecting its' qualities. The method was invented by Mr. Han- cock seven or eight years ago, and it has been the means of giving a wide extension to the use of India- rubber. This vulcanized India-rubber is in fact a compound of sulphur with the vegetable gum. When a sheet of India-rubber is immersed in liquid sulphur, a 62 INDIA-RUBBER, marked change takes place in its qualities ; the sulphur acts upon the gum and combines with it ; and indeed the two may almost be said to form a new substance. The methods by which the combi- nation is brought about are varied, but the effect is in all . cases very remarkable. The strength of the India-rubber is increased to an extraordinary degree. The elasticity is rendered more permanent, analogous in some respects to that of gutta-percha. The new substance will absorb essential oils without injury, whereas such oils would dissolve India-rubber. It retains its properties at a temperature so low that India-rubber would be too much hardened for use ; and at a temperature so high that India-rubber would be destroyed. Later experimenters have found that antimony, and many other substances, may similarly be combined with India-rubber; and it is reasonable to expect that many useful novelties are in use for us in this " vulcanized " rubber. INDIA-RUBBER OR (CAOUTCHOUC) AND* GUTTA-PERCHA — COM- PARISON OF THE CRUDE MATERIALS. Much ignorance exists in relation to the intrinsic merits of gutta-percha and India-rubber. It is gen- erally supposed that there is so little difference that it is hardly perceptible, and that the one or the other may be used for the same purposes, with the same results. In order to correct this impression and con- vey an intelligent idea of their relative properties, we here give an analysis of the two gums : Gutta-percha when immersed in boiling water con- tracts considerably in bulk, whilst India rubber, when ITS DISCOVERY, ETC. 63 immersed in boiling water, expands and very material- ly increases in bulk. Gutta-percha juice also is of a dark brown color, and consolidates in a few moments after exuding from the tree, when it becomes about as hard as wood. India-rubber sap, on the contrary, is perfectly white, and of about the consistency of thick cream ; when it coagulates it gives from four to six parts water out of ten. Gutta-percha first treated with water, alcohol, and ether, and then dis- solved with spirits of turpentine and precipitated, yields a substance consistent with the common prop- erties of gutta-percha; but India-rubber similarly treated, results in a substance resembling in appear- ance the gum arabic. Gutta-percha by distillation yields 57f per cent, of volatile matter ; India- rubber by the same process, yields 85-J per cent. India-rubber, or caoutchouc, is produced from a milk-white sap taken chiefly from the Sephonca Ca- huca tree, afterwards coagulated, and the whey pressed out or dried off by heat — the residue is the India-rubber of commerce. Gutta-percha is produced from the Isonandra, or Gutta tree ; is of a brownish color, and when exposed >to air, soon solidifies, and forms the. gutta-percha of commerce. India-rubber of commerce, is of a soft, gummy na- ture, not very tenacious, and astonishingly elastic. Gutta-percha of commerce is a fibrous material, much resembling the inner coating of white oak bark, is extremely tenacious, and without elasticity, or much flexibility. India-rubber, when once reduced to a liquid state 64 INDIA-RUBBER, by heat, appears like tar, and is unfit for further manufacture. Gutta-percha may be melted and cooled any num- ber of times, without injury for future manufacture. India-rubber, by coming in contact with oil or other fatty substances, is soon decomposed and ruined for future use. Gutta-percha is not injured by coming in contact with oil or other fatty substances — in fact one good use of it is for oil cans. India-rubber is soon ruined for future use, if brought in contact with sulphuric, muriatic, and other acids. Gutta-percha resists the action of sulphuric, muri- atic, and nearly all other acids — in fact one great use of it is for acid vats, &c, and other vessels for holding acids. India-rubber is a conductor of heat, cold and elec- tricity. Gutta-percha is a non-conductor of electricity, as well as of heat and cold. India-rubber, in its crude state, when exposed to the action of boiling water, increases in bulk, does not lose its elastic properties, and cannot be moulded. Gutta-percha, in its crude state, when exposed to the action of boiling water, contracts and becomes soft like dough or paste, and may then be moulded to any shape — which shape it will retain when cool. India-rubber is vulcanized to reduce its elasticity and give it more firmness than is natural to the crude material. ITS DISCOVERY, ETC. 65 India-rubber, vulcanized, is not so perfectly a re- pellent of water, as before being vulcanized. India-rubber is not a perfect repellent of water, but is more or less absorbent, according to quality. Gutta-percha has an exceedingly fine grain, and its oily property makes it a perfect repellent of liquids, oils, acids, and all oleaginous substances, so that when united to tanned leather, the oil in the leather will not affect the adhesive properties of the gutta-per- cha. Whereas oil in leather will decompose any India- rubber cement that may be applied to it. Pure gutta-percha is without smell or disagreeable odor, and whenever it is found to produce any but a perfectly sweet odor, it arises from its impurities, and may be regarded as a test of its quality. India-rubber when vulcanized has an odor about it very disagreeable. It will decompose, become sticky like tar, and much of it becomes entirely useless. It is vulcanized to reduce its elasticity and give it more firmness than is natural to the crude material, and when exposed to friction, even after vulcanization, it rolls up a dirty, sticky mass. The foregoing analysis is so simple and clear, that the attentive reader will at once comprehend the nat- ural as well as chemical differences existing in gutta- percha and India-rubber, being not only chemically, but mechanically and commercially different. BOOK II. CHAPTER I. PREPARATION OF STOCK. In the preparation of the leather for outer soles, after it has been stripped up in the common form, remove all the loose flesh by skiving or splitting, or any other process. The stock should be thoroughly dry. Then raise a thick and even fibre on the flesh side, (remembering always, that the adhesive quality is in proportion to the thickness of the fibre) with a common card or rasp, or other convenient tool. The cement should be applied hot, with a coarse paint brush, as evenly as possible, then expose the leather to dry air a day or two, in order to allow the solvent to evaporate. If the first coat is too thin, apply a second in the same manner, until the leather is well coated. Then the leather should be again exposed, as before, until completely dry. It may then be wet in water, in the vsual form, until properly tempered or prepared. The leather is then in a condition to be rolled, or hammered. If hammered it should be first cut up into soles. If rolled it may be placed in a cutting machine, and cut up in the usual form. PREPARATION OF STOCK. 67 Sole leather is cut to the best advantage by hands with the proper patterns, or " dies." After the soles are properly rounded to the desired pattern, for all thin edged work the cement should be feather- edged, from the edge of the sole at a proper distance, in order to secure a good finish. This process pre- vents the cement from adhering or sticking to the upper, when the sole is pressed on. MIDDLE SOLES, AND SPUR, OR SPRING LIFTS. After they have been properly fitted, ready for use as in the common form, the parts should be dried and a thick fibre raised, as before described for the outer sole, only that a fibre should be raised on both sides, as will be readily understood. Cement on both sides. This process may be done before cutting into soles or lifts, at the option of the manufacturer. TO PREPARE IN-SOLES. Cut from thin leather skirting or shavings. After properly fitting to the pattern or last, the edges of the in-sole should be reduced to a proper thickness. A strong fibre should be raised on the side on which the cement is to be applied, the stock being previously dry. Then cement as before. One coat is sufficient if the cement is thick. If not, spread again upon the edge, as that portion of the sole should receive the thickest coating, for the purpose of hold- ing, with great firmness the linings or upper, when lasted, as the shoe may require. 68 PREPARATION OF STOCK. TO PREPARE COUNTERS OR STIPFENINGS. After properly fitting and drying, cement on both sides of the lower edges, corresponding to the cement- ed portion of the lining or " upper." PREPARATION OF STOCK FOR CLOTH SHOES. — PREPARATION OF THE UPPER STOCK. First cement the linings on both sides entirely around, as far as they are to be drawn over the edge of the last. Then cement inside of upper, to corres- pond with the cemented portion of the linings. Place them in position for drying, so that the cement shall not be brought in contact with any other part of the upper. In order to facilitate the cementing pro- cess, the uppers or linings, may be so packed or placed, the one upon the other, that large quantities may be cemented at the same time. This should be done before binding. TO PREPARE UPPERS MADE OF ANY DESCRIPTION OF LEATHER, OR PART LEATHER AND CLOTH. The linings, (if any are used), should be cemented as described for the cloth shoe. The inside of the leather portion or parts of the upper should be made as fibrous as possible. Then apply the cement as described for linings. When fully dry they are ready for lasting. INSTRUCTIONS FOR LASTING. The process of lasting is simple and may be done with great despatch, when all parts of the stock com- posing the shoe or boot are properly prepared, accord- PREPARATION OF STOCK. 69 ing to instructions. Tack the in-sole on the last, place it in the " Improved Heater, " or other drying appa- ratus, the heat being about 160° Fahrenheit, in which place the counter or stiffening. Allow it to remain in for two or three minutes, until the cement has soften- ed somewhat. At the same time place the upper in- side, or on the top of the " Heater." Heat carefully, but slightly, until the cement becomes tacky. Then tack the inner sole on the last, on which place the up- per. Last over the linings, put on the counter, press over evenly, then draw the upper over neatly and smoothly to its proper position. Great care must be observed in lasting over the lining or upper, to remove all unevenness. On cloth uppers, all the superfluous stock around the heel and toe, may be removed with scissors, on leather uppers with a knife in the usual form. At the same time press, rub, or hammer each part that it may be retained firmly and evenly in its proper position. If the uppers are small, tacks may be used to hold each part in its place. In such cases, do not remove the tacks until the cement is cold. If during the operation of lasting, the cemented surfaces become too cool to stick firmly, heat again over the "Heater." Then hammer the parts lightly. The lasting thus prepared, (if wholly of cloth) are now ready for the cement. If the upper is part leather, the leather portion that is drawn over the edge of the last, must have its grain or enamelled surface removed as in Patent leather. This outer surface should be very carefully removed with a rasp or knife. A rasp is preferred as it leaves a desirable fibre. The grain thus removed should extend no farther than the 70 PREPARATION OF STOCK. edge of the inner sole. The shoe is now ready for the cement. CEMENTING PROCESS AFTER LASTING. The cement should be spread on the inner sole, and the edges of the upper that are lasted over, smoothly and evenly, to the edge of the in-sole, and no farther. Place the shoe or boot to dry in such a position as shall prevent the cement from running, or spreading over other portions of the shoe. One coat of thick cement is usually sufficient. But thick cloth of various descriptions, as Felting, Pilot cloth, etc., will require a double coating. Also some kinds of leather, as buck-skin, it being very porous on its sur- face. All the fibres should be fully saturated with the cement; the solvent of the cement should be entirely dried out, or evaporated, before putting on the outer sole. If the solvent is not entirely removed the cementation soon decomposes. The drying pro- cess is all-important. DIRECTIONS FOR APPLYING THICK OR THIN SOLES TO SHOES AND BOOTS. First it must be remembered, that all heavy or thick soles should be first wet in warm water, thus soften- ing them, so that they can be easily formed to the shoe. Then wipe dry from the cemented surface, place them in the " Heater," (or other suitable heating oven,) with the other portions of the stock that are required in the construction of the shoe or boot. Place the shoe upon the " Heater " allowing it to remain only long enough to melt the cement ; then if the shoe be a " spring heel," place it PREPARATION OF STOCK. 71 (the heel) upon the shoe. If for a double sole., place the middle sole in its place, then the outer sole. Hammer and rub down firmly, so as to exclude all the air. Keep them in this condition by wetting slightly with cold water, with a sponge, until they are firmly united and cold. Thin stock does not require wetting. This being done, the shoes are ready for the finisher. The finisher may wet the soles by soaking them in cold water, providing the upper stock is not injured thereby, as would be the case in bronzed or delicate stock. In such cases let them be carefully wet with a sponge. They can then be finished in the desired style. [EiF" By using due care, and following the directions as laid down, any style of boot or shoe may be put together, from the coarsest brogan, to the finest kid stock of any color, enamelled leather, in short, all classes of stock without any damage to any portion thereof. Also all kinds of cloth, from the coarsest Felting or Pilot cloth, to the finest and most delicate satins. All may be made in a superior style without the least defect.] REMARKS ON FINISHING. Sometimes by accident, there is seen some cement pressed out, adhering to the upper, caused by fitting the sole too full, or pressing over too far. In such cases it can be readily removed after the sole has been properly wet, by the use of a thick knife. Its edges must be round and smooth so that it will not cut or mar the upper. Warm the knife sufficiently to soften the cement, then the outer sole may be set off from the upper at a proper distance, sufficiently to pare the edge neatly in finishing. Caution. — Great care must be used in the use of 72 PREPARATION OF STOCK. the warm knife. If too hot, it burns the leather upper. The finisher will soon learn the precise heat required. Having given full instructions concerning the manufacture of the gutta-percha cemented shoe, we will now proceed to the process of repairing every description of boots and shoes, pegged, sewed, or cemented. A discovery of great practical importance involving cheapness, lightness, quickness and wonder- ful durability, rendering them water-proof on the sole, thus affording a protection against wet, or damp- ness to the most delicate shoe ; an invaluable consid- eration when we remember that the primary cause of nine-tenths of the colds that are experienced, arise from damp or wet feet, which cannot be prevented by the old process. Every considerate mind must acknowledge the great advantage thus gamed by the water-proof sole. The sole thus prepared being a non-conductor of heat, the shoe retains its warmth, no matter how damp or cold the surface of the earth may be. Shoes or boots thus prepared may be emphatically denominated " health preservers." INSTRUCTIONS FOR PREPARING TAPS OR SOLES FOR REPAIRING. First to prepare leather taps, fit them in the usual manner, by " skiving " or shaving off the proper por- tions of the sole or tap to the desired thinness. The stock being perfectly dry, next raise a thick fibre, and cement as before described, for outer soles, A.s a rule the cement will dry in the space of an hour, or even in much less time, if desired. PREPARATION OF STOCK. 