THE GETTY CENTER LIBRARY Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2018 with funding from Getty Research Institute https://archive.org/details/preciousstonesgeOOstre_O PRECIOUS STONES AND GEMS. Howlett & Son, Old Style Printers, io, Frith Street, Soho, London, W. TAVERNIER’S “BLUE'' DIAMOND (Rough) E “HOPE” BLUE DIAMOND HOPE” BLUE DIAMOND, Mounted PRECIOUS STONES AND GEMS, THEIR HISTORY AND DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. BY EDWIN W. STREETER, F.R.G.S., M.fl.I. Gold Medallist of the Royal Order of Frederic ; Holder of a Gold Medal from H. M. the King of the Belgians; Author of “ THE GREAT DIAMONDS OF THE WORLD;” “GOLD ; its Legal Regulations and Standards < 5 ec ., <5rv. ILLUSTRATED. FOURTH EDITION REVISED. BOSTON: ESTES AND LAURIAT. 1887. Cons, . 391 h 1ST OF J LLUST F^ATION S. The “Blue” Diamond Proper Sizes of Brilliants Brazilian Diamond ... Cape Diamond (Octahedron) „ „ (In Matrix, with Garnet) Rubies Sapphires Emeralds Turquoise Topaz... Opal . Alexandrite ... Rubies and Sapphire (in Sand) Cat’s Eye . Amethyst Rock Crystal Aquamarine ... Tourmaline Peridot Garnet Frontispiece Facing page 44 » i°7 158 3°i 20 r 230 ONTENTS. PAGES To the Reader ... ... ... . ix Preface to the Fourth Edition . xiv SECTION I.—PRECIOUS STONES IN GENERAL.— Chapter I . ...Definition of the terms “ Precious Stone ” or “Gem” ... 17—20 >> n . ....Where Precious Stones are found 21—24 in. .... Precious Stones and their uses in bygone TIMES 25—32 ff IV. ....The Working of Pre- cious Stones 33—54 v> V . ....Precious Stones as Ob- jects of Commerce . . 55—6i SECTION II.—DIAMONDS.— Chapter I . ...The Diamond ... 62 — 81 II. ... ...Cape or South-African Diamonds O O I M 00 M Ill . ....Australian Diamonds... 101—106 ff IV . ....Brazilian Diamonds ... 107 — 118 If V . _Indian Diamonds 119— 1 3 2 y> VI . ....Borneo Diamonds i 33—135 ?> VII . ....Colored Diamonds 136—143 if VIII. .. ....Bokt, Carbonado, and Boron 143—147 ff IX . ....Rough Diamonds 148—15° SECTION III—COLORED STONES.— Chapter I . ....Corundum * 5 * — 157 y> II . ....The Oriental Ruby ... 15 s — 16 5 Ill . ....The Sapphire ... 166 — 173 IV . ...The Emerald ... 174 185 Vll. PAGLS Chapter V. .Spinel and Balas Rubies 186—190 >> VI. .The Opal 191—196 n VII. .The True Cat’s Eye ... 197—201 VIII. .The Turquoise ... 202—208 fi IX. .Asterias, or Star Stones 209—211 SECTION IV. — PRECIOUS AND SEMI - PRECIOUS STONES OF INFERIOR VALUE.— Chapter I. ..Agate ... 213—217 II. ..Alexandrite ... 218—219 Ill . ..Amazonite 220 — 221 >> IV. ..Amber ... 222—226 > V. ..Amethyst 227—-229 5 ' VI. ..Aquamarine 230—232 5 > VII. ..Avanturine 2.33—234 VIII. ..Bloodstone 23s ,, IX. ..Carnelian 236—239 1 J X. ..Chrysoberyl 240—24 2 ?> XI. ..Chrysoprase ... 243—245 ? J XII. .. Crocidolite 246—247 )» XIII. ..Euclase ... 248 15 XIV. ..Garnet, Carbuncle and Cinnamon Stone ... 249—256 >> XV. ..Hematite 257—258 XVI. .Hiddenite 259 )> XVII. . .IoLITE 260 >? XVIII.... .Jade 261 —262 *> XIX. ..Jasper ... 263—266 >> XX . ...Labrador 267—268 1) XXI . ..Lapis Lazuli 269—271 >> XXII.... ..Malachite 272—275 n XXIII.... ..Moonstone, Selenite and SuNSTONE. 276—279 >> XXIV... ..Obsidian 280 5 ) XXV . .. Oriental Onyx... 281—284 ?» XXVI.... ..Peridot or Chrysolite 285—287 ?> XXVII.. .Phenakite 288—289 Vlll. PAGES Chapter XXVIII.. ..Quartz Cat’s Eye 290 XXIX. . ..Rock Crystal ... ... 291—296 XXX. ..Sphene ... 297—298 XXXI. . ..Spodumene ••• 299—300 ?? XXXII. . ..Topaz ... 301-304 XXXIII. ..Tourmaline ... 305—308 XXXIV.. ..Zircon, Jargoon, OR Hyacinth ... 309—312 XXXV. . ..Coral ... ... 313—318 XXXVI.. ..Pearls ... 3 r 9 ADDENDA. The Diamonds of tfie United States and New Zealand ... ... ... ... ... 320 APPENDIX A. ON THE SCIENTIFIC DISCRIMINATION OF PRECIOUS STONES. Specific Gravity ... ... ... ... ... ... 322 Hardness ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 324 Optical Properties : Reflection ... ... ... ... ... ... 324 Refraction ... ... ... ... . ... 325 Dispersion ... ... ... ... ... ... 325 Double Refraction... ... ... ... ... 326 Polarization... ... ... ... ... ... 326 Pleiochroism... ... ... ... ... ... 327 APPENDIX B. Remarks on the Term “Carat” ... ... ... 328 Index ... . ... ... . 329 TO THE READER. ANY pages have been written on the history of PRECIOUS STONES. Authorities on authorities, from remote antiquity to this our day, have been cited as to their value, their uses, their beauties, and their properties, but still one might venture to say that there are fewer judges of the genuineness and real value of Precious Stones than there are treatises to guide people to such knowledge. Would it be altogether unwarrantable to express a grave doubt whether even in the trade there are very many skilled in detecting the real measure of difference between one stone and another, either by that most essential test, the specific gravity, or by minor tests of a more trivial character ? Be this as it may, I have arrived at the deliberate conviction, as a merchant and dealer long versed in the purchase and sale of gems, that some practical and popular guide to those who have an interest in ascertaining and testing the genuineness and value of Precious Stones, is urgently needed, and cannot fail to be generally useful. As an illustration of the difficulties of the subject it may be stated that Professer Church, in a lecture delivered X. before the Society of Arts on April 6th, 1881, pointed out a number of errors in the identification of a collection of Precious Stones which had been exhibited for years at the South Kensington Museum, although the official descrip¬ tion of these stones had been confided to a well-known professor of mineralogy and expert in gems. In the division of family jewels much injustice is often done by persons incompetent to form a correct opinion of their relative values. A study of this handbook may serve to demonstrate the difficulty of an accurate discrimination. In all cases it would be wise to submit the jewels to a practised judge, whether for valuation or for probate. It is not right to leave the decision to some house agent or mutual friend. A lady had bequeathed to her some family jewels, consisting of a Sapphire and Diamond suite. As they had passed probate several times, there was no doubt in the mind of the legatee of the genuineness of the Sapphires. On being applied to in relation to their value, I had to pro¬ nounce the '• Sapphires ” to be only paste. Had they been genuine they would have realized from £30,000 to ,£40,000. One often sees the Spinel and the Balas—the one a lively poppy-red, and the other a vfolet-rose—usurping the dignity of the true Ruby ; and yet the pure Ruby of ten carats is worth from £3,800 to £4,800, while the other stones, called by the same name, would be dear at one hundred pounds. A gem should be a real possession, capable of affording pleasure to the wearer and the spectator, and, with fair usage, retaining an intrinsic and marketable value, undi¬ minished by lapse of time. I have sometimes seen in wear gems so scratched that their lustre has been seriously impaired, and a suspicion was thus excited in the minds of wearers, friends, and dealers, that there was a defect in XI. the hardness of the stones, and consequently in their genuineness. It may be worth while to point out that a small sum expended in re-polishing such stones would re¬ store their original lustre, revive the pleasure derived from the possession of them, and prevent the risk of their being sold as paste or imitation jewelry. The value of Precious Stones must vary to some extent with the caprice of fashion—a gem which at one period stands high in public favour being at another time less eagerly sought after. Thus : the Chrysolite of the Ancients, though highly esteemed by them, has not retained its popular character. It is quite pardonable and of small consequence, that the characteristics of the less valuable gem-stones should be comparatively unknown ; but there are Precious Stones about which there should be no doubt in the mind either of the purchaser or the merchant, viz., the Diamond, Ruby, Emerald, Sapphire, Opal, Cat’s-eye, Alexandrite, and Pearl. In other matters the distinction between a genuine and a fictitious material is generally well understood, and fastidiously recognised. A lady refuses to wear a gown composed of an inferior fabric, intended to represent silk, because its color, texture, and draping indicate to every experienced eye, the substitution of the false for the real ; but she often seems to ignore the fact that the color, the brilliancy, and the texture of a true gem, are as dis¬ tinguishable from those of the false or mere imitation, as the cotton is from the silk. We presume to believe that in the case of the gown, which in a few nights’ wear alto¬ gether loses its worth, the genuineness of the material is of far less consequence than it is in the case of gems, which should be heirlooms of value, not much deteriorated by the lapse of years. Xll. In determining the value of gems, it should be borne in mind that a perfect stone is rarely met with ; and that probably, not even ten per cent, of the stones which are brought into commerce are really of fine quality. In the mineral kingdom, as in other departments of nature, per¬ fection is almost unknown. Much study and attention will be required to attain a knowledge of the properties and appearance of gems, but the subject is by no means unattractive, and may be turned to good account. With objects such as those referred to above, I am publishing the present volume, the outcome of more than thirty-seven years’ experience, and of the united knowledge of many men of science and of my contemporaries in trade. I hope that it may be some service to us as merchants, and to the public in general. It must be borne in mind that this book is not in¬ tended to be a strictly scientific treatise, but rather a prac¬ tical work for those who, whether in the trade or among the public at large, desire to obtain some knowledge of the general characteristics of Precious Stones and Gems. In conclusion, I trust that the Goldsmiths’ Company, as fathers of the trade, will ere long throw open their fine suite of rooms in Foster Lane, and will not only establish a comprehensive library of books bearing on the study of jewelry, but by giving gratuitious Lectures on Precious Stones and Precious Metals, will offer that aid to the younger members of our trade which is necessary for a proper understanding of their daily business. To this Company we must also look for aids to the more general appreciation of fine art jewelry, by affording favourable opportunities for exhibitions, and by awarding prizes, similar to those offered by the Turners’ Company, This would give an impetus to study to those engaged in xiii. jewelry-work, and would enable the public to obtain a more accurate knowledge of, and to take a deeper interest in, a subject which has hitherto remained the property of an exclusive few. The legacies bequeathed to the Goldsmiths’ Company by the famous goldsmiths and jewellers of the 15th, 16th, and 17th centuries, which have since increased in value to an extent almost inconceivable, without doubt were intended for some such purposes as those to which I have referred. I find that so early as 1415, a celebrated gold¬ smith, Sir Drugo Barentine, who was Lord Mayor of London in 1398, and again in 1408, gave “ faire lands ” to this Company. For the subject matter which forms the basis of this volume, I am in an especial manner indebted to the work of Professor Kluge, translated by Mrs. Brewer ; and I have also to acknowledge my obligations to Major F. B. Beaumont, Mr. James A. Forster, and others who have obligingly contributed information. EDWIN W. STREETER Bond Street , London , 1884. The “Shah" Diamond, weight 86 carats PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION. OTHING could shew more clearly the appre¬ ciation of this work by an intelligent public, than the fact that the last edition has been completely exhausted within two years of its issue. Stimulated by this marked encouragement of my labors, I have endeavoured to make the volume still more worthy of its popularity ; and with this view, have not only added such new matter as the progress of our knowledge has rendered necessary, but have subjected the entire work to a searching revision, so that certain chapters have been almost re-written. It was stated in the Introduction to the last Edition, that I contemplated at that time the publication of a work on celebrated Diamonds. That intention has since been realized, and a volume of some 320 pages has been published under the title of “The Great Diamonds of the World ; their History and Romance.'’ The publication of this work—a work which has been most favourably received by the press—has rendered it needless to enlarge on the XV. subject in the present volume, and accordingly, the chap¬ ter on “ celebrated Diamonds,” which appeared in former editions, has been advisedly omitted. Another alteration in the present edition also needs explanation. A short time ago I was induced to send my two sons on a visit to the various Pearl fisheries of the world. The information which I have received from them has been of so interesting a character, that my attention has been forcibly directed to the entire subject of Pearls, and I have already accumulated far too much matter for introduction into this volume. Under these circumstances I have set myself the task of writing a separate work, to be devoted entirely to Pearls, and I have, therefore, not given any detailed account of them in the present volume The treatise on Pearls which I have in contemplation, will, I hope, be in the hands of the public some time next autumn. Notwithstanding the excision of the chapters on Great Diamonds and on Pearls, it will be found that the bulk of the present edition far exceeds that of the last— a sufficient proof of the quantity of new matter which has been introduced in connection with other subjects. It has been deemed desirable to add a short account of the various scientific means used for the discrimination of gem-stones; but this matter, being necessarily of a rather technical character, has been printed in the shape of an appendix at the end of the volume. Another novel feature of this edition consists in the addition of the chemical composition and physical characters of each stone, set out in tabular form, at the close of the chapter devoted to the description of the stone in question. It is believed that this plan will be found far more convenient for reference than the ordinary mode of inserting such details in the body of the text. XV!. With these additions and improvements, the present edition is sent forth to the world, in the conscientious belief that it contains an amount of information on Precious Stones—partly scientific and partly practical—not to be found in any other work in the English language. I cannot close this Preface without acknowledging the aid which I have received from my friend, Mr. F. W. Rudler, Curator of the Museum of Practical Geology, in Jermyn Street, whose mineralogical knowledge has always been cheerfully placed at my service when difficulties of a scientific character have arisen. EDWIN W. STREETER. London, 1884, The Great “Tabic" Diamond , 242:} carats. SECTION I. PRECIOUS STONES IN GENERAL, CHAPTER I. DEFINITION OF THE TERM PRECIOUS STONE OR GEM, MONG the varied products of Inorganic Nature, there are certain mineral sub¬ stances that form a small class by them¬ selves—standing apart from all others by the possession of exceptional characters which have always attracted the attention of persons endowed with taste and refinement. These minerals are distinguished as Precious Stones. The characters which have commended these stones, in all ages, for purposes of personal ornament are chiefly their brilliancy and colour, their durability and rarity. It is not sufficient, however, that a stone should possess only one of these characteristics. The mineralogist is familiar with many stones that are exquisite in colour, yet far too soft to be used for purposes of decoration ; on the other hand, there may be stones of exceeding hard¬ ness and durability, yet destitute of any beauty of colour B 18 Definition ofi the term Precious Stone or Gem. or lustre, and therefore unfitted for personal adornment Colour alone is by no means a necessary property in a precious stone : the most valuable diamonds, for example, are absolutely destitute of colour; nevertheless, they possess the power of breaking up the rays of light which fall upon them, or pass into their substance, into rainbow¬ like tints of cranscendent beauty. The diamond, in fact, unites the properties of the most opposite elements—com¬ bining the purity of water with the flash of fire. Precious Stones are known also as Gems. It should be borne in mind, however, that this term is sometimes re¬ stricted by collectors of works of art to engraved stones —that is, to camei and intagli, especially those which have come down to us from antiquity or from mediaeval times. It may, therefore, be convenient, in order to avoid confusion, to refer to the precious minerals themselves as Gem-stones rather than as Gems. It is difficult to arrange the various Precious Stones in the order of their relative value, that order being subject to occasional variation according to the caprice of fashion. Nevertheless it is believed that the following scheme, in which all Precious Stones are grouped in four classes, fairly indicates the relative rank which they take at the present day. I. The Pearl stands pre-eminent. It is true that this substance, being the product of a mollusc or shell-fish, is not strictly a mineral. It is, however, so intimately related in many ways with the family of true Precious Stones that it properly claims a place in any classification, such as that under discussion. II. In this second class at the present time are placed the Ruby, the Sapphire, and the Oriental Cat’s Eye. Definition of the term Precious Stone or Gem. 19 III. Then comes the Diamond. Many readers may be surprised to find the Diamond taking so subordinate a rank ; but the time has gone by when this stone could claim a supreme position in the market. At the present day the Jagersfontein Mine, in South Africa, produces Diamonds of pure water rivalling the finest stones that were ever brought to light from the mines of India or Brazil. IV. In this class may be placed such stones as the Alexandrite, the Jacinth, the Oriental Onyx, the Peridot, the Topaz, and the Zircon. Some of these are so beau¬ tiful that they deserve to be more extensively used in the arts of jewelry. After these stones comes another class, which may be called the group of Semi-precious Stones. Many of these either lack transparency, or possess it in only very limited degree; while those which are pellucid are too common to command more than a trivial value. Such stones are frequently used for inlaid work or similar ornamental purposes rather than for personal decoration. As ex¬ amples of such stones may be cited the Agate, Malachite, and Rock-crystal. That branch of Mineralogy which deals with Precious Stones is known in Germany under the special name of Edelsteinkunde. But neither in this country nor in France does it possess any distinctive title. Perhaps it, may be best designated in English as “ The Science of Jewelry.” So far from being a trivial or frivolous study, the Science of Jewelry implies a knowledge of all the properties and peculiarities of Precious Stones, such as their physical and chemical properties ; the relation they bear to other minerals; their shape and structure; their 20 Definition of the term Precious Stone or Gem. defects and impurities. This science must, therefore, include a competent and experimental knowledge of Geometry, Physics, Chemistry, and Geology. Such knowledge in its entirety cannot be expected to be found outside the laboratory. There are, however, several comparatively simple means for the identification of Precious Stones, which are given in an Appendix to the present work. CHAPTER II. WHERE PRECIOUS STONES ARE FOUND. Tllji \$m jjpfj -ml wl -MM T is a familiar fact that Organic Nature does not flourish equally in every part of the world. Each country—or at least each zone of climate—has its own fauna and flora— its peculiar assemblage of animals and plants. No one needs to be reminded that the animals and plants of the tropics are widely different from those of temperate zones, while these again differ from those of the Arctic regions But when we turn to the inorganic world, we fail to detect any similar laws of distribution. Climate, so far as we know, is without effect on the development of minerals and rocks. Many minerals are common to the hottest and the coldest parts of the world ; yet they present no discernible difference whether brought from tropical or from Polar regions. It is true that occasionally there are slight local differences in crystallization, or in other physical characters, sufficient to enable an experienced mineralogist to say at once from what district the mineral has been obtained. But these trivial differences are due rather to geological than to geographical conditions ; and 22 Where Precious Stones are found. the assertion may be confidently repeated that climatic influences have nothing whatever to do with the distribu¬ tion of minerals. Nor is this general rule in any way broken by those exceptional minerals which we distinguish as Precious Stones. It was a pardonable supposition of ancient writers on gems that these beautiful productions of the mineral world should be mainly confined to tropical coun¬ tries. What more natural than the conjecture that those favoured regions which gave birth to gaily-coloured birds and gorgeous butterflies and flowers of surpassing loveliness should also produce minerals of the rarest brilliancy and beauty! Yet such a supposition is purely fanciful. Precious Stones, in truth, are not confined to definite geographical limits or to particular climates, but occur abundantly and in about equal perfection in all latitudes. Nor do the gem-stones of one country necessarily differ from those of other parts of the world. The Diamonds of India, for example, are hardly, if at all, to be distin¬ guished, when polished, from those found in the Ural mountains, or in Brazil, or at the Jagersfontein Mine in South Africa. The Emerald of New Granada, again, is much the same as that which is found in Upper Egypt or at Katharinenburg, in the Urals. The Beryl of Siberia has proved no unequal rival to that of Brazil, and the Amethysts of the Bavarian Palatinate equal those found in Ceylon, or in the most favoured spots of South America. It is not, indeed, the geographical position which deter¬ mines the difference between the relative values of the sites ; nevertheless it is a generally acknowledged fact that in India, Ceylon, and Brazil, larger gems and a greater abundance of them have been discovered than elsewhere. Of late years, however, it seems doubtful Where Precious Stones are found. 23 whether Cashmere and Australia will not prove formid¬ able rivals to these time-honoured localities. The Ancients were wont to ascribe this pre-eminence to evaporation from the earth where Precious Stones are found—an evaporation obviously more intense in tropical countries. It was accounted for on the fanciful supposi¬ tion that the sunburnt tropics were more favourable to the blossoms of the inorganic world, than the dark skies of the north. _ But although Precious Stones are not limited to any defined geographical area, their distribution is in a measure circumscribed, inasmuch as they are not met with in all mountain ranges, nor in all geological formations. The most valuable are found in such ranges as are considered the oldest in the world—in rocks composed of granite, gneiss, porphyry, and mica-schist. Sometimes they occur imbedded in the mass of the rock ; at other times, pro¬ truding, as it were, from the surface. When they are thus found, in the very rocks where they were originally formed, they are said to be in their primitive bed. Many, how¬ ever, are found far from their primal home, in a derivative or secondary bed, in diluvial or alluvial soils, and in the gravels and sands of river-beds. This last mode of occur¬ rence is the most frequent for the finer Precious Stones. Far removed from their native home by the force of heavy rains and rushing torrents, they have been loosened and carried onwards, rounded by friction against the debris with which they have been accompanied in their course. It is a strange fact that all those stones which have been washed in the currents are the finest. Possibly this may be explained by a process of natural selection which has weeded out the faulty stones, and left only those that by their superior hardness could survive the rough usage to which they have been subjected. It is by their hardness 24 Where Precious Stones are found. and density that they are not only preserved, but many even retain traces of their original crystalline form. In Ceylon, India, Brazil, Australia, California, the Ural, Siberia, and South Africa—from which countries the great majority of our Precious Stones are obtained— they more usually occur in these derivative beds ; and it is interesting to notice how various kinds of Precious Stones are found in company in the same locality, forming as it were a noble society of Gems, rendered still more illustrious by their association with the noble metals—gold and platinum. The habitat, or native home of the Precious Stone, will be specially indicated in the description of each individual gem. CHAPTER III. PRECIOUS STONES AND THEIR USES IN BYGONE TIMES. RECIOUS Stones were valued and preserved by the Ancients thousands of years ago. In India, where the most costly were chiefly found, this was especially the case. Other Eastern lands, on the contrary, possessed Precious Stones, and handed them down from generation to generation without knowing anything of their worth or nature, valuing them simply for their transparency, their dazzling beauty, their hardness, their crystalline forms, all of which excited their wonder, and induced them to preserve them as amulets, or to use them as personal ornaments. We know that in the time of Solomon, the love of grace and luxury induced the rich to desire the possession of Precious Stones, and even to seek for them in foreign lands. In Egypt, in ancient times, many semi-precious stones and scarabaean gems were worked ; and we learn from the Septuagint, and from Philo, that the robes of the High Priest were set with Precious Stones. It is often difficult, in reading an ancient author, to know precisely 26 Precious Stones and their uses in bygone times . what stone he intends to indicate, and ordinary transla¬ tions of technical words are by no means to be trusted. This remark applies, for example, to the names of the stones in the breast-plate of the Jewish High Priest, as rendered in our Authorized Version. The names the Hebrews gave to these stones indicate that they derived their knowledge of them from the Egyptians, who, in common with other ancient races, knew little of what we understand by Mineralogy. As regards India, Strabo and Pliny tell us that gold and Precious Stones were used for personal adornment, and that drinking cups were formed of precious metals set with Emeralds, Beryls, and Rubies. From the East the Phoenicians, in their universal traffic, exported costly stones as well as ivory, with Syrian purple and other stuffs, which were known as early as the Homeric period. The songs of Homer contain references to valuable bright stuffs and stones which served for ornament, without mentioning their special names or qualities. For instance —“ the witch puts on her costly robe and brilliant earrings,” but their nature is not de¬ fined. Eurymachus gives to Penelope an exquisitely worked necklace of gold, ornamented with light amber, bright as the sun. Eurydamas gives magnificent earrings, such as must have been worn by high-born ladies and princesses in Homeric times. The precious Onyx and the Sapphire are mentioned by Job, with the Coral, Pearls, Rubies, and Topaz of Ethiopia; and the place in which some were found appears to have been known by that patriarch of Uz : “ He putteth forth His hand upon the rock : He cutteth out rivers among the rocks, and His eye seeth every precious thing.” Six or seven hundred years B.C. the Greeks knew of many Precious Stones, and the rulers in Greece and Precious Stones and th&ir uses in bygone times. 2 *] neighbouring lands wore ornamental and signet rings made with cut gems, such as Ruby and Sapphire. The famous ring of Polycrates (died B.C. 522) was doubtless as valuable to him for its costly stones and workmanship, as for any hidden virtue which it is said to have possessed. Herodotus, and some later Greek authors, mention Theo¬ doras of Samos, the first engraver of stones, as the maker of that ring. In the beginning of the 5th century, B.C., we find among the Greeks, a didactic History of Precious Stones ; which indicates that their knowledge of them was not superficial. Onomacritus, a Priest and Founder of Hellenic mysteries, 500 years B.C., treated of Precious Stones and their mysterious power. Commencing with the bright transparent crystal, he says, “ Whoso goes into the Temple with this in his hand may be quite sure of having his prayer granted ; as the gods cannot withstand its power.” Further, he states, “that when this stone is laid upon dry wood, so that the sun’s rays may shine upon it, there will soon be seen smoke, then fire, then a bright flame.” This flame was known among the Ancients as holy fire , and they believed that no sacrifice was so acceptable to the gods as when offered through its agency. In like manner, Onomacritus sang the praises and supernatural power of the Agate, the Topaz, the spring- green Jasper, Amber, Chrysolite, Coral and Opal. The superstitions attached to these and other stones were not confined to the Ancients. Even in this enlightened age, the Empress Eugenie of France would not wear a precious Opal because it was said to bring ill luck to the wearer Queen Victoria, on the contrary, having no such super¬ stition, has presented each of her daughters, on their marriage, with a parure of Opals and Diamonds. 28 Precious Stones and their uses in bygone times. After the early Greek period the knowledge of Precious Stones advanced. Herodotus must have had accurate acquaintance with many of them. He mentions, besides the Emerald in Polycrates’ ring, signet rings, such as that of Darius ; and speaks of the so-called Emerald column in the Temple of Hercules at Tyre, which at night gave out a wonderful light. Plato mentions the Sard, Jasper, and Emerald. The Adamas, Amber, and Loadstone were not unknown to him ; and he shows some knowledge of the origin of both common and Precious Stones, and of their natural forms. It is certain that Aristotle had a knowledge of a still larger number of Precious Stones, and that he was acquainted with some of their special properties. His scholar, Theophrastus, has left us a small work on this subject. The little treatise of Theophrastus, ILpi twv AiOtZv, was written before the year 300 B.C., and, notwith¬ standing its brevity, is of special interest as being the earliest Greek work devoted to Mineralogy which has come down to modern times. It is true there exists a curious Greek poem on Precious Stones, A lOim, by the pseudo Orpheus, but this is of very little value from a scientific point of view, and its date is a matter on which the opinion of scholars is still divided. But though we have no other early Greek treatises on minerals, we find references to Precious Stones occa¬ sionally interspersed through the pages of other writers. Diodorus mentions the Topaz found in the Serpent Island of the Arabian Sea ; this is probably what we now call Chrysolite. Dionysius Periegetes mentions the clear and brilliant Diamond, the beautiful Asterios that glitters like a star, the Lychnis, with the colour of fire, the blue Beryl, the dull Jasper, the pure bluish or greenish Topaz, and the lovely Amethyst with its soft, purple sheen. Precious Stones and their uses in bygone times. 29 In the time of Alexander the Great, and still more so in the time of the luxurious Diadocheus, there was a great increase in the use of Precious Stones as articles of luxury. They were not only used for signet rings, but also in ornamenting many articles of use and luxury, particularly drinking vessels and candelabra, After the Romans became possessed of the treasures of Asia and Africa, they probably gained a much fuller knowledge of Precious Stones. Pliny must have been better informed than his predecessors as to the places where gems were found. From him also we gain most of our knowledge of the views of the Ancients as to Precious Stones. During this period the luxury of Rome in respect to Precious Stones was enormous. The Emperors adorned their robes with jewels of immense value. Paulina, the wife of Caligula, covered her dress entirely with Emeralds and Pearls of untold worth. Pliny says “ we drink out of a mass of gems, and our drinking vessels are formed of Emeralds.” A little later they began to set their sacred pictures in frames adorned with gems. Constantine entered Rome in a chariot of gold, adorned with Precious Stones which sent forth brilliant rays of light, and in his time the royal crown was first set about with similar gems. This custom of ornamenting crowns has been con¬ tinued to the present day. Passing on to the Christian Era ; among writers upon Precious Stones, Isidorus, Bishop of Seville, in the year 630 A.D., takes a prominent place. He classified gems' according to their colour. In the eleventh century Marbodus, Bishop of Rennes, wrote a Lapidarium , or Latin poem on stones, of which a Norman-French ver¬ sion is also known. A century later brought forth a really scientific treatise by Mohammed Ben Mansur—a work marked by great acumen, and evidently the result 30 Precious Stones and their uses in bygone times. of an extensive acquaintance with the stones which he describes. Coming down to later times, attention may be specially directed to the treatise De Ganmis et Lapidibus, written in 1609 by a Dutch physician, Anselmus de Boot, whose name is better known in its Latinised form of Boethius. Most of the old writers on Precious Stones occupied themselves with the study of the occult virtues which they attributed to these substances. The number of properties ascribed to Precious Stones at the time of Isidorus is wonderful. They were said to have the power of conferring health, beauty, riches, honour, good fortune and influence. Men and women carried them about their persons, prizing them as amulets. They were thought also to have some connection with the planets and seasons. A special gem was worn for each month : thus— In January ... The Hyacinth. ,, February ... ... ,, Amethyst. „ March ... yy Jasper. „ April ... ... ,, Sapphire. „ May ... yy Agate. „ June • • • yy Emerald. „ July ... yy Onyx. „ August ... yy Carnelian. ,, September... ... yy Chrysolite. „ October ... ... yy Beryl. „ November... • • • yy Topaz. „ December ... yy Ruby. The Twelve Apostles, also, were represented by gems, called Apostle-stones, viz.:— I.—The hard and solid Jasper, representing the rock of the Church, was the emblem of Peter. Precious Stones and their uses in bygone times. 31 2. —The bright-blue Sapphire was emblematic of the heavenly faith of Andrew. 3. —The Emerald, of the pure and gentle John. 4. —The white Chalcedony, of the loving James. 5. —The friendly Sardonyx, of Philip. 6 . —The red Carnelian, of the martyr Bartholomew. 7. —The Chrysolite, pure as sunlight, of Matthias. 8. —The indefinite Beryl, of the doubting Thomas. 9. —The Topaz, of the delicate James the younger. 10. —The Chrysoprase, of the serene and trustful Thaddeus. 11. —The Amethyst, of Matthew the Apostle. 12. —The pink Hyacinth, of the sweet-tempered Simeon of Cana. In later times, an Alphabet was formed of Precious and Semi-precious Stones, as exemplified by the following table:— TRANSPARENT. OPAQUE. A. Amethyst. Agate. B. Beryl. Basalt. C. Chrysoberyl. Cacholong. D. Diamond. Diaspore. E. Emerald. Egyptian Pebble. F. Felspar. Firestone, G. Garnet. Granite. H. Hyacinth. Heliotrope. I. Idocrase. Jasper. K. Kyanite. Krokidolite. L. Lynx-sapphire. Lapis-lazuli. M. Milk-opal. Malachite. N. Natrolite. Nephrite. 0. Opal. Onyx. P. Pyrope. Porphyry. Q. Quartz. Quartz-agate, 32 Precious Stones and their uses in bygone times. TRANSPARENT. OPAQUE. R. Ruby* Rose-quartz. S. Sapphire. Sardonyx. T. Topaz. Turquoise. U. Uranite. Ultra-marine (Lapis). V. Vesuvianite. Verd-antique (Porphyry). w. Water-sapphire. Wood-opal. X. Xanthite. Xylotile. z. Zircon. Zurlite. If, for instance, you wanted the word Alice repre¬ sented in a ring, you would choose Amethyst, Lynx- sapphire, Idocrase, Chrysoberyl and Emerald; or any other group of stones whose initial letters spell the name. It would be wrong to close this chapter on the history of Precious Stones in Antiquity without reference to the erudite writings of the Rev. C. W. King, of Cambridge, who has devoted much of his life to this study. CHAPTER IV. THE WORKING OF PRECIOUS STONES. LTHOUGH Professor Ruskin, in an eloquent lecture delivered at the London Institution, advised the ladies to wear uncut Precious Stones, it may be safely said that the eccentric advice of the learned professor will never be followed, either by the public at large, or by those connois¬ seurs who appreciate the true beauty of a noble mineral. It is true that the qualities for which Precious Stones are most prized, viz., lustre, transparency, refraction, and dis¬ persion of light, are to some extent visible even in their rough state ; but in order to enhance these advantages, and render them more attractive, the stones must be subjected to artistic cleaving, bruting, cutting, and polishing. The cleaving, bruting, cutting, and polishing appertain to the art of the diamond-cutter, whose aim is so to manipulate the rough stone, as to produce regular, or symmetrical and smooth surfaces, called facets. The subse¬ quent cutting of designs or mottoes in the polished stone belongs to the stone-engraver. C 34 The Working of Precious Stones. It does not appear that the Ancients understood the art of the lapidary so well, or, at any rate, valued it so highly as we do. They preferred weight to brilliancy, and size to effectiveness. They would have been horrified to sacrifice eighty carats of a stone weighing 186 carats, merely to enhance its effectiveness as a gem, whereas to-day, we should be satisfied with a stone of eighty-six carats, if by losing the ioo we could obtain a perfect gem. Accordingly, we see that they were generally content to rub down the angles, polish the surfaces, and retain to a great extent, the natural shape each stone possessed when discovered. The clasp of the regal mantle of Charlemagne (in the French national collection), is set with Diamonds with their natural planes of the octahedron only partially polished. In the year 1290 there was formed a guild of gem-polishers and cutters in Paris, and in 1373 the art of diamond polishing was practised in Nuremberg ; their mode of procedure is, however, unknown to us. It was not till a subsequent date, that the famed “table-cutters” of Nuremberg formed themselves, in conjunction with the stone-engravers, into a regular guild. One of their rules was that apprentices to the lapidary’s and engraver’s art, should be bound to serve five or six years, under the pre¬ text of the great difficulty and responsibility of their mystery, before they might venture to set up business for themselves. In 1434, Guttenberg learnt gem-cutting and polishing of Andreas Drytzehen of Strasbourg. In the year 1590, a Frenchman, Claudius de la Croix, went to Nuremberg, and carried on the cutting of Rose- 1 garnets. On Church ornaments of great antiquity and of un¬ ascertained periods, Diamonds have been found having The Working of Precious Stones. 35 upper table-like surfaces with four polished borders, and the lower sides cut as four-sided prisms or pyramids. In the inventory of the jewels of Louis, Duke of Anjou, exhibited in the years 1360—1368, the following cut Diamonds are mentioned. (1) a Diamond, of a shield shape, from a reliquary : (2) two small Diamonds, from the same reliquary with three flat-cut, four-cornered facets on both sides : (3) a small Diamond, in the form of a round mirror, set in a salt-cellar: (4) a thick Diamond, with four facets : (5) a Diamond, in the form of a lozenge : (6) an eight-sided, and (7) a six-sided plain Diamond. In the beginning of the 15th century, there are traces of the art of Diamond-polishing in Paris, and there still exists in that capital a cross-way called La Courarie, where the diamond-workers lived two hundred and fifty years ago. In 1407, diamond-cutting made great strides under Hermann, an able artist, The Duke of Burgundy gave a magnificent dinner at the Louvre to the King of France and his Court, and the noble guests received eleven Dia¬ monds set in gold. These gems were but imperfectly cut, yet with the intention and desire of heightening the play of light, and thus rendering the gift more gratifying to the guests they were intended to honor. It was in Bruges, in 1456, that Louis de Berquem who had lived long in Paris, made known his discovery of a mode of cutting the Diamond into regular facets. This increased the play of light considerably, and wrought so thorough a revolution in the jeweller’s art, that his con¬ temporaries regarded him as the father of Diamond¬ polishing and cutting. Just ten years afterwards, a guild of diamond-cutters and lapidaries was established in Bruges. In 1475, Louis de Berquem made his first experiment, 36 The Working of Precious Stones. with the object of obtaining the perfect cut , on three rough Diamonds of extraordinary dimensions, sent to him by Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy. No. I., historically known as the “ Beau Sancy,” was a thick stone, cut all over with facets. The author has had this stone examined and many models : of it taken, and his impression is that the stone, commonly called “ Beau Sancy” is the work of an Indian lapidary. No 2 passed into the hands of Pope Sixtus IV. No. 3, a badly proportioned stone, shaped as a triangle, was set in a ring, which, as a symbol of constancy, repre¬ sented two hands clasped. Strange to say, it fell into the hands of that most faithless, inconstant of kings, Louis XI. It was presented to him by the Duke of Burgundy. Robert de Berquem relates that his grandfather, Louis, received from Charles the Bold 3000 ducats for his work. Of Louis’ pupils, many went to Antwerp, some to Amsterdam, and others to Paris. In this last city the Art of diamond cutting did not succeed, owing possibly to want of encouragement and lack of raw material. It made some progress, however, under the powerful influence of Cardinal Mazarin, who ordered twelve of the thickest Diamonds of the French crown to be re-cut, and they received thenceforward the name of “ the twelve Mazarins.” No one knows what ultimately became of these costly stones. In the inventory of the French Crown Jewels, in 1774, there is only one, with the number 349, to which the name “tenth Mazarin” is given. This was a four-cornered Brilliant, with somewhat obtuse angles, of pure water, weighing sixteen carats, and valued at £2000. Owing to the patronage of the Cardinal, and the taste for Diamonds (cut Diamonds especially) which prevailed among the higher classes in France, the art prospered in the 17th century. The Working of Precious Stones, 37 Towards the end of the same century, Vincenzio Bruzzi, of Venice, experimented on the colored Diamond, endeavouring to extract the color and leave the Diamond white. This art is practised up to the present day, but with little success, as the color always returns after a certain time. De Boot, who wrote in 1609, asserts that his patron, the Emperor Rudolf II., had obtained, by the distillation of antimony, a secret preparation with which he was enabled to remove not only the color but the flaws of imperfect Diamonds. About the close of the 17th century, Paris possessed seventy-five diamond cutters in full work, and amongst them not a few very clever masters. One Jarlet, cut a Diamond for the Russian Crown of 90 carats weight. The prospect which seemed now to promise great things for the diamond cutters at Paris was but short-lived ; it soon became overclouded, and before the end of the century, the trade was well-nigh extinct. In 1775 there were only seven masters left in that city, and these gained but a scanty and precarious living. The re-cutting of old Dia¬ monds was a thing of the past, and there were over 3832 carats of rough stones waiting to be cut. In consequence of the disorders which closed in blood at this memorable epoch, they had to be sent from Paris to Antwerp. London has always had lapidaries and diamond- cutters of great ability, and the “ Old English cutting" (so termed in the trade), is looked upon as the type of the best workmanship ; yet, as the competition of skilled hands in Holland vastly exceeds that of England, the labor is less expensive and in more general demand there than here. The English lapidaries are unrivalled in deal¬ ing with colored stones, but in the case of Diamonds, we must give the palm to the Dutch. Of late years, however, the art of diamond cutting has been revived with much 33 The Working of Precious Stones. success. About a hundred and fifty years ago, London was the chief centre of the diamond-cutting trade ; but the art was neglected until some ten years back, when the great influx of Cape Diamonds led to its revival. The work¬ men were at first Dutchmen, but they were gradually displaced by Englishmen; and at present a Diamond may be cut in Clerkenwell almost as skilfully as at Amsterdam. When Portugal was at the height of her power, a very extensive trade in Precious Stones was carried on in that country by the Jews, and the lapidaries of Lisbon (mostly Jews), then carried their art to a pinnacle of perfection never perhaps, surpassed ; many of the old Lisbon-cut gems exhibiting a beauty of workmanship that taxes all the skill of our first lapidaries to rival. But the lapidary and merchant, however wealthy, were powerless to hold their own against religious fanaticism and bigotry, and the expulsion of the Jews from Portugal in the latter part of the 16th century, drove the lapidary and his art from Lisbon. The exiled gem-merchants and lapidaries found an ayslum in Holland, carrying their trade with them, in the same manner as the Huguenots brought silk weaving to England. Since that time Amsterdam has been one of the centres of the Diamond trade, and remains to the present day the principal seat of diamond-cutting. It is said that out of 28,000 Jewish inhabitants of Amsterdam, 10,000 are in some way or other connected with this business. Some very fine examples of Dutch diamond- cutting were recently displayed at the Diamanttentoon- stelling in the Amsterdam Exhibition. In India the stones are very imperfectly cut, often quite irregularly, and on one side only. The size of the stones is valued there rather than the artistic cut. In The Working of Precious Stones. 39 workman’s language the stones cut in India are “lumpy.” This was the fault of the Koh-i-nur, which was cut so clumsily by Hortensio Borgio, a Venetian, that it was reduced from 793 carats to about 186, and rendered as dull as a piece of rock crystal. It was afterwards re-cut by Messrs. Coster and Sons, and reduced to about 106 carats. Not very commendable judgment was shown in its re-cutting. The stone still retains a vitreous lustre, and a few extra carats’ weight are preserved at the expense of its beauty. Indian stones of imperfect cutting are called Labora , and when sent to Europe are re-cut and polished. DIAMOND CUTTING. I .—Diamond Dust. The Diamond, the hardest of all known bodies, can only be manipulated by means of Diamond in the form of. a fine powder. This powder is prepared generally from bort or faulty Diamonds and from the refuse in cleaving and cutting , which, being put into a mortar of hardened steel, is beaten until it is fine enough for use. 2.— Cleaving or Splitting Diamonds. The cleaving or splitting of Diamonds serves a double purpose : firstly, that of removing faulty parts or spots from the stone ; and, secondly, that of bringing out the facets in rough. Some Diamonds cannot be brought to perfection by- grinding, without much labor, especially such as have very convex facets, and such as are nearly spherical. To obtain perfect facets in these would be endless trouble. By splitting them, however, according to their natural 40 The Working of Precious Stones. cleavage, facets in the rough are obtained without much difficulty, and the pieces broken off are, as a rule, quite capable of being worked up as good stones themselves. To avail himself of the cleavage, the workman must have an intimate acquaintance with the structure of the crystal. Diamonds can only be split along certain definite lines of cleavage. 3 .—Cutting and Polishing Diamonds. There are three distinct operations in the cutting of Diamonds, namely, splitting , cutting and polishing. They form distinct branches of the trade. a .—The stone is first given to the cleaver or splitter , who examines it carefully in order to ascertain how he can develope orbring out every property to the best advantage, with as little loss of weight as possible. He must discover every imperfection. His tool is a wooden baton, having at one end a little projecting ferrule, containing cement of brick-dust and resin. He makes this cement soft, by warming it at a small fire or lamp, lays the Diamond in it, allowing the stone to remain there until the whole is quite cold, by which time the Diamond is firmly em¬ bedded. He then takes another Diamond with sharp edges, and with it cuts a mark or notch in the one he is going to cleave. This mark is generally in the shape of a V, and determines where the cleavage shall take place. This would be very difficult for an unpractised eye and hand. He catches every particle of dust in a box, with a sieve in it, which separates the dust of the cement from that of the Diamond. When the notch is made deep enough in the Diamond, the wooden baton is set upright in a block of lead. With one hand he introduces the blunt edge of a little steel blade into the notch that he has made ; with the other hand he strikes the blade a quick, sharp blow with a steel rod, and the stone is split. This is The Working of Precious Stones. 41 always a serious operation, for if any want of skill were shown by the workman, the stone would be injured, perhaps irretrievably. The stone, now that it is divided, is taken out of the cement, and the process is repeated until the Diamond has received the rough form which the workman has decided upon. b .—The stone then goes to the cutter , who has similar instruments for his work. Instead, however, of cutting notches in the Diamond, he grinds two together until both are quite smooth, and thus brings out the facets which were roughly produced by the splitter. He has to be very careful in grinding the stones that they do not get too hot. The process is very laborious, and the workman has to wear thick leather gloves to preserve his hands, From time to time the stones must be looked at, and the powder brushed from them with a fine camel-hair brush, and the facets touched with the tongue to keep them damp. The cutter gives the stone its definite form. If it is thick enough for a Brilliant, he forms the “ table ” first, and then successively all the facets. Everything depends upon the cutting of a Diamond : 1st.—Its brilliancy. 2nd.—The table should be perfectly smooth, and with out a ripple. 3rd.—The concentration of all the angles to effect the greatest brilliancy. 4th.—The polishing of the edges. The great home for Diamond cutting is Amsterdam, but in order to diminish the price of cutting, Germany and Switzerland have also been tried—especially the latter, Switzerland being the great home for female labour: but the result has not been satisfactory as will be seen by the following statement. A parcel of rough stones coming from the Cape was 42 The Working of Precious Stones. divided into three portions, one being sent to each of the above-named countries. The cost of labour in Germany was only is. 6 d. below that of Amsterdam, yet the stones lost so much by the cutting that their value was less by 10^ ; and in like manner those of Switzerland, were 20s. lower in value. Only highly skilled and very honest artizans are entrusted with the cutting of large Diamonds. When the Diamond passes from the cutter’s hands it is by no means perfect. The lustre and transparency for which it is so much valued are only fully developed in the hands of the polisher. The polishing rooms of great factories in Amsterdam, such as those of Mr. Coster, are well worthy .of a visit. The grinding and polishing of the Diamond are effected on flat wheels propelled by steam-power, which make about 2000 revolutions in a minute. Before these silently revolving discs you will see men so intent upon their work that they have eyes for nothing else ; for, notwith¬ standing the machinery, the skill of the workman is of primal importance. It is with their fingers and thumbs that they adjust the points, edges and facets of the Diamond with extreme accuracy, keeping them constantly moist with Diamond dust and olive oil. The thumbs being used continually, and with much force, sometimes become enlarged. Cutting of Precious Stones Generally. This embraces the cutting of all Precious and Semi¬ precious Stones used for ornament, except the Diamond. The lapidary arranges his work much in the same manner as the Diamond-cutter, but he uses other means for the cutting and polishing, according to the nature of the stone The Working of Precious Stones . 43 to be worked. These special means will be noticed under each particular stone. The Forms of Precious Stones. The beauty of a finished stone depends so much upon the form and position of its facets, that a moderately fine stone, well cut and polished, is of far greater value than a large one less artistically worked. It happens sometimes that the lapidary receives a stone of very unfortunate shape ; his duty will, therefore, be to take all possible care to preserve its size ; and, hiding its faults, give it such a form as shall send it forth with the greatest weight and beauty. In selecting Precious Stones you must mentally ask yourself the following questions : Is their transparency conspicuous ? Are they like a dew-drop hanging from a damask rose leaf, that is, are they of pure water, and do they possess the power of refraction in a high degree ? Or, are they transparent and colored ; and, if the latter, have they a play of color ? Lastly, have they notable imperfections ? Transparent stones must not be too thick ; for either they will refract light too strongly, or impede the light passing through, and thus rob the stone of its brilliancy and fire. In colorless stones, the width and thickness which they must have are, as a rule, determinate; whilst in colored ones they are regulated by the intensity and thoroughness of the color. The workman is compelled sometimes to give the stone a form other than that intended by nature, in con¬ sequence of flaws and clefts, and in order to remedy irregularities in the stone. This is most frequently the case in large stones, 44 The Working of Precious Stones. Different forms of cutting receive different names, which are often extended to the finished stone itself. For instance, if you hear of a “ Brilliant ” or “ Rose ” you know at once that the first is a Diamond with a table and culet, the second only a low pyramidal stone, facetted over the top, but with the under surface quite flat. i.— The Brilliant. This is the most favorable form for enhancing the play of color, and is therefore most effective for all Precious and most of the Semi-precious Stones. It is said to be the crowning invention in the art of diamond-cutting. It was due originally to Vincenzio Peruzzi, of Venice ; which city was, in his time, the chief seat of the Diamond trade. As a Brilliant, the Diamond has the form of two cones united by their bases; the upper one being so truncated as to give a large plane surface, the lower one much less so, in fact terminating almost in a point. The stone being set with the broad plane uppermost, produces the effect of great depth of light, and its many facets increase what is termed its play of light ; the density of the material naturally intensifying the refractive power, and thereby increasing its brilliancy. The plane surface at the top is called the table ; the bottom plane is called the culet or culette; the junction of the upper truncated pyramid with the lower is the girdle; and the lower pointed portion is the pavilion. Between the table and the girdle are thirty-two facets, and below the girdle twenty-four. These facets receive their names from their forms. Star facets are those whose edges abut on the table ; the others are generally triangular. According to the number of facets, the Brilliant is said to be single, double, or Old English cut. The Brilliant depends greatly upon the facetting for its exceeding beauty. HE PROPER SIZES OF WEE PROPORTIONED BRILLIANTS OF THE VARIOUS, WEIGHTS. The BlackLines underneath show the relative thickness each Diamond should have and the round dots the size of the CuleL The Working of Precious Stones. 45 The English make the girdle rather sharp ; but the Dutch make it broader. The former method brings out the play of light better. A form, called the “ Star,” was invented by M. Caire, to take advantage of the clear portions of rough Diamonds, which could not be otherwise used without great sacrifice of material. This star-cut Diamond, as it is now worn, must be cut with extreme exactitude, avoiding the very slightest irregularity. Briolettes are pear-shaped or oval stones, having neither table, culette, nor edge, but covered over equally with triangular-shaped lacets, and frequently pierced through in order that they may be worn suspended. 2.— The Rose. This form has been in use since 1520, and is fanci¬ fully supposed to resemble an opening rose-bud. It is chosen when the loss to the stone would be great if the brilliant cut were selected. The characteristic of the “ Rose ” is that it is fiat below, and forms a hemisphere or low pyramid above, covered with small facets. These facets are in two rows : those in the upper row are called star-facets; those in the lower, diagonal-faceis. In the centre there are generally six facets of triangular shape. A circular stone is best for the Rose ; the facets are more effectively brought out, and can be more easily polished than in a flat-shaped stone. Although the Rose gives out a strong fire, and sends its rays as far as a Brilliant, yet, in the latter, the play of light is more remarkable, because the stone is deeper and the facets exactly corresponding, which makes the prismatic colors more distinct. The number of facets, together with their position, decides the name of the Rose. A Dutch Rose is constituted 46 The Working of Precious Stones. of twenty-four facets ; the Rose Recoupee of thirty-six ; and the Brabant Rose of twelve or even fewer, only less raised than the Dutch. 3. —Indian Cut. This has an upper part, lower part, and girdle. Its most frequent form is that of a single cut Brilliant, In consequence of the small effects produced by this form it is generally re-cut to meet European requirements, but this is usually attended with a very great loss of weight to the stone. 4. —Point Cut. Stones may be pointed naturally or artificially. Some Precious Stones may either be cut as four-sided pyramids, or are so formed by polishing the faces of the octahedron, and making them exactly true and regular. This style of cutting is found in antique ornaments only, and was well- known to Kentmann in 1562. 5 .—Portrait Stones consist of thin plates of Diamond, evenly polished on both sides, with little facets on the edges. They serve to cover portraits in rings. 6.— Step-Cut or Graduated Form. Where the facets gradually decrease as they approach the table and culasse, the gem is designated a “ Step-cut.” The style is effective, especially in colored stones, the light being thereby better reflected, and the play of color intensified. 7 .—Convex Stones or Cabochon. When a stone receives one or two convex faces with or without facets at the base, it is said to be convex cut, e.g. Almandine Garnet. But when its faces are simply polished, The Working- of Precious Stones. 47 it is said to be cut en cabochon, as in the Opal and Cat’s-eye. In ancient times the Sapphire was always so cut, and although sometimes the Emerald and Ruby are now so treated, the style is better adapted for stones of inferior value, because of the nature of their defects. A/stone cut with a flattish convex surface is said to be tallow-topped. ENGRAVING. Engraving Stones is an art of unknown antiquity ; it must consist of designs which are either sunk into, and so are below the surface of the material engraved, designated Intaglio , or the design must be in relief, or raised above the ground or surface, to which the term Cameo* applies. Nearly all kinds of stones and gems have been treated by one of these methods, although for obvious reasons, brittle gems are not ordinarily selected. Stones, transparent or opaque, and of one or many colors, spotted or striped, convex or even concave, have been chosen. As a rule, however, the master-works in this department of art are on beautiful transparent stones. An artist does not care to expend his time and talent on a stone which does not show his work to the best advantage, and at its full worth. The stones preferred by the Ancients for engraving were the Emerald, Beryl, Hyacinth, Amethyst, Topaz, Lapis- Lazuli, Opal, and Chrysolite; and among those of less value, the Carnelian, varieties of Jasper, Agate, Onyx, Sardonyx, Turquoise, Rock Crystal, Green Quartz or Prase, and Malachite. There is a very beautiful specimen of a Turquoise- Cameo in the Vienna Collection ; and an Isis-head of the * The Italian plurals of these words, namely Intagli and Camei, are used by precise writers, but the ordinary English plurals Intaglios and Cameos are more commonly employed. 4 $ The Working of Precious Stones. finest workmanship, in Malachite, in the Russian Collection of Jewels at St. Petersburg. For Cameos it is desirable to select large stones, remarkable for beauty of color, with different layers ; although choice works of art have been elaborated on gems of one color. The more layers an Onyx or Sardonyx has, and the more beautiful the colors, the more costly is the stone. The best stones for this particular work are those with a white layer on a dark ground. They are still better where there is a third layer above, as white with a reddish or brownish tinge, which the artist can work into hair, wreaths, or dress. Entirely transparent Stones are very rarely used for Cameos. THE ART OF STONE ENGRAVING IN THE MIDDLE AGES AND IN MODERN TIMES. Stone engraving seems to have been introduced into the West by jews from Alexandria. In the middle ages, and even in later times, when there was no great master in the Art of Engraving, the cut stones of the ancient Greeks and Romans were used as signet rings. King Pepin sealed with the Indian Bacchus, and Charlemagne with a stone representing Jupiter Serapis. Later on, signet rings were engraved with the king’s signature ; and lovers were wont to exchange at their betrothal, rings cut to represent wishes or allegories. In the 15th century, when Constantinople fell under the dominion of the Turk, the Greek artists left their fatherland, carrying with them the secret knowledge of stone engraving into Italy. The first fruits of this immigration were seen during the Pontificates of Martin V. and Paul II. Lorenzo de’ Medici assisted the development of the art by affording to Giovanni Bernardi the means The Working of Precious Stones. 