THE 
 
 ELEMENTS OF ART 
 
 « 
 
 A 
 
 MANUAL FOR THE AMATEUR, 
 
 AND 
 
 BASIS OF STUDY FOB THE PROFESSION AL ARTIST. 
 
 BY J. G. CHAPMAN. 
 
 “Any one who can learn to Write, can learn to Draw/’ 
 
 LONDON : 
 
 DAVID BOGUE, 86, FLEET STREET. 
 
 MDCCCXLVTir. 
 
Digitized by the Internet Archive 
 in 2017 with funding from 
 Getty Research Institute 
 
 
 
 
 O'- 
 
 I 
 
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 https://archive.Org/details/elementSOfartmanOOchap_O 
 
and, as writing is not taught to those only who are destined to become 
 authors, but as forming an essential part of general education, so is 
 drawing equally important to others besides professional artists. To write 
 — to draw a form or figure that shall be recognised as the representative 
 of a letter or word, is one thing; and to be able to design, draw, or write 
 such forms, upon principles of grace and accuracy — to understand the 
 Art of writing — is another. Thus it is also with Drawing, another mode 
 of expressing ourselves, not loss useful or necessary than that bv letters 
 
 V’ 
 
4 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 or words. To draw a horse, that shall not be mistaken for a man, is one step 5 but to draw a 
 horse, with all his just proportions and developments, movement and expression, is an Art to be 
 acquired. Any one can make something on paper to look like a tree, a cottage, a road, a 
 brook, or a mountain 5 but Art goes farther, and, as if to compensate for what it falls short of, 
 invests the whole with a charm more impressive than the reahty, even to the most simple-minded 
 cow-boy, who may have gone that road or waded that brook a thousand times, unconscious of 
 the beauty that surrounded him, until it was developed by the hand of Art. 
 
 Who has ever hesitated to teach a child to write, because it was not intended that he 
 should be an author ? How many regard the art of Drawing as being of no practical impor- 
 tance, as a branch of education, to any but professional artists 5 and consider it, in its most 
 favorable light, as a mere accomplishment — a pursuit only for the man of leisure ? The resources 
 of our schools are often exhausted in “ finishing” our youth with ‘‘ every accomplishment j” 
 laid on so lightly, that, for all real and practical purposes, they are as ephemeral as the gay tints 
 of the painted butterfly. Smatterings of languages, living and dead, are heaped upon them, 
 while the great, universal language, the language of Design, is forgotten j or only thought of 
 in the production of some huge ‘‘ castle and ruins, with a man and a boy with a stick 5 and a 
 dog” — painted by the teacher, under the scholar’s direction, to hang in the parlor, as the 
 veritable, first, and last, and only production, of the latter : who at once assumes, therefrom, an 
 oracular authority in all matters connected with the Fine Arts, and leaves admiring friends in 
 wonder, at what ‘‘he might have done, had he not given it up.” To such, it may be said, “You 
 have never begun.” 
 
 It is not only as a beautiful accomplishment, or a source of amusement for leisure moments, 
 that the art of Drawing should be cultivated. It has its practical uses, in every occupation 
 of life. It opens to all inexhaustible sources of utility, as well as pleasure 5 practises the eye 
 to observe, and the hand to record, the ever-varying beauty with which nature abounds, and 
 spreads a charm around every object of God’s beautiful creation, unfelt and unknown to those 
 who have failed or neglected its cultivation. It does more : it gives strength to the arm of the 
 mechanic, and taste and skill to the producer, not only of the embellishments, but actual neces- 
 sities of life. From the anvil of the smith and the workbench of the joiner, to the manufacturer 
 of the most costly productions of ornamental art, it is ever at hand with its powerful aid, in 
 strengthening invention and execution, and qualifying the mind and hand to design and produce 
 whatever the wants or the tastes of society may require. 
 
I N T R () ]) II C T ION. 
 
 r, 
 
 Many are deterred from attempting the art of Drawing, from an idea that they lack capacity, 
 or, what the world calls genius. But have they ever made the attempt ? Let them recall to 
 mind their first steps in knowledge of every kind, and judge not unfairly of their capacity, until 
 they have tried this also. Before they knew their A, B, C, they could tell a man from a dog, by 
 the picture. The impressions of form are the first made on the infant mind 5 and were it taught, 
 betimes, to trace these impressions on a slate, there would be few in the world incapable of 
 speaking the language of Design. The untaught savage thus records the story of his battles 5 
 as the traditions of his fathers have come down to him from generation to generation. He 
 directs the traveller on his way, by marks in the sand j tells him, by his rude outline, of mount- 
 ains and rivers to be passed j and no one can mistake his meaning. Who is there, in civilized 
 fife, that may have been familiar with works of art from childhood, that can not do this ? 
 If he can, he can do more. He possesses the germ within him, and needs only proper cultiva- 
 tion, to bring it forth. 
 
 As in other arts and studies, all can not expect to be equahy perfect, so all can not expect 
 to rival the master-spirits in the arts of Design. The work of an artist is that of a lifetime of 
 arduous toil and study. Of the thousands who delight themselves and their friends in music, 
 how few have composed an opera, or even achieved the composition of a single air ? Yet, what 
 would the world lose, were none to attempt the cultivation of this refined and charming accom- 
 plishment, but those who devoted themselves, exclusively, to its pursuit ! Were music neglected 
 as a study by all except those who make it the business of their lives, even they would find few 
 to admire and sympathize with them, in their greatest productions, for want of taste and 
 understanding. 
 
 In the elementary portions of this work, the smile of the professional artist may be moved, 
 when he finds the author dwelling on what some may think trifles, and giving mstruction in the 
 methods of sharpening a pencil and making a pen. But let him remember the day that that 
 instruction might have helped even him. When the pupil in Drawing has attained a proficiency 
 to place him in the position of an artist, his course of study will require a direction beyond tlie 
 means of these pages to afford him. This he must obtain elsewhere, and pursue, with that fixed 
 determination and singleness of purpose, by which excellence is only to be achieved ; and he will 
 find that, could all that he requires be placed at once within his reach, it would lie, in a meas- 
 ure, valueless, for want of that strength to appreciate and appropriate such advantages, which 
 is best acquired by patient search and progressive attainment. Short-cuts and easy roads to 
 
6 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 knowledge give but little real aid to him who has a long and arduous journey to pursue ; though 
 it is scarcely worth while to hazard an experiment, by which the spirit may be broken down with 
 toil, in a path into which we occasionally diverge, as a recreation, or an accessory to other pursuits. 
 
 From the delight, as well as profit, that awaits them, all may be safely invited and tempted 
 to the study of Drawing. They may find difficulties ; but they will find pleasures, also, of the 
 richest kind. They will find ffowers blooming along their way, and wonders opening before 
 them at every step : nature unfolding her ample volumes, and displaying combinations of beauty 
 and dehght, beyond the power of words to tell them of. It will be theirs, to record the ever- 
 changing pictures of earth and heaven 5 to give them body and form, in which others, less 
 favored than themselves, may participate through them : theirs, to preserve the image of some 
 cherished object long after it has ceased, in its reality, to exist — or, perhaps, to call forth some 
 priceless treasure from the world of poetry and thought. 
 
 To those who have in view more than mere pleasure and amusement in the pursuit of the 
 art of Drawing, may be fairly promised advantages that they will surely realize ; and a portion 
 of this work will be devoted especially to those who look to the application of the art to its most 
 practical purposes. Most of the difficulties constantly felt by artificers in the execution of their 
 handiwork, will be obviated, when the same hand that executes can design. Let our mechanics 
 have their apprentices instructed in Drawing, and the effects will be soon evident in their work- 
 shops. They will no longer depend upon foreign inventions, that are, after all, little adapted to 
 the wants, tastes, and habits of our people. Let these wants be supplied by articles, at once more 
 useful and equally ornamental, of home production. Let them learn to use their own strength, 
 and their reward will follow. 
 
 The manufacturers of Europe are drawing closer and closer the connexion between the 
 artist and the workman. At first, they borrowed aid 5 now they are acquiring knowledge 
 for themselves. For the promotion of this object, schools have been long established on the 
 continent, under government protection and support 5 so much importance is attached to their 
 existence, as a measure of national policy. The infiuence of these schools was so strongly 
 felt in England, to the detriment of English industrial art, that it became a subject of alarm to 
 her statesmen. All the capital, energy, and strength, the superiority in material and mechanical 
 facilities of England, could not contend against the higher excellence of her foreign rivals. As 
 the voice of one man, her mechanics and manufacturers confessed the truth, and demanded 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 7 
 
 protection trom the government — not by taritis, but by education. Her legislators saw the evil, 
 and at once applied the remedy, by the establishment of Government Schools of Design. These 
 have been attended with such beneficial results, that there is now scarcely a manufacturing town 
 m England that has not claimed, and shared, the advantages of provincial branches. Our 
 mechanics can, and must, do for themselves what our own state and general governments have, 
 hitherto, shown such indifference in undertaking for them. To no other cause than ignorance 
 can this mdifierence be attributed. Were the rulers of our land, themselves, properly educated, 
 they would not only feel the necessity of teaching Drawing in our pubhc schools, but would be 
 capable advisers and promoters of efficient means of carrying it into effect. He who writes 
 himself, and has been endorsed, ‘‘ Master of Arts,” by our colleges, should at Icitst know something 
 about them j whereas, in most cases, the arts are subjects on which, above all others, he is utterly 
 ignorant. 
 
 While foreign arts and manufactures have inundated our markets, to the detriment 
 of our own enterprising mechanics, and politicians have convulsed the land with schemes, 
 and plans, and measures of protection, all seem to have lost sight of one of the great and 
 primary causes of the evil — the want of artistical education among our workmen. They are 
 taught to read and write, to hammer and to saw 5 but to design — the first motive, the very 
 genius of all arts — is utterly neglected. While it is so, we must compete with the old world, 
 especially in the production of articles of taste, on most unfavorable grounds. The spirit of 
 independence, that will one day cover the western continent, seems not, as yet, to have entered 
 our workshops. We are, in this respect, comparatively, still a colony of Europe; borrowing and 
 adapting, but doing nothing for ourselves ; waiting for every novelty to cross the seas, to imi- 
 tate it — creating wants by reproduction, and burdening society with anti-American tastes and 
 caprices, instead of supplying them with objects no less useful for being beautiful. A few 
 imported pattern-books, of little value, because not adapted to our purposes, constitute the 
 resources in design, of most of our mechanics. Require them to make something to suit a given 
 purpose, that shall be at the same time ornamental, and you ask an impossibility. Even if the 
 workman may have a vague idea in his mind of what is wanted, he can not give it form : perhaps 
 he may have the spirit to make the attempt, but he can not satisfy himself — all goes wrong — his 
 pattern-books fail him *, he looks around for something to begin fi*om, and gives it up in despair ; 
 or, what is worse, produces some deformity that disgusts his employer, who will not venture on a 
 second experiment, but sends abroad, and gets what he desues. Can the mechanic complain that 
 home manufactures are not encouraged ? Had he possessed even an elementary knowledge of 
 
8 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Design, he would have done better ^ had he cultivated and perfected that elementary knowledge, 
 his difficulties woidd have all vanished, and the beginning and end of his labor would have been 
 placed at once before him. Make them artists, or, better still, artist-workmen, and, with their 
 proverbial energy, intelligence, and enterprise, no limit can be placed to what our mechanics 
 may achieve. 
 
 A knowledge of Design, even in copying, gives great advantages. If he understands the 
 principles upon which the original is produced, there is no fear of the workman committing 
 offensive variations. How often do we see the most beautiful designs distorted into deformity by 
 the variation of a single line 5 an error of ignorance that must continually occur, until our me- 
 chanics are better instructed in this branch of education. It is a vain hope, that a work so limited 
 as this, win supply aU the information the artisan should require 5 but should it lead him to make 
 a beginning, he will so soon find his advantage in it, that he wiU be induced to pursue it farther. 
 He will have his children and apprentices instructed 5 he will urge the establishment of schools 
 and collections of models, to which they can be directed 5 and he will in his own time see the 
 fruits, in the advancement of our manufactures to a degree of perfection that can never exist, 
 without an intimate connexion between them and the Arts of Design. 
 
 There are those, of another class of society, to whom education in Drawing may prove a real 
 blessing j whose painful and ill-repaid labors, to earn a scanty provision for themselves and families, 
 have so often called forth our sympathies 5 and, while public feeling loudly declaims against the 
 evil, no efficient remedy has been applied. Of the thousands of dependent females who are com- 
 pelled to toil, night as well as day, to the destruction of health and life, and who are often tempted 
 into paths of vice and misery by absolute necessity, how many there are who possess talent that 
 needs but cultivation to secure them both respectability and support. The natural refinement and 
 dehcacy of the female mind renders it a fruitful soil, that should not be neglected or let run to 
 waste, when its cultivation might realize such rich advantages, not only to themselves, but to then- 
 country. Give them the advantages of education in Drawing j begin in your public schools j let 
 them carry it to their looms, to the manufacture of articles of taste and fancy, to their firesides, 
 to the early education of their children 5 — and more, if they possess the talent, — let them 
 take the pencil, the chisel, or the burin. Give them strength, by proper education, to feel what 
 they can accomplish, and we shall soon see the broken-hearted victims of incessant toil worth 
 the wages of men, in departments of industry and usefulness for which they are by nature so 
 well adapted. 
 
1 N T R 0 D U (.) '1' 1 O N . 
 
 9 
 
 Of all people in the world, we stand most in need of knowledge in the Arts of Design. If 
 in Eiu-ope, sin-rounded as they are by monuments of art, the accumulation of ages, it has been 
 found necessary to make Drawing a part of common education, how much more essential is it 
 here, where there is little or nothing of the sort. We must learn to think, and feel, and do, for 
 ourselves. We must begin and carry out a new system of education in this respect 5 and, once 
 placed in possession of a beginning, the energy and independent character of our people, so 
 evident in everything else, will be made available to the cultivation of national taste in art, and 
 the just appreciation of the sublime and beautiful. Art, in its higher efforts, will no longer suffer 
 from the pedantry of travelled quackery, but will be elevated in itself, and elevated in its efforts, 
 by the existence of a fair, honest, and intelligent tribunal. The cast-off frippery of European 
 garrets and workshops will no longer find place beside our home productions in the Fine and 
 Industrial Arts. The vast resources of mind and matter with which a bountiful Providence has 
 endowed our land, will be brought forth to add to its national greatness 5 and, although we 
 have no vast cathedrals or regal palaces to fill with pictures and statues, or adorn with works of 
 ornamental art, we have a vast, an independent and intelligent people to appeal to : who need 
 only to be shown the truth, to know and maintain it. 
 
 That a general taste for the Fine Arts does exist, however uncultivated it may be, is evident. 
 Where is there the humblest cottage that has not its walls or mantlepiece decorated with a picture 
 or plaster figure ? However rude may be the work of art which hangs as “ the bright Palladium” 
 of the cottage, yet the household care bestowed upon its preservation, and the pleasure it 
 affords by its possession and contemplation, show an appreciation of its worth, a decided taste, 
 that, if cultivated, would lead to better productions 5 for the supply would assuredly be improved 
 in character, in proportion to the demand. A wooden clock sells the readier for its picture, 
 and more especially, if that picture touch a chord of national pride. Washington and 3 Iount 
 Vernon, although pictured with a most libellous pencil, have saved many a worthless machine 
 from the rubbish-loft. 
 
 What village school-girl is there, whose ambition does not reach to the imitation of natural 
 
 objects in needlework? and, although it may often puzzle the most acute to discover a rose from 
 
 a tulip, or a cat from a squirrel, in her worsted-picture, yet the taste, the inclination — to try — is 
 
 there. Could she be able to select subjects for imitation, from the boundless resources of nature 
 
 with which she is surounded — could she have the means and opportunity afforded her, by proper 
 
 instruction, of perpetuating, by her pencil or brush, the flow er she has reared, the home she has 
 
 <■> 
 
10 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 been happy in, the resemblance of friends she has loved, what a new source of intellectual 
 enjoyment would be opened to her. And not to her alone. The influence of that refinement of 
 sentiment and taste, that must ever follow, will extend throughout her fife, and spread a charm 
 about her, which will be seen and felt in all her associations, whatever be her destiny. 
 
 The importance of Drawing, as a part of popular education, and the want, so generally 
 expressed, of spme popular work on the subject, by which it could be introduced, not only into 
 schools, but home instruction, has led to the publication of the American Drawing-Book. It 
 is given to the public with the ardent hope that it may, in some degree, awaken an interest in a 
 branch of knowledge that has been, hitherto, strangely neglected among the people of the United 
 States 5 not so much from indifference to its importance, as from the want of efficient means of 
 its acquirement. 
 
 Of Teachers, all that can be required, is, to give it a fair experiment. 
 
 Of Pupils, is to be asked, a faithful observance of the course of study recommended — not 
 to grow weary, if sometimes they find their patience taxed too heavily. Let them be assured, 
 that nothing more is demanded of them than is believed to be absolutely necessary to their 
 advancement. If, at any time, a doubt should arise in their minds, as to the utility of that which 
 is required of them, let them persevere a little farther, and they will be satisfied. There are few 
 secrets to teach : all must depend upon their own exertions. The business of the Guide is to 
 direct their steps in the right way, and to supply them with such information as they may require 
 in their progress, not to bear them on his shoulders. The correction of their own errors, and the 
 knowledge of the means of their success, will supply the rest. One promise, in conclusion, can 
 be safely made : the gain will well repay the effort. Let them not hesitate, for fear of failure, 
 but be assured, that the measure of their success will be in proportion to their exertions. When 
 once they have passed through the elementary studies of art, they will need no incentive be- 
 yond the reward they will receive in its practice — a new world of enjoyment, a new sense to 
 appreciate its worth, will be their recompense, and they will never regret the day of their 
 beginning. 
 
C H A (» 'I' K K. I. 
 
 FACILITY of hand is one of the first requisites in drawing, 
 whatever instrument be employed, whether Pencil, Pen, I5rush, 
 or Modelling tool. Many are by nature endowed with a certain 
 mechanical dexterity, or happy readiness with the fingers, to 
 whom this facility is of easy acquirement 5 and all possess it, 
 to a certain degree, or they could not be taught to write, 
 which, in the beginning, is nothing more than the drnitins 
 of certain conventional forms, without any distinct idea of an 
 object beyond the imitation of such forms. The first “ pot-hook 
 and hanger,” is, clearly. Drawing. If the pupil has improved 
 upon this humble beginning, so as to write a fair hand, he already, 
 perhaps unconsciously, possesses an acquirement that will not 
 only make easy his first essays in drawing, but essentially serve 
 nim, however far he may extend its pursuit. Should this useful accomplishment have been 
 neglected, he can not do better than practise his hand in the careful imitation of good specimens 
 of penmanship, or place himself under the instruction of some good writing-master. The use 
 of the pen has been too much overlooked by draughtsmen, especially by amateurs. It produces 
 a certain line, and induces an early habit of care and accuracy, from the fact that it can 
 not be easily erased. Many are falsely captivated by the spirited dash of a master, who 
 overlook the means by which that ease and freedom have been acquired. It is the result 
 of accuracy and labor j and to imitate the end, w e should not shrink from the beginning. Pet 
 us lay well the foundation, before we begin the structure. lie who starts with the black- 
 lead pencil in one hand, and the Indian rubber in the other, will find, however convenient the 
 latter may be, that he will soon fall into a loose and sloveidy habit, of which it will be ditficult to 
 
12 
 
 P R I ]M A R Y INSTRUCTIONS. 
 
 divest himself. They are both good and serviceable in their places j but too often, in the hands 
 of beginners, most sadly abused. 
 