73 INSTRUCTIONS FOE, PREPARING THE BOOT, OR SHOE, TO BE RE- PAIRED. Shave off the various portions in the usual manner of repairing. The soles should be clean and dry, Now raise a strong fibre, with a rasp or card, then cement the loose or broken parts of the old sole, if any, fully. When dry, the sole or tap being in the same condition of dryness, properly heat them in the " Heater," as described for putting on the outer sole. Hammer and rub them so that the tap shall unite firmly to the shoe. Let them remain until cool, say from four to six minutes. Then wet and finish as before described. It is desirable to have a quantity of taps on hand, ready for use when wanted. Stock thus prepared will be sure to adhere, if properly put on, until worn off, unless removed by improper expos- ure to heat. Boots or shoes made, or repaired by this process, are made to be worn, not roasted and burnt, as is too often the case, by the reckless and imprudent. The feet may be ivarmed as thoroughly, and even more so, with, the gutta-percha cemented shoe, as with the common pegged or sewed shoe. Yet care must be used not to heat the shoe to the injury of the leather. Persons wearing these shoes will soon learn that they seldom require to be warmed, as the soles retain the heat much longer than the common shoe. Hence, whenever it becomes necessary to warm the feet, much less heat is required, and less time in warming them. 4 74 PREPARATION OF STOCK. HINTS TO REPAIRERS OF BOOTS AND SHOES. Repairers of the gutta-percha cemented shoes will soon find that gutta-percha for a cement, is far superior tc the old method, for all kinds of repair- ing. All the thin stock or bits of leather can be cemented for taps, lifts, counters, or jor any other purpose 9 and worked up to the best advantage to all concerned. He can apply leather, or sheet gutta- percha for soles or taps, of any thickness desired. IMPORTANT FACTS FOR MANUFACTURERS. Various compounds of fibrous substances can be used and made by mixing and grinding gutta-percha with the following substances, between heated rollers. Artificial leather may be made by rolling and mix- ing saw-dust of any kind, or other fibrous substance, with gutta-percha, as chopped tow, flax, juto, cotton waste, etc., etc. Take maple saw-dust, two parts, gutta-percha one part. This compound thus pre- pared, will resemble oak-tanned leather. For the gutta-percha cemented shoe, this leather is considered as being far superior to any leather in use, being more durable, and leaving no waste, as all scraps can be again mixed and rolled as at first. The more it is mixed and rolled the better it becomes. Ma- hogany saw-dust, or other red-wood saw-dust, mixed and prepared as before, will produce an article re- sembling red sole leather, or hemlock tanned. For repairing shoes, these compounds, or artificial leather, is superior to common leather, as it can be moulded and heated and applied at once, without the preparation required iu common leather, it is, PREPARATION OF STOCK. 75 therefore, simply to heat and apply, as the gutta- percha is thoroughly mixed and ready for use ; or it may be moulded into heels, in a solid form, and then applied. COMPOUNDS FOR HEELS OF SHOES OR BOOTS. Take two parts gutta-percha, one part sand, ground flint or granite, mix them well by passing between heated rollers. It is now ready to be moulded into heels, and will produce an article of wonderful dura- bility. The compounds may be varied to suit the fancy of the manufacturer. The proportions may be varied by mixing a portion of saw-dust, or other fibrous substance. Heels thus made are exceedingly cheap, and will out-wear the firmest leather. It will now be observed, that we have processes for the manufacturing of & purely vegetable leather, - far superior to any other, at one-third the price — which will not decompose in any latitude, and is not affected by atmospheric changes — is perfectly sweet, and may be worn at any time, through heat or cold, wet or dry — through acids or oily combinations, with entire safety. VARIOUS FIBROUS COMPOUNDS FOR IN-SOLES, STIFFENINGS OR COUNTERS, FOR ALL DESCRIPTIONS OF CEMENTED BOOTS AND SHOES, May be made by the same process as the artificial leather, and rolled to any required thickness. These compounds make the best counters for all kinds of cemented boots and shoes, as they are water proof, and easily fitted and moulded to the shoe, after being properly warmed in the " Heater. " 76 PREPARATION OF STOCK. v Old sail cloth, or cotton fabrics of every description, that may have become useless for any other purpose, make good in-soles, by rolling thereon a thin sheet of gutta-percha, and may be combined to any re- quired thickness. Gutta-percha may be applied to all kinds of paste-board, straw-board, coarse paper or cloth, thus forming a cheap and convenient water- proofing. This may be done by simply spreading the warm gutta-percha upon its surfaces. After the cement has been submited to a drying process of a few hours, it should then be subjected to a heat of about 180° for the space of five minutes. This process completely expels the solvent, at the same time causes the cement to penetrate the substance upon which it is spread. This material for lin- ings and coverings of boxes 5 or boxes made of heavy coarse paper thus prepared for packing boots and shoes, all kinds of fine goods, medicines, vegetable compounds, highly finished tools, etc., may be thus shipped on long voyages, and subjected to damp, mildew, and decomposition, with the utmost safety. Edges of boxes may be cemented together with gutta- percha by a warm iron, precisely like the soldering process. Common paper boxes may be made water-proof by the process just described. The cloth or paper thus prepared, forms an excel- lent water-proof lining for trunks, valises, or chests. Stout cloth thus prepared may be made into tubes for conveying water to all parts of the house, or from the spring to the house. Water thus conducted re- mains as pure and sweet as when taken from the PREPARATION OF STOCK. 77 spring, and the tube is literally indestructible by all ordinary agencies. Excellent speaking' tubes may be thus prepared at a trifling expense. PRACTICAL HINTS. Gutta-percha may be mixed and ground together with almost an endless variety of substances, which substances are usually regarded as of little or no value in themselves ; but being combined with gutta- percha, are thus transformed into valuable articles of mechanical manufacture. Much of the gutta- percha which is introduced into the market is noth- ing but a mixture of dirt, bark, and mineral sub- stances, which entirely destroy its value. Great care should therefore be observed in its selection, as its purity makes its value. Gutta-percha must be mixed or combined with what may be denominated imperishable substances, or substances which the gutta-percha renders imperish- able. In many of its combinations found in commerce, it is entirely destroyed and the manufactured article made worthless. In very many instances which have come to our knowledge, boots and shoes have been thus rendered of little or no value, and were justly returned to the manufacturers. Kid and leather shoes, with baked or burnt upper stock, and combi- nations of rubber cement, rot or decompose the fibres of all cloth or leather to which it is applied that contains any oleaginous substances. Thus kid and leather shoes, with baked or burnt upper stock, and combinations of rubber cement, which rot or de- 78 PREPARATION OF STOCK. compose the fibres of all cloth or leather, which contain any oleaginous substance to which it is applied, have been thrown upon the market, thus producing a prejudice in some minds, and destroying confidence in their utility. In England and France, where the use of gutta- percha is better understood and appreciated, it has been used in its application to shoes for several years. Gutta-percha soles are prepared to suit the various sizes of boots or shoes, and are thus sold in packages. Prepared cement in small boxes with directions is an article generally for sale. Thus any person can mend his shoes without the aid of the cobbler. The process is exceedingly simple, the sole requiring only to be warmed and pressed upon the shoe with the hand. Thousands are thus enabled, especially in the man- ufacturing districts of those large commercial centres, to mend their own shoes at less than one-half the usual cost, and in a much superior manner. Foreign- ers, on arriving in this country, are greatly surprised at our lack of enterprise in this direction, and loudly call for the gutta-percha taps, especially after using the miserable, half-tanned, and poorly made, sewed or pegged trash, which is so abundant, quantities of which are sent to our Southern and Western markets. This is well illustrated by the anecdote of a Southern negro, who, having worn a pair of these cheap, roughly-constructed brogans, and finding them fall- ing to pieces, said to his master, " What make these shoes come to pieces so soon ?." " Why," said the master, in reply, " those shoes grow at the East on trees." " Is dat it, massa ; well, den dese was picked before dey was ripe." CHAPTER II. HINTS AND INSTRUCTIONS ON CUTTING PATTERN FOR BOOTS AND SHOES OF EVERY DESCRIPTION. It is well known to all shoe manufacturers, that great difficulty and trouble is constantly arising for the lack of some standard system of measurement, which shall enable the workman who is dependent simply upon his own unaided labors for a livelihood, or the manufacturer who employs many " hands," to cut out their own patterns. As it now is, there are " pattern cutters " to whom the workman must apply for his sizes and patterns, thereby subjecting him to expense and loss of time. In order that all obstacles of that nature may be obviated and a reli- able system or plan of cutting patterns be introduced, we herewith submit a system for cutting diagrams, or patterns of boots and shoes. The plan is simple, scientific, correct. For those whose experience has been limited, this method will be a perfect key to the mysteries of pattern cutting. The great deside- ratum with all boot and shoe makers, is to construct a neat, comfortable, well-fitting boot or shoe, so that 79 80 HINTS AND INSTRUCTIONS in all cases they shall fit the foot. This can only be done by having the last made to fit the foot properly, and the upper cut to fit the last. Boots and shoes are usually cut, and lasts are made, to suit the eye, the fancy, whims, or traditions of manufacturers, as they are the responsible parties, as from them all " orders " emanate. Ask the manufacturer why the lasts are made crooked on the bottom — why hollow the shanks equally on both sides — why make a hollow on the outside of the last affect a fulness on the foot — why make the inner ball straight, when in the foot it is always round. No satisfactory an- swer can be given. Are these unnatural deformities required to make a well fitting boot or shoe ? Why not make the last the natural shape, and let. the shank remain firm and solid ? If the last is made in perfect conformity to the foot, all parts of the boot or shoe would then remain in their proper positions, natural and easy to the foot. So far as our observation extends, there is no established prin- ciple in constructing lasts, as there is no conformity as a general thing, to the shape of the foot. This fault does not attach to the last maker, but to those who order them. As a rule, we may say, all lasts should be made nearly straight on the bottom. The ball on both sides should be equally distant from a longitudinal line drawn from the centre of the toes to the centre of the heel. As tl|e foot indicates, the inner shank should »be formed by rounding it from behind the large toe ball, and near it and forward to the heel seat, and two- ON CUTTING PATTERNS. 81 thirds across it, passing the centre of the last, leaving the outside shank full and properly rounded to fit the foot. All parts of the last should conform to the shape and thickness of the foot*. For ladies' lasts, the spring of the toes and bottom of the last should be so concave as to give perfect ease and rest to the foot when stan ding , as seen in Fig. No. 1. No. 2. represents a last "common use ; the upward course from the centre of the heel to the back portion of the heel, places it on an inclined plane, thus always pressing the foot forward, and pinching the toes, until from continuous pressure, the heel seat gives way and the stitches or pegs start at every step. For ladies' high-heeled boots, see Fig. No. 3. By the horizontal and perpendicular line of the last, as rep- resented, the foot is at rest. The slight curve pre- vents the foot from pressing forward, at the same time the elastic takes its proper position, thus allow- ing the boot to be drawn on with ease, and to be worn with comfort. No. 4 represents a boot once very much in use, and even at the present, frequently seen. The wearer stands and walks, it will be observed, upon an inclined plane. Every step presses the foot forward, causing the shoe to slip up at the heel, and always crowding the front portion of the foot and toes into a most un- comfortable position. Thus causing great pressure on the upper portion of the foot ; if the foot is of a side-lace cut, the lacings are strained, torn, or broken by the continued efforts of the foot to bring the upper, and sole, to the natural position of the foot. Shoes 4* HINTS AND INSTRUCTIONS ON CUTTING PATTERNS. 83 ON CUTTING PATTERNS. 86 HINTS AND INSTRUCTIONS thus cut, and made on such lasts are almost invaria- bly bent in the shank in order to conceal the ignor- ance of the manufacturer or designer. But the foot is sure to betray the deformity of the last and the cut of the uppers. Boots and shoes thus made are literally spoiled, unless the wearer can keep the ankle back to an angle of forty or forty-five degrees, which is the position of the foot when thrown forward, while in a sitting position. No. 5 represents a side view of a lady's last for high-heeled boots, and its block. The blocks are changed to give any desired fulness on the same lasts. The blocks are represented in Nos. 1, 2, 3. Mr. John Kimball first invented and introduced them to the public in 1827. Since that period they have continued in general use, giving the most .perfect satisfaction both in style and comfort. The prac- tical utility of Mr. Kimball's system is of the highest importance to the shoe dealer and manufacturer. It is equally clear that the same system should be adopted for mens' and boys' lasts so as to indicate the dimensions of boots or shoes by the use of a single letter of the alphabet. The mechanical part of the above mentioned system has been performed in a very faithful and workman-like manner by Mr. Joshua Hitchings, of Boston, Mass. The letters used by Mr. Kimball to indicate the width of soles and lasts are, A B C D E F. If a wider last is wanted it would be called G-. In taking the measures of the foot, the tailors' tape is the best, as' it is non-elastic. Great care should always be used in taking measurements. In 88 HINTS AND INSTRUCTIONS taking the length of the foot, it should rest evenly upon the size-stick, the weight of the body being about equal in its position. In taking the measure for the heel, place the end of the tape on the curve of the instep, and pass it around the end of the heel back to the centre or starting point ; then place the end of the tape about three-fourths of an inch forward of the curve of the instep, pass it over the prominence of the foot, entirely around it ; next place the tape on the ball of the large toe, pass it over the ball of the small toe around to starting point. These are the common measurements. Sometimes deformities of the foot require variations on account of corns, etc. FITTING UP LASTS TO THE MEASUREMENTS OF THE FOOT. For childrens, and youths, cut and fit them up full lo the measure, and in some cases fuller. For boys and misses,, fit full. For ladies fit closely, and be guided by the foot, rather than the fashion, or what is termed " style ; " fit the heel full, the instep half an inch less than the measure, and most of the other measures one-quarter of an inch less. For Oxford- ties, fit them one-quarter of an inch less than meas- ure ; the same for shoes with long quarters. For short quarters, as brogans, &c, fit over the instep full in order to produce ease. For coarse boots fit up full to all parts of the measure ; for kip boots if thin, one-quarter of an inch less than the measure, but in all cases be guided by the hardness and thickness of tho upper. In gentlemens' fine boots, for all jwrts, let taste and fashion be your guide in lengtli^^s, &c. Fit the heel up full to the measure, and all other parts snugly to the foot ; be guided by flexibil- ON CUTTING PATTERNS. 