49 of acquiring it both by instruction and practice, so that he eventually received the cognomen of Giovanni delle Cor- nioli, in recognition of the perfection he had acquired in engraving Carnelian. His work was so exquisite that it bore favorable comparison with the masterpieces of old classic times, and he has been regarded as the restorer of the art of Stone Engraving in Italy. A contemporary of his, named Dominico de’ Camei, employed himself in cutting beautiful Intaglios as well as Cameos. He sculptured on a pale red Ruby the likeness of Ludovico, the Moor, Duke of Milan. Clement Birago, of Milan, or his master Trezzo, discovered in 1556 the art of engraving the Diamond. According to Blum, Ambrosius Caradossa was the first to sculpture Diamonds. It is stated that he engraved the figure of a Father of the Church, for Pope Julius II., in 1500. The earliest trace of Stone Engraving in Germany is found in Nuremberg and Strasburg, in the 15th and 16th centuries. France, England and, in modern times, Rome also, produced most excellent artists in Stone Engraving. Modern artists have so well imitated the works of the Ancients that it is difficult for a practised eye to distinguish the old jewels from the new, which are copies from the originals. The Ancients possessed very able workers in Stone Engraving ; but it would be unjust to modern artists to declare that all excellence in this department belongs to the antique, as the originals have not only been equalled, but surpassed. Many of the most beautiful of ancient gems are care¬ fully preserved in Berlin, Vienna, Naples, Florence, in the Barberini Palace, in the Museum of Duke Odescalchi in Rome, and in St. Petersburg and Copenhagen. The Blacas Collection, in the British Museum, contains some of the D The Working of Precious Stones. 50 most valuable “ Gems ” (engraved stones) in the world. Francis I. of France, made the first collection of engraved stones ; and the Duke of Orleans’ collection in Paris was of world-wide celebrity. When true copies of these works are required, impressions can be made of them in various kinds of materials. Plaster of Paris, and sulphur, are most frequently employed for this purpose. BURNING OF PRECIOUS STONES. Precious Stones are often burnt or subjected to a high temperature. Red heat exercises a very peculiar influence upon many stones, and sometimes modifies or utterly changes their color. The Oriental Carnelian owes its beautiful tint entirely to burning. It is found in quartz sand, near Baroche, at the estuary of the Nerbudda, in the Bombay Presidency, and is cut and burnt at the place where it is found. The Brazilian Topaz derives its remarkable pale-red color from burning. The facets of a naturally red Topaz reflect a purple hue. and by candle-light the red is more deeply tinged with purple than violet : while, on the contrary, the burnt stone, of less worth, is tinged with violet. One way of burning Precious Stones is to roll them up in a piece of sponge, and burn them in it ; or, as is done with Sapphires, Hyacinths, and Amethysts, place them in a crucible, with unslaked lime or iron-filings, and heat them until they are quite clear. Occasionally where a faulty stone with dark spots is burnt with sand and iron filings, the spots are removed and the color equalized. This process requires great care. Rubies are occasionally infected with white spots, but these can be removed by burning. Crystal also, carefully burnt in a crucible with lime, sand, or charcoal, will come The Working of Precious Stones. 51 out perfectly clear. The discharge of colour is evidently due to the decomposition of the organic matter, with which the stone was tinted. DYEING OF PRECIOUS STONES. The possibility of giving artificial colors to Precious Stones was not unknown to the Romans. Pliny relates : (1) that recipes were offered for sale which professed to turn Rock-crystals into Emeralds and other transparent gems: (2) that in India many Precious Stones were produced by dyeing Rock-crystal : (3) that the Ethiopians deposited the pale Carbuncle in vinegar for fourteen days, when it was alleged that it would shine brilliantly for a similar number of months. Respecting the artificial color¬ ing of certain gems of the Quartz species, Pliny says that of certain Agates {Cockades') more were probably produced artificially than naturally : and that in Arabia the Agate- nodules, if cooked seven days and seven nights in honey, will,'when prepared by the artist, present veins, stripes, and spots, which increase their effectiveness as ornaments. The cooking in honey certainly appears to have the effect of cleansing the whole stone, and not its surface only, from defacing impurities. This notion of honey purifying the Agate seems to be the foundation of the following beautiful idea: “All kinds of Precious Stones, cast into honey, become more brilliant thereby, each one according to its color, and all persons become more acceptable in their vocation, when they join devotion with it : household cares are thereby rendered tranquil, the love of husband and wife more sincere, the service of the prince more faithful, and all kinds of business more easy and pleasant /—Extract from the Introduction to “ The Devout Life? by S. Francis do Sales. Chap. III., par. 13. 1708. The Working of Precious Stones. $2 In the last century many attempts were made by means of metallic solutions, to dye Agate, Chalcedony and Carnelian, both on the surface and internally, with various colors. In Oberstein and Idar—two neighbouring locali¬ ties near Kreuznach, on the river Nahe, famous for their industry in working Agates—the artists have been most successful in coloring not only the surface of the stones, but their inner depths. Both in polishing and coloring the stones, they have given such variety and beauty to their wares as considerably to increase their value in the market. The use of honey in the dyeing of stones was in early times the secret of a few Agate merchants at Idar. The secret was obtained from some Romans who came to pro¬ cure various kinds of Onyx from the stone-polishers at that place and at Oberstein. It is impossible to say whether these Romans acquired the knowledge by reading Pliny, or received it as a tradition in Italy. This Art is based on the fact that the fine stripes of the Chalcedony, in the Agate Nodule, no matter how faint their tints, can by application of a colored fluid be intensified and made apparent throughout the stone. This led the stone-polishers to conclude that they might change mean and insignificant-looking stones into beautiful ones, suitable for Cameos and cognate purposes, and thereby materially increase their value. The Agate merchants test the worth of the raw stone for dyeing by striking a thin piece off it, damping it with the tongue, and observing whether the drying of the stripes takes place quickly or slowly. If the stripes absorb the moisture quickly, then the stone is good for dyeing, and especially for Onyx-dyeing. This test, however, cannot always be relied on, and the manipulators are sometimes obliged to color a small piece before buying the stones. The Working of Precious Stones. 53 At Oberstein and Idar the Onyx is dyed in the following manner. The stone is twice washed, and then dried. It is next laid in honey and water (half-a-pound of honey to about sixteen or twenty ounces of water). The dish in which it is laid must be chemically clean. This is placed in a warm oven, and care must be taken that the water does not boil, and that the stone is always covered with the liquid. This treatment is continued from fourteen to twenty-one days. The stone is then taken out of the honey, washed, and soaked in another dish with sulphuric acid. The dish is then covered, and placed in hot ashes with burning charcoal over the cover. In a few hours the stone will be dyed. Some stones re¬ quire a longer time ; and some will, despite all care, take no color. The last step is to remove the stone from the sulphuric acid, wash it, dry it in the oven, and lay it in oil for a day : this imparts to it an increased clearness and brilliancy. By this process it will have obtained a variegated pattern : for, according to the porosity of the stone, grey, brown, black, or red stripes will be brought out. The stone known as the “ Carnelian of Brazil ” is worked in great quantities in Oberstein and Idar. The method of imparting a blue colour to Agate was introduced at Oberstein in 1S45. By steeping the stone first in a solution of yellow prussiate of potash and then in one of a ferric salt, a precipitate of Prussian blue is formed within the pores of the Agate. In other processes a solution of blue vitriol and ammonia is employed, so that an ammoniacal sulphate of copper, of magnificent colour, thus becomes the tinctorial agent. Of late, an exquisite blue dye has been found for the Chalcedony, by which the varied shades of the more valuable Turquoise and the Lapis lazuli are produced, 54 The Working of Precious Stones. and both the English and French markets have plentiful supplies of these artificially-tinted stones. The mode of operating upon these stones is known but to a few. A green colour, resembling that of Chrysoprase, may be obtained by impregnating the Agate with certain salts of nickel or of chromium ; while a yellow tint is obtained by digestion in warm muriatic acid, the iron in the stone being thus converted into a chloride. In fact, the chemi¬ cal resources of the German Agate-worker now enable him to colour a stone to almost any desired tint. CHAPTER V. PRECIOUS STONES AS OBJECTS OF COMMERCE. HE trade in Precious Stones is much more important now than formerly. Before the discovery of America, India was the great emporium. Pegu, famous for its beautiful gems of all kinds, received yearly a very large sum for its exports ; so also did Ceylon, from which island we even now obtain a large portion of our colored Precious Stones, especially Sapphires, Cats’ Eyes, and Rubies of an inferior color. During the dynasty of the Kandy Rulers, the right of digging for Precious Stones was most jealously guarded as a royal prerogative, and the inhabitants of particular villages, under the supervision of hereditary overseers, were occupied in the search for gems. Under the British Government this monopoly was given up, and traders needed no “ special permit ” A number of men are constantly occupied in this exciting and precarious business : and the idle and dis¬ orderly adventurers who visit the villages are the cause of great immorality among the inhabitants. The results of their labors the)- sell to the Malays who come to Saffragam 56 Precious Stones as Objects of Commerce. with cloth and salt, which they exchange for Precious Stones. At the yearly Bhudda Festival in August there is a jewel market held in Ratnapura, whither those interested in jewels flock from all parts of Ceylon. The position of the people of Saffragam is so much improved of late years that they are able to retain for themselves any stones they find of great worth. Now and then they are induced to exchange them for Diamonds or gold, which they can equally well conceal. The artificers who cut and polish the stones on the spot are generally Malays; but their work is very imperfect, and their know¬ ledge of the Art faulty. Stones of smaller value, such as Cinnamon-stone and Tourmaline, are cut and polished by ordinary workmen in Kandy, Matura and Galle. Artistic and experienced workmen who cut Sapphires, Cats’ Eyes and Rubies, live chiefly in Caltura and Colombo. As a general rule, the rare gems are cheaper in Europe than in Colombo. Precious Stones are brought from all parts of the world to London, both in the rough and also to be re-cut. In Ceylon the stock is so uncertain, that the price is largely determined at the moment by the rank and wealth of the buyers. The small Malay dealers do not buy rare and fine jewels, knowing quite well that the best and finest specimens are carefully held back by the rich traders, who consign them to England, or obtain from the native princes of India, who have an ardent passion for gems, such remuneration as keeps up the prices of high- class jewels. It is quite impossible to judge accurately by the Customs’ Register in Ceylon of the worth of the Precious Stones which are sent out of the island. Only a small part is directly consigned to England ; the remainder is bought up by private hands, but, for the most part, it ultimately Precious Stones as Objects of Commerce. 57 finds its way to the English market. It is calculated roughly, that the value of Precious Stones found in the island amounts to £20,000 yearly. The Dutch East India Company formerly received the rough stones in packets, sealed with their special seal. These packets were sold by auction, without being opened. Often from £2000 to ,£3000 were paid for one packet, and the buyer was very rarely wrong in his purchase. More than a hundred years ago Brazil became a powerful rival of India for Diamonds. The most beautiful stones were found in the nearly inaccessible wilds of Minas- Novas, by poor mulattoes and negroes, and sold to the merchants. While Brazil belonged to the Portuguese Crown, Lisbon enjoyed the largest share of the trade in Precious Stones. The trade was a prerogative of the Crown. At the present day the remarkable development of Diamond-ruining in South Africa, has almost driven the Brazilian Diamond out of the market. In the trade of Precious Stones, the colored stones stand far behind the Diamond ; insomuch, that this stone alone represents 90 per cent., and the others altogether only 10 per cent, of the quantity on sale. Apart from the class to which the stone belongs, the price is determined by its beauty, the quality and play of color, brilliancy, purity, rarity, the perfection of the cutting, and above all, its weight. This last quality increases the price considerably,as the most beautiful stones aregenerally found in only small crystals. In the case of Semi-precious Stones, the size and color are much considered in determining the price, but these advantages are not so important as the artistic working of the stones. Stones depend mainly upon this adventitious circumstance for their actual worth. As a general maxim 58 Precious Stones as Objects of Commerce. gems are valued for their rarity and quality ; fashion occasionally exercising influence in a greater or less degree upon their market value. At the Leipzig Easter Market, some years ago, Dia¬ monds fell suddenly 50 per cent., owing to Dom Pedro having paid the interest of the Brazilian State-Debt to England in Diamonds instead of money, and thereby caused a glut in the market. In 1S36 the price again rose. In 1848, in consequence of the Revolution in France, it fell greatly. From that year until 1865 the value of Diamonds seemed to have increased at about the rate of 5 per cent, per annum. Then, at the end of the Civil War in America it sprang up suddenly 25 per cent. At the end of the Franco-German war of 1871 it rose another 10 per cent., and during the next two years there was a gradual rise amounting to 20 per cent. Afterwards, owing to the panic in America, and the effect of the discoveries at the Cape, the market price steadily fell ; but now, with the revival of trade, fine Diamonds have reached a very high value. In buying Precious Stones much precaution is re¬ quired. Few wares are liable to more faults and imitations than these, and the faults alone are sufficient materially to lessen the value. In the rough stones they are not easily observed : and in manipulated gems they may be hidden by clever workmanship. Among the most frequent defects are : (1) Feathers: little rents or fissures in the inside of the stone ; they are found in all kinds of Precious Stones. (2) Clouds : grey, brown and white spots, very like clouds, which much increase the labor of preparing the gem for sale ; this, fault is mostly found in Diamonds and pale Rubies. (3) Sand: or little seed-like bodies within the stone, of white, brown or red color; these are called dust when very fine Precious Stones as Objects of Commerce. 59 and in large number in one stone. Absolute perfection is no more to be found in Diamonds and Precious Stones, than in any other created thing ; for, however perfect they may appear, there is, as a rule, some trifling defect. THE FIRST KNOWN APPLICATION OF DIAMONDS FOR ORNAMENT. The adaptability of the Diamond for personal orna¬ ment is grounded mainly on its conspicuous lustre and beautiful play of light, properties which are rendered prominent by cutting the stone, so as to give it the greatest number of surfaces consistent with its size. By these manipulations the rough stone loses an amount, even ex¬ tending to more than one-half of its original weight. The Syrians seem to have been the first to apply the Diamond to personal ornament, although it was an article of commerce much earlier among the peoples of the East. They valued it highly, carried it as amulets, and attributed to it many medical virtues. It was regarded also as a safeguard against madness. Although Jeremiah (xvii. 1) speaks of the sin of Judah being written with “the point of a Diamond,” — Puncio adamantinis of the Vulgate—it is probable that this adamas was the corundum, and not true Diamond. Ezekiel says of the Syrians :—“ Thou hast been in Eden, the Garden of God ; every precious stone was thy covering the Topaz, and the Diamond, the Beryl, Sardius, the Onyx, and the Jasper, the Sapphire, the Emerald, and the Carbuncle. . . . Thou hast walked up and down in the midst of the stones of fire.” (Ez. xxviii. 13, 14). The Chaldeans, who were the most superstitious people, and seem to have initiated the Jews into their mysteries, their charms against evil and mischance, per¬ verted the precious stones from their purpose of ornament 6o Precious Stones as Objects of Commerce. and even of usefulness into idolatrous amulets, and fixed on them superstitious uses, from which it has been found impossible to dissociate them, even to the present day. In early times the Diamond was worn rough, or polished only on its upper surface. It was in this form that it was used to ornament temples, state goblets, reliquaries, and crowns. In India the native uncut stones are still prized under the name of Naifes. It was not until the time of Charles VII. that the French ladies began to adorn themselves with Diamonds. The well-known Agnes Sorrel was probably a leader of this fashion. Under Francis I. the ladies indulged to such an extent in Diamond ornaments that it gave rise to the saying, that “the ladies of France carried mills, forests, and lands, on their shoulders.” The Luxus or Sumptuary Laws, in the reign of Charles IX. and Henry IV., were aimed at this extravagance. After the introduction of the art of Diamond-cutting by Louis de Berquem, Diamonds were largely used for ornament ; and even at the present day a lady’s dress is not considered complete without them. The original cut of the Diamond was that of the table- form, with a row of facets above. It was not until the year 1520 that the Rose-cut was introduced, whilst the form of the Brilliant was not known until the reign of Louis XIII. of France. It was Cardinal Mazarin in 1660 who first had the Diamond cut as a Brilliant. Among the Diamonds of the French Crown is one of the twelve Brilliants, known as the Tenth Mazarin. The Diamond, in consequence of its supreme hard¬ ness, is very rarely engraved : up to the time of Pliny it appears never to have been attempted. The art of en¬ graving on Diamonds is said to have been invented by an Precious Stones ns Objects of Commerce. 61 Italian named Trezzo, who executed the arms of Charles V. upon a Diamond. His pupil, Clement Birago, engraved on another Diamond the portrait of the Spanish prince, Don Carlos ; and the arms of Queen Mary of England are believed to have been executed on a Diamond by Jacobus Thronus. It is possible, however, that in some cases, White Sapphires and Topazes may have been mistaken for Diamonds. Notwithstanding this doubt, there are certain engraved stones which are, unquestionably true Diamonds. Thus, the Duke of Bedford possesses a Diamond with the head of the philosopher Posidonius engraved on it ; and although Kluge believes this to be an isolated example, yet there are others in existence. In 1877 one was offered for sale. It was a thin stone, the size of a fourpenny piece, engraved with the head of an emperor. The price was .£1000; but at such a sum it did not find a ready pur¬ chaser. This stone was exhibited in the Paris Exhibition of 1867. In the Hope collection there is a Diamond engraved with the head of Leopold II. SECTION II. CHAPTER I. T HE DIAMOND. HE regular crystalline forms in which the Diamond is found belong to the Cubic or Tesseral or Isometric system, and are gene¬ rally the octahedron and the rhombic dodeca¬ hedron. One peculiarity of the crystallization of the Diamond is that the surfaces often are more or less curved, or convex, whilst those of other crystalline bodies, with few exceptions, are flat. Not unfrequently it takes the form of a six-faced octahedron, which, by the rounding of the faces, approaches a small ball or egg in shape. In some cases the crystals are curiously “ twinned.” Groups of crystals, dodccahedra as well as octahedra, are not rare. There is a very fine specimen of such a mass of coalesced octahedra in the Royal Mineral Museum at Dresden ; and in the Vienna Collection there is a Diamond which has, enclosed within itself, another simi¬ larly-crystallized Diamond of a yellow colour. For The Diamond. 63 further information on this topic, the reader is referred to the chapters on Cape, Australian, Brazilian, and Indian Diamonds. The surface of the crystals is generally smooth ; sometimes, however, it is rough and striated, in which case it resembles a poorly polished glass, and loses its lustre and sharp corners. Frequently the surface ap¬ pears dull, and as though covered with a thin coating of gum. The Diamond is occasionally, though very rarely, found compact in fine-grained porous aggregates, of brownish black colour. In rare instances it has been found massive in Brazil, in small black pebbles, having a specific gravity of 3'0 to 3'4. These pebbles, nearly pure carbon, were sold on the spot at two shillings and eight- pence the carat; they are now worth thirty shillings per carat. The Diamond has a perfect cleavage, parallel to the faces of the octahedron, which is its primary form. The Diamond cutter avails himself of his knowledge of this natural structure, and is thereby enabled to remove- portions damaged by spots, without resorting to the weary work of grinding. Dr. Wollaston, in the early part of this century, was one of the first to call attention to the advantages offered by the ready cleavage of the Diamond. It is said that having purchased of Messrs. Rundle and Bridge a fine rough Diamond, which they considered too much flawed to be worth cutting, the learned doctor minutely studied the structure of the stone, and having removed the defective part by cleavage had the per¬ fect portion cut, and then re-sold it to Messrs. Rundle and Bridge at a very large profit. Long before Dr. Wollaston’s time, however, there must have been many who were familiar with the cleavage of the Diamond. Thus De 6 4 The Diamond. Boot, writing in 1609, tells us that he knew a physician who boasted that he could “ divide a Diamond into small scales like a piece of talc.” The fracture of the Diamond is conchoidal, and here and there the stone is liable to split off in fragments. Notwithstanding the great hardness of the Diamond, it is so brittle that it can be reduced to grains by a heavy pestle in a mortar. In addition to the property of cleavage, the Diamond possesses pre-eminently that of hardness ; a quality in which it so exceeds other bodies that it can penetrate them all without being itself even scratched, and there¬ fore formerly it was only possible to polish it very par¬ tially, and to use it in the form it obtained in the rough. In early times there existed such an exaggerated idea of its extraordinary hardness that it was said a Diamond could not be broken by a hammer on an anvil, and that it was far easier to strike the anvil into the earth than break the Diamond. This will account for the Ancients having no knowledge of any great Diamonds, as they always placed them upon the anvil to test their genuine¬ ness. Through this ignorance many a regal gem has been shattered and so lost to the world. It was only the brittleness of the stone which was really tested by the hammer, and not its hardness, which is a very different quality. Pliny gives a detailed account of the Diamond in his “Natural History,” xxxvii., 15. He says: “The most valuable thing on earth is the Diamond, known only to kings, and to them imperfectly. ... It is only engen¬ dered in the finest gold.Six different kinds are known. Among these the Indian and Arabian, of such indomitable, unspeakable hardness, that when laid on the anvil it gives the blow back in such force as to The Diamond. 65 shiver the hammer and anvil to pieces. It can also resist fire, for it is incapable of being burnt. . . . This superiority over steel and fire is subdued by goat’s blood, in which it must be soaked when the blood is fresh and warm ; then only when the hammer is wielded with such force as to break both it and the anvil, will it yield. . . . Only a god could have communicated such a valuable secret to mankind. When at last it yields by means of the blood, it falls into such small pieces that they can scarcely be seen.” The curious opinions of the Ancients as to the intan¬ gibility of the Diamond are discussed by Sir Thomas Browne, in his famous work on “ Vulgar Errors,” written in 1646. The doctor is naturally led to discard the old views, notwithstanding the support which they had re¬ ceived from the early Christian writers, and to conclude, on the evidence of practical men like lapidaries, that Diamonds “are so far from breaking hammers, that they submit unto pistillation, and resist not an ordinary pestle.” Hardness is the best test of the genuineness of a Diamond. If a mineral cannot be scratched or cut by Ruby or Sapphire, it can only be a Diamond. The officers of the “Junta Diamantina,” in Brazil, test the genuine¬ ness of two rough Diamonds by rubbing them together close to the ear, when, if they be real, they make a pecu¬ liar creaking or grating noise, which the long experience of the testers easily recognises. Optical Properties. — Refraction. The conditions which the Diamond presents in rela¬ tion to light are very remarkable. It is one of those bodies which refract light most strongly—that is to say, when a ray of light enters a Diamond, it is turned from its original path to a much greater extent than if it had entered a Topaz or a Rock-Crystal or a piece of glass. E 66 The Diamond. Hence the magnifying power of a Diamond is much greater than that of glass. It is said that if a Diamond and a piece of plate-glass be ground into lenses of similar form, the magnifying power of the Diamond exceeds that of the glass in the ratio of 8 to 3. It was this that induced Mr. A. Pritchard many years ago to apply the Diamond as a microscopic lens ; but owing to the great difficulty of manipulating it, so as to adapt it to the purpose, its use is much restricted. The Diamond having been found as a crystalline solid substance, of distinct form, it was at once assumed to be a mineral production. Probably the first philoso¬ pher to throw doubt on this conclusion was Sir Isaac Newton. In his optical researches he had established a relation between the refractive power of a body and its density. The power of refraction in each body is ex¬ pressed scientifically by a certain number or numerical ratio called the index of refraction. Now, Newton found that the index of refraction of Diamonds was much higher than he should have anticipated from the specific gravity of the stone. But he had observed that fatty and resinous bodies—such as oils, turpentine, and amber—possessed in like manner a higher refractive index than their density would suggest. Hence he was led to throw out the bold conjecture that the Diamond might be “ an unctuous body coagulated ! ” The optical and other physical properties of the Diamond have led our great naturalists to the conclusion that, although it is certainly a non-metallic mineral, it is probably of vegetable origin—a conclusion of which the author, after a long and careful study, has no doubt. Reflection and Dispersion. In addition to its property of strong refraction, the Diamond possesses the power, in an extraordinary degree, The Diamond. 67 of reflecting and dispersing the rays of light, thus causing what is technically termed the “ play of colors,” observ¬ able on a well-cut Diamond. The optical term “ disper¬ sion ” is applied to the power which a transparent substance possesses of breaking up the incident white light into prismatic tints, like those of the rainbow—a power which is enjoyed to an unusual extent by the Diamond, and gives rise to the splendid flashes of fire emitted by a stone which has been skilfully cut. As the value of a Diamond depends very materially upon this play of colors, many methods have been essayed from time to time fortesting it. Babinet recommends the following plan, which he himself was in the habit of employing. In a sheet of white paper he bored a hole somewhat larger than the Diamond to be tested ; he let a ray of sun-light pass through the hole, and holding the Diamond a little distance from it, yet at such an angle as to allow the ray to alight on a point of the flat facet, he found this facet to be forthwith represented on the paper as a white figure, whilst all around little rainbow circles were delineated. If the observer found the primary colors, i.e. red, yellow, and blue, definitely separated one from the other in these little circles, and if their number were considerable, and they stood at equal distances from each other, then he pronounced the Brilliant to be well cut. In the Rose Diamond the light is reflected from the under-plane, and produces a similar effect to that seen in the Brilliant. The Diamond does not possess the power of double refraction, neither does it polarize light, as commonly understood, although, according to Brewster, there are in some stones certain optical irregularities due to inter¬ nal air-bubbles, or open cavities. The author has one in his possession, which reflects different colors according to 68 The Diamond. the direction in which the solar rays light upon it. Since, on the outside of these air-bubbles, light passes through, perfectly unpolarized, it appears that the mass was originally so soft, that the enclosed air could, by expansion, change the part lying nearest to it, just as one is able to produce similar results by pressure in glass and resin. Such compression on the mass close to the air bubbles, Brewster declared to be no¬ where found among minerals produced by the operation of heat ; and he concluded, therefore, that the softness which the Diamond, without doubt, formerly possessed was that of a half-dried gum. This deviation in refraction has given rise to the erroneous belief that the Diamond possesses true double refraction. Lustre and Color. The lustre of the Diamond is the peculiar, inde¬ scribable, but well-known adamantine lustre. The surface of the native crystal is often rough with little rents and flaws, and has a peculiar leaden-grey semi- metallic lustre. The Diamond in its purest condition, is colorless and transparent ; yet at times it is found colored throughout with pale-yellow,ochre-yellow, light bottle-green,yellowish- green, blackish-green, blue, red, brown, and even black. Next to yellow, greenish Diamonds are most numerous ; the blue are very rare. When the Diamond is between brown and black its transparency entirely disappears, or is seen only at the angles. Perfectly colorless Diamonds come from the mines of India, Brazil, the Cape, and Australia. Perhaps about one- fourth of the crystals which come into the market are colorless ; one-fourth of “ pure water,” with a flaw or spot of color : and the remainder colored. The Diamond. 69 The colored Diamonds exhibit their lustre and clear¬ ness best when they are cut; especially the yellow ones, which, by candle-light, are very brilliant. Barbot, by means of chemical agents and a high temperature, is said to have succeeded in removing the coloring matter from the rough Diamond ; green, red, and yellow stones becoming perfectly colorless, while the dark yellow, brown, and black, gave up very little of their color. It seems scarcely possible that this can be accurate, though M. Barbot on the title-page of one of his works styled himself “ Inventeur du procede de Decoloration du Dia- mant brut.” Curiously enough, De Boot told us 280 years ago, that his Imperial patron, Rudolf II., possessed a secret which enabled him to clear any Diamond of its flaws and color. In many Diamonds the core is not pure, but shows blackish or greenish spots. This is more particularly the case in the green stones. Many Diamonds have also “ feathers ” and fissures, which materially modify the passage of light. Black Diamonds of great beauty are occasionally supplied by Borneo. These are so adamantine that or¬ dinary Diamond-dust makes not the smallest impression upon them ; and they can only be ground or polished by using their own dust for the purpose. Phosphorescence , &c. Phosphorescence is produced not only by great heat, but also by the action of light, even after subsequent isolation. The Diamond becomes phosphorescent under the influence of the sun’s rays, and remains so for some time after removal from the sunshine, even when covered with cloth, leather, or paper. This property is most striking after the Diamond has 7 o The Diamond. been exposed to the blue or more refrangible rays of the spectrum ; under the red rays it is much weaker. In an experiment of Barbot’s, it is said the Diamond showed phosphorescence when he placed it under cover of lime- wood two millimetres (one-twelfth of an inch) thick, after it had been removed from the influence of the sun’s rays. In Mr. Crookes’s remarkable researches on radiant matter, he submitted the Diamond and other minerals to the effect of the molecular discharge in vacuum tubes connected with a powerful induction coil. “ Without exception.” he says, “ the Diamond is the most sensitive substance I have yet met for ready and brilliant phos¬ phorescence.” The Diamond is a non-conductor of electricity: this is the more remarkable as Graphite and Charcoal, substances absolutely identical with it chemically, are very good conductors. By friction, however, both in the rough and polished state, it becomes positively electric, but loses its electricity completely in the course of half an hour. Chemical Composition. The chemical composition of the Diamond was not demonstrated, and the history of its discovery was not completed, till about forty-four years after Sir Isaac Newton’s death (b. 1642— d. 1727). Notwithstanding the expressed conviction of Newton that the Diamond was combustible, a great contemporary, the Hon. Robert Boyle, desirous of putting the combustibility of the Diamond to the test, placed a Diamond in his crucible, and there sub¬ jected it to an intense heat without effecting his purpose. Three years after his death in 1691, the Grand Duke Cosmo III. induced the Academy of Cimento in Florence, to fix a Diamond in the focus of a large burning glass, The Diamond. 71 when the experimentors saw it crack, coruscate, and finally disappear, without leaving any appreciable ash behind. In 1750, the Emperor Francis I., in the presence of the celebrated chemist Darzet, in Vienna, subjected Diamonds and Rubies, of the estimated value of £ 600, to the heat of a smelting furnace for 24 hours, when the Diamonds wholly disappeared, but the Rubies remained, not only uninjured, but more lustrous than before. About 44 years after Newton’s death, men of note in the scientific world carried on their experiments, to ascer¬ tain the exact nature of the chemical composition of the Diamond ; and in the laboratory of M. Macquer, on the 26th July, 1771, a magnificent Diamond was burnt with the same result as that which the Emperor Francis had obtained just twenty-one years previously in Vienna. The opinion of Robert Boyle, of the incombustibility of the Diamond, appears to have received the assent of many chemists of high repute, and the incontestable fact that the crystal had disappeared, provoked the following questions : How had it vanished ? Had it volatilized ? Had it exploded ? No. It had actually undergone com¬ bustion, which has been the fate of several hundreds of small Diamonds burnt under the author’s care. It appears that a well-known jeweller of Paris, M. le Blanc, stood forward, and declared the Diamond to be indestructible in the furnace, notwithstanding any heat applied for any length of time. He stated in confirmation of his assertion, that he had often subjected Diamonds of his own to intense fire, to rid them of blemishes, and that they had never suffered the slightest injury from his treat¬ ment of them. Thereupon the two chemists D’Arcet and Rouelle, demanded that he should make the experiment before them on the spot. He accepted the challenge, and taking some Diamonds, he enclosed them in a mass of 72 The Diamond. charcoal and lime in a crucible, and submitted them to the action of the fire, expressing himself confident that at the end of the trial he should find them uninjured. But alas ! he had sacrificed his Diamonds, for on looking into the crucible after the three hours’ trial, they had entirely disappeared. His colleagues, however, did not long enjoy their triumph, for M. Maillard, another jeweller, in the presence of the eminent chemist, M. Lavoisier, took three Diamonds, and having closely packed them in powdered charcoal , in an earthen pipe-bowl, submitted them to the test of fire, and when the bowl was removed and cooled, there lay the Diamonds in the centre of the powdered charcoal, untouched by the heat. Lavoisier was not con¬ vinced by the experiment, but Diamonds are rather expensive toys to play with. It, however, soon occurred to him that the conditions under which M. Maillard’s test was conducted might account for the difference of result, and accordingly, it was soon discovered that the immunity enjoyed by the Diamonds of M. Maillard, was due to the exclusion of the oxygen of the air from the Diamond, by packing it in a substanceof the same nature in a state of fine division, by which means all the oxygen that was admitted attacked first the powdered charcoal, with the carbon of which it combined ; for under other conditions, subjected to prolonged and intense heat, the Diamond will consume just as common charcoal does. Lavoisier set the matter at rest, and Sir H. Davy showed subsequently that the Diamond was pure carbon, and contained not even a trace of hydrogen. When a Diamond is burnt, with a free supply of oxygen or of atmospheric air, it is completely converted into the gaseous body known to chemists as carbon- dioxide. This carbon-dioxide, which is commonly called carbonic-acid, resulting from the burning of the Diamond, The Diamond. 73 is identical with that which attends the combustion of every fire and gas burner, or the decomposition of vege¬ table bodies, and which is exhaled in every breath we breathe ; so that the old fable may have a scientific basis after all, that “ from the maiden’s lips fell Diamonds.” The temperature must be very high and somewhat protracted for the burning of a solid Diamond. A much lower degree of temperature, however, will be sufficient to burn Diamond dust, if the latter be spread out on a red hot, thin platinum plate, placed over a spirit lamp. Small Diamonds will burn in a very short time, if put on a plate of the same metal, and if the flame of a spirit- lamp be directed by a blow-pipe under the plate. But the temperature must be very high if the object is to effect the combustion speedily. When a Diamond is subjected to the sun’s rays in the focus of a burning glass, or heated in oxygen gas, it gives out bright red sparks while burning. In order to see how the Diamond suffered during the process of combustion, Petzholdt took two sharp-angled pieces of Diamond, and placed them before the oxy-hydrogen blow-pipe. Whilst subjected to this fierce heat, he removed them from the flame once or twice to watch the action of the fire upon their form and substance ; he thus detected that the heat had first acted on the sharp angles, thus rounding the Diamonds first; and on the re-application of the heat, he observed that the Diamonds soon split up into pieces, and lost both their transparency and lustre. He could not detect any evidence of melting on the surface of the burning Diamonds ; but on removing them from the fire, they assumed a leaden-grey color, which indicates that this precious gem loses both its transparency and brilliancy in process of combustion. Lavoisier also noticed that on exposing the Diamond to intense heat, black spots appeared 74 The Diamond. on it, then disappeared, and re-appeared. Guyton de Morveau confirmed these statements. He consumed a Diamond in oxygen, by means of the burning-glass. First he saw on that corner of the Diamond which was in the exact focus of the lens a black point; then the Diamond became black and carbonized. A moment after, he saw clearly a bright spark, twinkling as it were on the dark ground ; and when the light was intercepted, the Diamond was red, being red-hot, and for a time transparent. A cloud now passed over the sun, and the Diamond was more beautifully white than at first ; but as the sun again shone forth in its full strength, the surface assumed a metallic lustre. Up to this point the Diamond had sensibly de¬ creased in bulk, not being more than a fourth of its original size ; of elongated form, without definite angles, intensely white, and beautifully transparent. The experiment was suspended for a day or two. On its resumption, the same phenomena recurred, but in a more marked degree ; sub¬ sequently the Diamond entirely disappeared. At the conclusion of his treatise, in which these experiments are detailed, he says, “ If it were possible, while the Diamond is burning, to collect the black substance which covers the surface, the Diamond would indisputably be shewn to be carbon:” that is to say, it would be recognized under the more generally known form of carbon, viz., charcoal. Fourcroy corroborated Guyton de Morveau. He placed two small Diamonds in a capsule, under a muffle, heated them, arrested the burning, suffering the half-consumed bodies to cool, and on removing the muffler he found them quite black, as though they had a covering of soot, which he removed by rubbing with a piece of paper, on which was left a black mark. Clark took an amber-colored Diamond, six times the size of that used by Guyton de Morveau, and subjected it The Diamond. 75 to the action of the oxy-hydrogen blow-pipe. It was entirely burnt in a few minutes. The first action of the flame upon it, was to make it perfectly clear and colorless: it next became faint-white, and quite opaque in appearance, very like to ivory. In this stage its size and specific gravity were both lessened : next one of the angles of the octa¬ hedron disappeared, and the surface was covered with little bubbles, like blisters. Subsequently all the angles disap¬ peared, leaving an elongated ball, with a strong metallic lustre ; and after a short interval, there was no sign of a Diamond having been there. The brothers Rogers asserted that with potassium chromate and sulphuric acid at from 180 0 to 230° the Dia¬ mond is oxidized into carbonic acid. Jacquelaine and Despretz used very powerful galvanic batteries, and found that a Diamond, heated in an atmosphere of carbonic acid, by means of the oxy-hydrogen-gas blow-pipe, or one fed with carbon mon-oxide and oxygen, gradually disap¬ peared without any sign of softening. Gassiot also ex¬ perimented on the Diamond by strong galvanic currents between carbon points, demonstrating that (1) In burning the Diamond, uncrystallized black carbon is first produced, which at a very high temperature, burns off into carbon- dioxide, the ordinary carbonic acid of our breath ; (2) Many rough Diamonds possessing a metallic lustre become leaden-grey, and (3) The blackish spots, adhering to the surface of some, may be got rid of by great heat. Some very notable experiments on the action of heat upon Diamonds, were made a few years ago, by the late Gustav Rose, of Berlin. Enclosing the stones in strong- glass vessels, from which the air had been exhausted, he subjected them to the intense heat of the voltaic arc pro¬ duced by Dr. Siemen’s powerful dynamo machines. Air being thus excluded, the Diamonds could not be consumed, ;6 The Diamond. but it was remarkable that they gradually became en¬ crusted with a dark coating of a graphitic substance resembling blacklead. One of the most beautiful, and at the same time, most conclusive of experiments, both as regards the combusti¬ bility and composition of the Diamond, may be performed as follows:—Fill a Florence flask with oxygen, into which pour three or four ozs. of lime-water, perfectly pellucid and clear. Through the stopper of the flask lead the two wires from a galvanic battery. Join the wires inside the flask by a coil of very fine platinum wire, wound round a Diamond. Turn on the current : the platinum wire will glow white hot, the Diamond will burst into flame, and continue burning after the current is broken. The clear pellucid lime-water will become turbid and milky, owing to the carbonic acid produced by the burning Diamond forming, with the lime-water, carbonate of lime ; and finally a sediment of this solid white carbonate of lime will be precipitated, while the flask, at the conclusion of the expe¬ riment, will be found to contain carbonic acid gas. No solvents, not even acids, have the slightest power to dissolve or decompose the Diamond ; in this it is dis¬ tinguished from other Precious Stones, most of which, having silica in their composition, cannot withstand the influence of hydric-fluoride, or hydro-fluoric acid. THE ORIGIN OF THE DIAMOND. All opinions as to the origin and formation of the Diamond can be collected under three heads : (i) That it is formed immediately from carbon or carbonic acid by the action of heat: (2) That it is formed from the gradual decomposition of vegetable matter with or w ithout heat ; (3) That it is formed from the decomposition of gaseous hydro-carbons. The Diamond. 77 (1) Leonhard says that the Diamond is formed by sublimation of carbon in the depths of the earth ; Parrot that it is produced by the action of volcanic heat upon small pieces of carbon ; Gobel, that pure carbon has been separated from carbonic acid by electricity in the presence of reducing agents, such as magnesium, calcium, aluminium, silicon and iron ; Hausmann, that it is by the action of electricity, especially in the form of lightning, upon car¬ bonic acid, that its decomposition is effected ; and he quotes the statement of the Ancients, “ that in those mines where the largest number of Diamonds were found, were also found in large numbers the so-called thunder-bolts.” (2) Among those who support the vegetable origin of the Diamond, is Newton, who believed it to be a coagu¬ lated fat, or oily body, of vegetable origin. Jameson and Brewster, advanced similar views : Petzholdt also decided for the vegetable origin, basing his conclusions mainly on the microscopic study of the residual ash left when a Diamond is burnt; and Liebig, who was undoubtedly, a great authority by his knowledge of the decomposition 01 organic bodies, says, “ Science affords us no analogy, except that of decomposition and decay, for the formation or origin of the Diamond. We know that it does not owe its origin to fire ; for a high temperature and the presence of oxygen are incompatible with it on account of its com¬ bustibility : on the contrary, there is undeniable ground for supposing that it was formed in “the wet way;” and the decomposition process alone helps us in our attempts to solve the mystery of its origin. What kind of vegetable substance, rich in hydro-carbons, the decomposition of which gave rise to the Diamond, and what particular con¬ ditions had to be fulfilled in order to crystallize the carbon, are not at present known to us ; but this much is certain, that the process must have been exceedingly gradual, and 78 The Diamond. in no way hastened by a high temperature; otherwise the carbon would not have become crystallized, but would have separated itself as a black powder.” Wohler also was of opinion that the Diamond did not originate in a high temperature, at least not by fusion. The late George Wilson, of Edinburgh, held the view that the Diamond might be formed from anthracite or steam-coal, without a change from the hard state. Later opinions seem to incline towards the theory of the Diamond taking its origin from some other form of the element carbon. Opposed in some degree to both the above theories, but ranging under class I rather than class 2, is the view of Simler, of Breslau, that the Diamond is the result of the crystallization of carbon from a liquid solution. According to his theory, carbonic acid collected, in far away times, in a number of cavities, and was liquefied under great pressure; that it dissolved some pre-existing form of carbon ; and subsequently that the carbonic acid became gradually dissipated through fissures and clefts, and the crystallization of the dissolved carbon began. Supposing the pressure suddenly to abate, and a quick evaporation of the liquid occurred, a considerable compact mass of Black Diamond would be formed, such as is known in commerce as carbo¬ nado, or carbon. It seems not improbable that the rough, scaly, lead-colored rind, coating the rough Diamond, may be due to vaporization thus suddenly induced. Many a puzzling appearance in the Diamond can be explained if Simler’s theory be accepted : the enclosed splinters of Quartz ; the occasional feathers ; the peculiar form of that rough Diamond in the British Museum, which contains a moderately large cavity, whence a small yellow Diamond projects, as if it must have been ejected in a liquid condition ; and finally there is that large Diamond alluded The Diamond. 79 to by Tavernier, in the cavity of which was found a mass of black carbonaceous matter, weighing from eight to nine carats, which he designated vegetable mud. (3) There has long been a lingering suspicion in the minds of many chemists that the origin of the Diamond may be possibly sought in the slow decomposition of certain gaseous hydro-carbons. It is a significant fact that the retorts used in the distillation of coal-gas are found to be lined inside with a remarkably dense and hard deposit of carbon, not unlike the natural carbonado. But perhaps the strongest evidence in favour of such a view is to be found in the experiments described some four or five years ago by Mr. J. B. Hannay, of Glasgow. This experimentalist startled the scientific world by de¬ claring that he had at last solved the great problem of diamond-making. His researches unquestionably made a great stir for a while ; two papers appeared in the Proceedings of the Royal Society, and letters in the news¬ papers led the public to suppose that instead of digging for Diamonds in distant parts of the world we should henceforth get them from our laboratories at home ; but when the excitement had subsided the subject was allowed to drop, and not a syllable has lately been heard about the artificial Diamonds of the Scottish chemist. As Mr. Hannay’s experiments have failed to have the slightest commercial interest, it is needless to do more than offer an outline of his method. - Paraffin spirit was submitted to prolonged heating in company with one of the alkaline metals, notably lithium, and in the presence of bone-oil distillate which contained certain nitrogenous bases, the action of which in facilitating the reduction of the carbon from the paraffin was by no means clear. This strange mixture of substances was placed in a strong wrought iron-tube, having its ends securely welded 8o The Diamond. together. It was then subjected for many hours to the heat of a reverberatory lurnace. In most of the experi¬ ments the tubes exploded, tearing the metal open or even shattering the roof and walls of the furnace, and injuring the assistants. Now and then, however, a successful experiment was made; and then, on sawing open the iron tube, its interior was found to be incrusted in places with a hard black mass, which contained embedded frag¬ ments of a transparent substance that turned out to be crystallised carbon in a Diamond-like form ! The great difficulty and danger of the experiment, and the insignifi¬ cant amount of diamantoid carbon obtained even in the most successful attempts, have not invited any repetition of the investigation ; so that at the present time Mr. Hannay’s researches are only of scientific interest, and it is most unlikely that they will ever yield a single Diamond worth cutting as an ornamental stone. Geographical Distribution of Diamonds. The localities of the Diamond are India, Sumatra, Borneo, Brazil, and South Africa, parts of North America, the Ural mountains, and Australia. Other countries have been pointed out, but confirmatory evidence of the truth of this assertion is required. In 1833, it was reported that in the gold-sand of the river Gumel, in the Algerian pro¬ vince of Constantine, three Diamonds had been discovered. The idea that Algeria was a land of Diamonds seems to have been at once entertained. Dr. Cuny, an African traveller, reported that a whole camel-load of Diamonds had come from West Africa to Darfur in 1859. According to Murray, a Diamond was found in a brook in Co. Fermanagh, Ireland ; and Bowles insisted that Diamonds ought to be found at Cabo de Gata, in the South of Spain, because of its geological formation. Further, Java, Celebes, The Diamond. 81 and Columbia have all been pointed out as producing Diamonds. Sometimes recognized localities are omitted in books: thus, Payen, in his work published in 1849, gives only India, Borneo, and Brazil, as localities for Diamonds, whereas they had been discovered in the Urals twenty years before he wrote. It is believed that the first Russian Diamonds were found by a boy on June 22, 1829, at the Biszer Gold Washings, of the Countess Porlier, about 160 miles to the west of the town of Perm. Just at that time Humboldt was exploring the Urals, and his companions also found Diamonds at the above-mentioned locality. The principal Diamond districts of the world will be described in detail in the following pages. Diamond. Composition ... ... ... Pure Carbon. Specific Gravity .... ... 3^52 to 3 53. Hardness ... ... ... 10. System of Crystallization ... Isometric or cubical. Form of Crystal .Octahedron, Rhombic Dodecahedron, Hexakis octahedron, &c. t CHAPTER II. CAPE OR SOUTH AFRICAN DIAMONDS. S this book on Jewels is written, not for the year 1780, but for a century later, and in London, the greatest emporium and market of Gems and Precious Stones in the world, the topographical order of our predecessors is purposely inverted. They would have commenced with descriptions of the Diamond fields of India, and the bygone glories thereof. In this work, on the contrary, the description of the Diamond fields of the world commences with the Cape , for South Africa is a richer field, and its produce is far more to the purpose of modern history, and to the supply of the Precious Stones, which form our wealth of gems, than any of the old Diamond fields of the East or West. So with a belief in the future of Queensland as a Diamond field, the Australian stones will be treated of before the Indian. It is generally supposed that Diamonds were not known to exist in South Africa until about fifteen years ago. This, however, is quite a mistake. It is certain South African Diamonds. 83 that their presence in this region was known to the European colonists in the eighteenth century. Boyle observes that “ the existence of Diamonds ” in South Africa, had been several times asserted before the English conquest of Cape Colony. It was so far accredited in the middle of the last century, that the words “ Here be Dia¬ monds ” are to be seen inscribed across our modern terri¬ tory of Griqualand West, in a mission map of 1750. Th~ probability of such discoveries had also been pointed out by men of science, the late Sir Roderick Murchison, amongst others. The old Dutch residents of Cape Town appear to have been quite astir about the matter on several occasions, but years passed on and the ancient rumours died away. Rather more than fifteen years ago, it happened that a child of Mr. Jacobs, a Dutch farmer settled at the Cape, amused himself by collecting pebbles from the neigh¬ bourhood of the farm, near Hopetown. At first sight there might seem nothing remarkable in this circumstance, for pretty pebbles were to be had in plenty near the neighbouring river. One of these stones, however, was sufficiently bright to attract the keen eye of the mother, though she regarded it simply as a curious pebble, and gave it little more than a passing glance. Some time afterwards a neighbouring boer, named Schalk van Niekirk, visited the farm, and, knowing him to be curious in such matters, Mrs. Jacobs called his attention to the bright, transparent stone. So little heed, however, had been given to the pebble, that when wanted it was nowhere to be found; and it was only after diligent search that it was at last discovered outside the house, justwhere it had happened to fall when the child had last used it as a plaything. Van Niekirk was sorely puzzled with the stone, yet thinking that it might possibly have some value, offered to buy it 3 4 South African Diamonds. of Mrs. Jacobs, The good woman laughed at the notion of selling so common a stone, and at once gave it to the enquiring farmer. Just then it chanced that Mr. J. O’Reilly was returning from a hunting and trading expedition in the interior of the country, and to him Van Niekirk confided the stone, with a request that he would endeavour to ascertain its nature from any trustworthy mineralogist whom he might meet. By Mr. O’Reilly the stone was taken to the town of Colesberg. Few people at this time believed that Diamonds occurred in South Africa, and when O’Reilly cut his initials on a window-pane of the hotel at Colesberg, it was supposed that he was us'ng simply a fragment of common quartz or rock crystal. In¬ deed, some one staying at the hotel threw the stone into the street, playing a practical joke with O’Reilly, and it was only after prolonged search that it was recovered. Mr. O’Reilly himself, however, clung bravely to the notion that he had got a Diamond, and showed the stone to Mr. Lorenzo Boyes, the Clerk of the Peace'of the district. Mr. Boyes knew that his friend, Dr. G. W. Atherstone, of Graham’s Town, was an excellent mineralogist ; and, anxious to get his opinion, he sent the enigmatical stone through the post, accompanied by an explanatory letter. Had it been suspected that the stone was of any excep¬ tional value, the envelope would no doubt have been carefully sealed, and the letter duly registered. As a matter of fact, however, the envelope containing the stone was simply gummed, and despatched as an ordinary letter. When it reached Graham’s Town, the good doctor had some little difficulty in deciding what the curious pebble could be; but after carefully examining its physical characteristics, after testing its degree of hardness, its density, and its behaviour when subjected to optical tests by means of polarized light, Dr. Atherstone was bold South African Diamonds. 85 enough to pronounce it a genuine Diamond! This was in March, 1867, and the Universal Exhibition in Paris was about to open in the spring. What more appropriate, the doctor thought, than to send this stone to Paris ? Here was the greatest novelty the Colony could exhibit -—the first African Diamond ! Semper aliquid novi Africa affert, “ Africa turns up something new continually.” Dr. Atherstone accordingly communicated his suggestion to the Colonial Secretary, the Hon. R. Southey, and in consequence of this suggestion the Diamond was duly conveyed by steamer to Cape Town, where it was examined by the French Consul, M. Heriette, who having confirmed Doctor Atherstone’s judgment and determination as to the stone, forwarded it in due course to Paris. There it stood during the whole of the summer, and having been examined by savants of all nations, it was purchased at the close of the Exhibition by Sir Philip Woodhouse, at that time the Governor of the Colony, for the sum of .£"500. The weight of this Diamond was 21 carats. It was sold to Garrards by Sir P. Woodhouse, and is nowin their posses¬ sion as a cut Brilliant. Such is the history of the discovery of the first Cape Diamond; a discovery, which being soon followed by others, led to the developement of the great Diamond-fields of South Africa. These fields are situated chiefiyin the Colony of Griqualand West, which was proclaimed British territory in 1871. The new colony is intersected by the river Vaal; and it is in the Vaal valley, and in that of some of its tributary streams, such as the Modder and the Vet, that most of the Diamonds have been found. Drawing its head¬ waters from the Draakensberg or Quathlamba range of mountains, far away in the east, on the borders of Natal, the Vaal river, or the Ky Gariep, flows in a sinuous course, generally in a westerly direction, until it joins the Orange 86 South Africa7i Diamonds. river, or the Nu Gariep. This, the greatest known stream in South Africa, runs for more than 900 miles in a westerly- course, and finally rolls its burden of waters into the Atlantic. The Diamond-fields are situated in the neigh¬ bourhood of the Middle Vaal, about 60 miles above the confluence of the two streams. But though the chief productive localities are situated there, Diamonds have also been found in the vally of the Orange river, at least 50 miles below its junction with the Vaal. In fact the area from which Diamonds have already been obtained is of vast extent. To the north, it certainly reaches as far as Blomhof, near Pretoria, the capital of the Transvaal ; and it is reported that Diamonds have been found at least a hundred miles nearer the sources of the Vaal. On the south side of the Orange river, they occur seme miles to the north-west of Hopetown. Jagersfontein, 96 miles south of the Vaal, is a well-known locality ; and a stone of 70 carats has been found at Mamusa, 75 miles beyond Jagersfontein. Until the discoveries of Diamonds directed attention to this district, scarcely anything was known of its geolo¬ gical characters. Even now it is far from easy to collate the scattered notices which have been published in various journals, and thus obtain a clear notion of the structure of the country. Stripped, however, of all superficial deposits, the solid framework of the country appears to consist of rocks belonging to that great geological series which, from its conspicuous occurrence in the “ karoos,” or vast plains in the interior, has received the name of the Karoo- formation. This formation is developed to a vast extent in South Africa, occupying indeed by far the larger portion of the country, and covering at least 200,000 square miles, whilst its thickness is estimated at 5,000 feet. For the most part it consists of shales and sandstones, which South African Diamonds. 87 represent old deposits of mud and sand, now hardened and altered, but originally thrown down as sediments in a vast fresh-water lake. Africa is still famous for its large sheets of inland water ; but the lakes in which the karoo beds were deposited are of great geological antiquity, probably corresponding roughly in time with the period at which the New Red Sandstone of this country was formed. Although for the most part destitute of fossils, the karoo strata are in places rich in organic remains, the most notable being the relics of extinct reptiles, which must have lived near the margin of the waters which deposited the ancient sediment. Some of these Triassic reptiles were furnished in the upper jaw with a pair of tusks, not un¬ like those of the walrus, whence they were called by the late Mr. Bain, who discovered them, Bidentals; and by Professor Owen, who scientifically described them, Dicy- nodons. In addition to these remains of extinct animals, we find in many of the karoo-beds numerous vegetable relics, in some places in the form of fossil-wood, while elsewhere the wood has been converted into coal. The coal seams of the karoo series occur especially in the upper part of the formation, and notably at the Stormberg. By the action of heat, some of the Stormberg coal has been converted into anthracite or steam-coal, a variety of fossil- fuel peculiarly rich in carbon ; whilst the occurrence of graphite, or “ black-lead,” in some of these beds, has been regarded as the result of further modification of the coal. As graphite is but an impure variety of carbon, whilst we know that the Diamond is simply a pure crystal¬ lized form of the same element, some geologists have been tempted to speculate as to the possible effects of further metamorphosis upon the graphite, and have thus dimly seen in the vegetable fossils of the karoo formation the ultimate origin of the South African Diamonds. If 88 South African Diamonds. this metamorphic action has been found sufficiently potent to transmute vegetable matter into coal, then to convert this bituminous coal into anthracite, and possibly after¬ wards to transform the anthracite into graphite, why should its potency be arrested at this point ? Let the same kind of action be continued, and we are brought to the logical conclusion that the ultimate term of the series will eventually be reached ; and this ultimate term is assuredly represented by the Diamond. It will be shown in succeeding pages that most of this South African Diamonds occur in a volcanic breccia, and it has been sug¬ gested that these Diamonds have been derived from the carbonaceous matter of the karoo shales during the up¬ ward passage of the molten or partially-molten matter from some deep-seated source. Fascinating as such a conclusion unquestionably is, it must be admitted that we are at present far too ignorant of the conditions under which Diamonds have been formed, to regard such specu¬ lation as anything but vague hypothesis. In some places the lacustrine shales and sandstones of the karoo formation are cut through by long dykes or veins of various eruptive rocks, known popularly as “trap whilst in other places similar igneous rocks are spread out in sheets which are intercalated between the sedimentary strata. It is in the neighbourhood of these old lava-like rocks that the coal is locally converted into anthracite. But the “ traps ” associated with the karoo beds have other points of interest in connection with our present subject. Varying considerably in their characters in different localities, some of them exhibit a vesicular texture, and contain in their bubble-like cavities kernels of Chalcedony, Agate, Jasper, and other siliceous minerals. By the disintegration of such rocks, the hard Agates and kindred stones are set free, and carried down as pebbles South AAfrican Diamonds. 