 / 
 
 2. The first object of the beginner should be, to acquire a readiness in observing and forming 
 simple lines, with their relation one to another, their direction, variation, beginning, and ter- 
 mination j also, to make a duplicate of any given line. Take, for example, a sheet of ruled 
 letter or foolscap paper, and begin by tracing over the lines with a pen, from left to right, and 
 from right to left — 
 
 Let your line be distinct and clear. Avoid a habit of feeling your way, as it were, by a num- 
 ber of uncertain touches Endeavor, at once, to express what 
 
 you desire with firmness and decision 
 
 3. The system of these early lessons, to those who find it difficult to attain precision of hand, 
 is of so much importance, that it is strongly recommended, especially for schools j where it should 
 be commenced as soon as a child is taught to hold a pen or slate-pencil. By it the instructor 
 will find his pupils more rapidly acquire a good hand in writing, as well as drawing; the eye, as 
 well as the hand, thus being made progressively familiar with the observation and imitation of 
 lines and forms. The drawing-master comes into our schools at too late a day. Every teacher 
 can and may be one. A child knows its first letter by its form, calls its name, and remembers it, 
 by that knowledge ; and few there are, who can not make their letters on a slate, as soon as they 
 know them in the book ; rudely, it is true, but still in a manner to be understood. And yet this 
 first impulse of nature is too often disregarded ; the child is driven from that which might be 
 to him a source of amusement as well as profit, and made, by the forced discipline of schools, 
 to learn to read before he learns to write. “ One thing at a time,” may be a good adage for 
 old heads, but childhood needs variety in its labors. Its mental exertions should be tempered 
 by agreeable diversion, and, more especially, when that diversion can be made of lasting benefit. 
 We may rely upon it, that the child, who loves his slate better than his book, will soon, by a 
 judicious indulgence, learn to love them both together. The truant and the sullen prisoner to 
 the school-bench would become the willing learner ; and the early habits, thus acquired, of 
 
STRAIGHT LINES. 
 
 i:^ 
 
 observation and appreciation of the beauty and wonder of creation, will lead to a healthful thirst 
 for knowledge, the truest and surest incentive to the study of hooks. 
 
 4. In view of the importance of this early education in drawing, as well as to assist teachers 
 in carrying out the system proposed, there have been prepared Drawing or Copy-Books, ruled 
 and headed, on each page, with progressive examples, similar to those which will be given in 
 the course of these rudimental instructions. Thus, with little or no additional labor, teachers 
 mav at once, although possessing, themselves, no knowledge of design, be capable of affording 
 the means of instruction to their pupils, as well as supplying their own deficiency, in an important, 
 and too long neglected, branch of popular education. These Copy-Books may be procured of the 
 publisher, at a cost little heyond the price of an ordinary blank book. 
 
 5. Having acquired a considerable degree of accuracy in tracing the ruled faint line, as 
 suggested ( 2 ), proceed to fix certain points along the line, at random, and then connect them 
 together 5 moving your pen or pencil (the former is to be preferred) slowly and steadily, and not 
 taking it from the paper until the line required is completed — 
 
 Repeat this, from right to left, and from left to right, as in the first instance. After some degree 
 of precision is thus obtained, you may, without fixing the points, endeavor to draw the lines, of 
 the length required, by the aid of the eye and hand alone 5 and then, laying aside your ruled 
 paper, see how nearly you can come to the examples given, on plain paper, on the slate or 
 blackboard. Observe well, before you touch your paper, where the line is to begin, what direc- 
 tion it is to take, and where to terminate. When you can achieve this, with ease and accuracv, 
 you have made a sure beginning ; the importance of which will be felt and better appreciated 
 hereafter, when, any amount of time and patience bestowed, in making yourself master of the 
 principles and practice of these primary lessons, will not be regretted. 
 
 6 . In your next effort, you have no longer to trace the ruled lines, but, to trust your eye and 
 hand in drawing a line, as nearly as possible, in the middle : — 
 
 A difficulty will be felt, at first, in drawing continuous lines, of great length; as you will find 
 
14 
 
 PRIMARY INSTRUCTIONS. 
 
 your hand liable to get the start of your observation, and stray from its proper direction. 
 They should, therefore, at first, be short. Increase their length, as you gradually acquire facil- 
 ity and precision. When you find your pen going astray, as it is apt to do at first, leave 
 off, and again seeking, by your eye, the true point to start from, make another effort ; and thus, 
 until you can draw a line extending the entire width of the page. Repeat the trial from right 
 to left, as well as from left to right. 
 
 7. In this lesson, you have to keep two lines, besides the one you are drawing, under 
 your observation at the same time. Simple as it may appear, it is one of much importance. 
 You are already entering the broad field of Design, and are to consider yourself no longer a 
 servile tracer. Here, let it be urged upon the pupil to avoid, in all cases, the pernicious habit 
 of tracing. It is a tempting, but a dangerous expedient. No one can expect to attain profi- 
 ciency in off-hand drawing, that relies upon it, even as a last resource. Early learn to trust and 
 depend upon your eye and hand alone. They will serve you well and faithfully, when the clear 
 pane of glass, the transparent paper, and the many other weak resources of weak hands, will fail. 
 
 8. In like manner as in former, proceed with the following examples : First, pointing off the 
 divisions or spaces between the faint lines, and then connecting the points carefully ; bestowing as 
 much time and practice on each example as your progress or improvement may render necessary. 
 
 < 
 
 9. Observe that, in adjusting the points, marking the divisions of the sjiace between the 
 
STRAIGHT LINES. 
 
 lo 
 
 ruled lines, it will be easier to fix the centre point first 
 
 then the quarter 
 
 and sub- 
 
 divisions j 5 and in like manner, where they do not begin from the centre, divide the space. 
 
 first, by two points 
 
 and then by subdivisions 
 
 All this is of more importance than 
 
 may, at first, appear : all tends to the acquirement of a habit of accuracy, and to the attain- 
 ment of that facility of hand which is so essential. According as the pupil has more or less 
 applied and perfected himself in these elementary principles, will he hereafter find ease or 
 difficulty in more advanced studies. 
 
 10. The pupil may now practise the drawing of lines, gradually nearer to each other, 
 until they form an even tint, without touching. In this trial, he will begin to feel the profit 
 of his former labor ^ and, according to his success, can judge of his advancement in previous 
 lessons. 
 
 In the second example are lines slanting, upright, crossing each other, etc. A continued line or 
 two, of each variety, is advised for practice. First, draw a set, as at a, entirely across the page; 
 then proceed, in like manner, with b and c. Having succeeded in producing these, separately, 
 with some degree of accuracy; begin again, and draw a set a; that done, proceed to cross them 
 with a set of lines slanting in the direction of c, which will produce an effect as seen at d : 
 and again, by crossing with the perpendicular lines b, will be produced e. In the case of e, 
 first draw the lines as at a, and then a fainter interline between each one. In like manner, with 
 advantage, you may proceed with b and c ; only making them somewhat wider apart, to allow 
 space for the interline. 
 
 11. Before proceeding with the examples that follow, attention should be recalled to what has 
 been said in reference to fixing points, etc. (9). It will now be of much assistance to have paper 
 ruled in squares ; and if this can be done by the pupil himself, it w ill be all the better. If 
 example 8 has been properly practised and understood, the following will be comparatively easy. 
 In all, the fines form right angles, except the last, which presents, where they cross each other, 
 what is called a lozenge. 
 
16 
 
 PRIMARY INSTRUCTIONS. 
 
 12. In drawing the following : first fix the points, and connect them as above 5 then proceed 
 without them, endeavoring to determine their position by careful observation, and then expressing 
 each line and figure with decision, unaided by the points beyond their imaginary existence. 
 
 13. The draughtsman should always, as far as practicable, keep his work before him j 
 as in writing, we progress from the top to the bottom of the page. Of course, in drawing 
 the general outline of an object, this would be, in a measure, impossible and improper 5 
 but, in forming tints, especially with the pen, care should be taken to avoid working 
 over what has been done already, and which is, in some degree, the guide to what is 
 to be done j as the pen or pencil, partially covering the lower lines, produces uncer- 
 tainty. For example, it is easier to draw one line parallel to another, having the given line 
 
 than if it were below it 
 
 The simple experi- 
 
 
 merit made by the learner will at once convince him of this j and in like manner, he will find he 
 can draw lines to express tints or shadows with much greater facility and accuracy, by keeping what 
 
 he has already done before him 
 
 , to overreach it. 
 
 Besides, the liability of running, or blotting, one line into another, unnecessarily, is avoided. 
 
STRAIGHT LINES. 
 
 )7 
 
 14. The importance of acquiring a method in forming lines and tints, will be felt in the 
 following examples : — 
 
 The pupil will also begin to appreciate the power of lines, in expressing tints, and in giving 
 detail of form to simple outlines. In all of these there is one common outline, varied by divis- 
 ions and tints. 
 
 15. The following figure, formed of straight lines and right angles, will show the importance 
 of a clear and accurate outline j which, when once obtained, may be with ease worked into 
 endless variations. 
 
 A B C D K 
 
 The pupil should first draw the simple outline of the figure a, upon the principles laid down in 
 former examples (11). Having accomplished that, let him next draw the interline, as shown sj 
 after which, he can express the tint or shadow on the figure c. Next, let him draAA’ the faint line, 
 near the inner edge of the outline (a) he has already done, as d : then proceed with e, and so 
 on ^vith F and g j always observing to draw the outline of the tint or shadow first. 
 
 16. The following examples present forms of less simplicity, yet are equally regular and 
 balanced in the relation of the parts to each other. They are given, not only for practice, but to 
 
 show the motive or method of their construction. If the pupil were to attempt to draw the tourth 
 or fifth figure, for instance, by a mere outline, he would encounter srent difficulty, and fail of 
 
18 
 
 PRIMARY INSTRUCTIONS. 
 
 success 5 but let him study well the principle upon which that outline is produced, and he not 
 only is able to draw it accurately, but knowingly. This principle of Design deserves important 
 consideration 5 and will, hereafter, be often reverted to, when its true meaning and application will 
 be better understood and appreciated by the learner. 
 
 17. One more example of objects formed of straight lines is added, to show, in some degree, 
 the application of what has, thus far, occupied tlie attention of the pupil, and should be copied. 
 
 as carefully as possible, first on the ruled paper j observing well the parts or forms the lines 
 present as they cross the dotted or faint lines 5 recaUing to memory all that has been before said, 
 especially with regard to the importance of ascertaining the point of beginning and ending, as 
 well as direction, of each line. When some <!(’gree of precision is acquired on the ruled paper, 
 try it without — on the slate — the blackboard ~ every way 5 and then try your memory, and see 
 if it will serve you as it ought. See if you can draw a gate, a table, or a box, without the object 
 before you. He who can draw nothing but wbat he has before him, loses the best half of the 
 art. Begin at once in the right Avay — the surest to success. Unless the mind add the riches 
 of its resources to the efforts of the hand and eye, and you call them forth as you are pro- 
 gressively capable of using them to advantage, you can never expect to reap the full harvest of 
 your present labors. 
 
 1 8. Thus far, attention has been directed only to the drawing of straight lines 5 and, 
 if proper care and study have been bestowed upon the principles lai^ down, and the hand 
 
CURVED LINES. 
 
 1 ') 
 
 has been taught to keep pace with the understanding of these principles, the few examples to he 
 given in the drawing of curves will be all that is required, before he is introduced to the great 
 school of -Vi't — the imitation of nature. Let him be advised not to hurry forward too rapidly — 
 to gain strength as he goes — to confine his efforts to what he can accomplish, rather than run 
 the risk of failure, in attempts beyond his power. 
 
 19. Agam (2) let the importance of a clear, firm, and well-defined line be urged. “ Think 
 before you draw,” is as important a maxim as “ Think before you speak.” Determine well the 
 pomt of beginning and termination, the direction and form of every line, before you touch your 
 paper. Aow is the time to school your hand to this habit j which, when once acquired, will 
 render progressive studies comparatively easy, and hereafter serve you well in your attempts, 
 however far you may pursue the Art of Drawing. A manner of dashing off random lines or 
 
 touches, as if in search of the true line, betrays weakness and indecision — besides, produces a 
 painful display of the labor the work has cost. The ease apparent in the sketch of a master- 
 hand, that is so captivating, is the result of absence of any appearance of hesitation or doubL 
 If any were felt, in its execution, it is a secret known only to the artist himself, who should 
 always possess the judgment to look rather to results, than the ostentatious display of the labor 
 of their accomphshment. The examples given wiU enable the student, by comparison, better to 
 understand what is to be avoided. 
 
 20. In the directions hitherto given, with regard to the drawing of straight Imes, the ruled 
 paper afforded a more certain guide than it will be found to be in curves and irregular forms. 
 The straight, or' right line, must be the basis, however, upon which to form the true observation 
 and delineation of them. A right line is certain and arbitrary j and, according to the variation 
 of curves and irregular forms from a right line, must be measured their irregularity by the eye. 
 and also expressed, the result of that observation. The faculty of ascertaining and expressing 
 
•JO 
 
 P R I M A R Y INS 'r R TJ C T 1 O N S. 
 
 the degree and character of these variations, is a most important acquirement in drawing. Here- 
 after, in its proper place, more will be said in reference to circles, ovals, etc., as presenting the 
 motive of lines and forms 5 but, it is important that the pupil should go step by step, and, as far 
 as possible, master one difficulty before he encounters another. 
 
 21. Let him attempt to draw the most simple curve 
 
 or eccentric 
 
 line 
 
 , and he will find it, probably, no easy task to perform with accuracy ; 
 and even if measurably successful, at first, to repeat it may be more difficult. But, if he has a 
 
 , it 
 
 right fine from which to mark the variations 
 
 becomes comparatively easy. To the beginner, a difficulty naturally will arise as to the exist- 
 ence of these right lines in objects in nature. The eye, by practice and proper education, 
 learns to supply this, and soon becomes accustomed to measure irregular forms by this unerring 
 standard. .At present, it is out of place to enter, as fully as may be hereafter necessary, into the 
 explanation of this principle in Drawing 5 which must be gradually developed to the under- 
 standing of the pupil, as he acquires progressive strength in the training of his eye and hand. 
 
 22. In the following examples for practice, the ruled paper will be of essential advantage. 
 Begin, as in the exercises in drawing straight lines, by marking certain points along the ruled 
 line ( 5 ), and then connect these points by curves sweeping at first to the middle of the faint 
 
 lines, above and below the points (example a). Repeat 
 
 these exercises from right ^ to left, as well as from left ^ . to right. 
 
 It is importaiit that sufficient command of hand, to draw lines in any direction with equal facihty, 
 should be early acquired. When you can do this with some degree of ease to yourself, as well as 
 accuracy, increase the distance between the points, as b j and after that, draw a line of greater 
 sweep c D : and so on proceed with the rest of the examples, e is but a combination of what you 
 have already done a j and e of c d. — i k will be comparatively easy after these, as well as l. In 
 examples m n, observe well the movement of the line as it touches the six faint lines, and the 
 points it marks as it approaches its termination. It starts on the first ruled line, and, making a 
 gradual sweep, turns on the sixth, moves upward to nearly half way between the first and 
 second : again descends to half way between the fifth and sixth, moves upward to nearly half 
 way between the second and third, and terminates between the fourth and fifth. In example n, 
 the same observation, with some little variation, will apply. Endeavor, in the imitation of these 
 
examples, to draw them with a clear, unbroken line, without taking the pen from the paper until 
 it is done. Be not discouraged at repeated failures, but try again and again, until you suc- 
 ceed. You doubtless begin to find that you require more than the command of your fingers in 
 dra^^'ing : your wrist, and the whole arm, must be brought under proper government. And here, 
 as a valuable assistant, the blackboard can not be too strongly recommended. 
 
 23. Drawing on the blackboard might be made a profit- 
 able exercise and subject of emulation in schools. The chalk 
 should be placed in a long port-crayon, or reed, held at arm's 
 length; and the greater part of the examples contained in these 
 primary instructions, should be attempted on the hoard — the 
 larger the better. The examples p r s t are given expressly 
 with a view to this. Let the teacher fix the points (o). if 
 the pupil is not capable of doing it. The pupil then shonld 
 connect the points, so as to form a square (s) ; that done, let 
 him draw the circle within the square — anotlier on the ont>;ide 
 
22 
 
 PRIMARY 1 N 8 T R L' C T IONS. 
 
 of it (p) — and then try his hand at drawing a circle without the aid of the square. All should 
 be done without rule or compass. “ The compass should be in the eye,” was the axiom of 
 one who did more, and achieved more, in art, than any mortal man. Hereafter, in the study 
 of perspective and mathematical drawing, their use will be indispensable, but now should be 
 avoided. Remember that the eye, as well as the hand, should be educated j and to educate, 
 you must practise and trust it. 
 
 24. A story told of Giotto, the celebrated Italian painter, who flourished in the beginning of the 
 fourteenth century, may not here be inappropriate. “ When Pope Benedict IX. sent to Florence 
 for specimens of the skill of the artists of that city, his messenger came to Giotto, and told 
 him of the pope’s intentions, which were, to employ him in St. Peter’s church, at Rome, and 
 desired him to send some design by him to his holiness, by which he might judge of his capacity. 
 Giotto, who was a pleasant man, took a sheet of white paper, and drew, with one stroke of his 
 pencil, a circle so exactly, that, ‘ round as Giotto’s O,’ became a proverb. Then, presenting it to 
 the gentleman, he told him that there was a piece of design which he might carry to his holiness. 
 The messenger replied, ‘I ask for a design.’ — ‘Go, sir,’ said Giotto; ‘I teU you his holiness asks 
 
 nothing else of me.’ — Giotto went to Rome .” 
 
 This artist, who stood so high in his day, whose 
 works are so justly admired, who rose to the esteem 
 and friendship of the greatest men of the age in 
 which he lived, whom Dante and Petrarch were 
 proud to own as a friend, to whose memory, when 
 dead, the city of Florence erected a statue, was 
 once a poor shepherd boy ; and, while tending his 
 sheep in the field, developed the talent that made 
 him what he became, by drawing his flock in the 
 sand, and on flat stones. 
 
 25. Fathers and Teachers — call not your boys idle fellows, when you find them drawing in 
 the sand. Give them chalk and pencil — let them be instructed in design. “ But,” you say, “ I 
 do not want my boy to become an artist.” Depend upon it, he will plough a straightbr furrow, 
 and build a neater and better fence, and the hammer or the axe will fit his hand the better 
 for it : for from it, no matter what may be his calling in life, he- will reap advantage. Last, not 
 least, you give him a source of intellectual enjoyment, of which no change of fortune can deprive 
 
CURVED LIN E 8. 
 
 2‘i 
 
 him, and that may secure liis hours of leisure from the baneful influence of low and ignoble 
 pimsuits. 
 
 26. Again having recourse to the double set of ruled lines (11), as best adapted to assist the 
 pupil in ascertaining the quantities of the variations of the forms before him, as well as drawing 
 the two sides of an object alike, but little more is required than to give a series of examples for 
 practice. The experience he has already had, will show at once their application. 
 
