'« lLALhL<3, X ^^ ^UJ^UC.*^*' }?- ^^^^fi'tV^^^ EX-LIBRIS -RlCARJDo DE ROBINA ••♦TEACHERS COLLEGE*^- WITHDRAWN FROM TEACHERS COLLEGE LIBRARY Field Columbian Museum Publication 8. Anthropological Series. ARCHEOLOGICAL STUDIES AMONG THE ANCIENT CITIES OF MEXICO BY William H. Holmes, Curator, Department of Anthropology. PART I, MONUMENTS OF YUCATAN. Chicago, U. S. A. December, 1895. WITHDRAWN FROM TEACHERS COLLEGE LIBRARY WE 6ET7Y CEWTER LIBRARY FIELD COLUMBIAN MUSEV ANTHROPOLOGY. PL. 1 The Feathered-Serpent Column of Chichen-Itza. Pl, I. The Feathered-Serpent Column of Chichen-Itza. Restoration made from mutilated examples. Two of these columns are placed in each principal portal, facing outward. The end of the tongue extends forward on the narrow terrace nearly to the head of the stairway. a. Base (head of serpent) resting on temple floor. b. Shaft (body of serpent) with feather decoration. c. Capital (tail of serpent) with atlantean figures in relief supporting the lintel. d. Tail of serpent, broken off in principal examples, but probably tipped, originally, with sculptured rattles. e. Three lintel timbers cut midway in their length. /. Three-membered molding — archaic cornice — about midway in height of building. g. Soffit or incline of arch of vestibule. h. Decorated zone of entablature, 56 inches wide to upper moldings. ARCHEOLOGICAL STUDIES AMONG THE ANCIENT CITIES OF MEXICO. By William H. Holmes. PART I. CONTENTS, PART I. Page Preface, -..--.... ^ Itinerary, .--.-.,. g Introduction, - - - - - - - " ij Ruins of Eastern Yucatan, ------ 57 Mugeres Island, ....... r^-j Island of Cancun, --.-.. 5^ Island of Cozumel, - - - - - - -64 El Meco, -----.. 6g Tuloom, -.-. --.-7- Ruins of Middle Northern Yucatan, ----- yg Mounds at Progreso, - - - - - - 79 Uxmal, -----... gQ Izamal, ---- ...^7 Chichen-Itza, ---.... loi ILLUSTRATIONS, PART I. Plate Opposite page I. Feathered-serpent column, Chichen-Itza, - - - - 3 II. Hewn stone showing tool marks, Chichen-Itza, - - - 30 III. Rumed temple, south end of Mugeres Island, - - - 62 IV. Portal of small temple. Island of Cozumel, - . . 55 V. Portion of sculptured facade. Governor's Palace, Uxmal, - - 92 VI. Middle portion of the House of the Pigeons, Uxmal, - - 94 VII. Inscribed column, Uxmal, - - - - - - 96 VIII. Map of Uxmal, - 96 IX. Panoramic view of Uxmal, - - - - - - 96 X. East fac^ade and Iglesia, Palace, Chichen-Itza, - - - 112 XL A characteristic Maya vaulted chamber. Palace, Chichen-Itza, 114 XII. Graphic Section of Round Tower or Caracol, Chichen-Itza, - 118 XIII. View of Temple of Tigers and El Castillo, Chichen-Itza, - 122 XIV. Main portal of El Castillo, Chichen-Itza, - - - . 126 XV. Sculptured sanctuary, Temple of the Tigers, Gymnasium, Chichen-Itza, ------- 132 XVI. Square columns. Temple of the Tables, Chichen-Itza, - - 134 XVII. Sketch map of Chichen-Itza, ----- 138 XVIII. Panoramic view of Chichen-Itza, ..... 138 5 b ILLUSTRATIONS, PART I CONTINUED. Fig. Page 1. Examples of Yucatec terraces and pyramids, - - - - 33 2. Specialization of ground plan of Maya temples, . . . 155 3. Examples of Maya buildings, - - - - - - 37 4. Cord holders, -------- ^8 5. Section of a Yucatec building, - - - - - - 41 6. Exterior doorway with stone lintel, . - - . . ^-j 7. Interior doorway with wood lintels, - - - - - 43 8. Exterior doorway with single column and stone lintels, - - 44 9. Exterior doorway with two columns and wood lintels, - - - 44 10. Examples of minor wall openings, ----- 45 11. Examples of Maya arches, - - - - - - - 51 12. Map of the shore and islands of Northeastern Yucatan, - - 56 13. South end of Mugeres Island, showing ruins, - - - - 58 14. Plan of small structure, south end of Mugeres Island, - - 59 15. Plan of temple, south end of Mugeres Island, - - - ■ 59 16. Section of temple, south end of J^lugeres Island, - - - 61 17. Plan of small temple, Island of Cozumel, - - - - 65 18. Section of small building at Cedral, Island of Cozumel, - - 67 19. Archway in quadrangular ruin at Cedral, Island of Cozumel, - - 67 20. Pyramid-temple at El Meco, mainland of Yucatan, - - - 71 21. Plan of temple at El Meco, mainland of Yucatan, - - - 71 22. Section of summit-temple at El Meco, mainland of Yucatan, - 72 23. Tuloom from the sea, mainland of Yucatan, - - - - 76 24. Panorama of Tuloom and the shore to the north, . . . 77 25. Section of Temple of the Magician, Uxmal, - - - - 85 26. Section of Governor's Palace, Uxmal, - . . . gj 27. Gigantic stucco head, east base of Pyramid, Izamal, - - - 99 28. Stucco figure, west side of Pyramid, Izamal, - - - - gg 29. Southwest corner of Palace, Chichen-Itza, - . . . jgj 30. Plan of Palace, Chichen-Itza,- - . . . . 107 31. Section of Palace, Chichen-Itza, - - - - - - iii 32. Section of larger annex, Palace, Chichen-Itza, - - - 112 33. Section of the Round Tower or Caracol, Chichen-Itza, - - - 117 34. Plan of the Round Tower or Caracol, Chichen-Itza, - - 117 55. Section of El Castillo from north to south, Chichen Itza, - - 123 36. Section of El Castillo from east to west, Chichen-Itza, - - 125 37. Plan of El Castillo, Chichen-Itza, - . - . . 125 38. Section of Temple of the Tigers, Gymnasium, Chichen-Itza, - 129 39. Plan of Temple of the Tigers, Gymnasium, Chichen-Itza, - - 131 40. Sketch of fallen column, Temple of the Tables, Chichen-Itza, - 134 41. Stone table supported by human figures. Temple of the Tables, Chichen-Itza, -.---.. j^^ PREFACE. In December, 1894, a number of gentlemen, representing different branches of scientific research, were invited by Mr. A. V. Armour to accompany him in his steam yacht Ituna on a voyage to Mexico. Three months were spent in that most interesting country, mainly in the states of Yucatan, Chiapas and Oaxaca. The writer was a mem- ber of the party and, as Curator of Anthropology in the Field Colum- bian Museum, was expected to examine and describe such archeologic remains as happened to be encountered during the journey. The following report, issued for convenience in two parts, is the result. Besides this a short paper treating of the geology, and particularly of the cenotes or natural wells of Yucatan, will appear in the Journal of Geology of the University of Chicago. The author desires to express in this place his many obligations to his associates on the voyage for generous assistance, and especi- ally to thank Mr. Armour and the President and Director of the Museum for the opportunity afforded of visiting this most important field of research. The present paper is the first number of the Anthropological Series of the Museum Publications. It will be followed by a second number continuing the same subject and by a third treating of the Ceramic Art of Mexico. These, with possibly some additional matter relating to the same general region, will, it is expected, constitute the larger part, if not all, of the first volume of the series. ITINERARY. VOYAGE OF THE YACHT ITUNA. The yacht Ituna sailed from New York, December i6th, 1894, bound for Havana and the Atlantic ports of Mexico. She was in charge of her owner, Mr. Allison V. Armour, who had with him as a guest Mr. Norman Williams of Chicago. At Jacksonville, Florida, the party was augmented by the arrival of Professor Allan Marquand of Princeton, Dr. Charles F. Millspaugh, Curator of Botany in the Field Columbian Museum, and Mr. William H. Holmes, Curator of Anthropology in the same institution. Christmas was spent in Havana, and on the 30th of December the yacht was anchored off the port of Progreso, Yucatan. At this place Mr. Edward H. Thomp- son, ex-U. S. Consul at Merida, and a well-known student of archeol- ogy, joined the party. With this port as a basis of operations, visits were made to numerous localities on the peninsula of Yucatan and in Mexico proper, three months of the winter season being devoted to the study of the Botany, Geology, Anthropology and Natural History of these most interesting regions. The first voyage was toward the east, and visits were made to the islands of Contoy, Mugeres, Cancun and Cozumel and to the main- land of Yucatan, opposite these islands. This part of Yucatan has rarely been visited either by travelers or by students of the history and resources of the country. Both the islands and the mainland appear to be covered with dense forests, save for occasional low limestone bluffs and strips of sand along the beaches, and present a most monotonous appearance; but the region is rendered extremely interesting by its archeological remains, encountered at every turn, its peculiar geological formations, its almost unstudied botany and the marvelous transparency and iridescent beauty of its island-enclosed waters. Nearl}^ two weeks were spent in cruising about from place to place, the Indian villages of Dolores, on Mugeres Island, and San Miguel, on Cozumel, being made the basis of operations. Before leaving these waters a run was made down the coast to secure a glimpse of the great ruin of Tuloom, now occupied by hostile Indians as an outpost. We were not permitted to land by our guest 9 lo Field Columbian Museum — Anthropology, Vol. i. and adviser, Don Jose Dolores Perez of San Miguel, and contented ourselves with a distant survey of the imposing walls of the principal ruin, which resembles a fortress crowning the high bluff facing the sea. Returning to Progreso on the 12th of January, preparations were made for a month's excursion into the interior of Yucatan. From Merida visits were made to Tikul, Uxmal, Izamal and Chichen-Itza. The visit to Uxmal was all too brief for the examination of its splen- did remains, but the spot is so fever-stricken even in winter that our most experienced advisers declared the risk too great to spend even a single night there. At Izamal several massive ruins, mostly pyra- midal bases of ancient temples, rise in the midst of the modern town, breaking up its monotony and affording excellent foundations for its dwellings and churches. Here the party received most ac- ceptable hospitality at the hands of Dr. George F. Gaumer, an Amer- ican resident of the village. In Chichen-Itza, the most important group of ruins in Yucatan, a week was spent and careful studies were made, ample facilities being furnished by our associate, Mr. E. H. Thompson, proprietor of the fine hacienda on which the ruined city stands. On returning to Merida w^e were compelled to say farewell to Professor Marquand, w-ho had to return to his duties at Princeton, and to Dr. Millspaugh, who was so disabled from an accident that he found it necessary to give up further field work. Mr. Williams had returned to the north from Havana. Sailing again from Progreso on January 27th, the yacht w- as next anchored in the port of Laguna or Carmen, in the State of Campeche on the southern margin of the Gulf. Desiring to visit the famous ruined city of Palenque, situated sixt}' miles to the south in the State of Chiapas, we took a steamer that plies between Laguna and the middle Usumacinta river, and carrying along W'ith us the Ituna's gas- oline launch we arrived the next da}^ at the entrance to the Rio Chi- quito. Here the launch was brought into use, and passing down the latter stream and into the narrow canal-like branch called Catasaha we reached at night-fall the head of launch navigation. This day's journey was rendered memorable by the occurrence of several novel incidents. Animal life is exceedingl}- abundant in and along all of these winding streams, and increases as the sources are approached. Turtles, alligators, lizards, fish and birds were constantly in view. Vast numbers of cranes, herons, flamingos, cormorants, kingfishers, hawks and the like were assembled to prey upon the fish, which are very plentiful and so bold as to be troublesome to travelers by water. One variety of fish of large size, weighing in some cases as much as fifteen or twenty pounds, and called by the natives the " Sabalo,' was addicted to jumping, and in the evening the water fairly boiled with Dec. 1895. Ancient Cities of Mexico— Holmes. ii them. Their spring was so powerful and at such eccentric angles that it was dangerous to remain near the sides of the boat. Members of the party were struck with such great force that we were glad of the opportunity to tie up for the night before a group of squalid Indian huts. Taking a dugout canoe from this point, the Catasaha lagoon was entered in the early morning, and a landing was made on the muddy margin of the south shore. From this point the village of Las Playas was reached by a walk of three miles over green meadows which, during the wet season, are covered by the shallow waters of the lagoon. At this pleasantly situated village we were hospitably enter- tained by the leading citizen of the place, Don Carlos Diaz, who kindly secured the men and animals necessary for continuing our trip to the base of the mountains. Following neglected roadways and obscure trails through dense tropical forests, and over a meadow region of great beauty from which the blue mountain ridge of Tumbala was always in view, a ride of thirty-five miles brought us to the romantic village of Santo Domingo del Palenque. On the following day a ride of eight miles to the southwest, through dense and magnificent forests and across low foot hills and fresh mountain streams, brought us to the base of the mountain slopes. Here we began at once to encounter ruined walls, roadways, bridges and temples, and after a rough, precipitous climb of half a mile up the side of the unique cascades of the Otoluni we reached the great ruin called the Palace. In this place we encamped four days, making such examinations of the numerous remarkable ruins as the time would permit. On the 8th of February rain set in, and our ride back to the village was through one of the heaviest down-pours encountered in many years of travel. Reaching the village of Catasaha it was found that the heavy rains had flooded the meadows and it was with much difficulty and b}' wading the deeper channels that we reached the border of the lagoon proper. Here our friend Don Carlos had provided a canoe, and by dark we were in our launch and threading our way down the crooked branches to the Usumacinta. With Mr. Armour at the helm we sailed all night, encountering numerous adventures both trying and amus- ing, and at daybreak reached the village of Palisada. Taking a cup of chocolate in the market place we were again on the way at sunrise, and passing down the Usumacinta and Palisada rivers and through the lagoon, we arrived safely on board the Ituna at Carmen, at five o'clock in the afternoon. As a storm was raging on the Gulf outside, it was decided to remain in port until it subsided, and during the stay of three days our party was most hospitably entertained by the American Vice-Consul, Mr. Herman Hahn. Receiving advices 12 Field Columbian Museum — Anthropology, Vol. i. from the officers of the port that the storm was over and the passage of the bar possible, the Ituna sailed out over a charming sea, to encounter before midnight one of the severest " Northers " on rec- ord. It was the southern extension of the storm that gave New Orleans ten inches of snow. We were bound for Coatzacoalcos, the northern terminus of the Tehuantepec railway, a sail of about twelve hours from Carmen, but the little ship was tossed about for three days in a heavy sea, and at the end of that time, finding it impossible to enter the port on account of the heavy breakers across the bar, we steamed away for Vera Cruz. We approached that city in the early morning, witnessing the sun-rise glow on the great snow-capped cone of Orizaba. The pleasure afforded by this episode was rendered keen by its sharp contrast with the somber experiences of the voyage. The failure to get into the harbor of Coatzacoalcos was greatly regretted, as much pleasure and profit weore anticipated from the pro- posed trip by the newly finished transcontinental railway to Tehuan- tepec, on the Pacific coast. From Vera Cruz the party, consisting of ^Ir. Armour, Mr. Thompson and the writer, set out b}- way of Puebla to Oaxaca. On February 21st we passed through the two wonderful caiions threaded by the Mexican Southern Railway, observing the remarkable exposures of geological formations everywhere so complete that the geologic history of the region could be read as from an open book. At sunset the continental divide was reached, and a descent of two hours into the Oaxacan valley brought us to the metropolis of southern Mexico. The city of Oaxaca is unique and exceedingly interesting, the result of its exceptional isolation from the outer world previous to the com- pletion of the railway two years ago. It is laid out in the midst of a broad, smooth, fertile valley, bordered and apparentl)' completely surrounded by magnificent mountain ranges. Seen from the neigh- boring heights, with its out-lying villages set in fringes of green, bor- dered by far-reaching russet slopes which grade imperceptibly upward into blue mountains, it presents a sight never to be forgotten. From Oaxaca two of the most noted ruin-groups of Alexico were reached. By stage twenty-nine miles to the southeast on the Tehuan- tepec highway we reached Mitla, a marvelous city now built over by a modern Indian village, and, with the exception of a half-dozen of its greatest temples, practically destroyed. Here a week was spent with exceptional profit, and a visit was made also to the ancient quarries on the mountain side and to a fortified hill near b3^ On the return to Oaxaca the writer visited IMonte Alban,a few miles west of the city. It is a mountain ridge a thousand or more feet high, one mile long and less than a quarter of a mile wide, which has been remodeled by the hand Dec. 1895. Ancient Cities of Mexico — Holmes. 