89 ty or hardness of the foot, making all due allowance for tender parts, corns, callouses, or rolling of the small toes, and fulness of great toe joints, by fitting a piece on the last in the proper position and shape, tc correspond to the variations as above. CUTTING BOOT PATTERNS. Opinions concerning the cutting of boots are very numerous. There seems to be little or no uniformity in the system of cutting. Mr. S. C. Shire, of Blooms- bury, Pa., received a patent for a boot-drafting, cut- ting, blocking machine, which patent bears date August 14th, 1847. It has received the approbation of the Southern and Western manufacturers, and has been adopted as a guide by them. Many of our own^ manufacturers have also adopted it. It operates witn^ ease and accuracy, and is easily adjusted to any size. As the process of boot cutting is very simple, many manufacturers cut by the eye. The apparatus alluded to will assist all who are commencing the business. Have the last agree with the foot in every part, then cut the boot-upper to fit the last, so that in lasting, it will come over the last easily and smoothly without straining, as all such pressure is an actual damage to the boot. Most boot-uppers are not crimped but jammed and crushed into their position. The crimp- ing is of great importance and should be done with care. The crimp should agree in its form to the last in all its upper curves ; then, when cut properly and fitted, it will last -over smoothly and all parts will adapt themselves to their proper position, thereby preventing all friction, which is the origin of corns, 90 HINTS AND INSTRUCTIONS and the various diseases of the foot. It is absolutely necessary that the measures be taken with great accuracy, and the last fit the measure, and the boot cut to fit the last, and all parts of the work done well, then the wearer will enjoy the luxury of a closely fitting boot, without any of the painful results which are usually consequent upon wearing new boots. The great secret of the ease, comfort, and elegance of a French boot is its perfect conformity to nature. The style of a boot is simply a matter of fancy. The boot-trees should more nearly imitate the natural limb, and not present that extreme swelled appear- ance, as many do, thus causing the side seam to burst out. Make the top of the boot leg slightly ^larger than the heel measurement as a general rule, and add to or diminish from it, as the instep is high or low. In some cases* of high instep more room is wanted, consequently more leather in the instep ; this is obtained by cutting the upper fuller at the bottom. All lasts should be made with blocks, and high * combs, for all kinds of boots or shoes, as thus the uppers are kept smooth, in good shape, and clean. There is much confusion in the length of boots and shoes. This is caused by the manufacturers using the size sticks in common use, which are incorrect. Thus shoes marked fives, are made on a four and a half last ; a five last should be made just ten inches . long, and all below that should vary just one-third of an inch to each size, and all sizes above five should be subject to the same variation. ON CUTTING PATTERNS. 91 WOMENS' LASTS. Marked 2 is 9 inches long. 3 9£ " " 4 9| " " 5 10 " 6 101 " " 7 10| " " 8 11 " BOYS' LASTS. Marked 1 is 8| inches long. " 2 9 " " M 3 9£ " " " 4 9| *' " 5 10 " MENS LASTS. 5 is 10 inches long. 6 10 J 7 10| 11 12 12 12} 13 12| 14 13 The width of mens' lasts on the bottom, vary one- twelfth of ail inch for each size, and three-twelfths of an inch over the instep for each size. A man's ten last of a good fulness measures across the ball three and three-eighths inches ; across the heel two and five- eighths, and in the same proportions of fulness ; the five's last measure across the ball three inches, and the heel two and three-eighths, and the same propor- tions of fulness should for a ten's last, girt ten and one-half inches over the instep, and the five's should girt nine and one-quarter inches. A ten's vamp for men's Oxford-tie, measures across its ex- treme points, nine inches ; five's vamp, eight inches. Draw a line across from one extreme point to the other, and six and seven-eighths inches of that line will give the length for the ten's vamp, and six inches will give the length for the five's vamp. Five and one-half inches will be the proper length for the base line of a ten's quarter ; five inches for the five's quar- 92 HINTS AND INSTRUCTIONS ter ; the quarter at the back of a ten's upper is three and one-half inches high ; the five's quarter is three and one-sixteenth inches high. Draw a line from the front point of the quarter, to the top of the heel line on the quarter, and eight and one-quarter inches gives its length, and seven and one-quarter the length for the five's ; the front base line for the ten's is three*" and three-eighths of an inch long, the five's three inches long. Draw a line perpendicular from the base of the ten's quarter to the top point, and five and one-eighths inches will give its height ; four and five- eighths will be the height for the five's quarter. Draw a line on the upper, after it is closed from the centre of the toes, to the top of the quarter, and also to the heel, and its length will be twelve and seven-eighths. On a ten's last it is eleven and five-eighths full. The upper when folded and pressed together, will be three and one-half sizes larger than the last. The width of Mr. Kimball's seven F last across the ball, is three and one-eighth inches ; width of heel two and one-sixteenth inches. The A's seven last across the ball is two and one half-inches, the heel two and three-sixteenths. By this it will be seen that his system for varying the width of his lasts, is one-eighth of an inch for each size across the ball, and one-sixteenth of an inch across the heel. With his three marked C, M, F,* &c, you have three degrees of fulness for each last, making it the most con- venient system in use. The upper of A. No. 6 ladies' shoe, should measure eight and five-eighths inches over the highest part of the instep ; the No. 2 should *C — eommou; M — medium; F — full. ON CUTTING PATTERNS 93 measure seven and seven-eighths and one-sixteenth, over the same part. In this manner, the variation for each size is one-twelfth of an inch on each side of the vamp ; this is the same variation as in the men's uppers. Children and misses shoes can all be arranged on the same system of diagrams. Every Boot and Shoe manufacturer and maker, should have full sets of patterns. By having a pattern of each size and style, there is no waste of time in drafting. The patterns can be easily and correctly altered or varied to meet any emergency that may arise. It is not safe to trust to the eye as it is liable to mistakes. By following the directions here given, together with the instructions already laid down, any person of common capacity and ordinary ingenuity, can cut a^Lill sett of patterns for any description of boot or shoe required. COMMON OR MEDIUM PROPORTIONS OF FEET. MENS' SIZES. Size. Length of foot. Heel measure. Over the instep 6 10^ inches. 12 i inches. 94 inches. 7 io| " 124 " 91 »> 8 n 13 " 9| " 9 iii " 13^ " 91 " . 10 ii| " 14 " 104 " 11 12 144 " 104 " LADIES' SIZES. Size. Length of foot. Heel measure. Over the instep 3 9 \ inches. Ill inches. 84 inches. 4 n " 114 " 84 » 5 10 " Hi " 9 {i 6 10 J " 12 » 94 " 7 10| *> 12J » 94 " 94 HINTS AND INSTRUCTIONS boys' sizes. Size. Length of foot. Heel measure. Over the instep. 1 8| inches. 10 £ inches. 7 J inches. 2 9 m » 84 " 3 9J " m " 81 " 4 9| » 12 8$ " 5 10 124 " 81 m YOUTHS' sizes. Size . Length of foot. Heel measure. Over Me instep. 9 7 inches. 81 inches. 62 inches. 10 7£ " 9 64 " 11 7| » 94 " 7 " 12 8 * H " 74 " 13 8J " 10 " 7i » MISSES LASTS. Size. Length of foot. Heel measure. Over Me instep. 10 7J inches. 10 inches. 6| inches. 11 7| " 10* " 6 5-6 " 12 8 10| " 7 ^ 13 8} « 11 " 71-6 " 1 8| " 11* " 7£ » 2 9 HI " 7i " C LASTS All Children's Lasts should always be made Block Lasts. Size. Length of foot. Heel measure. Over Me instep. 10 7£ inches. 10 inches. 6| inches. 9 7 9| * 6i " 8 6| " H " 6£ " 7 6} " 9 6 1-6 " 6 6 «* 8| 44 6 5 5| 44 8J " 5 5-6 " 4 5| « 8 " 5| 3 5 7| « 5i " 2 4| « 7J - 5J " 1 4* " 7 51-6 " 4 6| « 5 ON CUTTING PATTERNS. 95 Remarks. — The toes of the smallest sizes of chil- dren's lasts should be made two sizes wider propor- tionately, than the largest size, i. e., one-sixth of an inch, as the small foot is wide and soft, requiring more room for its expansion. Thus the practical advantages to be derived, by cutting the patterns by the packed diagram principle, (No. 8,) are made clear, as the foot of a child grows faster in length than in width. By the foregoing scale the length of the foot and other measurements in inches, and all shoes from the smallest child's to men's elevens, are obtained, and by following the same rule, smaller or larger sizes may be cut. By having all lasts, diagrams, and patterns, made by the scale, and all proportions of fulness of lasts regularly graded, making the children's much the fullest in width, owing to the greater degree of round- ness of the foot, and wider in proportion, on account of rapid growth. In preparing patterns for children, due allowance must be made for the increasing ful- ness of the ankle. The same caution is applicable to misses, but not to so great a degree. No. 6 is the side view of a gaiter boot upper, with last and block, giving the " pitch " line, concerning which there is quite a diversity of opinion, also the heel line, instep, waist and toes. By measuring the instep of a foot with callippers, one half of the distance gives the centre. Then take the thickness of the large toe in the same man- ner and half the thickness gives the centre ; then draw a line from that to the instep centre — carry HINTS AND INSTRUCTIONS 5 98 HINTS AND INSTRUCTIONS the line a short distance beyond, to where the callip- pers strike the bottom of the foot just in front of the heel, and the end of the last, (as seen by a dotted line in the centre) whatever " pitch " you may give the toes. The " pitch " is governed by the height of the heel as seen in No*. 3. Boot cutters make it a convenient practice to draw from that centre, a per- pendicular, line in order to give the centre of the boot leg at the top, and all is governed by the height of the heel. By a little attention to the front line (No. 7,) will be seen, the true shape of a boot form or crimp, and the back line, the boot properly treed ; the centre line, the seam. By passing the eye up the instep measure line, at the top is seen the curve that the fulness represents. That curve, or line, from the toes to the ankle line is carried in, or out, as the heel measure may determine. By having a pattern of that curved line, from the toes to the ankle line, all the variety of fulness is obtained, as is readily seen. The ankle measure in many cases, is three-eights of an inch shorter in a direct line than the heel line ; that is, when these lines are doubled, as seen in No. 7. Having a pattern of that curve line from the ankle to the toes, of all styles and varieties of boots and shoes, by moving it out in the same direction as the heel measure, to the instep, one-twelfth of an inch, (as that is a size) as seen in Mr. Parrott's dil^ grain for cutting uppers ; that makes it a size fuller and vice versa. As that curved line remains the same through all the sizes, by having that pattern, ON CUTTING PATTERNS. 99 Fig. 7.— See page 98. 100 HINTS AND INSTRUCTIONS and one side of it properly curved, for the heel line, and a portion of the same for the bottom line or curve, and those lines properly divided off and num- bered, for each size of any desired design, by that pattern all sizes may be cut with ease and accuracy Some have their several patterns fitted for the varieties of shoes they wish to manufacture. For custom work, they are very convenient. As the measure of the foot is the proper guide, draw the bottom line, then the heel, giving it the position desired for the shoe or boot, then the width of the toes, observing their elevation, as the shoe may be heeled or not. Then apply the heel measure ; draw the instep line from the toes to the ankle, draw a line for, or from the toes and ankle, and you have the desired result. Some cutters draw only one instep curve line, and make one-third of a size allowance for the length on the heel, and two-thirds of a size on the toes, for each size, and one-twelfth of an inch on the bottom at the heel, and a little more on the toes. It pro- duces about the same result, regulating the height of the quarter by the same heel scale, as fancy may dictate. In 1832, we made the first full set of diagram patterns that we ever used ; since that time the principle has spread from Maine to the far West, and a change has been wrought in the manufacture of shoes by machinery that causes the old-fashioned manufacturers to blush at the reflection that new tools, new machines, new ideas, have been introduced successfully, in spite of their determined opposition. ON CUTTING PATTERNS. 101 But it must be confessed that a great proportion of the machines and tools now in general use, are exceedingly imperfect. Most of the really important improvements that have been made, are the products of that class of mechanics who have brains, but shallow pockets. The ideal must always precede the actual, and the poor shoemaker who conceives an idea that his superior genius discovers to be really practical, is too often regarded as an idle dreamer, and the old adage is at once applied, " Ne sutor ultra crepidam " — no shoemaker should go beyond his last. The science of shoe manufacturing is yet to be greatly changed and improved. There is, in our opinion, no branch of the mechanic arts more suscep- tible of improvement than this ; we mean in the process of manufacture, none that admits of more machinery and tools. All parts of the stock can be cut and fitted by machinery, far superior to the hand methods. The rounding of pump out-soles, feather edging, the pricking of holes or stitches, all in-soles for welted boots or shoes, can be fitted precisely alike. All this work should be done by the " Boss " before the work is distributed to the workmen, then, of course, the sha* of the shoe and edges would pre- sent a uniform appearance. The foregoing suggestions may be questioned by those who have little perception and less knowledge, but nevertheless, the march of progress will surely witness factories arranged with perfected machinery, so that all parts of the work will be done under the supervision of skilful and practical workmen. By improved processes of manufacture, boots and shoes 102 CUTTING PATTERNS. will be made durable and firm as the stock will admit, and the finish will far exceed that now produced by the ordinary methods, while those who take the lead in the market, by the facilities they possess, will be , able to introduce and form the prevailing styles or fashions. There are many obvious advantages which readily suggest themselves, to be gained by the introduction of improved machinery which we have not space to enumerate. In collecting the " Hint's and Facts,'' here pre- sented, we have carefully considered the subject, and examined those tools and machinery that are now in general use in this country ; also the drawings of many and various machines, tools, etc., that have been published in England and France. From these sources, and our general observations, experiments, etc., we are fully convinced that the day is not far distant when marked and beneficial changes will be sxiccessfully introduced into this all-important branch of the mechanic arts. We will here remark, that in conversation with very many of our most en- ergetic and leading shoe manufacturers, we have found the most sanguine believers in the various im- provements suggested. New and improved machinery for sewed, pegged and cemented work; cements for rubber compounds, gutta-percha and chemical unions, are now being successfully introduced, together with new tanning combinations, all of which are yet to take a prominent and important place in the manu- facture of boots and shoes. CHAPTER III. INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE Manufacture of French Custom Boots, Shoes, and Gaiters. BY FREDERICK LAUGENBECK. First, place the foot to be measured upon a sheet of white paper. Mark around the foot with a long pencil, being careful to hold it in a perpendicular position. Next, take the circumference across the ball and instep with a tape measure. Next measure the heel and calf. For calf boots, the boot must be one-fourth of an inch widerjm the heel than the foot, and the ankle one-fourth of an inch less than the heel measure. CALF-LIKE MEASURE OF THE LEG. — LAST MEASURE. The last must be one and one-half of a size longer than the foot, and as wide as the widest part of the foot. For stubb toes, the last should be one size longer. Proper allowance should be made for corns. Place a round knob made of leather, or any other suitable substance, on the last, just the size of the corn, or enlargement, on one or both sides of the last, accord- ing to circumstances. 