ESTABLISHED 1769. 
 
 ABRAHAM KERSHAW & 
 
 D D n\A/ K/i I I I 
 
 pRflNKLiN Institute Library 
 
 VniLAhELVniA 
 
 Classk .l 3 Book ..Q s> B £^ Accession t 
 
 Article V. — The Library shall be divided into two classes; tne nrst 
 comprising such work as, from their rarity of value, should not be lent 
 out, all unbound periodicals, and such text books as ought to be found 
 in a library of reference except when required by Committees of the 
 Institute, or by members or holders of second class stock, who have ob- 
 tained the sanction of the Committee. . The second class shall include 
 those books intended for circulation. 
 
 Article VI. — The Secretary shall have authority to loan to members 
 and to holders of second class stock, any work belonging to the second 
 CLASS, subject to the following regulations. 
 
 Section 1. — No individual shall be permitted to have more than two 
 books out at one time, without a written permission, signed by at least 
 two members of the Library Committee, nor shall a book be kept out 
 more than two weeks; but if no one has applied for it, the former bor- 
 rower may renew the loan. Should any person have applied for it the 
 latter shall have tlie preference. 
 
 Section 2. — A fine often cents per week shall be exacted for the 
 detention of a book beyond the limited time; and if a book be not re- 
 turned within tiiree months it shall be deemed lost, and the borrower 
 shall, in addition to his fines, forfeit its value. 
 
 Section 3. — Should any book be returned injured, the borrower shall 
 pay for the injury, or replace tlie book, as the Library Committee may 
 direct; and if one or more books, belonging to a set or sets, be -lost, the 
 borrower shall replace them or make full restitution. 
 
 Article VII. — Any person removing from the hall, without j)ermis- 
 sion from the proper authorities, any book, newspaper or other property 
 in charge of the Library Committee, shall be reported to the Committee, 
 who may inflict any tine not exceeding twenty-five dollars. 
 
 Article VIII. — No mem1)er or holder of second class stock, whose 
 annual contribution for the current year shall be unpaid or who is in 
 arrears for fines, shall be entitled to the privileges of the Library or 
 Reading Room. 
 
 Article IX. — If any member or holder of second class stock, shall 
 refuse or neglect to comply with the foregoing rules, it shall be the duty 
 of the Secretary to report him to the Committee on the Library. 
 
 Article X. — Any member or holder of second class stock, detected 
 in mutilating the newspapers, pamphlets or books belonging to the Insti- 
 tute shall be deprived of his right of membership, and the name of the 
 offender shall be made public. 
 
ESTABLISHED 1796. 
 
 JOHN INGHAM & SONS 
 
 SHUTTLE, TACKLING, & PICKER MAKERS, 
 
 TACKLING, 
 
 SUCH AS 
 
 Stocks and Bowls, Rods, Heald Shafts, Bobbin 
 Boards, &c., for Weaving. 
 
m, HATTERSLEY & SONS, 
 
 NORTH BROOK WORKS, 
 
 KEIGHLEY, YORKSHIRE, 
 
 MAKERS OF 
 
 POWER LOOMS 
 
 For Cotton, Worsted, Woollens, Silks, 
 L-inen, &e., 
 
 FROM 24 TO 132 INCHES REED SPACE. 
 
 Light Plain Looms for Worsted, Cotton, or Silk, 
 Heavy Plain Looms for Worsted Coatings, Mantles, <&c. 
 Circular or Oscillating Box Looms for Fancy Dress Goods. 
 Patent Rising Box Looms. 
 
 Pick and Pick Looms for odd or even Picks, for 
 Coatirigs, Backing Cloths, Reps, or 
 other Dress Goods. 
 
 Single Shuttle Looms for Solid Worsteds. 
 Heavy Looms for Woollen Cloths, with 
 4-Shuttle Rising Box on each side — New 
 
 Patent. 
 
 Looms for Trouseriugs, with Wooderoft's Motion. 
 Patent Lasting Looms, with Positive Tread. 
 
 Patent Six Shuttle Skipping Revolving Box 
 Looms : v/ill skip from one to any other 
 shuttle in the circle with the 
 greatest accuracy. 
 
 Patent Dobby, Double Lift, with or without 
 springs, positive or non-positive tread, 
 for any number of Shaits ; the 
 best in the Trade. 
 
 Patent Warp Dressing Machines for Cotton Warps; will 
 dress from Ball or Beam 2000 yards per day. 
 
WEAVING AND DESIGNING. 
 
 i 
 

 Digitized by 
 
 the Internet Archive 
 
 
 
 in 2015 
 
 
 
 https://archive.org/details/practicaltreatisOOashe_0 
 
A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 ON 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 TEXTILE FABRICS, 
 
 WITH CHAPTERS ON THE PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION 
 OF THE LOOM. CALCULATIONS. AND COLOUR. 
 
 BY 
 
 THOS. R. ASHENHURST, 
 
 Head Master of the Textile Department Bradford Technical College, and formerly 
 Instructor at Stroud, in connection with Bristol University College. 
 
 WITH ABOUT THREE HUNDRED AND SIXTY ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 HUDDERSFIELD : 
 J. BROADBENT & Co., ALBERT PRINTING WORKS, NEW STREET. 
 LONDON: SIMPKIN, MARSHALL & Co. 
 
[entered at stationers' hall.] 
 
PREFACE TO THIRD EDITION. 
 
 Since the two previous editions of this work were issued, 
 it has been my privilege to continue the work of teaching the 
 subjects dealt with in this treatise, and also to issue several 
 other w^orks bearing more or less upon many of the matters 
 treated upon in this one. During this time, of necessity, 
 many questions have been brought under my notice in 
 reference to this w^ork, and many weaknesses have been 
 pointed out in it, and in this edition I have endeavoured to 
 deal with those questions and to strengthen the weak points, 
 and to endeavour to make this work, along with the others 
 just mentioned, cover the ground of Textile Manufacturing, 
 so far as Weaving and Designing are concerned, as 
 completely as possible, and to render all the assistance in my 
 power to students engaged in this work. 
 
 Owing to the numerous alterations, considerable delay 
 has been occasioned in the issue of the work, the duties of 
 my position having prevented me giving the necessary time 
 to it to complete it at an earlier date. I can only hope the 
 delay will be compensated for by the completeness of the 
 work. 
 
 THOS. R. ASHENHURST. 
 
 Bradford, 
 
 September, 
 
 1885. 
 
PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION. 
 
 No better proof of the need of a treatise on weaving 
 could be afforded than the early detnand for a Second 
 Edition of this book ; nor could a better proof be found, 
 that the youths and workmen engaged in textile manu- 
 factures are fully alive to the necessity of a better know- 
 ledge of their business, than the general demand for the 
 work in a cheaper form, so as to come easily within the 
 reach of the working classes. 
 
 The subject of "Weaving and Designing of Textile 
 Fabrics" is one which covers a wide field, and the few 
 works which do exist upon the subject can, at the most, 
 only be considered as elementary works ; but the eagerness 
 with which even these are sought up, by those most 
 interested, induces the hope that the new literature of an 
 old industry may, ere long, develope to such an extent that 
 it may be worthy of the fame of that industry. 
 
 In preparing this Edition for the press, I have been 
 enabled to revise it, and to correct many of the errors 
 which appeared in the First Edition, and to make such 
 alterations and additions as appeared necessary. That 
 the work ma}' prove an assistance to the student and 
 workman, and be a stepping-stone for further efforts, is 
 the earnest hope of 
 
 THOS. R. ASHENHURST. 
 
 Bradford, 
 
 Jnnuarij, 1881. 
 
PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION. 
 
 In writing and placing this work before the pubhc, the 
 object which I have had in view has been to assist in 
 furthering the efforts which are now being made to pro- 
 mote the advancement of technical education in connection 
 with the textile trades in this country. 
 
 For a considerable time it has been apparent that our 
 Continental neighbours have been making rapid progress 
 in the art of manufacture, and it only required a little 
 inquiry to explain the reason of that rapid progress. 
 Schools of instruction have been in existence, and have 
 been spreading over the country, for the purpose of train- 
 ing those who were intending to devote their lives to the 
 production of textile fabrics, and in those schools every- 
 thing has been taught which would have any bearing 
 upon the branch of manufacture to which they gave their 
 attention. While this has been going on abroad, not the 
 slightest attention has been paid to the subject at home 
 until the matter has been forced upon those engaged in 
 the trade by the discovery that foreign competition was 
 affecting very materially the markets in which they were 
 wont to sell their goods, and that the nature of this 
 competition clearly proved that the competitors were 
 thoroughly masters of their business. This discovery 
 having been made, inquiries began to be instituted as to 
 the cause, and the best means of meeting it, the result 
 being the establishment of schools of instruction in the 
 textile trades in various centres of industry. In the pro- 
 motion and establishment of these schools the Worshipful 
 Clothworkers' Company, of London, have taken a most 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 laudable part by granting liberal endowments to the prin- 
 cipal ones, and taking a lively interest in their progress 
 and welfare, and in other ways fostering and supporting 
 technical education. 
 
 The writer of the present work having been brought 
 into connection with those schools under the auspices of 
 the Worshipful Company of Clothworkers, by his appoint- 
 ment in the year 1877 to the lectureship on the technology 
 of textile manufactures, at Bristol University College of 
 which they were the promoters, and again by the liberal 
 endowment they have been pleased to grant to the school 
 of which he has now the honour of being chief instructor, 
 he has great pleasure in dedicating to the Master and 
 Wardens of the W^orshipful Company this the result of 
 his labours, in the hope that it may be of some little value 
 in assisting the great work tlie)- have in view, by placing 
 before the students, in as concise a form as possible, the 
 information which he has been able to acquire upon the 
 subject with which he has attempted to deal. 
 
 If the perusal of this volume should assist the student in 
 any degree in mastering the details of his craft, the author 
 will feel that his labours have not been all in vain and that 
 he has done something towards maintaining the supremacy 
 of our manufactures, and thereby maintaining that com- 
 mercial position which has been the great source of wealth, 
 as well as the pride and glory of the English people. 
 
 The rise and progress of the textile manufactures of 
 this countr}^ have, within the last century, been something 
 marvellous, and the products of the loom have in no small 
 degree contributed to the wealth of the nation. Yet it is 
 a remarkable fact that this art, which has done so much 
 for the wealth of this country, and which plays a greater 
 part in civilisation than perhaps any other, possesses fewer 
 works or treaties than any other of the arts or manufac- 
 tures of this country. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 The present work does not profess to deal exhaustively 
 with the subject ; the aim has been to reduce the whole 
 art of weaving and designing of textile fabrics to simple 
 principles, and to lay them before the reader in as brief 
 and concise a form as possible, with just suffic'ent illustra- 
 tions to make the matter clear and intelligible, and free 
 it from that ambiguity which frequently characterises 
 works of this description. 
 
 It is quite possible that the attempts here made at 
 classification ma}^ not coincide with the views or meet 
 with the approval or assent of many engaged in the trades. 
 If such be the case, I must ask those who differ from me 
 to believe that the object I hava in view is to simplify, 
 and by that means promote a more extensive knowledge 
 than has hitherto existed of the principles of " Weaving 
 and Designing of Textile Fabrics." 
 
 T. R. A. 
 
 Bradford, 1879. 
 
CON T E N T 
 
 S 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 
 
 Weaving . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 
 
 The Loom and its Accessories . . . . . . . . . . 53 
 
 The Jacquard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 
 
 The Power Loom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 
 
 Shedding 7° 
 
 Speed of Tappets . . . . . . . . . . . • . • 104 
 
 Picking 108 
 
 Beating up of the Weft .. .. .. .. .. .. 116 
 
 The Take-up Motion 122 
 
 The Tension of the Warp .. .. .. .. .. .. 127 
 
 The Warp Line 130 
 
 Shuttle Protector or Stop Rod 132 
 
 Weft-stopping Motion .. .. .. .. .. .. 140 
 
 General Working of the Loom .. .. .. .. .. 142 
 
 Speed, Gearing, Power, &c. .. .. .. .. .. .. 146 
 
 Power of Toothed Wheels . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 
 
 Power of Leather Belts .. .. .. .. .. .. 131 
 
 The strength of Shafts to resist torsion .... . . . . 153 
 
 Designing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 
 
 Combination and Arrangement of Designs .. .. .. iCg 
 
 Spot Figures . . . . . . • • . . . . . . . . 208 
 
 Double Cloth .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 219 
 
 Jacquard Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 
 
 Pile or Plush .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 255 
 
 Gauze Weaving . . . . . • . . . . . . . . 267 
 
 General Arrangement OF Patterns . . .. .. .. 288 
 
 Slaying or Setting of Fabrics . . . . . . . . . . 304 
 
 Calculations of Materials, &c 311 
 
 Colour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32S 
 
 Summary and Conclusion . . . . . . , . . . . . 354 
 
 Appendix A — 
 
 The Structure of Tlireads .. .. .. .. .. .. 359 
 
 Appendix B — 
 
 The Jacquar its History and Use . . .. .. .. .. 363 
 
Weaving and Designing op 
 
 TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Man in his natural state has few wants to provide for, 
 food and clothing being the principal, and to provide the 
 latter in a suitable form is a subject which occupies a con- 
 siderable portion of time in civilised life. One writer 
 observes that, " though we find finery and external adorn- 
 ments common to every people, yet comfortable clothing is 
 almost exclusively confined to the inhabitants of those 
 portions of the globe which are far advanced in civilisa- 
 tion," Man's first article of clothing seems to have been 
 fig leaves, and immediately afterv^ards the skins of beasts. 
 If we refer to Holy Scripture we shall find that the skins 
 of animals were the coverings of our first parents. " Unto 
 Adam also and to his wife did the Lord God make coats 
 of skin, and clothed them." — Gen. iii. 21. The immediate 
 descendants of Adam also used coats of skin, and shortly 
 afterwards the Simla, an upper garment consisting of a 
 piece of cloth, according to Professor Hurwitz about six 
 yards long, and two or three wide, and greatly resembling a 
 blanket in shape, became their chief article of dress. Other 
 garments made of wool, and other material also, were in 
 course of time fabricated. In Leviticus xiii. 47, 48, we read 
 " The garment also^ that the plague of leprosy is in, whether 
 it be a woollen garment or a linen garment, whether it 
 be in the warp or woof," thus showing, by the reference 
 
 B 
 
lO • WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 to "warp and woof," that the art of weaving was practised 
 in those days. Other arts also sprung into existence, and 
 were prosecuted with considerable success, but spinning 
 and weaving were undoubtedly among the earliest arts 
 known to man, and at the present day they are among the 
 arts which form the main distinction between savage and 
 civilised life. Manufactures of goats' hair were at an early 
 period used in making tents, similar to those the Arabs of 
 the present day are in the habit of constructing. This 
 manufacture is supposed by some to have been spun and 
 woven according to the worsted process, resembling to some 
 small extent the manufacture of mohair at the present day, 
 as contra-distinguished from, the making of woollen or felted 
 cloths. 
 
 The art of weaving is of great antiquity among the 
 Chinese, Hindoos, and Egyptians, and has been practised 
 by them for thousands of years. Pliny says the Egyptians 
 were the inventors of weaving—" That the Egyptians put 
 a shuttle in the hands of their Goddess Isis, to signify that 
 she vv^as the inventress of the art of weaving." — Strutt on 
 Dress. However this may be, weaving was undoubtedly 
 practised by them from a very remote period, and this is 
 one of the arts of which, if Egypt was not " the mother," 
 she was certainly " the nurse " and both with the Eg3^ptians, 
 the Chinese, and the Hindoos, spinning and weaving were 
 carried to great proficiency, and the productions of the 
 distaff and the primitive loom would compare very favour- 
 ably, for fineness and delicacy— if they would not indeed 
 surpass — the productions of the modern manufacturer. It 
 would be very difficult indeed to say which country could 
 claim the palm of invention, because it seems to have been 
 practised very largely by all from a very remote period ; 
 and it would be equally difficult to say what material 
 was first used, because different materials- were in use by 
 different people about the same time. It is said of the 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 II 
 
 Chinese that they can trace back documentarily the use of 
 silk fabrics as far as the twenty-sixth century before our 
 era. With the' Egyptians hnen has long been in use, and 
 at a very early period of their history they spun and wove 
 it so extremely fine that their fabrics have been the wonder 
 and admiration of succeeding ages. Wool was the material 
 used in some other countries, notably in Asia ; and the 
 Hindoos worked in cotton, as well as wool and goats' hair. 
 
 Not only in the civilised, but in the less civilised por- 
 tions of the New World, and even among savages, the 
 practice of w^eaving is to be found. Clavigero, in .his 
 history of Mexico, shows that on the conquest of that 
 country, weaving was found to be practised by the natives ; 
 and Park, in his Travels, says it is practised by the savages 
 of Central Africa. 
 
 There are four kinds of material chiefly used in the 
 fabrication of cloths for garments, viz, Wool, Flax, Cotton, 
 and Silk, without taking into account Jute and other iibres, 
 which are also used occasionally, or which are used in the 
 manufacture of fabrics for other than clothing purposes. 
 Of these it is very probable wool was first used. If we refer 
 to Gen. iv. 2, xxxvi. 7, and xxxvii. 13, and to Job xlii. 12, 
 we iind that the keeping of sheep must have been a profit- 
 able employment in very early times, and at later periods 
 in the history of the world this occupation has lost none of 
 its value or importance. That the Hebrews and their 
 neighbours deemed it honourable, even for royalty, there 
 is Bible evidence abundant to prove. If we refer to 
 2 Kings iii. 4, we find that " Mesha, King of Moab, was a 
 sheep master, and rendered unto the King of Israel an 
 hundred thousand lambs, and an hundred thousand rams, 
 ivith the wool.'' Two eminent authorities, Whitaker in his 
 History of Manchester, and Strutt on Dress, both assert 
 that the first articles of dress were made from wool ; and 
 this may be very readily inferred, because those who were 
 
12 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 in the habit of wearing the skins of wool-bearing animals 
 could not fail to discover the peculiar properties of wool ; 
 properties v/hich make it an easy matter, either to make 
 threads from it, or form it into a sohd substance without 
 the preliminary process of spinning, or even of weaving. 
 
 The manufacture of worsted is supposed by some to 
 have preceded that of woollen, and in support of this the 
 writer of the article in Rees' Cyclopaedia says the " long- 
 stapled wool suited to the comb seems more spontaneously 
 the produce of uncultivated sheep than short wool, which 
 is to be manufactured by carding." 
 
 Some writers suppose the Argnli species to be the 
 original sheep. Prof. Archer says, " The fact that the 
 sheep has been so long domesticated has caused it to be 
 a matter of uncertainty whether it has been derived from 
 any of the existing animals of the genus Ovis. Many 
 have entertained the opinion that it is the same animal as 
 the Argali, Ovis Ammon, Linn., a native of the moimtains 
 of Central Asia ; and a great weight of evidence in favour 
 of that supposition is obtained from the circumstance, that 
 all the tribes of people who have from time immemorial 
 dwelt on the plains surrounding those mountains have 
 always been pastoral in their habits and occupations. 
 Still, however, there is no positive proof that our sheep 
 was derived either from the Argali or any other known 
 wild species, and the probability has been much lessened 
 by the recent discoveries of the remains of sheep, mingled 
 with stone weapons of a people who existed under such 
 different conditions of the earth's surface, that we may 
 assume with as much probability that they were the 
 progenitors of the Asiatics, as that the latter were their 
 ancestors." And Dr. Carpenter, in his Zoology, says the 
 Argali is not the original sheep. 
 
 In addition to woollen fabrics other material appears to 
 have been used by the ancients, viz., linen and silk (the 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 13 
 
 manufacture of the latter having been brought to great 
 perfection by the Chinese in very early times), and not only 
 were they used separately, but they were in the habit of 
 mixing them in their goods. " Neither shall a garment 
 mingled of linen and woollen come upon thee." — Lev. xix. 
 19. The practice of mixing seems to have been carried on 
 at a later period also. The subsericum^ of the Romans was 
 a mixture of woollen and silk, viz., woollen warp and silk 
 weft. It has been supposed by some that the "garment 
 mingled of linen and woollen," forbidden by Moses, was a 
 cloth which the Egyptians were accustomed to manu- 
 facture, inasmuch as he prohibited almost every custom 
 prevalent in Egypt. 
 
 The Hebrews appear to have obtained a knowledge of 
 spinning and weaving during their bondage in Egypt, and 
 to have exercised their knowledge while journeying in the 
 desert — " And all the women that were wise-hearted did 
 spin with their hands, and brought that which they had 
 spun both of blue, and of purple, and of scarlet, and of fine 
 linen ; and all the women whose heart stirred them up in 
 wisdom spun goats' hair.'' — Exodus xxxv. 25. 
 
 This practice was no doubt followed up by them after 
 they ceased their wanderings. In the Proverbs of Solomon 
 xxxi. 13, some of the qualities of a virtuous woman are 
 said to be that " She Seeketh wool and flax, and worketh 
 willingly with her hands." But the Hebrews never seem 
 to have attained great excellence in their manufactures ; 
 but to have confined themselves to coarse fabrics, which 
 were spun under the domestic roof. 
 
 * Silk is described by the Ancients as coming from S erica or Screinda. 
 Seres is the designation given by the Greeks and Romans to the people 
 who inhabited those remote regions, and Sereinda is apparently a 
 compound of Seres and Indi — the latter a general term applied by the 
 ancients to all distant nations. It is generally admitted that the Seres 
 of the ancients are the Chineses of the moderns. Se is the name for Silk 
 in the Chinese language. — Treatise on the Silk Manufacture. London ; 
 Longman & Co. 1831. 
 
14 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 In I Kings x. 28, we find Solomon receiving " linen 
 yarn " from Egypt. Linen would appear to have been 
 the chief product of the Egyptians, for we find it very 
 frequently mentioned, and in the manufacture of linen 
 they undoubtedly excelled. We find Ezekiel xxvii. 7 
 speaking of " Fine linen and broidered work from Egypt. ' 
 And as they cultivated the manufacture of linen to per- 
 fection, the}^ seem to have almost entirely neglected that of 
 wool ; indeed, it seems to have been a part of their religion 
 to eschew the use of sheep's wool, and to abominate the 
 pastoral life. Possibly this arose from political causes, 
 such as repeated invasions by their pastoral neighbours, 
 and the long and tyrannical dynasties of their occasional 
 conquerors —the shepherd kings. 
 
 Whatever may have been the cause, the Egyptians 
 disliked sheep's wool, and cultivated vegetable fibres 
 which, with their fine and equable climate, probably formed 
 the better material for clothing. The perfection to which 
 they brought the manufacture of their favourite material is 
 well seen in the marvellous fabrics which are found in such 
 abundance in the receptacles of their dead. 
 
 Dyeing is mentioned as early as the time of Jacob — 
 " Now Israel loved Joseph more than all his children, 
 because he was the son of his old age, and he made him a 
 coat of many colours." — Gen. xxxvii. 3. Woollen fabrics 
 appear to have been first named from the peculiar colours 
 in which they were dyed. For instance, in the following 
 verse we read, " Moreover thou shalt make the tabernacle 
 with ten curtains, of fine twilled linen, and purple, and 
 Scarlet.'' — Exodus xxvi. i. It is pretty well established that 
 the latter portion alludes entirely to woollen fabrics. 
 
 We read in Numbers iv. 6, 7, 8, of " cloth wholly of 
 blue," a "cloth of blue," and a "cloth of scarlet," and 
 frequently throughout the old Testament we find woollen 
 cloth spoken of in this manner. 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 15 
 
 Gorgeous colours are still preferred in the East, where 
 the art of dyeing originally made great progress, and the 
 excellence of which is, even at this day, attested by the 
 brilliancy of colour which distinguishes the rich carpets of 
 Persia and Turkey, and gives them such a ready sale in the 
 European markets. 
 
 A dress of rich and various colours was in the time 
 of Samuel the distinguishing attire of a king's daughter — 
 " And she had a garment of divers colours upon her, for 
 with such robes were the king's daughters, that were virgins, 
 apparelled." The dyeing of these variegated colours must 
 have been a costly art, as is shown by the fact of this 
 description of dress being worn only in the families of 
 princes and nobles. The Phojnicians attained great 
 eminence in the art of dyeing ; the Tyrian purple, believed 
 to be obtained from the animal of a sea-shell, Murex 
 truncatula, is known to every classical scholar by the 
 numerous allusions to its great repute amongst the 
 ancients. 
 
 Tyre was a city famous for its textile manufacture. 
 Ezekiel in his description shows plainly that the woollen 
 manufacture had made considerable progress there ; and 
 that its fabrics were the produce of several large and im- 
 portant districts, the names of which are given, and also 
 the peculiar description of materials in the fabrication of 
 which they each excelled. 
 
 The isles of Elisha brought to the emporium of the east 
 for merchandise, " blue and purple " Syria, " purple and 
 embroidered work" and Dedan, "precious clothes for 
 chariots." Damascus is mentioned as supplying the mer- 
 chants of Tyre with " white wool," which was exceedingly 
 rare, and principally confined in its growth to the district 
 immediately surrounding the city from whence it was con- 
 veyed. Speaking of the merchants of Sheba, Asshur, 
 Chilmad, and others, the prophet adds, " They were the 
 
i6 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 merchants in all sortsof things, in blue cloth and broidered 
 work." 
 
 No more convincing proof exists of the extent of the 
 manufactures from wool, at this remote period, than this 
 truly eloquent and vivid description of Tyre by Ezekiel in 
 which "white wool" and "blue cloth" are so expressly 
 alluded to. 
 
 The Babylonians became famous for their manufacture 
 of stuffs from the finest description of wool. Herodotus 
 says, " They wear a gown of linen flowing down to the 
 feet, over this an upper garment made from wool, and a 
 white tunic covering the whole." " As the climate of 
 Babylonia is excessively hot, we may conclude that these 
 garments made from wool were similar to some of our 
 fabrics, light and of delicate texture."* Babylon, the 
 most celebrated mart of ancient commerce, was distin- 
 guished for the extent of its trade, and especially for the 
 productions of its looms. Large and numerous weaving 
 establishments were not confined to the city, but were 
 scattered through the towns of the province, and their 
 woven stuffs conveyed to all the countries of the east. 
 The skill, industry, and enterprise of its inhabitants were 
 unrivalled ; the productions of their looms of so fine a 
 texture as to be held in great estimation in all the marts of 
 .the world. If we may place implicit belief in the accounts 
 which have descended to us respecting the fineness of their 
 cloths, they were even superior to the extraordinary fabrics 
 of modern times. 
 
 The Greek colonies in Asia Minor gave an impetus to 
 the manufacture of wool for ornamental as well as useful 
 purposes, and the Ionian colon}^ of Miletus was especially 
 celebrated for its fine wool and its beautiful carpets ; and 
 both of these are supposed to have been first obtained from 
 
 * " James' History of the Worsted Trade." 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 ^7 
 
 the Coraxi, a native race who are supposed to be repre- 
 sented by the Circassians. The Milesians became so 
 famous for their fine wool that the Coraxi fell into the 
 second rank. Still the latter retained pre-eminence for 
 their shawls, which were so celebrated that they are mem- 
 tioned in a poem by Hipponax, of Ephesus, 540, b.c. 
 It is, however, considered probable by some that the 
 shawls of the ancestors of the Circassians, and probably 
 too the carpets of Miletus, were made from goats' wool, 
 which is the material of the Cashmerian shawl of modern 
 times. This is the more likely, for some of the ancient 
 authors likened the Melesian fleeces to the wool of the 
 camel, and every one who is familiar with the feeling of 
 camel hair or wool, knows how strongly it resembles in 
 that respect the wool of the Cashmere goat, of which the 
 most beautiful shawls are made. 
 
 Like the Phoenicians, the Milesians also became very 
 famous for their dyes ; thus we find in Sotheby's trans- 
 lation of the third Georgiac of Virgil, the following lines :- 
 Let rich Miletus vaunt her fleecy pride, 
 And weigh with gold her robes in purple dyed. 
 
 It is almost certain, from the facts already adduced, 
 that the textile manufactures received a great impetus in 
 Egypt — the cradle of nearly all known arts— from whence 
 in course of time, as a necessary consequence of war, revo- 
 lution, and increase of population in other parts of the 
 globe they became extended throughout nearly the whole 
 of Asia, and from thence to Italy, Portugal, and Gaul, 
 keeping steady pace with the march of civilisation. 
 
 The woollen manufacture in Europe appears to have 
 been first established in Italy, from whence most other 
 countries of Europe were accustomed to obtain their best 
 description of clothing. Among the Italian cities engaged 
 in the manufacture or merchandise of woollen and worsted, 
 Venice stands pre-eminent. In the earliest periods she 
 
i8 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 traded with Constantinople for the best of these articles. 
 On the sack of that city by the French and Venetians, in 
 the beginning of the thirteenth century, the latter carried 
 away its arts and manufactures, and established them in 
 Venice. The historian of that Republic states that it was 
 from Constantinople the Venetians took the first model 
 for their manufactures. 
 
 The textile fabrics of both the Greeks and Romans were 
 almost entirely of woollen. Robertson, in his Dissertation 
 on Ancient India, says, " The dress both of the Greeks and 
 Romans v/as almost entirel}' woollen, which, by their frequent 
 use of the warm bath, was rendered abundantly comfortable. 
 Their consumption of linen and cotton cloths was much 
 inferior to that of modern times, when these are worn by 
 persons in every rank of life." 
 
 The Florentines figure as having been extensively 
 engaged in this branch of manufacture, more so than 
 other portions of Europe, whom they, in consequence, 
 supplied with woollen articles of the finest quality and 
 softest texture. 
 
 No sooner was this art known in the Netherlands than 
 it was prosecuted with such unparalleled vigour and 
 success as completely to throw into the shade even Italy, 
 and the towns upon the coast of the Baltic who were 
 engaged in it. 
 
 Throughout the early history of Europe the inhabitants 
 of the Netherlands, especially those of Flanders, Brabant, 
 and Hainault, took the lead among manufacturing nations. 
 At a ver}^ early period, certainly as early as the tenth 
 century, the woollen and worsted manufacture had been 
 transplanted from Italy. Hallam, in his " View of the 
 state of Europe during the Middle Ages," says, " The only 
 mention of a manufacture as early as the ninth or tenth 
 centuries that I remember to have met with is in Schmidt 
 (Hist, des Allem, t. 2, p. 146J, who says that cloths were 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 19 
 
 exported from Friesland to England. He quotes no 
 authorit}^, but I am satisfied that he has not advanced 
 this fact gratuitously." Other authorities, viz., De Witt 
 and Meyer, give the date of the commencement of the 
 woollen manufactures about the year 960, or rather sooner. 
 From this date they appear to have pushed their trade 
 with considerable vigour, for there are many concurrent 
 testimonies that in the twelfth and succeeding centuries 
 the Flemish textile manufactures were in a flourishing condi- 
 tion. Man)^ o-f our English authors of this period testify 
 to the flourishing state of the manufacture in Flanders, for 
 instance, Giraldus Cambrensis, (Itin. Camb. 1-2, chap. 2), 
 who ascribes great skill in it to the Flemings, and states 
 that a colony of them established it in England ; also 
 Gervase, of Tilbury, Vvdio states that the art of weaving 
 seems to be a gift bestowed upon them by nature. Similar 
 testimony is borne by Ralph de Dicito, and Henry of 
 Huntingdon ; and Matthew of Westminster says that 
 " all the world was clothed from English wool wrought in 
 Flanders." This was no doubt an exaggerated boast, but 
 Flemish stuiis v/ere probably sold v/herever the sea or a 
 navigable river permitted tliem to be carried. 
 
 Having thus briefly glanced at the textile manufactures 
 among the ancients, to show as nearly as possible their 
 origin and antiquity, we will now proceed to point out a 
 few of the earliest allusions and best authenticated facts to 
 be found on record regarding the manufacture of woollen 
 cloths in England, from the time of the Roman invasion, 
 which is the earliest of which we have any record of the 
 manufacture of textile fabrics being systematically carried 
 on in this country. 
 
 The fabrication and dyeing of wearing apparel, of a 
 coarse woollen texture, was unquestionably carried on to a 
 limited extent by the ancient Gauls. And at the time of 
 the Roman invasion of Britain it is recorded that the resi- 
 
20 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 dents of the maritime ports of the island, adjacent to the 
 continent, wore apparel made from wool. Caesar narrates 
 that he found them clothed in drapery similar to that used 
 in Gaul and the Belgic States, where considerable manu- 
 facture from wool then existed. 
 
 It is a moot point whether the sheep is indigenous to, 
 or imported into, Great Britain. The first mention of 
 English wool we have on record Professor Millar alleges to 
 have occurred about the time that this country was a mere 
 Roman province. Smith, in his " Memoirs of Wool," con- 
 tends that the first mention of sheep in English records or 
 history was not made till about the beginning of the eighth 
 century ; while Professor Archer says that there is no 
 proof of its introduction, but there are proofs that it 
 existed long antecedent to the Roman invasion and occu- 
 pation." 
 
 It is interesting, however, to know that our conquerors, 
 among the many other lessons they taught us, systemati- 
 cally manufactured wool first in Britain. They established 
 an extensive manufactory at Winchester for the purpose of 
 supplying the Roman army with clothing. This manu- 
 factory must have obtained considerable celebrity abroad. 
 Dionysius Alexandrinus writes of it " that the wool of 
 Britain is often spun so fine, that it is in a manner com- 
 parable to a spider's thread." 
 
 Now the Romans were not likely to have brought wool 
 to this country for the purpose of making it into cloth, 
 and it is therefore only reasonable to conclude that they 
 found it in such abundance and good quality as to tempt 
 them to utilize it. 
 
 For the next half dozen centuries after the Romans 
 retired from this country, history is entirely silent upon 
 the subject of textile manufactures. In the ninth century 
 we agam light upon it : " The mother of Alfred the Great 
 was a spinner of wool, and also taught her daughters the 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. ^1 
 
 art." And we are credibly informed by an old chronicler 
 that King Edward the Elder " sette his sons to schole, his 
 daughters he sette to wool werke," and they employed 
 themselves in spinning, weaving, and embroidery, which 
 " were prudently taught them to fill up the very large 
 vacuities of an unlettered life with an innocent and 
 reputable employment." 
 
 From this time forward, even to the commencement of 
 the present century, most of the spinning of wool was 
 done by women, and their industry was only equalled by 
 their skill, it being the pride of a good spinster to make 
 the finest yarn and plenty of it. Several remarkable 
 examples of this skill are recorded, one even by the Royal 
 Society. Mary Pringle, a Norfolk lady, earned this honour, 
 by spinning a pound of wool into 84,000 yards (nearly 48 
 miles), though this falls far short of the accomplishments 
 of a Lincolnshire lady. Miss Ives, of Spalding, who spun 
 the same weight of wool into 168,000 yards, or 95^ miles 
 of yarn ; whilst the ordinary spinners of that time varied 
 from (good) 13,440 yards, to (superfine) 39,200 yards per 
 pound. 
 
 It is generally supposed that during the Anglo-Saxon 
 period large quantities of English wool were purchased by 
 the Flemings, who were then, as we have previously 
 remarked, the principal manufacturers of fine cloths for the 
 whole of the European markets. That wool was at this 
 time a commodity of export is rendered highly probable 
 from the high price at which it was sold, compared with 
 the cost of the animal producing it. Macpherson states 
 that in the " laws of Ina, King of the West Saxons, 
 who reigned at the close of the seventh century, a 
 sheep with its lamb is valued at a shilling. In another 
 of Ina's laws the fleece alone is valued at two pennies, 
 that is at one-sixth of the price of the entire sheep 
 and lamb." 
 
12 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 The internal trade of England, during nearly the whole 
 of the period to which allusion is now made, w^as exceed- 
 ingly limited. No person was allowed to buy anything 
 above the value of twenty pennies, except within a town, 
 and in the presence of the Chief Magistrate (called the 
 king's port-reeve), or two or more witnesses of well-known 
 veracity. The penalty for breaking this curious enactment 
 was the payment of thirty shillings, besides forfeiting the 
 goods so exchanged, to the Lord of the Manor. This 
 regulation took place in the seventh century, and is to be 
 found in the code of laws adopted by King Hlothaere (or 
 Lothair), of Kent. 
 
 In the early part of the tenth century an enactment 
 was made in the reign of Athelstane, to the effect that 
 every merchant who shall have made three voyages over 
 the sea with a ship and cargo of his own shall have the 
 rank of thane or nobleman. This wise and liberal pro- 
 ceeding gave an impetus to the commercial transactions ol 
 this period, which fully justified the policy of such a step. 
 
 King Edgar, during this century, attached such a high 
 value to the growth of v/ool that he took effectual measures 
 for the suppression of wolves, which had rendered the 
 keeping of sheep an occupation highly precarious and 
 uncertain in all parts of the realm. It is said that very 
 few of these ravenous and dangerous animals were left in 
 the island. This monarch, towards the close of his reign, 
 enforced a law to the effect that a weigh of wool was not 
 to sell for more than half a pound of silver. When we lake 
 into consideration the comparative value of money and 
 other articles at this remote period, this enactment indi- 
 cates plainly the high price which wool must have realized 
 in times prior to the Norman conquest. 
 
 On the accession of William the Conqueror to the 
 English throne, a large number of Flemish weavers fol- 
 lowing in his train settled in various parts of England, 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 23 
 
 improving very much the manufacture from wool then 
 carried on here, and introducing some entirely new branches 
 of it. Some of these workmen settled in the parish of St. 
 Peter's, Mancroft, Norwich, and are supposed to have intro- 
 duced into that locality the art of making worsteds. The 
 Normans and Flemings were proverbial for their love of 
 dress, which imparted to their woven fabrics great elegance 
 and fineness, and tended to encourage the improvement of 
 the textile arts, and gave a stimulus to trade. 
 
 In the reign of Henry I, a great inundation drove 
 numbers of these Flemish weavers from their native shores, 
 and they sought refuge in this country, the King giving 
 them a hearty welcome, placing a great number of them 
 in the neighbourhood of Carlisle. This was a very fortu- 
 nate occurrence for the native inhabitants of this district, 
 who were thus taught an improved system of manufacture, 
 for which valuable services the strongest manifestations of 
 envy and animosity were the sole return. In mo, these 
 Flemish settlers, owing to the latter circumstance, so highly 
 discreditable to the Saxon population, were transplanted 
 into Wales, a district called Ros, and now a part of Pem- 
 brokeshire, where they carried on with vigour their useful 
 occupation. They are described by Giraldus Cambrensis 
 as being " excellently skilled both in the art of making 
 cloth, and in that of merchandise." And we are further 
 informed, by William of Malmesbur}^ that they were a 
 brave, hardy people, equally qualified to handle the plough 
 and the sword, and also skilful in the woohen manufacture, 
 the great staple of their country, so that in every respect 
 they were a very valuable colony, whether considered as a 
 barrier against the enemy, or the first founders of the 
 manufacture oifine woollens in England. 
 
 Some of these Flemish weavers settled at Worsted 
 in Norfolk, and there commenced the manufacture of stuff 
 goods, which have since borne that name. It seems very 
 
24 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 probable that the name Worsted," as given to the fabrics 
 which now form the great staple trade of Bradford, and 
 the surrounding districts of the West-Riding of Yorkshire, 
 was derived from the name of this Norfolk town, and 
 this derivation is generally accepted as the correct one. 
 There have been three hypotheses as to its derivation. 
 The second supposition is that the word is derived from 
 the Dutch term " Ostade," signifying this particular class 
 of woollen fabric ; and that the corruption " Worsted " took 
 its rise from the Flemish weavers establishing it at and 
 giving name to the town.* The writer of the article on the 
 worsted manufacture in Rees' Cyclopaedia adopts this ; he 
 says that, " as the Flemings introduced the manufacture 
 into England, it is probable our appellation is a corruption 
 of theirs. Ostade was long ago a common name in 
 Flanders, and was probably the surname of some person 
 famous for this branch of the woollen trade, which after- 
 wards was appropriated to an establishment of similar 
 manufactures in Norfolk." 
 
 The third derivation is founded upon the conjecture of 
 Archdeacon Nares. In his Glossary, he sa3's, " Worsted is 
 usually supposed to be named from the town so called 
 in Norfolk, where it is therefore thought to have been 
 invented, but woollen thread, yarn, and stuff might 
 naturally be called woolstead, as being the staple or sub- 
 stance of wool, and it appears to me more probable that 
 the town was named from the manufacture, than that from 
 it. Both might easily be corrupted to worsted, by the 
 common change of the letter / to r. Worsted thread or 
 yarn must have been known as long as the spinning of 
 wool, that is, as long as clothing was used. The town had 
 probably a much later date, and was originally called 
 
 * Since this was written I have visited the town of Worsted, and find 
 from the records of the fine old Parish Church, that the name of the town 
 existed long before the Flemings settled there. 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 25 
 
 woolstead, from being a sted or station for woollen manu- 
 factures. This however is only a conjecture, and opposite 
 to the opinion of Skinner and others." Skinner, Camden, 
 and others adopt the first hypothesis, and it seems certainly 
 to have the greatest weight of probabilities in its favour. 
 It is certain the town of Worsted existed in the time of 
 the Saxons. In Doomsday Book it is recorded that in the 
 reign of Edward the Confessor, the lordship of Worsted 
 belonged to the Abbot of St. Bennet, of Holme ; and at 
 the great survey, to one of the king's officers, who assumed, 
 according to the custom of the times, the surname of 
 Wursted. This is, therefore, conclusive that if the tow^n 
 derived its name from the manufacture it must have done 
 so in the Saxon times. 
 
 The woollen manufacture made such rapid progress 
 during this interesting period of its history, that towards 
 the close of the reign of Henry II., it became extended 
 over the whole kingdom, and companies of guilds of 
 weavers were established in London, Oxford, York, Not- 
 tingham, Huntingdon, Lincoln, and Winchester, all of 
 whom paid fines to the king for the privilege of carrying 
 on their manufacture exclusive of other towns. There 
 were also dealers, or merchants, in a great many of the 
 towns, who paid fines to the king in a similar manner for 
 the privilege of buying and selling dyed cloths. 
 
 Wool was the great native commodity of England in 
 
 those days, particularly in the reign of Henry II., when it 
 
 was mainly converted into cloth by English manufacturers. 
 
 Dr. Whitaker, in his " History of Craven," makes the 
 
 following statement as to the value of wool about the close 
 
 of the twelfth century :— " A sack of wool sold for 
 
 The sack consisted, according to Spelman, of twenty-six 
 
 stones, each weighing fourteen pounds. A labourer then 
 
 received a penny a day, and an ox was worth about thirteen 
 
 shillings and fourpence ; whence it follows that at that 
 c 
 
26 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 time two and a half stones of wool would purchase an 
 ox. Whereas a labourer will now earn the value of a 
 stone of wool in a week, at that time it would require 
 ■^10^'''$: sixty days, so that poor sheep walks were as valuable as 
 the best land." 
 
 At this time cloths were made for exportation as well 
 as home consumption, and the Germans were purchasers 
 of English woollens. 
 
 In the patent of incorporation of the guild of weavers 
 in London, already alluded to, the mixing of Spanish with 
 English wool is strictly prohibited ; from which some 
 writers infer that English woollen cloths of an inferior 
 texture were all made of English wool, and others that 
 English wool was finer in quality than Spanish. In 1197 
 a law w^as enacted for regulating the dyeing and sale of 
 home-made cloths, as well as for the purpose of establishing 
 a uniformity of weights and measures. 
 
 On the death of Henry II. the textile arts still con- 
 tinued to flourish, notwithstanding the warlike disposition 
 of Richard I. Even then broad cloth appears to have 
 been made in England. In the Capituhi Placitoriim Coronoe 
 of Richard I., chap. 28, we find that it is ordered that it 
 shall be all of one breadth, namely, two ells within the 
 lists, and of the same goodness in the middle as the edges. 
 
 In the reign of King John the manufactures of England 
 declined very much, and, in consequence, large quantities 
 of foreign cloths were imported. Hence it was that about 
 this time a general safe conduct was granted to all foreign 
 merchants, to enable them to pass to and from England 
 without hinderance or molestation. 
 
 During the civil wars, when John and Henry HI. suc- 
 cessively sat on the throne, the woollen manufacture 
 gradually decayed, and English wools were exported in 
 their raw state to foreign parts. The quantity of wool 
 grown in England must have been very considerable. 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 27 
 
 Spelman relates that the nobles on delivering in a list of 
 their grievances in 1279 to Edward I., when he was about 
 to embark for Flanders, represented it to be their opinion 
 that one-half of the wealth of the kingdom consisted of 
 wool. Danzel, who perhaps comes nearer the truth, states 
 that the wool of England at this time was equal to a fifth 
 part of the substance thereof. 
 
 Although these facts are significant of the increase in 
 the exportation of wool, to some extent the natural result 
 of the decay in our domestic manufactures, till the 
 appointment by Edward I., in the 25th year of his reign, 
 of Peter de Edelmeton as aulnager of cloth throughout 
 the kingdom, leads us to infer that the woollen manu- 
 facture was carried on to a greater extent than we should 
 have imagined. At this time only the coarsest kinds of 
 cloth appear to have been made in England, and all the 
 finest descriptions were obtained abroad. We are informed 
 by Dr. Whitaker that the canons in Bolton Abbey, in 
 Yorkshire, visited annually St. Botolph Fair, held at Boston, 
 Lincolnshire, for the purpose of buying cloth. As they 
 received commissions from" the neighbouring gentry to 
 make purchases for them, their transactions with the foreign 
 merchants at Boston were larger than they would other- 
 wise have occasion to make. It is a curious fact worthy 
 also of mention, that in the reign of the above-named king 
 the burgesses of Hedon (a place near Hull) had to pay a 
 heavy penalty for not making cloth of the full measurement 
 required by statute. 
 
 From the preceding pages it is obvious that the woollen 
 and worsted manufactures flourished to a considerable 
 extent in this country previous to the time of Edward III., 
 and that the commonly received notion attributing to him 
 their first establishment is erroneous. However, he did 
 much to encourage and advance these branches of the 
 trade, and from his reign may be dated a new era in their 
 
28 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 history. In 1331, this sovereign invited, by special grant 
 skilful Flemish weavers, dyers, and fullers to come over 
 and settle permanently in England, with an assurance of 
 his special favour and protection. A considerable number 
 of them responded to the King's invitation, and settled by 
 his directions where the wool grown in the district was 
 suitable for the particular kind of cloth or stuff fabricated 
 by these artisans. The worsted weavers were, according 
 to this arrangement, located in Norfolk, Suffolk, and Essex, 
 having Norwich for their chief seat or mart ; others of 
 them settled at Kendal, Halifax, Manchester, and the 
 West of England. Fuller, in his Church History, gives a 
 very racy and graphic account of the introduction of these 
 foreign weavers, and their settlement in this country. 
 
 To further encourage the extension of the manufacture 
 from wool, a Parliament convened in the middle of 
 March, 1337, enacted: ist. That it should be a felony 
 to transport any vvool of English growth beyond the 
 seas until it be otherwise ordained. 2nd. That all 
 foreign clothworkers should be received from whatever 
 parts they came, and have privileges allowed them. 3rd, 
 That none should wear any cloths made beyond the sea 
 except the Royal Family. The words " until it be other- 
 wise ordained," contained in the clause prohibiting the 
 export of wool, render it apparent that this was only a 
 temporary expedient for the encouragement of English 
 manufactures, for this prohibition was from time to time 
 dispensed with by the Crown, by virtue of the writ Non 
 Obstante, much used in those days. The prohibition of the 
 importation of foreign cloth, except for the Royal Family, 
 was also rescinded at a later period of this reign. 
 
 During this reign staples " for wool were established 
 
 * Staple in its original sense denoted a- place or port to which goods 
 were brought for payment of customs, before the}- could be sold or export- 
 ed. Those who exported were termed merchants of the staple. 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 29 
 
 in various parts of the kingdom, which were, however, 
 aboUshed by a Parhament assembled at York in the year 
 1334, with the general consent of the nation. About the 
 same time the foreign merchants, who, in consequence of 
 a slight rupture with the English people, had ceased to 
 have any transactions with them, were induced to resume 
 mercantile operations, by the King contirming a charter 
 originally granted in 1303, to which was added an 
 assurance that no " undue prises, exactions, or arrests " 
 should be inflicted for the future ; and that no contribu- 
 tions should be levied on them for the Royal use, or the 
 benefit of the State, without their sanction being obtained 
 even in the case of war breaking out. 
 
 The Flemish manufacturers found at this time their 
 most formidable rivals in the Brabanters, who had made 
 great progress in the woollen and worsted manufactures. 
 Large quantities of wool were exported from this country 
 both to Brabant and Flanders, although the people of the 
 former country were only allowed by law to purchase at 
 the towns in England appointed for the sale of wool, and 
 only to such an extent from time to time as was sufficient 
 for half-a-year's comsumption, the precise quantities required 
 having to be sworn by two deputies from each of the 
 principal manufacturing towns, furnished with the Duke's 
 letters patent. 
 
 Abundant testimony may be found in the records of 
 the period that the produce of wool had, in the days of 
 Edward III., reached an immense amount. From an 
 Act of Parliament passed in the twenty-seventh year of 
 Henr}^ VI. we gather that in the time of Edward III. the 
 subsidies and customs of the staple of Calais amounted 
 to the enormous sum of sixty-eight thousand pounds 
 yearly, of which by far the greater part would arise from 
 the export of wool. 
 
 As a striking indication of the vaiue of wool in 
 
30 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 England at this important era in the annals of the 
 woollen manufactures, and the immense profit realised 
 by its exportation, owing doubtless to the great demand 
 for it abroad, it may be mentioned that the historian of 
 Edward III. states that the King in November, 1337, 
 "having taken up wool throughout all England, for which 
 he gave the proprietors tallies at the rate of £^ per sack," 
 shipped 10,000 sacks of it for Brabant, "where they were 
 sold at £iQ each." A great deal of other interesting 
 information may be collected respecting the value of 
 wool at this period, but this scarcely comes within the 
 scope of the present work. 
 
 On the death of Edward III. the woollen manufacture, 
 though somewhat checked in its progress, still continued 
 to flourish to a great extent in the days of his grandson. 
 While Richard II. occupied the throne many enactments 
 were made in favour of foreign merchants settling and 
 trading in England, who had in former periods, to satisfy 
 the home merchants, been restricted in their commercial 
 intercourse with this country. 
 
 Multitudes of passages in English History prove that 
 from the first settlement of foreign weavers and merchants 
 in this country, they were viewed with suspicion and 
 dislike. In the days of Edward III. it became necessary 
 to give these weavers especial letters of protection to 
 save them from the violence of the people, who, notwith- 
 standing, in some places gave unrestrained vent to the 
 innate jealousy and hatred of the foreigner — strongly 
 characteristic of the English in those days — broke the 
 looms and other untensils of the intruders, and committed 
 outrages upon their persons. 
 
 It is narrated in the year 1344, ^^^^-^ the maltreatment 
 of the foreign weavers residing in London by the native 
 inhabitants grew so oppressive and riotous that a pro- 
 clamation was made by the Mayor and Sheriffs of tlie 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 31 
 
 City, in obedience to strict orders from the King, that 
 any person doing the least injury to a foreigner should 
 be impriaoned for the offence. This proclamation was 
 made very opportunely, for had these skilful artisans 
 been driven from our dominions, in order to escape the 
 violence of prosecution which seemed to threaten them 
 at one time with remorseless fury, England would not 
 have made the rapid progress she did with the textile 
 arts. Such, however, were the skill and enterprise of 
 these foreigners, that to them we are undoubtedly indebted 
 for the foundation of our great national industry. To 
 this and to events which we shall have to notice at a 
 later period, England undoubtedly owes her manufacturing 
 superiority over the inhabitants of any other portion of 
 the globe, — even those European states that were once the 
 monopolists of the arts, both of design and production, — 
 which has since made Englishmen "the wonder and envy 
 of the world." 
 
 There is no doubt the rule of the House of Lancaster 
 proved detrimental to the progress of the manufactures. 
 The reigns of Henry IV. and his son Henry V. were of 
 such short duration, and the latter consisted so much of 
 militar}^ conquest, that they are almost a blank in the 
 commercial history of the country. 
 
 From the date of Henry IV. ascending the throne to 
 the battle of Bosworth Field, England had, during the 
 larger portion of the interval, been a scene of war and 
 bloodshed ; and owing to the intestine commotions, and 
 the artisans being arrayed under the banners of the 
 hostile houses, the clothing arts gradually languished and 
 decayed, so that the fame of England abroad, for woven 
 productions, became at last from the smallness of their 
 export well nigh extinct. 
 
 The boroughs and great towns of the kingdom were in 
 the middle ages, not only cities of refuge for the feudal 
 
32 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 slaves of the great landowners, but the large demand and 
 high remuneration for labour induced the country people 
 to apprentice their children in them, thereby causing a 
 scarcity of hands for cultivating the soil. To remedy this 
 grievance of the landlords. Parliament, in the seventh 
 year of Henry IV., prohibited " any man or woman from 
 putting their son or daughter to be apprentice within any 
 city or town, unless they had lands or rents to the value of 
 twenty shillings at the least by the year." When one bears 
 in mind the value of money in those days, the sum of 
 twenty shillings a year formed a considerable income, and 
 consequently kept down considerably the number who 
 were at liberty to apprentice their children. 
 
 After Henry VH. had firmly seated himself on the 
 throne, and united the claims of the rival houses of York 
 and Lancaster, by his marriage with Elizabeth of York, he 
 appears to have endeavoured to restore the clothing arts, 
 as well as the general trade of the kingdom, to their former 
 condition ; and to encourage the enrichment and elevation 
 of his subjects by means of trade and commercial enter- 
 prise. He likewise invited numerous Flemish clothing 
 manufacturers to settle in his dominions ; and during his 
 reign the woollen and worsted trades, from a state of 
 decay, spread and increased so greatly as to lead some 
 authors into the mistake of attributing to him the intro- 
 duction of these arts into the kingdom. 
 
 This monarch in various ways showed his anxiety to 
 promote the manufacture of wool and the commercial 
 prosperity of his subjects. Among other things —although 
 the export of wool was not entirely forbidden — soon after 
 his coronation it was declared, " that no person during ten 
 years following should buy, take, promise, or bargain for 
 any wool before the fifteenth day of August in each year, 
 except such persons as intended to make cloth or yarn 
 thereof; nor any merchant stranger before the second of 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 33 
 
 February after," thus giving the home manufacturers an 
 opportunity of satisfying their own requirements first, and 
 then the residue might be sold to foreign merchants, 
 who, however, paid the heavy custom of three pounds 
 six shilhngs and eightpence per sack, double the duty 
 imposed upon the home manufacturers. 
 
 During the reign of Henry VIII. the manufacture 
 appears to have declined, and although numerous attempts 
 were made by the legislature to promote its increase, it 
 does not seem during his reign to have recovered from 
 the state of decay into which it had fallen. Great com- 
 plaint is made at the dishonest expedients resorted to 
 by the manufacturers, in the making and finishing of 
 their goods, and numerous provisions are made in the 
 statute book to prevent and guard against such injurious 
 practices. Again during this reign the question of the 
 export of wool seems to have received some attention. 
 Lord Herbert, in his "Life of Henry VIII.," says "It was 
 provided that no univrougJit wool shall be exported out 
 of the kingdom, for the encouragement of the woollen 
 manufacture." James, in his " History of the Worsted 
 Trade," says this statement is incorrect, " for although, in 
 consequence of the enclosure of lands and the conversion 
 of it into tillage, the produce of wool had diminished in 
 comparison with that of earlier times and become barely 
 sufficient for the home clothier, so that the export of it 
 had nearly ceased, 3^et the statute book at this time did 
 not contain any prohibition against the exportation of 
 unwrought wool, except that of Norfolk sheep." 
 
 We now come on to the time of Elizabeth, for although 
 with the fifteenth century the Middle Ages are supposed 
 to terminate, yet the interval was one of mere transition, 
 and with the accession of Elizabeth to the throne a new 
 era seems to have commenced. Events also occurred on 
 the Continent which gave a great impulse to, and in many 
 
34 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 respects changed, the character of the manufactures in 
 this country. The persecution of the Protestants in France 
 and the Netherlands, 1567-8, drove thousands of them 
 into this country, bringing with them a variety of manu- 
 factures, which they estabhshed here. The manufacture 
 of woollens must at this time have risen to a considerable 
 extent. Anderson, in his *' Progress of the Arts and 
 Sciences," says that in 1582 the value of woollen cloth 
 exported from England amounted to ;^2oo,ooo annually, 
 and other writers have placed it at a very much higher 
 figure than that. Smith, in his " Memoirs of Wool," puts 
 the value of exports to Antwerp alone during the reign 
 of Elizabeth at ^"750, 000 sterling, but this doubtless 
 includes worsted as well as woollen goods. 
 
 England at this time appears to have superseded the 
 Netherlands in the quality of their cloths. This has been 
 attributed to the quality of their wool, which even so late 
 as the sixteenth century is said to have been the finest and 
 most valuable in the world, exceeding in quality the wools 
 of Spain, which were largely used in the Netherlands. 
 
 Improbable as it may appear, it is nevertheless certain, 
 that although this country had obtained such a position 
 in the manufactures, the best methods of finishing and 
 dyeing, especially of the finer descriptions of cloths, were 
 very little known. Smith, in his " Memoirs of Wool," 
 quoting from Coke, says " The English at this time were 
 not skilled in the art of dressing and dyeing English 
 woollen manufactures, but, after they were made here, 
 they were vended into Holland, where they were dressed 
 and dyed." Logwood had at this time come into use, but 
 from some cause, probably its improper application, it 
 was, in 1597, forbidden by law to be used. 
 
 From this time forward the manufactures of England 
 made rapid progress, and marvellous indeed was the rapid 
 increase of English trade. New branches of industry 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 35 
 
 sprang up and developed themselves in rapid succession, 
 and thus laid the foundation of a national prosperity the 
 like of which the world had never witnessed. 
 
 The introduction of the silk trade into this country 
 appears to have taken place in the early part of the 
 seventeenth century. Anderson, in the book before 
 quoted, viz., the " Progress of the Arts and Sciences," 
 says that silk-worms were first brought into England in 
 the year 1608, and the first broad silk was manufactured 
 in the year 1620. About this time (1614), according to 
 the same authority, the dyeing of cloth in the wool was 
 first invented ; and in 1619, tapestry work was first 
 introduced into England. 
 
 Shortly after this the French commenced the manu- 
 facture of fine woollen cloth, the first establishment, started 
 in 1646, being at Sedan, under the patronage of Cardinal 
 Mazarine. In a very few years this branch of industry 
 must have made rapid progress, for we very soon find 
 complaint made that the worsted manufactures of that 
 country seriously effect the prosperity of our own. Not 
 only in woollen and worsted articles, but in other goods 
 did the French compete heavily with the English manu- 
 facturers. And to encourage their own production they 
 laid an impost of fifty or sixty per cent, upon our drapery, 
 constituting an almost express prohibition. 
 
 To counteract in some measure the injurious effects 
 to our textile manufactures arising from the importation 
 of French commodities, the legislature directed that no 
 person should be buried in any woven material except 
 made of wool, thereby intending to prevent the custom 
 of using French linen and lace for the purpose, which at 
 this period was much in vogue, and carried to a profuse 
 length in burials. By virtue of this prohibition, fine 
 worsted stuffs and flannels became common wrappings 
 for the dead ; and a vestage of the ancient practice remains 
 in some districts to the present time. 
 
36 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 Afterwards Parliament, in consequence of the loud and 
 incessant complaints of the nation, altogether prohibited, 
 in the early part of the year 1678, the importation 
 into England of all French merchandise whatsoever. 
 Immediately after this our manufactures from wool began 
 to prosper to an amazing extent. 
 
 In the meantime the silk manufactures had contmued 
 to progress in this country so rapidly that, in the year 
 1629, the silk throwsters of London were a sufficiently 
 numerous and important body to be incorporated under 
 the style of master, wardens, assistants and commonalty 
 of silk throwsters. And it is said, in 1663, there were 
 forty thousand men, women, and children employed 
 in silk throwing in and near London. The woollen 
 manufactures, too, had been quite alive to their own 
 interests, and, in 1667, the dyeing and dressing of cloth 
 was perfected in England by one Brewer, from the 
 Netherlands. 
 
 Shortly after this, events transpired to weaken the 
 manufacturing energy of France. Louis XIV., guided by 
 injudicious councils, determined to revoke the Edict of 
 Nantes, thereby depriving his Protestant subjects of their 
 rights and privileges. In consequence of this revocation 
 immense numbers quitted their native country, carrying 
 with them their wealth and industry, and no less than 
 70,000 of them are said to have settled in Great Britain. 
 
 These refugees introduced here many new methods 
 and improvements in the textile arts, and added greatly 
 to our increasing importance as a manufacturing nation. 
 The whole number who for conscience' sake quitted their 
 native country is said to have been no less than 800,000. 
 
 The influx of these refugees to our country no doubt 
 gave the greatest impetus to our manufacturing industries, 
 and we are doubtless largely indebted to the intolerant 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS- 
 
 37 
 
 bigotry and persecuting spirit of our Continental neigh- 
 bours for our rapid progress at this time. 
 
 That at the close of the seventeenth century the 
 textile industries of England had grown to an enormous 
 extent is evidenced by the fact that competent authorities 
 valued the wool shorn in England at ^"2, 000,000 sterling, 
 and the manufactures from it at ;^6, 000,000. Again, 
 a tolerable notion of the extent of the English trade 
 may be formed from the fact that the merchants of 
 London alone numbered nearly 2000, in addition to 
 those of other towns, who were both numerous and 
 wealthy. For the next half-century, although at particular 
 periods the trade was in an unprosperous condition, on 
 the whole the manufactures from wool were a growing 
 and improving source of national income; evidence of 
 this may be found in the value of the exports at different 
 periods. In the year 1700 these exports did not quite 
 reach £^3,000,000 sterling ; in 1708, even when the nation 
 was at war, they exceeded that sum. After many 
 fluctuations they attained, in 1736, the remarkably large 
 sum of upwards of ^4,000,000 sterling. Between this time 
 and the termination of the half-century they fluctuated 
 considerably, standing, however, at the latter period at 
 considerably over ^4,000,000, 
 
 We now arrive at a period which is remarkable in 
 the history of the textile manufactures, both for the inven- 
 tions and improvements that were made in the various 
 processes, and for the remarkable development which 
 took place. For thousands of years the hand of man 
 had directly fashioned the material of his apparel, but 
 now for the first time automatic machines began to be 
 called into use — machines whose wonderful combinations, 
 whose power of production, so infinite and various, so 
 prodigious in their operations and results, awaken in the 
 mind the most profound feelings of wonder and astonish- 
 
38 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 ment. The inventions of Kay, Hargreaves, Crompton, 
 Arkwright, Watt, Cartwright, and a host of others who 
 sprung up ahiiost simultaneously, led the way to the 
 production in abundance, and at little cost, of beautiful 
 and durable materials of apparel for the whole of the 
 civilised world. 
 
 The distaff and spindle of the ancients were originally 
 the only instruments employed for converting wool into 
 yarn. The one-thread wheel was next brought into use ; 
 the date of its introduction here, however, seems to be lost 
 in obscurity, but this and the rude teak wheel of Hindostan 
 had evidently a common origin. 
 
 At the commencement of the eighteenth century, there 
 were three kinds of instruments used for spinning all 
 kinds of material. First the Rock, as the ancient distaff 
 and spindle were called in England. In the process of 
 Rock spinning the spinners drew out the thread from 
 the end of a sliver of combed wool, and communicated 
 the necessary motion to a rough kind of spindle by 
 twirling it between the right hand and thigh, allowing 
 the spindle to revolve when suspended by the thread, 
 which was gradually lengthened by the fingers. By this 
 primitive process a yarn of the most delicate quality could 
 be produced. No doubt the process would be tedious 
 and the production small, and long and incessant practice 
 would be required to acquire the skill and delicacy of 
 manipulation necessary to overcome the difficulties arising 
 from the rudeness of the instrument, and to produce the 
 fine quality of yarn for which the spinsters of these times 
 were famous. 
 
 Next came the common one-thread wheel, which, up 
 to the end of the eighteenth century, was ordinarily used 
 in spinning wool. This instrument was nothing more or 
 less than the above-named loose spindle, mounted in a 
 frame and turned by a cord passing over the rim of 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 39 
 
 a large wheel, thus the spinners' hands were left freer 
 than by the loose . spindle method to draw out the thread, 
 consequently it had a capability of production which was 
 evidently its main advantage. In this kind of spinning 
 the operator took the wool with the finger and thumb 
 of the left hand, a few inches distant from the spindle, 
 and drew it towards her, while with the right hand she 
 turned the wheel ; she thus extended and twisted repeated 
 portions, and as they were twisted she wound them upon 
 the spindle, guiding the thread with her left hand. 
 
 The third kind of machine was also in use at the 
 commencement of the eighhteenth century and was named 
 the small or Saxon wheel. This, though a more perfect 
 machine than the last-mentioned, was only applicable, 
 except in particular instances, to the spinning of flax. 
 In this machine evidently lay the germs of Arkwright's 
 invention. The spindle in the Saxon wheel had on it a 
 bobbin, on which was wound the thread ; round the 
 bobbin a flyer revolved at a greater speed than the bobbin 
 itself, which gave the thread the necessary twist. The 
 wheel being very small, it received its motion from a 
 treadle. Spinning by this wheel seems to have formed 
 the favourite occupation of lady spinsters during the 
 seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. 
 
 It appears that previous to the eighteenth century, an 
 attempt had been made to spin by a process making some 
 approach to the apparatus of modern times. In the year 
 1678 a patent was taken out for "a spinning machine 
 whereby from six to one hundred spinners may be 
 employed by the strength of one or two persons to spin 
 linen and worsted threads, with such ease and advantage 
 that a child three or four years of age may do as much 
 as a child of seven or eight years old, and others as 
 much in two days as without the invention they can do 
 in three days." It appears that this invention only 
 
40 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 shortened the labour by about one-half ; but it leads 
 one to the conclusion that it contained the embryo principle 
 of the wonderful inventions which succeeded it. . 
 
 The origin of spinning by means of rollers, like every 
 other great invention, is involved in considerable doubt. 
 This arises probably from the numerous gradations by 
 which the machine was brought to maturity. It has 
 been generally supposed that the process of spinning by 
 rollers originated either in the mind of Arkwright or of 
 a person named Highs ; but Mr. Baines, in his " History 
 of the Cotton Manufacture," proves that the principle had 
 been discovered, and to some extent carried out, at least 
 thirty years before, by John Wyatt, who patented a machine 
 containing this principle in 1738. This machine first 
 essayed its powers in 1741 at Birmingham, where it was 
 turned by a gin, worked by a couple of asses, and attended 
 by ten girls ; but owing to the poverty of Wyatt and 
 his partner (one Lewis Paul), the concern was, after 
 a short trial closed. Another factory was opened at 
 Northampton by Mr. Cave, the proprietor of the " Gentle- 
 man's Magazine." This appears to have been on a larger 
 scale than that of Wyatt and Paul, and was driven by 
 water-power. It appears to have been carried on up to 
 the year 1764, when it was given up as an unprofitable 
 concern. 
 
 There is some difficulty in ascertaining correctly to 
 whom we are indebted for the next step in the improve- 
 ment of spinning machinery, Arkwright or Highs. The 
 evidence as given at the trial which took place in the year 
 1785, to try the validity of Arkwright's patent, seems to 
 point to Highs as having been in advance of Arkwright in 
 this matter ; indeed, Arkwright appears to have received 
 information from Kay, the clockmaker, of the principle of 
 construction in High's machine, which he improved and 
 perfected in many respects. 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 41 
 
 From whatever source Arkwright obtained the first 
 idea for his spinning machine, it must be admitted he used 
 it well, and proved himself one of the most remarkable 
 men of his day, and to his ingenuity and perseverance may 
 be attributed the remarkable revolution which took place 
 in the textile manufactures, and placed England in the 
 first rank as a manufacturing nation. 
 
 Nearly contemporaneous with the invention of Ark- 
 wright, James Hargreaves invented the spinning jenny. 
 This machine exercised considerable influence on the 
 manufactures from wool, as Arkwright 's had done on the 
 cotton manufactures. Another spinning machine came 
 into existence also about this time, combining the principle 
 of Arkwright's drawing roller with Hargreaves' jenny. 
 This invention owes its existence also to a Lancashire man, 
 Samuel Crompton, a w^eaver residing near Bolton. Of the 
 value of this invention no estimate can be formed. Yet 
 Crompton himself benefited little by it, and his life was 
 made miserable by the spy system and persecution which 
 ultimately compelled him to give his machine to the public 
 on the faith of promises w^hich were never fulfilled, and by 
 the ingratitude of those v/ho grew rich around him by the 
 means which he had placed in their hands. 
 
 Mr. Epinasse gives an admirable narrative of Crompton's 
 career in his " Lancashire Worthies."" 
 
 From this time the improvements in spinning machinery 
 have been both numerous and valuable, as the present state 
 of perfection to which they have been brought amply 
 testifies. 
 
 We now come to the class of machinery with which 
 this work is more directly connected, viz., the loom. It is 
 claimed for the Egyptians that they were the first inventors 
 of weaving, and certainly the earliest looms of which we 
 
 * " Lancashire Worthies," by Francis Epinasse, Second Series. 
 London : Simpkin, Marshall & Co. 
 P 
 
42 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 have any evidence are those of the Egyptians. Of these 
 they had two kinds, one horizontal and the other perpen- 
 dicular. The shuttle in the form of the present day was 
 unknown to them ; but, instead of the shuttle they used a 
 stick with a hook at the end, to pass the thread of weft 
 through the warp ; this stick also had to act as a batten, 
 for they had no slay or batten, such as is used now. " The 
 use of treadles was also unknown, and the threads of the 
 warp are kept apart by sticks,"''' so that the sticks had to 
 answer all the purposes of healds, treadles, slay, and shuttle. 
 On the perpendicular loom, which consisted simply of an 
 upright frame with warp threads stretched from top to 
 bottom, the practice of the Egyptians was, according to 
 Herodotus, contrary to that of other nations, to push the 
 weft downwards, and this is shov/n in many of the paintings 
 depicting their method of making cloth ; but it appears 
 from a representation found at Thebes, of a man employed 
 at weaving, that he pushes the weft upwards. It is therefore 
 evident that both methods were employed by them. The 
 horizontal loom, however, appears to have been mostly m 
 use. On the tomb of Beni Hassan there is a representa- 
 tion of a weaver at work with a horizontal loom. "It is 
 fastened to four pegs pushed into the ground, and the 
 workman sits on the part of the web already finished, which 
 is a small chequered pattern of yellow and green. "f This 
 loom in some respects resembles the loom employed by 
 the Hindoo weavers, and which has very probabty been 
 used by them for thousands of years. The following is a 
 description of the Hindoo loom, taken from Martin's 
 "Circle of the Mechanical Arts," p. 239: — The loom 
 consists merely of two bamboo rollers, one for the warp 
 and the other for the web, and a pair of gears. The shuttle 
 performs the double office of shuttle and batten, and for 
 
 * Kenrick's "Ancient Egypt." Vol. i. p. 216. 
 f "Minutoli." Vol, 2. p. 34. 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 43 
 
 this purpose is made like a huge netting needle, and of a 
 length somewhat exceeding the breadth of the cloth. 
 This apparatus the weaver carries to a tree, under which 
 he digs a hole large enough to contain his legs, and the 
 lower part of the gear. He then stretches his warp by 
 fastening his bamboo rollers, at a due distance from 
 each other, on the turf, by wooden pins. The balance of 
 the gear he fastens to some convenient branch of the tree 
 over his head. Two loops underneath the gear, in which he 
 inserts his great toes, serve instead of treadles, and his 
 long shuttle, which also performs the office of batten, draws 
 the weft through the warp, and afterwards strikes it up 
 close to the web." 
 
 It is very evident that the implements used, not only 
 by the early Egyptians, but by other contemporaneous 
 nations, and even by the Hindoos of the present time, were 
 of the rudest possible character, and nothing but the most 
 exemplary patience, dexterity, and great delicacy of hand, 
 acquired by long traditionary habit, can account for the 
 extraordinary beauty and fineness of their textile pro- 
 ductions. 
 
 The Greek and Roman nations in the first period of 
 their history appear to have used looms somewhat similar 
 to those of the Egyptians. The Romans when they had 
 made some advance in the arts, used a loom somewhat 
 nearer approaching the loom of modern days, inasmuch as 
 though they still preserved the perpendicular stretching of 
 the threads, the weft was thrown through by means of a 
 shuttle more nearly approaching the style of shuttle now 
 used. In this loom the operator separated the threads of 
 the warp by means of straight canes passed through the 
 warp ; the number being regulated by the pattern being 
 woven on the cloth, whether plain or otherwise. For 
 batten or slay, they used an instrument held loose in the 
 hand, called a apatJia, formed like a wooden sw^ord, to 
 
44 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 drive the weft home up to the cloth, while with the other 
 hand they passed the shuttle (rather boat-shaped) carrying 
 the weft through the warp threads thus separated. This is 
 the first indication we have of the use of the shuttle. In 
 the fourteenth century we find a still nearer approach to 
 the modern loom ; instead of the warp being perpendicular, 
 we find it is stretched horizontally in the loom, and a 
 species of h"ealds and treadles used for separating the warp 
 threads to make a passage for the shuttle, which is thrown 
 through with the hand. This continued to be the method 
 of weaving for several centuries. The introduction of the 
 fly shuttle, said to have been invented by John Kaye, of 
 Bury, w^ho, as a reward for his ingenuity, was driven from 
 that town and was obliged to take refuge in France, was 
 the next great step in weaving ; but this for a ver}^ long 
 time did not altogether supersede the use of the old hand 
 shuttle. Not many years ago the writer saw this ancient 
 method of weaving with the hand shuttle in full practice 
 among the Welsh. The introduction of the changing shuttle 
 box must have followed shortly after the introduction of the 
 fly shuttle ; thus enabling the weaver to change the colour of 
 his weft without stopping in his weaving. Improvements now 
 began to follow each other more rapidly. Machines were 
 invented for separating the warp threads so as to produce 
 patterns of greater extent. Various machines were in- 
 vented for working large numbers of healds, the principles 
 being used at the present day in power looms. Another 
 method known as the draw loom enabled the weaver to 
 weave more extensive and intricate patterns than could 
 possibly be done by healds, the disadvantage of this 
 loom being that a second person was required to draw the 
 cords, to open the warp, and thus enable the weaver to 
 proceed with his operations. An invention by one David 
 Bonnar in 1803, however, dispensed with this labour, by 
 using a number of iron combs which enabled the weaver to 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 45 
 
 perform the work himself. This invention was afterwards 
 improved upon, and various kinds of draw looms came into 
 use with varying success. But the great invention of Pierre 
 Jacquard outstripped them all, and placed a power of pro- 
 ducing patterns in the hands of the weaver which is practi- 
 cally without limit, thus enabling the productions of the 
 loom to become what they more frequently ought to be, 
 viz., works of art. 
 
 Early attempts appear to have been made to produce 
 an automaton loom. The first of which we have any record 
 was put up at Dantzick, in Poland. It is thus described in 
 Human Industry, or History of the Manual Arts," a work 
 published in the year 1661. " In Dantzick, in Poland, there 
 was set up a rare invention for weaving four or five webs at 
 a time without any human help ; it was an automaton, or 
 engine that moved of itself, and would work night and day, 
 which invention was supprest because it would prejudice 
 the poor people of the town, and the artist was made away 
 secretly, as 'tis conceived, as Lancellotti, the Italian abbot, 
 relates out of the mouth of one Mr. MuUer, a Polonian, who 
 had seen the device." From this it is apparent that the 
 idea of the power loom is very old. A few years later 
 than this, viz., in the year 1678, a loom was constructed by 
 a Frenchman named De Gennes. This loom is described 
 in the Transactions of the Royal Society, and in the main 
 features exhibits some resemblance to the modern power 
 loom. The description is as follows The advantages of 
 this machine are these: i. That one mill alone will set ten 
 or twelve of these looms at work. 2. That cloth may be 
 made of what breadth you please, or at least much broader 
 than any which has hitherto been made. 3. There will be 
 fewer knots in the cloth, since the threads will not break so 
 fast as in other looms, because the shuttle that breaks the 
 greater part can never touch them. In short, the work will 
 be carried on quicker and at less expense. Instead of several 
 
46 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 workmen, which are required in making of very large cloths, 
 one boy will serve to tie the threads of several looms as fast 
 as they break, and to order the quills in the shuttle." 
 
 From some cause or other it does not appear that this 
 machine, although it promised so many advantages, ever 
 came into practical use, or rendered any very great services 
 to the country or the trade. Another loom was made by 
 Vaucanson, and came into operation in 1762, in a weaving 
 factory at Manchester, erected by a Mr. Gartside ; but this 
 did not succeed, and was soon disused. Hitherto all 
 attempts to attain this end had been futile, and led to no 
 practical result. To the Rev. Edmund Cartwright must be 
 conceded the distinguished merit of originating the present 
 power loom, which has effected a complete revolution in 
 the weaving department, and increased the producing 
 powers of our textile manufacturers to a degree that could 
 never have been anticipated, even by its inventor. The 
 following graphic account of the origin and completion of 
 this useful and valuable invention was given by Cartwright 
 himself to Mr. Bannatyne, the author of the article on the 
 Cotton Manufacture, in the " Encyclopaedia Britannica." 
 " Happening to be at Matlock in the summer of 1784, I 
 fell in with some gentlemen of Manchester, when the con- 
 versation turned on Arkwright's spinning machinery. One 
 of the company observed that as soon as Arkwright's 
 patent expired so many mills would be erected, and so 
 much cotton spun, that hands could never be found to 
 weave it. To this observation I replied, that Arkwright 
 must then set his wits to work to invent a weaving mill. 
 This brought up a conversation on the subject, in which 
 the Manchester gentlemen unanimously agreed that the 
 thing was impracticable ; and, in defence of their opinion, 
 they adduced arguments w^iich I certainly was incompetent 
 to answer, or even comprehend, being totally ignorant of 
 the subject, having never at that time seen a person weave. 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 47 
 
 I controverted, however, the impracticabiHty of the thing, 
 by remarking that there had been lately exhibited in 
 London an automaton figure which played at chess. ' Now 
 you will not assert, gentlemen,' said I, ' that it is more 
 difficult to construct a machine that shall weave, than 
 one which shall make all the variety of moves which 
 are required in that complicated game.' Some little 
 time afterwards a particular circumstance recalling this 
 conversation to my mind, it struck me that, as in plain 
 weaving, according to the conception I then had of 
 the business, there could only be three movements, which 
 were to follow each other in succession, there would 
 be little difficulty in producing and repeating them. Full 
 of these ideas I immediately employed a carpenter and 
 smith to put them into effect. As soon as the machine 
 was finished, I got a weaver to put in the warp, which was 
 of such material as sail cloth is usually made of. To my 
 great delight a piece of cloth, such as it was, was the 
 produce. As I had never before turned my thoughts to 
 anything mechanical, either in theory or practice, nor had 
 ever seen a loom at work, or knew anything of its con- 
 struction, you will readily suppose that my first loom was 
 a rude piece of machinery. The warp was placed perpen- 
 dicularly, the reed fell with the weight of at least half a 
 hundredweight, and the springs which threw the shuttle 
 were strong enough to have thrown a Congreve rocket. 
 In short, it required the strength of two powerful men to 
 work the machine at a slow rate, and only for a short time. 
 Conceiving, in my simplicity, that I had accomplished all 
 that was required, I then secured what I thought was a most 
 valuable property, by a patent, dated 4th of April, 1785. 
 This being done I then condescended to see how other 
 people wove, and you will guess my astonishment when I 
 compared their easy mode of operations with mine. Avail- 
 ing myself, however, of what I then saw, I made a loom in its 
 
48 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 general principles nearly as they are made now. But it was 
 not till the year 1787 that I completed my invention, when 
 I took out my last weaving patent, August ist of that year." 
 
 There were, as may be readily inferred, man}' imper- 
 fections in Cartwright's loom, and although the rev. doctor 
 made subsequent attempts to remedy them, for which he 
 took out other patents, the last of which is dated 13th 
 November, 1788, and not the first August in the preceding 
 year, as erroneously stated in the foregoing letter, the 
 consequence of these imperfections was the failure of a 
 weaving factory set up by Dr. Cartwright at Doncaster. 
 In the year 1790 two gentlemen named Grimshaw, of 
 Manchester, obtained a licence from the inventor, and 
 brought into use his power loom, and although they made 
 many improvements in it, their project did not succeed. 
 Dr. Cartwright's plan accordingly slept until the expiration 
 of his patents destroyed all hope of his deriving any 
 benefit from them. In the 3/ear 1808 he presented a 
 petition to the House of Commons, backed by a memorial 
 signed by nearly all the principal manufacturers of Man- 
 chester and its neighbourhood, and a committee was 
 appointed to consider it, and upon the evidence reported 
 by this committee the House proceeded to vote to Dr. 
 Cartwright the sum of /"i 0,000, as some compensation 
 for his outlay and disappointment. It is said that Dr. 
 Cartwright had expended the sum of between ^'30,000 and 
 ;^40,ooo in trying to make his invention a success. 
 
 Soon after this time Dr. Jeffray, a physician, of Paisley, 
 invented a power loom, very similar in construction to 
 Cartwright's. It had, however, an advantage over Cart- 
 wright's in means for preventing the breakage of the weft. 
 This was improved upon again by a person named Miller, 
 of Dumbartonshire, who substituted for the spring in 
 throwing the shuttle the direct action of the motive power. 
 Since that time invention has followed upon invention ; 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 49 
 
 the loom has been brought to a high state of perfection, 
 and may now be considered as beautiful and complete a 
 machine as could well be put together, and produces work 
 which would have astonished in no small degree the 
 knights of the shuttle of less than a century ago. 
 
 Such is a brief history of one of the arts which plays a 
 part of no inconsiderable importance in civilised life, and 
 which exercises considerable influence on the tastes of 
 individuals ; for by raising the standard of excellence in 
 articles of dress, and making the product of the loom 
 artistic as well as useful, the standard of taste must also be 
 raised. Dress has undoubtedly an influence on the mind 
 of the wearer. Therefore, an elevated taste in dress not 
 only indicates taste in the wearer, but also assists materially 
 in forming or developing that taste. 
 
 The object of this work, however, is not to attempt to 
 educate the taste either of those who design or use textile 
 fabrics, but to deal with the practical application of such 
 taste as the wearer or designer may possess in the produc- 
 tion of textile fabrics, by dealing with the technicalities of 
 the art of weaving in such a manner that any one engaged 
 in the trade may make himself master of his craft and 
 ascertain the reason why he does certain things in certain 
 ways, and do his work upon intelligible principles, instead 
 of by mere haphazard or rule of thumb. 
 
50 WEAVlislG AND DESIGNING 
 
 WEAVING. 
 
 Weaving is the art of combining threads, yarns, fila- 
 ments, or strips of different material so as to form a cloth 
 or fabric. This combination may take a variety of forms, 
 according as the intention is to produce plain or fancy 
 fabrics. 
 
 To produce this combination of threads a number of 
 processes or operations require to be gone through, these 
 operations varying only in . detail in the production of 
 different fabrics, the principle remaining the same in all 
 cases. Before entering fully into the details of the actual 
 process of weaving, we shall just glance at the preliminary 
 processes required, and at the nature of the machinery 
 used in the operations. 
 
 For the ready and rapid combination of threads they 
 are divided into two sets or classes, which are generally 
 known as warp and weft, one set consisting of the threads 
 which run longitudinally through the piece of fabric, and 
 which is termed the warp, the other set being thrown or 
 placed transversely, and termed the weft. The longitu- 
 dinal or warp threads are first prepared by arranging the 
 required number of threads of the desired length side by 
 side, so that they may be placed in the loom ready for the 
 process of weaving. This is what is known as warping, or 
 making the warp. 
 
 The first process necessary after the spinning of the 
 yarn, for the preparation of the warp, is, that the yarn 
 should be wound upon bobbins, or in the case of yarns that 
 have not undergone the process of dyeing or stoving, or 
 any other process, it may be warped direct from the cop or 
 bobbin upon which it has been spun. The usual method 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 51 
 
 of warping is by means of what is known as the warping 
 will. This warping mill consists of a huge skeleton reel, 
 or frame, mounted on a vertical axis, and moved round by 
 means of an endless band, which connects the bottom of 
 the axis with a wheel which is under the immediate control 
 of the warper, whether the mill be driven by hand or steam 
 power. A number of bobbins, in proportion to the number 
 of ends or threads of which the warp is to consist, are 
 placed in an upright frame, at a convenient distance from 
 the mill. This frame consists of a number of divisions 
 just wide enough to hold the bobbins horizontally ; the 
 bobbins are placed in the divisions upon iron pins ; the 
 ends of the pins resting in the frame, so as to allow the 
 bobbins to revolve freely upon them. The threads are 
 now taken from the bobbin and passed through an instru- 
 ment called a jack or heck-hox. This jack is placed between 
 the bobbins and the warping mill, and is made to slide up 
 and down on an upright post, or between two posts ; it is 
 suspended by a cord which passes over a pulle}^ and is 
 made fast to the central axle of the mill, so that as the 
 mill revolves a portion of the cord is wound on the axle, 
 and thus the heck or jack is slowly raised from the bottom 
 to the top ; and when the mill is turned the reverse direc- 
 tion it descends by means of its own weight. The heck- 
 block contains a number of steel pins, each having an eye 
 at the upper end, through which a warp thread is passed. 
 Each alternate pin is mounted in a separate frame, which 
 are so constructed as to be raised alternately, for the pur- 
 pose of making a lease in the warp, so as to enable the 
 weaver to take each thread separately and spread them on 
 the beam for the actual process of weaving. When the 
 threads are passed through the eyes of the heck, their 
 extremities are tied together, and fixed on a peg attached 
 to the mill. The mill is turned a little until the lease pegs 
 come nearly opposite the heck. The warper then lifts half 
 
52 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 the heck-frame, and passing the forefinger of the left hand 
 through the open space thus formed in the threads, drops 
 that half and raises the other half. Through this he passes 
 the thumb of the left hand. By this process each alternate 
 thread of warp is made to cross each other, thus forming 
 the lease, which is now put upon the lease pegs of the 
 warping mill. The mill is now made to revolve, and by 
 the arrangement previously described the heck gradually 
 lowers, thus winding the warp round it in a spiral form 
 until sufficient length has been wound on, which is easily 
 determined by the number of revolutions made by the mill, 
 the circumference of the mill being known. The warp is 
 again passed over lease pegs at the bottom, but this time, 
 instead of being divided in alternate ends, it is divided in 
 beers, half-beers, or porties, each consisting of a given 
 number of ends, according to the custom of the district. 
 The process is repeated a number of times until a sufficient 
 number of ends have been put together to make up the 
 warp. The leases are then secured by bands being threaded 
 through them and tied securely. The warp is then removed 
 from the mill, and in the case of a cotton warp, is made 
 up into a huge ball, or if a woollen warp, it is linked up 
 in the form of a chain to keep it in a compact form, and 
 to prevent the threads from being shaken and so intermixed 
 as to become afterwards inseparable. After undergoing a 
 dyeing or sizing process the warp is taken possession of 
 by a beamer or dresser, whose business it is to wind it 
 upon a beam or roller, each thread being separated and 
 laid side by side as nearly as possible, as they go round the 
 beam, and in the case of a fancy pattern, such as a check 
 or a stripe, the various colours of warp must be placed in 
 their proper order. 
 