89 by the rivers. Indeed the shingle of the Orange and Vaal Rivers has long been famous for the beauty of its Agates and other pebbles. In addition, however, to these attrac¬ tive Chalcedonic pebbles, the shingle contains fragments of a great variety of other minerals and rocks, of which comprehensive lists have been published by Prof. Rupert Jones. But among these constituents of the alluvi; 1 gravels, there is one mineral of paramount interest, the Diamond itself. It was in the Agate-bearing gravels of the Vaal and Orange Rivers that the Diamond washer success¬ fully established his “ river-diggings.” The search for Diamonds along the Vaal River com¬ menced in 1868. According to Mr. R. W. Murray, who possesses an intimate acquaintance with the history of this subject, the earliest Diamond-searching party wr s formed in Bethulie under Mr. j. B. Robinson, and estal - lished themselves near Hebron. Then followed a party from Natal, who set to work with intelligence-—systemati¬ cally digging the soil from the banks of the Vaal, and washing it in a cradle for Diamonds just as they might cradle it for gold. Another party from Kafifraria estab¬ lished themselves at Klipdrift, on the other side of the Vaal. Klipdrift was afterwards called Barkly. Still later, another contingent of fortune-hunters were led to dig near a hill named Pniel, and thus founded the famous Pniel workings. Although the importance of the river- diggings has long since declined, they will always be of great interest from the fact that they represent the earliest workings in the South-African Diamond-districts. How the Diamonds got into the river gravels is a moot point, which has puzzled many a geologist. The rounded character of the pebbles, and the frequent pre¬ sence of fragments of fossil wood, much rolled and water- worn, seem to indicate that the materials of the gravels 90 South African Diamonds. must have travelled from a great distance. Zones of similar fossil wood are known to occur in the karoo beds of the Stormberg and the Draakensberg ; and it has been suggested that the materials of the Vaal gravels have been brought down from the head waters of the river. From the appearance of many of the Diamonds, and from the large proportion of broken gems, it has been argued that they must have travelled from afar, and the eyes of some geologists have been turned towards the distant hills of the Draakensberg as the possible home of many of these gems. It seems equally probable, however, that the Diamonds may nave been introduced into the gravels at some other part of the course of the river. In fact, the late Mr. Tobin, the pioneer cf the author’s Diamond Expedition Party, in 1870, has shown that the source of the Vaal is in sandstone, and that the Agate pebbles are not to be found in the stream until after it has traversed a distance of several miles. It was soon found that the Diamond-bearing gravels are not confined to the present bed of the river. Terraces of similar gravels run along the margins of the river, at a considerable elevation, and many of the larger Diamonds have been found in these old high-level gravels. Such gravels unquestionably owe their origin to the former action of the river, when it flowed at a much higher level. Running water in the form of rain and rivers has indeed effected a vast amount of denudation in the valleys of these South-African rivers ; and in some places the karoo- beds have been completely worn away, and the under- lying older rocks laid bare. In addition to the deposits along the margins of the river valleys, there are superficial accumulations of gravel, sand, and clay widely spread over a vast area of the country. Diamonds have been obtained from these South African Diamonds. 91 deposits, at localities many miles distant from any river. It was suggested by the late Mr. Stow that such deposits of “ drift,” or unstratified materials, owe their origin to the action of ice ; and in support of such an explanation, he pointed to the fact that the drift contains irregular accumulations of boulders, many of which are smoothed and polished, while a few are even scored and scratched, just as we know to be the case with fragments of rock which have been subjected to the grinding action of a glacier. Mr. Stow’s opinion as to the glacial origin of this drift has been endorsed by several other geological observers. It, therefore, seems not unlikely that a large proportion of the South African Diamonds, whatever their ultimate origin may have been, have at some period of their history been subjected to glacial conditions, and possibly brought into their present position by the agency of moving ice. This conclusion, however, in no way affects our former statement that the river-gravels— deposits distinct from those to which we are now referring —were formed by the action of running water. The wide-spread accumulations of drift conceal the surface of the country over which they are spread, rising up the sides and covering the summits of the little hills which formed so marked a feature in the scenery of the Diamond districts. These hillocks, which in some cases attain to a height of upwards of ioo feet, are known locally as kopjes , and many of them have become famous for their yield of Diamonds. A celebrated group of dry diggings is that around Du Toit’s Pan, De Beer’s, and Bultfontein, situated about twenty miles south-east of Pniel. The origin of these diggings may interest the reader. A Dutch Boer, named Van Wyk, who occupied a farm¬ house in this locality, was surprised to find Diamonds 92 South African Diamonds. actually imbedded in the walls of his house, which had been built of mud from a neighbouring pond. This led to examination of the surrounding soil, wherein Diamonds were found. On deepening the digging, Diamonds were still brought to light ; nor did they cease when the bed¬ rock was at length reached. Such was the origin of the now famous Du Toit’s Pan. One of the earliest men in the Diamond Fields was named De Beer. The De Beers held very nearly the whole of the country which is now known as the Diamond Fields (Proper). Voruitzigt was at that time the property of Mr. De Beer. Bultfontein originally belonged to Mr. Du Plooy. The “ Pans” are local depressions in the flats—basin¬ like hollows—frequently of large size, reaching in some cases to a length of two or three miles. They receive the drainage of the surrounding district, but having no outlet, the water as it evaporates acquires a brackish taste, and in dry seasons the pans exhibit a whitish saline incrusta¬ tion of n itron. All the dry diggings appear to possess certain fea¬ tures in common. Each site is a more or less circular area, generally surrounded by horizontal shales, the edges of which are slightly turned upwards round the margin of the circle. This evidently suggests that the shales, which were originally horizontal, have been pushed aside by the intrusion of matter forced from below. Indeed, most geologists now maintain that the Diamond-bearing rock is of eruptive origin, and has passed upwards in the form of colunrnar pipes thrust through the surrounding shales. Thus, Mr. Dunn regards the pipes as “ merely the channels that connected ancient volcanic craters with deep-seated reservoirs of molten rock.” On the other hand, there have not been wanting observers who take an entirely opposite view of the origin of the deep deposits in the dry diggings. South African Diamonds. 93 The upper portion of a pipe generally consists of a reddish, sandy soil, accumulated no doubt by the action of wind. Below this comes a layer of calcareous tufa, or a light deposit of carbonate of lime ( calcium, carbonate ) ; and it is by no means uncommon to find Diamonds adherent to this tufaceous rock. At a still lower depth, we reach the main contents of the pipe. This consists of a modified rock ; in places much broken up, and passing into a breccia. Its exact nature has puzzled petrologists ; but the rock has been most carefully examined by Prof. Maskelyne, M.P., and the component minerals analysed by Dr. Flight. The base of the rock is a soft mineral, soapy to the touch, and of green or bluish color ; it contains angular fragments of shale, more or less altered, associated with various distinct minerals, including crystals of a bright green bronzite ; of a horn- blendic mineral resembling smaragdite; of a species of vermiculite, called Vaalite; with Garnet, Ilmenite, &c. Veins of calcite, and nodules of iron-pyrites, are occasion¬ ally present. But the only minerals that attract the miner’s atten ion are the Diamonds. These are sprinkled pretty freely through the “ stuff; ” sometimes as beauti¬ fully formed crystals, but frequently as mere fragments and splinters. They are said to be most abundant in the neighbourhood of dioritic dykes, but their distribution is very irregular; in one claim they may be richly dissemi¬ nated, whilst in the neighbouring claim they are but sparsely scattered through the rock. Each pipe is said to yield Diamonds easily distinguished from those of other pipes, so that buyers on the field can generally tell, on looking at a stone, from which locality it has been obtained. These Deal peculiarities suggest that the stones have been formed in or near the centres where they are now found. Indeed, it has been maintained that the rock, now filling 94 South African Diamonds. the pipes was, in its unaltered state, the original home of the Diamond —that the gems are in fact in their proper matrix. In support of this view, it should be mentioned that most of the crystals are sharp at the edges, and ex¬ hibit no signs of abrasion, such as we might expect to find had they been transported far from their original site. On the other hand, a large proportion of the crystals have evidently been shattered, and exist now as mere fragments, showing that the rock has suffered great disturbance, though it may only have been during its projection to the surface from some deep-seated source. It is a curiously significant fact well worth noticing, that many of the crystals of Diamond in these pipes exhibit, on their octa¬ hedral faces, regular triangular depressions, strongly sug¬ gestive of the triangular striations which the late Gustav Rose produced on Diamonds, by heating them in a muffle, so as to undergo incipient combustion. Of all the Diamond-bearing localities in South Africa, that of Kimberley stands pre-eminent. In July, 1871, a “ new rush ”—that is to say. a fresh centre of discovery — was reported at a small hill or kopje situated at only about a mile from De Beer’s. This locality was known as the “ Colesberg Kopje,” while the surrounding town, which to meet the wants of the new comers sprang up with mush¬ room-like celerity, was called the “New Rush.” Subse¬ quently it received the name of Kimberley, in compliment to the Earl of Kimberley, H.M.’s Secretary of State for the Colonies. Compared with Kimberly, all other Diamond mines sink into comparative insignificance. It is but a few acres in extent, yet the precious stones have been so lavishly scattered through its rocks that the output of Diamonds has been simply marvellous. Probably the best descrip¬ tion of the mine, from a scientific point of view, is that South African Diamonds. 95 recently published by Mr. W. H. Hudlestone. The Dia¬ mond-rock forms an elliptical pipe rising through the surrounding shales, which are known to the miners as the “ reef.” At the surface is a layer of about three feet of reddish sand ; this is followed by 15 feet of concretionary limestone, which is succeeded by something like 30 feet of “ yellow stuff,” with much “ floating reef,” below which the miner comes down upon the “ blue earth.” This blue stuff has been worked to a depth of about 300 feet, but is known from recent borings to extend to a much greater depth. The blue earth is the famous Diamond-rock of South Africa, already described so fully by Maskelyne and Flight in this country, and by Cohen, Fouque and Ldvy on the Continent. The yellow stuff is only an altered form of the blue earth, and the so-called floating reef is nothing but the debris of the neighbouring rocks, fragments of shale and basalt being enclosed so as to form a brecciated mass. Pieces of ostrich shell are occasionally found in the Diamond earth, having fallen down through fissures. It is evident that by working away the Diamond- rock in all directions there must be some chance of the sides or walls giving way and falling in upon the mine. Such falls of the reef have frequently taken place, and on the 1st of April, 1883, an accident of unusual magnitude occurred. From the N.E. to the S.E. of the margin of the mine huge masses of loosened shale fell into the workings, disturbing the gear and overwhelming many of the claims. Other falls of the reef followed soon after¬ wards, and at present a large proportion of the workings are buried beneath the fallen masses of rock, which can only be cleared away with great labour and much loss of time. According to the views previously explained, the South-African Diamonds were originally developed in an 9 6 South African Diamonds. igneous matrix, belonging, probably, to that large series of eruptive rocks which have burst forth through the karoo strata at so many points in South Africa. The blue earth may have been in a pasty condition when forced up the volcanic pipe, and hot water may have had more concern in its formation than dry-heat. Dismissing so vexed a question as that of the genesis of the Diamond-rock, we tread upon firmer ground when we pass to a description of the gems which have been dis¬ covered in the South-African fields. Little more than fifteen years has passed since these fields were first known, and during that brief space of time a large number of stones of unusual size have been brought to light. The high proportion of large-sized Diamonds is indeed a most notable feature in the South-African discoveries. The first which acquired notoriety, named the “ Star of South Africa,” now known as the “ Dudley Diamond,” was, in the rough, of an irregular shape, and about the size of a small walnut ; its weight was 83! carats. After cutting, this was reduced to 465 carats. It is triangular in shape, of great brilliancy, perfectly colorless, and cannot be dis¬ tinguished from an old Indian stone. This gem, in 1869, came into the possession of Schalk van Niekirk, already referred to, who obtained it from a Kafir Doctor or Sorcerer. Subsequently, it was exhibited at Port Elizabeth and Cape Town, when it was visited by crowds of people. By Messrs Lilienfield Brothers, of Hopetown, who purchased it of Van Niekirk for ,£11,200, it was shipped to England, and passed into the possession of Messrs. Hunt and Roskell, by whom it was cut and sold to the present Earl Dudley. It was mounted by them, with other Diamonds, with enhanced effect, as a head ornament. A Diamond of pale yellow tint, weighing 112 carats, was brought to the late Prof. Tennant by an old student, South African Diamonds. 97 and when cut yielded a Brilliant of 66 carats. This stone has now found a home with the King of Siam. Again, a stone of 124 carats was found at Du Toit’s Pan, on July 21, 1871. Another large and well-known South-African Diamond is the famous “Stewart,” which was found in 1872, at Waldeck’s Plant, on the Vaal River, and con¬ signed to Messrs. Pittar, Leverson & Co., in London. It weighed in its rough state 288§ carats, or nearly two ounces troy. It is of a light yellow color, beautifully crystallized. The following history and particulars of its discovery are extracted from the Port Elizabeth Telegraph , of the 22nd November, 1872. “ The claim from which this gem was taken was originally owned by a Mr. F. Pepper, by him sold to a Mr. Spalding for £30, and handed over by the latter to one Antonie, to work on shares. The claim was quite an outside one, and not thought much of by the owner, but as others were finding near him, he thought it was just possible he might also find n gem. He persevered until, first, the ‘ Fly Diamond,’ and next, after further toil, this prize rewarded his labour. Antonie’s feelings when he first obtained a glimpse of the treasure may be better imagined than described. He says that he was working in the claim, when he told his boy to leave off picking in the centre and commence at the side. Not being understood, he took a pick and began himself, when he was suddenly spell-bound by the sight of a large stone, with the primary aspect of a Diamond. For some minutes he could neither speak nor move for fear of dispelling the apparent illusion, but, collecting his energies, he made a dart forward and clutched the prize. Even then, however, he did not feel quite safe, and it required a grand effort to reach Mr. Spalding’s cart, which had to be called into requisition. For two whole days he was unable to eat anything, from the intensity of his excitement.” G 9 8 South African Diamonds. At Jagersfontein, in the Orange River Free State, a Diamond of 2094 carats was discovered, and it is said that this magnificent stone was purchased of a Kafir by an illicit Diamond buyer for the absurd sum of .£15. Quite recently a Diamond weighing over 600 carats, but very impure, was unearthed at these diggings. At Du Toit’s Pan, several beautiful stones, of 50 carats each, and one of 244 carats have been discovered. The value of the claims in these South African mines has risen enormously during the last few years. Ground that was originally sold at £50 for thirty-one square feet, (the exact size of every claim) is now realizing many thousands of pounds. The serious falls of reef from which Kimberley has lately suffered have, of course, affected the value of many of the claims. By far the finest South African Diamond yet dis¬ covered was found on February 12, 1880, in a claim at Kimberley, belonging to Mr. Porter-Rhodes. It is true that in weight it has been exceeded by many other stones, but in purity of color it is absolutely without a rival. It weighs 150 carats, and placed by the side of Cape stones, having a slight tendency to yellowish tints, it seems to present the faintest possible shade of blue. This magni¬ ficent “ blue-white ” Diamond, which was valued by its owner at £ 200,000, was publicly exhibited at Mr. Streeter’s. While South Africa has thus been remarkable for yielding stones of large size, it must also be stated that the more recent supplies are no less satisfactory as to the quality of the gems brought to light. True, a large number of the Diamonds are “ ofif-colored ” stones, gene¬ rally exhibiting a delicate straw-tint, but none the less they are extremely beautiful when properly cut. A very fair proportion of the South-African Stones are Diamonds of the first water, rivalling in beauty and purity the finest South African Diamonds. 99 Brazilian and Indian Stones. This is especially the case with the Diamonds from the Jagersfontein mine. With regard to the Kimberley mine, it is found that Iron Pyrites exists in large quantities, and the theory has been broached that to this cause is due the extraordinarily large number of colored or “ off-color ” stones, that are found in the mine ; while in the Jagersfontein mine Iron Pyrites is not found, and nearly all the Diamonds found there are the purest white. The great majority of these stones are not only pure in color, but splendid crystals, symmetrical in shape, and cut well. It may be reasonably expected that when this mine is fully developed, it will become the most important and remunerative in South Africa. It has been estimated that about 20 per cent, of the Cape Diamonds are of the first quality; 15 per cent, of the second ; and 20 per cent, of the third, the remainder being “ bort.” All Diamonds which are too impure for cutting are now known under the general name of bort; and these possess a fixed market value, the powder which they yield when crushed, being used for grinding Dia¬ monds, and in the engraving of gems of exceptional hardness. An interesting specimen on view at Mr. Streeter’s exhibits several octahedral crystals of Diamond grouped around a central nucleus of dark-colored bort. This speci¬ men weighs 19 carats, and was obtained from the Dia¬ mond-fields by explorers, privately sent out by the author. During the time the expedition was working at the Cape, the superiority of the river stones over those from the dry diggings, induced the writer to suggest that machinery should be sent out for the purpose of turning the course of the Vaal river. The object in view was to work in the river-bed. This project was reluctantly aban¬ doned in consequence of the ill-health of the leader of the ioo South African Diamonds. expedition. The history of the great findings of Indian Diamonds rendered it most probable, that the finest stones would occur in the river-bed, and events have sanctioned the correctness of these anticipations. A “ drop,” with a twin of clear cinnamon color, discovered in the Cape diggings, was pronounced by Diamond merchants of great experience, to be an Indian, and not a Cape Stone. The enormous yield of the South African Diamond- fields is well illustrated by the following extract from the South African , for June 9, 1883 :—“ The total nett weight of Diamonds which passed through the Kimberley Post- office during the year 1881 has been estimated at 1,501 lbs. avoirdupois, with an average value throughout the year of 27s. per carat ; besides the quantity exported through the Post-office, large quantities were sent to Europe and elsewhere through private hands. It may be therefore, roughly estimated that the produce of the Dia¬ mond mines exported last year could not have been much less than ,£5,000,000.” Notwithstanding the enormous number of Diamonds which have been brought to light during the recent workings in South Africa, it is notable that not a single piece of Carbonado -—the black, impure variety of Diamond found in Brazil—has yet been discovered. In fact, while certain points of resemblance have been traced between the occurrence of Diamonds in Africa and that in Brazil, there are other points in which such a comparison entirely breaks down. It would be more correct, in many respects, to assert that the Diamond-fields of South Africa are unique. CHAPTER III. AUSTRALIAN DIAMONDS. LTHOUGH three, at least, of our Australian Colonies have yielded Diamonds, it is only in New South Wales that they have been found in sufficient quantity to invite syste¬ matic exploration. As far back as the year 1851, Mr. E. H. Hargraves and the Rev. W. B. Clarke, in a report dated from Guyong, referred to some specimens of gold, and to a number of gems, including what they called, rather vaguely, “ a small one of the Diamond kind,” found in Reedy Creek, near Bathurst. But it was especially the late Rev. W. B. Clarke, a gentleman well-known for his researches in Australian geology, who first directed public attention to the Diamonds of New South Wales. Four specimens had been brought to him from the Mac¬ quarie river, near Sutton’s Bar, in September, 1859, and a fifth, the following month, from Burrendong. In the meantime, he had received Diamonds from Pyramul and Calabash Creeks. These discoveries were considered by Mr. Clarke so significant, that he wrote a description of 102 Australian Diamonds. the occurrence, boldly heading it with the startling title, “ New South Wales, a Diamond Country.” This an¬ nouncement was not commercially justified till seven or eight years later, when the gold rush occurred at the Two- mile Flat, on the Cudgegong River, about nineteen miles north-west of Mudgee. The Cudgegong empties itself into the Macquarie, which is an affluent of the Darling. As soon as the gold-diggers had set to work they de¬ tected Diamonds; and in July, 1S69, operations were conducted by the Australian Diamond Mines’ Company of Melbourne. At the Mudgee workings, gems were found in an old river-drift, distributed in local patches,which appeared to be remnants of deposits once widely spread over the district, but now partially removed by denudation. These ancient river-gravels occur at various distances from the actual channel, and at elevations of forty feet or more above the level of the river. They are generally covered by a pro¬ tective layer of basalt, sometimes columnar ; and shafts have been sunk through this basaltic cap, so as to reach the under-lying Diamond-drift, which rests either on ver¬ tical strata or on massive greenstone. The gravels contain pebbles, and boulders of Quartz, Tin-Stone, Rock-Crystal, Jasper, Agate, and other siliceous minerals, mixed with coarse sand and clay. Many of the boulders are remark¬ able for their peculiar polish. In some places the materials of the drift are united by a siliceous cement, into a compact mass, colored pale-green by an iron silicate. Among the pebbles of the gravel, the diligent seeker may find many of the rarer minerals, including crystals of Topaz, Sapphire, Ruby, Zircon, Spinel, Garnet, and a peculiar vesicular variety of Pleonaste ; and even this catalogue might be extended, but for present purposes it is only needful to add that two of the most prized substances in nature—gold Australian Diamonds. 103 and the Diamond—are included. The Diamonds are sparsely and irregularly distributed through the gravels ; but, nevertheless, when large quantities of the drift are sifted and washed, the gems are brought to light, hardly, however, in sufficient numbers to pay for the working: as an example, during the first five months’ washings no fewer than 2,500 Diamonds were picked out, but unfor¬ tunately, most of the stones were very small. The largest of the Mudgee Diamonds, a colorless octahedron, weighed but 5 1 carats : it was cut into a very fine white Brilliant of 3 carats, now the property of John de Pass, Esq. These stones are found in a deposit of gravel, pro¬ bably washed out of an older drift. Occasionally, they have been found in “ water-holes ” in the actual river-bed ; but the discovery may generally be attributed to “tail¬ ings ” washed into the river at certain points from the gold diggings, and therefore the Diamonds may naturally be tracked back to the old drift. When found in the river-bed the stones are frequently scratched and frac¬ tured. Within the last few years a Diamond-field has been opened up near Bingera, in New South Wales. This town is about 400 miles north of Sydney, on the River Plorton, popularly known as the “Big River.” How the Diamonds occur at this locality, has been well described by Professor Liversidge, of Sydney. The Diamond-bearing deposits are situated in a kind of basin, about four miles long and three miles wide, hemmed in by hills on all sides save on the north. An old river-drift, probably an ancient bed of the Horton, rests upon rocks of Devonian or of Carboni¬ ferous age, and is associated with basalt, by which it appears to be overlain. In some places the materials of the drift are compacted together into a conglomerate, so that the mode of occurrence of the Diamond at Bingera 104 A ustralian Diamonds. strikingly resembles that at Mudgee. The minerals com¬ posing the gravels are also generally similar in the two cases, though points of difference are not wanting. One of the best indications of the presence of the Diamond, according to the Bingera miners, is a black Tourmaline, known locally as “Jet-stone.” Some of the Diamonds are clear and colorless, others have a pale straw-tint : all are of small size, the largest yet known weighing about eight grains. According to an examination of some of the Bin¬ gera drift, by the Gwydir Diamond-mining Company, a ton of “stuff” yields on an average twenty Diamonds. Up to August 26th, 1873, the Eaglehawk claim had produced 1,680 Diamonds; but as the aggregate weighed only 803 grains troy, the very small size of the average stones is sufficiently apparent. In addition to the prominent Diamond-bearing locali¬ ties described above, we might readily point to several other spots in the Colony where the gem has occasionally been found. Thus the Borah Tin and Diamond Mining Company obtained upwards of 200 Diamonds in the course of a few months from their mine near the junction of Cope’s Creek with the Gwydir. Most of the stones were either of light straw color or of very pale green tint. The largest weighed five grains. The Bengover Tin Mine, about two miles below the Borah workings, has yielded several Diamonds, including one of grains. A stone of 9 grains has been found at Bald Hill, Tambaroora Hill end. Compared with the Diamond discoveries in New South Wales, those of other parts of Australia sink into insig¬ nificance. South Australia is rich in mineral treasure ; but this treasure mostly takes the form of ores of copper and iron. Yet the Colony is not without its gold fields, and with the gold a few Diamonds have been found. In the Australian Diamonds. 105 year 1852 Diamonds were discovered in alluvial gold washings in the hills, near Echunga, about twenty miles south-east of Adelaide. It is said that more than a hundred Diamonds have at different times been found in this neighbourhood. Whilst Victoria is pre-eminently the “ Golden Colony,’’ and its gold fields have for many years been actively explored, it is only now and then that a solitary Diamond has been found there. In 1862 the discovery of a Diamond in the Ovens district was announced by Mr. George Foord. It was a transparent yellow crystal, with perfect edges, weighing about two grains. The Rev. J. J. Bleasdale, who has paid great attention to the study of Australian gems, described three Victorian Diamonds—two from Beechworth, and the third from Collingwood Flat. There appears, how¬ ever, to have been some little doubt hanging over the reputed discoveries of Diamonds in Victoria ; but in 1865 an Exhibition of Gems was held in the Hall of the Royal Society of Victoria, and from the specimens then exhibited, and the information accompanying them, the matter was set at rest. “ The results of this exhibition,” said Dr. Bleasdale, “ have now placed this important truth beyond impeachment.” Altogether about sixty Diamonds have been found in the Beechworth district, but they have not been of good color, nor of large size, most of them weigh¬ ing less than a carat each. The first Australian Diamond ever brought to this country was presented by Sir Thomas Mitchell to the Museum of Practical Geology, in Jermyn Street, where it may now be seen. This small crystal weighs f of a carat, and was found near Orphir, west of Bathurst, New South Wales. To sum up our knowledge of Australian Diamonds : New South Wales, which is rich in coal, in oil shales, and io 6 Australian Diamonds. in various carbonaceous products, is by no means poor in Diamonds, although those already discovered are, for the most part, extremely small ; South Australia, with its vast wealth in copper and iron, possesses a limited Diamond- producing area ; Victoria, the great centre of the gold fields, has furnished only an occasional Diamond as a mineralogical rarity ; and the other Australian colonies, so far as we know, have not hitherto yielded a single Diamond. But it is not improbable that if, instead of searching for Diamonds in the gravel drifts and old river beds, geological researches had been instituted in the Australian Alps, the matrix might have been discovered, whence the Diamonds already found have been washed. The geological forma¬ tion of the whole of the New England district in New South Wales resembles closely that of the district of the Bagagem Mines, in Brazil, and may, in no very distant future, reasonably be expected to yield Diamonds in pay¬ ing quantities. Another Diamond field may be found ere long in Queensland, either on the Palmer River or its affluents,—where very remarkable and rich gold mines have been discovered,—or, on the Gilbert River and its affluents, and in the country extending from the Gilbert to the Gulf of Carpentaria. CHAPTER IV. BRAZILIAN DIAMONDS. N washing the sands of some of the Brazilian rivers, for the sake of the gold which they contain, the natives occasionally lighted upon little hard stones of peculiar shape, which, until the early part of the last century, they regarded as of no value, and either threw them away, or used them as counters in card-playing. It was not until 1727 that Bernardino Fonseca Lobo, an inhabitant of Serra do Frio, in the gold district of Minas-Geraes, accidentally dis¬ covered the true nature of these stones. He had seen rough Diamonds in India, and the likeness to these was so striking that he took a number to Portugal for sale, and thus drew general observation towards the new Dia¬ mond mines. The European merchants, who up to this time had obtained their Diamonds from India, were frightened lest this discovery should cause a fall in the price of the gems in their possession. They consequently spread the report that the Brazilian Diamonds were only the refuse of the Indian stones, forwarded to Goa, and thence to Brazil. The Portuguese, however, turned the tables, and sent io8 Brazilian Diamonds. the Brazilian Diamond to Goa, and thence to Bengal where they were offered for sale as Indian stones, and obtained Indian prices. It is only within the last few years that the Diamond¬ bearing rocks of Brazil have been sufficiently studied to enable geologists to speak with anything like confidence in regard to their nature and their age. Observers, it is true, have been many, but the observations have mostly been of so superficial a nature, and in many cases, so con¬ tradictory, that it was almost impossible to deduce any satisfactory conclusions. Lately, however, the Diamond¬ bearing regions have been more thoroughly examined, especially by Prof. Gorceix, the head of the School of Mines at Ouro Preto, and by Prof. O. A. Derby, of the Museum at Rio Janeiro. Sections have been made of the strata, of which the Diamond-bearing provinces are composed, and a satisfactory sequence has been established. It would be out of place here to give a full description of the geology of Brazil, but it may be said that, although the Diamond is found in the provinces of Minas-Geraes, Bahia, Goyaz, Matto Grosso and Parana, the geological structure of all, so far as can be learned, is substantially the same. The mode of occurrence of Diamonds at Dia- mantina, in the province of Minas-Geraes, may therefore be fairly taken as typical of the workings throughout Brazil. Diamantina itself is situated along the crest, and on both flanks of the great interior mountain range of Brazil, which, at a general height of about 4000 feet above the level of the sea, divides the waters of the Sao Fran¬ cisco on the west, from those of the Doce Jequetinhonha and other rivers on the east. The northward prolongation of the range includes the Diamond regions of Grao Mogol, in the province of Minas-Geraes, and that of the so-called Chapada Diamantina in Bahia. Brazilian Diamonds. 109 A very important group of rocks stretches from the former to the latter of these rivers. This group has been called the Itacolumite series, from the occurrence of Itacolumite , a rock which takes its name from the Serra do Itacolumi. The true Itacolumite of petrologists is a sandstone, remarkable for possessing flexibility, so that a thin slab admits of being readily bent to and fro. This peculiar rock is, however, only a rare variety of the Itaco¬ lumite, most of which is a granular schistose quartzite, or metamorphic sandstone, destitute of flexibility. The Brazilian Itacolumite has long figured in works on mineralogy as the original matrix—the true parent- rock—of the Diamond. In the geological section under description, the Itaco- lumites are associated with a group of hydro-mica schists and Itaberites, or schists containing specular iron-ore. Traversing these rocks are certain more or less defined veins of clayey matter containing Diamonds. The mineral is here supposed to occur in its primitive position, the clayey material being probably its decaying matrix. Dia¬ monds are alsp found in the quartzites of an overlying series, but here they are to be regarded as pebbles washed out of their original home in the lower group of rocks. They are likewise distributed through the gravels of the Brazilian Highlands, where they find a resting-place after having been set free from their enclosing matrix. It is possible then that a Diamond, born originally in the lower metamorphic series, may have been transported among the materials which enter into the constitution of the upper series, and then on the wearing down of these upper rocks, may have been once more disturbed, and finally deposited in the gravels of the present river valleys. Such is the geological history of many a Brazilian Diamond. I IO Brazilian Diamonds. Mr. Hodder M. Westropp, a gentleman well-known lor the attention which he has given to the subject of Precious Stones, has favoured Mr. Streeter with the following notes :— “ Prof. Gorceix and Mr. Derby are agreed in con¬ sidering the material of the St. Joao mine described by Captain Burton, as the parent-rock of the Diamond. It is near Diamantina (Tijuco of the old maps) the centre of the principal Diamond region. Mining is at present carried on most extensively in this region, in the moun¬ tain region of Central Bahia about Lencoes, in the Bagagem region of Western Minas, and to a limited extent in Goyaz, Matto Grosso, and Parana. “ Itacolumi is a mountain near Ouro Preto (Villa Rica of old maps), the capital of the province of Minas. It is outside of the Diamond regions, but contains the characteristic rocks of that region. True Itacolumite belongs to the Diamond series, but so far Diamonds have not been found in it, though they have been found in a rock hitherto confounded with it, though of late geological age, and of conglomerate character, the gem entering as a rolled pebble from the older and true parent formation.” The Diamond washings in the neighbourhood of Diamantina are performed either in old river gravels or in the beds of rivers, in whose bottoms continuous pot-holes or canons are found, filled with the Diamond-bearing gravel. The courses of the rivers are turned by means of temporary dams or wooden sluices, and the Diamond- bearing gravel hollowed out. The minerals associated with the Diamond are anatase, rutile, specular iron, martite, Topaz, and Tourmaline. About ioo miles north of Diamantina, on the Corrego dos Bois, near Grao Mogol, the Diamond has been found in a solid conglomerate rock named by the miners Brazilian Diamonds. ill “ Pigeon eggs.” This was formerly regarded as the Itacolumite, but has lately been identified with the upper series, overlying the true Itacolumite group. In 1839 about 2,000 people flocked here to work. A few good Diamonds have been found in old mines, about three miles from Tibago, on land which has become the common property of about 100 persons. The story told is, that a labourer, living close to Tibago, produced a tiny bamboo stem, the open end of which was stuffed with a twisted leaf of milho ; on extracting this some small, but good, Diamonds were found in the hollow stem. On pur¬ suing this investigation further, most of the workmen’s huts in the immediate neighbourhood of the mines were found to have some such stones hidden within them ; but the gems were, as a rule, small, hardly ever exceeding one carat in weight. The first impression conveyed on looking at the mine is that it resembles a common gravel pit, dug out of a hill ; but, on closer observation, heaps of yellow unwashed earth are seen on the level bottom of the pit, outside which lie mounds of white washed-out refuse, which has evidently been submitted to the action of water and sifting. The undue expense of working the mine was occa¬ sioned by the thin horizontal beds of gravel, which consti¬ tute the Diamond-bearing strata, being so deep below the surface; and the facility which the workers had of secreting the Diamonds ordinarily found, rendered the results of work unprofitable. Although the finer are far richer in the number of their Diamonds than the coarser strata, the people of Tibago seem to have unwisely neglected the coarse gravel in their washings. The mines in this district of South Brazil still labor under a bad name, although some practical geologists allege that the country in the immediate neighbourhood of Tibago is rich in Diamonds. i r 2 Brasilian Diamonds. The most important district of the deposits of Dia¬ mond-bearing gravels lies between i6° and 26° south lati¬ tude, including the Provinces of Minas-Geraes and St. Paulo, the conditions of which are almost identical with the gold-bearing alluvium of Borneo and the Urals. From the defiles of Itambe, the loftiest mountain of this district, the Copivary and Jequetinhonha, rich in Dia¬ monds, take their rise. In the first of these a Diamond was found a few years ago of about 9 carats weight. There occur in this district, in constant companionship with the Diamond, rounded fragments of clear transparent quartz, beside fragments of a very hard, thick, red ironstone, and of black Lydian stone, varying from the size of a hazel nut to that of a pigeon’s egg. The natives give to this last the name of “ Feijao,” from its likeness to the common black bean, and always hail its presence in the gravel with pleasure, as with it are found other precious stones beside the Diamond, such as White and Blue Topaz, Spinel, Garnet, and Lazulite. Some wonderfully beautiful speci¬ mens of Chrysoberyl are also found in the Diamond sands of Brazil, of yellow, parsley-green, and sky-blue colors, and with them beautiful specimens of rose-colored and sea-green quartz. With the Diamonds of Bahia is found an impure, black, grey, or brown crystallized carbon, known in commerce as Carbonado , and highly valued for mount¬ ing in the steel drill-heads used for Diamond-boring—a purpose for which neither crystalline Diamond nor bort is applicable. The supply of Diamonds greatly increased in the early part of this century, by the discovery of new and richer mines in the province of Bahia, the stones of which are called in commerce Bahias. The yield from these mines, although considerable in quantity, is defective in size, and inferior in average quality. The proportion of Brazilian Diamonds. H3 pure stones is less, and of the “ off-colored ” varieties greater, than is the produce of other mines ; neverthe¬ less, the exceptionally fine stones are as beautiful as any hitherto discovered elsewhere. In 1772 the Government first worked the mines on its own account. Rich as the find was, the cost was enor¬ mous, for every carat weight of Diamonds cost the Govern¬ ment from fifteen to eighteen shillings. The profit made in Minas-Geraes has been very con¬ siderable. In the first twenty years 144,000 carats of Dia¬ monds were found annually. Up to 1850 the Province of Minas-Geraes had yielded about 5,844,000 carats of Dia¬ monds, valued at .£9,000,000. If, in addition to this, we consider the contraband trade at the beginning of this cen¬ tury, estimated at £'2,000,000, the worth of the Diamonds found in Minas-Geraes would be about £11,000,000. The Diamonds from these mines differ from those of the Bahia mines in shape and color. The form of the stones is more regular, while the color is more uniform in its greenish tints, and less, if at all, vitiated by any yellow reflection. Diamonds have been found also in other parts of Brazil, especially in the inland provinces. In the dry season of the year the Diamond-bearing sand is washed in large basins under water, until the prac¬ tised eye discovers the stones. Formerly, as many as fourteen or fifteen Diamonds were often found in a single basin. The Paraguay and its many tributaries carry down gold and Diamonds. During the dry season, from April to the middle of October, when the depth of the river is much diminished, the water is drawn off into a canal, and the mud of the river bed is dug out to a depth of six to ten feet, and carried to a place where it can be washed by the negroes during the wet season. In digging out the H Brazilian Diamonds. 114 mud, large holes are often found containing many Dia¬ monds and much gold. When the wet season stops the digging, the scene of action is the “washing huts.” Washing troughs (canoes) are placed side by side, and the overseer has a raised seat, so as to be able to observe all the negroes at work. Every trough has its little stream of water, and a negro keeps the contents in constant motion until the mud has been washed away and the water is quite clear. Then the sand and fine gravel are taken in the hand and searched for Diamonds. If one is found, the negro stands upright and knocks as a signal for the overseer, who takes the Diamond from him, and lays it in a vessel filled with water, which hangs in the middle of the shed. When the day’s work is over, the contents of this vessel are taken by the overseer, and their weight entered in a book. Large Diamonds are very rarely found. It has been estimated that in ten thousand specimens rarely more than one weighing twenty carats is met with, while possibly eight thousand of one carat, or less, may be discovered. At the works of the Jequetinhonha River, during a year’s labor, only two or three stones have been found varying from seventeen to twenty carats, and in the whole of the works in Brazil, for the space of two years, not more than one of thirty carats was found. In 1851 a Diamond weighing i2o| carats was discovered at the source of the Patrocinho River, in the province of Minas-Geraes. Somewhat later, on the Rio-das-Velhas, the laborers found a stone of 107 carats weight, and in Chapada one of 87J carats, The largest, however, which has been discovered of late) years is that called the “ Star of the South,’’ which weighed 254J carats before it was cut. There are many laws and regulations to prevent the negroes concealing and smuggling Diamonds. As a means Brazilian Diamonds. IIS of encouraging honesty, if a negro finds a large stone, he is crowned with a wreath of flowers, led in procession to the manager, and his freedom is bestowed upon him. If a negro finds a Diamond from eight to ten carats weight, he receives two new shirts, a suit of clothes, a hat, and a handsome knife. For smaller, but valuable stones, other rewards are given. For unfaithfulness the negroes are beaten with sticks, or have iron bands fastened round their throats; and on repetition of the fault they are not admitted to the works again. Notwithstanding all these rewards and punish¬ ments, one-third of the produce is supposed to be surrep¬ titiously disposed of by the laborers. Manifold are the tricks used by the negroes to appropriate and barter the gems they discover. In the very presence of the overseers they manage to conceal them in their hair, their mouths, their ears, or between their fingers ; not unfrequently they will throw them away, and return for them at the dead of night. The discovery of these Precious Stones in 1746 proved a great curse to the poor inhabitants on the banks of the Diamond rivers. Scarcely had the news of the discovery reached the Government ere they tried to secure the riches of these rivers for the Crown. To effect this the inhabi¬ tants were driven away from their homes to wild, far-away places, and deprived of their little possessions : nature herself seemed to take part against them ; for a dreadful drought, succeeded by a violent earthquake, increased their distress. Many of them perished, but those who lived to return were benevolently reinstated in their rightful pos¬ sessions. Strange to say, on their return the earth seemed strewn with Diamonds. After a heavy shower the children would find gold in the streets and in the brooks which traversed them, and would often take home three or four Brazilian Diamonds. 116 carats of Diamonds. One negro found a Diamond at the root of a vegetable in his garden. Poultry, in picking up their food, swallowed Diamonds, so that their viscera required searching before being disposed of. When Diamonds were first discovered in Bahia, the old capital of Brazil, which was at the time a densely- populated and fruitful province, the observant and intelli¬ gent Portuguese minister, the Marquis de Pombal, forbade further search, as he feared that agriculture, which he justly regarded as the blessing and health of the land, would suffer. A very strange history is connected with the discovery of Diamonds in Bahia. An intelligent slave from Minas- Geraes, keeping his master’s flocks in that province, thought he observed a similarity between the soil of his native place and that of Bahia. He sought therefore in the sand, and soon found 700 carats of Diamonds. Fleeing from his master, he carried these with him, and offered them for sale in a distant city. Such wealth in the hands of a slave caused him to be arrested, but he would not betray him¬ self. The master to whom he was given up tried to get at his secret by cunning, but without avail, until he thought of restoring to him his former occupation in Bahia, and watching him. As soon as the secret was known num¬ bers flocked from Minas-Geraes and other parts of Brazil to Bahia, so that the following year as many as 25,000 people were occupied in seeking Diamonds there, and the amount daily secured for some time rose to 1,450 carats. The number of Diamond-seekers however, gradually dwindled to between five and six thousand ; but up to the end of the year 1849 there had been as many as 932,400 carats of Diamonds obtained from the Chapada of Bahia, This rich field is about eighty miles long and forty miles Brazilian Diamonds. u 7 broad. The total produce from the entire Brazil Diamond district was calculated up to the year 1850 to exceed 10,000,000 carats. In the year 1851 the produce appeared to be increasing ; but in 1852 it was evidently on the wane. The estimated value of Brazilian Diamonds from 1861 to 1867 was about .£1,888,000. Some very interesting information has been given by the German traveller, Herr von Tschudi concerning the Brazilian Diamonds ; and we may consider it as authentic, because he him¬ self visited the city of Diamantina, in the province of Minas-Geraes, in February, 1858. He observes: “The pivot on which Diamantina turns is Diamonds. I was present during the unexampled commercial crisis which extended from town to town, and country to country, with such disastrous consequences, and which fell with the weight of an avalanche on the inhabitants of Diamantina. All business was stopped, and Diamonds fell to one-half the price they reached only the year before. I have taken much trouble to obtain an accurate statement of the present position (1859) of the Diamond trade in Brazil, and for that purpose have consulted the best authorities. The Diamonds of Brazil are known in commerce as (1) Diamantina Diamonds, and (2) Cincora Diamonds. The latter are of less value than the former, because they are not of such pure water, nor of so good a shape. In Matto- Grosso the Diamonds are small, but of the purest water, and in their rough state have a peculiar lustre, which is seen in none other of the Brazilian Diamonds.” The panic described by Von Tschudi was severe, but it is very doubtful whether any panic was ever equal in extent and importance to that caused by the discovery of the riches in South Africa, which occurred in the year 1868, and from that period to 1873 caused a revolution in the Diamond market. For a year or two after this IIS Brazilian Diamonds. discovery of the South-African gems, the Brazilian Dia¬ monds held their ground in the market ; but the large returns that accompanied the introduction of the Cape stones soon diverted the attention of the trade to the latter, and traders and speculators were captivated by the Cape discoveries. The diamond-cutters of Amsterdam, for a time, preferred cutting them to any other stones. No country was more incredulous about the prodigious yield of the South African mines than Brazil, and this per¬ versity made the loss disastrous to the Brazilian merchants, as they refused to receive the warnings which were sent them in perfect good faith. The favor bestowed on the Cape Diamonds, the great margin of profit which they yielded, being brought to market by all kinds of holders ignorant of the craft of theDiamond trade, and of the real value of the stones, eventuated in the Brazilian Diamonds being more and more neglected ; and as the difficulties were augmented by the predilection of Amsterdam workmen, so the neglect was heightened, and a depreciation followed greater than that which the prices obtained for Cape stones justified. The Cape yield of large stones confirmed the Amster¬ dam Diamond-cutters in their opinion, as an abundance of large stones justified the general rejection of the small, and these latter were furnished by the Brazil merchants in every parcel supplied tojthe market by them. The alternative of sending only finer specimens to the practical exclusion of small stones, if they intended seriously to enter into compe¬ tition with Cape gems, was a matter of anxious concern to them,not because the Brazilian Diamonds had deteriorated, in beauty or in quality, but because the exorbitant price at which they had been offered for sale could no longer be maintained. It is a well-known fact that, owing to the increasing scarcity of stones, the working of the mines has become barely remunerative, CHAPTER V. INDIAN DIAMONDS. HE Diamond fields of India have been cele¬ brated from remote antiquity. It is only of late years, however, that our knowledge of the geology of India has been sufficiently advanced to enable the mineralogist to speak with even approximate accuracy as to the nature of the Diamond¬ bearing rocks of that country. The materials accumulated by the geological survey have recently been rendered accessible to the public, by the issue of an admirable “ Manual,” of which the third volume is devoted to Eco¬ nomic Geology-—a subject which Prof. V. Ball has treated with great ability. In that volume will be found all that is at present known to scientific men with regard to the geological conditions under which the Diamond occurs in India. The Diamonds of India are generally found in super¬ ficial deposits derived from the disintegration of the solid rocks. Where the Precious Stone apparently occurs in situ , it is always in certain rocks belonging to the great Vindhyan formation , a formation which derives its name sH^PI fiHl 120 Indian Diamonds. from the Vindhyan hills of the old geographers. No trace of life has yet been found in the Vindhyan rocks, and hence nothing can be said about their age, save that they are of very great geological antiquity. At the Panna mines, Diamonds have been found embedded in a conglo¬ merate belonging to a minor division of the Upper Vind- hyans, known as the Rewah group ; but this conglomerate is apparently formed of materials derived from the older or Lower Vindhyan series. In Southern India the Lower Vindhyans are represented by the Karnul group , and at the very base of this formation the Diamond is found. Such is its position, for example, at the Banaganpilly Mines. But here again the Diamond-rock is a conglome¬ rate—that is to say, a detrital rock made up of pebbles derived from some yet older rock. Associated with these pebbles are the Diamonds ; but whence the Diamonds came, from what rock they may have been broken, or out of what matrix they may have been washed, no man can yet say. Science, notwithstanding all that has been done, has not as yet been able to reach the primitive matrix of the Indian Diamond. The extent of Diamond-bearing alluvial deposits in India suggested to Carl Ritter a division of this formation into five groups, the geological condition of which he care¬ fully noticed. He not only explains the topography of these districts, but gives a history of Diamond mining, collated after careful investigation from ancient and modern literature. From his writings we select some passages. Thus, referring to Heyne and Voysey, Franklin and Adams, he says, “ They are agreed that where there is a layer of alluvial soil it is superficial only, and to this is mixed, or superadded, a conglomerate of rounded pebbles, together with a sandstone-breccia, which contains the Diamonds. Indian Diamonds. 121 Further, that the Diamonds are by no means scattered throughout this conglomerate, but occur only in one par¬ ticular stratum, harder than the rest, and, at most, only one foot thick, and this is so throughout the whole of India wherever the Diamond is found. Voysey, who calls this rock a sandstone-breccia, says it lies under a firm sand¬ stone bed, and consists of a fine mass of fragments of red and yellow Jasper, Quartz, Chalcedony, and Hornblende of different colors, bound together by a siliceous cement, which passes into a looser pudding-stone, with pebbles cemented with clay or marl, and this is characteristic of the Diamond-bed.” In the time of Mohammed Ghori, who in 1186 was the real founder of the Mohammedan dominion in India, the quantity of Diamonds discovered there was so great that he left in his treasury at his death Precious Stones to the weight of 400 lbs. It is reported he obtained them exclu¬ sively by plunder. Since the beginning of the thirteenth century these have been dispersed ; and at the finding of the celebrated stone called. “ The Great Mogul,” Diamonds began to obtain a high price. There are three extensive districts in India which have yielded Diamonds on a large scale. Of these the most famous is the southernmost improperly termed the Golconda region, the old fort of Golconda, in Hyderabad, being far distant. It includes various mines on the Kistna and Godaviri rivers, and other localities in the Madras Presidency, which will be noticed in detail in the following pages, The second great tract lies in the Central Provinces, and includes the mines of Sumbulpur. The third is in Bundelkhund, where are situated the Panna mines. In addition to these principal areas, a few other localities have yielded Diamonds. They have been found, 122 Indian Diamonds. for example, in the province of Chutia Nagpur ; in the southern Mahratta country; and, it is believed, near Simla. An account of the Precious Stones of India has been given in a work entitled Mani Mala , by Rajah Sourindro Mohun Tagore, published at Calcutta, in 1879. Although some of the descriptions given are hardly scientific, yet the book contains much that is interesting with respect not only to the history of Precious Stones, but also as to their localities. The following list gives the names of the Indian localities in which the Diamond is said to occur, with the supposed modern equivalents of those names :— 1. Haima (Himalayas). 2. Matanga (Kistna and Godaviri or Golconda). 3. Saurashtra (Surat). 4. Paunda (probably included the Chutia Nagpur localities). 5. Kalinga (countries between Orissa and the Goda¬ viri). 6. Kosala (the modern Ajodhya or Berar). 7. Vena Ganga (the Wemganga). 8. Saubira (the tract between the Sarhund and Indus rivers). The most southern group of the Diamond strata begins at the environs of Cuddapah, or Kadapah, on the Pennar. Here for many hundred years Diamonds have been met with in various quantities. They are found in many places contiguous to each other: at Chennur or Chinon ; at Cunnapurtee, probably the same locality as that described by Heyne and Newbold as Condapetta ; and at Woblapally and Obalumpally. Near Cuddapah (475 feet above the sea) the conglo¬ merate is superficial, and from ten to twenty feet thick. The mountain rises 1,000 feet higher than this stratum, Indian Diamonds. 123 and its foot is everywhere covered with loose pebbles. The beds follow each other in the following order: upper¬ most a foot and a-half of sand, grit, and loam ; then a tough blue or black muddy earth, without any stones, four feet thick ; under this comes the Diamond bed, characterized by the numerous large round stones em¬ bedded in it. It is from two to two and a-half feet thick, and consists of pebbles and grit bound together by loam. In the neighbourhood of Ellora this layer is covered with a thick calcareous tufa. The stones are of various kinds, and the Diamond seekers give them special names: 1st, “Telia Bendu,” white, earthy, subangular; 2nd, Transparent quartz, yellowish ; 3rd, Pistacite ; 4th, “ Gajja Bendu,” red, blue, and brown Jasper pebbles ; 5th, “ Karla,” basaltic pebbles; 6th, Sandstone, with ochreous crust ; 7th, “ Kanna,” rounded ironstone, about the size of a hazel nut, which constitutes the most important pebble bed in the Obalumpally Mines ; 8th, Corundum. In the more northern Diamond pits, at Pastal, near Ellora, on the Lower Kistna, pebbles of Chalcedony and Carnelian also occur. At Cuddapah large blocks of hornblendic rock, mostly derived from the neighbouring mountain chain, constitute the chief mass of the Diamond bed. The Obalumpally mines, also on the right bank of the Pennar, are only a few hours’ journey west of Cuddapah. The Diamond bed here seems to follow the course of the river, and is of varying width. Here the Diamonds always occur in more rounded crystals. Those found still further west are the best. The Hindoos divide Diamonds into four classes, according to their castes. 1st, Brahma , clear and of “ pure water.” 2nd, Ckedra, clear and of the color of honey. 124 Indian Diamonds. 3rd, Vysea, cream-colored. 4th, Sudra, a greyish-white. The Sudras are the Diamond seekers who carry on their work without inspection, and pride themselves on their honesty. The pits which they dig are square excavations, not more than sixteen feet deep. Among the Diamond-bearing localities in the district round Bellary may be mentioned Munimadagu, Wajra Karur, and Guti or Gutidrug. At the north end of the table-land, extending on the west side of the Nalla-Malla hills, as far as the town of Randial (672 feet above the level of the sea), lies another group of mines. The Dia¬ mond beds here are only about a foot thick, and both the over and underlying beds are more pebbly than in the first group. Most of the Diamonds of this district lie loose in the dlbris. There is an erroneous impression among the poor miners that the Diamonds grow in and about the huge fragments of the crust of the earth which has been heaved and broken up. Among the natives of the Madras Presidency, there exists a curious belief that the rock- crystal, which occurs in the diamantiferous ground, will become Diamond when impregnated with electricity by the action of lightning. Voysey found about these mines at least a dozen parties, each consisting of seven or eight men, working in their own lot or particular heap. He describes them as mostly of the lowest class—poor, miser¬ able creatures, with little government, and with no super¬ intendent to direct or regulate their labor. In the rainy season the miners work in the Diamond pits on the heights, and when the floods are over, in the low-lying mines by Kistna. Most of the Indian Diamond miners belong to the aboriginal tribes, their trade being hereditary. The Panna mines were worked formerly by Gonds or Kols, and though some of the miners of Southern India are said Indian Diamonds. 