THE GETTY CENTER LIBRARY
A
PRACTICAL TREATISE
ON THE
FABRICATION OF VOLATILE AND FAT
VARNISHES,
LACQUERS, SICCATIVES, AND SEALING-WAXES.
FROM THE GERMAN OF
ERWIN ANDRES,
MANUFACTURER OF VARNISHES AND LACQUERS.
WITH ADDITIONS ON THE
MANUFACTURE AND APPLICATION OF VARNISHES,
STAINS FOR WOOD, HORN, IVORY, BONE,
AND LEATHER.
FROM THE GERMAN OF
Dr. EMIL WINCKLER and LOUIS E. ANDES.
THE WHOLE TRANSLATED AND EDITED HY
WILLIAM T. BRANNT,
GRADUATE OF THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE OF 1ILDINA, PRUSSIA.
ILLUSTRATED.
PHILADELPHIA:
HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.,
INDUSTRIAL PUBLISHERS, BOOKSELLERS, AND IMPORTERS,
810 WALNUT STREET.
LONDON:
SAMPSON LOW, MARSTON, SEARLE & RIVINGTON,
Crown Buildings, 1S8 Fleet Street.
18 8 2 .
Cons.
Tp
1832 .
Copyright by
HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO
1S82.
COLI.INS, PRINTER.
THE GETTY CEKTE*
LIBRARY
PUBLISHERS’ PREFACE.
The entire absence of any treatise now in print in
the English language, containing detailed descriptions
of the raw materials and the apparatus and receipts for
the preparation of Varnishes and Lacquers, and the
great and pressing necessity for such a volume in this
country and Great Britain, have been the considera¬
tions which have induced the publishers, who desire to
cover with their technical publications all of the im¬
portant branches of industry, to issue the Practical
Treatise on the Fabrication of Volatile and Fat
Varnishes, Lacquers, Siccatives, and Sealing-
Waxes.
The work upon which it is mainly founded is that
of Mr. Erwin Andres, which has met with great suc¬
cess in Germany, and which is thoroughly practical,
and easily comprehended by the ordinary workman.
It has also been enlarged by the addition of a number
of receipts for the manufacture of Varnishes and
Lacquers from various sources—thus bringing the
l*
VI
PUBLISHERS PREFACE.
work up to the present date. Great care has been
exercised in selecting these additional receipts, and only
such have been given as have stood a practical test,
and been recommended both by the manufacturer and
the consumer. Most of the additional receipts have
been adopted from Dr. E. Winckler and Louis E.
Andes, both widely and favorably known, the first as
an eminent chemical technologist, and the other as a
practical manufacturer of varnishes, who received, at
the Vienna Exposition of 1873, the great silver medal
for his Report on Varnishes.
The book has been still further enlarged by the
addition of a Treatise on the Art of Varnishing, also
from Dr. Winckler and Mr. Andes, included in which
will be found a large number of valuable receipts for
stains for wood, bone, and ivory, and putties, etc., Avhich
must prove of great interest to the practical man.
The whole has been translated and edited by Mr.
Brannt with especial care, and with a view to its util¬
ity in actual practice, and it is believed that it cannot
fail to meet with the approval of the large body of
Manufacturers, Mechanics, Artisans, and Artists for
whom it is especially intended.
Philadelphia, June 5, 1882.
CONTENTS.
I. Introduction.
page
Classification of Lacquers and Varnishes ... 28
Fat Oil Varnishes ; Fat or Oil Lacquers ; Volatile Lac¬
quers or Varnishes . . . . . . .29
II. Raw Materials Used in the Fabrication of x
Lacquers and Varnishes.
Fluid Raw Materials: A. Non-volatile. Fat, Non¬
drying Oils. B. Volatile. Essential Oils and Chemi¬
cal Products. Solid Raw Materials : A. Natural Pro¬
ducts, Gums and Resins, Wax . . . . .31
Pigments—Coloring Matter. B. Chemical Products . 32
III. Drying Oils.
Fats .......... 32
Composition of Fats . . . . • .33
Changes which Fats undergo exposed to the Air . . 34
The Process of Drying . . . . . . .35
The Process which Linseed Oil undergoes when exposed
to the Air; The Changes which Drying Oils undergo
when in contact with Oxygen ..... 3G
Effect of differently Colored Light... .37
CONTENTS.
viii
PAGE
Acceleration of the Absorption of Oxygen by the Drying
Oils; How the Fat Oils are obtained; Refining the
Raw Oil ......... 38
Linseed Oil . . . . . . . . .39
Bleaching of Linseed Oil; Bleaching with a solution of
Green Vitriol . . . . . . . . 40 .
Bleaching with Sulphuric Acid ; Bleaching with Sulphate
of Lead ; Adulteration of Linseed Oil ... 41
Hemp Oil ; Poppy Oil.. . 42
Nut Oil; Other Drying Oils . ..... 43
Adulterations of Drying Oils ...... 44
Table of the Density of Different Oils; Testing with
Acids ......... 45
Tests of Oils ........ 46
IV. Volatile Fluids Used in the Fabrication of
Varnishes.
Oil of Turpentine ; Perfectly Pure Oil of Turpentine . 48
Camphor . . . . . . . . .49
Petroleum and Petroleum Naphtha; Volatile Hydrocar¬
bons excellent Solvents for Resins .... 50
Tar Oils ......... 51
Wood-spirit; Spirit of Wine. ..... 52
Tralles’s Alcoholometer ...... 53
Ether; Acetone ........ 54
Bisulphide of Carbon ....... 55
I
V. Varieties of Gums and Resins.
The Vegetable Resins, how found ..... 57
Asphaltum, Tar Asphaltum ...... 58
Amber .......... 59
Benzoin Resin ; Colophony ; Copal Resin ... 60
CONTENTS.
ix
PAGE
Characteristics of Copal Resin; Importance of Copal
Resin; Hard Copal—East India Copal, Zanzibar
Copal, Copal from Sierra Leone . . . .61
Gaboon Copal, Angola Copal; Soft Copal—West India
Copal, Kawrie Copal, Manilla Copal, Borneo Copal;
Characteristics of Hard Copal . . . . .62
'Dammar Resin; Elemi Resin ..... 63
Gutta-Percha ........ 64
Caoutchouc; Mastic ... .... 65
Sandarac; Shellac ....... 66
Bleaching with Chloride of Lime . . . . .67
Turpentine; Wax; Cerasin . . . . . .68
Paraffin ......... 69
VI. Coloring Substances.
Aniline Colors; Turmeric . . . . . .70
Dragon’s-Blood; Gamboge . . . . . .71
Indigo . . . . . - . • .72
Indigo-carmine; Lampblack. ..... 73
Seed-lac; Saffron. . . . . . . .74
Sanders Wood; Other Coloring Substances . . .75
VII. Chemical Products.
Compounds of Lead—Litharge . . . . .76
Red Lead; Sugar of Lead . . . . . .77
Lead Vinegar; Disadvantages of Compounds of Lead . 78
Compounds of Manganese ...... 80
Hydrate of Protoxide and Protoxide of Manganese ; Hy¬
drate of Sesquioxide and Sesquioxide of Manganese . 81
Binoxide of Manganese ; Permanganate of Potassium ;
Borate of Manganese ...... 82
Oxide of Zinc ; Other Chemical Preparations . . 84
X
CONTENTS.
FABRICATION OF VARNISHES AND LACQUERS
IN PARTICULAR.
VIIT. Dissolving, Roasting, and Distilling
(Melting) of Resins.
PAGE
Dissolving of Resins. 85
Importance of Sorting Resins according to Color and
Degree of Transparency before using; To Dissolve
Resins in as short a time as possible .... 86
Apparatus for Dissolving Resins.87
Distilling (Roasting) of Resins; Process of Roasting
Co P al .90
Apparatus for Melting Resins . . . . .91
Distilling Apparatus ....... 93
Solvent for Copal; Density of Oils obtained from Dis¬
tilled Copal and Amber ...... 95
Temperatures for the Dry Distillation of Copal and
Amber ......... 96
IX. Preparation of Volatile Varnishes and
Lacquers.
Pure Spirit of Wine Varnishes. 98
Oil of Turpentine Varnishes ...... 99
Tar Oil Varnishes ....... 100
Preparation of Volatile Varnishes on a Small Scale ;
Manufacturing Varnishes on a Large Scale . .102
Filtration of Varnishes. . 103
Decoloration of Varnishes ; Use of Animal Charcoal . 105
Apparatus for the Decoloration and Filtering of Varnishes 106
Coloring of Varnishes . . . . . . .108
CONTENTS.
XI
X. Directions for Preparing Volatile Varnishes
and Lacquers.
PAGE
Importance of knowing for wliat purpose the Varnish is
to be used; Qualities of different Varnishes, and how
they may be modified . . . . . . 109
Importance of keeping a stock of dissolved Resins on
hand when the business is on a large scale . . .110
Ordinary Cabinet-maker’s Polish; English Polish . . 112
Vienna Polish ; Dark-colored Polish ; Mahogany Polish ;
French Polish . . . . . . . .119
White Cabinet-maker’s Polish ; Directions for Spirit of
W ine Varnishes; Shellac Varnish . . . .114
Spirit Varnish for Wood-work; Pliable Sandarac Lac
Varnish for Wood . . . . . . .115
Sandarac Varnish for Furniture ; English Red Furniture
Varnish . . . . . . . . .116
Dutch Furniture Varnish; Lacquer for Basket and
Wicker-work . . . . . . . .117
Ebony Lacquer for Wood-work; Preparation of Chinese
Varnish for Wood . . . . . . .118
Bookbinder’s Varnish . . . . . . .119
Bookbinder’s Lacquer A. Bookbinder’s Lacquer B.
Ordinary Brown Bookbinder’s Lacquer ; White Book¬
binder’s Lacquer ....... 120
Sohn6 Bros. Paris Brown Bookbinder’s Lacquer; New
Bookbinder’s Lacquers; New Brown Bookbinder’s
Lacquer . . . . . . . . .121
New White Bookbinder’s Lacquer; Volatile Copal Var¬
nish A; Volatile Copal Varnish B .... 122
Elastic Copal Varnish C ; Turner’s Lacquer . . .123
English Lac-Varnish for Boxes and Fancy Articles;
Latest Lac-Varnish for Turners . . . . .124
Varnish for Bottle-caps; Lacquer for Floors A, B, and C 125
>
xii
CONTENTS.
Bernartli’s Lacquer for Floors; Varnish for Floors ac¬
cording to Monmory and Raphanel ....
Stain for Floors .......
Varnish for Imitation Gilt Cornices ....
Dead Ground for Imitation Gilt Frames ; Varnish for
Gilt Cornices ......
Colored Varnishes with Gold Lustre for Frame-Mouldings ;
Gold Lacquers A and B ..... .
Gold Lac-Varnishes A and B. English Durable Gold
Lac-Varnish; Thompson’s Gold Lac-Varnish
Amber Gold Lac-Varnish.
Mixed Gold Lac-Varnish ; Varnish for Gilt Mouldings .
Glossy Lacquer ; Wessner’s Quickly-drying Glossy Lac-
Varnish ......
English Glossy Lac-Varnish ; Resin Lacquers A and B .
Wood Lacquer (Red) ; Wood Lacquer (Black) ; Lac¬
quer for Comb-makers.
Lacquer for Tinsmiths; Lacquer for Copperplates;
French Sandarac Lac-Varnish . .
Another Receipt; French Sandarac Varnish for Artists;
Dutch Varnish for Artists ....
Lac-Varnish for Water-color Pictures ; Lacquer for Dark
Wall-paper; Lacquer for Light Wall-paper
Insoluble Varnishes for Copperplates and Maps ; Mastic
Varnishes A and B .....
Very Transparent Mastic Varnish for Oil-paintings;
Held’s Mastic Varnish for Articles of Pasteboard;
Lacquer for Brass.
F <11 nish lor Metals (Colorless) ; Varnish for Photographers
Varnish for Photographic Negatives; Monkhoven’s Re¬
touching Varnish for Negatives ; Retouching Varnish
for Photographs ....
Elastic Dammar Lacquer for Photographs ; Hard Lacquer
for Photographic Negatives ; Photographer’s Lacquer A
TAGE
12G
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
CONTENTS.
Photographer’s Lacquers B and C. Lacquers for Leather ;
Black Lacquer for Leather A
Black Lacquers for Leather B and C
Bronze-colored Shoe Lacquer; Cheap Glossy Lacquer
for Leather; Lacquer for Harness-makers .
Sandarac Varnish ; Lacquer for Terra Cotta ; Universal
Yarnish (elastic) ; Universal Tarnish (hard) . .
Tarnish for Gilders; Lacquer for Gilt Articles; Ternis
d’Or (Gold Tarnish) .......
Directions for Oil of Turpentine Tarnishes ; Dammar
Tarnish .........
Dammar Tarnish (mixed) ......
Dammar and Copal Tarnish ; Amber and Elemi Lacquer;
Lacquer for Sheet Metal; Copal Lacquer for Book¬
binders .........
Gold Lacquer (Mixed) ; Held’s Gold Lac-Tarnish
Gold Lac-Tarnish for Leather and Metal; Freudenwoll’s
Gold Lac-Tarnish ; Dutch Gold Tarnish
Lacquers for Carriages; Neil’s Carriage Lacquers I., II.
Dark Carriage Lacquers I. and II. ....
Another Receipt; Water-proof Caoutchouc Lacquer
Resin Lacquer (Fat) ; Lacquer for Sign Painters ; Glazes
for Barrels ........
Dammar for Barrel Glaze; Glaze for the Insides of Bar¬
rels . . . . . . .
Tarnishes with Coal Tar Oil; Density of the Tar Oils
which can be used for making varnishes
Purification of the Oils ; Removing the Acid ; Clearness
of the oil suitable for varnishes .....
Colorless Negative Tarnish ......
Excellent Asphaltum and Amber Tarnishes byLanderer;
Tar Oil and Copal Tarnish . . .
Elastic Tar Oil Tarnish • . . . .
Printer’s Tarnish with Tar Oil; Coal Asphaltum Lacquer
2
Xlll ’
PAGE
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
165
XIV
CONTENTS.
PAGE
Tar Asphaltum Lacquer.166
Double Asphaltum Lacquer . . . . . .167
Asphaltum Lacquer for Leather . . . . .168
Directions for other Volatile Varnishes—Amber Varnish ;
Amber and Copal Varnish; Copal Laequer for Me¬
chanics; Varnishes for Making Rubber Balloons Im¬
permeable ......... 169
Receipt I. . . . . . . . .170
Receipts II. and III. . . . . . . .171
Black Lacquer for Iron ; Lacquer for Iron ; Caoutchouc
Varnishes; Valuable qualities of these Varnishes . 172
Every solution of Caoutchouc a Varnish ; Best Method of
Preparing these Varnishes. 173
Caoutchouc Varnish ; Drying Qualities . . . .174
Linseed Oil and Caoutchouc Lacquer; Elastic Caout¬
chouc Varnish; A perfectly water-proof coating . . 175
Unsatisfactory Results of endeavoring to dissolve Caout¬
chouc in common Petroleum ; Manner of treating the
Petroleum as a Solvent for Caoutchouc; Hard Caout¬
chouc Lacquer . . . . . . . .176
Lacquer for Leather; Lacquers for Metals; Gold Lac¬
quer for Metals ; Black Lacquer for Metals . . 177
Hugue’s Dead Lacquer; Dead Varnish for Metal Arti¬
cles; Black Tar Lacquer . . . . . .178
Black Amber Lacquer for Metals; Lacquer for Iron ;
Ozocerite . . . . . . . . .179
Varnish for Mechanics . . . . . . .180
Gold Lacquer for Metals; Black Glossy Lacquer for
Metals; Wax Lacquer . . . . . .181
XI. Fat Varnishes.
Chemical Process . . . . . . . .182
Mulder’s Theory of the Process by which Varnish is formed 183
Boiling and Refining Linseed Oil . . . . .184
CONTENTS.
XV
PAGE
Wiederhold’s Process of Refining Linseed Oil; Preparing
Linseed Oil by exposing to the Light . . . .185
Practical part of Varnish Boiling . . . . .186
The Boiling Apparatus . . • . • • .187
Lead, Manganese, and Zinc Varnishes . . . .189
Lead Varnishes . . . • • • • .190
Ordinary Litharge Varnish . . . . • .191
Minium (Red Lead) Varnish; Lead Varnish without
Boiling . . . • • • • • .193
Litharge and Minium Varnish.194
Manganese Varnishes ; Borate of Manganese Varnish . 195
Varnish with Sesquioxide of Manganese . . .197
Varnish with Pyrolusite . . • • • .198
Varnish with Oxide of Zinc . . . • • .199
Superiority of Manganese Varnishes .... 200
Directions for preparing Fat Lacquers .... 201
Copal Lacquer; Fat Copal Lacquer by Boiling . . 202
Fat Copal Lacquer without Boiling; Apparatus for pre¬
paring Lacquer . • • • • • • .207
Colorless Copal Lacquer. 210
Properties of Fat Copal Lacquer . . . • .213
Fat Amber-Lacquers. 214
Other Fat Lacquers—Manganese and Zinc Siccative;
Pllug’s so-called Platina Paints . . . • .215
Black Paint for School-Slates . . • • .216
XII. Printer’s Varnishes.
Properties possessed by good Printer’s Ink . . .217
Apparatus for boiling the Oil.218
XIII. Soap Lacquers.
Johnson’s Varnish for preparing Water-proof Paper and
Water-proof Tissues; Coatings with Water-glass . 226
XVI
CONTENTS.
XIV. Fitting Up a Varnish Factory.
Fabrication of Varnish by Steam ....
The Superheating Apparatus.
FABRICATION OF SEALING-WAX.
Invention of Sealing-Wax ; Components and Qualities of
Sealing-Wax .....
I. Materials Used for tiie Fabrication of
Sealing-Wax.
Of the P rincipal Materials.
Of the Pigments which are used in the Fabrication of Seal¬
ing-Wax; Red Pigments ......
Cinnabar; Minium .....
Colcothar (Indian Red) ; Bole ....
Carmine ; Vienna Lake and Madder Lake ; Yellow Pig¬
ments ; Chrome Yellow ....
Mineral Yellow or Cassel Yellow; Ochre; Green Pig¬
ments .
Blue Pigments ; Brown Pigments; Black Pigments
\ ine Black or Frankfort Black ; W Lite Pigments
Chalk. f
Gypsum; Carbonate of Magnesia; Zinc-White
Sulphate of Baryta (Permanent White) ; Nitrate of Bis¬
muth or Flake-White.
Bronze Powder; Drying the Materials ,
Preparing the mass for Sealing-Wax
PAGE
228
2S0
233
235
23 7
238
239
240
241
24 2
244
245
24G
247
248
249
CONTENTS.
XVII
II. Melting the Sealing-Wax Mass.
PAGE
The Melting Apparatus ....... 252
III. Fohming or Moulding the Sealing-Wax.
IV. Polishing the Sticks of Sealing-Wax,
V. Receipts for Sealing-Wax.
Red Sealing-Wax ^ 261
A. Very Fine Red Sealing-Waxes I., II., III. . . 202
B. Medium Fine Red Sealing-Waxes I., II., and III. . 263
C. Common Parcel Wax I., II. ; Very common Parcel
Wax . . . , , . . . . , 204
R. Wagner’s Receipts for preparing Sealing-Wax : A.
Fine Red Sealing-Wax ; B. Ordinary Red Sealing-
Wax; C. Black Sealing-AVax ..... 265
Parcel AVax ; Yellow Sealing-Wax; Fine Yellow Seal¬
ing-AVax .266
Green Sealing-AVax I. (Fine); Green Sealing-AVax
II. (Ordinary) . , . . . . . .267
Blue Sealing-AVax ....... 268
Brown Sealing-Wax ; Black Sealing-AA^axes I. and II. , 209
Preparing Sealing-Waxes of different Shades . , ..270
Specialties in Sealing-Wax ; Sealing-Wax for Bottles . 271
Transparent Sealing-AVax . . . . . .272
Ground Masses for Translucent Sealing-AVax, I., II.,
and III. ......... 273
Sealing-AVax for Deeds, etc. ; Sealing-Wax I. . . 274
Sealing-AVaxes II. and III. ...... 275
Blue Lacquer
Appendix,
276
XV1I1
CONTENTS.
THE ART OF VARNISHING AND LACQUERING.
Section I.
PAGE
Preparation of Putties required for the Varnishing and
Lacquering; Thompson’s Glue Putty . . . 280
Putty with Linseed Oil Varnish ; Putty of Isinglass and
Chalk ; Filling Up ....... 280
Section II.
Preparation of Stains to be used in the Art of Varnishing
and Lacquering. Mahogany Stains ....
Mahogany Stains continued.
Red Stains; Purple Stain ......
Red Stain for Horn, Ivory, and Bone; Purple Stains for
Horn, Ivory, and Bone.
Bright Red Stain for Horn, Ivory, and Bone ; Bright
Red Stain for Bone and Ivory; Red Stain for Leather
Cochineal Stain for Leather; Scarlet Stain for Leather ;
Purple Stain for Leather ......
Crimson Stain ; Black Stains for Wood ....
Runge’s Chrome Ink as a Black Stain for Wood; Aliza¬
rine Ink as a Black Stain for Wood ....
Black Stain for Horn; Finest Black Stain for Horn ;
Black Stain for Leather .....
Blue Stains .......
Another Receipt; Blue Stain of Elder-berries for
Leather; Blue Stain for Wood .....
Blue with Aniline; Yellow Stains ; Yellow Stains for
Wood ........
Yellow Stain for Horn ; Yellow Stain for Leather .
Bright Yellow Stains for Leather.
281
282
288
284
285
286
287
288
289
290
291
292
293
294
CONTENTS.
XIX
PAGE
Yellow Stain from Weld ; Yellow Stain for Wood . 295
Bright Goklen-Yellow Stain; Golden-Yellow Stains for
Bone and Ivory ........ 296
Green Stain for Wood ; Green Stain for Horn, Ivory,
and Bone ; Green Stains for Leather . . . .297
Green Stains for Wood, Horn, Ivory, Bone, and Leather 298
Tortoise-shell Stain for Horn ; Brown Stains for Leather 299
Hirschberg’s Stain for Walnut; Walnut Stain for Soft
Wood ......... 300
Violet Stain for Leather ...... 301
Section III.
Workshop and Tools ....... 301
Section IV.