 27. The pupil may now lay aside his ruled paper, and hereafter trust more to himself. It 
 will be found, with some, that little difficulty has been felt, in the practice and understanding of the 
 examples thus far placed before them. Even to those who may have, before this work has been 
 placed in them hands, acquired some degree of facility in drawing, profit may be derived from 
 examining the primary instructions here given. It often happens that we possess an acquiroment. 
 uncoascious of the means by which it has been obtained, which will serve us to a certain extent, 
 and no farther 5 which, by training, by strength derived from right discipline, may be made available 
 to the highest results. This faculty, coming as a gift, too often proves an allurement from a 
 
24 
 
 PRIMARY INSTRUCTIONS. 
 
 correct and systematic course of study 5 and thus wonderful boys become insignificant men, while 
 others, of less actual capacity, get the start of them in a very little time, and soon attain, by in- 
 dustry, an eminence beyond the reach of indolent talent. Precocious talent, like hot-bed plants, 
 rarely matures to fruitfulness, and, like them, is doomed to as short existence : which, however 
 brilliant, bears no comparison with that of those reared in the fresh air, deep-rooted, developed by 
 the early sun and showers of spring, and strengthened to resist all changes and seasons. In nothing 
 is this more apparent, than in Design. Where extraordinary talent or aptness does exist, culti- 
 vation becomes more essentially necessary, than where there is an actual deficiency. Where a 
 want is felt, a natural instinct impels us to seek the surest means of supplying it 5 and to persevere 
 in its attainment we go on in a progressive system of acquirement, until it becomes a matter of 
 habit. And this is the plain, straight-forward road to excellence, in which toil itself soon becomes 
 pleasure. He who possesses it, will go farther and faster, in the end, than he who dashes 
 headlong for an hour, faints at the first hiU, or loses his way for want of proper observation and 
 knowledge of his progress. It is lamentable to see how much talent is let run to waste, for 
 want of judicious cultivation — with what ruinous results the blind praises of partial friends often 
 hurry the beginner into deep water, before he has attained strength to bear him to land. They 
 see too late the danger into which they have urged him. If they have the will, they seldom 
 have the capacity, to aid and instruct him in his hour of trial. They shrink from the responsi- 
 bility, turn their backs upon him, — and he is lost. The proverb, “Poefa nascitur non is 
 often quoted most wrongfully — and stiU more wrongfully is its received meaning applied to the 
 artist. The day when men were born, hke Minerva, full-grown and armed, is a matter of fable, 
 not of truth. If men are born with capacities for poetry or art beyond the mass of their feUow- 
 men, they must still be made poets and artists by study and education, or of what value are such 
 gifts of nature. However exalted be the thought or imagination, it must be made to assume a 
 shape by which it can be conveyed and understood beyond the mind in which it was conceived. 
 Whether words, letters, or forms, be the means of expression employed, they must be intelligible ; 
 to make them intelligible, they must be accurately expressed, in a language not to be mistaken ; 
 and that accuracy is no man’s intuitive possession. It is the result of study — of education. 
 
 29. In the example next presented, the principles upon which the primary instructions already 
 given have been based, will be at once evident. Take, for instance, a form as simple as a 
 common wineglass. To draw it with any degree of accuracy, without the aid of some well- 
 understood principle, will prove difficult, even to many who are ah*eady familiar with the use 
 of the pen or pencil. They may make something to look enough like a wineglass for any 
 
C U R V K 1) L 1 N H S. 
 
 2.0 
 
 
 .E- 
 
 one to know what it is intended for j but to 
 draw it in its exact proportions, with the sweep 
 of the outline in perfect balance on either side ; 
 to make it a true representation of the object, 
 some method must be used. Having fixed 
 upon the height of the glass a b, decide upon 
 the diameter of its base or stand d c, and that 
 of the top E F. That done, you have sure 
 starting points ; and nothing more remains, to 
 complete the outline, than first determining, 
 by your eye, the variation of the curves it 
 presents from these right lines, and expressing 
 them exactly as you have already done in the 
 examples before given (22). With the straight 
 lines BE — EF to guide you, the gradual taper 
 and expansion of the object is readily expressed by one clear sweep, easily obtained and repeated. 
 
 30. The first and greatest difficulty of the beginner will be to find and see these imaginary 
 straight lines in objects presenting, in their form and outline, only curves. This must be acquired 
 
 by judicious training. By prac- 
 tice and observation, the eye 
 will soon learn to find them out, 
 without mechanical aid. Let 
 him, as a first experiment, for 
 instance, hold a thread, with a 
 slight weight attached to it, at 
 arm’s length, between him and 
 an ordinary water-pitcher, or 
 ewer, and he will at once see 
 all the perpendicular lines he 
 desires, drawn, as it were, against 
 the pitcher by the thread. 'I'liey 
 will show him the relative vari- 
 ations of all the curvatures of 
 
 4 
 
26 
 
 PRIMARY INSTRUCTIONS. 
 
 the outline as distinctly as if drawn on paper, and as easy of imitation. He will not only have 
 a guide in drawing the sweep of the outline correctly, but, also, in marking the true proportions 
 of the object. He will find the line d produced by the thread, drawn, as it were, against the 
 pitcher, touching its Up and greatest circumference j while b and c, in like manner, serve to 
 show the relative proportion of the stand or base to the neck, a, corresponding to d, gives him 
 something to go by, in producing the general form with relative regularity, and marks the 
 variation, first seen where the handle begins. It then serves to ascertain the true form of the 
 handle, as well as to designate the place of its lower Joining with the pitcher. Thus, to show 
 the principle. A thread and weight are not always at hand j and if they were, they do not 
 serve as well as the instrument with which we draw. Hold a pencil at arm’s length, look along 
 
 its outline, and in like manner you may 
 readily ascertain the bearing, not only 
 of the perpendicular lines, but of any 
 others you may desire, either for the 
 purpose of studying your outline, or of 
 proving it after it has been drawn. You 
 can thus, in a measure, be your own master, and correct your own mistakes. You may not see 
 the practical draughtsman have recourse to such expedients 5 but, nevertheless, he is governed by 
 the same principles. He sees, at a glance, the relation of the parts to one another. Although 
 he does not draw the perpendicular fines, he sees that the swell of the largest circumference of the 
 object before him extends no farther than a perpendicular fine, drawn from the lip, would touch. 
 He sees that where the base is united to the pitcher, it is just as wide as at the neck. He sees 
 the base is a little wider. He marks all these points j if not on his paper, they are mentally 
 before him j and he produces, with apparent ease, a correct drawing of the object, so just in 
 all its proportions, that a potter shall produce a fac-simile of the pitcher, from the drawing. 
 Such facility any one of ordinary capacity may acquire, who will take the pains and study 
 required. 
 
 31. Let it not be understood, in saying this, that every one can learn to draw like Michael 
 Angelo, or compose with the grace and charm of Raphael, any more than he who writes with 
 grammatical accuracy, can, therefore, write like Shakespeare. There is a barrier that none can 
 pass, who are not the gifted children of genius. Such men may have shone less brilliant in the 
 first steps of that knowledge, by means of which they achieved their greatness, than many a 
 school-fellow — 
 
CURVED LINES. -47 
 
 “ with his satchel 
 
 And shining morning face, creeping like snail 
 Unwillingly to school,” — 
 
 whose fame ended in the village church-yard, or the memory of a few short years. Although 
 the seeds of knowledge fell on a soil that was not warmed by the fire of genius, and brought 
 forth but their usual harvest of every-day utility to their possessor, yet was that knowledge no 
 less valuable to him, because he had not the power to use it, as it was used by the more highly 
 gifted companions of his youth — to build upon it an imperishable fame, and blessing the world 
 with rich gifts, to live for ever in its memory. 
 
 32. It is now time for the pupil to look to nature for objects to exercise his skiU, and to 
 endeavor to apply the instructions he has received, practically. Let him lay before him a leaf 
 
 directions and terminations of its principal hnes, and decided on them, as above shown, by a 
 sort of diagram, or generalized idea, he should then proceed to draw in the outline, with all the 
 features and variations of the original. In doing this, all appearance of straight lines and angles 
 should be avoided. There are none in the original, and there should be none used in its repre- 
 sentation, beyond their application in assisting him, in his early efforts, to fix the points and 
 proportions in their proper places and relation to each other. Even these must be dispensed 
 with, as soon as the eye and hand can be taught to work without them. 
 
 II 
 
28 
 
 PRIMARY INSTRUCTIONS. 
 
 33. The preceding example of a grape-leaf may be found more difficult at the first trial, from 
 the irregularity of the outline. By keeping in view, however, the general movement of the fine, 
 after a little practice, the pupil will find the difficulty gradually decrease, and he will be able to 
 draw it with accuracy, with regard both to its general form and detail. 
 
 34. Many have found this principle of working from straight lines, serve them so well, that 
 they have been led to its abuse, by extending it beyond its proper application j and their 
 drawings present more the appearance of an angular congelation of crystals, or irregular brick- 
 work, than the easy, flowing lines, that abound in objects of nature. 
 
 Even in the sketches of artists of eminence, this manner is often perceptible, from the habit 
 they have of massing, or blocking out, as it were, their figures 5 which, however allowable and 
 proper in a master-hand, is, nevertheless, to be avoided by the beginner, until he acquires sufficient 
 strength and knowledge to hold a master’s pencil. When once he possesses sufficient knowledge 
 of the principles of design to be able to express a thought, unconscious of the method by which 
 he does it, with a hand and eye in perfect obedience to his conception, it matters little what his 
 manner is. It will always be intelligible. Then he may dash as he pleases, and even the most 
 random line will be to the purpose. But this facility can only be acquired by systematic accuracy 
 in the beginning. The man who would ride a race must be used to the saddle, or he risks 
 its loss, as well as his neck, in the attempt. 
 
 35. Before closing these Primary Instructions, let it be understood, that, although all may 
 derive advantage from their perusal, they are especially intended for those who have as yet made 
 no advancement in drawing. Their purpose is to show an easy and certain course by which 
 any one may make a beginning, and qualify his hand and eye to enter upon the broader field 
 
DRAWING MATERIALS. 
 
 that lies before him. The want of knowledge of the proper means of making a beginning, has 
 prevented many from attempting the art of drawing, while others have regarded it as a mys- 
 tery, oidy to be reached by a gifted few. It is time this delusion should be dispelled. There 
 are no secrets in art that can not be attained by those who will take the pains necessary to their 
 acquirement j and although, as has been before said, all must not expect to rival those, who, aided 
 by the gift of genius, have achieved such wonders by its means, yet the profit and pleasure that 
 will be their reward, however far they may extend the pursuit, are well worth the trial. That a 
 sense bestowed upon us by the Creator, susceptible of so much real benefit, as well as enjoyment, 
 a capacity belonging exclusively to the human mind, should lie buried for want of cultivation, is 
 a sad reflection — one that well deserves the serious consideration of Parents and Teachers, 
 who are called upon at once to set about the work of reformation. Surely they wiU not hesi- 
 tate, when no great sacrifice of personal convenience is asked of them. Let them look back 
 on their own life, and see what they have lost for want of this cultivation 5 they will see much, 
 but the real extent of their loss they can not know 5 for, without that faculty of just perception 
 imparted by a knowledge of design, we walk through life as one blindfolded. It may not be too 
 late to try themselves 5 the germ may yet exist, though long buried and neglected. If the spring- 
 time of fife is passed, and the summer is on the wane, it may yet be made to bear some fruit well 
 worth the culture. If nothing more, the trial will prove to them the value of what they have lost 
 by neglect, and they will earnestly look to the better instruction of their children and those under 
 theh* charge. Instead of interfering with other branches of education, drawing can be made to 
 assist most essentially in their advancement. Who thinks of teaching geography without a map ? — 
 and a map is a picture. The world is presented to the mind of a child by the map. To coun- 
 tries, cities, seas, and rivers, are given forms j and thus he remembers them. How much more 
 impressive would these forms be, if he were taught to draw them. Pictures and Design may be 
 made, if properly applied, valuable assistants to the teacher in all the departments of learning, 
 from the primer upward — even to the classical and higher studies ot our high schools and 
 colleges. The tasks of the school-bench would thus become less arduous, and their benefits 
 more enduring, while a purifying taste would be at the same time a natni’al result : for it is 
 impossible that a mind, thus trained, should not early be capable of just discrimination, the basis, 
 not ordv of true taste, but of all that refines and elevates the moral excellence of man. 
 
 36 . As yet, nothing has been said of the materials used in drawing, because it is a matter 
 of little importance what instrument is employed in the beginning. Giotto's stick for a pencil, 
 and the sand for his paper, were as good an outfit as be needed. A piece of charcoal, or chalk. 
 
PRIMARY INSTRUCTIONS. 
 
 3U 
 
 and the barn-door, have served many as well j while others, who have accumulated a complete 
 magazine of materials and patent nostrums, haVe done nothing else. The hand and eye that 
 direct it, not the instrument itself, must be the strong reliance of the draughtsman. He should 
 early learn to consider his tools as of secondary consideration, and to supply them as he feels 
 their want and his capacity to use them. Instead, therefore, of giving at once a long catalogue 
 of materials used in drawing, such as are progressively required by the student, will be men- 
 tioned in their places. 
 
 37. The Pen is placed first, because it may be justly considered the most important 
 instrument for the general purposes of Design, and if its use were properly understood, it would 
 be oftener found in the hands of draughtsmen. It is always at hand, gives a certain and 
 indelible line, and is capable of producing the most finished effects. If all who write pos- 
 sessed the power to express what they desire by design, when the resources of language fail, 
 what a new charm would be added to the epistolary intercourse of friends; — how much richer 
 and more valuable would be the traveller’s journal — the lucubrations of the man of science; 
 and the page of poetry would present visions from the world of fancy in all the beauty of their 
 original conception. Thus might this familiar instrument be made to do its full office, if we 
 would only take the pains to acquire a command of it. That one capable of describing a scene, 
 whether of reality or of the creation of the mind, so truly, that another can make a picture from 
 it, could not draw it himself with greater truth, if he had been as well educated in design as in 
 letters, is as certain as, that, if he possessed this two-fold power of expression, he would natu- 
 rally be led to use each as they could be made in their turn most subservient to his purpose. 
 The author and designer would thus be one ; and with the facilities that exist of reproducing 
 and printing designs, as readily as letters, the limits to which the influence of the pen may be 
 extended, are beyond conception. 
 
 38. The best pens for fine and finished drawings were formerly made of crow-quills ; while, 
 for larger and bolder works, the ordinary goose-quill, and even reed, have been employed. The late 
 improvements in the manufacture of steel and other metallic pens, have, in a great measure, 
 taken their places ; and these may be generally employed by the draughtsman, who, by trial, will 
 soon learn which kind best suits his purposes. Many, however, have not the advantages, enjoyed 
 by those who reside in the cities, of a variety from which their selections may be made ; and 
 after all, in many instances, they may require to make their own pens ; which they should be 
 capable of doing, under any circumstances. 
 
DRAWING MATERIALS. 
 
 :i\ 
 
 39. The quill should be scraped on the side where the split is intended, first toward the 
 point, and then backward, more or less according to the flexibility of the nib required 5 then 
 
 on the spot 
 
 where you desire the split to stop, which its pressure will effect, start the split slightly with 
 your knife, and run it up the quiU by a touch with the thumb-nail of your right hand, or the 
 uncut end of another quill. The general rule is, to cut the shoulders the length of the split, 
 and for writing, it is a good one 5 but in drawing, it is necessary to 
 vary from it, and to suit the length and shape of the nib to the use 
 for which it is required. The right nib, as you hold the pen, should 
 be a httle longer than the other, to produce a delicate line j and often 
 it may be requisite to increase its sharpness, by slightly trimming 
 the point in front, as figured. A little practice will soon teach you, not only to know what sort 
 of pen you require, but to make one to suit yourself, as well as render you capable of exercising 
 proper judgment in selecting steel or other pens. 
 
 40. The best Ink, for nice purposes, is Chinese or Indian ink, rubbed down with water, to 
 the proper degree of fluidity, in a small saucer or cup. Some, who are very particular, prepare 
 the burnt tips of candles, collected carefully before they fall in burning, and mixed with gum- 
 water. There is also an ink, of recent invention, in every respect equal to Indian ink, and 
 possessing the advantages of being always ready, and in a fluid state. It is made by Stephens, 
 of London, and called “ Mechanical Drawing Ink.” It flows freely from the pen, is of uniform 
 tint, and does not corrode or in any way injure metallic pens. It can not fail to prove a valuable 
 material for the draughtsman, if its more general use does not induce a deterioration of its 
 quahty. Care should be taken in its selection. Indian ink is always best, when it can be 
 procured as imported direct from China. There is no economy in purchasing an inferior article : 
 a stick of it will last a long time, and is not worse for age. The best quality is generallv 
 strongly scented with musk. Common writing ink, for ordinary piu'poses, and for beginners, 
 answers very well : it should be perfectly black. Metallic, and all other pens, should be wiped 
 clean, after use, and laid aw'ay carefully. Pens frequently, by accidental wear, acquire a 
 
32 
 
 PRIMARY INSTRUCTIONS. 
 
 peculiarly delicate and serviceable point, that should be preserved, as it vrill be often found no 
 easy matter to obtain it so well in a new one, when wanted. 
 
 41. Sepia is of a rich brown tint, resembling very closely Indian ink, in its working quahties, 
 and flowing freely from both pen and pencil. This pigment is named after the sepia^ or cuttle- 
 fish^ which is called also the ink-fish., from its affording a dark liquid used as an ink by the 
 ancients. The Roman sepia, prepared in cakes, has the best reputation j and it is rarely met 
 with of inferior quality, — its cheapness leaves no inducement for its adulteration. 
 
 42. Black-Lead Pencils are in most general use as instruments for drawing 5 and are not 
 only valuable, from their convenience, for sketching from nature, but well adapted for highly-finished 
 drawings, being capable of producing the most delicate, as well as the most intense shades and 
 tints. The best sort should always be purchased. The quality of black-lead pencils can be 
 easily tested. When pure, the lead will be found to cut freely on two opposite sides, and harder 
 on the other two. In using such pencils, the draughtsman can, by turning the pencil as he 
 desires, produce a light or dark line. Beginners are generally too fond of using the knife, 
 and often, by its awkward application, sacrifice a whole pencil, before they get a point 
 to suit them. The wood should first be cut away with a sharp knife, scarcely touching the 
 
 lead 5 then, instead of cutting away the lead downward, toward 
 
 the point, which is the common practice, trim it upward, 
 being at the same time careful of cutting away the lead near 
 the wood, or it may he so much weakened as to break off at 
 the first touch made on the paper. A small flat file is a still 
 better instrument than a knife, and should always be used with an upward and very slight 
 
 stroke. Extremely sharp points to pencils are, 
 however, unnecessary. A practised draughtsman 
 manages to keep his pencil in order, by occa- 
 sionally turning it so as to preserve it partly blunt 
 for tints, and, at the same time, with an edge for a 
 sharp touch, when desired. 
 
 43. The best black-lead pencils in use are those made of pure Cumberland lead, cut into 
 strips, and enclosed in red cedar. When proper care has been taken by the manufacturer, in 
 
DRAWING MATERIALS. 
 
 33 
 
 assorting the leads according to their hardness, the draughtsman will soon learn to know by 
 their marks the kind he requires. Those marked n, hb, r, and ef, serve best for sketching, 
 general dra^^■ing, and outhnes ; and those marked b, b b, and e ii b, for shading 5 while n ii h, and 
 HHHH, are best adapted for architectural designs, and drawing on boxwood for engravers — a 
 subject that wiU be hereafter treated upon to some extent. 
 
 44. There are other inferior kinds of pencils, that come mostly from Germany and France, 
 which serve for many purposes even better than those made of pure plumbago. They are made 
 of a composition that can not be erased with Indian rubber as readily as the others j and, from 
 that fact, drawings made with them are less liable to be rubbed out, or injured in handling. jVIany 
 object to them on this account 5 but the less the student of drawing has to do with Indian 
 rubber, and the sooner he learns to do without it, the better. They do not produce such deU- 
 cate tints and gradations, but, nevertheless, are serviceable. They work best on paper that is 
 rather rough, or that has, what artists call, a good tooth. On unsized paper, such as is used for 
 copperplate printing, they will be found to work admirably. Their numbers, generally from 
 1 to 5, indicate their degree of hardness. Practice and experience will soon make the draughts- 
 man familiar mth their power and use. 
 
 45. A small box^ made of paper or some light substance, should be kept on the drawing-table, 
 for the purpose of receiving the cuttings of pencils or crayons. A habit of neatness should be 
 early inculcated. Many a drawing has been spoiled, and the pupil made ashamed of it, for want 
 of proper attention in this particular. 
 
 46. The French Crayon is much used in making finished drawings. It can be procured 
 of various degrees of hardness, should be pointed, and used much in the manner of the black- 
 lead pencil. It does not work well on smooth paper, requires a port-crayon to hold it, and can 
 only be erased by a pellet of stale bread — Indian rubber will not do. Its use on tinted paper 
 will be hereafter alluded to. 
 
 47 . The pupil being now in possession of sufficient materials for commencing the Rudiments 
 of Drawing, the necessity of going to work not too hurriedly is urged upon him. Consider well 
 what you have to do, before you begin. Endeavor to make not a line or touch that is not to 
 the purpose. If you can not satisfy yourself on the first trial, be not disappointed, but try 
 
 again — and again. Recall to mind the errors you have made in the first attempts ; keep them 
 
 5 
 
34 
 
 PRIMARY INSTRUCTIONS. 
 
 by you, that you may often refer to them. In your next trial you will do better. You will 
 have advanced a certain step j and onward will be your progress, as surely as you persevere. 
 Never fatigue yourself over your drawing. The moment you work without a wiU, it should be 
 laid aside. 
 