13 of man into terraces, plateaus and pyramids. As it stands today it is in its outlines an artificial mountain and an astounding monument to the energy and culture of the ancient races. At both Oaxaca and Mitla interesting collections were made of the art productions of the native people who still practice, with little modification, a number of their aboriginal arts. From Oaxaca the party returned to the north, visiting Puebla and the City of Mexico. At the latter place examinations were made of the slight remaining traces of the ancient Tenochtitlan, consisting of a body of refuse over twenty feet in depth exposed in the excavations from which adobe is obtained for brick-making in the suburbs of the modern city. Later on an excursion was made to San Juan Teoti- huacan, twenty-five miles north of Mexico, which is probably the great- est monument of ancient American enterprise and culture in existence. March 7th, the party, augmented in Mexico by the addition of Mr. Samuel C. Peck and his brother and Mr. Marshall Miller, returned to Vera Cruz and sailed first to Progreso to leave Mr. Thompson, who resides in Merida, and then crossed to New Orleans, where the writer left the party and returned to Chicago with such collections as had been made. Mr. Armour after a few days continued the journey by way of Havana, Nassau and Charleston to New York. INTRODUCTION. The present paper does not assume to be more than a sketch of limited portions of a great subject. It aims only to present the vari- ous ruined cities and archeologic sites visited as seen at a passing glance — a glance by far too brief for complete or satisfactory obser- vation, but which, nevertheless, has given vivid and valuable im- pressions. The studies which shall cover this ground adequately and finally are yet to be made. Years of patient study, excavation, com- parison and literary research are necessary to the elucidation of each great site. Many years must pass before exhaustive exploration is even attempted in more than a very few cases, for the Mexican government does not encourage its own people in this work and is loth to entrust it to others.* Owing to these conditions I regard it as the duty of those favored with even a glimpse of the crumbling re- mains to publish what they observe, though it be at the risk of some repetition. In this way the sum of information is augmented by small increments, and in time a large body of congruous data will be acquired, serving in a way the purposes that would be better sub- served by systematic research. Most of the ruins examined on this voyage of exploration have been visited before, and some have been studied with considerable care by such students as Stephens, Char- nay, Le Plongeon, Maudslay and Bandelier, as well as various early explorers, but the examinations in no case approach completeness, and even the surface phenomena are as yet but half explored. No attempt will be made here to review the literature of the subject as it is quite extensive, besides this very important work has been pretty thoroughly done by several writers and especially by Bancroft, who has compiled an extensive and valuable bibliography. Panoramic Views, Etc. T had designed something consider- ably more ambitious in the way of panoramic views than it has been possible to present. Being unable to secure a skilled draughtsman, I was compelled to do the drawing myself, and haste and lack of skill in architectural work have left me with the merest sketches; these * I do not mean by this observation to imply a criticism of the manner in which the Mexican government has treated this subject. It has probably done all it could in appoiiiting custodians of important ruins and by forbidding the removal of relics from the country. Though our own govern- ment has expended money freely in the study ot its primitive peoples and art, it has done less than Mexico in caring for its monumental remains and in preventing the removal of minor works of art to trans-Atlantic museums. 15 i6 Field Columeiax Museum — Anthropologv, Vol. i. will, however, serve a good purpose in connection with the brief descriptions given in the text, as the reader will be able at once to locate each ruin and to comprehend its relations with the whole group. For detailed study it will be necessary to resort to photographs and to previously published illustrations. Owing to the rapidity with which the reconnaisance was made, many parts of the views are left somewhat indefinite, and occasionally parts are introduced from descriptions of others. A satisfactory panoramic view cannot be given until the artist has had the opportunity of examining all the monu- ments, great and small, in the minutest detail, thus making himself independent of mere isolated and much obscured views. The most careful drawing, representing merely what appears above the foliage and debris, would be of little avail. I have, therefore, in the case of the Yucatec cities, undertaken to represent the subjects as they would appear with the forests in a great measure removed. The cities are set in the midst of the great plain pretty much as if afire had recently swept the country leaving the various buildings exposed. In many cases, also, where accumulations of debris obscure easih' determined outlines and forms, I have ignored them, as, for example, around the base of the turret and the terraces of the Caracol in Chichen. On the whole, though imperfect in many respects, the views may be said to represent the ruins pretty nearly as they are to-day, though not exactly as they appear. Maps are in all cases placed in conjunction with the panoramas, so that it is only necessary to glance from one to the other to discover relative positions and dimensions, and to locate such descriptions and detailed studies as may be at hand. The maps are compiled from all available sources and make little pretensions to absolute accuracy. Where old maps were used I have corrected and added quite freely from my own observations. Though no S3stematic survey was made in any case, the compass and tape-line were con- stantly in use, and the maps of Palenque and Mitla, (Part II), are constructed wholly from my own notes. The maps and all other illustrations, save the photographs, were drawn by myself, and, I regret to saj-, exhibit man}' evidences of haste and lack of skill. Although there are at hand an unlimited number of photographs and sketches, I have inserted only such as seemed the most essential illus- trations of what I have to say, and the future writer of monographic studies will still have an endless variety of unpublished subjects to draw upon. The measurements of ruins and architectural features given are far from satisfactory. I found the measurements of those who had preceded me far from reliable, and I reached the conclusion that hurried and unverified observations must necessarily be wrong in Dec. 1895. Ancient Cities of Mexico — Holmes. 17 a large percentage of cases. My own figures as well as those of others are, therefore, as a rule, given as approximations only. A chief reason for the discrepancies in published measurements every- where apparent is found in the fact that there is no exactness or uni- formity in the datum points chosen. The bases of ruins are covered with debris and the tops have disappeared; horizontal measure- ments, even where margins are preserved, are affected by the fact that the parts of the wall or surface selected by two observers are not the same. A tape line carried around the base of a building may give a very different result from an equally careful measurement made a few feet higher on the wall. It may be said, however, that for all ordinary purposes of description and analysis, exactness, though desirable, is not absolutely essential, as nothing of importance depends upon inches. The cities and sites visited by our party are scattered over a wide territory extending from Cape Catoche on the east to the Valley of Mexico on the west, and to Chiapas and Oaxaca on the south. They represent, if the historian and archeologist have properly correlated the data of their respective departments, at least three principal and distinct stocks of people — the Mayas, in the states of Yucatan and Chiapas, the Nahuas, in the Valley of Mexico, and the Zapotecas, in the State of Oaxaca. Part I of this paper deals almost exclusively with the Yucatec division of the first of these groups. A very brief review of the history of the province, its people and art will be useful in connection with this sketch of the ancient remains, as it will, I hope, enable readers not familiar with the general subject to secure a connected view of the whole field. Yucatan rises from the sea and is peopled. We are told by the early Greek historians that a broad continent, known as At- lantis, once spread out over what is now the middle Atlantic Ocean; that this land was inhabited by a vigorous and cultured race of people who carried their arms eastward to the farthest limits of the Mediterranean, and that the Greek gods, righteously angered b}' these encroachments, retaliated by sending Atlantis to the bottom of the sea. It has been a favorite theor}' with many students that the American races may have been derived from this source, inheriting therefrom the germs of that strange culture now represented by so many ruined cities. Whatever may be the truth with respect to the disappearance of the one continent it is a curious fact that another land has risen from its watery bed. We are able to clearly show by the aid of geology that a large part of the great block of terra firma now known as Yucatan is a new-born realm. The massive beds of limestone of which the peninsula is formed contain and are largely iS Field Columbian Museum — Anthropology, Vol. i. made up of remains of the marine forms of life now flourishing along the shores. Fossil shells obtained from the rocks in various parts of the country are all of living species and represent late Pliocene or early Pleistocene times, thus possibly bringing the date of the elevation of Yucatan down somewhat near that of the reputed sinking of Atlantis, some eleven or twelve thousand years ago, or not far from the period that witnessed the oscillations attending the close of the glacial period. Whatsoever the period of these events, it is observed that the elevation of the level bed of the sea resulted in the formation of a strangely featured land, and that its peculiar topographic and geologic conditions have left their mark on the people and their art. The strata of soft, porous limestones were more or less broken up by the strong throes of upheaval and acted like a sieve for the surface waters which, charged with vegetable acids, dissolved for themselves sub- terranean channels leading hither and thither into the sea. As a con- sequence we rarely find a spring or stream of running water oa the surface of the land in central or northern Yucatan. Though soil has gradually formed on the rocky plains, and dense forests have over- spread all, there is ever}'where present, especially in the dry season, the suggestion of a waterless and forbidding desert. But a strange thing has happened to fit this land for habitation. As time passed by the roofs of the underground streams were per- forated in places by the processes of disintegration and caving in, and yawning sinks were formed, in the bottoms of which could be seen pools of darkling water. In the midst of the forest the traveler comes suddenly upon these great cistern-like pits leading down into the bow'els of the earth. Many are irregular in outline and section, taking the character of caverns, but others are so round and even- walled as to be taken for works of art. They are often a hundred or more feet in depth and as much as 200 or 300 feet in diameter, and in some cases the water cannot be reached save by ropes or ladders, while in others portions of the walls have fallen in, giving steep path- ways down to the water's edge. From these unique reservoirs the water supply of the ancient nations was almost exclusively obtained. Into this strange new land, some thousand or more years ago, pioneers of the red race gradually found their way, and, taking posses- sion of the great wells, built themselves habitations. The brittle lime- stone strata of the surface were broken into millions of blocks by weathering and the strong roots of the forest trees, furnishing natural quarries, and the dwellers about the lonely wells built themselves houses of stone. They prospered and multiplied, and being isolated and largely free from intrusions from without went on from centur\' to century building and developing the stone-shaping arts, until each and Dec. 1895. Ancient Cities of Mexico — Holmes. 19 every great well or group of wells was encircled with temples and palaces grand in proportions and rich in unique though barbarous sculptures. Mystic wise men — culture heroes — appeared to instruct the people in the arts and in religion. Comparative peace prevailed for a long period and the various communities seemed welded to- gether in a strong and lasting union. But the rapid development of many centres of culture and power seem to have led to jealousies and feuds and we learn from native sources that only a few decades be- fore the coming of Columbus disastrous wars ensued, depopulating many districts and leaving the cities in ruins. The strong culture impetus was thus weakened and the contentions of numerous chief- tains pitted against one another dissipated the elements of national strength. When, however, the Spaniard appeared on the coast, sub- stantial union was effected and a bold defense was made, and there is little doubt that but for the gun and horse Spain could not in cen- turies have secured a permanent lodgment in the country. The conditions under which the middle and southern branches of the family developed were different in many respects from those of the north, and as a result there were marked distinctions in the people and their culture; but when the disasters that signalized the close of Maya power came, all were alike involved, all losing in the main their status as nations and nearly all submitting to the yoke of the Christian priesthood. The Maya Race. At the period of conquest the Maya tribes, occupying the peninsula of Yucatan and considerable portions of neighboring territory to the south and west, are said to have comprised in the neighborhood of 2,000,000 souls. Today they are distributed over nearly the same area, but are reduced in numbers, it is estimated, to less than 500,000, half at least of whom continue to speak the Maya tongue in its purity. At the north where there has been much infusion of Spanish blood the race has been largely modified and an interesting and very homogeneous half-blood people has sprung up; but in the interior many of the tribes are of nearly pure blood and re- tain a strong spirit of independence. It is said that some bands have never been fully conquered and they practically substantiate the claim by holding the temples of their fathers by force of arms, defying all comers, whether white or red. Physically the Mayas are short, sturdy and dark, possessing gen- erally the t3^pical characteristics of the red race. Their mental equip- ment is conceded to be of a high order as compared with other native stocks. Their origin is largely a matter of conjecture. One account* connects them with the history of the god and culture-hero Itzamna, * Brinton, D. G., American Hero Myths, P. 145. 20 Field Columbian Museum — Anthropology, Vol. i. and derives an important element or division of the race from the east, where they are said to have come across — or rather through — the ocean, thus forcibly recalling the stor}' of Atlantis. The more probable derivation is, however, from the west, as tradition, m3th, art and geographical conditions point in this direction more decidedly than in any other. It appears that there are few ties of language with the Aztecs or other ^lexican peoples though there are numerous and striking analogies in arts and customs, and it is not improbable that in the course of their history the IMayas have come into close contact with the great tribes of the Plateau of Mexico. Indeed, all may have had a common origin to the north in Mexico, or even beyond the Rio Grande. In the culture scale this people stood at the head of the American tribes. They were still, properly speaking, barbarians, but in several respects seemed to be on the very threshold of civilization. Their status may be compared to that of the Greeks and Egyptians immed- iately preceding the dawn of history, and we may assume that they were, as measured by Ar3'an rates of progress, perhaps not more than a few thousand years behind the foremost nations of the world in the great procession of races from savagery toward enlightenment. It is certain that they were already employing a rude sj'stem of historic rec- ords and were the only nation on the western continent that had made any considerable headway in the development of a phonetic system of writing. Their hieroglyphics occupy a place, not yet well defined, somewhere along the course of progress from pictograph to letter, and are consequently difficult of interpretation. There is no doubt, how- ever, that an age of literature was actually though slowly dawning in America when the shock of conquest came. It becomes clearly apparent to the student that ethnic conditions were more simple in Yucatan than in the great southern and western centres of culture. There was but one race; the land was not a thor- oughfare for races, and the physical conditions were unique in their uniformity. We find here greater homogeneity in the monumental remains and, indeed, in all branches of art. There is, further, a strong probability that the permanent settlement of the country, or at least the introduction of higher phases of culture, took place at a compara- tively recent date. Today the chief reminder of the great past of the Mayas is the crumbling remains of their architecture, but remarkable advance had been made in several other arts not embodied in such durable materials. They made paper of maguey, and their books, several of which have been preserved and are now in the libraries of Europe, show ad- vanced skill in pictographic and gl3'phic writing, and a fertility of imag- ination hardly paralleled among the known primitive races of the world. Dec. 1895. Ancient Cities of Mexico — Holmes. 