Art of Lacquering and Varnishing; General Buies . 302
Priming ......... 303
Pumicing and Priming ; Laying on the Color . . 304
Pumicing the Paint; Varnishing ..... 305
Pumicing Lae-Varnishes ; Polishing Lae-Varnishes . 307
Materials used in Pumicing in the Art of Lacquering;
Varnishing of Wooden Articles, Carriages, and Furni¬
ture .......... 308
Examination of the Article; Soaking with Linseed-Oil
Varnish ; Puttying ; Laying on the Priming Coat . 309
Pumicing the Ground; Ground Coat (DisguiseCoat) and
its Application . . . . . . . .310
Pumicing the Disguise Coat; Laying on the Principal
Color; Pumicing the Principal Paint . . . . 311
Decorating and Striping; Laying on the Varnish . . 312
Pumicing and Polishing; The Last Coat of Varnish;
Varnishing of Furniture, Cases, Instruments, etc. ;
Wooden Articles to be Varnished .... 313
XX
CONTENTS.
Sizing for Mixing the Color.
Priming Coat of Oil Paint; Yeining .
Colors for Oak, Curled Maple, Walnut, Rosewood, and
Mahogany......
Articles of Tin and Metal which arc to be Lacquered
Articles of Iron and Steel, Copper, Brass, and Zinc;
Colors used in Lacquering the above-named wares
Preparation of the Colors—Black, Brown, Red, Green .
Yellow, Chamois, Blue, Marble Ground, Tortoise-shell
Ground . . . ,
Rosewood Ground; Decorations with Copperplates and
Lithographs ....
Bronze Painting ; Lacquering of Leather
Simple I rocess of Removing a Coat of Lacquer, etc.,
from Tinned Metal Plate .
APPENDIX.
Japanese and Chinese Lacqueks.
Japanese Lacquers ....
Names of these Lacquers
Pigments, acids used ......
Baron Yon Ransonnet on the Application of Japanese
Yarnishes .......
Japanese Fluid Lacquers ....
Chinese Lacquers ......
PAGE
314
315
316
317
318
319
320
321
322
323
327
328
329
330
331
332
Index .
. 335
PRACTICAL TREATISE
ON THE
FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS,
ETC.
i.
INTRODUCTION.
By lacquers and varnishes we understand fluids
which, in a short time after they have been laid on
an article, undergo such a change as to leave a color¬
less, or, at least, only faintly colored coating behind;
though, of course, there are varnishes which have
been colored intentionally. This coating has a smooth,
glossy surface, and serves either for embellishing the
article thus coated, or for protecting it against out¬
ward influences.
A good lacquer or varnish, when once applied,
should dry quickly, and form a uniform layer of con¬
siderable thickness and bright lustre ; it should pre¬
serve these properties for a long time, should neither
break nor crack, and should possess sufficient elasti¬
city to allow the varnished or lacquered article (tor
3
26 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
instance, wood or leather) to be bent to a certain ex¬
tent without cracking the coating.
The old civilized races of Eastern Asia, the Hindus,
Chinese, but particularly the Japanese, are masters
of the art of manufacturing varnishes and lacquers.
Especially the last-named nation occupies such a high
rank in this art, that, speaking without prejudice, we
must admit that in this respect they are far in advance
of us. We have seen Japanese lacquer-work at the
International Exhibition at Vienna, in 1873, and a
still larger display in Paris in 1878, which, on account
of the excellent quality of the lacquer, attracted the
attention of all judges of such things.
But it is by no means our opinion that these nations
surpass the Europeans in chemical knowledge of the
manufacture of lacquers and varnishes ; just the re¬
verse, in this respect we may be rather their teachers,
but next to the conscientious labor which marks all
Japanese work, we attribute the excellent quality of
their products to the raw materials they use. They
have at their command oils and resins furnished to
them from the rich treasury of vegetable products of
the tropics, materials, many of which we do not know
at all, but which seem to be especially adapted for the
fabrication of varnishes and lacquers. We believe we
do not speak erroneously when we express the opinion
that the stock of materials for the manufacture of
lacquers and varnishes will be substantially increased
before long from Japan, as it is well known that at the
INTRODUCTION.
27
present time the country is being opened up more and
more to the Europeans.
We know of few products of the chemical industry
which find such universal use as lacquers and var¬
nishes. They are absolutely indispensable to the me¬
chanic as well as to the artist. We only need call to
mind that the wood of our floors and furniture, many
articles of leather, our carriages, the component parts
of iron bridges, and other articles of metal exposed to
the weather, are varnished or lacquered for the pur¬
pose of giving them a pleasing appearance or to pro¬
tect them against the weather; we would further
remind the reader that the painter, the gilder, the
mechanic, the photographer, in short all those engaged
in the art of manifolding articles require varnish or
lacquer in one form or another for their purposes.
In the following pages we have endeavored to de¬
scribe the fabrication of all kinds of varnishes and
lacquers in such a manner as to be easily understood
by all. Whatever chemical processes are treated of,
we have explained the nature of these processes in
such a way that even those who have received no in¬
struction in this highly important science can easily
comprehend it.
As varnishes and lacquers and the substance to
which the name of sealing lacquer has been given, are
closely related to each other, and as both industries
can be very well carried on together, we have added
to this work a treatise on the fabrication of the dif¬
ferent kinds of sealing lacquer and sealing wax.
28 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
Classification of Lacquers and Varnishes.
We cannot draw a sharp line of distinction between
varnishes and lacquers. By varnishes we generally
understand certain fat oils which, by proper chemical
treatment, have acquired the property of hardening
in a short time to a transparent mass when they are
exposed to the air in thin layers. The term lacquer
is generally given to solutions of different kinds of
gum or resin, dissolved in proper solvents, and when
these become hard when exposed to the air, the dis¬
solved resin is either held inclosed by the solvents or
the latter simply evaporate and leave the dissolved
substance behind.
As the first group of lacquers is prepared with fat
oils, they are called fat or oil varnishes. The oil
varnishes are without doubt the most valuable pro¬
ducts of our branch of industry, because, besides
possessing considerable hardness and bright lustre,
they are more durable and possess a greater power
of resistance than other kinds of lacquers or var¬
nishes.
Those kinds of lacquer in which the gum or resin is
dissolved by a volatile solvent are usually called spirit
varnishes, because formerly, besides oil of turpentine,
spirit of wine was exclusively used as a solvent. But,
as in the present state of our industry this term is no
longer a proper one, we consider it necessary to desig¬
nate these kinds of lacquers as volatile lacquers. Be¬
sides ethylic alcohol (spirit of wine or alcohol in com-
INTRODUCTION.
29
mon language) methylic alcohol (wood-spirit), benzine,
petroleum, naphtha, and many other volatile sub¬
stances are used as solvents.
According to what has already been said, we may
divide varnishes and lacquers into several groups,
namely: —
1. Fat oil varnishes obtained by a chemical change
of certain oils of vegetable origin, the so-called drying
oils.
2. Fat or oil lacquers obtained by dissolving differ¬
ent kinds of gum or resin in the above named fat dry¬
ing oils.
3. Volatile lacquers or varnishes , prepared by dis¬
solving different kinds of gum in volatile fluids, such
as oil of turpentine, ethylic alcohol, methylic alcohol,
ethylic ether, benzine (by benzol or benzine we under¬
stand certain volatile fluids which are obtained by dis¬
tilling coal tar, and the terms benzol or benzine are to
be understood in this sense in the following pages),
and naphtha.
Although it is absolutely necessary that every
manufacturer should have a thorough knowledge of
the raw materials used in his branch of industry, yet
for two reasons this seems to be doubly necessary for
the manufacturer of lacquers and varnishes; for, on
the one hand, the quality of the products depends in a
higher degree on the choice of the proper raw mate¬
rials than is the case in any other industry ; and, on
the other, because the elementary materials we have
3*
30 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
to use are frequently brought into the market adulte¬
rated in an almost incredible manner.
In view of the last-named circumstance we would
advise every manufacturer to procure the necessary
chemicals from well known manufacturers only, and to
buy the raw materials from firms of good standing, but
especially the foreign gums and resins, as they are
very frequently adulterated on account of their costli¬
ness.
But as it is always of the utmost importance for
every one to be able to form for himself a decisive
judgment as to the quality of the raw products, we
have briefly mentioned in the following chapter of this
work, which treats of the raw materials, the physical
and chemical characters of all the materials, and in
doing this we believe we have rendered a service to
every manufacturer.
II.
RAW MATERIALS, USED IN THE FABRICATION
OF LACQUERS AND VARNISHES.
The raw materials used in our industry are so nu¬
merous that we must endeavor to find some practical
classification. First, the nature of the materials them¬
selves furnishes such a classification, namely, fluid and
solid raw materials. The fluid raw materials are either
non-volatile or volatile ; the solid raw materials are
RAW MATERIALS.
31
either natural products or products of chemical in¬
dustry.
Using this as a basis of our classification we can
now proceed to a description of the different raw
materials.
Fluid Raw Materials.
A.— Non-volatile.
Fat , Non-drying Oils.
Of these the following are used in the manufacture
of lacquers and varnishes: hemp oil, pumpkin oil, lin¬
seed oil, grape-seed oil, poppy oil, nut oil, and castor
oil. But only a few of those mentioned are used to
any large extent, and linseed oil occupies the foremost
place in this respect.
B.— Volatile.
Essential Oils and Chemical Products.
Acetone, ether, camphor, benzol, wcod spirit, petro¬
leum, naphtha, sulphuret of carbon, oil of turpentine,
tar oil, spirit of wine.
Solid Raw Materials.
A.— Natural Products.
Crums and Resins , Wax.
The numerous substances belonging to this group
are mostly of vegetable origin, though some of them
32 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
are also derived from the mineral kingdom, and only
one from the animal kingdom. The following are of
special importance :—
Asphaltum, amber, benzoin, colophony, capal, dam¬
mar, elemi, gutta percha, caoutchouc, mastic, sandarac,
shellac, turpentine, wax.
Pigments .— Coloring Matter.
Aniline colors, turmeric, curcuma, dragon’s blood,
gamboge, indigo, lampblack, seed lac, saffron, sanders
wood.
B.— Chemical Products.
Compounds of lead: protoxide of lead (litharge),
acetate of lead (sugar of lead), red oxide (red lead,
or minium). Compounds of manganese: pyrolusite
(peroxide of manganese), permanganate of potassium,
borate of manganese, etc. Compound of zinc: oxide
of zinc (flowers of zinc, or zinc-white). Mineral tar
oil, refined paraffin, hard caoutchouc.
III.
DRYING OILS.
In conformity with their chemical properties, the
drying oils must be classed with the large group of
combinations known under the general term of fats.
But as the drying oils form the basis of the fabrication
DRYING OILS.
33
of lacquers and varnishes, we consider it necessary to
devote a somewhat larger space to the explanation of
these bodies, so as to give those who possess no chem¬
ical knowledge an insight into those points to which
special attention has to be paid in our branch of
industry.
Fats in general are combinations consisting, as far
as their combinations are concerned, of a so-called
base and several acids. As chemists designate com¬
binations of a base and acids by the general term of
salts, we may say: fats are salts containing several
acids. The base of most fats, and also of drying oils,
is an oily body, having a pungent, sweetish taste.
This, in a refined form, is found in commerce, as a
much used toilet article, under the name of glycerine.
Generally three acids are found in fats, namely:
stearic acid, palmitic acid, and oleic acid ; the first
two of these form the material from which the so-called
stearin candles are manufactured. In their purest
state they represent foliated, colorless crystals, which
melt only at a temperature of over 60° C. (140° F.).
Oleic acid is always an oily, thick, mostly yellowish
colored fluid, of a strongly acid character, and is used
for cleansing metals, but especially for manufacturing
soap.
Most fats, therefore, consist of combinations of gly¬
cerine Avith stearic, palmitic, and oleic acid. These
combinations are called glycerides, and, according to
the predominance of tristearin, tripalmitin, or triolein
34 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
in these combinations, the fats are divided into tallow,
butter, and lard (fixed fats), and into oils (fluid fats).
When any one of these fats is exposed to the air for
any length of time, it undergoes a considerable change
in regard to its properties: the formerly colorless and
tasteless mass acquires a very disagreeable odor, and
strongly acid taste ; at the same time it assumes a
darker color, and the formerly fluid fats become viscid.
Ibis change in the fats produced by a certain compo¬
nent part of the air (fats from which the air is entirely
excluded do not undergo such a change) is called ran¬
cidity. But we would draw special attention to the
fact that a fluid fat always remains fluid; it may be¬
come more viscid , but it never congeals to a solid mass,
even if it is exposed for years to the influence of the
atmosphere. It is this property which forms the only
actually recognizable boundary line between the dry¬
ing and non-drying oils ; as the drying oils possess the
property of changing under the influence of the air in
a short time into solid masses having a resinous ap¬
pearance.
In many oils this change takes place in a few hours,
especially when the oil is brought in contact with a
large quantity of oxygen, that is, when it is exposed
to the air in a very thin layer. Such oils are classed
as good drying oils, and are especially adapted for the
fabrication of lacquers and varnishes. But, on the
other hand, those oils requiring days, weeks, or even
months for drying in, are called bad drying oils, and
DRYING OILS.
35
the longer the time they require for drying in the less
value they possess for our purposes.
The process of drying in does not take place in such
a manner that the oil congeals to a hard mass at a cer¬
tain moment, but by coming in contact with the air it
thickens more and more, and gradually passes from a
fluid into a solid state. But as of course this trans¬
formation also takes place when drying oils are exposed
in an open vessel to the influence of the air for any
length of time (but the vessel should be protected from
dust falling into it by a frame covered with blotting-
paper),.thus already introducing the drying process
into the oil, this will explain the reason why, for in¬
stance, old linseed oil is dearer than that which has
been pressed recently. The first by having been in
contact with the air for a considerable time has been
already transformed to such an extent that, when it is
spread out in a thin layer in this condition, it may be
actually called a kind of varnish, as in a very short
time it will form a solid, coherent mass ; but the latter
must be either stored for a long time, or has to undergo
a special treatment to acquire the property of drying
quickly.
There are certain bodies of the nature of acids
which give to the drying oils the property of solidify¬
ing: into hard masses. One of these acids which has
been examined and studied most thoroughly is the one
found in linseed oil, the so-called linoleic acid. Now
as linseed oil is the most important of all drying oils,
we may take it as a sample of drying oils, and from
36 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
its behavior study that of all others, and what will
here be said about the changes linseed oil undergoes
when exposed to atmospheric influence, holds good
almost to the letter in regard to all other genuine dry¬
ing oils.
When linseed oil is exposed to the air in a vessel
protected against the falling in of dust, we perceive
that the oil undergoes a gradual change as far as its
physical qualities are concerned; it assumes a darker
color, becomes more viscid and less inflammable. At
the same time a steadily progressing increase of weight
will be noticed, which, according to our special expe¬
riments, made as to this subject for a year and a half,
may amount to fully 8 per cent. An experiment
made for this purpose xvith 100 grammes (3.5 ozs.
avoird.) of the best Bavarian linseed oil gave an in¬
crease of weight of 8.98 grammes (0.31 oz. avoird.)
after the oil had been exposed to the air for eighteen
months.
All the drying oils consist of combinations in which
are contained the elementary bodies: Carbon C, 1 hy¬
drogen H, and oxygen 0. Now accurate experiments
have shown that the drying oils absorb a large quan¬
tity of oxygen from the air, and in return liberate a
certain quantity of carbonic acid (C0 2 ) and water
(II 2 0) in the form of vapor; the carbon C, and hy¬
drogen II, originate from the oil, the oxygen from the
1 The added letters are symbols used in chemistry for repre¬
senting these elementary bodies.
DRYING OILS.
37
air. The origination of every combination of any ele¬
mentary body with oxygen is called in chemistry
combustion or oxidation. In one part of the com¬
ponents of the drying oils oxidation progresses so far
that no more oxygen can be absorbed, they are com¬
pletely oxidized to carbonic acid and water, which
escape into the air; in another part oxidation pro¬
gresses only so far as to form combinations which
contain a larger amount of oxygen than those which
were previously present, and, therefore, become more
viscid.
According to what has been said above, the changes
the drying oils suffer from a continued contact with
oxygen, can be briefly expressed as follows:—
The drying oils absorb from the air a quantity of
oxygen amounting to as much as 8 per cent, of the
weight of the oil, which completely oxidizes a part of
the carbon and hydrogen contained in the oils, to car¬
bonic acid and water, and with the remaining compo¬
nents produces viscid combinations, which finally be¬
come solid by a still further progressing absorption of
oxygen.
It is a well-known fact that differently colored light
produces chemical effects of different powers. Now,
comparative experiments have proven that an entire
absence of light is a most unfavorable condition for
the absorption of oxygen, but that a green light is the
most favorable. It would, therefore, appear to be
advisable to keep linseed oil, not in barrels, but in
bottles of common green glass.
4
38 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
As will be explained more fully later on, it is pos¬
sible to accelerate the absorption ot oxygen by the
drying oils by using certain chemicals, and it is this
operation which is actually carried on in boiling the
varnish. According to the investigations of excellent
chemists, it is not actually necessary to boil the drying
oils for them to acquire the property of drying quickly,
that is to change into varnish.
It is a well-known fact that the fat oils, the unctuous
non-drying, as well as the drying oils, are usually
gained by subjecting the vegetable parts in which
they are found to a strong pressure. In consequence
of the very high pressure used for this purpose,
many other substances, such as vegetable fibres, vege¬
table gum, and vegetable albumen, become mixed with
the oil, which have to be removed by so-called re¬
fining.
Refining is generally done by treating the raw oil
with sulphuric acid, which does not change the oil but
destroys all other substances which are separated in a
carbonous mass, and give a black color to the oil.
After the oil has become clear it is drawn off from the
sediment, and freed from the adhering sulphuric acid
by treating it with water. According as the refining
process has been carried on with more or less care,
the oil will contain fewer or more foreign substances.
But it is just these foreign substances which injure the
power of the oils to dry quickly when exposed to the
air, and it has, therefore, been proposed to treat the
oils with substances dissolved in water, which possess
DRYING OILS.
39
the property of forming insoluble, quickly separating
combinations with the above-named bodies (vegetable
gum and vegetable albumen). Linseed oil refined in
this manner did in fact dry to a perfectly solid mass
in thirty hours after it had been applied on a glass
plate. In speaking of linseed oil we will return to this
important phenomenon.
Linseed Oil.
Linseed oil is obtained from the seed of the flax
(Linum usitatissimum ), which is raised in large quan¬
tities, especially in the more temperate countries of
Europe. The seed contains more than 28 per cent,
of oil, hut at the utmost only 26 to 27 per cent, can
he gained. Fine linseed oil is always obtained by
pressing it at an ordinary temperature—cold pressing;
by heating the pressed mass to the boiling point of
water—hot pressing—a larger percentage of oil can
he obtained, but it is always inferior in quality to the
cold-pressed oil.
Cold-pressed linseed oil has a very light-yellow
color, very little hut a peculiar taste and odor; the
hot-pressed oil has a much darker color, golden yellow
to amber, and the peculiar taste and odor of the oil are
much stronger and more disagreeable.
Good linseed oil should always be of light-yellow
color, should have but little odor, and when rubbed
upon a glass plate should feel sticky to the touch
within a few hours.
The lighter the color of a varnish or lacquer is, the
40 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
more valuable is the product, but no colorless varnish
can be manufactured with ordinary linseed oil, be its
color never so light a yellow. But it is possible to
bleach the linseed oil by various processes in such a
manner that it represents a perfectly colorless fluid
clear as water.
Bleaching of Linseed Oil.
Bleaching with a solution of Green Vitriol .—10
kilogrammes (22 lbs.) of the oil to be bleached are
placed in bottles holding from 15 to 16 liters (4 to
4.2 gals.), and 4 to 5 liters (4.2 to 5.2 quarts) of a
solution of green vitriol are added to every quantity
of oil. The solution of green vitriol is prepared by
dissolving 100 kilogrammes (220 lbs.) of green vitriol
in 160 liters (42.2 gals.) rain water. The bottles are
placed in a light room in such a manner that the}’ are
exposed as much and as long as possible to the direct
rays of the sun. Every bottle should be well shaken
at least once a day. It takes from three to six weeks
to perfectly bleach the oil. The length of time will
depend on the temperature, but especially on the
stronger or weaker effect of the rays of the sun. The
clear oil is then poured off carefully from the solution
of green vitriol, and kept in glass bottles. The solu¬
tion of green vitriol can be used several times for the
same purpose. Should it have lost somewhat of its
strength, it can be made effective again by adding 10
kilogrammes of green vitriol to 100 liters (26.4 gals.)
of the fluid.
DRYING OILS.
41
Bleaching with sulphuric acid is done in a similar
manner to that which has been explained in refining
the oils in general, but the oil is not washed suffi¬
ciently to remove every trace of sulphuric acid, as
lead colors prepared with such linseed oil offer a
greater resistance to the after-darkening than such as
have been prepared with oil entirely free from acid.
Bleaching with Sulphate of Lead .—Sulphate of
lead is a white, insoluble powder, which can easily be
prepared by a combination of sulphuric acid with ace¬
tate of lead (sugar of lead). For the purpose of
bleaching linseed oil with this preparation, two per
cent, of the mass of oil is taken and rubbed intimately
together with a little oil upon the grinding-stone.
This mixture is then thinned down to the consistency
of milk and added to the linseed oil which in this case
must also be placed in bottles exposed to the light.
The turbid fluid clarifies slowly, and in a few weeks
the oil will be found perfectly clear and bleached.
The foreign substances which were contained in the oil
lie in a tolerably solid skin-like mass over the sediment
of sulphate of lead, which can be used quite often for
the same purpose.
On account of its great commercial value linseed oil
is frequently adulterated. When oils of less value
are added, it is very difficult to detect such an adul
teration, and it can only be discovered by an accurate
determination of the density. It is easier to detect
an addition of common resin with which the oil is fre
quently adulterated. To detect such an adulteration
4 *
42 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
the oil is shaken with a double quantity of strong
spirit of wine, which dissolves the resins hut the oil
does not mix with it. If a few drops of a solution of
acetate of lead are added to this solution, a strong
flocky precipitate will be formed at once, if resin
should be present in the oil. If the fluid remains
clear after the solution of acetate of lead has been
added, it is a proof that no resin is contained in
the oil.
Hemp Oil
is gained by cold and hot pressing from the seeds of
the hemp plant (Cavmabis sativa). It has a light yel¬
lowish-green color, but only as long as it is fresh ; old
oil becomes gradually darker, and finally assumes a
dull-brown color. Generally hemp oil does not dry
as well as linseed oil, but it can be very well used for
varnishes, especially for those purposes where its dark
color will be no hindrance.