103 104 INSTRUCTIONS. The instep must be one-eighth of an inch less than measure. For a sound, healthy foot, make the last one-fourth of an inch less on the ball, and three-eighths of an inch less on the instep. Patent leather boots, around the ankle must be full with the measure as the stitches contract, INSTRUCTIONS FOR LASTING BOOTS. If a boot is well cut, and not properly lasted, the boot will not Jit. Soak the counters well in water. Paste between each. Draw the uppers smoothly over the last, as tightly as the leather will bear. In drawing the uppers over the last, the counter should be left about half way into its place or position. After the uppers are well lasted over the ball, then drive the heel last doivn to its place. Now commence to last the boot in the shank ; smooth either side alternately, towards the toe, until it fits smoothly. Remarks. — Judgment should always be used in the manufacture of boots or shoes for tender feet. No spe- cific directions can be given ; the good sense and dis- cretion of the artizan will suggest such modifications of the rules as the case requires. The instructions given concerning " corns," will usually correct the difficulty, but in cases of general tenderness of the feet, the alterations must be made throughout. INSTRUCTIONS. 105 Around the heel, the patent leather boot should be three-eighths of an inch larger than is the calf boot. SHOES. The last should be two sizes longer than the foot in order to secure comfort. The reason is obvious ; the foot works farther into the shoe, than in the boot. The last, at the instep, should be as wide as the foot, because the stitching contracts the leather ; otherwise the shoe will cause great discomfort. The shoe should be made one-fourth of an inch less than measure across the ball of the foot. GAITER BOOTS. The last should be made the same as for calf- skin boots, whether patent leather, or other material. PREPARATION OF STOCK. Soak the leather well in water. Remove all the fleshy substance, from stock of every description. Draw the in-sole well over the last. Let it remain until nearly dry. Hammer the in-sole after removal. Next, cut the in-sole as required ; by the sole thus prepared, cut the other sole. The remainder of the stock should be nearly dry before cutting up. TO PREVENT SQUEAKING. Ruff the soles with a rasp, then paste between them. Put every piece comprising the heel on sep- arately, rasp every lift, and paste as before. BOOK III CHAPTER I. DISCOVERY OF THE SULPHURIZATION AND VULCANIZATION OF INDIA-RUBBER IN AMERICA. It may be safely stated that no chemical discovery within the last century, has produced such wonderful results as those here alluded to. From being a sim- ple gum, the use of which was limited to the erasure of the school boy's blunder, or the merchant's mis- takes, India-rubber, by the process of vulcanization, has become one of our most important articles of commerce. It is one of the most wonderful products of nature that has ever been applied to the arts. The first attempt to manufacture caoutchouc or India-rubber into clothing, and articles of daily use in this country, was upon the discovery that the essential oils was a dissolvent of the gum sufficient to 106 VULCANIZATION OF INDTA-RUBBER. 107 spread it upon cloth. This was the beginning of the excitement. The idea of making water-proof cloth- ing took possession of the public mind at once. This was about the year 1834. Spirits of turpentine was the cheapest and most effectual solvent. A company organized and established a large manufactory in Roxbury, Mass., and the shares at $100 par value soon went up in the market to 3 or 4 hundred. It was soon found however, that they had not suf- ficiently investigated the matter. In a few months, or perhaps weeks, the manufactured articles which at first presented a substantial face became soft again and adhesive, so much so that masses of clothes adhered together and became almost a solid body. But the excitement continued as the real facts were not made known to the public ; companies were , formed, and factories were erected to a considerable extent before the bubble burst. The discovery of sulphurization in the United States was made about the year 1835, by Mr. Nathl. Hay ward, a native of Easton, Mass. Mr. Hayward was at this time a resident of Boston, the proprietor of a livery stable. Being of an inventive turn, his mind for a long time had been revolving the idea of applying some substance which would remove the cause of the adhesiveness of the manufactured article so fatal to the success of this great enterprise. Not possessing a thorough knowledge of chemicals or their compounds, Mr. Hayward purchased at random a great variety of drugs to mix with the dissolved rubber. These he placed in the sun hoping that he might, by chance hit upon that substance which 108 VULCANIZATION OF INDIA-RUBBER. would cause the rubber to become hard and retain its consistency. White lead, and all other substances which possessed the virtue of " driers " were success- ively subjected to his alembic. For months Mr. Hay- ward prosecuted his investigations, but hitherto with- out success. Finally, becoming discouraged, he one day collected all the various drugs, etc., which he had purchased, and threw them indiscriminately into a boiler, happening to have some sulphur in hand which he had procured for his horses, he mixed that in with the rest. Nil desperandum — the result of this experiment was the key to the long sought for secret. A fine substantial India-rubber cloth was produced free from stickiness, and presenting the peculiar appearance of sulphurized rubber. The result was produced, but which of the agencies had caused this wonderful transformation ? For months Mr. Hayward pursued his investigations, until at length the mystery was unveiled. Thus by accident was this important discovery made. Yet another discovery was necessary in order to fully complete the magnificent results which Hayward had developed. Sulphurized goods were found to emit a very unpleasant odor, and what was of still greater importance, the goods became rigid in cold weather, and loose and elastic in warm weather. These objections must be removed, or the discoveries of Hayward would lose their chief importance. Vul- canization, subsequently discovered by Goodyear, was the important element to be applied. To Hayward and Goodyear conjointly is the world indebted for VULCANIZATION OF INDIA-RUBBER. 109 the benefits which have followed as a sequence to their discoveries. They stand like the Siamese twins connected by reciprocal inventive faculties, the one equally dependent upon the other for the success which has crowned their united efforts. The intelli- gent reader cannot fail to see the relative importance which the one holds to the other, and how admirably the genius of Goodyear completed what the untiring energy of Hayward first disclosed. This much is necessary at this point to introduce the reader to what follows concerning vulcanization. On the 24th day of February, 1839, Mr. Hayward secured a patent for vulcanizing India-rubber by means of sulphur, which patent was assigned to Charles Goodyear — a man of shrewd and future grasping mind. Some idea of the importance of this improvement may be formed from the fact that it has been a subject of continual litigation for a number of years ; yea, almost since the day the patent was issued. It is the real vulcanizing substance now used in the manfacture of India-rubber fabrics of every description. The claim is in these words: "the combining of sulphur with gum-elastic, whether in solution or in substance, either by mixing with the digested India-rubber, kneading it, or sprinkling it on the surface of sheets and pressing it in." At the time of the famous contest between Good- year and Day, testimony was produced by which it was endeavored to be proved that the vulcanization of India-rubber was discovered in Germany by F. Luedersdorff, six years before Hayward's patent was 110 DISCOVERY OF THE SULPHUPJZATION granted. Some doubts have been expressed con- cerning the statement. Whether true or false, we cannot see why the circumstance should detract in the least from the claims or position of Mr. Hay ward, inasmuch as it is very conclusive that his discovery was purely accidental, A Prussian pamphlet published at Berlin in 1832, describes the experiments made by F. Luedersdorff with India-rubber, and the production of sulphurized India-rubber compounds. The Scientific American in speaking upon this subject, and combating the claims of the learned Prussian has the following : — " The clamminess of dissolved India-rubber, and its tendency to decomposition are attributed to its resinous properties. On page 28, the following lan- guage occurs : £ After a long series of experiments, in which neither deodorizing or oxidizing substances, neither alkalies, nor mechanical means, which affected the speedy drying, produced the desired result; I succeeded at last in finding in sulphur the substance, which even in very small quantities, perfectly pre- vented the injurious effect of the resinous aggrega- tion.' Instructions are given how to prepare the sulphur solution, by heating and stirring three parts of flour sulphur in one hundred parts of rectified oil of turpentine, bringing them to a boiling heat, then dissolving the India-rubber in the solution. By tlay- ward's patent, one teaspoonful of sulphur was mixed with that quantity of oil of. turpentine required to dissolve a pound of India-rubber, and in this respect, there is little difference between his method and that AND VULCANIZATION OF INDIA-RUBBER. Ill of the Prussian doctor. It is the sulphur which is the grand agent in the production of vulcanized India- rubber, no matter how combined, in solution, or with India-rubber softened by heat. Leave sulphur out of the question, and we would have no vulcanized India- rubber fabrics. " The question now arises, what reliance is there to be placed upon the authenticity of this pamphlet, published six years before Hay ward's patent was obtained ? We have been assured that the original work is in the College Library, at Providence, R. L; but it is rather singular, that in the many controver- sies on this subject, and the numerous suits at law which have taken place, respecting the originality of the invention, that such information was not pro- duced as testimony before some tribunal. " That Dr. Luedersdorff made the experiments de- scribed, we will assume to be true in every respect, but neither is our country or any other indebted to him in the least, for the introduction and success of India-rubber manufactures. To A.merican inventors alone, is the world indebted for the invention of vul- canized India-rubber. Hayward was no doubt totally ignorant of the Prussian doctor's experiments; he probably could not read German ; he made the dis- covery of sulphurized India-rubber by his own efforts, and he is an original inventor, in this sense of the term." TVe have thus given a brief account of this remark- able discovery. Heretofore but little has been writ- ten or published upon the discovery, and the subse- 112 DISCOVERY OF THE RULPHURIZATTON quent inventions to which it gave rise. The books which have been published have carefully avoided full and complete statements or facts, and have con- tained little or no information of value, but on the contrary, have seemed, at least, to deal in generali- ties calculated to befog and mislead. In the long and tedious trials which tasked the ingenuity and power of Webster and Choate, it was clearly proven that the articles claimed to be made by specifications there introduced, could not be manu- factured by such compounds. To all who are inter- ested in the facts, etc., elicited upon these celebrated trials, we would refer them to " Day's Bible " if obtainable, containing the Genesis and Revelation of all that could then be said or written upon the sub- ject. "The profits on the India-rubber business will reach almost two millions of dollars in the year, and the present manufactories cannot supply the demand. Shoes which weigh nine ounces per pair have only about three and a half ounces of rubber, the other materials being worth only from one to six cents per pound. One girl can make from twenty to thirty pairs per day, hence, enormous profits have been derived by the manufacturers of such goods. The best valve packing is made of 30 lbs. of India-rubber, 6 lbs. of lampblack, 22 lbs. red or white lead, and 22 oz. of sulphur ; these metalizing substances are all very cheap. India-rubber is easily rendered plas- tic, and combines readily with almost every substance, such as the oxides of metal, clay, pulverized sand? gums, carbon, sawdust, ground cork, &c. It is, cer- AND VULCANIZATION OP INDIA-RUBBER . 113 tainly, one of the most wondeiful and useful products of nature that has ever been applied to the arts." The importance of the discovery of the vulcaniza- tion of India-rubber to the world, can hardly be over- estimated, whether regarded in the light of science, or political economy. But comparatively few years have elapsed since its highest uses were discovered and applied ; and even now, with all the success which has thus far crowned the efforts of those engaged in its development, it is yet in its infancy. Like many of the most important discoveries in the mechanic arts, that of vulcanization was imperfectly applied, and millions of dollars were expended in the manufacture of improperly vulcanized goods, mills, machinery, fc &c. No sooner had the practicability of manufacturing boots and shoes from India rubber been demonstrated, than the attention of capitalists, and inventors, was turned to this new field of enterprise. Without stopping to test the nature of the gum which was to be moulded in golden ingots, via., the manufacture of boots, shoes, etc., and the effect of the seasons upon the manufactured articles, the anxious specula- tor, and the enthusiastic manufacturer plunged boldly into the sea of trade. All classes became interested in its success, stock companies were formed, the shares of which were eagerly snatched up, and visions of untold profits were divided in anticipation. But the " bubble " soon burst, goods manufactured and solarized in April, became a sticky mass of useless rubbish in July. The warm weather literally melted 114 DISCOVERY OF THE SULPHUMZATION the hopes and expectations of the incautious adven- turer. A panic was the consequence, mills were abandoned, thousands of artizans were suddenly thrown out of employment, and this vast field of enterprise so promising but a few months before, was swept as by a hurricane. Hundreds of thousands of tons of India-rubber, both raw and prepared were either given away, or sold at ruinous sacrifices. Hill- tops blazed with its ignited masses, and the illumina- tions of the fourth of July succeeding the failure, were made unusually brilliant by the aid of the India-rubber panic. As before intimated, the cause of this great loss of money and material, originated in the " indecent haste " of the manufacturer. In the first place, solarization, that is heating in the sun the cloth, or other substance upon which the gum or compound of rubber, and some foreign substances was spread, was an imperfect process, as the heat of the sun was not sufficiently powerful to evaporate the solvent, and fo.m a chemical union between the sulphur and the rubber, which union constitutes perfect vulcanization. The unfortunate result of the " experiment " was so dearly purchased, that all who were engaged in the traffic, abandoned it without an attempt to *profit by experience. It is at this point that we introduce Mr. Charles Goodyear, a man of observation, possess- ing a larger share of perseverance than is usually found in any single invidual, together with fair inven- tive genius. He saw the sad results of that zeal which is without knowledge, and resolved to find if possible, the thread which should guide him safely AND VULCANIZATION OF INDIA-RUBBER. 