21 Their calendar system was highly developed and appeared to have embodied in it so many elements of accurate chronology that European scholars were amazed. Alexander von Humboldt was so deeply impressed with its intricacy and perfection that he claimed it could not be wholly of native development, believing that certain ele- ments had been borrowed from the far east; today, however, Brinton and others are of the opinion that it is pretty certainly the outgrowth of peculiarly American thought and practices. Its chief office appears to have been to serve the priesthood in carrying on their com- plex system of religious observances, sorcery and divination. Their language is highly developed, though the speech is gut- tural, and its grammatical construction is said to resemble the Eng- lish more closely than does that of any other American tongue. Their religion was more humane than that of the Aztecs, human sac- rifice having been much less generally prevalent. The priesthood was no doubt intelligent and alj-powerful. Their sociology and govern- ment showed modifications of the ordinary American systems. They practiced agriculture with success, depending but little on the chase, and were inclined to peace rather than war. They seem to have had considerable commercial spirit and navigated the seas, trad- ing with Cuba and other distant parts, possibly including even Florida. There are decided traces of Yucatec characters in the ceramic art of the Gulf coast of at least three of the states. In the various shaping arts they had few competitors in America, working with especial suc- cess in stone, wood and clay. Yucatan, formed of the younger sedi- mentary rocks, was without native metals. Copper, silver and gold were obtained from distant parts in small quantities and had but little place in the arts. The textile and ceramic arts were practiced with especial success, certain varieties of earthenware obtained from the southern Maya areas ranking among the highest work of its class in America. Monumental Remains. Maya architecture, with its associated sculpture and painting, constitute the best remaining index of the achievements of the race. The 70,000 square miles of Maya territory are so dotted with the ruins of towns and cities that the traveler is seldom out of sight of some mound, pyramid or other massive structure. The preservation of these remains is wonderful, considering the four hundred years of decay and destruction through which they have passed. There is hardly a modern village or town on the peninsula of Yucatan that is not built in some part of materials derived from the ancient structures. Yet the work of demolition still goes on, and presently, unless the Mexican Government takes adequate measures to preserve them, the traces of a conquered race and its strange art will 22 Field Columbian Museum — Anthropology. \ ol. .. exist only in books. Nature has vied with man in the work of level- ing the noble monuments with the ground. The luxuriant vegetation which envelops the ruins sends a multitude of strong roots deep into the masonry at every vulnerable point; growing rapidly, they act like wedges, separating masses and aiding gravitation and the elements in their never-ceasing efforts at destruction. Function of Buildings. The question as to the function of the many buildings now found in various stages of demolition in the Maya province has been raised again and again and still remains somewhat imperfectly answered. There is no doubt, however, that in the main the}" were devoted to the uses of religion. This is clear from numerous statements made by the conquerors, who were frequent witnesses of the strange rites practiced more or less publicly in sim- ilar buildings in all parts of the country. Further than this it is observed of many nations in various parts of the world that their most important buildings were devoted to the gods and the priest- hood, and the American races, being intensely religious and pro- foundly moved by mystic ideas, would hardly afford an exception to the rule. Again many of the buildings are of such peculiar or special- ized plan that we are warranted in assigning them definitel)' to relig- ious uses; such are the so-called temples and shrines occurring in almost ever}' group of ruins. They are unfitted for the ordinary- pur- poses of dw-elling, assembly or defense; the}- are restricted in space, are built on pyramids or terraces reached by steep stairways, and have a solidity of construction and an overloading of mythological embellish- ment not demanded by and hardly consistent with ordinar}- secular uses. There are other buildings, often of colossal size, and having many windowless rooms, which may have been occupied by religious societies or by functionaries whose duties pertained to the enclosed courts or to adjoining temples. Still they could as well have served ordinary domestic purposes, since life in these tropical regions must have been lived largely in the open air and the cavern-like chambers would ser\e as cool retreats in the summer and remain snug and dry in the prolonged wet season. Other structures still are wholly unique; one class, believed to have been gymnasiums or ball-courts, consists mainly of two parallel walls of great height and enormous thicknesses, and another are turret-like buildings to which no par- ticular use can with reason be assigned. Possibly rites pertaining to the dead may have been extensively practiced in these buildings, but purely mortuary structures, if such exist, are not well identified. Tombs of simple construction are found in various relations with the ruined monuments, occurring not infrequently as vaults or small chambers in the sides of pyramids and terraces. Burials in what ap- Dec. 1895. Ancient Cities of Mexico — Holmes. 23 pear to be ordinary earthen mounds have been reported and some examinations have been made, but it must be admitted that as yet the methods of disposing of the dead by the Yucatecs are imperfectly understood. The houses of the people were no doubt largely built of wood and thatch, or of these materials in combination with rubble, so that they have for the most part disappeared. They are doubtless well represented by the more primitive dwellings of the modern Mayas. We find little evidence of the existence of a defensive motive among the builders, and on the whole the Mayas must, during the period of greatest prosperity, have been a peaceable people. There is little or no indication of the selection of particularly defensible sites and few walls have been found that resemble fortifications. The grouping of buildings in general plan has no suggestion of a de- fensive arrangement, and the occasional assemblage of four strong structures about a court, though presenting somewhat the appearance of a fortress, has apparently no significance in this connection; the buildings are in many cases placed so far apart at the corners as to give free access to all comers, and the doorways to apartments are occasionally in the outer walls. Then again the doorways bear no evidence of having had doors of a nature to aid in defense. There are a few examples of entrances whose peculiar construction cannot be explained save on the theory that they were intended to make access difficult. This may not indicate a defensive purpose but rather the intention to remove the chambers as far as possible from public in- trusion. The great thickness of walls and the extraordinary massive- ness of construction had no reference to defense, but resulted from the crude efforts of aspiring builders to secure the strength and permanence that greater experience would have secured by less costly means. The Architect and his Plan. Some of the buildings are com- posite and show successive accretions or periods of growth, and this is true to a large extent of the greater buildings of most nations, but there are others that stand as perfect units of design, in which the conception must have been complete in every detail when the construction began, a master mind controlling the cutting and the placing of every stone. There may have been working drawings — and the people were certainly equal to the task of making them — but if there were none, the carrying out of the work without them must be regarded as even more remarkable. The construction of such build- ings as the Palace at Uxmal and the Castillo at Chichen indicate a mastery in architectural design well calculated to astonish the student of the half-crystallized culture of the American races in general. 24 Field Columbian Museum — Anthropology, \'ol. i. There can be little doubt that when the work of building began in such cases, the ground plan, elevation and constructive design were fully worked out and the spacings of doorways, moldings and panels and all details of sculptured decoration were fully decided upon; and I should say that even details of stone cutting, the number, width and angle of courses of masonry, were predetermined, as otherwise, with the complexity of form and the infinity of geometric detail characterizing the facades, utter confusion must have resulted. Instruments of Precision. As to the implements and devices used for securing precision of dimension, line, surface and angle, opinions differ. There was, no doubt, a vast deal of simple eye work — and what people have native powers in this direction superior to the Americans? — but whether a definite unit of measurement had been devised, or whether the square and plummet as known to civilized builders were employed, it is certain that competent devices were in use, since the carrying up of the varied walls of structures hundreds of feet in length and width and many feet in height, with constantly varying relations of parts and play of angles and slopes, without ac- curate appliances, without something better than the "mere rule of thumb," would have required superhuman powers on the part of the builders. Orientation and Assemblage. Notwithstanding the suggestion of mastery in the art of designing and building, there is much lack of unity in the general plan and grouping of the structures. Though there is usually a suggestion of recognition of the points of the compass in placing the buildings, very few are accurately oriented, and there is such diversity of variation that we must conclude there was no particular demand for uniformity, a conclusion rather at variance with the accepted notion which gives regard for the points of the compass a high place in native concepts. In other parts of Mexico, as in the Valley of Mexico and Oaxaca, orientation was at- tended to with much greater care. As to the existence of anything like a system of streets or road- ways little can be learned from the ruins themselves. Usually the association of separate buildings appears to be merely that of con- venient proximity. Perhaps the most usual form of assemblage is that of apartments or buildings on or about a terrace or pyramid, the cluster suggesting the cell groupings of some insects. The only ap- proach to system in the grouping of the structures of the Yucatec cities is seen in the assemblage of four buildings about a court. This arrange- ment prevails extensively in the Zapotecan and Nahuatl cities of Mex- ico proper. The members of the quadrangles are, I believe, sometimes joined at the inner corners or perhaps connected completely ail around, Dec. 1895. Ancient Cities of Mexico — Holmes. 25 but more frequently they are separated, giving free access to the court. In a few cases there are compound clusters of buildings embodying two or more courts, as in the Palace at Palenque. Building Materials. The nature of the materials at the disposal of a people inclined to building exerts a profound influence upon the results achieved. Stone of somewhat decidedly favorable qualities would seem almost essential to greatness in the art of architecture. The Mayas were especially favored in this respect. The peninsula of Yucatan is composed of massive beds of limestone, homogeneous in texture and easily cut, even with primitive tools. Nature had not only supplied the stone, but it had in some measure prepared it for building. Although the land is approximately a plain, it is still in a small way broken up by low ridges and steps, and by sinkage into underground channels. The forests, growing densely everywhere, have broken up the surface beds, giving great quantities of loose stones immediately available to the builder and directing the way to the opening and working of quarries. The presence of unlimited supplies of limestone together with timber made the burning of lime an easy task and this product was extensively employed. The Yucatec stone mason had, therefore, every necessary building mate- rial at hand, although he still lacked, in a great measure, materials suited to the manufacture of quarrying and cutting tools. Cherty seams or masses of indurated limestone, occurring in many parts, served for the ruder tools, and picks and chisels of special hardness were probably brought in from a distance. Copper chisels are oc- casionally found as far east even as Cozumel, but if used at all in the dressing of stone they must have taken an unimportant place in the work on account of the rarity of the material. I had no time to seek the quarries from which stone was obtained in Yucatan, but had the good fortune to come upon excellent examples in Oaxaca. Careful descriptions of these will be given in Part II of this paper. Mortar, made of lime and sand, and cement-like mixtures com- posed of mortar tempered with gravel, pounded stone, etc., were ex- tensively used, and their durability is remarkable. Numerous floors and roofs are still preserved, and many fine examples of stucco model- ing have withstood the destructive effects of the weather for four hundred years or more. The builders made very considerable use of wood, which, consid- ering the inferior grade of tools available, was cut, hewn and carved with much skill. Wood must have been extensively used in connection with the great stone buildings, as in doorways, in closing spaces between structures now disconnected and in various enclos- ures and barriers. There is no doubt that pliable vegetal growths. 26 Field Columbian Museum — Anthropology, Vol. i. such as poles, bark, vines, twigs, etc., used in textile or semi-textile combinations, were very fully employed in ordinary domestic structures as well as in less pretentious buildings of other classes pretty much as they are to-day. Transportation. The gathering of stones and the cutting out of masses from the living rock were followed by transportation, a most tedious and laborious task for a people without beasts of burden and probably without many of the effective transporting devices known to more advanced peoples. The work of carrying the earth, mortar and stones used in hearting the pyramid of the Castillo at Chichen or the triple-terraced pyramid of the Palace at Uxmal was of itself a great undertaking, but the transportation of the countless stones for the facing of both pyramid and superstructure and the lifting of the larger masses employed in columns, jambs, pillars and the like to heights reaching in cases nearly one hundred feet, required strong hearts and hands and a controlling power of exceptional vigor and permanence. The Yucatec Mayas did not, however, undertake to employ stones of enormous size, as did the ancient builders of Mex- ico and Peru. No block or mass was observed estimated to weigh more than six or eight tons. Stone Cutting and Sculpture. In constructing the greater buildings of Yucatan, vast quantities of stone were required, and the labor of dressing and carving it must have been exceedingly great. This would be true if nothing but the plain squared and faced stones were considered, but when we behold the broad sculptured facades of such buildings as the Governor's Palace at Uxmal or the Casas at Kabah, our minds are filled with wonder. Words fail to give a clear notion of the work, for what definite conception is conveyed when it is stated that in a single continuous facade upward of twenty thousand stones were used, not only hewn of varied special shapes, but each sculptured to represent some individual part of a face, figure or geo- metric design, and all fitted together with such skill as to give the effect of an unbroken whole? Maya statuary, if such their most ambitious sculpturings may be called, is, of course, conventional, and from our point of view, extremely crude, but these works were almost exclusively intended to be employed in architectural embellishment and were all-sufficient for the purpose. Such are the figures and groups of figures sculptured in high relief or in the round and set in niches in the walls, or fixed by means of tenons in various parts of the field of decoration. There seem to be, in the north, no figures corresponding to the remarkable monolithic carvings of the southern Mayas in Guatemala and Honduras. Such works as the recumbent human figures or Chac-Mools, the tigers and Atlantean figures of Dec. 1895. Ancient Cities of Mexico — Holmes. 