Poppy Oil
is obtained in considerable quantities from the small,
black seed of the common poppy plant (Papaver somni-
ferum). The seeds are so rich in oil that more than
one-half their weight can be gained from them. Poppy
oil has a light-yellow color, and on account of its mild,
agreeable taste, is frequently used for culinary pur¬
poses. In the fabrication of lacquers and varnishes it
is only used for fine qualities. It is also used by
artists for thinning their colors.
DRYING OILS.
43
Nut Oil.
This oil is obtained from the fruit of the common
walnut tree (Juglans regia). The cold-pressed oil
differs essentially from that which is obtained later on
by using heat. The first is nearly colorless, or at
least only slightly yellowish-green, and when fresh
has a very pleasant odor and taste ; when exposed to
the light it becomes perfectly bleached in a short time.
Hot-pressed oil is highly colored, and has a rather
disagreeable taste and odor. For this reason hydrau¬
lic presses are only used for pressing the oil, as these
produce the greatest pressure .of all presses. As cold-
pressed oil commands a higher price, the manufacturers
endeavor to obtain the highest pressure by the most
powerful presses, so as to be able to gain the greatest
part of the oil by cold pressing.
On account of its very light color it is much liked
for the fabrication of very fine varnishes, and also for
thinning colors used in oil painting.
Other Drying Oils
are grape-seed oil, cotton-seed oil, pumpkin oil, etc.,
but so far they have been generally but little used,
and are scarcely known at all in the fabrication of
varnishes. But as the oils mentioned above can be
produced in large quantities and at very low prices,
we have made experiments with them, as, if they are
properly treated, they furnish very well drying var¬
nishes. As the bleaching of these oils is a very tedious
44 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
labor, it seems tt> us advisable to use them for such
varnishes as do not require to be of a very light color.
In consequence of the continual rise in the prices of
oils, it seems to' us very important to call attention to
these oils, as by using them the manufacturer will be
enabled to place in the market products of the second
and third qualities at a very low price.
Grape-seed oil and cotton-seed oil would be espe¬
cially suitable for such use as raw materials, for the
seeds are almost of no value whatever to the wine
grower and cotton planter, and would be sold at a low
price, and the principal expense in manufacturing the
oil would be the wages for pressing the oil.
Adulterations of Drying Oils.
The great commercial value of drying oils induces
many to adulterate these products. The adulterations
consist principally, as we have mentioned already in
speaking of linseed oil, in adding resin or a less valu¬
able oil to one of greater value. Unfortunately, it is
very difficult to detect the last-named adulterations on
account of the great similarity of the action of all dry¬
ing oils. But there are some means by which such
an adulteration can be detected with tolerable accu¬
racy. These consist in ascertaining the specific weight
or density by an accurate areometer, and the testing
of the oils with sulphuric acid and nitro-muriatic acid
or aqua regia (a mixture of nitric acid and hydrochloric
acid) and soda.
Below Ave give a little table which will furnish the
DRYING OILS.
45
necessary points for ascertaining the density, but we
must remark here that these densities are only correct
for 15° C. (59° F.), and that this must be exactly
the temperature of the oil to be examined. The dry¬
ing oils possess also the property that they only solidify
at a very low temperature, and we have mentioned the
degrees at which they solidify, as these may also be
used in examining an oil in regard to its purity.
Name of the oil.
Density at
15° C., 59° F.
Becomes viscous at
Solidifies at
Linseed oil ...
Nut oil.
0.9848
( 0.9261 l
(0.9268 $
< 0.9242 l
( 0.9250 $
0.9276
0.9611
0.9202
$ 0.9810 (
( 0.9322 $
—160C. +3.20F.
—18 —0.4
—18 —0.4
—16 +3.2
—16 +3.2
—15 +5.0
?
—27°C — 16.6°F.
—27 —16.6
—20 — 4
—28 —18.4
—17 + 1.4
—17 + 1.4
V
Poppy oil.
Hemp oil.
Castor oil.,
Grape-seed oil.
Cotton-seed oil
The two numbers (in brackets) opposite to those
oils having a varying desity indicate the utmost limits
ever observed in them.
Testing with acids is done by placing a certain
quantity of the oil and the acid upon a white porcelain
plate, and by observing the changes in the color. The
concentration and density of the acid exert in this
respect a strong influence upon the appearance of the
colors. We always use sulphuric acid having a den¬
sity of 1.638, and nitro-muriatic acid, or aqua regia,
composed of twenty-four volumes of hydrochloric acid
46 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
having a density of 1.156, and one volume of nitric
acid having a density of 1.333, and finally, the caustic
soda solution has a density of 1.350. For five volumes
of oil we use one volume of the acids and ten volumes
of the caustic soda solution, which are added to the oil
after it has been compounded with the nitro-muriatic
acid. According to our experiments the following
changes of color will appear in from four to six minutes
after the test fluid has been added to the oil. The
acid is allowed to drop upon the oil, and the color ap¬
pearing on the edge of both is observed ; in about six
to seven minutes the two fluids are stirred together,
and the appearing change of color is again observed.
In the following we mention a few tests we have
obtained from oil pressed by ourselves, and we would
advise all buyers of drying oils always to procure
small quantities of undoubtedly genuine oil, so as to
be able to examine the genuine oil along with the oils
to be tested, and to compare the color phenomena.
Name of the
oil.
Tested with -sul¬
phuric acid be¬
comes
With nitro-muriatic acid and later with
caustic soda solution becomes
Linseed oil..
Green
Yellowisli-green ; orange (re¬
mains fluid).
Nut oil.
Brown
Yellow ; fibrous orange.
Hemp oil ...
Dark brown
Green ; fibrous light brown.
Castor oil...
Yellow
Yellow ; fibrous light red.
VOLATILE FLUIDS.
47
IV.
VOLATILE FLUIDS USED IN THE FABRICATION
OF VARNISHES.
Besides the drying oils only the essential oil of tur¬
pentine and spirit of wine were formerly used in the
fabrication of varnishes, but in modern times the num¬
ber of those volatile fluids which may be used as sol¬
vents, for various resins, has largely increased, and
without doubt the number of these substances will be
still more augmented by the progress of science, as
every quickly volatilizing body, possessing the power of
dissolving resins, may be used as a solvent for them.
According as the boiling point of these fluids is high
or low the varnishes or lacquers will dry quicker or
slower, and in this respect we have already advanced
so far as to be able to produce lacquers which are pre¬
pared with such volatile solvents that they will solidify
in a few seconds after they have been applied to a sur¬
face, and in most cases they have to be mixed with
some other less volatile fluid to prevent them from
drying too quickly.
The volatile fluids are not only used for preparing
certain lacquers and varnishes, but they are also much
employed for sufficiently thinning the viscous, fat lac¬
quers. Some of these bodies are natural products, but
most of them belong to those substances which can
48 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
only be obtained by certain chemical processes. We
shall describe these fluids in the order as they anpear
to be of most importance for our purposes.
Oil of Turpentine.
The term oil is not well adapted for this substance,
as these substances have nothing further in common
with oils than that they produce a transparent stain
upon paper, but as the oil evaporates this after a
short time disappears again. The essential oils to
which the oil of turpentine belongs, and with which
we may also class petroleum (rock oil), as well as the
so-called tar oils, consist of carbon and hydrogen only.
When exposed to the air they partly volatilize and
partly absorb oxygen from the air, become viscous,
and finally, solidify ; they change into resins. The
fluid oil of turpentine is pure hydrocarbon, whereas
colophony is the oil of turpentine completely changed
into resin, the half soft turpentine is an intermediate
substance.
The oil of turpentine exudes from the partly barked
trunks of the coniferse, and especially the fir, pine,
and larch are used for this purpose. The oil partly
changed into resin is collected and treated in distilling
apparatuses, where the oil of turpentine is separated
in an unchanged state from the colophony-pitch which
remains in the distilling vessel. The oil of turpentine
is refined by repeated distilling, the so-called recti-
fying.
Perfectly pure oil of turpentine—the Austrian and
VOLATILE FLUIDS
49
French oils are of an excellent quality—is a fluid
clear as water, possessing a not disagreeable but over¬
powering smell. It reflects light very strongly, has a
density of from 0.850 to 0.890, and its boiling point
lies between 160° and 180° C. (320° and 356° F.).
Notwithstanding this very high boiling point, oil of
turpentine is very volatile at an ordinary temperature,
and must be kept in tightly closed bottles, and a room
where much oil of turpentine is stored should not be
entered with a lighted candle, as the air impregnated
with inflammable vapors might catch fire from the
flame and an explosion take place.
When oil of turpentine is inclosed with a large
quantity of air in a spacious vessel it becomes viscid
by absorbing oxygen, and acquires by this means an
extraordinary bleaching power. We have successfully
used such oil of turpentine for bleaching fat drying
oils with which it is miscible in any proportion. The
most important property of oil of turpentine for our
purposes is the great solving power it possesses over
resins. It will dissolve the larger part of the resins
and leave them behind in evaporating.
Camphor.
Although a solid substance, yet, according to all its
properties, camphor belongs to the essential oils.
Camphor is obtained from a tree belonging to the
laurel family which is found in the southern parts of
Eastern Asia, and in whose wood the camphor is
stored as a white crystalline mass. The refined
5
50 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
(sublimated) camphor forms white crystalline masses
resembling alabaster in appearance, has a peculiar
strong smell, melts at 151° C. (308.8° F.), boils at
163° C. (325.4° F.), and can be easily dissolved in
spirit of wine, ether, volatile and fat oils. When set
on fire, camphor burns with a white flame, depositing
considerable quantities of soot.
Petroleum and Petroleum-naphtha ,
For about fifteen years immense quantities of rock
oil (petroleum) have been imported into Europe from
the United States, and it has gradually taken the
place of fat oils for illuminating purposes. The com¬
position and properties of petroleum correspond gene¬
rally to those of oil of turpentine. Petroleum also
possesses the power of dissolving resins and of leaving
them behind in evaporating. The extraordinarily low
price at which this article is brought into commerce
causes it to be well adapted as a partial substitute for
the considerably dearer oil of turpentine, and experi¬
ments have proven that refined petroleum can be ad¬
vantageously used instead of oil of turpentine for thin¬
ning thick fat varnishes.
In refining petroleum, several extraordinarily vola¬
tile hydrocarbons are obtained which are excellent
solvents for resins , and for this reason deserve great
attention from manufacturers of varnishes. In com¬
merce these substances are found as fluids clear as
water, and are known as kerosene, petroleum-naphtha,
and benzol (benzine). Large quantities of the latter
VOLATILE FLUIDS.
51
are also manufactured from coal-tar. As the boiling
point of most of these fluids is below 60° C. (140° F.),
they must be kept in well-closed vessels, and, on ac¬
count of their inflammability, the greatest care with
fire and light is required. Resins are quickly and
easily dissolved in these oils, but the solutions dry
already under the brush, and when used must there¬
fore be thinned with petroleum, oil of turpentine, or
spirit of wine.
Tar Oils.
Thick, mostly very strong smelling fluids known as
tar are gained by dry distillation, that is, by heating
organic bodies (such as wood, stone-coal,and brown coal)
in a vacuum. Several solid and fluid products con¬
sisting also of combinations of hydrocarbons, and which
are principally used for illuminating purposes, are
obtained by distilling the tar. The lighter and vola¬
tile products of this are fluid, are less valuable for
illuminating purposes, but are especially well adapted
for dissolving resins, and are much used for this pur¬
pose. In regard to their properties, the same holds
good that has been said about petroleum naphtha and
benzol.
In commerce a distinction is made between light
and heavy tar oils. The first are less dense and their
boiling point is lower than the latter, and they are
principally used for manufacturing volatile varnishes
and lacquers.
52 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
Woocl-spirit,
or methyl-alcohol, is gained in large quantities by a
dry distillation of wood. It is a colorless fluid having
a strong odor and poisonous properties, boils at 66°
C. (150.8° F.), is very inflammable, and burns with a
colorless flame. It can be mixed in any desired pro¬
portion with oil of turpentine, spirit of wine, and the
tar oils. It easily dissolves resins, and can be used
instead of the expensive spirit of wine for making
volatile varnishes, which also dry quicker than pure
spirit of wine varnishes. Methyl-alcohol, either by
itself or mixed with other volatile solvents, has already
for a long time been used in England for the manu¬
facture of excellent varnishes.
Spirit of Wine ,
also called ethylic alcohol, spirit, or simply alcohol, is
formed by the so-called vinous fermentation of sugar,
and is found in a diluted state in all spirituous beve-
rages, such as beer, wine, or whiskey. Pure spirit of
wine is a colorless, thin fluid having a density of
0.7939. It boils at 78.4° C. (173.1 F.), and pos¬
sesses poisonous properties. But spirit of wine is
never brought into commerce in its pure (free from
water) state, but contains always a certain quantity of
water. In commerce it is customary to designate the
quantity of pure alcohol contained in a fluid by per
cents, or degrees ; spirit of wine of 90 per cent, or 90
VOLATILE FLUIDS.
53
degrees contains in 100 parts 90 parts of pure alcohol
and 10 parts of water.
Spirit of wine easily dissolves all resins, but only
when it contains but a small percentage of water.
The stronger the spirit of wine is, the better it seems
to be adapted for use in the fabrication of varnishes,
and the manufacturer should never use spirit of wine
containing less than 90 per cent, of pure alcohol.
The percentage is generally guaranteed by the
manufacturer, but it can be easily ascertained by
using the so-called Tralles alcoholometer (Fig. 1).
Fig. 1.
The number to which the instrument sinks into the
fluid indicates at once how many per cents, of pure
alcohol arc contained in the fluid.
5 *
54 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
Ether.
Ethylic ether, sometimes called in commerce (but
wrongly) sulphuric ether, is obtained by distilling
spirit of wine with sulphuric acid ; hence the name
sulphuric ether. It is a fluid having a penetrating
and over-powering smell, and a density of 0.736 ; it
boils at 34.5° C. (94.1 F.°), is very inflammable, and is
miscible in any proportion with spirit of wine. Ether
dissolves resins very easily, but varnishes prepared
with it must always be thinned with spirit of v T ine, as
they dry almost immediately on account of the low
boiling point ot the solvent. Ether vapors, like those
of benzol and petroleum naphtha, form a very explo¬
sive compound when mixed with air, and for this rea¬
son all fire or light must be carefully kept out of the
room when these substances are used.
Aceton,
or pyroacetic spirit, is obtained by a dry distillation
of acid salts. In a pure state it is a colorless, thin fluid,
having a density of 0.814, and boils at a temperature
of 56° C. (132.8° F.). Acetone dissolves resins, can
be mixed in all proportions with other solvents of
resins. As it is of greater service than other sol¬
vents, and commands a rather high price, I would not
recommend the use of acetone to manufacturers, though
' ©
chemists have proposed it as a solvent, as there are a
number of other and cheaper solvents which perform
the same service.
VOLATILE FLUIDS.
55
Bisulphide of Carbon (Alcohol Sulphuris).
This body is obtained by a combustion of carbon in
sulphuric vapor, and by introducing the formed vapors
into a vessel filled with ice. It is a colorless fluid,
refracting light strongly, has a peculiar, disagreeable
odor, resembling that of radishes, is very inflammable,
of great density, and boils at a temperature of 48° C.
(109.4° F.). As bisulphide of carbon is very volatile,
it must be stored under water. It is very cheap, and
as it possesses the property of very easily dissolving
resins, caoutchouc, etc., it is very frequently used as
an excellent solvent for resins.
It is evident that the cheaper the solvent is the less
will be the cost of preparing varnishes, in this respect
bisulphide of carbon seems to deserve special attention,
and it is now brought into the market by many manu¬
facturers in a perfectly pure state, and at a very low
price. On account of its possessing a considerable
power of dissolving fat oils, it is also very well adapted
for gaining them from vegetable parts. Impure bisul¬
phide of carbon, that is, such as holds but small quan¬
tities of free sulphur in solution, is not very suitable for
the manufacture of lacquers, as they will show but little
gloss when they have become dry ; and tor this reason
an entirely pure article should be used only.
-56 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
y.
VARIETIES OF GUMS AND RESINS.
Gums are non-crystalline substances, which flow
from different species of plants when their bark has
been injured, and which solidify to glassy masses when
exposed to the air. The well-known so-called gum
arabic—which is much used as a paste—may serve as
a representative of these bodies. But frequently the
gum is mixed with other substances originating from
the same plant, and often masses are found containing
gum, resins, coloring matter, and sometimes tannin and
other combinations. The gum and resin from cherry-
trees is such a mixed substance. Such masses are
called gum resins to distinguish them from the pure
resins, which are always solid and hard, as, for in¬
stance, colophony. To be sure, there are also resins
which can be kneaded at an ordinary temperature, and
are therefore called soft resins; but we must reject
this term as incorrect, as the so-called soft resins are
only of a soft consistency, on account of essential oils
adhering to them. Many soft resins approach closely
to the so-called balsams, which are half-fluid, and owe
this condition to the great quantity of essential oil they
contain. When these balsams are exposed for any
length of time to the air they gradually gain greater
VARIETIES OF GUMS AND RESINS. 57
consistency, resemble more closely the soft resins, and,
finally, change into entirely solid or hard resin.
The vegetable resins are found either ready formed
in certain parts of the plants, or they are held in solu¬
tion by an essential oil, and flow in a more or less thick
mass from incisions made in the bark of the plants,
or they are mixed with the milky juices, solidify in
combination with them, and then form the gum resins.
Among the European plants the different species of
Coniferse produce the largest quantity of resin. But
a large number of plant-families are found in the
tropics, which produce various resins in immense
quantities. We have already mentioned on a former
page that it is very likely we do not even yet know
many of these resins, which would be especially
adapted for the manufacture of lacquers, and are very
likely already used for this purpose.
Besides the resins originating from the vegetable
kingdom, two other resins, which are found in the
earth, are used in the fabrication of lacquers and var¬
nishes. These are designated as fossil or mineral
resins, though they originate from the vegetable king¬
dom, or, at least, amber certainly does. In regard to
the other fossil resin, asphaltum, no definite conclu¬
sion, in regard to its origin, has yet been arrived at.
Among the resins, the genuine hard resins espe¬
cially, but particularly copal resin and amber, are
those which produce the most beautiful varnishes ; but,
for certain purposes, the soft resins are indispensable,
as with their help alone varnishes of sufficient elas-
58 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
ticity can be produced to permit the bending of the
lacquered articles without cracking the coating.
Asphaltum ,
also called black earth pitch, Jews’ pitch, bitumen,
etc., is found in many places upon the globe, stored in
the earth or swimming upon the sea. The best known
places where it is found are, for instance, the Dead
Sea in Syria, and the Pitch Lake, in the island of
Trinidad. Asphaltum is a pitch-dark brittle mass,
with a flat, conchoidal fracture ; generally it diffuses
a disagreeable odor, resembling that of burning coal,
which is especially perceptible when it is heated.
When heated, asphaltum melts easily and throws off
black, heavy vapors. When set on fire it burns with
a bright flame depositing large quantities of soot, but
leaving little ash, and this is made use of as a means
of testing its purity, as adulterated asphaltum, which
has been mixed with bad pitch, leaves a large quantity
of ashes behind. In modern times asphaltum has
been much used for manufacturing excellent, elastic,.
black lacquers, especially suitable for lacquering iron
wares.
Tar Asphaltum.
Asphaltum must not be confounded with a chemical
product, which is frequently brought into commerce
under the name of asphaltum; this is the so-called tar
asphaltum which is gained in the distilling of the tar
oils. This is used for nearly the same purposes as
VARIETIES OF GUMS AND RESINS. 59
the mineral asphaltum, which it resembles in many
respects.
Amber (Succinum).
Amber is the resin of trees of former ages, which
originally stood upon land covered at the present time
by the waters of the Baltic Sea. During storms the
amber, whose specific gravity differs very little from
that of water, is thrown upon the beach, or it is ob¬
tained by dredging the sand, though in some places it
is also mined.
Amber has a yellow color, many pieces are entirely
transparent, others clouded, etc. By heating and
rubbing it considerable electricity is generated ; when
thrown upon live coals it burns with a white flame and
develops a strong odor. Large pieces of amber are
very costly, and such pieces are exclusively used for
turned articles. For manufacturing lacquers and var¬
nishes only the small pieces and chips falling off in
working larger pieces are used. The so-called rasura
succini of druggists consists of such chips. Amber
should only be procured from well-known dealers, as
it is frequently adulterated, and the adulteration,
Avhich is done with powdered copal, etc., cannot be
easily detected. Amber can only be dissolved in sol¬
vents by treating it in a certain manner, and has this
property in common with other hard resins. We will
later on refer to this behavior.
60 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
Benzoin Resin.
Benzoin resin is found in Asia, and comes into com¬
merce from India and the East Indian islands, and is
obtained from the Styracese. Several varieties of
benzoin come into the market. The best quality is
the so-called almond benzoin, which consists of white
grains caked together with a brownish mass lodged
between them, and which, when it is heated, diffuses
an agreeable odor; the second quality shows the white
masses less frequently, is of a darker color, and is fre¬
quently mixed with many chips of bark and wood.
Good benzoin should completely dissolve in strong
spirit of wine. It is more frequently used for the
manufacture of sealing-wax than for varnishes.
Colophony ,
or common resin, is obtained, as is well known, from
our Coniferm ; the viscous turpentine is the balsam of
this resin consisting of oil of turpentine and resin.
Pure common resin (colophony) has a light amber
color, is transparent as glass, and very brittle. Common
resin less pure is called pitch-yellow, red, black-pitch.
Lately, an excellent quality of very light colored com¬
mon resin has been imported from America, and this
is especially well adapted for the manufacture of many
varnishes and lacquers.
Copal Resin.
Copal resin comes from the tropics and is found in
commerce in very varying qualities. Usually a dis-
VARIETIES OF GUMS AND RESINS. 61
tinction is made between copal from the East and the
West Indies, though a large number of varieties are
named after the localities from which they have been
brought into the market. Differing from all other
resins in this respect, all copal resins are very hard ,
melt only at a very high temperature and can only he
dissolved with great difficulty in the solvents ordina¬
rily used for resins. In this it resembles amber, and,
further, many varieties are dug out of the ground like
the latter, while other varieties are gathered from the
trees themselves. It is very likely that the copal
which is dug out of the ground is also a product of
extinct trees.