125 to be Hindus, and others are simply described as low out¬ casts, yet they all probably are descended from the same Dravidian family. The Diamond district of Banaganpilly lies five hours’ journey west of Randial, surrounded by lofty plateaus, or flat-topped mountains, whose sides admit of cultivation. B. Heyne alleges that the mines are found in the cone-shaped mountains, varying from one to two hundred feet in height, and that the Diamonds are found at a depth of about twenty feet from the surface. Voysey, who lived later than Heyne, asserts, in rectification of this statement, that, for many years past, it is only in the broken-up crust that the Diamonds are found. Mr. King, of the Geological Survey of India, visited these mines at a recent date, and described the Diamond- layer as a clayey conglomerate containing pebbles and fragments of shale, chert, and quartzite. This “gangue is pounded up, mashed, sifted, and laid out to dry on pre¬ pared floors, after which the residue of clean sand is carefully examined in the hand by the women and children of the working parties, for the precious gems.” These gems, however, are evidently very rare, for Mr. King could not hear of a single stone being found during his stay of four or five days at the mines. Many other Diamond-bearing localities are known in the neighbourhood of Karnul, but in most cases the workings are now deserted. In the valley of the Kistna, or Krishna, there are numerous spots in which Diamonds have been worked, especially at Kollur, which was pro¬ bably the Gani Coulour of Tavernier; and at Parteal, or Gani Parteal. In fact, the localities in the Kistna and Godaviri valleys constitute the famous Golconda district , which has yielded the great historical Diamonds of India. It must be distinctly understood, however, that no 126 India 7 i Diamonds. Diamonds have ever been found at Golconda itself. Gol¬ conda, the former capital of the district, was simply the commercial centre, where the Diamonds were bought and sold, and at the present day the only representative of the world-famed Golconda, is a deserted fort near Hyderabad. When Tavernier visited the district in 1669, there were as many as twenty mines at work, but now all, except two or three, have been forsaken, and even the names by which Tavernier knew them have become obsolete, and not without difficulty can their situations be identified. The most famous of these named “ Gani ” by the natives, but “ Colore ” by the Persians, gave employment in Tavernier’s time, to 60,000 workmen. Prof. Valentin Ball has brought forward strong evidence to shew that Tavernier’s “ Gani Coulour” is identical with the modern town of “ Kollur ”—the word Gani being a corruption of Kau-i , or “mine of;” so that “Gani Coulour” meant simply the “ Mine of Coulour,” just as “ Gani Parteal ” is the “ Mine of Parteal.” Prof. Ball also seeks to identify Tavernier’s famous locality of Raulconda, where the old traveller saw Diamond-cutting carried on in the mine itself, with a town called Rawdu Konda. The Diamonds found at Gani Coulour were dis¬ tinguished for their number and size ; but, except in rare instances, they were deficient in purity and clearness. The largest and most celebrated found in this mine is that described by Tavernier as the “ Great Mogul.” In its rough state it weighed 787^ carats, but was reduced by cutting to 279 T 9 g carats. Near Coulour there is mentioned by Tavernier a locality which produced inadamanline Diamonds, whose brittleness led to great disappointment, and eventually induced the authorities to close the mine. Tavernier also gives an account of the Diamond-mining Indian Diamonds. 127 operations' at Con!our, and relates how a mine was dis¬ covered by a countryman, who, digging to sow some millet, found a pointed stone weighing about twenty-five carats. Not knowing what it was, he took it to Golconda, where he showed it to a trader in Diamonds, who, recog¬ nizing its value, enquired as to the locality where it was found. The report of a Diamond mine made a great sensation in the country, and the influential men of the town caused the ground to be worked. They were well rewarded for their trouble, by the discovery of large stones, averaging from ten to forty carats each, and sometimes even larger—among the rest that fine stone, weighing 900 ratis, which Mirgimola presented to Shah J.ehan. The mines between six and seven hours’. journey W.S.W. of li flora, were visited by Heyne in 1795, and are known as the “ Mallivully,” so called from one of the seven villages of that name, inhabited by miners. The plain, on which the villages round about Malli¬ vully lie, is -on all sides surrounded by granite rock. The average depth of the alluvium in which the Diamonds are found is twenty feet. This alluvial deposit extends along the banks of the Kistna for the distance of about two or three hours’ walk. The change from a grey to a red soil, consisting of weather-worn granitic gravel, is here distinctly seen. The upper layer consists of the black “ Cotton soil ” brought down from the higher grounds by floods. Beneath this layer lies a mass of fragments of sandstone, quartz, jasper, flint, and granite, with great amorphous masses of calca¬ reous conglomerate, but destitute of any indication of their, having been rolled there by water. It is in this stratum that the Diamond is found, together with other Precious Stones. None of the mines about Mallivully or Golapally are 128 Indian Diamonds. now worked. The locality known as Parteal or Gani- Parteal, on the north bank of the Kistna, has been regarded by some authorities as the original home of many of the grandest historical stones, such as the “ Koh-i-Nur,” and the famous “Pitt” or “Regent” Diamond. The Diamond district of the Sumbulpur or Sambal- pur group, north of the Godaviri, extends to the immediate vicinity of Sumbulpur, a city built on a fruitful alluvial table-land, 385 feet above the level of the sea, and situated between the rivers of Mahanuddy and Brahmini. The Precious Stones which are found at the mouths of the little tributaries of the Maund, flowing from the north-east, are of various sizes and of purest quality. Although Diamonds are rarely, if ever, now found in Sumbulpur, it is interesting to preserve the description of the old Diamond-washers in the days of the rajahs. In Sumbulpur the Diamond seekers were of two castes. They resembled Negroes rather than Hindoos, and received the names of Ihara and Tora. Sixteen villages of the poorest kind were given up to them as free Jaghirs ; ten being occupied by the Iharas and four by the Toras, the remaining two being dedicated to their gods. These people were naturally superstitious. Nicolo Conti, who travelled in India in the early part of the 15th century, gives some very questionable stories as to a Diamond-producing mountain, and the means by which they were procured. It is also believed that sacrifices were made upon the opening of a new Diamond mine, and credulous travellers in those early days, might possibly have supposed that these sacrificial rites were essential to the successful search for Diamonds. The Diamond seekers with their families, numbering from 4000 to 5000 persons, migrated yearly ; and from Indian Diamonds. 129 November to the commencement of the rainy season searched the bed of the Mahanuddy River from Chunder- pur to Sonepur, a distance of twenty-four miles, scruti¬ nizing every cleft and corner for the Precious Stones. They carried with them only three tools, a pickaxe, a board five feet long, hollowed in the middle and provided with a raised border three inches high, and a second board about half the size. With the pickaxe they scraped the earth out of the clefts and holes, and piled it in heaps on the bank. Their women laid the earth on the larger board, slightly inclined, washed it with water, and removed all the rougher sand and pebbles, which were subsequently placed on the smaller board, spread out, and searched for Precious Stones and gold dust. The Diamond was found for the most part in a mass of tough, reddish clay, pebbles, a little sand, and some iron oxide. This seems to be the debris of the same stone “ breccia ” as that which Voysey supposed to be Diamond-rock in the Pennar and the Kistna groups. The washers of Sumbulpur now rarely, if ever, find Diamonds with the alluvial gold. Another method of obtaining the Diamond is to form a flat surface in the neighbourhood of the place where the Precious Stones are to be sought, and build round it a wall two feet high, leaving here and there openings for the water to run off. The earth which has been worked out by means of the pickaxe, is thrown into this extemporized well, and after two or three washings the large stones are removed, the residue dried, and the Diamonds sought for. From time immemorial the Dia¬ monds found in this district have been claimed by the ruler as his right. The finder of large Diamonds is re¬ warded by the royal grant of one or more small villages. For smaller Diamonds there are other rewards ; but for the I 1 3 ° Indian Diamonds. concealment of Precious Stones the natives are punished by having their villages taken from them, and are subject also to corporal punishment. In spite of this, and threatenings of severer penalties, smuggling and conceal¬ ment continue. Since the year 1818, Sumbulpur has been under British rule. In that year a Diamond was found which weighed 21 carats, and although of only the third quality was sold for 5,000 rupees. In the Chanda district, to the south-east of Nagpur, are the old Diamond mines of Waviagarh. Another group of Diamond-beds is near Bengal, Bahar, and Allahabad, on the south bank of the Ganges. South of this mighty river there runs almost in the same direction a vast range of lofty tableland, sandstone upon granite, extending 150 miles from east to west. In the eastern part of the lofty tableland no indications have yet been discovered of the existence of the Diamond, although there was a mine mentioned by Tavernier, which probably lay somewhere to the south of this range. In another division of this sandstone belt, at its western extremity, limited to an area of a very few miles, is a plot which has been famous since the time of Ptolemy for its Diamonds. The Diamond-diggings in the immediate neighbour¬ hood of Panna (or Punnah) have been ably described by Mr. Medlicott, the director of the Geological Survey of India. They do not cover an area of more than 20 acres. Great pits, 25 feet in diameter and perhaps 30 feet in depth, are dug for the sake of reaching the Diamond-conglome¬ rate, which in many cases is not more than a span in thickness. The miners enter the pit by means of inclined planes, and work almost naked and knee-deep in water. The material which they dig up is put into baskets and Indian Diamonds , 131 hauled by manual labour to the surface, where it is care¬ fully searched for Diamonds. The most productive Dia¬ mond mines in this group were, in i860, to be found in the village of Sukariuh, about twenty miles from Panna. Here the upper stratum, from 15 to 20 feet thick, had to be broken through in order to reach the rich Diamond- bed which lay concealed underneath. Four kinds of Diamonds were found at Sukariuh. They were termed, 1st, Motichul , clear and brilliant; 2nd, Manik, verging in tint towards green ; 3rd, Panna, with a faint orange tint; 4th, Bunsput , sepia colored. Diamonds are found under the cascade of the river Bagin, from 700 to 900 feet below the present Diamond strata; and the only explanation hitherto given is that the Bagin has brought these Precious Stones down from the table-land, with other matter torn from its native bed. It is not needful to pursue further the instructive geological and geographical topics which lie before us in reference to the Diamonds of India. Suffice it to say, that some interesting remarks have been recently pub¬ lished upon the correlation of the Vindyhan rocks of India, with certain series occurring in South Africa. It is within the limits of probability that the original matrix of the Cape Diamonds may belong to a geological forma¬ tion on the same horizon with that which includes the Indian Diamond. Diamond-mining in India under European manage¬ ment does not appear hitherto to have been successful. How far this is owing to the petty scale on which the operations have been conducted, it is impossible to say. It is, however, erroneous to suppose that there is any real exhaustion of the localities where mining is possible. On the contrary, geological examination has proved that the Diamond-bearing strata are very widely distributed ; it is 132 Indian Diamonds. doubtful, however, whether the same working operations are carried on in the more remote districts as in those nearer home. In fact, Diamond-mining will never be a success in India until the Government is prepared to grant long leases for the working, so as to enable the capitalist to get back money spent in machinery, without which no mine can be properly worked. It is not to be expected that men will invest money without a prospect of recoup¬ ing themselves. Viewing it in the most favorable light, Diamond¬ mining cannot be considered as likely to offer a rapid road to fortune ; nevertheless, for those who are contented with a slowly paying occupation and a hard life, it would no doubt be remunerative, provided the adventurer exer¬ cised close personal supervision and possessed a fair amount of capital. CHAPTER VI. BORNEO DIAMONDS. OTWITHSTANDING all that has been written on the mineral resources of Borneo in the scientific journals of Holland, our knowledge of the conditions under which Diamonds are found in this island is still far from satis¬ factory. It has long been known that Diamonds occur at Landak and in the neighbourhood of Pontianak, in the western part of Borneo; but the recent workings are chiefly situated in the southern and eastern districts of the island. In Koesan Diamonds were discovered about the year 1820, and, according to Dr. J. H. Croockewit, who visited the workings, they occur in a dark red loam, associated with fragments of red sand-stone and quartz. When Mr. J. C. J. Smits was at the Diamond- diggings at Wauwaan, on the right side of the river Koesan, in 1852, he found about 150 persons following this industry. 134 Borneo Diamonds. Of late years the best known Diamond locality in Borneo seems to be the neighbourhood of Martapoera, where the Precious Stones occur in association with gold, platinum, and black Tourmaline. Pits are dug in the Diamond-bearing gravels to a depth of from four to six feet, passing through a strata of pebbles, sand, and clay, with scales of mica, and fragments of blue and bluish- grey quartz, known locally as batoe tatimahan. The Diamonds are either colorless or of various tints—yellow, green, and even black ; the most highly prized being those which present a faint shade of blue, known to the Malays as ajer-laut, or “sea-water.” The Diamonds are cut and polished near Martapoera. In the south-eastern point of Borneo, Tanah Laut (or Lake Land) ends the chain of mountains which run parallel to, and on the east of, the large River Bandjer- masin. The most southern portion of the mountain is known by the name of the Ratoos Range. Its highest point, 3,168 feet above the sea level, is for the most part composed of serpentine, diorite, and greenstone. The Diamond mines are all on the west side of the Ratoos. The soil, mostly red clay, is from thirty to forty feet deep ; below that, for about six feet, is a gravel or shingle of serpentine, diorite, and quartz, interbedded sometimes with marl, in which are found certain species of mollusc still existing in the neighbouring ocean. The Diamonds, accom¬ panied by magnetite, are found in a sand-bed resting on serpentine. The surest indications of the presence of Diamonds are little pieces of black quartz, containing iron-pyrites, and flakes of platinum. In this south¬ eastern province alone, 400 people are occupied in Dia¬ mond washing. The workings being situated for the most part near to the shore, are liable to occasional incursions Borneo Diamonds. 135 of the sea, which is naturally a source of much trouble to the Diamond-diggers. The largest Borneo Diamond discovered of late years was found in 1868 at the diggings of M. Beretti at Tjempaka. It weighed in the rough 25 carats, and when cut 18^ carats. At the recent International Exhibition at Amsterdam (1883) there were exhibited several Borneo Diamonds, all from the neighbourhood of Martapoera. CHAPTER VII. COLORED DIAMONDS. IAMONDS occur of every hue, and, according to Mandeville, “ seem to take pleasure in assuming in turns the colors proper to other gems.” The Blue or Sapphire tint is, with the exception of the Ruby Red, the rarest of colors met with in Diamonds. The following is the order in which colored Dia¬ monds may be ranked, having regard to their rarity and value : —i Blue, Red, and Green ; 2 White. There are undoubtedly fine specimens not included in this classifi¬ cation ; their tints and shades so peculiar and varied that they may better be described individually than in groups. The collection of Colored Diamonds in the Vienna Museum, which was brought together by Herr Virgil von Helmreicher, a Tyrolese by birth, but long resident in Brazil, is undoubtedly the most complete in Europe. Colored Diamonds. 137 Blue Diamonds. Diamonds of a faint bluish tint are not unfrequently found, but their defect is that they are usually more or less opalescent, and therefore rank as stones of inferior quality. On the other hand, the rich deep Blue Diamond is of extreme rarity. Although writers describe these stones as possessing in an eminent degree the beauty of fine Sapphires, no comparison can really be instituted, their blue color being peculiar to themselves-*—dark, verging on indigo, possessing a characteristic intensity which differs materially from the mild, soft hue of the Sapphire; and, above all, they possess the exclusive irradiance technically described as the “fire ” of the Brilliant. It is indeed a gem which, for its intrinsic beauty, no less than for its extreme rarity, challenges the foremost place among “ Precious Stones.” The only Blue Diamonds known were found in the old Indian mines, probably those of Gani-Colour, visited by Tavernier in 1642. The Brazilian mines, although yielding many colored Diamonds, are not known to have produced a single example of the dark blue variety. The same remark applies to the South-African mines, which have not as yet given to the world either a green or a blue specimen. It is noticeable that early Greek writers describe the Adamas as having a dark blue color—a description which sufficiently proves that the stone was not our Diamond, since this gem has so rarely a pronounced blue tint—but suggests that it was rather the Sapphire. The first mention we have of a Blue Diamond in Elurope refers to a stone then considered unique. It weighed in the rough 112^ carats, was bought by Tavernier in India in 1642, and was sold to Louis XIV. in 1668. It is described as “ d’un beau violet.” It would appear to Colored Diamonds. 133 have been somewhat flat and ill-formed. The figure in the plate probably represents faithfully this stone in its then condition, and is a copy from an old French engraving. After its purchase by “ Le Grand Monarque,” it was apparently cut. It figured in a grand historic scene on the 19th of February, 1715, when the Persian Ambassador appeared before Louis XIV., twelve days after his public entry into Paris. Le Grand Monarque, notwithstanding his great age and infirmities, exerted his remaining energy of will to appear before the illustrious stranger to the best advantage. Pie was dressed in a black suit, ornamented with gold, and embroidered with Diamonds at the cost— the almost incredible estimate—of £12,000,000. Sus¬ pended from a light blue ribbon round his neck, he wore a dark Blue Diamond as a pendant. And we find in the French regalia, a century later, a faceted Diamond, trian¬ gular in shape, and of the identical color, weighing 67-J- carats, which would be about the weight of Tavernier’s celebrated purchase, after it had been cut. This stone was, with the rest of the French Regalia, seized in August, 1792, and deposited in the Garde- Meuble. From this insecure place it was surreptitiously abstracted in September of the same year. What ulti¬ mately became of it remains a mystery. That it should have really been lost is incredible ; and from the sudden appearance of a stone of similar character, the extra¬ ordinary rarity of which is acknowledged, the belief may be fairly entertained that it is Tavernier’s gem re-cut, and so altered in form as to render its identification very difficult. This hypothesis receives additional probability from the fact that a Blue Brilliant about the year 1S30 was in the hands of Mr. Daniel Eliason, which came to light with¬ out a history, without any account being rendered as to whence it came, and what had been its travels and fortunes. Colored Diamonds. 139 Subsequently it is traced as the property of the late Mr. Hope, under the name of the “ Hope ” Diamond. The difference in weight between the original stone of carats, and this actual stone of 44 1 carats, naturally suggests the interrogation, “Was the weight lost simply in the cutter’s hands, or were one or more pieces removed by simple cleavage, and preserved?” The latter supposi¬ tion, viz., that the Diamond abstracted in 1792 was reduced by cleavage and formed into two Brilliants, is not impro¬ bable. This deduction is indeed the more plausible, as Tavernier’s Diamond evidently had one of the crystallo¬ graphic faces largely produced on the one side, which gave the stone a “drop form,” a formation frequently seen in rough Diamonds, especially in colored stones (ex¬ cepting always the yellow varieties), and leading to the inference that the cleavage plane must have lain as in the diagram between A and B. In the first cutting of the stone this g original shape was to some extent V preserved, which left an ill-formed, j triangular-shaped Brilliant somewhat ) thin on one side. From this it would have been easy for an expert to cleave a triangular piece of about 10 or 11 carats, thus leaving the stone weighing about 56 carats, the re-cutting of which, as a perfect Brilliant, well proportioned, would reduce it to its present weight of 445 carats. It is observable that the “ Hope ” Diamond is even now straighter on one side than the other, and this strengthens the presumption of the stone having teen cleaved as suggested. The late Emperor of the French ordered a model of the Blue Diamond in question to be made while it remained in the Paris Exhibition. The correctness of this hypothesis would receive 140 Colored Diamonds. confirmation if the pieces, or the piece, assumed to be split off could be discovered and identified, but the difficulty in the way of this evidence lies in the strong presumption of the remanets having been also subjected to re-cutting and re-polishing. The cleft-off piece must have been triangular at first, with a straight side corresponding with the side of the “ Hope ” Diamond, as shewn in the diagram. After being re-cut it would make a Blue Diamond of '‘drop shape,” the base of which would correspond with the straight side of the latter gem, proportionate in substance, identical in color (in all probability), and weighing from 6 to 7 carats. A stone answering to such a description would supply strong presumptive evidence in support of the theory, that the two stones would be part of the one originally separated by the cleaver’s art; and such a stone did actually come into the market in the April of 1874, and fell into the hands of some competent judges, who examined it in juxta¬ position with the “ Hope ” Diamond, to which, in color and quality, it bore a remarkable resemblance. It was pur¬ chased in Geneva at the sale of the late Duke of Bruns¬ wick’s jewels. The conclusion that the Duke of Brunswick’s “Blue Drop Diamond” once formed the projecting side which appears to have characterized the original shape of the “ Hope ” Brilliant was inevitable. Besides these two there are only three Diamonds known in Europe which can in the same sense be termed “Blue,” and these all differ from the “Hope,” and from each other in color. Of the three, the most important is the Brilliant, also sold at the Duke of Brunswick’s sale, a Blue Stone, weighing 13^ carats. It is of an octagon shape, with “ flat top and thick back,” not unlike a Rose Diamond. A very fine, but small, dark Blue Brilliant, weighing Colored Diamonds. 141 about 5 grains, formerly in the Vienna collection, and the remaining gem, which weighs about 4J carats, and is somewhat square in form, and paler in hue than its famous congeners, are both in private hands. Red Diamonds. The true Red Diamond is valuable “ according to the glorious beauty of its perfectionto use a quaint phrase of good old Thomas Nicols, writing to the dons of Cambridge in 1651. “It feeds your eyes with much pleasure in be¬ holding, and hence are discovered to us the excellencies of super-celestial things.” The only specimen known to jewellers is the gem bought from Mr. Joseph Halphen, of Paris, by a London firm. It passed ultimately into the possession of a great connoisseur. For richness of color it may not inaptly be likened to an African sunset. There are many Rose-colored Diamonds, but the Blood or Ruby Red specimen just described—a gem on fire as it were—is unique in all modern experience. Green Diamonds. The history of the finest specimen of a Diamond of this color may be not uninteresting. Twenty years ago this stone was obtained for £200. Some years afterwards it was sold for £300. Subsequently it passed into the possession of a jeweller in Bond Street, who sold it to an American for £600. Mr. Charles Drayson is now its owner. Should it again change hands it would probably be purchased to enrich the regalia of one of the great European courts. Among the treasures of the famous Griine Gewolbe, or “ Green Vaults,’’ of Dresden, is a celebrated Green Diamond weighing 48-J carats, and valued at £30,000, 142 Colored Diamonds. The visitor who is familiar with the brightly-colored models of this stone, common in collections, feels some little disappointment on seeing the original, the color of which is of the faintest possible shade of green. Diamonds of Unwonted Color. His Grace the Duke of Wellington possesses a very fine Black Diamond, weighing \2\ carats, which was valued in 1869 at ^183 15^, In the “Hope Collection,” exhibited in 1851, were three Brilliants of unusual tint— one pink, cushion shaped, the weight of which was 28 carats ; the second, lilac-hued, of oval shape, weighing 1 1 carats ; and the third of an apricot color, or a mixture of peach and orange. CHAPTER VIII. BORT, CARBONADO AND BORON. BORT. H ERTAIN Diamonds are found of inferior quality, and so imperfectly crystallized, that they are useless as ornamental stones. These _j are called “ Bort,” or “ Boort,” and are either crushed to form Diamond dust, or are used for engraving. By mineralogists the name Bort is restricted to an un¬ crystallized form of Diamond, which generally presents the appearance of small spherical masses, destitute of cleavage, but displaying on fracture a radiated internal structure. It is usually greyish-white, of a dark or even black color, and has a density somewhat higher than that of ordinary Diamonds. Useless for the purpose of the jeweller, it is consigned to the lapidary to be crushed in steel mortars and used in the form of powder as an abrading agent. The diamond powder formed by crushing these inferior stones, as well as that which is the produce of the opera¬ tions of cutting and cleaving rough stones, is, after mix¬ ture with oil, employed for polishing Diamonds, 144 Bort , Carbonado and Boron. CARBONADO. This substance, also known as “ Carbonate ” or “Car¬ bon,” resembles in color and appearance fragments of Hematite. Both the names, Carbonado and Carbonate, are clearly misnomers, as, chemically, the body referred to is like Diamond, Graphite and Charcoal, a form of the element Carbon. It is found only in Brazil, mostly in the province of Bahia. Carbonado was at first introduced for the purpose of cutting Diamonds, after the same fashion as the “Bort” referred to above. Of late years, however, a new and most important application of this material has been made. It is employed for the purpose of drilling holes in rocks, either to receive explosives for subsequent blasting, or for prospecting, in order to discover their underlying strata. The demand that has thus sprung up for Carbonado, has caused it to rise in price from is. to about 30per carat. If steel is used to cut rocks, a percussive, and not a rub¬ bing or cutting motion must be given to it, otherwise, owing to its deficient hardness, the steel itself would be worn away rather than the rock, as is popularly exem¬ plified in the ordinary grindstone. Where deep borings for exploring purposes have to be made, it becomes a difficult mechanical problem to construct a machine, which shall satisfactorily impart a striking motion to a heavy steel tool. Moreover, the difficulties and chances of failure increase very rapidly with the distance from the surface, whereas, with a continuous rotatory motion, it is comparatively easy to bore to any depth. Borings have been effected to a depth of between 2,000 feet and 3,000 feet with the aid of carbon, not much greater difficulty being experienced at the end than at the commencement of the operations. Selected pieces of carbon are firmly embedded in a Bort, Carbonado and Boron. 45 ring of steel, called a crown, of the size corresponding to that of the perforation which it is desired to bore. This ring is screwed to a series of long hollow tubes, which are lengthened as the work proceeds ; these tubes or rods are kept rotating by steam power, and their weight is so adjusted, that a pressure of half a ton can be brought to bear on the crown, when it is boring a 4-in. hole in native or living rock. The crown rotates some 250 times a minute, and water is continually pumped through the hollow rods, passing under the cutting face of the crown, to keep the Diamonds cool, and to wash off and upward to the surface, the debris formed by the action of the crown. Under favourable circumstances, hard granite would be readily cut at the rate of from 3 in. to 4 in. per minute. The Diamond apparatus does its work entirely by friction. Its action is simply an abrading one, and effected neither by cutting nor percussion. It grinds or crushes the rocky stratum by its adamantine density. The difference between the relative hardness of the car¬ bonate and ordinary rock is such, that several thousand feet might be bored with a crown properly set with good stones, before any serious wear would take place. The principal loss does not result from actual wear, but from the breakage which is caused when one of the stones be¬ comes loose in its setting, or from some accidental cleavage which occurs ; the fragments, unable to escape from be¬ neath the crown, invariably injure the other stones. The advantages of the system of rock-boring by means of Carbonado, as adopted by the Diamond Rock Boring Company, may be summed up as follows :— Firstly : The action is extremely rapid ; work may be done in months that would otherwise take years. Secondly: The machine produces a continuous solid core of the strata passed, giving information far more reliable to the geologist, K 146 Bort, Carbonado and Boron. than that offered by the muddy or dusty debris which, by former inventions were brought to the surface. Thirdly : This system is practicable in soft as well as in hard strata, but its advantage, when compared with the method in which steel is used, is for obvious reasons less on the softer than on the harder material. Fourthly: It is particularly applicable to subaqueous blasting operations, as the Diamond drill will bore the rock under any head of water, as well as on dry land. Fifthly: It is undoubtedly more economical of time and of money, than any other method of rock-boring yet put into competition with it. The system is now in exten¬ sive use in all civilized countries,including China and Japan, to which last-named country the company working under Colonel Beaumont’s patents have sent out machinery. BORON. The subject of Diamond must not be concluded without some notice of a chemical discovery, which, it was once thought, might exercise great influence upon the commerce of Diamonds, and upon the use of them for personal adornment. The discovery treats of nothing less than the formation of bodies akin to the natural Carbon- Diamond, but consisting of the element Boron. It is well-known how Wohler and Deville, while trying to produce, in large quantities, pure aluminium, discovered a method of crystallizing Silicon and Boron. The crystal¬ lized Boron shewed in so remarkable a manner the pro¬ perties of the Diamond—its hardness, transparency, and refraction—that there was evidently an intimate relation between the two. This element, Boron, in combination with oxygen, forms boracic acid, just as Carbon with oxygen forms carbonic acid, but the proportion of oxygen is not the same in the two cases. There is a surprising similarity between the elements Bort, Carbonado and Boron. H 7 Boron and Carbon. They both exist in two conditions: 1st, amorphous—-as charcoal ; 2nd, crystalline—as Diamond. At the same time there are some very marked differences between them ; thus—the Diamond crystallizes in regular octahedra, while the crystalline form of Boron is tetra¬ gonal—an elongated prism whose corners are somewhat blunted, or else foliated crystals. The foliated crystals are harder than the elongated prism, and are almost black. The large crystals are mostly transparent and somewhat colorless ; and not unfrequently they are tinged garnet- red, hyacinth-red, or honey-yellow. Possessors and purchasers of Diamonds need not be alarmed at the prospect thus dimly shadowed forth. It has only been possible to produce Boron-crystals of small size, and therefore of no value as ornamental stones. The Boron-crystal will never replace — never in any way approach in value — the Diamond. It is, however, a matter of great interest to scientific men. CHAPTER IX. ROUGH DIAMONDS. E valuing of rough Diamonds requires much technical experience. Although the Diamonds of all parts of the world possess similar characteristics and agree in general appearance, yet the stones from different places have special peculiarities by which good judges generally find themselves at once in a position to declare the locality whence they have been obtained, although they cannot always define the grounds of their judgment. In valuing rough Diamonds it is of primal importance to consider the following points : Firstly, the form and proportions of the crystal, whether it can be cleaved to advantage ; and then the loss of weight likely to be in¬ curred in cutting, as an irregular or broken piece obviously requires a greater sacrifice of weight to form it into a per¬ fect Brilliant than a well-proportioned crystal. Chips or splints are often fashioned by the cutter into Diamonds with very little loss of weight. Secondly, heed must be taken to distinguish the degrees of color, and purity of the specimen. The best forms to choose are the octahe¬ dron and the rhombic-dodecahedron. Rough Diamonds. 149 It must not be forgotten, in estimating large Rough Diamonds, especially those from the Cape, that certain tints of color may be brought out in the cutting, which do not appear in the stone in its rough state; thus, perfect polish, and the power of reflection, characteristic of the Brilliant, intensify any tint of yellow existing in the stone. This observation does not apply to river stones, but rather to those from the dry diggings. In many specimens a black spot is developed after cutting, which was not visi¬ ble in the rough. This spot may appear even in the finest Diamonds, and is especially noticeable in Indian stones. It is difficult, nay impossible, to quote a standard price for Rough Diamonds. The remark universally applicable is that the value varies greatly, according to size and quality. Cape Rough Diamonds. To those who are not conversant with the various classes and details of the subdivision of Rough Diamonds, the following classification may be of service - White Clear Crystals. Bright Black Cleavage. Cape White. Light Bywater. Large White Cleavage. Picked Meld. Common and Ordinary Meld. Bultfontein Meld. Large White Chips. Small White Chips. Mackel or Made (flat for roses). Bright Brown. Deep Brown, Bort 150 Rough Diamonds. Yellows. Large Yellows and Large By waters. Fine Quality River Stones. Jagersfontein Stones. Splints. Enden. Fine Fancy Stones. Price of Brilliants. In addition to the universal experience, that excep¬ tionally large and pure Brilliants are, as matters of com¬ petition in value, almost abnormal, there is a further element of uncertainty introduced into the market, arising from the extension of the Diamond fields. To what limit this may eventually influence the price of Diamonds, it is difficult to forecast. SECTION III. COLORED STONES, CHAPTER I. CORUNDUM. T has been shewn in some of the preceding chapters that the Diamond, from a chemical point of view, is nothing more than a crystal¬ lized form of carbon, and is, therefore, sub¬ stantially the same kind of matter as a piece of common charcoal. Having reached this startling conclusion, the question spontaneously arises whether carbon is the only substance capable of undergoing such marvellous trans¬ formation. Can the subtlety of the chemist’s art detect in any other of our gems some of the commoner and baser kinds of matter? Curiously enough the stones which stand in the very forefront of the class of colored gems—the incomparable stones known as the Rziby and the Sapphire —have been 152 Corundum. found to consist of a very widely distributed and common form of mineral matter known as Alumina. In fact, these gems are but varieties of a group of minerals to which the general name of Corundum is applied. The name Corundum is derived from the Hindu word Kurand, and it is most probable that it first became known in Europe from the stone having been imported from India. Corundum has been worked in all the known localities in India by the natives, and the first discoveries date back to very early periods. An important deposit exists in Rewah, but most of the localities are situated in Southern India. All forms of Corundum, including those matchless varieties which are prized as gem-stones, are found by the chemist to contain more than half their weight of that peculiar metal, which of late years has become widely known under the name of Aluminium. This is a beautiful metal much resembling silver in color and lustre, yet widely different from silver in its extreme lightness. The oxide of this metal is called Alumina, and it is this sub¬ stance which, in its natural state, forms the mineral Corundum. As a silicate, Alumina forms the basis of all clays, and a multitude of other common minerals and rocks ; while as a sulphate it enters into the composi¬ tion of Alum —whence indeed the word “Alumina” is derived. The coarser varieties of Corundum are more or less impure, but the transparent crystals exhibit the Alumina in a state of approximate purity—being uncontaminated with any other substance, save perhaps a trace of certain metallic oxides, on which the exquisite tints of the colored Corundums depend, but which are present in such minute quantity, as well-nigh to elude the vigilance of the chemist. Possibly the colors of the Ruby and the Sapphire may be Corundum. 153 due to certain compounds of Chromium or of Iron, but the chemist hesitates to speak with confidence on so moot a point. Corundum, in all its forms, crystallizes in the hexago¬ nal system, usually in double six-sided pyramids. It will be seen in the figure shewing Sapphires in their Native Bed, that the common form of crystalliza¬ tion is a dodecahedron, or twelve-sided figure, with each face an isosceles triangle. The crystals of Corundum are often ill-shaped and rough, and usually much rolled. One of the difficulties attendant on the manipulation of Corun¬ dum, is that its cleavage, though more or less perfect, is accompanied by conchoidal and uneven fracture, and by brittleness of the original structure of the crystal. The lustre of Corundum is vitreous, sometimes pearly on the basal planes, and occasionally exhibiting a bright opalescent star of six rays in the direction of the princi¬ pal axis. Corundum is transparent in its purer forms. Its refractive index is 177, and therefore higher than that of glass. Friction developes electricity in different speci¬ mens in various degrees, and in polished specimens the electrical condition remains for a considerable time. All varieties of Corundum can be scratched by the Diamond, but by no other mineral. The imperfect sorts are broken up into polishing material for other stones. The extreme hardness of Corundum has suggested its mineralogical name of Adamantine Spar; and it seems likely that the Adamas of early Greek writers was not the true Diamond, but merely a form of Corundum. Corundum is found (1) associated with sand, or detritus and generally in company with other Precious Stones. (2) In crystalline rocks, such as granite, mica slate, granular limestone, or dolomite. (3) In the beds of rivers, either in modified hexagonal prisms, or in masses, 154 Corundum. and in aggregates of grains, as may be seen in the accom¬ panying plate. It is not by any means rare to find it in connection with quartz sand, or rough grains of magnetic iron ore. Corundum passes under a variety of mineralogical names, according to the color which it presents. Thus the coarser and less transparent kinds are designated simply as Corundum ; while the blue varieties are known as Sapphire, and the red as Ruby or as Oriental Ruby, the prefix being added to distinguish it from Spinel Ruby. When yellow the Corundum is termed Yellow Sapphire, or sometimes Oriental Topaz; when green, Oriental Emerald; and when purple, Oriental Amethyst. The most valuable section of the whole class of Corundum is undoubtedly that which contains the Sap¬ phire and the Ruby. It is in India that we have the greatest supply and variety of Corundum. The mineral occurs in Rewah, Mysore, Coimbatore, Salem, North Arcot, Bellary, Kistna, Godaviri, and Hyderabad dis¬ tricts; likewise in the Central Provinces. It is notable that its color varies in different localities—thus in Mysore it is principally red and white ; in Bellary district, sea- green ; and in North Arcot, clove brown. It occurs prin¬ cipally in old crystalline or metamorphic rocks. In Ceylon the Sapphire is not rare, but fine Rubies are very scarce. At Salem, Corundum is said to occur in gneiss, and in an earth resulting from the decomposition of that rock; in Mysore, in a more or less decomposed talcose schist. In some places the mines are worked only once a year. There is an ingenious way of keeping up the price of this article, by asserting that the guardian spirit only allows the mine to assume the Corundum condition for one day in the year. Corundum. 155 Some interesting details of a mine situated upon a hill between Pepru and Kadopani are given by Mr. Mallet in the “Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal,” accom¬ panied by a section of the mine. He states that above a mass of porphyritic gneiss and hornblende rock, there lies a bed of Corundum, reddish and purplish grey, several yards thick, upon which rests a bed of white and green jade, with purple Corundum and other minerals. A remarkable deposit of Corundum, associated with Ruby and Sapphire, was described by Col. C. W. Jenks, before the Geological Society of London in 1874. The locality is known as the Culsagee Corundum Mine, and is situated in Macon County, North Carolina. The Corun¬ dum associated with numerous other minerals, occurs in veins, running through a mass of serpentine, which, rising as a boss through the surrounding granite, is known as Corundum Hill. Some of the crystals yielded by these veins weighed more than 300 lbs. each, and many of them exhibited a curious diversity of color, so that one part of a crystal might be red, while another portion of the same mass would present blue and green colors. The brightly- colored portions were veritable gems, but mostly too much flawed and otherwise too imperfect to be of value as ornamental stones. Nevertheless, the discovery was one of great mineralogical interest, inasmuch as it offered the only known example of the occurrence of Rubies and Sapphires in situ on a large scale, in association with the coarser forms of crystalline Corundum. Emery, though very different in appearance from Sapphire or Ruby, is regarded as Corundum in an impure and amorphous condition. For ages past Emery has served as material for polishing other minerals. The Jews called it Shameer. In such a passage as the following—“The sin of Judah is written with a pen 15C Corundum. of iron and with the point of a Diamond ’’—the original word translated “ Diamond ” no doubt refers to Emery, or some similar form of Corundum. It was probably by means of this substance that the ancient Egyp¬ tians worked their hard stones, and the Assyrian gem- engravers executed their marvellous Intaglios. Armenia and Ethiopia were famous localities of antiquity, and the Isle of Naxos in the Grecian Archipelago, also yielded vast stores of this useful mineral. It was from this island that Emery obtained the name of Naxium , which Latin writers applied to it. There is reason to believe that the Naxium of Armenia was held in much higher repute among the Greeks than that of Naxos itself. Emery is found in Naxos in a fine-grained con¬ glomerate, and at times in large boulders. This island has, running through it from north to south, a chain of mountains, partly formed of granite. With the granite is a granulated limestone with deep fissures, enclosing Emery with layers of Mica. Of late years the quantity annually produced on this island, for the Government, has been 2000 tons. The Emery which is sought for technical purposes is a mixture of greenish-white Corun¬ dum and magnetic iron-stone. Sometimes, indeed, though rarely, in the middle of a mass of Emery a regular prism of dark blue Corundum is found. The best locality for Emery in the island of Naxos is Bothri. Its usual color is ash-grey, which at times acquires a reddish-brown tinge from its association with oxide of iron. Emery often acts powerfully upon the magnet, in consequence of the magnetite, with which it is so largely contaminated. It may, in fact, contain as much as 50 per cent, of Oxide of Iron. Of late years we have obtained an important quantity of Emery from Asia Minor (twelve miles east of Ephesus), Corundum. *57 but it is not so good in quality as that obtained from the island of Naxos. For its discovery here, as well as in Kula, Adula, and Manser, this last being twenty-four miles north of Smyrna, we are indebted to Dr. Lawrence Smith. Corundum. Composition —Alumina, ... ... 98’5. Ferric Oxide ... ... ro. Lime ... . o’5. 1000 Specific Gravity ... ... ... 4. Hardness ... ... ... ... 9. System of Crystallization ... Hexagonal. Form —Single and double hexagonal pyramids ; more often in water worn and fractured pebbles. CHAPTER II. THE ORIENTAL RUBY. HE Oriental Ruby is indisputably the most valuable of Precious Stones. Theophras¬ tus speaks of it as incombustible, and as having the appearance of a burning coal when held up to the sun. He is said to have given forty gold pieces for a very small one. In consequence of its resemblance in color to a live coal, it was termed by him Anthrax, while Pliny, for a like reason, calls it Carbunculus. The Oriental Ruby is generally found loose in sand or debris in company with other Precious Stones It will readily scratch Emerald, Topaz, Rock Crystal, and indeed, all other stones, save the Diamond, though it slightly yields in hardness to the Sapphire. Its color is carmine, cochi¬ neal, and rose-red, often with a play of violet ; the most valued color being that of pigeon’s blood. The greatest emporium of Rubies is the kingdom of Burmah. It is commonly said that no Europeans are ever allowed to visit the Ruby mines of the King of Burmah, but, notwithstanding this prohibition, we have two descrip¬ tions by Europeans who have managed to visit them, RUBY SAPPHIRE EMERALD The Oriental Iiuby. *59 The first was by the Pere Guiseppe D’Amato, the precise date of whose visit is unknown, but it was probably just prior to the year 1833. Mr. Bredmeyer also writes to the effect that he was fifteen years ago, in actual charge of certain mines, within 16 miles of Mandalay. Mr. John Crawford, in his “Journey to the Court of Ava,” gives a striking illustration of the jealousy with which that Government regards its alleged right to all the Precious Stones of signal value found within the range of the Burmese Empire. He states that in the vicinity of the Arrican Temple “ We called at the house of an Armenian to see some Rubies and Sapphires. The owner produced some of small size which we purchased, when he told us in confidence that he dared not produce any larger ones then, but as we were on our travels he would meet’us at Rangoon and show us some much finer, as any Ruby worth overdo being considered the property of the King, the exposure, or even the possession, of one beyond that value was a crime punishable by fine and confiscation.” There is a law in force in Burmah which deprives the market of the most beautiful Rubies. Whoever finds a Ruby weighing 100 ticals is bound, under pain of death, to deliver it up to the Financial Department of the Govern¬ ment. In order to avoid this penalty and loss of property, the discoverer of a large stone is often tempted to break it up into small pieces, thereby occasioning vast loss to the Government. It was thought that when Pegu, the “ Fatherland of Rubies,” was annexed to England in 1852, Europe would be richer in these beautiful stones, but it has not proved so. It appears that certain dangers exist, or are said to exist, in the lands where Rubies are found, such as malaria, wild beasts and venomous reptiles. But it is possible that these dangers may be exaggerated by the Ruby merchants in order to hinder competition 160 The Oriental Ruby. The late King of Burmah was known to be excessively fond of these stones. He prohibited the export of them, so that, save through himself or the agency of private individuals, or by indirect means, but few good Rubies passed out of the country. There is a mythical belief among the inhabitants of Burmah that Rubies ripen in the earth ; that they are at first colorless and crude, and gradually as they ripen be¬ come yellow, green, blue, and last of all, red , this being considered the highest point of beauty and ripeness. The varieties of Precious Corundum ascertained to exist in the Burmese dominions are the Oriental Sapphire (Pila), the Oriental Ruby ( Pata-ma and Kyaok-ni , “ red stone ”), the Opalescent Ruby, the Star Ruby, the Green, the Yellow, and the White Sapphires, and the Oriental Amethyst. Rubies and Sapphires are principally found at Kyat- pyan and Mookop, five days’ journey from Ava (Burmah). But merchants of the present day hold that the finest Rubies are those found to the north-east of Mandalay and west of the Upper Salween River. Mr. Mesny, who accompanied the late Lieut. Gill through China and Thibet to Upper Burmah and thence to Rangoon, states that a very large proportion of the trade in Rubies and other Precious Stones is carried on by the wild inhabitants of the mountainous regions of Upper Burmah known as the “ Katchen ” or Snow Mountains. These men pay fitful tribute to both the Burmese and Chinese Governments, but the payment is often extorted by force of arms. The liability to storms to which this part of Burmah is subjected prevents these wild tribes from prosecuting their search for Rubies for more than three or four months in the year. As soon as the deluge begins these men desist from their search, and make their way The Oriental Ruby. 161 to the principal stations on the Chinese frontier, and exchange their Rubies for Indian rupees, but in many instances refusing to take any coin except that bearing the Queen’s image or issued by the Indian Government. They not unfrequently travel to Balassy and Bhamo, where they endeavour to exchange their stones favourably, ob¬ taining a supply of coin which they expend in riotous living and debauchery. It is anything but safe or pleasant to deal with them, as their habits are lawless and wild. Many are the dangers to which travellers and traders are exposed in this almost unknown region. Not only are the people inhospitable, wild, cruel, and avaricious, but the country is infested with wild beasts and poisonous reptiles. Roads there are none ; scarcely, indeed, a track to guide the traveller ; the routes for the most part run through jungle and wild grass from ten to fifteen feet in height. At the foot of the Capelan Mountains, near Sirian, a 'city of Pegu, Rubies are found in the detritus of granite, with magnetic-iron, and Zircon, all having been probably washed down from the mountains. The finest and best are found in the Pegu River, those from the mountains beyond being of an inferior quality. Major Moriarty, on his return from Cabul, brought to this country a Ruby, weighing ro| carats, from the mines of Gandamak, in Afghanistan, which are situated about 30 0 N. lat, and 70° E. long. This stone passed into the possession of the author. Rubies are said to be found also on the slopes of the Oxus, [near to Shighnan and Charan. They are likewise found, in association with other Precious Stones, in the form of rolled pebbles in some of the river-beds of Ceylon. But the Ceylon Ruby is generally inferior in quality, and of a light, bright color, not approaching the beautiful tint of the Burmah stone. L 162 The Oriental Ruby. Rubies of small size have occasionally been found in some of the gold-bearing gravels of Australia. In New South Wales it is recorded from the Cudgegong and some of its tributaries, and from Mudgee and a few other localities. In Victoria the Ruby occurs in the drifts of the Beechworth gold-fields, at Pakenham, and elsewhere. A magenta-colored Corundum, more or less opaque, is known in Victoria under the name of Barklyite. On the whole, the red Corundum is far rarer in Australia than the blue Corundum ; and the same rule holds good in many other localities, the Ruby being rarer and therefore more prized than the Sapphire. Mr. G. Skelton Streeter, who has recently returned from a tour among the islands of the Pacific Ocean, saw, while on board a Missionary schooner off New Guinea, a rough Ruby, said to have been obtained from the natives of that island. This suggests the probability that the mineral wealth of New Guinea may some day become of commercial importance. The older poets abound in passages illustrating the value anciently set on the Ruby. The price paid for this stone by the Ancients was very high. According to Benvenuto Cellini, in his time a perfect Ruby of a carat weight cost 800 ecus d’or, whilst a Diamond of like weight cost only 100. At the present time Rubies under half a carat weight, if English cut, cost from £4 to £10 per carat; and if Indian cut, £ 1 to £4. Those over a carat in weight are, according to the quality, worth from £20 to ,£100 per carat: but no definite price can be given as a guide to the purchaser. No stone increases so much in value, in relation to size—all excellencies being the same—as the Oriental Ruby. One of less than 24 carats weight, the property of an Indian prince, The Oriental Ruby. 163 was bought for 156 lbs. weight of gold. Indeed, the Ruby ranks for price and beauty above all other stones. When a perfect Ruby of five carats is brought into the market a sum will be offered for it ten times the price given for a Diamond of the same weight ; but should it reach the weight of 10 carats it is almost invaluable. There are some very celebrated and historical Rubies still on record. For example, one of the size of a pigeon’s egg in the Russian Regalia was presented to the Empress Catherine by Gustavus III. of Sweden, when on a visit to St. Petersburg, in 1777. Chardin speaks with admiration of a Ruby cut en cabochon, of great beauty, and of the size and form of half an egg, having the name of “ Thelk Lephy ” engraved on the end. In the Exhibition of 1851 there were two engraved Rubies belonging to the Hope Collection, one representing the head of Jupiter-Serapis, the other a full-length figure of Minerva-Poliada. A former King of Burmah had a perfect Ruby of the size of a pigeon’s egg, which he wore as an ear-drop. The slippers of Chinese and Indian women are orna¬ mented with Rubies en cabochon —that is, with convex, non-facetted tops ; vases, armour, scabbards and harness, are also graced by the same stone in India and China. These stones, however, are of little value. Bags of a coarse kind, little better than mixed dust are, indeed, laid beneath the foundations of buildings, the idea prevailing that good fortune is thus secured to the structure. The two most important Rubies ever known'in Europe, were brought into this country during the year 1875. One was a rich-colored stone, cushion-shape, weighing 37 carats, the other, a blunt, drop shape, of 47xg carats. It was deemed advisable to have these stones re-cut; and the work was entrusted to the late Mr. J. N. Forster, 164 The Oriental Ruby. of London, who re-cut the stone of 37 carats to 32^, and the one of 47 carats to 38^. They were much improved thereby, and competent judges pronounced them the finest stones of their size yet seen, the color being truly magnificent. The smaller stone of the two, it is affirmed, was sold abroad for above £ 10,000 ; the larger one, it is stated, found a purchaser on the Continent at £ 20,000. The fact of two such fine gems appearing contempo¬ raneously is unparalleled in the history of Precious Stones in Europe. It is questionable, however, if the London market would ever have seen these truly royal gems but for the necessities of the Burmese Government. In Burmah the sale of these two Rubies caused intense excitement, a military guard being considered necessary to escort the persons conveying the package to the vessel. Two such Rubies are not to be found in any European regalia. Rubies with flaws, or with specks of a milky appear¬ ance on the table or beneath it, and Rubies of too deep or too light a color, are now much depreciated in value. In former years, when the inferior stones could be sold in the foreign markets, they were worth at least 50 per cent, more than they are at the present time. There are, it is true, many large Rubies still to be met with, and this statement may seem to contradict the above assertion, but these are by no means of the same value as the Burmese Rubies. They come from Siam, and have a distinctly dark brown tint, marring the true “ pigeon’s blood ” hue. This variety does not realise anything approaching the price obtained for Rubies of the same size of the true color. The Ruby is occasionally approached so closely both in color and general appearance by the Spinel, or even by the Garnet and Pink Topaz, as to render examina- The Oriental Ruby. 165 tion by the eye alone very unsatisfactory. The use of the dichroiscope, however, renders the distinction a matter of certainty. This instrument enables us to see whether the gem possesses the property of dichroism—that is, of exhi¬ biting two distinct colors, or tints, when viewed from different directions. Gems belonging to the Cubic system of crystallization do not exhibit this property, while in those belonging to any of the other systems this diversity may often be detected, when examined by the dichroiscope, be the stone ever so perfect and uniform in color to the un¬ assisted eye. Since both the Spinel and the Garnet belong to the Cubic or Tesseral system, they display no dichroism, whereas the Ruby, which belongs to the hexagonal system, is invariably dichroic. The typical Ruby, of pigeon’s-blood colour, when examined by the dichroiscope, exhibits one image of an aurora-red color, while the other is carmine. Oriental Ruby. Composition ... Specific Gravity Hardness System of Crystallization ... Form ... Alumina. 4 - 9, or slightly under. Hexagonal. Double six-sided pyramids, but usually as rolled fragments. CHAPTER III. THE SAPPHIRE. OWEVER great the beauty of this gem, it undoubtedly derives no little enhance¬ ment of interest and value from the exalted character of the comparison with which it is associated in the Sacred Volume. The Prophet of the great captivity compares “ the appearance of the like¬ ness of a throne ” in the firmament above the cherubim to a “ Sapphire Stone;” and generally it may be affirmed that around no Precious - Stone can be grouped more imposing allegories and properties than have been associated with it. And yet it may be fairly doubted whether the Sap¬ phire of the modern mineralogist has any relation, save the possession of a blue color, with the Sapphii'us of ancient writers. It is certain that Theophrastus and Pliny—our great authorities on ancient mineralogy—in¬ cluded the Lapis-Lazuli under the term Sapphirus, since they clearly refer to the so-called spots of gold with which the stone is bespangled—a description which in no way The Sapphire. 167 accords with the character of our modern Sapphire. The Rev. C. W. King argues, with great erudition and much show of reason, in favour of our Sapphire having been iden¬ tical with the ancient Hyacinthus. Witness, for example, the following description of the stone by Solinus :— “ Amongst those things of which we have treated is found also the Hyacinthus, of a shining blue color, a stone of price, if it be found without blemish, for it is extremely subject to defects. For generally it is either diluted with violet or clouded with dark shades, or else melts away into a watery hue with too much whiteness. The best color of the stone is an equable one, neither dulled by too deep a dye, nor too clear with excessive transparency, but which draws a sweetly-colored tint from the double mixture of brightness and violet. This is the gem that feels the influence of the air, and sympathises with the heavens, and does not shine equally if the sky be cloudy or bright. Besides, when put into the mouth it is colder than other stones. For engraving upon, indeed, it is by no means adapted, inasmuch as it defies all grinding ; it is not, however, entirely invincible, since it is engraved upon, and cut into shape by means of the Diamond.” In this passage Solinus refers to several characteristics of our Sapphire, especially its blue color and its extreme hardness. The Sapphire is in fact, only a blue Corundum, and much, therefore, that was said under the head of Corundum and Ruby, will apply also to the Sapphire. The characteristic color of the Sapphire is a clear blue, very like to that of the blossom of the little weed called the “corn flower,” and the more velvety its appear¬ ance, the greater the value of the gem. The Oriental Sapphire retains its exquisite color by gas light, while that of the less valuable specimens becomes dark, not unlike the hue of the Amethyst. Pliny knew this gem The Sapphire . 168 well, and, describing its color, compares it to the same flower. This peculiar hue has been imitated, although the Ancients were not ready to admit the possibility ; the dark blue glass of the Portland vase, with its dazzling white bas-relief, in the British Museum, is a fair specimen of this power, and its exquisite beauty has attracted a world-wide renown. Up to quite modern times the Sapphire was regarded as a charm or a medicine, and very extraordinary powers were attributed to it. It was dedicated by the Greeks to Apollo, because, when consulting his oracle, they thought that the possession of this gem, from its heavenly nature, would secure them an early and favourable answer. The Ancients but rarely used the Sapphire for per¬ sonal adornment, possibly because of the difficulty of manipulating so hard a stone. When a fine stone of this nature is cut as a Brilliant, so that the lustrous character is well displayed it is very attractive, as well as of high value. Sapphires were originally obtained from Arabia and Persia ; but for a lengthened period some fine large stones have been imported from the kingdom of Burmah. Some mines have recently been discovered in the pro¬ vince of Battambong, in Siam ; a Sapphire from this locality was sold in Calcutta for Rs. 3,000. Most of the stones, however, from this locality are too dark in color. The finest Sapphires are found at Rakewana, in Ceylon ; second quality stones, principally at Ratnapura, and inferior stones at Satawaka. The Sapphires from Cashmere are generally very milky. A private firm in London has opened a new mine in Rakewana, Ceylon, from which Rubies, Sapphires, and Cat’s Eyes have been obtained. The discovery of Sapphires in India is said to have taken place in this wise. Near the spot where the stones The Sapphire. 