115 through the labyrinth of this mystery. He undertook the task alone, as the severe reverses which had vis- ited the pioneers in the movement, had disgusted them with further attempts to correct, what appeared to be insurmountable objections. Mr. Goodyear seemed to be impressed with the idea that nature never plays practical jokes, and that what had already been acomplished in the uses of rubber was simply an earnest of what might be realized. Acting upon this conjecture, we see him devoting himself to the elucidation of the mysterious problem. Two impor- tant points were to be gained. To those acquainted with the India-rubber or gum-elastic, it is well known that after it has been subjected to a certain tension for any considerable time, it loses its elasticity ; also, that during hot weather it melts and becomes sticky ;)r adhesive, and in cold weather becomes stiff and rigid, and correspondingly less pliable. These impor- tant, in fact, fatal objections must be removed, or India-rubber would bacome comparatively valueless. Mr. Goodyear engaged in the work with all the enthusiasm of his nature, and notwithstanding he was without money, and the sympathy of friends, and was frequently the subject of privations, hardships, and imprisonments, still he labored on, as though a presentiment of the discovery of the long sought for secret was continually before him, encouraging him to work and he should finally triumph. His persis- tent efforts were finally successful. The admixture of sulphur with the gum at a heat of about 270°, was the " open sesame " to the treasures which he ultimately realized in the prosecution of his labors. 116 DISCOVERT OF THE SULPHURIZATION The Commissioner of Patents of the United States, the Hon. Joseph Holt, in his late decision upon the " extension " of the Goodyear Patent, thus eloquently discourses concerning the early efforts of Mr. Good- year, in the search of his ultimately wonderful dis- covery. " As early as 1834-'5, Mr. Goodyear seems to have formed a most exalted estimate of the capabilities, as a material for manufacture, of the gum known as caoutchouc or India-rubber. This gum had been previously extensively employed in the fabrication of a variety of articles, but, owing to their indifferent quality, all concerned in these enterprises, as well as in those which followed for a series of years after- ward, were involved in bankruptcy and ruin. The fabrics thus made could not keep the market, because they were found to grow rigid under the influence of cold, and to soften and become sticky under that of heat, while they rapidly decomposed when brought into contact with perspiration and the animal oils. The applicant was thoroughly convinced that these qualities, which had proved so disastrous to the trade, could be removed, and he set himself resolutely to work to ascertain the process for accomplishing this result. Sulphur had already been advantageously combined with India-rubber by Hayward, so that the discovery had been approached to its very verge. The step, however, which remained to be taken, short as it was, was indispensable, and without it all those which had preceded it would have been unavailing. Science could afford but little assistance in the AND VULCANIZATION OF INDIA-RUBBER. 117 inquiry, for, as the event proved, the most potent element in the process was too subtle to be disclosed by the severest chemical analysis. The applicant had therefore to pursue the investigation gropingly ; but he persisted in it with an ardor and a courage which nothing could abate or daunt. His aim was definite, his conviction as to its attainability com- plete. As one who searches for a hidden treasure in a field where he knows it is to be found, so pursued he his explorations in quest of this secret. He sought it on the right hand and on the left, by day and by night, in the midst of ceaseless toil and lavish expenditure, and by the light of every form of exper- iment which his most fertile genius and daring spirit could suggest. He became completely master of everything known in regard to the properties of the material which it was his ambition to improve, and so thoroughly was he imbued with the soul of his inquiry, and so intensely quickened was his vigilance, that no phenomenon, however minute, could meet his eye, no sound, however faint, could fall upon his ear, without his at once detecting and appreciating its bearing upon the great problem whose solution he was seeking. From four to five years were passed in these unremitted labors, when an incident occurred which at once revealed the long sought truth. And it is a singular coincidence, that the spark of light yielded by this incident, was elicited by a collision, so to speak, the result of that intense zeal which, so far as health and fortune were concerned, had been the consuming fire of his life. In one of those ani- mated conversations so habitual to him, in reference 118 DISCOVERY OF THE SULPHURIZATION to his experiments, a piece of India-rubber combined with sulphur, which he held in his hand as the text of all his discourses, was by a violent gesture thrown into a burning stove near which he was standing. When taken out, after having been subjected to a high degree of heat, he saw, what it may be safely affirmed would have escaped the notice of all others — that a complete transformation had taken place, and that an entirely new product — since so felici- tously termed " elastic metal" — was the consequence. When subjected to further tests, the thrilling convic- tion burst upon him that success had at length crown- ed his efforts, and that the mystery he had so long wooed, now stood unveiled before him. His history in this respect is altogether parallel with that of the greatest inventors and discoverers who have preceded him. The lamp had swung for centuries in the Cathedral of Pisa, but of the thronging multitudes who worshipped there, none had heeded the lessons which it taught. It was reserved for the profound and observant intellect of young Galileo to extract from its oscillations the true laws of the pendulum, which led to the creation of an infallible measure of time. The theory of universal gravitation loses noth- ing of its grandeur or value because suggested by the falling of an apple from the tree. In all lands, by teeming millions, this phenomenon had been observed, but to none had it imparted instruction — to none had it spoken of that wonderful secret which lurked beneath its simple features. At length its " still small voice " fell upon the delicate and appreciative ear of one whom it startled into inquiry. The light AND VULCANIZATION OF INDIA-RUBBER. 119 thus afforded, to which all had been blind, was indeed dim and twinkling ; but, following its guidance, as one who traces back the dawn, the great Newton soon plunged into the full-orbed splendors of a discovery confessedly the most brilliant which has gilded and ennobled the annals of science. On all the hearth- stones of the civilized world, for thousands of years the kettle had boiled and lifted its lid by the expan- sive power of its steam ; yet for none had this seem- ingly trite and ever-recurrent incident been signifi- cant — to none had it announced that measureless power of which it was the humble but distinct expo- nent. At length the movement caught the eye of a lonely student of nature, then a prisoner in the Tower of London, and in the soil of his prolific mind it prov- ed the rapidly expanding germ of that steam-engine whose triumphs have changed the social, political, and commercial aspects of the globe. So India-rub- ber in combination with sulphur may by accident have been exposed to a high degree of heat often before without attracting the attention of any ; and it is safe to allege that it might have been thus expos- ed a thousand times afterwards, without the world's having been wiser or wealthier for it. The thorough self-culture and training of the applicant and his unwearied researches prepared him at once to seize upon, to comprehend and embody in a practical form, the truth he sought, the moment it presented itself, no matter how dimly, to him. This was his merit — the same in kind with that of the most illustrious inventors who have appeared in the world, and by that of but a few of them surpassed in degree. It is 120 DISCOVERY OF THE 3ULPHURTZATION a figure of speech — but an exalted mode of expres- sion — which assigns to man any part in the work of creation" The importance of this discovery is well under- stood. - Gum-elastic is thereby made permanently elastic — it resists exposure to heat and cold — is elastic under compression — is impervious to wet — resists the action of solvents to a remarkable degree, and the attacks of vermin of all kinds. It can be moulded into almost every conceivable shape for use, or beauty. In the mechanical arts it has been sub- jected to a thousand uses, with remarkable success. And here we may remark en-passant, that gutta-per- cha was discovered subsequently, and is already a formidable rival of India-rubber inasmuch as the latter is affected by oils, and will, in a short time, •except as a hard gum, become decomposed, whereas the former (gutta-percha) is not affected in the least by oils or acids, in its pure state ; and here is the grand secret of the failure of those shoe manufactur- ers, who, ignorant of the fact that those shoes or boots cemented by a rubber filament would in a short time become useless, owing to the decomposition of the cement caused by the oil in the leather, were induced to make heavy outlays in the fitting up of large man- ufacturing establishments which were finally aban- doned from this cause alone. Gutta-percha is a firmer and more consistent gum than India-rubber. Gutta-percha when placed in boiling water contracts considerably in bulk, while India-rubber expands. Gutta-percha juice, when taken from the fire, is of AND VULCANIZATION OF INDIA-RUBBER. 121 a dark brown color, and consolidates in a few mo- ments, and becomes hard like wood. India-rubber sap is perfectly white, and has the appearance of thick cream ; when it coagulates, it gives from four to six parts water out of ten. Gutta-percha first treated with water, alcohol, and ether, and dissolved with spirits of turpentine and precipitated, yields a substance consistent with the common properties of gutta-percha ; but India-rubber similarly treated, results in a substance resembling in appearance gum arabic. Gutta-percha by distillation yields 57 § per cent, of volatile matter ; India-rubber by the same process, yields 85| per cent. But Mr. Goodyear's discoveries of vulcanization, as applied to the softer elastic compounds, did not end there. He continued his experiments for the space of five years from the time of his first grand discovery, when he obtained his patent for Vulcan- ized Hard Rubber. This invention was the crowning result of his long, patient, and laborious researches. Probably the entire history of inventions cannot furnish an instance of more intense self-sacrificing, entire self-immolation to the elucidation of a great scientific principle, than is shown in the persistent labors of Mr. Goodyear while in pursuit of the crowning discovery of the age. Let us read the glowing account of his toils and disappointments, his defeats and victories, as given by the Commis- sioner from whom we have previously quoted. " From the first moment that the conception entered his mind until his complete success — em- 6 122 DISCOVERT OF THE SULPHURIZATION bracing a period of from sixteen to eighteen years — • * he applied himself unceasingly and enthusiastically to its perfection and to its introduction into use, in every form that his fruitful genius could devise. So intensely were his faculties concentrated upon it that he seems to have been incapable of thought or of action upon any other subject. He had no other occupation, was inspired by no other hope, cherished no other ambition. He carried continually about his person a piece of India-rubber, and into the ears of all who would listen he poured incessantly the story of his experiments and the glowing language of his prophecies. He was, according to the wit- nesses, completely absorbed by it, both by day and night, pursuing it with untiring energy and with almost superhuman perseverance. Not only were the powers of his mind and body thus ardently devoted to the invention and its introduction into use, but every dollar he possessed or could command through the resources of his credit, or the influences of friendship, was uncalculatingly cast into that seething cauldron of experiment which was allowed no repose. The very bed on which his wife slept, and the linen that covered his table, were seized and sold to pay his board, and we see him, with his stricken household, following in the funeral of his child on foot, because he had no means with which to hire a carriage. His family had to endure priva- tions almost surpassing belief, being frequently with- out an article of food in their house, or fuel in the coldest weather — and indeed it is said that they could not have lived through the winter of 1839, but AND VULCANIZATION OF INDIA-RUBBER. 123 for the kind offices of a few charitable friends. They are represented as gathering sticks in the woods and on the edges of the highways, with which to cook their meals, and digging the potatoes of their little garden before they were half grown, while one of his hungry children, in a spirit worthy of his father, is heard expressing his thanks that this much had been spared to them. We often find him arrested and incarcerated in the debtor's prison, but even amid its gloom his vision of the future never grew dim, his faith in his ultimate triumph never faltered. Undismayed by discomfitures and sorrows which might well have broken the stoutest spirit, his lan- guage everywhere, and under all circumstances, was that of encouragement and of a profound conviction of final success. Not only in the United States did he thus exert himself to establish and apply to every possible use his invention, but in England, France, and other countries of Europe, he zealously pursued the same career. In 1855, he appeared at the World's Fair in Paris, and the golden medal and the Grand Cross of the Legion of Honor were award- ed to him as the representative of his country's inventive genius. Fortune, however, while thus caressing him with one hand, was at the same mo- ment smiting him with the other ; for we learn from the testimony that these brillliant memorials passed from the Emperor and reached their honored re- cipient, then the occupant of a debtor's prison among strangers in a foreign land — thus adding yet an- other to that long sad catalogue of public benefactors who have stood neglected and impoverished in the 124 HISTORY OF THE SULPHURIZATION midst of the waving harvest of blessings they had bestowed upon their race. Throughout all these scenes of trial, so vividly depicted by the evidence, he derived no support from the sympathies of the public. While the community at large seemed to have looked on him as one chasing a phantom, there were times when even his best friends turned away from him as an idle visionary, and he was fated to encounter on every side sneers and ridicule, to which each baffled experiment and the pecuniary loss it inflicted added a yet keener edge. The mercenary, naturally enough, pronounced his expenditures, so freely made, culpably wasteful ; the selfish and the narrow-minded greeted the expression of his en- larged and far-reaching views as the ravings of an enthusiast ; while it is fair to infer from the dep- ositions, that not a few of the timid and plodding who cling, tremblingly apprehensive of change, to the beaten paths of human thought and action, re- garded him as wandering on the very brink of in- sanity, if not already pursuing its wild and flickering lights. Such in all times has been the fate of the greatest spirits that have appeared on the arena of human discovery, and such will probably continue to be the doom of all whose stalwart strides carry them in advance of the race to which they belong. With such a record of toil, of privation, of courage and of perseverance in the midst of discouragements the most depressing, it is safe to affirm that not only has the applicant used that due diligence enjoined by law, but that his diligence has been, in degree and in merit, perhaps without parallel in the annals of in- vention." AND VULCANIZATION OF INDIA-RUBBER. 