Copal is the most important of all resins used for
the fabrication of fat lacquers, and for this reason we
consider it necessary to describe more fully the prin¬
cipal varieties. Generally, copal is divided into two
classes, namely, hard and soft copal. Rock-salt can
be easily scratched with the hard varieties.
Hard Copal , East India Copal , Zanzibar Copal .—
This copal is dug out of the ground, and comes from
the east coast of Africa. It forms mostly flat, discoid
pieces from the size of a pea up to that of a hand.
These pieces are either entirely colorless, or yellow to
a dark reddish-brown, and are transparent. The sur¬
face of this copal is peculiarly warty, and so hard that
it can be ground.
Copal from Sierra Leone comes mostly in the form
of globes or drops, forms at the utmost pieces as large
as a nut, and is equally as hard as the East India
6
62 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
copal. Graboon copal is roundish, of a yellow color,
and many pieces are clouded blood-red. Angola copal
resembles very much the Zanzibar copal, but consists
mostly of globular somewhat flattened pieces, which are
almost always of a dark golden-yellow color, but some¬
what softer than the other varieties.
Soft Copal; West India Copal. —By this name
certain varieties of copal are known which mostly
come into the market from the west coast of Africa,
and only in very small quantities from South America.
While the plants which secrete the East India copal
are entirely unknown to us, we do know that the
South American copal is obtained from different plants
belonging to the Hymenaea family. The West India
copal generally forms globular or drop-like pieces from
the size of a pea to that of a fist, is white, transpa¬
rent, and sometimes, but rarely, clouded. It is so soft
that it will lose substance when rubbed upon woollen
stuff.
Kawrie Copal is obtained from Dammar a australis ,
indigenous in New Zealand, and forms sometimes
lumps weighing over 50 kilogrammes (110 lbs).
Lighter and darker streaks run through these lumps,
and they have an aromatic odor. While all other
copals become gritty when chewed, this variety sticks
to the teeth. On account of its low price, the Kawrie
copal is much used at the present time for the fabrica¬
tion of varnishes. The Manilla copal and Borneo
copal resemble very much the New Zealand product.
Hard copal has no taste nor smell, the soft varieties
VARIETIES OF GUMS AND RESINS. 68
have an aromatic smell and taste. Copal is easiest
dissolved in chloroform and absolute alcohol, that is,
alcohol entirely free from water, but in the latter only
when it has been first soaked in ether. It is very
difficult to dissolve in benzol, oil of turpentine, petro¬
leum naphtha,—all excellent solvents for other resins.
Copal only dissolves easier when it has been first sub¬
jected to a partial dry distillation.
Dammar Resin
is obtained from Dammara orientalis, which is cultivated
in the East Indies. The resin is gained by incisions
which are made in the trunks of the plants, or the vol¬
untarily exuding mass is gathered. Dammar resin
forms drop-like masses as large as a small apple, or
sometimes, also, larger pieces, resembling icicles.
These pieces are either entirely colorless, or very light
yellow, and smooth. The warmth of the hand is suf¬
ficient to make dammar sticky, and a powder is formed
by rubbing it with the finger. At a temperature of
70° C. (158° F.) dammar becomes entirely soft, at
100° C. (212° F.) forms a viscous mass, and becomes
fluid at 150° C. (302° F.). It can be entirely dis¬
solved in hot spirit of wine. The variety which comes
into the market as dammara australis is Kawrie-copal.
Elemi Resin
is obtained from trees belonging to the Burseracem
family, and is produced in America, the East India, and
Manilla. Elemi forms either a very thick, yellowish-
64 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
white balsam, possessing a strong, aromatic taste, and
smell like the Manilla elemi, or solid, lamelliform
masses like the Mexican elemi, which shows a conchoid
fracture of a slight yellowish color, becomes white as
milk Avhen exposed to the air, and covered with a
white, crystalline powder.
Elemi must be considered as an intermediary pro¬
duct ; besides two different kinds of resin, one of which
is soluble in cold, and the other in hot spirit of wine,
there are found in elemi varying quantities of essential
oil. Elemi resin is seldom Avorked by itself for var¬
nishes, but it is frequently added to other varnishes,
as it prevents them from becoming brittle and cracking
in drying.
Grutta Percha
gained from an East Indian tree, the Inosandra gutta,
is not a resin in the same sense as those which Ave have
already described, but a substance related to caout¬
chouc, which flows from incisions made in the tree, and
becomes hard Avhen exposed to the air. The commer¬
cial gutta percha forms brownish, tough, sometimes
fibrous masses, Avhich become thoroughly plastic at
60° C. (140° F.), and melt at 120° C. (248° F.).
Gutta percha is easily dissolved in bisulphide of car¬
bon and chloroform, and also in petroleum naphtha.
It remains as a water-proof coating after the solvent
has evaporated.
VARIETIES OF GUMS AND RESINS.
65
Caoutchouc ,
Grummi elasticum , is the thickened milky juice of dif-
erent trees indigenous to the tropical regions, but it is
also found in our European varieties of milk weeds
( Asclepiadece ), though not in sufficient quantities for
industrial purposes. It forms a tough, very elastic
mass, composed of carbon and hydrogen. It can only
be partly dissolved in most of the known solvents,
while what remains swells up, and can be dissolved
with the least difficulty in those volatile products which
are gained by the dry distillation of the caoutchouc
itself. In modern times caoutchouc has become of the
utmost importance for the fabrication of water-proof
varnishes.
Besides the ordinary caoutchouc, there comes into
the market also the vulcanized and hard caoutchouc.
Vulcanized caoutchouc is of a grayish color, and is ob¬
tained by treating ordinary caoutchouc with sulphur.
This variety cannot he used for the fabrication of lac¬
quers and varnishes. The hard caoutchouc is also
gained by chemically treating the ordinary variety ; it
forms hard masses of a black color, resembling some¬
what buffalo-horn (the rubber combs are made from it),
and is suitable for the manufacture of some important
lacquers.
Mastic
comes principally from the island of Chios, where it is
gained by making incisions in the trunks of the Pis-
6 *
66 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
tacia lentiscus. It forms roundish, yellow masses
about as large as a pea, and has an aromatic taste
and (when heated) an agreeable smell. Mastic dis¬
solves partly in cold spirit of wine, but completely
only in boiling alcohol. Lately a resin from the East
Indies has been introduced into the market under the
name of Bombay mastic, which resembles in some re¬
spects the genuine Chios mastic.
Sandarac.
This resin flows from the bark of a species of cy¬
press, Callitris quadrivalvis , which is found in North
America, and forms tear-like masses of a wine-yellow
to brown color. It melts at 130° C. (266° F.), devol-
oping then a very aromatic odor; it is only partly
soluble in spirit of wine. The so-called German san¬
darac differs very much in its properties from the
genuine, and consists of the resin of the juniper bush
(Juniperus communis ).
Shellac
flows from the branches of certain East India trees, in
consequence of injuries inflicted by a species of coccus
(Coccus laccce ). It hardens at the same time with a
very beautiful red coloring matter, which is called
lac-dye. The resin separated from the coloring mat¬
ter is shellac, which is found in commerce in different
qualities, and is called according to its color, ruby
shellac, blond shellac, etc. Generally shellac has a
light-yellow, brown, or reddish-brown color, and is
VARIETIES OF GUMS AND RESINS. 67
easily dissoluble in strong alcohol. The solution
forms a varnish very much used, the so-called cabinet¬
makers’ varnish.
By treating the solution of shellac with animal char¬
coal, or with a solution of chloride of lime, the shellac
can be perfectly bleached to white masses shining like
silk. As the bleached shellac commands an extra¬
ordinarily high price, many manufacturers will prefer
to bleach the shellac themselves.
Bleaching with Chloride of Lime. —First a solution
of 1 kilogramme (2.2 lbs.) of chloride of lime in 1 kilo¬
gramme of water is prepared, and this is compounded
with a solution of soda, until no more precipitate is
formed. The clear fluid is poured off and is added to
10 liters (2.64 gals.) of spirit of wine solution of
shellac and thoroughly shaken. The entire mass is
then allowed to stand till it is observed by the color
of the fluid that the bleaching is done. This generally
takes place in half an hour to an hour, and quicker
under the influence of the direct rays of the sun than
a scattered light. The bleached fluid is then poured
into a large stoneware pot or enamelled vessel, and
hydrochloric acid is added as long as resin is sepa¬
rated. The resin separated by adding the acid is of
a very light-yellowish color, and loses the remaining
part of the coloring matter by washing it in boiling
water. For the purposes of the varnish manufacturer
it is of course entirely unnecessary to fashion the
bleached shellac into the form resembling skeins of
white silk, in which it is brought into the market.
68 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
Turpentine ,
which is obtained from the cone-bearing trees (fir, pine,
larch) and, as has been already mentioned, is an in¬
termediary product between the oil of turpentine and
resin. In commerce it is divided into many varieties
according to color and viscosity. One variety is called
Venetian turpentine. This is gained from the larch
tree, is yellow like honey, and viscous, and has a not
disagreeable smell.
On account of its half-fluid property turpentine is
also used for diminishing the brittleness of certain
lacquers and varnishes.
Wax
is the well-known product of the bee. In commerce
a distinction is made between the natural or yellow
wax and the bleached or white wax; the latter variety
only is used for preparing some varnishes (except we
would class certain so-called floor lacquers, for the
fabrication of which yellow wax is also used amongst
the varnishes). Wax only partly dissolves in boiling
spirit of wine, but does so entirely in ether, oil of
turpentine, benzine, and sulphide of carbon. The
commercial wax is frequently badly adulterated with
a vegetable substance, the so-called Japanese wax.
Cera sin.
By the name of cerasin or artificial wax a substance
having the appearance of wax is brought into the
COLORING SUBSTANCES.
69
market which may be used for the fabrication of var¬
nishes for floors ; as far as its chemical properties are
concerned it has nothing in common with wax.
Paraffin
is a substance contained in tar which, in a pure state,
forms a white mass looking like alabaster, and at the
present time is frequently used in the manufacture of
candles. It is also used for the fabrication of a few
lacquers, and serves at the same time to make them less
brittle.
VI.
COLORING SUBSTANCES.
Coloring substances are of importance in the fabri¬
cation of lacquers and varnishes in so far as they are
used to produce a certain tone of color in many varie¬
ties, and as a certain color is demanded for some var¬
nishes, as is, for instance, the case with the so-called
gilder’s-varnish, which must always be of a bright
yellow color. To be of any value for our purposes
the coloring substances used must especially possess
two qualities ; they must be transparent, and lasting
when exposed to the light. In the first respect the
aniline colors, so much liked at the present time, give
great satisfaction, but as far as the latter quality is
concerned the older colors deserve the preference,
though they are not so beautiful as the aniline colors.
70 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
Aniline Colors
are prepared on a large scale in special factories.
They are produced from coal-tar, and can be bought
in all shades and tones of color. Varnishes to which
aniline colors have been added make a magnificent
show of color, especially when they are laid on a
metallic ground; in regard to this we would only call
attention to the extraordinarily beautiful colors of a
metallic lustre which are displayed by the tinfoil used
for wrapping fine chocolate, etc., and with which the
corks of bottles are covered. Unfortunately, as we
have already mentioned, these beautiful colors possess
but little durability.
Turmeric ,
curcuma, or the radix curcumce of druggists. Of
this, two varieties are known in commerce: the first,
curcuma longa , forms articulate pieces as long as the
finger and of the thickness of a lead-pencil. Exter¬
nally it is of a yellowish-gray color, while the interior
is of dark orange color and resinous. The second
variety, curcuma rotunda , forms tubers of the size of
a nut, but its properties are the same as those of
curcuma longa. The Chinese turmeric is considered
the best, the next best is the Japanese, while the
Barbadoes turmeric is the poorest quality. The
coloring matter of the turmeric is easily soluble in
spirit of wine, and has a bright yellow color, but
possesses but little durability when exposed to the
lisrht.
COLORING SUBSTANCES.
71
Dragon's Blood ,
sanguis draconis , is a resin of a deep dark red color,
which is obtained from the different species of Draccena ,
which are all indigenous in the tropical regions, as
well as from other plants. Dragon’s blood comes into
the market either in the form of small balls or in sticks
about 3 decimeters (11.8 inches) long—in both cases
enveloped in leaves—or in irregular masses which look
as if they had been melted. Several varieties of this
article are found in commerce, but especially that from
the East and West Indies and from Africa.
Dragon’s blood has a dark blood-red color, but the
red shines through only on the edges or in very thin
pieces. The fracture has a strong lustre. It can be
easily pulverized, and when heated diffuses an odor
similar to that of storax. The dragon’s blood found
in commerce is frequently badly adulterated, and even
products are sold as dragon’s blood which consist of
gum colored with sanders wood. When genuine
dragon’s blood is rubbed against a glass-plate it makes
a mark very much resembling a streak of blood, which
is not the case when the article has been adulterated.
Crambo ge.
Gamboge is a so-called gum resin, and consists of
gum, resin, and a bright yellow coloring matter. In
commerce it appears in various forms, as pipe gam¬
boge, cake gamboge, and lump gamboge. Gamboge
consists of the milky juices boiled down of the different
72 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
trees belonging to the family of Gcuttiferoe. The pieces
are generally yellow or brownish-yellow, the surface
is covered with a greenish powder, and only somewhat
transparent when very thin.
Gamboge dissolves only partly in alcohol, but com¬
pletely in ether; with water it forms an emulsion, i.e.,
the resin is kept suspended in the fluid by the dissolved
substances. This substance is of the greatest import¬
ance in the fabrication of varnishes, as it is used for
preparing the so-called gold-lacquer, a varnish used
for coating wash-gold frames.
Indigo.
This magnificent blue coloring matter, one of the
most constant we know of, is obtained from the indigo
plant, Anil indig of era, indigenous in the Indies, but
also cultivated in other tropical countries. It is gained
from the plant by a peculiar, chemical process. Deal¬
ers divide it into a large number of varieties, but we
cannot enter here into a more particular description of
them. Indigo should always be bought in pieces,
because the powdered article is frequently badly
adulterated with other blue coloring matter. Special
attention should always be paid to a certain characte¬
ristic of a good quality of this article, namely, when
the dark blue pieces are viewed in a certain direction,
they show a beautiful, metallic copper-lustre, which
appears the stronger when the surface is smoothed by
rubbing it with the nail of the finger. Indigo by
itself cannot be brought into such a soluble form as to
COLORING SUBSTANCES.
73
allow of its being mixed with varnish or lacquer ; even
if very finely powdered indigo is rubbed together with
a varnish or a lacquer, a blue, well-covering paint will
be obtained, but not a transparent product. A trans¬
parent, blue lacquer or varnish colored with indigo
can only be obtained by using the so-called indigo-
carmine.
Indigo-car mine is prepared in the following man¬
ner : Indigo is powdered as finely as possible, is
placed in a capacious glass vessel and dried for
several hours at a temperature of 110° C. (230° E.).
Enough fuming sulphuric acid is then poured over
the powder to cover it. The mass swells up very
much, and the action of the sulphuric acid is assisted
by frequent stirring. After twenty-four hours the
fluid is diluted with ten times its quantity of water, is
allowed to settle, and is then poured off from the sedi¬
ment. The solution is then compounded with carbo¬
nate of potash as long as effervescence takes place,
and then the dark blue precipitate which is formed is
spread upon bricks and allowed to dry. When it is
desired to color varnish with indigo-carmine, the latter
is rubbed with the varnish upon the grinding-stone,
and gradually enough varnish is added to form a fluid
mass, and this is stirred together with the rest of the
varnish.
Lampblack.
As is well known, this product is a very finely di¬
vided carbon which is separated in the form of black
7
74 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
flakes mixed with other organic combinations by the
combustion of resins and fat oils. Good lampblack,
and in fact every variety of soot, should produce a fine
mass which can be easily rubbed together with fat oil,
and should be of a purely black color. Lampblack
prepared at too low a temperature has mostly a brown¬
ish shade of color, while that which has been heated
too much has a weak black color, and is granular,
which renders it more difficult to mix with the varnish.
Seed-lac
is a product nearly related to shellac. As has been
previously mentioned, a red coloring matter exudes
with the shellac from certain trees in consequence of
injuries inflicted by the Coccus lacca. Frequently the
resin and lac envelop the animal with a coating, the
so-called stick-lac, from which the resin is gained
by heat, while the remaining mass composed of the
bodies of the animals forms the seed-lac. The seed-
lac should form compact masses of a dark red color.
Besides this seed-lac, the actual coloring matter, the
lac-dye is gained by boiling it in water, and by allow¬
ing the fluid to dry up. Good lac-dye has a fiery
red color very much like cochineal.
Saffron
consists of the stigma of the saffron plant, Crocus
sativus, a species of iris, and is especially cultivated
in Austria and France. On account of its high price
saffron is only too frequently adulterated with other
COLORING SUBSTANCES.
75
vegetable matter, or the coloring matter is partly ex¬
tracted and the dried substance is again brought into
the market. As at the present time many coloring
substances are known which form a very good but
decidedly cheaper substitute for saffron, but little of
the latter is now used in the preparation of varnishes.
Sanders Wood ,
Lignum santali rubrum, or red sanders wood, is
sometimes confounded with sandal wood. It is the
wood of the Pterocarpus santalinus , and furnishes a
beautiful red coloring matter, whereas the sandal wood
is either white or yellow. Sanders wood is brought
into the market in lai'ge logs, the outsides of which
have a brownish-red appearance, while inside they
show a beautiful red color. Sanders wood which is
brought into the market in the form of chips is fre¬
quently badly adulterated.
Besides the above-mentioned coloring substances,
many vegetable substances may be used for coloring
varnishes and lacquers. This is especially the case
with spirit varnishes, as most of these coloring sub¬
stances are soluble in spirit of wine, while many of
them are insoluble in fat oils. We have described in
the foregoing only the most important coloring sub¬
stances, because the others are less frequently used,
and besides, in case of necessity, the different colors
may all be produced by a judicious mixing of the men¬
tioned colorinii substances.
76 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ET<C.
VII.
CHEMICAL PRODUCTS.
Certain metallic compounds possess the power of
increasing the property of drying oils to become in¬
soluble in a certain time when exposed to the air in
thin layers, in such a degree that the drying takes
place in a proportionally short time. The preparation
of the so-called siccatives depends entirely on a suit¬
able treatment of the drying oils with certain metallic
compounds.
We know especially three metals whose compounds
are excellently adapted for the fabrication of var¬
nishes, namely, lead, manganese, and, to a limited
extent, zinc.
Compounds of Lead.
Litharge.
A compound of lead most frequently used in the
fabrication of varnishes is the monoxide of lead, also
called litharge or massicot, and, according to its lighter
or darker color, silver or white litharge, or gold or
red litharge. Monoxide of lead, PbO, is formed by
heating lead in contact with the air, by which process,
as is well known, a film is formed upon the surface
of the metal, which is renewed as soon as the first
CHEMICAL PRODUCTS.
77
is removed, and so on until all the lead has been oxi¬
dized. Litharge on a large scale is obtained as a by¬
product in gaining silver from argentiferous lead, and
is freed from small particles of lead mechanically
mixed with it by grinding and washing it.
Pure ligharge is a yellow powder, sometimes of a
lighter or darker color. It fuses at a strong red heat,
and when cold solidifies into scaly crystalline masses.
Red Lead.
Red oxide, or minium, is also an oxide of lead,
which contains more oxygen than the common monoxide
of lead. Its composition is Pb 3 0 4 .
Red lead is manufactured by carefully heating
litharge in contact with the air until this is brought
nearly to its point of fusion, but without allowing the
heat to rise to the fusion point of the litharge. The
monoxide of lead continues to absorb oxygen from the
air, and is gradually changed into a powder of a pecu¬
liarly red color, which is used as a paint and also as a
very durable cement for gas and water conduits.
Sugar of Lead ,
or acetate of lead, is a crystallized salt, clear as water,
which is obtained by dissolving litharge in vinegar
and by evaporating the solution. The crystals of
sugar of lead have an intensely sweet taste—hence
the name—but a very disagreeable, metallic after¬
taste. They are poisonous like all other compounds
of lead, and when exposed to the air become covered
7 *
78 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
with a white powder—they effloresce. When sugar
of lead is dissolved in water, it may happen that a part
of the salt is not dissolved, and the fluid will have a
milky appearance. In such a case an insoluble ace¬
tate of lead has been formed, but it can be entirely
dissolved in a short time by adding a small quantity
of vinegar to the fluid and heating it.
Lead Vinegar ,
which is also sometimes used in our branch of industry,
is formed by dissolving litharge in a solution of sugar
of lead. The best plan is to suspend the litharge in¬
closed in a linen bag in the solution, as by doing this
the labor of shaking the bottle, which else would have
to be done very frequently, is saved. The solution of
sugar of lead takes up a large quantity of litharge,
and is changed thereby into a soluble basic acetate of
lead—lead vinegar. The solution must be kept in
hermetically closed bottles, or else the fluid would be¬
come turbid from a basic carbonate of lead (white
lead) precipitated by the carbonic acid contained in
the air.
Disadvantages of Compounds of Lead.
To be sure, the compounds of lead produce sicca¬
tives, leaving nothing to be desired as far as drying is
concerned, but they possess one disagreeable property,
namely , lead has an uncommonly strong tendency to
combine with sulphur , and the sulphide of lead formed
in consequence of this combination is of a deep black
CHEMICAL PRODUCTS.
79
color. Small quantities of sulphuret of hydrogen,
■which is generated in cess-pools and manure-heaps, are
always present in the air of our dwellings; even the
human cuticle secretes small quantities of this com¬
pound. Therefore varnish prepared with a compound
of lead, when exposed to the air, will soon absorb sul¬
phuret of hydrogen, and acquire a darker color. This
change can he easily observed by the difference of appear¬
ance presented by an object painted white and varnished
a few months ago with such a varnish, from one freshly
painted and varnished with the same kind of paint and
varnish; while the latter will present a pure white
color, the former will have acquired a yellow shade of
color from the compound of lead contained in the var¬
nish having been partly changed into sulphide of lead.
But a still greater disadvantage arises when a var¬
nish prepared with a compound of lead is to be used
with different artists’ colors. Some of the very impor¬
tant of these colors consist of compounds of sulphur ,
as, for instance, cadmium yellow (jaune brillant) of
sulphide of cadmium, cinnabar (vermilion) of sulphide
of mercury. Now, if varnish is brought by such a color
into intimate contact with a compound of sulphur, a re¬
ciprocal action takes place in a short time between tbe
lead contained in the varnish and the sulphur contained
in the color, and always in such a manner that black
sulphide of lead is formed in all cases, whereby the
color loses its beauty and lustre, and in a short time
assumes a smoky appearance.