169 are found lived a “ Bhot Lamba,” or monk, who first ob¬ served a pale blue vein in the rock. He broke off pieces which he took to be antimony, and exchanged them with traders for sugar and tobacco, keeping it carefully con¬ cealed from whence he obtained his treasures. Subse¬ quently he disposed of a lot to some Lahoul men, who took them to Simla. He had one piece said to have been about a foot long and three or four inches in circumference ; this, he was persuaded by one of his brotherhood to give him, in order to have a “ Shib ” or idol made of it. He then handed it over to a stone-cutter to make into an idol. The man finding how hard it was, came to the conclusion it must be of value ; he showed it to an official who decided to send it and its owner to the Maharajah of Cashmere, at Jummoo. On inquiry being made, a mes¬ senger was despatched to bring the Lamba who had found the stone. He being no longer able to keep the discovery a secret, described the place from which he obtained it. The Maharajah immediately sent a responsible official and a strong guard to protect the place, until the actual value of the discovery should be known. Sapphires are also found by the Lacha Pass. A native loaded 100 goats with them, and came to Simla through Kullu, a journey of about 10 days. Arriving at Simla, he tried to dispose of them, but their value not being recognized, he could not even obtain a rupee a tolla for them, which he would gladly have taken, being in a state of semi-starvation. He then proceeded to Delhi, where the jewellers, knowing them to be Sapphires, gave him their full value. Respecting this mine, however, Major Brown writes that it is now worked out. The Sapphire is found in many parts of Australia, but the stones are usually small and of dark color. In the wide-spread auriferous drifts of the goldfields of Victoria, 170 The Sapphire. the Sapphire is by no means an uncommon mineral. Probably it has here been derived from the basaltic rocks which, by their disintegration, have yielded most of the constituents of the gold-bearing gravels. The Sapphire is also widely distributed in New South Wales, where it occurs with other gems in the form of small rolled pebbles, associated in many cases with alluvial gold. In North America Sapphires in six-sided prisms, have occasionally been found, as at Amity in New York, where they occur in association with granular limestone. In Europe the Sapphire is found on the Iser Moun¬ tains in Bohemia. The river Iser having a very rapid current, carries with it, in the soil, the Sapphires and other Precious Stones, and often deposits them on its shores, far away from their original home. In the Sieben- Gebirge small Sapphires are found with gold in the sand. In Saxony they occur embedded in alluvium ; specially is it so in the Saxon Switzerland. The European Sapphires, however, are of no commercial importance. Amongst the celebrated Sapphires is that which was seen by the English ambassador, who was sent to Ava. It was said to be 951 carats in weight, of a beautiful blue, and without a flaw. In the collection of minerals in the Jardin des Plantes, in Paris, is one of the most beautiful Blue Sapphires, weighing 133^ carats, without a spot 01- fault. This stone was originally found in Bengal by a poor man ; it subsequently came into the possession of the House of Raspoli, in Rome, who, in their turn, left it to a German prince, who sold it to the French jewel merchant, Perret, for £6, 800. The most important Sapphires known in Europe are two magnificent stones which were exhibited in the London Exhibition of 1862, and in the Paris Exhibition of 1867. The larger is a stone of a somewhat oval form, of a dark, The Sapphire. I 7 i slightly inky, color, free from defects. It weighs about 252 carats, and was cut from the rough by Mr. Loop in 1840. The other, although a smaller, is a richer colored stone. It was brought to this country from India (Indian cut) in the year 1856. In its original form it was a badly- shaped stone weighing 225 carats with a large yellow flaw at the back, which marred the stone by casting a green reflection into it. It was placed in the hands of the late Mr. J. N. Forster, who re-cut it, removed the defects and made it a splendid gem of 165 carats. This is by far the finest Sapphire of its size in Europe. It was recently sold in Paris, and is estimated to be worth from £y ,000 to £8,000. An announcement appeared in the Ceylon Times of December, 1878, that a Blue Sapphire had recently been found at Ratnapura (the City of Gems), in Ceylon> weighing 2\ pounds, or about 4,500 carats, and that it was reported to be pure, and of admirable color. This descrip¬ tion is not authenticated by connoisseurs who, on inspection, pronounce the stone to be of a very pale blue, irregular in shape, and much marred by flaws and dirt. It remains in the possession of a “ Headman ” at Palmadulla, about eleven miles from Ratnapura. Notwithstanding the extreme hardness of the Sapphire, there are some beautifully engraved specimens still in existence. In the Cabinet of Strozzi, in Rome, is a Sapphire, a masterpiece of art, with the profile of Hercules engraven on it, by Cnei'us. A very remarkable and famous Sapphire, belonging to the Marchese Rinuccini, weighing fifty-three carats, has a representation of a hunting scene engraven upon it, with the inscription, “ Con- stantius Aug.” Among a number of old family jewels was recently found a Sapphire beautifully engraved with the crest and arms of Cardinal Wolsey. 172 The Sapphire. In the Hope Collection was a large and valuable Sap¬ phire of a rich blue velvet colour, which retains its beauty as well by candle as by daylight, Another, in the Orleans Collection, was called in Madame de Genii’s tale “Le Saphir Merveilleux.” The value of these stones is very much determined by special circumstances and, like the Diamond, the color, purity, and size must be taken into consideration when fixing the sum to be paid. Fine Sapphires under one carat in weight, if English cut, vary from £^ to £12 ; if Foreign cut, £2 to £5 ; those of a carat weight, £12 to £2$. Sapphires do not necessarily, like the Ruby, rise in price, as they increase in size. A perfect Oriental Sapphire weighing between two and three carats is as costly as a good Diamond of like weight. Those imperfections which appear at times in the Sapphire, and which lessen its value, are clouds, milky half-opaque spots, white glassy stripes, rents, knots, a congregating of colors at one spot, and silky¬ looking flakes on the table of the stone. Whenever a Sapphire obtains a purple tint it is an unfailing indication of the presence of the silky defect somewhere in the stone. If a greenish tint be observable, then “ milky flaw ” will be detected on careful examination of the stone. Varieties of the “Doublet” and “Triplet” (that is, counterfeit stones, composed either of two pieces of crystal, with a colored glass between them, or of thin layers of true stone facing inferior crystal so as to appear but one stone), are passed not unfrequently for Sapphires. They may be distinguished from the genuine stone, partly by their color, but more especially by a careful examination of the girdle, when, should the Sapphire have been joined to an inferior stone, the attempted deception will be detected. The Sapphire. 173 MM. Fremy and Feil, of Paris, have succeeded of late years in preparing artificial Sapphires and Rubies, resembling the true gems not merely in their physical characters, but even in chemical composition. Never¬ theless, they lack the play of color and brilliancy of the real stone. Sapphire. Composition ... ... ... Alumina. Specific Gravity ... ... 4. Hardness ... ... ... 9. System ofi Crystallization ... Hexagonal. Form ... ... ... ... Double six-sided pyramids ; usually as rolled crystals or pebbles. CHAPTER IV. THE EMERALD. HIS Precious Stone belongs to an altogether different class from those already described, inasmuch as the bases of the Ruby, the Sap¬ phire and the Diamond were either aluminium or carbon, whereas the basis of the Emerald is quite an¬ other substance, though still one of the most common of Earth’s productions—a substance known to chemists as silica. The silica is itself an oxide of an element termed silicon , which is closely related in many ways to carbon. In the Emerald the silica is combined with the oxides of two metals—one of them being aluminium , the basis of the Ruby and Sapphire ; while the other is an exceedingly rare metal, known as glucinum or beryllium. The former name is derived from the sweet taste of some of its compounds— the Greek word for “ sweet ” being gliikus —and the latter it receives from its occurrence in the Beryl. Just as it was shown that the Ruby and the Sapphire are identical, save in color, so the chemist has found that the Emerald, the Beryl, and the Aquamarine are practically the same The Emerald. 175 mineral, the distinctions between the three varieties being due to differences of color and other characteristics of only trivial value to the chemist, while they agree in their fundamental constitution. That the true Emerald was known to, and held in estimation by, the Ancients may be not unfairly inferred from the fact that ornaments of Emeralds have been excavated from Pompeii and Herculaneum ; that similar ornaments have been dug up from the ruins of Old Rome, and have also been found on Egyptian mummies. Although Gesenius does not admit that the words translated in Exodus and elsewhere, Emerald, really described the modern gem, yet the beautiful green mineral so called was, as some mummies prove, employed as an Egyptian ornamental stone at the time Moses wrote that book. There is no doubt that the ancient Egyptians worked the Emerald to a very large extent. Pliny alludes to some old Emerald mines near the Arabian Sea, and M. Caillaud discovered these ancient workings when sent by the Viceroy or Pasha of Egypt on an exploring mission. He found many of the caves or mines so large that 400 men could work together in them ; and, that they had been used of old, he deduced from seeing there ropes, levers, lamps, and tools of various kinds, besides many vessels. Pliny further states that the Emerald stood high in the estimation of the Ancients, and some confirmation of this is derived from an old Hebrew tradition that if a serpent fixes its eyes on an Emerald it becomes blind. In the Bible the rainbow is said to be “ like unto an Emerald.” There can be no doubt that many ancient writers confounded under the general term Smaragdus several distinct minerals of green color, such as true Emerald, green Jasper, Malachite, Chrysocolla, green Fluor Spar, and perhaps even green glass. 176 The Emerald. If we admit that Pliny does at times confound his Smaragdus with other gems, yet what real doubt can exist about the antiquity of the genuine Emerald and its anciently acknowledged value, when the very spot pointed out by Strabo as an Emerald mine, the narrow space which separates the Nile from the Red Sea, is the situa¬ tion of the mine of which M. Caillaud wrote:—“I was about to re-ascend, disappointed at having made no dis¬ covery, when amidst the masses of mica I perceived a hexahedral Emerald prism;” and he adds that “seven leagues from Mount Gebarah the Egyptian Emerald is found embedded in lodes of black micaceous clay slate.” There is to this day as potent and operative a mesh of superstition guarding these ancient mines as in the days of Cleopatra I. The mines were re-opened and worked under Mohammed Ali; but, not proving remunerative, were ultimately closed. According to Pliny, the most celebrated Emerald mines in former times were in the rocks round and about Coptos ; and the stones obtained from this region were admired for their brilliant sheen. Mohammed Ben Mansur (13th century) describes the Emerald mines as being on the borders of the land of negroes, and yet belonging to the kingdom of Egypt, the stones found there being dug out of talc and red ea r th. De Laet thinks that the same region supplied Emeralds as late as the 17th century. We read that Nero and Domitian used Emeralds as ornaments for their dress. Democritus of Thrace was famous for the art of imitating the Emerald. Seneca tells us that Democritus could put the fire and color of an Emerald into a common pebble. Isidorus, Bishop of Seville (640 A.D.), says of the Emerald, “ that it surpasses in its greenness all green The Emerald. 1 77 stones, and even the leaves of plants, and that it imparts to the air around it a green shimmer; that its color is most soothing to the eyes of those engaged in cutting and polishing the stone.” That the green color of the Emerald was recognized long ago as being refreshing to weak eyes is seen by refer¬ ence to Pliny’s gossiping pages:—“ If the sight hath been wearied and dimmed by intentive poring upon anything else, the beholding of this stone doth refresh and restore it again.” Psellos, in the I ith century, says of the Emerald, “ that it is leek green, playing easily into gold and blue ; and that it has power, when mixed with water, to heal leprosy and other diseases.” Pliny relates in illustration of the radiancy and lustre of the stone to which he gives the name of Smaragdiis “ that in the island of Cyprus there is placed on the tomb of King Hermias a lion sculptured in marble, and, for the eyes, Emeralds were let in, which shone so brightly on the surrounding sea that the ‘ tunny fish ’ were frightened away, and that the fishermen, observing this with dismay, removed the Emeralds from the lion, and replaced them by common stones not having so much brilliancy.” It is not likely that a stone of such beauty and value as the Emerald would be used to represent eyes in a large statue in the open air ; and we are driven, therefore, to the con¬ clusion that it was some other mineral of a green color— probably a green copper ore, such as Malachite, since ores of copper were common in Cyprus, while the true Emerald is unknown there, notwithstanding the frequent reference of certain writers to the Cyprian Smaragdus. Prescott, in his “ Conquest of Mexico,” writes as follows (vol. i., p. 125) -“The age of iron has followed that of brass, in fact as well as in fiction. They found a M 178 The Emerald. substitute in an alloy of tin and copper, and, with tools made of this bronze, could cut, not only metals, but, with the aid of a siliceous dust, the hardest substances, as Basalt, Porphyry, Amethysts, and Emeralds. They fashioned these last, which were found very large, into many curious and fantastic forms.” Elsewhere (vol. iii., p. 214), in describing certain spoils, he mentions a large Emerald “ cut in pyramidal shape, of so extraordinary a size, that the base was as broad as the palm of the hand.” And in another place (p. 287) mention is made of fine Emeralds of a wonderful size and brilliancy. These had been cut by the Aztecs into the shapes of flowers, fishes, and other fantastical forms, “ which Cortes gave to Doha Juana de Zunigar, on his second marriage, causing jealousy to the then-reigning Queen.” In the Manka Valley of Peru the natives appear to have paid divine homage to a magnificent Emerald of the size of an ostrich egg, which they named the goddess of Emeralds. The priests enhanced the value by dis¬ playing it on high festivals only, when, it was alleged, Emeralds were peculiarly acceptable to the idol, and thus the temple came into possession of a vast number of these costly gems, which on the discovery of Peru by the Spaniards fell into the hands of the conquerors ; but Pizarro and his followers, knowing nothing of the fragility of the gem, broke many to fragments, supposing they would possess the adamantine property of the Diamond or Ruby. There has been doubt thrown on this goddess of Emeralds, many suggesting that it was more probably a Beryl, or perhaps an Aquamarine, which, though closely allied to, is not identical with, the true Emerald. After the discovery of Peru, Emeralds became less rare in Europe, and jewellers and lapidaries much pre¬ ferred the Peruvian stones ; hence the most beautiful of The Emerald. 179 Emeralds are always called Peruvian or Spanish Emeralds. Joseph D'Acosta, who himself visited the Emerald mines of New Granada and Peru, said that at first these stones came to Europe in such numbers, that on the ship in which he returned from America to Spain, in 1587, were two chests, each containing one cwt. of Emeralds. Most of the Emeralds now come from Santa-Fe and the valley of Tunka between the mountains of New Granada and Popagan. In the mineral cabinet of the Duke of Devonshire, at Chatsworth, is a magnificent crystal of South American Emerald, which was exhibited in the Great Exhibition of 1851. It is a six-sided prism, about two inches in length, and weighs 8 ozs. 18 dwts. The tiara of Pope Julius II. contained an Emerald somewhat above an inch in length and one-and-a-quarter thick. It was in the shape of a short cylinder, rounded at one of its extremities. This was found probably some¬ where between Ethiopia aud Egypt. There appears to have been in a private collection an Emerald engraved with the head of Anacreon of very pure and rich color. Another, which was worn in Tippoo Sahib’s turban, of fine light green tint, was cut so cleverly with facets as to add greatly to its brilliancy. The Emerald is found crystallized in low six-sided prisms or columns, without striations, like those of Beryl, and without any inclination to the cylindrical form. It is sometimes, though not often, found in pebbles or grains. The color varies from what is called Emerald-green, to grass-green, and greenish-white. Subjected to the dichroi- scope, its color is resolved into a yellowish-green and a bluish-green. The variety of opinion as to the source of the beau¬ tiful color of the Emerald is very interesting. According to i8o The Emerald. most authorities it owes its beauty to the chromium which it contains. On the other hand, M. Lewy, who analysed with great care the Emeralds from the Muzo mines of New Granada, found that they contained organic matter in the form of some hydro-carbon, a simple com¬ bination of carbon and hydrogen, and that the intensity of the color depended upon the amount of this organic matter contained in the Emerald. The green pigment of the Emerald was supposed by him to be similar to the coloring matter of leaves called chlorophyll. Of pro¬ toxide of chromium he found but i per cent. Blum, ex¬ perimenting upon the Emerald, exposed this stone for four minutes to an intense heat, and then threw it into water, the consequence of which was that it fell into several pieces, some of which were of a black, and others of a greenish tint. The conclusions of M. Lewy have not, however, been verified by other chemists ; and the experiments of Mr. Greville Williams and others rather tend to shew that the green coloring matter of the Emerald is, after all, an oxide of chromium. The cleavage of this stone is in four directions, but it must be borne in mind in its manipulation that the cleavage parallel to the terminal plane is alone perfect, the other three being imperfect. Its fracture is conchoidal and uneven, and its lustre is vitreous. It has been considered doubtful if Emeralds have ever been found in India ; those in possession of individuals are not in the rough state, although they appear to have been manipulated by native lapidaries, and if they come to the Western markets require re-cutting. The Emerald is said, however, to have been found as recently as 1818 in Madras, in a vein or dyke of coarse granite, consisting of quartz, felspar, garnet, and mica. It is also reported from two or three other localities in India, but not to any The Emerald. iSs , extent, or of fine quality; indeed, we can never look upon India as the home of the Emerald. There is no reason to doubt that, in Burmah, Emeralds have from time to time been picked out of the sand or beds of small rivers mixed with gold and Spinel. The Sultan of Oude pre¬ sented the Queen with an Emerald as large as a moderate¬ sized hen’s egg. In China, bordering on Siberia, valuable deposits of Emeralds are said to exist. The Ural and Altai Mountains have of late years furnished true Emeralds. The first stone was found acci¬ dentally, in 1830, by a charcoal burner, at the root of a tree on the east side of the Ural. This discovery led directly to the regulated working of the bed, which yielded in the first year some fine specimens—one of the extra¬ ordinary weight of 101J carats; but, unfortunately, the yield gradually decreased. Very fine crystals of Emerald are found in mica-schist at Stretnisk, on the river Takowja, which lies to the north of Katherinenburg, on the Asiatic slope of the Urals. The Emerald is there worked com¬ mercially. The mineral also occurs in the mountains of the Sahara, the beds being of mica-slate, and in the bed of the River Harrach, in Algeria, where it joins the River Oued Bouman. In the latter, Emerald-crystals have been found in white lamellated limestone. The only European locality yielding good crystals of Emerald is the Heubachthal, in Salzburg, where the mineral occurs embedded in mica-schist, much in the same way in which it is found on the Ural Mountains. But the most celebrated Emerald mines of the world at the present day are those of Muzo, situated in 5 0 39' 50" N. latitude, and 76° 45' W. longitude (from Paris), about 75 miles N.N.W, of Santa Fe de Bogata, They 182 The Etneraid. were discovered by Lanchero in 1555, but the Spaniards did not commence working until 1568. They are now worked by a company, who pay an annual rent to the Government, and employ 120 workmen. Workings were stopped in the middle of the last century, and it was rumoured that fires had broken out, and that the mines were unsafe. It was not until 1844 that active operations were resumed. About that time a Colombian named Paris—after whom the rare mineral Parisite was christened—got out some fine stones and sold them for large sums in Europe and in the United States. A French company was afterwards formed, and during the Empire all the finest stones went direct to the Paris market. The great Muzo mine has the form of a tunnel of about too yards deep, with very inclined walls. On the summit of the mountains, and quite near to the mouth of the mine, are large lakes, whose waters are shut off by means of water-gates, which can be easily shifted when the laborers require the water. When the waters are freed they rush with great rapidity down the walls of the mine, and on reaching the bottom of it they are conducted by means of an underground canal through the mountain into a basin. The matrix of the Emerald is a bituminous limestone, rich in carbon, deposited on red sandstone and clay slate, and believed to be of Neocomian age. To obtain the Emeralds the workmen begin by cutting steps on the inclined walls of the mine, in order to make firm resting-places for their feet. The overseer places the men at certain distances from each other, to cut out a wide step with the help of pickaxes. The loosened stones fall by their own weight to the bottom of the mine. When this begins to fill, a sign is given to let the waters loose, which rush down with great vehemence, carrying the The Emerald. 183 fragments of rock with them, through the mountain, into the basin. This operation is repeated until the horizontal beds are exposed, in which the Emeralds are found. The Emeralds are sometimes accompanied by beautiful crys¬ tals of iron-pyrites, and now and then by crystals of Parisite. An Emerald is not unfrequently found in frag¬ ments which, when placed together, form one beautiful crystal. It has been conjectured that in the course of formation the stone became divided, and yet each part continued, when separated, its crystallization. Another remarkable circumstance is that the Emeralds break shortly after being separated from the matrix. This is sometimes prevented by a little foresight, viz., by placing the stones in a vessel for some days, and protecting them from the rays of the sun. There has lately been opened another mine, the Esmeralda, geologically related to the Muzo, about two leagues distance from it, but of the returns we are unable to speak. The Santa Rosa mines, situated not far from Muzo, have been inspected by a competent authority, since it was considered doubtful whether they yielded true Emeralds. He gives it as his decided 'opinion, that stones are so, and writes thus “ Judging by the geolo¬ gical formation, which is the same as at the Muzo mine, and by its being only two leagues distant from it, and by the river Minero separating it from the Cosney mines, which yielded very good Emeralds up to the last century, when they were abandoned by the Spaniards, and also by the rich vein he had before him being identical with other rich veins with which he was acquainted—added to a tradition that Emeralds had been found in the Santa Rosa forests at different periods —he had no hesitation in asserting that it was a real mine.” The crystallization of 184 The Emerald. these stones is generally pure, and their color improves in proportion to the depth they are worked. These mines are most advantageously situated, having “ dominant waters” (streams running from above), in abundance. The river Minero bathes the feet of these mines which, if properly utilized, is of great service in keeping them free from tailings. But the proper working entails an immense amount of expense, and it is only within the scope of of companies, and not of private individuals, that the necessary outlay can be obtained, in order to procure a favorable result. The value of an Emerald depends greatly upon its color ; for example,— A light color, almost white, is worth 5/- a carat. Lightest green ... ... ... 20/- „ A fair body of color ... ... 100/- „ Good color, with flaws, from ^10 to £25 „ Pure color and clear ... ^30 to ^40 „ Very fine dark color, velvetyA and without flaws, as high > ,£50 to £60 ,, as ... ... ... ...) This last, however, is very rare. Perhaps there is no stone which suffers more than the Emerald from inequality of structure, color and transparency, clouds and spots. Fashion greatly influences the value of the Emerald. When retained to enhance the price, it yields to the potent attraction of other first-class gems, and the demand sub¬ sides ; but when freely admitted into the market the taste often revives. Emerald. Composition —Silica ... ... ... 68 Alumina ... ... 18 Glucina, &c. ... ... 14 100 The Emerald. 185 It also contains magnesia, and traces of other metallic oxides, especially chromic oxide. Specific Gravity ... ... ... ... 27 Hardness ... ... ... ... ... 7^5 System ... ... ... ...Hexagonal. Form Hexagonal and di-hexagonal prisms. CHAPTER V. SPINEL AND BALAS RUBIES. NDER the generic name Spinel several minerals are included, as the Spinel Ruby, the Balas Ruby, the Pleonaste, or Ceylonite, Candite, and other less valuable varieties. Differing among themselves in color and other trivial characteristics, they all agree in possessing approximately the same chemical composition. They are, in fact, alumi- nates of magnesia, or compounds of alumina and magnesia, associated with small and variable proportions of other metallic oxides, such as those of chromium and iron, to which the colors are probably due. Few minerals enjoy a wider range of color than the Spinel. Among its varied tints we may mention carmine, red, reddish-brown, rose-red, various tints of orange, indigo blue, green, purple, puce, violet, and even white and yellow. Some varieties are opaque and dark-colored, or even black, but these have no value as ornamental stones. Indeed, it is only the so-called Precious Spinel, which is of use to the jeweller. By ancient writers the Red Spinels were probably included, with several other stones, under the general name of Carbuuculus, Spinel and Balas Rubies. 187 Thh Precious Spinel is found either detached, as loose pebbles, or embedded in granular limestone, or in granite rocks. In Burmah, Pegu, Ceylon, and Badakshan it occurs in well-formed, sharp-angled crystals which are regular octahedra. In deep water-courses, subject to irregular inundation, it is found as rolled crystals, accom¬ panied with Zircon, Garnet, and magnetic iron ore. In North America, between Amity, in New York, and Andover, in New Jersey, some crystals of extraordinary magnitude have been found, measuring 16 inches in diame¬ ter, in company with granular limestone and Serpentine ; but these are not the precious variety used in jewelry. Its form, which is generally that of the regular octa¬ hedron, enables it to be readily distinguished from the true or Oriental Ruby, with which it has occasionally been confounded. It may also be readily distinguished by its inferior hardness, and specific gravity. In these respects, however, it is similar to the Topaz, from which it widely differs in its optical properties. A pecularity of Spinel is that the light which is reflected from the depth of the gem, no matter what the color of the stone, is always of a pale yellow. The lustre is vitreous, and the gem displays every degree of trans¬ parency. The refraction is simple. It is rendered electric by friction, but not by heat; differing in the latter respect from Topaz, which is distinctly pyro-electric. One of the finest specimens of Blue Spinel, a thickish oblong stone, was not long since in the possession of Messrs. Pittar, Leverson and Co. It was an Indian-cut stone, weighing 31J carats. On its arrival it was re-cut by the late Mr. J. N. Forster, of London, and weighed, after re-cutting, 25 carats. There is a strange history attached to this stone : it was consigned from India as a Sapphire; subsequently it was found to be a Spinel, whereupon the iSS Spinel ami Ba J as Rubies. purchaser returned it to the merchant, who at once wrote to the consignor in India, but the statement was not believed. The merchant determined to have it cut, and afterwards sold it for a much larger sum than it had been valued at as a Sapphire. In the Exhibition of 1862 there were two very fine Spinels; one from India was cut en cabochon, forming an octagon-shaped stone, of perfect color, and free from flaws. It weighed 197 carats. This was cut by the late Mr. J. N. Forster to an 81-carat “ perfection stone.” The other Spinel was also an octagon-shaped stone, of perfect color, very “spread,” and free from flaws. It weighed 102^ carats, and and was re-cut by Mr. Forster, weighing after cutting 72^ carats. It is strange that both these stones arrived from India in the same year, viz., 1861. One specimen obtained by Dr. Heron is said to have weighed 49 lbs.; it is now in three pieces, and contains cavities studded with crystals of Corundum. Spinels of different kinds are found with other gem¬ stones, in the alluvial gravels of Ceylon, in Pegu, and in Siam. The mineral also occurs in Afghanistan in crystalline micaceous limestone, and in Badakshan, in a red sandstone. There are famous mines of Balas Rubies at Badakshan in Usbekistan, a part of Tatary. The mines were known to the Emperors of Delhi. They are near the Oxus, not far from Shighnan. There is a belief among the natives that two large Rubies always lie near each other : thus it is that the fortunate finder of the one hides it until he has found a twin stone ; failing this, they are said to break the large one in order to keep up the superstition. There is a belief also that the Ruby is the product of some transmutation of limestone. Spinels are found in the Ovens River, in Victoria, Spinel and Balas Rubies. 189 while in New South Wales they are by no means un¬ common in auriferous deposits, as on the Cudgegong, Peel, Macquarie, Severn and other rivers, where gem-stones are found as roiled pebbles in the gravels. In Meronitz, in Bohemia, little rose-red crystals occur in company with Pyrites ; the mineral is found also in Transylvania, in gold sands. At Aker, in Sweden, pale-blue and grey varieties occur embedded in limestone. None of these are of any value to the jeweller. The Balas or Balais Ruby, is a pale-red, or rose-red Spinel, with a tinge of blue appearing at the angles of the octahedron, which gives it a milky kind of shimmer and depreciates its value. The color is probably due to chromic acid. The name “ Balas ” or “ Balaksh ” applied to this stone, is said to be a corruption of Badakshan, one of the localities which, as stated above, yields the Spinel. Rubicelle is a name sometimes applied to the orange- red Spinel, while the violet-colored variety is occasionally called Almandine Spinel. Pleonaste is an opaque black variety, which was called Ceylonite, by Rome d’l’Isle, who analyzed it with a number of other crystals brought from Ceylon. It was Haiiy who, seeing its form resembled that of the Spinel, desired to give it a special position in his system of minerals, and named it Pleonaste , which signifies superfluity. Further investigation showed that it was in reality a black Spinel. This has the best cleavage of the whole class, being easily cleaved parallel to the faces of the octahedron. It may con¬ tain as much as 20 per cent, of protoxide of iron. It is found in Ceylon, Russia, Norway, Bohemia, and at Monte Somma ; but is never used as an ornamental stone. The transparent Spinels, in consequence of their lustre, color, and hardness, are used for personal ornament, and for objects of luxury ; but it is only when the crystals Spinel and Balas Rubies. 190 are fine and large that they are considered gems. In cutting it receives the same form as the Ruby. In the inventory of the French C rown Jewels, in the year 1791, we find the following :— One Spinel Ruby of 56f carats ... .£2,000 One 4 f >> £12 One „ 0 3 >> £12 One Balas Ruby 20| ... £400 One „ I2| n £■120 At the present time small stones range from 5/- to 10/- a carat; medium stones, of fair color, 20/- to 40/- ; large stones, 60/- to 100/-. Specimen stones attain even a higher value. The Balas Ruby varies much in price ; for example, a dark rose-red of about two carats weight, square-cut, and polished as a Brilliant, pure and lustrous, will sell for £12, while a pale-rose of like size will be worth only a few shillings. Occasionally a fine specimen of five carats will realize £50 to £ 100. Spinel. Composition —Alumina ... ... 72 Magnesia ... ... 28 100 Specific Gravity — Varies from 3‘59 in an Aurora Red specimen to 371 in one of Indigo blue color, (Church). Hardness... ... ... ... 8 System ... ... Isometric or Cubic. Form ... Octahedron, and as rolled pebbles. CHAPTER VI. THE OPAL. ICOLS gives a quaint description of this lovely stone. Hesays, “The Opal isa Precious Stone which hath in it the bright, fiery flame of the Carbuncle, the fine, refulgent purple of an Amethyst, and a whole sea of the Emerald’s green glory ; and every one of them shining with an incredible mixture and very much pleasure.” Boetius describes it as “ the fairest and most pleasing of all other jewels, by reason of its various colors.” Cardanus says, “I bought one for 15 crowns, which gave me as much pleasure as a Diamond of Sooaureos.” Onomacritus, writing 500 years B.C., remarks, “ The delicate color and tenderness of the Opal reminds me of a loving and beautiful child.” According to Pliny, “ It is made up of the glories of the most precious gems, and to describe it is a matter of inexpressible difficulty.” In all these notices of the Opal, prominence is natur¬ ally given to the brilliant play of rainbow tints which renders this stone unique. Although possessing no color which can properly be called its own, it exhibits flashes of IQ2 The Opal. the most vivid hues. This is probably the result of the number of fissures which traverse it, the light being decom¬ posed by the delicate striations on the walls of these micro¬ scopic crevices, thus giving rise to the optical phenomena known as “ diffraction.” In some varieties the colors are more or less evenly distributed, and one set of shades will predominate in one part of the stone, and other colors in another part ; or the distinct tints will run in parallel bands. In other specimens the colors are made up of small regular angular patches of every hue, and these polychromatic stones are known as Harlequin Opals. The Opal is a non-crystalline mineral. When first taken out of the earth it is not very hard, but subse¬ quently, by exposure to the air, its hardness is increased: nevertheless, it always remains a very soft stone compared with other gems. Before the blow-pipe the Opal is infusi¬ ble, but the water driven off by heat renders it opaque. It has the curious property of improving by moderate warmth, which brings out the brilliant tints for which the Opal is famed. Several kinds of Opal are known to the mineralogist. Most of it is destitute of beauty, and hence useless to the jeweller. This is known as Common Opal. Other speci¬ mens present translucency, but no color ; these are dis¬ tinguished as Semi-Opal. Certain Opals from Zimapan, in Mexico, possess a bright orange-red tint, and are used to a limited extent as an ornamental stone under the name of Fire-Opal. But the beautiful variety which is familiar to every one by its unique colors, and always retains its beauty, is distinguished as Precious or Noble Opal. The Precious Opal, used in bijouterie, is found prin¬ cipally in Hungary. It was called Oriental Opal by the Greek and Turkish merchants, who obtained it from the celebrated mines of Czerwenitza, and carried it to the East The Opal. 193 for the purpose of giving the title Oriental to it, which always conveyed a sense of goodness and value to stones. If Opal were of Oriental production, it would be a some¬ what singular fact that Dhuleep Singh, on re-visiting that Empire, carried two Opals to his mother as a gift that should bear the charm of novelty. The mountain range in Hungary, where the Opal is found, consists mainly of a kind of porphyry, which likewise yields lead, silver, and gold ; and, near the Czerwenitza district, traces of quicksilver also occur. The two highest mountains of this range are Simonka and Libanka, and it is from these that the Precious Opal comes. There seems no doubt that the Opal mass, originally in a liquid or gelatinous condition, filled up the cavities in the porphyry veins and was gradually solidified. This stone is also found in Honduras, in the Depart¬ ment of Gracias. Most of this American Opal is more transparent and less fiery than that from Hungary, but the conditions of its occurrence are very similar in the two localities. Of late years Precious Opal of singular beauty has been found in Queensland, occurring as thin veins in brown ironstone on the Baracorra River. Indeed, the opal-mines of Queensland bid fair to rival, at no distant day, the far-famed depositories of this gem in Hungary. Opals have also been found in New South Wales, and in many other localities ; but in most cases they are too thin and imperfect to be of any value. Some new Opal ground has, however, recently been discovered, which promises to be really remunerative. Among several speci¬ mens brought into the market, is a solid angular cream- colored variety on which great reliance is placed. The Opal is cut and polished first upon a leaden plate covered with emery, next on a wooden wheel with fine N 194 The Opal. pumice powder, and lastly on a wheel covered with felt. Delicate handling is requisite to turn out an Opal to the best advantage. The work of engraving the Opal requires great care on account of its numberless fissures, which it is dangerous to open to the air : yet there are some fine engraved Opals in existence. The oldest example is an intaglio, on a moderately large Opal, of the portrait of Louis XIII. when he was a child ; and the head of Juba is engraved upon an Opal in the collection of the Duke of Orleans. The Queensland Opal is now largely used for cameos, the brilliant colors of the gem forming a marked contrast to the dark background afforded by the ironstone matrix. The Hungarian Opals exhibit a uniform milkiness of surface, more or less iridescent. From their greater density they resist the effects of wear longer than any other sort, hence their superior value. The Mexican stones are beautiful, but so porous that if wetted they become color¬ less, and very frequently, after some little wear, turn opaque and brown ; they have, therefore, but little commercial value. A few years ago Hungarian Opals were sold by the piece; now they are sold by the carat—(i) the smallest stones, £\ to £1 ios. per carat ; (2) medium ones, £2 to £3 ; (3) larger stones, £3 to £5 ; (4) specimens of great size and purity, on account of their extreme rarity, are well-nigh invaluable. There is a strange history given by Pliny of an Opal about the size of a hazel nut, which was possessed by the Senator Nonius, and was valued at £20,000 of our money. Nonius, who was proscribed by Marc Anthony for the sake of this gem, made his escape, carrying off the ring with him, as the sole relic of his fortune. He preferred exile with his Opal to living in Rome without it. The two largest specimens of “Noble Opal” known in The Opal. 195 this country were found in the Hungarian mines in 1866 ; and were exhibited by the late Madame Goldschmidt in the Paris International Exhibition of 1867. Both stones were of the “drop,” or pear-shape form, one weighing 186 carats, the other 160 carats ; this latter, a magnificent “ Harlequin Opal,” is reputed on good authority to be the finest gem of its class ever seen. There is, in the Imperial Cabinet of Vienna, an Opal nearly as large as a man’s fist, and weighing 17 ozs. Perhaps the finest Opal of modern times was that of the Empress Josephine, which was called the “Burning of Troy,” from the numberless red flames blazing on its surface: the obverse was opaque, a peculiarity specially observed in the Honduras Opal. There are innumerable superstitions attached to these gems. By the Ancients they were thought to bestow every possible good. In the middle ages the same belief was held; and in the early part of the seventeenth century the Opal was much more valued than at the present day. But by a strange freak of fashion the Opal has lost its pristine glory, and is now falsely accused of bringing ill-luck. Sir Walter Scott is in a great measure answerable for this, as readers of Anne of Geierstein well know. It seems strange that in this enlightened nineteenth century there should still be people believing in the bad fortune supposed to attend the wearing of Opals. Yet withal it is a favorite stone with the Queen, and with many of our aristocracy, as also with the members of most of the European royal families. Without doubt the stone will ere long be as much ap¬ preciated as it was in earlier times, for the mistaken idea that ill-fortune attends the wearing of Opals must inevit¬ ably go the way of all superstitions. There were some very valuable specimens of Opals in the Hope collection—1st, one an inch in length, and one The Opal. 196 inch and three-quarters in width, highly transparent, and very rich in color. The chief reflected rays were green and yellow, interspersed in different directions with flashes of bright blue and of deep red. A representation of Apollo’s head, surrounded by rays of fire, is engraved upon it in “ alto relievo.” In all probability this stone is of great an¬ tiquity. It may have been intended as the idol symbolizing the “ Sun,” and been given to some Persian Temple, dedi¬ cated to that god ; but its transparency intimates a Mexican origin, whilst the fine engraving and mounting in gold and black enamel indicate Persian workmanship. The second specimen is a translucent emerald-green Opal in its matrix, from Mexico. It has the remarkable property of becoming quite opaque when heated, and of recovering its translucency on cooling. BLACK OPAL. This is a stone that has appeared lately in the market, and, like anything new or uncommon, has been eagerly sought after. The ordinary Opal is worth, say bos. the carat, if fine, but its black brother attains a higher com¬ mercial value. Certainly the colors are very lovely in these specimens, yet how they acquire their blackness and deep tints is questionable. Some other hand than unassisted Nature may have been at work. Recently, however, a pure black or blue-black Opal has been cut from the natural matrix, sent from Queensland. One black Opal, the size of a hen’s egg, was, not long since, sold in Paris for .£1,000. At present these stones are rare. Opal. Composition ... Silica, with 10 to 12 per cent, water. Specific Gravity .,. ... ... 2 to 2 - 2. Hardness... ... ... ... 5 - 5 to 6. Form ... ... ... ... Amorphous. CHAPTER VII. THE TRUE CAT’S EYE. (l Chrysoberyl .) V&iS* 0 , W/-M UCH confusion exists concerning this very curious and valuable gem, a confusion arising partly from the ignorance of many in the trade as to its true nature, but principally from the mistakes of those who have written about it. In mineralogical treatises it is usually confounded with, and described as, a peculiar variety of quartz, which somewhat resembles it, but which is of little or no mercantile value, although it has occasionally been sent to Europe by unscru¬ pulous merchants as the true Cat’s Eye. This chatoyant quartz is found largely in Ceylon, and on the west coast of India, where it is known as “ Coast Cat’s Eye : it occurs chiefly of various shades of yellow, or brown. A greenish variety is found near Hof, in Bavaria, and has lately been largely cut as an ornamental stone. The Quartz Cat’s Eye is semi-transparent, and when cut in a convex form (eu caboclion) shows a more or less defined band of light, with a silky lustre, resulting from a reflection of the fibrous grain of the stone itself, or more probably from an intimate admixture of asbestos—which penetrates the 198 The Cat's Eye. quartz in delicate parallel fibres. This Quartz Cat’s Eye, even when most perfect, cannot be compared for beauty with the real Cat’s Eye, for which, side by side, it ought not to be mistaken, even by the uninitiated. It is at once distinguished by its inferior hardness, lower density, and want of brilliancy. It has, like the Cape and European Cat’s Eyes, little or no commercial value. It may be useful to contrast the characteristics of the two stones in parallel columns:— Description of true ( Chrysoberyl) Cat's Eye. Description of Quartz Cat's Eye. Color—Various shades of yellow, brown, and green, rarely black. Ray—Iridescent. Polish—Brilliant. Hardness . 8 - 5. Specific gravity ... 3 - 8. Infusible and not affected by acids. Sometimes shewing a beau¬ tiful dichroism. 80 alumina, Approxi¬ mate Chem. Com. 20 glucina ; coloring mat¬ ter — prot- oxide of iron. Color—Various shades of yellow, greyish green and brown only. Ray—Dull. Polish—Dull. Hardness . 7. Specific gravity 2'6. Melts with Soda to a clear glass. Soluble in Hydro¬ fluoric Acid. Never dichroic. /48 silicon, 51 oxygen, Chem. Com. ' with a small amount of oxide of iron \and lime. The true or Oriental Cat’s Eye is a rare variety ol the Chrysoberyl, or Cymophane —a stone of extreme hard¬ ness, in this respect being only inferior to the Diamond and the Sapphire. It is characterized by possessing a The Cats Eye. 199 remarkable play of light in a certain direction, resulting, it is supposed, from a peculiarity in its internal structure, which appears to be minutely striated. This ray of light, or “line,” as it is termed by jewellers, shines in fine and well-polished specimens with a phosphorescent lustre. In India the lines of light are called “ betas,” and the price increases according to the number of these “ betas.” The true Cat’s Eye (Chrysoberyl) comes principally from Ceylon, where it is found in company with Sapphires, and is of various colors, ranging from pale straw-color through all shades of brown, and from very pale apple- green to the deepest olive. Some specimens, much sought for by Americans, are almost black. The line, no matter what ground-color the stone may possess, is nearly always white, and more or less iridescent; occasionally, but very rarely, however, the line is of a golden hue. This lustre is most beautiful when seen in full sun-light, or by gas-light, when the line becomes more defined and vivid. This gem is valued principally according to the per¬ fection and brilliancy of the line, which should be well- defined, not very broad, and should run evenly from end to end across the middle of the stone The color does not much influence the value, some jewellers preferring one tint, some another. On the whole, perhaps, the most popular colors are the clear apple-green and dark olive : both of these form a splendid back-ground, and contrast well with the line. It is quite impossible to give any satisfactory scale of values for this gem, its estimation depending much on personal appreciation and taste : a ring-stone may be worth from £10 to £ 100, or even more ; and there are large specimens at present in the market, which are worth upwards of £1,000. 200 The Cat's Eye. The Cat’s Eye has become more and more fashion¬ able of late years in Europe, and its value has greatly increased, the Americans being the largest buyers. In India it has always been much prized ; it is held in peculiar veneration as a charm against witchcraft, and is the last jewel a Cingalese will part with. The specimens most esteemed by the Indians are those of a dark olive color, having the ray so bright on each edge as to appear double. It is indeed wonderfully beautiful with its soft, deep color, and mysterious gleaming streak ever shifting, like a restless spirit, from side to side as the stone is moved ; now glowing at one spot, now at another. No wonder that an imaginative and superstitious people regard it with awe and wonder, and believing it to be the abode of some genii, dedicate it to their gods as a sacred stone. Mr. Layard, upwards of thirty years ago, brought from the East Indies a very good Cat’s Eye, which was then valued at £50 only, but it would now be worth from £800 to £1,000 A great deal of so-called Cat’s Eye has of late years been brought from South Africa. This stone usually presents rich golden tints, or various shades of brown, but occasionally offers a red or even a blue color. This mineral will be described at length under the heading “ Crocidolite.” It is in fact, either a variety of Crocidolite or a fibrous form of Quartz replacing that mineral, and thus forming what mineralogists call a pseudomorph. This African Cat’s Eye—or, as it is sometimes termed Tiger’s Eye—has been brought from Griqualand in masses of sufficient size to be made into snuff boxes, and other ornamental objects ; while slabs of the stone have been used as veneer to cover the tops of small tables. Flat slabs are, however, much less effective than pieces cut with a convex surface, The Cat's Eye . 201 It will have been gathered from the foregoing remarks, that no fewer than four different stones are known under the name of Cat’s Eye, namely (i), the fibrous variety of Chrysoberyl ; (2), the Chatoyant Quartz from India; (3), the green asbestiform variety from Bavaria ; and (4), the brown Crocidolite from South Africa. But it must be borne in mind that the only one of real value is that which has been described above as the true or Orie?ital Cat’s Eye—a fibrous variety of Chrysoberyl—far surpassing in hardness and beauty either of its namesakes. Cat's Eye. The chemical composition and physical properties of this stone have been described at p. 198. CHAPTER VIII. THE TURQUOISE. LINY describes under the name of Callais or Callaina, a greenish gem-stone, which has generally been regarded as our modern Turquoise. This identification is open to some doubt, but it is, nevertheless, the custom of many mineralogists, to designate the Turquoise in scientific language by the name of Callaite. In popular phraseology, however, the beautiful stone is invariably called Turquoise. “It hath its name Turcicus” (or Turquoise), says Baccius, “ either because of its excellent beauty, or because it is brought from the Turks.” Thomas Nicols says, “The Turquoise is a hard gem, of no transparency, yet full of beauty : its color is sky-blue, out of a green, in which may be imagined a little milkish infusion. A clear sky, free from all clouds, will most excellently discover the beauty of a true Turquoise.” This gem is throughout of the same beauty, as well internally as externally ; it requires no help of tincture or foil to set it off in grace, the constancy of its own beauty being its support. The Turquoise. 203 Its exquisite color, which loses nothing by candle¬ light, is no doubt owing to the presence of a certain quan¬ tity of phosphate of copper. Those specimens of the Oriental Turquoise which retain their color perpetually, are said to belong to the “ Old Rock ; ” and are very scarce ; while those that lose their color, or become green, are ascribed to the “New Rock.” According to old writers, the Turquoise was found, in their day, in the remote parts of India, and was conveyed to Turkey to be cut. Most of the Oriental Mineral Turquoise is obtained now from the mines at Ansar, lying 30 miles north-west of Nishapur, in the north-eastern part of Persia, under latitude 36° 28' N., longitude 58° 20' E. The two divisions of this mineral district are Makua (the northern port), and Wedj (the southern.) Mr. Prinsep, from the presence of certain blue streaks in the copper ores of Rajauri in Ajmir, suggested the pos¬ sibility of Turquoise being found there. Subsequently Dr. Irvine stated that it was reported to be found in the Ajmir hills and at Ramgarti, in the Shekhwati country, but this was probably only a variety of copper ore, which Prinsep called a Turquoise copper ore. Recent discoveries in the land of Midian have shewn that three Turquoise mines exist there; the northern¬ most, at Aynuneh already worked, the southernmost, near Ziba (still scratched by the Arabs), and the central one not known precisely save to the Bedouins, who call it Jebel Shekayk. The Shah of Persia has long been accredited with the possession of the finest Turquoises in existence, for Nis¬ hapur, in Khorasan, the mine from whence the most precious of these stones is obtained, is within his dominions; and it is said the best Turquoise was invariably picked 204 The Turquoise. out and retained by him, whilst the poorer specimens only were permitted to go into the market. Be that as it may, Mexico appears now to be a for¬ midable rival. An ancient and well-tried source of supply is now to be re-established, after a lapse of over two hundred years. This is the once famous Turquoise district of that part of Mexico which some thirty years ago became a territory of the United States. Almost all kinds of metallic ores are found there, and many Precious Stones, as this remote region participates largely in that mineral wealth which is so prominent a feature of Mexico gene¬ rally ; but it was only in one mine or group of mines that the Turquoise was obtained. The workings, however, were very productive, but about two centuries back a sudden in¬ undation broke in upon the unfortunate Indians who were working in the subterranean galleries, and drowned about one hundred of the workmen. So great was the destruction generally that the enterprise was abandoned, and none of the Turquoises which are so popular as ornaments have been derived from America. These Mexican stones are said to be very fine and abundant ; the Shah may, there¬ fore, find his monopoly seriously reduced in value. Mines of Turquoise are also known 22 miles south¬ west of Santa Fe. It is there found in little veins or nuggets, covered on the exterior with a white tufaceous crust; but stones of great commercial value are compara¬ tively rare, and many tons of the rock may be crushed without producing a single specimen. The Persian Turquoise occurs in the form of thin veins in slate rock, and the people of Bucharest strike it off the matrix, with bullets covered with moss which are thrown from slings, the rocks being generally inaccessible. They then take the ore to the market of Moscow, where it is cut and polished. The Turquoise. 205 We only know of Turquoise as compact and uncrys¬ tallized, having no cleavage, and possessing a conchoidal fracture. Looking at the results of the many analyses which have been made, they agree in proving the presence of phosphate of alumina, oxide of copper, iron, and water. It is infusible before the blow-pipe, but is readily affected by acids. It is doubtful whether the true Turquoise was known to the Ancients; but in the middle ages it was well known and most highly valued, and few stones had such wonderful gifts and virtues attributed to them as this had. But to realise these advantages it was a necessary condition that the stone should have been received as a gift. Even to this day, in Russia, there is a proverb, “ That a Turquoise given by a loving hand carries with it happiness and good fortune;” and another, “That the color of a Turquoise pales when the well-being of the giver is in danger.” The Orientals cut texts from the Koran on Turquoise, and fill in the characters with gold. There are some very good specimens of engraved mineral Turquoise, but they are neither very ancient nor many in number. Thomas Nicols speaks of one possessed by the Duke of Etruria, which was the size of a hazel-nut, and had the image of Julius Caesar engraved on it. There are two in the collection of the Duke of Orleans, on one of which is engraved an image of Diana, and on the other that of the Empress Faustina. A jeweller in Moscow at one time possessed a Turquoise two inches long, cut in the shape of a heart, and said to have belonged previously to Shah Nadir, who wore it as an amulet. A verse from the Koran is inscribed upon it in gold, and £780 was the price asked for it. Capt. Richard F. Burton, in his book on “The Gold Mines of Midian,” makes mention of a very fine Turquoise which he saw set in the stock of a Bedouin 20 6 The Turquoise. matchlock, and notched across to resemble a screw. Though exposed to wear and tear for some fifty years/it had lost none of its color. In the year 1808 a magnificent necklace of Turquoise was sold for £360. It consisted of twelve stones, of a beautiful pale blue, none of which were of any great size ; but each of them was engraved in relief with a figure of one of the twelve Caesars. Major MacDonald sent to the Exhibition of 1851 some fine Turquoises which had been found in a soft yellow sandstone quarry in the Desert of Arabia ; but Egyptian Turquoises are of small value, because their color fades when exposed to the light. And so it happened with those exhibited in 1851. One of them, bought for a large sum of money, had so faded within a year as to be almost worthless. The Arabian Turquoise, though no longer worked, was highly prized by the ancient Egyptians, who opened Turquoise-mines in the Wady Maghara, in the Desert of Sinai, as far back as the period of the Great Pyramids. The Turquoise occurs there either in nodules scattered through a base of red marl, or in veins running through red sandstone. A remarkable cameo in Turquoise, representing the head of Tiberius, exists in Florence. There is also a fine cameo Turquoise in the South Kensington Museum. Beside the true Turquoise, there are two other sub ¬ stances often sold for this stone. One of these is Odonto- lite , or fossil Turquoise —the former name having reference to its origin from bone, the latter to the fossil condition in which the bone occurs. The Odontolite, or bone Tur¬ quoise, is, in fact, nothing more than the tooth or bone or ivory of the great extinct elephant called the Mammoth , whose remains are brought from Siberia, where they have The Turquoise. 20 7 been mostly preserved by having been frozen in the ice. This fossil Turquoise derives its blue color from the phos¬ phate of iron, or Vivianite, with which it is impreg¬ nated. It is easily distinguished from the mineral or true Turquoise, by emitting an odour when gently heated. It is, also, softer and more opaque than true Turquoise. It differs entirely from the mineral in composition and original structure, and it rarely, if ever, loses its color. The bony structure may be detected under the microscope. Abroad the fossil is more valued than in England, in con¬ sequence of its freedom from outward change, but it is not so valuable as the Rock Turquoise. The other mineral often mistaken for Turquoise is Callainite —a substance which far more closely resembles the true gem than does the Odontolite. It is, however, of a lighter color, and has not the peculiar optical properties of the Turquoise. The Turquoise has a translucency peculiarly its own, reflecting light from under its surface ; it also easily receives a brilliant polish. The Callainite, on the contrary, is a duller stone, not so vivid nor so fine in color. Some of it has lately been found in working a railway in Mexico/ It has been noticed by Bernal Deaz, Torquinado, and others, that the Calconite of the ancient Mexicans is closely allied to the Rock Turquoise ; and the Spaniards found that this “ green stone ” was highly esteemed for personal ornaments and for the temples of the gods. It was relatively more valuable than gold; and an ear-ring of Turquoise was deemed a fair exchange for a mule. Beads and other ornamental objects in a greenish mineral much resembling Turquoise have occasionally been unearthed from the ancient sepulchral monuments with which the land of Brittany abounds. About twenty years ago M. Damour, the eminent French chemist, 2oS The Turquoise. analysed some specimens from near Lockmariaker, in the Morbihan, and finding them to be a phosphate of alumina, of green color, identified them with Pliny’s Callais, and suggested a revival of the old name. Dana afterwards proposed for this substance the modified Plinian name Callaiuite , but more recent researches have proved its identity with the mineral called by Breithaupt Variscite. True Turquoise. Chemical Composition — Phosphorus pentoxide 32-8. Alumina 40-2. Water I9'2. Copper oxide 5 * 3 - Iron and manganese oxides 2-5. 100.0. Hardness ... ... ... ... 6. Specific Gravity ... ... .. 275. Form ... ... ... ... Amorphous. CHAPTER IX. ASTERIAS, OR STAR STONES. HE Orientals have ever entertained a peculiar veneration for the Asteria, whether classed, in deference to its color, as Star Sapphire, Star Ruby, Star Topaz, or otherwise. The localities whence most of these gems are derived are the same as the homes of the Sapphire and its cognate crystals. The Asterias form, indeed, a variety rather than a separate class, and from their rarity and striking charac¬ teristics challenge the superstition of the imaginative Euro¬ pean no less than the Oriental. When a bright light impinges on the Asteria, six diverging rays become reflected from its surface, and these constitute the speciality of the stone. To display this six-rayed star to advantage, the stone should be cut en cabochon , or with a convex surface, so that the centre of the star may correspond with the apex of the dome. The convexity of the gem apparently intensifies the reflection. The cause of the asteiism is to be sought in the internal structure of the crystal ; all the star-stones exhibiting a peculiarly laminated texture, and generally presenting, O 210 Asterias , or Star Stones. on the basal plane, a system of fine striations related to the direction of the three lines of light, which form by their intersection the chatoyant star. The color of the Asteria is commonly a greyish blue ; but deep blue, red, and other specimens are occasionally found. Only of late years have they been of any value in England. In Ceylon, but a few years back, they could have been purchased at low prices, as the natives had but little regard for them. The finest Star Ruby lately seen was valued at £200; it is in the possession of a private gentleman, who obtained it from a noted collection. If a pair of these stones could be obtained their value would undoubtedly be largely augmented. The price of these gems is mainly determined by their size and quality ; small Star Sapphires range from £2 to £10 \ large Sapphires, £ 10 to £ 100. Star Rubies obtain higher prices ; but Star- stones, of a secondary rank, are of little or no value. The River Sangaris—according to Plutarch—pro¬ duced a gem called Aster, which was luminous in the dark, and was known to the Phrygians as Ballen , or “ The King.” A gem called “ Asterites,” found inside a huge fish called “ Pan,” from its resemblance to that god, is also described by Ptolemy Hephaestion. This stone was said to be a potent love-charm, and, when exposed to the sun, shot forth flames. It was used by Helen of Troy for her own signet, and to it she attributed all her conquests. The term Asteria has been used by different authors in various senses at various times; but there can be no doubt that Pliny understood by it the same gem that we do now. A pur¬ plish Star-Sapphire was known to Pliny as the Ceraunia , or “ Lightning-stone,” and probably the same stone was termed Astrapia (lightning-stone), names given to it from its supposed power of sending out, as it were, flashes of lightning, diverging from the centre. {King.) Asterias, or Star Stones. 