125 The change produced in the native gum has been aptly compared to the change which is wrought in the perishable hide by the process of tanning, ffe can hardly estimate the uses to which this u vul- canite " may be applied, or rather we may say we shall find it quite as difficult to say what uses it cannot be made to subserve. It can hardly be de- nominated an improvement, but a creation. Daniel Webster in his great plea, Goodyear vs Day, eloquent- ly remarks that, " it introduces quite a new material into the manufacture of the arts, that material being nothing less than elastic metal. It is hard like a metal, and as elastic as pure original gum elastic. - It is as great and momentous a phenomenon occur- ring to men in the progress of their knowledge, as it would be for a man to show that iron and gold could remain iron and gold, and yet become elastic as India-rubber." Mr. Goodyear denominates this improvement " metalic gum elastic." This article is extensively used, and may be wrought into thou- sand shapes, from massive blocks to the thinest sheets. It is susceptible of a beautiful polish, and possesses great firmness and durability. It already constitutes an important staple of commerce. Mil- lions of dollars are invested in its manufacture, both in Europe and x\merica. It is largely wrought into imitations of marble, wood, leather, whalebone, shell, horn, &q. The imitation is so perfect as to deceive even a practised eye, and while it so closely resem- bles the various articles alluded to, it is more durable and permanent than many of them, inasmuch as it remains unaffected by heats or colds, dampness or 126 HISTORY OF THE SULPHUPJZATION extreme dryness ; no corrosion, oxidation, nor decay. It excels in beauty, nicety of finish, and in durability, those trinkets of glass and jet, which, in the common form, are go liable to instant destruction by children. Few persons have any adequate conception of the wonderful transformations to which vulcanite may be changed, or its important position in the industrial arts. Having traced at length the discovery of vulcaniza- tion and its contingent results, we now call attention to remarks that have appeared in various English scientific works, of acknowledged authority. The whole process of vulcanization and its application is fully and clearly set forth. And here we would remark that the English have not been backward in publishing with commendable liberality the various discoveries and improvements as they were perfected. On the other hand, all the American inventors have studiously avoided, not only the publication of their discoveries, but have endeavored to obstruct and prevent all investigation, the publication of which would Simply make known to the world the results of their genius. The object seems to have been to throw an air of mystery around their discoveries, and by thus preserving to themselves their secrets, be en- abled to place an undue value upon the manu- factured article. Were they not fully protected in the manufacture and sale of their goods, by the patents which have been so lavishly granted, Ameri- can inventors would be fully justified in preserving as profound secrets, the results of their perseverance and patient toil, but as it is, we can see no substau- AND VULCANIZATION OF INDIA-RUBBER. 127 tial reason for this endeavor to shield from the public eye that which would add to the general stock of scientific knowledge, and could but be honorable to the manliness and genius of the discoverer. We are indebted to the London Mechanic's Mag- azine for many of the valuable thoughts which we shall now introduce to the reader. CHAPTER II. VULCANIZATION. We have attempted to show, that amongst the number of advantages claimed for the hard vulcan- ized India-rubber, is that of the power of closely imitating almost any article, substance, or material. In doing this, we ought to have referred to the Vul- canite Court of the Crystal Palace for a full corrobo- ration of the position we desired to assume. "We are now about to advance a step farther, and shall put forward proofs that hard India-rubber, submitted to a certain facile process, not only has a right to be placed side by side with almost all and every ma- terial it affects to imitate, but has a further right to be considered as superior. Of course there are excep- tionable cases to this, as in all rules, and these will be pointed out during this attempt to give a thought- bearing digest of the present position of this dis- covery. The material produced by vulcanization being as hard as, and capable of a greater amount of wear, than iron, brass, and, in many cases, even than steel, we have the element of durability to start with ; and 128 » VULCANIZATION. 129 it must be recollected, that this wonderful power of resisting wear, both from friction and the action of the atmosphere is endowed by a process as facile as that possessed by the baker of ship biscuits. That while the mass or dough is in its soft state, it falls into, and as it were, courts the required form of its future existence with a fluency possessed by scarcely any other material. Designs of the most exquisite kind, or of the simplest character, may thus be turned out like tea cakes, and like tea cakes carried to the vulcanizing oven. But here, the simile stops, for these biscuits of Mr. Goodyear defy the teeth of time and the digestion of ages. There are manufac- turers, however, that cry out, " we don't want articles that will last." This is a narrow view of things. Experience is opposed to so unjust a sentiment. A moment's thought would forever dispel the illusion. Is there any less demand for iron furniture or iron household utensils, because such articles in that metal will last longer than others ? Or is the dia- mond less prized because it is nearly indestructible ? The family of mankind, ever growing and increasing, with its varied wants, its constant changes of fortune and alterations in its tastes, its coquetry, and its caprice, will find for the industry of the world quite enough to keep it employed. With the introduction of machinery there was to have been a less demand for " hands;" with the intro- duction of railways, horses were literally to go to the dogs. Need instances be multiplied ? Perhaps it would be better to do so, while such a feeling is in the ascendant ; but space is imperative, although pre- 6* - 130 VULCANIZATION. judice is stubborn. But, very naturally observes the reader who has possessed himself of some one or more of the specimens from the Crystal Palace, " this quality of cheapness is a myth. I lor one have put it to the test, and this stick, for instance, cost me 55. or this pencil 2s. Now, in the first place, the stick or the pencil should be compared with any other sticks or pencils professing all the recommenda- tions of those in question, to arrive at a fair apprecia- tion ; and in the next, it should be remembered that those examples are produced from abroad. They bear a duty, and in many cases, they proceed from small and experimental operations. We have made especial inquiries into these facts, and find that such is the case, and that such circumstances are no more than reasonable, as appertaining to every invention upon its first introduction. The Daguerreotype is a case in point. The inven- tor, and all those concerned in placing the discovery before the public, take care that the prices shall be kept so that a remuneration shall be obtained before it is let down to the bare cost of production, added, it may be, to interest upon capital employed. The mass, in its soft stage, does its own work ; that is to say, a sheet of it may be laid over a mould, and the bare weight of a shovel full of sand cast upon it will press it into every lineament of the matrix. This sheet of the soft material may have for its com- ponents, a large proportion of oxide or of saw-dust, as the desire may be either an imitation of bronze or of some particular wood, or other material. * * * Mr. Charles Goodyear, in an unpublished work VULCANIZATION. 131 upon the subject, states that the first pair of India- rubber over-shoes were made by himself and daugh- ter in a cellar in New York. There are now millions of them made each year at the various India-rubber mills throughout America, France and Belgium. But a singular desire to appreciate and follow se- quences, and an indomitable perseverance in conquer- ing difficulties, appears to have acted upon the indus- trious mind of Mr. Goodyear, in this direction with peculiar force. The India-rubber over shoe perfected, Mr. Goodyear did not sit down quietly to contem- plate his work, even when apparently complete, but strongly convinced that there was more to do than covering the feet of nations with a water-proof sub- stance, however symmetrical in its form and comfort- able in its fit under almost every circumstance, he felt that if the leather boot or shoe could be alto- gether dispensed with, and there could be substituted for it an India-rubber boot or shoe, a boon of price- less worth would be conferred upon humanity, the more so as the item of boots and shoes to a poor family, or even to a person of moderate means, was one of considerable importance. To reduce the cost of this article of clothing, and to give to the poor man a pair of boots at one-third of the present ex- pense, and not as now, at more than one-half of his week's wages, has been one of the special objects of Mr. Goodyear's untiring life. That he will succeed in this, there now exists not a shadow of doubt. The combinations of the hard, the semi-hard, and the soft vulcanized India-rubber, have given him all the need- ful elements of success, and ere long, boots and shoes 132 VULCANIZATION. of India-rubber which need not a morsel of leather for their formation, will be as plentiful as over-shoes are now, and even more so. The power of the hard, the semi-hard, and the soft vulcanized India-rubber to resist wear, is one of their extraordinary features. Heels, for instance, made of the soft material, have been put on to shoes of boys at the United Parish School at Norwood, and on to the toes of the same boots iron tips of the • eighth of an inch have been secured. The result of this test has been that the iron has been worn out, and the heel, when removed and weighed, has scarcely suffered the slightest ap- preciable difference in weight or density. Mr. Good- year has already made arrangements to disperse heels of this material by the hogshead. He fasnions them in a circular form making the outer margin of the hard material and the inner circle of the soft. The hard material is smooth and beautifully polished. It does not require blacking, and will keep its lustre a long time. The centre bulb projects beyond the sur- face of the hard ring, and when trodden upon yields and is flattened by the weight of the body. One of the applications of this form of heel bears directly upon the perfectibility of a boot or shoe wholly made of India-rubber. In the first place, the rotary prin- ciple of heel is employed which one might suppose almost an unnecessary arrangement, and in the next, the peculiar form of the bulb or lobe acts when press- ed upon as a valve or air-pump, and sends at every step into those shoes or boots properly prepared, a certain amount of air, or perhaps it would be more correct to say, it displaces a certain amount of air VULCANIZATION. 133 which finds renewal from other parts of the boot. Is a boot made unsightly? — not in the least. They are really elegant in form and general contour. Our readers are familiar with the corrugated dress boots. The India-rubber boots we have seen closely imitated these, but it may be added, that in thus copying, Mr. Goodyear copies his own, as the corrugated dress boot was introduced more to prepare the eye for what was to follow^than to give the beau of New York, of Paris, and of London, any particular style of dress boot. In this, Mr. Goodyear displays a consummate knowledge of human nature. Had he brought out a corrugated boot without this avant courier and child of fashion, his invention might have possessed very es- sential recommendations but that of " optical famil- iarity," and the work of years would have been as nought. We may mention here a characteristic of Mr. Good- year's inventive genius. He considers failures as stepping-stones to success. He tells one of the many well selected aids by whom he is surrounded, to do such and such a thing. The mechanician returns after giving his earnest attention to the task, with a something so clumsy or so ridiculous that it either raises the fear of censure or the dread of laughter as the reward of his pains ; but neither laughter or censure await him. The result is just what its origi- nator expected; the practical application confirms his views. A dozen failures, perhaps fifty, perhaps two hundred, wait upon these efforts, but with this valuable difference, that each failure approaches, di- rectly or indirectly, the something that the mind 134 VULCANIZATION. desired to arrive at. Thus, each thing is, as it were, hemmed in ; it is check-mated by these far- seeing moves, and science, the antagonist in this noble game, renders up the coveted object of an intellectual struggle. In a word, it is a practical exercise of inductive philosophy, or the algebra of mechanics getting at positive and useful facts by means mysterious and unintelligible to ordinary comprehensions. CHAPTER III. VULCANIZATION. Camphine or turpentine, oil of sassafras, and all the essential oils, are faithful tests of the quality of gum elastic, and as certain in their tale-telling as nitric acid is of the genuineness of gold. As the native gums, and also the common manufacture of gum elastic have the same general appearance as those that are vulcanized, more particularly to persons not acquainted with the manufacture nor judges of the goods, these tests are of the utmost importance, not alone to determine whether the goods are genu- ine, but also to ascertain whether those that are vul- canized are properly done. When these tests are applied to any fabric of native gum, it is rendered very adhesive, and so quickly as to destroy any light fabric almost immediately, while upon goods that are well vulcanized, they should have no such effect. If they do so the manufacture is bad. Although the manufacture of hard India-rubber goods, by the process of vulcanizing, is extensively known and appreciated in the United States, and in France and Belgium, very little appears to be under- stood in Great Britain. Indeed, in Birmingham, 135 136 VULCANIZATION. which is justly termed the " work-shop of the world,'' little or nothing, or if anything, a something amount- ing to a misunderstanding, would comprise the quan- tity of intelligence upon the subject. There can be little doubt, however, that as the infinite capabilities of the material become known, and justly esteemed, and its amazing applications get manifested, no one thing of late years, surprising as the changes have been in that neighborhood, will have caused so great a revolution in very many of the staple manufactures of that town as will the introduction of this discovery. As regards the power to be used in the manufac- ture, steam has a decided advantage over water, as in the plastic state of the mass there exists a variety of proceedings, according to the nature of the ma- terial to be made or the object to be imitated, in which steam would have to play a conspicuous part. But it must be in this country as in America and elsewhere, that as the manufacture extends, so will the best and most suitable machinery and power be devised and rendered subservient to its development. When the manufacture is favored with the advantages of steam power, and large capital, the most profitable results have been and are attendant upon it ; and perhaps there are few manufactures which require less comparative space, and in which less waste is consequent. There should not be a particle of the substance lost, as all cuttings, sweepings of the fac- tory, and the very dust upon all things around, can be re-worked with profit and advantage. Indeed, it is here that we should make publicly known the fact that every article of vulcanized India-rubber, bears VULCANIZATION. 