 When the warp has been regularly wound on the beam 
 each thread must be drawn through the eye or loop of the 
 healds, and afterwards through the slay, and, as will be 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 53 
 
 afterwards shown, upon this part of the business depends in 
 great measure the extent and variety of the patterns which 
 may be produced. The warp is now ready for the loom, and 
 before proceeding any further it will be well to give some 
 description of this most important piece of machinery. 
 
 The great variety of looms in use in the different 
 branches of trade in this country renders this a somewhat 
 difficult task, but to obviate this difficulty as far as possible, 
 I shall deal with general principles rather than with actual 
 details, and where reference to a loom is necessary, I shall 
 take one of the fast-going looms as my model. But before 
 going into details of the power looms I shall just glance 
 over the system of hand-loom weaving, because, although 
 the hand loom is now rapidly going out of use, the prin- 
 ciples of weaving both by hand and power are precisely 
 the same, and there are some things which may be more 
 readily explained by a reference to the hand loom than 
 they can by the power loom ; but in these details I shall 
 be as brief as possible. 
 
 THE LOOM AND ITS ACCESSORIES. 
 
 As mentioned in the first chapter of this work, the 
 loom of the ancients was a very simple contrivance, con- 
 sisting merely of a frame in which to stretch the warp, and 
 a stick which answered all the purposes of healds, shuttle, 
 and batten, but by degrees separate articles came to be 
 used to perform the various parts of the operation. The 
 first and one of the most important parts of the loom to 
 claim our attention are the healds. By means of these the 
 warp is separated to allow the shuttle to pass and re-pass 
 through it, and it is by the arrangement of the healds and 
 the way in which the warp is drawn through them that any 
 pattern is formed on the cloth. The first form of heald 
 introduced, and known as the clasped heald, is shown at 
 
54 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 Fig. I, and consists simply of two long loops, linked or 
 passed through each other, and then each passed over a 
 flat wooden shaft, and made secure to a waxed band, known 
 as the ridge band, the object of which is to keep each loop 
 in its proper place. The loops are placed at such distances 
 apart as to regulate the number per inch required. The 
 next form, as shown at Fig, 2, has an e3^e formed by the 
 
 Fig. 4. 
 
 upper loop being knotted at a short distance from where 
 it links with the lower half; the kind shown at Fig. 3 has a 
 metallic eye ; and Fig. 4 is a wire heald, made of small 
 twisted wire, a small loop being left in the centre for the 
 thread to pass through, and a larger one at each end for 
 the shafts. 
 
 The mode of working the healds in the hand loom for 
 weaving plain cloth is shown in Fig. 5. This is done by 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 55 
 
 means of treadles and levers ; a a are the treadles, each 
 of them being suspended by a cord from the long levers b, 
 working on a pin at the point c. These in turn are sus- 
 pended from the healds. Above the healds are two other 
 pairs of levers d, the opposite ends of which are attached 
 to each separate heald, the two pairs being used for the 
 purpose of ensuring steadiness of working ; jerking or 
 
 unsteadiness being detrimental to the warp, causing the 
 breakage of a good many ends. It will thus be readily 
 seen that as each treadle is depressed alternately the one 
 heald rises and the other lowers, and vice versa. By this 
 arrangement of gearing of course only plain cloth could be 
 woven, as the w^arp threads are drawn through the two 
 healds alternately, therefore each succeeding pick of weft 
 is interwoven with alternate warp threads; but by an 
 
^5 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 arrangement shown at Fig. 6 a great variety of patterns 
 could be woven ; and this arrangement has existed and 
 continued up to the present time, though not always in the 
 exact form shown here ; sometimes the long cords passing 
 up the sides of the loom, and connecting the long levers 
 below the healds with the short levers above the healds, 
 being replaced by others passing down through the middle 
 
 Fig. 6. 
 
 of the warp ; in that case a double set of short levers are 
 required above the healds, with cords passing from the 
 outer ends, instead of as shown in this drawing. The 
 modus operandi of this method of gearing is as follows: — 
 Each heald is suspended from one end of one of the short 
 levers a above, the other end of which is attached to the 
 end of the long levers b ; from the bottom of the heald is 
 suspended another lever c, not quite so long as the lever b ; 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 51 
 
 below these again are placed the treadles d. Suppose by 
 treadle No. i you wish to raise the first and second healds 
 and to depress the third and fourth (assuming that there 
 are four), attach a cord to each of the first and second long 
 levers b, and one to each of the third and fourth levers c. 
 It will be obvious when that treadle is pressed down the 
 cords acting upon the long levers b will act upon the 
 levers a, and so raise the corresponding healds, while the 
 other cords acting upon the levers c will depress the 
 healds to which they are attached. The treadles must 
 be tied up to correspond with the pattern intended to be 
 woven, and by this means a very great variety of patterns 
 could be produced. Another method of mounting the 
 healds is by substituting pulleys for the levers above the 
 healds. 
 
 In the- preceding methods it will be observed that every 
 shed — that is every pick in the pattern — which is different 
 from the rest must have a separate treadle, though the 
 same shed may be many times repeated in the course 
 of a pattern ; yet it must be obvious that the patterns 
 must be comparatively limited in extent, on account of 
 the number of treadles, so as to keep them within a 
 limit which the weaver could comfortably work. To 
 extend the limits of the patterns various machines have 
 been invented, the culminating point being reached in 
 the Jacquard machine. 
 
 Before the invention of machines for opening the sheds, 
 the place of a great part of the treadles was supplied by 
 what was known as the draw boy. To each of the healds 
 that were to be raised was attached a cord, either by 
 means of a lever or pulley, similar to the arrangement 
 for treadles. All these cords were connected to another 
 cord which descended at the side of the loom, and passed 
 through a hole in a horizontal board, which regulated their 
 distances. To the bottom of each cord was appended a 
 
 5 
 
58 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 weight to keep it straight, and sink it into its position after 
 being used. Each shed of the pattern had its side cord, as 
 in the treadle loom each shed had its treadle, and the 
 whole were arranged in a straight line in the hole board, 
 in the order in which they occurred in the pattern ; the 
 draw boy had thus only to draw the cords in the order of 
 succession to produce the pattern required. 
 
 The description given will perhaps lead the reader 
 to a readier conception of the principles of the machine 
 required for this purpose, and to more easily understand 
 the working of such machine, and why it should be 
 required. 
 
 Without attempting to describe all the various inven- 
 tions which have been introduced for accomplishing this 
 work, such as the Draw machine, the Parrot machine, the 
 Dobby, and numerous others, elaborate descriptions of 
 which may be of some historical but not of much practical 
 value, I will attempt to describe the simplest form as 
 used at the present day. I do not intend to go over all 
 the various kinds of machines that are used, nor attempt to 
 enumerate all the improvements that have been made ; to 
 do so would be to extend the limits of the present work 
 far beyond what it is my intention it should go. I shall 
 content myself with describing as briefly and succinctly as 
 I possibly can the principles of the machine, and leave 
 the reader to make himself acquainted with the details 
 of construction adopted by different makers of the various 
 kinds of machines, and to form his own opinion of their 
 respective merits, in the only place where such informa- 
 tion can be acquired, and such opinions formed, if either 
 the one or the other are to be of any practical value, viz., 
 in the workshop or the mill. The machine which came 
 into most universal use with hand-loom weavers for pro- 
 ducing patterns which were too intricate or extensive to 
 be woven upon treadles, approaches very nearly in prin- 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 59 
 
 ciple the Jacquard machine. In place of the levers which 
 are shown in Figs. 5 and 6, above the healds a machine 
 was substituted, containing a number of hooks. To each 
 of these hooks a heald was suspended, the hooks being 
 so arranged that they could be raised at will by means 
 of a lever passing through the machine, and connected 
 with a long treadle. For the purpose of regulating the 
 pattern, cards or lags are used, these cards or lags being 
 perforated or pegged as the case may be, according to 
 the pattern, so as to strike back any hook connected 
 with the heald which it is desired to leave down, the rest 
 being caught by the lever, and raised up so as to form 
 the shed. 
 
 It will be seen at a glance that there is no limit to the 
 number of cards or lags that may be used, and as each 
 card or lag represents a pick of the pattern, the same as 
 the treadle of the treadle loom, or the side cord of the 
 draw loom, the advantages of this loom over both the 
 other descriptions must be obvious. 
 
 Though unlimited in the number of lags that may be 
 used, there is a limit to the number of healds that may be 
 used, although before the invention of the Jacquard the 
 number of healds that were employed in one of these 
 machines was enormous, as many as ninty-six having 
 been used at once ; and to enable them to put so many in 
 a loom at once, without taking up too much space, or 
 inconveniently crowding, the shafts on which the healds 
 are placed were made extremely thin, and the healds 
 themselves were made of two or three heights, so as not 
 to interfere with each other in working, as shown in Fig. 7. 
 The hooks in the machine were also placed in two rows to 
 economise space. 
 
 One great objection to this kind of machine is the 
 weight attached to the bottom of the heald, and this 
 objection is even greater in the power loom than the hand 
 
6o 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 loom. Yet it is very largely used, or springs, which are 
 if anything still more objectionable, are substituted for 
 them. 
 
 This difficulty of the weights may be and is sometimes 
 obviated by using levers under the healds, having two 
 sets of hooks in the machine set opposite to each other, 
 so that when one is struck off the lifting blade the other 
 
 ^ mn 1 1 1 1 1 M TT" 
 
 / 
 
 2 I I I I I I I I I TT Ml 
 
 Fig. 7. 
 
 is struck on. The heald is suspended from one as in the 
 previous case, and the other is connected with the levers 
 underneath by means of a cord passed down through the 
 warp, so that if the one hook is not lifting the heald, the 
 other is pulling it down ; to do this effectually the bottom 
 board of the machine is fixed on movable arms, which give 
 way as the healds are pulled down, and is then brought 
 back to its former position by means of a lever and weight, 
 or any other simple appliance. 
 
 Such is the principle of the machine which comes be- 
 tween the treadle loom and the Jacquard, and contains in 
 fact some of the principal features of the Jacquard machine 
 itself, and although for extent of pattern which may be 
 worked it cannot for one moment be compared with the 
 Jacquard, yet it will never be entirely superseded by the 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 6i 
 
 latter machine, as it possesses considerable working 
 advantages, and with skilful manipulation, may be made 
 to produce patterns of great extent and variety. 
 
 THE JACgUARD. 
 
 The Jacquard machine was the invention of a French- 
 man, whose name it bears, a straw hat manufacturer at 
 Lyons. His attention was first directed to the subject of 
 mechanical invention by seeing in a newspaper the offer of 
 a reward for a machine for making nets. He produced the 
 machine but did not claim the reward. The circumstances 
 becoming known to some persons in authority in Paris, 
 Jacquard was sent for, introduced to Napoleon, and was 
 employed in correcting the defects of a loom belonging to 
 the state, on which large sums of money had been ex- 
 pended. Jacquard stated that he could produce the effects 
 intended to be produced by this loom by far simpler means. 
 He was requested to do so ; and,, improving on a model of 
 Vaucanson, he produced the apparatus that bears his name. 
 He returned to Lyons with a pension of a thousand crowns, 
 but his invention was regarded with so much mistrust and 
 jealousy by the weavers that they attempted to suppress it 
 by violent means. The " Conseil des Prud'hommes," who 
 are appointed to watch over the interest of the Lyonese 
 trade, ordered his machine to be broken up in the public 
 place, and, to use the pathetic expression of Jacquard him- 
 self, " the iron sold for iron, the wood for wood, and he, its 
 inventor, was delivered over to universal ignominy." 
 
 The machine of Jacquard, or at least the machine bear- 
 ing his name, which is in use at the present day, and which 
 possesses many improvements upon the original machine, 
 is in principle somewhat similar to the one just described. 
 The sheds are opened by means of wire hooks of exactly 
 the same form as those used in the last machine, but these 
 
62 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 hooks are more numerous in the Jacquard machine than 
 in the witch machine. Fig. 8 shows a section of a Jacquard 
 
 Fig. 8. 
 
 machine. The hooks a, a, a, a, a, a, a, a are placed, as will 
 be observed, in eight rows (this varies according to the 
 extent of the machine, the model taken for the present 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 63 
 
 purpose being what is known in the trade as a 400 machine, 
 that is, the machine contains 400 of these hooks for the 
 purpose of making patterns, and eight which are sometimes 
 used for selvages, or other purposes, as the case may be, 
 thus making a total of 408 hooks in a machine). Eacli of 
 these is supported or kept in position by a crosswire b, 
 having an e3^e through which the hook passes. One end of 
 this wire is kept perfectly straight, while on the other end 
 is formed a loop, as shown at Fig. g ; the straight end is 
 
 Fig. 9. 
 
 passed through a perforated board c, called the needle- 
 board, and is allowed to project about f of an inch in front 
 of it ; the loop end is secured by a wire pin passed down 
 through it at d. Immediately behind this is placed the 
 spring-box which contains as many small helical springs as 
 there are crosswires, and which are so arranged that each 
 one acts upon the loop at the end of the crosswire. The 
 pressure thus bestowed upon the crosswires keeps them in 
 position through the needle-board c, and at the same time 
 keeps the hooks a in an upright position. To the bottom 
 of the hooks is attached a cord termed the neck-cord ; this 
 cord is passed down through the bottom board e of the 
 machine upon which the hooks rest. At a distance of a 
 few feet from the bottom of the machine, and a short 
 distance above the warp line, is placed another perforated 
 board f, known as the cumber board ; but this board 
 is very finely perforated, the holes onl}^ being large 
 enough to admit of a strong linen thread. These holes 
 are at regular distances, in rows of eight, the distances 
 apart being arranged according to the number of ends 
 
64 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 per inch required in the cloth. This board is divided 
 into divisions of as many holes as there are hooks in the 
 machine. Taking the first hook in the machine, a cord is 
 passed down from it and through the first hole in each 
 division of the cumber board. The second hook is treated 
 in like manner, a cord being passed down to every division 
 of the cumber board, and so on, until every one of the four 
 hundred hooks in the machine have as many cords attached 
 to them as there are divisions in the cumber board. Each 
 of these cords has in it what is called a " mail eye," through 
 which the warp passes, and which answers the purpose of 
 the heald ; to the bottom of each cord is attached a lead or 
 wire weight for the purpose of bringing it back into its 
 position after being lifted to form a shed. If the reader 
 has followed this description carefully, he will at once 
 observe that, every cord in each division being tied up to 
 separate hooks, each can be worked separate and distinct 
 from the others, and the effect is precisely as if he had four 
 hundred healds in the loom, the divisions being each a 
 repetition of the other. This four hundred, then, represents 
 the limit of the number of ends upon which a pattern can 
 be produced. It will be observed that the position of the 
 Jacquard is such that the row of eight in the machine 
 stands at right angles to the row of eight on the cumber 
 board, so that the harness cords, on being tied to their 
 respective hooks, are bound to cross each other very much. 
 This is what is known as the London tie up. Another 
 way, which is known as the Norwich tie up, is that the 
 Jacquard machine is placed with the rows of eight in the 
 same direction as the short rows of the cumber board. The 
 result of this is that each harness cord is connected with 
 the hook which stands in the most natural relation to it, — 
 thus diminishing the friction among the cords and practically 
 confining the harness within a more limited space. 
 
 In the London tie the cards are worked over the side of 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 65 
 
 the loom. In the Norwich tie they are either over the head 
 of the weaver, or over the warp. Having described in 
 detail the harness, as this corded portion is called, it is 
 necessary now to describe the working of the machine and 
 the method of producing patterns by means of it. It has 
 been shown that the crosswires are allowed to project in 
 front of the needle-board c. From the top of the frame 
 depends an arm, which carries a square perforated bar, or, 
 as it is termed, a cylinder g. In this cylinder the holes are 
 bored to correspond in position with the needle-board, but 
 the holes are larger, so as to allow the needles to enter them 
 the more easily. It will be apparent that if this cylinder be 
 brought in contact with the points of the needles which 
 project through the needle-board, no effect would be pro- 
 duced, simply because each needle would enter a hole, the 
 spring in the box d keeping them in position ; but if any 
 of the holes in the cylinder are stopped, it immediately 
 strikes back the needle, the spring giving way under the 
 pressure ; the result is that the upright hook is pushed back 
 out of its position over the lifting blades h. These blades 
 are fixed in a movable frame, and their duty is to lift such 
 of the hooks as are not pressed back in the manner des- 
 cribed. The way in which the pattern is formed is by having 
 a number of cards cut to the desired pattern and passing 
 over the cylinder. At each tread of the loom the arm is 
 thrown back, and all the needles are liberated. Then, as 
 the shed closes, the cylinder again comes forward with the 
 card upon it, and presses back such of the hooks as are not 
 required to be lifted for the pattern which is being woven. 
 The cylinder is made to revolve by means of catches or 
 pawls, and so change the card at each pick of the loom. To 
 ensure the cards following each other in the proper order of 
 succession, they are fastened together in a continuous chain, 
 by means of string laced through holes which are cut for the 
 purpose at each end and in the middle. 
 
66 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 In the diagram I have purposely omitted some of the 
 details (in fact merely showing a skeleton of the machine 
 so as to leave the interior working more clear, and make it 
 more intelligible to the beginner, as it is this part which 
 it is absolutely necessary should be understood, the rest 
 being merely matters of mechanical detail which a glance 
 at the machine would make plain. 
 
 The preparation of the cards is an important process in 
 figure weaving, and requires a great amount of care and 
 attention. The first thing that is necessary is that the 
 design should be drawn, on an enlarged scale, upon squared 
 paper, which is intended to represent the warp and weft. 
 This being done, it is taken, and upon a machine which 
 is composed of a number of cords corresponding with the 
 number of hooks in the machine, the pattern is woven as 
 it will be in the cloth. The cords in the machine represent 
 the warp threads, and across these are woven other cords, 
 representing the weft threads. On the opposite side of the 
 machine from that on which the reader sits, each of the warp 
 cords passes through a needle, somewhat similar to the needle 
 or crosswire in the Jacquard. When all the cords are woven 
 in, a roller is substituted for the first cord, and, on being 
 pulled forward, the needles are made to act upon a number 
 of punches which are resting in a plate, and such of the 
 needles as are pulled forward by the cords force corres- 
 ponding punches out of this plate into another plate, which 
 is then taken suid placed on a machine in which a blank 
 card has previously been placed, and the punches are 
 forced through the card, the process being repeated until 
 the pattern is complete. This machine is only used in 
 branches of the business where large and elaborate patterns 
 are made. Very frequently the punches are placed in the 
 plate with the fingers. The cards are made of strong 
 paper, about two and a-half inches wide, and varying in 
 length according to the extent of the machine, 
 
OF tp:xtile fabrics. 
 
 67. 
 
 It may not be amiss, before leaving this branch of the 
 subject, to give an example of the manner in which the 
 cards are cut from the design, and to do this the more 
 clearly we will take a plain cloth, as the simplest and most 
 easily understood. The design. Fig. 10, shows a plain cloth 
 working, ihat is, the black dots represent the weft as 
 passing over the warp thread. To effect this, the threads 
 represented by the white spaces must be raised, and those 
 represented by the black left down for the shuttle to pass 
 over. The design is placed before the card-cutter, between 
 two laths, in such a manner as to leave in view the line 
 which represents the pick of weft he is about to cut 
 the card for. Supposing he is putting the punches in the 
 plate with his fingers, he places a punch in every hole of 
 
 Fig. 10. 
 
 the plate corresponding with the white space upon his 
 paper, every eighth line upon his paper being thicker than 
 the rest, so dividing the squares into eights to correspond 
 with the number of holes in a row of his plate. The card 
 and plate are then placed in the stamping machine and 
 the card cut, which will then present the appearance of 
 alternate rows of holes. After one set of cards has been 
 cut from a design, any number may be repeated by means 
 of the repeating machine. In this machine the cards to be 
 repeated ?re placed on a perforated bar, exactly similar to 
 the one on the Jacquard ; through a box in front of this 
 are passed long needles, each having upon it a long helical 
 spring ; a plate is bored to correspond with the revolving 
 bar and with the stamping plate ; the staniping plate 
 
68 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 containing all the punches is placed in front of the plate 
 with the heads of the punches towards it ; the holes 
 in the plate are sufficiently large to admit the head of 
 the punch. To obtain an exact copy of the card it is 
 placed on the perforated bar, which is brought forwards 
 by means of a treadle or a lever, generally the former. As 
 the card strikes the needles the holes corresponding with 
 the cylinder on which it is placed admit the needles into 
 the cylinder, thus allowing them to remain stationary, 
 while the portions of the card which are not perforated 
 strike the needles opposite which they come, and force 
 the punches out of the stamping plate into the stationary 
 plate. The stamping plate is then taken and put on the 
 machine, into which a blank card is placed, and the card 
 is punched. The stamping plate is then replaced upon 
 the repeating machine, and a comb, which consists of 
 strong wires placed exactly opposite the holes in the 
 stationary plate, is pushed forward ; the wires, entering 
 the holes, push the punches which it contains into the 
 stamping plate, when it., is again ready to repeat the 
 next card. 
 
 The cards are all numbered in the order in which 
 they are cut from the design, put upon a frame to hold 
 them in proper position in consecutive order, and laced 
 or strung together as previously described. 
 
 THE POWER LOOM. 
 
 In the preceding chapter I have described the mode 
 of gearing and some of the working parts of the hand 
 loom more fully than might seem necessary, as the hand 
 loom is rapidly going out of use, but my reason for 
 doing this is to make the nature of the operations to 
 be performed as clear as possible before entering upon 
 the mechanical details of the power loom, so that the 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 69 
 
 student might more readily comprehend the nature of 
 the various movements, without being harassed with too 
 many considerations at once. 
 
 The conception of Dr. Cartwright as to the nature of 
 the process of weaving, and of the movements involved 
 in the production of textile fabrics of a plain nature 
 which led him to attempt to make a machine capable of 
 producing and repeating those movements, was strictly 
 correct. Those three movements, which are technically 
 known as shedding, picking, and beating up, are what 
 may be termed the primary movements in weaving. It 
 is true that sundry others must also be performed, but 
 they are all subservient to, and must work in harmony 
 with, these three. 
 
 In modern power-loom weaving various means are 
 adopted for producing these various movements, but in 
 all they have the same object in view, and aim at pro- 
 ducing precisely the same movement. Consequently, in 
 all classes of looms, the difference consists solely in the 
 means for producing, and not in any degree in the nature 
 of such motions, except in so far as the various degrees 
 of perfection are attained by the several means adopted. 
 
 Such being the case, it will be necessary to describe 
 the nature of those movements, and some of the means 
 for producing them, and to endeavour to show in the 
 clearest possible manner the necessity for these move- 
 ments having a peculiar character imparted to them, but 
 before going into the details of each movement separately, 
 it may be as well to point out what they are and what 
 purpose they serve. 
 
 The warp being stretched in the loom, it is necessary 
 that the threads should be separated to allow the shuttle 
 to be passed through from side to side, carrying with it 
 the weft, and so interweaving the warp and weft together. 
 This is what is termed the shedding. 
 
70 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 The second motion is the picking or propelhng* the 
 shuttle from side to side of the loom through the division 
 of the warp, or shed, produced by the first motion. 
 
 The third motion consists of beating the \^'eft, w^hich 
 has been passed through the warp, up to the cloth, so 
 that each succeeding pick becomes part of the cloth. 
 
 SHEDDING. 
 
 We will then commence with the first and perhaps the 
 most important of these movements, viz., the shedding, 
 or in other words, the separating of the warp into two 
 portions to allow of the shuttle which carries the weft 
 passing between them, so as to interweave the weft with 
 the warp. This is the most important of the three move- 
 ments, not only as to the order of arrangement in which 
 the warp must be divided, for the production of the 
 intended pattern, but also as to the particular manner in 
 which it must be accomplished, for upon the successful 
 or unsuccessful shedding depends in great measure the 
 quality of the cloth produced, as well as the quantity 
 which may be made by one loom. There are various 
 ways in which the quantity and quality may be materially 
 affected by this movement. For instance, over-shedding, 
 that is, opening the shed more than is necessary, or 
 imperfect shedding, which may mean that the shed is not 
 sufficiently opened or that it is not properly equalised, 
 are both very productive of breakages of the warp during 
 the process of weaving, and consequent imperfections in 
 the cloth, as well as materially affecting the appearance 
 of the cloth in other ways. 
 
 The question then arises, How is this operation to be 
 performed in such a manner as to arrive as nearly as 
 possible at perfection, and to avoid as far as practicable 
 those faults ? I will endeavour to show how this may be 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 71 
 
 best accomplished ; and to do this, I shall illustrate it with 
 heald working, as being the most perfect as well as the 
 simplest form of shedding. 
 
 The movement of the healds should be smooth and 
 steady, commencing to move slowly, increasing in speed 
 towards the centre of the stroke, and becoming gradually 
 slower after passing the centre, until they finally merge 
 into a full pause, or rest. If the movement is regular and 
 uniform, that is, maintaining the same rate of speed 
 throughout, the strain upon the warp is too sudden, and 
 considerable breakage must take place, particularly if the 
 warp is of a soft or tender material. The opening and 
 closing of the shed must also be timed in the proper 
 manner to the beating up of the weft to the piece. 
 
 The period of opening and closing, and the pause to be 
 given to the healds, must be determined in their relation to 
 the beating up by two considerations, viz., whether the 
 warp threads are required to be spread evenly over the 
 surface of the cloth, or otherwise. 
 
 The shed must not be larger than is absolute^ neces- 
 sary for the free passage of the shuttle ; indeed, unless the 
 yarn has a good deal of loose fibre projecting from it, 
 which may be liable to choke up the shed and retard the 
 progress of the shuttle, or in the case of very heavy work, 
 it is not necessary that the shed be so far open as to quite 
 clear the shuttle. The small amount of extra friction on 
 the yarn will in most cases be more than compensated for 
 by the diminution of strain. Then, first of all, as to im- 
 parting the proper movement to the healds. This move- 
 ment is generally imparted by what is known variously 
 by the name of ^ppet and wiper. In the loom there 
 are two shafts which go across its entire width, and 
 which are marked in the perspective view here given, 
 Fig. II, A and b respectively. The shaft a is called 
 variously the main, crank, or driving shaft, and from this 
 
72 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 shaft motion is imparted, directly or indirectly, to all the 
 other parts of the loom. The shaft is provided with two 
 cranks for giving motion to the batten or lay, consequently, 
 at every revolution the weft is beaten up to the cloth. 
 The shaft b is driven from the shaft a by toothed wheels, 
 and carries upon it the tappets for the opening and 
 
 Fig. II. 
 
 closing of the shed, also the picking tappets. The revo- 
 lutions of the tappet shaft must therefore be regulated in 
 relation to the crank shaft according to the arrangement of 
 the picking tappets, and the shedding tappets must revolve 
 at a speed proportionate to the number of picks in a com- 
 plete round of the pattern. 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 73 
 
 « 
 
 We will, first of all, commence with shedding for a 
 plain cloth. The end elevation of a loom, Fig. 12, shows 
 the relative positions of the various parts with which we 
 are at present most concerned. Beneath the tappet shaft 
 B is placed the treadle c (in this case I am supposing the 
 
 Fig. 12. 
 
 shedding motions to be at the side of the loom, as being 
 the most convenient for illustration). From the end of 
 these treadles are connecting rods d to lever arms e, which 
 are fixed upon shafts or rods, working in stands over the 
 top of the healds. Upon each of these shafts are also 
 affixed a pair of arms, f, the ends of which form, an arc of 
 
74 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 a circle. 'P'rom these arcs the healds are hung, being con- 
 nected with each other below by means of pulleys. 
 
 In Fig. 13 I have separated this motion from the rest 
 of the loom, so as to show more effectually the connection 
 and working of this part. The treadles c are simply levers 
 working upon the centre c, and acted upon by the tappet 
 at a point between that centre and the point of cqnnection 
 
 with the rod at the other end. This rod simply communi- 
 cates the motion to the heald g by means of the lever e f, 
 and the connection of the healds with each other at the 
 bottom is so arranged that as one goes up the other is 
 drawn down, and vice versa. The lines h i shows the warp 
 separated by the healds. 
 
 The arm f of the lever is made to form an arc of a 
 
 %. 13. 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 75 
 
 circle, so that in the act of raising and lowering the heald 
 the latter maintains its proper position throughout, instead 
 of moving to or from the centre upon which the lever 
 works, as it would otherwise do. 
 
 The nature and extent of the movement given to the 
 heald, then, must be determined by the form and dimen- 
 sions of the tappet. We must first of all ascertain the two 
 principal dimensions, that is the distance from the centre 
 of tappet shaft to the point of contact with the friction 
 roller of the treadles, when the latter is in such a position 
 as to allow the heald to be at the lowest point of its stroke, 
 and the length of stroke which must be given to them ; or, 
 to put it in another way, at a certain point of the tappet 
 which is a given distance from the centre of the tappet 
 shaft, the heald rests at its lowest point. We must then 
 determine the dimensions of the tappet to give the 
 required length of stroke to raise the heald to its highest 
 point. In determining this dimension we must take into 
 consideration the leverage of the treadles, as giving so 
 much more of a traverse to the healds. 
 
 The treadles are levers of the third order, working 
 upon the fulcrum or centre c. The power is applied 
 between the fulcrum and weight. Then, according to a 
 well-known rule in mechanics, as the distance between the 
 power and fulcrum is to the length of lever so is the weight 
 to the power. But as we are dealing with length of stroke 
 rather than with actual weight, we may say, as the distance 
 between power and fulcrum is to length of lever, so is the 
 length of stroke of the motive power to that of the body 
 which receives the power. 
 
 Assuming that the total length of the treadle may be 
 thirty inches, and the distance between the point of contact 
 with tile tappet and the centre c is twenty inches, then 
 as twenty is to thirty so will the stroke of the tappet be 
 to the stroke of the heald. 
 
76 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 We will suppose the length of stroke of the tappet is 
 to be three inches, the stroke of the heald, or the distance 
 which it would traverse, would be four and a-half inches. 
 Then assume that the friction roller of the treadle is in 
 contact with the tappet at a distance of three inches from 
 the centre of the tappet shaft when the heald is at its 
 lowest point. With a radius of three inches, describe the 
 
 Fig. 14. 
 
 circle c, Fig. 14. From the same centre and a radius of 
 six inches (three added to the first radius) describe the 
 outer circle b. This gives us the relative distance of the 
 inner and outer circle of the tappet. 
 
 We will first construct a tappet for a plain cloth, which 
 simply consists of the warp and weft interweaving with 
 each other alternately. This tappet must be so con- 
 structed that it will raise and lower the heald at alternate 
 picks. That being the case, divide the circles c and b into 
 two equal parts by the diameter i, 2. The tappet must 
 be affixed to the lower or tappet shaft of the loom, and 
 made to revolve at half the rate of the crank or driving 
 shaft. Suppose the point i is the point which would be in 
 contact with the friction roller of the treadle when the crank 
 is at the fore-centre of its stroke, so that the reed is in 
 contact with the cloth, while the crank makes one complete 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 77 
 
 revolution from that point, the tappet will have traversed 
 the distance i to 2, or one-half of its revolution. Assum- 
 ing that we desire to give a length of pause to the heald at 
 its highest point equal to half a revolution of the crank 
 shaft, and the same length of pause at its lowest point, 
 divide each half of the circle into four equal parts, take the 
 two central parts a b for the pause at the highest point, 
 and the two central parts c d on the opposite side for 
 the pause at the lowest point, then the distance d a 
 must be occupied in raising the heald from the lowest to 
 the highest point, and the distance b c in settling from 
 the highest to the lowest. It is necessary now to draw 
 curved lines from d to a, and from b to c, of such form as 
 will impart the proper motion to the heald. To do this 
 divide the distances d a and b c into any number of equal 
 parts— say six — by radial lines. Divide the distance 
 between the two circles into the same number of unequal 
 parts, commencing with a small division near the inner 
 circle, increasing the size of the divisions as we approach 
 the centre of the space, then decreasing towards the outer 
 circle. Through each of those divisions describe concen- 
 tric arcs of circles to cut the radial lines. From the 
 point D draw a curved line through each intersection 
 successively until it reaches the outer circle at the point a ; 
 from b draw a curved line in the same manner to c, that will 
 give the complete form of tappet. This tappet would act 
 upon one treadle, and consequently upon one heald only. 
 Then we must have another tappet to act upon the second 
 heald. As both the healds must work in the same manner, 
 but alternately with each other, the construction of the 
 second will be the same as the first, but placed with the 
 projection in the opposite direction. 
 
 There are one or two matters in connection with the 
 construction of this tappet to which it is necessary atten- 
 tion should be called, and as these matters are of the 
 
78 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 highest importance the student cannot observe them too 
 closely. First we take the point i as the point of contact 
 with the friction roller of the treadle when the reed is in 
 contact with the cloth. On examination it will be found 
 that the two healds will each have traversed the same 
 distance from the highest and lowest points respectively, 
 that is they would be passing each other in the centre 
 of their stroke, so that by the time the crank has made 
 one-fourth of a revolution they will have reached their 
 highest and lowest point, or opposite extremities of their 
 stroke. They both remain in that position, keeping the 
 shed full open for half a revolution of the crank shaft, or 
 while the lay carrying the reed has traversed the distance 
 from the centre of its stroke to the furthest point from the 
 cloth, and back again to the centre of stroke ; the reason 
 for this being to allow time for the shuttle to pass through 
 from side to side of the loom before the shed begins to 
 close, the same process being repeated for the next pick. 
 Secondly, it is necessary that some explanation should be 
 offered of the reason why the distance between the two 
 circles should be unequally divided to obtain the curve of 
 the tappet. It has been pointed out that the movements 
 of the healds must be of an eccentric character ; this 
 division is for the purpose of producing that eccentricity. 
 Suppose we take a plane surface and place it in a horizontal 
 position, and place at one end of it a weight, so long 
 as the plane maintains that horizontal position the weight 
 will not move, but if we lower the end which is furthest 
 removed from the weight so as to form an angle, say of 
 thirty degrees, with the horizontal line, the weight will 
 begin to move gradually down it ; if the angle is increased 
 to sixty degrees the velocity of the moving body will be 
 considerably increased, and the nearer the angle which the 
 plane forms with the horizon approaches a right angle, the 
 greater will be the velocity of the moving body. The 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 79 
 
 same thing applies to the tappet, which is a power impart- 
 ing motion to the treadle. When the friction roller of the 
 treadle is in contact with any portion of the arc of the 
 circle between c and d, the treadle is stationary, because, 
 although the surface of one is acting upon the surface 
 of the other, as it maintains the same distance from the 
 centre upon which it works it continues to be in the same 
 plane. From the point d it begins to descend from that 
 plane, first gradually, then increasing in speed to the centre 
 of the stroke, and from that decreasing till it reaches the 
 lowest point, when it again becomes stationary. The 
 radial lines being at right angles to the circumference of 
 the circle, the nearer the curved line approaches the direc- 
 tion of that radial line, the more rapid is its motion, and 
 the nearer it approaches the direction or the circumference 
 of the circle, the slower is its motion. 
 
 One word more respecting the leverage of the treadles. 
 I have pointed out the relative length of the stroke of the 
 tappet and heald, in respect to the leverage of the treadle, 
 but the length of the stroke of the healds may be altered 
 again by means of the lever e f, Fig. 13. The length of 
 stroke pointed out represents the displacement at the 
 point of the treadle, and there would be a corresponding 
 displacement at the end e of the lever ; and if the arm f be 
 of a length corresponding to e the displacement or stroke 
 of the heald would be the same ; but sometimes the length 
 of the two arms of the lever e f do not correspond, e being 
 frequently made longer than f, therefore in proportion as e 
 is longer than f the displacement of f is reduced, so that this 
 must be taken into consideration along with the leverage 
 of the treadle in determining the stroke of the tappet. 
 
 The arm e of the lever is provided with notches so * 
 that the rod d may be moved nearer or further from the 
 centre, thus shortening or lengthening the arm. The 
 object of this is not so much to increase or decrease the 
 
So 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 size of the shed, but for the purpose of equahsing or 
 making all the ends of the upper or lower shed form as 
 nearly as possible the same straight line. If a number of 
 healds are working together the warp threads which are 
 drawn through those furthest from the piece would not 
 form the same straight line with those drawn through 
 the healds nearest the cloth, if all are raised or depressed 
 the same distance, as shown in Fig. 15. Consequently 
 
 Fig, 15. 
 
 those furthest from the cloth must be raised higher or 
 sunk lower than those near the cloth, so as to obtain this 
 straight line, otherwise the shuttle will not run smoothly 
 over them, but will be very materially obstructed in its 
 passage, besides a probability of its passing under some 
 of the threads which it should pass over. The object of 
 the notches in the lever e is therefore to provide a ready 
 means of obtaining this equalisation. 
 
 It is sometimes necessary that the length of pause 
 given to the healds be greater than half a revolution of the 
 crank shaft. In the construction of this tappet we have 
 assumed that the reed is in contact with the cloth just at 
 the moment when the healds are passing each other in the 
 * centre of their stroke, but in weaving some fabrics it is 
 necessary that the healds should pass each other, so that 
 the shed for the succeeding pick is somewhat open before 
 the pick is actually beaten up. In that case the length of 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 8l 
 
 pause to be given must be somewhat greater, so as to give 
 time for the shuttle to pass through before the shed begins 
 to close, otherwise the shed will be partly closed again 
 before the shuttle gets clear, and would consequently both 
 retard its progress, and in all probability cause breakage 
 of the warp. 
 
 To effect this we may give a pause equal to two-thirds of 
 a revolution of the crank shaft, which will give ample time 
 to have the shed partly open before the pick is beaten up. 
 
 Then supposing the length of pause which is to be 
 given at each extremity of the stroke is to be one-third of a 
 revolution of the tappet, which will be equal to two-thirds of 
 
 Fig. 1 6. 
 
 a revolution of the crank shaft. From the centre a, Fig. i6, 
 describe the two circles a and b ; with the radius of the 
 circle b divide the circumference into six equal parts. The 
 arc of the circle c d will be one-third of the circumference 
 (there is a fraction in the matter, but this is sufficiently 
 near for all practical purposes). From the points c d 
 draw lines through the centre, and produce them till they 
 cut the smaller circle at the points e f. The arcs c d 
 and e f give the respective pauses at each extremity of 
 the stroke. Produce the lines c f and d e until they cut 
 the large circle in g^h, this will give the distances c g 
 
^2 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 and D H, each one-sixth of the circumference. Divide the 
 distance c g into any number of equal parts, say six, draw 
 Hnes from each of those divisions through the centre, and 
 produce them till they cut the arc of the circle d h, thus 
 dividing it also into six equal parts. 
 
 Divide the distances c e and f d each into six unequal 
 parts, beginning with a small portion near the inner circle, 
 and getting gradually larger to the third division, and then 
 gradually smaller towards the outer circle, and describe arcs 
 of circles, cutting all the radial lines ; connect the points c e 
 and F D with curved lines drawn through the points of 
 intersection of the arcs with the radial lines, and the form 
 of tappet is complete. If this curved line from the inner 
 to the outer circle is carefully followed it will be seen that 
 the required eccentricity is obtained, and it will also be 
 seen that the cause of this eccentricity is the variation 
 of the distances set off by the arcs on the radial lines. 
 Had those distances been equal the curve would have been 
 regular, and consequently the movement of the heald 
 would have been regular. Just as in the last tappet the 
 nearer the curve approaches the radial line the greater 
 will be the momentum of its stroke, and the nearer it 
 approaches the line of the circle the momentum will be 
 proportionately decreased. 
 
 If care be not taken this eccentricity of movement 
 may to some extent be neutralised by the position of the 
 treadles. The treadles at the point of contact with the 
 tappet describe an arc of a circle, the curvature of which 
 is in proportion to the distance of the centre upon which 
 the treadle works from the point of contact with the 
 tappet. This distance must, so far as the dimensions of 
 the loom will admit, be such as to reduce the curvature to 
 a minimum, and the point of contact with the tappet must 
 be so arranged that at the centre of the stroke it will be 
 in a perpendicular line with the centre of the tappet shaft. 
 
6f t^extile fabrics. 
 
 ^3 
 
 And the larger the arc described by the treadles at the 
 point of contact the nearer will the position be maintained. 
 
 If the point of contact of the treadle with the tappet be 
 either on one side or the other of this perpendicular line 
 from the centre of the tappet shaft, the relative speed of 
 the rising and falling of the treadle will be proportionately 
 affected thereby ; that is, it will rise quicker than it falls, or 
 vice versa, according as the centre upon which it moves is 
 placed nearer to or further from the tappet shaft. If the 
 centre upon which the treadle moves is brought nearer the 
 tappet shaft, the tappet will strike it sooner than it should, 
 and if that centre is moved in the opposite direction then it 
 will not strike it so soon ; consequently, the movement which 
 the tappet should give will be more or less neutralised. 
 
 Again, the fulcrum or centre upon which the treadle 
 moves should be so placed that the treadle during its stroke 
 moves the same distance on each side of that centre above 
 and below. By doing so the eccentric form of the tappet 
 is slightly assisted, the eccentricity of the movement of the 
 heald being slightly increased. Fig. 17 will show this. 
 A line drawn perpendicularly through the centre of the 
 tappet a passes also through the centre of the friction 
 roller b of the treadle when in the centre of its stroke, 
 therefore, as the treadle rises above or falls below that 
 point, the centre of the friction roller passes slightly to one 
 side of the perpendicular line ; at the same time the rod d 
 is in a perpendicular position at the centre of the stroke, 
 the treadle being in a horizontal position at the same 
 moment ; consequently, when the treadle is at the highest 
 or the lowest point, the rod d is the same distance 
 removed from the perpendicular position, and the same 
 loss of time in the movement of the heald occurs at each 
 extremity of the stroke. If, on the other hand, the 
 treadle occupied the horizontal position and the rod d the 
 perpendicular position at either extremity of the stroke, 
 
84 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 then no loss of time would occur in the movement of the 
 heald at one extremity of its stroke, while a considerable 
 loss would occur at the other extremity when the rod was 
 furthest removed from the perpendicular position, and 
 consequently the eccentric form of the tappet would be 
 somewhat neutralised. 
 
 Another matter requiring careful attention also is, that 
 the treadle must be in continuous contact with the tappet, 
 otherwise a jerking movement is imparted, which is 
 seriously detrimental to the warp as well as materially 
 
 D 
 
 Fig. 17. 
 
 interfering with the appearance of the fabric, therefore 
 the tappet must be so formed and of such dimensions that 
 the friction roller is always in contact with it and running 
 smoothly upon it. The question of warp spreading will be 
 more fully dealt with in a subsequent portion of this work. 
 
 In this last form of tappet the length of pause given is 
 equal to two-thirds of a revolution of the crank shaft, 
 the tappet making one complete revolution only while the 
 crank shaft makes two ; one-third of a revolution of the 
 tappet must be equal to two-thirds of a revolution of the 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 85 
 
 crank shaft. But it is not general to give this length of 
 pause for every kind of cloth, in fact only in such cases as 
 already pointed out. That being the case it will be well 
 to give a method by which any length of pause can be 
 obtained that may be desired. We will take as an example 
 a four-thread twill, and arrange that the length of pause 
 shall be equal to one-half the revolution of the crank 
 shaft. In a four-thread twill each revolution of the 
 tappet shaft represents four picks, and consequently four 
 revolutions of the crank shaft ; that being so, describe the 
 two circles — as in the plain tappet — of the proper dimen- 
 sions according to the length of stroke to be given ; divide 
 
 Fig. 18. 
 
 the circumference of the two circles by diameters crossing 
 each other at right angles into four equal parts. Each of 
 those parts represents one of the four picks which will be 
 thrown in during one revolution of the tappet. In the 
 example we here take, it is required that each heald rises in 
 turn and remains up for one pick only. If we then divide 
 one of the divisions of the circle into four equal parts, i, 2, 
 3, 4, Fig. 18, lay off the two central parts 2 and 3 for the 
 pause, and i and 4 are the portions which respectively raise 
 and lower the he.alds. Taking the point i as the point at 
 which the crank commences to revolve for the first pick, 
 for the healds to cross each other in the centre of stroke 
 
86 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 we must take one-fourth of the preceding pick to find the 
 point at which to commence rising, and one-fourth of the 
 succeeding pick to find the point at which to cease 
 setthng, and proceed just as in the tappet for plain 
 cloth. Each of the four tappets would have exactly the 
 same construction, and be so placed in relation to each 
 other as to raise and depress the healds at the proper time. 
 
 The length of pause may be varied to suit the class of 
 work for which the tappet is intended. Thus three-fifths 
 may be taken for the pause, and one-fifth each for the rise 
 and fall. 
 
 If, on the other hand, it is desirable that each heald 
 
 Fig. 19. 
 
 shall remain up for more than one pick, as for example 
 in the case of a cashmere or four-end twill, where each 
 heald remains up for two picks and down for two picks, 
 then take two of the divisions and divide them each into 
 four, Fig. 19. take part i of one division and part 4 of 
 the second division for the rising and settling portions, and 
 proceed as before. 
 
 What has already been said shows accurately the 
 nature of the movement which must be imparted to the 
 healds and, generally, the mode of drawing a tappet which 
 will impart that movement ; but it is now necessary to 
 enter more into detail and also to show what other 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 87 
 
 influence may be at work to neutralise or otherwise affect 
 the particular movement at which we are aiming. So far 
 everything has been given in very general terms, it now 
 remains to give more definite particulars. 
 
 In the first place with respect to the construction of 
 the tappet itself The drawings made, and the modes of 
 drawing, are made upon the assumption that the contact 
 of the tappet with the treadle is at one point, and that 
 point is ahvays the same. Now anyone familiar with the 
 loom knows that upon the treadle is placed a friction roller 
 as shown at Figs. 12, 13 and 17, and that the tappet acts 
 upon the treadle through the medium of this friction roller. 
 If this friction roller be of small dimensions the drawing 
 of the tappets already given will answer all the purposes, 
 because although the tappet drawing is made on the 
 assumption that the rollers is a point, or having no 
 dimensions, a small roller, say one of an inch in diameter, 
 would not materially affect the nature of the movement 
 desired to be imparted. But the moment the friction 
 roller begins to assume larger dimensions it does very 
 materially affect the nature of the movement, and conse- 
 quently it becomes necessary that the dimensions of the 
 roller should be taken into account. 
 
 This is perhaps not a matter of so much importance 
 when there are few picks m the pattern as when there are 
 many, for example, tappets for weaving plain cloth or 
 some of the smaller twills ma}^ be drawn without taking 
 the friction roller into account, and would do their work 
 fairly well, whereas for larger patterns, or when there are 
 several projections upon a tappet they could scarcely be 
 made to do their work at all, and certainly not in a 
 satisfactory manner. Though when large friction rollers 
 are used it is better that they should be taken into account 
 at all times, whether there are many or few picks in the 
 pattern. 
 
88 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 Suppose we take the tappet given at Fig. 19, for 
 comparison with one drawn with the friction roller taken 
 into account, and for this purpose actual dimensions must 
 be considered. In the drawing referred to, the diameter 
 of the inner circle is six inches — drawn to one-eighth 
 scale — and which is approximately the dimensions of the 
 tappets of this kind commonly used. Now where this 
 tappet is used with a small friction roller, say of not 
 more than one or one and a half inches diameter, the 
 working would be as nearly perfection as possible, but if 
 a friction roller of three and a half or four inches diameter 
 be used it could not be satisfactory, though, to use a 
 common expression, it would worlc. 
 
 Suppose we now take one where the diameter of the 
 friction roller is taken into account in the drawing, and 
 let it be of a size commonly used, say three and a half 
 inches diameter, as shown at Fig. 20. 
 
 It must be borne in mind here that a diameter of 
 three and a half inches is not by any means a fanciful 
 one. There are thousands of looms at work with rollers 
 of those dimensions at work, and the tendency is rather 
 to increase than diminish the size, therefore it becomes 
 more and more necessary to pay attention to this matter. 
 
 Thus, in this drawing. Fig. 20, the radius of the inner 
 circle, and the distance between the inner and the outer 
 circles, or stroke of the tappet, are the same. Suppose a 
 friction roller a of the dimensions just given is made to 
 revolve upon the circumference of the inner circle, its 
 centre will describe the line represented by the dotted 
 line A,^ and if made to revolve upon the outer circle, its 
 centre will describe the dotted line a.^ Then it is now 
 necessary to find the line which that centre must traverse 
 from the circle a ^ to the circle a,^ so as to raise or lower 
 the heald, and give it that kind of motion which has 
 already been described. To do that it is only necessary 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 89 
 
 to proceed according to the instructions already given for 
 drawing, Figs. 14, 16, 18 and 19, but drawing the Hnes of 
 curvative from the dotted circle to the dotted circle a^, 
 instead of from the true inner to the outer circle of the 
 tappet. 
 
 By doing this we draw the lines which will be described 
 by the centre of the friction roller, instead of the lines of the 
 tappet itself, and having done that, it becomes quite easy to 
 find the true lines of the tappet. 
 
 Having drawn the lines — and which are represented by 
 the dotted lines in Fig. 20 — we have a clear indication of the 
 movement of the centre of the friction roller ; then taking the 
 
 Fig. 20. 
 
 radius of the friction roller in the compasses, describe a 
 series of arcs of circles, from any number of points on the 
 curved line already drawn, we find the true line of the tappet 
 from the inner to the outer circle. Or in other words, the 
 tappet is a true tangent to all the arcs of circles so drawn. 
 
 It is very evident that a tappet so drawn will give in the 
 best possible manner the movement to the healds which is 
 required, and also that the movement from the highest to the 
 lowest point will be the same as in the opposite direction. 
 
 G 
 
go 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 There is one point, however, to which attention must be 
 called. Theoretically one heald will ascend exactly as the 
 other descends, and no doubt that is true after the movement 
 has actually commenced, but at the outer extremity of the 
 tappet there must be a slight loss of time in the movement. 
 If the tappet is constructed strictly to the drawing, the 
 corners of the projections on the tappets will be very acute, 
 and it will be a little difficult for the friction roller to travel 
 over them, they must therefore be very slightly rounded, and 
 this of course occasions a little loss of time in the movement, 
 but the loss is so very slight that it can have no appreciable 
 effect upon the actual work, as any alteration in the tension 
 of the cords and healds together could scarcely exceed one- 
 eighth of an inch over the entire length, and that for only a 
 very brief period of time, consequently it need not be 
 considered at all, seeing that it could have no detrimental 
 effect. 
 
 As already mentioned, when the tappets have more than 
 one projection upon them, the question of taking the 
 diameter of the friction roller into account becomes of much 
 more importance. 
 
 □□□BHDBH 
 □□BHDBHD 
 □BBDBBDD 
 BBDBBDDD 
 
 BDBBnnaB 
 
 □BBDQDBB 
 BBDODBBa 
 BDUDBBDB 
 
 Fig. 21. 
 
 For the purpose of further demonstration, a larger 
 pattern may be taken, and the tappet drawn for it by both 
 methods. Let the pattern be that given at Fig. 21. This 
 pattern occupies eight picks, and of course there would be 
 eight tappets required, each of the same form but placed in 
 such position as to fohow each other consecutively. 
 
 N ow this tappet is drawn to the same scale, and in the 
 same proportion as Figs. 19 and 20. The drawing at Fig. 22 
 is drawn without taking the diameter of the friction roller 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 into account, and Fig. 23 on the same method as Fig. 20, 
 the diameter of the friction roller being 3I inches.'^' It will 
 only require one glance from a practised eye to discover 
 which tappet is best suited for its work. 
 
 Let us apply a test to these two drawings for the 
 purpose of seeing clearly where the advantage of one over 
 the other can be found. 
 
 We have said that the diameter of the friction roller is 
 3I inches, and ostensibly the pause at each extremity of the 
 stroke is equal to half a revolution of the crank shaft of the 
 loom. As has been already shown, this would be strictly so 
 were the point of contact of the tappet with the treadle a 
 poini, that is, as it is drawn in Fig. 22 the distance between 
 the curved lines which are drawn from one circle to the 
 
 Fiff» 22. 
 
 other is equal to half a revolution of the crank shaft, and 
 had the friction roller no dimensions that would represent 
 the pause given to the treadle, and consequently to the 
 heald. Now draw the friction roller f in the space between 
 the wings of the tappet, and to the dimensions given, and 
 
 * I find on examining the drawing that the friction roller f has been 
 inadvertently drawn 3 inches diameter, though the tappet itself is properly 
 drawn for a 3^ inches roller. 
 
92 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 then discover what is the amount of pause actually given. 
 It will be seen at once that this friction roller fills, or nearly 
 fills, the space between the wings or projections of the tappet, 
 so that the moment it has ceased to descend one of the 
 inclines it is compelled to begin to ascend the other, and 
 consequently instead of remaining stationary, and in contact 
 with the inner circle of the tappet only, for a period equal to 
 half a revolution of the crank shaft, it remains there for a 
 very brief period only. On the other hand, if the line which 
 its centre describes be carefully drawn, it will be found that 
 the time lost when in contact with the inner circle of the 
 tappet, is gained when in contact with the outer circle. So 
 that whilst the heald is not allowed to dwell sufficiently long 
 at it lowest point, it dwells far too long at its highest pomt. 
 As will be shown presently, this possesses serious disadvan- 
 tages. The exact amount of variation can be readily seen 
 by following the line described by the centre of the friction 
 roller, marking the point where it first reaches its lowest 
 position, and where it begins to ascend from that position, 
 and doing the same thing when at its highest point ; then 
 having found these points, finding what proportion it 
 represents of the complete circle of the tappet, or, more 
 readily, of that portion of the tappet which represents one 
 revolution of the crank shaft, or one pick. 
 
 A reference to Fig. 23 will now show what the advantages 
 are which will be obtained by drawing on the principle laid 
 down at Fig. 20, for on examination it will be found that the 
 space between the wings of the tappet is such as to allow 
 the friction roller to remain at rest for a period of time 
 exactly equal to half a revolution of the crank shaft. 
 
 Attention must now be called to another matter which 
 is of some importance, though not vital, to the drawing of a 
 good tappet. It has been shown that the divisions between 
 the inner and outer circles of the tappet, when obtaining the 
 curve, should be irregular, so as to give an eccentric motion 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 93 
 
 to the healds.. These divisions may be made in any ratio, 
 provided they are the same in relation to the inner as to the 
 
 Fig. 23. 
 
 outer circle, but the best results are undoubtedly obtained 
 if the divisions are made so as to produce what is termed 
 harmonic motions. For example, take the space, or the 
 distance, between the two circles, and upon a Hne equal to 
 this distance describe a semi-circle, divide the semi-circle 
 into as many equal parts as you wish to have divisions 
 between the circles, from each of these divisions drop a 
 perpendicular to the base line, and which will divide that line 
 
 'Fig. 24. 
 
 in such a manner as to produce harmonic motion, then those 
 divisions are such as may be used in the construction of the 
 tappet as shown at Fig. 24. 
 
94 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 It will be obvious that by this method of drawing, not 
 only will the increase and decrease of velocity communicated 
 to the treadles, and consequently to the heald, be in the best 
 possible ratio, but that as one heald ascends another will 
 descend at exactly the same rate of speed. This is a matter 
 of no small importance in weaving. 
 
 In most looms where tappets are employed, the healds 
 are connected to each other by means of cords or straps and 
 levers, or what is equivalent to levers, rollers or bowls, as 
 they are often termed. The necessity for this kind of 
 arrangement is easily understood, the tappet acts in one 
 direction only, that is, it presses the treadle down, but does 
 nothing to bring it back, therefore some means must be 
 adopted to bring it back again, and this must be done either 
 by means of the levers just mentioned or by springs. The 
 use of springs is objectionable on many grounds, although 
 they are often employed with advantage when the tappet is 
 badly constructed, consequently the levers are the best means 
 to be employed when we have good working tappets. The 
 arrangement of these levers then must be such that as one 
 heald is raised, it must, by means of the levers, pull another 
 heald down : this being the case, it is clear that one heald 
 must not begin to ascend before another has liberty to begin 
 its descent, otherwise there will be undue tension upon both 
 the cords connecting the healds and the healds themselves. 
 On the other hand, if the descent of one commences before 
 the ascent of another, the cords will become slack. In either 
 case, bad working must be the result, in fact, they should be 
 so adjusted that there is as nearly as possible the same degree 
 of tension throughout, and it is very evident that this cannot 
 be obtained unless the tappet be carefully constructed. 
 
 One other point may be mentioned, viz., that it will very 
 much conduce to accuracy in drawing the curve of the tappet 
 if a large number of divisions be made. 
 
 There is but one other matter connected with the tappet 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 95 
 
 itself which now requires consideration. If a tappet be 
 drawn upon the principle shown here, with a small inner 
 circle and a large friction roller, the former say from five to 
 six inches, and the latter from three to four inches, it will be 
 found that the curve of the tappet will, for some distance, 
 very nearly approach a radial line. Now this renders the 
 working rather difficult, as the incline up which the friction 
 roller travels will be rather steep, and ease in working can 
 only be given to it by altering the position of the friction 
 roller in relation to the centre of the tappet. This is a rather 
 unsatisfactory mode of remedying an evil, therefore it is 
 much better, if the friction roller is large, to make the tappet 
 as large as the space in the loom will permit. 
 
 By following this method it becomes quite an easy 
 matter to arrange a set of tappets for any given pattern. 
 After dividing the circumference into as many parts as 
 there are to be picks in each revolution of the tappet shaft, 
 each portion may then be made to raise or lower the heald 
 as desired, and any length of pause given to each thread. 
 
 It now becomes necessary to deal in some measure with 
 the means of connecting the healds with each other, so that 
 as one is raised it will supplement the action of the tappet 
 by depressing another, or failing this, to provide some means 
 for bringing about this depression. As has been already said, 
 the best mode of accomplishing this is by means of levers in 
 one form or another, because by their use the non-positive, as it 
 is called, action of the tappets is at once converted into a 
 positive action, or the tappet which can act in one direction 
 only, is made to act in both directions through the medium 
 of these levers. 
 
 Suppose in the first instance, that two healds only are 
 employed, if the healds are raised by the action of the 
 tappets, then they may be connected at the bottom by means 
 of any simple lever or roller, so that as one heald is raised, 
 the other, through the medium of this lever or roller is 
 
96 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 depressed. In this case there is only one consideration, viz., 
 that the lever or roller, shall be so arranged that the healds 
 are not held too far apart, and if levers instead of rollers be 
 used, the arms shall both be of the same length, so that one 
 shall be depressed just as much as the other is raised. 
 
 In arranging these levers — or stocks and bowls, as they 
 are sometimes called — for any even number of healds, there 
 is not much difficulty, the considerations being substantially 
 those which have just been pointed out, first, that they shall 
 not spread out the healds too far, nor occupy too much space 
 in the loom, and second that each arm of the lever shall be of 
 the same length. Of course in the case of a large number of 
 healds being employed, it is necessary to arrange a number 
 of rollers upon each end of the lever. Say for example that 
 eight healds are to be used, then an arrangement such as 
 that shown at Fig. 25 may be resorted to where a lever is 
 
 shown in section with the necessary rollers attached to it ; 
 this lever has its fulcrum in the centre, and the rollers 
 as shown attached to each end, a strap is passed round 
 
 1 
 
 Fig. 25. 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 97 
 
 the large roller to each end of which is attached a small 
 roller. Again round these are passed straps or cords, 
 and connected directly with the healds. From this 
 arrangement it is obvious that if any one of the four 
 healds be raised, one of them must also be depressed. 
 Suppose for example number 7 be raised it may bring down 
 number 5, but if number 5 is still held up by its own tappet, 
 then through the medium of the roller b, it will communicate 
 with either number i or 3, and so depress them. Again at 
 the opposite end of the lever are similar rollers attached to 
 four other healds, so that if none of those at the end where 
 one is being raised are allowed by their respective tappets to 
 descend, then through the medium of the lever, motion is 
 communicated to one of the healds at the other end. This 
 will be more easily understood by reference to Fig. 26, 
 which, as will be presently shown, is an arrangement for 
 seven healds. 
 
 It is of course a necessary condition in the use of this 
 kind of arrangement, that as one heald ascends, another 
 must descend, there must always be the same number of 
 healds raised for every pick in the pattern. It does not 
 follow though, that tliere must always be just half the healds 
 raised, there may be any number, large or small, but what- 
 ever that number is it must always remain the same. 
 
 It will be noticed that in Fig. 25, the healds i, 3, 5 and 7, 
 respectively are shown as being attached to the rollers at one 
 end of the lever, this is the most convenient arrangement, as 
 it prevents the rollers from being too small, and gives more 
 room for the cords to work. Of course the other end of the 
 lever would carry the intermediate healds, 2, 4, 6 and 8. 
 
 Whenever the number of healds are even, the plan 
 adopted here will hold good, but when they are uneven, a 
 somewhat different arrangement must be adopted, not 
 different in principle, but taking into account the question of 
 leverage. Suppose for example that seven healds are to be 
 
98 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 employed, then one end of the lever must carr}^ four healds, 
 and the other end three, as shown at Fig. 26. In this 
 drawing four healds are shown suspended from one end of 
 
 the lever, and three from the other. Now it is very clear, 
 that if four pounds weight be suspended from one end of a 
 lever and three pounds from the other, that the opposite 
 arms of the lever must be as three to four in their length ; 
 the heavier weight suspended from the shorter arm, and 
 vice versa, to enable one to balance the other ; exactly the 
 same rule will apply to healds. If there are four healds 
 attached to one end of the lever and three to the other, then 
 the two arms of the lever must be as three to four. 
 
 What applies to the long lever applies also to the 
 arrangement of rollers for carrying an odd number of healds 
 as those carrying 2, 4, and 6. Here are two rollers, which 
 by their arrangement constitute a lever, the small roller is 
 made fast to the larger one ; to the large roller one of the 
 healds is attached, and to the other is attached another 
 roller, connected with two healds. With this arrangement, 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 Fi^. 26. 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 99 
 
 if the lieald 2 be raised, either of the healds 4 and 6 will be 
 depressed, but it is evident from the fact that the diameters 
 of the rollers are as two to one, that both could not 
 be depressed by the raising of the heald 2. In fact the 
 diameters of the two rollers being as two to one, and being 
 made fast together, they constitute a lever, the two 
 arms of which bear those proportions to each other. 
 
 One difference must be noted in regard to the rollers 
 at one end of the lever in relation to those at the other end, 
 viz., that whilst the straps pass freely round the former, 
 they must be made fast to two of the latter, otherwise 
 they would cease to be a lever. 
 
 From the arrangement shown at Fig. 26, it will be 
 readily seen that others can be easily made for any odd 
 number, as that in Fig. 25 shows how they can be made for 
 any even number. For instance, by taking off the rollers 
 from one end of the lever, they will act for four healds 
 If it is desired to provide for three healds only, the rollers 
 from the other end will serve, or a similar arrangement with 
 the rollers of a size suitable to the space to be occupied by 
 the healds. Again it will be easy on the same principle to 
 make an arrangement for five healds, either by attaching 
 three to one end of the lever — as in Fig. 26 — and two to the 
 other, and letting the two arms of the lever be as two to 
 three, or by attaching four to one end, as in Fig. 25, and one 
 to the other, and having the two arms of the lever as one to 
 four. Sometimes one arrangement is adopted, and some- 
 times the other, according to the materials at hand which 
 can be most readily adapted. 
 
 It is very evident from this, that levers and rollers 
 can be easily arranged to suit any number of healds, but 
 it must be borne in mind, as already pomted out, that 
 they will only serve for patterns vv'here the same number of 
 healds are raised for each pick, and that in the event of the 
 pattern being. irregular in this respect, resort must be had to 
 
lOO 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 springs or weights, or some other means of bringing the 
 healds to their lowest point after being raised. 
 
 In constructing a tappet the length of stroke to be 
 given is a matter which must have a due share of attention, 
 so as to regulate the size of shed to suit the size of the 
 shuttle to be employed ; and to avoid as far as possible 
 any undue strain on the warp the shed should not be 
 larger than is absolutely necessary to admit of a clear 
 passage of the shuttle from side to side. Then, having 
 found from the size of the shuttle what size of shed will 
 be required, the stroke of tappet is merely a question of 
 leverage. 
 
 Suppose one example is given here, it will serve to 
 illustrate the principle of determining the stroke of the 
 tappet, and can be readily adapted to any class of loom. 
 Fig. 27 shows the position of the various parts of the loom 
 which have a bearing upon this question. In this figure, 
 a, is the point where cloth is formed, h, the lay carrying the 
 reed, the shuttle, and f/, the healds. The shuttle is here 
 represented as passing through the shed. For the purpose 
 of making the matter as simple as possible, I will suppose 
 dimensions which will enable the reader to follow the 
 system of calculation easily, these dimensions being such as 
 may be found in existing looms or not, but used merely for 
 the purpose of illustrating the principle. Then we will 
 suppose that what is termed the stroke of the going part is 
 equal to 6 inches — that is, the distance it traverses to and 
 from the cloth is 6 inches — and the width of the shuttle is 
 inches. So that when the shuttle is passing through the 
 shed, which is when the going part is furthest from the 
 cloth, the front of the shuttle is \\ inches from the cloth, or 
 6—1^=4^. Then suppose the depth of the shuttle is i\ 
 inches. Now, as will be seen, the shed is V shaped, and the 
 front of the shuttle being the nearest the cloth, the depth of 
 the shuttle determines the depth of the shed at that point, 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 ioi 
 
 so that if the depth of the shuttle is i J inches, the shed must 
 be of that depth at a point inches from the cloth. The 
 question then to determine is, if the shed must be li inches 
 
 Fig» 27. 
 
 deep at a point 4^ inches from the cloth, what depth must it 
 be at the healds ? The question is one of simple proportion, 
 thus, if the healds are say 12 inches from the cloth, then 
 as 4^: 12: : ii:3^, or the depth of the shed at the healds 
 must be 3^ inches, or in other words, the healds must 
 traverse a distance of inches from their highest to their 
 lowest point. Then if the healds travel this distance, the 
 
I02 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 lever e from which they are suspended must travel the 
 same distance. 
 
 For a moment we may suppose that both the arms of 
 this lever are of the same length, and if that is so, each 1 
 extremity will travel the same distance, and the point of the ^ 
 treadle f, to which the lever is attached, will also travel the 
 same distance, or the displacement of the treadle at the point 
 where it is connected by the rod to the lever e, will be equal 
 to 3^ inches. Then what we have now to find is, if the 
 displacement at the point of the treadle is 3! inches, what 
 is it at the point where the tappet acts upon it ? This 
 again is a question of simple proportion. Suppose the 
 entire length of the treadle, from the point where it is 
 connected to the lever e, to the fulcrum is 30 inches, and 
 the distance from the centre of friction roller to the fulcrum 
 is 20 inches, then as 30:20: :3-|-:2f. Or, the distance which 
 the treadle must travel at that point is equal to 2|- inches, 
 therefore what is termed the stroke of the tappet, or the 
 length of the projection upon it must be equal to 2f inches, 
 or the distance to be traversed by the treadle at the point 
 where the tappet acts upon it. So that by this means we 
 have an easy mode of determining what the stroke of the 
 tappet should be. 
 
 There is only one other point which need be mentioned. 
 The above calculation is made on the supposition that the 
 lever e, has its two arms of equal length, that ma}^ be so, or 
 they may be different, but if they are different the 
 difference has only to be taken into account, and dealt 
 with as a proportion, suppose that one arm is 7 inches, 
 and the other 9 inches, and that the healds are suspended 
 from the shorter arm, then as 7:9: :3|:4|-, or the arm which 
 is connected with the treadle must traverse a distance of 
 4|- inches. 
 
 The equalization of the sheds is a matter which cannot 
 have too careful attention. In doing this, care should be 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 taken not to raise or lower the healds furthest back from 
 the slay more than is requisite, or an unnecessary strain 
 will be thrown on the warp contained in those healds, and 
 consequent breakages will occur. If, on the other hand, 
 they are not sufficiently raised or depressed, the threads will 
 be slack, and consequently will not bear their share of the 
 strain. The lease rods also play a most important part in 
 weaving. Although their primary function, as their name 
 indicates, is to keep the lease of the warp so that when 
 any threads are broken their proper places may be easily 
 found, yet the way in which they are put m, whether plain 
 or otherwise, and the distance at which they are placed 
 from the healds, have a very material effect upon the warp. 
 In some classes of goods — such, for instance, as are made of 
 soft woollen warps— lease rods are not used, but what are 
 known as clasp rods, that is, a pair of rods, one above and 
 the other below the warp, tied together so that the shed 
 shall not open beyond them ; and in some cases clasps are 
 used in addition to lease rods. 
 
 The action of the tappets, in relation to the movements 
 of the lay, is a matter which, perhaps as much as any 
 other, requires the attention of the weaver ; this relative 
 action influencing as much as anything the appearance of 
 the cloth, as well as materially affecting the warp. If it is 
 required that the warp shall be well spread in the cloth, 
 and also in heavy work when a great number of picks 
 are required to be put in, when the pick is beaten up to 
 the cloth the shed for the succeeding pick should be more 
 or less open. If the pick is beaten up before the shed 
 closes upon it it will spring back a little, and the succeeding 
 pick has to drive it forward again. 
 
 This crossing the shed, as it is sometimes called, will 
 explain the necessity for the longer pause which the tappet 
 must give to the healds, because the shed opening as the 
 pick is beaten up it must remain open sufficiently long for 
 the succeeding pick to be thrown in. 
 
104 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 If the warp does not require to be well spread, then 
 the shed need only remain open sufficiently long for the 
 shuttle to pass through it, the pick being beaten up to the 
 cloth when the healds are even, and before any strain is 
 thrown on the warp by the opening of the succeeding shed. 
 The shed should then open for the shuttle to pass through 
 as the lay moves backwards, when it will, of course, be 
 open widest at the moment when the lay is at its furthest 
 point from the cloth. It will be readily seen that for this 
 kind of shedding the pause must be regulated to suit it. 
 
 For tender yarn this method is certainly the best, as it 
 must be obvious that less strain is thrown upon it than by 
 the preceding method. And even where it is necessary 
 that the sheds should be crossed it may be saved consider- 
 ably by causing the shedding to take place a little later, 
 but the warp will not be so evenly spread, thus detracting 
 from the appearance of the cloth, and as the primary 
 object is, or should be, at all times to produce the best 
 possible effect on the cloth, this latter mode of shedding 
 should only be resorted to when the tenderness of the 
 warp or other considerations make it an absolute necessity, 
 or when the make of the cloth is such that it will be best 
 adapted to it. 
 
 SPEED OF TAPPETS. 
 
 We must now take into consideration the question of 
 regulating the number of revolutions of the tappet shaft 
 in its relation to the main driving or crank shaft. In the 
 class of loom to which these illustrations more particularly 
 apply the tappets are worked at the side of the loom, but 
 in all classes of looms the same principles are involved, so 
 that the difference is only a matter of detail. Then in 
 this case we have only two shafts in the loom, the crank 
 shaft A, and the tappet shaft b. Fig. ii. The crank shaft 
 as pointed out at page 72, makes one revolution at every 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 pick of the loom. The lower shaft b carries the picking 
 tappets; these are placed one on each side of the loom, 
 and arranged so as to strike alternately, so that they will 
 propel the shuttle from their respective sides in turn. 
 That being the case, this shaft must of necessity make one 
 revolution while the crank shaft is making two, conse- 
 quently if the shedding tappets are driven hy this shaft 
 nothing but plain cloth can be woven, but they may be 
 driven upon it, and the number of revolutions be 
 regulated at pleasure. To accomplish this the tappets 
 instead of being made fast upon the shaft so as to revolve 
 with it, work upon it ; in fact, the end of this shaft becomes 
 a stud for them, being kept in place by a movable collar 
 and set screw ; the tappets are then driven from the 
 crank shaft by toothed wheels. If convenient it is simplest 
 done by having one large toothed wheel on the tappets, 
 and a smaller one on the crank shaft, then the calculation 
 for the number of revolutions is simply the proportion of 
 the two wheels to each other. The teeth acting alternately 
 on each other their relative speeds will be as the teeth of 
 one are to the teeth of the other. For instance, if it is 
 required to have four picks in the round of the tappets the 
 proportion of the two wheels is as four to one, if for five 
 picks then the proportion is five to one, and so on. Very 
 frequently it may be found inconvenient to have only two 
 wheels. The two shafts are placed at a fixed distance 
 apart ; the wheels would therefore have to be of such 
 diameter as to suit this fixed distance ; consequently it 
 would frequently happen that in changing from one num- 
 ber of treads to another not only the diameters but the 
 pitch of the teeth would be altered. This it is desirable to 
 avoid as far as possible, and indeed to avoid the necessity 
 of making the wheels of such diameter as to suit the 
 distance of the shafts. This is done by introducing an 
 intermediate wheel, which becomes simply a medium for 
 
 H 
 
io6 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 communicating the power, without in any way altering 
 the relative speed of the two shafts ; therefore the same 
 pitch of teeth may be preserved throughout, and the only 
 thing to observe is the relative number of teeth in the two 
 principal wheels. 
 
 In some patterns, where a great number of treads are 
 required in the revolution of the tappet, it may not be 
 convenient to obtain the relative speed by these two 
 wheels. In that case two intermediate wheels are intro- 
 duced, these two being of different sizes. The larger 
 receives its motion from, or is geared into the wheel upon 
 the crank shaft, and carries upon the same stud the smaller 
 wheel which is geared into the wheel connected with the 
 tappets, therefore there are two driving and two driven 
 wheels. Then the driving and driven wheels must stand in 
 the ratio to each other as the speed of the tappets and 
 crank shaft ; that is, if the first driving-wheel contains 
 sixteen teeth and the second driving-wheel also contains 
 sixteen teeth, and ten picks are required in the revolution 
 of the tappet, 16x16x10 = 2560, then the product of the 
 two driven wheels, multiplied by each other, must be 2560, 
 thus, 40 X 64 = 2560. 
 
 When changing from one number of treads to another, 
 it can sometimes be accomplished by changing one wheel 
 only, which may perhaps be any one of the four. We will 
 suppose that we have to find the number of teeth required 
 in the first driving-w^heel, the three other wheels being 
 given, multiply the two driven wheels into each other, 
 40x64=2560, then multiply the given driving-wheel by the 
 number of picks required in the revolution, 16x10=160, 
 and divide the product of the driven wheels by the pro- 
 duct thus obtained, 2560-^160=16, the number of teeth, 
 required for the first driving-wheel. 
 
 If it is desired to ascertain the number of teeth for the 
 second driving-wheel, the process is precisely the same, 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 107 
 
 only substituting the first for the second wheel in calcu- 
 lating. Suppose, then, it is desired to find the number 
 of teeth required for either of the driven wheels, the other 
 three being given, then multiply the two driving-wheels 
 into each other and by the number of picks required, and 
 divide by the driven wheel given, thus, ^^^^—^^ = 64. It 
 will be seen by this that it is very easy to ascertain the 
 number of teeth required in any one of the wheels, but 
 care must be taken that there be no remainder in any of 
 these calculations, otherwise one portion of the loom will 
 get in advance of the other with its work, and the result 
 would be anything but gratifying. 
 
 Sometimes it may be desirable to ascertain the number 
 of teeth in both the intermediate wheels. In that case 
 the easiest and readiest method is to take the first driving- 
 wheel, and multiply it by the number of picks required in 
 the pattern, and whatever proportion the product bears to 
 the last driven wheel, the two intermediate wheels must 
 bear exactly the same proportion to each other. Suppose 
 in this case we are to have seven picks in the pattern, 
 and the first driving wheel contains 20 teeth, and the last 
 driven wheel contains 120 teeth, it is required to find the 
 two intermediate wheels which will be required, it will be 
 
 readiest put in the form of a fraction, thus ^°^7 _HP or 
 
 ^ ' 120 120 12, 
 
 then the proportion which the two intermediate wheels must 
 bear to each other will be as 14 is to 12. Consequently any 
 multiple of those two numbers, as 42 and 36, or 56 and 48, 
 will answer the purpose. 
 
 To prove that it is true, multiply the two drivers 
 together, and the two driven together, and divide the 
 driven by the drivers, thus, ^^^^^^ — 7^ so proving that 
 the wheels are correct. Again, suppose we are to have 
 nine picks in the pattern and the first driver contains six- 
 teen teeth, and the last driven contains 120 teeth, 
 
io8 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 thus, i-A?_i44 Qj- ^ consequently any multiple of 12 and 10, 
 
 120 120 10, -3. J J r 
 
 as 48 and 40, &c., will serve. And to prove that this is correct, 
 
 i2ox48 _ Xhis will in most cases be found the readiest 
 16x40 ^ 
 
 method of finding the intermediate wheels, and of course 
 may be relied upon for accuracy. 
 
 Various methods of driving the tappets are adopted by 
 different makers, but however driven, whether upon a 
 separate shaft or otherwise, or whatever intermediate 
 wheels may be used, the above system will be found to be 
 substantially correct, the details being varied according to 
 the circumstances of the case. 
 
 PICKING. 
 
 We now come to the second movement in the process 
 of weaving, viz., the throwing in of the weft, or, as it is 
 technically termed, the picking. 
 
 This movement differs entirely in its character from 
 the shedding. In picking, a considerable amount of force is 
 required to be exerted at a given moment, for the purpose 
 of propelling the shuttle from one side of the loom to the 
 other ; but to ascertain the exact amount of force required 
 to accomplish this work is not one of the easiest matters. 
 The question might very naturally be asked, What creates 
 this difficulty ? Have we no means of measuring it ? In 
 the first place, we have a certain amount of matter to be 
 propelled through a given space in a given time, which 
 time is almost infinitesimal, the whole movement partaking 
 of the character of a blow. The amount of force required 
 to do that might be ascertained, but it would be difficult 
 to ascertain the amount of resistance offered to it in 
 its passage, which resistance varies considerably under 
 different circumstances. That being the case, nothing but 
 actual experiment can give a positive data. Such experi- 
 ments must be directed to ascertain the amount of force 
 which would be transmitted by a tappet of a given length 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. ICQ 
 
 and shape revolving at a given speed, this amount of 
 force being increased or decreased by the leverage of the 
 picking-stick. 
 
 But although it is not easy to lay down an absolute 
 rule, yet an approximate result may be arrived at. 
 
 We will take for illustration what is known as the cone 
 ^licking^motion, which is the one most generally used, at 
 least in fast-going looms, and it is in this class of loom 
 that strict attention to the picking movement is most 
 required, for if any harshness of movement exists in the 
 loom it is intensified by the high rate of speed, and the 
 effect of it is injurious to the whole loom. 
 
 The cone picking motion is an application of a simple 
 lever, and consists of an upright shaft carrying a cone- 
 shaped stud (from which it takes its name) and a wooden 
 arm, known as the picking-stick, and to which is attached 
 the picker. This stud and wooden arm are the two arms 
 of the lever, and the upright shaft is its fulcrum, the 
 amount of leverage being determined by the relative 
 lengths of the stud and arm, the length of the upright 
 shaft being a matter of no importance so far as its action 
 is concerned, the only condition attached to it being that it 
 shall be sufficiently strong to bear the torsional strain to 
 which it will be subjected. 
 
 Pig, 28. 
 
 Fig. 28 is a plan of this motion, a being the wooden 
 arm and b the cone stud upon which the tappet acts, this 
 
no 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 action being of such a nature as to give the requisite 
 amount of force for the work to be accomphshed, but the 
 force must be imparted in such a manner as to render the 
 action smoth and easy. Then, to ascertain the nature 
 of this action, we must consider first of all the direction 
 of application of the force and the magnitude of such 
 force. 
 
 •4? 
 
 Fig. 29. 
 
 First, as to the direction. This is determined by the 
 point of contact of the picking tappet with the cone-shaped 
 stud, or short arm of the lever, which is provided with a 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 Ill 
 
 friction roller, upon which the tappet acts. Fig. 29 shows 
 the arrangement, a being the upright shaft, b the cone, and 
 c the picking tappet. The cone being circular, if a line be 
 drawn tangent to the circle at ' the point of contact with 
 the tappet, as the tappet revolves the direction of force 
 will be at right angles to this tangent, the line a will then 
 indicate the direction of the force. Then it must be 
 evident that for the action of the pick to be perfectly 
 smooth the direction of this line should be at right angles 
 (or as nearly as possible) to the vertical shaft a, which is 
 the fulcrum of the lever, and although it is difficult to 
 maintain the magnitude of the force on account of the 
 suddenness of the stroke, and at the same time preserve 
 this line of direction, the nearer the approach to. this the 
 more perfect will be the action of the pick. This must 
 be evident almost at a glance. We will suppose for a 
 moment that the point of contact is at o ; then draw a 
 tangent to the circle at that point, and the dotted line b is 
 the direction of force at right angles to it. It requires very 
 little demonstration to prove that a great portion of the 
 force is expended upon the stud, or upon the socket in 
 which the upright shaft vv^orks, pushing it downwards, 
 instead of causing the lever to move easily upon its 
 fulcrum ; the result is harshness of working, and a certain 
 jerkiness, as w^ell as requiring considerably more force to 
 propel the shuttle, consequent upon the amount of force 
 which is expended upon the stud and socket being lost to 
 the pick. 
 
 The direction of force may be regulated by the relative 
 position of the tappet shaft and the cone picking stud, the 
 latter requiring to be placed in such a plane — above or 
 below the plane in which the tappet shaft revolves— as will 
 bring the point of contact in such a position as to give 
 the proper direction to the force. Again, to assist the 
 maintenance of this direction of force the cone and 
 
112 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 the tappet must be shaped to each other in such a 
 manner that as the tappet, which is a lever, describes 
 a circle upon its centre, and the lever consisting of 
 the cone and picking stick describes an arc of a circle 
 upon its fulcrum, the contact of the two surfaces will main- 
 tain the same position throughout, and that contact shall 
 not be with one portion of the surface— or at one point — 
 but it shall be across the whole surface of the tappet, 
 otherwise an imperfect motion is imparted which cannot 
 be remedied in any other manner. 
 
 Another question requiring attention is the position of 
 the upright picking shaft. This may be determined by 
 two considerations, first, the length of picking stick or 
 arm necessary to give the leverage required ; second, 
 whether the upright shaft is to be placed in the centre of 
 stroke or otherwise. The first determines th'e distance at 
 which it must be placed from the la}^ or going part ; the 
 second determines its relative position to the tappet shaft, 
 and consequently the diameter of the disc of the tappet, 
 diameter of cone, and length of tappet nose. Assuming 
 that it is desired to place the upright shaft in the centre of 
 stroke, that is, that the centre of the cone stud shall be 
 parallel to the tappet shaft when it has traversed half the 
 distance from one extreme point to the other of its course, 
 and that the positions of the two shafts have been pre- 
 determined by other reasons, then the diameter of the 
 tappet disc and cone must be regulated to suit this 
 position. Suppose the distance between the centres of 
 the two shafts to be six inches, and to obtain the requi- 
 site power a tappet nose of three inches is required, then 
 the sum of the radii of the disc and cone added to half 
 the length of the tappet nose must be six inches. Thus, 
 radius of cone inches, radius of disc of tappet 3^ 
 inches, half length of tappet nose i| inches, + 3^ 
 + 1-^ — 6 inches. But the upright shaft, instead of being 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 placed in the centre of stroke, may be placed at or near 
 either extremity of the stroke ; that is, it may be so placed 
 that the centre of the cone stud will be parallel to the 
 tappet shaft, either before the force commences to be 
 delivered, or when it is finally expended. In the first case, 
 the sum of the radii of disc and cone must equal the 
 distance between the two shafts ; in the latter case it will be 
 the sum of the two radii and the length of the tappet nose. 
 In whatever position the shaft may be, the skew form of 
 the tappet must be arranged to suit that position. Having 
 determined the relative position of the two shafts, and 
 the cone and tappet, we now come to the question of 
 the magnitude of force, and the time occupied in its 
 delivery. 
 
 Fig. 30. 
 
 First, as to the magnitude of the force required. As I 
 have said, it is difficult to lay down a definite rule, yet we 
 can arrive at an approximate result. In the first place, the 
 intensity of the force depends on the length of the tappet 
 from the circumference of the disc, its form, and the part 
 of the circle occupied by the working face. If we refer 
 to Fig. 30, the circle a is the circumference of the disc, the 
 circle b is the circle in which the tappet moves. If we 
 
114 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 draw a radial line through the point where the tappet rises 
 from the disc, and cut the larger circle at c, and another 
 through the point of the tappet at d, the distance c d is 
 that portion of the revolution which the tappet makes 
 while the stroke is being given. This, in conjunction with 
 the leverage given by the picking-stick or arm, gives us an 
 idea of time and space. 
 
 We must then take into consideration the question of 
 momentum. In the construction of this tappet a similar 
 principle must be adopted as in the construction of 
 shedding tappets. The first portion of the rise must be 
 gradual, so as to draw up the leather which connects the 
 picking-stick with the picker, and commence to move the 
 shuttle gradually and increase in velocity towards the end 
 of the stroke. This will be increased as the form of the 
 tappet approaches nearer to the radial line. 
 
 The question now arises as to the length of the 
 tappet. This must be determined in conjunction with the 
 leverage of the picking-arm, the length of the shuttle- box, 
 and the nature of the stroke to be given. We have 
 assumed the length of the tappet to be three inches from 
 the circumference of the disc, and suppose the leverage 
 given by the relative length of the picking-arm and cone 
 to be as five to one, that would give a length of traverse to 
 the picking-arm which must correspond with the length of 
 the shuttle-box (with an allowance added for length of 
 leather to take the picker back) ; then as the stroke is 
 required to be slow or quick for the work it has to perform, 
 the tappet must be shaped accordingly, that is, the time 
 occupied hi the delivery of the stroke must be increased 
 or decreased, and the working face must be made to form 
 a greater or less angle with a radial line drawn from the 
 point of the tappet nose to the" centre of the circle. The 
 shorter the tappet the more sudden will its action require 
 to be, and the nearer it must approach the radial line in 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 form. The slower the required action and the greater the 
 arc of the circle occupied by the working face, and the 
 more gradual the rise from the circle. 
 
 There is one matter connected with this class of tappet 
 to which attention should be called. It is no uncommon 
 occurrence for the man in charge of looms, when he wishes 
 to increase the force of the pick, or in other words to give 
 more impetus to the shuttle, to file out the tappet nose, so 
 as to make it resemble a hook in shape, by doing so he 
 apparently gives more force to the final delivery, in reality 
 he makes the movement more sudden, but in doing so he 
 creates bad working, for the tappet instead of acting in such 
 a manner as to preserve the proper direction of force, will, as 
 it were, hook itself upon the cone, and so not only lose its 
 power for a short time, but will act in a very jerky manner. 
 