211 Two perfectly transparent Star-Rubies, having charac¬ teristic six-rayed reflections, were recently received from Ceylon, but though apparently counterparts of each other, they arrived in Europe by different channels. These fine specimens did not remain long in the market, as they were extremely rare, and consequently highly coveted. In the Hope Collection there were six Asterias of high character—(i) an Oriental Star-Ruby of oval shape weighing 29 carats ; (2) a Star-Sapphire, oval, weighing 58^ carats, with a ruby tinge springing from the centre and radiating to the edges—the specks on the surface appearing to be due to octahedral crystals of iron sulphide ; (3) a Star-Sapphire weighing ij\ carats, with a mixture of blue and pale pink, which gave the stone a lilac hue; (4) a Star-Emerald cut flat, with a slanting edge : it stands alone for rarity ; (5) a Star-Aquamarine, from Ireland, of bluish color, opaque ; (6) a Star-Garnet ff of an inch in length and wide ; the slender rays are visible only when viewed sideways, but each ray then appears to be composed of two lines. Asteria. Composition — A 1 u m i na 98-5. Ferric Oxide I'O. Lime... 0-5. locro Specific Gravity 4. Hardness 9. System of Crystallization ... Hexagonal. Form —Single and double hexagonal pyramids ; more often as water-worn and fractured pebbles. SECTION IV. PRECIOUS AND SEMI-PRECIOUS STONES, Of less value than those described in the foregoing pages. It is deemed advisable to arrange these Stones in alpha¬ betical order, without expressing any opinion as to their relative value. The coloured plate opposite represents several of these stones, shewing their crystalline form, which it is hoped may serve as a guide to those who are interested in the study of gems. CHAPTER I. THE AGATE. Y the term Agate we understand a compo¬ site substance, an association of certain siliceous or quartz-like minerals, which in texture, in color, and in transparency are diverse one from another. These Agate-forming minerals are chiefly Chalcedony, Carnelian, Jasper, Quartz, and Amethyst. Two or more of these, forming a variegated stone, and usually presenting a diversity of spots and stripes, may be denominated an Agate. The name is derived from the river Achates, in Sicily, now known as the Drillo in the Val de Noto, wherein, according to Theophrastus, the ancient Agates were found, in his time. The Agate is occasionally found in veins, as in cer¬ tain localites in Saxony and Bohemia, but, as a rule, it occurs in the form of nodules embedded in an amygda- loidal rock, more or less akin to basalt. On the decomposition of the amygdaloidal Agate¬ bearing rock, the enclosed Agates, by reason of their resistance to the disintegrating effects of weather, remain behind as nodules; hence Agates are frequently found loose in the beds of rivers. 214 The Agate. Various theories have been propounded from time to time, for the purpose of explaining the origin of the Agate nodules in the cavities of the rocks wherein they occur. The cavities themselves have unquestionably resulted from the imprisonment of gas bubbles, whilst the rock was in a molten condition. The Agate-bearing rock is, in most cases, an ancient lava. The nodules of Agate are con¬ sidered to result from the crystallization, or non-crystalline deposition, of silica, from a solution with which the cavity of the nodule or geode became filled. The silica—now in one condition, such as Jasper, now in another, such as Chalcedony, and then again in the crystallized form of Quartz—was deposited over the irregular inner surface, giving rise to those concentric markings which are seen on the sections of most Agates. This deposition of silica would continue until the geode became filled so as to form a solid Agate, or the inlets of infiltration became stopped up, or the supply of siliceous solution failed. In other cases the the silica would be deposited around the cavity in concen¬ tric layers, while, after a time, owing to some change in the natural conditions, the silica might be deposited in layers on the floor of the cavity, in obedience to gravita¬ tion, and the various colored bands would then run parallel to each other in horizontal layers, thus giving rise to Riband Agate. According to certain fancied similitudes, which the Agate Stone displays to things in common use, it receives a distinguishing name. Thus Riband Agate exhibits strata or layers of different colors which play one into the other. If the stripes of varied hues converge towards the centre,' it receives the name of Circular Agate; and if in this centre there are other colored points, it is called Eye Agate. When the variously colored bands are disposed in an angular pattern, suggestive of the plan of a polygonal Tke Agate. 215 fortress, it is called Fortification Agate. In Rainbow Agate the stripes form a bow, presenting the colors of the Iris when the stone is held towards the sun or a strong light ; the thinner the stone the more this peculiarity is noticeable. In speaking of Oriental and Occidental Agate, we conventionally understand that all the most beautiful and translucent sorts belong to the Oriental, and the less valuable to the western variety. Although very fine Agates are found in India, our chief supply is derived from South America. In the bed of the Rio Pardo, the Taquarie, and other rivers in Uru¬ guay, Agate nodules are found in considerable quantity, and often of large size. These are generally known as “ Brazilian Agate,” and are largely exported to the polishing mills of Germany. These mills are situated mainly in the neighbourhood of Oberstein, on the Nahe, a tributary to the Rhine at Bingen. The location of the Agate industry in this district was originally determined by the occurrence of Agates in the melaphyre rocks of the Galgenberg, where they were worked more than four centuries ago. The quarries, or rather mines—for the Agate rock was worked in subterranean tunnels by aid of artificial light—have been abandoned since the discovery of the Agate in Uruguay; but the work of cutting and polishing the stone is still carried on largely in the neigh¬ bouring villages. In a district of 8f square miles, stand the two little towns of Oberstein and Idar, the chief centres of the Agate industry. Not only is a great proportion of the inhabi¬ tants of these towns in some way occupied in cutting, polishing, and coloring these stones, but for miles round, every valley is dotted with the homes of those who follow this business. 216 The Agate. In 1770 there were only twenty-six cutting and polishing mills in Birkenfeld, whereas in 1870 there were 180, half of which were built within the twenty years pre¬ ceding. In each mill there are four or five grindstones. These stones are of red sandstone, which is obtained from Zweibrucken ; two men ordinarily work together at the same stone. Much of the Agate is cleaved to the requisite form by means of the hammer, a work which exacts much skill from the artisan : for he must be well acquainted with the natural grain of the Agate, since there is no true cleavage to guide him. The purchase of the stone in the rough is generally undertaken by professed dealers in Agate wares, who commit them to the cutters and polishers to form them into articles in demand. The artificers are paid by the piece, or by the dozen. One of the most interesting branches of the Agate industry is that of coloring the stones by artificial means. In order to produce a fine black color, such as is prized in an Onyx, the stone is first exposed for several weeks to the action of a warm saccharine solution—usually honey and water—which is slowly absorbed into the pores of certain layers. The stone is then removed, washed, and treated with sulphuric acid which, entering the pores, decomposes the absorbed sugar, and leaves a deposit of finely-divided carbonaceous matter, thus producing a dense black color. Red colors, such as those of Carnelian, may be obtained by steeping the stone in a solution of green copperas, or ferrous sulphate, and then decomposing this salt by ex¬ posure to heat. Blue, green, and yellow tints are also produced artificially by chemical means. In the amygdaloidal rocks of Perthshire, Forfarshire, and other parts of Scotland, Agates of very pleasing The Agate . 217 patterns are found. These are largely cut and polished under the name of “ Scotch Pebbles,” and are employed as ornamental stones in common jewelry. Agate. Chemical Composition ... ... Silica. Hardness ... ... ... ... 7. Specific Gravity ... ... ... 2 6 . Form ... ... Amorphous, and nodular. CHAPTER II. ALEXANDRITE. HIS stone, which was named after the late Czar of Russia, owes its celebrity to its prominent hues of red and green. The Russian Alexandrite can rarely be shown to the best advantage in consequence of its radical defects of structure, as it is flawed with crevices and rents which make successful cutting and polishing extremely difficult. The variety found in Ceylon is more easy of manipulation. Alexandrite is especially remarkable for its strongly marked difference of color, according as it is viewed by natural or by artificial light. The finest stones present a bright green, or deep olive green color, by daylight ; whereas artificial light, such as that of gas or a candle, brings out a soft columbine red or raspberry tint. A small amount of chromic oxide gives to the stone its green color in daylight ; while it contains a trace of copper and oxide of lead, sufficient to impart a dark-red color to it when exposed to artificial light. By day-light A lexandrite. 219 these two colors intermingle, the green predominating. If the stone be turned towards the setting sun, or towards a flame, the red predominates. The Alexandrite is strongly dichroic, while some varieties are even trichroic. In a dull light, in the direc¬ tion of the long diagonal of the base, a faintish oil-green is reflected, but in that of the chief axis the tint becomes a deep verdigris. The orange-yellow, dark emerald, and medium columbine red, can only be observed in a clear white light. Chemical analysis shows that the Alexandrite is a variety of Chrysoberyl. The original Alexandrite came from the Ural Mountains ; but some fine stones have for the last few years been obtained from Ceylon. A lexandrite. Composition :— Alumina ... 79 - Glucina ... 18. Iron and chromic oxide, &c. 3 - 100. Specific Gravity ... 37 - Hardness ... 8-5. System of Crystallization Trimetric. Form of Crystal ... Usually six- sided twins. CHAPTER III. AMAZONITE. BEAUTIFUL green mineral is occasionally used as an ornamental stone under the name of Amazonite or Amazon Stone —a name originally given to it on the assumption that it came from the basin of the Amazons, in South America. Until lately nearly all the Amazon-stone was derived from Siberia, but in recent years magnificent examples have been found at Pike’s Peak, Colorado ; while it has also been discovered in a huge boulder at Tongue, in Suther- landshire. Amazon-stone is a bluish-green felspar, formerly regarded as a variety of orthoclase, but placed by M. Descloizeaux, on account of its optical behaviour, with inicrocline , or triclinic potash-felspar. Its color has been referred to the presence of oxide of copper, but according to Mr. Konig’s recent researches, it is due to an organic compound of iron. Some varieties of Amazonite display a slightly spangled appearance like that of Green Avan- turine. A mazonite , 221 Amazonite. Composition :— Silica ... ... ... 65. Alumina ... ... ... 18. Potash ... ... ... 13. Soda, &c. ... ... ... 4. 100. Hardness ... ... ... 6 - o. Specific Gravity ... ... ... 2 - 5. Crystalline System ... ... ... Triclinic. Form ... ... Various prismatic combinations. CHAPTER IV. AMBER. MBER is a fossil resin, and its external condi¬ tion, as well as its chemical composition points to its vegetable origin. This view is strengthened by its occurring in connection with brown coal or lignite. If further proof were wanting of the vegetable origin of Amber, it exists in the inclusion of insects, leaves, pieces of wood, moss, seed, and little stones, all of which may be seen in that which is found on the coast of the Baltic. The condition of these inclusions proves the liquid character of the resinous matter as it flowed forth and involved the insects ; and it shews, also, the subsequent slow process of the solidification which ensued. When insects are caught and retained in the tenacious resin of our northern pines, we find, as a rule, that their bodies are bent, their feet broken off, or their wings rolled together. It is not generally so, however, with the insects found buried in Amber, where the most delicate parts of the creature are often preserved in the most natural positions—probably because the Amber, when it originally exuded from the tree, was a liquid of thin consistency. Amber. 223 The innumerable organic remains, which this resin has preserved uninjured for thousands of years, give us a marvellous insight into the vegetable life of that division of the Tertiary period known to geologists as the Miocene age—the age to which the amber forests of northern Europe may be referred. We here see plants quite un¬ known at the present day among the flora of the northern sea-coasts, but which have a relationship to the existing flora of the shores of the Mediterranean. Prof. Goeppert, the veteran botanist of Breslau, has christened the prin¬ cipal Amber-yielding tree the Pinites succinifer. Amber is non-crystalline, translucent, and somewhat brittle ; it has a specific gravity as nearly as possible the same as that of sea-water. Its fundamental color is yellow in all shades, running on one side into white and hyacinth- red, and on the other into brown and black. The green and blue specimens are never pure. It becomes electrical by friction, and this property was familiar to the Greeks as far back as the days of Thales of Miletus, who observed that when rubbed it acquired the property of attracting light substances. The word electricity is, in fact, derived from the Greek word electron , signifying Amber. Amber is soluble in sulphuric acid. Chemically, it it composed of a volatile oil, several resins, and succinic acid. The principal resin of Amber is known to minera¬ logists as succinite —a name sometimes applied to Amber itself. Wherever Amber is found, whether in France, Holland, Greenland, Sweden, Italy, Sicily, Spain, Siberia, China, or India, it is in association with the brown-coal or Lignite of the Tertiary period. This relation is very instruc¬ tive. The most prolific fields of Amber are the great plains of northern Germany, and the coasts of the Baltic, 224 Amber. especially between Konigsberg and Memel, where it occurs in a loose clayey sandstone, which, from its color is known as “ blue earth.” At Palmicken, in Samland, in eastern Prussia, the Amber is systematically worked by subter¬ ranean mining ; but in most places the Amber gatherers simply dig it from the soil, or pick it from the cliffs, or collect the nodules that are cast by the waves upon the shore. Specimens of Amber, in the form of rolled nodules, are occasionally found washed ashore in this country, especially on the coast of Norfolk, near Cromer. Largequantities of Prussian Amber are sent to Breslau, Odessa, and Constantinople. Amber forms a very impor¬ tant industry not only in Dantzic, Konigsberg, Stolpe, and Liibeck, but in Vienna, Constantinople, and Catania, in Sicily ; indeed, in almost every town where “ Galanterie ” is acceptable. It is notable that the Sicilian Amber possesses a peculiar opalescence, or even fluorescence —presenting a difference of tint according as it is viewed by transmitted or by reflected light. In Stolpe alone the value of the Amber industry amounts yearly to about ,£10,000. In Paris the most exquisite wares are made of Amber, and command extra¬ ordinarily high prices. Innumerable are the articles made of it, amongst others microscopic lenses, aerometers, and busts. Necklaces and bracelets of Amber are sent to Egypt and India, and the meanest Turk seeks a piece of it for his pipe, not only because it is pleasant to the lip, but because he has a belief that it will preserve him from inhaling pestilence. Amber was much valued by the Ancients, particularly by the Romans. From the second Imperial epoch down to the middle of the fourteenth century, Amber was cut A mber. 22 5 into knives and one-pronged forks, which the princes and great church dignitaries used for cutting up various kinds of fruits and vegetables, especially their esculent fungoids —mushrooms, and the like. It was at one period far more valuable than gold. The Greeks very early received from the Phoenicians chains made of Amber, both for the neck and arms, and it is mentioned in connection with heathen mythology from very ancient times. According to the legend, the sisters of Phseton, mourning and weeping at his unhappy end, attracted the pity of the gods, who mercifully changed them into trees, and their tears still flowing on, became Amber. A still stranger origin is given to this fossil, in the well-known couplet of the fire worshippers,— “ Around thee shall glisten the loveliest Amber, That ever the sorrowing sea bird hath wept.” The great value set upon Amber even in pre-historic times in this country is seen in the care with which objects of this material were interred with their possessors in tumuli or burial-mounds of very early date. The finest specimen in this country is an Amber cup in the Brighton Museum, originally found with bronze and stone weapons in a barrow at Hove. Amber is frequently imitated by various resins or gum-resins, such as copal and anime. These imita¬ tions are not confined to the clear and clouded varieties, but extend to those containing insects. There are like¬ wise several fossil resins which are closely related to Amber, notably one found some years ago in the London clay of Highgate, when cutting the Archway Road, and hence known as “ Highgate resin.” P 226 Amber. Amber is found in several localities in the United States, mostly in New Jersey and in Massachusetts ; but the American Amber rarely occurs of sufficient beauty or in sufficient quantity to be available for ornamental purposes. Amber. Composition ... Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen. Specific Gravity ... ... ... ro8. Hardness ... ... ... ... 2'5. Form... ... Amorphous; occurring as nodules. CHAPTER V. AMETHYST. HIS is a term now applied to all the violet and purple crystals of Quartz, which, when fractured, present the peculiar rippled or undulated structure described by Sir David Brewster. It is, however, an entirely distinct species from the stone called Oriental Amethyst, which is a variety of Sapphire, of a deep shade of violet, mentioned already under the head of Corundum. Amethyst is a variety of quartz containing traces of oxide of manganese, to which the violet color of the stone is attributed. When heated, it becomes white and opales¬ cent. The crystals, like those of quartz in any other of its manifold varieties, are of sufficient hardness to scratch glass, and are infusible before the blow-pipe. The Amethyst is dichroic, or exhibits under certain conditions two distinct tints—the one being reddish pur¬ ple and the other bluish purple. Amethysts are found sometimes in iron mines and 228 A methyst. sometimes in association with Agates. Those of the finest violet occur in Siberia, India, Ceylon, Persia, Carthagena, Brazil, China, and Australia. Brazil, of all these places, furnishes us with the best specimens of the dark colored stones. In cutting them, as many facets as possible are given, in order to intensify the color and lustre. This stone takes a beautiful polish, and as none harmonizes better with gold, it forms a gem of great beauty, but since the discovery of it in South America, it seems to have lost caste. In America the Amethyst occurs of extraordinary size : a block sent thence to India is said to have weighed 98 lbs. A variety known as Spanish Amethyst is some¬ times met with in very old-fashioned jewellry ; it exhibits the true purple color, at one time so much prized ; but whence this variety came is unknown. The common Amethyst is found in nearly all parts of the world. To show the fall in the value of this stone, it may suffice to quote one instance, viz., the Amethyst necklace of Queen Charlotte. It consisted of well-matched and very perfect stones, although only of the common variety, and was valued at ,£2,000 ; it is doubtful whether, apart from its historical associations, it would now realize £ 100. Intaglios of very ancient date, and in every style are met with in Amethysts. As a rule, stones of a pale color are used for engraving rather than the dark ; as an excep¬ tion to this rule, the Rev. C. W. King says he himself has seen perhaps the grandest Greek portrait in existence, a head of Mithridates, cut in a large Amethyst of the deepest violet color, which was found a century ago in India. There was another very ancient intaglio of the head of Pan in the Uzielli collection. In early times the Amethyst seems to have been a favorite stone for cameos and engraving One of the A methyst . 229 largest of the kind was the gem, representing a bust of Trajan, of which the Prussian treasury was robbed during the Napoleonic wars. It may be added that the word “ Amethyst,” though probably of Oriental origin, is usually regarded as derived from the Greek privative a and the verb metlmo, “to intoxicate”—whence the old notion that this stone was an antidote to drink, a charm against intoxication. Tra¬ dition has even gone so far as to assert that wine drunk from a cup of Amethyst is incapable of producing inebria¬ tion ! Amethyst. Composition :— Silica, colored by oxide of manganese. Specific Gravity ... ... ... 2‘6. Hardness ... ... ... ... 7. System of Crystallization ... ... Hexagonal. Form of Crystals ... ... ... Generally six-sided pyramids and prisms. CHAPTER VI. AQUAMARINE. QUAMARINE is a name given to those varieties of Beryl which possess a pale green color suggestive of sea-water, whence the name aqua marina. In fact, the Beryl, the Aquamarine, and the Emerald are all united by minera¬ logists under the head of a single species, inasmuch as they are found to agree in crystallographic and chemical characters, while they differ mainly in color. The pale green of the Aquamarine is probably due to the presence of a small proportion of oxide of iron, whereas the rich green of the Emerald appears referable to oxide of chromium. The Aquamarine is not a stone of great hardness, and consequently it tends to lose polish and suffer abra¬ sion ; this softness naturally detracting from its value in the jeweller’s estimation. Most of the Aquamarine comes to us from Brazil, already cut; but the stones are also found elsewhere, viz., AQUAMARINE. CRYSTAL. AMETHYST. GARNET. PERIDOT. TOURMALINE. A quamarine. 231 in the granite regions of the Ural Mountains, and of the Altai Mountains, in Siberia. Formerly they were obtained from the frontiers of China. Fine examples of the varieties known as Beryl are obtained in Siberia, in the granite district of Nertschinsk. They occur at times as prismatic crystals of twelve inches or more in length. At Dauria, in the Mountains of Odon Tchelon, there exist at different elevations, in a mass of decomposed granite, crystals of Beryl of a green tint, varying towards a warm-yellow, rarely exceeding an inch in length. At a higher range there is a vein of micaceous clay, containing crystals of purer green and of greater size. At the summit the gem is of a different hue, remarkably transparent, and presenting the blue tint of some valuable Sapphires. In the United States France, Bavaria, Saxony, and Bohemia, the Beryl is also found. This gem is a great favorite with the English, chiefly because it possesses the advantage of retaining its lustre in artificial light. Jewellers distinguish the varieties of this stone in a manner peculiar to themselves, viz.: the green and blue varieties they call Aquamarine, while the yellow variety receives the name of Beryl. But the former is again sub-divided into (1) Aquamarine, pure, light sky-blue; (2) Siberian Aquamarine, light greenish-blue, bright lustre, and faintly colored ; (3) Aquamarine Chry¬ solite, greenish-yellow, sometimes yellowish-green, with bright lustre. One of the finest specimens of Aquamarine is the remarkable sword-hilt in the collection of Mr. Beresford Hope, which has been exhibited for some years past in the South Kensington Museum. It is beautiful in color and perfectly pure. It is covered with facets, and is unique both as a mineral and as an example of the 232 A quamat ine. lapidary’s art. This magnificent stone, which is said to have belonged to Prince Murat, weighs 3-J ozs. In the same collection is an Aquamarine engraved to represent a female holding a bagpipe ; a light drapery floats around the upper part of the body. Aquamarine is made into a variety of ornaments. It is said that the Emperor Commodus possessed an Aqua¬ marine engraved with a portrait of Hercules by Hyllus ; and that in the treasures of Odescalchi, there was a stone engraved by Quintilius, representing Neptune, drawn by sea-horses. In the National Library in Paris there is a beautiful engraving by Evodus, on Aquamarine, of the head of Julia, the daughter of Titus. An Aquamarine, 2 inches long and 2§ in thickness, adorned the tiara of Pope Julius II. Aquamarine. Composition —Silica ... 66-8 Alumina 19-1 Glucina 14-1 IOO'O Specific Gravity 27 Hardness T 5 System of Crystallization Hexagonal. Form of Crystals Six-sided prisms. CHAPTER VII. AVANTURINE. is related that a French glass maker, hap¬ pening to let some brass filings fall into his glass-pot, was surprised to find that the product presented a beautifully-spangled appearance. To this gold-spotted glass the name of Avanturine was given, because it had thus been formed par avanture —“ by accident.” The name was afterwards applied to a mineral which presents an appearance some¬ what like that of the avanturine glass. This mineral, though rare, is nothing more than a translucent variety of Quartz, generally of brownish-red, but sometimes of green color, and having disseminated throughout its mass a vast number of glittering points, which appear generally to be minute scales of Mica. It is found principally in Siberia, and is used to a limited extent as an ornamental stone. The artificial Avanturine often used in Italian jewelry, is merely a reddish-brown spangled glass, made at Murano, near Venice; and in 234 A vanturine. consequence of being so fully charged with golden spangles, is more beautiful, though less durable, than the natural Avanturine. Avanlurme. Composition —Silica, with oxide of iron, alumina, and other impurities. Specific Gravity Hardness Form ... 2 ' 6 . . 7 - Massive and schistose, CHAPTER VIII. BLOODSTONE. LOODSTONE, or Heliotrope, is a variety of Jasper, of a deep green color, interspersed with red spots, which resemble small drops of blood, whence its name. Heliotrope, or Bloodstone, although a beautiful ma¬ terial, is not much used for ornamental purposes, except for signet rings. Being a rather hard stone, and yet not difficult of manipulation, it is a favorite with engravers, and hence crests and monograms are frequently engraved upon it. Cups and other ornamental objects of small size, are also fashioned from it. It was much prized by the ancient Egyptians and Babylonians, who employed it for seals and intaglios. In the Royal Collection in Paris is a bust of Jesus Christ in this mineral, so executed that the red spots of the stone stand out like real drops of blood. Bloodstone. Composition —Silica, with a small percentage of peroxide of iron. Specific Gravity ... 2’6 Hardness ... 7 Form Amorphous, CHAPTER IX. CARNELIAN. ARNELIAN is nothing more than a pale-red variety of Chalcedony , itself a form of quartz, characterized by its translucency, or semi¬ opacity, and by an entire absence of crystal¬ line texture. The word Carnelian is said to be derived from the Latin word Caro, “ flesh,” in allusion to the reddish color of the stone. As to the word Chalcedony , some believe it to be derived from Chalcedon , now Kadi- Kene, an ancient city in Bithynia, the place where it was earliest found. The Ancients called the Carnelian or some similar stone Sarda, either from the town of Sardis in Asia Minor, or from the Arabian word “ Sard ” (yellow). Luther translates the Hebrew word “ Odem ” or “Adam ” (red) (Exodus, chap, xxvii. v. 17), by Sarda. Carnelian is chiefly found in nodular masses ; often, however, in irregular fragments. Its color varies from blood-red to wax-yellow, and reddish-brown ; it is cloudy, seldom striated, semi-transparent, and of waxy lustre. By heat the color of Carnelian becomes intensified, because its coloring matter, which is a hydrated oxide of iron, or ferric hydrate, becomes dehydrated, or loses more or less Carnelian. 23 7 of its water, and is thus reduced partially or completely to the state of anhydrous oxide of iron, or ferric oxide, the color of which is bright red. By an over application of heat it sometimes loses its color and becomes white, pale, and friable. It is found with amethyst and chalcedony at Oberstein in the province of Birkenfeld, and in sand¬ stone at Waldshut in Baden. It occurs in extraordinary beauty as pebbles, at Baroche in the province of Guzurale, in the East Indies. In the same manner it is found in the rivers of Uruguay. The jewellers and lapidaries distinguish the different kinds of Carnelian by the following names—1st, Mascu¬ line, or Carnelian of old stone, dark red ; 2nd, Feminine, pale red, passing into yellow ; 3rd, Sard, brown, passing into pomeranian and yellow ; 4th Sardonyx, where layers of the Sard alternate with layers of white ; 5th, Carne¬ lian Onyx, blood-red stripes playing into white ; 6th, Carnelian Beryl, a whitish yellow variety. Carnelian is cut on a leaden plate with emery, and polished on a wooden one with pumice-stone. It receives its last touch of polish, however, on a plate consisting of lead and tin moistened with water. It is generally cut into squares, hexagons, or octagons ; sometimes round, or by giving to the upper part the treppen or graduated cut. Carnelian is used for rings, seals, watch-keys, beads, and other objects of adornment. It is very much employed for Cameos, and for engraving. In cutting a Cameo from Carnelian, the snow-white layer would be made use of for the figure ; the red for a base or ground-work ; and, should it have a third layer of milk-white, it would serve for the hair in the figure of the Cameo. The Cameos which from time to time we receive from India are most bizarre in their appearance. The natives cover the whole stone with carbonate of sodium, and subject it for a moment to intense 238 Carnelian. heat, so that a hard molten mass is produced in which they cut designs. Carnelian of a ruby color is of more value than the other varieties of chalcedony ; the pale-red ranks next. At Oberstein and Idar ordinary pale-grey chalcedony iscolored red by chemical means, and thus converted into a brightly tinted Carnelian. Since this industry has been introduced the value of Carnelian has much diminished ; and probably the market has not been improved by the very large im¬ portation of Brazilian stones. The price paid for this stone depends greatly upon the degree of transparency, purity, and beauty of color, and upon its freedom from flaws. A large trade in Carnelians has been maintained in India for over 2000 years. This stone was probably chosen by the Greeks and Romans for cameos in consequence of its possessing a beautiful color and a certain hardness, affording a facility for manipulation. We shall mention only a few of the many famous specimens. The oldest Greek gems known are in the collection of the Emperor of Germany. One of them is a Carnelian, on which is represented a winged Jupiter appearing to Semele ; and the other an opaque Sardonyx, on which is engraved a draped figure of Venus. They are more modern, how¬ ever, than the butterfly of the first epoch of the Etruscan art of engraving. There is a Carnelian of the earliest period in the St. Petersburg collection, on which a man’s head is engraved, with most artistically arranged beard. The British Museum possesses an example of the second period, viz., a Carnelian butterfly, carrying a repre¬ sentation of Venus, of very fine workmanship. The dress of the goddess hangs in rich and graceful folds. Carnelian. 239 A Carnelian of the third period is in the Royal Collection of Vienna, and represents Helena. On a small Carnelian, in the Collection at Florence, there is a head of Apollo, adorned with laurels and fillets. In the Berlin Museum there is an unique Indian Carnelian, almost as transparent as the Hyacinth, engraved with the head of Sextus Pompeius. One of the most famous of the ancient deep-cut stones represents the birthday festival of Dionysius, and was once in the possession of Michael Angelo. Carnelian. Composition —Silica, with oxide of iron. Specific Gravity ... Hardness ... Form ... Amorphous. 2 - 6. 7 - CHAPTER X. CHRYSOBERYL. (the oriental chrysolite of lapidaries.) HERE is probably no stone the composition of which has been given with so much varia¬ tion as this. There is, however, reason to be¬ lieve that chemists have frequently analysed different stones, and confounded them under one term. The true Chrysoberyl, as known to us to-day, is essen¬ tially a compound of alumina and glucina, with varying proportions of oxide of iron. There are three varieties of this stone—the Chrysoberyl, the Cymophane or true Oriental Cat's Eye, and the Alexandrite. The colors of the Chrysoberyl range from light asparagus green, golden yellow, brownish yellow, and golden brown, to columbine red. To the unassisted eye, some varieties are scarcely distinguishable from Tourmalines. The crystalline forms of the Chrysoberyl belong to the rhombic system. It is usually found as rolled pebbles in the same sands as those which furnish crystals of Topaz and Corundum. Twin-crystals of two kinds and of great Chrysoberyl. 241 beauty are found in the Emerald mines of Takowaja, east of the Catherine Mountains in the Ural. The cleavage is imperfect—parallel to the faces of the right-angled prism ; fracture conchoidal and uneven. It is brittle, transparent, or translucent, and possesses in a high degree the power of double refraction, and a vitreous and oily lustre. A pecu¬ liar bluish opalescence, in the inner part of the stone, is to be seen at times. The streak is white. Under friction the stone becomes electric, and remains in that condition for hours. It is interesting to trace the history of our knowledge of the chemical constitution of this mineral. Klaproth and Arfwedson considered it to be composed of silicic acid and alumina. To Seybert we are indebted for the discovery of glucina in Chrysoberyl. He conceived it to be composed of silicic acid, alumina, and an aluminate of glucinum or beryllium. Thomson declared he could find no silicic acid in it, and was confirmed in this view by Rose. The Chrysoberyl undergoes no change before the blow¬ pipe, but fuses with great difficulty into a clear glass by means of borax. Acids have no effect upon it, but when heated with a solution of cobalt nitrate it becomes blue. Asparagus or yellow-green Chrysoberyl was known in very early times to the people of Ceylon and Brazil- In Ceylon it is found in river sands in company with Tourmaline, Spinel, and Sapphire. On the east side of Borneo, also, it is found in the river sands, and in flooded lands, associated with rock crystal, gold dust, Diamond, Topaz, and Emerald. In Pegu it is found amongst pebbles and loose alluvia. In Brazil, pieces of the Chry¬ soberyl of the size of a hazel nut, and of yellowish- green color, are sometimes met with while washing for Diamonds. Of late years it has also been found in granite Q 242 Chrysoberyl. in Connecticut, North America, in well-formed tables and prisms, with Tourmaline, Garnet, and Beryl; and at Saratoga and Greenfield in New York State, in regular twin crystals with Tourmaline, Garnet, and Apatite. The Chrysolite, a stone frequently confounded with the Chrysoberyl, will be found described under the head of Peridot. Chrysoberyl. Composition —Alumina 78 Glucina Ferrous oxide ... 4 too Specific Gravity Hardness 3'5 to 3-8 Crystalline System Trimetric or ortho-rhombic. Form Flat prisms ; generally as rolled pebbles, CHAPTER XI. CHRYSOPRASE. HERE can be no question that the Chryso- prase of the Ancients was a very different stone from that which is known by this name at the present day. Pliny speaks of it as a well-known gem, and tells us that vessels were made of it, and that the stone was obtained from India in great quantities. No antique works in true Chrysoprase have come down to us, and it is probable that the Chry¬ soprase of modern mineralogists was unknown to the Greeks and Romans. Our true Chrysoprase is a green variety of Chalcedony, of extremely local occurrence. It has been said that Chrysoprase was first discovered by a Prussian officer, near a mill on the Kosemiitz Moun¬ tains in 1740. It is quite certain however, that Chry¬ soprase had been known and used for some centuries, although its true home had not been actually ascertained until a comparatively recent date. The costly mosaic walls of St. Wenzel’s Chapel, in the Cathedral of St. Beit, at Prague, built in the 14th century, contain splendid specimens of Chrysoprase. Frederick the Great used this stone in adorning the palace of Sans Souci. In the 244 Chrysoprase. Royal Palace of Potsdam there are two tables formed of Chrysoprase, three feet long, two feet broad, and two inches thick. A fine intaglio, of light green color and oval shape, representing the head of Ariadne, is in the Hope Col¬ lection. Chrysoprase is found in Silesia, near Kosemiitz, Glasendorf, and Baumgarten, not far from Frankenstein. It occurs in veins of serpentine, in company with other siliceous minerals, such as Quartz, Hornstone, Chalcedony, Opal and Pimelite ; the last deriving its color from the same substance as the Chrysoprase, viz., from oxide of nickel. The Chrysoprase, as a rule, is laid bare by the heavy rains washing away the soil from the hills, and is occasionally also turned up by the ploughshare. The greenish Opal, which is found in company with the Chry¬ soprase, is called Chrysopal. Among the semi-Precious Stones, the Chrysoprase deserves to be one of the greatest favorites. It possesses a beautiful apple-green color of many shades, and a trans¬ parency and capability of high polish, together with the advantage of being found in large pieces. Yet in this country the Chrysoprase is not a fashionable stone. One of its peculiarities is, that by constant use, such as sealing, it partly loses its color and gradually becomes paler. Heat and sunshine affect the color by their action on its coloring constituent, the oxide of nickel. It was the great chemist, Klaproth, who discovered the presence of nickel, and that the stone contained a small quantity of water. The nickel oxide is therefore, probably united with water, as a hydrate, in the Chrysoprase, which gives the metallic oxide a varied and more beautiful color. If, by the influence of heat, some of the water in the stone is lost, the beauty of the color is more or less destroyed. The Chrysoprase. 245 Chrysoprase is chiefly used for signet rings, buckles, and pins. The working of the stone must be effected with great care, as if too great a heat be applied it splinters and loses its color. As a rule, it receives the table-cut or cabochon form. The lapidaries of Warmbrunn, in Silesia, are the principal cutters and polishers of Chrysoprase. The value of the Chrysoprase depends upon its color and freedom from flaws. It is not so much valued now as in former times, but fine specimens still command attention. At Oberstein a green color is imparted to ordinary Chalcedony, by means of salts of nickel or of chromic acid, so as to produce an artificially tinted Chrysoprase. Chrysoprase. Composition —Silica 97'5 2-5 Oxide of Nickel, &c. IOO'O Specific Gravity ... Hardness ... Form Amorphous. 2‘6 7 CHAPTER XII. CROCIDOLITE. ITHIN the last few years a great deal of this mineral has been brought from South Africa, and introduced into commerce as Cat's Eye; but as previously explained, the true Orien- tal Cat’s Eye is an altogether different mineral. The matchless Cat’s Eye is a valuable and beautiful gem ; while this is comparatively worthless. It is, in fact, only a mineral akin to Hornblende, or a pseudomorph after it. Hornblende occurs in many forms, and is a mineral of very wide distribution. In certain varieties occurring commonly in the fissures of rocks, it presents the form of long silken fibres, when it is known variously as Asbestos, and Crocidolite. The variety called Crocidolite consists of thin delicate silken fibres compacted together in masses, and often associated with Magnetite or magnetic-oxide of iron. Specimens from the Orange River sometimes contain enough Magnetite to be employed as “ natural magnets.” When Crocidolite is cut en cabochon , it exhibits, in some degree, the Cat’s Eye effect ; it being an optical property of all acicular or fibrous minerals, when cut with a curved surface, to show more or less chatoyancy on a line at right angles to the fibres of the substance. Crocidolite. 24 7 The colors of Crocidolite are usually some shade of yellow, with a ray of a lighter color; or rich brown deepening to almost black ; or a dark indigo with a ray of lighter blue. The so-called Crocidolite Cat’s Eye comes principally from a locality on the Orange River in Griqualand West, but is also found in other parts of South Africa. From the microscopic studies of Prof. Fischer, it appears to be mainly a pseudomorph of quartz or chalcedony after Crocidolite—in other words, the original material has been converted into a quartzose substance while retaining its fibrous form. Crocidolite. Chemical Composition :— Silica ... ... ... 51 Oxide of iron ... ... 34 Soda ... ... ... 7 Magnesia ... ... 3 Water ... ... ... 5 100. Specimens vary very much in composi¬ tion, and some of the South African Crocidolite is mainly chalcedony. Specific Gravity ... ... About 3. Hardness ... ... ... Nearly 7. Form .. ... ... . . Fibrous masses. CHAPTER XIII. EUCLASE. HIS mineral has occasionally been cut and polished as a gem-stone, but rather as a matter of scientific curiosity than with a view to its introduction into jewelry, It is, in fact, a very rare mineral, occasionally found with Topaz at Villa Rica, in Brazil. It is also known to occur with Beryl on the River Sanarka, in the Urals. Euclase is always found in crystals which exhibit perfect cleavage, and perhaps the most curious feature of the stone is its excessive brittleness—whence, indeed, the name “ Euclase,” from eu and klao. Its color is gene¬ rally a pale straw, passing in some specimens into blue and green. The mineral is trichroic, and possesses con¬ siderable lustre. In its chemical relations it stands closely related to the Emerald. Euclase. Chemical Composition :— Silica ... Alumina Glucina ... Water ... Specific Gravity Hardness Crystalline System Form 41.20 35-22 U '39 6-19 IOO'OO 3-098 7-5 Trimetric. ... Prismatic crystals, CHAPTER XIV. THE GARNET, CARBUNCLE, AND CINNAMON STONE. NDER the general name of Garnet, the mineralogist includes a number of stones which present a great variety of color, ranging from the lightest cinnamon, through all shades of red and crimson, and even to various tints of green. Between these diverse minerals the chief bonds of association are to be found in their crystallographic rela¬ tions, and their constancy of chemical type. On glancing at the various analyses of different Garnets, one might fail to recognize their relationship ; but the chemist is aware that these changes of composition take place according to certain definite laws, without violating the general type on which they are constructed. Their specific gravity, and even their hardness, are subject to great variations, corresponding to their differences of com¬ position. They all belong to the isometric or cubic system, and are consequently monochroic, 250 The Garnet, Carbuncle , and Cinnamon Stove. The Garnet, or Carbuncle, was a great favorite with the Ancients. Several antique Garnets have been found in Roman ruins ; some being round, and some cut; the latter receiving the name of “ Garnet Plates.” In former days it was very frequently engraved, and several beauti¬ ful specimens are now to be seen in Paris, Turin, Rome, and St. Petersburg ; among which is the grand master¬ piece of art, the representation of the head of the dog “ Sirius,” engraved on the celebrated “ Marlborough ” Garnet. The small degree of hardness possessed by this stone renders engraving on it comparatively easy. The word Garnet probably owes its origin to the similarity of the color of this stone to that of the blossom and kernel of the pomegranate, a fruit of Southern Europe. It is not a name of ancient date. Pliny calls it “ Carbunculus,” from Carbo, “a live coal.” According to some authorities, however, it is thought that the origin of the word Garnet is to be found in granum, “ a grain,” because it is so often found in granular forms. The Precious Garnet is sometimes called “ Almandine, ” from the city of Alabanda, in Caria. Its color is blood- red, cherry-red, or brownish-red: by candle-light it assumes a violet tint. The crystals of Garnet are almost always found embedded in the rock, singly. This mineral possesses a bright lustre and is transparent. It occurs very frequently associated with a variety of other stones, and the places where it is found are so numerous, that only a few of the most important can here be mentioned. In the mountains below the river Enns, in Austria large transparent crystals of Almandine are found in serpentine. In the Zillerthal, crystals of an inch in length are found embedded in chlorite slate. These are taken to The Garnet , Carbuncle, and Cinnamon Stone. 25 r Bohemia, and worked into ornaments. The crystals found in Bohemia are generally reduced to powder for polishing purposes. In Norway it is found in granular masses, associated with Augite, Epidote, and Hornblende. Some specimens have been obtained of rare beauty. In Sweden, fine large crystals are found embedded in mica-schist. Switzerland is rich in Garnet. On the St. Gothard, well-developed crystals of deep-red color are found in mica-chist. In the Rheinwalde, large bright-red crystals occur in gneiss; and in the Simplon Pass they are found in the glacier streams, of small size, but very beautiful. They occur in great abundance, also in gneiss, near to Almeria, in Spain. In Hindostan, Garnet is abundant in the neighbour¬ hood of Ragavapurum, in the Kistna district; and in Ceylon it occurs everywhere in gneiss, particularly at Trincomalee and at Adam’s Peak. The crystals which come from Siria, in Pegu, and which are called Sirian Almandine, are more prized. In Greenland they not unfrequently fall out of the matrix, which is a chlorite-slate, and leave a regular colored impression behind. In the United States they occur in granite, hornblende-schist, and gneiss. New Mexico, Arizona, and Colorado yield fine varieties, which are cut as gem-stones. In Brazil, Garnets occur in a variety of localities, sometimes in talc slate, and in river¬ beds in company with Diamonds. In Australia very fine crystals are found near the Ovens, in Victoria; and at numerous localities in New South Wales. A new variety of Garnet, closely resembling the Burmese Ruby in color, was found a few years ago under very difficult circumstances, in the interior of New Mexico 252 The Garnet, Carbuncle, and Cinnamon Stone. Lapidaries were at first unable to determine, by mere cutting, the nature of this stone. No Garnet had ever been seen in Europe possessing a color so closely approach¬ ing that of the Ruby. A specimen was accordingly sent to Professor Crookes, F.R S., who, by careful analysis, found that it contained as much as 42 per cent, of Alumina. There are several kinds of Garnet used for ornament, but the red varieties only have been used in jewelry. They formerly commanded high prices, and retained their popularity to a recent date. The principal varieties recognized by mineralogists are the Almandine, or Precious Garnet; the Essonite, or “Jacinth” and “Hyacinth;” the Pyrope, or Bohemian blood-red Garnet, and the Uwarowite, or green Garnet. Each of these will now be separately described. Almandine (Carbuncle ). The Almandine is a beautiful stone of a rich claret color, and is the most esteemed of the whole family of Garnets. It is the stone which is generally employed for Carbuncles. The Carbuncle is simply an Almandine cut “ en cabochon ”—that is, with a convex surface, which is polished all over without facets, the upper part being of various degrees of convexity. The under side is manipulated so as to secure the desired shade. Sometimes it is left flat, sometimes faceted, and frequently hollowed out, so as to improve the color ; and it has been customary, from long before the time of Pliny, to foil it with either silver or gold. Pliny included a great variety of red stones under the general term Carbunculus, Carbuncles of The Garnet, Carbuncle, and Cinnamon Stone. 253 late years have gone out of fashion. At one time a good Carbuncle of the size of half-a-crown has been known to realize as much as £50. Very rarely an Almandine Garnet is found to be asteriated with a six-rayed star. Almandine ( Carbuncle ). Chemical Composition : — Silica ... 36-5 Alumina 210 Iron Oxides ... 34'5 Magnesia 4-0 Lime ... 30 Manganese oxide ro 1000 Specific Gravity T 5 Hardness ... 4 to 4-3 Crystalline System ... ... Cubic. Forms ... Rhombic dodecahedron and 24-faced trapezohedron. Pyrope. The Pyrope, sometimes known as “ Bohemian Garnet,” is of a blood-red color, never purple. When cut like a brilliant it is very bright, but owing to its occurring in small pieces, it is more usually rose-cut and mounted en pav /. It is found principally in Saxony and Bohemia where it occurs embedded in Serpentine. By the gradual decomposition of this matrix, the Garnets are set free, and being carried down by streams, are found in the sands of the rivers, where they are collected by children. 254 The Garnet , Carbuncle, and Cinnamon Stone. Pyrope. Chemical Composition :— Silica .. 41-5 Alumina 22'0 Magnesia . 150 Iron protoxide ... • 95 Lime • 5 '° Chromium sesquioxide • 4'5 Manganese protoxide .. • 2-5 1000 Specific Gravity 37 to 3-8 Hardness r 5 Crystalline System ... Cubic. Forms ... ... Same as those of Almandine. Essonite. This stone passes under three names according to its color. The lightest of the three is of a pale cinnamon color, and is hence known as Cinnamon Stone. The next is a little darker, with a peculiar admixture of red and orange, and is known to jewellers as Jacinth. The last has a darker shade of bright red, orange, and brown, giving rise to the peculiar hyacinthine tint, and it is there¬ fore called in trade a Hyacinth. It is a common error to confound these hyacinthine Garnets with Zircons of the same color, to which the names Jacinth and Hyacinth are sometimes applied. Essonite comes principally from Ceylon, where it is found in large pieces. It is cut thin on account of depth of color, with a pavilion-cut below and a broad table above, bordered with small facets. At Dissentis, in Switzerland, beautiful crystals are The Garnet , Carbuncle , and Cinnamon Stone. 255 found, of a reddish-yellow color, in a variety of Quartz, formerly called “ Hyacinth of Dissentis, ” and equally fine specimens with diopside, occur in Piedmont and St. Gothard. From the dolomite region of Mexico we obtain Cinnamon Stone of a beautiful red color, resem¬ bling Spinel. Essonite is also found, finely crystallized, at Phippsburg and Warren, in New Hampshire, and at Raymond, in Maine, U. S. A. A Garnet resembling Essonite in composition, but of green color, is known as Grossularia, or “ Gooseberry Stone.” Essonite. Chemical- Composition — Silica ... ... ... ... 40 Alumina ... ... ... 23 Lime ... ... ... ... 32 Oxide of Iron ... ... ... 5 100. Specific Gravity Hardness ... System 3‘4 to 37 ... 7 Cubic. Forms Same as those of Almandine. Uwarowite. Of the many other varieties of Garnet, more or less rare, occurring in a state of perfection fit for jewelry pur¬ poses, mention need be made of one only, namely, the Uwarowite. It is a green variety of very limited occur¬ rence, found in specimens of only small size. It presents a fine Emerald-green color, and when sfifficientiy clear and large forms a beautiful and lasting stone ; its hardness being much greater than that of any other Garnets. It is very little used in jewelry, and is often confounded with 2 5 6 The Garnet , Carbuncle, and Cinnamon Stone. the “green Garnet” of the Urals, which is a much softer stone, but one which nevertheless exhibits a good amount of “ fire,” especially by artificial light, and has a much greater range of color than the Uwarowite. This latter stone has only been known within the last few years ; it is a silicate of iron and lime, but its right to a place among the true Garnets has been questioned. It is found in the gold- washings of the Bobrowska, a stream which flows into the river Tschussowaja, in the Ural Mountains. By Russian jewellers it is often called “ Siberian Chrysolite.” Uwarowite. Chemical Composition Silica . 37 Lime . 33 Chromium oxide . 23 Alumina . 7 IOO. Hardness . 7'5 to 8 Specific Gravity . 3'5 Crystalline System ... Isometric or Cubic. Forms Rhombic dodecahedra and 24-faced trapezohedra. CHAPTER XV. HEMATITE. HERE are certain ores of iron which are used to a limited extent in jewelry and in the Fine Arts — notably Hematite , a mineral which has been used from time immemorial for intaglios, and latterly for the imitation of black Pearls. True, this mineral, when polished, somewhat resembles the black Pearl in general appearance, but it is easy enough to distinguish between them ; firstly, by the very much higher specific gravity of the Hema¬ tite ; secondly, by its superior hardness; thirdly, by the fact that a delicate magnetic needle will be deflected on approaching the Hematite; and lastly, by the streak of the mineral, which is of a reddish-brown or cherry-red color. It is from the characteristic red streak that the word Hematite , meaning “ blood-stone,” is derived. The chief value of this mineral is as an ore ot iron. Its occurrence is wide-spread, but the hard Hematite which is polished as an ornamental stone, is found chiefly in the carboniferous limestone of Cumberland, especially near Whitehaven. The color of the polished mineral is dark steel grey or iron black. Crystals, when found, have R 258 Hematite. often a highly splendant lustre, and are hence known as “ Specular Iron-ore.” Usually, however, the Hematite occurs in reniform or kidney-shaped masses, whence it is often called “ kidney ore.” It is only the hardest and densest variety which is employed for imitating Pearls. Hematite. Composition —Peroxide of Iron, containing— Iron . 70 Oxygen... . 30 100. Specific Gravity 4'5 to 5-3 Hardness 5'5 to 6 5 System ... Rhombohedral Form —Complex modifications of Rhombohedra ; but generally reniform and massive. CHAPTER XVI. HIDDENITE. HE Hiddenite is a comparatively little known gem-stone, having been only recently dis¬ covered at Alexandra County, North Caro¬ lina, by Mr. W. E. Hidden, after whom it was named. In appearance it is something like the Emerald, both in its rough and cut states. It has hitherto been found only in very small prisms, so that nothing approaching a large stone has yet been cut. Being a novelty, however, there has been a demand for it in America, a stone of only 2\ carats realizing ,£25. It is of a brilliant green hue, verging towards yellow, and possesses a beauty of its own. Hiddenite is a variety of the mineral called Spodumene or Triphane , and is some¬ times termed “ Lithia Emerald.” Hiddenite. Composition —A silicate of Aluminium and Lithium. Specific Gravity ... ... ... 3 Hardness ... ... ... ... 7 Crystalline System ... ... ... Monoclinic. CHAPTER XVII. IOLITE. NDER the name of Iolite or Dichroite the mineralogist is familiar with a certain stone which is remarkable for its pleochroism, or difference of tint when viewed in different Occasionally it is cut and polished as a gem ¬ stone, and is known to the jeweller as Saphir d'eau. The best specimens come from Ceylon, those from Bavaria being almost opaque. It is also found at Haddam, Connec¬ ticut. The usual colors are various shades of blue and violet, whence the name “ Iolite. Iolite. Chemical Composition :— Silica Alumina ... Magnesia Ferrous oxide System of Crystallization Specific Gravity . Hardness ... Form ... Prismatic crystals, or as pebbles. 49 34 9 8 ioo. Trimetric. 2 ‘6 7 directions, CHAPTER XVIII. JADE. MONG the relics of the old pile-dwellings in the lakes of Switzerland are occasionally- found a few polished celts, or stone axe- heads, carved in a greenish mineral called Jade. No Jade is known to occur in the rocks of Europe, but it is found in Turkestan and in some other Eastern localities. Hence the question naturally arises, whether the early dwellers in Western Europe obtained their Jade by barter, or originally brought it with them from their primitive home in the East. Whatever its origin in Europe, it is certain that the Chinese have for ages worked this stone, and prized it as one of the choicest products of the mineral kingdom. Notwithstanding its toughness, it has been carved by the Chinese into the most elaborate and delicate forms. It was also used by the Maories, or natives of New Zealand, chiefly for the grotesque breast ornament known as the tiki, and for the peculiar club called the mere, or pattoo-pattoo. This bright green Jade, called in New Zealand punamn, or “ green stone,” has lately been used in this country for earrings, 262 Jade, pendants, and other ornamental objects. It is also found in New Guinea and New Caledonia, where it is worked, with much labour, by the natives, into a variety of gro¬ tesque ornaments. Jade is known to mineralogists as Nephrite, or “ kidney-stone,” in consequence of its former use in diseases of that organ. It is a compact variety of horn¬ blende, consisting of a silicate of magnesium and calcium. Much of it has been separated as a distinct species under the name of Jadeite. This is a silicate of aluminium and sodium, and seems to be a form of epidote. The specific gravity of Jadeite is as high as 3-3, while that of true Jade never exceeds 3*18. Jade. Chemical Coinposition (Green Jade of New Zealand):— Silica ... ... ... ... 5775 Magnesia ... ... ... 19-86 Lime ... ... ... ... 14-89 Oxide of iron, alumina, &c_ 7-50 IOO'OO Specific Gravity ... ... 2-91 to 3-18 Hardness ... ... ... ... 63 Form ... Amorphous; occuring as a rock. CHAPTER XIX. JASPER. modern mineralogists the term Jasper is restricted to the opaque varieties of quartz, which present a compact texture, and are destitute of any crystalline structure. But the Jasper of the Ancients was evidently a different sub¬ stance, inasmuch as it is usually described as possessing a green color associated with more or less translucency. The Greek name, Jaspis, according to Isodore, “ signifieth green, and such a green as doth illustriously shine forth with a very supreme viridity, or greenness of glory.” Pliny considers the Jaspis to be a gem of a dull-green color, like an Emerald, but not so transparent. In his 37th Book he reckons up no fewer than ten kinds of this gem. “ The third of these,” he says, “is like to air, and is called iErizusa, because it resembles the morning of an autumnal heaven;” “and the tenth kind,” he writes, “is like to crystal,” which concurs with the description of it in Holy Writ ; but he himself prefers the Purple Jasper to all other kinds, and next to this, that which resembles the rose. Baccius declares “ that the pleasure which may be seen in 264 Jasper . a Jasper, the beauty of which ariseth from the mixture of many excellent greens and whites, cannot be expressed.” The name itself is very ancient. This gem is the Jaspeh or eleventh stone, in the breastplate of the High Priest. The glory of the Jasper is often made use of in the Holy Scriptures to represent the New Jerusalem. Pliny assures us that Eastern nations wore pieces of it as amulets. Even Galen soberly asserts that “ the green Jasper benefits the chest and mouth if tied upon itand De Boot, writing so late as 1609, does not hesitate to ascribe rare medicinal virtues to the Jasper. Nicols, who wrote in the middle of the 17th century, says, in his quaint way, “ Divers do very superstitiously attribute much power and virtue to the Cross-white Jaspers, if figures and characters be engraven upon them.” The Red Jasper was much valued in early times for engraving. “We have seen,” says Pliny, “a large Jasper of 15 ounces in weight, upon which was worked a likeness of Nero.” In the Vatican there is a beautiful vase of Red Jasper, with white veins, and another of Black Jasper, with yellow veins. In China the Emperor’s seal is of Jasper ; and in that country the stone is highly valued. In Florence the Yellow Jasper is largely employed for Mosaics, and the Riband Jasper for cameos. For fine work the piece ol Jasper is divided by a copper-edged saw, used with fine sand ; or pieces of a more carefully selected size are cut and polished with Emery. Jasper is commonly found in compact masses of kidney shape, or as pebbles. Its colors are green, yellow, brown, and red of various shades, rarely blue. That known as Egyptian Jasper is found in round or spheroidal masses, in the desert near Cairo ; it is of deep-red color, or ochre- yellow, deepening into chestnut-brown. Very frequently Jasper. 26 5 these colors form stripes or zones in the stone, which are probably the result of decomposition of the upper surface. An Egyptian Jasper in the Mineralogical Collection of the British Museum (now at South Kensington) is re¬ markable for displaying on its fractured surface a very good likeness of the poet Chaucer, produced accidentally by the natural markings of the stone. The Brown Jasper, with its concentrated light or dark stripes, is found in abundance in the ridges and sands of the desert. Near Cairo, it occurs in strata which probably belong to the cretaceous formation. Red Jasper is found in great plenty near Muhleim, in Breslau, in the granular iron ore of that district, which suggests a similar origin with that of flint. Common Jasper , generally red and brown, but some¬ times yellow and black, is found in many localities ; for example, in the old rocks of North Wales and in Scotland. Riband or Striped Jasper occurs in compact masses with a conchoidal fracture. It has stripes or zones of grey, green, yellow, red, and brown, and is mostly found in Siberia ; but is also obtained in smaller quantities in Sicily, Corsica, the Hartz, and Tyrol. The so-called Porcelam Jasper is only burnt clay. The many-colored Jasper has frequent rents, whereby the appearance and lustre suffer. In Sicily they practice the art of filling up the fissures or rents with a cement made of nut-oil and tragacanth ; but when this cement becomes quite dry the rents re-open. Jasper is abundant in New South Wales, where it is found of nearly every shade of color. At Pink’s Creek a clay slate has been converted into Riband Jasper. Thomas Nicols writes : “ This gem or stone of price, for its fulness of glory, and excellence of beauty, cannot admit of any foyl or tincture to commend its beauty 266 Jasper. withal ; and further, it is ascribed, by way of glory, to the King of Egypt, that the first adulteration of the Jasper by tincture was from him : but the glory of this praise, if I be not mistaken, doth even become his shame.” Jasper. Chemical Composition :— Silica ... ... ... 99*5 Oxide of iron ... ... 5 1 oo-o Specific Gravity ... ... 2‘6 Hardness ... ... ... 7 Form ... ... ... Amorphous. CHAPTER XX. LABRADOR. HE Spaniards found amongst the ornaments of the Indians, dwelling upon the shores of the Amazon, grotesque figures formed of this mineral, supposed to have been exhumed from the tombs of the old Peruvians. It is now found principally on the northern coast of Labrador, and was originally sent home by the Moravian missionaries. From its occurrence in the Peninsula of Labrador, where it forms, by its remarkable brilliancy of color, the “fire rocks” of the Indians, it is variously known as Labrador , Labradorite, or Labrador felspar. The last name shows that it belongs to the great family of Fel¬ spars. It is, indeed, a common constituent of many rocks, but only exceptional specimens are sufficiently beautiful to be used as ornamental stones. Generally speaking, the body-color is a dull grey, brown, or greenish brown ; but typical specimens of the mineral possess a remarkable iridescent chatoyancy, or internal reflection of prismatic hues, especially bright blue and green, with more or less golden yellow, peach color, and red. From its remarkable play of color it has become a great favorite with many connoisseurs, and is much used for cameos. The colors are best seen when the stone is polished flat, parallel to the reflecting sur¬ faces, 268 Labrador. In addition to the brilliant iridescence, many speci¬ mens of Labrador exhibit a peculiar spangled appearance like that of Avanturine. The iridescence is due to the presence of numberless thin plates, which give rise to what are called “ interference phenomena,” whereby a peculiar brilliancy is obtained, something like that on a peacock’s feather. The spangled effect is attributable to very minute plates of oxide of iron distributed through the stone. It is not, however, every piece of Labrador that exhibits these phenomena. The stones which have the most beautiful colors come from the coast of Labrador and St. Paul’s Island, where they occur in masses, and from Finland, where they are found in loose blocks. Great care has to be taken in the manipulation of this stone to preserve the play of color ; for if any facets are given to it, this generally disappears. Large and beauti¬ ful specimens of this stone are much valued. The first block of Labrador was brought to Europe in 1775 , and it was discovered in Russia in 1781. Still later, two blocks were found on the shores of the Paulkovla, which exceeded all hitherto known specimens in size, one weighing 1,000 lbs. Labrador. Composition :—Silicate of aluminium, calcium, and sodium. Silica . 