187 its value according to its make and kind, however old it may be. As a general impression exists that India-rubber when once vulcanized cannot be again used, this statement should be borne in mind, and the greatest publicity given to it in order that the millions of pounds now lying waste in the shape of galoshoes, &c, may not be heedlessly thrown away. The old Jew clothesmen will at once open their eyes to the fact, and the valet or humble servant girl will find in their collection and sale an increase to their perquis- ites, in proportion to the consciences of those with whom they deal. Here, then, we have important elements of econ- omy, at the very beginning and end of the manu- facture, if end that can have which has the at- tribute of a renewal of usefulness. Galoshoes may be called in as worn out sovereigns and shillings are now, and returning to their mint, be melted up and re-stamped for renewed circulation. Another advantage in the manufacture is, that the same tools are employed for its various branches, and the same operatives can be turned from the making of one description of an article to another, without delay or expense. . A girl, for instance, who may be engaged as the maker of garments one day, may become the next a trunk, a harness, or a shoemaker ; and on the third, find herself occupied in pressing out of the soft and ductile mass brooches, and other articles of adornment, which being afterwards vulcanized, and thus rendered almost imperishable, may serve to encircle the neck, clasp the arm, or hang pendant 138 VULCANIZATION. from the waist of Britain's fairest daughters. The machinery employed in the manufacture of India- rubber, since the first attempts to work it, has been subjected to variation and gradual improvement. Numerous expedients and divers machines were early tried for chopping, grinding and spreading the gum, and also for flowing it in a liquid or semi-liquid state, which have been abandoned. It is now gen- erally agreed by manufacturers in this business, that the machinery is as near perfection as can be attain- ed ; that is to say, they are all satisfied with it. But in this age of improvements, we might see to-morrow one machine doing the work of two or more, and all calculations as to perfectibility obliterated, but to begin again upon fresh data. It must however be admitted that it is of the most simple kind, doing the work well and with astonishing rapidity, although requiring great mechanical power, owing to the toughness and tenacity of the gum. The machine used for cutting and washing the gum is the same as that employed by paper-makers in cutting rags. A large proportion of the India-rubber was nearly useless from the quantity of bark in it until this engine came into use. Gum-elastic or India-rubber can be readily mixed or combined with almost every other substance. It may be mixed with other gums, oils, coal-tar, . carbon, and with the earths, and oxides or pulverized metals or ores. It can like- wise be combined with all fibrous products. It is compounded in the manufacture with many of the above substances, for the purpose of obtaining particular advantages for special uses. Ground cork VULCANIZATION. 139 and other light materials are sometimes mixed with the gum to increase the bulk, and make the articles light. The oxides of metals, their filings and pulver- ized silicas will give imitations of marble. The fibre of cotton, or the dust of different woods will afford sim- ulations of wood of greater or less gravity, as may- be required. The combining of plumbago gives the crayon ; oxide of zinc, produces lithographic stone, and so on, and on. Pigments and earths are used for color and cheapness, and to increase the weight of the fabric as in the case of carpeting. Bitumen and rosin are sometimes used to give articles a finish, or high lustre. Oxides of some of the metals are used, but white lead and litharge are commonly pre- ferred. From two to four ounces of either of these metals to the pound of gum cause the articles, and particularly those that are thick or massive, to be readily changed or vulcanized, and more completely, or with greater uniformity. Sulphur is applied through the medium of heat in different ways, according to the nature of the articles or fabrics, and their uses. It is generally mixed in the process of crushing or grinding the gum, in the proportion of half an ounce of sulphur to the pound of gum for the vulcanized elastic goods, and about five or six ounces to the pound of gum for the " vulcanite," or hard goods. In the former case, about 270° of heat are necessary, and in the latter, 300 to 310°. At other times the sulphur is dusted upon the articles in the form of flour of sulphur before they are placed in the heater or oven. This is commonly done in the manufacture of elastic thread and other articles, which possess no 140 VULCANIZATION. extraneous mixture, in which case the gum is pene trated or impregnated with the sulphur, without its being mixed with the gum in the crude state. Enough has been given in this chapter to permit of the intelligent and thoughtful at once following us, in the manufacture and finish of — we will say for example — buttons. The mass in a tough but plas- tic state, a toughness and plasticity in combination with which there exists no approachable parallel — having been so rendered by simply plunging it into boiling water, becomes of as easy manipulation as clay. Indeed the material in this stage being so like clay, we can scarcely point to any better illustration than the porcelain button manufacture, which being familiar to most, there can be no need to detail. Treated thus like clay, the moulds may be filled by the gross, and the buttons afterwards submitted to vulcanization. The moulds may bear any impress, and however fine such patterns may be, the material will receive and retain them after vulcanization, to a degree which will defy every power that destroys all other substances short of those of actual cutting, filing, or grinding. Thus a button is produced at an extraordinary economical rate, and with marvellous ease, which, while comparing the facility of its origin to that of the porcelain, possesses the superlative qualities of being comparable with one made with the properties and strength of iron or other metal, and in imitation of bronze, ivory, cameo, and is, indeed, a substitute for any other, and the very best material or thing ever used for button making. In a word, it may possess the closest similitude to the VULCANIZATION. 141 most exquisite carving, with the properties of bronze, ivory, or any hard and scarce material. The appli- cations as far as results are concerned, are attended ■with like favorable characteristics, whether the article produced be nearly every one of those innumerable and familiar things, which meet us at each turn, either within the palace or cottage, or the many others to be met with out of doors. CHAPTER IV. VULCANIZATION. The importance of the improvements in gum-elastic for educational* purposes, has been previously com- mented upon in previous portions of these notices, and we would now give a little additional space to some of the many purposes in this direction, which assist in filling up the almost infinite measure of the uses of vulcanized India-rubber. Much has been done to perfect them, but enough has already been accomplished to prove that the causes of education will hereafter be promoted by the use of many articles made of the vulcanized fabrics. The cheapness of some of these articles, compared with the cost of those of other materials, gives double assurance of the cor- rectness of this view. The expensiveness of globes r for instance, which are admitted by all to be by far the best means of imparting and obtaining geograph- ical and astronomical information, has rendered them accessible to few persons, either pupils or teachers. The adaptation and application of gum-elastic to these purposes, will bring within the reach of every youth in the commonest school, a perfect globe, at a ^rice within their means, and maps more durable 142 VULCANIZATION. 143 than bather or parchment, at cheaper rates than paper maps are now made when mounted on linen. ***** The outline maps which we have seen, are printed upon the vulcanized India-rubber fabrics, both trans- parent and opaque, and also upon various articles to be used for other 'purposes besides maps, such as piano covers, crumb cloths, and carpets. Arrange- ments are being made for this manufacture, which may facilitate the method of teaching from outline maps by printing on this material, maps of the world, upon a scale large enough for " papering " the sides of an ordinary sized room of a school house, academy, public lecture room, or dwelling. The same map, when suspended at a suitable distance from the wall, with lights placed behind it, may be used as a trans- parency for teaching at night. A series of sectional maps printed on a scale as large as can be conve- niently printed upon calenders, after the manner of calico-printing, may be cemented together, and ar- ranged upon rollers. The globe has heretofore been so expensive, as to be found only in schools of the higher class. No form of map or atlas can give so. correct an idea of the surface of the earth, or of the relative situation of places, as a globe. An attempt appears to have been made by Mr. Goodyear to make them of gum- elastic, soon after the discovery of the " acid gas pro- cess." These attempts have been followed up at inter- vals, until the production of the present process. 144 VULCANIZATION. They are made of various sizes, and when embossed by the method described in the manufacture of hol- low ware — by steam and vulcanization — they may be made to supply the present deficiency of globes for the blind. Their utility and importance to the cause of educa- tion need not, we are sure, be insisted upon, when it is understood that any child can be furnished with a perfect globe at a price to come within ordinary means. When used they are inflated with air, and when collapsed, may be folded in so small a compass as to be no incumbrance under any circumstances. When the large sizes are filled with hydrogen they become highly ornamental and beautiful objects. CHAPTER. Y. ADULTEiLATXOH OF INDXA-RTJBBEB-(CaoiitchoucJ Every article of commerce that is susceptible of adulteration is sure to fall into the hands of those who seem to be peculiarly educated to the work of diluting, and reducing by various chemical processes the real value of the article to be counterfeited. No matter how cheap the pure substance can be obtained, some method must be conjured up by which the innocent purchaser or consumer is unconsciously duped. India-rubber and gutta-percha are among the vegetable gums, which have been most extensively adulterated. It long since became a matter of scien- tific research in England, to ascertain how great a per cent. India-rubber could be reduced, by the ad- mixture of worthless compounds, and the same skill has been thus perverted in our own country. In Prussia, a law was passed in 1856, making the adulteration of chemicals and articles of consumption by which life shall be endangered, an offence pun- ishable with death. The simple adulteration of food or drink with any deleterious substance, is punishable 1 145 146 ADULTERATION. with fifteen years' hard labor ; and any other adulter- ation is regarded as cheating (betrug), and is pun- ished accordingly. However severe or stringent these laws may seem to a republican mind, they are nevertheless just. What is the sale of an adul- terated article, but the obtaining of money under false pretences, and why should not every rude infraction of the law of right, be visited by some adequate penalty? A series of letters were published in 1856, in Eng- land, under the above caption, which shows very clearly the extent to which the practice of adultera- tion had then been carried. We herewith give the most important statement contained in those letters. The letters referred to were written by William H. Herbert, Esq., and addressed to the Editor of the London Mechanics' Magazine. He commenced the series by remarking that as adulteration by cheap compounds mixed with caout- chouc or India-rubber, are extensively used by engi- neers, he desires to submit a brief account of the processes, etc., by which they are mixed. Java and Para rubber will float upon water, and all manufac- tured goods free of foreign matter, are of the same density ; and just in proportion as manufactured articles, such as ; ,valves, rail buffers, carriage and engine springs, washers, hose, &c, sink in water, so in exact ratio, are they adulterated with some cheap pigment, of which the following are a few, and usu- ally in extent from 80 to 100 per cent. Say tben, chalk, Paris white, Cornwall or porcelain clay, barytes, oxide zinc, white and red lead, ivory black, lamp- ADULTERATION. 147 black, black lead, Spanish brown, &c, &e. Interested manufacturers will tell you they improve the article, bear greater pressure, &c; but as a rule this is a mere trade subterfuge, the truth being, it enables manufac- turers to obtain extortionate profits, which, when I submit the exact formulas, will be very clearly seen. Engineers do not seem sufficiently alive to this question of density. Of course in colored articles, it is necessary to use some pigment, but it is the mon- strous excess that 1 wish to expose, and applies more particularly to the American inodorous system. I think it only fair to Messrs. Mackintosh & Co., to admit, that most of their goods I have examined float on water ; but I know nothing, and have no interest whatever in their establishment, but simply state the fact, because I have found they form the exception to this adulterating or mixing system. What I wish more especially to impress upon the minds of engineers, is the ready mode they have of discovering or ascertaining whose make is best and cheapest, and it is more likely an India-rubber valve of same dimensions at 2s. 6d. per lb., will cost more money than one at 4s. 6d. per lb., arising solely from the extravagant mixture of these cheap pigments, and its great density over the latter. Java India- rubber, which is mostly used, is at this moment about 7d. per lb., and best Para sheet about Is. lid. * * If they are fair goods for usual work, then I trust the information I supply may enable contractors to obtain their wants by competition, furnishing their own form. This will realize a great saving to them ; 148 ADULTERATION. but they must not be induced to accept goods of greater density under the plea of being better. The Java gum used in these adulterated articles is ground without undergoing the process of cleansing, but in all articles of light density, the cleaning machine frees it from all gritty matter, and it is usually em- ployed in this cleansed state for such, as well as all gray or white goods. Messrs. Mackintosh & Co., claim in their patent for vulcanizing all the preparations of sulphur, and without it, so far as I know and believe, no substitute has yet, or is likely to be discovered at a price which can render it commercially available. Indeed, I doubt whether any other than sulphurous bodies will vulcanize, or render fit for the use of the engi- neers the gum called India-rubber. Hence, the reason why many of the manufacturers are licensed under that firm, and subject to have their goods so stamped. The American inodorous makers attempted to shield themselves, (but on legally trying the point) in vain. The screen against Mr. Mackintosh's patent was called, as a blind, a hypo." It is prepared in several ways, but is a compound of sulphur and lead, and when perfect and the lime well washed away, is a very excellent black, costing about 30s. per cwt.; but its whole efficacy rests with the sulphur, and without it would not vulcanize, (though lead works kindly with caoutchouc). This chemical contains about 20 per cent., of sulphur, consequently, five pounds is about equal to twenty-five ounces of sul- phur. This extra cost was readily submitted to, rather than to knuckle under to Messrs. Mackintosh's ADULTERATION. 149 patent; In many cases it was only said to be used, and what really was used, was white lead or lamp- black, oxide of zinc, all in connection with sulphur, according as the color of the goods required, rendered necessary. It was pretended also, by these inodorous manufacturers, that whjte goods, such as the elastic beds, advertised as " Improved Hydrostatic Beds," and " Hospital Sheeting," were vulcanized with sul- phuret of zinc, prepared chemically ; when, in fact, it is well known that the cost of manufacture is quite prohibitory, and is only of value in proportion to its richness in sulphur. What was in reality used, was, and is, the " yellow sulphur," and the " pure precipi- tate of that article." 1 mention these things to clear the mystification it may be to the interest of manu- facturers to keep up, and as I only write from expe- rience, I have reason to believe your readers, who are interested, will better understand the nature and value of unmixed and mixed caoutchouc, after my fund on this topic is exhausted. With these remarks I will give the recipe for common black packing at 2s. 2d. per lb., in quantity, discount as agreed. The chemical termed " hypo " is manufactured thus : The sugar of lead is made into a solution with water in a separate vessel. The sulphur and lime are then boiled in water, so as to make a solu- tion of sulphur with the lime. The latter solution (clear) is then poured into the former, which unites with the sulphur, and the precipitate is the " hypo." The hypo is then washed and dried. The lime merely enables the lead to take up the sulphur. 