 48. Last, though not of least importance, let it be urged upon the pupil early to acquire a 
 good position in drawing. It should be easy, and in no way painful to the chest. There is no 
 necessity for leaning over your work in an ungraceful or painful attitude. The eye should be, 
 as nearly as possible, directly opposite the centre of your drawing. It is unnecessary to give 
 directions as to the manner of holding your pen or pencil. Your own judgment must direct 
 you as to that. It matters little, so that you feel the instrument fit your fingers easily. If proper 
 attention has been bestowed upon the primary instructions given, you have already learned the 
 importance of depending, not solely on your fingers, but also on the action of the wrist and arm. 
 The hand should not be suffered to rest on the paper on which you are drawing, if it can be 
 avoided 5 but have a spare piece to lay under it, while at work. It will serve another purpose — 
 to try the points of your pens, pencils, crayons, or tints upon. Begin at once your portfolio. 
 Even when you have failed in any attempt, you should keep it by you. Destroy nothing that 
 you do, and you will soon learn to do nothing you would desire to destroy. Preserve order in 
 the disposition of all your materials : much time and vexation may be saved by it 5 and, above 
 all things, remember, whatever is worth doing, is worth doing well. 
 
CHAPTER II, 
 
 THE 
 
 RUDIMENTS OF DRAWING 
 
 THE HUMAN HEAD. 
 
 — If we wish to ascend to the top of an 
 edifice, we must he content to advance step 
 by step, otherwise we shall never he able to 
 attain it." — Leonardo da Vinci 
 
 HE first impulse of all beginners 
 is to attempt the delineation of 
 the human face, and generally as 
 seen in profile, because it is easi- 
 er thus to express the actual form 
 of the features; — and, there is 
 no object in nature on which the early efforts of the student of design can be more deservedly 
 and profitably bestowed. In nothing else are combined so many elements of beauty and expres- 
 sion, such established and well-defined principles of form, and happy adaptation of that forfii to 
 purpose — in short, such perfection of Design — and he that can draw the head with accuracy 
 and knowledge, in all its details, is a master of the art. As a general standard of beauty and 
 expression, the conception of man reaches to nothing beyond it. In his dreams of angels and 
 beatified spirits he can go no higher, and the demons of the imaginary world bear its 
 impress, how'ever distorted or debased. Always before us, always subject to our scrutiny and 
 observation, always exciting a deep interest and best remembered of all other objects, possessing 
 
36 
 
 RUDIMENTS OF DRAWING. 
 
 in itself the great and leading principles of design so admirably developed, it should call forth the 
 earhest and most devoted study of the draughtsman. No matter what may be his purpose in the 
 study of design he must learn to draw the human figure. 
 
 50. What has been said in reference to drawing curved and eccentric lines is most forcibly 
 apphcable to drawing the figure, for there is not to be found one straight line throughout the whole 
 wonderful structure of animated creation. Without some standard by which to form the judgment 
 and direct the hand in the delineation of such forms, which are often so delicately marked as to 
 escape the notice of the student, in his early efforts, he labors in the dark, and more often succeeds 
 by chance than by that knowledge which alone can insure repeated success 5 which gives 
 continually-renewed strength for higher exertions, and leads surely onward. On chance no 
 reliance should be placed 5 it may serve once and never again j and a success thus achieved 
 often brings with it more injurious consequences than a failure, by creating a fictitious confidence, 
 from which we are unwilling to descend to the study of the first principles, the grammar of the 
 art. Let the student be reminded of the maxim of Leonardo da Vinci that, “in order to acquire 
 a true notion of the form of things, he must begin by studying the parts which compose them, 
 and not pass to a second till he has well stored his memory, and sufficiently practised the 
 first: otherwise, he loses his time, and will most certainly protract his studies — and let him 
 remember to acquire accuracy before he attempts quickness.” 
 
 51. It is not enough that the pupil should be able to draw an object before him, but he should 
 understand and learn to remember its form and character. Let him not deceive himself with the 
 idea that he is doing much when he is filling his portfolio with hasty, unfinished, and unstudied 
 sketches. Sketching is to art what short-hand notes are in writing and equally valuable 5 
 but we should no more think of teaching drawing by the one than writing by the other. One 
 single effort executed with care and study is worth all the time and labor bestowed upon it, 
 and will in the end more surely promote his certain advancement. It is for this reason that the 
 pen is so strongly recommended as the best instrument for the beginner. Its use may present 
 difficulties, at first, but he who is earnest in his desire to become a proficient draughtsman, may 
 rest assured that this commonplace instrument can do him more good service than any other. 
 The precision and facility of hand and certainty of touch that he will acquire by its early and 
 single use will enable him to wield the crayon or the brush, the graver or the modelling tool, the 
 chisel or the hammer, hereafter, with a command that will amply repay the labor of his present 
 ('fforts to become familiar with it. Is his hand tremulous and disobedient to his will, the pen will 
 
THE HUMAN HEAD. 
 
 37 
 
 make it firm and well-trained 5 and nerved to its use, he will possess an unlimited command of all 
 other instruments. The pen admits of no indecision. We are compelled to consider well what Ls 
 to be done, and then to do it with an unerring line or touch — and a failure can only be remedied 
 by retracing our steps and another attempt. That failure is a lesson not soon forgotten, and 
 many such will soon induce a habit of accuracy which is rarely acquired through the tangled 
 confusion of lead pencil and Indian rubber. What is done with the pen can be done again, and 
 there hes one of the great secrets of excellence in design. 
 
 
 52. As the easiest to draw, and that which, probably, will show 
 most clearly to the pupil the principles upon which he must rely 
 for accuracy, let him begin with a fuU or front view of the 
 Mouth 5 and before making any attempt at expression he should 
 become familiar with the actual form of the features, and be 
 capable of delineating them knowingly. The first thing to be 
 done is to get the beautiful line produced by the meeting of the 
 lips. On a straight line first indicate the width of the mouth, 
 and then the centre, either by dots or faint lines 5 ( 8 ) then pro- 
 ceed to express these points with due reference to the true form 
 of the object ; after which indicate in the same way the thickness 
 of the lips, etc. This done with care and precision, to connect 
 the points and to produce a correct outline according to the form 
 of the object you are imitating ( 22 ) will be found comparatively 
 easy 5 and with a correct outline you have a sure foundation upon 
 which to proceed in the completion of your drawing. Before 
 advancing farther, however, the trial should be repeated, until the 
 pupil is able to dispense with the straight lines and to produce an 
 outline without their assistance, beyond their imaginary existence, bv 
 which he will soon learn to preserve the proportions and the relations 
 of the parts as readily as if they were drawn on his paper. This 
 step at off-hand drawing, should be carefully taken, practised, and studied 5 for the same method 
 and principles are applicable to the correct delineation of all objects. Should the pupil grow 
 weary in his efforts to attain a correct outline in this example and feel discouraged bv repeated 
 failures, let him as a relaxation try the outline of any one or more of those that follow, without 
 attempting to express the shadows. With many this page may be remembered as one of 
 
38 
 
 RUDIMENTS OF DRAWING. 
 
 toil, but according with the recollection of it, will be the ease or difficulty of their progress 
 hereafter. 
 
 53. Having succeeded in becoming proficient in drawing a correct outline, next proceed to 
 express the shadows that give rotundity, and farther develop the form of the mouth. Begin with 
 
 the most distinct and prominent markings 5 they wiU serve as a 
 basis upon which to elaborate and express more minute detail and 
 finish, as weU as to make you familiar with the actual formation of 
 the object of imitation, and induce a systematic habit of study 
 as well as execution, which are both of much importance to 
 beginners. With regard to expressing tints by fines, what has been before said (13 and 19) 
 may be recalled to mind, and the pupil should not attempt to finish up a drawing, until he is in 
 a measure perfect in each progressive step. In the following examples, is shown the method of 
 proceeding gradually with a drawing, and it is advisable that this, as well as each progressive 
 example, should be practised over and over again, until not only facility in its imitation is 
 attained, but the method by which that imitation is produced is thoroughly understood. 
 
 54. The directions with regard to this example have been thus fully given, and their impor- 
 tance especially urged, because of their application to those that follow, subject only to such 
 variations as the peculiar form of the different features may require in their delineation. Difficulty 
 may be felt, in the first attempts, in expressing the shadows, as well as in obtaining a correct outline, 
 as the delicacy of hand and precision of touch requisite to their expression, are only to be 
 acquired by care and practice. To become a good draughtsman this difficulty must be mastered, 
 and it must be done now — in the beginning — when it is less formidable. Should the pupil 
 in his anxiety to go forward, find it irksome to devote the time and patience to these rudimental 
 studies that may be required, he may rely upon it, he will soon find himself involved in greater 
 difficulties, from which it may not be easy for him to extricate himself. This injudicious hurrying 
 forward has done much harm to education in design, by bringing disgust rather tlian delight in its 
 pursuit. Never leave a difficulty behind you that you have not overcome, and those that fie before 
 
THE HUMAN HEAD. 
 
 39 
 
 will be no longer formidable. Presuming the pupil to be in earnest in the business, and anxious 
 that he should early learn to rely somewhat upon his own judgment as well as intelligence, let us 
 place before him the following examples in delineating the features, which he should carefully study 
 and learn to draw, with some degree of facihty, before he attempts to combine them together in the 
 perfect head. To the principles of Design, of Form, of Grace, and Beauty, developed by the 
 human figure, and especially the head and face, frequent reference will be made hereafter ; and 
 unless proper care has been bestowed upon the study as well as practice of these examples, the 
 learner will find his progress continually impeded for want of that elementary strength and progres- 
 sive knowledge necessary to secure success in more advanced studies. The straight lines, given to 
 assist in drawing the outlines, may be drawn with a lead pencil (43), which, after the outhne is 
 secured by the pen, may be erased with Indian rubber. Again, let it be impressed upon the 
 pupil, that the sooner he learns to do without these straight lines, drawn on the paper, the better, 
 but their application and use should never be overlooked or forgotten. 
 
42 
 
 RUDIMENTS OF DRAWING. 
 
 55. To enter into the minute detail of the proportions of the head and features, according to the 
 most received standards, would be of little benefit to the student until he is farther advanced. A 
 few leading principles will be sufficient for his present purposes. Nature, although confined by 
 no mathematical precision, and producing the infinite variety of countenance, character, and 
 expression, by enlarging and diminishing as well as varying tlie form of the features, has supplied, 
 in her most perfect productions, a standard of proportion useful to the draughtsman, not only as 
 assisting in the delineation of correct and beautiful forms, but also in such as are exceptions. A 
 standard of form once impressed on the mind, we soon learn to measure all deviations by it, as we 
 learn to measure the variations of curved or eccentric by straight lines (20, 21). Thus may the 
 eye be educated not only to fix upon the most prominent and characteristic peculiarities of a head, 
 at once, but the impression will be so vividly preserved upon the memory that it may be recalled 
 and delineated at any moment, with a degree of facility as surprising to the uninitiated as 
 serviceable to the possessor. Nor is this principle of design alone applicable to drawing the head. 
 It extends, as a general and practical method, to the delineation and preservation in the memory of all 
 other objects, besides assisting in the cultivation of taste and that keen perception of the beautiful, 
 which not only open to the follower and lover of art such inexhaustible resources of enjoyment, 
 but have a purifying influence in the direction of his efforts to high and noble purposes. As we 
 measure the degree of deformity by beauty, so a high standard of beauty has been attained by 
 avoiding deformity. Thus the great artists of antiquity produced those exquisite and beautiful 
 forms which perhaps were never found combined in any one living individual, and yet these forms 
 were ideal only in their combination. Without the closest study and the keenest perception of the 
 beautiful in nature, only to be acquired by that study, they never could have been produced. 
 
 56. To DRAW THE HEAD IN PROFILE, the first thing to be done is to fix upon some certain 
 point or line to begin with, and one is most admirably provided by nature, of unerring certainty. 
 
 On looking at a head in an easy, erect position, the lower points of 
 the nose and ear will be found to be on a level. A line connecting 
 these points, therefore, gives a basis which must necessarily maintain 
 its relations to all the parts and proportions of the head, above the 
 lower extremity of the ear and nose. No matter what may be the 
 position of the head, they must move with and accord with that line — 
 the lower jaw alone possessing the power of independent motion and 
 consequently affecting that portion of the face below it. Draw a line 
 at right angles to this, and on it mark the length of the nose, 
 
T II JC H U M A N H E A D . 
 
 43 
 
 wliich is generally about one fourtli the whole height of the head, and you have a standard or 
 scale b\ A\hich not only the proportions of the head may be ascertained, but those of the whole 
 figure. The head is considered as containing in height four measures of the nose — and, that 
 greater accuracy may be obtained, the nose is subdivided into twelve Parts, usually called 
 JIhuites. These minutes are seldom attended to in the delineation of nature, but are found 
 sernceable in minute study of the antique statues, as will be hereafter shown. The received 
 scale of measurement, therefore, for the figure stands thus — Twelve Minutes make one Part (or 
 nose) Four Parts one Head — etc. However these proportions may be found to vary in nature, 
 some standard by which we may be enabled to define the degree of such variations has been 
 found of much practical importance. 
 
 57. The oval has been often recommended as the best 
 given form upon which to delineate the head, and when seen 
 in a full, front view (64), it will be found to serve most 
 admirably, but in the profile it is in a measure of little value. 
 The pupil should early train his eye to the observation of the 
 general forms of objects, and the sooner he begins the better. 
 When that general form assimilates to a well-known and 
 recognised shape, as for instance, the circle, the oval, the 
 square, or the triangle, it is well enough to make use of them, 
 but it will be seen at once by the above outline, how little 
 the oval can assist in drawing the profile. It limits nothing, 
 defines nothing. It gives no fixed point or proportion, nor docs it present the slightest 
 general idea of the head. Equally inefficient is the application of the equilateral triangle and the 
 square 5 and after all, if the learner can not be taught to do without such mechanical aid in 
 drawing, even in his early attempts, he will never attain proficiency in the art. They are neccssarv 
 more as correctives, as the means by which he may, with the exercise of proper judgment, supplv 
 the want of a teacher, to tell him when he is doing wrong, and dii'ect him in correcting his 
 mistakes, maturing his judgment gi'adually for higher efibrts, and clearing from liis way all 
 mystery in the pursuit of knowledge in design. It is not to be understood that the various 
 methods and principles that have been long inculcated, in many cases by high authority, should be 
 disregarded; they may be all good and serviceable to a certain extent, but they often tend to confuse 
 rather than assist the learner in his first efibrts. He becomes alarmed at the difficulties in which 
 he is involved, finds the pursuit one of toil rather than pleasure, and gives it up in despair. 
 
44 
 
 RUDIMENTS OF DRAWING. 
 
 58. AVith the line designating the position of the ear and nostril, a general outline of the 
 head and the general proportions marked out, but little more remains than to express by well- 
 defined and decided touches the characteristic features and more minute details. 
 
 59. It would seem in place and proper before proceeding farther, to enter into an explanation 
 of the anatomical formation of the head, especially of the bones, and it is almost impossible 
 to proceed far in the delineation of the human figure, without reverting to the wonderful 
 machinery that gives it life and action. But, it is not well, at this stage of the pupil’s progress, to 
 enter upon a study that he will pursue with more earnestness and greater profit hereafter, when he 
 has advanced far enough to be more sensible of its absolute necessity. He has now to learn, not 
 only the rudimental principles of design, but to acquire a facility in the use of the pen or pencil 
 that can only be obtained by practice, and an increased and increasing love for the art, which will 
 bear him onward successfully, and sustain him through any difficulty that he may encounter. 
 
THE HUMAN HEAD. 
 
 4.0 
 
 
 60 . Many have been deterred from learning to draw, by the formidable array of studies that have 
 been unnecessarily placed before them ; these should never be in advance, but always, as far as 
 possible, progressive with a certain degree of capacity both of eye and band. The judgment 
 and power of execution being thus matured together, their growth is healthful and gives certain 
 assurance of success. Let the pupil, therefore, try his hand in drawing the above profiles or any 
 others more suited to his taste, to which he may have access. Let him practically apply the prin- 
 ciples laid down, and if he does not succeed in producing a fair copy, he may rely upon it he has 
 gone too fast, and before proceeding farther should retrace the ground he has passed over. A 
 more finished example in drawing the profile, and on a larger scale, may be now attempted. 
 
46 
 
 RUDIMENTS OF DRAWING. 
 
 61 . Let it be remembered that a drawing, incorrect in outline and the just proportions of the parts, 
 can never be said to be finished, however great the labor bestowed upon the elaboration of its details. 
 Care should be taken, therefore, that these important points are well determined first : and thus 
 much lost time and many disappointments will be avoided. First obtain a general idea of the object 
 which you desire to draw. Then arrange its proportions into an harmonious outline — Study it 
 
THE HUMAN HEAD. 
 
 47 
 
 well ; — see that all the prevailing lines 
 correspond to the form, character, 
 and action of the original. That done, 
 you have a sure groundwork upon 
 which you may proceed with safety, 
 and all the labor bestowed upon it af- 
 terward will be to the purpose. This 
 principle will be found of general 
 application in design, from the mi- 
 nutest object to the most extensive 
 composition 5 and yet we must pos- 
 sess knowledge of the details to form 
 just ideas of the whole. You can 
 not begin by drawing a foot and 
 erect on it a perfect figure, although 
 without the capacity to draw and 
 finish that foot, you can not form a 
 just idea of its true position and 
 relation to the whole figure. First 
 make yourself proficient in details 
 and particulars — then learn to con- 
 nect these particulars into an har- 
 monious whole, to understand the 
 power and propriety of their com- 
 binations, and you are prepared to 
 generalize, and to descend from gen- 
 erals to particulars, in the execution 
 of your drawings, pictures, models, 
 or designs. 
 
 62. In drawing the outline of the second profile, it should be remembered, that the parts of 
 the face covered by the beard, should be slightly indicated or at least defined, or you can never 
 with accuracy express those that do appear and preserve all the proportions, action, and harmony 
 of the parts. The importance of the application of this method will be more forcibly shown 
 hereafter. In this instance it may seem of trivial importance — but still it is of importance and 
 
48 
 
 RUDIMENTS OF DRAWING. 
 
 should not escape the observation and attention of the learner. He should look not only to the 
 appearance of objects, but also to their actual form. It is thus, and thus only, that he will acquire 
 the eye and hand of a master in the art, and avoid that feebleness and indecision which mark the 
 touch of the uneducated j who may labor and elaborate as they wiU, yet never reach the truth and 
 expression that seem but the momentary, spontaneous, impulse of his mind and hand. This should 
 be the high aim of the follower of art, and should he grow weary over the means required in its 
 attainment, let him be encouraged to persevere, in the certainty of success that awaits his 
 exertions. Above all things, let him not attempt too much until he acquires strength. His steps 
 should be slow and sure. The desire of advancement is wholesome in art, as in all other pursuits 
 and studies, but should be restrained within proper hmits. Let it be cherished and kept alive as 
 an incentive to that preparation requisite for high achievements. Success in humble efforts gives 
 strength for higher, while continued failures tend to break down and crush the spirit. 
 
 63. It may be found more difficult for a beginner to draw in large than small, yet, if the limits 
 of this work would allow, all the examples given would be better if they were of the full size of 
 nature. The profiles which have just been presented to the pupil, demand the exertion of his 
 utmost capacity, and they should be drawn, not only as they are, but also reversed, which is 
 recommended as the proper course of practice with all the examples that have been, or may be 
 given hereafter. 
 
 * 
 
 K 
 
THE HUMAN HEAD. 
 
 V.) 
 