 There is no part of the loom which requires more 
 careful attention than the picking, because from the very 
 nature of the movement there must be considerable 
 re-action in the working parts and accompanied by great 
 wear and tear, and it can only be by a careful observance 
 of the general lines indicated here, along with a proper 
 timing of the pick to the other working parts of the loom 
 (a matter which will be dealt with under the head of 
 general working), that the evil effects can be in any degree 
 mitigated. The easier the movement can be executed 
 the better it will be in every way for the general working 
 of the loom. Too much stress could not be laid upon the 
 necessity of paying strict attention to this part of the loom. 
 No matter what method of picking be adopted, the very 
 nature of the movement makes it difficult to deal with, and 
 it is no exaggeration to say there is more unnecessary wear 
 and tear produced by bad picking, than by A bad arrange- 
 ment of any part of the loom, and however perfect the 
 loom may be in its other parts, even a slight imperfection 
 in the picking will neutralize it to a considerable extent 
 
ii6 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 BEATING UP OF THE WEFT. 
 
 We now come to the consideration of the third of the 
 primary movements in weaving, viz., the beating up of the 
 weft. This is performed by what is termed the lay, which 
 Carrie's the reed dividing the warp threads. 
 
 The lay performs two distinct functions, the beating up 
 of the weft and carrying the shuttle. For the first opera- 
 tion a smart stroke of the reed is necessary, and for the 
 latter a somewhat protracted pause, to allow the shuttle 
 time to pass from side to side through the shed formed by 
 the warp. To effect these two purposes it is necessary 
 that the movement of the lay, in its passage to and fro, 
 shall be of a decidedly eccentric character. 
 
 Movement is imparted direct from the main driving 
 shaft of the loom to the lay by means of cranks, and it is 
 in the manner in which the continuous circular motion of 
 the crank is converted, as well as in the relative sizes of 
 the crank and crank arm, or connecting rod, that this 
 eccentricity is obtained. 
 
 If we take an ordinary crank, and place the connection 
 of the crank arm at its furthest extremity in the same 
 plane as the crank itself, and consider the rod as infinitely 
 long, and let it continue to move in that plane, the motion 
 imparted will be regular in its character, though not 
 moving at the same rate of speed throughout, that is, the 
 regular circular motion of the crank becomes converted 
 into a reciprocating rectilinear motion, a slight pause 
 taking place at each extremity of the stroke of equal 
 duration, and as it approaches those extremities it becomes 
 gradually slower, the highest rate of speed being attained 
 in the centre of the stroke. Take for example the illustra- 
 tion given of harmonic motion at Fig. 24, page 93, there 
 it is shown at what varying rate of speed motion is 
 communicated to any body moving in a horizontal plane 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. II^ 
 
 by means of a crank, each division on the circumference 
 of the circle is equal, but the perpendicular lines dropped 
 to the diameter are not equal. 
 
 To carry this further, instead of dropping perpendiculars 
 to the diameter, produce the diameter to an indefinite 
 length, and draw a complete circle instead of a semi-circle, 
 
 Fig. 31. 
 
 having divided the circle into any number of equal parts, 
 take a distance in the compasses equal to the supposed 
 length of the connecting rod, and cut the produced diameter 
 from each division of the circle as a centre, as in Fig. 31. 
 If the connecting rod be of sufficient length, the divisions 
 at each extremity v^ill be equal, but the shorter the rod 
 the greater the inequality, the divisions at one extremity 
 will become less, and those at the other greater, and a 
 decided eccentricity of movement is obtained. 
 
 Another mode of showing it is as in Fig. 32, when 
 the point a is the centre upon which the lay moves ; the 
 line B shows the position of the sword or arm of the lay 
 when the reed is in contact with the cloth ; and the line 
 c is the same arm at the other extremity of its stroke, or 
 when furthest from the cloth : then in its passage the lay 
 describes the arc of a circle, b c. It will be observed that 
 when at the fore part of the stroke, the sword or arm 
 occupies a vertical position, consequently, when at the 
 
WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 back extremity the point of connection is brought below 
 the plane which it occupies at the fore part. The circle 
 D is the circle which the crank describes in its revolution, 
 the centre d being in the same horizontal line as the point of 
 connection at i ; then take any two points i 2, on the arc 
 
 Fig, 32. 
 
 /; c, at equal distances from b and c, find the corresponding 
 points in the circle, or the position which the crank will 
 occupy when the lay is at those points ; this may be easily 
 done by taking the distance from b to where the horizontal 
 line cuts the circle, which will give the length of the crank 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 iig 
 
 arm ; then from i cut the circle at the points i' i' and from 
 2 cut it at 2' 2'. On examination it will be found that the 
 arc 2' 2' is somewhat larger than the arc i' i', consequently 
 a longer time is occupied by the lay in passing from 2 
 to the back extremity of its stroke and returning to 2, 
 than is occupied in passing from i to the fore centre and 
 back again to i. 
 
 As the shuttle must be passing through the shed when 
 the lay is at the back part of its stroke, the length of pause 
 which is given here might not be sufficient in ordinary 
 cases to allow it to get clear of the warp before it would be 
 caught by the reed, and as more or less damage would 
 result from its being caught, it may be necessary for this 
 pause to be increased. This may be done by altering the 
 relations between the circle described by the crank itself 
 and the length of the connecting rod, because, as already 
 shown, the shorter the latter in relation to the former the 
 greater the amount of eccentricity obtainable. 
 
 The amount of eccentricity thus obtainable will be in 
 direct ratio to the diameter of the circle described and the 
 length of the crank arm. The larger the circle described, 
 and the shorter the crank arm, the greater will be the 
 eccentricity obtained. But there is a limit beyond which 
 this may not be carried, else a hesitancy takes place when 
 the crank is passing the back centre of the stroke, w^hich 
 requires a momentum to carry it over that point, and too 
 great irregularity of movement, or jerkiness, is imparted 
 to the lay. 
 
 The broader the loom is the longer the time required 
 for the shuttle to pass through the shed, having a greater 
 distance to traverse, consequently the greater the eccen- 
 tricity that must be given to the movement of the lay. 
 This may be obtained by increasing the throw of the 
 crank, in proportion to the breadth of the loom. This, of 
 course, also lengthens the stroke of the lay as well, but it 
 
» 
 
 120 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 is desirable to limit this to as small a space as possible, so 
 as to avoid as far as practicable the friction upon the warp 
 threads, caused by the reed passing and repassing over 
 them. A very convenient mode of dealing with this matter 
 is to place the crank in a plane lower than that of the 
 point of connection with the going part, as shown by the 
 lower circle in Fig. 32. By this means a large throw of 
 crank can be obtained, and yet the crank be out of the 
 way of the warp, though the point of connection with the 
 sword may be actually on a line with the warp. By 
 having the point of connection as high as possible, a great 
 amount of leverage is of course obtained, and the throw 
 of the crank, or the circle which it describes being 
 increased in proportion to the length of the connecting 
 rod, the requisite amount of eccentricity is obtained. Of 
 course the traverse of the lay, or going part, must be 
 determined to a considerable extent by the size of shuttle, 
 taking for a medium width of loom, say a traverse of three 
 times the breadth of the shuttle ; for broad looms a little 
 more, and for narrow ones a little less. But this must 
 not be taken as an absolute rule, sometimes circumstances 
 altering the conditions. 
 
 In determining the length of stroke to be given to the 
 lay, the leverage given by the point of connection of the 
 crank-arm with the lay being below the line of contact 
 with the cloth or otherwise, must be taken into consideration. 
 When the rocking-shaft is below, and the connection of the 
 sword with the crank-arm at a point between that and the 
 point of contact with the cloth, the lay becomes a lever of 
 the third order, consequently the same rule will apply as 
 to the treadles, that is, as the distance from the centre of 
 connection to the centre of rocking-shaft is to the distance 
 from the latter centre to the point of contact with the 
 cloth, so will the circle described by the crank be to the 
 stroke of the lay. 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 121 
 
 Example. — Centre of rocking-shaft to centre of connect- 
 ing pin 27in. ; centre of rocking-shaft to point of contact 
 with cloth, 33in. ; diameter of circle described by crank, 
 5in. ; then as 27 : 33 : : 5 : 6^, which will be the stroke of the lay. 
 
 If the rocking-shaft be placed above and the connec- 
 tion with the crank be placed below the warp line, then 
 leverage will be lost in the same ratio. 
 
 It will be observed that the rocking-shaft is so placed 
 here that when the reed is in contact with the cloth the 
 sword is in a vertical position. This is done so that the 
 lay, in its movement, never passes the centre upon which 
 it is working, so as to prevent any vibration which would 
 occur if constantly passing and repassing that centre, and 
 which would interfere in a considerable degree with the 
 working of the loom ; and in addition to preventing that 
 vibration, the reed, striking the cloth at right angles, 
 strikes a firmer blow than it otherwise would. 
 
 The bevel of the shuttle race is the next matter which 
 calls for attention. When the lay is thrown back for 
 the shuttle to pass through, the race should be bevelled to 
 suit the shed, that is, it should form a similar angle to a 
 horizontal line that the lower half of the shed forms, but 
 the reed and the back of the boxes must form a line 
 directly parallel with the swords upon which the lay works. 
 The effect of this is that the shuttle runs as it were in 
 a dovetailed groove, and consequently runs much steadier 
 and is not so liable to fly out ; and the bevel being suited 
 to the shed the warp offers less resistance to the passage of 
 the shuttle, thus producing smoother working and reducing 
 the friction of the shuttle upon the vv^arp to a minimum. 
 
 The actual bevel of the race, or more correctly speaking 
 the angle which it forms with the reed, will, in the case 
 of the rocking-shaft being below, be determined by the 
 position of the rocking-shaft in relation to the point of 
 contact with the cloth, and in a slight degree by the length 
 
 I 
 
122 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 of stroke given to the lay. If we take a given bevel, 
 with the rocking-shaft in a line perpendicular with the 
 point of contact of the reed with the cloth, or at least with 
 the swords of the lay in a perpendicular position when the 
 reed is in contact with the cloth, this bevel will require to 
 be increased as the rocking-shaft, or centre upon which the 
 lay works, is moved towards the centre of motion, because 
 the nearer the centre upon which it works is to the centre 
 of motion the less is the reed thrown out of the perpendicular, 
 and consequently the less angle formed by the shuttle-race 
 with the horizontal line when the lay is at the back 
 extremity of its stroke ; the bevel of the race must there- 
 fore be increased to compensate for this loss of angle. 
 When the lay is worked from above the length of stroke 
 decreases the bevel of the race in the same ratio as it 
 is increased when worked from below. 
 
 THE TAKE-UP MOTION. 
 
 We now come to the consideration of what may be 
 termed the auxiliary motions of the power-loom, motions 
 which are highly valuable in themselves, and without which 
 a power loom would be of little practical use, yet at the 
 same time these motions can only be considered as adjuncts 
 to the three motions already considered, and as assisting 
 them in their operations. 
 
 The first, and perhaps the most important of these, is 
 the take-up motion, the object of which is to wind the 
 cloth on a beam as it is woven, and by regulating the 
 speed at which it so winds the cloth, determining the 
 closeness of the weft threads, as the warp threads are 
 determined by the closeness or fineness of the reed. 
 
 There are two descriptions of taking-up motions, which 
 are known respectively as the drag and po^ive. The first, 
 / as its name implies, being a dragging motion, the cloth 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 123 
 
 beam being weighted by a lever and weights, the amount 
 of weight used being regulated to suit the strength of 
 fabric required to be produced, and during the process of 
 weaving, as the diameter of the cloth beam increases by 
 the winding on of the cloth, the weight must be decreased 
 to compensate for it. 
 
 The positive motion is of a totally distinct character, 
 the cloth beam being driven by a feed roller acting on the 
 cloth as it winds round it ; by this means it is not affected 
 by the diameter of the cloth beam, the movement being 
 regular throughout, consequently it may be driven by a 
 train of wheels, one of which may be movable, so as to 
 determine the rate of take-up or speed at which the cloth 
 is wound on the beam. By this means much more even 
 fabrics may be produced, and with considerably less atten- 
 tion, beyond ascertaining the proper wheel that will be 
 required to give a certain number of picks per inch. 
 
 The positive motion is the one now most generally 
 adopted, except for very heavy work, where the teeth or 
 fluting of the feed roller, to be sufficiently effective in 
 carrying down the cloth, would have to be so strong as 
 would probably damage the cloth, or perhaps in such cases 
 as where the yarn is of an uneven character, and it is 
 desired to keep the cloth of as nearly as possible the same 
 thickness. 
 
 By the arrangement of the drag, or, as it is sometimes 
 called, the balance motion, the cloth is carried forward a 
 distance equal to the diameter of the weft inserted at each 
 pick, whereas the positive motion carries the cloth forward 
 exactly the same distance at each pick, no matter what 
 may be the diameter of the weft. Such being the case it 
 is evident that the former is well suited for cloths made 
 from yarns which vary in their diameters very greatly, and 
 when, as nearly as possible the same bulk of cloth is 
 required, as in woollen goods, and the latter for evenness of 
 
124 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 texture, and cloths made from yarns of an even character, 
 as worsted. 
 
 The rule to find the number of teeth in the change 
 pinion to give a certain number of picks per inch may- 
 require some explanation. The train of wheels in all 
 classes of looms is not always the same, but the following 
 is the general arrangement. Fig. 33 shows the wheels and 
 their relation to each other ; a is the feed roller ; b is the 
 feed roller wheel ; into this is geared a small pinion c 
 driven on another wheel d ; this wheel is driven by the 
 change pinion e, which is in turn driven by the ratchet 
 wheel F, being carried on the same spindle. At every 
 
 33- 
 
 stroke of the lay the ratchet wheel is driven forward one 
 tooth by a catch or pawl attached to the sword of the lay, 
 then the question to determine is, having a feed roller of a 
 given circumference, a train of wheels of given dimensions, 
 driven by a ratchet wheel, also of given dimensions, moving 
 one tooth at every pick of the loom, to find the number of 
 picks which will be woven in every inch of cloth with a 
 change pinion of given dimensions ; or, what dimensions 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. I25 
 
 of change pinion will be required to weave a given number 
 of picks per inch. 
 
 The latter will perhaps be the simplest as well as the 
 most useful way of examining the question, as it is 
 certainly the one most generally adopted. 
 
 First of all reduce the first driven wheel, the second 
 driving, and the second driven, or what is termed the feed 
 roller wheel, to one number. The dimensions of these we 
 will suppose to be as follows : the feed roller wheel 125 
 teeth, driven by a pinion of ig teeth, carried on a wheel of 
 125 teeth. If we multiply the two large wheels into each 
 other and divide by the small one we shall arrive at this 
 result, thus (125 x 125) ~- ig = 822. If we multiply this 
 number by the number of teeth contained in the ratchet 
 wheel, and divide by the number of picks required in the 
 circumference of the feed roller, the quotient will be the 
 number of teeth required in the change pinion. Then 
 suppose the feed roller is 14J inches in circumference, the 
 ratchet wheel contains 60 teeth, and it is desired to have 
 60 picks per inch in the cloth, then 60 x 14? = 855 picks 
 in the circumference of the roller. The process will then 
 be as follows: — (822 X 60) -i- 855 = 57-682, but as decimals 
 cannot be taken into consideration in the number of teeth 
 in a wheel, we must take the full number nearest to that, 
 consequently a pinion with 58 teeth will be required to 
 produce the number of picks required. 
 
 Or take another example : suppose the feed roller wheel 
 with 107 teeth, driven by a pinion of 12 teeth, carried on 
 another wheel of 107 teeth, then (107 x 107) 4- 12 = 954; 
 a ratchet wheel of 50 teeth, circumference of beam 14^ 
 inches, with 60 picks per inch as before, (954 X 50) ~ 870 = 
 55 (nearly) teeth in change pinion. 
 
 Or we may put the matter in a rather shorter manner. 
 Multiply the driven wheels and the ratchet with each other, and 
 divide by the number of picks in the circumference of the beam 
 
126 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 multiplied by the pinion which drives the feed roller wheel, 
 thus 855 picks X 19 teeth = 16,245 5 then 125 x 125 x 60 
 — 937,500 16,245 = 57'682 as above. The whole of this 
 process simply resolves itself into the rule given in a 
 previous page, viz., multiplying drivers and driven respec- 
 tively into each other, and dividing one by the other and 
 by the picks required ; but I have taken this method of 
 explaining so as to make it easy for 3^oung students or 
 those not intimately acquainted with calculations. 
 
 But it is sometimes an inconvenient process to go 
 through the whole calculation to ascertain the number of 
 teeth required for any number of picks, therefore it is 
 easier to take one number and calculate all others by this 
 standard. For instance, if we were to take one pick per 
 inch as the standard, whatever number of teeth is obtained 
 to produce one pick per inch, divided by any other number 
 of picks required, will give the change pinion which will 
 produce that number. Thus, as 60 : 3461 : : i : 57,682, thus 
 proving again that a 58-teeth pinion is required. 
 
 Again, a practice prevails of counting the number of 
 picks by means of a piece glass or counting glass, of given 
 dimensions, and it is desired to ascertain the change pinion 
 which will give a certain number of picks in the space 
 represented by this glass. Then, instead of taking the 
 number of picks per inch, we must take the number per 
 glass. Suppose the glass to be ^ inch, to ascertain the 
 wheel which will give a certain number of picks per J-inch 
 we will adhere again to the same dimensions, viz., 
 (125 X i25)-f-i9 = 822, and suppose one pick per |-inch, and a 
 60-teeth ratchet wheel, (822 x 60) 57 = 865. Then a change 
 wheel having 865 teeth would give one pick per J-inch, 
 consequently this number divided by any number of picks 
 required per |-inch, will give the proper change wheel ; 
 thus, if it is required to put in 60 picks per inch, which is 
 15 per -4 -inch, then 865 15 = 57*682. 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 i27 
 
 The matter may, perhaps be further simpHfied as 
 follows : — the ratchet wheel, the large intermediate, and the 
 beam wheels are all driven, the change and small inter- 
 mediate wheels are drivers, as well as the beam, therefore 
 leaving aside the change wheels and finding the relation of 
 the drivers and driven to each other, thus = 24.62. 
 
 19 X 144 ' 
 
 So that if a change wheel could be used containing only one 
 tooth, the loom would weave a cloth with 3462 picks per 
 inch. Or on the other hand, if the wheel could contain 3462 
 teeth, the cloth would contain one pick per inch. Again if 
 we are working to the ^-inch instead of one inch, we have 
 only to divide 3462 by 4, and we have 865 as given above. 
 
 It will be easily understood from the foregoing - that 
 whatever the dimensions of the glass, or whatever method 
 may be adopted for measuring the number of picks, it is 
 easy to reduce to a simple number the whole train of 
 wheels, which number may be divided by any number of 
 picks on the given space to ascertain the number of teeth 
 in the wheel required, or if divided by a given number of 
 teeth in the change wheel will show what number of picks 
 such wheel will produce. Another matter connected with 
 this will perhaps require some explanation. It will be 
 evident that the foregoing calculations represent the exact 
 speed at which the cloth is wound on the cloth-roller, 
 consequently the number of picks represented is the num- 
 ber which the cloth would count when tight in the loom. 
 But it is a well-known fact that every material shrinks 
 more or less when set free, so that if it is desired that the 
 represented number of picks is to be the number which the 
 cloth must count when out of the loom, a percentage must 
 be allowed for shrinkage, more or less, according to the 
 class of material used. 
 
 THE TENSION OF THE WARP. 
 
 The regulating the tension of the warp is a subject 
 which requires some consideration, this really accompanying 
 
128 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 the taking-up motion. Although it might appear that the 
 taking-up motion draws off the warp from the beam, yet 
 this is not absolutely the case, for the warp is really drawn 
 off by the shedding and the stroke of the lay. 
 
 The appearance of the cloth depends a great deal upon 
 the tension at which the warp is held. As a general rule 
 the warp should be worked nearly as tight as the strength 
 of the 3^arn will permit. If it is woven too slack the cloth 
 presents a raw, lean appearance, which detracts very much 
 from its value, and which can very seldom be removed by 
 any amount of finishing. On the other hand the warp 
 may be held too tight, in that case causing considerable 
 breakage of the yarn, and giving the cloth a hard, harsh 
 appearance and feeling. 
 
 This is a matter which will require some attention as 
 each warp is put in the loom, but it is not a difficult matter 
 after a little practice to discover the proper amount of 
 tension to be given. 
 
 Care must be taken that a uniform tension be preserved 
 throughout the breadth of the v/arp. To secure this it is 
 absolutely necessary that the beam on which the warp is 
 wound, the feed roller, cloth beam, and the rails of the 
 loom over which the warp and cloth pass, must be perfectly 
 parallel with each other, and also that the warp be wound 
 on the beam with an equal or regular tension, otherwise 
 unequal and uneven cloth will be the result. 
 
 There are many Avays of regulating the amount of 
 tension given to the warp, which it would be quite unneces- ' 
 sary to enumerate, as each particular method has its 
 adherents, the general method and the one which stands 
 the longest test is by means of a stout cord round the 
 ends of the beam, one end of the cord being made fast to the 
 loom and the other attached to a lever, upon which are placed 
 weights sufficient to give the required tension. Considerable 
 ease may be given to the warp by what is commonly termed 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 129 
 
 the spring weight ; this consists of nothing more or less 
 than, instead of making the end of the friction cord fast 
 to the loom, attaching it to a spring or a light weight just 
 sufficient to prevent the weights on the lever from gradually 
 settling to the ground ; by this means at every opening of 
 the shed the beam gives off warp, and as the shed closes 
 it springs back again, thus keeping the warp at a regular 
 tension, and there is at no time any undue dragging. 
 
 Whatever means are adopted for holding the warp tight 
 the one condition just referred to should never be lost sight 
 of. As will readily be understood, when the shed is open 
 there must be a greater length of yarn between the warp 
 beam and the cloth than when the shed is closed. Usually 
 the weft is beat up to the cloth at the moment when the shed 
 is closed, or when it has just commenced to open for the next 
 pick, so that, if the warp beam is held rigidly, the warp will 
 be at that moment in a greater or less degree slack. Now it 
 is well-known that to produce the best cloth, at any rate in 
 the great majority of fabrics, the warp should be as tight as 
 possible when the weft is being beat up ; therefore to 
 preserve the tension the v/arp beam must be made to 
 oscillate in a greater or less degree, so that as the shed closes 
 it will draw back the warp, and hold it, at least as tightly, or 
 at as great a tension when close as open. The ordinary rope 
 or chain arrangement usually accomplishes this in a sufficient 
 degree, but the spring or balance weight just referred to 
 gives even more elasticity to the movement of the beam. 
 
 Some of the arrangements adopted for holding the warp 
 at tension, or as they are termed " letting-off motions," hold 
 the beam perfectly rigid, that is, they give off the warp from 
 the beam at a certain fixed uniform rate, but do not allow 
 any oscillation of the beam. When such is the case some 
 other means must be adopted to compensate for it. This 
 is usually provided for by making the back rail of the 
 loom, over which the warp passes, oscillate instead of 
 
130 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 the warp beam. Of course it is a matter of little moment 
 whether the oscillation takes place in one or the other, so 
 long as the warp is kept regularly at the proper tension, 
 not too tight at one moment and too slack at another, but in 
 many fabrics it is preferred to regulate the tension by means 
 of the beam, rather than by the rail, as the warp in that case 
 by means of friction, or a brake, upon the beam, adjusts 
 itself more readily than when it is let off by any positive 
 motion, and there is therefore less irregularity in the 
 tension. 
 
 Whichever arrangement may be adopted, and there 
 are plenty of advocates for both systems, provision must 
 be made for equalization of the tension in as great a 
 degree as possible. 
 
 THE WARP LINE. 
 
 While dealing with the warp, attention may be directed 
 to another matter which is of no mean importance in the 
 production of cloth, that is, the line which the warp forms 
 in passing from the back rail of the loom, through the 
 healds, to the breast beam, as it is termed. To the casual 
 observer it will probably appear that this line should be 
 perfectly straight, and for some kinds of cloth that is the 
 case ; but in other goods it is not so. This applies more 
 particularly to plain cloth. If the warp forms a straight 
 line when the healds are all even, as the shed opens both 
 halves of the warp have the same tension, consequently 
 each thread retains its own position in the cloth. The 
 threads being divided by the reed, every division is clearly 
 marked in the cloth. This is sometimes desirable, though 
 more frequently the better the warp threads are spread so 
 as to hide these divisions the value of the cloth is propor- 
 tionately enhanced. This can be easily accomplished by 
 lowering the warp out of the straight line at the healds ; 
 the reason of this is, that when the shed is opened the 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 whole of the tension of the warp is thrown on the lower 
 half, allowing the upper half to be comparatively slack, 
 and the shed for the succeeding pick opening as the weft 
 is being beat up to the cloth, the slack thread spreads out 
 
 ^ig- 34- 
 
 between the two which are tight on each side of it. Fig. 34 
 will perhaps more clearly explain this. a is the breast 
 beam ; b is the back rail over which the warp passes ; the 
 dotted line c is the line the warp makes when the healds 
 are at rest, which, it will be observed, is not a straight line 
 from the breast beam to the back rail, but is depressed 
 at the healds ; d e are the two healds ; f is the point at 
 which the cloth forms ; and g the lease rods. Then, the 
 healds being at rest and the warp forming the line c, we 
 depress the heald e and raise the heald d each the same 
 distance from the line c, dividing the warp into two por- 
 tions, forming the lines f d g and f e g. If we then 
 measure these two lines we shall find the line a f e g b is 
 longer than the line a f d g b, consequently that portion of 
 the warp which is represented by the line a f d g b has to 
 bear all the strain and the other half hangs comparatively 
 slack. But it may not be apparent why this is so. Connect 
 the points a b with a straight line h. A straight line is the 
 
WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 shortest distance between two given points, then it must 
 follow that the nearer the line approaches to a straight 
 line the distance must approach the shortest. The line 
 A F D G B is a nearer approach to the straight line h than is 
 the line a f e g b, then the line a f d g b is the shortest, and 
 the more the healds are depressed the greater will be the 
 difference between the two lines. Then it must be obvious 
 that if the lower half of the shed is thus worked at a greater 
 tension than the upper half, the effect must be to force the 
 slack ends into the centre of the space between those 
 which have more strain upon them ; and this is assisted 
 by the beating up of the weft, for almost invariably when 
 this arrangement is made the weft is beat up to the cloth 
 after the healds have passed each other, and the shed has 
 begun to open for the succeeding pick ; consequently, as 
 the strain is thrown upon each thread alternately, the warp 
 must be spread evenly over the surface of the cloth. 
 
 There will be little difficulty in understanding that this 
 arrangement must have a detrimental effect upon the warp 
 in weaving, in consequence of the whole of the strain being 
 thrown upon one half of the warp. Therefore, in weaving 
 tender warps, this expedient can only be resorted to in a 
 limited degree, so that any effort to save the warp in this 
 direction must be detrimental to the appearance of the 
 cloth, and all efforts to improve the appearance of the 
 cloth must in some degree affect the working of the warp. 
 Consideration should therefore at all times be given to the 
 quality of the warp for the class of cloth to be produced. 
 
 SHUTTLE PROTECTOR, OR STOP ROD. 
 
 This is another contrivance which is of great impor- 
 tance in power looms, its object being the protection of the 
 warp from injury in the event of the shuttle from any 
 cause failing to reach its destination. It requires no great 
 power of imagination to understand that, should the shuttle 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 happen to be in the shed when the reed beats up to the 
 cloth, the result must be most disastrous to the warp. 
 
 What is commonly known as the stop rod is designed 
 to meet this contingency. In the back of the box a spring 
 is affixed which acts upon a lever a, Fig. 35. Attached to 
 the front of the loom frame is a frog, b. The lever is so 
 arranged that when the shuttle is in the box it presses 
 back the spring, and raises the point of the lever — as the 
 lay makes the forward stroke— on the top of the frog. 
 But if the shuttle does not enter the box, the point of the 
 
 35- 
 
 lever remains down and strikes the shoulder of the frog ; 
 the force of the concussion knocking off the loom, by 
 throwing the belt on the loose pulley. 
 
 The action of this protector must be in a high degree 
 injurious to the loom if not properly arranged, for the loom 
 is brought to a sudden stop by the inability of the lay to 
 complete its stroke ; the crank shaft is stopped in the 
 centre of its revolution ; the other parts of the loom are 
 stopped by the concussion of the wheel teeth, thus causing 
 considerable liability to breakage, in consequence of the 
 momentum which the various parts have gained. 
 
134 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 The question then arises how to reduce this HabiHty to 
 injury to a minimum, but before anything can be determined, 
 it must be clearly seen what is the nature of the injury likely 
 to result. It has already been seen that the sudden stoppage 
 of the loom is likely to cause breakage in the various parts of 
 the loom, this may occur either in the teeth of wheels, in the 
 swords of the going part, or in the stop rod itself. But 
 breakage of those parts is not the only trouble likely to arise 
 from a badly arranged stop rod ; it may throw considerably 
 more work upon the picking than is necessary, and so not 
 only produce bad working in the loom generally, but very 
 materially increase the wear and tear of all the parts. 
 
 In the first place, as to the breakages which are likely 
 to result direct from the action of the stop rod. It is very 
 evident if the teeth of the driving wheels are not sufficiently 
 geared into each other, that is only touching each other at 
 their points, that the concussion which must result from the 
 sudden stoppage of the loom is very likel}^ to cause breakage, 
 because the greater the clearance of the teeth, the greater 
 the force of the concussion. 
 
 Liability to breakage of the swords or arms of the lay, 
 may be occasioned by the position of the stop rod in relation 
 to the connecting pin of the swords with the crank arms. If 
 the vertical distance between those two points is too great, a 
 leverage is given which is in direct ratio to the distance 
 between those points, or in other words, the force is applied 
 by the crank at the point of connection with the sword of the 
 lay, and is stopped at the stop rod or protector, then the more 
 the latter is placed below the former, the greater the liability 
 to breakage, because of the increased leverage given to the 
 power as it is applied. 
 
 Then as to liability of damage to the stop rod itself, the 
 nearer the frog is placed to the plane in which the stop rod 
 is moving the less the liability to damage to the latter ; 
 suppose for a moment that the two are placed in the same 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 horizontal plane, then the arm of the lever which goes up the 
 back of the box, will be as nearly as possible at right angles 
 to that which strikes the frog, consequent^ the arm is not so 
 liable to be bent or broken, but all the force is exerted 
 directly upon the fulcrum upon which the lever works, but 
 suppose the frog is placed two or three inches below this 
 fulcrum, then the arm a of the lever will be pointing down- 
 wards, and forming an obtuse angle with that which passes 
 up the back of the box, the result is great liability 
 to bending of the arm a, and ultimate breakage ; and even 
 if the lever does not actually break, it becomes very soon 
 bent to such a degree, that the shuttle cannot raise it 
 sufficiently high to clear the frog, and as a consequence the 
 loom is constantly being stopped. 
 
 Another matter which has considerable influence upon 
 the breakages, and which is very frequently much neglected, 
 is the relieving the loom of the power of the belt as quickly 
 as possible. The frog b is usually made so that it will 
 slide for a short distance on the loom frame when it is struck 
 by the stop rod lever, and it has also a projection from it 
 which is intended to strike the handle communicating with 
 the belt fork, and at the same time liberating the brake. 
 Now too much attention cannot be paid to this part of the 
 mechanism, for the sooner the belt is removed from the 
 fast to the loose pulley, and the brake brought to bear upon 
 the brake wheel, the more quickly is the momentum of 
 the loom reduced, and consequently the less violent the 
 concussion of the various parts. In fact if these parts are 
 carefully adjusted, when a loom is running at a fair speed, 
 the belt is actually on the loose pulley, and the brake in 
 full operation, practically, by the time any concussion takes 
 place in the various parts, so that it is robbed as much as 
 possible of its violence. 
 
 Then, next, with respect to the second aspect of the 
 question. — The increased work thrown upon the picking, 
 
136 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 The swell, as it is termed, or lever in the back of the box 
 serves a double purpose, it not only enables the shuttle to 
 act upon the lever a b, but it stops the rebound of the 
 shuttle on entering the box. If some provision were not 
 made for this purpose, the shuttle would rebound into the 
 shed, and damage would result to the warp, or the stop 
 motion must be brought into use by some other means. It is 
 obvious therefore that the shuttle has, on entering the box, 
 a certain amount of work to do ; it must press back the 
 swell in the box sufficiently to raise the arm a above the 
 frog B, that being so, if the arm b is very heavy, an 
 unnecessary amount of w^ork is thrown upon the shuttle to 
 raise it, therefore it would have to be sent into the box with 
 a very great force, and having reached there, the pressure 
 upon it would be so great that considerable force would 
 be required to send it out again, so that the power required 
 for picking would be increased. Again, the length of the 
 arm a should be just of sufficient length to prevent the reed 
 coming so near the cloth as to cause damage to the warp. 
 If it is too long it has a tendency to catch the frog before 
 the shuttle has had time to raise it clear, and thus stop the 
 loom, or the shuttle must be picked across the loom in a less 
 time than would otherwise be necessary, again throwing 
 more work upon the picking arrangement than should be. 
 Again, the arm a of the lever should be raised just high 
 enough to pass over the frog b, and no more, otherwise 
 more work, or power, is exerted than is necessary. 
 
 It only requires a brief examination of the loom, and 
 its mode of working, to see at once the necessity for 
 paying attention to these points. The manner in which 
 the shuttle is picked from side to side of the loom, partakes 
 of the nature of a blow, therefore the moment the blow is 
 delivered, the loom is released from the pressure of the work 
 it has been performing, and a reaction takes place in all the 
 working parts ; then it necessarily follows that the greater 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 the amount of force exerted, the greater the reaction, and 
 this reaction of necessity occurs at a critical moment, just 
 when the shuttle is being propelled, and may be quite 
 sufficient to divert the shuttle from its course, and with more 
 or less disastrous results, cause it to leave the loom ; and 
 even if the reaction alone does not do this, it is certain that 
 the more force a shuttle is propelled with, the more 
 liable it is to be diverted by the least obstruction in its 
 passage, so that even the breakage of a warp thread is often 
 sufficient to cause the shuttle to leave the loom, when more 
 force is exercised than necessary to propel it. 
 
 The additional wear and tear, not only upon the picking 
 leathers, pickers, shuttles, and all the parts of the loom 
 connected with the picking arrangements, but upon the loom 
 as a whole, are considerations not to be despised, for it is 
 very evident that the exercise of vmnecessary force, must 
 
 Fig. 36. 
 
 enormously increase the wear and tear in the picking 
 arrangements, but the great reactions must in great measure 
 both wear out, and tend to derange all the other parts of the 
 loom. 
 
 Another method of affecting the object of the shuttle 
 protector is by means of the loose reed. By this con- 
 trivance the lower part of the reed, instead of being held 
 in a groove, is held by a loose board behind it, as shown in 
 Fig. 36, where a is the reed and b the board which keeps 
 it in place. This board is attached to an iron rod, which 
 extends the full width of the lay, working upon the 
 
138 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 centre c, and provided with a finger d, so that if the shuttle 
 should stop in the shed the reed is forced back (being only 
 held in position by a spring e, Fig 37), and is consequently 
 liberated. The arrangement is further shown at Fig. 37. 
 If nothing more were provided than this spring it will be 
 obvious that the arrangement would be very unsatisfactory, 
 because if this spring were very strong the warp would suffer 
 before it would give way so as to liberate the reed, and if 
 it were not strong it would be impossible to beat much weft 
 into the cloth without some other arrangement. This 
 contingency is provided for by the presence of the frog f, 
 which is attached to the front of the loom, and so placed 
 
 Fig' 37. 
 
 that if the shuttle has passed through the shed safely, as 
 the going part or lay comes forward to beat the weft up to 
 the cloth the point of the finger passes under the frog, 
 and so holds the reed firmly in position while the blow is 
 being given. On the other hand, if the shuttle has not 
 passed through the shed, the point of the linger is raised 
 so as to come in contact with the upper part of the frog, 
 which by its form raises the finger and so assists in liberating 
 the reed, and relieving the warp of the strain which 
 would be thrown upon it by the presence of the shuttle ; 
 at the same time the arm g, which is attached to the same 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 rod as the finger, is raised and strikes the front of the 
 handle h, which is connected with the belt fork of the 
 loom, so throwing the belt from the fast to the loose pulley 
 and stopping the loom. Most loose reed looms are now 
 made so that the passage of the finger d up the frog f is 
 dispensed with, and considerable advantage thereby gained, 
 the lever d is produced so as to extend behind the going 
 part, and so make the whole lever something approaching 
 the form of a letter T? the back part of this is provided with 
 a roller which travels, as the lay moves backward, up a bent 
 steel spring. The object of this arrangement is to have the 
 helical spring e as light as possible. When the shuttle is 
 being passed across the loom it presses somewhat on the 
 reed, and in the arrangement shown at Fig. 37, there is 
 nothing but the spring e to keep the reed in position. 
 Now it is obvious that if the warp be a tender one, and the 
 shuttle should be caught in the shed, it would have to raise 
 the point of the lever d somewhat before it could begin 
 to travel up f, and if the spring e is strong enough to 
 keep the reed in position while the shuttle is passing across 
 the shed, it is also strong enough to cause the shuttle to 
 break some of the warp threads ; by the extension of the 
 lever, and the use of the steel spring as described, the latter 
 helps to keep the reed in position whilst the shuttle is being 
 passed through, and therefore the strength of the spring e is 
 reduced to a minimum, and should the shuttle remain in the 
 shed, the spring is so light, that, even with a tender warp 
 it will press the reed out of its place without the intervention 
 of the frog f. 
 
 The chief objection to the loose reed system is, that 
 it is difficult to make the reed sufficiently firm to give the 
 strength of stroke required for heavy work, consequently 
 it can only be applied to the lighter class of goods. 
 
 Recently several new arrangements have been introduced 
 to the trade, by which the reed is perfectly loose until it 
 
140 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 reaches a point where the shuttle would be pressing upon it 
 were it in the shed, and would consequently throw it out, 
 after passing that point it is held almost as firmly in its place 
 as in a fast reed loom, in fact it is, as it were, a combination 
 of the fast and loose reed — fast when it is required to beat 
 up the weft, and loose when the shuttle is liable to cause 
 damage, so that the objection to loose reed on account of 
 the want of firmness of the blow is in a great measure 
 removed. 
 
 WEFT-STOPPING MOTION. 
 
 The weft stopping motion is perhaps one of the most 
 ingenious and delicate, as we]l as the simplest contrivance 
 of the power loom. In the lay, between the reed and the 
 shuttle-box, is fixed a grate, so arranged as to admit of 
 the three prongs of a fork passing through it at every 
 forward stroke of the la3\ On an arm projecting from 
 above the breast beam, and so arranged as to act upon 
 the handle for throwing off the belt, is affixed this fork. 
 The fork is of the form shown at a, Fig. 38, being balanced 
 on the centre a ; underneath it is the elbow lever working 
 on the centre b, one end of which rests upon the low shaft 
 of the loom. The top of one arm of this lever is furnished 
 with a catch to correspond with the catch of the fork, the 
 other arm of the lever is acted upon by a cam c upon the 
 lower shaft of the loom, which raises it up, and consequently 
 throws the other arm of the lever back as the lay makes 
 the forward stroke. When the loom is in operation the 
 weft prevents the fork passing through the grate in its 
 natural position by striking the low point of the prongs 
 at a, and thereby raising up the hook at the opposite end, 
 thus ahowing the arm of the lever in its passage to miss 
 it, but when there is no weft the fork retains its position, 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 141 
 
 passing through the grate, and is consequently caught by 
 the lever, in this manner acting upon the handle throwing 
 off the belt, and thus stopping the loom. 
 
 Fig. 38. 
 
 This motion is one of simple levers acting in unison 
 with each other, and should this unity of action be in any 
 way impaired, the effectiveness of the motion will not 
 only be destroyed, but a considerable amount of vexation 
 
142 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 will be caused by the loom being continually stopped. 
 This shows, then, that the lever must be acted upon at the 
 proper moment, so as to move backward at the moment 
 when the weft should be acting upon the fork. The fork 
 must be properly balanced on its centre so as to keep the 
 hook ready to be acted upon by the catch of the lever, 
 and at the same time not to require more power for the 
 weft to raise it than is absolutely necessary, otherwise 
 when weaving with tender v/eft the weft will be con- 
 tinually broken by it. The fork must also be in a perfectly 
 straight line with the openings of the grate, so as not to 
 catch the bars instead of passing through. 
 
 With due attention to these matters li-ttle difficulty will 
 be experienced in the management of this portion of the 
 loom, and it will be found to be a very valuable adjunct 
 to the loom and conduce very materially to the production 
 of a perfect fabric. 
 
 GENERAL WORKING OF THE LOOM. 
 
 Having gone over in detail the chief working parts 
 of the loom it only remains to examine its general working 
 and the subjects connected with it. The three primary 
 movements — shedding, picking, and beating-up — having 
 been dealt with, we must now look to their relation to 
 each other in regard to time. As I have pointed out 
 before, the beating up is the last of those three in order of 
 execution, yet it is generally most convenient to take it 
 as the base and regulate the others to it, receiving as it 
 does its motion direct from the main driving-shaft, and 
 the others only receiving theirs through other mediums 
 from the same source. 
 
 If we place the lay at the fore part of its stroke, that 
 is, with the reed in contact with the cloth, all parts of the 
 loom are at that moment stationary. As the lay begins 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 to move* back from that point the other parts begin to 
 perform their various functions. The first of these is the 
 shedding ; the tappets, acting upon the treadles, com- 
 mence opening the shed, very slowly at first as explained 
 under the head of "tappets," and complete their move- 
 ment by the time the lay has reached the centre of its 
 stroke, the shed remaining open until it reaches the 
 corresponding point in the return stroke. During this 
 time the shuttle must be passed from one side of the 
 loom to the other, commencing to leave the box at the 
 moment the shed is full open, and reaching the opposite 
 box before it commences to close. 
 
 There is no exception to this rule except in so far as 
 the shedding is concerned, as previously explained with 
 respect to spreading the warp, where the shed begins to 
 open before the reed comes in contact with the cloth, and 
 in that case the shed is closed and re-opened more quickly 
 and a larger pause given to the open shed, so as to compen- 
 sate for the earliness of the movement and still allow time 
 for the shuttle to pass through before the closing com- 
 mences. These three movements being properly timed 
 to each other it becomes quite an easy matter to regulate 
 the other movements to work in harmony with them. 
 The stop-rod motion, being acted upon by the shuttle, 
 its time of action is of course governed by the shuttle 
 reaching its destination, so that there is nothing more to 
 look to than has been already pointed out. If a loose 
 reed, the finger and frog must be adjusted so as to hold 
 the reed firm at the moment of coming in contact w^ith 
 the cloth, or to assist in liberating it if the shuttle has 
 not reached its proper destination. If the loom be provided 
 with changing boxes, the movement of the box must 
 commence the moment the shuttle has entered it, and 
 complete its movement before the picker moves for the 
 next pick. 
 
144 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 The cam ' which acts upon the weft fork lever should 
 commence its action the moment the reed comes in 
 contact with the cloth, and consequently after the shuttle 
 has entered the box, if there be no weft, the hook upon 
 the fork will be caught by the hammer, and throw off 
 the belt from the fast to the loose pulley, and so stop 
 the loom. 
 
 The taking-up motion being worked by the sword of 
 the lay, its time of action remains the same, but care must 
 be taken that the leverage is properly adjusted, so that 
 it moves the ratchet wheel the proper distance at each 
 stroke, otherwise the effect upon the cloth will be far 
 from satisfactory. 
 
 These are the chief matters to be attended to in the 
 working of a loom. There are of course a great many 
 other considerations which require their share of attention, 
 but as the majority of them could only be understood by 
 practical demonstration, and the conditions under which 
 they arise are so varied in their nature that it would 
 be tedious to attempt to detail them all here, I shall 
 only refer to a few of them, and they will refer chiefly 
 to the adjustment of the parts. First, with respect to 
 the picking. As the shuttle is propelled from side to side, 
 the force which is given to it is delivered somewhat in 
 the form of a blow from the picker ; then this blow must 
 be delivered as nearly as possible in a straight line with 
 the direction the shuttle is to take. To do this the picker 
 spindle must be parallel with the back of the box, other- 
 wise the course of the shuttle, instead of being directed 
 towards the other box, would be sent either with the tip 
 into the slay, or it would leave the loom altogether, in either 
 case with a result which would probably be more or less 
 disastrous. The direction of the course of the shuttle must 
 be assisted by the box also, so that the front and back of 
 the box must be parallel to each other, and the shuttle 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 must not have too much play or room in the box ; at 
 the same time it must not be held too tight, because it 
 would require more force than is necessary to cause it 
 to leave the box, and when it did leave it would do so 
 with a jerk, which must at all times be avoided as far as 
 possible. Again, the shuttle must meet with as little 
 obstruction and resistance as possible in its passage. 
 This implies two things ; first, that the reed and the 
 back of the box must form a perfectly straight line ; 
 secondly, that the lower half of the shed must lie close 
 down upon the shuttle-race, so that the shuttle can pass 
 easily over it 
 
 If the first of these conditions is not complied with 
 the shuttle will probably fly out of the loom altogether, 
 and if the second be not complied with, the resistance 
 offered to the shuttle would prevent its reaching the box, 
 unless very considerable power were used to propel it, 
 and power should be utilized to the utmost. And even 
 if sufficient power were used to make the shuttle reach 
 its destination, the friction upon the warp caused by it 
 passing over it would be very injurious, causing con- 
 siderable breakage and consequent imperfections in the 
 cloth. Another fault would also frequently occur, the tip 
 of the shuttle, instead of passing over the warp, would 
 have a tendency to pass under some of the threads, and 
 so cause very serious faults in the cloth. 
 
 Too much attention cannot be paid to the adjust- 
 ment of the sheds, not only so that the warp threads shall 
 touch the race of the lay, but they must not press upon it, 
 and all the healds must be adjusted so that the warp threads 
 all form the same straight line, as pointed out under the 
 head of " shedding," and each successive shed must have 
 the same tension, not have tight and slack sheds alternately. 
 
 A variety of other causes than those enumerated may 
 combine to interfere with the working of the loom, but I 
 
146 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 have dwelt now upon the chief ones. With careful attention 
 to these, any others which might occur would be very 
 readily detected and remedied. We have now only a few 
 matters to deal v/ith connected with the power loom ; these 
 are speed, gearing, &c , and with these I shall deal very 
 briefly. Any one wishing for more information on these 
 subjects will be able to obtain it in works upon engineering, 
 and numbers of such works may be found in any library in 
 the country. So numerous and complete are such works, 
 that I should have omitted this part of the subject 
 altogether, but I felt that a work dealing with the power 
 loom would be incomplete without some reference to it. 
 
 SPEED, GEARING, POWER, ETC. 
 
 The question of the speed of looms is one which is 
 perhaps as important as any subject connected with the 
 loom. The question. What is the proper speed of a loom ? 
 is frequently asked, and receives a great variety of answers. 
 The principle of construction adopted in the parts of 
 the loom, and the work it is intended to perform, alter 
 very materially the conditions of speed. And, again, the 
 nature of the material used in the fabric being woven 
 will have great influence in determining the rate of speed 
 at which the loom should run. Great diversity of opinion 
 exists as to the economy of very-fast going looms, and 
 there is certainly more than one side to the question, 
 and considerations which should receive the most careful 
 attention before an excessive rate of speed is determined 
 upon. These considerations are so varied in their character 
 and occur under such a great variety of circumstances, 
 besides some of them being of a somewhat controversial 
 character, that to enter into them or attempt to enumerate 
 them would not only be a great task, but Avould be also 
 a most unsatisfactory one. They will be best found in 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. I47 
 
 actual practice, and at the same time will receive a more 
 satisfactory solution. But an invariable rule may be 
 observed with respect to this question. Uniformity and 
 steadiness in working are essential in all machines, but 
 this applies perhaps in a special degree to power looms, 
 consequently, if the rate of speed at which the loom is 
 being run interferes with or affects this in any degree, the 
 result must be proportionately detrimental. With respect 
 to the working parts of the loom and the material being 
 woven, an increased speed means an increased strain, 
 consequently it must be kept within limits which will not 
 be injurious either to the loom or the fabric. In connection 
 with this question of speed we have to consider not only 
 the calculation of speed of machinery in various parts, but 
 also power required for the work to be performed, strength 
 of materials, &c. 
 
 It wil] be as well perhaps to deal first with the calcula- 
 tion of speeds, and then take up the other matters as tlie}^ 
 arise. The rule which has already been given under the 
 head of calculating speed of tappets is applicable in all 
 cases of toothed wheels. When wheels are applied to 
 communicate motion from one part of machinery to another 
 their teeth act alternately on each otlier, consequently 
 their relative speed will be to each other as the number 
 of their teeth, and if drums or pulleys are used in the 
 place of wheels the result will be the same, because their 
 circumferences describe equal spaces, or, in other words, 
 are travelling at the same rate of speed, consequently their 
 revolutions w411 be rendered unequal in the proportion in 
 which their diameters difter. 
 
 Then from this is derived the rule, viz. : Multiply the 
 velocity of the driver by the number of teeth it contains, 
 and divide by the velocity of the driven ; the quotient will 
 be the number of teeth it should contain. Or in the case of 
 drums and pulleys, multiply the velocity of the driver by 
 
148 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 its diameter, and divide by the velocity of the driven ; the 
 quotient will be the diameter of the driven. 
 
 If the velocities of the driver and the driven are given 
 with the distance of the centres, then the sum of the 
 velocities is to the { ^^ISg °f ^^S^eU as the distance of the 
 
 rpntrPQ i'q fn fhp \ ladius of driven. J 
 
 centres is 10 me | ^^^-^^ ^^-^^^ ^ 
 
 Example i. -If a wheel containing 60 teeth makes 42 
 
 revolutions per minute, what number of teeth will be 
 
 required in another wheel to work in it and make 36 
 
 revolutions in the same time ? =■ jq the teeth 
 
 36 ' 
 
 required. 
 
 Example 2. — A drum 14 inches diameter, making 80 
 revolutions per minute, is to give motion to a shaft required 
 to make 112 revolutions in the same time. Find the 
 diameter of the pulley required. Then, ° =io inches, 
 
 the diameter of the pulley required. 
 
 Example 3.— A shaft revolving at the rate of 60 per 
 minute, is to give motion by a pair of wheels to another 
 shaft at the rate of 24 revolutions per minute ; the distance 
 of the shafts from centre to centre is 36 inches. Required 
 the diameter of the wheels at the pitch line. 
 
 Then, 60 + 24 : 60 : : 36 inches : 5° ^ 24 "^-^'^ inches, 
 the radius of the driven wheel, which doubled gives 51-4 
 inches, the diameter. Then for the second wheel, 36 
 inches— 25*7 = 10*3 inches, the radius of the driver, which 
 being doubled gives 20*6 inches, the diameter. 
 
 These three examples may be varied to suit any 
 circumstances, and embrace all the phases in which the 
 question may present itself. 
 
 The question of the pitch of toothed or cog wheels now 
 comes under consideration. What is termed the pitch (or 
 the distance between the centres of two contiguous teeth) 
 is measured on the pitch-line, or extreme circumference of 
 the wheel, and the distance between that line and the 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 149 
 
 centre of the circle is reckoned as the radius of the 
 wheel. 
 
 The following rules have been laid down for the 
 diameters and number of teeth for wheels and pinions : 
 
 Rule I.— As the number of teeth in the wheel + 2-25 
 is to the diameter of the wheel, so is the number of teeth 
 in the pinion +1*5, to the diameter of the pinion. 
 
 Example. — Given the number of teeth in the wheel 96, 
 the diameter of the wheel 24 inches, and the number of teeth 
 in the pinion 16. Then, 96 + 2*25 : 24 : : 16 + i*5 • 4*27 
 inches the diameter of the pinion. 
 
 Rule 2.— As the number of teeth in the wheel + 2*25 is 
 to the diameter of the wheel, so is the number of teeth in 
 the pinion + number of teeth in the wheel ~ 2 to the 
 distance of their centres. 
 
 Example —Number of teeth in the wheel 96, diameter 
 of the wheel 24 inches, number of teeth in the pinion 16. 
 Find the distance at which their centres should be placed. 
 As 96 + 2-25 : 24 : : ^ : : 13*67 inches, the distance of 
 their centres. 
 
 POWER OF TOOTHED WHEELS. 
 
 Having now dealt with the question of speeds and 
 diameters of wheels, there is yet one other consideration 
 connected with them, viz., the capabilities of transmitting 
 power by wheels or belts. Upon this subject there is some 
 diversity of opinion. Mr. Thomas Box, in his " Practical 
 Treatise on Mill Gearing," says, " The length of teeth and 
 the proportion of wheels, are matters for judgment, 
 experience, and taste." With respect to the length of 
 teeth, he says, " With iron-and-iron-toothed wheels, the 
 length of tooth above pitch may be P x "344 = I, and below 
 pitch (P X '344) + (VP X 'I25) = L. This gives the clearance 
 between the point of the tooth of one wheel and the base of 
 its fellow = X '125, which is equal to ^ inch in a 
 
 wheel 4 inches pitch," &c. With respect to the thickness of 
 teeth, he says of iron toothed wheels working together with 
 
WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 rough surfaces, as taken from the foundry, we must allow a 
 
 certain clearance between tooth and tooth for errors of 
 
 workmanship and other irregularities. The amount of 
 
 clearance may be taken at V P -^ lo, which gives yV^h of an 
 
 inch for one inch pitch and y^ths of an inch for four inch 
 
 pitch, &c. : hence we have T=(P — X "5, &c., " here 
 
 T = thickness. With respect to width on the face of the 
 
 teeth, he gives a rule as follows " W = x i'8 -^ a/P," or 
 
 P X i'8 
 
 put in another form W =■ j— . In these formulae W = 
 
 width in inches, and P = pitch in inches. 
 
 Sir William Fairbairn in his " Treatise on Mills and 
 
 Mill Work," gives an example of a wheel of a 2| inches 
 
 pitch, and the teeth of which bear the following proportions : 
 
 Proportional parts. 
 Pitch I 
 
 Depth. ... ... 0*75 
 
 Working Depth . . 070 
 
 Clearance .. ... ... ... 0*05 
 
 Thickness ... ... ... ... 0*45 
 
 Width of Space ... 0*55 
 
 Play o-io 
 
 Length beyond pitch line ... 0*35 
 and from these proportions he gives a very simple mode of con- 
 structing a scale which will give the proportions for any pitch. 
 
 Unwin in his " Elements of Machine Design," gives the 
 following formulae, the symbols of which are : — P = Pressure 
 of one wheel on the other. H = Number of horse-power 
 transmitted; = width of face; = pitch ; N = revolutions 
 per minute ; T = number of teeth, then velocity of pitch hne 
 
 in feet per second is ^ _ /> T N 
 
 ~~ 12x60 
 
 " For the usual proportions, b = 2\ p, and iron teeth 
 
 /? = 0-0447 a/ P, -p, , t5 _550 H_55o H x 12 x 60 
 J3UlJr--^^_ 
 
 inserting this value p =28-13 \/ ^^r-^) 
 
 or inverting we get the number of teeth of a given pitch 
 necessary for strength, T = 79ij— ^ 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 The same rules will apply to mitre or bevel wheels by taking 
 the average diameter and pitch. 
 
 POWER OF LEATHER BELTS. 
 
 The following passage occurs in Spon's *' Dictionary of 
 Engineering," — Three rules given by practical mechanics 
 vary so much as to give as bases for estimate (without 
 regard to arc of contact) o"]6 horse-power, 0*93 horse-power, 
 and 175 horse-power respectively, for the power of a belt 
 I inch wide, running 1000 feet per minute." The same work 
 in considering the results of two series of experiments upon 
 the friction of belts, says, " We see that we are justified in 
 admitting that the ratio of the resistance to pressure is : — 
 
 ist.— Independent of the width of the belt, and of the 
 developed length of the arc embraced, or of the diameters of 
 the drums, or what amounts to the same, are independent of 
 the surface of contact. 
 
 2nd. — Proportional to the angle subtended by the belt 
 at the surface of the drum. 
 
 3rd — Proportional to the logarithm of the ratio of the 
 tension of the stripe, and expressed by the formula 
 
 ^ -Log.(g)' ' 
 I-363- 
 
 Where f is the friction, P the power, and O the resistance. 
 
 A table is given also of the power transmitted by belts 
 on pulleys one foot in diameter, one revolution per minute, 
 with the arcs of contact upon the pulleys corresponding to 
 the angles ; from which the following is taken : — 
 
 Inches width 
 of belt. 
 
 90° 
 
 120° 
 
 180° 
 
 
 foot lbs. 
 
 foot lbs. 
 
 foot lbs. 
 
 I 
 
 102 
 
 123 
 
 154 
 
 5 
 
 508 
 
 615 
 
 770 
 
 10 
 
 1016 
 
 1231 
 
 1540 
 
 The application of this table is to take the known angle of 
 the arc of contact with the width of belt, and multiply by the 
 diameter of the pulley in feet, and the number of revolutions 
 per minute to find the foot-pounds of power transmitted. 
 
WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 A number of experiments are also recorded upon the 
 tensile strength of belts, from which the following deductions 
 are made as to strength per inch of width — 
 
 " When the rupture is through the lace-holes, 210 lbs. 
 n , „ rivet 382 lbs. 
 
 )) 5, solid part 675 lbs. 
 
 The thickness being -3V in ( = '219) we have as the tensile 
 strength of the leather 3,086 lbs. per square inch. 
 
 From the above we see that 200 lbs. an inch wide is the 
 ultimate resistance to tearing that we can expect from 
 ordinary belts." 
 
 Molesworth, in his Pocket Book of Engineering 
 Formulae," gives an approximate rule for single belting 
 y\- of an inch thick, as follows : — V = Velocity of belt in feet 
 per minute. H. P. = Horse-power (actual) transmitted by 
 belt, and W, width of belt. ^,^ 1100 H.P. 
 
 The " Scientific American " in its issue of August 28th, 
 1880, gives the following formula : — W. S. 
 
 In this formula, S = Speed of belt in feet per minute ; 
 W = width of belt ; and it further says, " with very short or 
 narrow belts, divide by 800 instead of 600. Cooper, in his 
 work on " Belts and Belting," gives some valuable 
 information. 
 
 Another rule upon which many work, and which is 
 considered a safe one, is that at a speed of 800 feet per 
 minute each inch width of belt is equal to one-horse 
 power. But such rules as this are very vague, though if 
 made upon a good basis they are very handy. 
 
 Unwin, in the work already quoted, gives the following 
 rough calculations of the sizes of belts. In a great many 
 cases in practice, the belt embraces 0*4 of the circumference 
 of the pulley on which it is most liable to slip, — that is, the 
 pulley having the smaller arc of contact — and the co-efficient 
 of friction is at least 0*3. Then ^ = 2. 
 
6f textile fabrics. 
 
 153 
 
 When this is the case the following simple rules may 
 be used : — Driving force = P ^^^^ ■ 
 Greatest tension = = 2P 
 Initial tension = = i^P 
 Width of Belt = B = ^) 
 From these rules he has calculated tables of the 
 approximate widths of belts. " The belt being assumed to 
 be g^nds. of an inch in thickness, and carrying safely 
 yolbs. tension per inch of width," with a velocity of 100 
 feet per second for 
 
 10 horse-power, the width of belt is i 6 inches. 
 
 20 „ „ ,, 3*1 
 
 25 '> »» 3*9 " 
 
 With the velocity at 25 feet per second, the 
 following is the result — 
 
 1 horse-power, the width of belt is -63 inches. 
 
 2 j> )> 1*3 '> 
 
 5 »» '» " 3'^ " 
 
 10 „ „ 6*3 ,, 
 
 20 ,, 12-6 
 
 It will be seen that although there is some difference in 
 the data given, yet many of them will work out to 
 approximately the same results ; and for loom work in 
 particular, from the peculiar nature of the work they have to 
 perform, a safe basis should always be taken. While upon 
 this branch of the subject we may examine 
 
 THE STRENGTH OF SHAFTS TO RESIST TORSION. 
 
 Fairbairn, in the treatise before quoted, says, " In 
 addition to the lateral strain from transverse forces, shafting 
 is subjected to a wrenching or twisting, from the power 
 transmitted tangentially to its circumference. This causes one 
 end of the shaft to revolve, in relation to the other end, through 
 a smaller or greater angle, known as the angle of torsion ; and, 
 if sufficient force be applied, this angle increases till the 
 resistance of the material is overcome, and the shaft gives 
 
154 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 way." And after examining the subject in all its bearings he 
 gives " The values of the modulus of wrenching/ are 
 
 For cast iron about 30,000, for wrought iron about 54,000. 
 And taking six as the factor of safety if we put the working 
 moment of torsion in the formulae instead of the wrenching 
 moment, we ma.y put instead of/ 
 
 For cast iron 5,000, for wrought iron 9,000. 
 Hence we get for W, the working stress, with solid shafts 
 
 W = ^ -_=::2__^ — for cast iron 
 
 5-1/ / 
 
 __ 90oo h _ 1765^ for wrought iron." 
 5-1/ / 
 
 Here h represents the diameter of the shaft, and I the 
 length of the lever in inches. 
 
 Mr. Thomas Box, in his " Practical Treatise on Mill 
 Gearing," gives the following rules for the strength of shafts, 
 " irrespective of stiffness." 
 
 H = D3 X R -^ M 
 
 D = f (M X H R) 
 
 M = X R H 
 In which H = nominal horse-power, D — diameter in inches, 
 and M = a multiplier derived from experience, and varying 
 with cast or wrought-iron, &c.," and for ordinary 
 shafts he gives the value of M for cast-iron at 254, and for 
 wrought-iron at 160. 
 
 Spon's " Dictionary," before quoted, gives " a formula 
 for the wrought-iron shafts of prime movers and other shafts 
 of the same material, subject to the action of gears, which 
 Francis adopted in numerous cases in practice during the last 
 twenty years, and found to give an ample margin of strength. 
 
 In which P = the horse-power transmitted, N the number of 
 revolutions of the shaft per minute. 
 
 For simply transmittingpower, the formula used is *_ 3/ 50 P,, 
 
 - V 
 
 With respect to the bearings of shafts, Mr. Thomas Box 
 says, "The number and position of bearings must be 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS 
 
 regulated by the position of the wheels or riggers on the 
 shaft. In all cases the bearings should be as near as possible 
 to the coupling, wheels, &c. But sometimes a long shaft may 
 have no gearing upon it for many feet, and the distance 
 between the bearings must be fixed with reference to the 
 stiffness of the shaft itself. We may admit that a 2 inch 
 shaft, unloaded except by its own weight, may have bearings 
 10 feet apart, and aUowing that the deflections may be in all 
 cases proportional to the distance between bearings we have 
 the rules :- L= \/{dx 16)2, or L = (6^x i6)| 
 
 A=</L3-m6, or rif=Lf-M6. 
 In which — diameter of shaft in inches, L = length 
 between bearings in feet." It may be here remarkedtliat a 
 little allowance should always be made for looms on account 
 of the intermittent or reactionary nature of the work. 
 
 Unwin, in his " Elements of Machine Design," says that 
 " ordinar}^ mill shafting for textile manufactures " is calcu- 
 lated on a basis which gives the diameter " 1*34 times that 
 which would be necessary if they were no bending when as 
 usual it is of wrought-iron," and he gives the following 
 
 equation: -pk t.^. -r v ...r. 3/ 
 
 ^ D = 1-34 B V = 4 4H V ^ - 
 
 H P- 
 
 -■s^ = o'oii63 
 
 From this formula he has computed a table, giving 
 HP 
 
 the value of for the most ordinary sizes of shaft, from 
 
 which the following are extracts : - 
 
 Diam. of H.P. 
 shaft. N 
 
 2 inches ... 0-0930 
 
 3 0-3139 
 
 4 m 0-7442 
 
 5 .. i'4536, and so on. 
 
 In using the table he " multiplies the tabular numbers 
 HP 
 
 in the column by the number N of revolutions per 
 
 minute, the result is the horses power the shaft will transmit. 
 Having these rules for finding the capabilities of shafts 
 
156 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 or gearing for transmitting power, it now remains to find 
 what is the power required to be transmitted. 
 
 What is termed a unit of work, is one pound avoir- 
 dupois raised vertically one foot ; then if TJ denotes the unit 
 of work in raising jt^lbs. Ji feet, /. U = W h. 
 
 Thus the rule to find the units of work in raising a 
 given weight a given height is : 
 
 Multiply the height in feet by the weight in pounds 
 (or vice versa) ^ the product will be the units of work done. 
 
 Example. — Find the units of work in raising 5 cwt. 
 20 feet high. .*. U = 560 x 20 = 11,200 units of work. 
 
 It is important to observe in the application of the 
 above formula to practical cases that the height (Ji) is the 
 vertical distance through which the centre of gravity of 
 the body whose weight {W) is raised, consequently the 
 work done in raising a body up an inclined plane or any 
 curved surface is equal to the work done in raising the 
 body vertically through the height of the inclined plane. 
 
 What is termed a horse power is 33,000 units of work 
 done in one minute. Then the following is the formula, 
 R = horse power ; V = units of work done ; T = time. 
 Therefore 33,000 = C)c!t 
 
 The moving power which is applied to any machine 
 moving uniformly, is employed in overcoming the resistance 
 of friction, and useful work done at the working points of 
 the machine. Hence the aggregate number of units of 
 useful work yielded by any machine at its v/orkmg points 
 is less than the number received by the machine directly 
 from the moving power by the number of units expended 
 upon the resistance of friction (when the machine moves 
 uniformly). Then the following general rule will find the 
 work done by any machine. 
 
 Find the distance through which the power (P) applied 
 to the machine has travelled in one minute, and caU this 
 distance {a). 
 
 Find the distance through which the weight (W) 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 producing useful work has travelled in one minute, and 
 call this distance (b). 
 
 Then a P — b IV = power expended upon friction in 
 one minute, and a P = work applied per minute, and b W 
 useful work done per minute. 
 
 It will be obvious from this that too close attention 
 cannot be paid to the working parts of the loom so as to 
 reduce the friction to a minimum, and so balance the 
 working parts of the loom as to utilize to the utmost the 
 power applied. By doing this not only will the power 
 be economised but the reactionary nature of the move- 
 ments of some of the working parts will be modified, and 
 thus not only conduce to the general good working of 
 the loom, but reduce in a considerable degree the wear 
 and tear, and so effect an economy in that direction which 
 is not even secondary to the economy of power. 
 
 In dealing with the details of the loom it may be that 
 I have overlooked some minor points. My object has 
 been to deal broadly with the subject, believing that the 
 best and only satisfactor}^ course is to deal with the 
 general principles, and only such details as are necessary 
 to make them intelligible, instead of dealing with a 
 number of petty details which may be applicable in one 
 case and inapplicable in another. 
 
 I may venture to quote the words of M. Bautain 
 (Vice-General and Professor at the Sorbonne), who says, 
 " If in the teaching of the natural sciences the professor 
 limits himself to practical experiences, to describe facts 
 and phenomena, he will, no doubt, be able to amuse and 
 interest his listeners, youth particularly, but then he is 
 only a painter, an experimenter, or an empiric. His is 
 natural philosophy in sport, and his lectures are a kind 
 of recreative sitting. To be really a professor he must 
 teach, and he can only teach through ideas ; that is, by 
 explaining the laws that rule facts, and in connecting 
 
158 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 them as much as possible with the whole of the admirable 
 system of creation. He must lead his disciples to the 
 heights that command facts ; down in the depths from 
 whence spring phenomena ; and there will only be science 
 in his teaching if he limit it to some heads of doctrines, 
 the connection of which constitutes precisely the science 
 of which he is the master. He will then be able to follow 
 them in their consequences, and to confirm their theory 
 by applications to mechanical and industrial arts, or to 
 any other use to which they may be applied by man." 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS, 
 
 DESIGNING. 
 
 What is generally understood as designing for textile 
 fabrics consists of the arrangement and combination of 
 threads so as to form a pattern on the fabric, whether 
 this fabric be of a plain texture, and the pattern produced 
 by combination of colours, or otherwise. It is not in the 
 mere mechanical act of placing these threads together, 
 but in the arrangement of them so as to produce patterns, 
 whether it be by forming figures with the threads them- 
 selves, or in making patterns with threads of various 
 colours, that the skill of the artisan is called forth, and the 
 necessity for technical training made apparent. Any one 
 may be taught to perform the mechanical operation of 
 weaving in a short time, but it is only by careful training 
 and constant attention that the art of weaving can be 
 thoroughly acquired. The arrangement of patterns for 
 weaving is generally performed by one man for a large 
 manufactory, and is dignified by the title of designing, 
 whether or not the class of goods manufactured require 
 any of the skill of the designer, or whether there is 
 anything in the nature of the pattern which can give it 
 any claim to the dignity of a design. 
 
 Designing is a part of manufacturing which seems to 
 be generally misunderstood. Given some knowledge of the 
 principles of art and the theory of colour, the one thing 
 necessary to study is the principle of the construction 
 of cloth. 
 
 The principle of the construction of cloth may be 
 based upon three distinct classes, viz., plain cloth, figuring, 
 and gauze or cross weaving. (In these three classes lace 
 and knitted cloths are not included). In taking these 
 three principles as the foundation of all weaving, I am 
 
i6o 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 quite aware that I am departing from what has been laid 
 down by previous writers, but I will endeavour to justify 
 this departure. Murphy, in his treatise on the "Art of 
 Weaving," lays down six principles, viz., " plain textures, 
 twilling, double cloth, spotting, flushing, and crossed warps 
 or gauze." A recent American writer lays down only 
 four principles, viz., " plain cloth, twilling, spotting, and 
 plain figured double cloth." It will be noticed that this 
 writer ignores entirely the gauze, which is certainly an 
 important branch of textile manufacture, and the construction 
 of gauze cloth is founded on a principle quite separate 
 and distinct from all others. 
 
 One of the difficulties of the student in the art 
 of weaving has been the want of classification and 
 
 Fig. 39. 
 
 arrangement of the principles of construction of cloth, 
 and a consequent want of knowledge and system in 
 the combinations to produce the dift'erent patterns and 
 effects desired. The student of music had his notes 
 reduced to a system ; the art student had his leading 
 forms and his system of colour, — in these three a similar 
 system is involved ; the musician has his primary and 
 secondary notes ; the artist his primary forms with com- 
 bined secondaries, and his primary and secondary colours, 
 out of which all others are manufactured. In like manner 
 the weaver may have his primary cloths, out of which 
 he may form secondaries, and from them a multiplicity 
 of combinations and effects. 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 l6l 
 
 Having laid down the three principles, plain, figured, 
 and gauze, I will endeavour by going through them 
 seriatim to show that they underlie and are the foundation 
 of every description of cloth. 
 
 Plain cloth is formed by the warp and weft threads 
 crossing each other at right angles, and passing under and 
 over each other alternately, thus presenting on the surface 
 something like the appearance shown at Fig. 39, and if 
 taken in section it presents the appearance shown at 
 Fig. 40. This is undoubtedly the very first principle in the 
 
 Fif}, 40. 
 
 construction of cloth, and was probably practised by the 
 ancients for ages before any attempt was made at 
 ornamentation by forming patterns with the threads. 
 Although this is the plainest and simplest make of cloth, 
 it does not necessarily follow that the cloth must be 
 absolutely plain if made on this principle, but it may 
 be infinitely varied by combinations of colours and 
 materials, and some of the most beautiful effects produced 
 in the simplest manner. Plain cloth is for the strength 
 and quantity of material that may be put in it the 
 firmest and strongest of all makes. 
 
 Figured cloth covers a very wide range, although the 
 principle is quite as simple in itself as plain. Fig. 41 is 
 
 Fig. 41. 
 
 a very simple form of figured cloth. If a section be taken 
 at the first pick of the pattern, which is represented by 
 the first horizontal line, numbered i, it will present the 
 
l62 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 appearance shown at Fig. 42. If a section be taken at 
 the second pick, shown by number 2, it will present the 
 same appearance, but the weft not passing under the same 
 end as the previous pick, and so on throughout the pattern. 
 It will thus be observed that the pattern is formed by 
 
 Fig. 42. 
 
 warp and weft threads each passing over and under such 
 a number of threads at a time as is necessary to form 
 the pattern. The number of threads over or under which 
 the warp and weft pass need not be of a limited or a 
 regular character, it may be one or an}^ number. Although 
 this is undoubtedly a figure, it is commonly known as a 
 twill pattern, which is nothing more or less than a figure 
 of a regular description. 
 
 It now devolves upon me to prove that every make 
 of cloth which is not a plain cloth, which of course 
 
 □■■■□□□■■Boa 
 ■■■□□□■■■□□a 
 ■■□□□■■■□□□a 
 
 ■□□□■■■□□□■B 
 □□□BBBmDBBfl 
 □□BBBDDDBBBa 
 
 □BflBDDDBBBDa 
 
 BBBDnDBBBnnn 
 BBDaaBBBaaDB 
 
 BaDDBBBaDDBB 
 
 43- 
 
 admits of no variation in its construction, or a gauze cloth, 
 which is constructed upon a totally different principle, 
 must be either a figured cloth or a combination of two 
 or more of the three principles. This I will endeavour 
 to do in as clear a manner as possible. 
 
 In Fig. 42 it has been shown that the figure or pattern 
 is formed by the warp and weft threads passing over and 
 under one or more threads at a time, consequently in every 
 pattern where this occurs the same principle is involved. We 
 will take the case of a regular twill, as is shown at Fig. 43. 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 163 
 
 On examination it will be found that the warp and weft 
 threads each pass alternately over and under three threads ; 
 but by the arrangement of the pattern they do not pass 
 over and under the same three threads every time, but 
 move one thread to the right at every pick, thus forming a 
 regular and continuous twill, but this twill is nothing more 
 or less than a regular and continuous tigure. We will take 
 the case of another twill, Fig. 44. This twill is also regular 
 
 BaBaBDaaBBaaaDaaaaBB 
 
 □BDBDDDBBBDBDBnnnBBB 
 BDBanaBBBDBDBnDnBBBa 
 □BnaDBBBDBDBaDDBBBDB 
 BDaDBBBDBDBDDnBBBDBU 
 □□□BBBDBDBDnnBBDDBDB 
 □□BBBDBDBDaDBBBDBDBD 
 □BBBnBaBDDDBBBDBDBDa 
 BBBnBDBnnnBBBDBDBnDn 
 
 BBDBDBnnnBaBnBnBnanB 
 
 BDBnBDDDBBBnBnBnnnBB 
 □BDBDDQBBBDBnBDaDBBB 
 BaBaDDBBBDBDBnDDBBBD 
 
 □BDDDBBBDBDBDanBBBDB 
 BDDDBBBaBDBDDDBBBDBD 
 □□□BBnDBDBnDnBBBDBDB 
 □□BaaaBnBDCDBBBDBDBa 
 □aaBUBDBDaDBBBDBDBDa 
 
 BBBDaDanDaaaBDaaaDaD 
 
 Fig. 44. 
 
 and continuous, but on examination it will be found that 
 alongside the twill there are four ends that are working 
 plain, that is, the warp and weft threads pass under and 
 over each other alternately ; consequently this tvy^U is a 
 combination of the figure and plain principle. Another 
 illustration, Fig. 45, will demonstrate this even more fully. 
 In this pattern will be found the continuous twill, a 
 decided figure running alongside it, two ends plain running 
 up the twill and three ends plain running alongside the 
 figure, yet only two distinct principles are found to be 
 contained in it. And no matter how extensive or how 
 elaborate a twill — or, as large patterns of this description 
 are called, diagonals or diagonal twills — may be, only the 
 two principles of plain cloth and figuring are involved, 
 the name of twill or diagonal only signifying that the 
 pattern runs in a regular and particular direction. 
 
 Spotting is of two kinds ; either the spot is formed 
 
164 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 by raising the warp or weft, which forms the ground of 
 the cloth, or both, or the spot is formed by a separate 
 colour of warp or weft, or both, which is thrown in for this 
 
 □■■■□■□■□□□□□■□■■a 
 
 ■□□□□□■□■■■□■□□□■a 
 □□□□■□■■■□■■■□■□■a 
 □□■□■■■□■■□□■□■□□a 
 
 ■□■■■□BnnDBDBnnDDa 
 
 Fig. 45. 
 
 purpose ; but whichever of the two methods is employed 
 the spot must be formed upon the principle shown at Fig. 
 45, and the ground may be either plain or figured as the 
 case may be, but as in the case of Fig. 45 only the two 
 principles are involved. This will be fully demonstrated 
 in another chapter. 
 
 Double cloth may be divided into three kinds. First, 
 double-faced cloth, both faces being formed by warp, 
 all the weft being thrown in the centre between them. 
 In this case the two faces may be of different colours by 
 having the warps different. Fig. 46 shows a section of 
 this kind of cloth, the small dots representing one colour 
 of warp, the large dots another colour, and the waved 
 line the weft— which may be of an indifferent colour — 
 passing between them. It may appear from the section 
 that the weft would appear on both sides of the cloth, 
 and so it would if the cloth were of a thin and meagre 
 description, but if the warp threads are very fine and close 
 
 . vg/ . v »s^ 
 
 Fig. 46. 
 
 together the weft may be entirely hid, because it only 
 passes to the surface of the cloth over one thread, and 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 the threads on each side would close over and cover it. 
 Second, double-faced cloths, both faces being formed by 
 the weft, the warp being in the centre. A section of this 
 is shown at Fig. 47. In this case as in the previous one 
 
 ' ^ ^ -T-T^ i^^ * • • ^ • • • • i • • »" 
 
 Fiff, 47. 
 
 the two faces may be of different colours by using two 
 kinds of weft as indicated in the figure, one for the top 
 side of the cloth and the other for the under side, the 
 warp being of an indifferent colour, the cloth being con- 
 structed on the same principle as the previous one, only 
 the weft taking the place of the warp on the surface, and 
 the warp passing to the middle. Third the two cloths may 
 be separate and apart from each other. A section is 
 shown at Fig. 48 of a double plain cloth. In this it will be 
 
 Fig. 48. 
 
 observed that the two cloths are quite apart from each 
 other, and the question will naturally occur to the student, 
 that if a double cloth be made in this manner the two 
 cloths will separate, but to obviate this a very simple 
 precaution is taken. In the process of weaving a thread 
 of one cloth is taken into the other at regular intervals, 
 to bind them together, care being taken to do it in such 
 a manner that it shall not be visible or cause any unsight- 
 liness on the face of the cloth. With this I shall have to 
 deal more fully in a future chapter. 
 
 Upon this principle of making double cloths there is 
 unlimited scope for making patterns. The two cloths 
 being apart from each other, may be totally different in 
 colour and pattern, or patterns may be formed by having 
 
WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 the cloths of different colours, and bringing one cloth 
 through the other so as to form a figure on the face of it. 
 
 In the case of double cloths no new principle is involved ; 
 it is again a figured effect, a j^lain cloth, or a combination 
 of the two. In the case of the double warp face the effect 
 is produced by the two warps working on the figuring 
 principle, more or less according to the pattern. In the 
 case of the double v/eft face the effect is produced by the 
 two wefts working on the figuring principle, and in the 
 case of the two separate cloths it is two plain cloths, or 
 two figured cloths, produced by keeping each separate 
 weft to its own warp, no matter whether the two cloths 
 remain separate, on whether one cloth is made to form a 
 figure on the other. 
 
 Pile or plush weaving is of two kinds, loop pile and cut 
 pile. The way in which this is produced is by having, in 
 addition to the usual warp and weft threads, a third thread 
 which is introduced as warp, and woven into the ground, 
 and formed into loops on the surface of the cloth, by being 
 woven over wires of a length equal to the breadth of the cloth. 
 In the case of a loop pile the wires are simply drawn out, but 
 in the case of a cut pile the wires are cut out by passing a 
 sharp knife along a groove in their upper surface, or by 
 having a sharp knife afiixed to the end of the wire, which 
 cuts its way as the wires are drawn out. Fig. 49 shows a 
 section of the wire used for making the loop ; the groove on 
 
 fig^ 49' ^ig' 50. 
 
 the upper surface guides the knife, which is fixed in what is 
 known as a trevet, and drawn sharply along it to cut the 
 pile. 
 
 Fig. 50 is a section showing the structure of a plain or 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. l57 
 
 what is known as Utrecht velvet, one portion of it being left 
 uncut for the purpose of showing the loop. 
 
 Another method of making a cut pile is by making it 
 with the weft. In this method the ground of the cloth is 
 woven plain or twilled and the weft which is to form the 
 plush is allowed to pass over the face of the cloth a sufficient 
 distance to form the length of plush required. A sharp 
 knife is then taken, having, in front of and fixed on it by 
 means of a groove, a guide, the size of the guide being 
 regulated by the length of the plush. The point of the 
 guide is inserted under the loose weft on the surface of the 
 cloth, and pressed forward, and as it slopes up it raises the 
 weft up to the edge of the knife, v/hich severs it. Fig. 51 
 
 shows the section of this kind of plush before being cut, 
 though the length of pile is much less than usual, and Fig, 52 
 shows the cutting knife, a being the guide. 
 
 Fig. 52. 
 
 If the reader has follow^ed carefully the foregoing he 
 will have observed that the ground cloth is perfectly plain 
 in both the warp pile and the weft pile cloth, and that 
 the pile or plush is worked on the figuring principle. And 
 to whatever extent it may be carried, whether the plush 
 be boimd down b}^ a single end, or, as often happens, 
 the plush is woven into the ground cloth for a considerable 
 distance, sometimes for the purpose of producing patterns 
 and sometimes for the purpose of more securely binding 
 the plush into the cloth, yet the same principle remains, 
 viz., a combination of plain and figure. 
 
WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 Numberless combinations of these two fundamental 
 principles may be affected, but I have selected the principal 
 and most characteristic ones for the purpose of illustrating 
 
 53- 
 
 the theory I have laid down. It now remains for me to 
 show the nature of the third of these fundamental 
 principles, and the combinations that may be effected 
 with one or both of the other two. 
 
 The essential feature of gauze weaving is, that the 
 warp ends and the weft do not necessarily cross each other 
 at right angles, but in plain gauze, for instance, between 
 every pick of weft the warp threads are made to cross each 
 other, or, as it were, to twist half round each other, so that 
 the weft threads are held separate, as shown at Fig. 53 
 and the section Fig. 54, and a light transparent texture 
 
 Fig. 54. 
 
 is produced. In fancy gauzes the threads are crossed 
 so as to make a pattern. The means of producing this 
 eftect will be fully described in a future chapter, the object 
 at present being to show the nature of the fabric and 
 the principle o£ construction. By combining this kind of 
 weaving with one or both of those previously described 
 some beautiful effects are produced. These combinations 
 may be in such an immense variety of forms that it 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 169 
 
 would be impossible to go through them in detail within 
 the limits of this work, indeed much of it must be left 
 to the taste and ingenuity of the designer. I shall content 
 myself by giving in the chapter devoted to the practical 
 consideration of this branch of the subject the details of 
 a few leading effects which form the basis of gauze cloths. 
 
 COMBINATIONS AND ARRANGEMENT OF DESIGNS. 
 
 Having in the last chapter indicated the principle upon 
 which cloths are constructed, we will now proceed to deal 
 with the practical part of the question, and examine in 
 detail the various combinations spoken of and the simplest 
 and easiest methods of arriving at them, and by going 
 carefully step by step through the various stages endeavour 
 to place the subject before the reader in such a manner 
 as to make it perfectly intelligible. 
 
 In designing for textile fabrics, as in designing for 
 anything else, the first thing requisite is some system of 
 arranging upon paper the pattern which is intended to be 
 woven upon the fabric. This is done by having paper 
 ruled in small squares as shown at Figs. 43 to 45. The 
 first thing which it is necessary to impress upon the 
 student with reference to this paper is, that the spaces 
 between the lines are intended to represent the warp and 
 weft, and not the lines themselves, the vertical spaces 
 representing the warp and the horizontal spaces the weft, 
 the pattern being arranged by filling up the desired spaces. 
 
 In the texture of plain cloth, as shown in the previous 
 chapter, the threads cross each other over and under 
 
 ■□■□DDBD 
 □ BrjBDBDB 
 
 mamamama 
 
 □BDBDBDB 
 BOBOBaBD 
 □BDBQBna 
 BDBUBDBU 
 
 alternately. This is shown upon the design paper at Fig. 
 55 ; the squares which are filled in black showing the weft 
 
I70 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 thread passing over, and in the squares left open passing 
 under the warp thread. That being the case, every 
 alternate thread of warp or weft works exactly alike, that 
 is, passes under and over the same threads, consequently 
 two ends and two picks represent the whole pattern as 
 in Fig. 56. It would seem at first sight that plain cloth 
 cannot be ornamented except by an arrangement of 
 coloured threads. Strictly speaking this is so, but plain 
 working may be made the basis of a system of figuring 
 exceedingly simple in itself but very effective in certain 
 classes of goods. If we take the example shown at Fig 57 
 we have a plain cloth, but so arranged that two warp 
 
 ■□ BGHG 
 OaDU BUB'J 
 
 Fig. 56. Fig. S7- 5^- 
 
 threads work together as one throughout the piece, which 
 will give the piece a corded appearance, the cords running 
 lengthwise with the piece. These cords will be made 
 more distinct as the weft is made to preponderate over 
 the warp. Again, in Fig. 58 we have a similar arrange- 
 ment, but in this case the warp threads work separately 
 as a plain cloth and the weft goes in two picks as one ; 
 this would produce a cord running across the piece, 
 or in the direction of the weft. In like manner, in Figs. 
 59 and 60 we have a warp and a weft cord formed by 
 
 □□□BBB 
 
 BBBDnD DBnBGBDB 
 
 □□□BBB DBOBaBaB 
 
 BBB^HD □B^B^B^B 
 
 □□□BBB BOBOBOBa 
 
 BBBOnn BDBnBDBD 
 
 □□□BBB BUBuBGBQ 
 
 mmmaau 
 
 Vig. 59. Fig. 60. 
 
 three warp or three weft threads working together. Again, 
 we may have cords of varying sizes, large and small 
 alternately, as shown in Fig. 61, where the cords consist 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 171 
 
 of one and three ends respectively ; or we may combine 
 the two cords and produce a decided figure as shown in 
 
 □■□■aacQ 
 
 ■□■□□□HB 
 
 □□□BDnna □□BaaaGB 
 aaaDBaaa aanaaana 
 □□□amna □□aaaaaa 
 aaaGBBBG bbgubgsu 
 
 Fig. 61. Fig. 62. 
 