27 Chichen are not of a high order of art and were probably mostly, if not exclusively, mere adjuncts of building or furnishing rather than independent or individual works of sculpture. Masonry, Stucco Work and Painting. The masonry comprises, in general, hearting and facing. The former consists of earth, mortar and stones variously combined and usually forming strong, well-compacted bodies. The latter consists of stone cut or uncut and laid up, with few exceptions, in excellent mortar. Where the stones were accurately cut, little mortar appears in the face of the wall, but it was freely used in the hearting, and when the facing stones were deep they were dressed somewhat smaller behind, and set back in the mortar as a tooth in its socket. In the facing of many walls, how- ever, the stones were very shallow — often mere tile-like slabs — and had but slight hold upon the body of the hearting. In those centres of building operations where the limestone was readily worked and of fine, even texture, the facing is well cut, and the wall surfaces are in general so even and true as to stand the test of the square and plumb line; but in localities where the stone is uneven in texture and quite hard, or in provincial sections where building was not carried to a high degree of perfection, the facing is rarely well dressed, save about the doorways, arches, corners and especially exposed parts. Rough surfaces were very generally evened up with plaster. A remarkable feature of these structures is the great thickness of the walls, and especially the extraordinary massiveness of the masonry above the spring of the arches. This is clearly shown in several of the sections inserted in the following pages. Where, for example, the outer wall is three feet thick and the arch within is ten feet wide, the mass of masonry thickens upward from three feet at the base of the arch to eight feet at the ceiling level, and in an inner wall, widen- ing both ways, to thirteen feet, so that two-thirds or more of the space included in the upper half of the structure is solid masonry. The roof is often very thick, thus greatly increasing the bulk, and it seems a marvel that collapse from mere weight has not been more frequent than seems to have been the case. To all this bulk was added, in many instances, massive false fronts or colossal roof-combs laden with ornament. So strongly knit is the masonry, however, that but for the decay of wooden lintels, most of the great facades now in ruins would have been very fully preserved. I have computed that a single-chamber structure, with wallsof usual thickness and with average arch space and roof mass, would have two-thirds of its bulk solid masonry, which looks like a lavish waste of space, material and labor. If we take the measurements of the Governor's Palace at 28 FiELu Columbian Museum — Anthropology, Vol. i. Uxmal, given by Bancroft, we find by a rough computation that the structure occupies some 323,000 cubic feet of space, upwards of 200,- 000 of which is solid masonry, while only about 110,000 feet is cham- ber space. If the sub-structure be taken into account, the mass of masonry is to the chamber space approximate!}' as 40 to i. Notwithstanding the success of these Maya masons in erecting buildings capable of standing for hundreds of years, they were yet ignorant of some of the most essential principles of stone construction, and are thus to be regarded as hardly more than novices in the art. They made use of various minor expedients, as any clever nation of builders would, but depended largely on mortar and inertia to hold their buildings together. One of the most elemental essentials of good work is the sys- tematic breaking of joints in laying one course of stones over another. This idea had hardly been grasped, as it not infrequently happens that a seam or succession of joints is connected almost directly from base to summit of a wall, and at corners, within and without, and about doorwaj-s the stones are not bonded at all and are free to fall out as soon as the mortar gives way. The only possible explanation of this condition of the work that occurs to me is that the habit of treating the stones of a wall as so many elements of a mosaic pattern has tended to retard progress in the direction of what is sometimes called scientific construction. It will readily be seen that in carving and laying the stones of a geometric design, as a line of fret-work or of snouted masks, it would be extremely inconvenient to adapt the shapes to any system of jointage, and indeed such a thing would be out of the question. Another considerable element of weakness in many of these structures was the employment of veneered facing over large surfaces without sufficient headers or long transverse bonding stones. The tendenc}' to break awaj^ even with very thin stones, is in a measure counteracted by giving the back a bevel almost from the face, thus allowing the mortar to come well forward in strong tongues nearly to the surface. In some cases the facing has fallen in a body from considerable areas, exposing the hearting, which presents a remarkably even surface as if built first as a rough wall to be faced up afterward at the convenience of quarrymen and stone-cutters. The laying of plaster or concrete floors and roofs was an im- portant feature of the mason's work, and the areas covered were often very large. Stucco, a term applied to plaster when used in modeling, was extensively employed in decoration and required special skill in its manipulation. This work was probably executed by the sculptor or by professional modelers. It was adapted to all Dec. 1895. Ancient Cities of Mexico — Holmes. 29 classes of work and especially to graphic or non-geometric embellish- ment, and found its greatest field perhaps in the elaboration of colossal faces and figures such as may be seen at Izamal, Nocuchich and Palenque. At Palenque, important wall spaces, roof slopes and ex- pansive roof combs are loaded with ambitious mythological subjects. Where the relief was bold, stones of suitable length and size were set into the masonry to support the plaster. Thin slabs of limestone were sawed into strips and cemented together very skillfully to form the skeleton of the figures. Upon this foundation the plaster was modeled, finished, polished and painted. In some cases glyphs and parts of figures and ornaments were first separately modeled and then set into place in the backing of fresh mortar. It is observed that in some cities stucco embellishment prevailed, while in others sculpture held almost undisputed sway. It is not known whether this difference is to be attributed to distinctions in the people, to difference of period or to the influences of peculiar local en- vironment. It was the practice to finish plain walls in plaster, often rather roughly applied, and nearly all surfaces, exterior and interior, where effect was of consequence, were finished in color. Very often plain surfaces in corridors and important apartments were embellished with graphic subjects, ornamental designs, devices and glyphs in brilliant colors. Sculptures in the round and in all degrees of relief were also colored with great care and elaboration. The range of colors is wide, including black, white and various shades of green, blue, red and yellow. Their composition has not been made a matter of study, but they probably include both mineral and vegetal sub- stances. As to the methods of manipulating stone, mortar and color, little is definitely known, save through a study of the actual remains. Unlike the Egyptians, who pictured almost everything relating to their own arts and avocations, the Mayas give us but few hints of these things, both graphic and plastic art dealing almost exclusively with sacerdotal subjects which furnish, incidentally only, hints of practical things. A notable exception is found in one of the Bodleian codexes, where various domestic episodes and illustrations of the practice of ordinary arts are given. Stone, when required in large bodies, was cut out of the mass, probably with rude stone picks, and flaked and pecked into shape at great expense of labor. Very generally the dressed surfaces show the chisel and pick or hammer marks, as indicated in the specimen illustrated in PL II. It will strike the observer as remarkable that the tool .marks in this case retain the whiteness of the original bruise so distinctly as to be photographed, 30 Field Columbian Museum — Anthropology, Vol. i. but this effect is deceptive ; the roughened surface of the bruise merely retains the white particles of the mortar or paint which have disappeared from the smoother fractured surfaces. Attention may be called to the markings near the upper margin of the stone; the blows employed in flaking off the upper surface and straightening the corner have been made with a sharp straight-edged tool, such apparently as are known only in metal. A little below the edge is a second line of these marks, indicating that the workman had contemplated and then abandoned a further reduction of the width of the stone. I am not able to say with certainty to what extent the dressed surfaces of the stone in the walls of the buildings were ground or polished, but it seems natural that abrading processes should have been generally employed. Hammer stones, sledge-heads, picks and chisels of hard stone are found, but not in the great numbers that might be expected. They are not superior in make to like tools employed by the average American savage, and none of them seem capable of having made the marks illustrated in the figure. We are thus led again and again to wonder whether it is not possible that metal tools were used and that traces of their existence, save in the sculptures produced, are wholly obliterated by time. The lime-burner and the color-man were most important auxiliaries of the Maya builder. Mortar was used in enormous quantities and manipulated with great skill, and the same ma}- be said of color; and the trowels and brushes employed were no doubt such as primitive people usually devise. It should be observed that it was a common practice all over the Mayan, Oaxacan and Nahuatl territories to finish architectural ornaments, statuary and glyphs, where the stone was not of the finest quality and susceptible of high polish, in thick enamel-like coatings of varied colors which adhered with wonderful tenacity to the stone surface and were polished down with the utmost care, not reducing the relief or distinctness of even the shallowest sculpturings, but being made by skillful manipulation to emphasize and refine these features. During the great days of temple building the scenes about and within one of these Maya cities must have been exceedingly animated and novel. The hosts of people planning and directing the work; quarrying, cutting, transporting and lifting the stone; burning lime, carrying water, mixing mortar, hewing wood, preparing paints, and engaged in the work of building and decorating, must have furnished scenes in striking contrast with the desolation of the dismantled and forest buried cities of today. Substructures. The ancient cities of Yucatan were built on plains or on comparatively level ground and were without the ad- Pl. II. Fragment of Hewn Stone from Chichen-Itza. Showing marks of the implements with which it was shaped. The upper surface was flaked off by strokes from an edged tool, as indicated by the white lines near the margin, and the face was rough dressed by pecking with a pointed tool. FIELD COLUMBIAN MUSEUM. ANTHROPOLOGY, PL. II. Fragment of Hewn Stone from Chichen-Itza. Dec. 1895. Ancient Cities of Mexico — Holmes. 31 vantage of bold natural features, but art largely supplied this want, and no nation of builders, save possibly the Mound-builders of the Mississippi Valley has ever equaled this people in the number, variety and size of its terraces and pyramids; however, there appear to be no pyramids that are mere pyramids, no terraces that are mere terraces; all or nearly all were constructed to support buildings, altars or idols, and their diversity of size, contour and position give striking and picturesque results. Usually the substructures are square or rectangular in plan. The largest reported in Yucatan is upward of 500 feet in length and width, and the height of the loftiest reaches nearly 100 feet. The sides slope at various angles and some are practically vertical in whole or in part; many rise in steps, the succeeding terraces or platforms being of equal or unequal height and of varying horizontal extent. As a rule they are or were faced with stone which was dressed smooth or plastered. In the finer structures the terrace faces were panelled in hewn stone or embellished with moldings or with sculptured or stucco reliefs. The corners were often rounded and formed of large and specially sculptured stones.- They were ascended by substantial, generally steep and wide stair- ways on one or more of the sides. The interior mass was constructed of earth and stones or mortar and stones usually forming a solid or well compacted body. In cases, however, this pile was not depended upon as a sufficient support for the superstructure, and foundation walls were carried up from considerable depth or from the ground level. The upper surface was generally floored with cement, though paving with slabs is occasionally seen. No doubt these piles were in cases the result of a long period of growth, and it probably sometimes happened that when a loftier structure was desired ground floor apartments were filled in solid with rubble or masonry, giving firm foundations for a second story or superstructure. In some cases the exterior of vertical-walled substructures was enforced by abutting masonry entirely encasing the original nucleus and giving the effect of an ordinary sloped terrace or pyramid. In Fig. I a few examples of terraces and pyramids are pre- sented in outline. The variety of contour is very great and it may be said that no two specimens are alike. The most unique form is that of the Temple of the Magician at Uxmal, h, which is oblong in plan and rounded at the ends; the loftiest is that of El Castillo at Chichen, which is of the stepped type seen in// while the grandest and most diversified in contour is that of the Governor's House at Uxmal, shown approximately in g. In a, b, c, d and e we have what may be regarded as the most common forms. The substruc- ture of the Temple of the Tigers at Chichen, /, is peculiar only 32 Field Columrian Museum — Anthropology, Vol. i. in being associated with the great wall of the Tennis Court or Gymnasium. • Stairways. The stairways of the Maya pyramids (see Fig. i) share in a large measure the boldness and magnitude of the con- structions with which they are associated and of which they form an essential part. A single stairway would have afforded all necessary access to the lofty summits, but it is not unusual to find two flights, and three or even four flights are known leading to the same temple, and each built on an equally grand scale and finished with like elaboration. All are exterior and centrally placed, leading directly up the face of the pyramid. Usually they are wide and bordered with some kind of solid balustrade. The favorite design for the rail is a colossal serpent, the head with wide open mouth and protruding tongue extended upon the ground, the body, ap- propriately carved, extending to the summit. In Yucatan the steps are neither high nor wide, averaging perhaps a foot in rise and a little less in tread. The pitch is thus 45 degrees or more. The stones used are generally rather small and not very smoothly dressed or well fitted, and it is probable that all important flights were finished in cement and color. The stairway usually conforms to the slope of the pyramid or shows only a little relief therefrom, but occasionally the angle is reduced, throwing the base out from the base of the pyramid, suggesting the graded way of the Mound-builders. Where associated with a vertical or very steep ascent or a series of rises, it is built out solid or carried over arches, as in the Palace at Chichen. Interior stairways are not found in pyramids and are rare and unim- portant in the superstructures; the winding stair in the round tower at Chichen and the several narrow flights in Palenque being perhaps the best known examples. The most interesting stairways met with on the voyage are in the courts of the Palace at Palenque. Here large stones were used, on the faces of which are glyphic sculptures. The evolution of the stairway in its various forms was probably sim- ple and natural and seems to present no problems — no obscure pass- ages — worthy of particular discussion. Superstructures. I cannot undertake in this place to give more than a mere outline of the leading features and characteristics of the many buildings visited. A few only of the larger structures are built on the ground level of the site, though many are but slightly raised. In some cases the terraces and pyramids have developed in sections by the addition of parts needed to accommodate new build- ings, and again, as already mentioned, the supporting pile has been built and completed at once to receive the superstructure upon its Dec. 1895. Ancient Cities of Mexico— Holmes. 