 64. However inappropriate the oval may be in drawing a 
 profile, its application in a full or front view will appear by a 
 moment’s observation. It strikes at once the prevailing or general 
 outhne, whether it be that of a youthful or aged individual. It 
 should be understood that the regular and mathematical elhpse, 
 generally called an oval, is not here meant, but the true oval or 
 egg-like form — one familiar to all, and easily remembered. The 
 same governing lines and general proportions, that are applicable to 
 the profile, apply also to the full or front view of the head and face ; 
 and according to the degree of diversion of the lines and propor- 
 tions in the original from these, can we determine their true posi- 
 tion and delineate them. It is easy to decide, in assuminj; ,the 
 form of an egg to represent the general outline of the head, whether that form be more or less 
 obtuse or elongated, according to the peculiarity of the original we desire to represent, as well a :5 
 the proportions occupied by the individual features 5 and the degree of variation once decided with 
 regard to the original object, the pupil has gone over the instructions already given to verv little 
 profit, if he can not express them in his drawing with readiness. 
 
 65. The moment the head is thrown backward or forward, and the lowei extremity of tlie nose is 
 
 thereby thrown above or below the lower extremities of the ears, the base or governing line, drawn 
 
 * 
 
 
50 
 
 RUDIMENTS OF DRAWING. 
 
 
 through these points ceases, necessarily, to be a straight line, and according to the degree of 
 elevation or depression of the head, is its degree of variation and curvature. It is still, however, the 
 governing line for the true position of the features, which must harmonize and agree with it upon 
 the principles already inculcated with reference to drawing the profile. 
 
 66. Until the pupil has acquired some knowledge of perspective, he can not be made 
 thoroughly to comprehend the delicate variations of these lines in their relation to one another, 
 and although it more properly belongs to that study, a simple principle may be here introduced 
 to his notice. Take an ordinary glass or tumbler, half full of water j hold it up before you, 
 until the line of the water is on a level with the 
 eye — it presents then a straight line. Observe the 
 lines of the brim and bottom of the tumbler — they are 
 both curved. Then bring the brim on a level with the 
 eye — it is a straight line — while that of the water 
 presents a curve and that of the bottom a still greater. 
 
 The farther the glass is removed from the eye, the 
 more these curves diminish or approach straight lines — 
 until at the distance of six or eight feet, their curvature 
 is scarcely perceptible — Still the actual lines of the brim, the water, and the base, are in fact par- 
 allel to each otiier, although the tumbler can be placed at no distance or in no possible position in 
 
THE HUMAN HEAD. 
 
 51 
 
 which they will so appear to the eye, or in which it would be allowable so to represent them. AU. 
 this does not affect the principles which it is now the object to inculcate. Hereafter these nice 
 distinctions ^vill be better understood by the pupil, as he will soon, if he does not already, feel the 
 impossibility of advancing far in the study of Design without a knowledge of perspective, which 
 must shortly occupy his attention. 
 
 67. In a three-quarters view of the face and head, the oval is often made use of, but with much 
 less advantage than in a full, front view A desire to fix upon some one form by which the 
 outline of the head may be generalized, has led to the adoption of the oval, and if it were 
 absolutely necessary that one arbitrary form alone should be used, a better could not be devised. 
 
52 
 
 RUDIMENTS OF DRAWING. 
 
 It should be applied, however, with 
 judgment, or it may lead to error and 
 prove a deceitful guide. When drawn 
 on a flat surface, the moment the view 
 of the head inclines to the right or left, 
 the centre or perpendicular ceases to 
 be a straight line, and increasing in 
 curvature, loses its true position as a 
 middle or central line for the features, 
 while the oval itself is gradually lost 
 in regard to the true outline * of the 
 head, until the movement reaches a pro- 
 file, and it becomes in a measure useless. 
 
 Were we to follow this central line in • 
 its movement, under such circumstances, 
 and assume it as indicating the middle 
 point of the features, distortion would 
 inevitably be the result. The draughts- 
 man should look to something more accurate and unerring. Even in the next outline, although 
 the head is, as it were, forced into the oval, and the curve indicating the middle point of the 
 forehead and mouth adapted to it, the whole seems rather an affectation of method than a prac- 
 tical application. 
 
 68. The imaginary central line of the face and head, is of 
 as much importance as any real line presented to the eye, and 
 should he as carefully studied and defined. It will be found 
 not only serviceable in assisting to determine the proper posi- 
 tion and balance of the features, when drawing from a pic- 
 ture, print, cast, or other still representation of the living head, 
 but highly important in drawing from nature, especially when 
 we have children or restless subjects for models. The great 
 difficulty and annoyance, so often experienced by artists in 
 this respect, might be avoided, in a great degree, if this cen- 
 tral line were more carefully studied. It directs at once to 
 the general character of the head, without which no perfec- 
 
THE HUMAN HEAD. 
 
 53 
 
 tion of indi^'idual parts will ever produce resemblance. It is by a general impression that we 
 know and recognise acquaintances, and see resemblances even at a distance. This, — not the ab- 
 stracted detail of parts, the precise line of a lip, or the tint of an eye, — is fixed upon the mind and 
 governs its conclusions. It must not be understood that these peculiarities should be neglected, but 
 that they should not be suffered to engross the attention of the draughtsman, to the neglect of 
 more important principles — more important, because without proper attention to them, the labor 
 bestowed upon detail will be to little profit. As evidence how much more strongly general 
 impressions of form are retained upon the memory than minute peculiarities, how often do we 
 hear disagreement between persons as to certain peculiarities in those with whom they are in the 
 habit of daily intercourse. One will contend, that an absent friend’s eye is black, another will insist 
 that it is hazel, a third that it is blue, and when the matter is settled by the presence of the 
 indmdual, it is found they were all wrong, and yet neither party would fail to recognise their friend 
 as far as they could see him. 
 
 69. As a profitable exercise for the study and 
 understanding of this principle of design, as well as 
 of all those urged upon the attention of the pupil in 
 this chapter, let him take a good plaster cast of a 
 head, and on it draw a central line, from the parting 
 of the hair to the extremity of the chin 5 let him also 
 draw a line touching the lower extremities of the 
 ears and nose, others parallel to it passing through 
 the eyelids, eyebrows, and mouth, and lines from 
 the inner corners of the eyes to the mouth, parallel 
 with the central line. These governing lines defi- 
 ning the positions and proportions of the features will 
 then appear, in a three-quarters view, similar to 
 those indicated in the annexed outline, and there is 
 no better practice for a beginner than to draw from 
 a plaster cast thus marked. He should place it in every possible position, and draw it carefullv ; 
 making use of these lines as guides by which to define not only the true position and form of the 
 features, but to accustom his eye to the close observation and understanding of the principles 
 that must govern him in the delineation of the head. After some practice in drawing and famil- 
 iarity with a cast, thus marked, he may make a trial on one without the lines. Drawiiiii from 
 casts is an important exercise, as casts afford greater facility for careful studv and observation than 
 
54 
 
 RUDIMENTS OF DRAWING. 
 
 living models, who are constantly changing their positions, and thus embarrassing the unpractised 
 draughtsman. In schools and classes, it is recommended that a small collection of good 
 specimens, not only of heads, but of hands, feet, limbs, etc., should be made, for the use of pupils. 
 Those who pursue the art by themselves, should at least have one or more good copies from the 
 antique, which can be readily procured, and at a very cheap rate, in any of our cities. In 
 drawing from them, they should always be placed or remain in the same light during the progress 
 of a drawing. Whether the subject of imitation be a cast or living head, the same principles and 
 method will be found applicable 5 as the former presents less difficulty, it is the better to begin with. 
 Before a touch or line is made, you should study well the original before you, and define its 
 position and movement 5 make yourself familiar with its character and peculiarities, balance aU its 
 proportions, and carefully adjust the relation of the parts to one another 5 and, as all important with 
 the rest, do not lose sight of the value of a correct central point for the features, for it is your 
 surest reliance. Once obtained, it affords a key to the truthful delineation of the head and 
 features, and with proper care and attention secures the utmost certainty in preserving the 
 
 harmonious agreement of the parts. 
 
 Many sketches and drawings, by those 
 ■ who have been most distinguished as 
 masters in the art, might be referred to, 
 to show their familiar use and appli- 
 cation of this method, which with a 
 little practice and observation, will be 
 soon understood and appreciated by the 
 pupil. 
 
THE HUMAN HEAD. 
 
56 
 
 RUDIMENTS OF DRAWING. 
 
 70. It should be understood that the study and practice of pupils should not be confined to 
 the examples given in this work. There are many admirable specimens well worthy of their study 
 and imitation, which may be readily obtained, and all that has been thus far said, has been to httle 
 purpose, if they are not afieady capable of exercising proper judgment in selection. One thing can 
 not be too strongly impressed upon them : It is more important to acquire a knowledge of the 
 principles of art, than a mere facility in the imitation of the manner of another. Many falsely 
 imagine when they can “ make a drawing to look like an engraving” to the uneducated eye of 
 partial friends, they are doing great things in the way of art, but it is a sad mistake. Let them 
 learn the fisrst, great principles of design, and then that best of all Drawing-Books, the Book of 
 Nature^ is open and intelligible to them, its pages full of beauty and endless as the enjoyment and 
 profit they afford. 
 

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CHAPTER III 
 
 RUDIMENTS OF DRAWING— THE HUMAN FIGURE. 
 
 “Practice, tlicusb essential to perfection, can never attain that to which it aims, unless 
 it works under the direction of principle." — Sir Joshua Reynolds. 
 
 ITH some the method of learning to draw, thus far developed, may 
 have proved long and even tedious 5 while to others it may have 
 been too rapid, and their advancement, in its practical application, 
 may not have equalled their expectations or wishes. The former 
 should not be disheartened because their hand and conception have 
 not kept pace with their teaching, nor the latter deceive themselves by 
 hurrying forward too rapidly, — or fail to understand, thoroughly, and 
 to apply practically, every principle laid down. The pm'poso of the Ajierican Drawixg-Book 
 is not to teach the methods of drawing trees, houses, faces, figures, or flowers, by separate 
 recipe, nor to direct the learner by short-cuts to the attainment of proficiency in any one 
 branch singly 5 but, to place before him the broad principles of Design, a knowledge of which, 
 with the power of its practical application, will qualify for the exercise of all, or any one branch, 
 that the taste or inclination of the possessor may lead him to pursue ; and the course ot study 
 
60 
 
 RUDIMENTS OF DRAWING. 
 
 advised is sincerely believed to be the surest and most direct to the attainment of that object. 
 It is no experiment, but one that has been well tested and proved, claiming no novelty, beyond 
 its adaptation to the wants and purposes of our time and country, divesting the art of all 
 mystery, and placing it within the reach and comprehension of every one. 
 
 72. Some who have, perhaps, filled their minds with high aspirations, may look with disdain 
 upon the simple beginning placed before them, “ as matters for children,” and turn over leaf by 
 leaf in search of something to strike their fancy, and yet, they may not be able to draw two straight 
 lines, nor two crooked ones either, to a given purpose, with the accuracy of many an urchin on 
 the school-bench, who has only started when they considered themselves already far on the way. 
 Let such reflect seriously upon this self-deception, and let them be assured, that the higher 
 their aspirations, the more they will require the aid of such elementary knowledge to realize 
 them. It is a short task, that will well repay the labor bestowed, even to those most richly 
 endowed with the gift of genius 5 for by such aid will they most surely develop that genius, and 
 reach the goal of their highest ambition. 
 
 73. Before entering upon the study of the whole figure, some degree of attention should be 
 bestowed upon the delineation of the hand and foot j both of which present difficulties to the 
 beginner, and from these very difficulties, are well calculated to strengthen that general capacity 
 which should be his aim, and which is an essential qualification in a draughtsman 5 more 
 irregular and less balanced in their parts and proportions than the head, the pupil is compelled 
 to rely more upon his eye and judgment in ascertaining the modulations of their form and 
 outline, the proportions of the parts, and their relation to one another. But, if he has carefully 
 studied and practised one of the first and most simple examples placed before him (32), he pos- 
 sesses the understanding of a principle from which he will derive much assistance. If he has not 
 hurried forward too rapidly, and has bestowed proper attention upon what has been already urged, 
 in reference to the delineation of the individual features of the head, he will soon find the diffi- 
 culties encountered, in his first attempts in drawing the hand or foot, gradually lessened, as he 
 becomes familiar with the application to them, as to every other object, of one of the first and 
 leading principles of design (21). If he is not already, he will soon be convinced that the time 
 and study this knowledge has cost him have been well bestowed, and that he has done better, and 
 advanced more surely, than if he had filled his port-folio with what might seem higher attempts j 
 but, from which he would have derived but little permanent advantage. 
 
THE HUMAN FOOT. 
 
 OJ 
 
 74. The ambition to have “ something to show” is apt to mislead from a j)roper and systeniatic 
 course. Much of this evil may be attributed to the misguided anxiety of parents and friends, as 
 well as teachers, who often allow their judgment to be overcome, either to indulge tlie whim 
 of a parent or pupil, or to gain a reputation as rapid instructors. They even here deceive 
 themselves by taking the very longest course they could adopt. Such teachers do far more to 
 impede than forward the cause of education in design. Even if rapid advancement be the 
 object, a few hours devoted to the elucidation, to the understanding of the pupil, of the first prin- 
 ciples of di’awing, will advance him more certainly, and rapidly, than weeks and months wasted 
 in groping a devious way through ill-drawn fancy castles, distorted heads and figures, trees and 
 bridges, and the endless variety of “ easy lessons” which are too often placed before him — tlie 
 gi'eat secret of their being easy to do” often consisting in their being so decidedly bad that he 
 can hardly make anything worse. 
 
 75. It should not be understood that the pupil, during the prosecution of the study of Draw- 
 ing, should be excluded from the privilege of attempting to draw anything that strikes his fancy 
 or excites his admiration, more than we would deny the privilege of speech to a child while he 
 is learning his grammar. Let him try the road-side cottage, the rustic bridge, the house-dog, 
 or any other object with which he is familiar, either in nature, drawings, or prints, and alwavs 
 let him do the best he can. The very difficulties he will encounter, the wants he will be made 
 to feel, will have a strong and happy tendency to give additional impulse to his studies, besides 
 the cultivation and development of that love for art which might otherwise be blighted by too 
 rigid application to its study. It is in this study that his efforts should be prescribed to a 
 systematic course of education, that will ultimately lead to the possession of tliat happy fajulty 
 which will overcome all difficulties, and enable him to draw, with equal ease and facility, any 
 object in nature, or of the mind’s creation. 
 
 76. The Foot is by no means so facile in its movements as the hand, nor capable of such 
 great variety of attitude and action 5 hence it is easier to draw, and, therefore, more properly, 
 should be placed first before the pupil. He will now have occasion for the exercise and prac- 
 tical application of the principles laid down in the primary instructions he has received ; and 
 should he find the difficulties he encounters try him beyond his strength, he can not do better, 
 before he proceeds farther, than to make a careful revision of the ground he may have passed 
 over too hurriedly, or without bestowing sufficient study and practice upon these primary ex- 
 
 ercises. 
 
G2 
 
 RUDIMENTS OF DRAWING. 
 
 77. However admirable and perfect may be the antique statues in their proportions and details, 
 and however desirable it may be to place before the pupil the choicest models for the exercise 
 of his skill, it is enough for his present purposes to look to the familiar objects which are within 
 his reach. A boy’s foot can be found without seeking it in an academy j and, if it has not been 
 already distorted by the shoemaker, affords a model well worth his study and best effort. First, 
 let him try the example here placed before him, and then, doubtless, he may find a young 
 friend not unwilling to submit to serve as his model ; and, if he has done all that has been 
 required of him, and carefully exercises himself in these few examples, he will possess the 
 capacity of drawing a foot, and presently a hand, from nature, with ease and accuracy j — and 
 more : if he can draw a Head, a Hand, and a Foot, he can draw the Figure, or any other 
 
■I’ II I'] II I' M A N I’ (» 'I'. 
 
 03 
 
 familiar object 5 not, perhaps, with the precision anti touch of a master, hut he can achieve 
 enough to insure the possession ol‘ a safe and ceitain groundwoi’k of useful practical knowledge 
 and facility of Design. 
 
 78. The first thing to he done, in drawing the above example, is carefully to examine and 
 study the original, and to ascertain its proportions, as nearly as you can, without measuring. 
 Then cautiously set about its outline, which should he accurately, hut delicately defined, before 
 any attempt is made to express the shadows or tints, which are in comparison with it of sec- 
 ondary importance, especially at this stage of your progress. Be not in a hurrv to make pic- 
 tures*, learn to draw correctly, and the pictures you make, hy-and-hy, will he all the better for it. 
 
CJ 
 
 R U D or E N T S OF D R A W I N G. 
 
 79. R) Lest the principles, upon which the out- 
 line on the last page is produced, should not be 
 sufficiently understood by the pupil, let us enter into 
 a more concise explanation 5 and, for the sake of 
 economizing space, by a reduction of it, which will 
 answer all purposes. As he reads, he can refer to 
 the larger outline. It should be borne in mind, that 
 all the examples, and, indeed, everything else the 
 learner attempts to draw, should be, as nearly as 
 possible, the size of the original ; thereby avoiding 
 that confusion of lines, and indecision, almost inseparable from diminished drawings, and which, 
 in spite of every precaution, are more or less characteristic of the efforts of all beginners. Self- 
 deception, which is apt to result from the practice of drawing in small, should be carefully guarded 
 against. The quality of prettiness, which, often, is no more than littleness in art, may disguise 
 errors, which drawing in large develops j but it performs a faithless service — one highly preju- 
 dicial to the advancement of the student, and calculated to mislead : for the evidence of his errors 
 is the safest suard against their recurrence. 
 
 (it) It is of the first importance to secure cer- 
 tain starting points, as well as a scale of proportion 
 for the parts. Having decided on the length, from 
 the heel to the end of the great toe, next ascer- 
 tain the direction of the outline defining the sole 
 of the foot. Remark (or mark, in your first trials) 
 the points of the principal indentations, or features ; 
 and, surely, if you can draw the profile of a face 
 with any degree of accuracy, but little difficulty 
 will be encountered in drawing the simple curved 
 line before you. But simple and easy as it may be, 
 that the outline above the heel disappears at a point 
 immediately perpendicular to the extremity of the heel — remark the peculiarity of the curve of 
 that portion of the outline — connect it with that of the sole of the foot — -do it cautiously and 
 carefully, and, if correctly, you have not only certain starting points, but one half of your outline 
 already done. Do not suffer yourself to be deceived, when you have only produced an outline to 
 look something lilie the original ; that is not enough: it should correspond to it exactly. 
 
 it must be done with precision. Observe 
 
THE HUMAN FOOT. 
 
 Go 
 
 (ill) You will observe that the point where the 
 instep unites with the leg is directly perpendicular 
 to the termination of the outline of the heel, where 
 it unites with that of the hollow of the foot. The 
 direction of the outward line of the leg would, if 
 continued, strike a point about the middle of that 
 of the hoUow of the foot. The intersection of these 
 imaginary lines gives you this important point, which 
 you can further verify, by extending the curve of 
 the heel, upward, to their intersection. Assure 
 yourself, by close observation, how far the lines in the original correspond with those before 
 you 5 and then proceed with the completion of your outline, observing, throughout, the utmost 
 caution, and endeavor to obviate the necessity of correction, by avoiding the occurrence of 
 error. 
 
 (iv.) Ascertain the direction of the line of the 
 instep by a straight line, as indicated, and then ver- 
 ify its sweep by a continuation of it at one or both 
 extremities. This method of the imaginary exten- 
 sion of lines, when once made familiar, will be 
 found of great assistance to the draughtsman j and 
 it is more readily acquired than may be at first 
 imagined. It serves not only the attainment of 
 accuracy, and lessens his labor, but insures har- 
 mony of the parts and details with one another. 
 
 It also tends to habituate the eye to the observation 
 of the true character and forms of objects, divesting them, as it were, of those minor details, 
 which often obtrude themselves, and lead the eye and hand astray from the first broad and 
 general impression or conception — which is of primary importance, and should be carefullv 
 secured at once, and never lost sight of. Herein lies one of the great secrets of the ease and 
 freedom in the expression of an idea, that give such a charm to the sketches of the experi- 
 enced artist — by which he conveys his impressions in a few lines, apparently dashed off at ran- 
 dom, but often far more to the purpose, and more expressive, than the more labored etlbrt 
 of the less gifted or less educated in art. 
 