 Figs. 62 and 63. In combining two workings of this 
 kind some care and skill is requisite in joining them so 
 as to prevent an imperfection at the junction, and it will 
 1 e well to call attention to it now, so that the same 
 
 □aaBGaGGGBBB 
 □BGBGBaBBGGG 
 □BGBGBGGGBBB 
 
 BGaGBGaaaGGG 
 BCBGBGaGGaaa 
 
 BGBGBGBBBGaa 
 GGGaBBDBGBGB 
 BBaGGGGBGBGB 
 □GGBBBGBGBGfl 
 
 BBaaaGaGBGaG 
 
 □GGBBBBGaGaa 
 BBBGGGBGBGBG 
 
 ^^g- 63. 
 
 principle may be observed in future combinations. If we 
 turn, for example, to Fig. 62, it will be seen that at the 
 junction of the two cords the weft or warp passes under 
 or over three threads. In some goods this might produce 
 a little unsightliness, trivial as it may appear, but it can 
 easily be obviated by so arranging the pattern that the 
 first and last end or pick of each pattern becomes as 
 
 BGaDBGHnGHaGGBBG 
 CBGBGHUHBGGHaGGa 
 QBGBGHGa.iaaLJGBHG 
 BGaGBGaGaGGBaaGB 
 aGaGaGBGGBBGGBBG 
 GBGBGBGBBGGBBGGB 
 
 □BGBaBGaaBBnnaaa 
 
 aaa^jH.iBL'BGnHBGGa 
 
 GBHu ; ja.jauaGaD 
 
 BGL.aH;;. .GBGSGaJjHGB 
 
 aBBG;^aaGGaGeGaQB 
 
 aGGBBGGaBGBGBGBG 
 
 aaaaGaaGBGaaaaBa 
 
 BaGBaGGBGaGaGBGa 
 
 GBBGGBaGCBGBaBGB 
 
 BnaafflGGBaGaGBaaa 
 Fig. 64. 
 
 much a portion of the pattern to which it is joined as of 
 the pattern to which it actually belongs. This may be 
 illustrated by Fig. 64, which is the same arrangement on 
 a larger scale, and in which the ends and picks which 
 
172 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 form the junction of the pattern — the eighth and ninth, 
 for instance — each form part of both patterns. In this 
 manner, and with the exercise of care and ingenuity, a 
 great diversity of patterns may be produced upon the 
 basis of plain cloth. 
 
 Next to plain cloth in its simplicity and extent of 
 application comes twilling, which ma}^ be considered the 
 first step in figuring. In twilling two objects are aimed 
 at, viz., to give strength and weight to the cloth, and to 
 ornament the surface in a pleasing manner. It must not 
 be understood by giving strength to the cloth, that with 
 a given number of threads of given strength per inch 
 twilling would produce a cloth as strong as a plain 
 cloth, because from the very nature of a plain cloth, the 
 threads crossing each other alternately, nothing could 
 possibly be stronger ; but by twilling a greater number 
 of threads per inch, both in the warp and weft, can be 
 put in than can possibly be put in plain cloth, the 
 character of the working allowing the threads to lie 
 closer together, and consequently produce a stouter fabric. 
 
 The number of twills which may be woven is very 
 extensive, but they may be conveniently divided into 
 three kinds, and treated under the following heads : regular 
 twills, broken or satin twills, and fancy twills. The 
 first to claim our attention, as being the first removed 
 
 ■□□■□□nnn 
 
 2 
 1 
 3 
 2 
 
 12 3 12 3 
 
 Fig. 65. 
 
 from plain cloth, are the regular twills. In this kind of 
 twill the small stripes formed by the intervals at which 
 the warp and weft threads cross each other run obliquely 
 across the cloth, which is produced by the warp threads 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 being raised in consecutive order, commencing at one side 
 and following the direction the twill is intended to take. 
 We will commence with the first variation or change from 
 plain cloth, viz., the three end twill shown on Fig. 65, in 
 which every third end is raised or depressed in succession, 
 the weft passing over or under the other two. This 
 is done by having three healds, the warp being drawn 
 through them, and the healds raised to allow the weft to 
 pass through in regular succession from front to back. A 
 simple method employed for indicating the draught or order 
 in which the ends are drawn through the healds, is shown at 
 Fig. 66, the horizontal lines representing the healds and the 
 numbers the warp threads ; the position of the numbers 
 on the horizontal lines showing the healds through which 
 the thread is drawn ; or vertical lines may be substituted 
 
 3 6 
 
 □□■□□□HQ 
 
 2 5 
 
 . 
 
 1 4 
 
 
 
 Fig. 66. . 
 
 Fig. 67. 
 
 for the figures, and will be found to work even better in 
 practice than the use of numbers. The four-end twill, 
 Fig. 67, is similar to the three-end twill ; in this case the 
 weft passing over or under three threads and interwoven 
 at the fourth. For this four healds are required, the warp 
 threads being drawn through, and the healds raised in 
 
 ■□□□□□■□□□□a 
 Fig. 68. Fig, 69. 
 
 regular succession as before. Twills of five, six, or any 
 number of ends may be worked in a similar manner, the 
 
i74 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 number of threads in the tvvih being drawn on a corres- 
 ponding number of healds, and raised in consecutive order 
 as shown, Figs. 68 and 6g. 
 
 It is not necessar}^ that regular twills should be confined 
 to one thread rising or sinking at once, but any number 
 into which the pattern may be divided may be raised or 
 depressed together. Take the case of a cashmere twill. 
 Fig. 70. In this there are four ends, the weft passing 
 over and under two. The draught of this is the same as 
 Fig. 67, but instead of one heald being raised at a time 
 
 L i BB'_:' :Ba 
 
 BB' r'jBtaUD 
 BUrjBBUDB 
 □□BBDDBB 
 □BBUnBBn 
 BBDUBBDU 
 
 Fig. 70. 
 
 two are raised, each heald remaining up for two picks, but 
 so arranged in their order of succession that one is depressed 
 and another raised to take its place at every pick. Fig. 
 71 is a five-end twill with the weft passing over two warp 
 
 BBGnriBBBDriDB 
 BgncMDnGB BUZM IBBBLICDBB 
 
 UCGBBDDCBB LILILjBBBDDDBBB 
 □□BBDGDBBG □□BBBGGDBBBU 
 CBBGaaBBGG GBBBG^ JGBBBGQ 
 
 BBGGuBBGGG BBBGGGBBBGGG 
 BGGGBBGGQB BB'.JGGBBBGGGB 
 QGGBBGGGBB BG' "iGBBBGOGBB 
 
 GGBBGGGBBG GGGBBBGGGBBB 
 GBBGGGBBGG GGBBBGGGBBBG 
 fcBGGGBBGGG GBBBGGGBBBGG 
 
 BBBGGGBBBGGG 
 
 Fig. 71. Fig. 72. 
 
 threads and under three, the order of working being 
 precisely the same as in Fig. 70. Fig. 72 is another of 
 the same description, the weft passing over three and 
 under three warp threads, and so on ad injinitiniu 
 
 Before proceeding further with twills, it will be advisable 
 to examine the reason why a twill should be made to run in a 
 particular direction. In nearly all twills one great object 
 aimed at is clearness or closeness of the twill, so that 
 the cloth may look as fine and compact in its structure 
 as possible. To attain this result the direction of the 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 twill must be determined by the twist of the w^eft and 
 warp, and should run in a direction contrar}' to both, and 
 to do that the warp and weft should be contrary to each 
 other in twist before being put together. This may be 
 illustrated by Figs. 73 and 74. In Fig. 73 the warp and 
 weft are placed at right angles to each other as they 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 Ficj. 74. 
 
 ^g- 73- 
 
 would be in the cloth, and it will be observed that in 
 this position the twist of both runs in the same direction, 
 but in Fig. 74, where they are laid parallel, the tw^ists 
 run in opposite directions ; then the twill, which is 
 represented b}^ the dark line in Fig. 73, runs in a direction 
 contrary to both. The result of this arrangement is 
 that each thread of warp or weft in forming the twill 
 becomes partly embedded over or under its immediate 
 neighbour, and so produces a closeness and fineness which 
 could not be obtained by any other means. If a twill 
 cloth be examined it will be found that on one side, 
 which corresponds with this arrangement, the appearance 
 is all that could be desired, but on the other side of tl:e 
 cloth, where the reverse is the case, every thread stands 
 out separate and distinct, and gives the cloth a very 
 unpleasant appearance. 
 
 In some cases, where the warp or the weft predominates 
 very largely, it may not be of much importance what is 
 the twist of the other, because being so much hid it could 
 not have a very material effect on the appearance, but 
 except in such cases this rule should be very carefull)^ 
 observed. 
 
176 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 We may now begin to combine plain with twill, and 
 produce a pattern which will give a firmer texture to the 
 cloth, having somewhat of the character of the plain cloth 
 with a twill pattern upon it. Fig. 75 is a twill of this 
 description, and in point of- texture is nearest to a plain 
 
 □^□□■□.□□a gggBSgSSBBSS 
 
 □□■□■□□□aa«a 
 □■□HDnnaDBDn 
 Bnaanayaan aaanGDaaaaDn 
 □anDBDaaaa □aaaDgaaunGa 
 BnnBnBpnaa aaaDanaaanaa 
 
 □□BnBDDBDB □□□aDfflnQGBaB 
 
 □□BaaDunaaBG 
 ananaanana □anananHGana 
 
 aaaannaaaaaa 
 
 Fig. 75. Fir/, 76. 
 
 cloth, three of the five threads working plain, the weft 
 passing over or under the other two to form the twill. 
 Fig. 76 is another ; this pattern is composed of six threads, 
 three plain and three forming a twill. Fig. 77 is a still 
 
 □BnannnDnanaDBDnnnna 
 BnBDDnDnaDanBQDDnnan 
 □BDDaDDBDBnaannDnaaa 
 anDanDBDaaaDaaaDBnaa 
 □□□□□BnaaaDnaDDanana 
 □□□□aaacaDDDDnananaa 
 □□□aDanaDDDaDananann 
 □□anaDaDDDDDaDaaaDDn 
 □aDanannDDDaDanannan 
 anaDanDanDaaaDannDna 
 
 Fir/. 77. 
 
 more extensive one, five threads working plain and five 
 forming the twill. 
 
 In the three patterns. Figs. 70, 71, and 72, the twill is 
 formed b}^ the weft passing under and over a regular 
 number of threads in regular succession ; in the patterns 
 Nos. 75, 76, and 77, the twill is formed by a number of plain 
 ends and intervals of warp, over or under which the weft 
 passes. We may now combine the two, and by this means 
 produce beautiful and elaborate patterns, to the extent 
 and variety of which there is scarcely any limit. Begin 
 with Fig. 78, which is a cashmere twill v/ith two ends plain 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 177 
 
 run along it, so making it into a six end twill ; Fig. 79, which 
 is three weft and three warp twill, with two ends plain ; 
 
 BnBaanBBBnBDDDBB 
 
 BaBGnBBnBnDB □BnanBBBnBmaBaB 
 
 □BaDBBaanDBB aaanBBBnBnnDBBnn 
 
 BanBanBDDBBn □□□BBBaannaBBana 
 
 □□BBDanDaana □□BBanaDnnaaanan 
 
 □BaaaDaaanaa □BBBnannnaHanann 
 
 aananDBBaann aaanaanDaaaDBann 
 
 Bnaanaananna aaaanDnaaanBanDa 
 
 □annBBGaaaaa BnannaaaanaDnnaa 
 
 BDGaaaaaDBBn □BaanaBaaaDDDaaa 
 
 □□BBDaaDBBDa BaaDBaaaaaGDaaaa 
 
 □aanaanBanan □□□BHBaannDaaaGa 
 
 aaDBDnaaaann □□aaaDBGnnaaaaaa 
 □aaanannnaaanana 
 BBBnannDBBBnaaaa 
 
 78. Fuj, 79. 
 
 Fig. 80, with two ends plain running up between each weft 
 
 and warp tAvill ; and Fig. 81, with four ends plain running 
 
 up one side of the weft twill. 
 
 □BaaDanDaaaBaarjannnB 
 BaBMannGBnaaanaDLinaD 
 BBDaDnGanaaBnanDnaDB 
 BDBGnDanaaaDBuGCBaBa 
 □aDDnanaaaDaaaGaaaaa 
 annDaDBaanaannanaBBn 
 
 □□□BDBaaDBDDDBDaBBDB 
 
 □□asBaaaanDDaDBBBDaD 
 □BniBaaaaDnaGBBanann 
 BDBBBnBDnnanaBBDBaaa 
 
 Fig. 80. 
 
 Before entering upon fancy twills it will be necessary 
 to point out an important feature in the arrangement of 
 the design, which is not only applicable to twills, but to 
 every design for textile fabrics of every description. The 
 design must be so arranged that the pattern will be 
 continuous and unbroken all over the surface of the fabric. 
 To do this, care must be taken that at each repetition of 
 the pattern the joining must be complete and perfect. 
 Take the case of the pattern Fig. 65. The complete 
 
 □BnaaanDDBDBnBBaaana 
 aDBaaGnnanaDBBaDDDaa 
 
 □aaBGDDBDBDaBBDDDBDB 
 
 aBBDDDBDaaaaaaLJDBGaG 
 aaaaaaaaDaHaaDDaDaaa 
 anGDaDaaaaaaDDauBnaa 
 
 □□□BDBOBBBODaaGBDBBB 
 □UBGBDaaBDLJDBGaaBBBD 
 □aaBUaBBDDOBDBUBBBDa 
 
 anaDaBaDDDBDaaaaaaaa 
 
 Fig. 81. 
 
 pattern is produced upon three warp threads and three 
 weft threads, No. i being a repetition of No. i, No. 2 of 
 
178 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 No. 2, and No. 3 of No. 3, both in warp and weft ; thus 
 three threads constitute what is termed the round of the 
 pattern, and however often repeated no break will occur 
 in it. On examination this will be found to be the case 
 with all the patterns, the point at which the pattern begins 
 to repeat determining the number of healds that will be 
 required to weave it. Each of the patterns given here as 
 illustrations will be found to be repeated for the purpose of 
 showing this clearly. 
 
 As I explained in the previous chapter, all twills arc 
 figures of a regular kind, that regularity being determined 
 by the twill or figure running in a particular direction ; the 
 few examples just given will have served to some extent 
 to illustrate it, but fancy twills, or, as they are more 
 frequently termed, fancy diagonals, will more fully prove 
 this. Fig. 82 is a . pattern which is composed of plain, 
 regular twill, and figure, the result being a decidedly fancy 
 pattern. Fig. 83 is another of similar combinations. 
 But the figuring of fancy diagonals need not be confined 
 to this character of figure. Fig. 84 is an example of an 
 altogether different type. Others of a more extensive 
 and varied character may very easily be produced. 
 
 One important rule must be borne in mind in the 
 arrangement of j)atteins of this description, viz., that the 
 
 ■r;KaL;'::BLrrBa 
 
 ■ B'.; .B' ' :[ IBBBIJ 
 BB; a_ [ : IBBBULI 
 uLiB'__'_:.:HBBL]BB 
 i JBLILJl^BBB:.!'JBB 
 BU:.. .'BBB'.BB. .' ' 
 nDDBBBGLjBBDB 
 [ :' .BBB_BBi.:.:B J 
 ijBBBn BB'MBL'iJ 
 BBBDBBDGBGDG 
 BBl_uBBGBGGGB 
 
 Fig. 82. 
 
 number of ends occupied by the figure must be such a 
 number as will divide in the number occupied b}^ the 
 diagonal, without leaving any remainder, or the pattern 
 must be repeated over and 'over again, until a number of 
 ends or picks is reached in which each will divide without 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 179 
 
 leaving any remainder, or in other words, a number of 
 which each is a measure. In determining this the figure 
 must be counted in a diagonal direction, because as it runs 
 continuously in a diagonal direction, the number of ends or 
 
 ■□□□■□■□□□■■■□□■■^ 
 
 ■□□■□■□□□■■■□□r.iBGB 
 BGBDBaDDBBBUBBBrjBB 
 
 □ BDBgpGBBBQGBByBUL] □□nnaBBBa^^B 
 
 BCJBLJLirjBBBULjaBUBBUa ■ " □□SBMuUt :BB 
 
 □BLJLiLlBBBGBBB'JBBBGB tei'ltf BDanhBBB 
 
 BGaDBBBrjGHHLBGUrjBa GQBGGGGr BHKB 
 
 PPS55PS£i^oilG^",SS GBBBGQGBBBGJ 
 □□BBBGBBBGBHaGBGBU BBBBBGBBBDGG 
 GBBBGaBB^B _ , B .BGG BaBGGBGnGGGB 
 
 sssyy^-^'-is^- i-^«^HHy mgggbbmgggbb 
 
 5r"022"-"""-"B^'--^HiSl GGGBBBBBriBBG 
 
 SPh5?-5----«,'"»,-^--^'J55 ggbbbbggbcgg 
 
 SiSPySS^-i'-*^-" -sSSP GBBBGGDHBBGG 
 BBBGBBBGB. _.B .G BBBG BBGGGGBBBBBG 
 
 BBGBGGGBLB: ;GL:aBBQG --UL.^j«»««BU 
 
 picks which it occupies could not be determined in a 
 horizontal or vertical direction, and even if the ends and 
 picks could be determined in the horizontal and vertical 
 directions it would be of no avail, because it is only in the 
 diagonal direction that it bears any relation to the other 
 portions of the pattern. 
 
 If we examine Figs. 82 and 83, we shall see that the 
 figure occupies a number, counted diagonally, which divides 
 in the number occupied by the twill ; consequently they are 
 perfect at one repetition. Supposing in Fig. 83 the number 
 
 □BDBBGBGBB 
 
 □GBBBGDBBB ^BBG B^BBB 
 
 BGBBGBGBBG BBBL.'BGGBBG 
 
 GBBBGGBBBG BB';B' '.JBBBLJ 
 
 GBBGBGBBGB BBl.GBGBBGB 
 
 BBBGGBBBGG BGGBGBBBGB 
 
 BBGBGBBGBG BGBGPjBBGBB 
 
 BBGGBBBCGB GBGGBBBGBB 
 
 BGBGBBGBGB GGBGBBGBBB 
 
 BGGBBBGGBB GBGBBBGBBG 
 
 L B' . BBGBGBB BGGBBGBBB' i 
 
 GGBBBGGBBB GGBBBGBBGB 
 
 ' BGBBGBGBBG BGBBGBBBGG 
 
 GBBBGGBBBG DBBBGBBGGB 
 
 GBBGBGBBGB GBBGBBBGBG 
 
 BBBGCBBBGD BBBGBBGBGG 
 
 BBGBGBBGBG BBGBBBGGBG 
 
 BBGGBBBGGB BBGBBGGBGB 
 
 BGBGBBGBGB BGBBBGBGGB 
 
 □□□BBBGGBB BGBBGBGGBB 
 
 Fig. 85. Fg. 86. 
 
 of ends occupied by the figure counted four diagonally, the 
 twill portion occupies eighteen ends and eighteen picks ; 
 then to make the pattern complete, four not being a 
 
i8o 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 measure of eighteen, the pattern would have to be repeated 
 to thirty-six ends or picks, because eighteen is a measure of 
 thirty-six, and so is four. By adopting this method of 
 calculating, the number of ends and picks which will be 
 required to complete any pattern which is a combination 
 may be determined at once. 
 
 In all the examples given here the twill moves only 
 one thread at a time, that is, on each successive pick the 
 pattern moves one thread to the right, so that supposing 
 there are the same number of threads per inch in the weft 
 as there are in the warp, the twill will run at an angle of 
 forty-five degrees across the piece ; but very excellent 
 effects are often produced by making the twill to run at 
 an angle of more, or less, than forty-five degrees. Fig. 85 
 is an example of a twill in which the pattern, instead of 
 
 □□■□■■UDBD 
 
 Fig. 87. 
 
 moving one thread every pick, only moves one thread 
 every two picks, consequently the twills run across the 
 piece at a very much higher angle. Fig. 86 is another 
 example of twill of a similar arrangement, Fig. 85 being 
 a single twill and Fig. 86 a double twill. To obtain 
 variety of pattern the twills may be placed further apart, 
 and twilling running in the opposite direction, as Fig. 87, 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 l8l 
 
 or figures of various kinds introduced between them. The 
 angles of the twill may easily be altered by moving more 
 or less frequently. Fig. 87, for instance, only moves one 
 thread every three picks, while Figs. 88 and 8g move two 
 threads at each pick. A comparison of the designs will 
 show how easily an immense variety of patterns may be 
 produced. 
 
 Similar effects may be produced, as will be shown by 
 combination of two twills, or by elongation. 
 
 The class of twills which next claim our attention are 
 totally different from those with which we have just been 
 dealing, and are known in the trade as broken or satin 
 twills. In the twills we have just had under consideration 
 the pattern follows in regular order, but in satin twills this 
 is not the case ; instead of the threads being interwoven 
 
 ■^■□□■□BDDDBBBBBDDBB 
 
 BDDDBDBEOBBBBBaDBBBB 
 □BGBDDDBBBBBDDBBBHBD 
 BGBDDBBBBBDOBBBBBDDD 
 □□□BBBBBDDBBBBBDDBCB 
 □BBBBBDDBBBBBDDGHnBD 
 BBEBGDBBBBBDDBDBnDDB 
 BBDLBBBBBDGDBDBDDBBB 
 □□BBBBBDDBDBDDGBBBBB 
 BBBBBDDDBGBDDBEBEBDa 
 
 Fig. 89. 
 
 in regular succession, they are interwoven at intervals of 
 one, two, or more. 
 
 It may be observed of satin twills that some are perfect 
 in respect to the intervals at which the threads are inter- 
 woven, and some are imperfect. The lowest satin twill 
 that can be produced is the four-thread satin, which is 
 
 □□BDnDBG 
 □□□BDDDB 
 
 □eaDDBDD □□□BDnDDBa 
 BGnnBDDD □BaDDUBDnn 
 □□BDnDBD □□□□BaDDGB 
 
 □□□annna □□BannnBDa 
 □BDDDBUG ■aaQaBGDaG 
 
 BGGGBGGG 
 
 Fiff. 90. Fiy. 91. 
 
 sometimes called the satinet twill. This is shown at Fig. 
 90, and is one of the imperfect ones, inasmuch as on two 
 successive picks the interwoven threads are next to each 
 other, The five-end satin, Fig. 91, is a perfect one; it 
 
l82 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 will be found that every thread is interwoven at regular 
 intervals. Before proceeding further it will perhaps be 
 advisable to explain the system upon which satin twills 
 are arranged. Take Fig. 91 as an example ; the pattern 
 is twice repeated, so as to show more clearly how it runs ; 
 on the first pick the first thread is taken, on the second 
 pick the third thread, on the third pick the fifth thread, 
 on the fourth pick the second thread, and on the fifth pick 
 the fourth thread, so that all through the pattern there is 
 always one thread passed over between those that are 
 interwoven. Perhaps the following method will simplify' 
 the arrangement somewhat. Make five dots to represent 
 the number of threads. Fig. 92 ; under the first dot place 
 number one, then pass one and place number two, pass 
 one again and place number three, pass one again (this 
 
 time it will be the first end you pass) and place number 
 four, pass one again and place number five ; passing one 
 again brings you back to number one, thus proving that 
 the satin is perfect, the intervals being regular throughout, 
 or in other words, the five dots are treated as if they were a 
 continuous series, and are passed over repeatedly until every 
 end has a number placed under it. The dots are then 
 treated as representing the warp threads, and the numbers 
 as representing the weft threads which pass over them, thus 
 on comparing Figs. 91 and 92, it will be seen that they 
 exactly correspond. 
 
 A six-thread satin is an imperfect one, and may be 
 arranged in two ways ; in one case two threads come 
 
 together, in the other case they do not. The two arrange- 
 
 14253 
 
 Fig. 92. 
 
 142536 
 93- 
 
 142635 
 Fifj. 94. 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. I S3 
 
 ments are annexed, Figs, 93 and 94, and Figs. 95 and 96 
 being tlie corresponding designs. 
 
 A seven-thread satin, Fig. 97, is a perfect satin, passing 
 one thread at a time, or having what is termed a basis of 
 two, as is also an eight-thread satin, Fig. 98, passing two at 
 a time, having a basis of three. 
 
 From the foregoing it will be seen to be an easy matter 
 to arrange a satin upon any given number of ends, but 
 in some cases care must be taken as to the direction of 
 the twill to suit the twist of the material used or the 
 character of effect intended to be produced on the surface 
 of the fabric. It has been pointed out in page 175 that 
 to produce certain effects on twills the direction of the 
 
 Fij. 95. Mff. 96. 
 
 twill will be governed by the twist of the warp, or weft, 
 or both ; the same thing holds good of satins. If we take 
 for example the five-end satin, Fig. 91, it will be seen on 
 careful examination that a decided twall runs across the 
 piece in the direction of the weft from left to right, or 
 in the direction of the warp from right to left. This 
 twill will be more decided in one direction or the other 
 as the weft or w^arp predominates. In all satin cloths 
 
 □□Hmna □□□anuaa 
 
 Fig. 97. 98. 
 
 one material or the other is made to predominate very 
 largely ; then if in this case the weft has that predominance, 
 the twill Vv^ll run from left to right in a nearly horizontal line, 
 the warp being quite invisible, or, if the warp predominates, 
 the tvrill will run from right to left in a nearly vertical 
 
WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 line, and the weft will be invisible. In the first case the 
 twill may be made more distinct by running it to suit the 
 weft, or less distinct by running against it ; in the latter 
 case it will be more distinct by running to suit the warp, 
 or less by running against it. In all cases the first consider- 
 ation should be, whether it is to be warp or weft face ; 
 secondly, whether the twill is to be visible or not, and then 
 adapt the twill to the twist of the material. 
 
 It must not be supposed from the foregoing that upon 
 any number of ends there can be but one satin arrangement, 
 for any number which is not a measure of the total number 
 of ends employed may be used as a basis of satin arrange- 
 ment, and in many cases will produce very different effects 
 For example, upon seven threads there are tvv^o arrangements 
 possible, viz., one having a base of two, and one having a 
 base of three. The first is shown at Fig. 97, the second at 
 Fig. gg. In one sense they are of course similar, that is, 
 the character of the twill is similar in both cases, but one 
 (Fig. gy) shows a somewhat decided twill running horizontally 
 from left to right, and the other a similar twill running 
 vertically from right to left. 
 
 From what has been suggested, that a satin may be 
 arranged upon any base which is not a measure of the total 
 number employed, it would seem that upon seven threads 
 
 □□□□□□a 
 
 □□HDmn □□□□□BD 
 
 □□□□□□a □□□amn □aaaoan 
 
 □□□aaan □□□□□aa □□□□ana 
 
 aDDDDDn Baaaaaa aaDaaaa 
 
 F{^- gg. Fig. 100. Fig. loi. 
 
 there are seven possible satin arrangements ; that is, there 
 are four numbers which could be taken as basis, viz., two, 
 three, four and five. Of course one could never be taken as 
 a base, because the points of intersection would follow 
 consecutively, and would therefore form a regular twill. 
 That being so, six being one less than seven, a regular twill 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 would be formed in the opposite direction. Again, five being 
 two less than seven, an arrangement exactly similar to that 
 having a basis of two would be produced, thus, Fig. loo is 
 exactly the reverse in effect to that shown at Fig. 97, and 
 four being three less than seven, the same effect would be 
 produced as if a basis of three were employed, so that Fig. 
 loi, with a basis of four, is exactly the reverse of Fig, 99. 
 
 It must not be supposed from this that upon all numbers 
 of ends there can be only two arrangements possible, and 
 that those would virtually produce the same pattern, but 
 running vertically and horizontall}^ respectively. Upon 
 some numbers, such as eight and twelve for example, 
 there is but one possible, viz., a basis of three, for although 
 five appears to be available, it is simply three less than 
 eight, and consequently must produce the same result. In 
 
 □□□□□□□□□HQ 
 □□□□□□□HGDa 
 
 □□□■□□□□□□a 
 aaaanarnaua 
 
 □□□□□□□□□□a □□□□□□□□□an 
 
 Mg. 102. Fig. 103. 
 
 the same way with twelve, only a basis of five is available. 
 Again, nine threads correspond with the conditions which 
 govern seven, and ten with those which govern eight, but 
 upon some other numbers, such as eleven and thirteen, there 
 is more scope, and the result of this difference may be to 
 produce what might be called a decided twill, with one base, 
 and very even distribution with another. Take for example 
 the two patterns. Figs. 102 and 103, the first of which shows 
 a decided twill, and the second a tolerably even distribution. 
 The effect upon the cloth would be that one would show a 
 much more decided pattern than the other. 
 
 Upon other numbers of threads similar results may be 
 obtained, the one thing to bear in mind being that whenever 
 the number upon which the satin is based is more than half 
 
WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 the total number of threads employed, the result will be the 
 same as another which has less than half the total number 
 for its base. 
 
 Before we proceed further with the production of new 
 patterns or new combinations, we may venture to return 
 to those we have already gone over, and examine what 
 extent and variety of patterns may be produced upon a 
 given number of ends, and what variety of combinations 
 may be produced with a given pattern as the basis. In 
 the plain cloth it has already been shown that, strictly 
 speaking, there can only be one working for plain, but 
 that a variety of patterns may be produced with plain 
 as the basis. The same may be said of a three-end twill, 
 which is the first removed from plain cloth. Confining 
 ourselves to three ends, nothing but twill could be 
 produced, but, based upon this twill, different patterns 
 
 □■□□BD 
 
 BBiZHBD ouan mmaa omua 
 
 maaaaa mnaa bddb uaaa 
 
 BGBBGB 
 
 Mg. 104. Fig, 105. Fig. 106. Fig. 107. 
 
 may be produced. This will be dealt with later, for the 
 present confining ourselves to what can be done upon a 
 given number of ends. Confining ourselves then to three, 
 little more than the twill given at Fig. 65, page 172, can be 
 formed, but one or two effects might be produced, such as 
 Fig. 104, which is nothing more or less than alternate picks 
 of the same twill, the one with weft and the other with 
 warp preponderating. Then taking four ends, we find that 
 we have considerably more scope. Three patterns have 
 already been given. Figs. 67, 70, and 90, which are worked 
 upon four ends. Figs. 67 and 70 being regular twills, and 
 90 a broken twill or satin. Then let us examine the 
 nature of these arrangements and see of what they consist 
 and how they may be varied, and for that purpose we will 
 reproduce them here. Figs. 105, 106, 107. Then assuming 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 that the black dots represent the weft on the face, and 
 the vacant spaces the warp on the face, each pick in 
 Fig; 105 passes over one warp thread and under three, 
 each succeeding pick moving one thread to the right. 
 This may be varied by running the twill to the left, 
 in that case the figure or pattern moving one thread to 
 
 mama amam 
 
 moma mmmo 
 
 oaGB aamm 
 
 □BBB □BBB mama 
 
 Fig. 108. Fiff, 109. Fig. no. Fiff. in. Fi^. 112. 
 
 the left at each pick. Fig. 108, but in both cases there will 
 be the same preponderance of warp on the face of the 
 cloth. Then Figs. 109 and no represent the same twill, 
 but with weft preponderating, so that we have apparently 
 
 □□□B BBDB DBDA 
 
 □□BB □□BE maaa □□an 
 
 aama □□bg bgbb mama 
 
 amma □hub □□hh □hh^ 
 
 □B^a □BGG GBBB □B^B 
 
 BB^^ 0iiaG amma mmaa 
 
 BGGG BG^^ BBBG BGBG 
 
 BGGB HGGil IDESGG GGGH 
 
 Fig. 113. Fiff. 114. Fi^. 115. Fi^. 116. 
 
 four patterns, but really only one. Then if we examine 
 Fig. 107 we shall find it is really the same working as Fig^ 
 105, but the third and fourth ends have exchanged places. 
 In this, as in Fig. 105, we may substitute weft for warp on 
 the face, Fig. iii, the pattern again remaming the same, 
 so that Figs. 107 and in are based upon the principle 
 of Fig. 105. And so in like manner with Fig. 106 ; if we 
 exchange the position of the third and fourth threads, or 
 in fact of any two out of the four, we produce a different 
 pattern, Fig. 112. Then we may go a little further, and 
 combine two of the workings as m Fig. 113, which consists 
 of alternate picks of 105 and 106, the combination being 
 more clearly shown at Fig. 114, where one of the patterns 
 is represented by the solid and the other by the shaded 
 squares. In the same manner we may combine any two, as 
 in Fig. 115, which consists of Figs. 106 and 109. Again, 
 
WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 we may carry the principle further by combining any one 
 
 of them with another kind of working, as with plain, 
 
 which is shown in Fig. ii6, thus producing a pattern 
 
 totally different in appearance from any of the others. 
 
 If we take five threads and deal with them in the 
 
 same manner, we may produce considerable diversity of 
 
 patterns. If we examine Figs. 117 and 118, which are 
 
 □□□□a Banna BGann 
 
 □□□an □BDna □□□aa □□ana 
 
 □MBG^ □□□□a □□BBG naGGB 
 
 □BGGn □□BGG DaBGG 09090 
 
 BGDnG BDDna BBGGG BGGBO 
 
 Fi^. 117. Fig. ii8. Fi^. 119. Fig. 120. 
 
 the same as Figs. 68 and 91, we shall find the difference 
 to consist solely of a re-arrangement of the position of 
 the threads; or take 119 and 120, the same remark 
 applies, although the appearance of the two twills is 
 
 BBGGB BGBBG 
 
 BGGBa BGBGB 
 
 GGBBB GBBGB 
 
 □BBBQ □BQBB 
 
 BBBGa BBGBG 
 
 Fi^. 121. Fig 122. 
 
 totally different. Then in Figs. 121 and 122 we have 
 precisely the same arrangement as in Figs. 119 and 120, 
 but with weft substituted for warp on the face, and vice 
 versa. 
 
 It wouid be utterly impossible within the scope of this 
 work, to show to what extent this principle of re-arrangement 
 could be carried, and in this treatise it is not necessary. Since 
 the publication of the first two editions of this work I have 
 written two works, viz , " The Album of Textile Designs," 
 and " Design in Textile Fabrics," the latter work published 
 by Messrs. Cassell & Co., Limited, in which the questions of 
 re-arrangement and combinations are fully dealt with. 
 
 It may not be amiss however to say a few words here as 
 to the various methods of re-arrangement. Already at page 
 182 the method of re-arranging patterns in what is called 
 satin order has been pointed out, but there are many other 
 orders besides satin which may well be employed. For 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 instance, in the latter of the works just mentioned, the 
 arrangement of patterns by transposition of the threads is 
 shown, and in " The Album of Designs " a large number of 
 patterns are given, which are the result of such transposition, 
 
 □□□□□■□□no 
 123. 
 
 □□□□□□BDDn 
 
 □□□□□□□□□a 
 Fig. 125. 
 
 Fig. 124. 
 
 but we may not only transpose them in regular order, but we 
 may arrange the transpositions in satin order. Take for 
 example the three patterns, Figs. 123, 124, and 125, the first 
 of the three is a simple straight twall upon ten ends, the 
 second is the same twill with the threads re-arranged in the 
 
 4 3 
 
 7 10 9 
 
 14253 
 Fig 126. 
 
 order 2. 1.4. 3. 6.5. 8.7.10.9., and the third is the second pattern 
 re-arranged in five-thread satin order. Fig. 126 will show 
 conclusively how this has been obtained. 
 
 The dots represent the consecutive order of the original 
 twill. Fig. 123, the numbers above the dots the re-arrange- 
 ment, by transposing the threads in pairs as shown in 
 
 □■□□■■□■lUD 
 
 ■□□■■□■son 
 
 □□BBnBmDDB 
 
 □BBDBnnnBn 
 
 BBnaunnBDn 
 
 BOBCDGBDnB 
 
 DBSnDBCOBB 
 BBDDBDnBBn 
 HDDBDDBBDB 
 
 Fig. 127. 
 
 BBBBnnnBEan 
 □□BBDnnBH 
 BBDDDBDrjnB 
 □ BBDDDBEIBD 
 
 □□□BmnnBBB 
 
 BDnDBaBDDB 
 
 □BHDDBBBDD 
 □□BQBDDBBD 
 BnDHBBQDDB 
 BEBCLIBSDGD 
 
 □□□BDBnBBCI 
 
 BCHDDDGDBH 
 
 □BnHBuaauB 
 
 □□□□BBBOBD 
 BnDDDBDBBB 
 
 BBBDBDDDnS] 
 
 □BDBiiBBnna 
 
 BDnnnEBBBD 
 
 ElBBnnDDBDB 
 
 □□BBBDBaaa 
 
 Fi^ 
 
 129. 
 
 Fig. 128. • 
 
 Fig. 124, and the numbers below the dots, the re-arrangement 
 of those transposed pairs as shown in Fig. 125. 
 
 So far as those three patterns are concerned of course 
 only the principle of the system is shown, because a single 
 line twill of this kind cannot show any decided characteristics, 
 
igo WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 but when this principle is appHed to patterns of a more 
 elaborate character, then the value of it at once becomes 
 apparent. Take for example the patterns shown at Figs. 
 127, 128, and 129. In each of those patterns the basis of the 
 arrangement is shown by the shaded square. Thus it will 
 be seen that the shaded squares in each of the .three patterns 
 correspond with the solid ones in Figs. 123, 124, and 125 
 respectively. 
 
 But we may not only divide a re-arranged or transposed 
 pattern up in the manner shown in Figs. 125 and 129, but in 
 like manner any original pattern may be dealt with 
 thus, Fig. 130 is the same with 123 but re-arranged in 
 five pairs, and Fig. 131 is the same as 127 re-arranged in 
 the same manner, yet the resulting pattern is very different 
 
 □□■□■□■EDB 
 
 ■■□■□■□□(£)□ 
 ■□■□■HDBaa 
 
 ■ □■□□!]□■■□■ 
 ■(!]□■□□■□■□ 
 SjDBBaBDBDa 
 
 Fig. 130. Fig. 131. 
 
 in each case, not only from the original, but from those 
 shown at Figs. 125 and 129. 
 
 This method of re-arrangement of threads, and of 
 combination of two or more patterns, places in the hands 
 of the designer an immense power for the production of 
 designs. 
 
 The combination or re-arrangement of twills, each 
 occupying the same number of threads, will produce new 
 effects, but these are much better, and the effects more 
 varied, when the two patterns combined occupy different 
 numbers of ends. If we were to commence first of all 
 with three-end twill and four-end twill, combined end and 
 end, and in all their varieties, we should obtain a number 
 of different patterns. Again, take four-end twills with five- 
 end twills, and we get another variety, take five-end twill 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 with six-end twill and we obtain a still greater variety. It 
 would be almost impossible to conceive the number of new 
 patterns which might be produced in this way. In the 
 combination of three and four-end twills we could obtain 
 six patterns as regular twills, and six more by combination 
 of three-end twills with the four-end twills, transposed as in 
 Figs. 107, III, and 112. In the combination of four and five- 
 end twills we should obtain eighteen regular twills, with the 
 four-end twills transposed and the five-end twills straight 
 forward we should obtain eighteen more, and with the five- 
 end twills transposed and the four-end twills straight 
 forw^ard eighteen more ; thus from the combination of four 
 and five-end patterns, no less than fifty-four patterns would 
 result. 
 
 In the arrangement of these patterns a similar rule 
 would have to be observed as in the combination of figures 
 and diagonals, of carrying the pattern jforward to a number 
 of ends or picks where each will join properly at the same 
 time. Thus, in the combination of three- end and four-end 
 patterns, twelve is the first number of which each is a 
 measure, so that if they are arranged end and end, twenty- 
 four ends would be occupied, and as the picks of each 
 pattern would be concurrent with each other only twelve 
 picks would be required. In the combination of four and 
 five-end patterns, end and end, twenty ends of each and 
 twenty picks would be required to complete the pattern. 
 But although in the latter case forty ends would be required 
 to complete the pattern, the whole could be woven upon 
 nine healds, simply because it consists of two small patterns, 
 each of which can be woven upon four and five healds 
 respectively. More will be said upon this matter when the 
 question of drafting is dealt with. 
 
 In the same manner any number of threads may be 
 dealt with, and an immense variety of patterns produced ; 
 the greater the number of ends used and the greater the 
 
WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 number of changes which may be effected. I have simply 
 taken here some of the very simplest, for the purpose of 
 showing as plainly as possible the principle. At a later 
 period I shall take some more elaborate combinations. 
 The one thing to which I wish to direct the especial 
 attention of the student is, that every pattern, however 
 intricate and complicated it may appear at first sight, 
 may be reduced by careful analysis to its simplest elements, 
 and then reproduced in an infinite variety of forms ; 
 and it is in the ability of the designer to make these 
 combinations suitable to the nature of the fabric upon 
 which he is working, so as to produce the best appearance, 
 that his whole success depends. 
 
 □□■□□□an □□■■□□■■ □□■■■□□■ 
 
 □□□■□□□■ ■□□■■□□■ ■□□■■■□□ 
 
 ■□□□■□□□ ■■□□■■□□ □■□□■■■□ 
 
 □□□■□□□a a^naa^na □□a^^aaa 
 
 □□an^^aa □□aaonaa an^ao^aa 
 
 □aoG^a^n □aaa^aa^ aan^a^^a 
 
 a^QDa^^^ aa^oaa^^ aaanna^^ 
 
 □a^^^B^n caan^aa^ aaa^anna 
 
 □□aDaoa^ □□aa^naa a^^a^^aa 
 
 □□□an^ua a^naa^^a □□a^oaaa 
 
 a^^^a^^^ aaa^aa^^ □an^aaa^ 
 
 □□□a^^aa a^^aaana an^aaan^ 
 
 □□an^^a^ □□aan^aa □□aaan^a 
 
 □a^^^a^G Daaanaa^ naaaDGa^ 
 
 aan^BQGG BBG^aana bbbg^bgg 
 
 Fig. 132. Fir/, 133. Fl(/. 134. 
 
 We may now proceed to the manufacture of more 
 intricate patterns out of the simple material we have 
 obtained. Instead of twills running regularly across the 
 piece, by simply reversing the twill after weaving a certain 
 distance, so as to run alternately in opposite directions, 
 a pattern of a totally different character is produced. Fig. 
 132 is an ordinary four-end twill worked in this manner, 
 and forming a zig-zag pattern. Fig. 133 is a cashmere, or 
 two weft and two warp twill altered in the same manner, and 
 Fig. 134 is a larger twill. In each case the twill runs in one 
 direction all across the piece for a certain number of picks, 
 and then reverses. 
 
 Before proceeding further in the manufacture of patterns, 
 it will be necessary to point out to the student another 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 important matter connected with this branch of the 
 subject. All the examples given are woven upon what 
 is termed the straight draught, that is, the warp threads 
 are drawn through the healds in regular order as shown 
 at page 173, but by varying the order of drawing the 
 
 i 
 
 2 . 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 Fiff. 135. Fie/. 136. 
 
 threads, an immense variety of patterns may be made 
 upon a very small number of healds. Before entering 
 upon any new patterns which will require a variation in 
 the draught, I must call attention to a rule, the observance 
 of which is absolutely necessary for the guidance of the 
 student, viz. : In arranging the order in which the healds 
 must be raised and depressed, the order in which the warp 
 threads are drawn through the healds must receive the first 
 attention ; for instance, in weaving a plain cloth, every 
 alternate end must be raised or depressed, consequently, if 
 they are drawn straight over in regular order as in Fig. 135. 
 every alternate heald must be raised or depressed, as indicated 
 by the numbers. If on the other hand they are drawn on 
 alternate healds, then the first and second would rise together, 
 
 4 
 
 3 4 1. 
 
 3 4 
 
 3 
 
 2 3 2 
 
 1 2 
 
 2 
 
 1 2 3 
 
 2 3 
 
 1 
 
 1 4 
 
 1 4 
 
 
 
 
 Flf/. 137. Fi^. 138. 
 
 and the third and fourth. Fig. 136, the small numbers 
 representing the order in which the ends are drawn 
 through the healds, and the large numbers representing 
 the order in which they are raised. It will be seen that 
 every alternate thread rises together in both cases. Take 
 
194 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 again the cashmere twill. Fig. 137 shows the order in 
 which the healds rise when drawn straight over, being 
 precisely the same as shown on the design ; then draw it 
 on alternate healds, Fig. 138, and the order in which they 
 require to be raised is shown also. 
 
 We will now begin to alter the draught so as to alter 
 the pattern. Fig. 132 is a pattern which would have the 
 
 ■ 2 
 
 Fig. 139. %. 141. 
 
 appearance of a stripe running across the piece, the pat- 
 tern being produced by weaving a number of picks with 
 the twill running in one direction, and then a number with 
 the twill running in another direction. Fig. 139 is a 
 zig-zag of the same kind, but instead of the stripes 
 running across, they run lengthwise of the piece. This 
 is done by drawing the required number of warp threads 
 straight forward, from front to back of the healds, and 
 then reversing and drawing from back to front, Fig. 140, 
 
 □□■□□■■■■■□□■□□a 
 □■■■□□■□■□□■■■□a 
 
 □■□□■■■□■■■□□■□a 
 □■■■□□■□■□□■■■□a 
 
 Fig' 142. 
 
 and weaving straight forward as if weaving an ordinary 
 twiJl. Fig. 141 is a cashmere worked in the same manner 
 and Fig. 142 is the same twill as Fig. 134. 
 
 In draughting in this manner it is not necessary that 
 the same number of threads should be drawn each way, 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 but the number may be varied at the discretion of the 
 designer, so as to make large and small stripes, &c. 
 
 To produce still greater variety, combine the principle 
 of Fig. 132 with Fig. 139, that is, draw the warp as shown at 
 
 Fig. 143- 
 
 Fig. 144. 
 
 □■■□■■□■■□BB 
 
 ■□□BDnHnnaDn 
 
 □□BBBDnDBBBD 
 □BBGBBaBBDBB 
 BBnDDBBBmDB 
 □BBDBBDBBDBB 
 □□BBBaDLlBBBD 
 BaDBDDBDGBna 
 □□BBBDnDBBBD 
 □BBDBBDBBDBB 
 BBODDBBBUaDB 
 
 Fig, 145. 
 
 Fig. 140, and reverse the weaving to correspond ; the result 
 will be to form diamond patterns, as Fig. 143. Gradually 
 extend the patterns, each time introducing a little more 
 detail ; for example, Figs. 144 and 145, each of these being 
 
 □BDBGBDDCa 
 BaDDBUBDBG 
 □□BDDBDBDB 
 □BBBCnBDBU 
 
 □ □HDijBL'aDB 
 BGGLJiaUHUHU 
 □BGBuBGUGH 
 BDBDBUDBUD 
 □BQBUGBBBa 
 BGBGBGGBGG 
 
 Fig. 146. 
 
 woven on the principle of the draught given at Fig. 140. 
 An extension of this system of draughting is given in Figs. 
 146, 147, and 148. Instead of four healds, six and eight are 
 employed respectively, the order of drawing being precisely 
 
 BaBCGGBBBGOGBG 
 BBGBGGGBGGQBGB 
 GBBGBGGGGGBGBB 
 BGBBGBGGGBGBBG 
 GBGBBGBGBGBBGB 
 GGBGBBGBGBBGBG 
 BGGBGBBGBBGBGG 
 BBGGBGBBBGBGGB 
 BGGBGBBGBBGBGG 
 GGBGBBGBGBBGBG 
 GBGBBGBGBGBBGB 
 BGBBGBGGGBGBBG 
 GBBGBGGGGGBGBB 
 BBGBGGGBGGGBGB I 
 
 Fig. 147. 
 
 the same, viz., from one to eight, 
 one. In these last examples, the 
 the turning points of the draught. 
 
 GBBBGGGBGGGBBB 
 GGBBBGGGQGBBBG 
 GGGBBBGGGBBBGa 
 BGGGBBBGBBBGGG 
 BBGGGBBBBBGGGB 
 BBBGGGBBBGGGBB 
 BBGGGBBBBBGGGB 
 BGGGBBBGBBBGGG 
 GGGBBBGGGBBBGa 
 GGBBBGGGGGBBBG 
 GBBBGGGBGGGBBB 
 BBBGGGBBBGGGBB 
 BBGGGBBBBBGGGB 
 BGCQGGBBBGGCBB 
 
 Fig. 148. 
 
 and back from eight to 
 first and last healds being 
 it will be noticed that less 
 
lg6 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 threads are drawn upon them than the rest, consequently 
 they would require to be coarser than the rest in sett, that 
 is, would require less heald cords upon them. This may be 
 obviated, and in some instances the patterns considerably 
 improved, by altering the draught so as to commence 
 reversing upon a different heald to the one upon which 
 the last thread is drawn. Fig. 149 is a stripe pattern 
 
 ■■□□■■□□■BDD 
 ■□□■■□■□□■BD 
 
 123412432143 
 
 Fi(^. 149. 
 
 drawn upon this system. On examination of the numbers 
 which are placed under the spaces representing the warp 
 threads (these numbers representing the healds upon 
 which the threads are drawn), it will be found that where 
 the twill reverses, the first end, instead of being drawn 
 upon No. I heald, as it would be if reversed in the same 
 manner as the previous example, is drawn upon No. 4, 
 the next upon No. 3, and so on. If it is intended to 
 weave a diamond pattern, the same rule must be observed 
 with regard to the picks, see Fig. 150, where the first 
 pick of the reversed portion, instead of being the same as 
 
 □■■□□BnoBDnH 
 
 □□BBDDBBaDBB 
 BDDBBDBDDBBa 
 BBDDBBDDBBDa 
 □BBDDBDBBaDB 
 □□BBDDBBODBB 
 BBDDBBaUBBGD 
 BDOBBaBnCBBD 
 □□BBGDBBDDBB 
 □BBDDBDBBDaB 
 BBnDBBDDBBm 
 BDDBBaBnnBBD 
 
 Fig, 150. 
 
 No. I, is like No. 4. By the careful observance of the rule 
 mentioned in pages 194 and 195, the student may now begin to 
 make patterns of a more elaborate kind, by the simple 
 variation of the draughts, and when necessary, reversing 
 the twill in weaving. Fig. 151 is an example of what may 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 197 
 
 be done in this direction, and by reversing the twill in 
 weaving, a large check effect will be produced. I might 
 ■■!□□□ ^^^^ endless examples to illustrate what might 
 
 be done, but I should only be unnecessarily 
 
 adding to the size and cost of the work by 
 □□KSR doing so. I have selected what seems to me 
 
 the simplest patterns I could possibly find, to 
 □□SE" convey to the reader as clear and accurate an 
 S|I5BH idea as possible of the principle of weaving. 
 □SSSS" Hitherto I have supposed that the draught 
 
 ■□□□2S been arranged beforehand, and that the 
 
 ■□□□!" M patterns have been made to suit the draus^ht. 
 □□□!!■ I will now reverse the order of things, and, 
 
 supposmg the design to be made, arrange the 
 □□!"■□ draue^ht to suit it. The easiest way of doine: this 
 "■□□□I follow the plan showfT in Fig. 152, each 
 
 horizontal space representing a heald instead of 
 
 the horizontal line, as in the previous arrange- 
 ■hSSdS nient, the dots over the design representing the 
 □□□SS! healds upon which the respective threads are 
 
 drav/n, and the numbers up the side indicating 
 SSSBn" the order or position of the healds. It will thus 
 □□□55S be seen that the first dot, vv^hich is upon the first 
 thread, is also upon the first heald, the rest following 
 consecutively up to eight ; the ninth thread is drawn up 
 on the fourth heald. To ascertain the reason for this 
 examine the ninth thread, and it Vv-ill be found to work 
 in precisely the same order as the fourth thread, con- 
 sequently, it must be drawn upon the same heald ; the 
 tenth thread works the same as the third, and so on. By 
 careful attention to this rule it will be found that very 
 frequently patterns, which on the face of them appear to 
 require a great number of healds, may be very easily worked 
 upon a very small number, by arranging the draught and 
 treading to suit it. I will now take another example to 
 
WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 illustrate another feature of this arrangement. The example 
 already given requires eight healds, and of course the first eight 
 threads of the design are representative of the rest, con- 
 sequently, in putting this into work, the weaver will raise 
 
 8 □□□□□□□annnDHnnn 
 7 □□□□□□[^□□□□□□Hna 
 6 □□□□□HDannnnDDBn 
 
 5 □□□□[^□□□□□□□□□□H 
 
 4 □□□BananBannaDDn 
 3 □□BaannnnHnnnDDD 
 2 □BannDnanDBnaaDa 
 1 BannnDaQnaDBBDna 
 □□□□■BaannaaBBBH 
 
 ■□□□□■BBnaGBBBBD 
 BBDOnDBBnDBBBBaa 
 BBBnanaBBBBBBaDD 
 BBBBDnnDBBBBBDna 
 □BBBBDDDBBBaDBDB 
 □□BBBBnaBBaaBDBB 
 
 □□□BBBBDBnnnnHaB 
 
 BBBDDmBDBBBBDan 
 BBDDnnBBDnBBBBna 
 BDanDBBBUDDBBBBn 
 □□□□BBBBQaaaBBBB 
 □□□BBBBaBDnDDBBa 
 □□BBBBBDBBDnaDBB 
 □BBBBDaDBBBDaDDB 
 BBHBanaDBBBBGULTa 
 
 Fig. 152. 
 
 and depress his healds according to this portion of the 
 design ; but it may very frequently happen that what we 
 may term the representative threads are not altogether in 
 such a compact form as in this case, but scattered at various 
 intervals over the design ; in that case the draught must 
 first be ascertained by the method described above, and 
 
 □□□□□□□□□□□BDnDnDnDDDDCB 
 □□□□□□□□□BGmDBDnDBDDBDn 
 
 □□□□□□□BnnDDDnnmanBnDDa 
 
 □□□□□HGaanDnnDBDnBDDnBBa 
 
 □□□BDnnDDanaiiiDaBanDDaDDa □□BannDBBB 
 
 □BGDBDnnBBnGDaDGDDnnnDna aaaGGGBBaa 
 
 GGaGGaaGoaaaGaaGGGGaaGBG aaGGGaaaGa 
 
 GaGaaGGGGGGaaGGGaaGGaGGa aQGaaaaaaG 
 
 aaBOGGGGaGaaGaaGGGBaaaaa □gbbbbgggb 
 
 BGGGaGGGBGGGaaaaBGGaGGGG GBaaaGaaaa 
 
 GGGGaGBBGBGBaGBGGGGBBBBB BBGGGGGBBa 
 GGBGaBGBGBBGBGGGGaBBBaGG BGGBGGBBBG 
 BGBBGBGBBGBGGGGBBBBBGGCG GGBBGBBBGG 
 BBGBGBBGBGGGGBBBBBGGGGBG GBBGBBBGGG 
 GBGBBGBGGGGBBBBHGGGGBGBB BBGGBBGGGB 
 GBBGBGGGGBBBBBGGGGBGBBGB BGGBBGGGBB 
 BGBGGGGBBBBBGGGGBGBBGBGB 
 BGGGGBBBBBGGGGBGBBGBGBBG 
 GGGBBBBBGGGGBGBBGBGBBGBG 
 GBBBBBGGGGBGBBGBGBBGBGGG 
 BBBBGGGGBDBBGBGHBGBGGGGB 
 BBGGGGBGBBGBGBBGBGGGGBBB 
 
 Fig. 153. 
 
 the representative threads of the design copied on a 
 separate piece of paper, to make what is called a work- 
 ing design, for the weaver to peg or arrange for whatever 
 kind of machine it is to be woven upon. Fig, 153 is a 
 
 Fig. 153 a. 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 199 
 
 design which will fully illustrate this, the full design being 
 given here as it will be in the cloth, and Fig. 153A is the 
 working design or pegging plan from which the weaver 
 must work, and the draft is placed just over the design. 
 
 We may now proceed a little further with our examina- 
 tion of the arrangement of designs, so as to show as 
 fully as possible that some of the most intricate designs 
 are merely combinations of ver}^ simple effects, many 
 of which may be woven upon a very small number of 
 healds. With two healds, as has already been pointed 
 □anHnanaanHHanHH □■ 
 
 BDHDBDHDHaLiDHHan □■ □□■O 
 
 ■□ 
 
 □■□■□■□■□□■■□□■B ■□ 
 
 ■□■□■□■□■■□□■■□a 
 ■□■□■□■□■■□□■■□a 
 
 A B 
 
 Fig. 154. Fig. 155. 
 
 out, we have not much scope for patterns, except such as 
 
 are produced by combination of colours, but as we increase 
 
 the number of healds we increase immensely the number 
 
 of patterns which ma}^ be produced, but even with two 
 
 only, the variety is much greater than would appear at 
 
 first sight. We have already a few samples in Figs. 59, 
 
 60, and 61. Again, we may carry this much further by 
 
 □BnanDBBnaaanDaannBanDBanananaaana 
 BnBDBaaaBDaaBaaDaBDDBBnDBaBDBnBnBn 
 □■□■□□■■□■□■□□■■□□jaaaBBDBaBDBaaDB 
 
 □BDBaQBBUBGBDDBBnDBBDDBBGBaBDBaBaB 
 BaBDBBDaBDBDBBDDBBaUBBGDBUBaBDBDBD 
 
 BaBaBBUDBDBaBBGaBBaaBBaGBaBDBaBaBa 
 
 Fig. 156. 
 
 working after the manner shown at Fig, 154, combining 
 what is shown at Fig. 155 a and b, so as to produce 
 a stripe pattern. Again, this stripe may be varied to an 
 infinite extent, as is shown in Fig. 156 where varying 
 sizes of stripe are shown, consisting of the two patterns 
 shown at Fig. 155 a and b. Then we come to another 
 question, how to arrange the draught and order of raising 
 the healds to produce those patterns. The simplest and 
 readiest way of doing this is shown at Figs. 154 and 156, 
 as already shown. Instead of drawing horizontal lines to 
 
200 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 represent the healds, and numbering the order of the 
 draught upon them, suppose the horizontal spaces imme- 
 diately over the design, Nos. i, 2, to represent them ; then 
 the dots in those places show through which heald the 
 thread is drawn. For instance, in Fig. 1 54 the first thread 
 on the left is marked upon the first horizontal space, thus 
 indicating that that thread is drawn through the first 
 heald ; the second is marked upon the second space, it 
 would therefore be drawn through the second heald ; then, 
 as each alternate thread of the first eight are working 
 exactly alike, they are drawn through the same heald. 
 Coming to the ninth and tenth threads, they are found to 
 be working together and in exactly the same order as the 
 first, therefore they would be both drawn through the first 
 
 □□H □□[!] 
 □BD DBD 
 
 ana □□□□hb bdd □□□□□□bbh 
 
 □□a □□BBan □□■ □□□BBHann 
 
 n:.:a BBannn □□a BSBuaaaaa 
 
 □HQ □□■ □□□□□□H«H 
 
 ama □□■ana nan □□□aaaana 
 
 maa aaaaaa nan aamaaaoao 
 
 BDD „. „ nan ^ 
 
 Fkj. ISO. maa Fig. 100. 
 
 Fis. 159. 
 
 heald. the eleventh and twelfth through the second, and 
 so on. The first and second threads are representative 
 of the whole pattern, and therefore indicate the order of 
 working of the two healds as shown at a 155 so each heald 
 would remain up and down alternately for two picks. 
 
 If we deal with three healds in the same manner, we 
 shall find that we have more scope, and can produce 
 greater variety of pattern. Figs. 157 and 158 are practi- 
 cally both the same thing, one showing the twill running 
 with the warp and the other with the weft ; in one case 
 three ends and six picks are occupied, and in the other six 
 ends and three picks, but in both cases three healds would 
 be sufficient, as shown by the draughts. Figs. 159 and 
 160 are also the same thing, and worked on the same 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 20i 
 
 principle as 157 and 158, but with three picks and three ends 
 respectively, instead of two. In Fig. 161 we have a pattern 
 of a different character, but equally applicable to three 
 healds. Again, each of those patterns may be varied, as 
 shown at Figs, 162, 163, and 164, and still only three 
 healds be used. These variations may be carried consider- 
 ably further without the use of more than three healds. 
 Using four healds the number of patterns which may be 
 
 □□□□HH 
 □□HHDD 
 
 Fig. 161. 
 
 produced increases immensely ; in fact, we may say there 
 is no limit to the number of patterns, although there is 
 a limit to the number of combinations, or rather to the 
 number of distinct styles of working which may be 
 combined in the same pattern. I have already shown 
 what patterns may be produced upon four ends. Any 
 patterns worked upon four healds must, of necessity, be 
 
 □HDBDDD 
 
 □□HDDB BDDDHDD □□□□BHnDDnHH 
 
 □BDHDn □□BBGDBBDDDn 
 
 BDDDBD BBDDnnDDBBan 
 
 Fig. 162. Fig. 163. Fig. 164. 
 
 a combination of such as can be produced upon four 
 ends, as, for example, the patterns 165, 166, and 167. 
 In the first of these it will be seen there are two kinds 
 of workings combined, in the second three, and in the 
 third two ; that is, a plain and a twill pick alternately ; 
 in each case the pattern may be worked upon four healds, 
 as shown by the draught, and in each case the first four 
 ends of the pattern to the left represent the order of 
 working for the healds, or what is known as the pegging 
 
202 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 plan. One thing must here be remarked. In arranging 
 
 patterns of this description, care should be taken to have as 
 
 far as possible the same number of ends upon each heald. If 
 
 Figs. 165 and 166 be examined, it will be found that each 
 
 □BnnnannBHDaHnanHnnnnDDn 
 □□□□□□BDDncnannBanaHDDBH 
 □□□BnaDBaaBBDnBnDDBaDDaa 
 
 BCnDBGDDnDDDDHDDnHDDBBna 
 
 □■■□□■■□■■□□HuaBaunBaaBB 
 
 □□BBnDBBaDBBDnBBanaBDDBB 
 BDDBBDDBDDBBDBBDDBBDBBDD 
 BaDDBBaDBBDDBBaaBBaaBBaG 
 
 Fig. 165. 
 
 heald would have the same number of ends drawn upon it. 
 In Fig. 167 this is not the case, as the first heald would have 
 four ends, the second three, the third two, and the fourth 
 three. Consequent^, the first heald would have to be twice 
 
 □□CHnDDBDHDBnBDBDnBnnnBnnDDDnnnn 
 
 □□BDDDBaauaDDDDGDuDBDDuBDDBBnDBB 
 □BDCDBGUBLBDBQBCHDDDBDUaDDDGDDDQ 
 BGGGBGGGGGGGaGGaGBaGGBGGBBaQBBGa 
 □GBBGGBBGHGBGBQBGGBBGGBBGGBBGGBB 
 □BBGGBBGBGBGHGBGBGGBBGGBGGBBGGBfl 
 BBGGBBGGBGBGBGBGBBGGBBGGBBGf IBBGG 
 BGGBBGGBUBGBGBGBGBBGGBBGBBGGBBGG 
 
 lig. 166. 
 
 as fine as the third, and one-third finer than the second and 
 fourth. This would entail considerable trouble in arranging 
 the healds, and in many cases would cause considerable 
 expense in having to provide special healds for a pattern, 
 which would probably be of no use for any other pattern. 
 , aGGBaGGBaaaB 
 
 GGBGGaaGBGGG 
 GBGGGBGGGBGG 
 BGGGBGBGGGBG 
 GHGBGBQBGBOB 
 GGBBGGaBBGGB 
 BGBGBGBGBGBG 
 GBBGGBGGBBGa 
 
 GBaBaBGaaaGB 
 
 BBGGBBBGGBBG 
 BQBGBGBaBGBa 
 BGLBBGBBGGBB 
 GBGBGBGBGBGB 
 
 QGBBGGGBBGGB 
 aaBGBGBQBGBa 
 aBaaGBGGBBGG 
 GBGBGBGBGBGB 
 BBGGBBBGGBBG 
 BGBGBGBGBGBG 
 BGGBBGBBGGBB 
 
 Fig, 167. 
 
 This can easily be obviated by arranging the number of 
 ends in each stripe, so as to cause the same number to fall 
 upon each heald. For instance, if we apply the draught, 
 Fig. 168, to the same working as 167, it will only increase 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 203 
 
 the size of each stripe two ends, and each heald would 
 carry the same number. The stripes may be made either 
 equal or unequal in size, but the above rule should always 
 be observed as far as ever possible. 
 
 We may now proceed to examine the subject from 
 another point of view, which will perhaps tend to confirm 
 what has been already said, and at the same time pave the 
 way more fully for what is to follow. In almost every 
 pattern, however intricate it may appear, the styles of 
 
 □□□HnnnanDDBDnDH 
 
 □□SanDHnBDDDBDDD 
 □BDanHDDDHDnDBnD 
 
 [^□□□□□□□□□HDnDHa 
 Fig. 168. 
 
 working of which it is composed may with a little care 
 be ver}^ easily discovered, and it ought to be the first 
 object of the designer when any combination comes before 
 him which at first sight appears new to him, to analyse 
 it, and find out its elements; he can then easily reproduce 
 it, either in the same or in any altered form which his 
 fancy might suggest. By analysing, I wish it to be 
 distinctly understood that I do not mean the common 
 
 □■BD ■□BD 
 □BBDBaBD r>BDDB DBUBp 
 
 BDCHDBDB ^DBBD DBOB^ 
 
 □BBDDBDB BDDB BDHU 
 
 BDDBBDBD 
 BDBDDBBD 
 
 □BDBBDnB BDBD DBBD 
 
 □HDBDBBD pn^Um BQDBd 
 
 BnBDBDDB ^nBOB DBBD^ 
 
 numU BDDB 
 
 Fig. 169. 
 
 practice of picking the cloth to pieces, thread by thread, 
 which is probably the slowest and most uncertain method 
 which can be adopted for getting the pattern of a cloth. 
 Except for beginners, or in extreme cases, such as in milled 
 woollen cloths, where the pattern cannot be easily discerned, 
 not more than very few threads ever need to be picked 
 out of a cloth, and those only to find the basis of the 
 pattern, after which it can be more easily and accurately 
 followed on the face. 
 
204 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 If we take, for example the pattern Fig. 169, which 
 at first sight would appear a most difficult pattern to copy 
 or reproduce, especially if a large area had to be covered 
 with it, yet no easier pattern to reproduce could be devised, 
 if proper means be taken to analyse it. If we divide the 
 pattern into four equal parts, as shown at a, b, c, and d. 
 
 □■■■□□□■□□■a 
 
 ■■□□DDBBBDDD 
 
 Fig. 170. 
 
 □ EDBBDncranDBB 
 □□BBDnDDnSBB 
 BBDnEDBBSnDD 
 BBSDDDBHaniia 
 □□□□BBDOBBDH 
 □HnDBBDEBBna 
 
 □□BBDDnnanBB 
 □□BBHannnDBB 
 BBannaBBDEaa 
 
 BBDHnDBBaDDB 
 
 it will be found that each part is based upon plain cloth, 
 A and c having two picks in one shed, and b and d having 
 two ends working together, so that by bearing this simple 
 fact in mind, the designer may reproduce the pattern with 
 the greatest ease, and combine it with any other working 
 at any moment. Again, the pattern Fig. 170 would be 
 
 □□□BDBDBDBBBn 
 ■BDBDBDBDDUQB 
 □□BDBQBDBBBDD 
 BDBDBDBDDDGBB 
 □BDBDBDBBBaDD 
 □BDBDBDDDnBBB 
 BDBDBDBBBDDan 
 ■□BDBnDDDBBBD 
 □BDBDBBBDaDDB 
 □BDBDDDDBBBDB 
 BGBDBBBDDDDBa 
 BDBnnDDBBBaBD 
 
 □ BDBBBDmDBDB 
 □BDGDDBBBDBDB 
 BDBBBDDDaBGBD 
 BDDmBBBDBDBn 
 
 □ BBBmDDBaBDB 
 □□□□BBBDBDBDB 
 BBBDaDDBDBnBD 
 □□□BBBDBDBDBD 
 BBDDanBDBDBnB 
 □□BBBDBDBDBDD 
 BDDDDBDBnBDBB 
 □BBBGBDBDBGDD 
 □□□□BDBQBaBBB 
 BBBDBDBDBCGDD 
 
 DBDBDDDB 
 □BnDQDDB 
 □BDOUmnB 
 BDEDDnBD 
 BDCESmBD 
 
 BcnnaDBn 
 
 □EDDaBDB 
 
 □□□□□BDB 
 □□□□□BOB 
 
 mnaDBDBD 
 
 □□□□BDBD 
 
 □[.laDBaBD 
 
 □□□BDBDP 
 □□□BDBDD 
 
 □G3DBCBDD 
 □□BCBDDD 
 □□BDBDCa 
 
 EaaBDBaaa 
 
 □BDBDISnD 
 
 □BDBDDiin 
 □BOBDnDD 
 
 BDBDEDDGD 
 BDBDDlinD 
 BDBDaDlia 
 
 □BDDnnnB 
 
 BDDDDnBn 
 □□□□□BOB 
 □□□□BDBD 
 
 □□□BDBaa 
 
 □□BDBDDn 
 □BDBDDDD 
 BDBDDnDn 
 
 Fig. 171. Fig. 172. 
 
 a rather difficult pattern to reproduce from memory, unless 
 some order of arrangement were observed, but by following 
 the plan shown at a, where the leading feature of the 
 design is shown in black, and consists of a simple zig-zag 
 figure, and the filHng up in shaded squares, which consists 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 205 
 
 of an irregular arrangement of a four-end satin to suit the 
 figure, the figure may not only be reproduced but varied at 
 will with the greatest ease. Again, in Figs 171, 172, and 
 173, we have designs which appear distinct in themselves, 
 but each one may easily be reduced to a system. If we take 
 Fig. 171, we shall find one portion of it to consist of a 
 plain cloth, but having two picks in each shed, and the 
 other portion is also based upon plain working, but each 
 pick passing over three and under four ends. Coming to 
 pattern 172, we shall find that the basis of the design 
 
 □■□■□UDDDBBB 
 
 □aDBDDDHDBBB 
 ■□■□BDDDBBBa 
 BOBaGEDDDBBBn 
 
 BOBDnanDBBBa 
 
 □BDannDBBBDB 
 □BDDEiaDBBBnB 
 □Br'DnsiDBBBLlB 
 
 BDfflnnnBBBDBa 
 
 BDDllDDBBBaBa 
 
 BDDDiaaBBBaBn 
 
 □BDDDBBBnBDB □inBDnnnDBBB 
 
 □□BaaBBBDBDB BaBDUnaDBBBG 
 
 □□□HDBBBDBDB □BOmnaBBBCB 
 
 snnnBBBGBDBa BannnaBBBaBG 
 
 □aDDBBBDBDBD □□□□□BBBDBCB 
 
 □□HDBBBDBnBn □□□□BBBDBaBD 
 
 □□□BBBDBDBDE □□□BBBnBDBaH 
 
 SDDBBBDBDBDD □□BBBDBDBDDD 
 
 □sDBBBnBDBaa □BBBDBnBnaDa 
 
 □□BBBDBnBDBD BBBDBDBaaann 
 
 □□BBBnBnBDDB BBDBaBnaaudB 
 
 HDBBBDBDBaaG BDBaBaaHaDBB 
 □BBBDBDBDBBD 
 
 □BBBaBBBDnBD A 
 □BBBDBDBDnDB 
 
 BBBDBnBDBana 
 
 BBBaBDBnDBan 
 
 BBBBBaBaDDBD 
 BBaBDBDHanDB 
 BBDBaBDaDDaB 
 BBDBDHDDDBDB 
 BDBDBDBDBnBB 
 BaBnBDDaDDBB 
 
 BnBaBnDDBaiB 
 
 Fig. 173. 
 
 is that shown at a, each pick being three times repeated ; 
 then to fill up the large space which is produced by this 
 elongation, an ordinary four-thread twill is introduced, as 
 shown by the shaded squares ; then, as the basis of this 
 design is a twill composed of plain, and weft or warp floating, 
 the whole design is a combination of twill, or simple 
 regular figure, and plain. Again, in Fig. 173 we have a 
 similar combination, but producing a bolder efiect, the basis 
 of the patterns being shown at a. Practically, there is no 
 
206 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 limit to the variety of patterns which may be produced 
 upon this principle, they are simply elongation of the original 
 twill. We need not necessarily confine ourselves to regular 
 twills for either the base or the filling up of the pattern, but 
 may combine them in any style as fancy may suggest. 
 
 In design Fig. 174, we have a combination of a similar 
 
 □□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□BDBDHnH 
 □□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□BLBaBQBa 
 
 □□□BaDDBaaBnDDBaa'JDDuaDn 
 □□BacoBDDDaBDDDBnnDDman 
 □HaDDBanBDacBnauanaDnDaa 
 BGDDBaDDaaDDaaaaaDDGaam 
 
 □□■naDBBnDBBDDBBDBDBaBDB 
 
 BflDDBflDaBBGaBBUDGBaBDBGB 
 
 □□BBmBBDaBBDDaBBDBDBDBa 
 
 BBDGBBaDBBaGBBaGBDBDBGBG 
 
 □GBBGGBBGGBBGGBBGBGBGBGB 
 
 ■BGGBBGGBBGGBBGGGBGBGBGB 
 
 □GBBGGBBGGBBGGBBBGBGBGBG 
 
 BBGGBBGGBBGGBBGDBGBGBGBG 
 
 □GBBGGBBGGBBGGBBGBGBGBGB 
 
 □BBGGBBGBGGBBGGBGBGBGBGB 
 
 BBGGBBGGBBGGBBGGBGBGBGBG 
 
 BGGBBGGBGBBGGBBGBGBGBGBG 
 
 GGBBGGBBGGBBGGBBGBGBGBGB 
 
 GBBGGBBGBGGBBGGBGBGiiiGBGB 
 
 BBGGBBGGBBGGBBGGBGBGBGBG 
 
 BGGBBGGBGBBGGBBGBGBGBGBG 
 
 GBBGGBBGBGGBBGGBGBGBGBGB 
 
 GGBBGGBBGGBBGGBBGBGBGBGB . 
 
 BGGBBGGBGBBGGBBGBGBGBGBG 
 
 BBGGBBGGBBGGBBGGBGBGBGBG 
 
 nBBGGBBGBGGBBGGBGBGBGBGB 
 
 □GBBGGBBGGBBGGBBGBGBGBGB 
 
 BGGBBGGBGBBGGBBGBGBGBGBG 
 
 BBGGBBGGBBGGBBGGBGBGBBGB 
 
 Fig, 174. 
 
 character to that in Fig, 166, but in this case the effect 
 would be to produce a check pattern on the face of the 
 piece instead of a stripe ; but it is simply a combination 
 of twill and plain working, and is another example of 
 what may be produced upon a small number of healds, 
 
 GGGGGGGB nBGEGBGB 
 
 QGGGGGBG BGBGBGHG 
 
 GBGBGBGB GBr Z GEGLJ . 
 
 BGBGBLiBG BG^ H_GG 
 
 GGGGGGGB GB l _H^G 
 
 □GGGGGBG BL ^ HU' □ 
 
 GBGBGBGB GHLl^^HGG 
 
 BGBGBGBG BGGHBGGG 
 
 Fi^g. 175. Fig. 176. 
 
 the draught which is immediately over it showing that 
 only six healds would be required to weave it, and with 
 a slight modification in the design it might be made upon 
 four healds. 
 
 In the same manner the three styles of working, as in 
 Fig. 165, may be combined, or Figs. 169 or [70 combined 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 207 
 
 with twill, or any two or three styles worked together so 
 as to produce the desired effect. One other style of working 
 now calls for attention. Fig. 175 shows a design Vv^hich will 
 produce a perfectly plain face on the cloth, but at the same 
 time a line stripe will be visible running the entire length of 
 ■□□□□□□□■□□□□□□□BnHnHnHGHnBnBnBn 
 
 □□□□□□□BaanDDDDBnHGEnHGBiJBrjHnHnB 
 
 BaBDBDBnBaBnBDBnBLr US (i^B aajGD 
 □BnBDBGBnBnBnBnBnEua^' jar t sa laa 
 
 maanaonanaaaacjaoBnnam jh^j hg id 
 □□□□□□□BDnnnannBDDijH i-a_ -□hdlcb 
 BnBaBnBnBnBnBDBDBnuaHi 1 mc^ dqol □ 
 
 □BDBDBDBnBDBaBaBDaaBLGLIBjmHJLJaa 
 
 Fi^g. 177. 
 
 the piece. The cause of this will be apparent on examining 
 the design ; the first six ends of the pattern are only 
 interwoven with one-half the weft, that is, two picks are 
 woven in quite plain, and the next two pass to the back 
 of the cloth, whereas the seventh and eighth ends are 
 interwoven with every pick, consequently those two ends 
 
 □BDanBGBnBnBnHnBnBnBnBDBnHnBnBDB 
 
 BEiauBDGDBnLjaHLjauannaDDDaBDUDDma 
 
 □L — ir laL I HanGrjDDDBCDDDGnnB 
 
 BL ^E_i B a _ jBQB.jBaBUfflaBGOGBa 
 
 C eS a a B_S ^aGBGBUBUBUBDB 
 
 B E eg a b_ □uaaGaaaGGDQa 
 
 □G^S a_ -aGGGGGGGHGnDGanaH 
 
 B_a B_a_H_a_H H^H jHGBGBGHGBGaa 
 □BGBGBGaGHGBGaGBGBGHGBGHGBGaaBGB 
 BaGGBGCGBGCGHGaGaGGGGGGGBGaaGGGG 
 □ CGE_u.GB_,G H_ GaGGGGGGGBaaaGGGGB 
 BGL GSririuHC BB aGBaaaBaBaBGBGBGBa 
 
 QL a^GJIHu ai BGHaBGBGBaBaBGBGB 
 
 BGLi B^Z^BG^ jEGGGHaGaGnGaBGGaGGGa 
 Q^GB^ GBGQ BGG:_JBGaDDGaaBGGGGGGGll 
 BGBGBGBGaGHuBGHGBGBGBGBGaGBGBGBD 
 GBGBGBGaGBGBGBGSGBGBaBGBGBGBGaaB 
 ■aGGGGGGBaGGGGGGBBGGBGGGB [ l Bf GG 
 □GGDGCGBGGGGGGGBGGGBG GB Ji_ BG GB 
 BGBGBQBGHGBGBGaGBrtGGB JL_Ga Jut B JG 
 aBGBGBGBGBGBGBGBGG^Br^. JS^^JGHL ZB 
 ■aGaaGGGBGGaGGLlGBL _ZB^ GB^ ^G 
 
 □aaaGGGBCGGaGGGBL.^ JB^ ffi^u. BG GB 
 BGBGBGBGBGBGBGBGEGBGaGHGSGBnanaa 
 □BaBGBGBGBGBGBGSGBGBGBGBGHGSGHGB 
 BaGGGGGGaGGGGGGGlS _B E B G 
 aGGaGGaaGGGGGGGaGnuaG.^ 'GHG : ^ m 
 BGBaBGBGBGBGBGBGa ^GB _® a 
 QBGBGBGBGBGBGHGEG B^ _a!_ JB 
 
 ■□aaDGGGBGGGGGGGB JU^ 19 ^.G 
 
 □GGGGGGBaaGGGaGBG BG _SG ^H^i^^B 
 
 ■□BGBGBGBGBGBGBGBGBGBGBGBGBGBGBG 
 
 Fi^, 178. 
 
 having double the quantity of w^eft interwoven with them, 
 show a clear line throughout the entire length of the piece, 
 and yet the surface of the fabric appears as a perfectly 
 plain cloth. Fig. 176 is a similar arrangement, but in this 
 the warf) instead of the weft is thrown to the back for six 
 picks, and the seventh and eighth picks are interwoven 
 
208 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 with all the warp, consequently the line stripe would run 
 across the piece instead of lengthwise. By a combination 
 of the two an immense variety of patterns may be produced 
 in a very simple manner. Fig. 177 would produce a stripe 
 effect, the first sixteen ends of the pattern being divided 
 by the plain threads longitudinally, and the second half 
 laterally. Again, in P'ig. 178 the whole surface of the 
 piece would be divided into squares, each alternate square 
 being again subdivided in opposite directions, the warp 
 and weft predominating alternately ; or, we may combine 
 the two with some other style of working, as shown in 
 Fig. 179, where they are combined with twill. It may 
 be advisable again at this point to remind the beginner 
 of what was pointed out in a previous page, viz., that 
 whenever two styles of working are combined in one 
 pattern they should be so arranged as to join without 
 any imperfections being visible at the junction. If 
 Fig. 179 be examined it will be seen that this is done 
 simply by dividing the two plain ends and picks, and 
 placing one on each side of what may be termed the 
 thin portion of the cloth. In any combination it will 
 be easy to find the best means of joining. Following- 
 out this principle of working, taking some simple design or 
 designs as a basis, and re-arranging and combining, the 
 designer will find little difficulty in producing an unlimited 
 variety of patterns. All the foregoing are what are commonly 
 known as all-over effects, that is, the design is evenly 
 distributed over the whole surface of the fabric. This 
 certainly represents the great majority of fabrics, but what 
 are known as set or spot figures form no inconsiderable 
 portion, and with them we must now deal. 
 
 SPOT FIGURES. 
 
 As has been already pointed out, set or spot figures 
 may be produced in a variety of ways ; first, by the warp 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICvS. 
 
 209 
 
 or weft, or both, which are forming the ground cloth ; 
 second, by extra spotting weft ; third, by extra spotting 
 warp ; or fourth, by a combination of the two latter, using 
 extra spotting warp and weft, A simple example of the 
 first of these is given at Fig. 180, where the spot is 
 formed by the weft, the ground being a perfectly plain 
 cloth. On the back of the cloth a similar spot would be 
 formed by the warp, therefore in this class of spots it is 
 merely a question of leaving down the warp if a weft 
 spot is to be formed on the face, or raising it if a warp 
 spot is to be formed. Fig. 181 is a spot figure, in which 
 
 □□□■□□□■□□□■□□□■□□□□□□□■U^UHLLUB 
 
 ■□^□■□^[^■□□□■□^^□■□■□■□■□■□□□■Ljaa 
 
 □□□■LjiZLJBDtJEUBL^-GBDBaBDBaBLu-^BULJJB 
 BEJaaBnrjaBDLDBuUUBDDDDDmBLJUUBUliJa 
 □yUBDUUBUUaBMUUBDEnunDDBLJUDBUUUB 
 BDBUBUBDBUBDBGBUBaBUBaBUBGBGBDBa 
 □BDBGBGBBUaBBUDBUBUBUBUBBBaUBaBD 
 BaaDDDGDBBDDBBDGBaUGDaDDBaaBBaaB 
 □□□aGaDBaBBGGBBGGGQaaGGBaGBBaaBB 
 BGBGBGBGGGBBGDBBBGBGBGBGDBBGGBBG 
 □BGBDBGBBGGBBGGBGBGBGBGBBBGGBBGG 
 BGQGGGDGBBaaBBGGBGGGGQGaBaGBBaGB 
 □GaGGGGBGBBGGBBGDDaGGaGBGGBBGGBB 
 BGBUBaBUGQBBGaBBBGBGBaBGGBBGGBBa 
 □BGBGBGBGBGBQBGBQBaBGBQBGBGBGBGB 
 BQGaGaGUBGGGBl-JBGBnLnGBUGGBni'DaBDHa 
 □GGGGGGBUrjUBGUUGBL iL'BGLJLJBGljGBGLJUB 
 BGBGBGBL^BGGGBGLJGULJLJGBLJLJuBi..^ LJGB^UG 
 GBGBGBGBGl IGBGGGBGULjBGGGBUGIJBGGlJB 
 BGGGaGGQBGuGHI.JUGBrjUGBDUGaf.:UGBuUa 
 aGGaaGGBaGaBGUGBGULjaGGGGBUGBUUGB 
 BGBGBGBGBGBGBGBGBGBGBGBUBGBGBGBG 
 GBGBGBGBBBGGBBGGGBGBGBGBBGGBBGGB 
 BaaaGaGaBaGBBGCBBGaGGGaGBBGaBBaD 
 □GaaGaQBGGBBGDBBGGGGGGGBGBBGGBBa 
 BGBGBGBGGBBGGBBGBGBGBGBGGGBBGGBB 
 GBGBGBGBBBGGBBGGGBGBGBGBBGGBBGGB 
 BGGaQQGGBDGBBaaBBGGGGGGGBBaGBBGa 
 □GaaaGGBGGBBaGBBGGGGaGGBaBBGGBBG 
 BGBGBGBGGBBGGBBGBGBGBGBGGGBBGGBB 
 
 Fit). 179. 
 
 both the warp and weft of the ground cloth are made 
 to form part of the figure, the black representing the 
 weft, and the shaded squares the warp. The figures may 
 be placed at any convenient distance apart, and the 
 ground may be plain, twill, or any other working suitable 
 to the nature of the fabric. Whatever may be the working 
 of the ground, it has only to be marked upon paper in 
 addition to the spot, and so reproduced upon the fabric. 
 Then so far as this class of figuring goes little more need 
 be said, because it is merely an adaptation of the style 
 
2IO 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 of working with which we have been deahng, the figures 
 assuming a definite form, and confined within a certain 
 space. But this apphes not only to small spots, but also 
 to the more general principles of figuring. Very large 
 and elaborate figures may be produced either with weft 
 or warp, or both ; in fact, the whole surface of the fabric 
 may be covered with figuring exactly' upon the same 
 
 □■□■□■Baaa'jBDBaH 
 
 □■□■□■■■□■□■□■■a 
 ■□■□■□■□■□■□■□■a 
 □■■■□■□■□■■■□■□a 
 
 □BBBaBDBDBBBaBnB 
 
 aaaumamomauamama 
 
 □BOBaBBBDBDBDBBB 
 BaBaBBBBBDBaBBBB 
 □BDBaBBBDBaBDBBB 
 BDBDBDBUBDBaBaBa 
 □BBBnBGBDBBBDBDB 
 BBBBBaBDBBBBBDBa 
 □BBBQBDBDBBBGBaB 
 BaBDBDBaBDBGBaBU 
 
 Fig, 1 80. 
 
 principle. When the weft or warp is not forming figures, 
 they may be interweaving, so as to form plain or ground 
 cloth. Then another question arises now. If there be 
 too much figuring on the cloth, and the figure is formed 
 by the ground weft or warp, or both, the distance over 
 which the figure extends, or the number of threads over 
 or under which the weft or warp passes, may represent 
 
 □□□□□□BnnnDDn 
 □□□□□BBBnnaaa 
 □□□EOBBHBonnnu 
 □□□□[ aoB' J 'Hua 
 
 □□■□L''JHMJLiaGa 
 □BBB. ^ BBBG 
 
 BBBaa aaaaa 
 
 □aaa; . aaaa 
 
 □□BULjuauuLjaaa 
 □□EBDaaauuHDa 
 
 BGasaBBBBiiaaG 
 GGaaaaaGGGaa 
 
 □□GaaGBaaaGDG 
 
 Fi^. 181. 
 
 so much loose material, and so give a looseness to the 
 fabric which would be seriously detrimental to it. In 
 that case it becomes necessary to introduce what are 
 termed binding threads at certain intervals in the figure. 
 If the design be of a floral character, or simple leaves, this 
 is comparatively easy, for then the bindmg threads may be 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 211 
 
 made to form the stems or veins of the figure. Where 
 this is not feasible it may be frequently effected by intro- 
 ducing a little shading in the form of twill or other 
 working, or, where it is absolutely necessary to preserve 
 the flat unbroken appearance of the figure, then the satin 
 working may be resorted to. In all cases the designer 
 must be guided by the nature of his cloth, and the purpose 
 to which it is to be applied, and make his design subservient 
 to these considerations. 
 