It has been tried for a long time, and many experi-
80 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
merits have been made to entirely banish the com¬
pounds of lead from the fabrication of varnishes, as
well as of paints, and to find a suitable substitute for
them.
Very favorable results, indeed, have been obtained
as far as the fabrication of lacquers and varnishes is
concerned, as we are now able to produce varnishes
entirely free from lead, and of an excellent quality.
The compounds of manganese especially have proven
themselves an excellent substitute for the compounds
of lead.
Compounds of Manganese.
Manganese is a metal bearing a close resemblance
to iron in regard to its properties, and is found in a
natural state, especially in the mineral called pyrolu-
site. A great number of compounds of manganese
have been recommended for use in the fabrication of
varnishes; besides the natural binoxide of manganese
(pyrolusite), the hydrate of protoxide, the protoxide,
hydrate of sesquioxide, and sesquioxide of manganese,
the permanganate of potassium, and especially the
borate of manganese , are used.
The pyrolusite furnishes the raw material for pre¬
paring the compounds of manganese, or, should it be
preferred not to use this body, the sulphate of prot¬
oxide of manganese can be bought entirely pure in
the stores. The sulphate of protoxide of manganese
forms beautiful rose-colored crystals, soluble in water.
If pyrolusite is to be dissolved, it is heated in a
CHEMICAL PRODUCTS.
81
vessel of stoneware or glass, together with hydrochlo¬
ric acid, which dissolves it, disengaging at the same
time considerable quantities of chlorine. Where chlo¬
rine can be profitably used, as, for instance, for
bleaching shellac, it may be recommended to work in
this manner, but it is more convenient to use the sul¬
phate of the protoxide, as the chlorine is very dis¬
agreeable, on account of its smell.
Hydrate of Protoxide and Protoxide of Manganese.
These compounds are formed by adding caustic
potash to a solution of sulphate of manganese in water.
The whitish-gray precipitate which is formed is col¬
lected upon a filter, washed eight or ten times with
water, and dried. But the air must he excluded
while this is being done, as the protoxide eagerly absorbs
oxygen from the air, and is thereby changed into ses-
quioxide, which may be recognized by the precipitate
assuming a brown color. For this reason the prot¬
oxide of manganese is less frequently used as such,
but is generally set free from a compound only at the
moment when it shall act upon the oil. How this is
done we will explain later on.
Hydrate of Sesquioxide , and Sesquioxide of
Manganese
are formed by preparing the hydrate of protoxide in
the foregoing manner, but the precipitate is allowed
to dry in the air, whereby it is changed into the
hydrate of sesquioxide by absorbing oxygen. The
82 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
hydrate of sesquioxide is freed from water by gently
heating it, and thus the sesquioxide of manganese is
obtained. The pure sesquioxide is a soft, dark-brown
powder.
Binoxide of Manganese
is used in its simplest form, as finely powered pyrolu-
site. But pyrolusite should never be bought in the
form of powder, but only in pieces, as the commercial
powder is badly adulterated with foreign substances.
Permanganate of Potassium
is a salt which is obtained by fusing pyrolusite with
saltpetre. It is found in commerce in beautiful dark-
red crystals, forming, when dissolved, a deep purple
liquid. Permanganate of potassium very easily
evolves oxygen, and therefore has a very strong oxi¬
dizing effect.
- Borate of Manganese
is the most important of all the compounds of man¬
ganese used for the fabrication of varnishes. Though
it can now be bought in the stores, yet, on account of
the high price asked for it, it is advisable for every
manufacturer to prepare it himself. The process dif¬
fers somewhat according to whether pyrolusite or the
sulphate of protoxide of manganese is used.
Borate of manganese is obtained from pyrolusite by
dissolving the latter by boiling it with hydrochloric
acid. The solution is then evaporated in a porcelain
CHEMICAL PRODUCTS.
83
dish until it seems to contain but little acidity, and
then a small portion of a solution of soda in water is
from time to time added to it. After the first portions
of the soda solution have been added, the fluid becomes
effervescent, and the precipitate formed is again im¬
mediately dissolved. This is continued as long as any
free acid is present. Should the precipitate not be¬
come dissolved even if thoroughly stirred up, some of
the soda solution is carefully added to it; this is en¬
tirely discontinued when the precipitate, formed in a
sample of the fluid, is entirely white, which proves
that the fluid contains no more sesquioxide of iron.
If sesquioxide of iron were present the borate of man¬
ganese would be colored brown. After the fluid has
been freed from the sesquioxide of iron it is filtered,
and a hot solution of borax is then added as long as a
white precipitate is formed. This precipitate, consist¬
ing of pure borate of manganese, is filtered off, and
washed with hot water until a drop of the wash-water
leaves no perceptible residuum when evaporated upon
a watch-crystal. The funnel containing the salt is
then covered with filtering paper, and the borate of
manganese is dried.
Borate of manganese is prepared from the sulphate
of protoxide of manganese in the following manner.
One part of the salt is dissolved in ten parts of dis¬
tilled water, and the formation of borate of manganese
is immediately effected by adding the hot solution of
borax, hut as a precaution the solution of the sulphate
of protoxide should first he tested with some soda to
84 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
determine whether any iron is present. If no iron is
present, the precipitate will be of a pure white color,
but of a greenish or yellowish color if iron should be
present.
It is not only the beautiful appearance of the pre¬
paration which causes us to recommend particular care
that it be entirely free from iron; but we have learned
from experience that, if the borate of manganese con¬
tains any iron, the varnish prepared with such borate
will dry very slowly, while varnish prepared with a
pure article dries remarkably quick.
Oxide of Zinc
is also used at the present time for the fabrication of
fat varnishes. It is obtained by the combustion of
zinc in contact with the air, and forms a brilliant w T hite
powder. The zinc-white, prepared in zinc works, is a
very pure oxide of zinc, and may be used for the
fabrication of varnishes without further preparation.
In the foregoing we have described the most im¬
portant chemical preparations used in the manufacture
of varnishes. What is required to be said of other
chemical preparations, less frequently used, and which
can always be procured in commerce in a sufficiently
pure state, as, for instance, Prussian blue (the pure
varieties of it are also called Paris blue), which is
used for the so-called blue lacquer, will be mentioned
when we treat of the respective varieties of varnish.
FABRICATION OF VARNISHES AND LACQUERS
IN PARTICULAR.
VIII.
DISSOLVING, ROASTING, AND DISTILLING
(MELTING) OF RESINS.
The larger number of the resins can be dissolved
without much difficulty in the respective solvents, pro¬
vided that they are finely powdered and are prevented
from caking together by a simple knack of hand.
But the two hardest resins we know of, namely, copal
and amber, require a special preparation to make them
soluble. None of the known solvents completely dis¬
solve these resins under ordinary circumstances. Copal,
for instance, remains almost entirely unchanged in cold
spirit of wine, while it only swells up to a tough elas¬
tic mass in boiling spirit of wine, but does not dissolve.
Dissolving of Resins.
The larger part of copal becomes soluble by a con¬
tinued roasting, but a certain quantity of the resin
still remains which resists the most effective solvents.
Copal, as well as amber, can only be brought into an
8
86 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
entirely soluble form by a partial dry distillation ,
frequently erroneously called “ melting.” As far as
the other resins are concerned, it is generally sufficient
to powder them finely and to use heat for dissolving
them, but the entire process only passes off smoothly
and Avithout trouble Avhen the resin which is used is
entirely uniform. It frequently happens that certain
pieces of one and the same kind of resin require twice
as long for dissolving as others, and by this time and
eventually fuel are lost.
The property in resins of being dissolved easier or
Avith greater difficulty coincides Avith their other physical
qualities. Pieces having the same degree of hardness,
the same color, and the same lustre, Avill generally
dissolve in the same space of time. We would, there¬
fore, urgently recommend to sort the resins before they
are used , and especially according to color and the
degree of transparency. The labor occasioned by this
will be richly compensated by the time which is saved
in dissolving them.
To effect the dissolving of the resins in as short a
time as possible they should be finely poAvdered; but
if the poAvder is mixed Avith the solvent without
further preparation, the small particles of resin Avill
cake together, and the surface of the mass formed
thereby will become covered with a thick slimy solu¬
tion which will seriously impede the further dissolving
and retard it very much indeed.
To preserve the resin in the form of poAvder in the
solvent it becomes necessary to mix it with some in-
DISSOLVING OF RESINS.
87
different substance, and to add it to the solvent in this
shape. Fine drift-sand is very suitable for the pur¬
pose, but only if it consists of pure quartz. If such
sand cannot be procured, it is best to use powdered
glass, which can be freed from its mealy parts by a
fine wire-sieve. The best plan is to mix the powdered
resin and powdered glass in equal proportions.
The solvent is heated for the purpose of hastening
the dissolving of the resins. The solvents are all vol¬
atile, some of them, as, for instance, ether, bisulphide
of carbon, etc., extraordinarily so. If, then, open or
only loosely covered vessels are used for heating the
solvents for a considerable time, a large proportion of
them will be lost. And to this may yet be added' that
the vapors of all these fluids are very inflammable,
which must be especially taken into consideration on
account of danger from fire.
In the accompanying illustration, Fig. 2, we give a
representation of a cheap apparatus offering all the
advantages desirable for dissolving resins in volatile
solvents, as it allows of dissolving them in every kind
of solvent, be it never so volatile, without losing any
of the latter, and at the same time preventing all dan¬
ger from fire.
The apparatus consists of a pot, T , enamelled inside,
and with a flat rim. This stands upon a trevet in the
boiler, K, which is considerably narrowed towards the
top, and filled with water. Binding-screws, S, press
the lid tightly upon a rubber or leather ring, thus
making it air-tight. A stirring apparatus, U , permits
FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
the mixing of the solid bodies in the vessel, T, with
the fluid. A lead-pipe, a, the end of which is cut off
obliquely, is fastened in the lid, and is connected by a
rubber hose with the serpentine cooling pipe lying in
the cooling barrel, F.
Fig. 2.
When this apparatus is used, the water in K is
brought to the boiling point, and as soon as the vapors
of the solvent commence to show themselves on the
upper end of the pipe, c , water is allowed to flow con¬
tinually through the upright tube, 0 , into the lower
part of F. The vapors ascending through b condense
DISSOLVING OF RESINS.
89
in the cold pipe, c, and flow constantly back in the
form of drops through a to T. The water in F on
becoming warm ascends, runs off at u, and is replaced
by cold water flowing in at 0.
The water in K is brought to the boiling point only
when oil of turpentine , petroleum , tar oil , or spirit of
wine is used, but it should never be heated above 50°
C. (122° F.) when chloroform , wood spirit, or sulphide
of carbon is used, as the boiling points of these fluids
are considerably lower ; and it should not be above 40°
C. (104° F.) when ether and petroleum naphtha are
employed, and then it is advisable to throw pieces of
ice into the water used for cooling, as common well
water is not cold enough to condense the vapors of
ether.
From the above description it will be seen that it
will be absolutely necessary to procure some appa¬
ratus of this kind, if it is desired to prepare volatile
varnishes. The size of the apparatus will, of course,
depend on the capacity of the factory.
If it is desired to make the solution of a resin ,
which has been dissolved in a volatile solvent, more
viscid , it is done in all cases by evaporating a part of
the solvent. If this evaporation is accomplished in a
small distilling apparatus connected with the upper
part of the cooling pipe,c, the vapors condense in this
and can be collected in such a manner that this part of
the fluid can also be recovered.
8 *
90 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
Distilling (Roasting) of Resins.
As has been already stated, amber and copal re-
quire a special treatment to make them soluble with
solvents. These resins are tolerably soluble in linseed
oil by melting them, during which process a part of
them always becomes decomposed. But to make them
entirely soluble also in volatile solvents it becomes
necessary to subject these resins to a dry distillation.
Moreover, copal acquires the property of becoming
easier soluble by being subjected for a considerable
time to a strong heat.
The process of roasting the copal is as follows:
Finely powdered it is exposed for several days, the
longer the better (generally forty to seventy-two hours
will be sufficient), to a temperature varying between
180° and 220° C. (356° and 428° F.),—by the way,
about the temperature of a strongly heated oven.
During this roasting we must, as much as possible,
avoid touching the resins with metal , as they thereby .
become darker. It is best to use large flat dishes of
stoneware or porcelain, such as are frequently used in
chemical factories, or shallow, well enamelled pots of
cast-iron may be used. As neither copal nor amber
undergoes any change at the mentioned temperature,
but renders up only a small percentage of water,it seems
almost as if the small percentage of water contained
in the resin impeded its solubility.
Although copal becomes more soluble by roasting,
yet it is an unsatisfactory process for the manufact-
DISTILLING (ROASTING) OP RESINS. 91
urer, who must exhaust his raw materials as much as
possible, and this would seem to be especially desirable
in regard to the expensive resins. No absolutely com¬
plete solution of the resin is obtained by the roasting
process. Better results are obtained by
Melting the resins , a process which, on account of
its practicability and simplicity, may be especially
recommended to small manufacturers, and which
Fig. 8.
produces fat lac-varnishes answering all ordinary
demands. The peculiarity of this plan is, that the
92 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
preparing of the copal and the boiling of the lacquer
can be accomplished by one process. The apparatus
represented by Fig. 3 may be advantageously used
for this purpose.
C represents a riveted cylinder of solid sheet-iron,
with a tapering piece jointed -to the bottom. This is
placed upon several supports in a small furnace, 0,
which is heated with charcoal. The lid, D , fits tightly
upon the cylinder, and must be plastered over with
clay during the process of melting. A copper pipe,
R, is screwed to the tapering piece of the cylinder.
This pipe passes through the grate of the furnace and
the ash-pit, and is provided with a small funnel-shaped
contrivance, T, for catching the ashes which might
possibly fall down.
In the cylinder C stands another cylinder J con¬
structed of sheet-copper. This has also a tapering
piece jointed to the bottom which is perforated with a
large number of small holes like the rose of a watering-
pot. Small strips of sheet-copper are riveted to the
cylinder J , and hold it in such a manner as to leave a
free space of one to one and a half centimeters (0.39
to 0.58 inch) between the two cylinders. A boiler
K is placed under the pipe R. The linseed oil is
placed in this boiler and a coal-fire in a small air-
furnace keeps the oil in a gentle ebullition. The
cylinder J is filled with pieces of copal, the lid I)
is placed tightly upon it, and the resin is melted by
the coal-fire. As soon as the drops of resin commence
to appear on the open end of R , the linseed oil is
DISTILLING (ROASTING) OF RESINS. 93
brought to a brisk boil and constantly stirred. The
melted resin dropping into the boiling linseed oil dis¬
solves quite readily, and in this manner very service¬
able copal lacquers are produced, but they have always
quite a dark color. The precaution should be taken
not to cleanse the copper cylinder after it has been
in use, as the thin layer of resin adhering to the metal
helps to protect it.
From 80 to 100 liters (21 to 26 gals.) of copal
lacquer can be produced at one time by this simple
process. But large quantities and the best quality of
lacquer can only be produced by subjecting the resin
to dry distillation. The distilling apparatus repre-*
sented by Fig. 4 serves for this purpose.
Fig. 4.
A discharge pipe A, which must be coated with fire
clay, is fastened in the bottom of a cylindric copper
alembic B, which is bricked in in the hearth AT, and
94 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
heated by an open fire. In the dome of the alembic
is an opening which is closed by a screw-lid, through
which the resin is introduced into the apparatus.
The contents of the alembic are kept in motion by a
stirring apparatus which is revolved by the driving
gear Gr. The pipe D serves for carrying off the
escaping vapors, and this is connected by the adopter
V, with a tin serpentine pipe A, which lies in the
cooling vessel AT; the w^ater in the latter is kept at a
low temperature by cold water flowing in at IF, which
runs off as warm water at u. Below the opening C, a
vessel is placed for receiving the off-flowing distillate.
• According to the statements of some chemists, it is
necessary to silver the inner side of the distilling
vessel A, to protect it from the vapors of the melting
resin, and to be able to use the latter for a light-
colored varnish. But we have found that the same
object may be obtained by coating the inner side of
a new vessel with good amber varnish.
Thorough investigations by Violett have shown,
that, to make copal entirely soluble, it is necessary to
distil it until it has produced one-quarter of its weight
in fluid products of distillation. But as evidently the
price of copal increases the more there is lost of it,
manufacturers generally do not. go quite so far, but
only reduce the weight of the copal from 10 to 20 per
cent, by distillation.
DISSOLVING AND DISTILLING OF COPAL. 95
Solvent for Copal.
Lately, many experiments have been made to dis¬
solve copal without subjecting it to distillation, and
many proposals have been made for reaching the de¬
sired object. One of these which answers the purpose
quite well is as follows :—
Parts.
Bisulphide of carbon . . . .1
Oil of turpentine . . . .1
- Benzole ...... 1
are mixed together.
The powdered copal is allowed to stand for several
days in this fluid contained in a closed vessel; the
amount of copal taken at one time is usually one-half
of the weight of the fluids. The solution, which
is seldom a complete one, is poured off" and com¬
pounded with a fat oil.
But most manufacturers prefer distillation, and this
process still seems to us the most suitable.
To be able to determine how far distillation has
advanced, a marked glass vessel is used in which
the product of distillation running off" at C is caught.
The oils which are obtained from distilled copal and
amber have always a certain density, namely, the
mean of oil of copal is 0.800, and that of amber 0.900,
i. e., when a liter (2.1 pints) of water weighs 1000
grammes (35 ozs.avoird.),a liter of the firstweighs 800
(28 ozs.), and a liter of the latter 900 grammes
(31.5 ozs.).
96 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
If 100 kilogrammes (220 lbs.) of copal are worked
at one time, the corresponding quantities of the distil¬
late are as follows:—
For 10 per cent, distillate equal to the quantity of 8.0
11
a
kilogrammes (17.6)
ditto 8.8 kilos. (19.4)
lbs. of water
a a
12
u
ditto 9.6 kilos. (21.0)
u
u
13
u
ditto 10.4 kilos. (22.9)
a
u
14
u
ditto 11.2 kilos. (24.6)
a
a
15
it
ditto 12.0 kilos. (26.4)
a
u
It may be seen from the above, that the weight of
the distillate increases 0.8 kilogramme (1.76 lbs.) for
every per cent. For the distillate of amber 0.9 kilo¬
gramme (1.98 lbs.) corresponds to the 10 per cent.,
and the increase of weight is 0.9 kilogramme for every
10 per cent.
Thq marks on the glass vessel are scratched in with
a diamond, and are obtained in the following manner:
First, exactly 8 (17.6 lbs.) (for oil of amber, 9 (19.8
lbs.)) kilogrammes of water are weighed in the vessel,
the level of the water is marked and the figure 10 put
alongside the mark, then 0.8 respectively 0.9 kilo¬
gramme of water is added, the figure 11 is put along¬
side the mark, and the vessel is gradually graded
according to the per cents, of the distillate.
The most suitable temperature for the dry distilla¬
tion of copal is from 340° to 360° C. (644° to 680°
F.), that of amber 380° to 400° C. (716° to 752°F.); if
less heat is used, distillation progresses too sluggishly,
VOLATILE VA11NISHES AND LACQUERS. 97
and should the heat he stronger, the resin acquires too
dark a color. It requires a great deal of experience
in firing to keep the temperature of the distilling ves¬
sel at this point without too great variations. We
avoid this by placing the alembic in a lead-bath or
sand-bath. Lead melts at 334° C. (633.2° F.) ; when
it is once melted, the fire is so regulated, that the run¬
ning off of the distillate takes place in drops following
each other uniformly.
The oils which are obtained in distilling copal and
amber are miscible with all solvents used in the fabri¬
cation of varnishes, and can be used to great advan¬
tage for dissolving soft copal without roasting or
distilling it. But it can only be used for the soft
varieties of copal, as the harder kinds do not furnish a
clear solution even with these oils if they are not
distilled.
IX.
PREPARATION OF VOLATILE VARNISHES AND
LACQUERS.
By volatile varnishes and lacquers, we understand
all those from which the solvent can be evaporated by
heat without suffering decomposition ; they, therefore,
include all those varnishes which are not prepared
with fat oils.
The varnishes most in use are the spirit and oil of
9
98 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
turpentine varnishes, or, to be more correct, they were
until lately. The conditions have been changed since
the great progress in the tar and petroleum industries
have placed at our disposal, at very low prices, such
excellent solvents as, for instance, benzole and petro¬
leum naphtha. At the present time, the resins are
very frequently dissolved in one of these solvents, and
in such a manner that a fluid of the consistency of
syrup is obtained which is reduced with spirit of wine
or oil of turpentine as required. On account of the
high price of spirit of wine 90 per cent, strong, it
would seem also advisable to use the cheaper wood
spirit instead.
Independent of the difference in quality of var¬
nishes caused by the various resins, we find that the
kind of solvent used also exerts a considerable influ¬
ence upon the quality of the varnish.
Pure Spirit of Wine Varnishes
can easily be obtained of a color as light as water, if
they are prepared in the right manner ; they dry very
quickly, especially in summer, and produce a smooth,
glossy coating which seems to be faultless. But even
if the varnished object is protected from all shocks, it
will be found in a short time, especially after a great
change in the temperature, that the varnish has in¬
numerable fine cracks, in consequence of which it loses
its lustre and even peels off if the layer of varnish has
been somewhat thick.
The cause of this phenomenon is found in the fact,
VOLATILE VARNISHES AND LACQUERS.
99
that the layer of varnish or lacquer consists of nothing
else but the unchanged resin which lies upon the arti¬
cle in a thin layer. As resins are mostly very brittle
bodies, a very inconsiderable loAvering of the tempera¬
ture suffices to occasion a separation of the contracting
particles, whereby the above-mentioned fine cracks are
formed.
What has been said here in regard to spirit var¬
nishes, holds of course good for all varnishes whose
solvents take no part in the formation of the actual
layer of varnish ; the more volatile the solvent is, the
quicker the hard coating will be formed, and the easier
will it crack, as can be observed, for instance, in those
varnishes in the preparing of which ether alone has
been used as a solvent.
The above-mentioned faultiness of spirit varnishes
can be checked by dissolving at the same time, with
the hard resins, also soft resins which are nearly
allied to the balsams or turpentines, or by not using
spirit varnish by itself, but mixed with an oil of tur¬
pentine varnish.