6G 
 
 RUDIMENTS OF DRAWING. 
 
 secure 
 
 (yi 
 
 (y.) Having thus far progressed with your out- 
 line, but little more remains to be done, than to 
 ascertain the direction of the lines by which you are 
 to express the toes, and to complete the whole, 
 in lilve manner, and upon the same principles, that 
 have thus far guided you. Carefully examine it 
 throughout, before you proceed to indicate the tints 
 or shadows, which should be deferred until the ut- 
 most accuracy of outline is first attained j for, you 
 may rest assured, that, by such a course, you will 
 to yourself the capacity of expressing them with ease and freedom, by the surest means. 
 ) Compare the parts and proportions of the original with your copy. Observe that the 
 
 width or thickness across the ankle is about equal 
 to that of the instep, and length of the heel, etc. 
 Test the judgment of your eye first, and measure 
 only to satisfy yourself of its accuracy. By such a 
 course, you will soon have little requirement for 
 rule or compass (23). By an imaginary continua- 
 tion of the curvatures of your outline, study their 
 movement, relation, and bearing, on each other. 
 One single outline, thus studied and executed, will 
 advance the pupil many a certain step, and render 
 easy the few remaining examples that will be pre- 
 sented to him in the course of these elementary instructions. 
 
 80. Presuming that the learner has not slighted what has been urged upon his attention, 
 but that he has bestowed all the care, study, and practice, upon this example, that may be 
 requisite ; that he has, therefore, succeeded in producing, if not by one, by repeated eftbrts, a 
 correct outline, he is fully prepared to encounter those that follow, with little other aid than 
 his own strength and intelligence. If he has failed, let him be again reminded to retrace 
 his steps. Let him depend upon it, he has lost or overlooked something, or perhaps many 
 things, on the way, that he will need, even more hereafter than now, and without which, 
 he will never become an accomplished draughtsman. Let him now, in good time, look 
 to his deficiences, and seek their correction. It is a mistake to suppose that, to acquire a 
 
THE HUMAN FOOT. 
 
 67 
 
 knowledge and facility of drawing, quires must be consumed, a multiplicity of examples labored 
 tlu-ough, and portfolios filled. Although few examples may suffice for the elucidation of the first 
 general principles of drawing, they should be dwelt upon and studied, until well and thoroughly 
 understood j and the capacity of hand should be made, by practice, to keep pace with the 
 understanding. 
 
 81. To know how a thing should be done, is not enough in art : we should know how to do 
 it. One can no more learn to swim, without going into the water, than learn to draw without 
 practice j while blind practice, unsupported by a degree of theoretical knowledge, is liable to 
 mislead, almost as directly, from the right way. The knowledge of how a thing should be done, 
 and the capacity to do it, will, if kept, as far as possible, in equal balance, secure certain results. 
 They should keep pace together, mutually supporting and assisting in the attainment of the one 
 great purpose. If one should gain advantage, either by reason of its own acquired strength, or 
 weakness of the other, the weaker capacity should have time to regain its lost ground, which, in 
 its turn, by that very effort, may get the start 5 but let them never lose sight of one another. 
 Books and treatises on art, therefore, which are not based upon practical knowledge of its ways 
 and means, have often a most mischievous tendency, and go far to the dissemination of false 
 ideas, which should be cautiously received, especially by the student. It may be well enough for 
 a writer, who possesses not the power of expressing one line of art, to indulge the exuberance 
 of his fancy or caprice, by dashing forth his transcendent ideas with regard to it 5 but, they should 
 only be received for what they are worth — and precious little will their worth be found, in most 
 cases, to those whose business is production — the attainment of practical results. Not but that 
 everything that can be said, in reference to art, is deserving the attention of its followers, vet 
 the judgment should be prepared, in some degree, at least, before it can arrive at just conclusions, 
 or be capable of exercising proper discrimination, in separating vague and impracticable theories 
 from those that are well digested and useful. It is easy for the learned geographer to trace the 
 route, to distant lands, over tempestuous seas 5 but he can no more navigate the bark to them, 
 than the merchant who sends her forth. It is easy to say, and even feel, that a picture, a statue, 
 or any other work of art, should be thus, or thus — should be perfection, that remote idea of 
 perfection in itself imperfect, and founded, too often, on false or capricious notions ; but, he who 
 has no experience of the way to reach it, can never make it plain enough to others, to substitute 
 his dreamy fancy of its direction, for long-established and well-tried landmarks, whose value to the 
 student has been proved by the faithful guidance they have afi’orded to the great masters of art. 
 who have reached its highest perfection, yet attained. Let us, therefore, judge of the mode of 
 
C8 
 
 RUDIMENTS OF DRAWING. 
 
 culture by its fruit, nor discard the old, beaten, well-known path, until we can find a better — one, 
 at least, that some traveller has pursued with success. 
 
 82. After what has been said, in relation to the method of drawing the outline of the previous 
 example, it would be paying but a poor compliment to the intelligence of the pupil, to enter 
 into a repetition of it, in reference to the above. It may be proper to remark, however, that the 
 general principle, rather than any arbitrary process, of forming comparisons in relation to the 
 parts, or of ascertaining and expressing the true direction of the lines, their movement, form, and 
 connexion, most particularly require his attention, and should be the main object of his study and 
 practice. The outline of the sole of the foot has been taken as a basis, or starting point, because 
 
its direction and quantities were more easily defined ; but it does not follow, that it should be taken 
 thus in all instances, as there are many positions of the foot, in which it may be secondary, and 
 more dependent on other leading points and lines. Proper judgment, therefore, should be exer- 
 cised, in the selection of the line, or lines, most expressive of the general action and character 
 of the object to be represented. This important beginning once made, farther details must 
 naturally assume their just positions and connexion to the whole, as well as to one another — 
 besides, serving in the process as correctives. If, for instance, the length of the foot should be 
 too long, or too short, the moment the points indicating the true length of the heel and toes arc 
 decided upon, the length of the hollow of the foot, between the two, will be evidently too long or 
 too short. A primary error is thus detected, by comparison with the other parts, in time for 
 
70 
 
 RUDIMENTS OF DRAWING. 
 
 correction; and so on — the draughtsman is enabled, by balancing all the parts and proportions 
 with one another, and studying their relations to the whole, to adjust and express his outline 
 with an accuracy and certainty, that can never be acquired without some such systematic method 
 of execution, which, if cultivated in time, will soon become a habit. This method presents, among 
 many other advantages, one that will be found highly important, in reducing or enlarging an 
 object ; for, having once generalized the whole, according to the scale of reduction or enlarge- 
 ment desired, the just proportions of the parts, and minor details, are readily attained, and made 
 to harmonize with the whole, in accordance with such scale of reduction or enlargement. By 
 thus progressing, in the drawing of an outline, from generals to particulars, much greater ease, as 
 well as certainty of accuracy, is the result, than by an opposite course ; for, by beginning with 
 details, and the lesser parts, we are apt to be led astray from the general and characteristic 
 lines and quantities of the object of imitation. 
 
 83. Lest what has been previously said on this subject (61) should not be sufficiently under- 
 stood, and appear contradictory to that which is now urged, it may be well to remark, that, while 
 it is recommended to the pupil to make himself proficient, first, in the drawing of minor objects, 
 it is not meant, thereby, that he should begin the drawing of a head, by drawing the features 
 singly, before he generalizes the whole, and ascertains their true positions. In drawing the most 
 simple object, there is a general character to be preserved, and particular component parts, or 
 details, making up that whole : and all must perfectly harmonize together. The same principle 
 applies to the delineation of a single mouth, an eye, a nose, a face, a head, a foot, a hand, a 
 limb, a figure, a group, and a picture. Each should be considered in itself a whole, made up 
 of subordinate parts, from the most simple detail, and line by which it is expressed, to the most 
 elaborate work of art. Thus will the eye and hand become strengthened, by progressive study 
 and practice, and the capacity advanced by degrees, almost imperceptibly, under the safe guidance 
 of the one, like, universal principle. 
 
 84. The first conception, and consequently the first impression, to the mind of the artist, of 
 his picture, is of its general character ; and it is produced by gradually descending, in its exe- 
 cution, to the parts and details — each in their turn of subordinate and relative importance. 
 This must also be its first impression on the mind of the beholder : he, too, is led to descend, 
 in its contemplation, from generals to particulars. The rules of production and just apprecia- 
 tion, naturally assimilating to one another, no elaboration of details can compensate for an 
 unfavorable first and general impression, nor the toil and labor, bestowed upon them, meet their 
 
THE HUMAN FOOT. 
 
 71 
 
 reward, unless kept in proper relation, harmony, and subordinate service, to the whole. The 
 principle is the same, whether the drawing, or picture, be the representation of the most simple 
 object, drawn by a tyro in art, or the most elaborate composition, by the most accomplished 
 artist Let it be clearly and expressly understood, therefore, by the pupil. He should first learn 
 to draw simple and single parts 5 then objects and figures 5 then pictures ; and consider each a 
 whole with its parts— that whole assuming the relation of a component part to a greater whole — 
 and thus progressively advance his capacity of observation and execution : never losing sight of 
 the broad principles, upon which he has started, and upon which he must still rely, in the highest 
 efforts to which he may be tempted hereafter. The proper understanding and appreciation of 
 these principles, will direct the judgment aright in estimating the value of detail in particulars, 
 in the expression of a general idea, and conveying its desired impression. For, although, a 
 drawing of an oak-leaf, if the mere representation of an oak leaf be the object, should be 
 exact and true, in all its markings and peculiarities, it does not follow, that, in drawing the free, 
 we should di’aw every leaf of it 5 the importance of minor details being, to a certain degree, lost 
 in the general effect of the whole. And yet, he who can not draw the one, will never succeed 
 in producing a correct resemblance of the other. The leaf is the easiest, and, if properly 
 studied, develops as clearly the principles of design, by which the tree may be expressed 5 and, 
 therefore, should be placed first before the pupil. In its application to the higher departments 
 of art, this leading principle is still more impressive , but, at this period of the student’s advance- 
 ment, it would be out of place, to enter as minutely into the subject as may be done hereafter, 
 when his discrimination and capacity may be more matured, and his mind better prepared for 
 its comprehension. 
 
 85. A well-formed foot is rarely met with, in our day, from the lamentable distortion it is 
 doomed to endure, by the fashion of our shoes and boots. Instead of being allowed the same 
 freedom as the fingers, to exercise the purposes for which nature intended them, the toes are 
 cramped together, and of little more value, than if they were all in one — their joints enlarged, 
 stiffened, and distorted, — forced and packed together j often overlapping one another in sad 
 confusion, and wantonly placed beyond the power of service. As for the little toe, and its 
 neighbor, in a shoe-deformed foot, they are usually thrust out of the way altogether, as if con- 
 sidered supernumerary and useless, while all the work is thrown upon the great toe, althoiidt 
 that, too, is scarcely allowed working-room, in its prison-house of leather. It is therefore 
 hopeless to look to a foot, that has grown under the restraint of leather, for perfection of 
 form j and hence, the feet of children, although less marked, in their external anatomical 
 
72 
 
 RUDIMENTS OF DRAWING 
 
 development, present the best models for the study and exercise of the pupil in drawing. It is 
 unfortunate, that so few fine specimens of the hand and foot have remained to us, from the 
 antique, from the fact, that these extremities have been more liable to injury and loss, from the 
 casualties and neglect to which they have been subject, during the long night of ages of ruin and 
 desolation through which they have passed 5 but we have enough to show how well the ancient 
 artists understood and appreciated the beauty and perfection of these members. If possible, the 
 pupil should always have by him one or two good specimens from the antique — and they can 
 he readily procured in plaster — to correct his judgment, and impress upon him the true and 
 perfect form of the foot 5 for he will rarely meet with it, in nature, and yet these very stand- 
 ards of perfection are derived from nature. 
 
THE HUMAN FOOT. 
 
 73 
 
 86. An example on the next page, drawn from the antique, shows now rarely, if ever, is 
 found m one hving model, whose feet have endured the restraint of shoes, the combination there 
 seen, of beautiful form and proportion, ease and elasticity of motion, as weU as admirable expres- 
 sion of adaptation, and power for use and purpose throughout. And how have they been pro- 
 duced ? By no magical touch. Although the work of genius, genius could have done nothing, 
 unless aided by knowledge, observation, and practical experience : and this is the business of the 
 student, and must form his constant pursuit — for there is no end to the pursuit of excellence in 
 art. The spirit and capacity for investigation are gradually advanced, as the perception and 
 taste become quickened and purified. An unsatisfied thirst for knowledge for ever leads to 
 the great fountain-head of all art — the study of nature j and no sure system of education in art 
 can be devised, diverging from this well-tried course. To possess this capacity for just selection 
 and combination, we must become familiar with nature as she is. By study and comparison, the 
 eye must be made sensitive, and, by practice, the hand must be made obedient. We must 
 become practically familiar with the power of art, in the imitation of nature, before we can select 
 ^^^th proper judgment, and combine with knowledge, her diffused beauties. It is this high 
 attainment that marks the best works of the ancient masters j and, while they enchant all with 
 their marvellous beauty, the most learned pronounce them faultless — true to nature : and yet, in 
 nature, we look in vain to find similar happy combinations. But to pursue this subject farther, 
 at this time, would be to lose sight of the purposes of these elementary instructions, which are 
 intended to lay a secure foundation ; glancing, occasionally, at the more finished structure, by way 
 of encouragement and incentive, to those who may not be sufficiently impressed with the impor- 
 tance of so broad a basis, and who might otherwise weary in the good work. 
 
 87. Without entering into farther detail, with regard to the following examples, they are 
 placed before the student, with the hope that enough has been said already, to render the prin- 
 ciples of drawing easy of comprehension and practical application. One thing can not be too 
 often repeated, or too urgently impressed upon him — the importance of a correct outline. An 
 early-acquired and premature facility, in expressing tints, “in working up a drawing, ’’ as it is 
 termed, has led many astray from the first purpose of art — truth and accuracy — which a piece 
 of chalk or charcoal, in a skilful hand, will express more certainly, on a rough wall or board, 
 than the most delicate touch, or the most exquisite materials, can ever accomplish, unless guided 
 by sound elementary knowledge of the great first principles of art. It should be remembered, 
 too, that shadows and tints have an outline to be preserved, and accurately expressed, in 
 
 accordance with the effect produced on the object of imitation j less strongly marked, in most 
 
 10 
 
74 
 
 RUDIMENTS OF DRAWING. 
 
 cases, it is true, but it is there. By the aid of shadows is developed the true form of the model ; 
 and to parts more or less advanced or depressed, are thereby given a location, as decided and 
 certain as if seen in profile. So truly can they be expressed, on a flat surface, that a sculptor 
 can model a bust, from a picture, and the eye may be so completely deceived, by then' close 
 representation, as scarcely to distinguish the reality from its counterfeit. It is, therefore, as 
 essentially necessary to preserve tlie forms, masses, and proportions, of shadows, as of the more 
 
 [ I 
 
 i i: 
 
T H E II V i\I A N II AN I) . 
 
 substantial parts of the object of imitation 5 and the surest way to acquire facihty in expressing 
 them, is to proceed in precisely the same manner with them, as with other details and accessories. 
 
 88. The Hand, although more difficult to draw than the foot, not only on account of its 
 peculiar structure, but the great variety of action and position, of which it is capable, presents 
 greater facility of study to the draughtsman, is better understood, and more familiar to our obser- 
 
76 
 
 RUDIMENTS OF DRAWING 
 
THE HUMAN HAND. 
 
 77 
 
 vation. What has been said, with regard to the difficulty of finding, in nature, beautiful and 
 well-formed feet, does not apply to the hands, for they are often to be met with, of the most 
 exquisite form and just proportions j and there are no objects in nature, the study of which is 
 better calculated to strengthen the general capacity of the student, in the art of drawing. If he 
 can draw a hand, with ease and accuracy, he can draw anything. Let him, therefore, set about 
 the work with earnestness, for success will place him in a position, from which he can look with 
 
78 
 
 RUDIMENTS OF DRAWING. 
 
 pleasure on the labor by which it has been attained, and forward to the assured consummation 
 of his most ardent aspirations. 
 
 89. If the importance of first securing the 
 general form of the head and foot has been 
 already felt, it will be evident, with greater force, 
 in drawing the hand, especially when the fingers 
 are extended. Let us, therefore, have recourse 
 to a reduction of the outline of this first example 
 of the hand, to explain more fully the method or 
 process by which it can be most readily obtained. 
 When once the general form of the principal 
 and most massive portion of the hand, extending 
 from the wrist to the beginning of the fingers, 
 is ascertained, and indicated with accuracy, next 
 decide upon the length, expansion, and relative 
 position, of the fingers, as a group, and then 
 proceed with each, in its turn of relative impor- 
 tance, continually comparing and verifying your 
 conclusions, as you advance, by the method 
 already explained 5 never losing sight of the 
 general character of the whole, and keeping the 
 parts in perfect harmony of action with it. This 
 example may be found even more difficult than 
 those that follow j but it is well for the pupil 
 to have his strength tested, and if he has ear- 
 nestly, and successfully, followed the line of study 
 marked out for him, thus far, he may be safely 
 said to be even now within sight of the more 
 pleasant ways of art, with assurance of strength 
 and capacity to enter upon the broad and bound- 
 less field that lies before him. A little farther, 
 and the elementary work is done, and another, 
 and higher, is begun. But, before the one is 
 
 
THE HUMAN HAND, 
 
 79 
 
 accomplished, or the pupil prepared to enter upon the other, he must be fully impressed with 
 the practical application of the general principles of design, which it has been the purpose of 
 these pages to inculcate, not only with reference to the examples placed before him, but to all 
 other objects. lie must not only possess a perfect comprehension of the method, but practically 
 as.sure himself of its value, by repeated and careful trials. 
 
80 
 
 rudiments 
 
 OF drawing. 
 
 -Jfcf- 
 
r 
 
 T Jl ]•: il u M A X 11 A N I). 
 
 fel 
 
 11 
 
82 
 
 RUDIMENTS OF DRAWING. 
 
T HE TT TI M A N FIGURE. 
 
 8.3 
 
 90. After having required the devotion of 
 so much time and study to the delineation of 
 the head, hand, and foot, the figure, as a whole, 
 might appear of sufficient relative importance 
 to demand a larger space than will be devoted 
 to it, at this time. It should be remembered, 
 that these elementary instructions are inductive 
 and preparatory to that more concise consid- 
 eration and study of the anatomical construction of the 
 human frame, essential to those who aspire to the attain- 
 ment of excellence in the higher branches of art, which 
 do not strictly belong to the mere rudiments of drawing. 
 Until the mind and hand have been schooled to act har- 
 moniously together, until the broad principles of design are 
 first developed to the understanding of the pupil, and he is 
 made to feel wants beyond those of the beginner, it is not 
 only useless, but even prejudicial to his advancement, to 
 confuse his mind with theories and treatises, which he can 
 not fully understand, nor practically apply. To talk to him 
 of bones and muscles, before he has attained sufficient 
 command of hand and eye to draw, with at least some 
 degree of facility, more simple forms and objects, is like 
 pitching one, headlong, into a deep cind rapid current, to 
 teach him to swim. 
 
 91. If the interest of the student has been excited, 
 and his attention bestowed upon what has been alreadv 
 said, and so earnestly urged upon him, and ho has mastered the examples of the head, hand, 
 and foot, already given, he will experience but little difficulty in drawing any form or figure that 
 he may attempt. When it is said that he possesses the capacity to draw a figure, it should not 
 be understood, thereby, that he is capable of that careful elaboration, or minute exactness, in lines 
 or details, that is only acquired by long practice, and repeated acts ; but, he will be able to 
 express the general form, proportions, and action, of his model : he will be able, thence, to 
 
84 
 
 RUDIMENTS OF 1 ) R A W I N G . 
 
 descend to the parts and details : he will be able to do this upon fixed and certain principles, * ■ 
 
 which, if properly understood, appreciated, and applied, will never mislead him. "" I 
 
 92. Let the pupil now attempt to draw the outline of this first example of the full figure, ;j 
 
 without having recourse to measurement, and without reference to other rules of proportion, than 
 such as may be suggested by the careful observation of the figure before him, and by precisely 
 the same method by which he has drawn the head, hand, and foot, separately. He wiU see, at a j 
 
 glance, that a perpendicular line, drawn from the upper lip, would intersect the point where the H 
 
THE hitman figure. 
 