 Another system is frequently adopted, which is suitable 
 for either spots or more elaborate figuring, that is, allowing 
 the warp and weft to exchange places with each other, 
 and preserving the same working, whether it be twill, satin, 
 or otherwise, both in figure and ground. An example of 
 this is shown at Fig. 182, where the ground is represented 
 as five-thread satin, with the warp predominating, and a 
 portion of the spot also as five-thread satin, but with weft 
 predominating on the face ; the other portion of the spot 
 being a five- end twill, for the purpose of producing a 
 kind of shaded effect. The two examples here given. 
 Figs. 181 and 182, would require to be placed at suitable 
 distances apart upon the fabric, to give effect to them. 
 This distance may be varied at will, or to suit the nature 
 of the cloth. The order of arrangement may also be 
 considerably varied, that is, the figures made to assume 
 various positions or placed at varying distances from 
 each other, or we may go away out of the region of mere 
 spot figuring and deal with more elaborate effects ; in fact 
 we may figure to as great an extent as we please. It 
 fnight be as well at this point to call the student's attention 
 to damask w^eaving, which is merely an extension of the 
 principle of figuring shown in Fig. 182. If he will examine 
 a piece of damask cloth he will find that to whatever 
 extent the figure may be carried, or however large the 
 figures may be on the fabric, there is no looseness, the 
 
212 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 fabric is equally firm throughout. This arises from the 
 simple fact that when the figuring takes place, the warp 
 and weft merely change places. If the ground of the 
 fabric is a satin showing a predominance of warp on the 
 face, the figuring is also a satin, but showing a pre- 
 dominance of weft on the face. This class of figuring, 
 or rather this style of working, is a most useful one, 
 more especially when applied to fabrics where firmness 
 
 □■□□□□■□□□□■□□□□■□□□□■□□□□■□□□□■□□□□□■■■■■■□□□■a 
 
 ■□□□□■□□□□■□□□□■□□□□■□□□□■□■■■!□■■■■■■□■■□□□□□■□□ 
 
 □■□□□□■□□□□■□□□□■□□□□■□■■■□■■■■□■□□■■■■□□■□□□□■a 
 
 □□□□■□□□□■□□□□■□□□□■□■■■□■■■■□■□□■■□■■□■□□□□■□□D 
 
 ■□□□□■□□□□■□□□□■□□■■□■■■■□■■■□□□□■■■■□□□■□□□□■□a 
 □□□■□□□□■□□□□■□□■■□■■■■□■■■■□^□■■□■■■□■□□□□■□□□a 
 
 □■□□□□■□□□□■□□□■□■■■■□■■■■□□□□■■■■□■□□□□□■□□□□■a 
 
 ■□□□□■□□□□BnBHBnBBBBnBHBDDBnBBBBDriBBnnaDBDannBnn 
 
 □□□BDaDDBnDBBnBBBBDBBBBDnBBBDBBBBDBaaDBnDDDBDnaa 
 □BDaanBaDDBDBBBBaBBBBDBaDBBBBnBBBBBDBaDDGBDDDnBD 
 □□□□BDDDnnBBBBDBBBBDBBBnBGBBBBDBBBBDDDaBDDaaBDaD 
 □□BnnnnBnBBBDBBBBDBBBBnBBBnBBBBDBBDDGBaanDBnnDnB 
 BDDDDBDaBBDBBBBDBBBBDBDBBBBDBBBBDBDBDGnaBaGnDBaa 
 □□□BnnDBnBBBBDBBBBnBBDBnBBBBnBBBBnDDnDBDnDDBama 
 □BaGDDBBBBBDBBBBDBBBGDBBGBBBBDBBBBnDBDDDDBDDDUBa 
 □□□□BDDBBaBBBBGBBBBDDBBBBGBBBBGBBDBDDDaBDDDDBDaa 
 □□BDDaDnBBBBnBBBBDBDBDBBBBDBBBBaBaaDDBDDDDBDDDaB 
 BDnnDBBBBBDBBBBDBBanBBnBBBBaBBBBDDCBnaanBDnnnBDn 
 □□□BaaBBDBBBBDBBBBDDBBBaBBBBDBBBBBmDDBDaDDBaaaD 
 □BDDDaDBBBBDBBBBDBDDBBBBaBBBBDBBBDDDBDDDDBaDGaBa 
 □□□□BUBBBDBBBBDBBaaBDBBBBDBBBBDBBDBDDDDBDDDaBDaD 
 □□BnDDBGBBBBnBBBnnnBBDBBBBaBBBBDnnDDaBDDDDBaDnan 
 BDDGUBDBBBDBBBBDaDBBBBGBBBBaBBBBDDDBDDaaBDDaDBaa 
 
 □□□BDDDBDBBBBnBBnnnBBBBDBBBBDBBBaBnnnaBnnnDBnnGn 
 
 □BGGGaBaBBBGBBaGGGBGBBBBaBBBBGBBaaaGBGaaGBGGGGBa 
 
 QGaGBaCGGGBBaaGGGGBBaBBBBaBBBBaQaaBGGGaBGaaGBGaG 
 aGBGaaGBaGGaBGBBBaBBBGBBBBGBBBBaBGGGGBGGGGBDaGGB 
 BGGGQBGaaaBGGBBBBGBBBBaBBBBGBBGGGGGBGGDGBGGGGBGa 
 GGaBGGGGBaaGBBBBBaBBBBBGBBBBGGGaaBaaaGBGaaaBaaGG 
 □BGaaaBQGGGBBBBBBGaGBBBBGBBBGGaBGGaaBGDQGBaGaGBa 
 □GGGBGGGGBGBBBBBGGGBGGaGBGaaGBGGGGBGGGGBGaaaBGaa 
 
 aaBQDaoBGGGBBBBBaBQDaaBaaaaBGaaaBGGaaBGGGGBGaGGB 
 
 BGQGGBGGGGBBBBBaaGGGBGaGGBaGGGBGaaGBGGGGBGGGaBaa 
 
 aQaBGGaGGBBBBBGQGaBGGaaBaaaGBaaGGBGDGGBGaaaBaGGa 
 
 aBGaGaBCBBBBBaGGBGGGaBaGaaBaaaGHaaaGBGaGGBGGGGBG 
 □GGGBGGGGBBBGGBGGGGBGGGGBaaGGBGaGGBGGGGBaGOaBaaa 
 □GBGGGGBGGBGBGaGaBaaGGBaaaGBQGaGBGGGQBaGGGBGGGGB 
 
 BaGGGBGaaGBaaaaBGaaaBGaGGBGaaGBGaaQBaaaaBaaGGBQa 
 
 Fig. 182. 
 
 of texture must be preserved, because no matter what 
 amount of figure may be introduced the cloth is in no way 
 deteriorated, but preserves its firmness, and, consequently 
 its useful wearing qualities to the fullest extent. This 
 style of working, although as has been shown a most 
 serviceable one, is not of course adapted for every class 
 of fabric, but only in fact for fabrics of a very fine or 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 heavy character. The ground, being worked generally as 
 a satin, necessitates the introduction of a considerable 
 quantity of material to give the cloth sufficient firmness; 
 it could, therefore, only be used to advantage where a 
 large quantity of fine material is used in the formation 
 of the fabric, or where a very heavy fabric is desired. It 
 would, therefore, remain for the designer to select the 
 style of working which will be most suitable to the nature 
 of the material which he is using. The style and arrange- 
 ment of his designs must also be governed by similar 
 considerations. But this subject will be more fully dealt 
 with under the head of designing for Jacquards, to 
 which it more properly belongs, the object at present 
 being to point out the various systems of arrangement 
 and combination. 
 
 Then these three figures represent the principle of 
 
 □ BBBD 
 BBBBB 
 
 □ BBBD 
 
 Fig 183. 
 
 spotting or figuring with the same warp and weft as form 
 the ground cloth. Spotting with extra warp or weft, or 
 both, will require a totally different arrangement upon 
 paper to those. We will suppose that it is desired to 
 produce the small spot, Fig. 183, with extra coloured weft 
 upon a perfectly plain fabric ; then the arrangement of 
 the design will be as shown at Fig. 184, the picks marked 
 a being the spotting picks, and the rest the ground picks, 
 which will be seen to form a plain fabric, the spotting 
 picks passing over sufficient threads to form the desired 
 pattern, as shown by the shaded squares, and then passing 
 to the back of the cloth for a certain distance, and again 
 coming to the face to form the next spot. 
 
 Another question now arises in connection with these 
 spots. Very frequently they are woven with healds, and 
 with a small number of healds a great variety of patterns 
 
214 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 may be produced, by a careful arrangement of the draughts. 
 For this design eight healds would be required, the 
 draught being shown over the design, the first and second 
 healds being required for the ground cloth, the next 
 three for the first spot, and the last three for the second 
 spot. The working design, or that which shows the 
 order of raising the healds, is given at Fig. 185. But 
 with a similar number of healds, much more extensive and 
 elaborate designs might be produced quite easily. Then 
 in spotting with extra weft, only one thing is required to 
 be observed, that the spotting weft passes over only as 
 
 □□□□□□□□□□□□Hnnnnn 
 
 □□□□□□□□□□□HDHDDDa 
 □□□□□□□□□□BDDDEaDD 
 
 □□□[^□□□□□□□□□□□□□n 
 □□HnHnDDDmunnDDDD 
 
 □□□□□[^□□□□□□□□□□□n BDQBDBDB 
 □□□□□□□BDBUDDDDBDH DHBaBaBa 
 
 BGncjDDBaBDDDanDDBa aaaooDwa 
 
 □ BDBUBDBLjBDBDBDBBB bddbgbdb 
 
 HDBDBDBDBDBDBDBDBn aDaaawmm 
 
 □BDBDBDBDBDBaBDBDB □BBDBaBD 
 
 rtDDDDaDBH 
 
 BnBDBDBDBDBGBDBDBn BDDBDBDB 
 
 □BBDBDBn 
 
 [jBGBBBDBDBLBDBDBDB 
 
 DHBaBaBD 
 
 BnBDBDBDBDBDBDBDBD flnDBSBDaD 
 □BGBDBGBGBDBDBUBDB BDDBLBBB 
 BDBDBDBnBDBDBDBDBn aDCDGLODD 
 
 flDDElBSGnBDDDnaDnUDD 
 GBGBGBGBGBGBaBGBaB Win t8c 
 
 aGGnGGGGGGGGGGGGGQa ^ ^y* ^^5- 
 
 BGBGBGBGBGBGBGBGBG 
 
 flGGGGEjaaaaaaGGGGaGD 
 Fig. 184. 
 
 many threads as are required to form the pattern, and 
 then goes to the back of the cloth, where it may be dealt 
 with in such manner as may be desirable, either by binding 
 to the cloth or cutting off ; the method of dealing with 
 this will be shown at a later period. 
 
 In spotting with extra warp, a similar arrangement is 
 required as in spotting with weft. Fig. i86 is the design 
 for a warp spot, the figure being the same as that in Fig. 
 184. In this case the ground weaves on as in an ordinary 
 plain piece, the spotting warp being drawn through 
 separate healds and raised or depressed as desired, to form 
 the figure. The draught is shown over the design, and the 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 working plan at Fig. 187. In this case it will be noticed 
 that although the same kind of spot is produced as in Fig. 
 184, yet only six healds are required to produce the pattern. 
 If the two designs be examined, it will be found that the 
 healds which are used to produce the spot in Fig. 184 
 have also to assist in forming the ground, whereas in Fig. 
 186 the spotting healds work only the spotting threads, 
 
 □□□□□□□□□□□□□BDBDBnn 
 □□□□□□□□□□□HDDnDDDDa 
 
 □□□BDHDaaDnDnaGunaDD 
 □BDacDCDDHnnDDDanDnn 
 
 □□BDDDBDCDaDGDHDDDBa 
 BnDDBnDDHnnnBCDnBDDD ■□□□□n 
 
 □□■□□□■□□□■□□□Hnnaaa nnacm^ 
 
 ■ □□□■□□□■□□□■□□LiBDnG 
 
 ■□□□■□□□BCDGBQanBana Bnnacn 
 
 □□BDDDBnDDBQnaariLjrjHB □bddgd 
 
 ■□□□BDnaBnnnBLDnuarjDD BnGnoa 
 
 □□BnDGBnnnBDnGamnaa □bdddd 
 
 BDGDBDcaBDDnBDaDBnnD BGamnn 
 
 GGBGaaBGGaBGaGBGGQBa GBlllEiaa 
 
 BGQGBGGaaGCaBGGDHGGG BGGBJGG 
 
 OGBGGGBGGGBGGGBGGGaa GBGGab 
 
 BGGGBQGGBGGGBGGGBGGG BaGGGG 
 GGBGGGBaGGBGaGBGGGBa 
 
 PaGGGGGSaGGGBGaGBaGG Piff t87 
 
 aaaaQCBGGaaDnaBGaGBa ^ '^j 
 
 ■aGQBGGaaGGGBGGQBGGD 
 
 Fig. 186. 
 
 and take no part in forming the ground, consequently 
 there is more scope for producing a variety of figures upon 
 a small number of healds when the spot is worked in 
 the warp than when it is produced by the weft. 
 
 □□□GGQGDD 
 
 aGGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGCG 
 GBHBGBBBa 
 BBBDEDBBB 
 GBBHFJBBBG 
 GGGGGGGGG 
 GUGUUGGGG 
 
 □aaaGGGGa 
 Fi^. 188. 
 
 We have now only to deal with figures produced by 
 extra warp and weft, or a combination of the two foregoing. 
 Fig. 188 is a design which is intended to be so produced, 
 the shaded squares representing the warp, and the 
 dots the weft. The arrangement of the design for this 
 upon a plain ground is shown at Fig. 189, where the 
 warp and weft spotting are represented as in Fig. 188, 
 
2l6 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 the draught for working upon healds being given immedi- 
 ately over the design, and the working plan at Fig. igo. 
 It will be observed that in this case I have marked clearly 
 the healds which are intended for the ground, those 
 which form the ground under the spot, and those which 
 work the spotting threads only, both in the draught and 
 the working plan, so that the student may be able to 
 follow them more readily. 
 
 It will be observed of the arrangement of this draught, 
 that being a combination of the two principles of spotting 
 already dealt with, two sets of extra healds are required, 
 viz., that which works the ground under the spot, and 
 that which works the spotting warp, two healds working 
 the ordinary plain ground as in the previous cases. An 
 examination of the design will make the necessity for 
 this arrangement quite clear. The spotting warp must 
 of necessity have special healds to work it, and the ground 
 threads which come under the weft portion of the spot, 
 although in the actual interweaving working exactly like 
 the rest of the ground, must be so arranged that they 
 can be depressed in the order desired for the spotting 
 weft to pass over ; consequently the warp must be drawn 
 through special healds to enable this to be done. In 
 fact, this spot being a combination of the two principles 
 shown at Figs. 184 and 186, the arrangement of working 
 is in every respect a combination of the two. Then, with 
 respect to the figure itself. If Fig. 188 be examined, it 
 will be seen that where the weft and warp cross each 
 other, they are made to interweave as plain cloth ; and 
 in Fig. 189, it will be seen that the same arrangement 
 is preserved. This is produced by the simple raising or 
 depressing of the spotting warp when the spotting weft 
 is being thrown in. In fact, the extra warp and weft, at 
 the point where they interweave with each other, form a 
 cloth quite apart from the ground cloth, but this will be 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 217 
 
 more apparent to the student after reading the next 
 chapter, on double cloth. 
 
 There is one apparent discrepancy between the spot 
 as shown at Fig. 188 and Fig. 189. In the former it is 
 represented as occupying nine ends and nine picks ; in 
 the latter as occupying eleven each way. In Fig. 188 it 
 will be found that the weft portion extends for three 
 ends on each side beyond the warp portion, and in the 
 same manner the warp extends three picks above and 
 
 •■s ( □□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□nnnsnnnnnnn 
 □□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□anDDHnnnDn 
 □□□□□□□□[!]□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□ 
 □□□□□□[^□□□[^□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□a 
 □□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□HnDDHaDaDDa 
 □□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□HanHannaannn 
 
 □□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□HDDnDDDnDDanD 
 
 □□□□□BnnnBDDHnnnDDDDDnDDDnDDaaan 
 □□□□HDDHDnDBDnnnDDDaDnnnnDGnDDDD 
 ■ □□□aDDnnnDDDDBDnnDnDDnnnnDnDnnDn 
 c i □annDnnnannDDDaDBDaunDDDnaannnDB 
 g 1 ananDnnaDnnDDaDanaDDDnnDnnnnDnan 
 
 I □■□■□BnDOBCDHDHDBDHDBDnHBDDBCHDH 
 ^ BDBDBnnBnDDBnBDBDBaBCaHniDBliaBDBa 
 □BDBDBnDDBnnBDBnBDBDBDSBllDHBnBaH 
 
 □□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□BBBBiiaBaaDna 
 
 BnBDBDDBnDDaDBDBnBnBDBlinilBIllDBDBn 
 
 □□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□aaauBBaiiaBaDa 
 
 □BDBDBnnnBnnBnBnaDBDBDDBlinilBDBDB 
 
 □□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□aaaasBBaannn 
 
 BnBDBDnBDmBDBnBUBnBaBBDBBTOBDBC 
 □BDBnBDDDBDDBDBDBnBnBnilBBDllBnBaH 
 BnBnBnDBnnDBDBnBDBDBnBDDSBDDBaaD 
 □BDBDBmnBDCBDBnBDBDBnnBDnDBnBDB 
 BDBDBDDBlinDBDBDBDBDBDBDDDBDnBnBn 
 □BDBDBSDIlBlinBDBDBnBDBnDBDnnBrHnB 
 BDBDBnHBHDSBDBDBOBDBDBDDDBDnHnBD 
 □□□□aBaBHaBBBL'DDnDnDDDDDDDnDDnDD 
 □BDBDBBDHBBDBDBDBDBnaDDBDDDBnBDB 
 
 □□□aaanBaaiiaaaDaDnDnDDnnDnDDncDn 
 
 BDBDBDHBIlDllBDBDBDBDBDHDnnannBCaD 
 
 □□□naaBBHaBBanDnnDnDDDDDaDnnDncn 
 
 □ BDBDBEDaBElDBDBDBnBnBDnBnnDBnBnB 
 BnBCBDEHDnnBDBnBDBDBnBDnnBnDBDBn 
 □BDBCBDCnffinnBnBDBnBDBnnBDDDBaBnB 
 BDBDBnDBIJDDBDBDBDBDBDBDDDBnDBDBn 
 
 Fig. 189. 
 
 below the weft. The same thing occurs in Fig. 189, and 
 
 it will be observed that betAveen each spotting warp 
 
 thread one ground thread is introduced, and between 
 
 each spotting pick one ground pick ; and as these are 
 
 introduced for the purpose of making the ground cloth 
 
 continuous and perfect, they have no effect upon the size 
 
 of the figure, consequently the figure must pass over 
 
 them as though they were extra threads and picks. 
 
 There is but one other matter to which the student's 
 p 
 
2l8 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 attention need be called in connection with spotting, viz., 
 binding the loose material at the back. 
 
 It frequently happens that the spots are so far apart 
 that the loose warp or weft at the back requires to be 
 bound to the cloth, or cut off. Under the head of double 
 cloth this binding will be dealt with fully, so that nothing 
 need be said upon the subject here, more than to call the 
 student's attention to it. Very frequently spot figures 
 are woven by what are known as swivel looms, that is, 
 looms where there are a series of small shuttles for the 
 purpose of weaving in the spots, quite separate and apart 
 □BBnaDBnnmii 
 
 ■□□HnBDBDDHH 
 
 □■■□aaBDmas 
 
 □□□□□□BHQnHm 
 
 BDnBaBaBDnsG 
 
 □□□□□BHBDDDH 
 □ BBnBDBnnDSjG 
 
 □□□□□□aBOLjEQ 
 
 BDnBnBDBnGzn 
 
 □BBaBaBDonnc 
 mnamnmauoaaiB 
 □BBBBOBDnnaa 
 BDDBDBnBnana 
 □BBDBDBDnnan 
 BDnBaBnBBsm 
 
 □□□BBDCDBGnn 
 
 □BBaBBBDacnn 
 
 □□BBBnnnGHoa 
 
 BnnBaBDB&EDQ 
 
 □□□BBnGDsaaa 
 
 □BBaBDBBGGGn 
 BDnBDBDBEEnG 
 
 □BBDBnBDnEnn 
 
 BaDBDBDBDDaD 
 
 Ground. Ground Spotting, 
 under spot 
 
 Fiy. 190. 
 
 from the ground shuttle, and by this means the loose 
 material at the back is entirely obviated, except the single 
 thread, which having completed one figure passes to the 
 next ; but in this case the arrangement of the design will 
 be precisely the same as for ordinary spots, the whole 
 difference being simply the mechanical arrangement of 
 the shuttles. 
 
 The few examples given here embrace all the principles 
 of spot weaving, but they are capable of an infinite 
 extension and variety of arrangement ; each of the four 
 systems may be used separately or combined, and the 
 rnost beautiful and elaborate effects produced. 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 2ig 
 
 DOUBLE CLOTH. 
 
 Double cloth is a branch of fancy weaving which is 
 not practised generally, being confined to the woollen and 
 carpet manufactures chiefly, and very little used in the 
 cotton, silk, or worsted manufacture, except occasionally 
 in the latter branch for coatings, in which case a woollen 
 back is woven on for the purpose of giving w^eight and 
 warmth. 
 
 Double cloth is for the most part composed of similar 
 fabrics, which are sometimes interwoven at intervals and 
 formed into a diversity of patterns, the two cloths being 
 of different colours, the one colour forming a pattern on 
 the other. 
 
 Double cloths are of three kinds, one formed with one 
 Avarp and having two weft surfaces, the second formed 
 
 with one weft and having two warp surfaces, and the 
 third being two distinct cloths, as indicated at pages 164 and 
 165. In all three cases each of the two surfaces may be of 
 different colours and of different patterns, but it is in the 
 latter kind that there is most room for the exercise of the 
 ingenuity of the designer in producing patterns. 
 
 The first kind is usually used for woollen goods upon 
 cotton warps, the second for silk faces with cotton or other 
 wefts. By this means the cotton warp may be entirely hid, 
 and two woollen or other surfaces presented, which may be 
 of different colours, or one of solid colour and the other 
 striped. Fig. igi is a plan for a double cloth of this kind, 
 the dark squares are the face working and the shaded ones 
 
 IIDIIB 
 □□HQ 
 
 DBMS 
 
 □nim 
 nulla 
 
 B 
 
 191. 
 
220 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 the back, the patterns a and b representing the face and 
 back patterns respectively. In the face working it will be 
 observed that only every fourth thread is raised to form 
 
 □□□□a 
 □□□on 
 
 □□HDD 
 
 □□□■□ 
 □□Hnn 
 □■□□□ 
 
 A 
 
 ^□llllllj 
 
 □nniiia 
 
 Fig. 192. 
 
 the upper portion of the shed wliile the pick is put in, 
 thus allowing every fourth end only to be interwoven, and 
 for the back only every fourth thread is left down to form 
 
 □□□□□H 
 
 □□□□BD 
 
 n Z J IL 
 
 □□snnn 
 
 □HEHDl] 
 □^□□□G 
 
 □□□□□B 
 
 □□□□«□ 
 
 □□□HGD 
 □□HGGG 
 □BGGGG 
 
 B^D^an 
 
 A 
 
 UriulG 
 □□□□□□ 
 
 GHiaaram 
 
 B 
 
 ^V- 193- 
 
 the lower portion of the shed while the pick goes in, thus 
 each side of the piece will be a facsimile of the other so 
 far as pattern goes, but they may be of different colours by 
 
 EUGilil 
 □□□B^ 
 
 □B^^n 
 
 □□□□B 
 
 glGBllSl 
 
 □□bgd 
 
 B^^^a 
 
 □□□BD 
 □ BGG^ 
 □□□□B 
 
 □□BGG 
 BGGGG 
 A 
 
 □EHag] 
 
 □011G11 
 □GDC0 
 □□□□□ 
 
 B 
 
 Fig, 194. 
 
 using differently coloured wefts. Fig. 47, page 165, shows a 
 section of this species of double cloth. Fig. 192 is a similar 
 
 □DDB^Q 
 
 □GGGDB 
 
 □E3tllB12Q 
 
 □Boann 
 
 ^□□□00 
 
 □GGGHG 
 
 □GnrjGG 
 
 □□HGGG 
 □□□□□G 
 BGGGOa 
 
 □□□Ban 
 
 □□GGGH 
 □BGGGG 
 □□□□BD 
 □□BD^G 
 BDGDnn 
 A 
 
 aiMPG 
 B 
 
 %• 195- 
 
 arrangement with a five-thread twill, a being the face and 
 B the back pattern, and Fig. 193 is a six-thread twill on 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 221 
 
 the same principle. In the same manner any twill may 
 be worked out. Fig. 194 represents a five-thread sateen, 
 Fig. 195 a six-thread, and Fig. 196 an eight-thread sateen, 
 all on the same principle of double face cloth. In the 
 same manner twill and satin may be combined, or a variety 
 of patterns produced ; or the system may be carried still 
 further, and figures produced by bringing the back weft 
 
 □□□□□□□n 
 
 :j3 
 
 □□□□□□OD 
 
 □□□BanDD 
 
 □□BDDDDD 
 A 
 
 □an SI BE) El [n 
 
 □□□□□□□□ 
 □I 
 
 □ L^ I I 
 
 B 
 
 Fig. 196. 
 
 to the face, or taking the face weft to the back, as shown 
 in the section, Fig. 197, so that if the face cloth be white 
 and the back black, a black figure would be produced 
 upon white ground, and a white figure on black ground 
 
 Fiff. 197. 
 
 on the other side. One thing must be carefully observed 
 in the arrangement of designs for cloths of this description, 
 viz., that a face and back pick successively must not be 
 bound by the same warp thread, otherwise, if the two sides 
 
 □□□□□□■ii3 
 
 □□□□Hann 
 
 □□□a 
 
 □□an 
 
 Booa 
 
 □□□□ 
 
 0DDD 
 
 Fi^. 198. A B 
 
 of the cloth are of different colours, one will be liable 
 to show through the other and produce a sort of spotty 
 appearance. 
 
 The second kind of double is simply the first inverted, 
 the warp taking the place of the weft, and the weft taking 
 the place of the warp. Fig. 198 is a four- thread twill 
 
222 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 arranged for double warp face, a and b being the face and 
 back respectively, as in the previous arrangement, and Figs. 
 199 and 200 are five-thread and eight-thread satins on the 
 same principle. 
 
 Both these systems of making double cloths are 
 especially valuable in making heavy goods where the 
 pattern at the back is intended to serve as a lining only 
 
 z^noMCMwsnw □nnnii 
 uwmmumuuum □Hcni-j 
 umuunmomnm 
 umammmamaa 
 
 ■saHDnaiiaii _ 
 Fig. 199. A B 
 
 to the face ; and when the face pattern is a fancy one 
 and the back as near plain as possible. Whenever such 
 is the case there is no alteration in the principle of 
 arranging the design, only a proper regard must be paid 
 to the binding the back to the face, so as not to interfere 
 with the pattern on the face cloth. In such cases proper 
 regard must be paid to the relation which the two patterns 
 bear to each other— face and back respectively — as well 
 
 noomDmDmnmmmoMom 
 
 DrnDmanamamamDmum 
 □uniiaiinisBHnHDiina 
 
 □HBSDHDllDDGIlDHail 
 
 □iinnniiDiiaiiniiBiiDii 
 
 □DDIinilBilDilDlinDD^ 
 
 Fig. 200. 
 
 mmmmmomm 
 
 yBaacsiui] 
 u^'^-] \i ■ □ 
 
 g]L__ . , :^ 
 
 E3i- 
 
 BL ,.,.-:] 
 
 EI I'.j 
 
 A I^. 
 
 as to the relations of the two cloths in regard to fineness, 
 and a position for the binding of the back weft into the 
 cloth must be found in strict accord with the rules which 
 will be laid down for binding two separate cloths. 
 
 The third and most generally used double cloth con- 
 sists as before mentioned, of two separate cloths, which 
 may be stitched or bound together m the process of 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 223 
 
 weaving, or kept separate if desired. For the purpose of 
 making it as clear as possible to the reader, I shall in all 
 cases treat the two cloths as being kept separate, and 
 afterwards explain the method of stitching or binding 
 them together. 
 
 The simplest form of double cloth consists of two 
 equal plain cloths, that is, two cloths having the same 
 number of threads per inch, and of the same quality and 
 thickness, both woven quite plain. Take for example 
 what may be called tubular weaving, such as hose or 
 sacking, where the two cloths are kept separate, and joined 
 
 1 
 
 X 
 
 Fig. 20 1. 
 
 together by the weft passing from one cloth to the other 
 at what would otherwise be the selvage, thus forming an 
 open tube. To effect this the weft passes through the 
 warp of the upper cloth, and in the return pick through 
 the warp of the lower cloth, making the junction of the 
 two cloths, as stated, at the selvages, and Figs. 201 and 
 202 show clearly the mode of working to produce this 
 result. In Fig. 201 the shed is represented as being open 
 to receive the pick for the upper cloth, and it will be 
 observed that one half of the warp of the upper cloth is 
 
224 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 raised and the other half is depressed, as well as the whole 
 of the warp of the lower cloth. The pick having been 
 thrown in, the shed is then opened as in Fig. 202, where 
 it is shown as being open to receive the pick for the lower 
 cloth. Here it will be observed that the reverse of what 
 occurs in Fig. 201 takes place ; the whole of the warp of 
 the face or upper cloth is raised and one half of the lower 
 cloth, the other half of the lower cloth being depressed. 
 The one rule to be observed is this, that when the pick 
 goes into the face or upper cloth, only such portion of the 
 warp of that cloth as is necessary to form the pattern must 
 
 1 2 3 
 
 1 
 
 Fig. 202. 
 
 be raised, the other portion being depressed along with 
 the whole of the warp of the back cloth ; and when the 
 pick goes into the back cloth the whole of the warp of 
 the face cloth must be raised, and such portion of the 
 warp of the lower cloth as is necessary to form the 
 pattern, the remainder of the back cloth warp being 
 depressed. On careful examination of Figs. 201 and 202 
 the reader will at once see that this is done, and also the 
 necessity for doing it, so that the warp of one cloth shall 
 never interfere with the pick of the other cloth, else the 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 225 
 
 two cloths would be bound together instead of being 
 separate. 
 
 In the example given at Figs. 201 and 202 the healds 
 are indicated by the figures 1,2, 3, 4, Nos. i and 2 being 
 the healds which work the face cloth, and 3 and 4 those 
 which work the back cloth. It will now be necessary to 
 show the student how to arrange the pattern upon paper, 
 both for draught and for working design, or, as it is generally 
 termed, pegging. Fig. 203 shows the draught ; i, 2, 3, 
 
 i B 
 
 3 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 1 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 Fig. 203. 
 
 and 4 are the healds, and as before stated i and 2 are for 
 the face cloth, consequently the warp threads a a are drawn 
 upon I and 2 alternately ; 3 and 4 being for the back cloth 
 the warp threads b b are drawn alternately upon them, this 
 being repeated to the full width of the piece. The order 
 of working is shown at Fig. 204 ; a a are the face cloth 
 picks when one heald out of the four only is raised, as 
 indicated by the black dots, and b b are the back cloth 
 picks when three healds out of the four are raised, viz., 
 
 ADana 
 
 BHEHD 
 ABDDa 
 12 3 4 
 
 Fig. 204. 
 
 both the face healds which are indicated by the dots, 
 and one of the back healds indicated by the shaded 
 square. It is not the general practice with designers to 
 make the three kinds of marks, but it is very much better 
 to do so, or to work in three colours, which is still better ; 
 it is then so much easier to follow the pattern which is 
 being made upon each cloth, and the marks which indicate 
 the rising of the face warp when the back pick is being 
 
226 
 
 WEAVING A?ID DESIGNING 
 
 put in are easily distinguishable from those forming the 
 pattern, and so prevent confusion. 
 
 In this example it is arranged that the face healds are 
 together and the back ones together, and are thus treated 
 as separate sets ; but this is not always the case, though 
 it is much simpler when it can be so. It sometimes happens 
 that there are healds which have been working some 
 other cloth that it is desirable to utilize, or it may be vdshed 
 to draw the warp through the healds so that they can after- 
 
 4 B 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 2 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 1 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 Fig. 205. 
 
 wards be used for some other purpose. Then we will 
 suppose that they are drawn straight over from front to back 
 as in Fig. 205 ; a a are the face ends and b b the back ends. 
 It will now be observed that a a, instead of being drawn 
 upon I and 2 healds, are drawn upon i and 3, and b b 
 upon 2 and 4 ; the process of weaving is precisely the 
 same as before, the only difference being that the second 
 and third healds have changed places. The working plan, 
 Fig. 206, will, on comparison with the working plan in the 
 
 BBDBg] 
 
 BBBaa 
 
 ABDDD 
 
 12 3 1- 
 
 Fig. 206. 
 
 previous case, Fig. 204, clearly demonstrate this, the picks 
 occupying the same position, but the healds 2 and 3 having 
 changed places. 
 
 This arrangement shows the necessity for observing 
 the rule laid down in a previous page, viz., that, in making 
 working designs, the arrangement of the warp threads and 
 the order of picking must be carefully followed. The best 
 and easiest way in making double cloths is to put upon 
 the design paper the pattern which is to form the face cloth. 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 227 
 
 of course observing all the while that you touch nothing 
 but the threads and picks of which that cloth is to be 
 composed ; do the same with the back cloth, and then 
 put in the lifting marks, all three being in different colours 
 or in different marks. 
 
 So far I have only treated the matter as if we were 
 weaving two cloths of the same colour, or a sack, but it 
 will be readily understood that if, instead of using only one 
 shuttle and allowing the same weft to enter both cloths, 
 two shuttles are used, each carrying differently coloured 
 wefts, and the two warps of corresponding colours, then by 
 keeping each weft to its own warp the two cloths would 
 be of different colours ; or, by using only one shuttle and 
 
 8 B 
 
 7 A 
 
 6_ B 
 
 5 A 
 
 4 _B 
 
 3 A 
 
 2 B 
 
 1 A 
 
 Fig. 208. 
 
 allowing two picks to be woven into each cloth alternately, 
 a cloth would be produced which would open out to double 
 the width which it occupied in the loom, because the 
 connection of the two cloths would occur at one edge 
 only, the other edge being left entirely free and open. 
 
 I have dwelt at considerable length and minutely 
 described the details of this class of cloth, not only 
 because in the making of double plain cloth the whole 
 principle of double cloth making is involved, but because 
 I believe by careful attention, until a thorough mastery of 
 double cloth making is obtained, the student acquires a 
 habit of following the pattern upon the rule mentioned 
 above, which he will find of incalculable service to him 
 
 QDHDHISlHilHn 
 
 ■□□□BDBaan 
 
 □□HHHiiBnaa 
 
 □□□□□□□□□□ 
 □□■^■iiaBas 
 
 Fig. 207. 
 
228 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 in arranging patterns for other kinds of cloth, and that 
 it will, in fact, lay bare before him the whole system of 
 weaving to a far greater extent than could possibly be the 
 case with the study of any other branch of weaving. 
 
 Having thus fully dealt with double plain cloth, we 
 will now proceed to the consideration of some other makes 
 and combinations. Fig. 207 is a design for a double cash- 
 mere twill cloth, Vv^ith the draught as shown at Fig. 208, 
 A A A A are the face threads and b b b b are the back 
 threads, consequently the healds i, 3, 5 and 7 are the four 
 healds upon which the face cloth is worked, and 2, 4, 6 and 
 8 are those upon which the back cloth is worked, the dark 
 and shaded spaces at the bottom and up the side of the 
 
 Bcaaomnaaa 
 
 maEBBwamm 
 BaaoBmaaaa 
 
 HnaBEBnnann 
 
 HDBBHEilllDn 
 
 masaaaaaaa 
 □□□□□□□□□□ 
 □□■Bsaijiiiiii 
 
 Fig, 2og. 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 B 
 
 B 
 
 5 B 
 
 4 
 
 A 
 
 3 
 
 A 
 
 2 A 
 
 1 A 
 
 Fi^. 210. 
 
 design also indicating which are face and back ends and 
 picks. In the design the pattern for the face cloth is 
 shown by the black squares, the back cloth by the shaded, 
 and the dots are to raise the face warp when the back 
 pick goes in. Fig. 209 shows the working design with 
 the draught, as given at Fig. 210, that is, with the face 
 and back healds treated as two sets. This will be very 
 readily understood after carefully stud3ang the plans for 
 the plain cloth. 
 
 There is one feature in twilling double cloths to which 
 I must call the attention of the beginner. In the example 
 just given the twills for both the face and back run in the 
 same direction on the paper, but when put into the cloth 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 229 
 
 they would run in opposite directions, because the upper 
 surface of the lower cloth being next the upper cloth the 
 under surface becomes the face of that cloth, and when 
 
 EjasmanHDHii 
 
 HCBDDDDDHn 
 
 ■□□□□□aaao 
 HGDCBDaana 
 
 □□□□□□□□□□ 
 
 turned over 
 direction to 
 
 Fig. 211. 
 
 presents the twill 
 that presented by 
 
 □□BBBBSDDIl 
 
 HDBBBBBiaDn 
 
 BDBBBBDSlin 
 
 BDBBBBDBDi] 
 
 □□□□□□□□□□ 
 □□BaSHUlill^ 
 
 Fig. 
 
 212. 
 
 running in the contrary 
 the face cloth ; and in 
 
 making twills the importance of the twill running in a 
 
 □□BQBBBDBDBElBiaBnBIlBEanBnBn 
 ■□□□□□□□aDaDDDHDBDDDDDSDBn 
 DDBDBEBOBDBBEBBDBDBaBOBDBa 
 BDDDnDBnffinaDDDBC^DaUEDBDDD 
 EUDBDBnBSBEBDBDBBBBBDBBBBBn 
 BDnnBDBDDDaDSnnDDnBnaDDDDD 
 BlDBDBDBDBilEiaBnBHBBBDBDBBBS 
 BDBEBDGDGDBDBDnDBEHEDDEDDa 
 UDBBBEBEBGBSEHBEBGBEEEBDBIl 
 BGBaGGBGBGGaGGHaEGGGaGGGBG 
 iSGBllEBBGBGBaBEBBBQBBBBBGBa 
 BGGGGGBGBGGGBGBGGGGGEGHGBa 
 GaBGBBBEBGBGEGEBBEEEEGEBBH 
 BGBGBGQGGGBGBGGGGGEaBGBGGa 
 HGEGEGBBBBBGEGBaEEEEEUBBBIl 
 BGBGBGGGBGBGGGGGGGBGBQaGGD 
 BGBBBBBGEBBBBGBGBGBBEEBGBll 
 BGGGGGBQBGGGGGGGBGBGGGaaBG 
 BGBEBBBGBGEBEEBGBGBGBBBBBQ 
 BGGGBGBGGGGGaGBGHGaaGGaGBG 
 EaBaBaBBEBBGEBBEEGBGEGBBBH 
 BaBGBGGGGGGGBaBGGGBGBGGGGG 
 SaBSEGEBEBEGBaBBBaBGBGBGB^ 
 BGBGGGGGGGaGBGGGGGBGBGGGBG 
 DGGGGGGGGaGGGGGaGGGGGGGGGG 
 □GBBBBBSBBBEBBBSBISBEIBIIIBIIB^ 
 
 Fiff. 213. 
 
 particular direction, according to the twist of the yarn, 
 has been fully shown at page 175; then to prevent this 
 occurring, the pattern must be put upon paper with the 
 
 GuGBBGBBGGBB 
 □GBBGGBBGBBG 
 GBBGBBGGBBGG 
 BBGGBBGBBEGG 
 BGBBGGBBGGGB 
 aaBBGBHGGGBB 
 BBaaBBGGGBBa 
 BBGBBGGGBBGG 
 GGBBGGGBBGBB 
 GBBGGGBBGGBH 
 BBGGGBBGBBGG 
 BGGaBBGGBBGB 
 
 Fat tern 0/213. 
 
 two twills running in contrary directions, the draught 
 remaining the same as before. Fig. 211 shows a design 
 for a twill arranged in this manner on the same draught 
 
230 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 as Fig. 208, and Fig. 212 is the same thing on the draught 
 of Fig. 210. So far we have only dealt with plain and 
 cashmere twill, but it will be easily understood that any 
 pattern may be woven upon the same principle. Not only 
 may any pattern be woven upon both cloths, but each 
 cloth may be different. Figs. 213 to 216 are a few exam- 
 ples of what may be done ; Figs. 213 and 214 having 
 
 sDHUHnanHiiH^BnHnBiiB^ 
 □□HaHnHnHDBnBaHDHnHH 
 
 ■□■□□□□□BaBDHnDDBDHG 
 
 iDnBDanBBBaBDBnBmBDBn 
 ■□□□□□HnnnnnDDBnBnBn 
 
 UnBnBnHDBaBDBnBDBDBn 
 
 BnnnHnBDDnDDBC'anBnDn 
 □□BGanEDBLianHaBaBaBs 
 BDBaBnBnnGBDBaannDDn 
 
 □□BBBDBnBnEaaDBDBDBa 
 
 BnDnnaGDBaBDBDnnDnBn 
 
 HnananBnaDBaBaaBBDBn 
 BDnnDDBDBnBnnnDBBnBn 
 □□BBaDBCBDBnaaamBBBn 
 BnDDBDBnBnnnDDBnBDBn 
 
 nDBnanaaaBBaaaBiiBiiBB 
 BnBnBaBnnannBnnDDnnn 
 
 □□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□ 
 
 □□■BBIZlBBflBBIZlBEJBeiBllB!! 
 
 Fig. 214. 
 
 both cloths of the same pattern, and Figs. 215 and 216 
 having the two cloths different. The whole of these 
 designs are arranged upon the principle of draughting 
 shown at Fig. 208, that is, the face and back healds being 
 alternate. 
 
 ■BDGBBanB 
 ■□□BBBDBB 
 □□BDDjBBB 
 □BBDDBBBG 
 ■BBBBBBGD 
 □□□BBBGDB 
 □□BBBDGBB 
 □BBBDDBBB 
 ■BBDDBDna 
 
 Pattern of 214. 
 
 We have up to now supposed the two cloths to be 
 equal, and so made that the cloth would be reversible ; 
 but it very frequently happens that the two cloths are not 
 equal, that a fine face cloth may be desired with a coarse 
 cloth woven to the back of it for the purpose of giving 
 weight. In this case the face cloth very often stands in 
 relation to the back cloth of two threads to one, a pattern 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 being woven on the face and the back being perfectly 
 plain. For this class of weaving, the healds upon which 
 the warps for each cloth are drawn are treated as two sets, 
 as in Fig, 210, and not intermixed as in Fig. 204. Fig. 
 217 shows the draught for a cashmere twill face and »a 
 plain back, the proportion being two threads face and one 
 back, both in the warp and weft, and Fig. 218 is the 
 working design for it. It will be observed that the work- 
 ing is precisely the same in principle as when the cloths 
 are equal, the only difference .being the relative number of 
 threads in each cloth. Fig. 219 is another pattern arranged 
 upon the same principle, that is, with all the healds for 
 the face cloth together and those for the back cloth 
 together. 
 
 Again, in Figs. 220 and 221 we have arrangements 
 
 □□BQEQBBHDHDBD 
 
 BnBHBQBnBDBnBn 
 □□BDBDBDBnBUBn 
 
 ■□□□□□■□BDHnnG 
 
 ■ EDBDBGBDBZlBZiBE 
 
 Fare cloth SDBDBDBDBLaaEBE Back cloth 
 
 □□□□□□□□□□□□CD 
 
 Fig. 215. 
 
 upon the principle of the face and backing healds being 
 intermixed, as shown in the draught, Fig. 222, a repre- 
 senting the face, and b the back threads as before. A very 
 little attention to these examples will convince the student 
 that the principle of working is the same, in whatever 
 proportion the two cloths may be to each other. 
 
 Now with regard to stitching the two cloths together, 
 which is quite as important as the arrangement of the 
 design. The stitching or binding is, of course, as implied, 
 for the purpose of securing the two cloths together in such 
 a manner as to make them appear as one cloth. Consider- 
 able care is required to do this successfully, especially in 
 
232 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 some makes of cloth, when the two sides are of different 
 colours, the one colour being liable to show through the 
 
 SDBSHiUHilBDaaHSHElHnBnHOEIllBll 
 
 ■□HaDDBnfflDanHnaaaDDDnaDDBa 
 
 EDBSBSBSBaBaHEIBDBDBIlBllBnBiJ 
 
 HaaaHaaDDDaDsafflDBDnGnDsnsia 
 
 ^□BBBUBSBSBaHaaaHHBSlBDBaBD • 
 ^□BnBEBSBilBBBSBnBElBnBGBSBll! 
 
 aDaDaaBDBDacDDDDnGaDHDnGHa 
 
 SDBGBDBllBllBllB^BllBDHnBllBilBa 
 
 BamDnBaBGaaLonaaaannnHDaa 
 
 HCB^BIlBaBllBllBilBllBilBDBianBa 
 
 BDananaaaDBaDDBDanananaDna 
 
 SnBUBDBDBDBHBUBilBllBllBDBDBll 
 
 ■□BDBaDnnnDaaaBnDnBDBDaDaa 
 
 HDBDBDBSBaBDBllBHBdBilBilBDB^ 
 
 HDanBDnnnnanfflQaaBDanDnDDaa 
 
 DDBDBllBiaHDBaBnBHBlJBllBllBfflBa 
 
 HDananmBaBDnaaaaDnnnDnaaa 
 
 iinBBBllBDBGBlJBHBaBllBBBIlBllBIl 
 
 BDnDaaBDaanDBDBDnDaDanBann 
 
 HDBUHnBDBllBHBaBaBaBBBllBllBH 
 
 ■□□□anBDmHaBDDDnnaaBnBnaa 
 
 SDBSBSBnHHBnBDBEBHBnBlllBllBll 
 
 BnananDaaaBDaanannaaaaanan 
 □□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□ 
 DummusBmammmamammmmmmmmmmm 
 
 Fig. 216. 
 
 other ; or if the two clotlis arc very thick an effect may 
 be produced which gives the cloth an appearance as if it 
 
 BaBBDBBBDnDa geaDDaaDDDBB 
 □BBDaaBBDDBB BaaBGaDaBBaa 
 
 BBmGBBBaaBD BBBBBJDBBUDD 
 BDBaflDaDBBDB □BBBBBDBDaBB 
 
 □□BBaaDaaaBB □□aBBBaaaaaa 
 
 □□BBBDBBDBaG BfefaBBBBBaBaa 
 
 BBDDGBBGaBDa BDDDBBaBBaDB 
 
 BBDDBaaBBDDB □□BBUBBBBBUB 
 
 BBDBBDBBDDDB □BBDDaBBBaaD 
 
 □□BBaaaaBBaa □BaaaBDBBBBB 
 
 □BBDBBDaBBBG BGDBBDaDBBBB 
 BBUaaGGGBBBG BaDBDGBBGBBB 
 
 Face cloth. Back cloth. 
 
 was embossed. Sometimes this latter is done purposely 
 to produce a pattern, as in the cloth known as the 
 matelasse, where the two cloths are bound together, and 
 
 Fig. 217. 
 
 the space between them filled with thick soft yarn to 
 give a soft wadded effect ; the same thing is also done 
 in quilts. 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 To bind two cloths together so as not to be visible 
 the best and easiest way is to take a pick of one cloth 
 and a warp thread of the other, at some point of the 
 pattern where both happen to be working in the same 
 
 ■□■□□auD 
 
 BDDDHiaGa 
 HDHBHHEDn 
 ■□□aBDDG 
 
 □□□□□□□□ 
 □DBBBBdlS 
 
 Fig, 218. 
 
 space between the two cloths, and interweave them, as 
 shown in Fig. 223, where the two cloths are bound together 
 at point A ; and on examination it will be found that the 
 
 EnHHHBBBBHnnnr!] 
 
 BDDBBDBDDBDDDn 
 
 BnBBDBDnBDnnnn 
 
 □ BBnBDDB SDBBBBBBBBDDlSn 
 BBnBDDBD BnBDBnDBDBnaDn 
 
 BDBnDBDB BDnBDnEnsBannD unna 
 
 DBriDHDHB BDBBBBBBBBDEinn □□BD 
 
 anDBnBBn BnannaDBBamDn 
 □□anBBDB anmaDBacB' Bnna 
 
 □Bnaanan BnBBBBBBBBQnnn ^ , 
 
 BnBBDBna annBnaBDBDaann Back 
 
 BnaDBBnannnnDn 
 Face. □□□□□□□□□□□□□□ 
 
 □□BBBBBBBBQQGB 
 
 Flq. 219. 
 
 warp on one side and the weft on the other effectually 
 hide the stitching threads. But supposing they were 
 stitched together as shown at Fig. 224, it is pretty certain 
 
 HDBBnBBll 
 
 annaDDBD 
 
 □BOB BDnDDBBD 
 □□BB HDBBBBBD 
 
 anan anannann nana 
 
 □Ban annanann acaa 
 
 □BDB HDHBDHBH DBDa 
 
 aann anDBanan anan 
 
 anan anaanDnn 
 
 BDDB EBBBBBBn D^^A 
 
 anannann huck 
 'Pnrp Bnaannan 
 
 J^"ce □□□□□□□□ 
 
 □□BBBBBll 
 
 Fig. 220. 
 
 that the stitching threads would show on both sides, and 
 if the cloths were thick, the embossed effect mentioned 
 above would also be produced, because the stitching thread 
 actually passes through from the surface of one cloth 
 direct to the surface of the other, consequently at this 
 
234 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 point the two cloths actually become one, while between 
 the stitching threads they remain separate and distinct. 
 The result of this kind of stitching is more marked in 
 woollen cloths, which have to undergo the process of 
 
 EDBBDHBDHHHHHn 
 ■□BODBBaDDDHBD 
 
 ■□□□□■■□□■□■■a 
 
 BaBBGDHB □□HBDHBDHaDHHEg 
 □□BBOBBB BBBBnanaBBBBGn 
 
 BBaDBBBD BDBBnnBnaBannB nnBD 
 
 BBDBBBm □□EBDBBEBBDBBD naDB 
 
 □□BBBDBB HnnDDBBaanDBBn nBDn 
 
 □BBBDDBB BnDBnBBDDGnBBD BDnD 
 
 BBBnBaan UDBBBBBaBBDBBG ^ , 
 
 BBanBBBB BnBBDBnDBBBnaD Back 
 
 „ BnBBnDDDBBBBBn 
 
 Face. □□□□□□□□□□□□□□ 
 
 □□BBSBBSBBSBBS 
 
 Fiff. 221. 
 
 milling. The method of stitching is, as indicated in the 
 sections given, to raise a warp thread of the back cloth 
 when a face pick is being put in, or vice versa, the distance 
 apart of the stitching threads being regulated as the cloths 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 B 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 B 
 
 2 
 
 
 A 
 
 
 1 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 Fig. 222. 
 
 are required to be closely bound together or otherwise. 
 If they are to be bound closely, or if the pattern is a large 
 one on a great number of healds, one of the ordinary 
 healds may be raised or depressed for the purpose of 
 
 A A 
 
 Fig. 223. 
 
 stitching, but if they are not required to be closely bound, 
 and the pattern is a small one, then special stitching 
 healds are put on. This heald represents the regular 
 heald upon which the thread selected for stitching would 
 otherwise be drawn, and works all the way through with 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 that heald, except for the stitching pick, when it is raised 
 or depressed as desired. For the purpose of illustrating 
 this I will refer the reader to Fig. 225, where, supposing 
 the two cloths to be equal, a stitching heald is introduced ; 
 the draught follows in regular order until the stitching 
 point is arrived at ; then the thread which has been selected 
 for stitching, instead of being drawn upon the third heald, 
 
 Fifj. 224. 
 
 as it otherwise would be, is drawn upon the stitching 
 heald. It is then very evident that this stitching heald 
 must work exactly as No. 3 w;orks — else the pattern will 
 be broken — until the stitching pick is arrived at, this pick 
 of course forming a portion of the contrary cloth to the 
 one the stitching thread belongs to. The stitching heald 
 is then raised or depressed, and the binding is effected 
 without in any way interfering with the pattern upon 
 
 s 
 
 11 
 
 8 8 16 
 
 7 
 
 7 15 
 
 6 
 
 6 14 
 
 5 
 
 5 13 
 
 4 
 
 4 12 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 2 10 
 
 1 
 
 1 i) 
 
 Fig. 225. 
 
 either cloth. If desired two or more stitching healds 
 may be used instead of one, so as to avoid the stitching 
 running in straight lines. When cloths are figured by 
 bringing one cloth through the other, no necessity exists 
 for stitching, as the figuring itself is sufficient to bind the 
 cloths together. This will be dealt with further on when 
 dealing with Jacquard figures. 
 
236 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 JACQUARD FIGURES. 
 
 It is now necessary to deal with Figure Weaving on 
 Jacquard machines. Hitherto all the figures and com- 
 binations have been dealt with and arranged for healds ; 
 but, as before explained, by the use of healds only limited 
 patterns can be produced, although by ingenuity in the 
 arrangement of the draughting and treading, consider- 
 ably greater diversity may be produced than would appear 
 possible at first sight, but the figures will of a necessity be 
 of a stiff character, consequently the Jacquard machine 
 becomes necessary. 
 
 The Jacquard machine having been described in a 
 previous chapter, it now remains to explain the arrange- 
 ment of the designs for it, and in many respects this is a 
 much simpler process than the arrangement of designs for 
 healds. For instance, there are no cross draughts to con- 
 tend with; the whole of the harness being a straight draught 
 from beginning to end, the treatment of the design is 
 just the same as if it were being made for the number of 
 healds which the Jacquard represents ; a three hundred and 
 four Jacquard representing that number of threads in what 
 is termed a division of the harness, the pattern must be 
 made to occupy that number of threads on the paper, or 
 such smaller number as will divide a given number of 
 times in three hundred and four, otherwise some of the 
 hooks in the machine will have to remain idle, and the 
 harness threads attached to them must not in that case 
 have any warp drawn through them. The same thing of 
 course also applies to every other size of machine, whether 
 two hundred, four hundred, or six hundred. Then the first 
 question which requires to be dealt with is what is termed 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 casting out, or in other words, where the pattern cannot 
 be adapted to the harness, the harness must be adapted to 
 the pattern. 
 
 I will endeavour to give illustrations of every form of 
 casting out, and the causes which give rise to it, for casting 
 out has frequently to be done for other reasons, but the 
 illustrations in this branch will have to be of a somewhat 
 limited character. A full design for any Jacquard machine 
 would be too large for this work, but those which are given 
 will I trust be of such a nature as to convey fully to the 
 reader a knowledge of the system, and enable him to 
 understand not only the theory but also the practice of 
 designing for Jacquards. 
 
 I will begin as I have done in the previous classes by 
 
 BBBDDBaBBSnDBBSa 
 
 □aaBGDSBBUGBDaaa 
 BGBaBaaBaaBBSDEB 
 
 BaGaaaDnGB^aGana 
 BaaGaaaGBaaGSiBBG 
 GaaaGBGaaaGBsaGG 
 
 GGaaBGBBBGaBBGGB 
 
 BGGaGBBaGaaaGGaa 
 
 BBGGBaBGBaaGGBBB 
 BGGBBBGaaaGBGGaa 
 
 □GaaaGBBBGaaaGGa 
 
 □BBBGBBaGBGBaaGG 
 BBBGBBBGBBaGBaaG 
 
 GBGBBBGGGasSJilSiS 
 HGaaaGGBGGeii^G&S^ 
 BBGBGGB^^GG^^^^Jgl 
 
 Fij. 226. 
 
 giving examples of the simplest possible description. We 
 will suppose that the designs are to be made for a three 
 hundred and four Jacquard (which is the machine regularly 
 used in the Bradford worsted trade). The machine con- 
 tains thirty-eight rows of hooks, eight in each row. The 
 design paper is ruled to correspond with this, viz., thirty- 
 eight long squares, each containing eight small ones, which 
 represent the warp threads, and usually thirty squares of 
 eight each in the weft way, but of course so far as the weft 
 way of the design goes the number of squares is a matter of 
 no moment, because the pattern may be made to go any 
 length. The number of squares on a sheet is simply a 
 matter of convenience as to size, 8cc. 
 
238 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 Take a given pattern, Fig. 226, it is desired to arrange 
 this pattern to be woven upon a Jacquard of the above 
 extent. The first thing to examine is the number of times 
 this pattern will repeat upon three hundred and four 
 
 □■□□□■□□□■□BaBnansnBaBBBnaBanaaanBnBnB 
 BnaBauBBBnaDBnaaHaanaanaaaaaBnaGanBaBn 
 BBannBanaBBnanaDBnBaBBaBnBaBananBDBGaa 
 aDBaaaaaBaaGBaBnaGaaBaaaaaaaaGBGaGBaaa 
 □BaGnBanDBnanaDaaaaaaBBBDaBBDBGBGBDBaa 
 BnaBaDBBBGBnaGanBGBDBDnaBaGaBGBDBnBaaD 
 
 BBGGGBGGnBBaaDBaBaBaBBBBGaBBaaBGBGaGBa 
 
 BGBaBGBaHGBGBaaGaGBDaaaGHGaaaaaGBaaGBa 
 □aaGGBGGGaaBaBGaGBGaGBaaaaBBGBGaaHaBaa 
 
 EGBBBGaaaGGGGaaaaaHaaaGGaaGGBGrr nn-^: /^ig 
 
 HBaBaaGBGBQGGGaaGBiaGGlSGGaGaGGG iG 
 
 □BaaaBaaaBGGDGGGHHaafziaGaGGGGaL ,g 
 
 aaaaaBaaGBaGGGGGaGGGaaGGGGGGGG u 
 
 aaaaBGaaaaffl jg 
 
 □aaaaBaaaaGG :a 
 
 □BGaGBGaGBLi' : _\G 
 
 □BaBaaaaaHG. :a 
 
 UGBaaaBBBaG; ]G 
 
 BaGGGBGaaaaG, :g 
 □aBBaaaBBGaG. . n 
 
 aBGaaBGGGHGL , :G 
 
 iiaBBBGBBBaaaGQaaGG:. ,g 
 
 ijaacaanGGHaGGGaQaai: .,a 
 
 aGBBBGBBaaGGaGGGaaGi 
 
 . □aGGGBaGGBaaQaaaGGG. g 
 naaaaaBBBGGHGaHiiaGQi ^g 
 
 llBGGGBGGaBaGGGGGGeiGL. ' , . ^ JG 
 □□BBBGHBBGGGGGGaaaaGGuGGUG:, 
 aBGaCBGaaHGGGGGaaGGGGaGHHQU JG 
 
 BaaaaaaBHGaBaaGaGGGaaaiiiiGGD jg 
 
 BBaaaaGaaaGGGGGGGGGaGiiiiaaiiL ]□ 
 
 aaGBGBGBGBGaaGGGBGaaBlHGGllBG' jG 
 GBGBGBaBaaGGGGaGHGGIlHaGilBaG; JG 
 BGBaBGBGBGaGaGGaaaHHaGilBGGCI _ _ JG 
 
 UaGBGaaBaaGGaaaGGGaGGGGGGaaGGGGGGUGGGQ 
 □BGBaBGBGHGGaQGaaGGGGaGGaaGGGaGGaGGGHH 
 □ aGBGBGBGHGGGGGaGaGGaGaaGGGHGGGHllGaaBa 
 
 □aBBBaBaBGaGGaaGGGGGaaaaaaGBaaBHaaBGaa 
 Fig. 227. 
 
 threads, or, in other words, the pattern takes sixteen 
 threads, 304 16 = 19, so the pattern must be repeated 
 nineteen times across the paper ; or if the card cutter is 
 expert at his work the actual repetition upon paper is not 
 
 BGGaaaGGBGGBBBGG 
 BBGaBaGBBBGGBGGB 
 GBBGGGBflGaaGGGaa 
 □GBBGaBGGGBaGBBG 
 BGGaaBGGBGGBBBGG 
 
 BBGaaaaaaBGGBGGB 
 
 BBBGGGBBBBBGGGBB 
 
 BaGGBGGBBaGGBGGB 
 BGGaaBGGBGGBBBGG 
 GGaaGBBGGGBBGBBG 
 □aBGGGBBGBBGGGaa 
 BBGGaGGBBBGGBGGa 
 aGGBBBGGBGGBBBG' 1 
 GGBBBaaGGGBBBBBG 
 
 Fig. 228. 
 
 necessary, he will read it the requisite number of times 
 upon the card. Take again the design Fig. 227, which 
 occupies thirty-eight threads, 304 -^ 38 = 8, the pattern 
 must be repeated eight times ; but it must be understood 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 that although the pattern must be repeated a number of 
 times to make up the number represented by the Jacquard 
 it IS not necessary that it should be repeated in the weft 
 way. The number of threads occupied by the pattern in 
 the w^eft way indicates the number of cards that will be 
 
 □□■□□nBnnnnrjHBHBBnDG 
 
 □□□□□BBHUnDDGBBBanaU 
 
 □□□□BBBBBLinnanBDauBrj 
 
 □□□□□BHBuannDaaEiaBBB 
 
 . BiJDIjnnBijaaBGZaDDBBBB 
 
 □ □□□□□□□□BBBrJODnDBBB 
 
 HDBnnnnGBBBBBGnnnnBG 
 □BBBDaaGGBBBnaanaBan 
 BBBBBnLinnaBnaaBDDnnB 
 
 □ BBBDlliGnGEnnnBBBUClHLl 
 
 7^/0. 229. 
 
 required to weave the pattern (this design might also be 
 woven upon healds by reducing the draught). Thus in the 
 two examples given the number of cards required would 
 be respectively sixteen and thirt3^-eight. In both these 
 cases the number of weft picks which the design occupies 
 
 □ nnn^r- r^cnnGGGGnOGGBBBBBBBOGnGn 
 
 TG " GGGGGGGGGCGGBBEBBGCGGGa 
 
 G IBGljrjBL Tl Gl BBS IfH [ rjGG 
 
 G BBS GBB B_jj__ ^GG 
 
 GG _ _ ^BBBHaHHC LJ f G^ri |^ _.uGr IGG 
 QGGl u^G^ J BBBBBGL ^ l L Gi Gf IG IGGGG 
 GGBGLG^G LBBBG'i rr r _ iGC GGGBD 
 CBHBGG ) G^ B ^ ^ ifj GBBB 
 
 bbhggggggg: ' : ' g! '".jr^GHOBB 
 
 BB BBB 
 
 eglG^^^_. me BG 
 
 □Cr I r GHBBGBHO DB 
 
 GL ' \ ^ - .bbbbbbb: ' in 
 
 GG: riGBBBBBG! ' ' tH 
 
 GG._..J.;.GH ,GB. ■ ::GGBBHOr:,G JG 
 
 GGGGGBBaGBEH'_. G^'" " ::BG^"'^ . GS 
 
 GGBGaBBBBBBG: / .GG 
 
 □HGGGBBBBBGGr ' ..:Ga 
 
 □Gl ^ GGBBOr " B ^BG 
 
 GG' : ' ■ 'GGBBBGBBB 
 
 GG ' :GBBBBBBBG 
 
 GL... IGBBBBBGH 
 
 G^ Hu J B OBBGGn 
 
 gg:: gbbbgbbb " - G'SGaaa 
 
 BGG'" 'BBBBBBBG. G J JGGGGG 
 
 □ G_^ ^ BBBBB'~ la 
 
 llCilGiiGBG,J': . _/X:!BBB' ' "GG 
 
 □bbbgbbbg:/ :g_.G' B . . . m 
 
 ■ BBBBBBGl'.r . iG 
 
 GBBBBBQGGJG Gl ^ ^ JG 
 
 GGBBBaGGGGGGGGL GGl ^GGGBGGGBGl^GGG 
 CGGBGlZlDGDlZlDGaGaGGGGGGBBBaBBBaGaa ' 
 
 Fiff. 230. 
 
 is the same as the warp threads, but this is not always the 
 case. At all times attention must first be paid to the 
 number of warp threads being such as will divide in the 
 number of the machine. Fig. 228 is an example of this. 
 The number of warp threads is such that it will divide, 
 
» 
 
 240 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 thus 304 -^ 8 = 38, but the number of weft picks will not. 
 Yet on examination it will be found that the pattern will 
 meet on all sides, and would make a continuous pattern 
 all over the piece. Figs. 226 to 228 are therefore all 
 examples of designs upon such a number of threads as 
 will divide evenly in 304. 
 
 Two of these are examples of stiff set figures or spots, 
 two of the spots making a complete design, by simply being 
 set across each other, or alternated ; but another practice 
 prevails of so arranging the spots that they shall appear to 
 be more scattered over the surface of the cloth. To effect 
 this the spots are arranged after the order of a satin. Fig. 
 229 is an example of a figure arranged in the order of a five- 
 thread satin. Take the number of threads which the five 
 
 □□□^□□□iinnGsnnnii 
 □□^□□□[anHnaaaGiia 
 □□□□□□□HHaDDDHna 
 
 BDDUUUBGBSBDDaaa 
 
 □□□□□HaauBBeuuDH 
 
 □ □EJDBBHBBBUBHQaHia 
 □liaBBBBBBBGBBBGa 
 BDDDBaBBBBBDBBBG 
 □□□SGBBBBaeBGBBB 
 GGGGGGHaBBBBBOBa 
 □□UGGUGHBBBBBBGG 
 GGUGDUaGBBBBBGGG 
 
 GaGDUGaGGBBBaaas 
 
 GGGGGGGGGG^GGGGG 
 GGGGGGGGGGGGGGGG 
 □GGGGGQGGGGGQGGG 
 
 □DCIiaaaGGGGGGBlD 
 GEGGGGllGGGGllGGG 
 aGGBBBGGGHGGGGll 
 aGBGBBBBGGGGllGG 
 iiafiBGBBBBGllGGGa 
 GGBBBGBBBBGGGE1G 
 GBGHHBGBHHBBGGG 
 GGGBaBHGBBHGGGEl 
 GGGCaaBBGBBBaDG 
 BGGGGaBBHGBBGGG 
 GGGGGGHaaaGBGHG 
 GGGGGGGGBBaGGGG 
 GGGGGGGGGGGGGGIl 
 GGBGGGGBGGGGBGG 
 GGGGGGGGGGGGGGG 
 
 Fig. 231. 
 
 Fig. 232. 
 
 spots are to occupy, divide them equally into five, or as 
 near equally as possible ; number these spaces in the order 
 of a five-thread satin, and place the spots in order upon 
 the spaces as they are numbered. Fig. 230 is an example 
 of this system of arrangement, in the order of an eight- 
 thread satin. 
 
 In these examples the figures are made upon plain 
 grounds, but upon twilled, or any other ground, the system 
 of arrangement is precisely the same, the only difference 
 being made by painting the ground pattern upon the 
 design. Fig. 231 is an example of twilled ground. Fig. 
 232 is an example of a sateen ground. Of course it must 
 be understood that whatever the nature of the ground the 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 241 
 
 pattern must be so arranged that not only will the figure 
 meet all round and make a continuous pattern, but the 
 ground must also do the same. In both these instances 
 only one spot is given, as the complete arrangement would 
 occupy too much space. 
 
 It may occur to the beginner, that in the arrangem.ent 
 of a design for a spot figure it will be difficult to determine 
 at first sight at what distance to place the figure apart upon 
 the paper, or if the same spots have been worked out upon 
 one arrangement, and it is desired to alter the arrangement, 
 as say from a five to an eight-thread satin order, it will be 
 difficult to preserve the same distance apart. This is not 
 so difficult as may appear. Suppose in the first place it is 
 desired to arrange a new design, and the order of arrange- 
 ment is to be a satin. To make the matter as clear as pos- 
 sible, I will further suppose that the design has been already 
 arranged with two spots, for the purpose of determining 
 the distance at which they may be placed apart ; and that 
 the whole area occupied by the two spots and the ground 
 surrounding them consists of eight ends and eight picks, 
 that is apparently an allowance of four ends and four picks 
 for each spot ; and consequently it would appear that if there 
 are to be five spots instead of two, twenty ends and twenty 
 picks would be required. We will see what is the case. 
 Eight ends and eight picks give on the design paper an area 
 occupying sixty-four small squares.. (For this purpose the 
 small square may be made the unit of measurement.) We 
 have therefore thirty-two small squares allotted to each figure, 
 that is — for the spot and the ground surrounding it. If we 
 take the twenty ends and twenty picks we shall have 
 20 X 20 = 400 small squares ; this divided amongst five 
 spots gives = 80 small squares allotted to each 
 
 spot. Consequently the area in this case would be two and 
 a half times that of the two spots on eight by eight. 
 
 If we were putting eight spots and were to adopt the 
 
242 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 four picks and four ends for each spot we should have 
 thirty-two picks and thirty-two ends, then 32 x 32 would 
 give us 1024 small squares, this divided amongst eight 
 spots would give us -^^^ = 128 small squares each. 
 
 Then to find the proper number of ends and picks 
 which may be used in the arrangement of a given number 
 of spots to occupy a given area, or an area similar to 
 another given arrangement, we must adopt another method. 
 Taking again the two spots upon eight ends and eight picks, 
 we find the area for each spot to be thirty-two small squares. 
 Multiply the number of small squares for each spot by the 
 number of spots ; that will give us the total number of small 
 squares which must be used. Then extract the square root 
 of that, and we shall have the number of ends and picks 
 required, or in other words we shall have one side of the 
 square in which the number of spots which we are to use 
 must be placed. Thus, suppose we require to use five spots, 
 32 X 5 = 160, the number of small squares to be used, and 
 the square root of 160 is over twelve but not quite thirteen, 
 and as we cannot use any but full numbers we should have 
 to use thirteen ends and thirteen picks. Again, supposing 
 it were eight spots we required to use, then 32 x 8 =256 
 small squares, and the square root of 256 is sixteen, con- 
 sequently if we put eight spots upon sixteen ends and 
 sixteen picks in the order of a satin, exactly the same area 
 will be occupied by each spot as if we had two spots upon 
 eight ends and eight picks, and the arrangement will be 
 much better. It will invariably be found that for eight 
 spots exactly the same area can be found as for two spots, 
 and the number of ends occupied will almost as invariably 
 suit the Jacquard, whereas for five spots the area cannot 
 be exact, and the number of ends occupied will not be 
 suitable for the Jacquard. 
 
 If the ends and picks differ in number in the arrange- 
 ment of two spots, one of two courses may be adopted, 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 243 
 
 either work the square of each side separately, or get the 
 
 total area, extract the square root, and find the length of 
 
 each side by proportion ; both methods will obtain the same 
 
 result. Fig. 180, page 210, will be a good example for the 
 
 student to work out as an illustration'. 
 
 The examples given here are all for figures formed 
 
 □□□snnnannnHnDna 
 □□^□□□□■■■DmDgia 
 □mamBBBBBBBUHna 
 
 ^□□□BBBBBBBBBaaa 
 
 □BBBaBBSSfflBBUBBB 
 
 □□BBBmSffiSffiSffiBBBa 
 □HnBBBfflfflfflfflfflBBBDn 
 SDDBBBBffiSSBBBBGD 
 □□□BBBBSmffiBBBBaS! 
 □□EiaBBBBSBBBBama 
 □QDaBBBBBBaBBDOD 
 BaGDBBBBBHBBDDDn 
 □□□□□□BBBBBanDGB 
 
 □□□□□□□HBBiJDDnna 
 
 □[^□□□□□□□EDaanQUG 
 WJDauaaBQDunarja 
 
 Fig- 233. 
 
 with the weft, which constitutes the ground cloth. Fig. 
 233 is a pattern in which the figure is formed by both 
 warp and weft upon a twilled ground, the portion which 
 has a cross in the square being the warp figure. This 
 principle of figuring may be applied also to any of the other 
 grounds, or the figures may be made entirely of warp, and no 
 weft shown, or the pattern may be formed entirely with warp 
 
 BnDBDDBBnGBBGGBBDB 
 □□BDaBBUBBaGBBDGBB 
 □BDDBBGGGBBGBBGBBG 
 BaaBBaGBGQBBGGBBGa 
 □GBBGBaaBaGBBGBaaB 
 □BBGaBBQGBaGBBDGBa 
 BBGBBGBBGGBGGaBGGG 
 BGGBBGQBBGGaGGilBGB 
 GBBGGBBGBHGGEiGGaBG 
 
 GaaGGBaaGaHCGaGGBB 
 
 BGGBaGGaauaBGGBGGB 
 BBGBBGBBGGGBBGGBGG 
 aaaGGBaGGBGGBaGGBG 
 GGaaBBGGBGGaGBBGaa 
 BGGBBaaBGGBBGGBBQa 
 
 aGBGGaBGaaaGBBaBBG 
 
 GBaGGBGGBBGGBBGGBB 
 BflGGaGGBBGBBGGBBGB 
 
 Fi^. 234. 
 
 and weft figure, all over the piece, and no ground discernable, 
 as Fig, 234. 
 
 Then another kind of figure presents itself which may 
 be said to be made on the double cloth principle to some 
 extent. This consists of a solid, perfectly plain, twilled, 
 or other make of cloth, and upon this a figure is formed 
 
244 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 by a warp or weft of a different colour. Fig. 235 is an 
 example, the shaded squares represent a perfectly plain 
 ground, and the black squares the figure, which is formed 
 with a separate colour (a being the design shown sepa- 
 rately), the order of weaving being one pick of the ground 
 cloth, and one of the figuring. In this class of weaving it 
 will be observed that the pattern is formed by the figuring 
 weft passing alternately to the face and back, the point 
 at which it changes from face to back, and vice versa, 
 being determined by the form of the figure. Fig. 236 is 
 
 □aHannnnDDnBBHnn 
 HaHanaanaaHBsnna 
 BaaaaaBmaaanmnaa 
 aaaaaaammnoaa-sBa 
 
 □□□BBBDBBBaDDaaa 
 
 □□BaaanDBBannuBG 
 □□□BBHaaaaaannua 
 □□□□BBBaanBaanna 
 □□□□□aaBDnnaaBna 
 □□anGDaaannDBBsa 
 □easnnGBBHDBaBnn 
 aaammaaoaaaasaaa 
 aaGsaaDGCHaauuna 
 aaaaasmaaaacnLiaa 
 □□□aafflnnannnDBBB 
 □□ffiaaaDDGacjasBBn 
 
 A 
 
 □aaannnnnnnBBBnn 
 
 □□□□□□□□□□□□□□□s 
 BBauDaauaDBBanaa 
 
 BDUGDnnaDGGijDana 
 
 BBGaDHaHGUDSHBaa 
 
 □ □□□□□□□□□□UUUDEl 
 
 BunGBBBiaauGuaaaB 
 
 □GGGGGUGuGGGUGGG 
 
 GGGaaaGaHaGGGaHB 
 
 aGGGGGGUGGGUGGGG 
 
 □QHaaGGGaaaaGGBG 
 
 GGGGGGGGGGGDGGGG 
 
 GGGasaGGaaaaGGGa 
 
 □GGHGGGGGGGGGGGG 
 □GGGaaaGGG^HBGGG 
 
 HaaGGGGGGGGGuGGG 
 
 GGGaGaaaGaasaaGQ 
 
 □GGGGGGGGGGGGGGQ 
 □GaGGGBB^GCGBBSG 
 
 GGGGGGLjGGGGGGGQG 
 
 GaasGGGBHiaGBaBaa 
 
 □GGHGBGGGEJGHGGGH 
 BBBBBGGGB8BBBGGG 
 
 HGGasGiiaaaHGHaaa 
 
 BBGaBSGGGaaBGGGB 
 
 GaaGGGGGGaaGGGGG 
 BGGGHSBGQGBGGGBH 
 
 GGGGGGGGGGGGGGGa 
 □GGSBeGGGGGGGaiiB 
 QGGGaaGGGGGGGGGS 
 GGSEfflGGGaGGGSJaaa 
 
 □□GaaaaGGGGGGaaa 
 Fi/. 235. 
 
 an example upon a twilled ground (a being the figure, 
 and B the ground pattern). The same principle also 
 applies to patterns made with the warp. Instead of weft 
 being thrown in to form the figure, warp threads of the 
 colour desired are drawn through the desired number of 
 figuring healds alternately with the ground warp, the 
 latter being drawn upon two or more healds to weave 
 the ground, if they are to be woven in healds ; or if in 
 a harness the ground and the coloured warp threads are 
 drawn alternately all over the harness, and the design 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRiCS. 245 
 
 arranged according]}^, as shown in Fig. 237. which would 
 produce a simple diagonal pattern, as shown at a. 
 
 Instead of the figures being made all over the piece, 
 they may be made to run in stripes, crossovers, or in the 
 form of checks, the longitudinal stripes being formed by 
 the warp, and the transverse by the weft. 
 
 Small spot figures are also worked upon the same 
 principle. The difference between working spot figures 
 and those just mentioned is mainly that, whereas in the 
 patterns mentioned above the whole of the figuring material 
 
 ■■□□□□□□□□□□□□EB 
 
 □□□^□□□□^□□□□□□a 
 
 ■□□□□HHaDBBaDDDB 
 
 □□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□ 
 □□□BHBBaGBEBBGCU 
 
 □□□□□□□□□□□□□nna 
 □CEBsaaDnnESBasuG 
 
 EGDLljnClDnnULiULiUD 
 
 □ GBESHeQGCGSEHBGU 
 
 □ CGLGGGr GGGLGGGG 
 □BBESaaGGaaHEGBG 
 
 □ G G G □ G G G G G r:J G G G G G 
 □BBGGGGeBGGGGBHG 
 
 □ GnGGGGGGiGGGGGGG 
 □QGGGGffiSEaGGGGaa 
 
 □ □GGGGGGLL GGGGGG 
 □GDaaGBBBEsaGGaGG 
 SGGGGGGL GGGGGGGD 
 □BBGGGGBHGGGGEBG 
 □GGGGGGGGGGGGCGG 
 □BBKEGGGGGGKHEBG 
 
 □ GGGGGGr CGGGGDGG 
 □GBBBeGGGGBBBBGG 
 GGGL GC GGL GGGGHGG 
 □GBEBEGCGGSBBBGa 
 GGGL L GGlu^GGGGGGG 
 □GLBBBGGGHBBBGGG 
 CGC GGGGGGr GrGGGG 
 BGGGGBBGGBBGGGBB 
 LHGGDGGGGl TjGGr L O 
 BBGaGGGGGGGGGGGG 
 IHDDGGGGQGQGGEGa 
 
 EEGanGGGnnDGGGpa 
 
 BGGGGBBGGBBGGGGH 
 GGGBBBBGGHBBBGGG 
 GGBBBSGGGGBBBaGG 
 GGBBBBCGGGBBBBGD 
 GBBBBGaGGGGBBBHa 
 aEEGGGGBaGGGGBBa 
 GGGGaGBBBBGGGGQG 
 QGGGGnBBBBGGGGGD 
 GBSGGGGEEGGGGBBG 
 □BEBBGGGaaGEEBHG 
 GGBEBHaaGGBBBBGa 
 GGBBBBGGGGBEBEaa 
 aGGBBBEGGBEEEGGG 
 BGCGGEEGGBEGGGGB 
 BEGaGDQGaQGGGaEB 
 
 EGGG 
 GGGG 
 OGBG 
 EGGG 
 
 B 
 
 Fig. 236. 
 
 is worked loose on one or other side of the cloth ; in 
 small spots the figuring material, when not forming the 
 pattern on the face, is thrown to the back —if the cloth 
 is a light one — loosely, and afterwards cut off, but if the 
 cloth is sufficiently thick to allow of its being worked in 
 at the back, without showing through to the face, it is 
 so worked in. 
 
 Illustrations without number might be given of this 
 class of figuring. For instance, the spotting warp and the 
 spotting weft may be of different colours, and each form 
 
246 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 separate spots, or portions of the same spot ; they may be 
 of different shades of the same colour and both be worked 
 into the same figure so as to produce shaded effects, or 
 in such a multipHcity of other ways that a whole volume 
 of illustrations might be given without exhausting the 
 
 □□□□□□□BDGEB 
 □□□□□HDHEODD 
 
 □□□BDRBBDnsa nnoBBB 
 
 □BnBDBnDDLjan nDBBBn 
 
 □BQBnnDDDnHB DBBBUD 
 
 □BnnnciaaaBnB BBBann 
 
 □□□□□□□BGBDB BBnODB 
 
 □□□□□BDBDBnn annoBB 
 □□HBaBnanDHD a 
 
 □BCBBBDDGana ^ 
 
 □BEBDDnnDDOB 
 
 BBnDESDaGEBDB 
 
 Fig. 237. 
 
 subject. The reader has only to walk through a fancy 
 goods establishment to be at once convinced of this. 
 
 We now come to the consideration of figures upon 
 double cloths, formed by bringing one through to the face 
 of the other. The method of making double-faced cloths 
 
 □□BDDDCBDDDDBnnDDBr.n 
 I □LuLrLLCLDDLr rnUDUiJ 
 BDDDGBDUDDBDUDDBCCGD 
 PLLHlICL^LCrLGrnUG^L^-G 
 □□□BDGDGEBBBLBGnDGBD 
 GEGCGGLG.GlGGGGGGnGGCG 
 GBGGGGB^EBHBGBBGBGGG 
 aG[ ^GG L^GG^GGGGGGGfJ 
 GGGGBGBBBBGBHBHGGGGB 
 GGGGGGGGGGGGGL^GGGGGG 
 GGBBGBBBGBBBBGBBGBGG 
 GGGGGGLIGG IGGGGGGOOGG 
 BGGGBBGBBBBGBBBBGGGD 
 CGGGGEGGOGr IGGGGGCCQG 
 GGGBGBBBBGBBBBGBGGBG 
 GaGGGCGGGGGGGaCGCGGG 
 QBGGBBBGBBBBGBKBBGGa 
 GGGGGG GGL GGGGL GGfGG 
 GGGGBGBBBBGBBBBGBBGB 
 GGGl GGQrG GGGLGG GGtJ 
 GGBGGBBSGKESaGBHBBGD 
 
 □ nr uGujGL GLG_^GQGr G G 
 BGCGCHGBBaHCEaBBGGGG 
 r GGGGl^GGGGGGGGGP -GGJ 
 GQGBGGBBBGBBBBGGGGBa 
 GGGGGGGGGGGGGGnGGGGG 
 □BaGGGBGiBBBBOGGGBGiGG 
 
 □ GGGGGGGGGGGPr GGf GC G 
 □GGGBaaGaBGGGGBGGGjGB 
 EJOGGGuGGGu^L G^llGlLGG 
 
 Fig. 238. 
 
 upon one warp has been pointed out at page 220, as well 
 as the suggestion that figures may be very easil}^ produced 
 by using two colours of weft, one for each side, and at 
 certain intervals bringing the weft from the back to the 
 face, and taking the face weft to the back. Fig. 238 shows 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 247 
 
 the way to do this. It will be observed that the face 
 pick w^hen it comes to the figure passes to the back, and 
 vice versa. Fig. 239 is an example of figure also of this 
 kind of cloth, the figure taking the form of a diagonal. 
 
 Then with reference to figuring with two separate 
 cloths at page 223, the system of making double cloths 
 has been fully pointed out, and applies also to harness or 
 jacquard figures ; but in harnesses the warps for the two 
 
 □isnnaDDnnnnnHnHnnnnn 
 
 □■BHHaOBBBDDDaHnDDDB 
 
 □□□□□□□□□EiGnDnnnnnaL:] 
 
 BBaGBHBHnaULBDDDnBDB 
 
 □□□□□□□□□□□□□□□[^□□□D 
 BDBHBBGDULJHGLJUDBnUBB 
 □aGGGGCnaGGnUGGODGDG 
 BBBBGBGGBGGUGEaGGBaBB 
 
 □aGaGGcaaaGDGGaaoGGD 
 
 BBGBBuHaGGGBaGOBBGBB 
 
 aHaaGGGGGGGGGaGCCaQG 
 GBBBBGGGGaaaGGBaBHBB 
 □GUGar^GGGGrGG^^^f GG 
 BBaGGGQHGGGGiaCHHHaGB 
 GCEGaGGGGGGGGGraaaGGa 
 S S B BSa@BL.BBB 
 
 ^GGGGG 1UGGGI I J 
 i) " i . iGGKaGBBHGBBBaa 
 ■"'r , . HjaGGGGCGGHaGGG 
 GSGGG^iEJGGGHBaCGGGBGG 
 
 r riGI ^G[ IGGGGGGI IGGG 
 
 GGGCBGGaaBGaBBBGBHBa 
 mr CHG QG-^C GGrGGLuL 
 GGBGGOGBGBBHBGfflHaBGG 
 GGGQlGGGGCGl GG _ G 
 BGGGaBGHBGBGBGHaGBGG 
 GGGGQ-GGGG GGBGl. GGG 
 GaGBDGBBBiaaBHaGBBGBa 
 G-^u^GGGaGGGGGGGGGGG 
 aBaGGBBGBBBBaBBGBaGa 
 GG^ GG GQGGGGGGaQGGn 
 GGGGBaBBBHaBBBBaGGGB 
 GGGGGGGGGGGaGGQaGGGG 
 aGBGBBEBCBBBBGGGGESGG 
 
 G'^^^^.G "^lGGGGGC GGGG 
 BGHBHBGaeBBGGGOBGGGG 
 
 GGi uGl L jnrjGGGG ) IG 
 
 GBBaGBBBBGBGGBGGGGBB 
 GGGGGGGaaaGGGaGGGGBa 
 BBnBBBBGBBGBGGGGBBDB 
 
 Fig. 239. 
 
 cloths must be drawn alternately, as shown at Fig. 205, page 
 208, and the design arranged accordingly. ^ 
 
 Until some amount of dexterity has been acquired it 
 is best for the student to arrange his patterns upon paper, 
 as if they were for single cloth, and then put them on 
 together for the double cloth, because every alternate end 
 belonging to separate cloths, the design will appear to 
 occupy double the amount of space upon paper which it 
 ought to do, in addition to which the beginner is very 
 
248 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 liable to get his dots or crosses upon the wrong lines. As 
 pointed out at pages 223 to 226, the formation of double 
 cloth is produced by the warp being divided into two por- 
 tions, which are kept and worked separately ; while the weft 
 is being passed through one the other is kept apart from it. 
 This is arranged upon the design b}^ putting dots to raise 
 the whole of the warp belonging to the face while the pick is 
 being put in the back cloth, &c. As this is the principle 
 upon which the two cloths are kept separate, it is also the 
 principle upon which figures are made ; the fact is that no 
 matter what the figure is, whether large or small, the two 
 cloths throughout retain their individuality, whether plain, 
 twilled, or otherwise. 
 
 □□□□□Hnnnn 
 
 HDDfflaffiDfflBffl 
 
 ABDDfflnfflafflrjffl 
 
 BDDEBDEBfflCffl 
 
 □□LisnDGianD 
 
 ■□EfflaEBEBDH 
 
 BDfflHfflDfflBffla 
 
 BaDBDDGBaaa 
 
 maaciBDDaaa 
 
 EDfflBtanfflEiEBn 
 BnBDDaanna 
 
 □□□□□□□□□□ 
 
 □□SHBBBEiaH 
 
 lig. 240. 
 