150 ADULTERATION. £ s. d. Grind 15 lbs. Java Caoutchouc at 7d 8 9 " 15 " Para Caoutchouc "2s. 1 10 " 15 " Oxide of Zinc "3d 4 " 16 " China or Cornwall clay 3 Total, 16 lbs. 28 oz. Yellow Sulphur * 3 Mill-costs at 3d. per lb., on 73 lbs 18 3 Total, - - - - - - - 3 5 3 Costs therefore, 10 |d. per lb. The above is 110 or 112 per cent, of adulteration. I should here remark, there is also a kind of pack- ing in use, which perhaps is practically best known as " Rag Packing," r*ade principally from the use- less cuttings in the manufacture of India-rubber coats, where the gum is run or spread on calico foundations, which is usually the case with water- proof garments offered for sale at the shops. It is made as follows : Rag packing for valves, bearing springs, or in sheets of any thickness, where less elasticity is re- quired, and great pressure. £ s. d. Grind 35 lbs. Useless scraps, say 3 " 18 " Black Lead, at 2^d 3 4| " 16 " Java Gum, " 7d 9 4 1 " YeUow Sulphur, \\ Total, 70 lbs. Mill-costs at 4d. per lb. on 70 lbs 1 3 4 Total, 1 19 2 This is sold at 2s. per lb. in very large quantities, or Is. 6d., if a shrewd man, net, or a small discount for cash. ADULTEBATION. 151 Our gardens, fire engines, brewers, and pump- makers (for suction, T & SH©i WAREHOUSE. HENRY L. DAGGETT, WHOLESALE DEALER IN AND IMPORTER OF tiil iiiiFiifiiEis inas, SOLE AGENT FOR THE Congress Rubber Company Elastic Webbing, FOR GAITER BOOTS. fusses!! boots aibo s»o&s on hand ; a complete assortment at the lowest market rates. Jobbers and Retailers supplied on very favorable terms. Manufacturers and Dealers will find at this Warehouse a com- plete assortment of goods in their line which will be sold at the lowest prices for CASH, or approved paper. Consignments solicited, and advances made. No. 101 and 103 Pearl Street, Boston. DIRECTORY. 7 LIM)SLEY, SHAW & CO., WHOLESALE DEALERS IN '9 *&mtm*jrmxsar9 AND ALSO MANUFACTURE Men's Boy's and Youth's Calf Boots, and ti ip and Calf Brogans and Oxford Ties, OF QUALITIES ADAPTED TO THE NEW ENGLAND RETAIL TRADE. PEARL ST., COR. HIGH, BOSTON. Joseph C. Lindsley, Theron V. Shaw, Rufus Gibbs. AMOS P. TAPLEY, DEALER IN OF PRIME QUALITY, FOE THE NEW ENGLAND AND WESTERN TRADE. Chambers, Pearl, corner High it, Boston. HENRY POOR & SON, ani Stop $m\tt% ani fionunissum ^m$rd$ t No. 84 TTorth Street, Boston. HENRY POOR, JOHN O. POOR, SBEX S. POOR , HENRY C. POOR, ^ Q ^ 8 DIRECTORY. MANUFACTURERS OF patent fetwlleh, §nff anb %Iit f ta%r, NO. 22 DOCK SQUARE, BOSTON. L. B. COMINS. F. S. MERRITT. JOHN B. ALLEY & CO., MANUFACTURERS OF ♦ atari, (£namellei>, Split $ drain fearer, COMMISSION MERCHANTS FOR THE SALE OF AND IMPORTERS OF BOOT AND SHOE MANUFACTURERS' GOODS OF AIL DESCRIPTIONS, Nos. 168 & 170 Congress St., Boston. JOHN B. ALLEY, H. D. SWEETSER. TOWN SEND, MALLARD & COWING, AUCTIONEERS, AND WHOLESALE DEALERS IN BOOTS, SHOES & LEATHER. AGENTS FOR THE WAX-THREAD SEWING MACHINE. Nos. 45 & 47 Pearl St., Boston. ELMER T0WN3END, WARREN MALLARD. WALTER H. COWINO. DIRECTORY. 9 ATHERTON, STETSON & CO., Pajmfattnrtrs anb Commission; Plants, Boots, S&oes and Leather, constantly on hand and for sale at lowest market prices. A. S. & Co. are the authorized AGENTS for New England States of the AMER- ICAN ELASTIC CLOTH CO'S. ELASTIC GORING, a new and superior article for 34 FEARXi STREET, BOSTON. COCHRANE, KIMBALL & DIMICK, §mtsm& to j N J. C. DIMICK, all, c - emerson, Special Partner,) * ^ 8PALm ^ DE3- PACK j^mD, (Formerly Holmes & Packard,) Manufacturer of goot # SJw, Sole * %tr £ea%* Cutters, WESTBORO', MASS. Altering and Repairing done at short notice. Your orders are solicited. 10 DIRECTORY. S. R. SPAULDING & SON, pk, j)ta%r anb Commission Patents, "73 DE=» 3ES jSl. H. Xj STREET, BOSTON. FIELD , CONVERSE & CO., COMMISSION MERCHANTS, & DEALERS IN HIDES, LEATHER k OIL, 88 & 90 North Street, Boston. J. FIELD, J. W. CONVERSE, J. B. WHALL, L. LITCHFIELD. JAMES P. THORNDIKE, COMMISSION MERCHANT, & DEALER IN HIDES, LEATHER k OIL, 93, 95 & 97 North Street, Boston. WILLIAM TUTTLE, WAX, AFRICAN KIP, SPLIT, &c, No. 8 Blackstone St., up-stairs, Boston. N. SILVESTER, Panufactartr of §oot atto j%e flattens, In all the different styles of this and other markets. Manufacturers or others sending styles will please send the largest size of the set wanted. All patterns made from my standards, of which I have thousands, will be warranted to give satisfaction; if not, they may be exchanged for any other kind , if they are returned in good condition, and in a reasonable time. Please give me a Call at No. 8 Blackstone Street, Boston. Terms — Cash on Delivery. Manufacturers and others sending by Expressmen for Patterns, will please remember my terms. DIRECTORY. 11 h EXPRESSLY FOR I.ADJ). WEBSTER & CO. Desire to call the attention of all who have occasion to sew Leather, to their very superior SEWING MACHINES, intended expressly for tkcft use. All the new valuable impi-ovenients have been added to make the Sewing Machine sold by them the best, and in every respect mos* satisfactory of all that are adapted to manufacturer's purposes. They make a strong lock stitch that cannot be Ravelled or Pulled Out. They stitch Alike on Both Sides of the work, without forming ridges underneath. They are Perfectly Simple, and the monagement of them easily acquired. Any spool of Cotton, Thread or Silk sold at the stores, may be used without re-winding. LAUD, WEBSTER k (Vs. FAMILY 111 Setoing itafftiius, Are Unrivalled for Sim- plicity, Durability, Beauty and ease of Operation. Let Manufacturers, Plant- ers, Farmers, Housekeep- ers, or any other persons in search of an instrument to execute any kind of sew- ing now done by machin- ery, make sure they secure the best, by examining oura before purchasing. SUCCESSORS TO HUNT, WEBSTER & CO., C or. Essex & Lincoln St*., Boston i 469 Broadway, N. Y, 12 DIRECTORY. MOSES HUNT & CO., AGENTS FOR THE SALE OF A. RICHARDSON'S PATENT UNION leather ufkwrmm mmmmm 9 Also, Dealers in Leather, Tanners' and Curriers' Tools, &c, No. 60 Blackstone St., Boston, & 36 Spruce St., New York. LEATHER CUTTING MACHINES. THE SUBSCRIBERS CONTINUE TO MANUFACTURE Sole Cutting and Stripping Machines, with all the latest improvements, which they warrant on all kinds of work. These machines have been thoroughly tested, and have been preferred, in every case, over all others in use, as they do not get out of order, or break down, are easily managed, cut quicker, and with less noise than any other. Orders by mail, with suitable reference in Lynn or Boston, promptly attended to. Full instructions to operate sent with every machine. Second Hand Machines, in good order, for sale cheap. All kinds of Machines repaired, and satisfaction guaranteed. KNOX & DITCH BIT R N. 8 Market Street, Lynn, Mass. DIRECTORY. IS CIRCULAR. This Association, recently formed, desire to acquaint the public with the causes which resulted in the combination known by the style of the " Goodyear Shoe Association." During the years 1857 and 1858, tbe financial crisis was keenly felt by the India Rubber Shoe interest, in common with other branches of trade. The troubles experienced by the manufacturers of Rubbers were greatly enhanced from the non-uniformity in prices and dis- counts, between the various agencies. This absence of a regular tariff was productive of distrust in the purchasers and great embar- rassment in the trade. Some method of action whereby these disturbing causes and effects could be reconciled, and harmony of action, and confidence in the stability of the prices asked for goods be restored, was deemed of the utmost importance. To this end the several legalized Companies in the United States, manufacturing Boots and Shoes under Goodyear's Patent, agreed upon a basis of action, and effected a consolidation, the principal points of which are — First. The establishment of two branch agencies, through one or the other of which all goods manufactured by the Companies must pass. Second. By limiting the manufacture of goods so that the market shall not be overstocked ; but, so far as can be arrived at, the supply and demand shall be equal. Third. The establishment of a uniform tariff of prices and rate of discount. AGENTS. WALES, EMMONS & Co., I BREDEN & SOUTHWICK, 66 Pearl St., Boston. | 107 «§• 109 Liberty St., JVew York. N. N. HALSTEAD, President, E. S. CONVERSE, Secretary. 14 DIRECTORY. UNITED STATES AND Jfflttip p&li Signup S-A-MTTIEILi goo^ei^, LATE PRINCIPAL EXAMINER OF PATENTS IN THE UNITED STATES PATENT OFFICE AT WASHINGTON. Office, Webster Building, 3ST o. 13 Exchange Street, BOSTON", Patents procured in the United States, and in all other patent granting countries. Specifications and Drawings prepared. Ca- veats filed. Reconsiderations procured, of applications that have been rejected upon imperfectly prepared papers! Interferences pros- ecuted. Re-Issues and Extensions procured. Those unacquainted with him are referred to following testimonials: From the Hon. Charles Mason, Commissioner of Patents. U. S. Patent Office, Feb. 28, 1855. " I take great pleasure in stating that during the time I have been acting as Commissioner of Patents, Samuel Cooper, Esq., of Boston, has been engaged as solicitor, and has been engaged in that capacity in constant correspondence and intercourse' with the office; he has evinced a thorough acquaintance with Patent Law, and with the rules and practice of the Office, a close attention to the interests of his cli- ents, and a marked candor and courtesy that has rendered the tran- saction of business with him a pleasure. I have^no hesitation in stating that I regard him as one of the very best agents for the tran- saction of business with this Office, with whom I am acquainted. Charles Mason, Commissioner. 9 '' From the Examiners in the Patent Office. - " The undersigned, Principal and Assistant Examiners in the United States Patent Office, have for several years been well acquainted with Mr. Samuel Cooper, lately a Principal Examiner in this Office, and take pleasure in stating that he is a gentleman' of the highest moral character, of unquestioned knowledge in the business and practice of the Office, and that his scientific attainments are such as eminently fit him for the business in which he is about to engage. Henry B. Renwick, L. D. Gale, J. 11. Lane, T. R. Peale, Thos. T. Everett, 1 Assistant P. Southgate Smith, j Examiners. William C. Langdon, J " From long acquaintance, and intimate official relations with Mr. Cooper, I fully and heartily concur in the foregoing recommendation made by my late colleagues. Ww. P N T . Fitzgerald. late Principal Examiner of Patgnis. Principal Examiners. DIRECTOR* 15 GENTLEMEN'S :kto. 2.0 SCHOOIj street. ISRAEL M. RICE, Proprietor. This Establishment, of thirteen years' standing, has long since become the popular resort for gentlemen who desire first class Boots, Shoes and Gaiters. I import, very largely, B@@ts, S&oes ami dates, from the well known manufactories of Gan & Four, and other equally celebrated makers. I also make to measure, all styles of work, from the choicest French Stock, of my own importation. I employ none but scientific workmen, and all goods from my establishment are warranted equal to the best. ISRAEL M. RICE, No. 10 School Street. MIOK» MISSES ASB 1IATI1S. JENKINS' PATENT PRESSES AND HEATERS, for making Cemen+ed Boots and Shoes, are manufactured at Lynn, Mass., where may be found Presses and Heaters in practical operation, and for sale, of any required fcrm or size, made under the immediate atten- tion of the Patentee, who will attend to putting them up in person, and will give the manufacturer his assistance in preparing and mak- ing the various Cements, and their proper application, in making any form of Boot or Shoe, together with his practical application of Gutta Percha to Boots and Shoes for the last nine years, including his experience in making and using, for a number of months at Ballardvale. The Steam Lasts, invented and patented by Mr. Charles Rice and the late Syranus H. Wharf, there also may be seen a full set of Steam Lasts for making Boots and Shoes, according to said patents. Any further information respecting the Presses or Heaters can be obtained by addressing THOMAS F. BANCROFT, Lynn, Mass. 16 DIRECTORY. SAMUEL COX & S'ONS, Manufacturers of every description of FOR LEATHER WORK OF ALL? KINDS. ALSO FOR INDIA RUBBER BOOTS AND SHOES, all of which are manufactured from the best of Stock, thoroughly seasoned. Orders answered with promptness and seasonable despatch. The Last Manufactory of Cox and Sons is one of the oldest in the United States. The Manufactory is located at Maiden, Mass. Office, 92 Pearl Street, Boston THREADS, LINEN, COTTON & SILK, FOR EVERY DESCRIPTION OF JSDE3"W"X3STC3r MACHINES. SHOE THREAD, CABLE THREADS, SADLERS' do SEA ISLAND COTTON, GILLINGr do ERMAN'S DIAMOND do MARSHALL'S do PHILLIP'S WAXED do Also, TWINE of every variety. ROSS & PEARCE, "No. 7 Liberty Square, Boston, Mass. AGENT FOR LICENSES. CHARLES RICE, 84 Pearl Street, Boston, is the Agent for the NORTH AMERICAN PATENT BOOT AND SHOE CO. for granting LICENCES for the manufacture of CEMENTED BOOTS AND SHOES under Tyer & Helm's Patent, allusion to which is made in this work. Terms 2 1-2 per cent. DIRECTORY. 17 RUBBER, m SfJTTA PERCHA VARIOUS ETJBBEE EABEICS & ARTICLES. MATTSON & CO., Proprietors of the Roxbuiy Rubber Factory, Are prepared to manufacture the following new articles required for the CEMENTED BOOTS and SHOES, which are creating a new era in the Shoe business : GuUa Perclsa and Rubber Cements. Co ;f filters or Stiffening^ of any required compound. Water-Proof" Linings for the Uppers, superior to and cheaper than Oiled Silk. Water-Proof Middle SoBing suited to pegged or sewod Boots or Shoes, (a most desirable article.) Gotta Perch a Inner Soling of any required thick- ness or compound, spread on cloth or otherwise. Crude Gixtta Percisa cleaned and rolled into thin sheets, suitable for making Cements. ALSO ON HAND THE ORDINARY RUBBER SOLING, adapted in thickness to a lady's slipper or a heavy boot, with Boxes of CEMENT for putting on the same. 3^- We also manufacture the cheapest RUBBER COATS in the United States, as well as those of the finest quality; UNDER-SHEET- ING for the protection of Beds; Piano, Melodeon and Table Covers; Air Beds, Pillows and Cushions, &c. Dr. Mattson's ELASTIC SYRINGES, to which Eour Silver Medals had been awarded. MATTSON & CO., No. » Tremont Temple, Boston, 18 DIRECTORY. BOSWORTH'S $25 SEWING MACHINE. This machine is decidedly the best in the market for Family Use, and is warranted to sew on every fabric with cotton or silk on the original spools; it will not drop stitches nor get out of order: no charge made for repairs. It is the most simple and perfect machine ever invented, and the inventor feels confident that all who purchase it will find what they have lone: sought, a perfect and reliable Machine at the low price of TWENTY-FIVE DOLLARS. Reference will be given to parties wishing to purchase, to many families who have the machine in practical use, which is the only true test by which a purchaser can be sure of obtaining a good machine. All orders addressed to the subscriber will meet with prompt atten- tion. Agents will be supplied with machines at a liberal discount, and towns secured to them. Only one Agent will be appointed in a place; preference being given to the best location. All letters must be addressed to the subscriber. . » I. STETSON, 'Agent, No. 3 Tremont Row, (Up Stairs,) Op. Head of Hanover St. DIRECTORY. PATTERNS, PROPORTIONED BY MACHINERY. After long experience in the Last and Pattern Business, I have accomplished that which has hitherto been considered an impossibility, viz., Drawing and Proportioning correctly, sets of BOOT AND SHOf! PATTKBNS, of all sizes, from one model by machinery, giving each piece its proportioned size and shape. For full description and illustra- tion, see Diagrams on pages 81 to 88, inclusive. The machine is used by B. F. Parrott, No. 4 Exchange St., Boston, to whom all oiders for patterns should be addressed. Also on hand, a large assortment of BOOT and SHOE MODELS, from which he will manufacture Patterns from Paper, Pasteboard or Zinc. Pasteboard bound with Brass. Also Pat- terns copied from any Boot or Shoe which may be sent as a model. I am also manufacturing WOMENS', MISSES' and CHIL- D BENS' LASTS and PATTEPvNS to correspond with, and fit the patterns above referred to, by which means the Boot and Shoe manufacturing is still further facilitated. Further information may be obtained by applying to G. W. PARROTT, Mechanic Steam Mills, Broad St., Lynn, Mass. The Patterns above referred to are used by the principal Man- ufacturers in this city and vicinity. ONE PRICE SHOE STORE. LAMKIF & G-B.EEWE, COOLIDGE BUILDING, OPPOSITE REVERE HOUSE, BOSTON, KEEP CONSTANTLY ON HAND FRENCH & AMERICAN BOOTS & SHOES, Of the most fashionable styles, which they offer at the lowest prices. HT BOOTS AND SHOES MADE TO ORDER. J. H. GREENE. G. LAMKIN. R. & F. KNOTT. 16 SCHOOL STREET, BOS TO ft. GETTY RESEARCH INSTITUTE 3 3125 01277 2774