33 a. Fig. 1. Examples of Terraces and Pyramids, Superstructures Omitted. 34 Field Columbian Museum — Anthropology, Vol, i. summit. The plan of the building in the one instance is often com- posite and irregular and in the other is simple and regular. A num- ber of buildings may occupy a single large foundation mass, and build- ings or chambers may occur independently of each other on different levels of the same substructure. In a few cases only, as at Tuloom and Palenque, do we find a second story built above a lower story which has not first been filled up. Where several buildings of different levels are associated, the lower tier stands against the base of the pyramid, the second, back of this, occupies the first terrace, and the third, back of this again, is on the second level. The ground plan is usually rectangular, two or three examples only of round houses having been reported. Large buildings of inde- pendent position are mostly rather long, and narrow, the width hav- ing been limited by the difficulty of widening the arch where one or two tiers of rooms are used, and of securing light in the inner cham- bers of multiple tiers, since the upper wall and roof are never perfor- ated. In detail the plan of large buildings, even the most complex, shows little more than a mere multiplication of the simple rectangu- lar cell unit. Exceptions are found in the Round Tower of Chi- chen and in the corridor-like galleries of Palenque, and, no doubt, also in several multi-columned structures now too much ruined to be fully analyzed. The buildings usually classed as temples are not large and are generally squarish in plan. They have from one to four rooms. When the rooms are multiple they are so arranged as to indicate pretty clearly a specialization of use. The two essencial features in such cases are an outer chamber or vestibule and an inner chamber or sanctuary. The vestibule is entered by a plain, single doorway in inferior structures, and by a wide doorway divided by columns or piers in those of the better class. Usually it extends entirely across the front of the building. The fully developed vesti- bule is a modified outer chamber, and is characterized by multiple exterior doorways separated by piers or by columns, giving the effect of a portico closed at the ends. The sanctuary is mostly entered by a central doorway, though lateral entrances are sometimes provided. Additional rooms are arranged about the sanctuary at the right or left or extend behind it, as in the case of El Castillo at Chichen. Most of the Palenque temples have an outer apartment of the vestibule type, entered between piers; and a back apartment enclosing a small roofed sanctuary, entered by a single door. Small rooms are placed at the sides. When there is a single chamber only, which is not un- common, it exhibits frequently the characters of the vestibule. Altars are rarely found, the only example met with being in a small temple on the Dec. 1895. Ancient Cities of Mexico — Holmes. 35 Island of Mugeres. In Fig. 2 a series of temple plans is given, illus- trating the remarks just made. I take it that, if these varied struc- tures are properly called temples, any apartment or any suite of apartments in any building may have served the purposes of a temple, n o EB Ell E^ yiiy a, i, C a^ e / Fig. 2, Specialization of the Ground Plan of Maya Temples. a Single-chamber building with plain door. b Single-chamber temple with wide doorway and two square columns. c Two-chamber temple, the vestibule with wide doorway and round columns, and the sanctu- ary with single plain doorway. d Two-chamber temple, the vestibule with simple doorway, and the sanctuary with three doorways and a low altar. e Four-chamber temple, Palenque type, the vestibule with three entrances and two squarish piers, the sanctuary with tablet chamber, and two small lateral chambers. / Three-chamber temple, Chichen-Itza type, the vestibule entered by wide portal with two serpent columns, the sanctuary enlarged by introducing two square columns to sup- port the triple vault, and a long gallery with three doorways extending behind. though the term may not with propriety be applied to any structure not showing peculiarity of placement or style, in which there is not some variation from the mere grouping of simple chamber units. Ordinary doorways are single and give entrance to a single room or, at most, to a suite rarely having more than two or three rooms. Back rooms are entered by doorways closely resembling the outer ones, getting all their light through them. The various forms of doorways are described farther on. Apartments of all classes and all vaulted spaces are, with a few exceptions, limited in width by the capacity of the native arch to twelve feet or less. The length has no necessary limit, reaching in cases sixty feet or more. Such long rooms may be entered by a num- ber of doorways and thus approximate the corridor type. It is reason- able to suppose that some of the buildings, now represented by piles of debris from which protrude multiple rows of columns, as atChichen and Ak^, were much more expansive in their apartment spaces which were rendered coalescent by the use of columns instead of partition walls. A notable feature of the plan in quadrangular groups of buildings is the gateway or wide, arched passage which opens through one of the outer buildings into the court. The greater Maya buildings, though at times appearing complex in plan, are really exceedingly simple. The unit is the single cell or cham- ber seen standing alone in a, Fig. 3. The building shown in b con- sists of several units combined in one; variety is given to the plan in unsymmetrical structures by adding other units in less uniform ways and 36 FiKi.i) Columbian Museum — Anthropology, Vol. i. of varj'ing size. The building shown in d differs from the preceding in having a sloped instead of a vertical entablature, the interior arrangements being much the same as in b. A sketch, intended as a restoration of the Caracol or Round Tower of Chichen, is presented in i-. * This edifice contains two circular, concentric chambers identical in constructive principle with the rectangular forms. In e we have the Palenque type of temple, and/" is the square tower of the Palace at Pal- enque, the plan and construction of which are peculiar in several respects. Wall Surfaces, Ceilings, Roofs, Etc. Under the head of masonry I have given some details of the composition and construc- tion of the walls and buildings; these need not be repeated here. The walls are massive, ranging in all important buildings from three to five feet in thickness, and in special cases reaching eight or nine feet. Though the so-called Gymnasium ramparts at Uxmal and Chichen are much thicker than this, they are not to be classed with the Avails of buildings. The exterior wall faces are seldom pierced or inter- rupted save by doorways, vaulted portals and small openings, the lat- ter probably intended for ventilation, and in Yucatan, with some exceptions, they rise vertically or nearly so to the full height of the buildings. In the Palenque or Usumacinta province, the upper wall or entablature zone usually inclines inward, conforming more or less closely with the slope of the arch within. On the inside the walls rise vertically to the spring or base of the arch, a height varying from a few inches to ten or twelve feet. The inclined surfaces of the arch, in each apartment or covered space, slope inward from the sides, and sometimes also from the ends, at an angle of from fifteen to forty degrees from the vertical, and either meet at the top in a sharp angle, as seen in a few cases at Chichen and elsewhere, or approach to with- in a foot or two the narrow way, when they are connected by horizontal slabs and firmly held together by the superincumbent roof-masonry. Flat ceilings supported by wooden beams occur in a very few cases, as at El Meco and Tuloom on the east shore, but many of the build- ings now roofless were probably so constructed. Stone beams were used for short spans, as in miniature apartments, narrow openings and passageways. The treatment of the interior wall surface is not greatly varied, yet within a limited range presents some interesting features. It is remarked that the apartments are little broken up by fixed feat- ures such as steps, stairways, niches, altars, tables, mouldings and the like, and there are but slight signs of the former presence of movable furnishings such as might be expected in fully occupied *It seems reasonably certain that the walls of both stories of this building were vertical as indi- cated, but the number and position of the openings of the upper turret, and the character of the platforms, or roofs, remains problematical. Dec. 1895. Ancient Cities of Mexico— Holmes. 37 Fig. 3. Examples of Maya Buildings. Single-chamber building— a unit of construction. Multiple chambered building— an assemblage of 12 or 14 units. Restoration of circular building. Chichen-ltza. Building with sloping entablature, Chichen Itza. Temple with sloping entablature and roof-comb, Palenque. Square tower of four stories, Palenque— roof restored 38 Field Columbian Mcseum — Anthropology, Vol. i. domiciliary chambers. High up in the arches are occasional cross- beams or poles set in the masonry as if to support the sloping walls while the mason was at work, and probably used incidentally for sus- pending hangings or property. At the sides of the doors are numerous sunken cord-holders — a kind of dumb-sheave, as sailors would say — carved or built into the masonry, by means of which textile hangings were probably suspended or held in place. Illustrations of these devices are given in Fig. 4. In a we have a good example of the Fig. 4. Cord Holders or Dumb Sheaves. Cords are introduced to show probable manner of use. a Form of dumb-sheave built into the masonr>' wall. b Drilled cord-holder in back of column. c Cord-holders as used in moldings and corners of jambs and walls. dumb-sheave holder typically developed at Palenque. It is built in the plain masonry wall. The depression is seven inches high and ten inches deep and the small stone cylinder is four inches in diameter and sets back about four inches from the wall face. This form is usually found on the inside of doorways, a foot or two back from the jamb, and distributed in rows of three or four from lintel level to floor. Example b is of the countersunk type and occurs in the back of a serpent column at Chichen-Itza. The same type is utilized in corners, eaves, moldings and the like as shown in c. These sketches represent the better class of holders. Many examples are so poorly made that they would not withstand a strong pull by an able-bodied man, and some are modeled in plaster. In interior as in exterior walls, the masonry exhibits all grades of finish from the rough, unhewn, irregularly laid stone facing to the perfectly dressed and coursed surface; the rougher surfaces were gen- erally plastered and very many were finished in color. Small, dark, unimportant chambers, passageways, etc., were given but little atten- tion. In cases the surface is carved elaborately, as in the ground floor apartment in the Temple of the Tigers at Chichen; and in other cases the walls were covered with paintings of mythic or historic sub- jects or with conventional decorations in color, as in the upper build- ing in the same ruin. Exceptional features of interior construction Dec. 1895. Anxient Cities of Mexico — Holmes. 39 and finish are observed in Palenque, where the walls of sanctuaries are covered with inscribed limestone tablets and stucco reliefs. In other cases, as in the Palace at Palenque, the walls are embellished with elaborate stucco devices and figure subjects in relief, all richly colored. Exterior wall surfaces, especially the facades of buildings, embody many striking characters. They exhibit all grades of finish, from the mortarless wall of rough irregularly laid stones, to the unbroken field of sculptured or modeled decorations. As a rule they are plainer be- low and increase in richness of treatment toward the top, terminating, in many of the great structures, in flying fronts devoted exclusively to decorative effect. Of the same order as the latter is the central roof- comb found in many buildings, and well illustrated by the House of the Pigeons at Uxmal and the Temple of the Cross at Palenque. The treatment of facades indicates a pronounced love of display on the part of the builders, and in many cases at least nine-tenths of the labor expended on a building is represented in show alone. Among the most persistent features of the mural surfaces in Yuca- tan are the two lines of moldings, one of which extends around the build- ing nearly midway in its height, and the other at the top associated with the coping stones. The mural space is thus divided into two zones of nearly equal width, the upper representing the entablature of classic styles. In the Usumacinta province, where the entablature zone slopes backward, the inferior and superior moldings are less uniform in profile, and less pronounced in character. The lower zone is usu- ally nearly plain and contains the doorways; the upper is finished with symbolic and decorative sculptures. The high arched gateways or portals which penetrate some of the buildings, usually giving entrance to the court, extend upward into the upper decorated zone. The flying facade sometimes added above to give extra height re- peats, in a measure, or continues the decorative features of the en- tablature zone below. The same may be said of the roof-comb, but this feature, in one case at least — the House of the Pigeons at Uxmal — repeats both the lower and upper mural zones. The illustration given in Fig. 5 will serve to indicate sufficiently the construction and relations of the various features of an ordinary Maya building. The upper part of the sub-structure or pyramid is included and shows the stairway at the left, approaching the front door- way, and a plain slope at the right. Details of the masonry of this mass are somewhat hypothetical, as I have not been able to deter- mine whether or not it is the rule that a special foundation wall with vertical outer face was built from the ground up, but it is certain that this was often the case, and that the stairway and abutting masonry were afterward added, as here shown, transforming the vertical-faced sub-structure into a sloping one. The floor is cemented as a rule, 40 Field Columhian Museum — Anthropology, \'ol. i. but occasionally is flagged, and the inner floor is in cases a step high- er than the esplanade without. The superstructure here utilized, has two chambers, or two tiers of chambers, vaulted with the ordinary arch, and the walls are vertical without as is usual in Yucatan. The nature of the facing and hearting is shown in section in the back wall at the right, and the illy jointed and bonded masonry is correctly represented. The use of larger stones in the jambs of the doorwa3's is indicated at the left. At a is the plain lower wall with doorway at d, and above is a sectional view of the wooden lintels, c. The front and back chambers are connected by a second doorway, d, identical with the outer one. The sloping sides of the corbellateor offset arch, dressed with the bevel, are seen at e and the capstone is at/. Special features seen within the rooms are the small, square, wall perforation at the right, the poles or braces within the arch above, and two forms of cord fasteners — not large en'ough to be clearly made out — at the side of the inner door. One pair of these is made by drilling holes from adjoining faces of the stone until they meet, and the other by building a deep depression in the surface of the wall into which is fixed a vertical piece of round stone. The medial moldings, separating the two mural zones, typically developed, are shown at ^>. The upper zone with its sculpture-mosaic surface is seen at //, and the upper or frieze molding and coping course appears at the top, i. Continuous with the facade plane is the false or flying front, repeat- ing the decorations of the facade proper more or less faithfully, and solid or perforated as the builder pleased or the nature of the orna- ment suggested. In some cases this feature is repeated in the same form over the medial wall of the building, but more frequently we have a more ambitious roof-comb, as indicated at k, and typically illustrated in the House of the Pigeons, Uxmal. It appears that the two forms are not likely to occur on the same structure. Details are given in other connections. In the drawing the combs are discon- nected from the building so that the ordinary roof may be seen in its level simplicity. Doorways and Other Wall Openings. The wall perforations of Maya buildings may be arranged under six heads. They consist of (i) simple rectangular doorways with jambs, lintels and sometimes sills, (2) multiple or compound doorways in which the wide void is divided by one, two, three or more columns or pillars, (3) arched doorways which are of rare occurrence, (4) certain window-like open- ings or air holes of small size and varied shape, (5) the diversified openings in flying facades and roof-crests, some representing the in- terspaces of geometric ornaments, and others resembling doorways in their construction, but serving no function save that of embellish- Dec. 1895. Ancient Cities of Mexico — Holmes. 