 To illustrate this we will turn to Fig. 240, which, sup- 
 posing the two cloths are black and white respectively, 
 will produce a black and white stripe alternately across the 
 piece from side to side, a being the white stripe and b the 
 black stripe. Now, as to the cause of this change of 
 colour, for at a glance there appears no difference between 
 the arrangement of a and b, yet there is a difference, and 
 one of a very important nature. If we examine the stripe b 
 we shall find the lifting marks, which are represented by a a 
 as we may term them, and which are intended to lift the face 
 warp up while the back pick is put in, are placed upon the 
 second pick, and lift the first thread. The first thread and 
 the first pick are supposed to be black, the second thread 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. - 249 
 
 and the second pick are white, consequently the black 
 threads being lifted when the white picks goes in will 
 bring the black cloth to the face, and the white to 
 the back, then this accounts for the first stripe being 
 black. If we examine the second stripe we shall find 
 that the reverse is the case, viz., the lifting mark is 
 on the first pick and the second thread, consequently 
 the white is lifted when the black pick goes in, thus 
 bringing the white cloth to the face, and in this way 
 making alternate black and Avhite stripes. The stripes it 
 will be perceived, may be made any size, by weaving the 
 length required before changing the lifting mark. 
 
 From the foregoing the reader will have very little 
 difficulty in following through, step by step, the various 
 
 □□fflnfflifflnfflBDDDjnnnB 
 
 ■□□□■□□□■□□fflBfflDfflBffl 
 
 EDCfflSEBDfflHfflnnfsinnniinn . 
 
 ■□■□□□■□□□BffiGHBfflDffl ■ 
 ■□□□■□□□■□□fflBfflDfflHffl 
 
 mammwammrnDDmaaamaa 
 
 BnBDDnBnnDBfflDfflBfflDffl 
 
 □□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□ 
 
 □□BSBilBBBSBElBIllBElBe] 
 
 B A 
 
 Fit/. 241, 
 
 stages of double cloth figuring, and understanding easily 
 the principles upon which they are worked. We will now 
 suppose that instead of the stripes being transverse they 
 are intended to be longitudinal ; the same principle as to 
 the lifting marks applies as in the last case ; in fact, all 
 throughout double cloth figuring this is the one system of 
 working, and in whatever form it may be put the real 
 work cannot be done in any other manner. The difference 
 between this form of stripe and the last is, that in the 
 last case the weft pick traversed the whole width of the 
 piece on one side, whether face or back of the cloth, while 
 the warp threads changed from face to back as required to 
 form the stripe ; in the present case the warp threads 
 traverse the full length of the piece, on one or other side of 
 
 R 
 
WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 the cloth, while the weft pick passes from face to back as 
 required. Fig. 241 is a design for a stripe of this kind. The 
 portion of the design a, it will be observed, has the lifting 
 marks upon the first pick and the second thread, thus 
 bringing the white cloth to the face (supposing, as in the 
 previous case, that the first thread and first pick are black, 
 the second thread and second pick are white, the principle 
 which I shall observe throughout these examples) ; on b, the 
 lifting marks are upon the first thread and second pick, 
 bringing the black cloth to the face, consequently, as 
 explained, the weft will work on the face, in one portion of 
 the cloth, and on the back in another portion, and this is 
 repeated throughout the entire length of the cloth. 
 
 A B 
 
 □nnDDsnnnsfflnfflEifflnfflii 
 
 ■□□fflBfflDfflBfflnDBDDDBD 
 
 WDwaDWDsmmommmo 
 icBfflnfflBfflnfflBnnDBnnn 
 
 [^□□□□HDDDBEBDfflHfflQfflB 
 
 IDDfflBfflnfflBfflDDBDDDBn 
 
 □□□^□□□□□□fflEEGnfflglffln 
 BDBfflnaBfflDfflBDnDBDDD 
 G)DfflDffl[Z)fflDffl0DDnE]DDDll] 
 BDDDBDnDBDDfflBfflnfflBffl 
 
 B BDBDnDBnnnBEinfflBfflDD A 
 
 raafflDfflEgfflDffiODnDDQnn^ii 
 
 BDDnBUDDBmfflBfflDfflBffl 
 
 mamanamaaaumamumom 
 
 □□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□ 
 
 □□BSBglBllBeBllBIIlBilBll 
 
 B A 
 
 Fi^, 242. 
 
 We will now suppose that instead of a stripe it is 
 desired to make another pattern. Take, as an example, 
 a chess board pattern, alternate squares of black and white. 
 We have only to combine the two foregoing patterns and 
 we have the thing at once. Fig. 242 is the design for this. 
 The square a of the design is white, b is black, the result 
 being obtained by the lifting marks being changed in the 
 alternate squares from the white thread to the black, and 
 vice versa, always carefully observing that when the white 
 is intended to be brought to the face the lifting mark 
 must be on the black pick, and when the black is to come 
 to the face the lifting mark must be on the white pick. 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 It will be easily found out if it is on the wrong pick 
 or thread by coming into immediate collision with the 
 working dots or crosses, which it will never do otherwise. 
 
 We may now produce more elaborate and extensive 
 figures. The readiest and surest way is to sketch the 
 design upon squared design paper, colour it over with 
 some transparent colour, put on the working dots for both 
 cloths all over both the coloured and uncoloured portions, 
 then, instead of having to go over the whole design with 
 the lifting marks, the coloured portion answers for the 
 lifting marks when cutting the cards for, say, the white 
 
 i]DfflfflfflLB]fflfflfflBffifflffli]nnni3nnniiDnn@ 
 
 ■□fflfflBEBfflfflBBBfflfflBDDDBnDDBDDDBffl 
 
 ElDffl^ffifflEBaEBfflfflGlJaDaDDDBDDDiJEBffl 
 
 BDBfflfflfflBfflfflfflBDnDBnnnBDnnBfflfflffi 
 
 HDfflfflffltjfflfflfflDDDnananisDDamfflfflfflii 
 
 BDfflfflBfflffiffiBUanBDnDBDDDBfflfflfflBffl 
 
 EiDfflBEBfflfflaDaDnDUCEDnnnfBfflfflEfflaB 
 
 BDBfflfflfflBaDGBDDDBDnDBfflfflfflBfflfflBB 
 
 iiDfflfflffliaDnDEzimnQDnDnfflfflfflEifflfflfflH 
 
 BDfflfflBmQBaDDBDCDBfflfflfflHfflfflfflBffl 
 
 HDfflEJDDDHnaDHDDDDmfflffiDEflfflfflmfflffl 
 BDBmDBnnDBDDDBffifflfflBffifflfflBfflfflffl 
 
 aDDDDEnnnanDUDfflfflfflrafflfflfflnfflfflffld 
 
 BDCDBDmBaanBfflfflffiBfflfflfflBfflfflfflBD 
 
 l]DaE3DDDDDDCafflfflfflafflfflfflDfflfflrJE]aD 
 BQBCDDBDDDBfflfflffiBfflfflfflBfflfflfflBanU 
 HQDDDODDDnEBfflEBrjfflEBfflQfflfflfflaDnnil 
 BnDDBDDDBfflfflffiBfflfflfflBEBfflfflBDDnBn 
 
 □□□BCODnfflfflffinsfflfflnffifflfflaDnnaaa 
 
 BDBDDDBfflfflfflBfflfflfflBfflEBfflBDGDBDDD 
 
 EgaoDasfflfflfflEifflfflfflUfflfflfflunanaDDD® 
 
 BCDDBfflBafflBfflEifflBmtBfflBnDDBnnDBa 
 
 EGCDfflfflfflnffltflftBfflisfflanDDQDansDu 
 
 BDBfflfflfflBfflfflfflBfflfflEBBDDDBCnDBDnD 
 
 □□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□ 
 
 □□BQBBBDBDBDBEBBBCDBHBQBEBH 
 
 Fig 243. 
 
 cloth, and the uncoloured portion for the black cloth, as 
 shown in Fig. 243, where the coloured portion is represented 
 by the small cross inside the square. 
 
 The reason I have dealt so fully with the lifting marks 
 as I have named them in the examples just given, is, 
 because I find it much more readily understood and 
 followed up generally by students, than if the colouring 
 was given fiirst ; because the colouring being painted over 
 all the threads which form both cloths it is difficult in the 
 extreme to separate in the mind of the student one cloth 
 from the other, and to make him understand that every 
 
252 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 alternate pick and every alternate thread represented on 
 the design paper belong to separate cloths. 
 
 Fig. 244 is an example of a figure worked in this 
 manner, and Fig. 245 is the same thing worked with the 
 lifting marks, which shows the working clearly, but when 
 the principle is thoroughly understood, the value and 
 
 fflnnHnnnHnQDsnnDE] 
 mmuaaanoanauDDma 
 fflSfflansDDDSGnniijan 
 ■fflfflfflBDnnBnnnBnnn 
 
 fflfflfflHfflnnQDDDEinDDH 
 fflfflHfflfflfflBranHDnDBD 
 
 fflnffifflEBnfflDDnnnannn 
 
 BfflaifflBfflfflfflBDDaBDDa 
 
 fflfflfflnfflffifflnfflDDDaDDgi 
 EfflBfflfflfflBEifflfflBannBn 
 fflEiEBfflfflDfflfflfflQfflnnEaa 
 BfflffifflBfflfflfflBfflfflfflBann 
 
 fflfflfflnfflfflfflunaifflfflrjfflnnH 
 
 fflfflBffifflFHBbfifflfflBfflfflfflBD 
 
 EBEfflfflfflnfflffifflnfflfflBBiiffln 
 
 244. 
 
 simplicity of the method shown at Fig. 244 will be obvious 
 at a glance. 
 
 In all these examples I have kept to plain cloths ; that 
 is, the two cloths, although they form figures by passing to 
 reverse sides of each other, are in themselves each quite 
 plain ; but, of course, it is not at all necessary to keep to 
 plain cloths, they may be twilled or otherwise equally as 
 
 □ SiafflnfflBfflDfflBfflDfflBffl 
 BrjUfflBfflDfflBffiDfflOffiDffl 
 
 fflGfflnfflDDBDnnaDnnKi 
 
 □□BDGfflBfflDfflBfflDfflBffl 
 
 fflSfflnfflafflDGunannDn 
 
 BGGGBGGfflBfflOfflBffiGffl 
 
 fflGfflDfflGfflGfflGGUGGGra ■ ' 
 
 □CBGGGBGGfflBfflGfflBffl 
 
 ffiGBBGEBGfflGfflGEBGGEQD 
 
 ■GGGBGGGBaGfflBfflaffl 
 
 EBGffiGfflGfflGffiGfflGfflaaG 
 
 □GBGGGBGaaBGGfflBffl 
 
 EGfflGfflGfflGfflGEBGfflQBBG 
 
 ■aaaBGGGBaGGBaaffl 
 Fig. 245. 
 
 well. Fig. 246 is an example of a design upon twill 
 ground. Other grounds may be worked equally as well on 
 the same principle. Nor is it necessary that the two cloths 
 should each be solid in colour. They may be varied in 
 every conceivable form, one solid colour, and the other 
 striped or checked, as fancy may dictate. 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 The way in which the figure is formed will perhaps 
 be made more intelligible by reference to the section, 
 Fig 247, which shows the manner in which the face cloth 
 passes to the back, and the back cloth to the face, for 
 the purpose of forming the figure. 
 
 We must now return to what was said at the beginning 
 of this chapter respecting casting out in harness. Assuming 
 
 □^□□□□□HnsnnnnnsnBnnnnnH 
 ■□□□□□■□■□□□□□■□■□□□□□■a 
 
 DDaaomumaaaaamaaaaaaasam 
 □□□□■□■□□□□□■□■□□□□□■□■a 
 
 □□□aDEsnnanDHfflQnDnnnQnsaa 
 □□■□■□□□□□■fflHfflfflncDHDBDna 
 
 □^□□□□□□□□fflSfflfflfflfflDGnnnnaa 
 ■□■□□□□□■fflBfflfflfflfflfflBaBDnnna 
 
 □BDDDnnnfflnfflfflnfflfflQfflnnnnnnB 
 
 ■□□□□□BfflHfflffiDnnBEHBfflOnDDBa 
 
 □□□□□□fflafflfflnnnDnufflfflfflfflaHDii 
 
 □□□□BfflBfflfflfflDDBDBaBfflBBfflfflBDBa 
 
 □□□sffiaEBfflfflfflDsaQGffifflfflffliafflEiaa 
 
 □□BaBfflfflfflfflfflBDBnnfflfflfflBfflBDDa 
 BDBnDanfflBfflBBBDfflfflfflBffiBDDaan 
 
 □BnDGnnEifflizifflfflfflfflffiHEBGaanaDii 
 
 BnDDGQBaBfflEBfflffifflBfflBUaDDaBa 
 
 aanaawmaammsuiiSiaaa'jaamam 
 □□□□BDBDDaafflBfflBanDDnBDBa 
 
 □□□BDGaaDDDiiifflEGannaEniiaa 
 □□BaBaaDmBaBDaanDBaBDna 
 
 □DDiinnDnniiDiiaaDnasaHDGDG 
 
 BaBDDaaDBDBnDDDDBDBDaaDa 
 
 Fiff. 246. 
 
 that we are working with a Jacquard having 304 hooks, 
 the first three designs given, Nos. 226, 227, and 228, would 
 not require any casting out ; as has been already shown 
 they occupy such a number of ends as will divide evenly 
 in 304 ; but in Fig. 229 that is not the case. In this design 
 the pattern occupies twenty ends, then 304 -^ 20 — 15 + 4, 
 
 Fig. 247. 
 
 consequently, there being a remainder of four, four hooks 
 must be cast out, or allowed to remain idle, otherwise the 
 pattern could not be made to meet and join properly at 
 the sides. Again, in Fig. 230 the pattern occupies thirty- 
 two ends, then 304 -^ 32 = 9 + 16; consequently, there 
 being a remainder of sixteen, that number of hooks would 
 
254 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 require to be cast out, and so in all cases where the design 
 will not divide evenly in the total number of hooks in the 
 machine. After dividing the total number of hooks by the 
 ends in the pattern the remainder must be cast out so 
 as to make the pattern join properly at the sides. 
 
 Another reason for casting out in Jacquards is to 
 change the sett, or number of threads per inch, from one 
 number to another. In all cases the harnesses are tied up 
 to what is termed a certain sett or degree of fineness, or with 
 a certain number of threads per inch, and it frequently 
 happens that some other sett is desired to be woven than 
 that which the harness represents. This sett must of 
 necessity be lower than that of the harness, because, although 
 we may reduce the sett by casting out, we cannot add to it. 
 Therefore, in any case where the harness is tied up to a 
 given sett, and it is desired to weave some lower sett in 
 the same harness, it becomes a question of simple proportion. 
 Supposing the Jacquard to contain 304 hooks, and the 
 harness tied up to sixty sett (Bradford or any other 
 system), and it is desired to weave a fifty-four sett cloth, 
 then as 60 : 304 : : 54 : 283, consequently the number to be 
 cast out is represented by the difference between 283 and 
 304, which would be twenty-one ; but it is not usual to 
 deal with odd ends, therefore twenty might be cast out, 
 and so leave a number which would be a convenient 
 dividend for patterns. Or suppose the machine to contain 
 400 hooks, and tied up with eighty threads per inch, and it 
 is desired to reduce that to seventy per inch, then as 
 80 : 400 : : 70 : 350, consequently the difference between 
 350 and 400 represents the number of hooks to cast out or 
 remain idle. 
 
 These are the two principle reasons for casting out, and 
 in any case by observing these two rules little difficulty 
 will be experienced in adapting the harness to any design or 
 sett, 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 PILE OR PLUSH. 
 
 All the varieties of cloth hitherto dealt with belong to, 
 or are combinations of, two of the three primaries, which 
 were pointed out in the early part of this work ; and, before 
 in any way dealing with the third of these primaries, it will 
 be necessary to examine another, which apparently would 
 belong to a quite different species, but in reality belongs 
 to the two already dealt with, the different effect being 
 produced partly in the process of weaving, and partly by 
 another process after the cloth is woven. 
 
 Pile weaving is, like all other kinds, capable of pro- 
 ducing great diversity of patterns, not only in itself but in 
 conjunction with figures ; magnificent effects being produced 
 by velvet forming figures upon silk grounds of various 
 colours. Patterns of various colours in loop pile, as in 
 Brussels carpet, imitations of skins of animals of almost 
 every description, and in other ways, calling forth the 
 ingenuity of the caterers for the public in the production 
 of textile fabrics, which may deservedly take rank as 
 works of art. 
 
 Loop pile is the first and simplest kind of pile made, 
 and consists of a plain ground cloth woven in the ordinary 
 manner, and having upon it a pile formed by a separate warp, 
 which is bound into the ground cloth in the manner shown 
 at Fig. 50, page 166, the loop being formed by wires being 
 inserted under the warp which is to form the loop, in 
 the process of weaving, and afterwards drawn out ; the 
 size of the loop being regulated by the thickness of the 
 wire used. 
 
 Cut pile is woven in precisely the same manner as the 
 foregoing, the difference being that instead of the wire 
 
256 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 being drawn out it is cut out, either by means of a knife 
 run down a groove in the top of the wire, or the end of 
 the wire being furnished with a knife which cuts its way as 
 the wire is drawn out. 
 
 There are various ways of altering the quantity of pile 
 upon the surface of a cloth, the manufacturer being guided 
 by the purpose for which it is intended, as well as by the 
 thickness and quality of the material being used. In the 
 first place it may be very easily regulated by the number 
 of threads of pile warp per inch, care of course being 
 taken that the threads may not be so far apart that the 
 pile will appear in rows, showing up the ground cloth 
 between each. Again, the pile, instead of being bound in 
 every pick of the ground cloth, may be bound in every 
 alternate one, or otherwise as may be desired. 
 
 Wire □□fflnafflD 
 
 Wire □□fflDDffla 
 □■□□■HQ 
 
 Mg. 248. 
 
 Another point to be observed is that the whole of the 
 plush warp need not be brought over the wire at once, but 
 every alternate thread brought over the first wire, then the 
 other half over the next wire, the portion of the pile warp 
 which is not being worked up being worked into the 
 ground, as shown at Fig. 50 ; thus not only making the 
 ground cloth a much finer and firmer one, but also binding 
 the pile much more firmly into the cloth. 
 
 Before going further^ it may be desirable now to show 
 how the patterns for velvets or warp pile fabrics, are 
 arranged upon the design paper, and then to examine how 
 figures may be produced by forming velvet upon a plain 
 or other fabric. 
 
 To turn first to the common velvet, or where all the 
 pile warp is raised at once for the formation of the pile, the 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 design Fig. 248 shows the arrangement. In this the ground 
 threads are represented by the soHd squares, and the pile 
 threads by the dots and crosses, the one indicating where 
 it binds into the cloth, and the other where it passes over 
 the wire. From this it will be seen that there are two 
 ground threads to one pile thread, and three ground picks to 
 one wire or row of loops. It will be further noticed that 
 when the wire is inserted — as indicated by the word wire, 
 
 Fig. 249. 
 
 and the crosses — the pile warp issues from and returns to 
 the cloth between two picks, which are exactly alike, as 
 shown in the section Fig. 249, by this means not only holding 
 the pile firmly into the cloth, but forcing it to stand erect. 
 
 The arrangement for the working design for utrecht 
 velvet is slightly different, as shown at Fig. 250. The wires 
 are again shown by the crosses, and the pile thread 
 always binds into the fabric along with its neighbouring 
 
 Wire □□□□□ffl 
 
 □■□□BH 
 
 Wire □□fflDnO 
 □■□□■H 
 
 Wire □□□□□ffl 
 
 BDBBm 
 
 □BDnBH 
 Wire □□fflDCn 
 
 □BOnBH 
 
 BDBBDD 
 
 Fig. 250. 
 
 ground thread ; a section of this is shown at Fig 50, page 
 166. 
 
 Where figures are to be formed of velvet on a plain, 
 or any other ground, the structure of the cloth, and the 
 mode of binding the pile into the ground cloth remain 
 exactly the same ; the figure is formed by simply not 
 bringing the pile warp over the wire, where the ground cloth 
 
258 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 is to be visible, and lifting it over the wire where the figure 
 is to be formed. The readiest method of making the design 
 for figured velvets, is to paint the pattern on paper after 
 the manner indicated with reference to double cloth, and 
 as the ground picks remain the same throughout, and the 
 figure is formed solely by the warp being brought over the 
 wire, in cutting the cards for the wire cut only for those 
 threads which, as indicated by the colouring of the design, 
 are required to be raised, and allow the rest to continue 
 to form part of the ground cloth only. 
 
 For very strong heavy cloths, such, for instance, as 
 Brussels carpets, the pile warp does not pass actually to 
 the back of the cloth, as shown at page 166, but passes 
 between two weft threads, as shown at Fig. 251, where two 
 separately coloured pile threads are shown, each coming 
 up at a different time to produce a figure. So far as the 
 ground warp is concerned those two binding picks both 
 go in the same shed, but one passes above and the other 
 below the pile warp, so holding it firmly between them 
 the weft being shown by the dots, and the ground warp by 
 the thin black line. Upon this principle of working, figures 
 may be produced by using various coloured yarns, or all 
 with one colour, by bringing up the pile at intervals, the 
 pile being either looped or cut. 
 
 It will be seen from a comparison of Fig. 251 and Fig. 50 
 what is the difference between an ordinary velvet and a 
 carpet pile. And it will be also apparent what an advantage 
 the latter possesses for use, because of the structure, and 
 of necessity the increased bulk of the ground, or body, of 
 the cloth. 
 
 After what has been said it does not require much 
 ingenuity to arrange designs for Brussels or other similar 
 carpets. The one thing to regard, so far as the arrangement 
 of the design upon paper as a working design, and apart 
 from its artistic merits, &c., being to take care that the 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 259 
 
 proper thread is brought to the surface at the proper time. 
 The ground working remaining the same throughout. 
 
 The length of pile is a very important matter, especially 
 if the object is to imitate the skins of animals. The length 
 of pile must be in accordance with the nature of the skin 
 to be imitated. Take, for instance, the sealskin, which is 
 very largely imitated, sometimes by the w^arp pile principle, 
 and sometimes by the weft pile principle. The pile or nap 
 of a sealskin is of the medium length, from a quarter-inch 
 to about half-an-inch, somewhat longer than an ordinary 
 velvet, while an imitation dogskin of the long curly or 
 wavy kind has a very long pile or nap, ranging up to an 
 inch in length. In both these kinds of skins there are 
 important features to be observed, quite apart from the 
 weaving. Sealskins are very often made with a sort of 
 
 tan-coloured ground, and the tips of the pile are coloured 
 a very dark brown, which gradually gradates down towards 
 the ground, thus giving it an exceedingly rich appearance. 
 This tipping, as it is termed, is done after the pile is woven 
 and cut, and is really a part of the finishing process. 
 
 In the imitation dogskin the curl or waviness is 
 produced by a preparation of the pile warp before weaving. 
 The yarn is crimped, the length of crimp being regulated 
 by the amount of waviness it is desired to give. The 
 crimping is set in the yarn by a steaming process, the yarn 
 is then made into a warp, and woven over wires and cut. 
 The moment it is cut it falls into the crimps again, and thus 
 produces that wavy shagginess. 
 
 No matter what the effect on the face may be, if the 
 pile is a warp pile the principle of making is the same. If 
 
26o 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 the pile is of a material which is very likely to pull out 
 easily it is more firmly bound into cloth by interweaving, 
 and vice versa, but all other effects, such as curliness, 
 waviness, colouring, &c., are produced in the preparation of 
 the yarn before weaving, or in the finishing. Numbers of 
 various efi'ects in imitation skins might be given, all produced 
 by different processes, but the object of this work is to 
 deal with weaving only, and to lay down the principles 
 so that they may be applied to all classes of trade, and 
 not to detail the manner in which any particular cloth is 
 made, otherwise there might be no limit to the work, and a 
 vast amount of information might be contained in it which 
 would be of no value except to those engaged in that 
 special branch of trade. 
 
 Weft piles are produced by the material of which the 
 pile or nap consists being thrown in as weft instead of 
 warp. The appearance of a weft pile is usually totally 
 different to that of a warp pile, inasmuch as the warp pile 
 being woven over a wire and cut down, the pile is made all 
 of a length, and unless in the case of a very long pile, or 
 when the yarn has previously undergone a preparation for 
 the purpose of producing some special effect, all warp piles 
 present a smooth even surface, the tips of the pile only 
 being presented to view. But in the weft piles this evenness 
 cannot be well maintained, partly in consequence of the 
 manner in which the pile must be bound into the 
 ground cloth, and partly in consequence of the method of 
 cutting making it almost a matter of impossibility for 
 both sides of the loop to be cut of an equal length. There 
 are one or two exceptions to this which will be mentioned, 
 but they are only in special makes, and have each peculiar 
 characteristics. 
 
 As an example of weft piles we will take an imitation 
 lambskin upon a twilled cloth. The design. Fig. 252, shows 
 the manner in which the weft, which is to form the pile, 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 261 
 
 may be bound into the ground cloth. Two ends are raised 
 at a place, and at such distances apart as to allow for 
 the length of pile required. These bindings, it will be 
 observed, are not in exactly regular order, that is, they do 
 not run in straight lines like velvet. The reason of this is 
 that the material of the pile being of a thick and soft 
 character — being usually of the finest and softest wool, 
 possessing the best felting qualities— it must not be so 
 thickly bound in the ground cloth, consequently it is 
 spread over the surface in the manner shown, so as to 
 equally cover the surface without showing in rows, or 
 leaving any bare patches. This, after the cloth is woven, 
 is cut with a knife, as shown at page 167, the point of 
 
 □□□□□□□□□□gnsDDa 
 
 □□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□ 
 
 □□■■□□■■□□BaDDBH 
 
 ^□□□□□□□□□□□□□□n 
 □□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□ 
 
 BBDGBBDaBBLIDBBGD 
 
 □□□□□□□□□□□□□□□a 
 
 BDDBBnnBBnDBBnnB 
 
 □□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□ 
 
 □□BBGaBBDDBBDDBB 
 
 □□□□□□□□□□□□□□□a 
 □BBnnBBnDBBanBBD 
 
 [?]□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□ 
 
 BBDDBBGDBBDDBBDD 
 
 Fig. 252. 
 
 the knife being inserted under the weft, which is floating 
 over the cloth, and pushed forward lengthwise of the cloth, 
 the point of the guide always following the course of the 
 pile, and raising it up to the knife which severs it. This 
 process is repeated from one side of the cloth to the 
 other, the cutter usually beginning at the right hand 
 selvage of the cloth. The process of cutting is general^ 
 done after the cloth comes out of the loom, the cloth being 
 stretched in a frame for the purpose. 
 
 Pile made upon this principle, as before remarked, is 
 not even on the surface, as is the case with warp piles. 
 This will be easily understood from the manner of cutting 
 it, making it almost a matter of impossibility to run the 
 guide under the courses of the pile in such a manner as to 
 
262 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 ensure the cutting exactty in the centre of the weft float. 
 This is remedied afterwards by the shearing machine, 
 known as the cross cutting machine, and sometimes by the 
 perpetual cutting machine. 
 
 After the pile of a lambskin is cut it presents some- 
 thing of the appearance of a very coarse velvet. To give 
 it then the character of the skin of the animal it is 
 intended to imitate, it is kept moving through a strong 
 soap sud for some hours, until the pile on the face of the 
 cloth becomes felted in patches, thus producing the semi- 
 curly, semi-wavy appearance peculiar to the skin of the 
 lamb. 
 
 With regard to Velveteens " and such fabrics, where 
 the pile is very short, the reader need only be referred to 
 my work on " Design in Textile Fabrics" already mentioned. 
 Where he will find a considerable amount of information 
 of what may be called a special character. 
 
 In the imitation of other skins the principle of weaving 
 remains somewhat the same, the length of the pile being 
 regulated to suit the character of skin required to be 
 imitated, and the firmness of the binding into the ground 
 cloth being regulated by the nature of the material used for 
 pile, and the subsequent processes it will have to undergo. 
 To illustrate this we will now take, as an example, a 
 pile made of mohair yarn, where it is desired to have the pile 
 firmly bound in the ground cloth. And here it may be 
 observed, in the use of mohair, which is of a very smooth 
 and slippery character, it is necessary that it should be 
 very firmly bound, otherwise it is very liable to pull out in 
 wearing, and indeed even in the process of cutting. Fig. 
 253 is a design for this kind of pile. On examination of 
 this design it will be found there are four picks of pile weft, 
 which are represented by shaded squares, and one pick of 
 ground weft, represented by black squares. These four 
 pile picks are so arranged as to form one continuous pick. 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 263 
 
 passing over and under alternate threads, thus constituting 
 one ground pick of plain cloth. The ground pick is also 
 plain, taking the contrary thread of warp up to the pile 
 pick, so forming a perfectly plain ground, with the mohair 
 pile standing up out of it. Care should be taken that the 
 succeeding series of pile picks do not leave the cloth at 
 the same point, but are distributed over the surface in 
 the same manner as the preceding example. Although but 
 one ground pick is shown, or mentioned here it is better to 
 insert two ground picks between the pile picks, so as to give 
 firmness to the structure. One of the two would necessarily 
 go into the same shed as the pile, but that would be no 
 disadvantage, it would give more firmness to it. In the 
 
 nsnannnnnnnnnnGDnnannnDH 
 □□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□suisDBnn 
 □□□□□□□□□□□saBnunnnnnmn 
 □□□□□HnBDBDDnanGnnannGnD 
 
 □□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□0 
 □□□□□□□□□□□□□□□HDHDannnn 
 □□□□□□□□□BaHDHnnDnnDDDm 
 □□□□□rsiDiunDannnnnnDDnnnaa 
 ■□■□■□■□■□■□■□■□■□■□■□■a 
 
 □□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□GRDH 
 
 □□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□n 
 □□□□□□□□□an^ijnnanDDnDDGDn 
 □□□□□^□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□a 
 
 Fig. 253. 
 
 design here given the arrangement is not the best which 
 could be devised, the order of changing being on the prin- 
 ciple of a three-end twill. Had space permitted it would 
 have been much better arranged on a satin principle, which 
 would be the best plan to adopt in practice. Another 
 advantage of this kind of pile weaving is that in addition 
 to the firmness with which the pile is bound into the 
 ground cloth — becoming, as it in fact does, a part of 
 it— the manner in which the pile threads are nipped 
 together at the point where they issue from the cloth, 
 ensures them standing quite erect ; indeed a good mohair 
 pile made in this manner, with steam blown through it for 
 several hours after being cut, will stand almost any amount 
 of pressure, and yet spring back to its original erect posi- 
 
264 
 
 WEAVING AN£) designing 
 
 tion, without being in any way deteriorated. In this kind 
 of binding the length and quaUty of pile must be deter- 
 mined by the number of pile picks which go to form one 
 complete pick, and the proportion of complete picks to 
 ground picks. The greater the proportion of complete pile 
 picks to ground picks, the fuller the pile will be, and the 
 less the proportion of pile picks the thinner the pile. In 
 this manner scope is given for the production of cloths 
 of any quality, and at almost any price. 
 
 These are the distinct principles upon which pile cloths 
 are made, of course being capable, like everything else, of 
 a vast, indeed an almost endless variety of changes ; for 
 instance, a short silk or mohair pile may be made with a 
 
 □□□□□□□ana 
 
 □□□□□□□I 2H222SR2IS 
 
 ■■□■■BHH □□□□□□□□□□ 
 
 22IR2222Ry 
 
 □□□□□□G3n 
 
 DBHBr^HBB □UUUUUULjLlii 
 
 □□□□□□□□ R222yRS£22 
 
 BBBriBBBn □uUfeJuLlULIUU 
 
 Fig. 254. 
 
 Fig^ 255. 
 
 long pile scattered thinly over it, of some other material, 
 or of a different colour of the same material, as in the case 
 of the chinchilla ; or a short woollen pile ground, with 
 thick worsted or mohair issuing at intervals from it. Or, 
 we may take the case of piles of a shorter and more 
 general character, such as the one represented by the 
 design. Fig. 254, in which there are two plush picks to 
 each ground pick, the plush being bound by one end only, 
 and arranged after the order of an eight-thread satin, and 
 the ground picks being worked as a four-thread satin. Or, 
 take the design, Fig. 255, in which the plush is arranged as 
 a ten-thread satin, and the ground as a five-thread satin. 
 Both of these are of the velveteen type, and fairly represent 
 the principle upon which such cloths are made. In all 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 265 
 
 plush arrangements of this description the binding of the 
 phish picks should be arranged in a regular order, so as 
 to make regular courses for the knife to cut it. The length 
 and quantity of plush may be varied at will, and the 
 working of the ground may be regulated to suit any 
 pattern, or in accordance with the quantity of material 
 desired to be put in it. 
 
 Another method of making pile fabrics is to weave two 
 pieces face to face, the pile warp passing from one cloth to 
 the other, as shown in Fig. 256, and the two cloths being 
 afterwards severed with a knife or by other means. One 
 great difficulty to contend with in this method is to keep 
 
 Fig. 256. 
 
 the pile of the two fabrics of an even length. To do this 
 the pile warp must be let in very regularly, and the cutting 
 knife or knives must be very carefully adjusted. Numerous 
 inventions have been made by different parties to effect these 
 two objects, with varying degrees of success. 
 
 DENSITY OF PILE. 
 
 In making pile fabrics it is often necessary to alter the 
 length or density of the pile to meet some demand of fashion, 
 or to suit the cloth to some specific purpose. A mere 
 alteration in length is easily met. In weft pile it simply 
 means an alteration in the number of ends over which the 
 weft is allowed to float ; and in warp pile the alteration 
 is made by altering the size of the wire used. But it must 
 necessarily follow that when the length of weft pile is 
 
 altered, the density must also be altered at the same time, 
 s 
 
266 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 unless some provision is made to meet it. For example, 
 if the weft has been floating over the warp for half-an-inch, 
 and then it is altered to an inch, and no corresponding 
 alteration is made in the number of picks per inch, then 
 the density of the pile is of necessity reduced by one half, 
 that is, there are only half the number of pile threads issuing 
 from the cloth in a given space, consequently to counteract 
 this there should be double the number of picks of pile weft 
 per inch to obtain the same degree of density as exists in 
 the first cloth. 
 
 At all times when such a question may arise, it may be 
 treated simply as one of proportion, and the number of warp 
 threads over which the pile floats taken as the unit of 
 measurement. 
 
 Suppose for instance, that a pile is made floating over 
 1 6 threads of warp, and it must be increased in length to 
 26 threads ; the first cloth has say 60 picks per inch of 
 ground weft, how many should the second have ? then as 
 16 : 26 : : 60 : 97 1, so that it would require 97^ picks per 
 inch of ground weft in the second cloth to give density equal 
 to the first cloth. But in all probability this would be an 
 unsatisfactory mode of obtaining the required degree of 
 density, because either it would be difficult to introduce 97 1 
 picks when 60 had been used, or the cloth would be much 
 heavier, and probably unsuited for its purpose. Then in 
 such a case, the best plan is, in most cases, to introduce 
 more plush picks between each ground pick, as for example, 
 if the first cloth had two plush picks to one ground pick, 
 the second would require three, and the slight difference in 
 density could then be made up by a slight increase of ground 
 picks per inch. 
 
 An alteration in the fineness of the ground cloth will 
 have an efl'ect in altering the density of the pile. If more 
 warp threads per inch be introduced, and the pile weft 
 allowed to float over the same number, then the length of 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 267 
 
 the pile is shortened, and the densit}^ increased in the 
 same ratio, and of course any alteration of the cloth must 
 have an effect upon the pile. 
 
 At all times this alteration can be determined by simple 
 proportion, and a corresponding alteration made in the 
 opposite direction to counteract it when desired, but it must 
 always be borne in mind, or the results would be sometimes 
 rather serious. 
 
 The alteration of density of warp pile is made either 
 by introducing more wires, and consequently more picks 
 per inch, by more warp and pile threads per inch, or by 
 thicker yarn. It will not be a difficult matter, whichever 
 method be adopted, to determine the exact amount of 
 increase or decrease, because it will be in direct ratio to the 
 alteration in either the quantity or thickness of the material 
 employed. 
 
 GAUZE WEAVING. 
 
 Having in the foregoing chapters dealt with the two 
 primaries, plain and figure weaving, their various combi- 
 nations and applicability to the production of various kinds 
 of cloth, which, although having on the face of them little 
 to indicate that they belong to either one or the other 
 of these two families, yet on a close examination of their 
 constitution and character undoubtedly proclaim them- 
 selves the immediate descendants of them, and conclusively 
 prove that no matter what name they assume, or under 
 what guise they appear, they retain all the family charac- 
 teristics, and indeed prove that only two principles can 
 be involved, we now come to the consideration of the 
 third ot the primaries, viz., gauze weaving, which in its 
 principle is totally different from the two preceding ones. 
 The two primaries, plain and figure, may be said to com- 
 prehend all varieties of cloth in which the threads of the 
 warp lie parallel to each other, and are crossed at right 
 
268 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 angles by the weft, while gauze may be said to consist of 
 all varieties whose warp threads do not lie parallel to each 
 other in the cloth, but are either twisted together, as shown 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 
 sr 
 
 
 fi 
 
 
 
 k 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1/ 
 
 
 
 ir 
 
 Fig. 257. 
 
 at page 168, or otherwise crossed in the cloth in the 
 process of weaving. 
 
 The first step in the direction of combining 
 with other orders of weaving, is a species of cloth 
 
 gauze 
 known 
 
 Fig, 258. 
 
 by the name of leno, and which is in fact a combination of 
 gauze and plain cloth, but which has a decidedly gauze 
 effect, as shown at Fig. 257. A close examination of this 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 269 
 
 plan will show that it is really a combination of gauze and 
 plain cloth, the picks g if separated from the others would 
 form a perfectly plain gauze with the warp, as shown at 
 Fig. 53» page 168. 
 
 Fig. 258 shows another combination of gauze and plain 
 cloth, and is sometimes known as leno. In this it will be 
 found that the warp threads are given a half turn round each 
 other at every fourth pick, the intervening picks being 
 perfectly plain, thus making it an intermediate between 
 a plain cloth and a plain gauze. Perhaps a brief description 
 
 of the process of leno and gauze weaving will simplify and 
 assist to a clear understanding of the principle. 
 
 For leno and gauze weaving, there is, in addition to a 
 pair of plain healds, another of a different construction, which 
 is known b}^ the name of doup. This doup is a plain heald, 
 with the addition of a loose half heald, which is shown at 
 Fig. 259, and which passes through the eye of the lower half, 
 and through the upper half. The warp threads are drawn 
 through the two plain healds in the ordinary manner. The 
 
 Fig. 259. 
 
270 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 doup heald is then placed in front of them, and every 
 alternate thread is drawn through the loose half-heald of 
 the doup crossing under the intermediate thread, as shown 
 in Fig. 260, where d is the doup, and i 2 the plain healds. 
 In the process of weaving, when it is desired that the open 
 or plain pick shall be put in, the loose half of the doup 
 heald is allowed to rise along with the plain heald through 
 which the crossing thread is drawn, the intermediate pick 
 being also plain by the simple process of raising the second 
 plain heald ; then for the purpose of crossing the threads 
 all the doup heald is raised, and the plain heald through 
 which the crossing thread is drawn is depressed along with 
 the other plain heald, in this manner causing the crossing 
 
 
 
 
 II 1 
 
 
 
 h' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 f — 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 Fi(/. 260. 
 
 thread to take a half-turn round the other thread, as shown 
 m Fig. 258. 
 
 It will be apparent that in this process one-half the 
 warp at the moment of crossing must be drawn consider- 
 ably tighter than the other half, and unless some provision 
 is made to avoid this, the consequences to the warp must 
 be somewhat disastrous. This may be provided for in two 
 ways. The first and oldest-fashioned method is to have 
 the warp on two beams, the beam carrying the crossing 
 portion being furnished with spring weights, so as to give 
 off warp when crossing and then spring back as the doup 
 heald settles down. The second, and now generally 
 adopted method, is by means of what is termed the 
 slackener. This consists of a species of lever. The warp 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 271 
 
 is all wound upon one beam, the crossing warp is separated 
 from the other and passed over the slackener, and then 
 through a pair of lease rods placed between the slackener 
 and healds, as in ordinary plain weaving. During the plain 
 weaving the slackener remains stationary, but when the 
 warp is crossed a cord attached to the arm of the slackener 
 is connected so as to operate with the doup heald, and 
 allow the warp to go in just sufficient to prevent it chafing 
 the straight thread, and is then drawn back into its former 
 position by means of a strong spring. This latter method 
 would not apply in all cases, but only where very little 
 crossing takes place, or where the take-up of the crossing 
 warp is so slight that it does not become tighter than the 
 rest of the warp, otherwise, not only would considerable 
 breakage take place in the warp, but it would be a very 
 difficult matter indeed to weave at all, and the appearance 
 of the piece would be anything but satisfactory. Therefore 
 in many cases it is absolutely necessary that the first 
 method of having the crossing warp upon a separate beam 
 or roller should be adhered to ; the latter only being 
 resorted to when circumstances will permit. 
 
 The order of raising the healds to weave the two 
 patterns given would be as follows : — 
 For Fig. 257. No. i heald 
 
 2 ,, 
 
 Doup ,, 
 
 No. 2 
 
 and so on. For Fig. 258 it would be 
 No. I heald 
 >» 2 ,, 
 
 n I J) 
 
 Doup 
 
 To return to a plain gauze, pure and simple, that is, 
 with the warp threads crossing between every pick. The 
 same healds and doup are employed as in the former case, 
 
 t 
 
272 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 but instead of the plain pick as in lenos, the warp threads 
 cross each other every pick, as in Fig. 53, page 168, the 
 method of crossing being in no way different from the 
 
 ^1 \n\ ini iP^ 
 
 Fiff. 261. 
 
 leno crossing. The crossing may of course be in either 
 direction, from left to right, or right to left, in the douping. 
 
 Some very excellent effects are produced in gauze by 
 reversing the gauze twist, that is, by making every alternate 
 
 Fiff. 262. 
 
 pair of threads twist round each other in opposite directions, 
 as shown in Fig. 261. This effect is considerably 
 heightened when the two threads are of different colours, 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 273 
 
 or a variety of patterns may be produced by arranging the 
 reversing and the colouring in stripes, and if desired, 
 checking them to match. Patterns of a different character 
 are also made by having a certain number of splits in the 
 reed full of warp, and an interval of space in which there 
 is no warp, the crossing of the warp threads preventing 
 
 m 
 
 Fig. 263. 
 
 them slipping out of their place and producing a frayed 
 appearance, as would be the case if an interval of space 
 were left in a plain cloth ; or the crossing thread may be 
 made to cross over more than one thread, and patterns 
 formed by combinations of plain and gauze as shown at 
 Fig. 262, the draught and douping of which is shown at 
 Fig. 263. 
 
 □ PDBD 
 
 fflDCDD 
 
 maaaa 
 Fig. 264. 
 
 The order of raising the healds is shown at Fig. 264. 
 Where the lifting of the doup is indicated by a a 
 
 Again, this may be varied and a pattern of a check 
 character produced by weaving a distance corresponding 
 with the stripe in the warp quite plain, and a distance 
 corresponding with the interval of space with gauze crossing. 
 
274 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 or Other effects produced by combination of plain gauze and 
 plain cloth, as in Fig. 265. 
 
 The order of raising the healds can be readily found by 
 following the individual warp threads, and bearing in mind 
 
 IMS IMSIK Ik 11^ 
 
 m m 
 
 Fig. 265. 
 
 through which healds they are drawn, and when the crossing 
 takes place taking care to raise the doup. 
 
 One rule must be carefully observed when a pure gauze 
 crossing is required, always to raise the heald carrying the 
 crossing thread immediately before and after the doup. 
 
 W I II I ii 
 
 ^ ^ I Iroz 
 
 S ECT 
 
 The reader 
 
 having 
 
 rrir 
 234 
 
 Fig. 266. 
 
 followed carefully 
 
 the foregoing 
 
 description of gauze weaving, and having made himself 
 master of the various methods of arranging patterns for 
 healds given in previous chapters, will have little difficulty 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 275 
 
 in making himself master also of pattern weaving in 
 gauzes. Patterns in gauzes may be arranged on three 
 principles, — the first, by making patterns in the gauze by 
 introducing plain or other working, or varying the order of 
 crossing of the several sets of threads ; the second by 
 arranging gauze and plain, or gauze and figure, in stripes, 
 &c. ; and the third by making patterns o?i the gauze with 
 
 Fig. 267. 
 
 what may be termed figuring threads ; this last is termed 
 lappet figuring. Then as to the first kind, it has been shown 
 on page 270 how the crossing thread is drawn through the 
 doup and across the plain thread. In plain gauze only 
 one doup is used, but it must be evident that if a pattern 
 is made with the gauze, more than one doup must be used. 
 Fig. 266 is an example of a small pattern made with two 
 
 maaaan 
 □□□yna 
 
 fflDBDDD 
 
 □□□■□H 
 
 Fiq. 268. 
 
 doups, the manner of drawing being shown at Fig. 267, 
 and the order of raising the healds at Fig. 268. When the 
 first doup is represented by a a and the second by a h. 
 
 Although this pattern is given as being woven with two 
 doups, yet it may very well be woven with one. Suppose 
 the ends are douped as shown in Fig. 260, then by lifting 
 the healds as in Fig. 269, the same pattern wiU be produced, 
 
276 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 There is this one objection to it, that the doup is Hfting at 
 every alternate pick, and consequently there will be more 
 wear and tear, but as will be shown presently, this mode of 
 working may be well adopted for weaving figured patterns. 
 The same rule may be observed here as in arranging 
 patterns for ordinary healds, viz., that all threads which 
 
 □□□□□□□□□ 
 monaoaana 
 
 maaaaaaaa 
 F'lf). 269. 
 
 work the same may be drawn upon the same doup. In this 
 pattern, the threads i, 2, would be repeated at the fifth and 
 sixth pairs, and all working alike, may be drawn upon doup 
 2 ; threads 3 and 4, working alike, may be drawn upon doup 
 I, the crossing or plain weaving being effected as desired, 
 in the same manner as explained in the leno weaving, due 
 
 Fig. 270. 
 
 regard being paid to the pattern, which of course may be 
 varied as far as the extent of the drafting will permit. 
 Fig. 270 is another example upon a rather more extensive 
 scale, the same rule being observed as in the last pattern. 
 In this case at intervals in the pattern several picks are 
 introduced into one shed, giving a totally different effect to 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 the pattern. The draught is shown at Fig. 271, In this 
 pattern it will be observed that a few plain ends have been 
 introduced up the side to form a stripe. In the same 
 manner plain picks might be worked in so as to form a 
 check effect. 
 
 With care in the arrangement of the doups a very great 
 variety of patterns may be produced ; more especially when 
 more than one doup is employed ; and even with one doup 
 with skilful use very pretty effects may be made. Of course 
 many of the more elaborate gauze patterns have been 
 superseded by lace, or have gone out of existence for some 
 other reason. Fig. 272 is a curious sample of gauze 
 
 Fig. 271. 
 
 weaving. This has been reproduced by photography from a 
 small piece of fabric which is in my possession, and 
 engraved direct from the negative. The pattern as shown 
 here represents only a small portion of the fabric, but is 
 sufficient to disclose the different kinds of crossing 
 employed. In the larger sample the large meshes— if they 
 may be so termed— are made to form a pattern after the 
 manner of lace. I have thought it worth while to reproduce 
 this for the purpose of showing those who may not have had 
 an opportunity of seeing some of the curious productions 
 of the loom, what could be done by what is now looked 
 upon as the primitive hand loom. This pattern must have 
 been made in the early part of the present century. 
 
278 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 Coming now to the use of the Jacqiiard we have 
 an unHmited power for the production of patterns ; 
 whether an ordinary harness with one or more doups in 
 front be employed, or a harness specially prepared for gauze 
 weaving be employed. In the former case it is probable 
 that very few really know what they can do with an ordinary 
 harness for gauze weaving, and it would not be easy to 
 
 Fig. 272. 
 
 conve}^ a knowledge by mere v/riting of what can be done, 
 however the general principles may be conveyed, and the 
 simplest mode of arranging designs for them explained. 
 
 Suppose we begin first of all by treating the matter 
 as though we were employing a number of healds, for the 
 harness is nothing more than a large number of healds 
 arranged to occupy little space, and actuated by a particular 
 mechanical arrangement. Take the draught and douping 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 279 
 
 plan shown at Fig. 273, tnere eight healds are represented 
 and one doup. Now this would be a fair representation of 
 each row of harness cords, so that a whole harness would be 
 merely a repetition of those eight healds. In this small space 
 even there is considerable room for making a large variety 
 of patterns. To begin with, suppose it is required to make 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 }3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 t- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■7 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ri 
 
 
 
 Fig. 273. 
 
 a diagonal pattern of plain cloth and plain gauze alternately, 
 then we have only to proceed after the manner shown at 
 Fig. 269 of producing the pattern Fig. 266. The plan shown 
 at Fig. 274 explains how the doup and healds would have to 
 be raised to produce such a pattern. Here it will be noticed 
 that the doup is raised at every alternate pick, and that 
 
 □□■□BmasD 
 
 ^□□□□□□□a 
 
 ffiDDLoaaaa 
 lig. 274. 
 
 when it is raised none of the other healds are raised ; then 
 on the intermediate pick of weft, those healds which carry 
 the crossing threads, viz., i, 3, 5 or 7 are raised for the 
 purpose of forming gauze, and when plain cloth is wanted 
 the intermediate threads, or those carried by the healds 
 No, 2, 4, 6, or 8, are raised. Again the great bulk of the 
 cloth may be plain, and only here and there a perforation 
 
28o 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 made by the crossing taking place. Take for example Fig. 
 275, there as indicated by the shaded squares, only an 
 occasional crossing takes place. 
 
 To follow this further, designs may now be made for the 
 
 □□■□BannH 
 
 ffiDDDnnnnn 
 □□onBDimn 
 
 fflDDnnnnnn 
 
 □□■HDDBnB 
 
 maaaaaaan 
 
 □HDDBDBDB 
 
 Fig. 275. 
 
 jacquard, and which will show how far figuring may be 
 carried, when only one doup is employed. 
 
 Suppose the pattern given at Fig. 276 is desired to be 
 made in gauze and plain cloth combined, say the black portion 
 to be gauze, and the white portion plain, then the 
 
 BBBB 
 BBBB 
 
 BBBB 
 BBBB 
 
 BBBBBBBBBBDaBBaannDnnDnDDDDD 
 BBBBBBBBBnaDBBBaDDnDDnnDDDDD 
 
 BBBB 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 □□□□□I 
 
 ni— in mnr 
 
 
 B 
 
 B 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 □□□□□□□□□□□□BBBBEIDDDBB 
 □□□□□□□□□□□□□□BBDOBBBB 
 
 BBBB 
 
 BBBI 
 
 ■ B 
 
 B 
 
 Fig. 276. 
 
 working design is given at Fig. 277. An examination of 
 this will show that the arrangement is in strict conformity 
 with that shown in Figs. 274 and 275. In making large 
 designs it would be a tedious process to have to dot them 
 all over as shown here, but that can be easily avoided by 
 laying the design on paper in a wash of colour, and giving 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 281 
 
 instructions to the card cutter how to proceed. The 
 procedure is, of course, uniform throughout. Wherever 
 gauze is wanted, the heald or harness cord carrying the 
 crossing thread is Hfted, and in such a case as this it will 
 always be the odd or always the even end of each row ; 
 and where plain cloth is wanted it will be exactly the 
 reverse. 
 
 One thing must be made clear here, viz., that by this 
 mode of working with the harness, when plain cloth is 
 combined with gauze, only one pick can be inserted in 
 
 □fflnfflnfflnfflafflDfflnfflnnBfflnaBa»nBaBaBG«^B 
 
 □fflnfflnfflnfflDfflGfflGGBDBfflGfflnaBaBGBaBGBIIB 
 
 fflaaaaGGGaGaaaaaaGaaaGGaGGanaGGDaG 
 
 GfflGfflafflGfflGfflGGBGBGBfflafflGfflaGBGBGBGBGB 
 
 fflaaGGGGGaaaGaGaaGGaaaGGGGGaGGGGGa 
 
 GfflGfflGfflGfflaGBQBaBaafflGfflafflGfflGGBGBGBGB 
 
 fflaaGGGGGGaGGaGGGaGaQOGGGaGGaGGGGG 
 □fflGfflGfflaGBGBGBGBGBfflafflGfflaBGfflGGBGBGB 
 fflGGGGGGGGajaaaGGGGGGaaGGGGGGGGGGa 
 afflGfflaGBGBaBGaGB JBSGfflGfflGfflGfflGfflGGBGB 
 ffiaGGGGGaGGGGGGGGGGGGGaGGGGGaGGGGG 
 GfflaaBGBGBGBGBGBJBfflGfflGfflGfflGfflGfflGfflGGB 
 fflGGCGGGGGGGGCaDaGaGGGGGGGGGGaGGGG 
 □GBGBGBGBGBGBGBGBfflGfflGfflGfflGfflGfflGfflGEBG 
 fflGQGGGaGaGGGaGGGaGaGQGGQGGGGGGGGa 
 □fflGfflGBGfflGfflGfflGfflGfflGGBGBGBGBGBGBGBGB 
 fflGGGGaGGGGGGaGGGGGGGaaGGGGaGGaGGG 
 GGBfflGfflGEBGffiGfflafflQfflGGBGBGBGBGBGBGBffla 
 
 fflGaGGaaaGaGaGaGGGGGGGGaaaGGaGGGGG 
 
 GaBGBfflaBBGBaGfflGfflGfflGGBGaaBGBaBGBfflGfflG 
 
 fflGGGaGGGGaGaGaGGGGGGaGGGGaGGGGGGG 
 □GBaBGBfflGfflGfflGfflafflaGBGBGBGBGBfflGfflGffla 
 fflaaGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGaaaGGGGnaGaGGGG 
 GaBGBGBGBfflafflafflGfflGGBGBGBGBfflGfflafflGfflG 
 fflGGaGnaGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGG 
 GGHGBGBGBGBfflGfflGfflGaBaBGBfflafflGfflGfflGfflG 
 fflaGGGGGaaaGGGaGGGGGaGaGGGGGGGGGCa 
 □GBGBGBGBGBGBfflGfflGGBGBEBGfflGfflGfflGfflGffla 
 fflGaGGaGGGGGGGGaGaGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGG 
 GGBGBaBGBGBGBGBfflGGBfflGfflafflGfflGfflGfflGffla 
 
 fflaGGGGGaGaGGGGOGQaaaGaGaGGaaGGaaa 
 Fig. 277. 
 
 one shed of the gauze, simply because the plain cloth 
 having to be formed by the doup and second heald, or 
 that which carries the thread crossed by the doup thread, 
 the doup must of necessity be raised at every alternate 
 pick. Although only one pick can be inserted in each 
 shed, yet it does not follow that the crossing thread can 
 only be made to cross one warp thread ; it may be made 
 to cross any number, and the arrangement of the design 
 will be practically the same, the difference being simply 
 that the designer must remember that instead of every 
 
282 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 alternate thread being a crossing thread, that it is every 
 third, or fourth, as the case may be. 
 
 Attention may now be turned to figures of a rather 
 more complex character. These given are simply a 
 combination of plain gauze and plain cloth texture, but it 
 may be desirable to form a figure with warp or weft, and 
 surround it with gauze. Before going further one word of 
 warning may be given to the beginner, that is, that it 
 is never desirable to form a warp or weft figure upon gauze 
 without separating it from the gauze by a few threads of 
 plain cloth, because if not so separated the crossing of the 
 threads in the gauze will have a tendency to draw each 
 
 □□□□□□□□□□□□□■□BGHnanBDH 
 □□□□□□□□□□□□■□BCH^^ananBD 
 
 □□□□□□□□^□□□■□■□■■■■■□■n 
 
 □□□□□□□□□□□□□■□■■■■HDBaB 
 
 □□□□□□□□□□□□□■□■□■□■□■□a 
 □□□□□□□□LDDCpDaaHDaGBaBa 
 □anBaaDBnaaannnannnnDann 
 ■□aaanaDBDannaaDDnDnanna 
 □BcanBHaDBnanDanannDDDDn 
 BDanaBaaanaunDaanaDDaDnn 
 □anaaaaaaanacjaannncaaana 
 BDaaaaaaaaBDnaDDnmaDana 
 □aBBBBBBBBDanmnDaaDnnaa 
 BDaaaaaaaDBDnannnaDGnam 
 □aaaaaaanacBnnanDaGaDnGa 
 BDanaBBnaDanDDanaanaaaaD 
 
 BBnBnBDBDBDBDGnnnaGnGGDD 
 □BaBaaDBaBDnnDDannDDuan 
 
 Fig. 278. 
 
 other out of their straight course, and so cause the figure 
 to be distorted. 
 
 Suppose it is desired to form a figure of the character 
 given at Fig. 278. Where a warp figure is made upon 
 plain ground and the open square to be gauze. This may 
 be produced by the working design given at Fig. 279. 
 In this it will be seen that the plain cloth and gauze is 
 produced in the manner already described, and the warp 
 figure is produced by lifting such threads as are necessary 
 for the formation of the figure, as shown by the dots h. 
 It will be necessary to explain here one matter, whicli might 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 283 
 
 Otherwise appear incomplete. It is well understood that 
 when a warp figure is to be produced, the whole of the 
 warp threads are raised, except perhaps some which may 
 be left down for binding purposes ; but in this case, on the 
 pick when the doup is raised, the marking on the design 
 paper appear to represent only every alternate thread as 
 being raised. It has only to be borne in mind that the 
 intermediate threads are raised by the doup, and the raising 
 of the whole of the warp is provided for vdiere the dots are 
 placed. 
 
 It will generally be found that the best effects are 
 produced in this class of gauze weaving, by keeping to 
 
 □fflafflnfflDfflDfflnfflDnHGBnBaBDBnB 
 
 ffimDaamaDDnDDnmaaaaaDLia 
 □fflafflnfflafflDBBafflDDaaBDaEaGarjB 
 
 fflGDajanaaGDDaDQGrjaaaHUGaa 
 
 GfflGfflGfflQfflafflGfflaGaQBHBHHBaGB 
 
 EBGGGGGCaGGGGQGGGHuH'JHGEaa 
 GfflGfflGfflGfflGfflGfflOGBHaaaHBHBGB 
 fflGGGGGaGGGGGGGGGHuHuBGuGG 
 GfflGEaGfflGfflGfflGEiGGaaaBBHaGBGB 
 fflGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGSGGGGGa 
 □fflGfflafflGfflGfflafflQGBGBGBGaGBGB 
 fflGGGGGaGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGa 
 □GBGaGBGBGBGBfflGffiafflQfflGfflGffla 
 fflGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGG 
 GaBGaGHHBGaGHfflGffiGfflGfflGBBGfflG 
 fflGGaGQHGHGGaGGGGGGGGGGGaG 
 GaBGBBieHaaHGBfflGfflGfflGfflGfflGfflG 
 tBGJGBGBGBGBuGGaGGGGGGGaGa 
 GCBBaBBBBBaGBffiGfflGfflGfflGfflGfflG 
 fflGGGBCBuaGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGG 
 GGBGaaBBaGBGBfflGfflGfflGfflGfflGfflG 
 fflaaGQGBGL.GGGGGGGGGGGaGaGG 
 aGBGBGBGBGBGBfflQfflafflafflafflGffla 
 
 fflQGGaaGGGaGGGGGaGaaaGGGaa 
 Fig. 279. 
 
 figures of a geometrical character ; floral designs may be 
 employed, but as a rule they are not so effective as geometrical 
 arrangements, and again, as the crossing must take place at 
 ev^ery pick, the cloths must of necessity be light, and as a 
 consequence, if cloths of some substance are required, it is 
 better to have a gauze figure upon a plain ground than a 
 plam figure upon a gauze ground, that is, the plain cloth 
 sliould predominate rather than the gauze. For gauze 
 fabrics when it is desired to have more than one pick in each 
 shed in the gauze, and at the same time to produce elaborate 
 figures, harnesses with doups arranged within the harness 
 
284 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 must be provided, that is, instead of the common form of 
 doup being employed, a loose slip, or some other form of 
 doup must pass through the eye of one of the harness threads, 
 and so constitute each thread through which such loose slip 
 passes a doup in itself, by this means each individual doup 
 can be actuated at will, and consequently the figure may be 
 made to assume any form desired. 
 
 The great majority of figured gauzes are arranged for 
 two threads to cross two as shown at Fig. 280, and usually 
 with three or more picks in each shed in the gauze. By this 
 means, a greater degree of openness in the gauze is obtained, 
 and at the same time a close compactness in the plain cloth 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — ? 
 t — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 r IT 
 
 Fig. 280. 
 
 and figure, which by their contrast gives greater effect to 
 the fabric. 
 
 The principle of arranging the designs for gauzes, whether 
 in healds or Jacquard harnesses, is precisely the same as for 
 any ordinary fabric, only the doup must be borne in mind 
 and raised at the proper time, and of course the working 
 of the doup end will also affect the working of the end 
 which accompanies it. 
 
 Patterns may again be varied so as to approach ver}^ 
 nearly in some respects to the effect given by figuring 
 threads, by drawing the crossing threads in the doup so as 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 2^5 
 
 to cross more than one thread, as shown in the pattern, 
 Fig. 234. Of course in this case the crossing thread does 
 not cross more threads than are drawn into one spHt of 
 the reed ; but this is a rule which is not always observed, 
 otherwise this description of pattern would of a necessity 
 be very limited, but the doups are sometimes placed in 
 front of the reed, the lay being constructed so as to allow 
 of their being placed between the reed and the shuttle 
 race, and a series of needles or wires, which form a sort of 
 false reed, being arranged for the shuttle to run against in 
 such a manner as to leave the threads perfectly free to cross 
 each other the moment the shuttle has passed through the 
 shed, these needles rising and sinking at each pick. 
 
 This mode of working is not much in use now, but 
 was necessary in such patterns as that shown at Fig. 272. 
 
 Fancy gauzes made upon the second principle, named 
 in page 275, vi?., by arranging gauze and plain, or gauze 
 and figured stripes, produce splendid effects in some 
 classes of goods. The principle upon which they are 
 worked is very simple, being only a modification of the 
 plain gauze. Fig. 265 shows a pattern of gauze and 
 plain stripes. The gauze stripe may be worked just as a 
 plain gauze in the ordinary manner, or in a variety of 
 patterns, and the plain stripe being worked only upon the 
 two plain healds ; or this may be varied by twilling ; 
 or if a Jacquard be used the plain stripe may be 
 converted into a figured one, and so produce an immense 
 variety of effects. 
 
 Lappet figures are usually made upon a gauze ground, 
 and consequently belong to the gauze class. Upon this 
 system patterns are made by a number of what I have 
 termed figuring threads. The manner in which the figures 
 are formed is by the threads being passed through a series 
 of needles set in a frame, which is placed between the 
 reed and the shuttle race in a similar manner to the doups 
 
286 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 for weaving the pattern mentioned on the last page. 
 This frame is made to slide backwards and forwards from 
 right to left, the needles being raised at the proper moment 
 so as to allow the weft to pass under the figuring thread, and so 
 
 Fig. 281. 
 
 bind them into the cloth. For the purpose of producing this 
 oscillating movement of the frame, a wheel is placed at the 
 side of the loom, having grooves cut in it so as to carry 
 
 :ui ... i\ /I /1 — ttb 
 
 Pig. 282. 
 
 the frame the proper distance for the production of the 
 desired pattern. Almost any pattern is capable of being 
 produced in this manner, Fig. 281 being an example of 
 
 Fig. 283. 
 
 a pattern made on this principle, the arrangement of the 
 apparatus being shown at Figs. 282 and 283, one being a 
 front elevation, and the other a section. a is the reed, 
 B the needles which carry the thread, c the needles which 
 the shuttle d runs against, and e the figuring thread, the 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 287 
 
 motion being given to the figuring needles by the wheel f, 
 which must be cut to the pattern. As the weaving goes 
 on, this wheel moves one tooth for every pick, and by the 
 cutting of the wheel moves the needles from side to side 
 as desired for the production of the pattern. 
 
 In many respects this method of figuring resembles 
 what is known as figuring with swivels, but there is not the 
 same scope for the production of elaborate effects which 
 there is in swivel weaving. In the latter system the figures 
 are produced by a series of small shuttles, placed at intervals 
 across the piece, and carrying the figuring material in the 
 form of weft instead of warp, as is the case in lappet 
 weaving. These shuttles form the figure only, taking no 
 part whatever in the formation of the ground cloth, an 
 ordinary shuttle forming the ground cloth, just as in plain 
 weaving, the figuring shuttles being fixed at regular intervals 
 across the loom or frame. Whenever a figure is to be 
 formed, warp is raised at the proper places and the figuring 
 shuttles are passed under it ; this operation being repeated 
 alternately with ground picks until the figure is formed. It 
 will be evident that by this arrangement a number of 
 shuttles may be made to take part in the formation of the 
 same figure, and so enable the weaver to introduce a number 
 of colours which, on the lappet principle, would be very 
 intricate and troublesome. The swivel method of figuring 
 is used largely for producing patterns not only upon gauzes, 
 but upon every kind of fabric. 
 
28^ 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 GENERAL ARRANGEMENT OF PATTERNS. 
 
 Having in the preceding chapters gone through the three 
 leading principles, and shown the nature of each, and their 
 combinations for the production of an endless variety of 
 patterns, it may not be amiss now to examine into one or 
 two particular makes of cloth, and a general system 
 of arranging patterns for various fabrics. Hitherto I have 
 avoided as far as practicable making special reference to 
 any particular cloth or pattern, except for the purpose of 
 illustrating the general principle upon which all fancy 
 weaving is founded, but there are some cloths which may 
 require some little explanation as to their constitution, 
 and other matters to which it is necessary to devote 
 attention, quite apart from the general principles. First 
 and foremost of these come velvets and plushes, or pile 
 cloths of every description. This class of fabric, although 
 appearing to differ in every essential point from all other 
 fabrics, belongs to, or is at any rate composed of, the first 
 two of the three primaries, laid down in this work ; the 
 difference, as pointed out in the chapter devoted to pile 
 fabrics, arising entirely from various processes in the 
 preparation of the yarn, from the processes of finishing 
 subsequent to the weaving, or from additional operations in 
 the process of weaving, such as the insertion and withdrawal 
 from the pile warp of wires so arranged as to leave the 
 pile standing in loops, or with the loops severed so as 
 to leave a surface of the fabric presenting to the eye the 
 ends of fibres, instead of as in other cloths presenting 
 the fibres or the threads composed of fibres laid parallel 
 in the warp, and crossed at right angles or otherwise in 
 the weft. 
 
6f textile fabrics. 
 
 289 
 
 Another cloth which may be mentioned is one known 
 as the honeycomb cloth, which presents to the eye a series 
 of ridges and cavities, resembliniy in appearance the 
 production of that wonderful and industrious little insect, the 
 bee. This cloth, although it presents this peculiar appear- 
 ance, is nothing more or less than a figure of the simplest 
 character, and running in a diamond form on the design 
 paper. Fig. 284 is a design for a honeycomb cloth. It 
 will be observed that at the corner of the diamond a 
 certain number of threads work quite plain, and plain 
 threads run from there in a diagonal form to the corner of 
 the adjoining diamond, the sides of which they really form 
 part ; these plain threads really form the centre of a square 
 and become the bottom of a cavity. From these plain 
 
 BDHDGDCJrJDDHa 
 □■□■□□□□□HDB 
 □□■□■□SDBDHn 
 □□□■□■□BDBDn 
 
 □□□□BOBCBcan 
 □□□□nBDBnnnn 
 
 □□□□BDBDBDnn 
 
 □□□aDBQBGBan 
 
 □□BDsgBnarjan 
 
 □ BDHQDGLinHnB 
 
 BDHDunun^QBa 
 Fig, 284. 
 
 threads, and at right angles to each other, the warp and 
 weft begin to form figures by floating over a certain number 
 of threads, beginning with one, the next thread floats over 
 three, the next five, the next seven, and the next nine. 
 Now, herein lies the secret of the formation of these ridges 
 and cavities. This gradual increase in the number of 
 threads which the warp and weft respectively float over, 
 causes them to rise on the top of each other, and so form 
 a ridge, while at the point where they work plain, although 
 it is only for a few threads, the firmness with which they 
 are bound keeps them together, and so forms the bottom 
 of the cavity, by causing the others to rise from them as a 
 foundation, the soft material of which honeycomb cloths 
 are usually made tending in a great measure to facilitate 
 this. 
 
290 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 There are other kinds of cloth also which appear to 
 belong to distinct classes, but which on analysis will be 
 found to be composed of one or more of the three 
 primaries. 
 
 Another instance may also be mentioned of a cloth 
 which on the face of it bears no indication of the manner 
 in which it is made, but presents an appearance which 
 would be much more likely to mislead one as to the real 
 nature and construction of the cloth. This is ribbed 
 printed tapestry. This tapestry at a glance looks as if it 
 were woven with an ordinary cotton warp, composed of 
 thick and small threads alternately, the worsted passing 
 over the thick and under the small threads, and a cotton 
 pick passing vice versa, and so making an apparently thick 
 worsted rib, running lengthwise of the piece, and with a 
 pattern printed upon it. Yet the observer is somewhat 
 puzzled to understand how the printer has managed to 
 penetrate into the crevices between the ribs, which, to say 
 the least of it, would be no very easy task, when the 
 immense variety and delicacy of shades which are intro- 
 duced into many of the designs are taken into account. 
 But this appearance of the cloth is entirely deceptive, as 
 will be soon found out if the cloth be examined, and a 
 small portion unravelled. So far from the worsted being 
 thrown in as weft it is really as a warp that it is introduced 
 into the fabric, in spite of the appearance of crossing the 
 piece transversely. The warp consists of thick cotton cords, 
 and accompanying each cotton cord in the warp there is a 
 worsted thread already printed to the desired pattern, but 
 in a very elongated form, so as to allow of the necessary 
 take-up in weaving, which, owing to the peculiar con- 
 struction of this cloth, is very great. The weft consists of 
 nothing but fine cotton, and is woven straight forward, 
 all of one colour ; the worsted thread is made to cross over 
 the cotton thread from one side to the other, after the 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 2gi 
 
 manner of a gauze cloth, as explained on page i68. A 
 pick of the fine cotton is thrown in, and the worsted 
 thread again passes over the cotton cord, another pick is 
 thrown in, securing the worsted down again, in this way 
 completely covering the cotton on the face of the fabric, 
 and presenting on the back almost the appearance of a 
 plain cloth. 
 
 Then this ribbed appearance is simply produced by the 
 distance at which the thick cotton warp threads are placed 
 apart, and the fineness of the cotton weft being so adapted 
 to each other, and to the thickness of the worsted, as to 
 cause the threads of the latter at each crossing to lie close 
 together in such a compact form that they actually appear 
 to be crossing the piece parallel to each other, while in 
 reality each separate thread is laid parallel to itself over 
 the cotton warp at each crossing of the weft. 
 
 There are numerous other fabrics to which attention 
 might be called, but the object is not so much to call 
 attention to special fabrics as to deal with the general 
 principles. 
 
 Then, that being the case, it will be necessary in the 
 first place to examine the principles upon which designs 
 may be made, and what ought to guide us in the arrange- 
 ment of a design for any fabric. 
 
 Designing for textile fabrics is unfortunately too 
 frequently understood to be the merely mechanical work 
 of arranging the patterns copied from some other material 
 for pratical use in the particular fabric desired ; hence the 
 majority of designers are mere copyists. But even taking 
 the designer in this sense, his is perhaps the most impor- 
 tant and delicate department in the whole establishment 
 of a fancy manufacturer, for upon his judicious selection 
 and arrangement, and extensive variety of patterns, com- 
 bined with economy in the disposal and combination of 
 colours, requiring a strict and careful watch being kept on 
 
2g2 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 the changes of fashion and taste, as well as paying atten- 
 tion to the economical arrangement of his styles, so as to 
 cause no unnecessary expense in changing in the looms, 
 and the arrangement and production of cloths, not only 
 novel and beautiful in style, but also giving the best value 
 for the cost, the success of the manufacturer will ultimately 
 depend in a great measure. 
 
 Then the qualifications of a designer are not of a 
 superficial nature, taste, of course, being the first requisite. 
 A facility for sketching or delineating any object that may 
 present or suggest itself to him, whether natural, artificial, 
 or imaginary, he should also be possessed of. He should 
 have, too, strong and lively imaginative powers, combined 
 with a thorough knowledge of weaving, particularly of 
 the class of goods with which he is more immediately 
 engaged. But a knowledge of the principles of weaving 
 all classes of goods is extremely valuable, because very 
 frequently ideas belonging to quite a separate branch of 
 manufacture may with advantage be imported into his for 
 the production of new effects. 
 
 Taste, then, is the first essential quality of a good 
 designer, as well as of artists or others whose duty it is to 
 produce works which may not only be pleasing to the eye 
 as an adornment, but also may be serviceable in matters of 
 every-day life. A very great diversity of opinion may 
 exist as to what is good taste, every man measuring the 
 taste of others by his own standard, yet there are principles 
 upon which all might be agreed, at least to a considerable 
 extent. " Taste," says Dr. Blair, " is the power of 
 receiving pleasure from the beauties of nature and art. 
 Nothing that belongs to human nature is more general 
 than the relish of beauty of one kind or other, of what 
 is orderly, proportionate, grand, harmonious, new, or 
 sprightly. But although none be wholly devoid of this 
 faculty, yet the degrees in which it is possessed are widely 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 different. In some men only the feeble glimmerings of 
 taste appear ; the beauties which they relish are of the 
 coarsest kind, and of those they have but a weak and 
 confused impression, while in others taste rises to an acute 
 discernment, and a lively enjoyment of the most refined 
 beauties. In general we may observe that in the powers 
 and pleasures of taste there is more remarkable inequality 
 among men than is usually found in point of common 
 sense, reason, and judgment." There are indeed some men 
 who may be supposed to be possessed of a fair share of 
 the latter qualities, but whose taste is remarkable only for 
 one thing, a complete subservience to the expressed 
 opinions of others, praising or condemning in accordance 
 with the expressed or supposed preference of the individual 
 present, and quite prepared to praise where he has before 
 condemned, and condemn where he has before praised, 
 should he consider that the circumstances of the case will 
 permit it, without inquiring whether it can be justified 
 or not, 
 
 " The characters of taste when brought to its most 
 improved state, are all reducible to two, delicacy and 
 correctness. 
 
 " Delicacy of taste respects principally the perfection 
 of the natural sensibility on which taste is founded. It 
 implies those finer organs or powers which enable us to 
 discover beauties that lie hid from a vulgar eye. One may 
 have a strong sensibility, and yet be deficient in delicate 
 taste. He may be deeply impressed by such beauties as 
 he perceives, but he perceives only what is in some degree 
 coarse, what is bold and palpable, whilst chaster and simpler 
 ornaments escape his notice. 
 
 " In this state taste generally exists among rude and 
 unrefined nations. But a person of delicate, taste both 
 feels strongly and accurately. He sees distinctions and 
 differences where others see none, The most latent beauty 
 
294 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 does not escape him, and he is sensible of the smallest 
 blemish. Delicacy of taste is judged of by the same 
 marks that we use in judging of the delicacy of an external 
 sense. As the goodness of the palate is not tried by strong 
 flavours, but by the mixture of the ingredients, where, 
 notwithstanding the confusion, we remain sensible of each ; 
 in like manner delicacy of taste appears by a quick, lively 
 sensibility to its finest, most compounded, or most latent 
 object. 
 
 " Correctness of taste respects chiefly the improvement 
 which that faculty receives through its connection with the 
 understanding. A man of correct taste is one who is never 
 imposed upon by counterfeit beauties ; who carries always 
 in his mind the standard of good sense, which he employs 
 in judging of everything. He estimates with propriety the 
 comparative merit of the several beauties which he meets 
 with in any work of genius ; refers them to their proper 
 classes ; assigns the principles, so far as they can be traced, 
 whence their power of pleasing flows ; and is pleased 
 himself precisely in that degree to w^hich he ought, and no 
 more. 
 
 " It is true that these two qualities of taste, delicacy and 
 correctness, mutually imply each other. No taste can be 
 exquisitely delicate without being correct, nor can be 
 thoroughly correct without being delicate. But still a pre- 
 dominancy of one or other quality in the mixture is often 
 visible. The powder of delicacy is chiefly seen in discerning 
 the true merits of a work ; the power of correctness in 
 rejecting false pretensions to merit. Delicacy leans more 
 to feeling ; correctness more to reason and judgment. The 
 former is the gift of nature ; the latter more the product of 
 culture and art " 
 
 The designer, then, possessing these qualifications may 
 reasonably hope to attain to a position oi some eminence in 
 his business ; and for any one possessing a fair amount of 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 taste and common-sense, it is not one of the most difficult 
 tasks to acquire sufficient practical knowledge of the business 
 to enable him to become a designer. Undoubtedly if he 
 has had an early training in the departments of textile 
 manufactures he possesses inestimable advantages over one 
 who has not had such training, because there are in the 
 manufacture of fancy textile fabrics technical details, as in 
 every other business, which can only be acquired by practice, 
 and sometimes only by the aid or advice of those intimately 
 acquainted with the business. 
 
 The learner having acquired a facility in sketching 
 simple objects, if he intends to fit himself for designing 
 patterns be3^ond the simplest kind, will derive much 
 advantage in his early progress b}^ making a collection of 
 simple objects from nature, such as leaves, flowers, &c., 
 which may be copied from drawings or sketched from the 
 originals ; and after making himself thoroughly acquainted 
 with their peculiarities of form and colour, begin to modify 
 their forms and conventionalise them, arranging them in 
 every conceivable form which his fancy may dictate, 
 observing at the same time a definite system of arrangement, 
 and paying due attention to syinmetr}^ and proportion. He 
 will find that he will be able to give diversity to his designs, 
 and produce rich and novel efiects, which can be utilised for 
 the purposes of his business, with both advantage and credit 
 to himself, 
 
 " Patterns for textile fabrics are generally drawn first on 
 plain paper, to the size which they are intended to occupy 
 in the cloth, and are also coloured, for the purpose of seeing 
 what the effect will be. They are then transferred to the 
 ruled design paper, and enlarged according to the number 
 of threads per inch of the cloth in which they are intended 
 to be woven. This can be easily ascertained. Suppose the 
 pattern is desired to be drawn upon design paper, to appear 
 in a cloth having sixty threads per inch, exactly of the same 
 
2g6 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 size as in the sketch made. Enclose the figure in a square. 
 This square measures, say, three-quarters of an inch in 
 length, that is, the weft way, by half an inch in width. That 
 represents forty-five picks of weft, and thirty threads of 
 warp upon which the entire pattern must be made. Then 
 take a sheet of design paper, and mark off the requisite 
 number of threads each way, and enlarge the sketch 
 proportionately throughout. The sketch may then be 
 coloured as desired. Care must alwaj^s be taken in colouring 
 designs to fill the small squares round the edges of the design 
 with colour, otherwise, when cutting the cards, it is difficult 
 to see which of the squares are comprised in the figure, and 
 if not correctl}^ read off, the edges of the figure are liable to 
 be jagged, and far from satisfactory. For those who may 
 not be very expert at drawing, it is no easy matter to 
 enlarge an intricate figure, or one in which delicate lines 
 occur, and to preserve perfect symmetry throughout, 
 although it is of the utmost importance that it should be 
 preserved. For such as are placed in this position, 
 considerable advantage may be derived from adopting a 
 method of lining the pattern in squares to correspond with 
 the large squares of the design paper. This will serve as a 
 most reliable guide to them, and enable them to enlarge 
 their design with accuracy and despatch. If the pattern has 
 to be copied from some drawing or fabric which may not be 
 subjected to this operation, then take a tracing of the figure, 
 by means of tracing paper, which place upon a sheet of 
 white paper, and line as desired. 
 
 The system of lining or ruling sketches may be 
 practised with advantage even by those who possess some 
 abilit}^ as draughtsmen, because enlarging a drawing to the 
 extent to which it must necessarily be enlarged upon design 
 paper, for its reproduction in cloth, requires not only 
 considerable skill as a draughtsman, but good judgment, and 
 a quick and correct eye in discerning form and proportion, 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 297 
 
 Otherwise the figure, when reproduced on tlie fabric, may 
 be very different in appearance to what is intended. 
 
 Then suppose the figure to be reproduced is of the 
 proportion just mentioned, viz., three-quarters of an inch in 
 length by half-an-inch in width, and that it is to occupy 
 forty-five picks, and thirty threads. Then if the design 
 paper upon which the design is to be made is ruled what 
 is known as 8 by 8 — that is, that each large square 
 represents eight warp threads and eight picks of weft —the 
 pattern will occupy five large squares and five picks, or 5f 
 squares one way by three squares and six ends, or 3J 
 squares the other way. Divide the small sketch exactly to 
 those proportions, and rule lines across it both ways, which 
 will divide the figure into the exact proportions it will 
 occupy on the design paper, or, in other words, the large 
 squares of the design must be made exact counterparts of 
 the squares of the sketch. By this means the exact forms 
 and proportions may be preserved without much difficulty, 
 and large and elaborate figures may be reproduced with 
 comparative ease, and the most satisfactory result. 
 
 In case one is dealing with a piece of fabric or other 
 material which cannot be lined, or which could not be 
 traced without considerable difficulty, the material may be 
 laid upon a piece of thick paper or cardboard, and white 
 or coloured threads stitched across it, to represent the 
 squares, instead of pencil or other lines. A very little 
 experience will enable the student to judge at a glance 
 which will be the readiest and best plan to adopt. 
 
 There are various kinds of design paper, each ruled to 
 suit the quality of the fabrics for which it may be desired. 
 The kind most generally in use is ruled 8x8. In all 
 paper intended for Jacquard designs the number of lines in 
 the warp way must be made to correspond with the number 
 of wires in a row of the machines. The majority of 
 
 Jacquard's machines are made with eight hooks in a row, 
 U 
 
298 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 but if the machines are made with twelve instead of eight 
 in a row, as is frequently the case with those containing 
 600 wires, then the paper must be in twelves the warp way. 
 
 Then the variation in the number of lines per square 
 must exist in the weft . For instance, if the relative number 
 of threads of warp and weft is as 8 to 6, then the paper 
 must be 8 X 6 ; if, on the other hand, the proportion is as 
 8 to 10, then the paper must be 8 x 10, and so on. Any 
 other number must be dealt with in the same way, always 
 taking the number of wires in a row as the basis of the 
 warp, and the relative proportion of weft to warp on that 
 basis will give the paper required. 
 
 It is quite as necessary that this matter of the paper 
 should be attended to as the correct drawing of the 
 pattern. Supposing the pattern were drawn upon paper 
 8 X 10, and woven upon a cloth the warp and weft of 
 which were as 8 to 6, the pattern would be elongated to 
 nearly double its natural length, and would produce a far 
 from pleasing effect. 
 
 Then these rules being duly attended to, the one thing 
 which remains is for the designer to suit his design, whether 
 it be in the form of a figure, stripe, or check, first, to the 
 nature of the material with which he is dealing, and 
 secondly, to the purpose to which the fabric is to be 
 applied. In putting the nature of the material as a subject 
 to be considered before the object to which the article is to 
 be applied, it may appear to some that I am placing 
 the wrong consideration first, or giving too great prominence 
 to it, but a little acquaintance with the manufacture of 
 textile fabrics will soon convince one of the necessity of 
 this arrangement. It may be a very easy matter to arrange 
 a design which would meet all the requirements of the 
 purpose to which the fabric is intended to be applied, but 
 it might be found a very difficult matter to apply the design, 
 or to produce it in a fabric of which the material is not 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 suitable. For instance, if we are dealing with strong firm 
 threads, such as cotton or worsted, we may introduce a 
 considerable amount of plain working, and at the same 
 time have a considerable quantity of material in the fabric ; 
 but if we apply the same design to woollen threads, which 
 possess a totally different character, we may find that not 
 only shall we have considerable difficulty in making the 
 cloth, but if we succeed in making it the result will in 
 all probability be most disappointing. Again, we may 
 have a design which produces a splendid effect upon a silk 
 fabric, but in any other material the result is altogether 
 disappointing, and this may arise either solely from the 
 lustre of the silk imparting a liveliness to the design which 
 no other material could give, or it may arise from the 
 lustre and the fineness of the fabric combining to give 
 character to the design. 
 
 This would apply in numerous cases, therefore it 
 becomes necessary that the first consideration should be 
 the nature of the material with which we are working, and 
 in all cases we may be guided by this rule, that the firmer 
 and stronger the thread (especially of the warp) the more 
 firmly and closely it may be interwoven, the softer and more 
 fibrous the thread and the more loosely it must be 
 interwo^n ; consequently, if a firm cloth is desired, the 
 absence of firmness in the interweaving will have to be 
 compensated for by increased bulk in the thread. 
 
 After having determined by the nature of the material 
 the character of working which may be introduced into the 
 design, it may readily be adapted to the purpose for which 
 it is intended to be used. In the selection of forms and 
 objects for designs care should be taken not to violate the 
 recognised rules of art. Wherever natural forms can be 
 introduced they ought to be, but it is a very difficult 
 matter in some classes of fabric to deal with natural forms ; 
 but even when dealing with conventionalised forms due 
 
300 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 attention should be paid to variety. Even in cases where 
 form can scarcely be said to exist variety may be obtained. 
 If, for example, we are making twills, which in reality are 
 nothing more or less than straight diagonal lines, considerable 
 diversity may be given to the pattern by varying the breadth 
 and character of those lines ; and that variety may be 
 further increased by the introduction of figuring between the 
 lines, either for the purpose of concentrating or dispersing 
 the light. In designs for textile fabrics, as in every other 
 composition, there must be the proper play of light and 
 shade, and a due regard to the proper grouping of the figure. 
 If the design be scattered over the surface of the fabric in 
 small, almost imperceptible, patches, the appearance will be 
 spotty and unpleasant, just as if the light and shade of a 
 picture were scattered and unconcentrated ; but if the 
 grouping of the figure be so arranged as to present to the 
 eye masses of light and shade, with a due regard to detail, 
 and if the masses of figure are properly interspersed with 
 ground working, and the flat ground broken up with figuring 
 then the effect will be good, just in the degree in which they 
 balance each other. And whether we are dealing with large 
 elaborate designs, which not only embrace great variety of 
 forms, but also variety of colours, or whether we are 
 dealing with small simple spots or twills, or aiiy other 
 simple form of working, the same principles will apply. 
 In like manner, if we are dealing with stripes or checks, 
 whether the stripes consist of a great variety of colours 
 or simply of one or two, the same principles will 
 apply ; and on the success in the application of these 
 principles entirely depends the success of the designer 
 or manufacturer. 
 