52 T. Alumina . 30 ' 3 - Lime . 12-3. Soda . 4 ' 5 - IOO’O Specific Gravity . 27. Hardness 6. Crystalline System Triclinic. Form . ... Usually in cleavable masses. CHAPTER XXI. LAPIS-LAZULI. HIS stone is remarkable for its beautiful blue color, whence the Arabians call it Azul , meaning “blue.” It is, without doubt, the Sapphire of the Ancients—a blue stone which Theophrastus describes as “ spotted with gold dust,” while Pliny speaks of it as being “like to the serene blue heavens, fretted with golden fire.” The “gold ” mentioned by these and other ancient authors refers to the spangles of brass¬ like iron-pyrites which are commonly dispersed through the rich blue substance of the Lapis-Lazuli. The color of the stone varies from pale azure to deep blue, with a tint of green ; but is seldom quite pure, being often mottled with white and yellow spots. Indeed, the Lapis-Lazuli is not a homogeneous substance, but consists of a definite blue mineral, which is probably referable to the species Haiiyne, associated with a colorless substance, whence its mottled appearance. It is brittle, has but little lustre, and is translucent only at the corners or thin edges. The precise origin of the beautiful blue color of the Lapis-Lazuli is still a matter on which chemical opinion is divided. It is usually referred to the presence of a sul¬ phide, probably of sodium and iron, but it appears likely that the sulphur is present in the form both of a sulphide and of a sulphate. Lapis-Lazuli fuses with great difficulty, and expands before the blow-pipe, after which it becomes 270 Lapis-Lazuli. a porous, colorless glass ; but if heated with saltpetre, it turns to a beautiful green. According to Field, the variety of this stone, which comes from the Cordilleras, loses its blue color by heat, but regains it on cooling. The color is discharged by the action of strong acids. In the Cordilleras, near the sources of the Cazadero and Vias—little tributaries of the Rio Grande—not far from the high road leading to the Argentine Republic, and a short distance from the great watershed in the Chili dominions, the Lapis-Lazuli is found in a thick stratum of carbonate of lime, accompanied by small quantities of iron pyrites. This stratum rests upon slate, and is covered by another stratum consisting of rich iron-ore, which contains a large amount of Garnet. Over this last lies the granite, constituting the summit of these mountains. Lapis-Lazuli is also found in Siberia, on the shore of the Shudank, particularly on the lands near the Baikal Lake, into which that river empties itself. Marco Polo, in his travels to the princes of Tatary in 1271, found it in the upper district of the Oxus, mixed with iron ore, whence the Armenian merchants still bring it to the market of Orenburg, in eastern Russia. In many provinces of China, and in Bucharia, it is found in granular limestone with iron pyrites, and, on the banks of the Indus, in a greyish limestone. The Lapis-Lazuli was used in classical times for cameos and intaglios, of which a number remain to this day. The Chinese have for a long period, worked it into vases, caskets, buttons, cups, and the like, and have also used it for porcelain painting. There is a prejudice against Lapis-Lazuli, as it loses polish by constant wear and becomes dull. The stone is, however, used to a limited extent for rings, pins, and crosses, as well as for larger objects, such as caskets, vases, candlesticks, Lapis-Lazuli. 271 statuettes, watch cases, and handles for sticks and um¬ brellas. In Italy it is a favorite stone for ornamenting churches, and in the chapel of San Martini, at Naples, the Lapis-Lazuli is profusely employed not only for decora¬ tive work, but even as a structural material. In the Zarskoe Palace, near St. Petersburg, there is an apartment, called Catherine IPs. chamber, formed entirely of Lapis-Lazuli and Amber. This stone was in early times much valued, because it was the only material from which the true ultra- marine of the artist, so celebrated for its effect and per¬ manence, could be obtained. Thos. Nicols relates that in his day the fragments of it were worth ten crowns a pound for when very good this quantity would supply ten ounces of ultra-marine. Artificial ultra-marine is now prepared on a commercial scale, and closely resembles the natural pigment, not only in its splendid color, but even in its chemical composition. Lapis-Lazuli. Composition —Silica ... 45-5 Alumina ... 31-8 Soda ... 9-1 Lime ••• 3'5 Iron ... o-8 Sulphuric acid ... ... 5-9 Sulphur ... ... 09 Chlorine... 04 Water and loss ... 21 1000 Specific Gravity 2 - 3 to 2'5 Hardness ... 5 ‘5 Crystalline System Isometric Form ... Dodecahedron, but very rare ; generally massive. CHAPTER XXII. MALACHITE. HERE can be little doubt that this stone was known and valued by the Ancients, yet it must have been known by some other name, and it has been suggested that our Malachite was the Smaragdus Medicus of Pliny. It is true that this writer speaks also of a mineral called Molochites, which he describes as an opaque stone, of a rich Emerald-green, and says that its name was derived from the color of the Malve; that it was much used for seals, and was worn by children as a certain protection against evil. But there is reason to believe that Pliny’s Molochites was probably a Jasper, and not our modern Malachite, which is a car¬ bonate of copper, in no way related to the Jasper. Malachite is not rare. It is found, indeed, in almost every locality which yields copper ores, occurring princi¬ pally in the upper parts of the deposits where atmospheric influences have been at work, and have converted the ore into a carbonate of copper. The largest and choicest speci¬ mens have been obtained from the mines of the Urals, and from the great deposits of copper-ore in South Australia. Malachite. 273 In our own country it is not uncommon in Cornwall, although not occurring in masses sufficiently fine to be wrought as an ornamental stone. The copper-mines of Chessy, near Lyons—now abandoned—yielded at one time beautiful crystals, which showed the origin of Mala¬ chite from red oxide of copper. Malachite is occasionally found in crystals, but perfect specimens are rare. Its color is green of various shades, from a bright apple-green to nearly black, with a paler streak ; its lustre is adamantine inclining to vitreous, but the fibrous varieties are silky. It is nearly opaque, and brittle. Malachite usually occurs in masses with rounded sur¬ faces—mammillated, botryoidal and reniform—which have evidently been deposited from solution in water, much in the same way that deposits of stalagmitic marble have been formed. Its gradual deposition in successive layers is shewn by the concentric structure which specimens of Malachite so often display. Owing to this structure, a slab of polished Malachite usually exhibits a beautifully variegated pattern, different shades of green being disposed in zones and bands, much like the figuring of an Agate. It is polished by means of tripoli, on a tin plate. When heated in a glass tube, it gives off water, and becomes black ; it fuses with borax to a deep-green globule, and ultimately affords a bead of copper. Owing to its magnificent color, pleasing pattern, and capability of polish, Malachite is highly valued for orna¬ mental purposes, and is frequently inlaid with, and often used to cover, inferior stones, for vases, tables, caskets, and the like. In Russia, furniture and even doors are occasionally veneered with thin slabs of Malachite. In the collection at St. Petersburg, there is a mass 31 feet square, of the most beautiful emerald-green color; it weighs 90 lbs., and is valued at £82,000. S Malachite. 274 An interesting specimen of Malachite originally in the Hope Collection, of an octagonal shape, was of two colors ; one half being of dark, the other half of light-green. The halves were defined by a curved line of varied hue, and the darker half marked by round spots of a lighter tint. From the mines at Nischne-Tagilsk, which belonged to the late Prince Demidoff, a block of beautiful green Mala¬ chite was taken out, 16 feet long, 7 a feet wide, and feet thick. At Versailles there is a room in the Palace, the furni¬ ture and ornaments of which are of Malachite, and similar rooms are to be found in other palaces. One of the most perfect specimens of Malachite work is the vase which stood for a long time in the great rotunda of the old Museum in Berlin. It is covered with tiny pieces, cut in little “ tables,” and so joined as not to be perceived. It was made by order of the Emperor Nicholas in honor of King William III. of Prussia. Of an antique engraving on Malachite, a cameo with the head of Isis, Kohler speaks in the highest praise. He says, “The head of the goddess is drawn with a definiteness, tenderness, and refinement that could not be surpassed.” There is another mineral, of very nearly the same chemical composition as Malachite, being a hydrated car¬ bonate of copper, but widely different in color. This is the mineral termed Chessylite, from its occurrence in beau¬ tiful crystals at Chessy, in France. Its color is a deep azure blue, whence it is sometimes called Azurite. It is a common associate of Malachite, but is not used as an ornamental stone. Mention may also be made of a silicate of copper named Chrysocolla , which far more closely resembles Malachite. 2/5 Malachite, the chief points of difference being found in its lower hardness and specific gravity, the latter falling as low as 2'2. Some specimens of Chrysocolla bear a very close resemblance to Turquoise. Malachite. Chemical Composition —Copper oxide ... 71‘9 Carbon dioxide ... I9'Q Water ... ... 8 - 2 iocro Specific Gravity ... ... ... 37 to 4'0 Hardness ... ... ... ... 3 - 5 to 4 - o Crystalline System ... ... ... Monoclinic Form ... Usually modified oblique rhombic prisms, but rare ; usually botryoidal or stalagmitic. CHAPTER XXIII. MOONSTONE, SELENITE, AND SUNSTONE. INERALOGISTS of the present day apply the name Selenite to the finer varieties of Gypsum—a common mineral much too soft to be of any real service in jewelry, yet pre¬ senting in its fibrous forms so pleasing a lustre as to be occasionally cut and polished as an ornamental stone. This fibrous gypsum or Selenite occurs in the New Red Marls of Derbyshire and Staffordshire, and especially in the neighbourhood of Newark, in Nottinghamshire, where it is worked to a limited extent into beads and other trivial objects. It is sometimes known in trade as “ Derby¬ shire spar.” Selenite derives its name from its soft lustre, suggestive of moonshine ; but though the word literally signifies “moonstone,” no jeweller would think of desig¬ nating it by such a term—the word “ moonstone ” being invariably applied to an entirely different stone. It is Moonstone, Selenite, and Sunstone. 277 clear, too, that the Selenites of the Ancients must have been a stone differing from our modern Selenite—which is a hydrated sulphate of calcium, so soft as to be readily scratched by the finger-nail. “The Selenite,” says Andreas Baccius, “ is a kind of gem which doth contain in it the image of the moon, and it doth represent it increasing and decreasing according to the increase and decrease of the moon in its monthly changes.” The Greeks, who called it A'phroselene, which signifies the splendour of the moon, or a beam of the moon, with their lively imagination, often discovered in natural objects resemblances to other forms, and ascribed to them virtues and properties according to their interpre¬ tation. The Moonstone is a good example of this. The Romans called it Lunaris, Dioscorides says “ it is found in Arabia, and is endued with virtues, as of making trees fruitful, and of curing epilepsy; ” he adds “ that in the night it will illuminate the place that is next to it, yet not by any transmission of light, but by the collection of light into itself.” This stone is remarkable rather for the fables which cling to it, than for its substantial value or qualities. Whatever the moonstone of the Ancients may have been, the moonstone of the present day is an opalescent variety of orthoclase-felspar termed Adularia —a name which it derives from Mount Adula, one of the highest peaks of St. Gothard, where it occurs. The best speci¬ mens, however, come from Ceylon. There can be little doubt, therefore, but that the Romans received consign¬ ments of it, with the other products of Taprobane (Ceylon). Notwithstanding the pleasing pearly lustre of this stone, it is used to only a very limited extent by the jeweller. A very curious variety, the “ Fish’s Eye,” becomes red by transmitted light, undergoing the same changes as 27 § Moonstone, Selenite, and Snnstone. a bead of Schmeltze paste. Pliny’s Selenite seems to be a variety of this last, “ shining with yellow lustre from a colorless ground, containing an image of the moon, which daily waxes or wanes according to its state.” The ori¬ ginal notion was that the moon’s image in the gem sym¬ pathised with its changes. Marbodus describes the stone itself as growing and shrinking, and its color as that of Jasper or Emerald— another indication that he had the Ceylon gem in view. It is said to be found also in Arabia. Trellus, to much the same effect, says:—“It is so named because it displays, as it were, an eye within itself, which increases or diminishes according to the growth or decline of the moon.” While one member of the felspar group is known as Moonstone, another is recognized as Snnstone. This is a reddish or golden-colored variety of Oligoclasc, exhibiting internal prismatic reflections and minute spangles due to the presence of included crystals of oxide of iron or of mica. It is found to a limited extent in Norway, and is but rarely employed in jewelry. The Sunstone also occurs at Media, Delaware Co., Pennsylvania, and at Orange Court House, Amelia Co., Virginia. Orpheus recognized in his day two kinds of “ Gem of the Sun.” “ In both there appear rays shining straight and like luminous hair, but the colors of the stones are different—the one would be deemed a crystal, the other a chrysolite, except for the hair.” The first of these is evidently the Venus's hair-crystal, which he describes. He further says that “ Phoebus hath planted in both species a mighty spirit, which gives glory and heroic beauty to whomsoever shall wear them with due understanding.” The Chemical Composition of the two Felspars may be taken as follows ;— Moonstone, Selenite, and Sunstone. 279 Orthoclase. I Oligoclase. Silica ... 647 Silica ... ... 61-9 Alumina i 8 - 4 Alumina ... 24-1 Potash... 169 Lime ... ... 5'2 IOO'O Soda ... ... 8-8 IOO'O Crystalline System — Crystalline System — Monoclinic. Triclinic. Specific Gravity —2’5 to 2'6 Specific Gravity. .2-5 to 27 Hardness ... 6 Hardness ... 6 CHAPTER XXIV. OBSIDIAN. OLOGISTS are in the habit of applying this name to a volcanic glass or fused lava. At first sight it may seem strange that such a substance should find a description in a work on Precious Stones. Obsidian is, however, occasion¬ ally cut and polished, and is by no means an ineffective stone. It is generally of bottle-green color, and when cut looks somewhat like a Peridot or a Green Tourmaline. The great objection to the stone is its softness, which is rather less than that of Felspar: most Obsidian is, in fact, formed by the fusion of a felspathic lava. By the ancient inhabitants of the Valley of Mexico, Obsidian was used for making knives and other cutting implements. A Siberian variety, with a pleasing silvery sheen, is occa¬ sionally cut and polished for use in the manufacture of snuff-boxes and other ornamental articles. Obsidian. Chemical Composition :— Silicate of alumina, potash, iron, and lime. Specific Gravity ... ... ... 2'6 Hardness . . ... ... ... 6 '5 Form, ... ,,, ... ... Amorphous. CHAPTER XXV. ORIENTAL ONYX. NYX is a very celebrated variety of tinted Agate, having its colors arranged in parallel strata. The Oriental Onyx is obtained from India, Egypt, Arabia, Armenia, and Babylon. The inferior variety mostly comes from Bohemia and from Uruguay. Some stone, called by translators Onyx, ranked among the highest class of gems in the ante-Christian world. It is often mentioned in the writings of Greek and old Hebrew authors. Pliny likens it in color to the human finger-nail ; and it is upon this similarity that its Greek name Onyx is based. According to this author, the stone is marked with white, horn-colored, brown, and black bands or zones, arranged in flat, horizontal planes. The Greeks attached the following mythological origin to this stone : “ Cupid, with the sharp point of his arrow, cut the nails of the sleeping Venus, which fell into the Indus ; but as they were of heavenly origin they sank, and became metamorphosed into Onyx.’’ The Onyx has been chiefly used for cameos, and 282 Oriental Onyx. very costly vessels. In making the cameo, the figure is carved out of the light color, and stands in relief on the dark ground. Amongst the most celebrated of these stones is the “ Schaffhausen ” Onyx—a large and beautifully marked specimen, and one of the most cherished treasures of the Canton of Schaffhausen. The figure engraved on it is a female wearing a crown of honor, holding in one hand a horn of plenty, in the other a Mercury’s staff. The figure Dr. Oeri identifies as that of “ Pax ” and the cameo was cut between A.D. 68 and 82. It is of great historical interest and is supposed to have been brought from Constantinople by Ortlieb von Frohburg, who was a trusted friend of Konrad III. and Friedrich I., and took part in the Second Crusade. The later history of the gem is obscure, nor can it be ascertained for certain how it came into the possession of the Canton of Schaffhausen. There is a tradition that this Onyx was a part of the loot made at the “glorious victory of Granson this is likely, for the talisman must have been the highly-prized possession of a royal or knightly owner, and only as a spoil of war, is it likely to have been acquired by a Swiss Canton. It is most jealously guarded by the Commune, being too rich in associations to be sold, even by so thrifty a people as the Swiss. One of the most famous of the Antique Cameos is the Mantuan Vase ; the base is brown, and on it, in relief, are groups of white and yellow figures, representing Ceres and Triptolemus in search of Proserpine. The vase is formed from a single stone, and is seven inches high and two-and-a-half broad. There is an Onyx Cameo in the Vatican Library, representing Octavius Augustus; and in the Emperor’s Cabinet, at Vienna, there are some specimens of exquisitely cut Antique Onyx. In the Oriental Onyx. 283 Museo Nationale, at Naples, there are many specimens ; among others, an Onyx cameo (eleven inches by nine), representing the apotheosis of Augustus ; and another with the head of Medusa carved on one side, and the apotheosis of Ptolemy on the other. Among the remarkable Cameos in the National Library of Paris, is one of Tiberius with an ox ; a second, of Marcus Aurelius and Faustina ; a third, of Agrippina with her two children ; and a fourth, of Jupiter armed with lightning. An Antique Sard-Onyx Cameo, in the Mineralogical Museum of the Marquis Dree, representing the bust of Faustina, cut on a five-colored basis, was sold for ^285 8s. qd. In a work on the Ancient Tombs and Temples in Cyprus, it is stated that among the relics there found were numerous donaria consisting of engraved gems and Onyxes, supposed to have been worn not less than three or four centuries anterior to the Christian era. Onyx has been found in such large masses that small pillars have been made of it: there are six such in the Basilica of St. Peter, at Rome. At Cologne, in the Temple of the Three Magi, there is one broader than the palm of the hand. Appianus says that “ Mithridates, King of Pontus, had 2,000 cups of this gem it is scarcely pos¬ sible, however, to believe that they could have been of true Onyx : probably they were simply Onyx-marble. Boetius mentions the Arabian Onyx, as “black, with white zones or circles, by reason of which many colors are caused in it. It is called an Onyx only when the black appeareth, as it were, under a white. It is a gem that hath many veins, compassed about with milky zones or girdles, and meeting in a pleasing concord and consent.” It is not at all probable that the Onyx which Professor Aaron Pick shows to be the Shouham of Holy Writ, was the same composite stone with that which modern writers 284 Oriental Onyx. designate by that name, for it is classed with the Ruby, Topaz, Diamond, Chrysolite, Jasper, Sapphire, and Chryso- prase. This great Hebrew scholar believes it to have been the Carbuncle. The Onyx of ancient writers appears to have been in most cases a banded stone, but while it was in some in¬ stances a siliceous material, like the modern Onyx, in others it was certainly a stalagmitic variety of carbonate of lime, exhibiting stripes due to its stratified structure. By modern mineralogists the term Onyx is restricted to an Agate-like substance, formed of alternating white and brown or black layers of Chalcedony. When the white zone is so thin that the deeper dark-colored layer shines through with a bluish tint, the stone is called a Nicolo, an Italian corruption of “Onicolo” or “Little Onyx.” If the strata be alternately white and red, or reddish-brown, the resulting mixture is known as Sardonyx. No Precious Stone varies more in value than the Oriental Onyx. The price of carefully selected stones, sufficient to form a necklace, may range from one hundred to five hundred guineas. It is used chiefly for fine art jewelry, and is generally set with Diamonds : it is also highly esteemed by the Indians, who wear it with Pearls. No stone is more difficult to determine than this, as the Common Onyx is now so skilfully dyed to represent the Oriental, as almost to escape detection, even by expe¬ rienced judges. Oriental Onyx. Composition— Silica, with traces of coloring matter. Specific Gravity ••• 2‘6 Hardness ... ••• ••• 7 Form ... ... ... Amorphous. CHAPTER XXVI. PERIDOT OR CHRYSOLITE. H HIS is a very ancient stone, at one time con¬ sidered of more value than the Diamond, and worn for many centuries by ladies as an or- In the Wardrobe Book of Edward I., the Peridot is mentioned among the jewels of the deceased Bishop of Bath and Wells, which were escheated to the Crown. The Peridot has a very pleasing yellowish-green color, and is susceptible of a fine polish, but it is so soft as to be easily scratched. It is a stone that requires considerable skill and care in polishing, the final lustre being imparted to it by means of sulphuric acid ; yet curiously enough, from the chemical nature of the mineral, it would gelati¬ nize if immersed in that acid for any considerable time. The Oriental Peridot is a beautiful gem. It is less dense, however, and less hard than stones which are generally 286 Peridot or Chrysolite. ranked in the first class. It possesses double refraction, and acquires electricity by friction. It generally occurs in fragments much worn by the action of water, but well- defined crystals have been found in the lavas of Vesuvius, which prove that its native form is that of the rhombic prism. It is remarkable that the Peridot has been dis¬ covered in “aerolites” or masses of meteoric stone and iron. Although the Peridot has not retained its pristine repute, it is still occasionally in demand, and is much valued by some of the Society of Friends. It has been pointed out in treating of Chrysoberyl, that, owing to lapidaries calling that stone the “ Oriental Chrysolite,” considerable confusion has arisen between the two gems. A comparison of their chemical composition is, however, sufficient to shew that scarcely any two minerals differ more widely in their constitution—the one being an aluminate of glucina, the other a silicate of mag¬ nesia. The Chrysolite of mineralogy is in fact, practically the same stone as the Peridot. Mineralogists include the Chrysolite and the Peridot under the one species Olivine. The colors of Olivine vary from light straw yellow to yellowish green, when they receive the name of Chrysolite ; and thence to a peculiar soft hue, of a delicate deep yellowish green, when they are called Peridot. It is found in the Levant, in Brazil, Mexico, South Africa, and other countries, generally as small pebbles, and it occurs in fragments in most of the gold drifts of New South Wales. The largest pieces of Peridot which have been pre¬ served from the Middle Ages remain unrivalled by any modern discovery. The finest resemble in color the Emerald. The gem looks well if judiciously set in gold, and the deeper the green the more valuable the stone. Peridot or Chrysolite. 287 Peridot or Chrysolite. Chemical Composition :— Silica Magnesia Ferrous oxide Nickel oxide Alumina Manganese oxide ... Loss ... 3973 50-13 9'*9 •32 •22 •09 •32 100-00 Specific Gravity Hardness Crystalline System 3'35 6-5 Trimetric. Form Generally in water-worn pebbles. CHAPTER XXVII. PHENAKITE. F late years, this rare mineral has occasionally been used in Russia as a gem-stone. The kind employed for this purpose is perfectly transparent and colorless, exhibiting when skilfully cut great brilliancy, and bearing much resem¬ blance to Diamond. It is, however, greatly inferior to Diamond both in hardness and in density. Phenakite—like the Emerald, the Chrysoberyl, and the Euclase—contains the rare metal glucinum or beryl¬ lium. The finest Phenakite occurs in a brown mica- schist in the Emerald and Chrysoberyl mines of Stretnisk, on the River Takowja, not far from Ekaterinburg, on the Asiatic slope of the TTals. It is also found with Topaz and Amazonite in the granite rocks of Miask, in Siberia. Quite recently it has been discovered at Pike’s Peak, in Colorado. Pkenakite. 289 Pkenakite. Chemical Composition :— Silica ... . 54 '2 Glucina 1 1 CO xoo'o Crystalline System ... ... ...Rhombohedral, Specific Gravity . 3 Hardness ... 7'5 to 8 Form ... Prismatic crystals t CHAPTER XXVIII. QUARTZ CAT’S EYE. OR a description of Quartz Cat’s Eye, and the True Cat’s Eye, see pp. 197—201. Thin fibres of asbestos interspersed in the quartz give rise to the characteristic appearance of this stone. It is brought chiefly from Ceylon. The Crociclolite, or “Wood Cat’s Eye,” of South Africa has been described at p. 246. CHAPTER XXIX. ROCK CRYSTAL. EREOF the common opinion hath been, and still remaineth amongst us,” said the learned Sir Thomas Browne, in his famous work on Vulgar Errors, in 1646, “that Crystal is nothing else but ice or snow concreted, and by duration of time congealed beyond liquation. Of which, assertion, if prescription of time and numerosity of asser- tors were a sufficient demonstration, we might set down herein as an unquestionable truth ; nor should there need ulterior disquisition. For few opinions there are which have found so many friends, or been so popularly received through all Professions and Ages.” The word, crystal is, in fact, a standing testimony to this strange belief, since it owes its origin to the Greek word krystallos, which 292 Rock Crystal. means “ ice.” Pliny, Seneca, and other ancient writers— not to mention Austin, Gregory, Jerome, and several early fathers of the Church—have given their adhesion to the opinion that Rock Crystal is nothing but water congealed by a cold so intense that ordinary methods fail to melt it. Modern science, however, dispelling such illusions, has proved that Rock Crystal is a pure and limpid form of Quartz—a natural variety of silica. Rock Crystal is found in a variety of forms—some¬ times of extraordinary size and beauty. Its color varies from pure white to greyish-white, yellow-white, yellowish- brown, clove-brown, and black. According to its color it receives a variety of names : thus the yellow is known as Citrine and False-Topaz, the brown as Cairngorm and Smoky-Quartz, and the black as Morion. The clear varieties are beautifully transparent, and possess double refraction. By friction it yields electricity which lasts about half-an-hour, rarely longer, except under very favourable conditions. Before the blow-pipe many colored crystals lose their tints. The frequent admixture of chlorite, asbestos, rutile, iron pyrites, and actinolite in the crystals is very remark¬ able. The green color of the last is like a blade of grass enclosed in ice. In some specimens there are cavities with liquid or gaseous contents, which move as the crystal is turned. These specimens are mostly from Madagascar : some have a thousand such small cavities in a square inch, and when subjected to friction give out a perfume like burnt oil. The microscope shows that the quartz of granite and other crystalline rocks often encloses a vast number of these minute cavites. The brilliant hair-brown needles of Rutile, penetra¬ ting the crystal in all directions, impart a curious appear¬ ance to the stone, and such specimens are often cut for Rock Crystal. 293 brooches, under the name of Filches d,' Amour, or “ Cupid’s arrows,’’ or “Venus’s Hair-Stone.” The places from whence Rock Crystal is derived are so numerous that we give but a few, chiefly those which yield it in large quantities for commerce. Among European localities the most remarkable are those in Switzerland. Near St. Gothard it is found in granite, associated with mica, hornblende, and felspar. A little distance from the Grimsel, it is found in the mines of Jochle Berg and Zinkenstock. In 173s the yield from the cave of Zinkenstock alone was valued at £2,250. The most famous mine, perhaps, is that of Fischbach, in Visperthal, which supplied the crystal for the great Pyramid of Marsfeld, 1797. This block measured three feet in diameter, and weighed over 800 lbs. It is now in the Natural History Museum at Paris. The neighbourhood of Mont Blanc yields beautifully clear crystal, which affords employment and wealth to the inhabitants of Chamouny. The most remarkable discovery of Rock Crystal on record is that which was made in 1867 at the Galgenstock, above the Tiefen Glacier, by a party of tourists under the guide Peter Sulzer, of Guttanen. A cave in the granite yielded more than a thousand crystals, all of large size, and weighing from 50 lbs. each to upwards of 3 cwt. They were, however, of dark color. In the Museum at Berne there are some magnificent crystals from this lucky discovery. One gigantic crystal, known as the “ Grand¬ father,” weighs as much as 276 lbs. ; while another, chris¬ tened “The King,” weighs 255 lbs. Rock Crystal is also found in Friedeberg, Salzburg, and Zillerthal in Tyrol, and in Hungary, France, and Scotland. In the clear cavities of the snow-white marble of Carrara, in Tuscany, it is found in great purity. Ceylon affords it abundantly, and the natives use it for 294 Rock Crystal. ornamenting their temples. Madagascar supplies large blocks, and the common sand of this island is full of little crystals. But it is from Brazil that our chief commercial supply is obtained, much of it being imported for the use of the optician, who cuts and polishes it in the form of spectacle lenses, which are known as “ pebbles.” In this country rock crystal of small size is not uncommon, and is occasionally used as an ornamental stone, under the local name of “ Diamond,” such as the “ Bristol Diamonds,” “ Irish Diamonds,” and “ Isle of Wight Diamonds.” Rock Crystal was known to the Ancients. It was found in abundance in Midian, and was well known in Egypt. The Greeks valued it for its purity and its regular form. Theophrastus remarks that it was selected for seals. Pliny mentions several times in his Nat. Hist. 37. 9, that the Romans were well acquainted with its habitat in the Alps, and that they employed it largely for household luxury and adornment. They worked it into wine jugs, cups, vases, and other vessels, such as moderns now obtain much cheaper from the glass factories. The Ancients, believing it to be ice, feared to expose it to great heat lest it should melt. Nero possessed two very beautiful drinking cups, one of which cost him a sum equal to £ 600, and a ladle of Rock Crystal, for which he paid a large sum of money. When he heard of the loss of his kingdom, he is said to have broken the two goblets, in anger, to punish the age in which he lived, and jealous lest anyone should thenceforward drink out of them. The Empress Livia gave to the Capitol a piece of Crystal weighing 5olbs. ; and the Roman physicians used Crystal balls as lenses, in order to burn out sores. Such balls were also employed for kindling sacrificial fire—the sacred Vestal flame being produced by concentrating the Rock Crystal. 295 solar beam in the focus of a Crystal lens. Spheres of Rock Crystal were at one time carried in the hand, by the ladies of ancient Rome, for sake of their refreshing cool¬ ness—the crystal being a good conductor of heat, and thus readily robbing the hand of its caloric. In the kingdom of Greece the pure-water Crystal was rarer than the tinted ; and, probably, was first made use of under the Roman Emperors. We find mentioned, an engraving on Rock Crystal of the contest between Hercules and Antaeus ; and a repre¬ sentation of Arsinoe on another crystal. Rock Crystal is used for rings, pins, ear-rings, seals, caskets, gems, and other Bijouterie. It is also used for Cameos, Intaglios, lenses, and spectacles. For personal ornament, the clear, perfect, small crystals are used, or the angles of the larger ones. As a rule, Rock Crystal receives the form of the Brilliant, Rosette, or Table-cut; the exception being the Rainbow Quartz, the Hair and the Needle Stone, which are cut en cabochon. To cut or engrave on Rock Crystal, a Diamond point is used. It is said that one of the finest works in Rock Crystal in existence is an urn, 9^ inches in diameter, 9 inches high, and this, together with the foot or pedestal on which it stands, is formed of one piece, On the upper part is a representation of Noah asleep, his children holding a covering, and a woman with a basket of fruit in her hand. This urn forms part of the French National jewels, and cost £4,000. The cups of Rock Crystal in the Vatican, and similar articles of domestic luxury in private hands, still retain a high value, although the large supply of the raw material itself, from Madagascar and Brazil has greatly reduced its rarity, and therefore its price. 296 Rock Crystal. Rock Crystal. Composition —Oxygen ... ... 53-3 Silicon ... ••• 467 100 o Specific Gravity ... . 2 '^5 Hardness ... ••• ••• 7 Crystalline System . Rhombohedral Forms Various six-sided prisms terminating in pyramids. CHAPTER XXX. SPHENE. PHENE is a mineral which has occasionally been cut as an ornamental stone, but is almost unknown to jewellers. Its appear¬ ance is somewhat between that of Opal and Chrysolite. In color it varies from pale yellow to green ; and it exhibits all degrees of transparency, some varieties being, however, opaque. Only the most transparent and clear specimens have the least claim to be classed as gem-stones ; and although it has a pleasing lustre varying from resinous to adamantine, its softness is against its ever being extensively used. It occurs chiefly as dissemi¬ nated crystals in granite, gneiss, mica-slate, syenite, and granular limestone, and is sometimes found in volcanic rocks. The crystals are usually small. Among its many localities mention may be made of Arendal, in Norway, of St. Gothard and Mont Blanc, and many parts of North America. Sphene is also known as Titanite, 29S Sphcne . Sphene. Composition :—Titanic oxide ... 41 Silica ... ... ... 31 Lime ... ... 27 Iron oxide ... ... I Specific Gravity Hardness Crystalline System Form 100. . 3'5 5 to 5-5 ... Monoclinic. Wedge-shaped crystals. j CHAPTER XXXI. SPODUMENE. is only of late that this mineral has been cut as a gem-stone, and consequently it was un¬ noticed in previous editions. A quantity of clear yellow Spodumene having been re¬ cently imported from Brazil, many enquiries for information have reached us, and in response to these solicitations we have thought it advisable to introduce a description of the mineral. It can claim, however, scarcely any importance as a gem-stone, it being very little known and still less used. In color and appearance the clear Spodumene is not unlike Chrysoberyl. Its colors vary from greyish to greenish yellow ; some varieties are opaque and others transparent. It has a waxy appearance. Although sus¬ ceptible of a high polish—its hardness being about equal to that of Cinnamon Stone—it is a very difficult material to work, partly because it is much harder in one direction than another, and partly on account of its remarkably easy cleavage, which renders it liable to split : this makes it so difficult of manipulation that perhaps not more than one stone in four is ever finished by the lapidary. 300 Spodiimcrte. Spodumene of amethystine color is found at Branch- ville, Connecticut ; and coarser forms of the mineral occur in a white highly crystalline granite at Goshen, Chesterfield, Norwich, and Stirling, Massachusetts; at Windham, Maine; and at Brookfield, Connecticut. Spodumene is also occa¬ sionally found at Uto, in Sweden ; at Sterzing and Brixen, in the Tyrol; and at Kilkenny Bay, near Dublin. But the transparent variety, which alone has been cut as an orna¬ mental stone, is confined to Brazil. The mineral previously described as Hiddenite, or “ Lithia Emerald,” is only a variety of Spodumene. Spodumene. Composition —Silica... 64-5 Aluminna 29-0 Lithia 5'5 Iron oxide and soda.. ro IOO'O Specific Gravity 3 Hardness 7 Crystalline System ... Monoclinic. Form ... Usually in fragments, exhibiting two parallel cleavages planes. TURQUOISE TOPAZ OPAL CHAPTER XXXII. TOPAZ. T is believed by the highest authorities that the true Topaz was unknown to the Ancients. The name, however, is derived from the Greek Topdzios —a word which appears to have been applied to the Chrysolite or Peridot. This was probably the ancient classic gem, called in Hebrew Pittdoh by Professor Aaron Pick, and Pitdah by Genesius (accord¬ ing to the Massoreth), the latter of whom imagines that it is derived from the Sanscrit pita (pale), and that the Greek Topdzios is a transposition from Pitdoh to Tipdoh. The ancient mineralogists described this as a pale yellowish or greenish gem found in an island of the Red Sea. Boetius says it is of “ diluted green color with yellowness added to it.” Among the virtues then attributed to it we read that “the Topaz calms anacreontic temperaments.” In all these cases the writers appear to have had in mind the stone known to us as Chrysolite rather than our true Topaz. Under the general name of Topaz modern minera¬ logists include three distinct stones—(i) the true Topaz j 302 Topaz. (2) the Yellow Sapphire, or Oriental Topaz; and (3) the Occidental or False Topaz. The second is a yellow variety of Corundum, and the third is nothing but a variety of Scotch quartz. The true Topaz presents a variety of colors, from clear white, when it has been occasionally palmed off as a Diamond, ranging through all shades of light blue and light green to rose pink, orange, and straw yellow. A pink color is frequently obtained by subjecting the sherry- colored Topazes to a moderate temperature. The insta¬ bility of color in certain Topazes is attested by the bleaching which they suffer on exposure to sunlight. Crystals of Topaz are remarkable for their pyro¬ electricity —in other words, they become electric on expo¬ sure to heat. Tavernier, in 1665, saw a Topaz in the treasury of Aurungzeb, in Hindoostan, weighing 157 carats which that monarch had purchased for a sum corresponding to £18,000 of our money. The Topazes found in the river beds at Capao, in Brazil, secured in twelve years a net profit of £3,000. In the Ural, north of Ekaterinburg, it is found in granite. In St. Petersburg is a fine crystal, 4§ inches long and 4^ wide, weighing 31 lbs. In the east of Siberia it is found in blue crystals, in company with Beryl, Rock Crystal, and Felspar. A remarkably fine collection of Siberian Topazes, made by Prof. Kokscharow, of St. Petersburg, may be seen in the Mineralogical Gallery of the British Museum (South Kensington), where the finest crystals are carefully protected by opaque caps to shield them from sunlight, by which they might suffer loss of color. In Australia the green and yellow crystals of Topaz are found ; in Saxony the white, yellow, and Topaz. 303 the pale violet ; and in Bohemia the sea-green variety. The Saxon Topazes are obtained chiefly from the well-known Topaz-rock of the Schneckenstein. In Brazil, red specimens, graduating from a pale to a deep carmine tint, have been discovered ; but most of the Brazilian Topazes are of a rich wine-yellow color. The clear and colorless Topazes of Brazil are frequently known as Novas Minas. The blue Topaz from Brazil resembles Aquamarine, but is distinguished by its superior hardness and higher specific gravity. The Topaz is one of the few Precious Stones found in the British Isles. It occurs chiefly in St. Michael’s Mount, Cornwall; in the Mourne Mountains, Co. Down ; and in several Scotch districts. Very fine White Topaz is found in Flinders’ Island, in Bass’s Strait. It is common in most parts of the New England district, New South Wales, where it occurs as pebbles in the river gravels. In the United States the chief localities for Topaz are in Arizona, New Mexico, and Colorado. Fine blue crystals have been recently discovered at the famous mineral locality of Pike’s Peak, Colorado, and the species has also been lately found at Stoneham, in Maine. In some places in India, the Topaz being rare, is a far more expensive stone than'in England. Several engraved Topazes are known : that in the Bibliotheque Royale, in Paris, is set as a signet ring, having the portraits of Philip II. and Don Carlos deeply cut in it. There is also a citron-yellow Topaz, representing an Indian Bacchus. The antique Topaz in St. Petersburg, engraved with the representation of Sirius, is of excellent workmanship. A celebrated Arabian Amulet composed of Topaz, having the words “From God alone is success,” in Arabic, bored through it, is now the property of a Parisian jeweller. 304 Topaz. A fine stone, known as the “ Maxwell Stuart ” Topaz, weighs 368 carats. The Goutted'Ran, which is capable of exquisite polish, is a colorless Topaz. If cut as a Brilliant, with a small table, the pure gem forms a beautiful ornament; and some specimens found, both in New South Wales and in Brazil, are worthy of careful cutting, polishing, and setting. The chemical composition of the Topaz, in addition to its obvious characteristics, confirms its title to a high rank among gems. Topaz. Chemical Composition :— Alumina Silicon Oxygen Fluorine 30-2 I 5'5 3O8 17-5 100.0 Specific Gravity Hardness Crystalline System .. Form ... Prism Prisms, terminating with pyramids ; the two ends usually dissimilar ; with strongly- marked basal cleavage. Rhombic. 3'5 8 CHAPTER XXXIII. TOURMALINE. OMEWHAT more than a century ago, the Dutch introduced Tourmaline into Europe, from Ceylon. The first written history of the stone is found in a book published in Leipzig, in 1707, called “ Curious Speculations of Sleepless Nights '.' 1 It is mentioned also in the catalogue of a collection of stones sent over from Ceylon to Leyden in 1711. For many years small quantities only of this stone were sent to Europe, and the German Jews were almost its only purchasers. Few minerals present greater complexity of chemical constitution than the Tourmaline. Its composition has been said to resemble the prescription of a mediaeval doctor, in which a little of everything was thrown in ; and a reference to the analysis appended to this chapter will illustrate this intricacy of constitution. To the student of physics, the Tourmaline is a stone of singular interest, from the curious optical and electrical characters which it exhibits. It enjoys, in its different varieties, a very wide range of color, though it rarely displays any vivid or U 3 °6 Tourmaline. brilliant hue; hence it has become a great favorite with connoisseurs, who can appreciate its soft and sombre tones, but has not acquired general popularity. Its colors con¬ sist of various shades of grey, yellow, green, blue, pink, and brown ; all having a tendency towards the darker hues, even to black. The Tourmaline passes under a variety of mineralo- gical names, according to the color which it presents. The red varieties are known as Rubellite , the blue as Indicolite , and the clear and colorless crystals as Achroite; while the common black Tourmaline is still distinguished by the old German name of Schorl. It often happens that the color is not constant through¬ out the stone, so that one part maybe green, while another portion of the same crystal may be decidedly pink. These parti-colored specimens come chiefly from Elba. An American variety is notable for presenting a central kernel of red color, surrounded by a zone of lively green, and as such crystals are usually three-sided prisms, they offer, when cut across, a triangular or heart-shaped section, with the pleasing effect of a red centre fringed by a green border. Tourmaline possesses double refraction, and polarizes light perfectly. Hence it is used by opticians in the con¬ struction of polariscopes. Its dichroism is very pro¬ nounced, and may be often recognized without the aid of an instrument. Tourmaline, in common with many other Precious Stones, developes electricity under friction. Many Tour¬ malines also acquire electric properties when heated—one end of the crystal becoming positive and the other nega¬ tive. This phenomenon is known as Pyro-electricity. It is connected with the curious form of most of the crystals, their two extremities exhibiting different faces. This Tourmaline. 30 7 peculiarity of shape is termed hemimorphism, since half of the crystal presents one form, and half another. When the temperature of a hemimorphic crystal is either raised or lowered, its electric equilibrium is disturbed, and polarity developed ; so that the condition of the crystal may then be compared with that of a magnet. Tourmaline is found in Siberia, Ceylon, the Urals, Saxony, and the Isle of Elba. In the United States, it has been discovered in great perfection and abundance, especially at Mount Mica, Paris, Maine. Siberian Tour¬ maline is of carmine, hyacinth, purple, or rose-red, running into violet-blue. When polished its lustre somewhat re¬ sembles that of the Oriental Ruby. The Green Tourma¬ line generally occurs of an olive or darker green color, and takes a perfect polish. Crystals of great beauty are found in Minas-Geraes. The Yellowish-Green Tourma¬ line, “ Ceylon Chrysolite,” is very like an Aquamarine, and is found in the river beds of Ceylon and Brazil. Colorless Tourmaline occurs very seldom in pieces worth the cost of cutting and polishing. The most beautiful specimens are found in Elba. Brown and Black Tourmaline are varieties not used for purposes of ornament. Black Tourmaline is, by no means uncommon in this country, especially in the tin-bearing districts of Cornwall. The value of Tourmaline depends upon the color, quality, and size of the specimens ; one of exceptional color and purity, of five carats weight, would be worth about £ 20. A magnificent specimen of Rubellite, or Red Tour¬ maline, is exhibited in the Mineralogical Gallery of the British Museum (South Kensington). This unique group of crystals was presented by the King of Ava to Colonel Symes, when on an embassy to that country, and has been valued at £ 1000. 3°8 Tourmaline, Compositio 7 i- Tourmaline. -Very complicated and varied. Ac¬ cording to Rammelsberg, a green Brazilian stone gave— Hardness Crystalline System Silica 33-55 Alumina 38-40 Boron trioxide 7'2I Ferric oxide 5 -i 3 Ferrous oxide 2‘00 Soda... 2-37 Fluorine 2-09 Lithia T20 Lime II 4 Manganic oxide o - 8i Magnesia ... 073 Potash °'37 IOO’O ity 3'o to 3-15 . T 5 Rhombohedral. Form... ... Usually in prisms striated vertically, and differently terminated at opposite ends. CHAPTER XXXIV. ZIRCON, JARGOON, OR HYACINTH. HE Zircon, Jargoon, and Hyacinth are all varieties of the same stone. The term Hyacinth or Jacinth is applied to trans¬ parent and bright-colored varieties ; Jargoon to crystals dull of color, and of a smoky tinge, which were occasionally sold as inferior Diamonds. Anselmus Boetius gives the following description of this gem. (ist) “ There are some that flame like fire, or are similar in color to crimson or to natural vermilion ; these the French jewel¬ lers call ‘ Jacinthe la belle,’ and esteem them the best. (2nd), Those with a yellow-red color. (3rd) Others which are like unto Amber, so that they can hardly be dis¬ tinguished from it but by their hardness. These are of no great value, by reason of the atoms they contain, and the multiplicity of small bodies which are in them, which do hinder their transparency and translucency.’’ “ One of these,” Cardanus says, “he was wont to wear about him, for the purpose of procuring sleep, to which purpose it did seem somewhat to conduce,” (4th) “ There is a fourth kind which has no redness at all in it, being like white pellucid Amber, and such are of least value.” 3 io Zircon , Jargoon, or Hyacinth. The Lyncurion or “ Lynx-stone” of the Ancients was probably in most cases the Hyacinth, while their Hyacin- thus may have been our Amethyst It seems certain that when Theophrastus mentions the Lyncurion , he refers to an amber-colored Zircon. The Zircon is a very lovely stone, and when fine, may be taken for a Spinel Ruby. Its colors are very varied, the reds and browns of the hyacinthine varieties being especially noteworthy; while some of the finest Jargoons present yellow, green, and blue tints, not unlike those of the Tourmaline, but with much more fire and lustre. Some specimens when submitted to great heat, increase in lustre, but at the same time lose color. In company with borax, it fuses into a transparent glass. The Zircon is distinguished, when in its natural form, by its quadrilateral crystals, terminating at both ends in a pyramid. It is of adamantine lustre, transparent to sub- translucent. The fracture is conchoidal. It scratches Quartz, but is itself scratched by the Topaz. In former times this gem was more highly valued than at present. In order to cut the stone for ornaments, such as rings, pins, and ear-rings, it is ground on a leaden plate with Emery powder, and polished on a copper plate with powdered rotten-stone. The forms given to the Zir¬ con are generally the Rose, the Table, and the Brilliant. Inferior Zircons require peculiar setting to shew them to advantage ; but a perfect one requires no aid, it is beautiful in itself, as well as valuable. There is a splendid specimen of a very ancient engraving on a Zircon in the Paris Museum, the workmanship of which is exquisite ; it is about 2 inches in length, and i£ in width, and represents Moses with the two tables of the law. Lord Duncannon had in his collection a Zircon with an engraving on it representing an athlete, Zircon^ Jargoon, or Hyacinth. 311 Perhaps the finest specimen of the hyacinthine variety is a Cameo, representing the head of an angel, by Raphael, which was set in a ring and worn by Gregory XIII., and engraved with his name. At the back of the Cameo the name of Pius VII. appears. In the author’s private collection is a Green Zircon, round in shape, weighing 4^ carats : in lustre it resembles a Brilliant, whilst its color surpasses that of the Emerald. Colorless Zircons are occasionally sold as Diamonds. The more brilliant specimens, which receive the name of Hyacinth, rarely attain a large size. The finest Hyacinths have been obtained from Mudgee, in New South Wales, while of other varieties Ceylon yields the best examples. The stones which often pass as Hyacinths or Jacinths, are nothing more than hyacinth-colored Garnets, or “Cinna¬ mon Stone the mineral known to mineralogists as Essonite. The difference between the Essonite and the Zircon is immediately apparent by an appeal to the balance—the specific gravity of the former being about 3‘6, while that of the latter is as high as 4 - 6 or 47. Although the localities which yield Zircons fit for working into ornamental stones are but few, it should be borne in mind that the coarser forms of Zircon are present in a great variety of rocks, such as the Zircon-syenite of Norway and Siberia; but as these forms are of interest only to the mineralogist, it is needless to enumerate the long list of localities in which they occur. Nicols, writing 225 years ago of the Zircon, says,— “ They are found in Ethiopia, India, and Arabia. The Arabs distinguish three kinds—1, Rubri Coloris : 2, Citrini Coloris : 3, Antimonii Coloris. Of these the worst is found in the river Iser, which is upon the confines of Silesia and Bohemia. The best and most excellent ones are brought from Cananor, Calicut, and Gambia.” 312 Zircon, Jar go on, or Hyacinth. Klaproth in 1789 discovered in the Zircon an earthy basis, to which he gave the name of Zirconia. It is the oxide of a peculiar metal called Zirconium, of which the gem itself is a silicate. The word Zircon is of Arabic origin. Zircon, Jargoon or Hyacinth. Chemical Composition —Silica ... 34 Zirconia ... 66 100. As the Specific Gravity varies greatly in Zircons of different colors, the following list is given on the authority of Professor Church : Red . ... 4-863 Cinnamon ... 4756 Columbine Red ... 4705 Brown ... 4-696 Green ... ... 4-691 Red-brown ... 4-651 Brownish-yellow ... 4-620 Yellow... ... 4-600 Orange... ... 4-362 Dull green ... 4-020 Hardness . T 5 Crystalline System Tetragonal Form Tetragonal prism with pyramidal termina¬ tion : often as rolled pebbles. CHAPTER XXXV. CORAL. ORAL has, strictly speaking, no claim to a place in the family of Precious Stones. Notwithstanding its resemblance to a mineral substance, it is a product of the Animal Kingdom—a hard calcareous substance, which is formed by certain marine creatures of simple structure, much in the same way that bone is formed by the higher animals. The Coral is, in fact, the solid internal framework of cer¬ tain organisms known commonly as polypes. The par¬ ticular polyp which yields most of the precious Coral of commerce has been christened by naturalists the Corallium rubrum. The calcareous axis of this polyp is distinguished by its size, hardness, and capability of polish, as well as by its beautiful red color. Its form resembles that of a small tree with leafless branches, the stem of which, in rare cases, is as thick as a man’s body, but generally about a foot high, and an inch thick. It has a sort of leathery cover¬ ing, studded with cells in which the polypes reside. In the soft rind which surrounds the axis there are small calcareous needles, and outside these the nets of the common canals. A large number of little white star-like 314 Coral. polypes are associated in a single structure, the red coral forming the common branching axis which supports and unites the entire colony. The polypes consist of a soft gelatinous substance. When they are undisturbed in their cells, it may be dis¬ tinctly seen, by means of a microscope, that each possesses eight soft, three-cornered, leafy feelers, or tentacles, which are notched on each side, and situated in a simple circle around the mouth, by means of which they catch their food, and convey it to this aperture. If one of these feelers be touched ever so slightly, this act is sympatheti¬ cally conveyed to each creature in the Coral hive. There seems to be among naturalists a conviction that the Coral polypes possess a common feeling, which by some wonder¬ ful organization vibrates through the whole root or axis of the Coral. Although the polypes show such a remark¬ able sensitiveness, it has never been discovered that they possess nerves or organs of sense. Their digestive organs are of the simplest structure. In the polypes of the pre¬ cious Coral the food passes directly from the mouth to the stomach, or digestive sac, which communicates below with the general cavity of the body. The nutrient fluids resulting from digestion pass into this cavity, and are thence conveyed to the whole mass of the polypes, which are in communication with each other. The nourishment of the polypes is derived from tiny animals or from particles of plants found in the water. They have a great dislike to the light, and to a disturbance of the water, either one or other of which will drive them suddenly back to their cells. The home of the Precious Coral is in the warm waters of the Mediterranean, near Marseilles, on the coasts of “ La Loose,” Sardinia, Corsica, the Balearic Isles, Tunis, and La Calle. The Regency of Algeria may be called the chief rendezvous of the vessels engaged in this fishery, Coral. 315 Coral is also found in the Red Sea, in the Persian Gulf, on the shores of the Indian Ocean, and in the Pacific. Coral fishing is quite as fruitful a source of tradition and fairy tales among the fishermen of the Mediterranean, as the buried treasures in the hearts of the mountains are to the German miners. The Coral fishery is carried on with much zeal and energy in many places, but especially on the coasts of Tunis, Algeria, Corsica, the Red Sea, the Persian Gulf, and Sicily. On the African coast, which for centuries has been most celebrated for its Coral, is the sea-port of La Calle, or Kalak, where the trade is most successfully prosecuted. Although the fishery has for years been worked by Corsi¬ cans, yet this particular industry has been taken up by French energy. In the year 1450 France had an estab¬ lishment there whose occupation was, above all things, the Coral fishery. It was conducted by a company who enjoyed the privilege of working it, provided they employed Provencals only. In the year 1791 the fishery became free for all French¬ men who traded with the Levant and states of Africa. Three years afterwards a change in the arrangements took place. In 1802 England took possession of La Calle, and restored it in 1816. During this time the fishery was carried on vigorously, not fewer than 400 boats being devoted to this industry. In 1830 new arrangements were made, by which the Italians had to pay a duty for it, the French being exempted. Still the Italian vessels pre¬ dominated. Each Coral boat carries twelve or thirteen sailors. The fishery begins in March and ends in October. The following is the usual method of fishing :—Two iron rods about seven feet long, and having four prongs, are bound crosswise together, and wrapped up in hemp about Coral. 316 half-an-inch thick, and bound to this is a net-work bag. In the middle of the rods a weight of lead is fastened. This apparatus is let down by means of a cable, and when drawn up again it catches the projecting Coral in the hemp, which is gently brought to the surface. Very clever and experienced divers will themselves bring up a strong branch of it. The Coral is next cut in specified lengths, and separated according to thickness, size, and beauty, and then, with or without polishing, sold. Coral is bored by steel needles, and in Italy this is done by hand ; but in Leipzig, Karl Hoffmann has invented a machine for boring, and has thereby rendered the process more expeditious. The working of Coral is principally carried on in Marseilles, Genoa, and Leghorn In the last- named city as many as 300 work-people are employed. Most of the Red Coral goes to India, China, and Japan. In India the dark-red variety has always been valued. Every Oriental strives to get a string of Corals for his turban, or at least sufficient to decorate the handle of his sword. They think that to leave their dead without ornaments of Coral, is to give them over to the hands of mighty enemies. There is scarcely an Indian to be found without at least one or two rows on one of his arms ; those who can afford it have them on both arms; the richer Indians wear Red Coral on head, throat, and legs. The Brahmins and Fakirs use Coral beads for rosaries to assist them in counting their prayers. The Chinese mix the Red Coral with Jade beads, and wear them as ornaments for the neck and head. The use of Coral in Europe, if we except England and Russia, is not large. The greater the size of the Coral and the paler its color the more valuable it is in this country. At the commencement of this century, however, Coral of a beautiful red color set in gold or silver, was Coral. 317 fashionable for earrings, bracelets, and necklaces ; and for baby rattles, in the nursery of the middle and upper classes. In commerce a variety of Corals are in demand, and are distinguished according to their color. There is, for example, the “ Coral rouge of Lamarck ’’ and the “ Ecume de Sang,” which is again sub-divided. Black Coral is but the stem of the Antipathes , a genus nearly allied to the Gorgonia, or Sea-fan. The coloring principle of the Coral is not discharged by chlorine ; it is insoluble in alcohol or other organic liquids, but is blackened by hydro-sulphuric acid, and dis¬ solves in mineral acids. According to M. Vogel a trace of oxide of iron is found in the coloring matter of Coral. The price of the pale and sound Coral is at present from £ io to £ ioo per ounce. The beautiful Rose-colored variety ranges from £ ioo to £200 per ounce ; and the Red varies, according to color, from £2 to £20 per ounce. Being soft, it is often used for Cameos. At the sale of the Empress Eugenie’s jewels, by Messrs. Christie and Manson, in 1872, a very fine suite of carved Coral and gold ornaments realized a high price : this probably may be explained by its having belonged to so distinguished a person. Fine specimens of carved Coral are not at all uncommon. Coral was formerly in great repute as a talisman against enchantments, witchcraft, thunder, tempests, and other perils. It was consecrated to Jupiter and Phoebus. In the curious Greek poem of Orpheus, the virtues of Coral are thus recorded ;— "The Coral too, in Perseus’ story named, Against the scorpion is of might proclaimed ; This also a sure remedy shall bring, For murderous asp, and blunt his fateful sting. Above all gems in potency ’tis raised, By bright-haired Phoebus and its value praised." 318 Coral. It is said that Ferdinand I., King of Naples, was a devout believer in the subtle virtues of Coral, and carried with him a coral amulet, which he invariably pointed towards any person whose evil influence he suspected. It would not be wise to say that Coral either has lost, or will permanently lose, its share of popularity. It was only as the competitor of Wisdom that it was said, “ No mention shall be made of Coral, or of Pearls, for the price of wisdom is above Rubies.” CHAPTER XXXVI. PEARLS. HOSE readers who are familiar with the earlier editions of this work, will no doubt, be surprised to find that the information on Pearls has been omitted in the present issue. The circumstances which have led to its suppression have been briefly explained in the Preface. So much informa¬ tion has recently reached the author from different sources, but especially from his sons, who have visited the Pearl fisheries of various parts of the world, that the subject has grown to a magnitude far too large to admit of satisfactory treatment in this volume. It has therefore been decided to devote a separate- treatise to this interesting subject, rather than to attempt to deal with it within the scanty limits that could be appropriated to it in the present work. ADDENDA. THE DIAMONDS OF THE UNITED STATES AND NEW ZEALAND. HILE the sheets of this work have been passing through the press, a valuable volume on the “Mineral Resources of the United States,” prepared by Mr. Albert Williams, Jun., has been officially issued by the Department of the Interior, at Washington. To this volume, an interesting section, treating of American Gems and Precious Stones has been contributed by Mr. G. F. Kunz. Some of the local information contained therein has been used in the preceding pages, but as our earlier chapters had been printed off before its publication, it was impossible to refer to it when treating of the Diamond. Hence it is con¬ sidered desirable to add here a short account of the occurrence of Diamonds in the United States. Perhaps the most noteworthy Diamond hitherto yielded by these States was one discovered at Manchester, opposite Richmond, in the State of Virginia. It was found by a labourer at work in one of the streets, and was submitted by him to Mr. J. H. Tyler, sen., of Richmond, who at once pronounced it to be a valuable stone. It Addenda. 