Oil of Turpentine Varnishes
are prepared by dissolving the resins in oil of turpen¬
tine. They are little liked, on account of their strong
smell, which does not entirely disappear, even after
the lapse of considerable time, though it may be re¬
moved by heating the varnished object. But there
is still another reason against the use of pure oil of
turpentine varnish. • Like all essential oils, oil of tur-
100 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
pentine strongly affects the nervous system ; workmen
who have worked for a long time with oil of turpentine
varnishes, suffer from the effects of the vapors of the
oil of turpentine.
As resins can he generally dissolved easier in oil of
turpentine than in fat linseed oil, oil of turpentine
varnishes are frequently added to the fat varnishes
for the purpose of, in this manner, evading the greater
difficulty of dissolving resins in fat oils. When used
by themselves, oil of turpentine varnishes produce as
beautiful a coating as spirit varnishes, and, moreover,
possess the advantage of being less brittle. In a cer¬
tain respect the oil of turpentine takes part in the
formation of the layer of lacquer, as a part of it, even
if it is only a small quantity, is changed into resin,
becomes turpentine, and keeps the coating soft for a
longer time. To be sure it requires a longer time to
dry than spirit varnish, but in consequence of this, the
particles of the coating find time to deposit themselves
freely, and therefore, the coating cracks or breaks
less frequently.
Tar oil varnishes , as well as benzole and petroleum
naphtha varnishes, possess nearly the same properties
as spirit varnishes ; the utmost precaution is absolutely
necessary in regard to fire in preparing these var¬
nishes. These fluids evaporate very quickly at an extra¬
ordinarily low boiling point, the vapor fills the air, and
an explosion may take place if this comes in contact
with fire. These volatile fluids can be most suitably
used by bringing just sufficient resin in contact with
VOLATILE VARNISHES AND LACQUERS. 101
them to form a viscid fluid, and to reduce this with
spirit of wine, oil of turpentine, etc., a knack which
shortens the labor considerably, as the resins are dis¬
solved considerably quicker in benzole and petroleum
naphtha than in alcohol. As has been already men¬
tioned, all alcohol used for dissolving resins must be
absolutely very strong , and show at least 90 per cent.;
but a somewhat weaker spirit of wine, about 85 per
cent., or under certain conditions even only 80 per
cent, strong, may be used for reducing a solution
already made.
But it may be recommended in all cases to first de¬
termine by a preliminary test with a small quantity of
varnish how far the use of weaker spirit of wine is
advisable ; because if it is too much diluted it has not
the power of keeping all the resin in solution, and a
part of the latter will separate in the form of flakes.
When in testing the varnish it is observed that it be¬
comes less transparent, especially when exposed to a
lower temperature, or even commences to opalize, it is
a certain proof that the spirit of wine has been diluted
too much. Such spirit of wine varnishes as are re¬
quired to dry very quickly must of course be pre¬
pared with spirit of wine containing as little water as
possible, in fact the strongest alcohol obtainable in
commerce should be employed for such varnishes.
It is desirable for certain mechanics, who wish them¬
selves to prepare the spirit varnishes used in their
occupations, that the labor should be simplified as
much as possible.
9 *
102 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
Preparation of Volatile Varnishes on a Small Scale.
ihis is done in the most suitable manner by taking
a wide-mouthed bottle, and fitting upon this as accu¬
rately as possible a cork, the lower end of which is
provided with a small hook. The resins to be dis¬
solved are tied up in small bags of fine and close linen,
and are suspended from the hook in the bottle filled
with spirit of wine in such a manner that they are just
immersed in it. The dissolution of the resin is thus
accomplished without the necessity of shaking the
bottle, as the solution of resin which is formed, beiiisr
denser than the spirit of wine, sinks to the bottom of
the bottle, and the resin comes constantly in contact
with new spirit of wine. As most resins first swell
up very much before they dissolve when they come in
contact with spirit of wine, the small bags must not
be entirely filled, and the resins should be used in
pieces about as large as a pea.
In manufacturing varnishes on a large scale it be¬
comes frequently necessary to clarify them, as they
often contain small particles which make them turbid;
this can only be done by allowing the varnishes to
stand for weeks in large bottles in places where they
are safe from all concussion; the solid bodies will
then gradually settle on the bottom, and the clear
varnish can be poured off by careful handling.
Leaving entirely out of view that this process re¬
quires a great number of expensive and easily broken
VOLATILE VARNISHES AND LACQUERS. 108
bottles, as well as considerable space for storing them,
a certain percentage of the varnish is lost by unavoid¬
able evaporation of alcohol, by spilling, etc.
Filtration of Varnishes.
The lightest colored and actually brightest varnishes
are obtained by filtration. But as this process re¬
quires considerable time, and quite a quantity of spirit
of wine, benzol, etc. would be lost by evaporation, it
is necessary to use a suitable apparatus, so that these
Fig. 5.
evils may be remedied. An apparatus of this kind, of
simple construction and performing excellent service,
is represented by the accompanying illustration. It
consists of a large bottle, F , either of glass or tin.
104 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
This is hermetically closed by a cork with two holes.
The neck of the glass funnel, T , the upper rim of
which is ground smooth, is placed in one of the holes,
and a glass tube, r,bent at a right angle, is fitted into
the second hole. A thick wooden lid with a ring of
rubber on the lower side is placed upon the funnel,
thus closing it air-tight. In the centre of the lid is
fitted a glass tube, r 1 , also bent at a right angle, which
is connected with the tube r by a rubber hose, Jc.
Either filtering paper, as shown in the illustration,
or fine cotton, is used as filtering substance, of which
a cork is formed in the lower part of the cone of the
funnel, and lightly pressed into the tube of the funnel.
After the funnel has been filled with the fluid to be
filtered, the lid is placed upon it, and must be removed
only for the purpose of pouring more fluid into the
funnel. The air in the bottle, F , is displaced by the
fluid dropping into it, and escapes through r, k, and
r 1 into the funnel, T , where it absorbs the vapor of .the
fluid, but absorbs nothing more after it is once satu¬
rated. While evaporation goes on constantly when an
open funnel is used, it is entirely checked by using
this apparatus. When it is observed that the pores of
the filter become very much choked up, which may be
recognized by a very slow dropping of the fluid, the
contents of the filter are allowed to run off, and the
filtering material is changed.
VOLATILE VARNISHES AND LACQUERS. 105
Decoloration of Varnishes.
It is necessary that many varnishes should he en¬
tirely without color ; hut even in those cases where
only resins of the lightest color are used, the varnishes
possess a more or less strong yellowish color. To re¬
move this color varnishes must he subjected to a spe¬
cial treatment; they must he decolorized.
Animal charcoal is generally used in chemical in¬
dustry as the most effective decolorizing agent. It
seems to be most advisable for our purposes to use the
animal charcoal in such small pieces, that it has the
appearance of coarse sand ; powdered animal charcoal
to be sure is very effective, but the pores soon choke
up, and filtering becomes a very tedious operation.
The commercial animal charcoal must be freed from
the salts contained in it to make it suitable for our
purposes. This is done by treating it with hydro¬
chloric acid.
10 kilogrammes (22 lbs.) of raw animal charcoal
are placed in a stone-ware pot, having a capacity of
about 20 liters (5.28 gals.), to this are added 5 to 8
kilogrammes (11 to 17.6 lbs.) of raw hydrochloric
acid, and the entire mass is allowed to stand for one
day in the covered pot, during which time it must be
repeatedly stirred. The contents of the pot are then
poured into a tub containing about 100 liters (26.4
gals.) of water; after the charcoal has settled, the
fluid is poured off, and clean water is poured over it,
and this is repeated until the water is entirely free
106 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
from acidity. (Blue litmus paper when dipped in
the fluid must not he colored red.) The washed
animal charcoal is dried by heat.
For preparing small quantities of varnish the de¬
colorizing can be done at the same time as the filter¬
ing, by placing the animal charcoal in the funnel T
(Fig. 5), and by pouring the varnish to be filtered
upon this. But this has its disadvantages in respect
to changing the filtering substance or the animal char¬
coal, if either one of these substances should lose its
effect. We prefer, therefore, to carry on the processes
of decolorizing and filtering in separate vessels. Fig.
6 represents an apparatus which allows both labors to
be carried on at the same time.
The varnish to be decolorized and filtered is con¬
tained in a bottle A, having a second neck B near the
bottom into which is fitted a pipe which can be closed
by a cock C. This is connected with the pipe D by a
piece of gum hose. The pipe D, as may be seen in
the illustration, is fitted into the lid of the vessel JE.
B is a cylindric vessel of sheet-iron with a ring F on
the bottom, which serves as a support for the cylinder
G-. This cylinder is of woven wire, and is filled with
coarsely grained animal charcoal. The tapering piece
jointed to the vessel F enters into a pipe which
passes through the lid H into- the funnel J. The lid
is provided with a rubber ring. The funnel is fitted
into the bottle K. A rubber pipe L connects the
two vessels A and K.
By opening the cock 0, the varnish is allowed to
VOLATILE VARNISHES AND LACQUERS. 107
flow into E , where it is decolorized by the animal
charcoal. From there it passes immediately into the
Fig. 6.
filter, and the finished article is collected in K. The
arrangement of the entire apparatus is such, that,
should it become necessary, the filtering material or
the animal charcoal can be changed in a short time,
108 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
and at the same time any loss by evaporation is pre¬
vented.
Coloring of Varnishes.
The best plan is to color the varnish after the entire
work has been finished. First an entirely clear solu¬
tion of the coloring matter should be prepared in alco¬
hol, and this should be as concentrated as possible.
Enough of this saturated solution is added to the fat
varnishes to produce the desired shade of color. But
as a considerable quantity of the solution of many
coloring substances has to be taken for this purpose, it
might be the case that in consequence of this the var¬
nish would turn out too thin; this must be, therefore,
taken into consideration, and the varnish must be made
somewhat more viscid. When aniline colors are used
no attention need to be paid to a possible thinning of
the varnish in consequence of the addition of the solu¬
tion of coloring matter, as these colors dissolve easily
and are very productive.
X.
DIRECTIONS FOR PREPARING VOLATILE VAR¬
NISHES AND LACQUERS.
i here are a great many directions for preparing
varnishes and lacquers, and it is absolutely impossible
to say which of two directions deserves the preference.
DIRECTIONS FOR PREPARING.
109
Frequently the so-called “ new receipt” is, in many
cases, nothing else hut a direction for preparing cer¬
tain varnishes and lacquers which have been already
and well known for a long time.
To prepare a varnish which shall answer its purpose
it is impossible to work at hap-hazard; it is absolutely
necessary to know for ivliat purpose the varnish is to
be used. It is evident that a varnish which is to be
used for coating objects of metal must possess different
properties from such as is to be employed for leather;
the first should be as glossy and hard as possible,
while the latter should be pliant (elastic) and soft.
The different properties, on the one hand, that of
great hardness, which is always combined with a cer¬
tain degree of brittleness, and, on the other, elasticity
and pliancy, can only be obtained by using different
kinds of resin. The hard resins , like amber, copal,
and shellac, to be sure, will produce very glossy but
also quite brittle varnishes, whereas sandarac, mastic,
elemi, Venetian turpentine possess the property of mak¬
ing varnishes more pliant and tenacious.
From what has been said above it will be easy to
change in a corresponding manner every direction
given for preparing varnishes ; should the varnish be
too soft , the quantity of amber, copal, or shellad is
increased ; should it be too hard and brittle , it is
remedied by an addition of soft resins, like mastic,
elemi, or Venetian turpentine, and anime.
The quantity of solvent to be used for a certain
quantity of varnish varies also ; evidently, viscid var-
10
110 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
nishes will be of greater value than thinly fluid var¬
nishes, as the former can he reduced at pleasure.
Generally two and a half parts of solvent are counted
for one part of resin. For certain labors, as, for
instance, for decolorizing and filtering, it has been
directed to reduce the varnish. To give it again the
necessary degree of consistency it is allowed to flow
into a distilling apparatus, and enough of the solvent
is distilled off to restore the right proportion between
the resin and solvent.
When the business is carried on on a larger scale, it
is very advisable to keep a stock of dissolved resins
on hand, to prepare them at one time, when there is
spare time for doing it, and to prepare the varnishes
by simply mixing the solutions. To do this easily
solutions containing the resins and solvents in a simple
proportion should be prepared, and this proportion
should be marked on the bottle, as, for instance—
Parts.
Ruby shellac . . . . .1
90 per cent, spirit of wine . . .5
By preparing such solutions on a large scale even
the labor of filtering can be saved, as the solid parti¬
cles still remaining in the fluid will sink to the bottom
of the bottle if the solution is allowed to stand quietly
for a few weeks, and the fluid will become entirely
clear. Should the varnish prepared from the mixture
be too thinly fluid, it is evaporated to the required
consistency in a distilling apparatus.
DIRECTIONS FOR PREPARING.
Ill
Many manufacturers calculate the spirit of wine by
liters, and usually consider 1 kilogramme (2.2 lbs.) of
spirit of wine equal to 1 liter (2.1 pints), but by do¬
ing this the varnishes become always too viscid, as 1
kilogramme of spirit of wine amounts always to more
than 1 liter, because spirit of wine is a less dense fluid
than w r ater. In the following we give a table which
gives the weight of a liter of spirit of wine for those
percentages of pure alcohol which are used in the
fabrication of varnishes :—
1 liter (2.1 pints) of spirit of
wine weighs in grammes
(1 gramme= 15.43 grains)
And contains
per cents, of alcohol
863.9
861.1
858.3
855.5
852.6
849.6
846.6
843.6
840.5
837.3
833.9
830.6
827.2
823.7
820.1
816.4
812.5
808.4
804.1
799.5
794.6
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
112 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
For instance, according to this table 1 liter of 93
per cent, spirit of wine weighs 823.7 grammes ; and, if
the percentage of the spirit of wine is known, every
account of spirit of wine can be easily changed into
liter measure by the weight, and vice versa.
Ordinary Cabinet-maker's Polish.
Parts.
Ruby shellac . . . .10
Spirit of wine .... .40
This may be used for dark woods such as walnut,
mahogany, etc.
j English Polish.
Powder
250 grammes (8.75 ozs. avoird.) of the finest
shellac and
60 grammes (2.1 ozs.) of dragon’s blood,
and dissolve these substances in
750 grammes (26.25 ozs.) of 96 per cent, alcohol.
On the other hand,
60 grammes (2.1 ozs.) of powdered copal are
placed in a glass, and
250 grammes (8.75 ozs.) of 96 per cent, alcohol
are poured over it, and to this
180 grammes (6.3 ozs.) of fine chalk-powder are
added.
The mass is then digested for several days in a
sand-bath, the saturated solution of copal in alcohol is
DIRECTIONS FOR PREPARING.
113
added to the first solution; they are then intimately
mixed by being heated, and finally filtered through a
cloth.
Vienna Polish.
This consists of a solution of
180 grammes (6.3 ozs.) of finest shellac in
1.10 kilogrammes (2.42 lbs.) of 96 per ct. alcohol.
Dark-colored Polish.
300 grammes (10.5 ozs.) of ruby shellac, and
60 grammes (2.1 ozs.) of Venetian turpentine
are dissolved in
2 kilogrammes (4.4 lbs.) of 96 per ct. alcohol,
and filtered through blotting-paper.
Mahogany Polish.
This consists of a solution of
500 grammes (17.5 ozs.) of finest shellac in
1 kilogramme (2.2 lbs.) of 96 per cent, alcohol.
It is prepared in a water-bath.
French Polish.
This is composed of
120 grammes (4.2 ozs.) of finest shellac,
1.5 kilogrammes (3.3 lbs.) of 96 per cent, alcohol,
30 grammes (1.05 ozs.) of dragon’s bloody
0.5 gramme (7.7 grains troy) of turmeric.
The powdered shellac is put in a glass vessel and
dissolved by adding one-lialf of the prescribed quantity
10 *
114 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
of alcohol, and placing the vessel in a sand-bath; the
pulverized dragon’s blood is dissolved with the other
half of the alcohol. When all is dissolved the solu¬
tions are poured together, and then the turmeric is
added. It is well shaken, the mass is allowed to stand
quietly for twenty-four hours, and is then filtered.
1 his polish may also be used as a durable varnish
upon copper.
White Cabinet-maker's Polish.
Parts.
Completely bleached shellac . . 10
Spirit of wine . . . . 45 to 50
This colorless varnish may be used for light woods
such as maple, ash, boxwood, etc., and is also em¬
ployed by turners to give a beautiful, glossy appear¬
ance to their work.
Directions for Spirit of Wine Varnishes.
Shellac Varnish.
This varnish is used more than any other spirit
varnish, and is especially employed for polishing wood
(cabinet-maker’s polish), for varnishing book-covers
and other pasteboard and leather articles (bookbinder’s
and cartoon varnish), for coating the caps of bottles,
and for making the so-called wash-gold frames (gold
lacquer).
Good spirit varnishes must be free from the already
mentioned faults ; they must neither crack nor scale.
DIRECTIONS FOR PREPARING.
115
The first is obtained by mixing suitable resins ; to use
a brittle resin by itself does not answer the purpose ;
the latter quality is obtained by applying the varnish
not only with the brush but by rubbing it thoroughly
into the wood, as is done, for instance by cabinet¬
makers in polishing with the polishing pad.
It is admissible to add a certain quantity of oil of
turpentine varnish, or, still better, of fat copal varnish
to such spirit varnishes as do not need to be absolutely
colorless, and are not required to dry very quickly.
Spirit Varnish for Wood-work.
Parts.
A. Sandarac ..... 40
Venetian turpentine ... 4
Spirit of wine .... 120
B. Sandarac ..... 24
Venetian turpentine ... 2
Mastic ...... 16
Spirit of wine ..... 120
C. Sandarac . . ... 48
Venetian turpentine . . . 1
Mastic ...... 24
Spirits of wine . . . .120
Pliable Sandarac Lac Varnish for Wood.
Sandarac .
. 875 grams. (18.12
ozs.)
Elemi
. 125 “ ( 4.87
“)
Animd
. 125 “ ( 4.87
“)
Camphor .
. 30 “ ( 1.05
“)
116 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
These substances are powdered and put in a matrass.
Then 1.25 kilogrammes (2.75 lbs.) of spirit of wine—
96 per cent, strong—are poured over them. The re¬
sins are dissolved by placing the matrass in a water
or sand-bath, and the solution is finally filtered.
The product thus obtained furnishes an excellent
coat of varnish.
Sandarac Varnish for Furniture.
Sandarac . . .375 grams. (13.12 ozs.)
Mastic . . . 125 “ ( 4.37 “ )
are powdered, and this powder is mixed with 250
grams. (8.75 ozs.) of powdered glass. It is then
placed in a matrass, and 1 kilogramme (2.2 lbs.) of
alcohol, 90 per cent, strong, is poured over it, and the
solution is effected by a sand or water-bath. When
the resins are dissolved, 60 grams of Venetian turpen¬
tine are added, and the mass is then filtered through
cotton.
English Red Furniture Varnish.
Sandarac
Refined shellac
Colophony .
Dragon’s blood
200 grams. (7
125 “
(4.37
125 “
(4.37
30 “
(1.05
are powdered, and 1.5 kilogrammes (3.3 lbs.) of alcohol
poured over the powder. This is dissolved by placing
the vessel containing it in a water or sand-bath. Then
20 grams (0.7 oz.) of Venetian turpentine are added
to the mass.
DIRECTIONS FOR PREPARING.
117
Dutch Furniture Varnish.
This consists of
Sandarac
Refined shellac .
Colophony .
Venetian turpentine
Alcohol
375 grams. (13.12 ozs.)
125 “ ( 4.37 “ )
250 “ ( 8.75 “ )
250 “ ( 8.75 “ )
2.5 kilos. (5.5 lbs.)
The shellac is first dissolved in the alcohol. The
solution is filtered, and then the other substances,
■which have been mixed with 250 grammes (8.75 ozs.)
of powdered glass, are added to it. This lacquer is
very good.
Lacquer for Basket and Wicker Work.
A lacquer which shall answer for this purpose must
always possess a certain degree of elasticity, and can
be prepared without great difficulty by the following
process : Good linseed oil is boiled in a capacious vessel
until one drop of it when poured upon a cold stone
slab becomes so viscid that it strongly adheres to the
finger when touched and can be drawn out in long
threads. The twentieth part of this linseed oil is
mixed with good, fat copal varnish, and then the lac¬
quer is reduced with as much oil of turpentine as is
required to bring it to the desired consistency. To
color this lacquer if required, it is best to add aniline
colors dissolved in benzol, and to mix the solution
intimately with the lacquer.
118 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
Ebony Lacquer for Wood Work.
Aniline hydrochloride 10 grammes (0.35 oz.), spirit of
wine 10 grammes (0.35 oz.). This solution is applied
to the wood, which has been previously coated with a
solution prepared from 1 part of blue vitriol and 100
parts of water. This coating must have become per¬
fectly dry before the solution of the aniline salt is ap¬
plied. It is best to apply the latter with a small soft
sponge. A short time after this has been applied the
wood will acquire a deep black color. This is effected
by the action of the blue vitriol upon the aniline hy¬
drochloride. This combination has been called nigro-
sin on account of its black color, and cannot be de¬
stroyed either by acids or alkalies. The wood can
therefore be left without further coating, but if it is
desired to give it a lustre a coating of ordinary cabi¬
net-makers’ varnish will be sufficient for the purpose.
Preparation of Chinese Varnish for Articles of
Wood.
A kind of putty or mastic cement is prepared from
gypsum, potters’ clay, earthy common feldspar, and
glue. When this mastic is dry it is carefully polished
with sandstone ; then the top-layer is coated with a
black pigment dissolved in lac-varnish, and when this
is dry a coat of lac-varnish is laid on. This lacquer is
obtained from a tree called in China tsie chou, a kind
of sumach, from which the juice exudes in the form of
a gum. In a fluid state this lacquer is so poisonous as
DIRECTIONS FOR PREPARING.
119
to cause a painful sivelling of the faces and hands of
the workmen working with it. The lacquer is allowed
to dry in the open air, and then the decorations are
engraved upon it with a graving tool. The color or
gold intended for the decorations is mixed with drying
oil, and, when it has been laid on, the last coat of var¬
nish is applied over all.
According to Macaire-Prinzep this varnish consists
of
Benzoic acid,
Yellow resin,
Colorless volatile oil.