41 Fig. 5. Transverse Section of an Ordinary Yucatec Building. The upper part of the pyramid is shown with the stairway at the left. Lower wall-zone pierced by a plain doorway. Doorway showing squared and dressed stones of jamb. c. Wooden lintels cut midway in length. d. Doorway connecting front with back chamber and showing position of cord holders. e. Inner face of arch dressed with the slope. f. Ceiling, or cap-stones of arch. g. Lower line of mouldings, a survival of the archaic cornice. /;. Decorated entablature zone. i. Upper mouldings and coping. j.k. False front with decorations, (occasionally added). /. Root-crest with decorations, (occasionally added). b. 42 Field Columbian Museum — Anthropology, Vol. i. ment, and (6) the so-called arched portals or gateways which are not wall perforations in the same sense as the others, but vaulted pass- ageways opening entirely through the building from side to side, and not communicating with the apartments. The latter are described under the heading of the arch. In Figs. 6 and 7, two illustrations of ordinary doorways of the better class are given. They are solidly built and effective. The first is an exterior doorway with heavy stone lintel, and with jambs built of large blocks well dressed and laid. With the serrate lattice- work panels at the right and left — very slightly indicated — the effect is highly satisfactory. The height is seven and the width four feet. The second is an interior doorway connecting the corridor of a Chichen temple with the sanctuary. The solidity of its construction is a marked feature, and its chief characteristics of design are the heavy pilasters and the three zapote lintels, the middle one, lower than the others, resting on the pilasters. These lintels in a well con- structed doorway are usually neatly squared and perfectly fitted to the stone work. Occasionally we find them only partially squared and of meagre length, the spaces left at the ends being filled up with mor- tar and bits of stone. It is not improbable that such inferior adjust- ments resulted from the insertion of new beams by indifferent workmen as decay made replacement necessary. Both jambs and lintels in such doorways were often embellished with elaborate sculptures or glyphic inscriptions. Two fine doorways are shown in Figs. 8 and g. When the am- bitious builders desired to make the portal especially imposing in effect they increased its width and inserted columns or pillars to sup- port the long lintel which was made up of as many sections as there were openings. Fig. 8 illustrates a single round stone column with square cap, supporting the contiguous ends of two stone lintels, the other ends of which rest on square-capped jambs. In the same edi- fice with the above there are also examples of the use of two and three columns, giving very pleasing effects. Perhaps the most effective and striking style of temple entrance in Yucatan is that sketched in Fig. 9. The opening is some 20 feet wide and 8 feet high, and is divided by two massive columns sculptured to represent feathered serpents; these are fully described in the succeeding section. The lintel in this doorway consists of three sets of beams, two or three to a set. Both the front beam and that facing the corridor are well squared, and the middle beam, when there are three, is less carefully dressed. Another phase of the wall openings of these buildings is seen in Palenque, where the numerous doorways are so close together that the wall is represented by a series of piers only extending nearly all the Dec. 1895. Ancient Cities of Mexico— Holmes. 43 Fig. 6. Exterior Doorway. Of simple form but tasteful finish. The lintel is of stone and the jambs are built of large, well-dressed blocks. Fig. 7. Interior Doorway. 44 Field Columbian Museum — Anthropology, Vol. i. Fig. 8. Wide Exterior Doorway. Divided by a single round column supporting stone lintels. Fig. 9. Wide Exterior Doorway. Of highest class, with two massive feathered-serpent columns supporting wooden lintels. Dec. 1895. Ancient Cities of Mexico — Holmes. 45 way around the building. There are ruined buildings in north-eastern Yucatan which bristle with rows of columns, and it seems probable that in such case the whole structure or a large part of it may have been supported on these columns without enclosing walls, thus leaving continuous openings separated by round columns; naturally structures of this class would fall into ruin before those supported by strong walls. The other varieties of wall perforations, save the minor forms represented by the three examples shown in Fig. 10, are sufficiently described in their proper connections. rrx Fig. 10. Minor Wall Opening*. a Represents the tau-shaped opening most common in Palenque; it is seldom more than 20 inches in height. b \s a window-like opening some 6 or 7 feet in height, occurring in partition walls only, in Palenque. c Is the usual form of perforation in Yucatan. It is from 6 to 12 inches in height, and often roughly constructed. Columns and Pillars. Developing pari passu with the door- waj'S and arches we have a great variety of pillars and columns. The American column, in the nature of things, exhibits certain parallelisms with the columns of the eastern continent, but in all departures from the most elementary treatment and use it may be said to be characteristically American. Square columns, most numerous in Chichen, are well illustrated in PI. XVI, and pillars or piers, typically developed in Palenque, were usually simple in form though often embellished with elaborate sculptures or plastic designs in low relief, whilst the round column had advanced beyond the more elemental form with its shaft and simple cap, and was given, in whole or in part, varied and remarkable life forms, the feathered serpent being the favorite motive embodied. Among the most striking features of the great buildings of Chichen-Itza are the massive serpent columns, and on the Island of Cozumel, in a diminutive temple, the life-sized figure of a human being or man-like ape is sculptured in high relief against the face of the column. Columns were usually assembled in pairs, where introduced into 46 Field Columbian Museum — Anthropology, Vol. i. doorways to support the entablature, but appeared in groups and rows numbering scores or hundreds where extended facades or large roof areas were supported. Few specimens are monolithic, save in the east, as at Cozumel, where the size was reduced to a minimum and the available stone was perhaps more than usually massive. The proportions are considerably varied, but all are short and heavy. The diameter is to the height, approximately, as i to 3^. The square column is always built up of a number of heavy blocks. The round column had become such a familiar feature of the building art that it was employed outside of its normal range of functions, appearing very frequently in the field of pure embellish- ment. In many of the Yucatec buildings it was used, on a reduced scale, to decorate the facades, where it was effectively introduced in moldings and friezes, forming long rows set in contact side by side. Generally the form was rounded only in front, while the back was flat or uneven and set in mortar. The form was varied in cases by formal moldings encircling the shaft, giving the effect, in a simple way, of our turned balusters. The genesis of the stone column would seem to be easily made out, as prototypes are- found in the wooden and stone roof supports employed in most primitive structures. The association with it of animal forms may perhaps be satisfactorily explained on the as- sumption that the figures or monsters embodied represent the divinities associated with the temple of which the column formed a conspicuous part. This association is in marked contrast with the more rational use of vegetal forms by the Egyptians and Greeks, though animal forms and figures of men and women were occasionally used in those countries. The association of animal forms with portals and columns was more common in the far East. It is notable that the round column was more generally and freely used in eastern Yucatan, as on Cozumel Island, at El Meco, Chichen, and Ake, than elsewhere. At Uxm^l I saw no compound doorways and hence no portal columns, and in fact no columns of any kind, and at Palenque heavy flattish pillars, mere sections of the perforated wall, take their place. The drawing of a column, introduced as a frontispiece to this paper, PI. I, is made up from portions of two examples preserved in Chichen-Itza. The close likeness of all the remnants of this class found here makes it apparent that the type was well estab- lished and uniform in fundamental features, so that a composite derived from two or more specimens may give a very correct notion of this remarkable feature of the Chichen temples. The head, or base, is drawn from a well-preserved specimen in the Temple of the Dec. 1895. Ancient Cities of Mexico — Holmes. 47 Tigers, Gymnasium group, and the shaft and capital — the body and tail of the serpent — are drawn from this and from specimens sup- porting the entablature at the eastern entrance of El Castillo. The position of these columns in the temples is fully described and illus- trated in the accompanying pages. The massive head, projecting forward at the side of the portal, almost meets the upper end of the bal- ustrade of the stairway, which also terminates in a similar head at the base below. The extended tongue, preserved in several cases, is two feet or more in length and is made of a separate piece of stone fixed in the end of the lower jaw by means of a tenon. The attitude of the head is indicative of alertness and ferocity, the mythic monster being strongly characterized. The mouth is open, showing fangs above and below and rows of teeth at the sides. There are also characteristic palate, throat and tongue markings. A coiled ap- pendage issues from each corner of the mouth and rests against the jaw — a feature seen in many of the sculptured monsters of this and other sections of Mexico. The nostrils are forcibly suggested and the eye is especially characteristic of the rattlesnake. Trie eyeballs, in one case at least, were made of white polished sea shell. The pupil was probably painted black or formed of some dark material set into its place with c'ement. An eye socket, seen in an example in the Temple of the Tables, is ten inches long. The head is en- tirely covered with neatly sculptured scales. The body or shaft is short and thick and formed of two sections of stone aside from the base section. It is elegantly finished in low relief, the sculpturings representing bands of feathers above (exterior surface of the column), and characteristic ventral markings beneath (inner surface of the column.) The capstone is the tail of the serpent, which turns abruptly out, extending beyond the lintel, and terminates in a somewhat blunt point, not preserved, however, in any of the principal examples, as the falling of stones from the facades above have broken it away. It is my impression, formed from a study of various serpent sculptures, that the tip of the tail was given its characteristic rattle markings. The inner part of this caudal-capital is rounded to conform to the curve of the column, as seen in the Castillo examples, and strangely enough, contains reliefs of a row of dwarfish, bearded Atlantean figures in elaborate costume, placed in the attitude of supporting the lintels. It is probable that I have erred in carrying the outer of the two figures, shown in the plate, so far beyond the front margin of the lintel, as the idea plainly was that these figures, four of which remain in one case, should appear as supporters of the superstructure and not merely as decorations. The general shape of the outer extremity 48 Field Columbian Museum — Anthropology, Vol. i. of the tail is probably correctly given in the example illustrated in Fig. 40, though it is, I believe, unsculptured; possibly it was un- finished. Portions of the lintel timbers and entablature above are shown in section, and the relation of these features with the corridor and facade is shown in several subsequent cuts, as for example in Fig. 31. The dimensions of the columns utilized in this reconstruction are about as follows: The head (base) of the Temple of the Tigers example is 7 feet 4 inches long and about 4 feet wide at the muzzle and 4 feet high. The height of the remnant of body (shaft) as it stands is 7 feet 7 inches. The whole height, if it is allowed that one shaft stone and the cap are missing, was close to 10 feet. The diam- eter of the body or shaft I failed to secure, but it is not far from 36 inches. The EI Castillo column, used in completing the upper part of the drawing, is not so large. The diameter of the shaft is 25 inches and the full height to the lintel 7 feet 9 inches. The strik- ing character of the Chichen temple portal and its columns, before mutilation took place, is indicated in Fig. 9. When in a perfect state of preservation and appropriately colored it must have present- ed a very effective and handsome appearance. The Arch. The Maya arch presents a number of interesting forms and phases, all, probably, directly traceable to the more primi- tive forms of chamber spans or vaults in common use all over America. Among these earlier forms we have, first, the beam of wood or slab of stone connecting two lateral supports or walls and forming part of the roof or serving to support it; second, the single iean-to, in which the parts are placed against some fixed vertical surface or sup- port; third, the double lean-to, where opposing parts are set against each other with or without a ridge pole; and, fourth, the circular lean- to, in which the parts form a cone with or without a central support- ing pole. All are equally elementary, and it will be impossible to de- termine just which varieties contributed most toward the develop ment of the higher forms of vault in use among the Mayas. There are, however, but two principles of construction involved in all of these spans — the horizontal span and the lean-to. The latter is never used alone but occurs in combination with the former. The prevailing form of Maya arch is based on the horizontal span, employing not single long slabs, but a series of short slabs so placed as to bridge the void by degrees. A course of stones is laid along the top of each of the opposing walls, projecting a little, a second course is laid in like manner, and others follow until by a series of offsets the sides have approached to within a foot or two, when a course of large well-squared slabs is laid across, completing the span. Dec. 1895. Anxient Cities of Mexico — Holmes. 49 In examples employing the lean-to principle, the construction is the same up to the point of connecting the closely approximate walls. Instead of laying a course of flat capstones across, two courses were em- ployed, set on edge on the upper courses of the walls and inclined to- gether at the top, continuing the pitch of the walls and forming the true cuneiform arch. The object of the off-setting is, of course, to reduce the span of the void, thus permitting the use of ceiling stones of small size instead of large and long stones which were hard to obtain and easily broken, or beams of wood which soon decayed. These arches really represent the emancipation of the Maya builder from the thraldom of the wooden beam. The prevailing variety was used in all forms of chambers and also in certain large vaulted passages, as in the Palace at Uxmal, and occasionally in smaller openings, as at Palenque, but the flat span or lintel remained in nearly universal use for ordinary doorways. A unique appearing arch is found at Palenque, the sides being curved in such a way as to give a some- what trefoil effect to the opening. The principle of construction is, however, the same as in the prevailing form of the cuneiform arch, the profile being curved instead of straight. It is evident that considerable difficulty was experienced in carrying up the long slopes of the larger vaults, and the high angle adopted was one means of lessening the tendency to collapse. The projecting stones were largely held in place by the masonry of the body of the wall, which was carried up at the same time, but even this, espe- cially in cases where the outer surface was also inclined, could not have prevented the frequent falling of the work when approaching the apex. In meeting this difficulty it was a common practice to use tim- bers — generally poles of medium or small size — which were placed across and built into the masonry as it rose, holding the walls apart. These beams are preserved in hundreds of cases and nearly every vault shows by its numerous beam sockets that this device was extensively relied upon. I believe the theor}^ is advanced by some writer that a core of masonry was first built of the proper shape, and the vault constructed over it. I doubt if the numerous examples of masonry- filled apartments observed are satisfactory proof of this, but a care- ful examination of the surface finish in a room so filled might readily settle the question. In Fig. II I present sketches of six examples of the Maya arch. These do not cover the entire ground, but others so far as I have seen are merely variations of the two prevailing types, shown in a and b, the first, terminating above in two rows of inclined slabs, form- ing the apex, and the second closed with a course of horizontal slabs. The former is" seen in Chichen-Itza, but is rare elsewhere, and the 50 Field Columbian Museum — Anthropology, Vol. i. latter was almost universally used in chamber vaults. The specimen shq,wn in c differs from /.