321 presented the form of an octahedron, with only a single small black spot in one of the solid angles ; and after cutting weighed upwards of ten carats. It is said that a Diamond, weighing 2 \ carats, was recently found by a hunter while stooping to drink at a small brook in Missouri; but it is only fair to add that some doubt has been thrown on the provenance of this stone. Two crystals, each weighing more than two carats, are reputed to have been found in Indiana; and a beau¬ tiful Diamond, yielding a fine stone of § carat, was dis¬ covered near San Francisco. Occasionally a solitary stone is found at the Portis mine, in North Carolina ; in Hall County, Georgia ; and, it is said, with platinum, in Oregon. It is reported, too, that Diamonds have been found in Idaho, in San Juan County, Colorado ; and at Cherokee Flat and elsewhere in Butte County, California. In a work quite recently published on “ The Mineral Resources of New Zealand,” by Mr. H. Bramall, it is stated that Diamonds have been found at Raglan, about seventy miles from Auckland ; but that they were too small to be of any value as gem-stones. X APPENDIX A. On the Discrimination of Precious Stones. HIS Appendix has been prepared with the view of aiding those readers who may wish to become acquainted with some of the scientific means employed in the critical examination of Precious Stones. As information of this kind is necessarily somewhat technical, and must be conveyed in scientific language, it has been con¬ sidered desirable to add it in the shape of an Appendix rather than to incorporate it in the body of the work. This Appendix is therefore intended not so much for the general reader as for the student of Precious Stones, who is anxious to acquire familiarity with the modern methods of examining the physical properties of minerals. Specific Gravity. As specific gravity is a readily applicable, yet invaluable, aid in the discrimination of Precious Stones, a description of the usual modes of taking the specific gravity of a mineral may be useful. By specific gravity is meant the relative weights of equal bulks of different kinds of matter. Distilled water at 6o° F. is usually taken as the unit of com¬ parison, so that if a gem weigh 5% times as much as an equal bulk of water, under the above conditions, it is said to have a specific gravity of 5 * 5 - One method consists in placing the gem in a liquid of known specific gravity, and observing whether it sinks or floats. The liquid must necessarily be of very high specific gravity if it is to be of any use in Appendix. 323 dealing with gems. Such a liquid as that discovered by Mr. Sonstadt, and called after him “-Sonstadt’s Solution,” is very useful, and can be prepared of any specific gravity up to about 3. It is, however , very toisonous, and must he used with the greatest caution. It is prepared as follows: Take, say, about an ounce of distilled water, and dissolve therein as much potassium iodide as it will take up ; to which add, in small portions at a time, mercuric iodide, until no more of this body will dissolve. Again, introduce fresh portions of potassium iodide, as long as it will dissolve, and then add mercuric iodide until it ceases to dis¬ appear ; and so on alternately, at the same time stirring and gently warming the solution until neither salt will further dissolve. If neces¬ sary, it may be filtered through asbestos cloth. The solution should be of a bright honey-yellow color. It is improved by keeping a drop or two of metallic mercury at the bottom. A specific gravity as high as 3-18 may thus be attained, but for the purpose of discriminating Precious Stones, others of lower specific gravities can be employed. In a solution of this high density, any stone in the following list would float-. —Tourmaline, Turquoise, Labrador, Beryl, all the varieties of Quartz, and Moonstone ; while Garnet, Sapphire, Ruby, Chrysoberyl, Spinel, Topaz, Diamond, Peridot, and Chrysolite, from their greater specific gravity, would sink. Another method of taking specific gravities is by weighing the stone first in air and then in water, and dividing the former weight by the difference between the two weighings. A simple method, and one gene¬ rally of sufficient accuracy, is to employ a first-class pair of Diamond scales, as follows: Drill a small hole in the bottom of one of the scale pans, through which pass a double fibre of silk, so as to hang say 4 inches below the pan; tie a knot to prevent its slipping through ; suspend the stone in the silk by bending back the silk upon itself, so as to form a double slip noose; and weigh the stone very carefully while hanging suspended in this position. Then immerse the stone, as it hangs, in distilled water. It will appear to have lost weight, being, in fact, buoyed up by the water ; now add carefully more weights, till an equi¬ poise is effected; note the weight by which this is obtained, and divide the original weight of the stone by it, and the quotient will give the specific gravity required. Example: In weighing a white stone whose specific gravity we re¬ quired, we found the weight of the stone to be 4, £, ^ carats. The weights effecting the equipoise, x, J, carats. We have, therefore, or %^ = 3 ' 53 . which is the specific gravity required. This would indicate the specific gravity of a Diamond. In the preceding pages the specific gravity of each stone has been given at the end of its chapter, 324 Appendix. There are various other methods for determining this physical con¬ stant, but the above will suffice for ordinary purposes, care being taken to have the stone perfectly clean, and carefully damped before operation. The Hardness of Gems. To this property we are indebted for the durability of lustre enjoyed by the gems, in proportion so immensely superior to that of every other natural or artificial product employed as personal ornaments. The lustre of the Diamond may be closely imitated by art; but the hardness of this stone is a character that defies imitation. A German mineralogist named Mohs many years ago invented a scale of hardness for the testing of minerals. At the head of his scale stands the Diamond, and the various degrees are ranged as follows 10, Diamond; 9, Ruby; 8, Topaz; 7, Quartz; 6, Felspar; 5, Apatite; 4, Fluorspar; 3, Calcite; 2, Gypsum; 1, Talc. To ascertain the hardness of a stone, it is rubbed over an edge of another stone of known hardness. If it scratches, say, No. 7, but is scratched by No. 8, its hardness will lie between the two numbers. If it neither scratches nor is scratched by it, the two are identical in degree of hardness. The Optical Properties of Gems. The optical properties of Gems are of paramount importance. It is to these properties that the Diamond owes its superlative brilliancy and its flashing forth of “ living fire ; ” to these properties, too, the Ruby, owes its intensity and delicacy of hue and beauty ; in a word, the optical characters constitute a great gulf that divides the real stone from the imitation. Reflection. When a ray of light impinges upon the surface of a gem, part of it passes through it, in accordance with well-known optical laws, and part of it is thrown back or reflected , in obedience to the following laws:— (a.) The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection fj>.) Both the incident and the reflected ray are in the same plane, and this is perpendicular to the reflecting surface. The amount of light thus reflected is different in different gems, and it varies also in proportion to the obliquity with which the incident ray falls upon the stone. The amount of light reflected increases up to a certain angle—differing in different stones; and under certain conditions total reflection takes place. To this property is due the superior brilliancy of the Diamond, as every incident ray which strikes at a greater angle Appendix. 325 than 24 0 13' is totally reflected from its internal faces. We thus see the supreme importance of cutting a Diamond, not only of a graceful and handsome outline, but having each facet cut with such mathematical precision' as to secure the greatest amount of reflection from its surfaces. Refraction. Leaving the reflected part of the ray, and passing on to notice that part which is transmitted through the gem, we find that this transmission is regulated by laws which may be thus enunciated :— (a ) A ray of light passing from a rarer into a denser medium (as from air into a gem) is bent or refracted towards a line drawn perpendi¬ cularly to the plane which divides them : and vice versa. ( 6 .) The sines of the angles of incidence and refraction bear a con¬ stant relation to one another for each substance, which relation is known as its refractive index or index of refraction. It is to this property that lenses owe their magnifying power; the higher the indices, the higher the magnifying power. The refractive index of the Diamond is the highest of any well-known substance. It was the high refractive index of the Diamond that led Newton to suspect its composition, as explained in the foregoing pages under the head of Diamond. Sir D. Brewster gives the following as the refractive indices (for the yellow ray) of several gem¬ stones compared with glass :— Diamond 2 '75 Chrysoberyl 1 76 Zircon i '95 Spinel 175 to i-8i Ruby 177 Crown Glass >'5 Dispersion. When a ray of common white light passes through a transparent medium, it may suffer decomposition, and be split up into its component colors. If the medium be properly shaped, this decomposition of the light is rendered evident, and in place of the white light which entered there emerges a beautiful group of all the prismatic colors of the rainbow. This act of splitting up is called the Dispersion of light. It is the phenomenon familiar to all in a chandelier drop. As might be anticipated, the dispersion is highest in the Diamond; in fact, the dispersive power of this stone is more than three times as great as that of rock crystal. It is upon this property that the matchless quality called fire in the Diamond depends. The lower the dispersive power, the less fire in the gem ; the higher the dispersive power, the more brilliant and iridescent is the fire which it reflects from its surfaces. 326 Appendix. Double Refraction. The Diamond, Spinel, Garnet, and all other substances crystallizing in the Isometric or Cubic System, or those occurring in the amorphous condition, possess only simple refraction. The rest of the gems, which crystallize in systems other than the cubic, are said to exhibit double refraction : that is to say, when a ray of light passes through them, it is split up into two rays, one of which—called the ordinary ray—follows the laws of refraction just described, while the other—called the extraordinary ray—follows a totally different law. This splitting or dividing of the ray depends upon the direction in which the light is transmitted through the gem ; there being a certain position in which the ray suffers no division, and the substance then simply acts as an ordinary medium, possessing single refraction ; this direction is called the axis of double refraction, or the axis of no refraction , or the optic axis. On looking at a small bright flame through a transparent gem-stone, the flame will, if it be a simply refract¬ ing stone, appear single, and if a doubly refracting stone, double. This is, however, a very rough test: the stone must be moved from the eye till the object is attained; and the facets of a cut stone render the determi¬ nation extremely difficult. Polarization. There is an important series of changes that light is subject to known as Polarization. A full description of this phenomenon cannot be given here ; but there are several interesting facts that may be mentioned. When a ray of light falls upon a reflecting surface at a certain angle, and thence on to another similar surface, at a similar angle, it will be found that when the second surface is parallel to the first, the ray will be reflected from its surface; but when the position of the second sur¬ face is turned round so as to be vertical, the ray will no longer be reflected, and will therefore disappear. Under these conditions, the ray as it leaves the first surface is said to be Polarized; and the angle at which this is effected is called the Polarizing angle. This is different in different stones: for glass it is 54 0 35’; for Quartz, 57 32'; for Dia¬ mond, 68°—the angles being measured from a normal to the reflecting surface. To determine the polarizing angle of a gem, we have simply to reflect a ray of light from its surface at such an angle that it shall refuse to be reflected by a plate of glass inclined at 35 0 25' to the ray, when the plane of incidence is at right angles to the plane of reflection. When a ray of light is split into two rays by its passage through a doubly refracting medium, the two are polarized ; and the well-known instrument, called a “ Nicol’s prism,” conveniently enables the observer to obtain one of these polarized rays apart from the other. There is another remarkable property of gems depending upon Appendix. 32 7 polarization and double refraction, and known as Pleiockroism. This can be made an invaluable aid in the identification of gems, by the help of a little instrument called the Dichroiscope, Pleiockroism. Pleiochroism is a term used to express the existence of a plurality of colors in one and the same stone, when viewed by transmitted light under certain conditions. The mineral called Diehroite and some other stones show this difference of tint to the unaided eye, but, in most cases the instrument called a dichroiscope is needed for its detection. The dichroi¬ scope, which is a very valuable aid in the determination of gems, is con¬ structed as follows A cleavage Rhombohedrcn of Iceland spar! with its end faces ground and polished, so as to be perpendicular to the length of the prism, is fitted into a small cylinder about a few inches in length. At one end is a sliding cap with a square aperture perforated through its centre. At the other end is a lens, or combination of lenses, of such focal length that when -the sliding cap is pulled out, say a quarter of an inch, it will show a distinct image of the square aperture.' If a stone be introduced in front of the aperture, two images will be seen, and these will be of the same or of different hues, according to the optical characters of the stone. Those minerals which crystallize in the Cubic system, such as Diamonds, Garnets, and Spinels, show a pair of images identical in color. .But all Precious Stones crystallizing in any of the other systems show two images, the colors of which differ to a greater or less extent. This property of exhibiting two colors is called dichroism, and the stone possessing it is said to be dichroic. The following is a list of the twin colors of various gems seen with the dichroiscope, as given by Prof. Church :— NAME OF STONE. TWIN COLORS, Sapphire (blue) Greenish straw Blue Ruby (red) Aurora red Caroline red Emerald (green) Yellowish green Bluish green Beryl (pale blue) Sea green Azure Aquamarine (sea green) Straw white Grey blue Chrysoberyl (yellow) Golden brown Greenish yellow Tourmaline (red) Salmon Rose pink „ (green) Pistachio green Bluish green ,, (blue) Greenish grey Indigo blue Peridot Brown yellow Sea green Topaz (sherry-yellow) Straw yellow Rose pink APPENDIX B. General Remarks upon the term “ CARAT.” HE word Carat is probably derived from the name of a bean, the fruit of a species of Erythina, which grows in Africa. The tree which yields this fruit is called by the natives “Kuara” (Sun), and both blossom and fruit are of a golden color. The bean or fruit, when dried, is nearly always of the same weight, and thus in very remote times it was used in Shangallas, the chief market of Africa, as a standard of weight for gold. The beans were afterwards imported into India, and were there used for weighing the Diamond. The Carat is not of the same weight in all countries ; for instance:— One Carat in England and her Colonies is equal to 205-4090 mill „ France . 205-5000 „ Vienna . .. .. 206-1300 „ Berlin . ... 205-4400 ,, Frankfort-on-Maine... „ 205-7700 „ Leipzig . 205-0000 „ Amsterdam . M N O Cn -4 O O O ,, Lisbon ... ... f9 ... 205-7500 „ Leghorn ... ... jy 215-9900 ,, Florence . „ ... I95-2000 „ Spain . 105-3930 ,, Borneo ... ... 99 ... I05-0000 ,, Madras ... ... n 20 7'3533 72 carats make... . One Cologne oz. 1511 carats make One English oz. troy. The ounce weight is used for weighing small and Baroque Pearls , Pemdots, rotigh Garnets , and other Semi-Precious Stones. grams. INDEX Achates River, Agates PAGE named from ... 213 Achroite ... 306 Adamantine Lustre 68 ■——— Spar 1 5 3 Adamus ... ... 28, 137, 133 Adularia ... 2 77 Aerolites, Peridot in 286 Afghanistan Rubies 1 6 l -—S-• Spinels 188 Africa (South), Cat’s Eye (so-called) from tQO s 201 -——— Crocidolite of 246,247 -— Diamonds of 57, 80—100, II7, IlS ; first discovery, 82; enormous yield 100 -—— Diamond mines of . 19, 22, 86 > 137 -— Precious Stones in 24 See Cape Diamonds. Africa (West), Diamonds reported from 80 African Coast, Coral of ... 3 1 5 Agates 19, 27, 30, 31, 52, 89, 213—216 281 -Amethysts found associated with 228 —-- colouring of 51—34, 215, 216 -—-cooking of, in honey 5 1 -- - dyeing of ... 5 2 ——— test of worth of ... 5 2 -of Vaal and Orange Rivers 89 See Idar. Oberstein. Amir Hills, supposed Tur- quoise in 2°3 Alexander the Great. Pre- cions Stones in time of 29 Alexandria, Stone-engraving introduced from 48 Alexandrite ... 19, 218, 240 Algeria, Diamonds reported in 80 -Coral of ... 314 —— Emeralds of iS i “ Alrnandine ” ... ...249—233 g——- Garnet 46 - Spinel 189 Alphabets of Precious Stones 3 1 PAGE Altai Mountains, Aqua¬ marine of ... ... 231 —--Emeralds of ... 181 Alumina and Aluminium... 152, 174 Amazon ite,or Amazon Stone 220, 221 Amber ... 26—28, 222-—226 --association of, with Lignite ... ... 223 America, Diamonds of 80, 320, 321 -Precious Stones of, generally 8o, 170, 187, 193, 199, 200, 226, 228, 231, 242, 251, 2 S 5 > 2 59 > 2 7 8 > 2 97 > 300—307 ... ... 320, 321 —-— demand for Cat’s Eye in ... ... 199, 200 -—— (South), Emerald, &c. of ... 22, 179, 215, 228 American War, price of Diamonds affected by Amethyst 22—32, 213, 227—229 —--burning of -derivation of word Intaglios ... 5 8 237 S° 229 228 Amsterdam, centre of Dia¬ mond-trade ... ... 38 - Diamond-cutting at 3 6 , 3 8 > 4 i, 4 2 > 118 Amsterdam Exhibition, Borneo Diamonds in examples of Dia¬ mond-cutting in Amulets, use of Gems as 30, 59, 60, 205, 303 Anatase Ancients, their knowledge and use of Precious ■35 318 110 Stones xi, 22—23 j 34 s 64,1 62,168 A 73 - ■ r 7 S. 186, ! 9 S> 2 05, 224, 236, 241, 2 43 > 2 S°> 263, 269, 272, 2 77 > 281, 284, 2 8S. 292, 294, 301 -engraving of Gems b 7.. _—- jewels of, now well copied . 47 “ 310 -49 49 330 Index. PAGE Ancients, Diamonds associated with “thunderbolts” by . 77 -Turquoise doubtful if known to .. ... 205 “ Anthrax’YOrientalRuby) 158 Antwerp, Diamond-cutters of . 37 Apatite ... ... ... 242 Aphroselene ... ... 277 Apostle-stones _ ... ... 30 Appianus on Onyx-cups ... 283 Aquamarine ... 174, 230—232 -Chrysolite... ... 231 Arabia, cooking Agate- nodules in ... ... 51 - Precious Stones of 64, 168, 206, 277, 278, 281, 283, 311 Arabian Sea, Emerald-mines near ... .. ... 175 Arabian Topaz Amulet ... 303 Arfwedson on Chrysoberyl 241 Aristotle on Precious Stones 28 Arizona, Garnet of ... 251 Armenia, Corundum of ... 136 -Oriental Onyx from 28 1 Artificial Gems 172, 173, 176, 284 See also Colouring. Idar. Oberstein. Asbestos ... ... ... 246 Asia Minor, Emery from... 136 Asparagus (yellow - green Chrysoberyl)... ... 241 Assyrians, probable use of Corundum by ... 136 Asterias, or Star Stones ...209—211 Asterios of Periegetes ... 28 “ Asterites ” found in a fish 210 ‘‘Astrapia ” ... ... 210 Auctions of Rough Stones 57 Aurungzeb's Topaz ... 302 Australia, Gems of, gene¬ rally 23, 24, 80, 104— 106, 162, 169, 170, 228,251,272,302 Australian Diamonds 80, 101 —106 Australian Diamond-mines Co. ... ... ... 102 Austria, Almandine of ... 250 Ava, Sapphire seen at ... 170 Ava, King of, Rubellite presented by ... ... 307 Avanturine ... ... 233, 234 Avanturine-glass ... ... 233 Aztecs, Emeralds cut by the 178 Azul (Lapis-Lazuli) ... 269 PAGE Azurite ... ... ... 274 Babin et, treatment of Dia- monds by 6 7 Babylon, Bloodstone used in 2 35 - Oriental Onyx from 281 Baccius on Gems 202, 267, 277 Badakshan Spinels 187, 188 Baden, Carnelian found in... 237 Bahia, Diamonds &c. of ri2, 11 6, >44 Balas Rubies ... ...1 86—190 Ball, Prof. V., on Indian Diamond-districts 126 Barberini Palace, Gems in 49 Barbot, experiments on Dia- monds by 69, 70 Barklyite ... I 6-2 Baroche, Carnelian found at 5 ° Baltic, Amber of the 224 Bavaria, Cat’s Eye, &c. of 22, 797, 201, 231 260 Beaumont, Major, informa- tion communicated by ... xiTi —-his Diamond rock- boring patents 146 “Beau Sancy ” Diamond... 36 Bedford, Duke of, engraved Diamond in possession of 61 Beechworth Diamonds and Rubies 105,162 Bengal, Diamond-beds mar 130 Berlin Museum, Gems at ... 49 , z 39 -Malachite vase in... 2 74 Bernard!, engraving Caine- lian by 49 Berne Museum, Rock-crys- tal in ... 293 Berquem, Diamond-cutting h y . 35 , 3 6 ' 6 ° Beryl, 22—31. 59, 174, 179, 230, 231, 237, 242 -Blue . 28 Beryllium ... 174, 288 Bhudda Festival, jewel-mar- ket at ... 56 Bible, the. Precious Stones referred to in 25, 26, 59 . '- 55 , ! 5 6 - l66 > > 75 , 236, 263, 264, 283, 31 8 Bingera Diamond-field io 3 Birago, Diamond-engraving by . 49,61 Birds, legendary weeping of Amber by 225 Birkenfeld, Agate-polishing at ... ... 21 6 Index. PAGE Blacas Collection of Gems 49 Black Diamonds ... 69, 78, 142 -Opal ... ... 196 -Pearls, imitation of 257 -Tourmaline ... 307 Bleasdale, Dr., on Victorian Diamonds ... ... 105 Bloodstone... ... ... 235, 257 Blue Beryl... ... ... 28 - Diamonds, 134— 141 ; first in Europe, 137; Blue Drop, 140 ; Blue White ... ... 98 -Sapphire ... ...167—170 -Spinel ... ... 187 Blum on Diamonds and Emeralds ... ... 49, 180 Boethius. See De Boot. Bohemia, Sapphires, &c. of 170, 189, 213, 231, 250, 253, 281, 302 “ Bohemian Garnet ” ... 253 Borah Tin and Diamond Mining Co. ... ... 104 Borgio, cutter of Koh-i-nur 39 Boring of Coral ... ... 316 Borneo Black Diamonds ... 69 - Diamonds, &c. of 69, 80, 81, 112, 123—135, 241 Boron and Carbon... ... 143. 146 Bort ... ... ... 143 Bowles on probable Dia¬ mond-finds in Spain... 80 Boyle on Diamonds ...70,71, 83 Brabant Rose ... ... 46 Bramall, Mr., on New Zealand Diamonds ... 321 Brazil, former Diamond- trade of ... ... 57 -Precious Stones in, generally 22, 24, 50, 116, 144, 228, 230, 238, 241, 248, 251, 286, 294, 295, 299, 300—304, 307 “ Brazilian Agate ” ... 215 Brazilian Diamond-mines 19, 22, 106, 118, 137 Brazilian Diamonds 22, 63, 65, 80, 8 1, 107—118 -in relation to African Diamonds ... ... 57, 100 — colourless ... ... 68 — discovery of ... 107 — first sold as Indian stones... ... ... 107 rtiinerals associated with 110 331 PAGE Brazilian produce and value of 117 Bredmeyer, Mr., on Ruby- mines of Burmah ... 159 Breslau, Red Jasper of ... 265 Brewer, Mrs., translation of Kluge’s work by ... xiii Brewster on Diamonds, &c. 67, 68, 77, 227 Brighton Museum, Amber cup in... ... ... 225 Brilliant, generally 36, 41, 60, 67, 85, 97, 137 —142, 168 -facetting, &c. of ... 44 - when first known 60 -price of ... 150 Briolettes ... 45 “ Bristol Diamonds ” 294 British Museum, Gems in 49, 78, 228, 261;, 402, 407 -—— likeness of Chaucer in Jasper in ... 265 Brittany, Turquoise - like ornaments found in ... 207 Brown, Major, on Lacha Pass Sapphires 169 Browne, Sir T., on Dia- monds and Crystal ... 65, 2qi Bruges, Diamond-cutting in 35 Brunswick, Duke of, his “ Blue Drop” Diamond 140 Bruting of Precious Stones 33 Bruzzi, V., his experiments on coloured Diamond 37 Bucharia, Lapis-Lazuli of... 270 Bulfontein, dry diggings of 91, 92 Bundelkhund, Diamonds of I 2 I Burgundy, Duke of, Dia- monds presented by ... 35 , 3 6 Burmah, King of, Ruby ear-drop of ... 163 Burmah, Rubies, &c. of 158 —164, 168, 181, 187 251 Burmah Stone l6l Burning of Precious Stones 5 °, 5 i “ Burning of Troy” Opal I 95 Burton, Capt., on Turquoise 205 Cabochon style of cutting 46, , 47, 209 Cacholong... 3 1 Caillaud on Emeralds ' 75 , 5 7 6 Caire, M., his Star Brilliant 45 Cairngorm... 292 Cairo, Jasper found near ... 265 Calconite ... 207 California Precious Stones in ... ... ... 24, 321 Callaipite ,,, ,,, 207, 208 Index. 332 PAGE 202 56 Callais, or Callaina Caltura, working Gems in Cameos 18, 47—49, 206, 237—239, 274, z8i — 283, 295, 310, 311 ■ - transparent stones rarely used for Candite Cape Diamonds 38, 58, 68, '3G J 49, !5° --colourless ... ... 68 -first discovered ... 83 -- rock in which found, compared with Indian rock ... ... ... 131 Cape Rough Diamonds ... 149, 150 Caradossa, Diamonds first sculptured by... ... 49 Carat, remarks on... ... 328 Carbon, Diamond formed from ... ... ... 76, 151 ■ -connected with Boron 146 Carbonado ... 100, 11 2, 143 —146 - undiscovered in 3*7 48 186 South Africa ... Carbuncle, ... 59, 249, 252, -steeping of, in vine¬ gar . “ Carbunculus ” : 53, TOO 284 57 158, 186 (Oriental Ruby) Cardanus on Opal and Zir¬ con ... ... ... I91, Carnelian ... 30, 31, 213, 236- -dyeing of ... --engraving of -origin of word Carnelian Beryl -Onyx “ Carnelian of Brazil ” Carolina (North), Corun- - dum, &c. of ... 155, 259, 321 Carrara Marble, Rock- crystal in ... ... 293 Carthagena, Amethysts of 228 Cashmere, Gems of ... 23, 168, 169 Catherine, Empress, presen¬ tation of Ruby by ... 163 Cat’s Eye, 47, 55, 56, 168, 197 — 201, 240, 246, 247 •- four stones known under name of -True See Chrysoberyl. Celebes, Diamonds of Cellini, Benvenuto, on Ruby Celts of Jade “ Ceraunia ” 3°9 239 5 2 49 256 23 7 2 37 53 201 . 197—201 80 162 261 210 PAGE Ceylon, abundance of large Gems in ... ... 22 -chatoyant quartz of 197 ■- Precious Stones of, generally 22, 24, 55,57, 168, 187—189, 199, 210, 218, 219, 228, 241, 254, 260, 277, 293- 3=5, 3=7, 3 11 - Sapphires and Ru¬ bies of 154, 161, 168, 171, 2T 1 Ceylonite ... ... ... 186, 189 Chalcedony 31, 213, 214, 2 3 6 , 2 37, 2 43> 2 47> 284 -blue colouring of .. 53 Chaldeans, amulets used by 60 Chardin on Rubies ... 163 Charlemagne, Diamonds in mantle of ... ... 34 Charles VII., first Diamond ornaments in reign of 60 Charlotte, Queen, Amethyst necklace of ... ... 228 Chaucer, likeness of, in Jas¬ per ... ... ... 265 Chemical Composition oi Gem-stones. See under Specific Gravity, &c. Chemistry, essential in science of Jewelry ... ... 20 Chessy, Malachite from ... 273 Chessylite ... ... ... ^74 China, Burmese Rubies taken to ... ... 1 60, 1 61 - Coral worn in ... 316 - Diamond rock-bor¬ ing in. 147 ■—--Jade used in ...261,316 - Precious Stones of 163, 181, 223, 228, 231, 270 China, Emperor of. his Jas¬ per seal ... ... 264 Christ, Bloodstone bust of 235 Christian Era, writers on Precious Stones in ... 29 Christie and Manson, sale of Empress Eugenie’s jewels by ... ... 317 Chrysoberyl 31, 32, 112, 197—201, 219, 240—242, 286 See Cat’s Eye, Chrysocolla ... 175, 274, 275 - resemblance of, to Turquoise ... ... 275 Chrysolite xi, 27—31, 240 — 242, 285, 287 Chrysopal ... ... ... 244 Index. 333 PAGE Chrysoprase ... 31, - imitating colour of Church, Prof., on Precious 2 43— 2 45 54 Stones ... ix, x, Church Ornaments, Dia- 3 12 , 3 2 7 monds in 34 Cincora Diamonds Cingalese, Cat’s Eye prized i <7 b y . 200 Cinnamon Stone 36, 234, 233, 311 Circular Agate 214 Citrine 2Q2 Clark on the Diamond Clarke, Rev. W. B., on New South Wales 74 Diamonds Classification of Precious IOI Stones Cleavage of Diamonds, &c. 18, 149 33 , 6 3 > l8 °, Climate in relation to mine- 189, 241 rals ... “ Clouds ” in Precious 22 S tones 5 « “Coast Cat’s Eye” Cohen on Cape Diamond- *97 rock ... 95 “ Colesberg Kopje ” 94 Cologne, Onyx-pillar in ... Colombo, working of Gems 283 in Colorado, Amazonite, &c. 56 of ... 220, 251, 288, Colour of Diamond, ex- 3 ° 3 , 3 21 tracting -of Gem-stones. See generally under Name of Gem. Also , Twin- colours. 37 Coloured Stones ... ...1 -English unrivalled in 51—211 treatment of ... Colouring of Precious Stones 37 S 1 — 54 , : See also Idar. Oberstein. 215, 216 Columbia, Diamonds of ... Combustibility of Diamond, 81 &c. See Burning. Commodus, Emperor, en- 7 °, 7 1 graved Aquamarine of 232 Common Opal 192 Connecticut, Ioiite of Constantine's gemmed cha- 260 riot 2 9 Conti on a Diamond-produc- ing mountain 128 PAGE Convex-cut Stones... ... 46 Copenhagen, Gems in ... 49 Copper-ore, Malachite with 272 Coral and Coral-fishing 26,27, 3 1 3-318 “ Coral Rouge of Lamarck ” 317 Cordilleras, Lapis-Lazuli of 270 Cornwall, Topaz, &c. of 273, 303, 307 Corsica, Jasper of ... ... 265 Corundum 15 1 —162, 167, 188, 227, 240 - meaning of name 152 - remarkable deposit of . >55 Cosmo III., Diamond-expe¬ riments suggested by... 70, 71 Cost of Diamond-cutting on the Continent ... 42 - of engraved Dia¬ monds ... ... 61 See Prices. Value. Coster and Sons, cutters of Koh-i-nur ... ... 39, 42 Crawfurd, Mr. J., on Pre¬ cious Stones in Burmah 139 Crocidolite... 31, 200, 201, 246 -Cat's Eye... ... 247 Croockewit, Dr., on Borneo Diamond-workings ... 133 Crookes, Mr., on Diamond, &c. 70, 252 Crown Jewels ... ... 26, 283 - of France 35, 36, 60, 138, 190, 295 -of Italy ... ... 179,232 -of Russia ... ... 37 Crystal ... ... ... 50, 201 See Rock Crystal. Crystal-balls as lenses ... 294 Crystalline System of Gem¬ stones. See under Spe¬ cific Gravity, &c. Culet or Culette of the Brilliant ... ... 44 Cumberland, hard Hematite of . 2 57 “ Cupid’s Arrows ” ... 293 ‘‘ Curious Speculations,” &c., history of Tourmaline in ... .. ... 305 Cutting of Diamonds, &c. 34 — 47 , 6o , 2 37 Cymophane ... ... 198, 240 “ Cyprian Smaragdus ” ... 177 Cyprus, Emerald unknown in ... ... ... 177 - Gems in tombs and temples of ... ... 283 334 Index. PAGE D’Acosta on Emeralds ... 179 D’Amato on Ruby-mines of Burmah ... ... 159 Damour, M., on Callais ... 208 Darfour, report of Diamonds sent to ... ... 80 Davy,. Sir H., on Diamond 72 Deaz, Bernal, on Calconite 207 De Beers, earliest in Cape Diamond-fields ... 91, 9 2 De Boot on Diamonds, &c. 30, 37, 64, 69, 190, 264, 283, 301, 309 De Laet on Emeralds .. 176 Demidofl, Prince, Malachite from mine of... ... 274 Democritus of Thrace, imi¬ tation of Emeralds by 176 Derbyshire, Selenite of ... 276 Derbyshire-Spar ... ... 276 Descloizeaux, M., on Amazon Stone... ... ... 220 Despretz on Diamond ... 75 Deville. See Wohler and Deville. Devonshire Collection, fine Emerald in ... ... 179 Diamantina ... ... no -—Diamonds... ... 117 Diamond, chemical compo¬ sition of . ... ... 70, 81 •- cleavage of ...39,40,63 -colour of 37,68,99, 136—142 ——-—combustibility of ... 70 - crystalline forms of 62, 81 -- crystallized carbon 87 -dispersion of ... 66 - fracture of ... 64 - geographical distri¬ bution of ... ... 80 - hardness of ... 39, 64, 65, 81 - lustre of ... 68 -medical virtues attri- buted to 59 - non-conductor of electricity 70 -non-polarizer of light 6 7 -optical properties of 63, 66 - origin of ... 66, 76 - phosphorescence of 69 -reflection and refrac- tion of 65, 66 - relative rank of ... 19 - specific gravity of... 81 - union of opposite elements in ... 18 -vegetable origin of... 77 PAGE Diamonds, generally 28—35, 57 — 59 , 2 4 I -of Australia, Brazil, India, &c. 22, 57, 101 —118, 320—321 ■-removing colour and flaws of ... ... 37 -rise and fall of price of ... ... ... 38 --— first use of, for orna¬ ment ... ... ... 59 -otherstones mistaken for ... ... ... 61 - how got into river- gravels ... ... 89 -smuggling of, by negroes ... ... 114, x 15 - Zircons sold as ... 311 See Black Diamonds. Brazilian Diamonds. Brilliant. Cape Dia¬ monds, &c. Diamond-amulets ... ... 59, 60 Diamond-bearingrock, erup¬ tive origin of... ... 92 Diamond-cutters of Amster¬ dam ... ... ... 118 Diamond-cutting 33—47, 60, 143, 144 Diamond-dust ... 39, 69, 143 Diamond-engraving ■•• 49 . 60, 61 Diamond-grinding and polishing ... 34, 40—42 Diamond-mines of Africa, Brazil, and India 19, 22, 128, 129, 132 Diamond Rock-boring Co. 145 Diamond-splitting... ... 39,40 Diamond-trade ... 117, 118, 150 Diaspore ... ... ... 31 Dichroiscope, use of ... 165 Dichroism of Tourmaline... 306 Dichroite ... ... ... 260 Diodorus on Topaz ... 28 Dionysius Periegetes on Dia¬ mond, &c. ... ... 28 Dioscorides on Moonstone 277 Discrimination of Precious Stones ... ... 322 Dispersion... ... ... 66, 325 “ Dissentis’ Hyacinth” ... 254, 255 Dominicode’ Camei, cutting of stones by ... ... 49 Domitian, use of Emeralds by 176 Double Refraction of Gems 68, 326 Draakensberg, a possible home of Diamonds ... 90 Index. 335 PAGE Drayson, Mr. C., his Green Diamond ... ... 141 Dree, Marquis, Sard-Onyx Cameo of ... .. 283 Dresden Museum, Diamonds in ... ... ... 62, 141 Drytzehen, A., Gem-cutting b y . 34 “Dudley " Diamond ... 96 Duncannon, Lord, his en¬ graved Zircon ... 310 Dunn, Mr., on Diamond¬ bearing rock ... ... 92 “ Dust” in Precious Stones 58 Dutch, first Cape Diamonds found by ... ... 83 -Tourmaline brought to Europe by ... ... 305 Dutch Brilliants ... ... 43 Dutch East India Co., rough stones received by ... 57 Du Toit's Pan Diamonds 91, 92, 97, 98 Dyeing of Precious Stones. See Colouring. East, the, early Diamond- trade in ... ... 59 “ Ecume de Sang” ... 317 “Edelsteinkunde ” ... 19 Egypt, Emeralds, &c. of 22, 176, 206, 264,265, 281, 294 -Scarabsen Gems, &c. in .. ... ... 25 Egyptian Mummies, Eme¬ ralds found on ... 175 -Pebble ... ... 31 Egyptians, probable use of Corundum by ... 156 - early working of Emerald-mines by ... 175 - use of engraved Bloodstone by ... 235 Elba, Tourmaline of ... 306, 307 Electricity, Diamond a non¬ conductor of ... ... 70 - from Amber, &c. 223, 292, 302, 306 Eliason, Mr., his Blue Bril¬ liant ... ... ... 138 Emerald 22, 28—32, 47, 59, 174—183, 230, 241 Emerald-column at Tyre ... 28 Emerald-mines ... ... 175 Emery, for polishing, &c. , t 55 — * 57 . 2 37 > a6 4 , 3 10 England, Diamond-cutters of 37 PAGE England, Precious Stones sent to ... ... ... 56 - Stone-engraving in 49 Engraving Diamonds ...49, 60, 61 -Precious Stones, generally 47—50, 171, 179, 194, 205, 206, 228, 232-239, 250, 274, 281—283, 295, 3 ° 3 , 3 I0 > 3 * 7 Essonite ... ... 254,255,311 Ethiopia, Corundum, Pearls, and Zircon of 26, 156, 311 Etruria, Duke of, Turquoise owned by ... ... 205 Euclase ... ... ... 248 Eugenie, Empress, objection to Opal by ... ... 27 - carved Coral in collection of ... ... 317 Europe, no Jade found in ... 261 Evodus, Aquamarine en¬ graved by ... ... 232 Exhibition (London), Gems in 163, 170, 171, 179, 188, 206 -(Paris). Gems in, 61, 1 tq, lQt Eye Agate. 214 Facets ... 33, 35, 43—47, 50 False Topaz ... ... 192, 302 Family Jewels, importance of correctly valuing ... x “Feathers ” in Diamonds, &c. 5 *. 69 Felspar 3 1 Ferdinand I., Coral-amulet worn by 3*8 Field on Lapis-Lazuli 270 “ Fire ” of Brilliants '37 Fire-opal ... 192 “ Fire-rocks ” 267 Firestone ... 3 1 Fire-wotshippers and Am- ber 225 Fischer, Prof, on Crocido- lite Cat’s Eye... 2 47 “Fish’s Eye” 277 “ Fleches d’Amour ” 2 93 Flight, Dr., on Cape Dia- mond-rock 93 Flinders’ Island Topaz 3°3 Florence, Gems at... 49, 206, 239 - Jasper used for mo- sales at 264 Fluorescence of Amber 224 Fluor-spar ... 1 77 “ Fly ” Diamond ... 97 33<5 Index. PAGE Forster, Mr. J. N., Rubies, &c. re-cut by 163, 164, 171, 187, 188 Foster, Mr. J. A., informa¬ tion communicated to Author by ... ... xiii Form of Gem-stones. See under Specific Gravity, &c. Fortification Agate 215 Fossil Turquoise ... 206 Fouque on Cape Diamond- rock ... 95 Fourcroy on Diamond 74 Fracture of Diamond, &c... 64, 180 France, Amber, Beryl, and Rock-crystal of ... 223, 2 3 1 ’ 2 93 - Coral-fishing by ... 3 1 5 -Crown Jewels of 36, 60, 138, 1 90, 295 -Diamond-cutting in . 3 6 -- Diamond-ornaments early used in ... 60 —-Revolution in, affect- ing price of Diamonds - Stone-engraving in 49 See Paris. Francis I., Diamonds, &c. of 5< 3,60,71 Frederick the Great, use of Chrysoprase by 243 Galen on Jasper ... 264 Galle, working of stones in 56 Gani Coulour Diamonds 125. 126,137 Garnet, generally 31, 34, 46, 102, 112, 164, 1 65, 187, 211, 242, 249—2 56, 3x1 --- resemblance of, to Ruby ... ... ... 1 64, 165 “ Garnet Plates” ... ,,, 250 Garrards, first Cape Dia- mond in possession of... 85 Gassiot on Diamond 75 “ Gem of the Sun ” 278 Gems ... ,. 25, 3c ’, 49 . 9 6 - ancient, imitation of 49 -classification of ... 18,19 -- definition of 17 — 20 -proper for each month 3 ° See Amulets. Jewels. Precious Stones. Gem-stones 1 8, 22 Genesius on “Pitdah” ... 301 Genlis, Madame de, on Sap- phi re ... 172 Genoa, Coral-working in ... 3x6 PAGE Geology, essential to science of Jewelry ... ... 20 - of Diamond-fields:— Africa ... ... 86 Australia ... 106 Borneo ... ... 134 Brazil ... ... 108, 109 India ... ...119—1 3 1 New South Wales ' 102 Geometry, essential to science of Jewelry ... ... 20 Germany, Agate-polishing mills of ... ... 215 -- Amber-fields of ... 223 -Diamond-cutting in 41, 42 ■-Stone-engraving in 49 Germany, Emperor of, Greek gems in possession of 238 Gesenius on Emerald ... 175 Girdle of the Brilliant ... 44 Glass, gold-spangled, used as Avanturine ... ... 233 Glucina in Chrysobery! ... 241 Glucinum ... ... ... 174, 288 Goebel on Diamond ... 77 Goeppert, Prof., on Amber 223 Golconda,Diamonds of 121, 125 —127 Gold, associated with Pre¬ cious Stones ... ... 24 Goldschmidt, Mad., Opals of 195 Goldsmiths’Company,exhi¬ bitions by, desirable ... xii, xiii Gooseberry Stone (Grossu- laria) ... ... ... 255 “ Goutte d’Eau ” ... ... 304 Granite ... ... ... 31 Gravels, Diamonds, &c. in 89, 102 “Great Mogul” Diamond 1 21, 126 Greeks, Amber ornaments of 225 -Carnelian Cameosof 238 -cutting stones by ... 48 - Precious Stones of 26—28, 277, 281, 294, 295, 301. 307 - Sapphire-charms used by ... ... 168 -Stone-engraving in¬ troduced into Italy by 48 Greek-writers, “ Adamas ” ° f .> 37 , >53 Green-colour of Diamonds and Sapphires... 136, 141, 160 -of Emerald 175—179, 184 Greenland, Amber and Gar¬ net of... ... ... 223, 251 Gregory XIII., his Zircon cameo ... ... 311 Index. 337 PAGE Grinding of Precious Stones Griqualand, Cat’s Eye from —-Diamond-fields of... Guilds of Gem-cutters 42 200 85 34 . 35 Gustavus III , Ruby pre¬ sented to 163 Guttenberg, Gem-cutting by 34 Gwydir Diamond-mining Co. 104 Gypsum 276 Halphen, Mr. J., Red Dia¬ mond of 141 Hannay, J. B., on Diamond 79, go HardnessofGem-stones. See under Specific Gravity, &c. Hargraves, Mr., on New South Wales Gems ... ioi Harlequin Opal ... ... 191, 195 Hartz, Jasper of the ... 265 Hausmann on Diamond ... 77 Haiiy on Spinel ... ... 189 Haiiyne ... ... ... 269 Heat, effect of, on Opal ...- 192 Helen of Troy, Aster used by 2:0 Heliotrope... ... ... 31,235 Helmreicher, Diamond-col¬ lection of ... .. 136 Hematite ... ... ... 257, 258 Herculaneum, Emerald orna¬ ments from ... ... 175 Hermann, Diamond-cutter 35 Hernias, King, Emerald¬ eyed lion on tomb of 177 Herodotus on Poiycrates’ ring, &c. ... ... 27, 28 Heron, Dr., Spinel owned by 188 Heyne on Indian Diamond- mines ... ... ... 1 25, 127 Hiddenite ... ... ... 259, 300 “ Highgate Resin ” ... 225 Hindoos, classification of Diamonds by... ... 123 Hoffmann’s Coral-boring process ... ... 316 Holland, Amber of ... 223 —-Diamond-cutting in 37,41, 42 -- Diamond-trade of 38 “ Holy Fire ” of the An¬ cients... ... .. 27 Homer, references to Gems by ... ... ... 26 Honduras, Opal of ... 193, 195 Honey, dyeing Agates, &c, in ... ... ... 5x, 52 Hope Collection, Gems in 61, 142, 163, 172, 195, 211, 231, 244, 274 PAGE “Hope” Diamond ... 139, 140 Hornblende ... ... 246 Hudleston, Mr, on Kim¬ berley Diamond-mine 95 Humboldt’s Companions, Diamonds found by ... 81 Hungary, Opal, &c. of 192—1 95. 293 Hyacinth 30, 31, 254,255, 309—312 burning of ... 50 “ Hyacinthus ” ... ... 167 Idar, Agate-industry of ... 215 ■ v colouring Agates, &c. at ... 52, 53, 238 Idocrase ... ... ... 31 Imitation of Precious Stones. See Artificial Gems. Inadamantine Diamonds ... 126 India, Cameos from ... 237, 238 Coral and Onyx Ornaments in ... ... 284, 316 -Diamond-mines of 19, 22, 137 ——-—Diamond-rock of... 131 Diamonds of 57, 64, 68, 80, 81, 100, 119—■ 132 -- Gem-cutting in ...38, 39, 46 jgjjggpll Gem-monopoly in 55 |™||—A Gems abundant in 22 —-- Precious Stones of, generally 24—26, 55, 152, 154, 363, i68fjd « 171, 180—203, 215, 223, 228, 237—239, 242, 25 1, 281, 303, 311 -Rock-crystal dyeing in ... ... ... 51 —~—— uncut stones of ... 60 Indian Ocean, Coral of ... 315 Indicolite ... ... ... 306 Insects in Amber ... ... 222, 225 Intaglios 38, 47, 49, 156, 194, 228, 235, 244, 2 57 ••• 2 95 Intoxication, Amethyst an antidote to ... ... 229 lolite ... ... ... 260 Ireland, Diamond found in 80 -—--Spodumene of ... 300 “ Irish Diamonds” ... 294 Iron-mines, Amethysts in... 227 Iron-ores in Jewelry ... 257 Iron-pyrites in Lapis-Lazuli 269 ■-■ as affecting colour of ■Diamonds ... ... 99 Irvine, Dr., on supposed find¬ ing of Turquoise ... 203 Iser Mountains, Sapphires of 170 33 § Index. PAGE Isidorus on Gems ... 29, 30, 176, 263 “ Isle of Wight Diamonds ” 29A Itaberite IO9 Itacolumite... ... .. : IO9-III Italy, Amber of ... 223 -Carnelian-engraving in 49 -Gems in ... 49 -Lapis-Lazuli used in 271 --—■ Stone-engraving in 48 Jacinth ... ... 19, 254, 309 Jacinthe la Belle” 3°9 Jacobs’ first-discovered Cape Diamond 83 Jacquelaine on Diamond ... 75 Jade 261,262 Jade-beads worn by Chinese 316 Jagersfontein Diamonds 19, 22, 86, 98, 99 Jameson on Diamond 77 Japan, Diamond rock-boring in 146 Jardin des Plantes, Blue Sapphire in ... 170 Jargoon ... ... ...; 309—312 Jarlet, Diamond-cutter 37 Jasper 27—31, 59, 175, 213, z 35, 263—266, 272 Java, Diamonds of... ... 80 Jenks, Col., on Corundum.. 153 Jewellers, classification of Carnelian, &c. by ... 231, 237 Jewel-market at Ratnapura 35 Jewelry, importance of science of ... ... ... 19 -artificial Avanturine in . 233 -— iron-ores used in ... 237 -Rock-crystal in ... 293 Jewels, Ancient, imitation of 26, 49 - Family, importance or rightly estimating... x -— Homeric ... ... 26 See Gems. Precious Stones. Jewish High Priest’s Gem9 25, 26, 264 Jews, naming Precious Stones by ... ... 26 - Stone-engraving in¬ troduced by ... ... 48 -trade in Gems by .. 38 Jones, Prof. R., on shingle of Vaal and Orange Rivers... ... ... 89 Josephine, Empress, Opal owned by ... ... 195 PAGE Julius II., Pope, Emerald, &c. in tiara of ... 179, 232 Kandy, working of stones in 55 , 5 6 Karoo-formation ... 86 Katharinenberg. See Ural Mountains. Kentmann, Point-cut Gems known to 46 “Kidney-stone” ... 258, 262 Kimberley 'Diamond-fields.. 94—100 See also Africa. King, Rev. C. W., on Ame¬ thyst, &c. 32, 125, 167, 210, 228 Klaproth on Chrysoprase, &c. ... ... 241, 244, 312 Kluge, Prof., reference to work of ... ... xiii -— on engraved Dia¬ mond ... ... ... 61 Koenig, Mr., on Amazonite 220 Kohler on Malachite cameo 274 Koh-i-nur ... ... ... 39, 128 Kokscharow's Topazes ... 302 “Kopjes” (Diamond-yield¬ ing hillocks) ... ... 91 Koran text on Turquoise ... 205 Krokidolite ... 31, 200, 201, 246 Kunz, Mr. G., on American Gems ... ... ... 320 Kyanite ... ... ... 31 “Labora” (imperfectly cut Indian stones) ... 39 Labrador ... ... ... 267, 268 La Calle Coral-fishery ... 313 Lacha Pass, find of Sap¬ phires at ... ... 169 Lanchero, discovery of Muzo Emerald-mines by ... 182 Lapidaries, guilds, &c. of 34, 35, 42 Lapis-Lazuli... 31, 166, 269—271 - imitating colour of 33 Lavoisier on Diamond ... 72, 73 Laws relating to Diamonds and Rubies ... 60, 114, 159 Layard, Mr., Indian Cat’s Eye possessed by ... 200 Lazulite ... ... ... 112 Le Blanc on incombusti¬ bility of Diamonds ... 71 Leghorn, Coral-working in 316 Leipzig Easter Market, fall in price of Diamonds at 58 Leonhard on Diamond ... 77 “ Le Saphir Merveilleux ”... 172 Index. 339 PAGE Levant, the. Peridot of ... 286 Levy on Cape Diamond-rock 95 Lewy, M., on colour of Emerald ... ... 180 Leyden, Tourmaline in ... 305 Liebig on Diamond ... 77 Lightning Stone ” ... 210 Li gnite, Amber found with 223 Lisbon, former Gem-trade of 38, 57 “ Lithia Emerald ” ... 259, 300 Liversidge, Prof., on Dia¬ monds ... ... 103 Livia, Empress, Crystal pre¬ sented by ... ... 294 Loadstone ... ... ... 28 London, Diamond-cutters of 37, 38 - great emporium of Gems... ... ... 56, 82 Loop, Mr., Sapphire cut by 171 Louis XI., large Diamond owned by ... ... 36 Louis XIII., Brilliant first known in reign of ... 60 - Opal portrait of ... 194 Louis XIV., Blue Diamond worn by ... ... 138 Louis, Duke of Anjou, jewels of . 35 Lunans ... ... ... 277 Lustre of Diamond and Emerald . 68, 180 Luther, his translation of “Sarda” ... ... 236 Lychnis ... ... ... 28 Lyncurion, or Lynx-stone 310 Lynx-sapphire ... ... 3! MacDonald, Major, Tur¬ quoises of ... ... 206 Macquer, M., burning Dia¬ monds by .. ... 71 Madagascar Rock-crystal ...292—295 Madras, Emeralds of ... 180 - belief respecting Rock-crystal in ... 124 Magnetite in Crocidolite ... 246 Mahratta Diamonds ... 122 Maillard, burning of Dia¬ monds by ... ... 72 Malachite 19, 31, 173, 177, 272, 273 Malays, working of Gems b Y . 55 > 56 Mallet, Mr., on Corundum- mine ... ... ... 155 Mamusa, Diamond from ... 86 Mandeville on Diamonds... 136 Mantuan Vase ... ... 282 PAGE Marbodus, his “ Lapidarium” 29 —s-on Moonstone ... 278 Marco Polo on Lapis-Lazuli 270 “ Marlborough ” Garnet ... 250 Marseilles, Coral-working in 316 Martite ... ... ... no Maskelyne, Prof., on Cape Diamond-rock ... 93 Matura, working of stones in 56 “Maxwell Stuart” Topaz 304 Mazarin Brilliants ... 36, 60 Medici, Lorenzo de’, Stone¬ engraving under ... 48 Medicine, use of Diamonds, &c. in ... 59, 277, 301 Mediterranean, Coral of ... 314 Medlicott on Indian Dia- Mesny, Mr., on Burmese Gems... Mexico, Emeralds, Opals, &c. of 178, 192—196, 204, 207, - use of Obsidian in Michel Angelo, his famous Carnelian Microscope, Diamond lens lor Middle Ages, belief regard¬ ing Opal in ... -Peridot of... -Turquoise valued in Midian, Rock-crystal and Turquoise of Milk-opal ... Minas-Geraes, Diamonds o'f 107, 108, ] -Tourmaline at Minas-Novas, Diamonds of Minerals, distribution of Mitchell, Sir T., owner of first Australian Dia mond... Mithridates’ Onyx-cups .. Mohammed Ali, Emerald- mines worked by Mohammed Ben Mansur on Precious Stones Mohammed Ghori, Dia¬ mond-discovery in time of ... Mohs’ Scale of Hardness Moloch ites. . Mont Blanc environs. Rock- crystal of Monte Somma, Spinel of.. Months, Gems worn for special 130 160 255, 286 280 239 66 * 95 286 205 20 3 > 2 9 ' 294 3 1 -”7 3°7 57 22 105 283 176 176 121 324 270 293 189 30 340 Index. PAGE Moonstone ... ...276—279 Moriarty, Major, Ruby brought from Afghan¬ istan by ... ... 1S1 Morion ... ... ... 292 Morveau, G. de, on Dia¬ mond ... ... ... 74 Mosaics, use of Jasper for... 264 Mount Adula, Moonstone from ... ... ... 277 Mountain-ranges and Pre¬ cious Stones ... ... 23 Mourne Mountains, Topaz of 303 MudgeeDiamonds, &c. 102,103,311 Murano, artificial Avantu- rine made at ... ... 233 Murat, Prince, fine Aqua¬ marine of ... ... 232 Murchison, Sir R., on pro¬ bable finding of Dia¬ monds at the Cape ... 83 Murray, Mr., on Irish and VaalRiverDiamonds... 80, 89 Museum of Practical Geo- logy, first Australian Diamond in ... ... 105 Muzo, celebrated Emerald- mines of ... ...181 — 183 Nadir, Shah, Turquoise of 203 “ Naifes ” of India... ... 60 Names from initial letters of Gems ... ... 32 Naples, Gems at ... ... 49, 283 Napoleon III., his Blue-Dia¬ mond model ... ... 139 Natrolite ... ... ... 31 Naxos, Emery (Naxium) of 156, 157 Needle Stone ... ... 295 Nephrite ... ... .. 31, 262 Nero’s Emerald and Rock- crystal cups ... ... 176, 294 New Caledonia, Jade of ... 262 New Granada, Emeralds of 22, 179, 180 New Guinea,probable mine¬ ral wealth of... ... 162 -Jade of ... ... 262 New Mexico, Garnet of ... 251 ‘‘New Rush ” ... ... 94 New South Wales, Diamonds of ... ... ... 1 o 1, ]06 -- Precious Stones of, generally 162, 170, 189, 193, 251, 265, 286, 303, 304 New Zealand, Diamonds of 320, 321 - Jade used in ... 261 Newton, Sir Isaac, on Dia¬ mond ... ... 66, 70, 71, 77 Nickel in Chrysoprase ... 244 “ Nicolo ”... ... ... 284 Nicols on Red Diamonds, Jasper &c. 141, 191, 202, 203, 264, 265, 271, 311 Nicols’ Prism ... ... 326 Noble Opal ... ... 192 Nonius and his Opal ... 194 Norfolk Coast, Amber of... 224 Norway, Spinel, &c. of 189,251,278,297,311 Nottinghamshire, Selenite of ... ... ... 276 “Novas Minas” ... ... 303 Nuremberg, Diamond-polish- ingin. ... 34 -- Stone-engraving in 49 Oberstein, colouring Agates, &c. at 52, 53, 215, 238 - Carnelian found at Obsidian ... Occidental Agate ... Topaz 243 2 37 280 2 1 5 302 232 Odescalchi Gems ... ... 49, Odontolite (Fossil Tur¬ quoise) ... ... 206, 207 Oeri,Dr., on engraved Onyx 282 “Old English Cut” Dia¬ monds Oligoclase ... Olivine 37 - 44 27!!, 279 286 “ Onicolo ” (Little Onyx)... 284 Onomacritus on Gems 2 7 > 191 Onyx 19, 26, 30, 31, 48, 5 2 - 53 - 59 - 2 37 . 28l —— costly according to layers... 48 Onyx-dyeing 5 2 •> 53 Opal 27, 31, 47, 191—196 244 - ill-luck connected with ... 2 7 more valued formerly 1 9 S Opal-engraving 194 Opalescent Ruby ... I 60 Optical properties of Dia- mond ... 63, 3 2 4 Opticians, use of Rock-crystal and Tourmaline by 294, 295 . 3°6 Orange River Crocidolite... 246, 247 -Diamonds... 86 ,_g8 Oriental Agate 213 -Amethyst... 154, 160, 227 - Carnelian ... 5 ° -Cat’sEye... 18, 240, 246 Index. 341 PAGE Oriental Chrysolite 240—242, 286 -Emerald ... 154 -Onyx 1 9, 281—284 -Opal ... 1 9 *, 193 -Peridot 285 -Ruby 154, 158— l6 J, 187 -—— Sapphire ... 160, 167, 172 -Star Ruby... ... 211 -Topaz ... i 54 , 3 oz ■-Turquoise... 2°3 Orientals, veneration of Asteria by 209 Orleans Collection, engraved Gems in ... 50, 172, 194, 205 Orpheus on Precious Stones 28, 278, 317 Orthoclase... ... ... 279 Oude, Sultan of, Emerald presented by, to Her Majesty ... ... 181 Oxus District, Lapis-Lazuli and Rubies from ... 161, 270 Pacific Ocean, Coral of ... 315 “Pans” ... ... ... 92 Paraguay River, Diamonds in 11 3 Paris, Amber wares of ... 224 - Diamond-cutting, &c. in ... ... 35,37 -Gem-polishers’Guild in . 34 Paris Collections, Gems in 232, 235, 283, 293, 303, 310 -- Exhibition, Gems in . 6r, 139, 195 See France. Paris, M., Muzo mines worked by ... ... 182 “ Parisite ” ... ... 182, 183 Parrot on Diamond ... 77 Paulina’s dress of Emeralds and Pearls ... ... 29 Pavilion of the Brilliant ... 44 Payen on Diamond-localities 81 Pearls ... xv, 18, 26,29, 3'9 Pebbles of Rock-crystal ... 294 Pedro, Dom, Diamond prices affected by ... ... 58 Pegu, ‘‘Fatherland of Ru¬ bies” ... ... ... 159, 161 ■--— Garnet, Spinel, &c. 55, i 8 7, l8g , 241, 251 Pepin, King, signet-ring of 48 Peridot ... ... 19, 285—287 Persia, Amethyst, Sapphire, and Turquoise of 168, 203, 204, 228 PAGE Persia, Shah of, fine Tur¬ quoises of ... ... 203 Persian Gulf, Coral of ... 315 Peru, Emeralds of... ... 178, 179 Peruvians, Labrador from tombs of ... ... 267 Peruzzi, V., Brilliant cut by 44 Petzholdt on Diamond ... 73, 77 Phenakite ... ... ... 288, 289 Phoenicians, export of Gems by 26 Philo on High Priest’s gemmed robe... ... 25 Phosphorescence of Diamond 69 Physics essential to science of Jewelry ... ... 20 Pick, Prof., on Onyx, &c... 283, 301 “ Pigeon’s Blood ” hue of Rubies ... ... 164, 165 Pile-dwellings, Jade found in 261 Pink Topaz, resembling Ruby.164, 165 “ Pipes ” in Diamond-bear¬ ing rock ... ... 92—95 Pitt (or Regent) Diamond 128 Pittar, Leverson, & Co., Spinel of ... ... 187 Pizarro, Peruvian Gems broken by ... ... 178 Plaster-of-Paris for copying Gems... ... ... 50 Platinum with Precious Stones... ... ... 24 Plato on Precious Stones ... 28 Pleiochroism ... ... 327 Pleonaste ... ... 102, 186, 189 Pliny on Diamond, Eme- raid, Sapphire &c. 26, 29, 64, * 58 , 166— 1 68, * 75 — -> 77 . 190, * 94 , 202, 208, z 43 > 252, 264, 2/2, . 2 7 8 , 281, 292, 294 on colouring Pre- cious Stones ... 51 -Diamond-engraving unknown before time of 60 -Star Sapphire known to 210 Plutarch on Aster ... 210 Poets, the older, on Ruby... 162 Point-cut Gems 46 Polarization of Light Dy Gems ... ... 67, 3 06. 326 Polishing of Precious Stones 34 , 4 ° Polycrates’ Ring ... 27, 28 Pompeii, Emerald orna- ments from ... 175 342 Index. PAGE PAGE Porcelain Jasper ... ... 265 Prices of Gems:— Porphyry ... 3 b 3 2 Amethyst 228 Porter-Rhodes, Mr., blue- Balas Ruby ... I 90 white Cape Diamond Black Opal ... 196 of 98 Carbuncle 2 53 Portland Vase 168 Cat’s Eye l qq, 200 Portrait Stones ...46, 49, 194, 265 Coral ... 3 1 7 Portraits on Diamonds 6l Emerald 184 Portugal, former Gem-trade Garnet 252 in 38 Hiddenite 259 Prague, Chrysoprase in Ca- Malachite 2 73 thedral at 243 Oriental Onyx 284 Precious Opal >92 Rock-Crystal. . 293— 2 95 —-Spinel 186 Rubellite 3°7 Precious Stones, alphabet of 3 1 Ruby ... x, 162 ■- ancients’ use of. Sapphire 170, 172 See Ancients. Sard-Onyx 283 -bruting of... 33 Spinel Ruby ... I 90 —-burning of... 5 °; 5 1 Star Ruby 210 -buying of... 58 Star Sapphire 210 -cleaving of 33 Topaz 302 - colouring or dyeing. Tourmaline ... 3°7 See Colouring. Idar. Turquoise 205, 206 Oberstein. Prinsep, Mr., on Turq uoise 203 cutting and polish- Pritchard, Mr. his Diamond ingof... 33—47 microscopic lens 66 — - definition of I 7—-20 Prussian Amber 224 - determination of ... ix, x Psellos on Emerald 177 - discrimination of ... 322 Ptolemy Hephsestion on • - distribution of 2 3 Aster ... 210 -- engraving of. See Pumice-stone for cutting Engraving. Carnelian 237 - forms of. See under Purchase of Precious Stones, Specific Gravity, &c. caution essential in ... 58 - found incurrents and Pyro-electricity of Top az... 302 mountain ranges 2 3 - oi Tourmaline 3°6 - gold and platinum Pyrope (Bohemian Gar- found with 24 net) 3 G 2 53 , 2 54 - habitat of... 21 - — identification of ... 20 Quartz ... 31,213, 227, 292 •- past uses of 2 5 ——- artificial colouring ■-- prices of. See of 5 i Prices. Value. Quartz Agate. 3 1 - Scripture references -•— - Cat’s Eye ... 1 97 ; 198, 290 to. See Bible. Queensland, future Diamond- -- selection of 43 field of 82, 106 - superstitions con- Opal of ... 1 93 , 194 cerning. See Supersti- tions. Rainbow Agate ... 2 '5 - trade in ... 26,55—61 Quartz 295 - various kinds of, Ratnapura, jewel-market at 56 found together 24 Red Diamonds 1 3 6, 141 - work ingof OO 1 CO CO -- Jasper 264, 265 See Gems. Jewels. - Spinels 186 Semi-precious Stones. Tourmaline 3°7 Prescott on Mexican Erne- Red-oxide of copper, Mala- raids 77 ; I 7 8 chite from ,,, < t « 2 73 Index. 343 PAGE Red Sea, Coral of... ... 315 Reflection and Refraction of Diamond, &c. 65—67, 306, 324 “Regent” Diamond ... 128 Resins, Amber imitated by 222, 225 Riband Agate ... ... 214 - Jasper ... ... 265 Rinuccini, Marchese, re¬ markable Sapphire of 171 Ritter, Carl, on Diamond¬ mining in India ... 120,121 River-beds, Agates in ... 213 River-gravels, Diamonds in 89 -of New South Wales 102 Rock-boring with Carbonado 145 Rock-crystal 19, 51, 124, 291—296 - curious beliefs re¬ specting .124, 294 -dyeing of ... ... 51 -remarkable discovery of ... ... ... 293 Rock Turquoise ... ... 207 Rogers, Brothers, on Dia¬ mond... ... ... 75 Romans, Amber esteemed by . 224 - Lunaris, or Moon¬ stone, of... ... ... 277 -Precious Stones much used by . 29, 48 -Rock-crystal vessels „. 2 94 > 295 Stone-colouring by ji, 52 Stone-engraving by 49, 1 71, 250 Rome, Emerald ornaments Aug up in . 175 Rome de l isle, Spinel ana¬ lyzed by . 189 Rose on Chrysoberyl ... 241 ■ experiments on Dia¬ mond by Rose Brilliant -Diamonds... - Garnets ... -Quartz Recoupee... Rose-coloured Diamonds Rose-cut Diamond... Rough Diamonds ... Rubellite ... Rubicelle ... Rudler, Mr. F. W., aid to present work by ... xvi Ruby 26—32, 47, 55-58, 102, 151—165, 168, I73, 174, 186—19G •• 75 , 94 .. 44—46 67 34 32 46 141 44—46, 60 •■H 8 —15° .. 306, 307 189 PAGE Ruby, relative rank of ... 18 - burning out white spots of ... ... 50 - in smelting-furnace 71 - historical... ... 163 Rundle and Bridge, rough Diamond sold by ... 63 Ruskin, Prof., on uncut Precious Stones ... 33 Russia, Precious Stones of 189, 218, 268, 273, 274, 288 -first finding of Dia¬ monds in ... ... 81 - ! - proverb concerning Turquoise in... ... 205 Russia, Czar of. Alexandrite named after ... ... 218 -Malachite vase made for . 274 Russian Regalia ... ... 37, 163 See Saint Petersburg. Rutile .110, 292 Saffragam, Precious Stones of Sahara Mountains, Eme¬ ralds of Saint Francis de Sales, his “Devout Life” Saint Peter’s at Rome, Onyx-pillars in Saint Petersburg, use of Lapis-Lazuli in - Collection, Gems in 47—49, 238, 273, See Russia. Salzburg, Emerald-crystals of “Sand” in Precious Stones Sangaris River, luminous Aster from Santa Fe, Emerald and Tur¬ quoise mines near 181 - Santa Rosa Emerald-mines “ Saphir d’Eau” ... Sapphire 26—32, 55 - 59, 102, 151 —174, i 8 7, 55 , 56 181 5 i 283 271 302, 303 181 5 8 210 183, 204 183 260 in ancient times burning of celebrated... counterfeits of -engraved ... - imperfections in -relative rank of Sard, Sarda, Sardius 28, 59 : 227, 241 47 5 ° 170 172 ' 7 ' 172 18 2 3 6 > 37 344 Index . PAGF. Sardonyx ... 31, 32, 237, 238, 284 - costly according to layers, &c. ... ... 48 Saxony, Precious Stones of 170, 213, 231, 253, 302, 303, 307 Scarabasan Gems ... ... 23 “ SchafFhausen ” Onyx ... 282 Schorl ... ... ... 306 Scotland, Agate, Jasper, and Topaz of 216, 217, 265, 303 -Rock-crystal of ... 293 Scott, Sir Walter, on Opal 195 ‘‘Sea-Water” Diamonds... 134 Selenite ... ... ...276—279 Semi-Opal... ... ... 192 Semi-Precious Stones 19, 25. 3 1 , +2, 57, 212 - cutting of... ... 42 Seneca on Emerald and Rock-crystal ... ... 176, 292 Serpentine, Spinel found with ... ... ... 187 Seybert on glucina in Chry- soberyl ... ... 241 “Shameer” (Emery) ... 155 “Shouham” ... ... 283 Siam, Rubies, &c. of 164, 168, 188 Siam, King of, Brilliant owned by ... ... 97 Siberia, Precious Smnes in 22, 24, 220, 223, 228, 231, 233, 263, 270, 288, 302, 307, 311 - Obsidian of ... 280 Sicily, Amber and Jasper of ... ... 223, 224, 265 -Coral of ... ... 31J Siebengebirge, Sapphires of 170 Signet-Rings, for kings’ use, &c. ... ... 29, 48 -- mentioned by He¬ rodotus ... ... 28 Silesia, Chrysoprase of ... 244, 245 Silica, basis of Emerald ... 174 Simler on Diamond ... 78 Sleep induced by wearing Zircon ... ... 309 “Smaragdus ” ... 175—177, 272 Smith, Dr. L., his discovery of Corundum... ... 157 Smits, Mr. J.. on Borneo Diamond-diggings ... 133 Smoky Quartz ... ... 292 Society of Friends, Peridot valued by ... ... 286 Solinus on Hyacinthus 167 323 60 Sonstadt’s Solution Sorrel, Agnes, probable use of Diamonds by South Africa. See Africa. South Kensington Museum, Gems in ... ... 206, 231 Spain, probability of finding Diamonds in ... ... 80 - Emerald, Garnet, &c. of ... 179, 223, 228, 251 207 267 -use of Calconite in Spaniards, Indian Labrador ornaments discovered by Specific Gravity, modes of taking -Chemical Composi¬ tion, &c. of Special Gem-stones:— Agate Alexandrite Almandine Amazonite... Amber Amethyst ... Aquamarine Asteria Avanturine Bloodstone... Carbuncle ... Carnelian ... Cat’s Eye ... Chrysolite ... Chrysoprase Corundum ... Crocidolite... Diamond ... 64, Emerald Essonite Euclase Felspar Garnet Hematite ... Hiddenite ... Hyacinth ... lolite Jade Jargoon Jasper Labrador ... Lapis-Lazuli Malachite ... Moonstone Obsidian ... Oligoclase ... Opal Oriental Onyx Orthoclase,,, 3 22 217 219 253 221 226 229 232 211 23+ 2 35 253 239 198 287 245 1 57 247 65 , >*5 255 , 3 " 248 279 249 238 259 3 ' 2 260 262 312 266 268 27 1 275 279 280 279 196 284 279 Index. 345 PAGE Specific Gravity, Chemical Composition, &c. of Special Gem-stones— continued :— Peridot 287 Phenakite ... 289 Pyrope 254 Rock Crystal 296 Ruby 165 Sapphire ... 173 Selenite 279 Sphene 298 Spinel 190 Spodumene 300 Sunstone ... 279 Topaz 304 Tourmaline 3O8 Turquoise ... 208 Uwarowite 256 Zircon 311, 312 Specular Iron no, 258 Sphene 297, 298 Spinel 102, 112, 186— iqo, 241 - resemblance oij to Ruby... 164.. 163 Spinel-Ruby 186 Splitting of Precious Stones 39 , 4 ° Spodumene ... 259, 299, 300 Star Aquamarine ... 211 -Brilliant ... 45 -Emerald ... 211 -Garnet 21 I -Ruby ... 160,209—211 -Sapphire ... ...209—211 -Stones ... ...209—211 -Topaz .209—211 Star-facets of the Brilliant 44 “ Star of South Africa ” ... 96 “Star of the South ” 114 Step-cut Gems 46 “ Stewart ” Diamond 97 Stone-engraving. See En- graving Diamonds, &c. Stow, Mr., on drift deposits 9 1 Strabo on use of Precious Stones, &c. 26 - on an Emerald- mine ... 176 Strasburg Stone-engraving 49 Streeter, Mr. E. W., Dia- mond exhibited by ... 98 -Gems in collection of 99, 311 -Mr. G. Skelton, sup- posed New Guinea Ruby seen by... 162 Strozzi Collection, engraved Sapphire in ... 171 PAGE Sulphur for copying Gems 50 Sumatra Diamonds ... go Sumbulpur Diamonds ...121 —130 Sunstone ... ... ...276—279 Superstitions connected with Precious Stones 27—30, 59, 60, 128, 160, 168, ,6 9 . 175 . *78, 1S8, 195, 201, 205, 210, 224, 225, 229, 264, 272, 277, 281, 309, 317, 318 Sweden, Amber, &c. of 189, .223,251 300 Switzerland, Diamond-cut¬ ting in 41,42 - Jade in pile-dwel¬ lings of ... ... 261 -— Sapphire, &c. of 170, 251, 254, 255, 293, 297 Syrians, Diamond ornaments used by ... ... 59 Table of the Brilliant ... 44 “ Table-cutters” of Nurem- ,, bel 'g. 34 i agore, Rajah, on Precious Stones of India ... 122 Tallow-topped stones ... 47 Tavernier, Blue Diamond purchased by... .. 137—139 -on Diamond ... 79 -on Indian Diamond- mines 126, 127, 130, 137, 138 - Indian Topaz seen by ... ... ... 302 Temperature for Diamond¬ burning ... ... 73 “Tenth Mazarin ” ... 36,60 Test of Agates for dyeing... 52 “ Thelk Lephy ” engraved on Ruby ... ... 163 Theodoras of Samos, en¬ graver of stones ... 27 Theophrastus on Precious Stones 28, 158, 166, 213, 269, 294, 310 Thomson on Chrysoberyl... 241 Thronus, Diamond-engrav¬ ing by ... .,. 61 “Thunderbolts” associated with Diamonds ... 77 Tiara-jewels ... ... 179, 232 Tibago Diamonds... ... in Tiger’s Eye ... _ ... 200 Tippoo Sahib, Emerald worn by . 179 Titanite ... ... ... 297 Z 346 Index. PAGE Tobin, Mr., on Vaal River 90 Topaz 19,26—32, 59, 102, 110, 112, 240, 241, OO Lo O T C/o O -pink colour of, due to burning 5 ° - pyro-electricity of... 302 Torquinado on Calconite ... 207 Tourmaline 56, 110, 240, 24 U 3 °S— 3 ° 8 Trade in Amber ... 224 - in Brilliants 150 - in Carnelians 238 - — in Diamonds, panics in 117, 118 in Precious Stones generally 55—61 Transylvania, Spinels of ... 189 Trellus on Moonstone 278 Trezzo, supposed inventor of Diamond-engraving 49, 60, 61 Triphane ... 259 Tropics in regard to Gems 22, 23 True Cat’s Eye 197 Tschudi on Brazilian Dia- monds 117 Turkestan Jade 261 Turkey, Turquoise said to be cut in 203 Turquoise... ... 32,202—208 - imitating colour of 53 - resemblance of Chry- socolla to 275 Turquoise-cameo in Vienna Collection 47 Twelve Apostles, repre- sented by Gems 3 °’ 3 1 ‘ ‘ Twelve Mazarins ” 36 Twin-colours of Gems 327 T winned-crystals of Dia- monds 62 Tyre, Emerald column at 28 Tyrol, Jasper, &c. of 265, 2 93 , 300 Ultra-marine (Lapis) ... 32 -obtained from Lapis- Lazuli 271 - artificial .... 271 United States. See America. Ural Mountains, Diamonds, Emeralds, &c. of 22, 24, 80, 81, 181, 2x9, 231, 241, 248, 272, 288, 302, 3°7 - gold-bearing allu- vium of I 12 Uranite 32 PAGE Uruguay, Agate and Carne- lian of .. 215, 237, 281 Uwarowite ... ... 255 Uzielli Collection, engraved Amethyst in ... ... , 228 Vaal River Diamonds 85, 97, 99 Vaalite ... ... ... 93 Value of Gems, importance of ascertaining ... ix, x •- affected by fashion xi, 58 - rise and fall of ... 58 See Prices of Gems. Van Niekirk’s Cape Dia¬ mond ... ... 83, 84, 96 Variscite ... ... ... 208 Vatican, Red Jasper, &c. in ... ... 264, 282, 295 Vegetable origin of Dia¬ mond ... ... ... 77 Venice, experiments on coloured Diamond in 37 - formerly chief seat of Diamond-trade ... 44 “ Venus’s Hair-stone” ... 278, 293 Verd-antique (Porphyry) ... 32 Versailles Palace, Malachite in . 274 Vesuvianite ... ... 32 Vesuvian lavas, Peridot in... 286 Victoria, H. M. Queen, Opals favoured by ... 27, 195 - large Emerald pre¬ sented to ... ... 181 Victoria, Rubies, &c. in 105, 106, 162, 188, 189, 251 -Exhibition of Gems in 105 Vienna Collection, Gems in 47, 49, 62, 136, 140, 195, 239, 282 Vindhyan Rocks, Diamonds of ... ... ... 120, 131 Vinegar, steeping Carbuncle in . 51 Virginia, remarkable Dia¬ mond found in ... 320 Vivianite in Fossil Turquoise 207 Vogel, M„ on Coral ... 317 Voysey on Indian Diamond- miners ... 124, 125, 129 Wales (North), Jasper of... 265 “ Wardrobe Book of Ed¬ ward I.” ... ... 285 Water-Sapphire ... ... 32 Wellington, Duke of, Black Diamond possessed by 142 Index. 347 PAGE Westropp, Mr. Hodder W., on Brazilian Diamond¬ mining- ... ... no White Diamonds ... ... 136 -Sapphires ... ... 160 Williams, Mr. A., on mine¬ rals of United States... 320 Williams, Mr. G., experi¬ ments on Emerald by 180 Wilson, G., on Diamond 78 Wohler on Diamond ... 78 -and Deville, crystal¬ lization of Boron by ... 146 Wollaston, Dr., on cleavage of Diamonds... ... 63 Wolsey, Cardinal, Sapphire with crest of. 171 PAGE Wood-Opal ... ... 32 Working Precious Stones... 33 Xanthite. 32 Xylotile ... ... ... 32 Yellow Diamond... ... 78, 97 - Sapphire ... 134, 160, 302 Zillerthal, Almandine of 230 Zirconia and Zirconium ... 312 Zircons 19, 32, 102, 187, 309 —312 - colourless, sold as Diamonds ... ... 311 Zircon-Syenite ... ... 311 Zurlite ... ... ... 32 This Index has been prepared by Mr, Thomas W. Newton, F R. Hist, Soc. £ GETTY CENTER LIBRARY CONS QE 392 S91 1887 BKS c. 1 Streeter, Edwin Will Precious stones and gems : their history 3 3125 00343 8021