 I may now call attention to another subject, which is 
 often asource of much embarrassment to beginners, viz.^ 
 stripe patterns which contain more warp per inch on some 
 portions of the cloth than others, being so fine in the 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 36I 
 
 Sett as almost to preclude the possibility of ascertaining 
 the exact pattern which is worked upon it. We will take, 
 for example, a class of stripes which is very much used for 
 ladies' dress goods in various materials, also for stripes for 
 borders of alpaca umbrellas. These stripes we will suppose 
 to be made with a plain ground cloth, the striping being 
 composed of fine material, and very close in the sett. If 
 the stripe be worked as a satin it will present a smooth flat 
 surface, showing nothing but the warp on the face, the weft 
 being entirely hid. In all probability the student would 
 be entirely at a loss to ascertain how it was worked, and 
 even if he suspected that it was a satin he would spend 
 considerable time in trying to find out what satin it was, 
 and unless he was endowed with considerable patience 
 his endeavours might be given up in disgust, only to be 
 renewed again after he had settled down and composed 
 himself somewhat. In a case of this kind it is very easy to 
 ascertam at a glance the exact working almost. If it is a 
 satin the surface will be even and smooth, shewing no 
 pattern, or if any pattern should be visible it will be in the 
 form of a very fine twill, running not at an angle of forty-five 
 degrees or thereabouts, as in an ordinary twill, but it will 
 run nearly in a straight line with the warp threads, partly 
 owing to the closeness of the warp threads, but mainly to 
 the nature of the working. Then, to ascertain the particular 
 satin, take the outermost thread and count how many picks 
 of weft it passes over before it is interwoven with a pick. 
 Supposing it passes over seven and is interwoven at the 
 eighth pick, then you may conclude at once that it is an 
 eight-thread satin, and arrange your pattern as shown at 
 page 183, Fig. g8. Suppose it passes over nine threads, 
 and is interwoven at the tenth, then it is the ten-thread 
 satin, and so forth. 
 
 So far as the actual working to produce this goes, if the 
 reader has followed carefully the instruction given in the 
 
302 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 foregoing chapters, he will have little diffculty in ascer- 
 taining this, the ground warp and the stripe being Vx^orked 
 upon two separate sets of healds, a pair of plain ones for 
 the ground, and whatever number is required for the 
 striping. Fig. 285 is a design showing the arrangement, 
 the plain healds being bracketed together and m.arked a, 
 and the stripe healds bracketed and marked b, the drafting 
 being shown ; the threads bracketed together and the 
 remark "twenty-four times" meaning that this portion of 
 the draft must be repeated twenty-four times, making forty- 
 eight threads, and the stripe being repeated nine times, the 
 ground warp being two in a split and the stripe six in a 
 
 8 
 
 Fig. 285. 
 
 split of the reed. The design. Fig. 286, will be the working 
 design for it. Another matter of detail which may be 
 mentioned here, in connection with this particular kind of 
 stripe, is the calculation for the quantity of warp that will 
 be required for each portion. Suppose the reed has sixty 
 splits per inch, the simplest and easiest manner is to take 
 the number of reeds in the width of the piece, and divide 
 that by the number of reeds in each pattern, which will 
 give the number of patterns in the width of the piece. As 
 an example we will take the above pattern, which occupies 
 thirty-three reeds. Suppose the reed to have forty splits 
 per inch, and the piece thirty-three inches wide, the num- 
 ber of splits is 1320, -^ 33 splits gives 40 patterns in the 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 width of the piece. It is then easy to ascertain the number 
 of threads in both the ground and the stripe warps. There 
 are 48 threads per pattern of the ground warp ; 48 threads 
 multipHed by 40 patterns gives 1920 threads for the ground 
 warp ; then 72 threads by 40 patterns gives 2880 threads 
 for the stripe warp. This system of calculation also applies 
 to all patterns where one portion of the warp is more 
 crowded in the reed than another portion. 
 
 To return to the question of patterns. If it is desired 
 to copy patterns, I should advise a course of procedure 
 here which is perhaps at all times the best, that is, not to 
 attempt to dissect the pattern thread by thread, as is 
 
 □BaDDnnDDH 
 manaanaaua 
 □BnannnDnn 
 
 BDDDDDDDBn 
 
 □BDnnaDDDn 
 Fig. 286. 
 
 sometimes the practice, but to take the pattern off the face 
 of the cloth. It might be said that by doing this it will be 
 almost impossible to obtain an accurate copy, but I venture 
 to say that if the student practises this method, after some 
 little time he will be able to copy patterns with quite as 
 much accuracy and very much quicker than if he attempts 
 to dissect it. The first requisite is that he should make 
 himself thorough master of twilling, both straight and 
 broken, and all the various kinds of working, and treat 
 them as the alphabet of designing ; by doing this he will 
 very seldom make a mistake in arranging a pattern. 
 
304 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 SLAYING OR SETTING FABRICS. 
 
 The slaying or setting of warps are terms used to 
 denote the proportioning of the counts of warp to the 
 different sets of slay, so as to preserve a uniformity of 
 fabric in similar species of cloth. In consequence of the 
 different methods of indicating or calculating setts of reeds 
 and counts of yarn in different localities it is a difficult 
 matter to deal with this branch of the subject in a satis- 
 factory manner. If a table of calculations were given 
 suitable for the trade of one locality it would not be of the 
 slightest value to those engaged in the staple trade of 
 another locality, so that the subject can only be dealt with 
 on general principles. 
 
 In order to explain more clearly what is meant by 
 setting, suppose a piece of cloth is woven in any sett of 
 reed, say, for instance, with forty threads per inch, and 
 that the diameter of the warp threads and the spaces 
 between them are the same; then, if we have another 
 piece of cloth with sixty threads per inch, in this also the 
 diameter of the warp threads corresponding with the. 
 mtervening spaces, the texture of these two cloths is similar, 
 and they are equally balanced, although the one is so much 
 finer than the other, so that when the diameter of the 
 thread is greater than the spaces, the fabric is proportionately 
 stouter, and when the diameter is smaller it is proportionately 
 thinner. 
 
 Then the method of determining the several thicknesses 
 of yarn which will suit a given sett, or the sett which will 
 suit a given yarn, may be said to depend on the following 
 theorem : As the square of any given sett of reed is to 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 the thickness of yarn that suits that reed, so is the square 
 of any other sett of reed to its respective yarn for the same 
 class of fabric. 
 
 The reason of this will appear evident if we consider 
 the threads of warp when stretched in the loom as so 
 many cylinders of equal length, and the reed as the scale 
 which measures the space in which a given number of 
 these threads are contained ; therefore the solidities of the 
 thread in one sett of reed will be to the solidities of the 
 thread in any other sett of reed as the squares of their 
 diameters. 
 
 But the weight of the threads, supposing them to be of 
 the same density, will be as their solidities, and a determinate 
 number of splits of any reed may be substituted for the 
 diameter of the warp threads ; therefore, by this analogy, 
 it will be as the square of the number of splits of an}^ given 
 reed is to the known weight or thickness of the yarn, so is 
 the square of any other number of splits occupying the 
 same space to the weight or thickness of the yarn that will 
 produce the same fabric. 
 
 At first sight this may appear very intricate, and difficult 
 of practical application, but on careful examination on the 
 part of the reader it will be found to be strictly true, and 
 exceeding^ valuable in the manufactory. 
 
 There are numerous rules and formulae in use in 
 different districts for determining the setting of warps in 
 the slay, but many of these are of an arbitrary nature. 
 One will frequently meet with individuals who have rules 
 of their own, drawn from their own experience, and which 
 are perfectly applicable to certain classes of cloths, but 
 which might be utterly inapplicable in other cloths. 
 Indeed, what may produce in one class of cloth as near 
 perfection as it is possible to arrive at may be seriously 
 detrimental to another class of cloth. But the theorem 
 just laid down will be found applicable under any circum- 
 
3o6 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 Stances, and the manufacturer having found what reed and 
 yarn are best adapted for a certain fabric, ma}^ with the 
 greatest ease and utmost certainty vary his reed, and 
 always be sure of having the proper yarn to suit it, or 
 vary his 3^arn and be sure of having the proper reed for it. 
 
 Since this was v/ritten I liave investigated the subject at 
 length, the result of the investigations being given in my 
 work on " Textile Calculations and the Structure of Fabrics." 
 
 In close connection with, in fact as a part of, this 
 subject is w^hat is commonly called the " balance of cloth." 
 This is a term which is capable of a wide interpretation. 
 The general interpretation which is put upon it is the 
 proportion in which the warp and weft stand to each other. 
 But if definite rules were laid down, according to this 
 interpretation one cloth might be perfection, and another 
 cloth, according to the same rule, might be anything but 
 perfection. Yet to all appearance, and for the different 
 purposes to which they were to be applied, and according 
 to the principles upon which the two cloths were con- 
 structed, one might be as perfect a sample of a cloth as the 
 other. Again, the interpretation may be a wider one, and 
 it ma)^ be said that a properly-balanced cloth is one in 
 which the warp threads are set at a certain distance from 
 each other, according to their diameter and weight, and the 
 proportion of weft to warp which existed in the cloth. 
 This interpretation would be a perfectly correct one, and 
 might be carried out in its entirety, but the particular 
 distance of the threads from each other, or the proportion 
 of weft and warp, which might be taken as a basis, could 
 only be taken for the one particular class of fabric to which 
 it applied, because, although that proportion may be all 
 that could be desired for one fabric, experience teaches us 
 that it could not be so for all fabrics, therefore no fixed rule 
 could possibly be laid down which would be applicable to all 
 cases, but the rule being found for any one class of fabric 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 it would be applicable to all fabrics of that class. Suppose 
 we are dealing with a plain cloth, in which the warp and 
 w^eft are both of the same material, and that the warp is 
 so set in the reed that the diameter of the thread and the 
 space betw^een the threads are equal, the weft threads are 
 equal in thickness or counts to the warp threads, and there 
 are the same number per inch both ways. Then the cloth 
 may be truly said to be equally balanced, and whether the 
 material be woollen, cotton, or linen, the cloth will be 
 perfect in its construction, and will be made on the truest 
 principle. As will be found pointed out in the work just 
 referred to (page 150). Some little allowance must be made 
 for bending of the threads, but this is the theoretical starting 
 point. But it frequently happens that to produce 
 special effects this principle must be departed from. For 
 instance, it may be desired to produce a corded effect, the 
 cord to run either lengthwise or across the piece, then a 
 different method of balancing must necessarily come into 
 operation. We will suppose we wish to make a poplin, 
 in which it is desired to have a decided cordy character, 
 the cords running across the piece ; instead of the warp 
 threads having a space between them equal to the diameter 
 of the threads, they must be set very closely together, and 
 the weft threads must be some distance apart, otherwise 
 the clear cord could not be preserved. But although it is 
 necessary that the weft threads must be some distance 
 apart, that distance must not be too great, or the cord w^ill 
 again be destroyed. Then from this it must be concluded 
 that the warp threads must be set as closely as possible 
 without being too crowded, and the weft threads must be 
 driven as close together as the crossing of the warp thread 
 will permit, and the more carefully this is observed the 
 more perfect will the appearance of the cord be, and this 
 will be materially increased if the weft be proportionately 
 thicker than the warp. But it having been determined 
 
WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 what sett of reed for a given count of yarn will produce 
 the best resvdt, it is easy to determine what reed will 
 suit any other count of yarn to produce the same result. 
 Then suppose that the cord, instead of running across the 
 piece, is intended to run the length of the piece, the 
 procedure will be the reverse of the previous one ; that is, 
 the warp threads must be further apart, and the weft as close 
 together as possible, and if the bulk and distance apart of 
 the warp threads be increased, and the bulk and distance 
 apart of the weft threads diminished in a proportional 
 degree, the clearness and boldness of the cord will be 
 increased accordingly, so that in both cases the proposition 
 laid down will hold good. 
 
 From those two examples another conclusion must be 
 drawn. In the first the warp preponderates largely on the 
 surface of the fabric, and in the second the weft prepon- 
 derates ; and we have seen that as the warp or the weft 
 preponderates it must be increased in quantity, and that 
 which is least seen must be decreased in quantity (that is 
 in the number of threads per inch). This rule holds good 
 not only for plain cloths but also for any other make of 
 cloth. If we turn, for example, to twilled cloths, in which 
 the same quantity of warp and weft are visible on the face, 
 and in which the warp and weft are of the same material 
 and thickness, then the same rule applies as in plain 
 cloths, that there should be the same number of threads, per 
 inch one way as the other. But twilled cloths differ very 
 materially from plain cloths in this respect, viz., that from 
 the very construction of the cloth the threads must be closer 
 together for the same thickness of thread than in a plain 
 cloth, because in a plain cloth the warp and weft threads 
 cross each other, and are interwoven at every pick, whereas 
 in a twill cloth they may pass over a number of threads 
 before they are interwoven ; therefore, the greater the 
 number which are passed over between the interweaving. 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 the closer or thicker the threads must be to produce an 
 approximate firmness of texture. Hence it is that twilled 
 cloths are so much better adapted for producing heavy, 
 bulky fabrics. 
 
 In making twilled cloths the warp or the weft may be 
 made to preponderate on the face of the fabric in two 
 distinct ways. First, in the same manner as in plain 
 cloths, by bringing the warp threads closer together and 
 putting in fewer picks, at the same time decreasing the 
 thickness of one thread and increasing the thickness of the 
 other, or by increasing the distance apart of the warp 
 threads, and putting more picks, again increasing the bulk 
 of one and decreasing that of the other. Second, by 
 bringing one or the other more to the surface in the order 
 of working. In the latter case the rule must be invariable, 
 that, whether the warp or weft preponderates on the face 
 in the working, it must also preponderate in a like degree 
 in the number of threads per inch, or in the actual quantity 
 of material, and it is only when that is done that the cloth 
 can be properly balanced. We can have no better illus- 
 tration of this rule than in some of the best examples of 
 satin cloths, in which the rule will be found to be observed 
 to the last degree. In any cloth in which this is not done, 
 not only will the cloth have an unpleasant appearance, but 
 the effect of the pattern is marred considerably also. 
 
 These observations apply more especially to fabrics in 
 which the warp and weft are of the same material, but they 
 apply also to fabrics in which the warp and weft are of 
 different materials ; in the latter case, however, attention 
 must be paid to the nature of the materials, their density, 
 and their adaptability to blend or assimilate with each other, 
 because the relative proportion of w^arp and weft, thickness, 
 ends per inch, &c.. in one material may be quite correct, if 
 both warp and weft are the same, but if the warp be of one 
 rnaterial and the weft of another, then a decided change 
 
310 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 may take place in their combination. Not only will this be 
 so if one of the threads be vegetable and the other animal 
 substance, but it may be equally so if they are both either 
 animal or vegetable. The combination of a woollen thread 
 with a cotton thread would produce a very different effect 
 from the combination of. worsted with cotton, although in 
 both cases it is a combination of animal and vegetable. 
 Again, silk is an animal substance, yet it will require totally 
 different treatment from any other animal fibre in this 
 respect. Therefore absolute rules cannot be laid down, 
 though the general principles may be clearly defined. 
 Guided by these principles and careful observation, the 
 designer or manufacturer will be able to obtain sufficiently 
 reliable data to guide him with tolerable certainty to the best 
 result in his own department, and it is only by observation 
 and experience that these results can be arrived at ; but they 
 are results which no one need despair of achieving. 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 CALCULATIONS OF MATERIALS, &c. 
 
 An important branch of the manufacture of textile 
 fabrics is a knowledge of the system of calculating the 
 material used in the production of a fabric, so as to esti- 
 mate the cost of the article before offering it for sale. 
 
 This is a branch of the subject with which there is 
 some difficulty in dealing satisfactorily, this difficulty arising 
 from the numerous systems of calculation in use in the 
 different manufacturing districts in this country. To some 
 extent this difficulty is met in the little work referred to in 
 the last chapter. It may almost be said that every manu- 
 facturing district in Great Britain has a different system 
 of calculating. This diversity of systems applies not only to 
 the methods of counting or Aveighing yarns, but even in a 
 greater degree to what are termed the setts of the reeds or 
 slays. How these different systems have originated it would 
 be difficult to tell, and in some cases it is not easy to find 
 even upon what they are founded. Supposing we inquire 
 first into the system of calculating the sett of reeds. The 
 most intelligible system in use is that of counting by the 
 number of dents per inch, or the number of threads per inch. 
 The latter is preferable, though either system is sufficiently 
 intelligible. If we reckon by the number of threads per 
 inch, whatever that number is, that is termed the sett. For 
 example, if a cloth contains sixty threads per inch, it 
 would be said to be a sixty sett cloth. On the other hand, 
 if we count by the dents or splits, each split is supposed 
 to contain two threads, so that on this system a cloth con- 
 taining sixty threads per inch would be termed a thirty 
 sett cloth. This latter system is used in some of the 
 cotton manufacturing districts of Lancashire, and is gene^ 
 
312 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 rally known as the Stockport count. It is also used in 
 some of the woollen manufacturing districts. Then again, 
 another system which is in use in Lancashire is known as 
 the Manchester and Bolton counts, and is based upon the 
 number of beers in 24J inches. In other districts v/e 
 shall find other systems at work. In some cases the 
 number of ends in a beer are thirty-eight, in others forty, 
 in others again they are fifty (the beer is also variously 
 named, in some districts being called a porter or a portit). 
 Then, in addition to the number of ends in the beer varying, 
 the width upon which the calculation is based varies. 
 In some districts it will be 30 inches, in some 24I, as we 
 have seen, in others it will be 36, 38, or 40 inches, according 
 to the class of goods which are being made, and instead 
 of the term sett being used, the cloths are termed so many 
 porter (as say 40-porter) cloths. We shall find other districts 
 calculating by the foot or by the yard. In the Scotch 
 system the sett of the reed is based upon the number of 
 dents or splits in 37 inches ; 37 inches is the old Scotch 
 ell, and this is taken as their standard. For instance, if 
 the reed contains 1400 dents in 37 inches, then it is termed 
 a fourteen hundred reed; if it contains 1200 dents in 37 
 inches it is termed a twelve hundred reed. In the Bradford 
 worsted manufacturing district a different system prevails. 
 The sett is based upon the number of times 40 ends are 
 contained in a yard of 36 inches. It would be difficult to 
 ascertain how this system has sprung into existence. At 
 first sight it would appear as if it was based upon a 
 similar principle to the Manchester and Bolton counts, 36 
 inches being taken as the basis instead of 24J, but if so 
 the beer of 40 ends has completely dropped out of 
 existence since the system was founded, as the beer or 
 portie is now universally 50 ends in that district. Another 
 conjecture is that the system may have arisen by the goods 
 being ten per cent, narrower when finished than when they 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 come from the loom, and consequently the warp threads 
 are proportionately closer, and that by degrees what was 
 formerly the finished sett of the cloth became the sett of the 
 unfinished cloth, which would be equivalent to adding one- 
 ninth to the quantity of warp in the fabric. Then, by this 
 system, whatever is the indicated sett, the fabric contains 
 that number plus one-ninth of the number of ends per inch. 
 For example, what is termed a 54 sett would contain 54+6 
 (i of 54) =60 ends per inch. A 64 sett would contain 
 yi^ ends per inch. In making calculations for warps on 
 this principle, to one not much accustomed to the use ox 
 figures these fractions sometimes become very troublesome. 
 For instance, supposing the number of ends are required 
 in a warp for a fabric 68 sett, 28 inches wide, if the ends 
 per inch are first obtained, which would be 75I, then 
 there is the necessity of multiplying the fraction by 28. 
 This may be obviated by multiplying 68 by 28, and then 
 adding the one-ninth to the total, thus 68 x 28 + } — 
 2115I; or what would be still readier, multiply 68 by 28, 
 add a cipher to the product and divide by 9, which will be 
 exactly equivalent to adding one-ninth ; thus 
 
 68 
 
 28 
 
 9 I 19040 
 2115-I 
 
 so that the number of ends is obtained at once without the 
 trouble of a fraction. This system of calculation is rather 
 troublesome to the beginner, as indeed are many of the 
 others also ; and what adds to the trouble is the difficulty 
 of obtaining information , as to the basis upon which the 
 system is founded. I should in all cases recommend any 
 one engaged in the textile trades, on removing from one 
 district to another, to ascertain at the earliest possible 
 moment, as accurately as he possibly can, the system of 
 calculation which is in use in the district, and as far as he 
 
 V 
 
314 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 can, trace it to its source, and he will find that his work 
 will be very materially facilitated, for not only will he 
 know better how to work his calculations, but he will have 
 some reason for what he is doing. 
 
 Having all these various methods of calculation before 
 me, it becomes a somewhat difficult matter to deal with 
 the question so as to make it intelligible to any one 
 engaged in a district where the method may be different 
 even from any of the above. The only safe way then is to 
 deal with the matter on the basis of a given number of 
 threads per inch, or a given number of reeds per inch. 
 There is one portion of the calculation which is general, 
 and only one, viz., that it is usual to reckon two threads per 
 split, except where otherwise expressed. 
 
 Having now determined a basis of calculation for the 
 •reed, before we can proceed any further we must also 
 determine a basis for calculating the weights of yarn. 
 These again differ considerably in different localities, but 
 not to such an extent as is the case with the reed scale. 
 The greatest difference in the mode of calculating weight of 
 yarns are in the woollen districts, the cotton, w^orsted, and 
 linen calculations being very general. 
 
 The general method in the two first of the above-named 
 three materials is by the hank, and in the last-named by 
 the lea. The cotton hank contains 840 yards. This hank 
 is determined as follows : — The cotton reel is generally 
 54 inches in circumference, 80 revolutions of the reel make 
 one rap, or, as it is called in some places, skein, consequently 
 each rap contains 120 yards. Seven raps make one hank, 
 consequently 120 x 7 = 840 yards in one hank. The 
 weight of the yarn is then determined by the number of 
 hanks in one pound weight avoirdupois. For instance, 20s 
 cotton means 20 hanks of 840 yards each per pound. If 
 the cotton is twofold, which is very frequently the case, it is 
 then denominated 2-20S, and the number of hanks per pound 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 315 
 
 is only half the indicated number, that is, 2-20S contains 
 only 10 hanks per pound, being of course two threads of 
 20s (the single yarn will be a trifle finer than 20s to allow 
 of the length which will be taken up in twisting bringing it 
 to the proper weight) twisted together, and in this way 
 making two hanks into one. 
 
 The worsted hank contains only 560 yards, which is 
 made up as follows :-- The reel for worsted is only one 
 yard in circumference, instead of one and a-half yards, as 
 in the cotton reel ; the number of revolutions per rap is 
 the same, as is also the number of raps per hank, thus 80 
 revolutions x 7 raps = 560 3^ards, and the number of hanks 
 per pound is termed the counts. Then worsted yarn is 
 usually sold by the gross of 144 hanks. 
 
 Linen yarn, as before mentioned, is reckoned by the 
 lea The linen reel is 90 inches in circumference, 120 
 revolutions of vvhich make one lea, which consequently 
 contains 300 yards, and the number of leas in one pound 
 is what is spoken of as the counts, as 60 lea or 40 lea, 
 which means that 60 and 40 leas respectively weigh one 
 pound. Linen, like other yarn, is also made up into 
 hanks, 10 leas making one hank and 20 hanks one 
 bundle. 
 
 Woollen yarn is reckoned in a variety of ways. I will 
 take in the first place the Yorkshire skein. This skein 
 contains 1536 yards, which is equal to the number of 
 drachms per watern of six pounds, so that whatever 
 number of yards there is per drachm there are so many 
 skeins per watern. - 
 
 In one district of the West of England the skein is 320 
 yards, and one pound the standard weight, so that as many 
 times 320 yards as there are in one pound the yarn is 
 termed so many skein yarn, or as many times 20 yards as 
 there are in one ounce will amount to the same thing. 
 Now, to make a comparison of the two, in what is known 
 
3i6 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 as the Yorkshire skein counts, 30 skein yarn will contain 
 46,080 yards per 6 pounds, while the West of England count 
 30 skein yarn will contain 57,600 3^ards per 6 pounds. 
 
 Woollen yarn is also sometimes reckoned by the hank, 
 similar to the cotton and worsted yarns. When that is the 
 case the reel is the one and a-half yard reel, the same as 
 cotton, but it is reckoned one-third heavier, which is equal 
 in effect to making it the same length as worsted, or to put 
 it in another way, 8 hanks of woollen are equal in weight 
 and length to 12 hanks of worsted, thus 24s cotton contains 
 24 hanks per pound, 24s woollen contains 16 hanks per 
 pound; the 16 hanks of woollen are equal in length to 16 
 hanks of cotton and 24 hanks of worsted. 
 
 There are numerous other ways of reckoning the counts 
 of woollen yarn, but to give the whole of them would be 
 no easy task, and as the foregoing are sufficient to show 
 the principle of calculation, it may be left to the student to 
 adopt for himself the particular system which prevails in 
 his district. 
 
 Spun silk yarns are reckoned on the same length and 
 weight as cotton, viz., 840 yards, the number of hanks per 
 pound indicating the counts, but in twofold yarns there is 
 this difference between silk and cotton — when twofold 
 cotton is used only half the number of hanks of the 
 indicated counts are contained in one pound, in silk the 
 full number of hanks are contained in the pound, thus 40s silk 
 twofold contains 40 hanks per pound, instead of as in cotton 
 only 20 hanks, and is usually written 40-2. 
 
 Raw silk is generally calculated by hanks of 1000 
 yards, and the counts named by the number of deniers it 
 weighs. In this, as in the woollen counts, there is some 
 diversity in the customs of the different districts, and there 
 appears to be some little difficulty about the weight of a 
 denier. In the work on the silk manufacture, published in 
 the Cabinet Cyclopaedia," by Messrs. Longman, in 1831, 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 it is said, A reel so constructed as that the circumference 
 of a skein wound upon it shall be of a certain known 
 admeasurement, is made to perform a given number of 
 revolutions, usually 400, when the skein is removed and 
 accurately weighed. The comparative weights of silk, 
 whereby their fineness is denoted, are estimated in weights 
 called deniers, 20 of which are equal to i6| grains." Mr. 
 B. F. Cobb, Secretary of the Silk Supply Association, in 
 his '* Treatise on Silk," also gives the number of revolutions 
 of the reel as 400, but the weight of the denier he gives as 
 " 200 of which are equal to 16^ grains." Probably the 
 200 is intended for 20, but it is remarkable that in neither 
 of the two works is the circumference of the reel given. 
 In Macclesfield 530 deniers are equal to one ounce, and 530 
 yards the standard length to weigh. Again, the denier is 
 often described as equal to two grains Dr. Ure, in his 
 " Philosophy of Manufactures," says he understood it to be 
 equal to 0*693 ^f an English grain, but upon testing a 
 denier weight he found it to be equal to o 833 grains. This 
 latter would very nearly approximate to the weight given 
 by the " Cabinet Cyclopaedia," which w^ould make the 
 denier equal to 0*825 grains. While Mr. Simmonds, in the 
 Appendix to the " Philosophy of Manufactures," sa3^s, the 
 custom of the trade is to reckon 32 deniers to a drachm, 
 and that the standard of silk measure is about 400 yards ; 
 that length of a single filament of China cocoons will weigh 
 two deniers, and of French or Italian two and a-half." If 
 the drachm here mentioned is the apothecaries' drachm, then 
 the w^eight of a denier would be 1*875 grains; but if it be 
 the drachm avoirdupois, the weight of the denier would be 
 0*854 of a grain, or a little heavier than the weight found 
 by Dr. Ure, and that given in the " Cabinet Cyclopaedia." 
 But the former would nearly approximate to the weight 
 spoken of as two grains." Which of the two is correct 
 it would not be easy to say ; prabobly each may be correct 
 
318 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 as used in two separate districts, for, as before mentioned, 
 scarcely any two districts calculate on the same principle. 
 If we take, for instance, against the weights just given the 
 Macclesfield weight, in which 530 deniers are equal to an 
 ounce, if the ounce is avoirdupois, then the weight vv^ould 
 be 0-8245 of a grain, or as nearly as possible corresponding 
 with' the weight given in the Cabinet Cylopsedia," and 
 by Mr. Cobb ; but if the v/eight be apothecaries' (which is 
 not probable) the weight would be 0 905 of a grain. It 
 may, I think, be pretty safely assumed that the Macclesfield 
 weight is the correct one, more especially as there is some 
 show of reason for it, because 530 yards being the standard 
 length reeled, and 530 deniers being equal to one ounce, 
 whatever number of deniers 500 yards weigh the fractional 
 part of an ounce is at once indicated. And as all the 
 weights given approximate so nearly to this it is probable 
 that they have the same common origin. In this, as in 
 many other things, it will be found that the oldest authorities 
 are the most reliable, because, as years pass on, changes 
 take place, by almost imperceptible degrees, but collectively 
 those changes amount sometimes to an alarming item ; 
 and the origin of the system having become lost in antiquity 
 there is no means of checking or remedying them, therefore 
 the nearer we get to their origin the more reliable will 
 our authority be found to be. 
 
 Having glanced at some of the various methods of 
 estimating the counts of yarn of different kinds, We may 
 now examine into the readiest methods of ascertaining 
 what is the count of any yarn. There are two distinct 
 methods of doing this, one is by the use of ordinary 
 weights, and the other by the use of weights or apparatus 
 specially prepared for the purpose. One of these appa- 
 ratus, and certainly a most convenient one, is what is 
 known as the " quadrant." This " quadrant " is a modifi- 
 cation of a lever balance, one end of which is made to 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 3X9 
 
 assume the form of a quadrant or quarter circle, and is so 
 graduated that when a given number of yards are placed 
 at the other end of the lever a pointer indicates on the 
 quadrant what is the count of the yarn, or how many 
 hanks would be equal to one pound. This is no doubt a 
 very ready method of ascertaining the counts of yarn, but 
 as there are so many different methods of indicating 
 counts there must of necessity be as many different 
 arrangements of quadrant. Then it must be advisable to 
 have some ready method of ascertaining the counts of 
 yarn by the use of ordinary weights. Supposing we are 
 dealing with cotton yarn, we know in the first place that 
 as many hanks of 840 yards each as there are in one pound 
 avoirdupois is the counts of the yarn, but as it may not 
 be convenient to weigh a pound of yarn some other plan 
 must be adopted. One pound avoirdupois is equal to 7000 
 grains troy, therefore, if we divide 7000 (the number of 
 grains in one pound) by 840 (the number of yards in one 
 hank) we shall obtain a weight which will answer to one 
 yard of length, thus ^^-^-^ = 8^ grains. Consequently if one 
 yard of yarn weighs grains, one hank of that yarn will 
 weigh one pound, so that as many yards as weigh 8^ 
 grains so many hanks will weigh one pound, or that will 
 be the counts of the yarn. Example : If 20 yards weigh 
 8J grains the yarn will be 20s, or equal to 20 hanks per 
 pound. In spun silk the same weight will apply, as the hank 
 is 840 yards as in cotton, the only difference being that 
 already pointed out, viz., that in twofold spun silks there are 
 the same number of hanks per pound as in single yarns, 
 but in cotton twofold yarns there are only half the number 
 there are in singles. 
 
 If we are dealing with worsted the same rule will 
 apply, only, that the worsted hank being 560 yards we 
 must divide 7000 by 560 to obtain the standard weight. 
 Thus, 7^^^ = 12^ grains, so that as many yards of worsted 
 
320 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGN^G 
 
 as will weigh 12 1 grains there will be hanks per pound. 
 By this method it will be found to be a very easy matter to 
 ascertain the counts of any yarn, even if only a very small 
 quantity be available for the purpose of testing. If it be 
 found that sufficient accuracy cannot be obtained by testing 
 so small a quantity (though in the majority of cases a 
 sufficient degree of accuracy will be obtained) then the 
 length reeled may be increased, and the weight increased 
 proportionately. Thus, a rap may be reeled (of cotton or 
 silk 120 yards, of worsted 80 yards), then as one rap is 
 equal to one-seventh of a hank, 1000 grains will be equal 
 to the one-seventh of a pound, so that whatever part of 
 1000 grains one rap weighs, or whatever number of raps 
 are required to weigh 1000 grains, that number of hanks will 
 weigh one pound. 
 
 In estimating the counts of woollen yarn by the 
 wartern, as already pointed out, whether six, seven, or ten 
 pounds be taken as the standard weight, whatever number 
 of yards weigh one drachm, that number of skeins (each 
 skein containing as many yards as there are drachms in 
 the wartern) will weigh a wartern, so that it is an easy 
 matter to ascertain the counts of woollen yarn on this 
 principle. 
 
 There is yet one other matter connected with the counts 
 of yarn which requires to be dealt with. In speaking of 
 twofold yarns it has been stated that a twofold cotton, 
 worsted, or woollen would have only half as many hanks 
 per pound as the indicated counts. Thus a twofold forty 
 yarn would only give twenty hanks per pound. In all 
 cases where the two threads which are twisted together are 
 of the same counts it is an easy matter to ascertain the 
 weight the yarn will be when doubled, by simply dividing 
 the counts by two ; but when the two threads are not the 
 same it is not quite so easy a matter to ascertain what 
 counts the yarn will be. For example, if we twist a thread 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 of 44s and a thread of 36s cotton together it would appear 
 as though the counts of the twofold yarn would be just the 
 same as if the two threads were 40s, because one is as 
 much finer than 40s as the other is thicker, as indicated by 
 the numbers. And further, we may say in twofold 40s 
 there are 80 hanks in two pounds, therefore there must of 
 necessity, when the two are put together, be half that 
 number in two pounds, and consequently 20 hanks in one 
 pound ; also, if we put 36s and 44s together there will be 
 80 hanks in two pounds (this would be perfectly correct 
 weighed superficially), consequently there must be when 
 doubled half that number in two pounds, and therefore 20 
 hanks in one pound, exactly as in twofold 40s. Then let 
 us see what are the facts of the case. One hank of 40s will 
 weigh 6*4 drachms, therefore when two are put together 
 they would weigh 12*8 drachms, or equal to the one- 
 twentieth of a pound. One hank of 36s will weigh 7-11 
 drachms, one hank of 44s 5-82 drachms nearly, then the 
 two together would weigh 12-93 drachms, instead of 12.8 
 as in the previous case, consequently the 36s and 44s twisted 
 together would give a yarn having only ig-| hanks per 
 pound. This result may be arrived at by other and shorter 
 methods. I have illustrated by this method for the pur- 
 pose of showing the reason. Another method is to divide 
 the highest count by each count in succession, and then 
 divide the highest again by the sum of all the quotients, 
 and the answer will be the counts of the yarn ; thus, 
 t*- = i» |f=i'22, then 2*^2- = ^^e counts. 
 
 Another and still shorter method is to divide the product 
 of the numbers by their sum, and the quotient will be the 
 counts of the doubled yarn ; thus, 44 X 36 = 1584, 
 44 -f 36 = 80, then 1584 -^ 80 = i9'8., the counts of the 
 yarn. 
 
 The same rule will apply if any number of threads be 
 twisted together, and for any kind of yarn. Of course in 
 
322 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 all these methods no allowance is made for take-up in the 
 twisting of the threads, as this would vary not only in 
 different yarns, but also in the same yarns, according to 
 the amount of twist which might be. put in them, so that 
 the allowance for twist being a variable quantity, it must 
 be left to practice to determine what allowance must be 
 made for it. 
 
 Having now glanced over the various methods of 
 reckoning the weight of yarns, we may proceed to give a 
 few examples of calculating the quantit}^ of material 
 required for producing a given make of cloth. 
 
 The general mode of procedure is first to ascertain the 
 number of threads in the warp and the counts of yarn, and 
 then the number of picks per inch and the counts of weft. 
 
 We will begin first of all with a cotton cloth. We 
 will suppose the cloth to be 24 inches wide, and to contain 
 1600 threads of say 2-60S warp. The length of warp is 60 
 yards to make a 54 yard piece ; then the calculation will 
 be as follows, 1600 x 60 = 96,000 yards. This 96,000 
 yards divided by 840 yards per hank, 96,000 -^840 = 114-I- 
 hanks, which being 2-60S (or equivalent to 30s) is a fraction 
 under 3 lbs. 13 oz. weight. Then as to the weft ; the cloth 
 is 24 inches wide, and has 60 picks per inch of 1-20S 
 cotton weft. If the Vv'idth of the piece be multiplied by the 
 picks per inch it will give the number of inches of yarn 
 required to make one inch of cloth, which of course will be 
 equal to the number of yards required to make one yard of 
 cloth, thus 24 X 60 = 1440 inches of weft in one inch of 
 cloth, or 1440 yards of yarn in one yard of cloth. The 
 piece is 54 yards long, then 1440 x 54 = 77,760 yards of 
 yarn in the piece. Then 77,760 -f- 840 = 92f- hanks of 
 1-20S, gives 4 lbs. 10 oz. of weft, or a total weight of cloth of 
 8 lbs. 7 oz. In calculating the cost of weft 5 per cent, is 
 usually allowed for waste, or sometimes more, according to 
 the quality of the yarn. 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 We will now suppose that the cloth, instead of being 
 woven with cotton weft, is woven with worsted. Of course, 
 the calculation for the cotton v/arp still remains precisely 
 the same, and the method of ascertaining the quantity of 
 weft is the same so far as ascertaining the number of yards 
 in the piece. Then, instead of dividing the number of 
 yards by 840 to ascertain the number of hanks, we divide 
 by 560, which is the number of yards in the worsted hank, 
 thus, 77,760 -^ 560 = 1381 hanks of worsted weft. After 
 adding the percentage for waste the cost may be calculated 
 according to the price per gross, or it may be reduced to the 
 weight and calculated per pound. 
 
 The method of calculating for worsted or any other 
 kind of warp is precisely on the same principle. The only 
 difference in calculating for any kind of material consists in 
 the difference in the weight and length. For instance, if 
 we compare the above calculations with a woollen calcula- 
 tion, in the warp we find we have 96,000 yards of thread. 
 Instead of reducing it to hanks, supposing we wish to 
 reckon by the Yorkshire skein, w^e divide it by the number 
 of yards in the skein, and then by the weight of the yarn 
 (so called) w^e shall get the quantity of yarn required. Thus, 
 96,000 -f- 1536 = 62*435 skeins, then 1536 5^ards is the 
 representative of one skein for 6 pounds, consequently if the 
 yarn be 30 skein the calculation will be, as 30 : 62*435 • • ^ 
 = 12-487 pounds. 
 
 If calculating for twofold yarn the same rule must be 
 observed as for cotton or worsted yarn, viz., half the length 
 as for the same counts single, thus 2-30S would only count 
 as 15s, &c. 
 
 It would be an easy matter to fill pages with examples 
 of calculations of various cloths and materials, but the few 
 examples here given, if carefully examined, will be found 
 to contain all that is necessary for a general knowledge of 
 the system of calculating for any class of goods, and the 
 
324 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 Student, after acquiring a knowledge of the principle of 
 reckoning the counts and weights, may easily adapt them 
 to the particular method of counting in his own district, 
 therefore, I shall content myself with giving a few examples 
 of patterns which by reason of the warp not being regular 
 in the slay (as in stripes, where some portion is more 
 crowded in the slay than others) contain more warp than 
 the indicated sett of the slay represents, and other examples 
 which may be said to be outside of the regular system 
 of calculations. It would be a mere waste of time and 
 labour to compile a series of calculation tables, which 
 would not be of the slightest use, except in one particular 
 district. 
 
 In making calculations for cloths which are not of the 
 same colour throughout, or where some portion of the 
 cloth is finer or closer in the threads, the work becomes a 
 little more intricate, but still the same principles underlie 
 throughout, and it becomes only a question of proportion in 
 one form or another. Suppose we have a warp consisting 
 of black and white arranged in stripes across the piece, and 
 that the black is present in the proportion of two parts to 
 one part of the white. Then if the warp contains, say 
 i8go ends, there must be 1260 ends of black and 630 ends 
 of white ; or if there are a number of colours present, it 
 will be still a question of proportion ; or perhaps the matter 
 will appear in a more practical form if we divide the 
 total number of ends in the warp by the number of ends 
 in one complete pattern ; this will give the number of 
 patterns in the full width of the piece. Then multiply the 
 number of patterns by the number of ends of each colour 
 separately, and this will give the number of ends of each 
 colour required in the v;arp. One thing should be very 
 carefully attended to in arranging stripe patterns, that the 
 two sides of the piece (especially for goods which must be 
 joined side to side when being made up for the purpose to 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 which they are to be appHed) shall be the same, so that if 
 one side be joined to the other no break will occur in the 
 pattern, or if the pattern be for shawls, or for any other 
 material which may not have to be joined together at the 
 edges, the two sides should be made alike for appearance 
 sake, otherwise the piece will look very odd and one-sided. 
 Therefore a little care should always be bestowed upon the 
 arrangement of patterns of this description, so as to pre- 
 serve this uniformity. That being done, the calculation 
 is as has been pointed out, merely one of proportion. 
 Sometimes fabrics are arranged with one portion of the 
 warp very much finer in the reed than the other portions. 
 Even in this case the calculation is simply one of pro- 
 portion, but the working is slightly different to the previous 
 case, because not only the number of ends of each colour 
 may be different, but the total number will be affected just 
 in the degree to which the crowding in the reed is carried. 
 Suppose a slay has thirty reeds per inch, and that one 
 portion of the warp is drawn two threads in a reed, and 
 another portion four threads in a reed, the readiest way 
 will be to divide the total number of reeds in the width of 
 the piece by the number of reeds occupied by the pattern, 
 then multiply the number of patterns so obtained by the 
 number of ends in the pattern, or, if there are several 
 colours, by the number of threads of each colour ; the pro- 
 duct will be the number of threads required. If the cloth 
 is to be 30 inches wide, and there are 900 reeds in the 
 width of the piece ; then say the pattern occupies 25 reeds 
 — 16 reeds with two ends in each, and 9 reeds vv'ith four 
 ends in each — 900 -f- 25 = 36, then 16 reeds with two ends 
 in each will be equal to 32 ends by 36 patterns, or 1152 
 ends. Then 9 reeds with four ends in each will be equal 
 to 36 ends by 36 patterns, or 1296 ends, or a total of 2448 
 ends. If the two stripes are of different colours we have 
 at once the number of ends required of each colour ; or 
 
326 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 if there are a number of colours in the pattern the prin- 
 ciple will be the same. In all cases of calculation for warps 
 this method will be found both ready and correct. 
 
 If the cloth has to be checked the weft will require 
 to be calculated in a similar manner ; first find the total 
 then the proportion of each colour as they exist in the 
 pattern. 
 
 There are numerous short methods of calculating 
 adopted by those engaged in the different branches of the 
 trade. It may be worth while to point out one or two of 
 these, but they are not adapted for general practice, and it 
 is not a difficult matter for an}^ one to make a short method 
 for himself, still an explanation of the system upon which 
 some of these short methods are founded may be of some 
 little service to the student. In some cases m.anufacturers 
 in making their calculation for materials allow a percentage 
 for waste in the calculation, instead of adding it after- 
 wards. For instance, in calculating what weft will be 
 required to weave a piece of a given width and length, and 
 a given number of picks per inch, a certain allowance will 
 be made to cover waste which will be made in weaving, 
 and the natural shrinkages of the yarn. This allowance 
 will be on the average about 5 per cent., in some cases 
 more, in some less ; then the calculation is made so as to 
 cover this allowance. A short method may be adopted of 
 making this calculation if the pieces are of one uniform 
 length, say 48 yards. Then a constant multiplier and 
 divisor ma}^ be found which will give the hanks with any 
 percentage allowed at once. Suppose we wish to allow 
 five per cent, for waste, multiply picks per inch, width of 
 piece in inches, and nine into each other, and divide by 
 100 ; the quotient will be worsted hanks required to weave 
 a piece, with five per cent, added for waste. Thus, 
 piece 30 inches wide, 60 picks per inch, 48 yards long^ 
 ^° ^ TOO ^ ^ ~ hanks. This will be found very ready in 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 practice, because dividing by 100 simply means placing 
 the decimal point before the last two figures, or, as in the 
 illustration here given, cancelling the ciphers. 
 
 The reason why this method gives five per cent, allow- 
 ance may not be apparent at first sight ; I will endeavour 
 to explain it. If we add five per cent, to 48, the sum will 
 be 50*4. If we multiply 50*4 by 100 and divide by 560 (the 
 yards in a hank) the quotient will be 9, so that having 
 multiplied picks per inch by width of piece, multiplying 
 by 9 and dividing by 100 is exactly equivalent to multi- 
 plying by 48 and dividing by 560, and then adding five 
 per cent. In the same manner keeping 100 for a constant 
 divisor, a multiplier may be found for any length, or for 
 any allow^ance. Warps may be calculated in a similar 
 manner. In some classes of goods the value is estimated 
 according to the weight per square yard, and very fre- 
 quently only very small samples of cloth are available for 
 calculating from. In cases of this kind the weight and 
 value may be readily found by weighing a square inch. 
 Suppose a square inch weighs 12 grains, then a square yard 
 weighs 35'55 ounces. This calculation is as follows : — 
 Multiply 1296 (inches in square yard) by grains weight 
 of square inch, and divide by 437*5 (grains per ounce) ; 
 the quotient will be ounces vv^eight per square yard, thus 
 1296 X = ounces per square yard. 
 
 Numerous other short methods might be given, but as 
 each would merely apply to the system of calculation in 
 use in any particular district, the above will be sufficient to 
 show the principle upon which they are arranged, and the 
 student .will have little difficulty in making short calcula- 
 tions for himself. 
 
328 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 COLOUR. 
 
 In the manufacture of fancy textile fabrics the distri- 
 bution and arrangement of colour is of no less importance 
 than a judicious selection and arrangement of patterns, 
 consequently a knowledge of the principles upon which 
 the science of colour is founded, and of the laws of har- 
 mony, is of the first importance to the designer. 
 
 The science of colour teaches the nature and causes of 
 colours, their distinctions, their relations to each other, 
 their classification, the mental effects that attend them, and 
 the causes and laws of their harmony. 
 
 It also includes the modifications of colours arising 
 from varying sensibility of the eye, and the peculiarities of 
 colour visions which are found to exist in different indi- 
 viduals. It enables the eye to distinguish and recognise 
 the different hues in their various tints and shades, and to 
 acquire a correct judgment of the constituents of colours, 
 upon which their effect in any composition depends ; it 
 improves and directs the natural taste, and aids the student 
 in arranging as well as appreciating good compositions 
 of colour. 
 
 The whole subject is full of interest and beauty, and an 
 acquaintance with it adds extremely to the pleasure to be 
 derived from the contemplation of natural objects and 
 scenery, as well as works of art ; and it has one advantage, 
 perhaps, over any other branch of natural philosophy, it 
 teaches us in a remarkable way to distinguish between 
 sensations and their causes, and not to judge hastily 
 according to the appearance of things ; and as the chief 
 difficulty of the student of colour arises from this, it is 
 necessary to call his atteiition specially to it, to guard 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 against those misconceptions which might otherwise very 
 much retard his progress. 
 
 Then, first of all, what does the science of colour teach 
 us ? It teaches that colours are simply and purely sensa- 
 tions, excited by the action of light on the nervous tissues 
 of the retina, which forms a screen at the back of the eye ; 
 and a little reflection and observation must convince us 
 that they must be so, since they are only seen by the aid of 
 the light and vary considerably with different kinds of 
 light. 
 
 But when we look at an object we see so clearly the 
 colour on its surface at a distance from us, and that colour 
 under the ordinary light of day is so constantly the same, 
 that it is difficult to believe it is not some inherent quality 
 of the surface, belonging quite as much to the object as 
 the form which we see, and this belief, which is certainly a 
 common one, is with some persons so strong that it is 
 extremely difficult to make them understand the difference 
 between colours (properly so called) and the colouring 
 matter or pigments which are known by the same names. 
 
 To enter fully into the science of colour, and to trace 
 all the sensations to their ligitimate origin, would be 
 sufficient for a volume, and indeed should be dealt with 
 and studied as a science, quite apart from any other sub- 
 ject, before its laws and teachings are applied to any 
 branch of industry ; but as it is not possible for every one 
 whose business may cause them to require some knowledge 
 of the laws of harmony to study the subject so thoroughly, 
 it becomes necessary to give the leading features of the 
 subject in as concise a form as possible, thereby enabling 
 them to acquire such information upon the subject as will 
 be of some assistance to them in their daily avocations, 
 and also assist them to a higher appreciation of all the 
 beauties which nature so lavishly displays before them, as 
 
 well as all that is high and noble in art. 
 w 
 
336 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 Then, to return to our subject, it has been said that 
 colours are sensations excited by the action of Hght. 
 Whenever, therefore, the term Hght is used to express a 
 sensation, it must be understood and accepted as a general 
 term., including each and all of the colour sensations, and 
 when we say that light is composed of certain colours, we 
 intend to convey that under certain conditions it excites 
 one or all of those sensations of colour. For instance, it 
 is said that a ray of solar light is composed of an indeter- 
 minate number of variously-coloured rays, which simply 
 means that a ray of solar light has the power of exciting 
 sensations of colour, according to the conditions under 
 which it is presented to the eye, or to the condition in which 
 the eye is prepared to receive it. 
 
 These colour sensations may be divided into simple 
 and compound sensations, the eye being so constituted as 
 to be capable of three simple or elementary sensations of 
 colour, except in the case of some individuals, in whom 
 some of the sensations are deficient, this deficiency being 
 commonly known as colour blindness. 
 
 These colour sensations are beautifully revealed and 
 may be accurately analysed by means of the prismatic 
 spectrum. 
 
 The three simple or elementary sensations are best 
 described and understood by the terms of red, yellow, 
 and blue. 
 
 The simple sensations are never excited separately on 
 any part of the retina, but always accompany each other 
 in a greater or less degree, thus causing the endless variety 
 of colour which we observe. 
 
 When all are excited at once with an equal intensity on 
 the same part of the retina, the result is the sensation of 
 white. 
 
 The theory of colour established by Sir Isaac Nevs^ton, 
 and adopted by Sir David Brewster and others, was that 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 light was composed of seven different colours. The 
 experiments which led to this conclusion were conducted 
 by Sir Isaac Newton in the following manner : — In the 
 window shutter of a darkened room he made a hole about 
 a third of an inch in diameter, behind which, at a short 
 distance, he placed a prism, so that a ray of the sun's light 
 might enter and leave it at equal angles. This ray, which 
 before the introduction of the prism proceeded in a straight 
 line, and formed a round spot upon a screen placed a few 
 feet from the window, was now found to be refracted, 
 appeared of an oblong shape, and was composed of seven 
 different colours of the greatest brilliancy, imperceptibly 
 blended together, viz., violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, 
 orange, and red. This is what is termed the solar or 
 prismatic spectrum. 
 
 The theory thus said to be established was that the 
 white light of the sun is composed of several colours, 
 which often appear by themselves, and that white light 
 may be separated into its elements. Sir Isaac followed up 
 his experiments by making use of a second prism, by 
 making a hole in the screen upon which the spectrum is 
 formed, opposite to each of these colours successively, so 
 as to allow it alone to pass, and by letting the colour thus 
 separated from the rest fall upon the second prism he 
 found that the light of each of the colours was alike 
 irrefrangible, because the second prism could not separate 
 any of them into an oblong image, or any other colour 
 than its own ; hence he called all the colours simple or 
 homogeneous. 
 
 From this it would appear that light is composed of 
 seven primary colours ; but Sir David Brewster, in a com- 
 munication read to the Royal Society of Edinburgh, in 
 1 83 1, showed that white light consisted only of three 
 primary colours, red, yellow, and blue, and that the other 
 colours shown by the prism are composed of these. This 
 
332 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 theory receives its first suggestion from the fact that each 
 of the other colours are placed between those two of the 
 primaries whose admixture will produce it. A discovery 
 made by BufFon, and frequently illustrated by succeeding 
 philosophers, also tends to strengthen this theory. If we 
 look steadily for a considerable time upon a spot of any 
 given colour, placed on a white or black ground, it will 
 appear surrounded by another colour. This colour will 
 invariably be found to be that which makes up the harmonic 
 triad of the three primaries, red, yellow, and blue ; if the 
 spot be red, the border will be green, which is composed of 
 yellow and blue ; if yellow, the border will be purple, which 
 is composed of blue and red ; and if blue, the border will be 
 orange, which is composed of red and yellow, in all cases 
 making a tri-unity of the three primary colours. 
 
 The composition of the secondary colours may also be 
 proved by following out the experiments with the prism. 
 If two of the primary colours be separated from the rest 
 and thrown together by means of a second prism, the result 
 will be to produce the secondary or intermediate colours with 
 as much purity and intensity as in the spectrum. 
 
 Another theory, which was originally advanced by 
 Aristotle, and afterwards adopted by Leonardo de Vinci, 
 is that transient colours are more likely to be the result 
 of the action of light upon shade than the separation of light 
 into its elements. This theory has been taken up by Goethe, 
 who gives his opinion in the following terms : — 
 
 " Light and darkness, brightness and obscurity, or if a 
 more general expression is preferred, light and its absence, 
 are necessary to the production of colour. Next to light 
 a colour appears which we call yellow, another appears 
 next to darkness which we call blue. When these in their 
 purest state are so mixed that they are exactly equal, they 
 produce a third colour called green. Each of the first- 
 named colours can of itself produce a new tint by being 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 333 
 
 condensed or darkened. They thus acquire a reddish 
 appearance, which can be increased to so great a degree 
 that the original yellow or blue is hardly to be recognised 
 in it ; but the intensest and purest red, especially in 
 physical cases, is produced, when the two extremes of the 
 yellow red and the blue red are united. This is the actual 
 state of the appearance and generation of colours. But 
 we can also assume an existing red, in addition to the 
 definite existing blue and yellow, and we can produce 
 contrarywise by mixing what we directly produce by 
 augmentation or deepening. With these three or six 
 colours, which may be conveniently included in a circle, 
 the elementary doctrine of colours is alone concerned. 
 All other modifications, which may be extended to infinity, 
 have reference to the technical operations of the painter 
 and dyer, and the various purposes of artificial life. To 
 point out another general quality, we may observe that 
 colours throughout may be considered as half lights, as 
 half shadows, on which account, if they are so mixed as 
 reciprocally to destroy the specific hues, a shadowy tint 
 or grey is produced."* 
 
 Eastlake observes that the opinion so often stated by 
 Goethe, namely, that increase of colour supposes increase 
 of darkness, may be granted without difficulty. And he 
 also observes, " Aristotle's notion respecting the derivation 
 of colour from white and black may be illustrated by the 
 following opinion on the very similar theory of Goethe : — 
 
 " Goethe and Leeback regard colour as resulting from 
 the mixture of white and black, and ascribe to the different 
 colours a quality of darkness by the diff"erent degrees of 
 which they are distinguished, passing from white to black 
 through the gradations of yellow, orange, red, violet, and 
 blue. This remark, though it has no influence in weakening 
 
 * " Goeth's Theory of Colours," translated by Eastlake. Introduction, 
 pp. xlii. and xliii. 
 
334 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 the theory of Newton, is certainly correct, having been 
 confirmed experimently by the researches of Herschel, 
 who ascertained the relative intensity of the different 
 coloured rays by illuminating different coloured objects 
 under the microscope by their means. 
 
 " ' Another certain proof of the difference in brightness 
 of the different coloured rays is afforded by the phenomena 
 of ocular spectrae. If, after gazing at the sun, the eyes are 
 closed so as to exclude the light, the image of the sun 
 appears at first as a luminous or white spectrum upon a 
 dark ground, but it gradually passes through the series of 
 colours to black, that is to say, until it can be no longer 
 distinguished from the dark field of vision, and the colours 
 which it assumes are successively those intermediate 
 between white and black, in the order of their illuminating 
 power or brightness, viz., yellow, orange, red, violet, and 
 blue. If, on the other hand, after looking at the sun for 
 some time we turn our eyes towards a white surface, the 
 image of the sun is seen at first as a black spectrum upon 
 the white surface, and gradually passes through the 
 different colours, from the darkest to the lightest, and at last 
 becomes white, so that it can no longer be distinguished from 
 the white surface.' " * 
 
 These authorities may be considered sufficient to 
 warrant the adoption of the theory that shade as well as 
 light acts in the production of transient colours, or, in other 
 words, colour is produced by the action of light upon the 
 retina, the quality of the colour being determined by the 
 conditions under which it is presented to the eye. 
 
 Having examined the causes of colour, or rather the 
 conditions under which colour is seen, we may now proceed 
 to examine colours generally and divide them into the 
 classes to which they belong. 
 
 * " Elements of Physiology," by J. Miiller. M.D. Translated from the 
 German by William Bailey, M.D., London, 1839. 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS, 
 
 335 
 
 There are only three classes of colour, and they are 
 termed primaries, secondaries, and tertiaries, or hues. 
 
 A primary colour is a simple element that cannot be 
 separated into parts, but may be reduced to a tint by white, 
 or to a shade by black. The admixture of either of the 
 other two primary colours changes it to a secondary colour. 
 
 A secondary colour is consequently produced by the 
 combination of two primary colours. The secondary, like 
 the primary colours, may be reduced to a tint by the 
 admixture of white, or to a shade by black, and may also 
 by the subordination of either of their component parts be 
 changed in tone, still generally retaining their name, with 
 perhaps the addition of the name of the primary which 
 predominates prefixed, as blue-green, &c. Hence arise an 
 immense number of modifications of each of the secondary 
 colours ; of green from the yellowest to the bluest ; of 
 orange, from the yellowest to the reddest ; and of purple, 
 from the reddest to the bluest*.* A secondary colour cannot 
 be changed in character, but by the admixture of its con- 
 trasting primary, or by its combination with one of the other 
 secondaries, it becomes a tertiary or hue. 
 
 As a tertiary colour or hue is compounded of two 
 secondary colours, and is consequently a mixture of three 
 primaries, therefore it may be modified in tone to a 
 much greater extent than either primary or secondary 
 colours, such modifications being effected by the pre- 
 dominance or subordination of any of its component parts, 
 as also by the power of neutralisation possessed by each 
 of those parts upon the other two. Of these hues three may 
 be taken as primary hues, as follows : — Olive, produced by 
 the mixture of purple and green ; citron, by the mixture of 
 green and orange ; and russet, by the mixture of orange 
 
 * It is only right to say here, that the red, yellow, and blue theory is 
 said by most of our eminent scientists to be exploded, yet in practice, 
 there is no doubt it is the one upon which most people work, and 
 certainly work satisfactorily ; and for this reason has been adhered to here. 
 
336 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 and purple, These hues are all produced by the combina- 
 tion of the three primary colours, which neutralise each 
 other, the most neutral of hues being grey, the mean 
 between black and white, or the mean between light and 
 darkness, as the secondary colours are between two of the 
 primaries. This colour may with propriety be termed the 
 seventh colour. 
 
 Tertiar}^ colours stand in the same relation to the 
 secondaries as the secondaries do to the primaries. 
 
 From the tertiary colours given above, and which I 
 have called primary hues, by repeating a similar process of 
 combination and proper balancing of their relative powers, 
 arise the secondary hues, which are known by the name of 
 brown, maroon, and slate. 
 
 Then, having determined the primary colours, and by 
 their combination produced the secondary, and again in turn 
 having combined the secondaries and produced the tertiary, 
 it remains to show the refation which these respective 
 colours bear towards each other, and to examine the laws 
 of contrast and harmony. 
 
 Having shown that white light is composed of three 
 primary colours, it must be evident that if a colour 
 which is the result of a combination of two of these 
 primaries, or if a series of colours in which one of the 
 primary colours is absent be presented to the eye, the 
 sensation produced cannot be perfectly harmonious, being 
 of an imperfect character, consequent upon the absence of 
 this primary element. Thus, if green is presented to the 
 eye, green being composed of blue and yellow, the primary 
 element which is absent is red, consequently red is said to 
 be the complementary colour of green ; orange being com- 
 posed of red and yellow, blue is the complementary colour 
 of orange ; and purple being composed of blue and red, 
 yellow is the complementary colour of purple. 
 
 Before proceeding to deal with the laws of harmonious 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 337 
 
 colouring it may perhaps be as well to glance at the laws 
 of contrast. As the eye glances backwards and forwards 
 from one part of an object to another, the consequence of 
 the variableness of its sensibility is, that the different colours 
 of neighbouring parts more or less modify each other. 
 For they are sure to be some mixture of the three primary 
 sensations, and the proportion must become altered 
 according to the nature of the previous excitement of the eye. 
 
 These modifications are commonly termed the effects 
 of simultaneous contrast, the general effect of which is to 
 make the difference of two colours in brightness and hue 
 appear greater than it really is. 
 
 If we look at the same time at two stripes of unequal 
 tints of the same colour, or at two stripes of equal tints of 
 different colours, placed side by side, if the stripes are not 
 too wide ; certain modifications of the sensations will take 
 place ; in the first case the intensity of the tints will be 
 affected, and in the second a modification of the composi- 
 tion of the two colours. Thus bright white subtracts 
 whiteness from any contiguous objects, and causes their 
 colours to appear darker and deeper than they really are, 
 but without in any degree altering their hues. In like 
 manner, if red and orange be placed together the red will 
 take red from the orange and make it appear yellow. 
 Dark green will subtract from light green, strong blue 
 from blue, &c. On the other hand colours placed together 
 which are complementary to each other tend to increase 
 their intensity. For instance, red is the complementary of 
 green ; if they are placed side by side both colours are 
 increased in intensity by the contiguity. If orange and 
 blue be placed together !he same result occurs, and so on 
 throughout the scale of colours. This result may be easily 
 understood. We have only to remember for a moment 
 that white light is composed of the three primaries, con- 
 sequently any one of the primaries will reflect its own rays 
 
338 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 and tend to create in the vision the rays of the other two, 
 and any of the secondaries will reflect the rays of the two 
 primaries of which it is composed, and tend to create 
 the rays of the primary which is complementary to it. 
 Thus green will tend to create red rays, and red will tend 
 to create green rays, so that when placed in juxtaposition 
 the result is to heighten the effect of both colours by the 
 tendency of each to create the rays of the other. 
 
 Black of course seems to brighten white, and to make 
 all other colours appear lighter and clearer in the same 
 manner as white makes them appear darker. 
 
 Harmony of colour is one of the greatest sources of 
 beauty, and that harmony of colour is guided by definite 
 laws there can be no doubt, for if various colour composi- 
 tions of like character are compared, no matter whether 
 they consist of different colours, or of the same colours 
 differently arranged, it is seen at once that some are more 
 pleasing than others, and in whatever form we contemplate 
 colour, whether in nature or art, the majority of those who 
 see colours alike are quite agreed in the objects of their 
 preference. 
 
 Colour compositions are endlessly varied in character. 
 They may be composed of two or three colours, or they 
 may be composed of many. The colours may meet in 
 sudden contrast, or they may blend into each other by 
 imperceptible gradations. The different hues may be 
 bordered with other hues, or with white, grey, or black. 
 The colours may be of the deepest or the lightest possible, 
 or they may be nearly neutral in hue. They may be dark 
 or hght, or they may be a mixture of all sorts, and as 
 some of these are found to excef in beauty, it would seem 
 then that harmony consists in something independent of 
 all accidental circumstances. 
 
 Certain rules for producing this harmonious arrange- 
 ment of colours may be laid down. We have endeavoured 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 339 
 
 to point out the necessity for the presence of all the primary 
 colours in any composition, but those colours must only be 
 present in certain quantities, as the circumstances under 
 which they appear will permit. Then, first and foremost, 
 this pleasing composition must have a leading feature^ 
 and some one of the colour sensations excited to a slightly 
 higher degree than the rest, so as to give to that colour 
 a force or prominence in the group. There is no doubt 
 that the excitation of each colour sensation is attended 
 with a certain degree of pleasure, but its cessation becomes 
 necessary after a certain interval, and as the eye leaves this 
 colour it must be directed to some other. In contemplating 
 a colour composition the eye is almost unconsciously 
 directed to its different parts in succession. The colour 
 sensation becomes affected or relieved, according as the 
 object sends or does not send to the eye the rays which 
 excite such sensations, so that a composition which is 
 complete in itself should affect the eye with all the colour 
 sensations either jointly or separately, and in such degree 
 as to preserve the tone of the composition. Each colour 
 sensation must be relieved also at proper intervals, which 
 relief may be easily afforded by the introduction of black, 
 or by one or more shades intervening, or by regular 
 gradations, the rule being observed that the darker any 
 colour the less it will require relief. 
 
 Colours which are nearly related to each other, none of 
 which excite the colour sensations to a much higher degree 
 than the others, always produce a good effect when placed 
 in juxtaposition. Thus very dark colours, whatever their 
 hue, are all congruous with black and with each other ; in 
 like manner very light colours, whatever their hue, are all 
 congruous with white and with each other. This may very 
 easily be proved by reference to nature, where associations 
 of this description are very common. Take, for instance, 
 the gradation of shades from crimson to pink in roses, 
 
340 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 arising not only from the different colours of their parts, 
 but also from the reflections produced between the petals, 
 and in numerous examples to be met with in every-day life, 
 
 Colours which differ mainly in light and shade, whatever 
 their hues, always associate well, and have a good effect 
 when placed in juxtaposition, especially if the quantity of 
 unneutralised light contained in both of them is but small. 
 
 Thus complementaries, and other colours which differ 
 widely from each other in hue, may very frequently be 
 placed in juxtaposition, and with great advantage if these 
 conditions are observed, such, for instance, as a deep 
 primary and its opposite pale, clear secondary. The most 
 striking contrast between colours of different hues in 
 nature are of this character, as in flowers, between the 
 yellow and purple of the pansy, and the dark blue and light 
 crimson in some kinds of fuchsias. 
 
 But if bright colours which are complementary to each 
 other, or differ widely in hue, are placed in juxtaposition, 
 the effect in general is not of such an agreeable character. 
 There is generally a certain harshness in the association of 
 such colours, which is commonly called a discord, caused 
 doubtless by the difficulty experienced by the eye in accom- 
 modating itself to the sudden change from one powerful 
 predominating hue to another. When colours of this 
 kind come together in a composition in large quantities it 
 is difficult to avoid a glaring effect, but they may sometimes 
 be used together in small quantities with a good effect, 
 provided they are accompanied by neutralising colours. In 
 all compositions of colour there should be some degree of 
 accordance between the breadths of the spaces occupied 
 by the different colours in the composition. These breadths 
 should be such as the eye is capable of viewing distinctly 
 and with satisfaction, (taking into account the distance 
 from which it is probable it will in general be viewed) 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 without changing its direction more slowly or more quickly 
 than is usual in contemplating an object. 
 
 If the parts of a composition which are differently 
 coloured are much too small they become blended together 
 in the vision, producing the effect of some indistinct colour 
 partaking somewhat of the hue which would be produced 
 by the blending of the most prominent colours in the 
 composition ; while on the other hand, if the breadths are 
 much too large, so as to require the eye to move over any 
 considerable space or angle in passing from one to another, 
 the beauty of the composition is in great measure lost 
 from the inability of the eye to take in readily the different 
 parts, and thus enable the composition to make an impres- 
 sion on the mind of the spectator ; this arising from the 
 want of excitement while dwelling on the dark or most 
 neutral parts, and a want of relief while it dwells on the 
 bright parts. 
 
 Hence, in general, the breadth may be greater for colours 
 that do not differ very widely from the medium grey, than 
 for colours which are more nearly allied to Hght or dark- 
 ness, or which have some very powerful hue. 
 
 Similar considerations apply to breadths of space occu- 
 pied by groups of colours of a kindred nature, which have 
 on the whole a similar effect on the eye. 
 
 Variety of colours may be introduced into a composi- 
 tion and conduce very much to its beauty, provided the 
 conditions and laws of harmony be not contravened by 
 their introduction. Doubtless, by increasing the number of 
 colours differing widely from each other in character, the 
 difficulty of assorting and arranging them in such order as 
 to satisfy the eye with their harmony is considerably 
 increased, owing to the number of gradations and contrasts 
 which are thus introduced or increased ; but if well 
 arranged, a composition consisting of many colours will 
 
342 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 always far excel one containing few in beauty and con- 
 tinuity of charm. 
 
 For instance, if we take a pattern containing a number 
 of equi-distant stripes of neutral grey upon black ground, 
 and compare the effect with another pattern having equi- 
 distant stripes of three striking colours, say, red, green, and 
 blue, the effect of these colours will be to neutralise each 
 other. In each case all the three colour sensations may be 
 equally excited, each one neutralising the effect of the other, 
 but in the first case there is no variety of colour, simply 
 because all the three colour sensations are scattered every- 
 where, combining in one uniform grey, while in the second 
 case each colour sensation is excited and relieved in turn 
 in an appreciable degree ; the beauty arising from variety 
 being thus made distinctly apparent. 
 
 The application of the rules of harmony must of course 
 be restricted and guided by the exigencies and proprieties 
 of the subject of design, and the purpose to which it is to 
 be applied. Such considerations must obviously affect our 
 choice, and in any case in attempting to fulfil the laws of 
 harmony the designer will find himself hampered with 
 various influences, which tend to make full conformity 
 with one law, much more with all the laws, almost impossi- 
 ble. But a moderate compliance with sound principles 
 produces a good effect, and if the eye is pleased with some 
 good features in the composition it will in general be very 
 indulgent towards, and disposed to overlook, inevitable 
 deficiencies. 
 
 But however thorough the acquaintance with the prin- 
 ciples and laws of harmony, and with the true relations of 
 colours to each other, useful as this acquaintance un- 
 doubtedly is, it does not, nor can it, supersede, although it 
 must materially assist, good natural taste and sensibility 
 to colour, or the skill and facility of harmonious arrange- 
 ment which can only be acquired by careful practice. 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 343 
 
 It is frequently required in colour compositions to 
 produce some special effect, congenial with the circum- 
 stances of the case, and for this purpose it is essential to 
 study the mental effects which seem to attend different 
 classes of colour, and their modes of treatment. 
 
 Colour, like music, produces different effects on the mind, 
 and in like manner it is well known to those who have 
 made music their study that there are three fundamental 
 notes, viz., the first, third, and fifth of the scale, and that 
 these notes, when sounded together, produce the common 
 chord, which is the foundation of all harmony in musical 
 composition. 
 
 It has been pointed out that upon the eye being fixed 
 upon any given colour it appears to be surrounded by 
 another colour, which is its complementary. This also 
 applies to music ; when any given note is sounded it is 
 either accompanied or immediately succeeded by others, 
 which are called its harmonics, this effect resulting from 
 the vibrations or sound waves, as it results in colour from 
 the vibrations of light, or the combination of rays. 
 
 The senses of hearing and seeing each convey to the 
 mind sensations or impressions of pleasure or pain in the 
 modes in which they are acted upon or excited by external 
 objects ; hearing, by such objects in their motion producing 
 an effect upon the surrounding atmosphere, and seeing, by 
 the action of light upon them, or, perhaps more correctly 
 speaking, by the rays which are reflected by them through 
 the medium of light. 
 
 It is a well-known fact that sounds when addressed to the 
 ear in intelligible language convey to the mind a meaning, 
 either descriptive of an idea or sentiment, or of some object 
 which is acknowledged by the understanding. In like 
 manner colour conveys to the mind a meaning, or produces 
 an impression. The deepest colours impress the mind with 
 a certain idea of solemnity and magnificence, the deepest 
 
344 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 notes of music produce upon the mind a like impression. 
 Clear, bright colours are equally striking, but in a different 
 way — their effect is lively ; in like manner the clear, lofty 
 tones of music seem to raise the spirits of the listener, and 
 if well blended together, have a most exhilarating effect. 
 
 But one remarkable difference may be observed between 
 these two classes of colours. While the deep colours are 
 always impressive, and from their nature must always have 
 such an effect on the mind, clear colours lose all their 
 excellence in the presence of brighter colours. Thus 
 what may appear to be a full white, in a composition which 
 is equally illuminated, is obscured at once when a bright 
 light is introduced into a part of the composition which 
 before had been of a less brilliant character. 
 
 The three primary colours produce different effects 
 upon the mind, the intermediate colours partaking more or 
 less of these characteristics, accordingly as one or other 
 of these colours predominates or neutralises the effect of 
 the other. As has just been said, the bright colours have 
 a lively effect, which may be described as exciting, warm, 
 advancing, while blue has a cool, retiring effect ; but if we 
 mix the lightest of the primaries with this cool retiring 
 colour we produce an intermediate, viz., green, which has 
 a refreshing, soft, pleasant effect. 
 
 To compare the effects of different colours in this 
 respect, they should be reduced to the same intensity, made 
 equal in brightness and strength, for the eye seems to esti- 
 mate the effect in proportion to the whole brightness of 
 colour. 
 
 Compositions of colour partake of the character of 
 their predominant colours. When a variety of colours of 
 like characters are brought together, the result is generally 
 to give a more marked character to the composition, and 
 this effect is considerably enhanced when the colours are 
 so arranged that they mutually improve each other. Thus 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 345 
 
 a good composition of the deep primaries with black, and 
 with some of their deep intermediaries, or of the clear 
 secondaries with white and some of their clear inter- 
 mediaries, is far more impressive or more lively than any 
 single colour possibly could be, and the effect is more 
 lasting, because the variety enables the eye to contemplate 
 it with more pleasure and less liability to fatigue. So also 
 a combination of warm colours of various hues produces a 
 stronger and better effect of warmth than any single colour 
 could do, and a combination of cool, retiring colours has 
 the same effect in that direction. Compositions of a dull 
 or neutral character are uninteresting, and if the colours 
 are dark the effect is even gloomy and sad, unless relieved 
 in some degree by the manner in which they are arranged, 
 or relieved by some spark of bright, attractive colour. 
 
 On the other hand, colours differing widely in character 
 may form compositions of the most beautiful description, 
 presenting admirable examples of the harmony of colours, 
 though not necessarily of a very lively or very impressive 
 character, nor very warm, nor very cool. 
 
 The character of a composition may be affected by the 
 number of colours, as well as by the manner in which they 
 are put together. The fewer the colours the simpler the 
 composition in that respect, and simplicity itself has a 
 charm, where other causes of beauty are present. 
 
 If the colours are too numerous there is great danger 
 lest the advantage of variety be lost in complication, con- 
 fusion, and superfluity. 
 
 Sharp contrasts in colour, provided they are not harsh, 
 tend to give strength and vigour to a composition ; easy 
 gradations, if they do not degenerate into tameness and 
 weakness, produce soft and gentle effects, but should the 
 gradations be of too tame a character the result is insipidity. 
 
 Then these principles which govern harmony and con- 
 trast may be reduced to definite order, or what is termed 
 
 X 
 
34^ 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 laws. It has already been pointed out what is meant by 
 contrast, but this may be further qualified by dividing 
 contrasts into three orders. First, what is termed simul- 
 taneous contrast, which simply means the intensifying of * 
 any colour by the presence of its complementary, as has 
 already been shown ; second, successive contrasts, or the 
 tendency of the vision to create the complementary to that 
 which is seen, and upon which the law of simultaneous 
 contrast depends ; and third, mixed contrasts, the tendency 
 of the successive or created colour to blend with that of 
 the object being viewed. Each of these laws of contrast 
 is separate and distinct from the other, yet each is neces- 
 sary for the existence of the other. Each one of the three 
 may be fully and easily demonstrated by a simple experi- 
 ment. If we take a bright-coloured object and look at it 
 intently for some time the colour begins to lose its power 
 and become dim; at the same time the eye becomes fatigued, 
 and cannot look steadfastly at the object. If we then turn 
 our vision to another object, the colour of which is comple- 
 mentary to that of the first object, the eye is at once re- 
 lieved, and at the same time the colour of the second object 
 appears bright and intense. For example, suppose we 
 take a red piece of fabric, and look over the piece from end 
 to end, the colour at first may appear to be an excellent 
 bright colour, but after a short time it begins to appear 
 dull. This is the result of the successive contrast, or the 
 tendency of the vision to create the complementary green, 
 and of the mixed contrast, or the tendency of the vision to 
 blend the green thus created with the red of the fabric, and 
 so impair the brilliancy of the red. If we then lay aside 
 the red fabric and take up a green we see the green in an 
 intensified degree, because the eye has created a tendency 
 to see green by the presence of the previous red, but after 
 looking for a time at the green piece, a reaction takes place, 
 and the eye begins to create a tendency to see red, and so 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 347 
 
 causes the green to appear dull and approach a grey. 
 Turn again to the red piece, and it will appear more intense 
 than before. Thus we have all the sensations of contrast 
 illustrated at once. Then from this it will be evident that 
 the effect of any colour in a composition will be heightened 
 by the presence of its complementary, but, as will presently 
 be shown, they must be present under certain conditions 
 only. Again, it must also be manifest that the presence of 
 any two colours in juxtaposition, each having the same 
 common element, will detract from the quality of both, but 
 perhaps in a greater degree from one than the other. If we 
 place, for example, a red and orange, a yellow and green, or 
 a blue and purple together, we shall find in each case that 
 one colour will detract from the other ; or we may carry 
 this still further, if we take a black, which appears at first 
 sight to be a dense black, and place it in close juxtaposition 
 with blue, we shall find that the black appears to have lost 
 some of its density and has assumed a somewhat russet hue. 
 This arises from the blue causing a tendency in the vision 
 to create its complementary orange. The ' orange thus 
 created mixes with the black and so produces the russet 
 hue. On the other hand, if the black in the first place has 
 a russet hue, if it be juxtaposed with orange or red it will 
 at once appear as a dense black, because the blue ray is 
 created in the vision and compensates for the russet hue 
 on the black. 
 
 It has been said that in all colour compositions the 
 three primaries must be present to produce perfect har- 
 mony. Then the question arises, In what proportion should 
 they be present ? There is some slight difference of 
 opinion as to what may be considered the exact equiva= 
 lence of each, but the proportions laid down by Field are 
 generally accepted by our most practical writers as being 
 sufficiently near for practical work. 
 
 In the scale of chromatic equivalents as laid down by 
 
348 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 Mr. Field, the fundamental powers of the primary colours 
 in compensating and neutrahsing, contrasting and harmo- 
 nising their opposed secondaries are approximately as 
 three yellow, Jive red, and eight blue; consequently the 
 secondary orange, composed of three yellow and five red, 
 is the equivalent of Hue, the power of which is eight. 
 They are accordingly equal powers in contrast, and com- 
 pensating in mixture, and as such are properly in equal 
 proportions for harmonising effect. 
 
 Again, green, being composed of blue, the power of 
 which is eight, and yellow, the power of which is three, is 
 equivalent in contrast and mixture as eleven, to red, the 
 power of which is five, being nearly as two to one. 
 
 And finally, purple, composed of blue as eight, and red, 
 the power of which is five, is equivalent in mixture and 
 contrast as thirteen, to yellow, the power of which is three, 
 or as nearly four to one. And such proportions of these 
 opposed colours may be employed in forming agreeable and 
 harmonious contrasts, in colouring and decorative painting, 
 either in pairs" of contrasts, or several, or all together, and 
 also for subduing each other in mixtures. 
 
 The tertiary colour citrine harmonises with the second- 
 ary colour purple, in the proportion of nineteen citrine to 
 thirteen purple. The tertiary colour olive harmonises with 
 the secondary orange, in the proportion of twenty-four olive 
 to eight orange. The tertiary colour russet harmonises 
 with the secondary green, in the proportion of twenty-one 
 russet to eleven green, &c. 
 
 And further, it is apparent that all compound hues of 
 these colours will partake of their compound numbers, and 
 contrast each according to a compound equivalence. Thus 
 an intermediate red-purple will contrast with a like oppo- 
 site green-yellow, with the power of eighteen to fourteen, 
 and so on without limit all round the scale, and the triple 
 compound or tertiary colours are subject to like regulations. 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 349 
 
 But there is no absolute necessity that these proportions 
 should be exactly adhered to. Some one may be made to 
 predominate so as to give a key tone and character to the 
 composition. 
 
 In determining which colour shall be allowed to pre- 
 dominate, or give tone to the composition, due regard must 
 be paid to the mental effect of the several colours, and to 
 the purpose to which the composition is to be applied. It 
 has already been pointed out that each of the three 
 primaries produces a different mental effect. Blue conveys 
 the impression of coolness, and appears to retire from the 
 spectator; blue also is nearly allied to black, or darkness. 
 Red conveys the impression of warmth, is stationary as to 
 distance, and is the mean between light and darkness. 
 Yellow conveys the impression of light, and advances 
 towards the spectator. Any compound colour will partake 
 of these characteristics just as one of the three primaries 
 predominates, or as it is neutralised by the presence of the 
 others. Therefore in all compositions, to whatever purpose 
 they are to be applied, these mental effects should be duly 
 considered; and that one selected to give tone which will be 
 most in accordance with the object of the composition or 
 the purpose to which it is to be applied. 
 
 Then to return to the necessity for all the three primary 
 colours being present in any composition, either in the 
 form of primaries, secondaries, or tertiaries. Although, as 
 has been shown, they must of necessity be present, they need 
 not necessarily be present in their full intensity or power, 
 but they may be diluted or reduced to shades, tints, or hues, 
 and in proportion as they are reduced or diluted their areas 
 may be increased. We very rarely find either primary or 
 secondary colours present in their full intensity, and ex- 
 tending over large areas, in any composition. The com- 
 position will invariably be more effective and pleasing if 
 large areas are occupied by tertiary or neutral tints, and 
 
350 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 enlivened by brilliant flashes of colour in the form of a full 
 primary or secondary. Nor should powerfully contrasting 
 colours be placed in close juxtaposition to each other with- 
 out the presence of some neutral to subdue or modify their 
 effect upon each other. If we place, for instance, red and 
 green in close juxtaposition in any composition, although 
 they are complementary to each other, and the presence of 
 one is necessary to the existence of the other to produce 
 perfect harmony, yet the effect is unpleasant. Suppose 
 we have alternate stripes of red and green, or if we have 
 red figures on a green ground, or vice versa, the eye 
 could not rest long upon them without experiencing an 
 unpleasant sensation, the two colours would begin to swim 
 into each other as it were, and the longer the eye rests 
 upon them the stronger and more unpleasant will this swim- 
 ming sensation become ; but if the two colours be sepa- 
 rated by black or white, or some tertiary or neutral colour, 
 then this swimming sensation will be entirely prevented, 
 and yet perfect harmony will prevail. In the same manner, 
 if blue and orange be juxtaposed the swimming sensation 
 will result, but it may again be prevented by the intro- 
 duction of neutral. If purple and yellow are placed 
 together the effect is not quite so unpleasant, because the 
 two colours, although complementary, are more nearly 
 allied to light and darkness respectively. Yet even in this 
 case the effect is much improved by the presence of tertiary 
 or neutral colours. Therefore at all times colours which 
 are complementary to each other should either be present 
 in subdued form or separated from each other by the 
 presence of some neutral colour. 
 
 In addition to this quality of modifying the effect of 
 complementary colours, neutral colours also possess the pro- 
 perty of modifying the effect upon each other of colours 
 which possess the same common element. As has been 
 shown, colours which possess the same common element. 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 if placed in juxtaposition, have the effect of detracting 
 from each other, but if separated by black, by white, or 
 by neutral colour, this mutual detraction is prevented or 
 modified. If, for example, we place blue and green 
 together, one colour will partly destroy the other, and the 
 point of junction of the two will scarcely be discernible ; 
 but if we separate the two b}^ either a black or white line, 
 we shall find the effect materially improved. In the same 
 manner we may deal with red and orange, or with any 
 other two powerful or bright colours, and the result will 
 invariably be the same. 
 
 In speaking of neutral colours, the pecuHar properties 
 of gold as a neutral may be pointed out. Although the 
 appearance of the colour of gold is decidedly yellow, yet 
 it is one of the most neutral colours to be met with. Not 
 only will it harmonise with any or all colours, but it will 
 modify the effect of any two colours, or compositions of 
 colour, upon each other. It is for this property as much 
 as for its peculiar richness that gilded frames are so much 
 preferred for pictures, the richness and neutralit}^ of the 
 colour of the gold not only tendmg to improve the effect 
 of the colouring of the picture, but at the same time 
 effectually preventing the interference in an undue degree 
 of any surrounding colours. 
 
 Gold is a colour which is very rarely used in textile 
 fabrics, yet it may sometimes be used with advantage, and 
 whenever it is used this peculiar property may be borne in 
 mind. 
 
 Then the whole theory of colour treatment may be 
 briefly summed up as follows : — We have three primary 
 or simple colour sensations, and in any compositions these 
 three sensations must be excited if we have harmony, or, 
 in other words, the three primary colours must be present 
 either in their pure form or in a compound form. As each 
 colour sensation is excited it must also in turn be 
 
352 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 relieved, thus implying that if any, one is present in its 
 most intense form the others must also be present in an 
 equally or nearly an equally striking degree, either as to its 
 intensity or its area. Colours which are kindred to each 
 other will associate well ; but if they partake in a large 
 degree of the same common element they must be divided 
 or separated from each other by some other neutral colour, 
 or by the intervention of white or black, or light and 
 shadow. In this latter case the light and shadow need not 
 necessarily be present in the definite form of black and 
 white, but it may be present in the form of an admixture 
 of light with one colour and shadow with the other. If we 
 take, for example, two blues or two greens, or any other 
 colours, and place them in juxtaposition, to produce perfect 
 harmony, or an effect pleasing to the eye, one must be 
 reduced to a tint by the admixture of white and the other 
 to a shade by the admixture of black, and just in the 
 degree in which the two approximate to light and dark- 
 ness respectively will their power of pleasing and producing 
 harmony exist ; because the two colours, possessing the 
 same common element, would tend to detract from each 
 other but for the existence of the light and shade, therefore 
 just in the degree in which the light and shade separate 
 them from each other will their effect be pleasing. 
 
 If we are dealing with gradations of colour precisely 
 the same principle will apply, whether we are gradating 
 from light to dark of the same colour or from one colour 
 to another, therefore the more perfect the scale of gradation 
 from one extreme to the other, the more equally balanced 
 the extremes of the gradations are with each other, 
 the more pleasing will be the effect. Then not only 
 should the gradations be true and regular throughout, but 
 the ends or extremes should be equally striking, and so 
 balance or sustain each other. In compositions where 
 gradations contrast and single colours occur, as will 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 353 
 
 frequently happen, there should be a correspondence or 
 equivalence between the parts throughout, and the grouping 
 should be so arranged that the eye is not attracted too 
 much to one part to the detriment of the rest. This again 
 further implies that the whole should occupy appropriate 
 breadths, so that the eye can take in the whole of the 
 composition at once ; or if not, such parts as do come within 
 the range of vision must be so arranged that they do not 
 suffer in effect by the absence of the other, or that the eye 
 can travel from one part to another without any great 
 effort, so that the absence of one part from the range of 
 vision is compensated for to some extent by the facility 
 given for viewing the whole group. By bearing carefully 
 in mind these rules and principles, by careful observation 
 and practice, combined with some natural aptitude, it 
 becomes a comparatively easy task to treat variety of 
 colour in such a manner as to conduce to beauty and to 
 be pleasing both to the cultured and the uncultured eye. 
 
 Occasionally restrictive conditions may occur which will 
 have to some extent the effect of marring a composition. 
 These restrictive conditions are various, and their effect 
 may be different under different circumstances ; but a 
 careful consideration of their cause and effect will enable 
 the colourist to deal with and overcome them in the best 
 possible manner. 
 