It has a brownish color, a peculiar, aromatic smell,
and its taste resembles that of balsam of copaiba. It
is of a viscid consistency like thick turpentine. When
applied to wood Chinese varnish produces a very
glossy coating, which dries easily and possesses great
lustre. It can be dissolved in cold, but quicker, in
boiling alcohol as well as in oil of turpentine.
Bookbinder'8 Varnish.
Elemi
Mastic
Sandarac
Venetian turpentine
Spirit of wine
Parts
4
4
6
3
30
120 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
Bookbinder’s Lacquer A.
Shellac .....
Parts.
. 10
Oil of turpentine
. 1
Spirit of wine ....
. 30
Bookbinder’s Lacquer B.
Dragon’s blood
Parts.
. 1
Gamboge ....
. 10
Sandarac ....
2
Shellac .....
. 20
Venetian turpentine
. 5
Spirit of wine ....
. 100
Ordinary Brown Bookbinder’s Lacquer.
120 grammes (4.2 ozs.) of brown shellac are
dissolved in
1.75 kilogrammes (3.85 lbs.) of alcohol, 84 per
cent, strong.
The solution is filtered, one-half of the alcohol is
then evaporated or distilled off, and four grammes
(0.14 oz.) of oil of lavender are added to the remain¬
ing fluids.
White Bookbinder’s Lacquer.
This is prepared by dissolving
120 grammes (4.2 ozs.) of bleached shellac in
1.75 grammes (Q.06 oz.) of alcohol, 92 per
cent, strong.
DIRECTIONS FOR PREPARING.
121
The solution is filtered and reduced one-quarter by
distillation, and then
4 grammes (0.14 oz.) of oil of lavender are
added to it. This is a bookbinder’s lacquer possess¬
ing excellent qualities.
Sohve Bros. Paris Broivn Bookbinder's Lacquer.
This consists of
250 grams. (8.75 ozs.) of shellac,
15 grams. (0.525 oz.)of oil of lavender,
80 grams. (1.05 oz.) of gamboge, and
1.250 kilograms. (2.75 lbs.) of alcohol, 98 per
cent, strong.
This lacquer is prepared in the same manner as the
foregoing, and then 40 grammes (1.4 oz.) of brown
bookbinder’s lacquer of the same quality are added.
Finally it is filtered from the bottom sediment.
New Bookbinder's Lacquers.
New Brown Bookbinder's Lacquer.
120 grams. (4.2 oz.) of refined shellac,
500 grams. (17.5 oz.) of wood spirit (methyl
alcohol).
The shellac is put in a glass bottle, the wood spirit
is poured over it, and the bottle is frequently shaken
until the shellac is dissolved. 5 grammes (0.175 oz.)
of oil of lavender are then added, and the solution is
filtered through blotting paper.
In this manner a reddi^Ji-brown lacquer of good
11
122 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
consistency is obtained which gives a fine lustre to
articles of leather, and is very durable.
New White Bookbinder*i Lacquer.
180 grams. (6.8 oz.) of bleached shellac are put
in a glass bottle, and
500 grams. (17.5 oz.) of wood spirit (methyl
alcohol) are poured over it. This is frequently shaken
until the shellac is dissolved. 5 grammes (0.175 oz.)
of oil of lavender are then added, and the solution is
filtered through blotting paper.
Volatile Copal Varnish A.
Parts.
Copal .....
. 60
Ether .....
. 10
Alcohol .....
. 60
Oil of turpentine
. 40
Volatile Copal Varnish B.
Parts.
Copal .....
. 10
Acetone . . ...
. 30
Acetone is only valuable in so far as it furnishes
an excellent solvent for copal, but is of less use in the
ready varnish, as it dries too quickly (acetone boils
at 56° C., 132.8° F.); the clear solution is care¬
fully distilled at a low temperature until about 15 to
20 parts of the acetone pass over. Then immediately
after the distillation is interrupted, spirit of wine,
DIRECTIONS FOR PREPARING.
123
90 per cent, strong, is added to the warm, viscid solu¬
tion. Ether may also be used instead of acetone. If
this fluid is used, as much spirit of wine is at once put
in the alembic as it is desired to distil off of ether.
When this is heated to from 34° to 36° C. (93.2° to
96.8° F.), ether only passes over—in this case the
cooling pipe of the distilling apparatus must be sur¬
rounded with ice—and the ether can be again used.
.Elastic Copal Varnish C.
Parts.
Camphor . . . .
1
Copal . . . . .
4
Ether .
. 12
This solution becomes clear only after standing a long
time. It is allowed- to stand for weeks in bottles, and
the upper clear part is poured off. The sediment con-
sists of the swelled-up copal, which
has to be again
treated with
Parts.
Camphor . . . .
\ to f
Copal . . . . .
2
Ether . . . . .
. 12
Turner's Lacquer.
Parts.
Elemi . . . . .
2
Bleached shellac
. 10
Venetian turpentine
2
Spirit of wine
. 30
124 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
English Lac- Varnish for Boxes and Fancy Articles.
This is prepared by powdering
320 grams. (11.2 ozs.) of seed lac,
120 grams. (4.2 ozs.) of sandarac,
100 grams. (3.5 ozs.) of elemi resin.
These are mixed with
250 grams. (8.75 ozs.) of powdered glass,
and dissolved in a water bath in
1.5 kilograms. (3.3 lbs.) of 96 per cent, alcohol.
Then 120 grammes (4.2 ozs.) of turpentine which has
been previously heated are added to the solution.
The Avhole is intimately mixed together by shaking,
and then filtered.
Latest Lac-Varnish for Turners.
60 grams. (2.1 ozs.) of shellac,
3 grams. (0.1 oz.) of mastic in grains,
are powdered, and absolute alcohol is poured over
them, so that the alcohol stands about 1| inch above
the substances. The mass is dissolved by being ex¬
posed to a gentle heat, and is then boiled down to the
consistency of syrup.
The turned articles of wood or horn are thoroughly
pumiced ; they next receive a coat of linseed-oil, and
are then coated with the above lac-varnish.
DIRECTIONS FOR PREPARING.
125
Varnish for Bottle-caps.
Parts.
Gamboge ....
. 10
Ruby shellac ....
. 20
Venetian turpentine
5
Spirit of wine
. 100
Lacquer for Floors , A.
Parts.
Colophony ....
. 10
Ruby shellac ....
. 20
Venetian turpentine
5
Spirit of wine ....
. 100
Lacquer for Floors , B.
Parts.
Colophony ....
. 15
Ruby shellac ....
. 10
Oil of turpentine
5
Spirit of wine ....
. 60
Lacquer for Floors , C.
Shellac . . 150 grams. (5.25 ozs.)
Spirit of wine . 2 liters (2.1 quarts).
This latter may be used for floors which have been
first painted with any color desired. The thin coating
of lacquer will make the color more durable than
would be the case without it.
ll*
126 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
BernartFs Lacquer for Floors.
500 grams. (17.5 ozs.) of shellac,
250 grams. (8.75 ozs.) of white colophony,
2 grams. (0.07 oz.) of camphor,
are pulverized and put into a bottle.
8 kilograms. (6.6 lbs.) of 96 per cent, alco
hoi are then poured over it. The bottle is placed in
a warm place and frequently shaken, until the sub¬
stances are dissolved. The solution is then filtered
through a cloth.
This varnish must be heated when it is to be used.
500 grammes (17.5 ozs.) of this lac-varnish cover 86
square feet of floor surface.
By mixing
500 kilograms. (1100 lbs.) of pulverized and
washed ochre with
1 kilogram. (2.2 lbs.) of this lacquer,
an excellent ground-lacquer for soft floors is obtained.
Viirnish for Floors according to Monmory and
Raphanel.
1 kilogram. (2.2 lbs.) of linseed oil
is heated for 16 hours, and
2.5 kilograms. (5.5 lbs.) of melted copal and
2 kilograms. (4.4 lbs.) of white resin
are dissolved in it. Then
1 kilogram. (2.2 lbs.) of sandarac,
8 kilograms. (6.6 lbs.) of bleached shellac,
500 grams. (17.5 ozs.) of mastic, and
500 grams. (17.5 ozs.) of dammar resin,
DIRECTIONS FOR PREPARING.
127
are added to it. The entire mass is boiled for three
hours, and is then mixed with
10 kilograms. (22 lbs.) of alcohol 90 per cent, strong.
When all has been dissolved, the entire mass is
strained through a hair sieve, and it is then compounded
with the color the floor is to have. The varnish is
applied to the floor with a brush, which should first
have been well cleansed, and a second coat is laid on in
about two hours. This varnish possesses much lustre,
and can be easily cleansed with a moist sponge.
Should it become dull in the course of time, it is
lightly rubbed with a rag dipped in linseed-oil. This
varnish may also be used for wainscoting walls, etc. ;
but for such purposes
1 kilogram. (2.2 lbs.) of elemi resin
is added to it.
Stain for Floors.
250 grams. (8.75 ozs.) of fustic (yellow wood) and
120 grams. (4.2 ozs.) of logwood
are boiled with
24 kilograms. (52.8 lbs.) of soap-boiler’s lye, and
120 grams. (4.2 ozs.) of potash,
until 12 liters (3.17 gals.) of the fluid remain. The
solution is then poured off, and
30 grams. (1.05 ozs.) of annotto and
750 grams. (26.25 ozs.) of wax
are dissolved in it while it is still hot. The mixture is
then stirred until it is cold. Eight to ten bottles of
brownish-red stain are obtained ; a quantity sufficient
128 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
to supply a large room for one year. The floor is
swept every day with a hair-broom, and wiped up
once every week with a half-moist cloth, and some of
the stain is applied to those places much walked over,
and thoroughly rubbed in with a sharp brush. Every
four to six weeks the entire floor is painted with the
stain by using a brush, and at once rubbed in with a
sharp brush.
Varnish for Imitation Gilt Cornices.
Shellac . . . 1500 grams. (52.5 ozs.)
Spirit of wine . . 3 liters ( 3.15 qts.)
This solution is prepared by itself, and cleared by
allowing it to settle.
Sandarac . . . 250 grams. (8.75 ozs.)
Mastic . . . 200 “ (7 « )
Gamboge . . . 250 “ (8.75 “ )
Dragon’s-blood . 50 “ (1.75 “ )
This solution is mixed with the clear shellac solu¬
tion. There is left considerable choice in regard to
the color. If a light gold is to be produced, the
mentioned quantity of dragon’s-blood will be suffi¬
cient. But, if it is desired to give to the varnish a
shade inclining more towards reddish, a larger quan¬
tity of dragon’s-blood has to be used.
In manufacturing these varnishes, it is especially
convenient to prepare the solutions of the gamboge
and dragon’s-blood separately : the required shade of
color can then be given to the varnish without any
DIRECTIONS FOR PREPARING.
129
great difficulty by adding one or the other solution as
may be needed.
Dead Ground for Imitation Gilt Frames.
Bleached shellac .. . 250 grams. (8.75 ozs.)
Whiting . . . 250 “ (8.75 “ )
Spirit of wine . . 2 liters (2.1 qts.)
This varnish is prepared by first dissolving the shel¬
lac in as small a quantity of spirit of wine as possible ;
this is then quickly rubbed together with the whit¬
ing into a dough, and the remainder of the spirit of
wine is gradually added. If the varnish should hive
a glossy appearance after it has become dry, some
alcohol and whiting are added, but should it be too
dead, a small portion af a thick solution of shellac has
to be added. Finally, it receives a thin coat of a
colorless solution of shellac.
Varnish for Gilt Cornices.
Shellac .
l'_00 grams. (42. ozs.)
Sandarac
’ . 500 “ (17.5 “ )
Gamboge
. 250 “ ( 8.75 “ )
Sanders-wood .
. 200 “ ( 7 “ )
Turpentine
. 150 “ ( 5.25 “ )
Alcohol .
. 5 liters ( 5.25 qts.)
The sanders-wood
is treated by itself with a part of
the alcohol, and the solution is added to the other
components of the varnish.
130 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
Colored Varnishes with Cold-Lustre for Frame-
Mouldings.
Such varnishes can be easily prepared by adding to
a thick solution of shellac a corresponding quantity of
any aniline coloring matter which has been dissolved
in spirit of wine, and red, blue,
violet, and green
shades of color may be produced ;
after the aniline
varnish has become dry, the articles
a colorless varnish.
receive a coat of
Cold Lacquer A.
Parts.
Dragon’s -blocd
1.5
Gamboge
3
Mastic ....
4
Saffron ....
1
Sandarac
4
Shellac ....
. 20
Spirit of wine
. 100
G-old Lacquer B.
Parts.
Turmeric
Dragon’s-blood
Elemi
Gamboge
Seed-lac
Mastic
Sandarac
Venetian turpentine
Spirit of wine .
5
1
2
3
10
10
10
5
100
DIRECTIONS FOR PREPARING.
131
Gold Lac-Varnish A.
Parts.
Gamboge . . . . .10
Mastic ...... 25
Seed-lac ..... 25
Saffron ...... 1
Spirit of wine ..... 150
Gold Lac-Varnish B.
Parts.
Turmeric . . . . .1.5
Dragon’s-blood .... 20
Elemi ...... 30
Gamboge ..... 20
Seed-lac ..... 20
Sandarac . . . . .50
Spirit of wine ..... 50
English Durable Gold Lac-Varnish.
1 kilogram. (2.2 lbs.) of 96 per cent, alcohol is
poured over
500 grams. (17.5 ozs.) of powdered stick-lac and
dissolved by placing the vessel containing the mixture
in a water-bath. The ready lac-varnish is then filtered
through blotting paper.
Thompson 1 s Gold Lac- Varnish.
This is prepared by powdering
120 grams. (4.2 ozs.) of gamboge,
120 grams. (4.2 ozs.) of stick-lac,
132 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES LACQUERS, ETC.
120 grams. (4.2 ozs.) of annotto,
120 grams. (4.2 ozs.) of dragon’s-blood,
30 grams. (1.05 ozs.) of saffron.
Each powdered article is placed by itself in a glass
bottle, and 1 kilogramme (2.2 lbs.) of 96 per cent, alco¬
hol is poured over each. They are then allowed to
stand for fourteen days, either in the sun or a warm
place, and are frequently shaken until everything has
been dissolved; then
120 grams. (4.2 ozs.) of hot Venetian turpentine
are added, and the solutions are filtered through linen,
and either poured all together, or only parts of them,
according as the lac-varnish is desired.
Amber Crold Lac- Varnish .
120 grams. (4.2 ozs.) of stick-lac,
30 grams. (1.05 ozs.) of yellow, transparent
amber,
40 grams. (1.4 ozs.) of refined sandarac,
30 grams. (1.05 ozs.) of mastic in grains,
80 grams. (3.15 ozs.) of pure light-yellow colo¬
phony,
30 grams. (1.05 ozs.) of dragon’s-blood,
30 grams. (1.05 ozs.) of turmeric, and
30 grams. (1.05 ozs.) of gamboge,
are powdered and put in a suitable alembic.
2 kilograms. (4.4 lbs.) of 96 per cent, alcohol
are then poured over the powdered substances, and
they are dissolved by placing the alembic in a water-
bath. The solution is then filtered through a cloth.
a
DIRECTIONS FOR PREPARING.
133
The varnish, as well as the article to be varnished,,
must be heated before the varnish is laid on.
Mixed Crold Lac- Varnish.
This consists of
280 grams. (9.8 ozs.) refined sandarac,
100 grams. (3.5 ozs.) pure light-colored copal,
60 grams. (2.1 ozs.) stick-lac,
2 kilograms. (4.4 lbs.) 96 per cent, alcohol,
15 grams. (0.52 ozs.) turmeric,
30 grams. (1.05 ozs.) gamboge,
250 grams. (8.75 ozs.) 96 per cent, alcohol.
The sandarac, copal, and stick-lac are powdered
and dissolved in the alcohol; the dissolving_is effected
by a water-bath. The coloring substances are also
powdered and each one by itself is dissolved in
60 grams. (2.1 ozs.) of 96 per cent, alcohol,
then filtered and added to the lac-varnish.
Varnish for (Lilt Mouldings.
Parts.
Amber ...... 25
Dragon’s-blood .... 20
Gamboge ..... 25
Seed-lac ...... 100
Saffron ...... 1
Sanders-wood .... 3
Spirit of wine .... 500
This varnish must stand for some time, and must
then be filtered. It is better to treat the coloring
12
134 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
matter, the sanders-wood, and the saffron by them¬
selves with spirit of wine, and to add the solution to
the ready varnishes. A test of all the varnishes for
gilt mouldings and gold-lacquer varnishes can be easily
made by rubbing a small quantity of the varnish upon
a piece of bright tin-plate. When this dries, the
golden lustre will make its appearance. If a warmer
shade of gold is required, one more inclined to reddish,
a larger quantity of the red coloring substances must
be used, but more yellow if a pale gold is desired.
Glossy Lacquer.
Parts.
Amber ...... 2
Copal ...... 4
Seed-lac ..... 6
Mastic ...... 5
Sandarac ..... 5
Shellac . . . . . .10
Venetian turpentine ... . 4
Spirit of wine .... 100
1 VessneVs Quickly-drying Glossy Lac- Varnish.
This is prepared by powdering
375 grams. (13.125 ozs.) of refined sandarac.
This powder is dissolved in
950 grams. (33.25 ozs.) of 96 per cent, alcohol
by placing the vessel containing it in a water or sand
bath. Then
200 grams. (7 ozs.) of Venetian turpentine
DIRECTIONS FOR PREPARING.
135
are added to the solution, and when the mass has been
intimately mixed together, the ready lac-varnish is
filtered.
English Glossy Lac- Varnish.
This is composed of
375 grams. (13.125 ozs.) of refined and pow¬
dered sandarac,
110 grams. (3.85 ozs.) of Venetian turpentine,
and
950 grams. (33.25 ozs.) of 90 per cent, alcohol.
This is prepared in the same manner as the fore¬
going, and is kept in well-closed bottles. This lac-
varnish is very glossy, but does not dry very quickly.
Resin Lacquer A .
Colophony ....
Parts.
. 20
Elemi .....
5
Spirit of wine
60
Resin Lacquer B.
Colophony ....
Parts.
. 25
Mastic .....
5
Shellac ....
5
Spirit of wine
. 150
136 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
Wood-Lacquer (Bed).
Parts.
Dragon’s-bloo l .... 1
Elemi ...... 2
Mastic ...... 2
Sandarac , .... 8
Shellac ..... 4
Venetian turpentine ... 4
Spirit of wine . . . .50
Wood-Lacquer (Black).
Parts.
Elemi ...... 1
Seed-lac ..... 1
Mastic ...... 1
Sandarac ..... 1
Shellac ..... 2
Venetian turpentine ... 1
Spirit of wine .... 20
Colored with bone-black ... 1
Which is rubbed in with the turpentine and added to
the solution of resin.
Lacquer for Comb-makers .
Parts.
Elemi ...... 2
Mastic ...... 2
Shellac . . ... .10
Spirit of wine .... 40
DIRECTIONS FOR PREPARING. 137
Lacquer for Tinsmiths.
Parts.
Elemi ...... 2
Seed-lac . . . . .10
Sandarac ..... 5
Venetian turpentine ... 3
Spirit of wine .... GO
Lacquer for Copper-plates.
Parts.
Camphor ..... 2
Mastic ...... 2
Sandarac ..... 5
Bleached shellac .... 5
Spirit of wine .... 80
French Sandarac Lac- Varnish.
375 grams. (13.125 ozs.) of sandarac,
250 grams. (8.75 ozs.) of elemi resin,
125 grams. (4.375 ozs.) of animd resin,
36 grams. (1.2G ozs.) of camphor,
are put in an alembic.
950 grams. (33.25 ozs.) of 96 per cent, alcohol
are then poured over them, and the resins are dis¬
solved by placing the alembic in a water-bath.
To prevent the powdered resins from caking toge¬
ther,
250 grams. (8.75 ozs.) of powdered glass are
added to them.
12*
138 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
Another Receipt.
This consists of
250 grams. (8.75 ozs.) of sandarac,
125 grams. (4.375 ozs.) of colophony,
60 grams. (2.1 ozs.) of refined shellac,
150 grams. (5.25 ozs.) of Venetian turpentine,
1 kilogram. (2.2 lbs.) alcohol (96 per cent.)
It is prepared in the same manner as the foregoing
French Sandarac Varnish for Artists.
This consists of
250 grams. (8.75 ozs.) sandarac,
250 grams. (8.75 ozs.) mastic in grains,
125 grams. (4.375 ozs.) Venetian turpentine,
1 kilogram. (2.2 lbs.) 96 per cent, alcohol.
The resins are dissolved by placing the vessel con¬
taining them in a water-bath, and, to prevent caking,
200 grams. (7 ozs.) of powdered glass are added
to them.
Dutch Varnish for Artists.
250 grams. (8.75 ozs.) of refined sandarac,
250 grams. (8.75 ozs.) of mastic in grains,
125 grams. 4.375 ozs.) of animd resin,
are powdered and dissolved in
1.5 kilogram. (3.3 lbs.) of 96 per cent, alcohol,
by placing the vessel containing them in a water-bath.
The solution is then filtered.
DIRECTIONS FOR PREPARING.
139
Lac- Varnish for Water-color Pictures.
Take
200 grams. (7 ozs.) refined sandarac,
30 grams. (1.05 ozs.) of mastic in grains,
powder them, and dissolve them in
500 grams. (17.5 ozs.) of 96 per cent, alcohol.
Then
60 grams. (2.1 ozs.) of Venetian turpentine
are added, and the solution is filtered.
Lacquer for Dark Wall-Paper.
Wall-paper coated with the following lacquer can
be washed with soap and water without suffering in¬
jury :
Borax . . 30 grams. (1.05 ozs.)
Shellac or stick-lac 30 grams. (1.05 ozs.)
are dissolved in 300 grammes (10.5 ozs.) of hot water.
The solution is then strained through a close cloth,
and the lacquer is applied to the wall-paper either
before or after it is put on the wall. When dry the
paper is brushed with a soft brush, which will give it
a fine lustre. The paper should receive two coats,
which are applied in the usual manner with a brush ;
but of course the first coat should be thoroughly dry
before the second is laid on.
Lacquer for Light Wall-Paper.
This is prepared in the same manner as the above,
except that the same quantity of sandarac is substi¬
tuted for the shellac.
140 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
Insoluble Varnishes for Copper-plates and Maps.