 8.5 
 
 instep joins the leg 5 and, having decided upon the height of the figure, he has already a certain 
 basis, and starting points. Next, observe well the relation of the parts, proportions, and char- 
 acter of the general contour of the figure to this imaginary perpendicular line. The drapery 
 takes one continued sweep, shghtly modulated, by the form of the figm-e, from the heel to the 
 left shoulder ; which line, if farther extended, would touch the outline of the forehead, intersecting 
 the cissumed perpendicular line on the nostril : this gives, also, the direction of the head. The 
 lines of the back and shoulders, those of the left leg, and the more massive portions of the 
 figure, are, in like manner, to be ascertained, drawn, and verified (fig ii ). The hands and arms. 
 
86 
 
 RUDIMENTS OF DRAWING. 
 
 the most difficult parts of the figure, are yet to be drawn. It will be perceived, that the lower 
 point of the union of the right hand (fig. iii ) with the wrist, is on a level with the top of the 
 head; and that the corresponding point of the left hand is on a level with the nostril. The 
 distance of the hands from the head are next to be ascertained ; which may be done by com- 
 parison with the parts and proportions already decided upon, and by the imaginary extension 
 of such certain lines, already drawn, as may most readily direct to the desired purpose. For 
 example : if the outline of the hip were extended upward, it would strike the outline of the right 
 arm at the elbow, and continue with it to the wrist — which has been already decided upon, as 
 being on a level with the top of the head. Thus the position of the right hand is ascertained ; 
 which may be farther verified, by the method of comparison, and studying its relation to other 
 parts. The true position of the right hand, once secured, those of the left hand, the arms, etc., 
 may be easily obtained ; and, having completed the general contour of the figure, but little 
 difficulty will be encountered in the delineation of the parts and details. The position of the 
 head having been already ascertained, draw the features in harmony with it (56) ; and thus 
 proceed with the hands, feet, and other details. If the first example given of the hand (89), has 
 been fully understood, and what has been said with reference to it has been practically applied, 
 but little difficulty will be found in drawing the arms, etc., of this figure. Remember to com- 
 pare and measure, by the eye, every part, proportion, and line, of the object before you ( fig. iv ) ; 
 and do not forget, that beneath the drapery there are limbs, whose action, and just positions, 
 are to be preserved ' (62). 
 
 93. Let it be presumed that the pupil has succeeded, probably not without repeated efforts, 
 in producing a fair drawing of this figure : its lines, its proportions, the bearing and relation of 
 its parts and details to one another, are strongly impressed upon his mind. While these impres- 
 sions are still vivid, close the book, and try how true your memory may be ; how far it can be 
 trusted, by drawing the figure by its aid — for this is another and most important application 
 of the method, which has been urged, from the beginning, as one of universal practical appheation. 
 When made familiar to the draughtsman, by practice, he is enabled to seize, at once, the leading 
 character of an object, however restless it may be, or transient his opportunity of observation ; to 
 fix it upon his memory, without drawing a line at the moment, and to reproduce it at will. It is by 
 this matured capacity that he is able to catch the fleeting expression of a face, or the action of a 
 figure, and to represent them with a degree of accuracy, as wonderful to the uninitiated as service- 
 able to him ; for it gives him a power, in observing and recording the changing beauties of 
 nature, which is denied to those who can only draw the inert model before them. 
 
T H E H U M A N F 1 (J U li E . 
 
 
 94. Without crowding the limited space allotted to these elementary instructions, with more 
 numerous examples of the figure, than will be found scattered throughout the chapters devoted 
 to them, and directing the pupil to the study of nature, and such good specimens in prints, 
 drawings, or pictures, as may be within his reach, it may be expedient to give him, in conclusion, 
 some general ideas of the proportions of the human figure 5 which are not intended to be used as 
 recipes for “building up figures,” but to aid in the observation and delineation of nature. 
 
88 
 
 R U D I M ENTS OF DRAWING. 
 
 95. The Proportions of the Human Figure have been a subject of much consideration, 
 and volumes have been compiled, by artists and others, in relation thereto. Although generally 
 agreeing, in the most important points, there is still so much difference of opinion, with regard to 
 details, that it would tend rather to confuse, than elucidate the subject, to the mind of the student, 
 to place before him the various opinions and rules that have been published from time to time. 
 Should his pursuit of art be extended to its higher walks, he will, in that great school of art — 
 the study of nature — aided by the best and most approved productions, learn to form just 
 conclusions, and, weighing the value of conflicting opinions, deduct for himself such rules and 
 principles of proportion as may, in his mature judgment, form the best and truest standard of 
 excellence and beauty. 
 
 96. The scale of proportions, most generally received, is that of Gerard de Lairesse j and 
 they will be found ample for the present purposes of the student. It will rarely happen, that he 
 has occasion to draw a figure perfectly erect, and with all the limbs seen, without some degree 
 of foreshortening ; due allowance, therefore, must be made for these circumstantial variations. 
 
 Taking seven and a half heads, as the average proportion in the height of a well-formed 
 man, and dividing each head into four parts, will necessarily give thirty parts to the whole 
 figure. Three parts make up the length of the visage (56) — consequently, ten faces will be 
 the measure of the Figure : and thus its proportions, by that scale : — 
 
 1 FACE from the crown of the head to the nostrils. 
 
 1 from the nostrils to the extremity of the throat, or hollow between the collar-bones. 
 
 1 from that point to the bottom of the breast. 
 
 2 to the bottom of the trunk, which is one half the whole height, or centre of the figure. 
 
 2 to the upper part of the knee. 
 
 4 or 14 half parts, is contained in the knee. 
 
 2 from the lower part of the knee to the inner ankle. 
 
 5 or 14 parts, thence to the sole of the foot: — making 
 
 10 faces to the figure. 
 
 The QUARTER DIVISIONS of the figure are at — 
 
 I. The armpits. III. The knees. 
 
 II. The bottom of the trunk. IV. The sole of the foot. 
 
 When a well-formed man extends his arms to their utmost stretch, the measure, from their 
 extremities, equals his height. 
 
89 
 
 THE HUMAN FIGURE. 
 
 1 
 
 w 
 
 w 
 
 t> 
 
 t) 
 
 m 
 
 5 Fac<33 
 
 > 
 
 o 
 
 J2j 
 
 33 
 
 
 ; \ i 
 
 \ i 
 
 
 J \i 
 
 i y 
 
 \ \ 
 
 W-l 
 
 j / \ 
 
 / ^ 
 
 / ^ 
 
 r'A'' 
 
 ! \ 1 
 
 ^ 3 
 
 The foot is generally considered as equal to one sixth part of the height of the figure ; hut 
 this measure is excessive. 
 
 The longest toe is equal to the length of the nose. 
 
 The hand is the length of the face. 
 
 Twice the breadth of the hand gives its length. 
 
 The breadth of the hand is equal that of the foot. 
 
 The thumb is one nose in length. 
 
 These measures may suffice for imparting a general idea of the proportionate dimensions of 
 
 figures 5 at least, they will be found sufficient for the pupil at this time. 
 
 12 
 
90 
 
 RUDIMENTS OF DRAWING. 
 
 97. In conclusion, by reference to some of the most celebrated of the antique statues, it will 
 be seen how nearly one average height of the figure, and proportion of the head to it, has been 
 observed. The Farnese Hercules is, in height, supposing the figure erect, seven heads, three 
 parts, and seven minutes (twelve minutes are allowed to a part) 5 the Antinous of the Vatican, 
 seven heads and two parts 5 the Laocoon, seven heads, two parts, and three minutes j the Dying 
 Gladiator of the Capitol, eight heads 5 the Apollo Belvidere, seven heads, three parts, and six 
 minutes 5 the Venus de Medici, seven heads and three parts j and the Grecian Shepherdess, at 
 Naples, seven heads, three parts, and six minutes. 
 
 98, It should be borne in mind, that the proportions of the figure vary in almost every 
 individual 5 and from infancy to manhood, they undergo most marked changes. Taking the size 
 of the head, as a scale of measurement : the whole length of a child, two months old, will be 
 found rarely to exceed four times the height of his head j — at one year, four and a half heads j — 
 at three years, five and a quarter 5 — at five years, scarcely six j — at ten years, six and a half: — 
 from fourteen to sixteen, about seven 5 — and thence, to manhood, seven and a half, and some- 
 times eight. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE RUDIMENTS OF DRAWING. 
 
 or MANNER OR METHOD— THE ART OF WRITING, IN CONNEXION WITH DRAWING— GENERAL INSTRUC- 
 TIONS, ETC.— CONCLUSION. 
 
 Hules are to be considered as fences, placed only 
 where trespass is expected." — H eynolds. 
 
 HUS far, the use of the 
 pen, as an instrument 
 for drawing, has been 
 strongly urged, for rea- 
 sons already explained ; 
 nor should it ever be 
 laid aside or neglected. 
 Too great importance is 
 often attached to the 
 mere imitation of man- 
 ner, particularly in cop- 
 ying from the works of 
 
 others 5 and if more thought and pains were bestowed upon the principles of design, and less 
 upon the imitation of the touch or peculiarities of individual artists, there would be more leaders, 
 and fewer servile foUowers, who, in emulating and imitating the means, lose sight of the great 
 ends of art. 
 
92 
 
 RUDIMENTS OF DRAWING. 
 
 99. The test of excellence, in a method or manner, is its approach to precision, and distinct- 
 ness of expression, by which an object, or thought, is most clearly represented. He that has a 
 clear perception of the one, or the other, if assisted by proper education, will not be long in 
 finding a manner or method of conveying it, in his own way, far better than by any he can 
 borrow of another. It is often painful to see the toil bestowed upon a drawing, on which weeks 
 and months have been worn away, in efforts to attain the peculiar touch of an example set before 
 the pupil, without one thought of the sentiment, general character, or expression, of the original : 
 to which the work, method, or manner, was only considered secondary by its author — as if, 
 to write like Shakespeare, meant no more than to copy his handwriting. 
 
 100. Should the pupil now desire to try the pencil or crayon, he may do so, with profit and 
 propriety j and he will find the use he has made of the pen has given his hand a degree of 
 precision of touch, that he should never suffer it to lose in the use of other instruments, that are 
 apt to lead to carelessness, because their work can be readily erased, or errors committed, readily 
 disguised. In schools, as well as in private instruction, Indian rubber, stale bread, and all other 
 devices for erasure, should, as far as possible, be kept out of the way 5 and thus errors will be 
 avoided, by the absence of the ready means of other correction than a renewed effort, the 
 preservation of their evidence, and consequent remembrance, and care, to prevent their recur- 
 rence in future attempts. 
 
 101. Although it might be better to leave the pupil to the selection of his own method, or 
 manner, of expressing that which he desires to represent, after he has perfected its general 
 outline, and to direct his attention to such a variety of drawings, by different artists, as may be 
 within his reach — rather than those by any one individual hand — yet, a few hints on the subject 
 may be found serviceable to him. 
 
 102. The instructions which have been given, in reference to the use of the pen, are equally 
 applicable to the pencil, crayon, or chalk. The practice of the primary lessons, on straight and 
 curved lines, will be found to have been essentially useful, in acquiring that command of hand, 
 without which, proficiency in drawing is of no easy attainment. As in nature, objects take every 
 variety of form and direction, so should the lines or touches, used in their delineation, have equal 
 freedom in their direction, and always adapted to the purpose, and as expressive as possible, of 
 the true form and character of the original. This may, at first, appear difficult j but, by obser- 
 vation, study, and practice, it may be soon acquired. 
 
MANNER OR METHOD, 
 
 93 
 
 Suppose, for example, wo desire to represent a square 
 block, with a smooth, even surface : the greater degree 
 of evenness and regularity that we can preserve in the 
 lines, the nearer we will approach its faithful resem- 
 blance j and if, on the other hand, its surface be broken, 
 or uneven, we must have recourse to lines, by which 
 that character can be most readily expressed. 
 
 To represent a rude stake, water-worn and scraggy, far different lines are requisite, than if 
 the object of imitation were a smooth and well-rounded post. 
 
94 
 
 RUDIMENTS OF DRAWING 
 
 It would be in vain to attempt the representation of the effect of a brisk breeze, and a dead 
 calm, upon the water, by lines similar in character 5 or, by the same touch, to express the woolly 
 
and rounded form of a sheep, and the hairy covering, and more abrupt lines and action, of 
 
 a goat. 
 
 103. The imitation, by beginners, of off-hand 
 sketches, or memoranda, by practised artists, 
 however spirited, and often effective, should be 
 discouraged. They are, frequently, little more 
 than the short-hand notes of a writer — intelligible 
 to him, but only conveying, to others, faint and 
 uncertain ideas — dashed off in a moment of 
 haste, or under circumstances that would preclude 
 
96 
 
 RUDIMENTS OF DRAWING. 
 
 
 the possibility of doing more at the time, intended for the private use of the artist alone, and 
 serving to preserve the recollection of the subject upon his mind, for future elaboration. To 
 him, such sketches are invaluable ; but, for the use of others, something more is required. A 
 
 drawing and a sketch are two different things. Although one must learn to draw, before he 
 can sketch, the capacity for one is dependent upon the other. 
 
MANNER OR METHOD. 
 
 97 
 
 *. 
 
 104. What can a beginner learn, by the imitation of such a sketch as the following ? — and yet, 
 
 it is a fac-simile, the size of the original, of Wilkie’s first sketch 
 or idea, of his picture of the Rabbit on the Wall. To the eye 
 and understanding of the artist, every line may have had pur- 
 pose and meaning 5 but, beyond the interest it excites, as the 
 germ of a finished work of art, it is, in a measure, valueless : and 
 as an object of imitation for the student, it certainly presents but 
 little, from which he can derive advantage. Even in sketches 
 more defined and intelligible, where often are found, combined, 
 a degree of grace and sentiment, rivalling more finished pro- 
 ductions, there is still a freedom of line, and manner, belonging 
 to an experienced hand— one well schooled and practised in 
 
 design— and evidence of disregard to mere manner, or method of expression, which none but a 
 master in art dare attempt. This very freedom, and capacity of reaching, at once, the higher 
 attributes of art, by means so simple, yet certain, is attainable only by first learning to draw with 
 accuracy and precision 5 by a perfect understanding 06 the use and power of lines, as well as 
 practical ability in their direction. Many a mere beginner could produce more regular 
 hnes, and, in the common perversion of the term, a more finished” drawing, than that of a 
 Mother and Child, presented on the next page, from a pen-and-ink sketch by Guercino 5 yet, such 
 a sketch could only be produced by one who could do more. Its excellence does not alone consist 
 in its manner, or mechanical execution, which we might imitate for ever, without advancing one 
 step to the ability of originating one comparable to it, in point of grace, character, and expres- 
 sion, unless we possessed, like Guercino, well-grounded knowledge, feeling, and capacity, far 
 beyond the mere counterfeiting of another’s hand. With an understanding of the prmciples 
 of design, familiarity with nature, and a sense to appreciate the beautiful 5 with the possession 
 of that command of hand, the importance of which has been so earnestly urged upon the pupil, 
 and the means of its attainment placed before him 5 with careful observation and practice, he 
 will soon acquire a facility of expressing himself, which, growing into a habit, wiU establish a 
 manner for himself, far more serviceable, and better, than the imitation of that of another, 
 however excellent or efiective it may be. 
 
 105. Not that the pupil should consider the works of others unworthy his study and emu- 
 lation 5 but he should learn, rather, to value the higher attributes of a work of art, above the less 
 
 important peculiarities of the artist’s hand, which are often the result of change of purpose, or 
 
 13 
 
98 
 
 RUDIMENTS OF DRAWING. 
 
 accidental circumstances, or carelessness in the production of a sketch. Many a beautiful idea 
 has been suggested by a few random lines 5 even by an accidental blot, or stain, upon the paper, 
 which the sensitive eye, and fertile imagination, of the artist have detected, and his ready hand 
 developed with a fe y touches, that defy imitation. Often, in sketches, the artist may appear to 
 have dashed forth, in bold explorations, in search of happy combinations of line, effect, and 
 expression, upon which the beginner should venture with caution, and never from mere affectation. 
 Let him study the spirit and motive of good sketches, whenever he can meet with them 5 but, 
 let him learn to draw, before he begins to sketch. 
 
 106. While on the subject of manner^ it may be expected that something should be said 
 with reference to trees and foliage ; but all the rules and recipes, that ever were promulgated, can 
 not teach one to draw the most simple weed, without a feeling and capacity for the imitation 
 of form. Landscape is too often regarded as a sort of safety-valve, to let off the exuberant 
 
MANNER OR METHOD. 
 
 99 
 
 efforts of those who are either too 
 idle, or indifferent, to endure the 
 restraint of study. The distortion 
 of a head, or figure, is apparent to 
 every one ; but the representation of a tree 
 may be, in every way, disproportioned and out 
 of character, and stiU it is a tree, and the 
 producer of it at once an artist. Of all the 
 applications of art to the purposes of the 
 amateur, landscape occupies a deservedly high 
 place ; and its study should, therefore, be be- 
 gun and prosecuted, with due deference to its 
 importance. Let the learner at once discard 
 the idea that, because he can sketch sometliing 
 to look like nature, his work is done, nor 
 deprive himself of the enjoyment of those 
 ^ privileges that belong to the accomplished 
 r, observer of the beautiful in nature — so hber- 
 
 ' > ally diffused, and available to all. To do tliis, 
 
100 
 
 RUDIMENTS OF DRAWING. 
 
 there is but one course to be followed. Nature beckons to him, and invitingly spreads forth her 
 varied charms, to tempt him to her sunny fields — at once his teacher, and bountiful provider of 
 all that he requires. 
 
 107. How must I draw an oak — how an elm — and how shall I touch a hemlock-tree ? — are 
 questions that weary the ear of the drawing-master with their continued repetition 5 and his 
 reputation frequently is endangered, most unjustly, if he can not only tell them, but teach them 
 how to do it, too, in one short half hour ; and yet they themselves, perhaps, do not know the tree, 
 when they see it in nature, much less, when it is represented in a drawing : and if they do, it is 
 more by the shape of the leaf than the general form and character of the tree itself. Let this 
 sort of quackery have no place with those who pursue the study of art with sincerity. Let them 
 learn the first and leading principles of Design ; let the eye be quickened to the keen perception 
 and just consideration of form, and the hand ready and certain in its delineation 5 and then let 
 them go forth, sketch-book in hand, into the fair fields that nature has provided, in her Free 
 School of Art. One group of weeds, by the road-side, or along the murmuring brook, will teach 
 
 them more wholesome lessons of the “ way to draw them,” than all the books that ever were 
 published on the subject. Then, and not till then, will the drawings and manner of others, in 
 the delineation of such objects, be intelligible and useful to them ; for, how can they judge of the 
 truth of its representation, when they know nothing of the reality. Drawing is not to be taught 
 like tambour-stitch and crotchet. 
 
102 
 
 RUDIMENTS OF DRAWING. 
 