354 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION. 
 
 As has been fully pointed out in the foregoing chapters, 
 weaving is simply the interlacing of threads or fibres with 
 each other for the purpose of making a fabric which might 
 be applied to some useful purpose, and the whole art of 
 weaving consists in the proper interlacing of these threads 
 or fibres, so as to be best adapted to the purpose to which 
 the fabric is to be applied, due regard being paid at 
 the same time to the nature of the thread or fibre used 
 in its manufacture, and where fabrics of a fancy character 
 are required, regard being also paid to the proper arrange- 
 ment and adaptation of patterns and colours. This, as 
 has been mentioned, is generally the work of one man for 
 a manufacturing concern, who is known as the designer. 
 Consequently, upon the designer devolves all the duties 
 connected with the production of new fabrics, or new 
 patterns upon old fabrics ; and upon his knowledge, not 
 only of the principles of weaving, but also of the nature 
 of fibres used in the production of fabrics, the theory of 
 colour and general art principles, and a ready facility for 
 practical application of these principles and adapting 
 them to the fashions of his time, will his success entirely 
 depend. 
 
 Although, strictly speaking, the art of weaving consists 
 in the proper interlacing of these threads, and consequently 
 an intimate knowledge of the mechanical operations or 
 processes to be employed to obtain the result desired, 
 closely connected with this, and in fact almost indispen- 
 sable, is a knowledge of the nature and structure of the 
 fibres employed. Such a knowledge not only materially 
 assists the weaver in the arrangement of the patterns for 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 355 
 
 his fabric, but frequently enables him to employ materials 
 for purposes which, but for this intimate knowledge of the 
 nature of the material or fibre, might be entirely over- 
 looked, or even considered unsuitable. 
 
 Treating the subject broadly, all weaving, as has been 
 shown, is reducible to three distinct classes. Or, if we 
 include knitted fabrics and laces, we have five classes. In 
 the first two — plain and figured weaving— the warp threads 
 are parallel to each other, and are crossed at right angles 
 by the weft. The only difference between the two consists 
 in the manner in which the threads are interwoven. In 
 the one case the warp and weft threads are interwoven 
 alternately ; in the other, the warp and weft may pass 
 over any number before being interwoven. Consequently 
 plain weaving will produce a cloth of maximum strength 
 with a minimum of material, while figured weaving is 
 adapted for producing weight and bulk, owing to the loose 
 way in which the threads are interwoven permitting them 
 to be brought closer together, and consequently allowing 
 a greater number of threads to be put in the cloth. Again, 
 plain weaving does not permit of the ornamentation of the 
 fabric, — but in a very limited degree— except by means of 
 colours, while in figure weaving the fabric may be orna- 
 mented either with or without the aid of colour. 
 
 In gauze weaving the parallelism of the warp threads is 
 not preserved as in the other two, but they are made to 
 cross or become partly twisted round each other in the 
 process of weaving. The result of this is to produce an 
 open or perforated fabric. Gauze weaving possesses in 
 some degree some of the characteristics of both the other 
 two. By the manner in which the warp threads are made 
 to twist round each other in interweaving with the weft 
 considerable strength is imparted to the cloth, and at the 
 same time the fabric may be ornamented without the aid 
 of colour if desired. But from the very nature of the 
 
356 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 construction of the fabric nothing but Hght cloths could 
 be produced. 
 
 Then, these, being the chief characteristics of the three 
 primary classes of fabrics, the weaver must consider first 
 which of these three, or which combination of two or more, 
 will produce a fabric best suited to the purpose to which it 
 is to be applied, and also to the nature of the material to 
 be used for the production of the fabric. Not only must 
 he consider the nature of the fibre of which his thread is 
 to be composed, but also the character of the thread. He 
 must know whether the thread possesses sufficient strength 
 to bear the strain to which it will be subjected. If he 
 desires to have a pattern visible on the fabric, he must 
 consider whether the character of his thread is such that 
 it will interfere with the pattern, as it will be certain to do 
 if there is a great deal of loose fibre upon it. He must 
 also consider, if the cloth is to be a plain one, whether this 
 loose fibre will interfere with the threads in crossing each 
 other, and if so, take means to prevent that interference as 
 far as possible. All this may be summed up briefly by 
 saying that all threads in which the fibres are laid parallel, 
 or in which the amount of twist is such as to produce a 
 clear firm thread, may be woven 'into fabrics in which the 
 pattern must be distinctly visible, and all threads pre- 
 senting a great deal of loose fibre must be used for goods 
 in which the pattern is not desired to be visible. See 
 Appendix A. 
 
 These observations refer chiefly to the simplest forms 
 of weaving, such as plain and twill fabrics, or those having 
 small, simple designs upon them, though they refer also 
 in a more or less degree to all forms of weaving. For 
 instance, if we are making a gauze cloth it would be an 
 absurdity to attempt to make it with warp threads having 
 a great deal of loose fibre on them, or with very soft 
 twisted materials. Again, in making cloth it is a matter of 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 357 
 
 absolute necessity not only to have the material or fibre of 
 which the thread is composed such as will be adapted to 
 the purpose to which the fabric is to be applied, but both 
 the material and the construction of the thread which is 
 to form the ground of the cloth must be suitable to the 
 purpose. 
 
 These are the primary considerations, and they are 
 such as can only be mastered thoroughly after long prac- 
 tice and close attention, but these principles being once 
 mastered, the mere mechanical operations of weaving 
 become a comparatively easy task. 
 
 With respect to the manufacture of fancy goods much 
 might be said, not only respecting the adaptation of the 
 material to the purpose to which the fabric is to be applied, 
 but also with respect to the combination of materials to 
 produce effects, and the combination or adaptation of 
 forms in the production of designs, as well as upon the 
 colouring of fabrics ; but no amount of writing could possi- 
 bly supply that which can only be gained by practice and 
 careful observation, and no rules could possibly be laid 
 down which could supersede sound judgment, or supply 
 taste, although one may be assisted and the other refined. 
 The most valuable assistance will be found to be the 
 knowledge gained by experience, and the most refining 
 influence careful study of the choicest productions of 
 nature and art. 
 
 With respect to the mechanical operations of weaving, 
 the combination, interlacing, and arrangement of coloured 
 threads, taken separately, nothing could be more simple. 
 If we take the three movements which have to be 
 executed in weaving, separately they are simplicity itself, 
 yet they are in combination beautiful, interesting, and 
 instructive. The regularity and simplicity of the move- 
 ments, the ease and rapidity of their execution, accompanied 
 by the regular winding of the cloth on one beam, and 
 
358 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNIN(^ 
 
 letting off the warp from another, and the ever ready 
 stopping motions and protectors in the event of anything 
 going wrong, bringing the whole at once to a dead stand, 
 certainly present as beautiful and complete a machine as 
 it is possible for mortal man to produce, or for the mind to 
 conceive. Indeed, textile machinery from the first to the 
 last process of manufacture presents as complete and 
 remarkable an illustration of the inventive powers of the 
 human mind, and the complete control and power of mind 
 over matter, as is to be found in the whole universe, and 
 certainly no art or handicraft exists more interesting to the 
 earnest student than that which supplies one of the first 
 requirements and most powerful elements of civilisation. 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 359 
 
 APPENDIX A. 
 
 THE STRUCTURE OF THREADS. 
 The general principle of the structure of threads has 
 been pointed out already m my work Design in Textile 
 Fabrics," and also the uses to which the various classes of 
 thread may be applied advantageously The accompanying 
 
 Woollen Yarn. 
 
 illustrations will fully demonstrate what is there pointed out. 
 These illustrations are engraved direct from photographs 
 of the several threads taken through the microscope and 
 consequently their truthfulness is beyond doubt. 
 
 In the woollen thread the fibrous character is amply 
 demonstrated and the tendency to felting in cloth made from 
 
360 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 this yarn will be easily understood. Whereas, in the 
 worsted yarn the perfect parallel lines of the fibres is 
 equally well shown. The counts of the yarn from which 
 the photographs were taken were 48 skein woollen (Yorkshire 
 count), or equal to 22s worsted, and the worsted yarn is 24s ; 
 and for the purpose of making a fair comparison, the quality 
 of the wool in the two yarns respectively is nearly the same. 
 
 A glance at the two yarns will at once convince one 
 of the purposes to which they ma}' be most readily applied. 
 
 Worsted Yarn. 
 
 It will not be difficult to understand, that any pattern which 
 may be woven in the cloth will be at once lost, at least 
 to some extent where woollen yarns are used, and that 
 felting will be facilitated to the utmost, whereas with worsted 
 yarns exactly the reverse is the case ; the pattern will be 
 clear but there is nothing to assist in felting. 
 
 Turning to the cotton yarn we have one which in 
 character comes between the woollen and worsted. The 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 361 
 
 yarn here represented is an ordinary single 8o's carded yarn. 
 This yarn is carded after the same manner as woollen, but 
 afterwards goes through a ''drawing" process, which not 
 only tends to equalise the thickness of the yarn, but also to 
 reduce the fibres to a greater degree of parallelism, 
 consequently the thread presents an appearance something 
 between the two already referred to, and possessing some of 
 the characteristics of both. There is a certain amount of 
 
 Cotton Yarn. 
 
 fibre projecting from it, but not so much as from a woollen 
 yarn, and more than from a worsted yarn. 
 
 What is known as a combed " cotton yarn has precisely 
 the same structure as the worsted thread, the fibres being 
 laid strictly parallel. 
 
 The silk yarn shows the fibres strictly parallel. Of 
 
 course this must always be so in all '' raw " silk, that is 
 
 silk drawn direct from the cocoon, as they consist of 
 Y 
 
362 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 continuous fibres, but spun silk is prepared practically on 
 the same principle as cotton and will consequently present 
 a little fibre, but not so much as cotton, owing to the fibre 
 being longer. This illustration also discloses another feature 
 
 Silk Yarn. 
 
 of the silk thread, especially of wefts from which this is 
 taken, viz., the very small amount of twist in the yarn, 
 though of course for warps there must of necessity be a little 
 more. The yarn from which this photograph was taken 
 would be equal to about 96's cotton. 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 APPENDIX B. 
 
 THE JACQUARD MACHINE, ITS HISTORY 
 AND USE. 
 
 Reprinted from " Vlngenieur Universel " of 1880. 
 It is well known to every student that all our most 
 useful and valuable machines have reached their highest 
 stages of perfection by slow degrees, and "that although 
 their first introduction to the world may have been the 
 work of one man of genius, they have undergone many 
 alterations and improvements subsequently at the hands of 
 others. It may also be said that many of the greatest 
 inventions are not entirely the work of the man whose name 
 is associated with their introduction to the world, but the 
 result of a combination of what has been done by others 
 in the same direction. It is always an interesting study to 
 follow the progress of a machine from its earliest birth to 
 "its latest development, and that is more especially the case 
 when the subject of our study occupies such an important 
 position in one of our greatest industries as does the 
 Jacquard machine. It would not be a difficult matter to 
 make up a volume of interesting matter in tracing its 
 history and development, but our object will be, with the 
 space at our command, to sketch briefly its history and use. 
 We need not review the personal history of Joseph Marie 
 Jacquard, or the manner in which his machine was first 
 brought before the world. So much has already been 
 written upon this subject that the student will have no 
 difficulty in learning all he may wish to know about the 
 matter from a variety of sources. The object of the 
 Jacquard machine is to facilitate the production of elaborate 
 designs upon textile fabrics, and for this purpose it has 
 
3^4 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 superseded what was formerly known as the draw loom. 
 We may perhaps make this more intelligible to some of 
 our readers if we say that the Jacquard represents and 
 takes the place of a number of healds. Any one who 
 knows anything of a loom will not require to be told how 
 difficult it would be to crowd a few hundred healds into 
 a loom, but a Jacquard may represent several hundreds 
 of healds and not occupy an inconvenient space. For 
 the purpose of showing as clearly as possible the use of 
 the Jacquard machine, and at the same time to ascertain 
 as nearly as we can how much of the merit of invention 
 is due to the man whose name this machine bears, we will 
 commence with an explanation of the draw loom, and 
 from that point follow upwards. 
 
 Fig. I represents a draw loom harness. A is what is 
 termed the harness ; R the cumber board ; C the neck ; 
 D is a pulley-box through which the cords from the neck 
 are passed. These cords are continued, as shown at E 
 and F, and beyond F are attached to a rod passed 
 through a ring of the roof or ceiling of the workshop, 
 this portion being called the tail or tail cords of the 
 harness. To the tail cords are attached another series of 
 cords G, which are carried down and attached to the floor 
 by means of a rod in a similar manner to the tail. These 
 cords are called the simples, and upon them the pattern 
 to be woven is read ; that is, another series of cords I, 
 which are called lashes or leashes, are attached to such 
 of the simples as will raise that portion of the harness 
 which is required to be raised to form the pattern. 
 They are then attached by a running noose to the cord 
 H, which is simply a fixed cord from floor to ceiling, and 
 parallel to the simples. So far as the harness itself is 
 concerned the arrangement is shown very clearly, the 
 warp threads being passed through eyes or ''mails" at A, 
 and the weights B serving to bring down such of the harness 
 
366 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 cords, and with them such of the warp threads, as have been 
 raised. Then the duty of the draw boy is to pull the lashes 
 I in succession as the weaver throws in the weft, and so by 
 continually drawing the cords over and over again in the 
 order in which they are read, the warp is separated in such 
 manner to receive the weft as will produce the pattern 
 desired. 
 
 This then is the principle of the draw loom in its 
 
 FIG 2. 
 
 simplest form. At various times machines were invented to 
 supersede, or rather to assist the draw boy in his work, but 
 in all of them the use of the "tail" and "simple" were 
 preserved. They therefore consisted chiefly in mechanical 
 means of drawing the lashes or some apparatus which should 
 take their place. The one which most nearly concerns us at 
 present is said to have been invented by a Frenchman, 
 M. Bouchon, in the year 1725. In this apparatus each of the 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 367 
 
 simple cords passed through a long needle having an eye or 
 loop formed near its middle. One end of this needle 
 projected a little way in front of a board through which it 
 passed. These needles were acted upon by a band of 
 perforated paper, the perforations in which are made 
 according to the pattern to be produced. Fig. 2 shows in a 
 simple manner the principle of the apparatus. The parts 
 lettered E, and G correspond to the parts having the same 
 letters in Fig. i. In addition will be seen a box carrying 
 a series of needles M, through each of which one of the 
 simples is passed ; N is the needle-board with the needle 
 projecting through it ; and O is a grooved or perforated 
 cylinder over which the band of paper P is passed. The 
 weights on the harness will keep the simple cords in their 
 vertical position, and consequently keep the points of the 
 needles pressed through in front of the needle-board ; then it 
 is obvious that if the roller O be pressed against the point of 
 the needles, wherever there is a hole in the paper opposite 
 the point of a needle, that needle will pass through and 
 remain stationary. But when the paper is blank the needle 
 will be pressed back, the simple will be drawn, pulling down 
 the tail cord, and consequently raising the harness and the 
 warp, which is drawn through in precisely the same manner 
 as if the leash had been pulled by the draw boy. As each 
 leash of the draw boy serves for one pick, if the paper is 
 perforated in rows, as shown at Fig. 3, each row. would serve 
 for one pick in precisely the same manner. In 1728 
 M. Falcon substituted a chain of cards and square bar for 
 the paper of M. Bouchon ; and later Vaucansen dispensed 
 with the tail cords and simples and made the draw bar self- 
 acting. The harness really has to serve in the place of 
 healds, and its arrangement is as follows : — The neck cords 
 are numbered i, 2, 3, &c., and to No. i neck a harness cord 
 is attached and carried down through the cumber board, 
 ^.nother from Neck No. 2, and so on until a harness cord has 
 
368 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 been attached to each neck. When this has been done we 
 have what is termed one round or division of the harness. 
 This is repeated as many times as will make up the desired 
 width of the fabric ; consequently, whatever pattern is formed 
 by the first division of the harness is repeated by the 
 subsequent divisions. 
 
 We can now begin to examine the invention of Jacquard, 
 and to estimate its value, his machine being a combination 
 of the principles we have shown. It has been denied that 
 Jacquard deserves any of the merit of an invention, but that 
 he simply deserves the credit of "an experienced workman 
 
 FIG. 3. 
 
 who by combining together the best parts of the machines 
 of his predecessors in the same line, succeeded for the first 
 time in obtaining an arrangement sufficiently practical to be 
 generally employed." The first machine of Jacquard is said 
 to have been completed in the year iSoi, but it was some 
 time after that when it was introduced into England. The 
 first patent taken out for it in England was on April iith, 
 1820, by F. Lambert, being " A communication from a 
 certain foreigner living abroad," and it is described as 
 A new method of mounting and producing, and also of 
 removing, preserving, and replacing the figure in weaving 
 gold, silver, silk, worsted, cotton thread, and other laces 
 whether made or composed of the aforesaid articles, any 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 or either of them, or a mixture thereof." In his specification 
 he shows complete drawings of all the parts of his machine, 
 cards, design, &c., and explains fully the use and mode of 
 cutting cards, and claims that the " figure plates (cards) may 
 be removed from the ' matrix block ' (card cylinder) and 
 another chain of figure plates substituted in its place, 
 provided the width of the warp already in the loom be then 
 suitable for the new fabrics, and the first set of figure plates 
 being so removed may be preserved and kept for use at 
 any future time," and he also claims that "by this invention 
 an extraordinary and greater length of figure may be pro- 
 duced than hath ever been produced in his Majesty's 
 kingdom." This is an ordinary Jacquard machine in its 
 simplest form. 
 
 Before proceeding further we will describe as simply as 
 possible the principle of this machine. It would be a difficult 
 matter to conceive anything more simple in construction. It 
 consists of a frame containing a series of upright hooks 
 arranged in rows, each one of which serves the purpose of 
 the tail cords shown in Fig. i, and has attached to the 
 bottom of it the neck cord from which the harness is 
 suspended. Nearer the upper end of the hook it passes 
 through the looped eye of a needle similar to that shown at 
 M, Fig. 2. Then as the upright hook serves the purpose 
 of the tail cord, the needle which crosses it serves the 
 purpose of the needle and simple in Fig. 2, or of the lash J 
 and simple G in Fig. i. Fig 4 will more clearly explain its 
 arrangement. A represents the upright hooks, and B the 
 needles through which they pass, each of them projecting a 
 little way through the needle board C at the front of the 
 machine, and at their other extremity pass into the spring 
 box D. Here each separate needle is provided with a small 
 helical spring, which presses the needle forward and keeps 
 the hook in its vertical position. Immediately beneath the 
 upper extremity of the hooks a series of lifting knives are 
 
4 
 
 370 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 placed, their position being such as to be under the hook 
 when it is in the upright position. To the cords E the 
 harness is attached ; in fact they are the neck cords exactly 
 corresponding to the neck cords in Fig. i. The hooks are 
 kept in position at the top by the needles through which they 
 pass, and at the bottom by the neck cords, each of 
 which passes through a hole in the board F, and they are 
 prevented from turning by a grate the bars of which rest in 
 the lower part, that portion which is turned up being carried 
 
 FIG. 4. 
 
 so far that the grate should never pass above it. In front of 
 the needles is a square bar over which the cards pass, this 
 bar being perforated with as many holes as there are needles. 
 
 If a card is placed upon this bar, wherever there is a 
 hole in the card the needle corresponding will pass through, 
 and the hook connected will remain stationary over the lifting 
 knife on the bar carrying the card being pressed against the 
 needles ; but where there is no hole in the card the needle 
 will be pressed back carrying the hook with it, and 
 consequently taking it clear of the lifting knife. At every 
 pick these knives are raised, lifting up such of the hooks 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 as have not been pressed back, and at every pick a fresh 
 card is brought up to the points of the needles until the whole 
 pattern is complete. This brief description represents the 
 principle of the machine but there are details which will now 
 require consideration. It will be obvious to the reader that 
 some provision must be made for the lifting of the knives, for 
 the purpose of lifting the hooks of the machine, and for 
 bringing fresh cards in succession to the point of the needles. 
 To perform the first of these operations the knives are firmly 
 fixed in a block which is raised and lowered by means of a 
 lever. In the first arrangement which was patented in 
 England there were two of these levers employed, and the 
 attachment came over the side of the loom. In 1821 a 
 patent was taken out by Mr. S. Wilson, which in part 
 refers to this matter. In previous arrangements the machine 
 was so placed on the top of the loom that the card cylinder 
 was towards the warp beam, but the first claim in 
 Mr. Wilson's patent is that the cylinder, or as he terms it 
 the " revolving bar," shall be placed at or towards the side 
 of the loom, instead of towards the warp beam, and so 
 enabling him to extend the machine or use two or more 
 machines at the same time. The second claim is that by so 
 placing the machine the lever connected with the lifting 
 block comes over the head of the weaver, and a cord is 
 passed behind him and attached to a treadle " by which 
 means the weaver is able to draw the heaviest monture 
 and figured work without the use of a draw-boy." Another 
 improvement which forms part of Mr. Wilson's patent 
 consists in an alteration of the form of the needles, a loop 
 being formed at their furthest extremity from the lifting bar, 
 which is passed through horizontal wires, and at right angles 
 a regulating pin is passed through the loop of the needle, 
 the extremity of the loop pressing against the lielical spring 
 which is to press it forward towards the cards as shown at 
 Fig. 5. The cards are made to act upon the needles by 
 
372 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 being passed over a perforated bar or cylinder, which must 
 have such motion given to it as will bring the cards into 
 contact with the points of the needles at the proper time, 
 and the cards must also be brought up in regular succession. 
 To effect this the cylinder must have a reciprocating 
 rectilinear motion given to it, and at every motion it must 
 also make one fourth of a revolution upon its axis. Various 
 
 PLAN OF NEEDLE. 
 FIG. 5. 
 
 devices have been adopted for this purpose but the one in most 
 general use is shown at Fig. 6, where the cylinder is carried 
 near the lower extremity of a pair of arms A, which work 
 on a fixed centre at the top B. From the lifting block C, 
 a rigid L shaped arm having a pulley at its extremity is 
 carried out, and works in a curved bar D which is 
 attached to the arms carrying the cylinder. The consequence 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 373 
 
 of this arrangement is that as the block C is raised, the 
 pulley acts on the upper side of the curved bar, so throwing 
 out the arm, and as the block descends it acts upon the 
 under side, bringing the arm back and pressing the card 
 
 FIG. 6. 
 
 upon the point of the needles. To cause the cylinder to 
 revolve a pair of pawls or catches E, are attached to the frame 
 of the machine, the upper one resting upon the cylinder by 
 its own weight, and the lower one being attached to it by 
 a cord. As the cylinder is thrown back, the hook upon 
 
374 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 the catch takes hold of one corner of it, and pulls it over, 
 thus bringing the next face opposite the needles. The 
 cylinder is prevented from revolving too far by the hammer 
 F, which is kept pressed firmly down by a spring. The 
 second catch is for the purpose of turning the cards in 
 the opposite direction in the event of the weft breaking or 
 running out. 
 
 We can now examine the improvements which have 
 from time to time been made or attempted. It would be a 
 study both curious and interesting, if space permitted, to 
 follow all the attempts which have been made since this 
 machine was invented to effect improvements in it, and it 
 certainly seems very surprising that the machine of to-day 
 so very nearly resembles the original one. Those improve- 
 ments which are of value we shall notice and endeavour 
 briefly to trace their history, and we shall also call attention 
 to one or two attempts which have been made to adopt a new 
 method. Mr. Wilson, the gentleman already mentioned in 
 connection with the patent of 1821, made an attempt to 
 alter the form of the machine in 1823. In this the card 
 C3dinder is placed on the top of the machine and the needles 
 are dispensed with, and instead of using hooks for raising the 
 warp threads he used an upright wire with a head formed 
 upon it, immediately below this was placed two plates with 
 holes corresponding to those in the cylinder, and through 
 which the wires passed. The harness was attached to the 
 wires, in the same manner as in the previous machine, by 
 means of neck cords ; but each harness cord had a knot 
 upon it which rested upon the cumber-board when the wire 
 was down. The cylinder with the cards acted direct upon 
 the needles from above, the holes in the cards permitting 
 those which were desired to be raised to remain in their 
 position, and pressing down those which were required down 
 so far that the button upon the wire would be below the 
 two plates. The upper plate had a slight longitudinal 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 375 
 
 motion given to it, so as to partly close up the holes, and 
 both plates were caused to rise together so as to catch the 
 bottom upon the wire, and raise the harness. As the 
 cylinder was raised the wires which had been pressed 
 down were returned to their places by small spiral springs. 
 
 The next attempt was by Molinard in 1833, and in his 
 specification he claims that his invention " consists in the 
 placing of his figuring machinery under the warp and 
 needles, and in connecting the needles themselves directly 
 with the warp threads in such a manner that the pattern 
 cards are using motion given to the pattern cylinder over 
 which they pass to act upon the lower ends of the needles." 
 This arrangement does not seem to have proved very 
 satisfactory, for in October of the following year (1834) 
 Molinard took out another patent for improvements. In 
 this he abandons the needle connection with the warp and 
 uses a body of needles acted upon by the rise and fall 
 of a pattern shaft or cylinder in the way described m my 
 former specification." And he " suspends the threads, of 
 the harness by lifting or suspension threads from the 
 aforesaid needles, by which means one of the principle 
 advantages of my former patent is rendered applicable to 
 a loom for weaving figured fabrics with greater economy 
 and facility." 
 
 In 1840 a patent was taken out by Deplanque which 
 contained several new features. From this time, improve- 
 ments in the Jacquards were numerous and some of them 
 valuable, more especially for use with power looms. One 
 especially is of great importance, viz., that relating to the 
 movement of the card cylinder. It will be easily understood 
 that when the lifting block or griffe is raised, and the cylinder 
 with the card is withdrawn from the point of the needles, 
 those which are left down will return to their original 
 position, and as that position is such that when the griffe is 
 down the hooks are immediately over the knives, when the 
 
376 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 grifFe is up they must be immediately under the knives. 
 Therefore if the knives were vertical they would strike the 
 top of the hook, but they are inclined to such an angle, that 
 as they descend they strike the face of the hook, and press 
 them back. 
 
 If a Jacquard which imparts the motion to the card 
 cylinder with the curved bar, shown in Fig. 6 be carefully 
 examined it will be found that the cards strike the needles 
 before the griffe has reached its lowest point ; that would 
 seem as if it would remove all the hooks which were not 
 intended to rise out of the way of the knives. But it also 
 has another effect. Many of the hooks which are already on 
 the knives are required to be pressed back so as to be left 
 down ; then if the card is pressing upon the needles before 
 the griffe has reached its lowest point the hooks have not 
 been liberated, therefore there is considerable pressure upon 
 the needles and the card, and as a consequence proportionate 
 wear and tear. It is obvious that the most perfect motion 
 would be for the knives to be quite clear of the hooks before 
 the card touches the needles, and this is best done by 
 working the card cylinder from some source independent of 
 the machine. The first attempt at this was made by Mr. J. 
 Bullough in 1842, when he patented " a certain arrangement 
 or application of mechanism whereby the ' card cylinder ' is 
 made to turn entirely independent of the lifting motion for 
 shedding the warps." Considerable additions and improve- 
 ments were made to this by Messrs. WoUer and Butterfield, 
 of Bradford, in 1855. In their specification they make three 
 claims, the first two have reference to the card cylinder, and 
 the third to the harness. The first of their claims is " in 
 allowing the hooks to be entirely at rest and free from the 
 knives of the griffe, at the time when they are pressed back 
 by the cards and cylinder ;" the second, " in the means of 
 disengaging the cylinder or swing-frame, so that the cylinder 
 and the cards may be worked backwards or forwards, 
 
37^ 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 In this arrangement the card cyHnder is worked by an 
 '* eccentric " direct from the crank shaft of the loom after the 
 manner shown in Fig. 7. A is the eccentric " upon the 
 crank shaft, the motion being communicated by means of the 
 rod B to the lever C, and from the other arm of that lever 
 by the rod D to the arm E. (Although we speak of C as one 
 lever, the arm to which D is attached is quite apart from the 
 arm C, but they are both working upon the same centre, 
 which is a rocking shaft running across the loom behind the 
 harness.) This arm is made fast to the swing frame F, 
 which carries the cylinder G. It will be seen at once that as 
 this arrangement is quite independent of the rise and fall of 
 the griffe of the machine, the movement of the cylinder can 
 be timed at will in relation to the movement of the griffe. 
 The arrangements for turning the cards without moving the 
 other parts of the machine are extremely simple. When the 
 loom is running the cylinder is turned in the usual manner, 
 by means of the catch H. The handle C is a split handle 
 working upon the centre E, and provided with a spring for 
 keeping each half in position. The movable part has at its 
 opposite extremity an arc of a circle K upon it ; and upon 
 the fixed arm is another arc L, with a notch E. The whole 
 of the arm is made fast upon the rocking shaft before 
 named, and the straight arm C, to which the rod B is 
 attached works loosely upon the rocking shafts. When the 
 machine is working in its usual manner a " nib " upon C 
 falls into the notch E of the large arc, so causing the 
 rocking shaft and the loose arm to work together, or as it 
 were to become one. W^hen it is desired to work the 
 rocking shaft for turning the cards without turning the 
 loom at the same time, the handle is pressed together 
 raising the nib by means of K, and so removing it from 
 the notch E ; the rocking shaft is therefore disengaged, and 
 by working the handle backwards and forwards the card 
 cylinder will be thrown out and the cards turned over 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 379. 
 
 either in one direction or the other as desired, by bringing 
 either of the catches in contact with the cyHnder. 
 
 This invention has probably had a greater influence in 
 promoting the use of the Jacquard machine with power 
 looms than any other, because it enables the weaver to 
 prevent broken patterns, when the weft breaks or runs 
 out, with the greatest facility. There is no trouble turning 
 the loom back pick by pick, until the broken one is found, 
 but the weaver simply seizes the handle and turns the 
 cards over to the desired one without much trouble. 
 
 The third part of this invention aimed at what has 
 often been attempted, viz., " Keeping the harness steady 
 and free from vibration, " when working. Messrs. WoUer 
 and Butterfield endeavoured to remedy this tendency by 
 instituting springs for the loose weights, and so enable 
 them to run their looms at a higher rate of speed. In 
 theory this seems very feasible, but in practice it does not 
 seem to have answered ver}' well, for it was very soon 
 abandoned, and the loose weights replaced, the latter 
 retaining their position up to the present time. This is 
 only one of the many attempts which have been made to 
 enable the Jacquard power loom to be run at a high rate 
 of speed, upon some of the others we shall speak shortly. 
 We now have the Jacquard machine in such a state of 
 perfection that it will do its work fairly well, either on the 
 hand loom or power loom, yet in some respects there is 
 still room for improvement. We will now point out in 
 what direction these improvements are desirable, and some 
 of the attempts which have been made to effect them. 
 With respect to the vibration of the harness we have 
 already pointed out one of the attempts to remedy it, and 
 we are not aware of anything better having been done. 
 Of course in the ordinary loose weight harness some provision 
 is made for this, by making the weights work in the partitions 
 which prevent their swinging from side to side except for a 
 
38o 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 very limited distance. To enable the Jacqiiard power loom 
 to attain a high rate of speed many attempts have been made, 
 but the most successful has been the double action " 
 machine, though this system has its defects, and many 
 practical men are of opinion that the increased speed is 
 purchased at too high a price. The question is and always 
 must be, whether the advantage gained is not counter- 
 balanced by the disadvantages, or whether the increased 
 speed is not gained at the cost of efficiency. Before we 
 enter more fully into the double action machine it will 
 perhaps be as well to inquire into the purpose it is intended 
 to serve, and what advantages are to be gained by it. 
 Putting the matter broadly there are two distinct objects 
 
 FIG: 8. 
 
 m view. One is as we have said, increased speed, and 
 the other an improved shed, coupled with a counterpoise 
 harness, in which the falling or sinking part of the shed 
 would balance the rising part and effect economy 
 in power. Then first as to the shed, that is the separation 
 of the warp into two portions so as to permit the shuttle 
 carrying the weft to pass between them. This may be 
 indicated by Fig. 8, where A represents the point at which 
 cloth is formed by the weft being beat up ; the straight line 
 B, the warp when no shed is formed ; and the dotted lines B 
 show the warp as divided into two portions to permit the 
 passage of the whole. It will be observed that the shed is 
 V shaped, and that the lower line is as much (or nearly so) 
 below the straight line B as the other line is above it, or in 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 381 
 
 Other words, that each one is drawn the same distance — 
 though in opposite directions— from the straight line. It will 
 be obvious that if we consider the Hne B as the natural 
 position of the warp threads when at rest, or as we may term 
 it the line of rest, and as the shed is opened, each half of the 
 warp is drawn the same distance from it, the work seems to 
 be done in the most economical manner. But in the ordinary 
 Jacquard this cannot be done. The lower dotted line 
 becomes the line of rest, consequently to make a full shed it 
 must travel to the top one, or the entire depth of the shed. 
 In the hand treadle and tappet power looms, the shed is 
 always opened from the centre ; in the Jacquard loom it is 
 not always so, but only in those which have a double action. 
 The principle of the double action appears to have been 
 used by Mr. J. Cross, of Paisley, in his counterpoise harness 
 for the draw loom. Also a few^ years later by Mr. B. Taylor, 
 who took out a patent for a loom for weaving " figures or 
 flowers on twilled or plain cloth," and which was " worked 
 without any drawboy, the figures in the different articles 
 being produced by means of barrels filled with wires 
 arranged to the figures or flowers, in a similar manner to 
 that of a barrel organ producing tunes." The harness is 
 described as having a double neck, " and as one lash falls 
 the other rises, and by the falling of one the weight assists 
 the other in rising." This is simply the principle of the 
 double action Jacquard. There are two necks and two hooks, 
 each being acted upon by a separate griffe working alternately. 
 In 1849 a patent was taken out by Mr. Barlow, for a 
 Jacquard with " double counterpoised griffes and apparatus 
 for simultaneously raising and lowering different portions 
 of the suspending wires of such apparatus." This machine 
 (Fig. 9) contained two sets of hooks and one set of suspending 
 wires, it had also two sets of needles, two cylinders, and two 
 sets of cards. The two hooks A, A are the lifting hooks ; and 
 B the suspending wire to which the neck of the harness is 
 
382 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 attached. The suspending wire has two nuts upon it by 
 means of which either of the hooks can raise it. Each 
 set of hooks is acted upon by separate sets of cards and by 
 separate griffes acting alternately. This arrangement, as 
 may be easily understood, was too complicated, there were 
 too many wires. Consequently the form of the hooks was 
 altered as shown in Fig. lo, where it will be seen that 
 the two hooks were retained, but the suspending wire 
 dispensed with, two neck cords being used instead. In all 
 other respects the principle of the machine remains the 
 same. 
 
 / 
 
 A 
 
 rtr 
 
 FIG. 9- 
 
 The greatest alteration in the double lift machine was 
 made by Mr. H. Crossley, in making one needle serve two 
 hooks, and by that means dispense with one of the card 
 cylinders. One of the great drawbacks to this kind of 
 machine is the amount of pressure exerted upon the 
 cards by the needles. One of the two hooks must of 
 necessity be upon the griffe, either rising or falling when 
 the card strikes it to throw it off. The consequence is the 
 card has not merely to press back the spring at the back 
 of the needle as in the single lift machine, but as the hooks 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 cannot be both disengaged at the moment when the cards 
 strike the needles considerable force must be exerted on the 
 needle and hook. As a consequence the cards used upon this 
 kind of machine must be very strong, and under the most 
 favourable circumstances must wear out much sooner than 
 those used on the ordinary single lift machine. 
 
 In 1857 a patent was taken out by Mr. J. Craven, of 
 Bradford, for " giving independent motion to the bottom or 
 knot board, in order that a downward motion may be given 
 thereto at the time of giving upward motion to the lifting 
 
 blades to form sheds. In this machine " the ordinary lifting 
 frame and the bottom or knot board are operated by 
 separate levers and cranks, or other means, capable of being 
 shifted or timed to vary the times of operating the parts 
 in relation to each other as desired." In 1859, Mr. D. 
 Sowden, of Bradford, obtained provisional protection for a 
 means of attaining the same object. He used " two rods 
 or slides and one lever, and one treading rod," and claimed 
 that he " simplified working and gained some increased 
 speed." For some reason or other Mr. Sowden did not 
 
 FIG.' 10 
 
384 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 proceed with his patent beyond the preHminary stage. 
 Another patent was taken out in 1876 by Mr. Ainley, of 
 Huddersfield, and has since been largely adopted for heavy 
 work, such as fancy woollen or worsted mantle and coating 
 cloths. The means adopted by Mr. Ainley are extremely 
 simple, the bottom board of the machine being carried on 
 two arms, which are actuated by the lever which also actuate 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 FIG. 11. FIG. 12. 
 
 the lifting blades. Various devices have been adopted by 
 other people with different degrees of success. 
 
 In the early part of this article we pointed out the 
 liability of the hooks to turn, and the consequent damage 
 resulting. Attempts have been made from time to time to 
 prevent this as far as possible, but the grate as first 
 introduced seems to have outlived most of them. One of 
 the simplest and most effectual contrivances was patented 
 in 1877 by Messrs. Dracup and Ball, of Bradford, which 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 consists of a simple modification in the upright hook and 
 needle. Ordinarily the upright hook and the needle are 
 
 { 
 
 A. 
 
 J 
 
 FIG. 13. 
 
 made of round wire, the eye of the latter consisting of a 
 simple turn of the wire so as to form a complete loop. 
 
386 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 In this arrangement the upright hook is made of flattened 
 wire, and the eye of the needle instead of being a single 
 loop is a double one, that is, the wire is carried twice 
 round, so as to present greater surface to the hook. In 
 Fig. II A is the upright and B the needle. In Fig. 12 they 
 are shown together ready for putting in the machine, and 
 Fig. 13 shows the interior of the machine with the hooks and 
 needles placed in position. It will be at once apparent that 
 the wire of the upright hook being flattened, and the eye 
 of the needle elongated and presenting a double surface to 
 the hook, that it will be a matter of impossibility for the 
 latter to turn round, as it would if it were round, in fact 
 it is bound to retain its proper position, and the use of 
 the grate is entirely dispensed with. This arrangement 
 also possesses one or two other advantages, which in practice 
 
 FIG. 14. 
 
 are worthy of some consideration. The hook is, near the top, 
 twisted half round, thus presenting greater wearing surface 
 to the griffe, and the needle, being double at the eye, presents 
 greater wearing surface to the hook, though this may 
 perhaps be slightly counterbalanced by a little more friction 
 from the flat hook, and the fact that the needle has to keep it 
 in its proper position. Again, by dispensing with the grate 
 the bottom of the hook does not need to be turned so far up, 
 and consequently it is a much easier matter to replace a neck 
 cord when required. There have been more attempts to 
 accomplish what this patent aims at. One which certainly 
 possessed considerable merit consisted in making the hook a 
 double one, as shown at Fig. 14. When the hook was at its 
 lowest point the portion A rested upon a rod, in fact the hook 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 387 
 
 was so proportioned that the rod at A caught the hook before 
 the griffe at B had left it. This and several others did their 
 work in a fairl}^ satisfactory manner, but could scarcely com- 
 pare for simplicity and general w^orking advantages with 
 the flat wire hooks. 
 
 We may now turn our attention for a short time to the 
 arrangement of Jacquard machines for special purposes. For 
 damask weaving, for instance, some modifications became 
 necessary, so as to enable the weaver to produce large and 
 elaborate figures with a minimum of Jacquard power. Many 
 figured fabrics known by the name of damask are formed by 
 what is technically termed warp and weft twilling, or satin. 
 For example, we may take a linen table-cloth, the ground of 
 which consists of warp and the figure weft satin. To non- 
 technical readers this would be more readily expressed by 
 saying that as the pick is thrown in, there are say four-fifths of 
 the warp raised in the figure. In the ordinary way of weaving 
 every thread of a pattern is worked separately, consequently 
 in some of the large patterns the extent of the Jacquard 
 required is enormous. To reduce the machine to the lowest 
 point a modification of the harness was early introduced, and 
 was known by the name of the " compound " or " pressure" 
 harness, the principle of which is briefly as follows : — We 
 will suppose that it is desired to produce a pattern, the 
 extent of which will occupy 2000 ends. Instead of using a 
 machine containing 2000 hooks, we may use a machine which 
 will contain say one-fifth of that number, 400. Then as we 
 attach onl}^ one harness cord to each hook, it will be necessary 
 to enable us to put in the full number of threads, to pass five 
 threads through each mail or eye of the harness. Then to all 
 intents and purposes these four threads become as one so far 
 as the harness is concerned, and although we have the 2000 
 threads the limit of our pattern would be 400 ; but we now 
 proceed to subdivide the five threads. In front of the 
 harness we place five healds, and through each one is passed 
 
388 
 
 WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 one of the five threads, which are passed through the mail of 
 the harness. We have then the work divided into two 
 distinct portions, viz , figuring and twihing, the first being 
 performed by the harness, and the twiUing by the healds. 
 It may now appear at first sight as though the figure would 
 have a very coarse appearance from the fact that five threads 
 must be raised or depressed at once by the harness, and so it 
 might if the picks were arranged in fives, that is, if one card 
 served for five picks. But each card may serve for one pick 
 only, and thus form the pattern as clear and perfect as if 
 each thread had a separate harness cord, because no matter 
 how much or little of the harness may be raised to form the 
 figure the healds have precisely the same effect in forming 
 the pattern on the ground. The eyes or mails of the 
 pressure healds are made considerably longer than those of 
 ordinar}^ healds, so as to allow of the proper formation of 
 the shed. Of course the number of healds may vary according 
 to the twill or satin of the ground — thus for a five thread 
 satin five pressure healds would be used, and five threads 
 through each mail of the harness ; for an eight thread 
 satin eight healds would be used, and eight threads through 
 each mail of the harness, and so on. From this it will be 
 seen that whatever number of threads are passed through 
 the mail eye of the harness they must all be actuated at 
 once, and the picks may be either single, or one card may 
 serve for several, which will be kept from passing into 
 precisely the same shed by the twilling healds. The saving 
 effected by this arrangement must be obvious, and in hand 
 loom working is comparatively easy of application, and 
 although it has been very largely applied in power looms, yet 
 the combination of healds and harness is undesirable where 
 it can be avoided. Machines have been invented, and 
 considerable ingenuity displayed, for the purpose of dis- 
 pensing with the healds. If by actuating five threads at 
 once and keeping each pick separate, we can produce the 
 
OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 pattern we desire, it iniist be evident that if we actuate 
 each thread separatively, and change the figuring arrange- 
 ment every five picks, the result will be the same. This 
 principle was in use upon the draw loom b.efore the 
 introduction of the Jacquard, one cord being made to serve 
 for four, five, or eight picks, according to circumstances. 
 A patent was taken out in 1859 by Mr. J. Shields, of Perth, 
 for the application of the principle to the Jacquard. The 
 
 
 
 < 
 
 1 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 t 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 Ik' 
 
 
 3 
 
 B !2 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 
 t 
 
 FIG. 15. 
 
 chief part of this invention consisted in " an arrangement 
 of apparatus for working or actuating a greater number of 
 upright wires, or needles, than has hitherto been the case by 
 one horizontal needle, without the necessity of the latter 
 being in parts or sectional portions. In this way the 
 improved Jacquard accomplishes, by the aid of a harness 
 only, all that is at present being done by a harness and a 
 comb, or what is ordinarily known as "pressure " harness," 
 
WEAVING AND DESIGNING 
 
 Described briefly, this invention consisted of two sets 
 of horizontal needles, one being of the ordinary kind, 
 carrying one upright hook through the eye ; the other placed 
 above, having a series of elongated eyes, and being capable 
 of carrying any desired number of upright hooks. This 
 arrangement is shown at Fig. 15, A being the single eyed 
 needles ; and B the elongated ones. Below the needles 
 each upright wire has a long loop formed at the bottom, 
 through which a rod passes. Each rod is supported on 
 standards C, which are actuated by a cam D. There are 
 a series of these cams, as many as are required to form 
 the twill, each one being connected to a separate pair of 
 standards and arranged for the twill or satin. As the figure 
 is formed the extra needles are acted upon by the figuring 
 cards, the ordinary shaped needles along with the cam 
 arrangement regulating the twilling. The figuring card 
 cylinder is made to turn at intervals of three, four, or five 
 picks, as may be required. It will be seen that this arrange- 
 ment at once dispenses with the pressure healds, and in 
 the same manner as in pressure working, there is no 
 necessity for cutting the twill upon the figuring cards. This 
 saves a considerable item in the cost of card cuttmg. 
 
 In the following year (i860) Mr. Shields, in conjunction 
 with Mr. A. Shields, took out a patent for an improvement in 
 this machine, which consisted in giving the lifting knives a 
 horizontal transverse motion to and fro in addition to the 
 ordinary ascending and descending motion as employed for 
 raising the Jacquard wires or needles. The horizontal motion 
 was given by a differently formed cam or barrel, which acted 
 upon the knives in such a manner as to cause them to take 
 up such of the hooks as were required to form the twill, the 
 figure being formed, as in the previous case, by the cards. 
 Another claim was the turning up of the hooks at the bottom, 
 the turned-up portion resting against a fixed bar and so 
 causing it to act as a spring, similar to that shown in Fig. 14. 
 
6F TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 Another machine, which seems to be a combination of some 
 of the best features of the two already described, was more 
 recently patented by Mr. Barcroft, of the Bessbrook Spinning 
 Company, County Armagh, Ireland. In this machine, which 
 is very compact, each needle acts upon three, four, or five 
 uprights, as desired, and one card may serve for any number 
 of picks. The lower part of the hook is formed into a long 
 loop, through which a tvv^illing bar is passed, in the same 
 manner as in Shield's first patent. The lifting knives are 
 made movable, so as to be free to turn clear of the upright 
 hooks when required, and are acted upon by a small barrel 
 which is pegged according to the twill required, so that in 
 this, as in Shield's machine, the figure is formed by the 
 cards, and the twill by the barrel, each thread passes through 
 a separate mail, and each card may serve for several picks. 
 
 The application of the Jacquard machine to lace weaving 
 is a marvel of ingenuity and a most interesting study, but it 
 scarcely comes within the range of this article to deal with. 
 
 Many attempts have been made to supersede the use of 
 cards for the Jacquard ; in some instances by the application 
 of electricity, and in others by the use of a continuous band 
 of paper. The inventors have been so sanguine of the 
 success of their devices that patents have been taken out, but 
 as yet none of them, so far as we are aware, have come into 
 general use. Some of them have been applied to a great 
 many machines, but their superiority over the cards not 
 having been fully established they have gradually fallen 
 into disuse. One of the latest of these is the " Benson 
 Patent Jacquard," manufactured by the Benson Patent 
 Jacquard Company Limited, of Belfast, in which a continu- 
 ous band of paper is used, and although the application 
 certainly deserves credit for ingenuity, it has not proved a 
 success. 
 
 We have given a tolerably fair view of the Jacquard 
 machine in the various stages through which it has passed, 
 
392 WEAVING AND DESIGNING OF TEXTILE FABRICS. 
 
 and the form in which it now appears. A stranger on first 
 seeing one of these machines at work upon a loom would 
 probably conceive the notion that it was a strangely blended 
 mass of wirework, cordage and mechanism, but after a brief 
 but careful examination chaos is reduced to simplicity. 
 After comparing the design upon the paper with the design 
 upon the fabric, and following the connection of the cards 
 with the warp threads, all wonder at the charming patterns 
 which can be produced at once gives way to admiration of 
 the beautiful simplicity of principle by which the results are 
 attained, and the immense value of this machine to the 
 manufacturer of fancy textile fabrics is at once recognised. 
 
INDEX 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Action of Tappets in relation to movements of Lay . . . . . . 102 
 
 Analysis of Designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 
 
 Ancient Looms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 
 
 Antiquity of Weaving .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 10 
 
 Arrangement of Tappets and Treadles . . .. .. .. ..71,74 
 
 and Combination of Designs .. .. .. .. 159 
 
 of Patterns upon a given number of Healds . . .. 193 
 
 ,, of Stripe Patterns .. .. .. .. .. 300 
 
 Association of Colours . , . . . . . . . . . . . . 338 
 
 Babylon^ Manufactures of . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 
 
 Balance of Cloth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306 
 
 Beating up of Weft .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 116 
 
 Bevel of Shuttle-race .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 121 
 
 Brussels Carpet-Pile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258 
 
 Calculation of Materials . . .. .. .. .. 311 
 
 .1 Warp and Weft . . . . . . . . 322 
 
 ,, for Stripe Patterns. . .. .. ..300,324 
 
 Short Methods of 326 
 
 Calculations as to Speed of Tappets, &c. .. .. .. .. roG 
 
 for Take-up Motion .. .. .. .. 124 
 
 ,, of Sett . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311 
 
 Carpet, Brussels, Pile . . . . . . . . " . . . . . . 258 
 
 Cartwright's Power Loom . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 
 
 Casting out for Jacquards . , . . . . . . . . , . 253 
 
 Changing Shuttle Boxes . , .. .. .. .. .. .. 44 
 
 Chromatic Equivalents . . . . . . . . . . . . . , 
 
 Cloth, Principles of Construction of .. .. .. .. ., 159 
 
 Plain 160 
 
 Figured 161 
 
 ,, M Double .. .. .. .. 164 
 
 Pile or Plush .. .. ..166,255 
 
 ,, Double, Designing for ,. .. .. .. .. 219 
 
ii. INDEX. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Colour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328 
 
 ,, Primaries .. .. .. .. ,. .. .. ..330,344 
 
 ,, Secondaries.. .. .. .. .. .. .. 332 
 
 Association of .. .. .. .. 338 
 
 ,, Effect of Juxtaposition .. .. .. .. .. ..339.347 
 
 ,, Neutral .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 349 
 
 ,, Gradations of .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 352 
 
 Colouring. Breadths of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340 
 
 ,, Restrictive Conditions in ,. .. .. .. 353 
 
 Eastern .. .. .. .. ,. 15 
 
 Combination and Arrangement of Designs . . . . . . . . 169 
 
 ,, of Materials in Fabrics .. .. .. .. .. 309 
 
 of Twills to produce Patterns .. .. .. .. 186 
 
 Conclusion and Summary . . . , . . . . . . . . 354 
 
 Construction of Tappets .. .. .. .. .. ..76,81 
 
 Contrasts, Simultaneous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337 
 
 Mixed and Successive . . . . . , 345 
 
 Copying Patterns 303 
 
 by Linking or Ruling . . . . . . . . . . 295 
 
 Correctness of Taste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294 
 
 Counts of Yarns .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. 314 
 
 Silk 316 
 
 ,, Twofold Yarns, Method of Calculating . . . . . . 320 
 
 Description and Working of the Power Loom . . . . . . 68 
 
 Description of Warping Mills . . . . . . . . . . , . 51 
 
 Design or Point Paper . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . 297 
 
 Adaptation of, to Material . . . . . . . . . . 298 
 
 ,, Light and Shade in . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 
 
 ,, Selection of Forms for . . . . . . . . . . 299 
 
 Designing 1 59 
 
 Designs, Combination and Arrangements of . . . . . . . . 169 
 
 Objects for .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 295 
 
 Analysis of Simple . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 
 
 Draughting 192 
 
 ,, Ready Method .. .. .. .. .. 197 
 
 Direction of Force in Picking .. .. .. .. .. .. no 
 
 Dobby Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 
 
 Double Cloth, Designing for .. .. .. .. .. .. 219 
 
 ,, Figured .. .. .. .. .. .. ..221,246 
 
 Fancy .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 236 
 
 Double Cloths, Binding or Stitching . . . . , . , , . . 231 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Double Velvet 
 Doup Heald 
 Drawboy and Machine 
 Dyeing, Early Mention of 
 Early attempts to produce a Power Loom 
 Eastern Colouring 
 
 Eccentric Movement of Healds — how obtained 
 Effect of Juxtaposition of Colours 
 
 Neutral Colours 
 Egyptian Looms . . 
 England, Introduction of Woollen Manufacture into 
 Equalisation of Sheds 
 Equivalents, Chromatic . . 
 Europe, Introduction of Woollen Manufacture into 
 Exportation of Wool prohibited from England 
 Fabrics, Materials used in the Manufacture of 
 
 Combination of Materials in 
 
 Slaying or Setting 
 Fancy Gauze 
 
 ,, Twills 
 
 Figured Cloth, Construction of . 
 Figures, Spots 
 
 with extra Weft . 
 
 Warp . 
 
 ,, and Weft 
 
 Figures, Jacquard . . 
 
 ,, on Double Cloth 
 Lappet 
 
 Flemish Weavers settle in England 
 Fly Shuttle, Invention of, by Kay 
 Foreign Weavers, Persecution of 
 Form of Picking Tappet.. 
 Forms, Selection of, for Designs 
 Gauze, Principles of, and Section 
 Fancy 
 
 Gearing, Speed, Power, &c. 
 General Arrangement of Patterns 
 General Working of the Loom . . 
 Gradations of Colour 
 Greek and Roman Looms 
 Hand Loom Gearing . . , . 
 
pagp: 
 
 Harness, Description of Jacquard . . . . . . . . . . 63 
 
 ,1 Appendix B. . . . . . . 363 
 
 Healds 54 
 
 Method of Working in Hand I.ooms .. .. .. 53 
 
 ,, Eccentric Movement of, and how obtained . . .. .. 78 
 
 ,, Pause of, and how obtained by form of Tappet , . , . 78 — 81 
 
 Hindoo Looms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 
 
 Honeycomb Cloth . . .. .. .. .. .. .. 289 
 
 Imitation Skins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 
 
 • Introduction of Woollen Manufacture into Europe . . . , . . 17 
 
 England .. .. 19 
 
 Silk ,. „ .... 35 
 
 Invention of Spinning and Weaving Machinery . . . . . . 37 
 
 Jacquard Machine and its Invention . , . . . . . . . . 6r 
 
 ., History and use .. .. .. .. .. 36^ 
 
 I, Principles of the .. .. .. .. ,. 62 
 
 ,, Harness, how tied up.. .. ., .. .. 
 
 ,, Card Cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (](•, 
 
 How Patterns are produced by .. .. ,. 64 
 
 Figures 236 
 
 Casting out in .. .. .. .. ., .. 253 
 
 Jeffray's, Dr., Power Loom .. .. ,. .. 48 
 
 Juxtaposition of Colours, Effect of . . . . . . . . . .339, 347 
 
 Lappet Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285 
 
 Wheel 286 
 
 Lay or Going Part, Movement of ,. .. .. .. 116 
 
 .. Pause of . . . . . . . . . . . . II y 
 
 Stroke of . . . , . . . . . . . . 120 
 
 Lease Rods and their use . . . . . . , . . . . . 103 
 
 Leather Belts, Power of .. .. .. .. .. _ i^i 
 
 Leverage of Treadles .. .. .. .. .. ..y^ — jqi 
 
 Light and Shade in Designs . . , . . . . . . . . . ^500 
 
 Linen used by the Egyptians . . , . . . . . . . . . 14 
 
 Lining or Ruling Patterns to Copy . . . . . . . . . . 295 
 
 Loom, The, and its Accessories . . . . . . . . . . . . 
 
 ,, General Working of .. .. _ _ 
 
 Looms, Ancient . . . . . . . . . . . , , . , , 
 
 Loop Pile Fabrics. . ., .. . ; .. _ 256 
 
 Loose Reed . . . . . . , . , . . . . . . . _ 1:^ -7 
 
 Man, Wants of . , . , . . . . . . . . _ _ g 
 
 Manufactures of Babylon . . ,. ,. ^, ^5 
 
INDEX. V. 
 
 I'AGE. 
 
 Manufactures of Tyre . . . . . . . . . . . , . . 15 
 
 Materials used for Fabrics . . . . . . . . . , . . 11 
 
 ,, Mixing of, in Early Times ,. .. .. .. 13 
 
 Materials, Combination of, in Fabrics. . .. .. .. ., 309 
 
 Calculations of .. .. •. . .. .. .. 311 
 
 Mental Effects of Colour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349 
 
 Method of Draughting, Ready . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 
 
 Movement of Lay or Going Part .. .. .. .. .. ii5 
 
 Neutral Colours, Effect of . . . . . . , . . . . . 349 
 
 Objects for Designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299 
 
 Origin of the name " Worsted '". . .. .. .. .. .. 24 
 
 Patterns — how produced by Jacquard Machine . . . . . . 64 
 
 ,, by Combination of Twills .. .. .. .. .. 186 
 
 arranged upon a given number of Healds .. .. 193 
 
 Striped, Arrangement of .. .. .. .. .. 300 
 
 ,, ,, Calculation for .. .. .. .. ..300,324 
 
 Copying 303 
 
 ,, Lining or Ruling to Copy .. .. .. .. .. 295 
 
 Pause of Heald, and how obtained by Tappet .. .. ..78,81 
 
 Lay or Going Part .. .. .. .. .. .. 117 
 
 Persecution of Foreign Weavers .. .. .. .. .. 30 
 
 Picking 108 
 
 ,, Direction of Force in .. .. .. .. .. ., 110 
 
 ,, Shaft, Position of . . .. .. .. .. .. 112 
 
 ,, Tappet, Form of . . .. .. .. .. .. '..113' 
 
 Pile, Loop Cloth .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 256 
 
 Plain Cloth, Construction of .. .. .. .. .. .. 160 
 
 Plush or Pile Cloth, Principle and Construction of . . . . . . 166, 255 
 
 Point or Design Paper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297 
 
 Power Looms, Early attempts to produce . . . . . . . . 45 
 
 ,, Cartwright's .. .. .. .. .. .. 46 
 
 Dr. Jeffray's .. .. .. .. .. .. 48 
 
 Working and description of .. .. .. .. 68 
 
 Power, Speed, Gearing, &c. .. .. .. .. .. 146 
 
 ,, of Toothed Wheels .. .. .. .. 149 
 
 ,, of Leather Belts . . .. .. ., ,. .. .. 151 
 
 Primary Colours .. .. ' .. .. .. .. .. ..330,344 
 
 Principles of Weaving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 
 
 ,, of the Jacquard Machine .. .. .. ., .. 62 
 
 of Construction of Cloth .. .. .. .. .. 159 
 
 Gauze .. .. .. -. . .. 168 
 
INDEX. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Ready Method of Draughting . . . . . . . . . . , . 197 
 
 Reed, Loose .. .. .. _ 1^7 
 
 Restrictive Conditions in Colouring . . , . . . . . . . 353 
 
 Ribbed Tapestry . . . . . . . . . . . . _ , . 290 
 
 Ruling or Lining Patterns to Copy 295 
 
 Satin Twills .. .. .. .. _ igj 
 
 Secondary Colours . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332 
 
 Section of Plain Cloth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 
 
 Twill Cloth 162 
 
 ,, Double Cloth 164 
 
 Pile or Plush Cloth 166, 167 
 
 ,, Gauze Cloth 168 
 
 Selection of Forms for Designs 299 
 
 Sett, Calculation of .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 311 
 
 Settlement of Flemish Weavers in England . . . . . . . . 23 
 
 Shedding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 
 
 ,, — how affected by position of Treadles 82 
 
 Sheds, EquaHsation of 102 
 
 Sheep, Original species of 12 
 
 Short Methods of Calculation . . . 326 
 
 Shuttle Boxes, Changing . . .. .. ., . . .. .. 44 
 
 ,, Race, Bevel of .. .. .. .. .. .. 121 
 
 ,, Protector or Stop Rod .. .. .. ,. .. .. 132 
 
 Silk Trade — introduction into England . . . . . . . . 35 
 
 Trade, Progress of, in England 35 
 
 ,, Yarns, Counts of .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 314 
 
 Simla, The 9 
 
 Simultaneous Contrast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337 
 
 Skins, Imitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 
 
 Slaying or Setting Fabrics . . . . . . . . . . . . 304 
 
 Speed, Gearing, Power, &c. . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 
 
 ,, of Tappets . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 
 
 , ,, Calculation as to .. .. .. .. .. 106 
 
 Spinning and Weaving Machinery, Invention of . . . . . . 37 
 
 Spot Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 
 
 ,, with extra Weft 213, 241 
 
 ,, ,, Warp.. .. .. .. .. ..214,244 
 
 ,, ,, ,, and Weft .. .. .. .. 215 
 
 Strength of Shafts to resist Torsion 153 
 
 Stripe Patterns, Arrangement of . . . . . . . . . . 300 
 
 Calculation for. . .. .. ,. .. ..300,324 
 
INDEX. vii. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Stroke of Tappets . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . 
 
 Lay or Going Part .. .. .. .. .. .. 120 
 
 Summary and Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . ^54 
 
 Take up Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 
 
 Calculation for .. .. .. .. .. 
 
 Tapestry, Ribbed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290 
 
 Tappets and Treadles, Arrangement of . . . . . . . . 71, 74 
 
 ,. Stroke of . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 76 
 
 ,, Construction of, for Plain Weaving . . .. .. .. 76 
 
 for Twills 85 
 
 ,, Action of. in relation to Movements of Lay. . . . . . 103 
 
 ,, Speed of .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 104 
 
 Calculations as to .. .. .. .. .. 106 
 
 Taste 292 
 
 ,, Correctness of .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 294 
 
 Tension of Warp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 
 
 Textile Trades, value of, in England in the eighteenth Century 37 
 
 Threads, their Structure 359 
 
 Toothed Wheels, Power of . . . . . . . . . . . , 149 
 
 Treadles, Leverage of .. .. ,. .. .. .. .. 75,101 
 
 Proper position of .. ., .. ., .. ..82,84 
 
 Twill Cloth . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..162,172 
 
 ,, Proper Direction of .. .. .. .. ,. 174 
 
 ,, Fancy .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 178 
 
 ., Satin 181 
 
 ,, Combination of, to produce Patterns .. .. .. .. 186 
 
 Twist of Yarn, and its effects upon Twills .. .. .. .. 174 
 
 Twofold Yarns, Method of Calculating . . . . , . . . 320 
 
 Tyre, Textile Manufactures of 15 
 
 Value of Wool in early times . . 21, 25, 29, 34 
 
 Textile Trades in England in the Eighteenth Century . . 37 
 
 Velvet, Double .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ,, 265 
 
 Wants of Man g 
 
 Warp, Tension of .. .. .. .. .. .. ., 127 
 
 ,, Line .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 130 
 
 ,, and Weft, Calculation of.. .. .. .. 322 
 
 Warping Mill, Description of .. .. .. .. .. 51 
 
 Weavers from Flanders settle in England . . . . . . . . 23, 28 
 
 Weavers, Persecution of Foreign . . . . . . . . . . 30 
 
 Weaving, Antiquity of . . . . . , . . . . . , . . jq 
 
 Weaving and Spinning Machinery, Invention of . . . . . . 37 
 
VI 11. 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Weaving Principles of 
 Weft, Beating up of 
 
 Stopping Motion .. 
 Wheel, Lappet 
 
 Wool, Value of, in early times 
 
 Enactments respecting 
 
 Value of, Exported 
 ,, Exportation of, prohibited from England 
 Woollen Manufacture, Rapid progress of 
 Working and Description of the Power Loom 
 " Worsted," Origin of the name. . 
 Ya-rn, Counts of . . 
 
 Twofold, Method of Calculating Counts 
 
 50 
 116 
 140 
 
 285 
 
 29- 34 
 22 
 
 20. 34 
 33 
 25 
 68 
 24 
 
 314 
 
 320 
 
 J. BROADBENT AND CO., ALBERT PRINTING WORKS, HUDDERSFIELD. 
 
 i 
 
(Late SOWDEN & STEPHENSON), 
 
 THORNTON ROAD, BRADFORD, 
 
 MAKERS OF 
 
 POWER LOOMS, 
 
 JACQUARD MACHINES, 
 
 PATENT SHAFT MACHINES, 
 
 AND ALL NECESSARY FIXINGS FOR PLAIN OR 
 FANCY WEAVING. 
 
 SPECIALITIES. 
 
 Plain Looms for Worsted, Cotton, Linen, and Silk. 
 
 Circular Box Looms for 6, 7, or 12 Shuttles, 
 six Shuttle Skip. 
 
 Revolver Box Looms will Skip from one to any 
 other Shuttle. 
 
 Trousering Looms with Woodcroft and other Motions. 
 
 Worsted Coating Looms with one Shuttle, also 
 Pick and Pick. 
 
 Crompton's Patent Woollen and Worsted Coating Loom, 
 4 Shuttle Boxes each side, independent. 
 
 Linen Looms for Plain and Damask. 
 
 Patent Carpet Looms. 
 
 Jacquard Machines in great variety, (single or double lift). 
 
 Jacquard Card Cutting and Repeating Machines. 
 
 Shedding Motions and Dotobies, suitable for all classes 
 
 of work. 
 
 Patent Gauze and Leno Dobbie. 
 
 
 
 Prices and Drawings on application to 
 
 DAVID SOWDEN 8t SONS, 
 
 Power Loom & Jacquard Machine Makers, 
 
 BRADFORD, YORKSHIRE. 
 
STEPHENSON T BROTHERS, 
 
 Godwin Street, Kirkgate & Sunbridge Soad, 
 
 Works— Smith Street, Lister Hills Road, 
 BRADFORD, YORKS., 
 
 TALLOW CHANDLERS, OIL IMPORTERS, 
 
 Engine Tallow Eefmers, Paint, Colour & Varnish Merchants, 
 Dealers in Hard and Soft Soaps, &c. 
 
 Special attentiou is directed to their 
 
 REFINED ENGINE TALLOW, 
 
 Carefully prepared by an Improved Process, rendering it unsurpassed for 
 Lubricating Purposes. 
 
 Patentees of the WAX ROD for Tender Warps 
 and Warps of much Fibre. 
 
 Section of Beam End, 
 
 with Wax Rod. Eievation of Benm with Wax Rod in its place. 
 
 Can be had in any quantity, and any length up to 43 inches. 
 
 ESTABLISHED 1847. 
 
 wmm?iM •:• D^vEp^pe^T, 
 
 REED, HEALD, & MACHINE MAKER, 
 
 Orampton Street, Little Horton Lane, 
 BRADFORD, 
 
 MANUFACTURER OF 
 
 MOST IMPROVED SELF-ACTING REED MACHINES, 
 IMPROVED MAIL HSALD KNITTING MACHINES, 
 WIRE ROLLING AND POLISHING MACHINES, SELF- 
 ACTING TOOLS, &c. 
 
 Sole Maker of Improved Reeds with oval shaped Dents, 
 
 PRICE LI^T^AW^Aim ON APPLICATION. 
 
GOLD MEDAL PARIS 1887; SILVER MEDAL LONDON 1881; 
 GOLD MEDAL, WORSHIPFUL COMPANY OF CLOTH WORKERS', 
 BRADFORD 1882. 
 
 JOHN imm & SON 
 
 NORTH VALE WORKS, 
 
 -^¥B R A D F O R D,^{£^ 
 
 ESTABLISHED 1807. 
 MAKERS OF EVERY DESCRIPTION OF 
 
 POWEK LOOMS 
 
 For Weaving Bradford Goods, Worsted Coatings, Fancy 
 Trouserings, West of England Serges, Woollen Cloths, 
 Army Cloths and Blankets. 
 
 SPECIALLY DESIGNED LOOM for weaving Worsted Coatings, Backed 
 Cloths, and Fancy Trouserings, with Patent Positive Open Shedding 
 Motion up to 40 shafts, and Drop-box Motion up to 4 boxes at each 
 end. Improved Patent Open Shedding Motion, and Patent New 
 Drop-box Motion (1885). 
 
 SPECIALLY DESIGNED LOOM for weaving Gauze, fit up with Patent 
 Jacquard Lift Shedding Motion. 
 
 SPECIALLY DESIGNED LOOM for weaving Army Cloths and 
 Blankets. 
 
 SPECIALLY DESIGNED LOOM for weaving Canvas for Seed Bags. &c., 
 with Patent Taking-up Beam. 
 
 SPECIALLY DESIGNED LOOM for weaving Cocoa Fibrs Matting, with 
 Cop and Bobbin Winding, Measuring, Shedding, and Plaiting 
 Machines. 
 
 SPECIALLY DESIGNED PATENT SHEDDING MOTIONS, up to 
 40 shafts, for Open Shed, Centre Shed, and Jacquard Shed — all Positive 
 Motions, without Weights or Springs. 
 
 YARN STRETCHING MACHINES, 
 
 lAEJ^' REELS AKD QUADRAT'S. 
 
DIPLOMA OF HONOUR ANTWERP 1885; GOLD MEDAL ANTWERP 1885 : 
 GOLD MEDAL INVENTIONS EXHIBITION 1885. 
 
 PRIZE MEDAL 
 
 LEEDS MEDAL 
 
 For latest improvements in Power Looms 
 for We;tving, London 1862. 
 
 Machine Maker, Thornton Eoad, 
 ifB R A D F O R D,-He^ 
 
 YORKSHIRE, ENGLAND. 
 DIPLOMA OF HONOUR, BRADFORD, 1883. 
 
 GOLD MEDfiiL 
 
 JURORS AWARD. 
 
 PARIS 1867. 
 
 The Jury express their high 
 appreciation of the Exhibits 
 of Mr. G. Hodgson but since 
 they are precluded they are 
 sorry they eannot malie the 
 award due to the marked 
 excellence of his machinery. 
 The Jury however suggest 
 that a Diploma of Honour 
 on Vellum be presented to 
 him. Fi'om Report of J ury, 
 Machinery Class, 
 
 ^"1 
 
 GOLD MEDAL 
 
 SILVER MEDAL 
 
 FOR WEAVING. 
 
 CRYSTAL PALACE 
 
 PARIS 1878. 
 
 -Mm- 
 
 GOLD MEDAL 
 
 FOB LOOMS 
 
 HUDDERSFIELD 1883. 
 
 1881. 
 
 HUDDERSFIELD 1883. 
 
 Maker of all descriptions of 
 
 POWER LOOMS 
 
 Amongst which may be mentioned the following r — 
 
 This Loom (No. i) has 32 inches reed space, and can be made to weave Mohair, Silk, 
 Worsted, and Cotton. It can be fitted up to eight treads as well as figures and Jacquard. 
 It runs very fast from 200 to 220 picks per minute. One of the same kind at the International 
 Exhibition of 1862 ran at upwards of 450 picks per minute, but this was only done as an 
 experiment. This Loom earned the Gold Medal in London, 1862. and in Paris, 1867. 
 
A Loom for weaving checks, plaids, or stripes. The models are similar 
 to the Plain Loom (No. i) but are furnished with a patent motion for a 
 revolving shuttle box with six shuttles, which will weave any number of even 
 picks of colours, from two picks to any number upwards, without stopping the 
 loom to change colour, and will remain stationary or revolve at pleasure while 
 the loom is weaving. The shuttle box is regulated by a patent " Lock-catch," 
 so that the box cannot overrun itself on account of locks, which, when the box 
 is turned over are brought into play, receive the box and stop it. By this 
 means the box can never turn too far. The aim of these patents is to accelerate 
 the speed of the loom when weaving checks or plaids. Although the speed of 
 the Plain Loom (No. i) reaches to 220 picks per minute, the speed of similar 
 Circular Box Looms has been limited to from 135 up to 140 picks. But by 
 the application of these patented improvements a speed of from 160 to 170 
 picks per minute is now obtained. Besides this, owing to the former 
 unsteadiness of the box at the instant of picking, the shuttle was frequently 
 thrown out, causing the workpeople to incur danger of being injured, but the 
 inventions applied to this loom prevent this. This loom is also fitted up with 
 another patent for stopping the cards and box motion at once if the weft fails 
 or is broken. By these means it makes the loom as easy to understand as a 
 plain loom . ^ ^ ^-^.^^..-^^ 
 
 PATENT SHEDDING MOTION. 
 
 FOR WEAVING CLOTH OR HEAVY WORSTED GOODS- 
 By this motion any pattern can be woven from two up to twenty-four 
 shafts, and it is worked by a plain Orlean tappet, thereby getting steadiness 
 to the healds, the result of which is greater speed with fewer breakages in the 
 warp. The great advantage of this motion is its acting on the warp in a 
 similar manner to a plain loom, and we are now making them in great 
 numbers for both the woollen and worsted trades. 
 
 ESTIMATES AND FURTHER PARTICULARS ON APPLICATION. 
 
RICHMOND ROAD, BRADFORD, 
 
 JACQUARD MACniKE MAKER 
 
 AND HARNESS MOUNTER, 
 For Worsted, Woollen, Cotton, Linen and Silk Goods. 
 
 ^Improved Card Stamping & Repeating Macliines.i^ 
 
 WARP BEAMING AND DRESSING FRAMES 
 AND GEARING. 
 
 YARN REELS, &e. 
 
 JACQUARD MACHLWES 7./Y ALL STYLES. 
 
 Ordinary Single Lift. A new Double Lift Machine, specially adapted for 
 running at a high rate of speed, &c. 
 
 A NEW PATENT MOTION 
 
 FOR FIGURED GAUZE WEAVING. 
 
 Which can be applied to existing Jacquard harnesses, and will weave figured 
 gauzes of the most elaborate character. 
 
 The apparatus is simple, easily applied, and is not a source of inconvenience 
 to the weaver, at the same time does its work efficiently. 
 
 IMPROVED MACHINES, 
 
 In which the Needles and Upright Llooks are specially constructed so that 
 the latter cannot turn or become misplaced in weaving. 
 
 Quotations, Drawings, and full particulars on application, 
 
NEW SERIES. PRICE 15s, CARRIAGE FREE. 
 
 AN ALBUM 
 
 TEXTILE DESIGNS 
 
 CONTAINING 
 
 7,200 DESIGNS, 
 
 SUITABLE FOR 
 
 FABRICS OF EVERY DESCRIPTION, 
 
 BV ■ 
 
 THOS. R. ASHENHURST, 
 
 Head Master, Textile Department, Bradfjv i Technical College. 
 
 HUDDERSFIELD : 
 
 J. BROADBENT AND CO., ALBERT PRINTING WORKS, NEW iiTREET. 
 
 BRADFORD: 
 
 THOS. R. ASHENHURST, 5, ASHGROVE. 
 
NOW READY, PRICE 4s. 6d. 
 
 A TREATISE 
 
 ON 
 
 TEXTILE CALCULATIONS 
 
 AND THE 
 
 STRUCTURE OF FABRICS, 
 
 Dealing with all Manufacturers' Calculations for every class of 
 material, and the different systems of Calculation in different 
 Districts. Showing the true method of attaining the Weight of a 
 Fabric and retaining the same character of Cloth. How to 
 ascertain the number of ends and picks per inch to produce a 
 perfect Fabric in any Counts of Tarn, of any Material, and for any 
 Pattern. The diameter of Threads of different Counts in all 
 Materials, and reducing the principle of the Structure of Fabrics 
 to a reliable basis. 
 
 BY 
 
 T H O S. R . A S H E N H U R S T , 
 
 From whom Pros|)ectuses may be had. 
 
 DESICN IN TEXTILE FABRICS 
 
 BY 
 
 THOS. R. ASHENHURST. 
 
 PRICE 4s. 6d, 
 
 [-.ONDON : Cassell & Co. 
 
ASHENHURST'S 
 
 Slide Rule for Manufacturers 
 
 GIVES THE HANKS OF WORSTED 
 
 OR 
 
 WEIGHT OF COTTON WARPS AT ONE SETTING. 
 
 Boxwood, 5s. 
 Linen-faced Cardboard, Is. 
 
 ASHENHURST'S 
 
 WORSTED SPINNERS' SLIDE RULE 
 
 IS THE 
 
 Only Slide Rule for Worsted Spinners where Gauge 
 Points are not required. 
 
 Boxwood, 6s. ; Linen-faced Cardboard, Is. 
 
 THOS. R. ASHENHURST, 
 
 BRADFORD, YORKSHIRE. 
 
THE POCKET DESIGN BOOK 
 
 (Containing 30 pages of Design Paper, and 90 pages Ruied Faint, 
 for particulars of Mal<e of Oiotli.) 
 
 □□□□□□□□ 
 □□□□□□□□ 
 □□□□□□□□ 
 □□□□□□□□ 
 □□□□□□□□ 
 □□□□□□□□ 
 □□□□□□□□ 
 
 □□□□□□□□ 
 
 □□□□□□□L 
 
 □□□□□□□□ 
 □□□□□□□□ 
 □□□□□□□□ 
 □□□□□□□c 
 
 □□□□□□□G 
 □□□GGGGG 
 
 □GGGGGGG 
 □GGGGGGC 
 □GGGGGGC 
 □GGGGGGC 
 □GGGGGGG 
 □GGGGGGC 
 □GGGGGGC 
 □GGGGGGC 
 
 □GGGGGGG 
 □GGGGGGG 
 □GGGGGGC 
 □GGGGGGG 
 □GGGGGGG 
 □GGGGGGG 
 □GGGGGGC 
 □GGGGGGG 
 □GGGGGGG 
 □GGGGGGC 
 □GGGGGGG 
 □GGGGGGG 
 □GGGGGGG 
 □GGGGGGG 
 □GGGGGGC 
 □GGGGGGG 
 
 □GGGGGGG 
 GGGGGaaC 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 □GGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGC 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGC 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGC 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 □GGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGuGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 □GGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 □GGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 □GGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGCaG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 
 □GGGGGGC 
 □GGGGGGG 
 □GGGGGGG 
 □GGGGGGC 
 □GGGGGGC 
 □GGGGGGC 
 □GGGGGGG 
 □GGGGGGG 
 
 □GGGGGGC 
 □aGGGGGG 
 
 GGaaaaGG 
 
 □GGaaGGG 
 □GGGGGGG 
 □GGGGGGC 
 GGGGGGGG 
 □GGGGGGG 
 
 □GGGGGGC 
 GGGGGGGG 
 □GGGGGGG 
 □GGGGGGC 
 □GGGGGGC 
 □GGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 □GGGGGGG 
 □GGGGGGG 
 □GGGGGGC 
 □GGGGCau 
 □GGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 □GGGGGGG 
 □GGGGGGC 
 □GGGGGGG 
 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 □GGGGGGG 
 □GGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 □GGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 
 □GGGGGGG 
 □GGGGGGC 
 □GGGGGGC 
 □GGGGGGC 
 □GGGGGGG 
 □GGGGGGC 
 □GGGGGGC 
 □GGGGGGC 
 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGC 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 
 □GGGGGGC 
 □GGGGGGC 
 □GGGGGGC 
 □GGGGGGC 
 □GGGGGGC 
 □GGGGGGG 
 □GGGGGGC 
 □GGGGGGG 
 
 □GGGGGGC 
 □GGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 □GGGaaGQ 
 GGGGGGGG 
 □GGGGGGC 
 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 1 — ^1 — II — ^1 — II — II — II — ^1 — 1 
 GGGGGGGL 
 
 GGGGGGGG 
 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGC 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGC 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGC 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGC 
 GGGGGGGC 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGC 
 GGGGGGGC 
 GGGGGGGG 
 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGC 
 GGGGGGGC 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGC 
 GGGGGGGG 
 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGC 
 GGGGGGGC 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGC 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGC 
 GGGGGGGC 
 GGGGGuGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 
 1 — II — II — II — II — II — n — 11 — 1 
 
 □GGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 
 □GGGGGGC 
 □GGGGGGC 
 □GGGGGGC 
 □GGGGGGC 
 □GGGGGGC 
 □GGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 □GGGGGGC 
 GGGGGGGG 
 □GGGGGGG 
 □GGGGGGC 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 □GGGGGGC 
 □GGGGGGC 
 □GGGGGGC 
 
 jGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 □GGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 
 aaqaaaac 
 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGCGGGC 
 GGGGGGGG 
 aGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 1 — II — II — II — ^1 — II — II — 11 — 1 
 GGGGGGGG 
 
 aGGCaCGG 
 
 □GGGGGGG 
 □GGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 □GGGGCGG 
 □GGGGGGL 
 
 GGQaaaac 
 
 □GGGGGGC 
 GGGGGGGG 
 □GGGGGGG 
 □GGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 
 □GGGGGGG 
 
 caGGGGca 
 
 GGGGGGGG 
 □GGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGCGC 
 GGGaCGGG 
 GGCGGGGL 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGC: 
 GGGGGGGG 
 8GGGGGGGG 
 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGCnCGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 □GGGGGGG 
 
 GGGaaaaL 
 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGCGC 
 GGGGGGGC 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGC 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGC 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGi: 
 GGGGGGGL 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGC 
 □GGGGGGC 
 □GGGGGGC 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGC 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGC 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGC 
 
 GGGGGGGC 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 GGGGGGGG 
 
 On Prepared Paper, which may be worked upon with either Pencil or Colour, 
 and equally suitable for the Pen. 
 
 Foolscap 8vo., Cloth Bound. PEICE ONE SHILLING- Post Free— Stamps Is. Ud. 
 From all Stationers, or from the Publishers — 
 
 J. BROADBENT AND CO., ALBERT PRINTING WORKS, NEW STREET, HUDDERSFIELD, 
 
THE 
 
 STUDENTS' DESIGN BOOK 
 
 (DEMY OBLONG 4to.) 
 
 CONTAINING : 
 
 16 leaves of Toned Design Paper, 
 interleaved with cream wove ruled paper, 
 
 Full Bound Cloth Limp, Price Is. 
 
 The above, double thickness, full bound cloth, 
 stiff covers, 2s. 
 
 NEW PATTERN TONED 
 
 PER ltd. SHEET. 
 
 HUDDERSFIELD : 
 
 J. BROADBENT AND CO., ALBERT PRINTING WORKS, NEW STREET. 
 
 BRADFORD : 
 
 THOS. R. ASHENHURST, ^, ASHGROVE. 
 
J. BROADBENT & Co., 
 Printers, Bookbinders, and Stationers, 
 
 ALBERT BUILDINGS, 
 Leading from New Strest to the New Market Hall, 
 
 Are prepared to ej^ecute with neatness and despatch, every 
 
 description of 
 
 '^PRINTING-I^^ 
 
 Posting Bills - Delivery Notes 
 
 Catalogues J Bill Heads 
 
 Particulars of Sales 1 Concert & Theatrical Bills 
 
 Memorandums . Contractors' Quantities 
 
 Bookwork Hand Bills 
 
 Pamphlets Circulars 
 
 Club Rules j Labels 
 
 Invoices Address Cards 
 
 Statements ) Funeral Cards, &c., &c. 
 
 '^•BOOKBINDING 
 
 Ledgers ) Delivery Books 
 
 Day Books ! Guard Books 
 
 Cash Books I Cheque Books 
 
 Journals / Memorandum Books 
 
 Bill Books I 
 
 And every other kind required for Commercial purposes. 
 
 Reading Books bound in any style. Ruling to any pattern by Machine. 
 
 PATTERN CARDS, 
 
 PLain and Fancy, m the newest designs, and on the shortest notice. 
 
 Swin^ Tickets, Setting Sheets, Scrays, and every other requisite for 
 
 the Warehouse. 
 
 Account Books and every description of Stationery kept in Stock. 
 Pens, Inks, Gums, &c. 
 
SAMUEL CROSSLEY, 
 
 FOLLY ^ HALL i- SHUTTLE ^ WORKS, 
 
 Obtained First Class Certificate at York, 186G, and Silver Medal at Hndderslield Exhibition. 
 1883, for vShuttles ; also received the only Medal awarded for Pattern Looms. 
 
 MAKER OF HAND AND POWER LOOM SHUTTLES 
 
 For Weaving Woollens, Worsted Coatings, Blankets, Flannels, &c. 
 
 MAKER OF PATTERN LOOMS, 
 
 Hand Looms, Warping Creels, Dressing Frames, 
 Raddles, &c. 
 
 Lags and Pegs by improved Machinery. 
 Also of Small Looms to stand on table, or stand for private use, or 
 for Technical Schools. 
 
HUTCHINSON, HOLLINGWORTH & Co. 
 
 L00l|p' 
 
 DOBC 
 
 Inventors a. 
 
 Awarded b 
 
 Also Sole 
 
 Awarded I 
 
 Date Due 
 
 THE Loom is ol 
 
 done in the same. 
 
 in warp or weft. 
 
 The motioii 
 
 in the closed sht- 
 
 chain is at the s; 
 saving all ilu: tii 
 pinion, and is a ( - 
 patterns require 
 
 Each hai net^ 
 
 upon the j arn \v 
 
 This pcciiHa 
 
 opening of tl,e w 
 
 avoidinf^ ini;rh t 
 the harnesses ■■ v 
 
 OPEN AND A I i J 
 
 The consti u- 
 are of cast steel, 
 
 and hardened at- — 
 
 possible amount 
 when in use no ] 
 
 of MISS-PICKS p,\ 
 
 The pattern 
 never get out o 
 
 PUT THE WRONG 
 
 The drop bo 
 the chain conti____ 
 
 WITHOUT ANY f 
 
 independently c 
 at great speed, a)— 
 
 No combinat 
 readily as the mc 
 of the operator. ""■ 
 
 When the c 
 BOX, and cannot oe maae tu uu uuiei 
 
 We have attached to this Loom our well-known let-off motion, viz —the worm and 
 WORM-WHEEL. This motion has now been thoroughly tested for years, and fully meets all 
 that is claimed for it, making evener and better goods than can be obtained from 
 Looms with the friction let-ofi motion. The many thousands of these motions now in use 
 testify to their value. 
 
 Another valuable addition we have made to this Loom is our patented improvement 
 for changing the speed at which the Loom is run, to suit the different classes of goods 
 requiring to be woven. By this improvement the Speed of the Loom can be increased 
 ■OR decreased in a very short space of time, by the simple method adopted. 
 
 Prices and any further information may be obtained from the mal<ers. 
 
 OM, 
 
 the 
 
 to be 
 :ithcr 
 
 o, as 
 ttern 
 thus 
 and 
 long 
 
 :nent 
 n. 
 
 same 
 ; thus 
 pis is, 
 
 iMAIN 
 
 gears 
 ished 
 least 
 3 that 
 □urce 
 
 can 
 
 E TO 
 
 , and 
 ;hain 
 ated 
 e run 
 
 rk as 
 
 5 I^art 
 
JAMES PICKLES, 
 
 MACHINIST & TEMPLE MAKER 
 
 VICTORIA WORKS , 
 
 LAUREL S 
 
 Pickers and E 
 
 Qs 3 
 
 C3 CS C5 / 
 
 f first-rate 
 
 J. p. wishe; 
 Cashmeres, which 
 ^to be the best 
 TEMPLES either 
 segment principle, 
 the best out. A sa| 
 may be returned, 
 in large or small quantities. IIlustraLeu Li.^t: 
 
 I 
 
 e for All-Wool 
 s acknowledged 
 
 \D COATING 
 
 ; guides, or the 
 • more barrels, 
 ot satisfactory, 
 1 for anv kind 
 
 tion, 
 
 Small Sliding and Screw Cutting Lathes, 
 
 FOR FOOT OR POWER. 
 
 5in. 
 
 Foot 
 
 HtR a IMPOHTER 
 4. . >y '^TifiJCBiJ'i 
 
 GEHY CENTER LIBRARY 
 
 3 3125 00141 2317