- only in having the corbellate or offset mar- gins of the stones dressed with the slope, making a plane surface. That given in ^/ is identical with the preceding, save that its inclined faces are slightly curved; it is the form sometimes used in the portal vaults which open through one or more of the buildings of a quad- rangular group communicating with the court. It is seen also in chamber vaults, in bridges and aqueducts. The fifth example e is also a portal vault t3^pically developed in the Governor's Palace, Uxmal; indeed I cannot say that other illustrations are known. The slopes are long and it is probable that they were intended to be straight though now considerably warped, possibly by sagging. The sixth specimen /, is the trefoil arch of the Palace in Palenque, which is the most ambitious attempt at arch elaboration in America, and shows, in connection with kindred wall perforations in the same building, an up-hill struggle of the aesthetic in a field where construc- tion was only blindly feeling its way. The arch was rarely emplo3'ed in ordinar}- doorways, exterior or interior, the few cases at Palenque being exceptional. The flat form of opening was preferred because the prolonged apex of the cunei- form arch led to troublesome complications with the interior vaults, as well as with the exterior medial moldings and the ornamented zone of the entablature. It ma}- be added that in numerous cases all four walls of the chamber are made to approach toward the apex of the vault, thus more thoroughly distributing the thrust of the superincumbent masonry. The j\Iaya builder did not often essay to construct his arch over a space more than twelve feet wide, though in the loftier buildings a much greater span was possible even with the ordinar}^ pitch of the opposing walls. The average incline appears to be about 65 degrees, but occasional examples rise to So degrees, while others fall to 60 or even 55 degrees; the latter pitch would, however, give a weak con- struction, as the outward thrust would be increased to a dangerous de- gree. A building 24 feet high with roof 3 feet thick would accommodate a vault 21 feet high. If the vertical walls below are carried up to half this height, which is perhaps not far from the average relation of upper and lower spaces, an incline of 65 degrees in the opposing walls, allowing 18 inches for the capstone span, will give a vault g feet in width, or nearly ten feet, measured on the floor level, as there is usually an offset at the spring of the arch of from 3 to 6 inches on each side. In the vaulted passageways through the Governor's Palace at Dkc, iHcj^. Anciknt Cities oi- Mexico — Hol MES. 51 Fig. 11. Examples of Maya Arches. a. Section of cuii(;iloriii iircli with acute apex, Cliichen-Itza. 6. Section of ordinary arcli witli flat cajistone. £. Section of ordinary arcli witii dreHsed surfaces. d Section of ordinary arch with drcHsed surfaces and curved sofTit slopes. e. Portal arcli with lon({ Hlopes, showing masonry of exterior facing. /. Section of trefoil, portal arch o( I':iIi-m<|m.- 52 Field Columbian Museum — Anthropology, Vol. i. Uxmal the incline of the arch begins within a few inches of the ground, so that in the long rise of 20 feet or more, even with the high pitch of 70 degrees, the width spanned is not far from 18 feet. The highest arch met with in my own investigations is in the outer annular chamber or gallery of the Round Tower at Chichen. The height is about 24 feet, while the width is only six feet; the pitch of the vault walls is therefore unusually great, and the apex correspondingly sharp. A fuller analysis of the arch and its development will be given at the close of Part II of this paper, in connection with a study of the origin and development of the stone building art of Central America and Mexico. Ornament. It is impossible to say of the ornamental art of any primitive people just what causes have operated to bring it into exist- ence, or what ideas underlie its varied phenomena. We discover in the non-essential elaborations of these ancient buildings numerous elements surely traceable to constructive sources, but we further per- ceive that most of the motives employed in embellishment have their origin in religion, that their use in art was first significant and second cesthetic. It is probably safe to say that in ]Ma3'a ornament nine- tenths of the elements used are, or were, present on account of their significance, or because of some associated thought, although we cannot say just how much of the original meanings were retained by the advanced peoples who continued to employ them in their build- ings. It is almost certain that every life form that entered into the embellishment of temples and palaces was employed because it occu- pied some place in the mythologic s\'mbolism of the builders. The serpent, the tiger, the turtle, the bird, the monster, represent mythic conceptions. Men were deities or their representatives or were depicted in scenes that relate to rites or duties of a religious nature. We may go further and premise that ver}^ many of the pureh" conven- tional designs, the scrolls, the frets, the meanders and the zigzags had meanings, hidden to the uninitiated, coming down from their less conventional phases of development. It is prett}' certain that even in the latest periods of Maya history the various motives employed in decoration were not only significant, but that they were not used out of their traditional or appropriate associations, and when we see a life form or even a non-graphic device associated with a given struc- ture we may fairly assume that it has, or had, a special significance and function in that connection. The housing of gods and men is a simple thing and requires little more than walls and a roof, but the demands of symbolism and aestheticism make building a complex and w'onderful art, adding three-fourths to the labor and cost of construction, and imposing Dec. 1895. Ancient Cities of Mexico — Holmes. 53 nearly all there is of elaboration or display. Symbolism places the figure of a divinity at the entrance to a temple because its functions are best performed in that situation, and its sculpture may be of the simplest kind, but the love of display modifies the figure, introduces it into the construction and multiplies it without limit, carrying it in rows along the walls and in panels from top to base; it heightens the walls and adds lofty pinnacles and crests to make room for increased display. Superstition modifies the column that supports the wide entablature of the temple gate, making it resemble the form of a feathered serpent, a mythic compound probably representative of a chief divinity, but only a well-developed sense of the beautiful could refine the form and array the folds, feathers and scales of the monster in varied and graceful combinations. Symbolism associates certain conventional figures, as the scroll and the fret, emblems of wind and wave, with the figure of the god of water or of the air, but aestheticism carries scroll work and fretwork over all the available spaces and multiplies and beautifies the idols until we have a maze of varied, yet withal — we may assume — ideographically consistent embellish- ment. Notwithstanding this general consistency, which traditioif struggles to preserve, the aesthetic impulse was surely gaining ground and little by little overstepping the traditional bounds and asserting for itself the right to make things beautiful at whatever cost to signifi- cance or traditional usage. A somewhat detailed analysis of Mexican and Central American architectural ornament is reserved for the sec- ond part of this paper, as the necessary illustrations are not yet ready. All the sculptor's work is crude as compared with civilized art, but it is virile and, to my mind, full of promise of higher achieve- ment. Portrait sculpture was probably not practiced, or if attempted the form of expression was so conventional as to rob the repre- sentation of marked individuality. Sculpture found its subjects almost wholly within the animal kingdom, and, though we observe that species were portrayed with some degree of truth, it is apparent that with creatures as with human beings, mythic characters were of more importance to the sculptor than the realistic. Graphic art seems to have covered pretty much the whole field of nature and art, presenting men, animals, plants and nature generally with rude vigor. Extensive subjects in bright col- ors, covering the walls of some of the chambers of Chichen include village scenes and battle pieces strongly suggesting the work in some of the ancient manuscripts. There is a lack of perspective, and a mixing up of sizes, and the general style of presentation is suggest- ive of that of the ancient Egyptians. Hieroglyphs. It is not my purpose to attempt a study of the 54 Field Columbian Museum — Anthropology, Vol. i. glyphic characters, seen in considerable numbers in all the principal cities. They may readily be examined as to their general character- istics as sculptured or plastic devices, but their interpretation is a totally distinct matter and fraught with formidable if not insuperable difficulties. Looking toward the latter end, however, numerous students have begun the work of collecting and collating them, and important results have been accomplished by Stephens, Charnay, Maudslay, Seler and Thompson in the field, and by Thomas, Brin- ton, Forstemann, Schellhas, Valentini and others utilizing mainly the graphic and plastic copies brought together in libraries and museums. There can be no doubt that they are representatives of a system of writing, which, though necessarily in its infancy, was entering upon the phonetic stage. The characters are, however, highly developed and complex in their constitution, a single sign employing several ele- ments, and so fully condensed or conventionalized that the original realistic characters are largely obliterated. The most strongly marked variation from the typical " calculiform " figures is seen in Uxmal, where inscriptions in the central over-door decoration of the Governor's palace and in the Temple of the JNIagician are less com- pactly grouped, as if more archaic in character, or as if treated mere- ly as a means of decorating the spaces occupied. At best the sculptured inscriptions are but brief. Even the longest are limited to a few hundred characters, and the highest pos- sible values of phonetic or ideographic elements would not enable them to express more than a few brief statements. Interpretations, if finally made, will be exceedingly interesting, but as historical rec- ords little can be reasonably expected of the inscriptions. They may be names, titles or decrees of rulers, but more probably relate to priestly matters, marking dates or indicating the nature of rites and ceremonies. They were probably understood by the priesthood almost exclusively, and before the Spanish conceived the notion that they were worth preserving the key was lost. Technically considered, the glyphic characters of the several Maya provinces do not differ greatly save as a result of the varied nature of the materials in which they are executed. Preserved exam- ples are usually in stone, but stucco was extensively employed in some sections, as at Palenque, and wood was certainly much used through- out the whole Maya territory. As a matter of course the same forms of writing were executed in color on walls, parchment, paper, etc., and to a far greater extent than in plastic methods. The sculptured figures are in low relief where hard stone or wood was used, and are much more boldly defined when sculptured in soft stone or modeled in plaster. In Yucatan they are very generally associated with door- Dec. 1895. Ancient Cities of Mexico — Holmes. 55 ways, columns and pillars, lintel faces being preferred, but they are found in various situations. At Palenque they are engraved upon the heavy stone steps of the Palace courts and occur most fre- quently associated with devotional groups of figures set into the walls of sanctuaries. The numerous stucco groups covering the pillars of the temples are generally accompanied by a few stucco glyphs and some of the pillars are devoted entirely to these inscriptions. The general character and appearance of the glyphs is shown in the specimen illustrated in PI. VII. The Yucatec Mayas introduced glyphs into their sculpturings less profusely than did their southern brethren and the work is less refined and elegant. There appear to be no very closely analogous forms of glyphic writing in any other part of the world. 56 Field Columbian Museum — Anthropology, Vol. i. ^ CAPE CATOCHE. CONTOY I. BLANCA I. MUGERES I. ^ RUINS. // CANCUN I. COZUMEL ISLAND. Fig. 12. Sketch Map of the Shore and Islands of Northeastern Yucatan. RUINS OF EASTERN YUCATAN. The voyage to the eastern islands and shores of Yucatan was looked forward to by our party with exceptional interest, as the region had been but little visited by students and there was promise of numer- ous novel features in all the fields of observation and especially in archeology. Besides, it is a land of much reputed beauty and is rendered romantic by tales of recent piracy. The northern shore of the peninsula is low and monotonous, and not attractive to look upon, but is said to be dotted with numerous ruins and ancient dwelling sites. These were passed by with much regret, but the time at our disposal did not permit of the study of minor remains or warrant the exploration of fields with respect to which so little was positively known. Rounding Cape Catoche on the 2gth of December, we reached the low island of Contoy^ and stopped for an hour to visit a recent wreck, cast by the strong current of the Gulf stream upon the low reefs of the island. MUGERES ISLAND. Next south of Contoy comes Isla Mugeres or Woman's Island, a narrow strip of coraline limestone some five miles long and less than one mile in width, generally low but rising at the south end into a narrow promontory some sixty feet above the sea. At the north it is partially connected by a line of rocks and sunken reefs with the islands to the northwest. Our boat was piloted across this dangerous line of rocks at a point near what is known as Anvil Rock and anchored in a shallow little harbor on the west side of the island, fronting the vil- lage of Dolores, an humble fisher settlement of some 500 inhabitants. The village faces the harbor and extends back through sheltered and luxuriant groves of cocoanut palms some three or four hundred feet, to the sandy ridges bordering the sea on the outer side of the island. The island is skirted by ledges of sponge-like and cavernous lime- stone of recent formation, save in and about the harbor of Dolores, which is bordered by a low sandy beach. So far as we could learn the only ruins on the island worthy of note are at the south end, and these were reached by means of the gasoline launch, from which we landed with some difficulty on the 57 5« Field Columbian Museum — Anthropology Vol. i. rocky shore a little above the southern point. The promontory is very abrupt and is worn by the heavy seas into picturesque pinnacles, cav- erns, arches and rough outstanding masses of rock, as imperfectly in- Fig. 13. Sketch of the South End of Mugeres Island, showing Location OF Ruins. dicated in Fig. 13. Ascending the rugged bluff and skirting the cliff to avoid the tangle of undergrowth, we encountered a small ruin near the margin of a depression in the bluff about three hundred yards from the outer point. The fallen walls were overgrown with a varie- ty of cactus apparently peculiar to the localit}'' and described by Steph- ens as flourishing on the same spot fifty years ago. As that explorer barely mentions the ruin, I present a sketch plan, Fig. 14, which shows the building to have been a small temple or shrine, with ter- raced base of eccentric outline, ascended by two narrow stairways having six or seven steps each. The terrace is from five to seven feet in height and some twenty-five feet in length and width. The ruined walls of the minute shrine occupy the middle of the substructure and are ten feet square, and from three to four feet in height. There ap- pear to have been doorways on all of the four sides. The steps are of cut limestone and are retained by balustrade walls level for a short .space at the top and sloped with the stair below. The masonry con- sists of irregular stones laid up rather carelessly- in mortar, and the faces, where not originally even, were roughly dressed. The whole surface was probably evened up with mortar and possibly painted. Passing outward along the grass-covered promontory, here quite narrow, we reached the principal ruin. Fig. 13, and PI. Ill, which is a prominent and striking feature of the landscape and a valuable landmark to every sailor of these seas. This temple — for such it may be called — has been about one-third destroyed by the sea. Nearly four centu- ries ago the fleet of Cortez sought refuge among these islands and Dec. 1895. Ancient Cities of Mexico— Holmes. 59 Fig. H. Ground Plan of Small Structure Near South End of Mugeres Island. m % m ^, Fig. 15. Ground Plan of Ruined Temple at South End of Mugeres Island. 