 108. It is not only difficult, but impossible, to adapt any work of instruction to the various 
 capacities and character of mind, upon which it is to operate, or, to devise any one system that 
 will be applicable to every individual case 5 but, with the exercise of proper judgment, on the 
 part of teachers and pupils, the elementary principles, which it has been the object of this work 
 to present, in as plain and intelligible a manner as possible, wUl be found available to all. Children, 
 and those who do not show aptness in comprehending the principles, and their practical applica- 
 tion, should dwell on each lesson, and repeat it over and over again — ^ always with care. One 
 step, surely made, if it be but the drawing of a simple straight line, or curve, the next is half 
 accomplished 5 and thus, progressively, should they be advanced. It is based upon no fanciful 
 theory, that ‘‘ any one who can learn to write can learn to draw j” but a truism, which the author 
 pledges himself to estabhsh, beyond a question, if aided by the intelligence and co-operation of 
 American teachers, and those who have charge of the education of youth. It is within the 
 means and capacity of all teachers, to instruct their pupils in the rudiments of drawing ,• and 
 that, too, by an actual saving of labor to themselves, if the improvement of those under their 
 charge has aught to do in the account. The least-pretending country schoolmaster would indig- 
 nantly repel the insinuation that he did not know how himself, and could not teach his boys and 
 girls, to write — and owns, without the slightest idea of deteriorating from his capacity as a 
 public instructor, that he knows nothing of drawing j and yet, in his daily practice, he blindly 
 teaches to draw, every time he sets a copy, and criticises the imitations thereof made by his 
 scholars. 
 
 109. The author may be here pardoned a personal indulgence, in reverting to his own school- 
 boy days, if on no other score than that of expressing his grateful recollection of his writing- 
 master. In the thoughtlessness of boyhood, and the unconsciousness of the extent of the benefit 
 then bestowed, bis very name has been obliterated from his memory 5 but too often, in later years, 
 has the influence of his lessons been felt to suffer his grateful recollection to pass away. He came 
 to our village-school, unheralded and unknown — if I mistake not, on foot — a silent, sad, and unas- 
 suming man, who, for a pittance, offered to instruct a class in writing. He showed no unmeaning, 
 ffourished specimens, but wrote a line upon our teacher’s desk, with an ease, and grace, and 
 precision, that gained his engagement. Whether it was his gentleness of manners, his kind 
 encouragement, the winning of his ways, or the magic influence of his system of instruction, 
 writing became at once a delight, rather than a task ; for we aU set to work, with an earnestness 
 that made us forgetful of the hour of playtime and recreation. He stayed but a few weeks and 
 went as he came, bearing with him many a boy’s heartfelt blessing and farewell. He could 
 
WRITING, IN CONNEXION WITH DRAWING. 
 
 103 
 
 not draw, perhaps, in the common acceptation of the term ; and yet he taught, by a method 
 well worth the imitation of teachers, the first principles of drawing : and thus it was : — 
 
 110. In the first place, the old-fashioned “copper-plates,” over which we had toiled so long, 
 in comparatively profitless labor, were laid aside, and each scholar was supplied with a quire of 
 fair, smooth letter-paper ; for it was a maxim with him, that “ young workmen should have good 
 tools.” We were then taught to rule it in lines, and only on one side, thus : — 
 
 Those that were awkward were helped by him. Neatness was strongly inculcated, and consid- 
 ered as essential — a blot or a smudge, and all was to be done over again 5 and thus the habit 
 was, from necessity, soon acquired and maintained. Soiled, inky fingers, and blotted copy-books, 
 were seen no more 5 and, what can not be said of all school-boys, we went to our work with clean 
 hands, at least. Steel-pens were not then in use ; and he taught us to trim our goose-quill, to 
 regulate its nib to large hand and small, how to prevent its tricks of spattering and blottinff, 
 exactly how far to dip it in the ink, and how carefully to lay it aside, well wiped, for another dav. 
 He had no arbitrary method of holding the pen, as if all hands, and the length and action of all 
 fingers, were ahke, but simply showed us what we had to do, and left to the natural action of the 
 hand to find its most easy command of the pen. 
 
 The paper ruled in pencil, we began our first lesson — 
 to draw a straight line, with a firm, decided hand ; first, the 
 distance between two, then three, and four ruled lines; 
 
 .V 
 
104 
 
 RUDIMENTS OF DRAWING. 
 
 « 
 
 observing to press the pen at top and bottom, so as to expand the nib, and produce the proper 
 degree of angularity in the terminations ; holding it with even pressure, to maintain an equal width 
 throughout the line. It was a difficult, and seemed almost a hopeless effort, at first ; but after a 
 page or two, carefully practised, there was not a boy in school who could not do it — and well. 
 Then the lines were gradually extended to eight spaces. 
 
 We had not reached the end of this lesson, before each one 
 assumed, unconsciously, an easy manner of holding the pen j 
 for, as the fines were to be continued without stopping, or 
 removing the pen from the paper, the whole hand and wrist 
 were, necessarily brought into action 5 and a habit, almost 
 universal with beginners, of writing by the action of the fingers alone, was at once corrected. 
 
 Next came the curves, and the nature of their form and delineation 
 was explained : the gradual expansion of the fine, as it approached and 
 receded from the middle space, in which it became a straight fine 5 
 the easy flow of the curve at top and bottom, and its exact repetition. He would examine, with 
 a critical eye, our failures, show us every minute defect, equally dilate upon the slightest approach 
 to success, and cheer, with words of encouragement, the most awkward. 
 
 We were now practised in the combinations ; then a perfect letter 
 was achieved 5 and, soon, such ms and ns were made as never before 
 had been seen upon our writing-bench. 
 
 Something had been done 5 and we were indulged with a page or two of practice, before 
 
 At the first trial of the tail of a g*, a serious difficulty was encountered, especially hy those who 
 had not divested themselves of the old habit of dependence on the motion of the fingers alone : 
 
WRITING, IN CONNEXION WITH DRAWING. 
 
 lOo 
 
 for, now the whole hand, wrist, and arm, were brought into action 5 but two or three copies, 
 
 thus 
 
 practised with care, and under his critical direction, 
 
 soon enabled us, in a great measure, to surmount it ; and then we were well prepared 
 
 steady movement of the hand 5 its peculiarity of form to be studied, as well as the application 
 of portions of each letter to the formation of others. We were taught, first, to know how each 
 letter should be made j and then practised to make it, by beginning with its parts, and combining 
 them into a whole. From the most simple, we were gradually advanced to the most difficult. 
 Nothing was passed over, or slighted 5 and when the small alphabet was mastered, we were 
 considered prepared for capitals and small hand. 
 
 The instructions we received, with regard to the formation of capital letters, were strictly 
 drawing them. Every line and curve was to be studied, and their application and combination 
 understood, and practically exemplified, upon like principles. 
 
 11 
 
106 
 
 RUDIMENTS OF DRAWING. 
 
 The ruled paper was now laid aside, and we began our lessons m small-hand. I well 
 remember the feeling of helplessness with which I regarded the fair, unruled sheet before me — 
 like a child standing alone, for the first time, and venturing on its first step. The trial came — it 
 was to draw right lines across the page, without guide or ruler 5 a hard task, that few were equal 
 to, but still we did wonders. From straight lines we progressed to the connexion of letters ; and 
 
 T V D C T T 
 
 7 - 2 ^ rt'O :2t(7 
 
 thence, to simple words and sentences, not only written in a straight and even line, across the 
 page, but repeated others, equidistant from each other, with a degree of ease and accuracy that 
 woMld have done no discredit to older hands. If the men, who were then boys, now require 
 ruled paper, or write in random, wandering lines, it has been the fault of after-years. 
 
 Another most admirable method, of exercising the hand, should not be forgotten. It was, 
 to practise the drawing of the letters backward j by which the faint lines were necessarily 
 reversed. We had often seen such letters and copies, in our “copper-plates,” but never imagined 
 they were to be done by any other method than by “ painting them up.” 
 
 •V 
 
WRITING, IN CONNEXION WITH DRAWING. 
 
 107 
 
 Then, again, we were made to draw the letters with a single faint line 5 a practice well 
 calculated to give ease and delicacy of touch, as well as certainty of hand : for he who depends 
 upon the nib of his pen as a rest, will never be able to obtain command of it, or write, or draw, 
 with ease and freedom. 
 
 Long after our writing-master had left us, and the fruits of his instruction w^ere ripened, 
 under the care of others, such continued to be sportive, as well as profitable exercises among 
 us, on the slate and blackboard : and more than one complaint came against us, for our chalk- 
 and-charcoal illustrations on the neighboring fences. Had there been, then and there, one to 
 give a proper direction to this impulse, thus awakened by the instruction of our WTiting-master, 
 to design, more than one would now hold his memory in grateful recollection. 
 
 Such a system of instruction develops the art of writing ; and such is the art of writing, in 
 its relation to the art of drawing. The teacher, or pupil, who can, with his pen, produce the 
 most simple curve, and repeat it at pleasure, can draw. If he can not draw, the art of writing 
 is to him a mystery as hidden. Let not the teacher, therefore, wdio undertakes to instruct in 
 writing, say, ‘‘ I can not draw.” The time will come, when he will blush as soon, to own a want 
 of capacity in one art as the other. 
 
 111. In schools, where a teacher of drawing is not employed, and even where there is one, 
 the improvement of scholars, in both writing and drawing, may be promoted, in a very great 
 degree, and with little or no additional labor to the teacher, by taking one half, or even two thirds 
 of the time, usually devoted to writing, and applying it to drawing. The result will be found in 
 no way to impede the improvement of the writing-classes 5 but, on the contrary, greatly facilitate 
 
lOS 
 
 RUDIMENTS OF DRAWING. 
 
 their advancement in that branch of education.* The copy-books, accessory to this work, will 
 here be found of much use : for, by their aid, any teacher can induct his pupils in the knowledge 
 and application of the first principles of drawing. He should require his scholars to practise 
 each lesson with care and attention, and to become familiar, and, to a certain degree, perfect, in 
 each, progressively ; and the beginning once made, there is no fear that either he, or they, 
 will have cause to regret the effort, or fail to prosecute the study farther. According to the 
 advancement of his pupils, will he be able to judge of their capacity for higher attempts. In 
 learning to draw, as in the acquirement of every other branch of education, the first steps are 
 often the most important 5 and care, in the outset, may save much disappointment, and insure 
 success. The method of instruction advised for schools, is equally applicable to home-education, 
 or to those whose more mature years and judgment qualify them, in a measure, to become their 
 own teachers. 
 
 112. The study of art is, in itself, so pleasing, that but little more is required of teachers 
 than the initiation of pupils in its rudiments, upon such sound principles that they may continue 
 its pursuit, aided only by observation, reference to nature, and good productions of art, and such 
 standard works on the subject, as their wants may require. They will find, even before they have 
 mastered the very first rudiments, and in their very first attempts to draw from nature, the abso- 
 lute necessity of a knowledge of the first principles of perspective ; and, if in earnest in the 
 business, they will not fail at once to seek such knowledge : and it will be far better for them to 
 supply the want when its necessity is felt, than if they were to undertake its attainment in 
 advance. Again : when they attempt to draw the figure, they will be made sensible of the impor- 
 tance of a certain degree of knowledge of its anatomical structure j and thus, at every step, no 
 matter how far they may extend the pursuit, they will feel, for ever, progressive wants, which must 
 be progressively supplied. F or all, however, there must be a secure groundwork 5 and that is a 
 knowledge of the first principles of the imitative art. Once initiated, and made to feel the 
 capacity of art, and the power they possess, its cultivation will not be a task, but constant and 
 increasing delight. This must be done by small beginnings, by securing success, by not attempting 
 too much, by a knowledge and capacity of its application to practical results, gradually acquired — 
 
 * The author has the gratification of finding this fact fully corroborated by the experience of an eminent teacher of New York, 
 the Rev. W. Morris, rector of Trinity school, who, from actual experiment, has placed the matter in a light that can not fail to 
 interest both parents and teachers. He divided his writing-class, without regard to any superior natural talent, or aptness, in his 
 scholars, and allowed “ one half the class to write every day in the week, as boys usually do in school, and the other half wrote 
 and drew on alternate days. The result produced an average of five to one good writers, in favor of the drawing-class.” A 
 similar experiment any teacher can make, and it is well worth the serious attention of all. 
 
CONCLUSION. 
 
 109 
 
 a better and surer system of rapid instruction than any other that can be devised. One simple 
 straight, or curved line, drawn with accuracy, and the beginning is made ; and a habit of obser- 
 vation of forms, and their imitation, is induced, which gradually leads from small to greater efforts. 
 W ants are felt at every step 5 and their supply is naturally sought by like means that have given 
 strength to reach the point already attained. The eye, the mind, and hand, keep pace with each 
 other, in the march of improvement j and the increase of knowledge and capacity impels to higher 
 attainments and msures results, which never can be reached by a course of superficial instruction, 
 having only for its object the production of a drawing or picture — the joint labor of master and 
 scholar— -of which the former has, too often, far more than his share. 
 
 113. What can a pupil have learned, to advantage, who can do nothing without his drawing- 
 master by his side ? And to what useful purpose can the little knowledge he may have thus 
 acquired, in his lessons, be applied in after-life ? It has been by such systems of superficial 
 instruction, that drawing has been abused, and reduced in its consideration as a useful artj 
 and, to say the truth, it is useless enough, when thus perverted from its high and valuable purposes. 
 Such systems are worse than useless : they are evils, which go far to retard the cultivation of 
 true taste, not only in art itself, but all those refinements which centre in it 5 and the sooner a 
 reformation in our schools is begun, the sooner will a more healthful influence be seen and felt 
 in society. We are not to look solely to teachers, for a remedy of the evil : for, unfortunately in 
 this, as in everything else, the market will be, necessarily, supplied according to the nature of the 
 demand 5 and, unless parents and pupils can be made sensible of the importance of a proper 
 system of instruction, and of the advantages to be derived therefrom, teachers battle against 
 windmills, and will get for their pains the reward of the knight of La Mancha, in their most 
 sincere and honest exertions. The work of reformation is no untried experiment. Abroad, the 
 diffusion of judicious education in design, largely and freely distributed throughout all classes of 
 society, has proved, not only how easily it can be done, but with what favorable results ; and it is 
 time an effort should be made in America, at least to keep pace with, if not to lead, in the march 
 of the onward century in which we live. Surely, we will not admit the existence of national 
 incapacity. From a land abounding with the beautiful 5 with genius, wealth, enterprise, and 
 freedom, much may be expected, and much may be achieved : and should be, in this, as in all that 
 tends to elevate its national character and importance. 
 
 114. Whatever the experience of the world may be, with regard to the necessity of coercion, 
 and of forcing the youthful mind, by physical persecution, into the reception of knowledge, that 
 
110 
 
 RUDIMENTS OF DRAWING. 
 
 of art may safely claim to be an exception. All the powers of the earth can not force a love for 
 art upon the mind, any more than they can “ make the bird sing 5 ” and without a love for it, its 
 pursuit is hopeless. With some, the first impulses of their childhood have given evidence of its 
 existence 5 with others, it has been developed by accidental associations, or other causes j and, 
 with many, it has been buried for ever, for want of proper cultivation. Care should be taken, 
 therefore, to temper the course of study, as far as possible, to the inclinations, as well as capacity, 
 of the pupil ; who, it often happens, when a difficult lesson is placed before him, or failure has 
 been the result of his labor, either by attempting too much, or for want of proper preparatory 
 knowledge, desires to try something less difficult — and he should be indulged: for it is fai* safer 
 for him to retrace his steps, than advance too rapidly. If, in its application to other branches of 
 education, the operation of such a system of instruction, so forcibly exemphfied in the study of 
 art, were more strongly impressed upon the minds of teachers j if the tree of knowledge were 
 planted in more pleasant places, and the pathways to it divested of many of the thorns that 
 lacerate the youthful mind and body, as both are driven forward, by which the learner is made, 
 too often, to despise the end for which he labors, as heartily as the means of its attainment are 
 hateful to him, blue-Monday would soon be stricken from the school-boy’s calendar. 
 
 115. We know that, in the pursuit of art, if properly directed, there is an attendant enjoy- 
 ment, constant and enduring, as boundless in its resources. We know that men have lived 
 through almost a century of ardent devotion to it, and died still true to their first love ; their 
 lives presenting one continued, progressive attachment and devotion to its cultivation. If the 
 world but knew the enjoyments of the devoted follower of art, they would be more eager to 
 share them with him. To him — 
 
 “ No rock is barren, and no wild is waste ; 
 
 No shape uncouth, or savage, but in place. 
 
 Excites an interest, or assumes a grace. 
 
 * * * * * 
 
 The dome-crown’d city, or the cottage plain. 
 
 The rough cragg’d mountain, or tumultuous main ; 
 
 The temple rich in trophied pride array’d. 
 
 Or mould’ring in the melancholy shade ; 
 
 The spoils of tempest, or the wrecks of time. 
 
 The earth abundant, or the heaven sublime : 
 
 All, to the Painter, purest joys impart. 
 
 Delight his eye, and stimulate his Art.” 
 
 ^ ^ ^ ^ 
 
o 
 
 CONCLUSION. Ill 
 
 The most fruitful source of regret, and almost the only alloy to the enjoyments of the true 
 artist, is the consciousness of want of power to reach that remote perfection, which ever recedes, 
 as liis strengthened perception capacitates him to follow it as his guiding-star : which shone as 
 
 brightly, to the young imagination of Michael 
 Angelo, and doubtless seemed 'nearer to him, 
 in the days of his boyish efforts, than when, 
 an old man, he sat musing, alone, among the 
 ruins of the Coliseum, and replied to the 
 Cardinal Farnese, who expressed surprise to 
 find him there : “ I yet go to school, that I 
 may learn something.” Then he had made 
 his name famous throughout the world. 
 Within sight, the towering dome of St. Pe- 
 ter’s stood forth against the bright sky of his 
 native Italy, the imperishable monument of 
 his genius. The frescoes of the Sistine chapel, 
 the wonder and admiration of that and suc- 
 ceeding ages, had been achieved. Almost at 
 the close of a 
 
 with many trials and disappointments, still the 
 love and devotion to his art burned as warm 
 within him, as when, buoyant with youthful hope and energy, he left his parental home, at Caprese, 
 to enter the school of Gherlandaio — to learn to draw. It was this that had sustained him, and 
 made him what he was ; and, it must be thus that excellence in art is to be wooed and won. It is 
 this that must be cultivated, and kept alive for ever, in its pursuit: and it can be done — nay, 
 more — even where its existence may appear to be doubtful, and almost hopeless, it mav be 
 developed by proper culture. It is an attribute bestowed on all, in degrees of capacitv for its 
 cultivation, as in all other gifts with which the Creator has endowed the perfection of his works, 
 immortal man, and should, no more than they, be neglected. 
 
 116 . In concluding the elementary portion of this work, it is hoped that the eftbrt to place 
 before the American public a popular system of instruction in the first principles of design, however 
 incomplete it may be, may have a tendency, not only to awaken an interest in the subject, but to 
 show, at the same time, how easy it is to learn to draw. Let those who desire to acquire this beau- 
 
 lengthened life, not unmixed 
 
112 
 
 RUDIMENTS OF DRAWING. 
 
 tiful and valuable art, but give proper attention to the principles and practice recommended, not by 
 a few hasty trials, but by carefully following the routine of advancement, from a simple straight 
 line, to the point now reached ; and all that they have yet to do, wiU be both plain and easily 
 acquired. As a primary and elementary work on drawing, our task is done 5 and it will not 
 be in vain, should it reach, in a ’degree, however small, the wants of a people always susceptible of 
 conviction, and ready to promote the advancement of the arts of refinement. The art of drawing 
 claims more than this : for it is essential as a part of common education. It belongs to the 
 artisan, even more than those who live in the easy enjoyment of fortune : with the one, it may be 
 classed as a luxury, or source of recreation j to the other, it is a necessity. 
 
 Let this useful and beautiful art, therefore, no longer be considered as a mystery, confined 
 to a gifted few, but take its place with its sister arts, in our systems of general education. The 
 young and tender capacity is early prepared for it ; its first impulses are harmonious with it ; 
 and, while it may be made to shed gladness and sunshine upon the hours of coercion to the 
 school-bench 5 when the mind is for ever wandering from the primer to the bright fields, and 
 scenes, and objects, of childhood’s joys, its pursuit leads not from, but in the direction of, all other 
 knowledge, assists in its acquirement, tends to strengthen the mind, and purify the taste, and 
 bestows a capacity for intellectual pleasure, apart from its practical utility, that should give it place 
 among the first requisites in common, as well as finished education. 
 

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