6o Field Columbian Museum — Anthropology, Vol. i. found upon one of them, possibly Mugeres, numerous temples in which the idols worshiped represented women; the name thus sug- gested has fixed itself upon this island. This building was no doubt entire at the time of this visit and it is probable that there was con- siderable space between the base of the low terrace and the sea cliff on all sides. The destruction of the point of the promontory appears to be going on rapidly at the present time, as the waves break with great force from both sides against the underlying beds of soft lime- stone, undermining the harder stratum at the top and causing it to fall in great masses into the sea. The masses are quickly broken up and disintegrated and deposited as sand along the shore. At present the remnant of the temple extends from margin to margin of the prom- ontory, a width of perhaps forty feet. This distance will soon be cut through, and the outer point, which is wider and extends some sixty feet southward from the front of the building will soon be bro- ken down. It is apparent that originally the plan was symmetrical, as shown in Fig. 15, where the dotted lines indicate the portion lost in the sea. It does not seem unlikely that one hundred years from now the ruin and the whole point beyond it will have forever disap- peared from view. That the last fifty years have dealt kindly with the structure, however, is apparent from a comparison of the photo- graphic illustration presented in PI. Ill, with the engraving* given by Stephens in Vol. i of his Yucatan. The terrace substructure — an incipient pyramid — was originally about thirty feet long, twenty-five feet wide and four to six feet high. It is composed mainly of loose stones, with perhaps a little mortar, and is faced with large blocks, some of which have been pretty evenly dressed. Many of these stones are large, one near the outer south- western corner measuring five feet six inches long, three feet six inches high and more than a foot thick. The narrow steps, five in number, ascend the middle of the south face of the terrace between heavy projecting walls. The superstructure is set back eleven feet from the terrace front and about a foot from the other margins and has all around it a step one foot high and from twelve to twenty inches wide. The elevation of the building and the nature of the masonry and exterior elaborations are well shown in Fig. 16. By reference to the plan, Fig. 15, it will be seen that the doorway, which is low and narrow, enters an outer chamber or vestibule from which a second door of like character opens into a back chamber at a point just opposite a low altar or shrine, a, while side doors at the right and left admit visitors to the ends of the ♦Incidents of travel in Yucatan. Opposite page 416. Dec. 1895. Ancient Cities of Mexico— Holmes. 61 o o 5' CO 62 Field Columbian Museum — Anthropology, Vol. i. altar. The appearance and construction of the whole interior are made sufficiently clear in the illustration, Fig. i6, where the terrace, the cement floors and the peculiar masonry are clearly indicated, and the walls of the chambers, the holes in the wall, the wedge-shaped arch, the wooden beams and the altar are given in nearly their correct rela- tions and proportions. It is barely possible that this altar is of Spanish origin, as the conquerors are said in cases to have forced the native workmen to make changes in their temples to fit them for Christian worship. The lintels are small, round or partially squared beams of wood, probably zapote. There are two over the outer doorway, three over the central doorway, and four over the remaining side doorway. Small unhewn timbers are set into the masonry of the arch about half way up, as if to steady it while construction was going on, or to serve for suspending property or hangings. They were originally eight in number; five are in place at the present time, the left hand front one being restored in the section. At the sides of the doorway there are rudely made anchor holes drilled in the stone and probably used for fixing curtain cords. In the v/all over the altar is a small rude opening, and another appears in the west wall. The walls are plastered up to the spring of the arch, a height of about 4^ feet, but above this they are rough and seem never to have been covered. The connecting stones of the arch at the top are slabs of limestone, exposed for about twenty inches in width, and long enough to extend some distance into the masonry at the sides, thus binding the arch. The roof is flat and roughly plastered, as are the outer walls. The whole height of the superstructure is about twelve feet. A little out- building near the southeast corner of the terrace is nearly levelled with the ground and partly fallen into the sea. It is of later construc- tion than the main building, as the mortar is filled with potsherds derived no doubt from the sand in front of the temple. Meagre rem- nants of another building are observed upon the brink of the cliff a few yards to the west of this temple. But little can be learned of the original nature of the structure. The rocky floor of the point in front of the temple steps is partly covered with debris and soil which are filled with potsherds. The ware in general seemed rather rudely made and shows a coarse, gritty matrix. The surface may have been well finished, but is nearly all removed by weathering. The forms include vases of usual Yucatec outlines and manv rather elaborate figurine or idol vases. Several of the latter represent the female form, a fact apparently confirming the observations of the early Spanish explorers already referred to. This pottery is identical with a principal variety found on the main- Pl. III. Ruined Temple, South End of Mugeres Island. About one-third of the building, at the right, has fallen into the sea, the door- way having been originally in the middle of the facade. The cliff on the oppo- site side approaches within a few feet of the corner of the terrace. The masonry is crude and roughly coated with plaster. The narrow stairway is set between two massive buttress-like balustrades. The slightly sunken Avood lintel is plainly seen, and the crudely finished, simplified moldings appear above. Full length of building proper about 25 feet; width, 14 feet; height, 11 feet. View from the south near the point of the promontory. This and several of the succeeding plates are from photographs made by Dr. C. F. Millspaugh. Dec. 1895. Ancient Cities of Mexico — Holmes, 63 land of Yucatan and especially along the adjacent eastern shore, excellent examples of which are to be seen in the Museum at Merida.* It was observed that the buildings on this island, although iden- tical in plan and style with those of the mainland, are of small size and inferior construction and give a suggestion of meagreness and inferiority, as if they represented the mere outposts of Maya culture-, yet this does not agree v,7ith the Spanish accounts, which make these islands a kind of religious centre, a Mecca, resorted to constantly by thousands of devotees from the mainland. ISLAND OF CANCUN. In passing south from Mugeres island to Cozumel, a halt was made near the north end of the Island of Cancun — which is a long, low strip of land showing here and there exposures of coraline limestone — to visit some of the numerous ruins, said to have been seen from passing ships, crowning the sandy crest of the island. Taking the little launch we passed behind the island through a narrow channel, and crossed a lagoon-like body of water to a point perhaps a mile above the southern extremity of the island. Here we encountered remains so extensive as to indicate an important settlement. They occupy a low, level space some hundreds of feet wide between the swampy western shore and the high sandy ridge bordering the surf-beaten beach on the east. The spot is occupied by an Indian hut, apparently the only habitation on the island, and is rendered attractive by a group of cocoa palms and patches of Indian corn, which occupy clear- ings in the dense undergrowth that covers the island. The buildings have been quite numerous and apparently identical in character with those of the neighboring islands and mainland. They are, however, in such an advanced state of ruin that it was not considered worth while to attempt to describe or illustrate them. The cut stone of the walls has been largely removed for building purposes. There were half a dozen pyramidal piles in the group, in which well-built walls and stairwaj's of hewn limestone were visible, and numerous round columns were scattered about. Some of the buildings represented were no doubt temples, but, judging by the masses of debris, they were not of great architectural pretensions. Back one hun- dred yards from this group a somewhat more massive pile was encountered covered with dense forest. The pyramidal base is some *I did not happen to see a paper by Stephen Salisbury, Jr., entitled "Terra Gotta Figures from Isla Mugeres," published in the Journal of the American Antiquarian Society for April, 187S, until these pages were in type. The ruin is well described and illustrated and excel- lent cuts of the pottery are given, the data having been furnished by Dr. A. Le Plongeon. 64 Field Columbian Museum — Anthropology, \'ol. i. sixty feet long by forty feet wide and fifteen or twenty feet high. Remnants of thick, rude walls on the top indicate a structure not specifically different from those on INIugeres island. An hour's ram- ble through the dense growth of young forest and vines, and along the sandy ridge, developed nothing more save a pile of large, partly hewn stones near the eastern beach, opposite the group of ruins referred to above. ISLAND OF COZUMEL. The island of Cozumel — see map, Fig. 12 — is situated sixty miles down the coast from Cape Catoche and is separated from the main- land by a shallow but charming bay from five to seven miles wide. It is twenty-three miles long from northeast to southwest and upward of eight miles wide. It is low and covered with dense forest, rendered almost impenetrable by tangled undergrowth. As far as our observa- tions extended, the surface rises hardly more than twenty-five or thirty feet above the sea. The geological formations consist of horizontal, heavily bedded limestone of recent date, the inclosed fossil remains duplicating in many cases the species now thriving along the shore. It is probable that the sand ridges of the eastern shore rise higher than the limestones of the western side, and on the north and south they enclose considerable lagoons. The island is sparsely inhabited, con- taining less than 2,000 people, who live in the simplest possible man- ner, content to fish and raise chickens and to cultivate small fields of corn and groves of bananas. They are assembled mainly in the village of San Miguel, situated on the inner side of the island near the north- ern end. Spanish fishermen of Cuba have dominated in the district for a long time, and the native Maya element is as a result quite de- generate, and retains fewer traces of the ancient language and customs than in other equally isolated portions of Yucatan. The island has always been reputed to contain numerous archi- tectural remains of importance, and the earlier Spanish records tell of imposing temples and of worshipers in great numbers. Ruins have, been located b}^ casual observers in various parts of the island, but little is on record up to this time. Stephens visited the site of San Miguel in 1840 and found the island entirely deserted. He examined some ruins in the vicinity but attempted nothing more. On page 373 of his Incidents of Travel in Yucatan a cut is given of a well-preserved temple of small size, located on the site of the village. Two other structures are mentioned, all of the usual t3'pe. His references to the statements of the first Spanish visitors are very interesting, and his interpretations are no doubt in the main correct. The build- Oec. 1895. Ancient Cities of Mexico — Holmes. 65 ings described by him are, however, not to be found. In front of the ruins of the ancient Spanish church of which he speaks at length there is only a shapeless mound to represent the temple at that point. Later the LePlongeons landed at the same spot, explored what re- mained of the ruins, and visited one or two other sites farther down the island. Ruins at San Miguel. — We had no expectation of making a thorough exploration of the island, as several weeks would have been required, but hoped to see sufficient of the ancient remains to deter- mine for ourselves their character and relation to existing ruins on the mainland. It is evident from the large masses of shapeless de- bris in the village, and especially near the ruin of the old Catholic church, that the ancient structures were of somewhat greater impor- tance than those seen on the islands to the north, but nothing very definite was to be learned fromi them. About one mile north of the village and a few hundred yards back from the shore we found the ruins of two considerable structures, one a pyramidal mass some sixty feet long by forty feet wide and twenty-five feet high, with traces of a temple on the summit, and a minute, nearly obliterated chamber with small doorway of the usual character, near the base at one end. The other is a little farther on and proved to be of very great interest, though in an advanced state of ruin. The ready-cut stone of these buildings is so much more easily utilized for fences and building purposes by the present residents than is the rock in place — though the limestones are all soft and easily quarried along the natural ex- posures everywhere occurring — that it is surprising to find even these remnants left. The terrace on which the temple stands is four or five feet high. '!/!!) ,'!('f ^<:^. « • I) Jli Fig. 17. Ground Plan of Small Temple at San Miguel. The sculptured column is at the left of the doorway. twenty feet in length from north to south, and, as nearly as can be as- certained by present exposures, about twenty feet wide. The fac- 66 Field Columbian Museum — Anthropology, Xol. i. ing has been of hewn, or partially hewn stone, somewhat irregular in form but well laid in mortar. No trace of a stairway is visible. The temple was perhaps not over sixteen feet square, and contained an outer room or corridor ten feet in length by four in width, and two small chambers back of it, one of which was five by seven feet in horizontal dimensions — see Fig. 17. The full height of the rooms was little more than six feet; the walls are nearly two feet thick and the arches as usual are formed by the gradually approaching side- walls, held together at the top by slabs of stone forming a narrow ceil- ing. Small portions of the roof, constructed of stone and covered with cement, still remain. The distinguishing feature of this little temple is a remarkable column which has sculptured upon its front the large, ape-visaged figure shown in PI. IV. This column, and another plain one at the right, divide the wide entrance to the corridor into three nearly equal openings. The sculptured figure is much weather-beaten, and apparently battered, especially about the head and face, and seems rather to have been intended for a human creature than an ape. It is represented in bold relief, or practically in the round, resting on its knees and pressing against or supporting with its back the front of the column. The hands are held in front, appar- ently grasping the folds of a garment. So far as I can see, no par- ticular significance can be attached to the position. The figure is that of a female, and is possibly the only remaining representative, so far as discovered, of the idolatrous sculptures so generally cast out of the temples by the Spaniards. The figure, column and capital are all in one piece which is of the ordinary porous limestone. Originally the surface was covered with plaster and paint. In parts protected from the weather as many as six successive layers of plaster are seen, each application in turn having received a coat of red, blue or green paint, which would seem to indicate a somewhat long-con- tinued occupancy of the building. Encircling the front of the column over the sculptured head are painted or imprinted four red hands, a feature occurring with, considerable frequency in the ancient Maya structures. The lintel stones, two of which remain in place, are large and evenly cut on the exposed sides, and these and all the walls have been finished, as was the sculptured column, in plaster and washes of color. Ruins of Cedral. From the harbor of San Miguel we sailed fifteen miles down the west coast of the island and landed at a native dwelling, from which a charming walk through the forest Drought us to a small village known as Cedral, three miles inland. Pl. IV. Portal of a Small Temple, Island of Cozumel. This building was not more than 20 feet square and 10 or 12 feet in height, and rested on a squarish terrace about 5 feet high. The portal was 4 feet 6 inches in height, and about 14 feet in width, and was divided by two round col- umns, one of which is plain while the other is sculptured to represent a kneel- ing figure, the face being much battered. Over the head are imprints of the red hand. The stone lintels are in place, though the cap is lost from the plain column, leaving one of them only partially supported. Portions of the moldings, walk and roof remain. Photograph by E. H. Thompson. FIELD COLUMBIAN MUSEUM, ANTHROPOLOGY, PL. IV. , -; < 'i^i' z^- t, ~ • - ' ,■ «jt •