When copper-plate engravings, maps, and paper in
general are to be coated with a thin layer impervious
to water, but nevertheless elastic, the following process
is used: Fine gilder’s glue is dissolved in water in the
proportion of 50 grammes (1.75 ozs.) of glue to 1 liter
(2.1 pints) of water, the warm solution is applied to the
surface of the paper, and this is allowed to dry thor¬
oughly. After the paper has become dry, it is laid in
a solution of acetate of alumina and allowed to remain
there for one hour. The paper is then washed off,
dried, and smoothed. A coating of alumina and glue
has thus been formed upon the paper, a process which
is called tawing. Such a paper can be washed with
a damp sponge without suffering injury.
Mastic Varnish A.
Parts.
Mastic . ... .
4 to 5
Sandarac . . . .
5 to 6
Venetian turpentine .
Itof
Spirit of wine .
26 to 30
Mastic Varnish B.
Parts.
Mastic .....
5 to 6
Sandarac ....
10 to 12
Venetian turpentine
i to 1
Spirit of wine . ...
26 to 30
DIRECTIONS FOR PREPARING.
141
Very Transparent Mastic Varnish for Oil-Paintings.
This consists of
360 grams. (12.6 ozs.) of the finest mastic,
50 grams. (1.75 ozs.) of Venetian turpentine,
15 grams. (0.525 oz.) of camphor,
230 grams. (8.05 ozs.) of rectified French oil of
turpentine,
1 kilogram. (2.2 lbs.) of 93 per cent, alcohol.
It is prepared in a water bath.
IlelPs Mastic Varnish for Articles of Pasteboard.
360 grams. (12.6 ozs.) of mastic, in grains, and
180 grams. (6.3 ozs.) of refined sandarac,
are powdered, and these substances are mixed with
200 grams. (7 ozs.) of powdered glass.
They are then dissolved in
2 kilograms. (4.4 lbs.) of 98 per cent, alcohol,
and then
200 grams. (7 ozs.) of Venetian turpentine, which
has been previously liquefied, are added to the solu¬
tion. The entire mass is intimately mixed together by
shaking it thoroughly, and finally is filtered through a
cloth.
Lacquer for Brass.
Venetian turpentine .
Spirit of wine
Seed-lac
Shellac .
Parts.
1
1
0.5
20
142 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS ETC.
Varnish for Metals ( Colorless ).
Parts.
Amber ,
Mastic
Sandarac
Bleached shellac
Spirit of wine .
20
1
2
2
Varnishes for Photographers.
Photographers require for their work a lacquer
which must possess peculiar properties. On the one
hand, it must be entirely colorless, must adhere tightly
to the glass, and be as hard as possible; and on the
other, it must be so constituted as to allow of the plate
being retouched with a lead-pencil. The most impor¬
tant property required of these lacquers is hardness,
as only in cases where the glass negative is coated
with a hard varnish is it possible to take many copies
without injury to the plate ; and finally it should be
mentioned that these lacquers must also possess a cer¬
tain degree of elasticity, and must not crack when the
lacquered plate is laid away, as this would be equiva¬
lent to a complete spoiling of the photographic nega¬
tive. As will be seen, quite contradictory properties—
hardness and elasticity—are demanded for such var¬
nish, and it is scarcely possible to give equal satisfac¬
tion with respect to both of them. Of the many
directions which might have been given for preparing
photograph varnishes, we furnish only those which
have stood the test after many years of experiment.
DIRECTIONS FOR PREPARING.
143
Varnish for Photographic Negatives .
Sandarac
Spirit of wine
Chloroform
Oil of lavender
Parts.
4
20
0.5
The filtered solution is spread out by pouring it
over the glass plate and dried by applying heat. The
coating is perfectly colorless, and negatives coated
with this varnish do not crack, even if they are stored
away for a long time.
Monlchoven’s Retouching Varnish for Negatives.
Shellac is placed for 24 hours in a saturated solu¬
tion of carbonate of ammonia in water. The solution
is then poured off and replaced by an equal quantity
of pure water; the fluid is boiled under constant
stirring until a complete dissolution has taken place.
The proportion between shellac and water should be
as 1 : 8. This is poured twice in succession over the
negative, which must be thoroughly dry. Retouching
can be done more quickly and finer upon this coating
than upon any other.
Retouching Varnish for Photographs.
Shellac . . 1 gram. (0.035 oz.)
Sandarac . . 6 “ (0.21 oz.)
Mastic . . . 6 “ (0.21 oz.)
Ether . 10 cubic centimetres (2.7 H. dr.)
144 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
Ten cubic centimetres (2.7 fl. dr.) of pure benzole
are added to the mixture after the resins have dissolved
in the ether.
Elastic Dammar Lacquer for Photographs.
Dammar
40 grams. (1.4 ozs.)
Acetone
180 “ (6.8 ozs.)
The resin will he almost completely dissolved in
14 days if the well closed
bottle containing the sub-
stance is allowed to stand i
in a moderately warm place.
The solution is then carefully poured off from the re¬
siduum. The lacquer should be applied with a soft
brush, and the application should be repeated several
times.
Hard Lacquer for Photographic Negatives.
Sandarac
200 grams. (7 ozs.)
Venetian turpentine
20 “ (0.7 oz.)
Oil of lavender
25 “ (0.875 oz.)
Ether
25 “ (0.875 oz.)
Absolute alcohol
500 “ (17.5 ozs.)
Photographer'
s Lacquer A.
Parts.
Mastic
2
Bleached shellac
. 10
Oil of turpentine
2
Spirit of wine .
. 60
DIRECTIONS FOR PREPARING.
145
Photographer's Lacquer B.
Amber .....
Copal .....
Benzole .....
Spirit of wine ....
Photographer's Lacquer C.
Amber .....
Copal .....
Mastic .....
Petroleum naphtha .
Spirit of wine ....
The raw materials for preparing lacquers for pho¬
tographers must be chosen with the utmost care, as it
is absolutely necessary that these lacquers should be
entirely colorless.
Lacquers for Leather.
Black Lacquer for Leather A.
Shellac . . 10 grams. (0.35 oz.)
Turpentine . . 50 “ (1.75 ozs.)
Spirit of wine . 400 “ (14 ozs.)
Five grammes (0.175 oz.) of extract of logwood
should first be dissolved in the spirit of wine, and a solu¬
tion of 1 gramme (0.035 oz.) of bichromate of potassa
is added to this. The two last-named substances pro¬
duce an intensely black color, and the lacquer will
13
Parts.
1
1
2
15
Parts.
2
2
1
10
20
146 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
show a glossy black color immediately after having
become dry. If a color with a bluish tinge is desired,
that object is obtained in the simplest manner by dis¬
solving from 5 to 10 grammes (0.175 to 0.35 oz.) of
indigo-carmine in the ready lacquer.
Black Lacquer for Leather , B.
Parts.
lluby shellac . . . . . b0
Venetian turpentine 1
Sandarac ..... 1
Castor oil ..... 1
Spirit of wine . . . .150
Aniline black ..... 5
Black Lacquer for Leather , O.
10 kilograms. (22 lbs.) of water,
2 kilograms. (4.4 lbs.) of borax,
2 kilograms. (4.4 lbs.) of shellac,
are boiled together. On the other hand,
2 kilograms. (4.4 lbs.) of logwood are boiled in
2 kilograms. (4.4 lbs.) of water,
and
1 kilogram. (2.2 lbs.) of green vitriol in
1| kilogram. (3.3 lbs.) of water.
The shellac solution is added to this, and intimately
mixed with it.
This lacquer has a greenish color, but very quickly
turns black when it is applied to leather.
DIRECTIONS FOR PREPARING.
147
Bronze-colored Shoe Lacquer.
a kilogram, (l.l lbs.) of shellac and
80 grams. (2.8 ozs.) of aniline blue
or aniline red are dissolved in
2 kilograms. (4.4 lbs.) of water,
according as a greenish or brownish gloss is desired.
Cheap Grlossy Lacquer for Leather.
Parts.
Black pitch . . . . .1
Benzole . . . . . .4
The solution is accomplished by heat, and the lac¬
quer, which dries quickly, is very well adapted for
lacquering shoe-leather, as it retains a certain elas¬
ticity. If it is desired to still further increase the
latter property, a few per cents, of turpentine may be
added to the solution.
Lacquer for Haryiess-malcers.
Parts.
Colophony ..... 5
Lampblack ..... 1
Mastic ...... 2
Sandarac ..... 5
Shellaq.20
Venetian turpentine ... 5
Spirit of wine .... 100
148 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
Sandarac Varnish.
Parts.
Sandarac.....
10
Venetian turpentine .
1 to 2
Spirit of wine ....
26 to 30
Lacquer for Terra Cotta.
Parts.
Mastic .....
2
Shellac .....
. 20
Venetian turpentine .
. 5
Spirit of wine ....
. 60
Universal Varnish ( elastic )
Parts.
Camphor .....
. 1
Colophony ....
2
Mastic .....
. 2
Sandarac .....
. 4
Spirit of wine ....
24
Universal Varnish (hard).
Parts.
Camphor .....
2
Colophony ....
2
Mastic .....
2
Sandarac .....
. 2
Shellac .....
2
Spirit of wine ....
. 24
DIRECTIONS FOR PREPARING.
149
Varnish for Gilders.
Parts.
Elemi .....
6
Mastic .....
6
Sandarac ....
12
Spirit of wine ....
800
Lacquer for Gilt Articles.
Parts.
Amber ......
2
Dragon’s-blood . . . .
0.5
Gamboge .
0.5
Seed-lac . . . . .
5
Sanders-wood . . . .
0.5
Sandarac .
2
Saffron ......
0.2
Spirit of wine .
20
Vernis d? Or ( Gold Varnish )
Parts.
Dragon’s-blood
5
Elemi .....
5
Gamboge
25
Mastic .....
20
Sandarac ....
12
Shellac .....
20
Sanders-wood ....
15
Venetian turpentine
10
Spirit of wine ....
000
Each of the resins is dissolved by itself
in the spirit
Avine, and the coloring substances are
digested in
13 *
150 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
spirit of wine ; the mass is filtered after the substances
have been mixed together. This varnish possesses the
property of elasticity in a very high degree, on ac¬
count of its containing elemi, mastic, and especially
turpentine, and can he used even for leather, oil-cloth,
etc., as the coating will not crack, even if the articles
to which it is applied are bent.
Directions for Oil of Turpentine Varnishes.
In the main, oil of turpentine varnishes are pre¬
pared in the same manner as the spirit varnishes;
but on account of the higher boiling point of the oil
of turpentine, it is not necessary to use the same pre¬
cautions against the evaporation of the solvent as are
required when spirit of wine is used. Resins can be
very well dissolved in oil of turpentine, by placing
them in a linen bag which is suspended by a string in
a bottle four-fifths filled with oil of turpentine, and
placed up to about a quarter of its height in sand
piled upon the plates of an ordinary stove. A glass
funnel containing a sponge, which has to be moistened
from time to time, is placed upon the bottle. The
loss of oil caused by evaporation is so small that it need
not be taken into consideration.
Dammar Varnish.
Parts.
Dammar resin . . . . 40 to 45
Oil of turpentine . . . 50 to 60
The preparation of this varnish requires a peculiar
treatment, namely, dammar resin can only be dissolved
DIRECTIONS FOR PREPARING.
151
in oil of turpentine when this contains no water. If
water is present, the resin is absolutely insoluble.
According to an old irrational process, by which a
large quantity of oil is lost by evaporation, and which,
besides, is very dangerous on account of fire, the resin
is heated in the oil until this no longer throws up bub¬
bles, which are caused by the water vapor, but shows
a smooth surface at a temperature of 120° to 130° C.
(248° to 266° F.).
We proceed in the following manner: The resin,
which has been previously heated for a short time to
a temperature of 105° to 110° C. (221° to 230° F.),
is then heated with a very small quantity of oil of
turpentine, to bring the latter to the boiling point.
This will form a very thick solution, furnishing at once
ready varnish when reduced with a sufficient quantity
of oil of turpentine.
Dammar Varnish ( Mixed').
Parts.
Dammar resin . . . . 80
Linseed oil . . . . . 4 to 5
Oil of turpentine .... 100
The linseed oil is boiled for a few hours with the
resin and a little oil of turpentine ; although the var¬
nish obtained in this manner is not quite so light as
that with oil of turpentine alone, it can be laid on
with less difficulty.
152 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
Lammar and Copal Varnish.
Parts.
Copal .....
. 40
Dammar resin
. 80
Linseed oil
. 10
Oil of turpentine
. 100
The linseed 'oil is divided into two
portions, the
copal is dissolved in one portion, the dammar resin
in the other, the solutions are poured together and
reduced with oil of turpentine.
Amber and Ble/mi Lacquer.
Parts.
Amber .....
. 20
Elemi .....
. 5
Venetian turpentine .
. 5
Oil of turpentine
. 60
Lacquer for Sheet Metal.
Parts.
Asphaltum ....
. 10
Colophony ....
. 5
Oil of turpentine varnish .
. 20
Oil of turpentine
. 8
Copal Lacquer for Bookbinder
8 . .
Parts.
West Indian copal
. 10
Mastic .....
. 2
Oil of turpentine
. 10
Spirit of wine ....
. 10
DIRECTIONS FOR PREPARING.
153
Gold Lacquer (Mixed).
Colophony
Gamboge .
Mastic
P.irts.
0
Sandarac .
Shellac
5
5
5
2 '
Turpentine
Oil of turpentine
Spirit of wine .
2
50
10
The colophony, gamboge, mastic, sandarac, and
shellac are dissolved in the spirit of wine, the turpen¬
tine in the oil of turpentine, and then the solutions
are mixed together.
Held’s Gold Lac Varnish.
The following ingredients are powdered: —
60 grams. (2.1 ozs.) of shellac,
60 grams. (2.1 ozs.) of aloes,
30 grams. (1.05 ozs.) of amber,
30 grams. (1.05 ozs.) of sandarac,
8 grams. (0.28 oz.) of gamboge,
4 grams. (0.14 oz.) of dragon’s-blood.
They are then dissolved in—
500 grams. (17.5 ozs.) of oil of turpentine,
by placing the glass vessel containing them in a sand-
bath.
If it is desired to make this varnish more durable,
from 60 to 125 grammes (2.1 to 4.375 ozs.) of linseed
154 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
oil varnish are added to it, and the entire mass is
allowed to boil up once more, and is finally filtered.
Gold Lac Varnish for Leather and Metal.
This consists of—
250 grams. (8.75 ozs.) of seed-lac,
250 grams. (8.75 ozs.) of sandarac,
98 grams. (3.48 ozs.) of gamboge,
16 grams. (0.56 oz.) of Venetian turpentine,
2 grams. (0.07 oz.) of oil of turpentine.
This is prepared in exactly the same manner as the
foregoing, and is finally filtered.
FreudenwolVs Gold Lac Varnish.
This consists of a solution of—
125 grams. (4.375 ozs.) of gamboge,
125 grams. (4.375 ozs.) of dragon’s-blood,
125 grams. (4.375 ozs.) of aloes, in
750 grams. (26.25 ozs.) of oil of turpentine,
and then a sufficient quantity of a cheap copal varnish
or dammar varnish is added until the desired sold
O
color has been obtained.
Dutch Gold Varnish.
125 grams. (4.375 ozs.) of mastic,
125 grams. (4.375 ozs.) of sandarac,
30 grams. (1.05 ozs.) of colophony,
60 grams. (2.1 ozs.) of aloes,
are powdered. They are then placed in a glass ves¬
sel, and dissolved in
200 grams. (7 ozs.) of oleum spicae,
DIRECTIONS FOR PREPARING.
155
bv placing the vessel in a water-bath. Then
8 grains. (0.28 oz.) of Venetian turpentine
are added to the solution, and this is then filtered.
This varnish may he laid warm and very thin on
polished tin, and will produce a beautiful gold color.
Wood, leather, etc., upon which silver leaf has been
fastened with the white of an egg, can he beautifully
gilt with this varnish.
Lacquers for Carriages.
Parts.
East India copal
2
Oil of turpentine
. 3
Linseed oil
. 3
Neil's Carriage Lacquers.
I.
0.5 kilogram. (1.1 lh.) of fine African copal is
melted, and to this are gradually added
2.5 kilograms. (5.5 lbs.) of old refined linseed
oil, and this is boiled for four or five hours
until it can be spun between the fingers; it
is then reduced with
1.5 kilograms. (3.3 lbs.) of oil of turpentine, and
filtered.
0.5 kilogram. (1.1 lb.) of animd resin, melt it,
and add
1.25 kilograms. (2.75 lbs.) of linseed oil. This
156 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
is also boiled for four or five hours until the
lacquer can be drawn into threads between
the fingers, and is then reduced with
1.75 kilogram. (3.85 lbs.) of oil of turpentine,
and filtered.
The lacquer I. does not dry very quickly, but, if
this is desired, equal parts of the described lacquers
I. and II. are taken and mixed intimately together by
heating and constantly stirring them. It is then fil¬
tered once more. The lacquer mixed in this manner
dries more quickly, and can be polished, while the
pure copal varnish is more fluid, softer, and more
pliant. The first possesses the quality of not chang¬
ing its color after it has been applied, but the second
becomes darker. For this reason it is advisable not
to mix any drying substance with the linseed oil, as
this always makes the color darker.
Dark Carriage Lacquer.
I.
0.5 kilogram. (1.1 lb.) of the best African copal
is melted, and to this are added
1.25 kilogram. (2.75 lbs.) of refined linseed oil
and
60 grams. (2.1 ozs.) of dried sugar of lead. It
is then boiled until the varnish commences
to draw threads between the fingers, and is
then reduced with
1.5 kilogram. (3.3 lbs.) of oil of turpentine,
and filtered.
DIRECTIONS FOR PREPARING.
157
II.
0.5 kilogram. (1.1 lb.) of pale anime resin is
melted, and to this are added
1 kilogram. (2.2 lbs.) of refined linseed oil and
15 grams. (0.525 oz.) of white dried sulphate
of zinc. This is then boiled for three or four
hours until the varnish commences to be
viscid, and is then reduced with
1.5 kilograms. (3.3 lbs.) of oil of turpentine, and
filtered.
The two foregoing varnishes are intimately mixed
together by being heated and filtered. The varnish
obtained in this manner dries very quickly, but is not
so durable as pure copal varnish.
Another Receipt.
0.5 kilogram. (1.1 lb.) of African copal is melted,
and
1.5 kilograms. (3.3 lbs.) of refined linseed oil and
15 grams. (0.525 oz.) of litharge are added to
this. It is then reduced with
0.5 kilogram. (1.1 lb.) of oil of turpentine, which
has been previously heated, and the mixture
is then filtered.
Water-proof Caoutchouc Lacquer.
The caoutchouc is dissolved by heating it for a con¬
siderable time with linseed oil. The solution is poured
into tall bottles and allowed to stand for a few weeks
14
158 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
to become clear. The clear solution can then be
rubbed together with any kind of mineral
color, and
furnishes a coating which will excellently resist the
influence of the weather. When finely divided graphite
is used instead of mineral color, a mass
is obtained
which in a dry state will have the appearance of steel.
Besin Lacquer ( Fat ).
Parts.
Asphaltum ....
. 5
Colophony ....
. 20
Oil of turpentine
. 10
Linseed oil varnish
. 15
Lacquer for Siyn Painters.
Parts.
Elemi .....
4
Mastic .....
5
Sandarac .....
10
Shellac .....
10
Oil of turpentine ....
4
Venetian turpentine
4
Spirit of wine ....
100
Grlazes for Barrels.
A great number of varnishes are brought into the
market under the name of barrel glazes and barrel
lacquers, which are of special importance for coating
the fermenting tuns of breweries, and which are pre¬
pared as a specialty by some manufacturers. In the
DIRECTIONS FOR PREPARING.
159
following, we give two directions for preparing var¬
nishes which have actually stood a 'practical test.
Dammar for Barrel Glaze.
Shellac . . . 100 grams. (3.5 ozs.)
Dammar . . . 100 “ (3.5 “ )
Spirit of wine . . 2 liters (2.1 qts.)
The resins are digested in the spirit of wine in a
well-closed bottle, which should be put in a warm
place, until the greater part of them has been dis¬
solved. The bottle should be frequently shaken. The
glaze is ready for use when finally a turbid fluid has
been formed. It is entirely unnecessary to filter it.
The barrels to be glazed should be entirely dry, and
it is advisable to dry them out and heat them by a
current of hot air. A coat of lacquer is then quickly
applied and is set on fire when it has dried so far that
it no longer runs. When it burns brightly, the lid of
the barrel is placed tightly upon it to extinguish the
fire, and the barrel is allowed to cool off’ with the lid
on. A thin layer of the glaze will remain adhering
so tightly to the sides of the barrel, that it will never
crack off’.
Glaze for the Insides of Barrels.
Shellac
Dammar resin
Colophony
Spirit of wine
200 grams. ( 7 ozs.)
200 “ ( 7 “ )
400 “ (14 “ )
3 liters ( 3.15 qts.)
160 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
The resins are dissolved in the spirit of wine in a
closed vessel by applying heat, and the solution is
used in a warm state. If barrels which have been
previously glazed are to be coated again with the
glaze, it is advisable not to allow the new coating to
dry, but to set the glaze on fire and quickly place the
lid upon the barrel. The old coating will then melt
together with the new into a uniform, very tightly
adhering mass.
Varnishes with Coal Tar Oil.
Since the immense development of that branch of
industry devoted to the dry distillation of coal, many
experiments have been made in using the oils, which
can be gained from the tar, for the fabrication of var¬
nishes also. And some of these oily products (in re¬
gard to their chemical composition, they do not belong
to the actual oils, but to the hydron-carbon compounds)
have been successfully used for the fabrication of var¬
nishes and lacquers, and these lacquers are becoming
of ever-increasing importance in our industry on ac¬
count of their excellent qualities, and of the low price
at which they can be produced. But we would here
draw particular attention to the fact, that tar-oils can
only be used for the fabrication of lacquers after they
have been especially purified for the purpose.
Among the tar oils gained in rectifying coal tar,
only those having a density of from 0.85 to 0.89 can
be used for our purposes. These oils contain, when
in a raw condition, a considerable quantity of foreign
DIRECTIONS FOR PREPARING.
161
substances, which would exert a disturbing influence
upon the fabrication of varnishes, and it is, therefore,
absolutely necessary to remove them. The oils are
purified in the following manner: —
100 kilograms. (220 lbs.) of the raw oil are
placed in a vat lined with thin plates of lead, and
Bichromate of potassa, 500 grams. (17.5 ozs.),
Powdered pyrolusite, 250 grams. (8.75 ozs.),
Sulphuric acid, 2 kilograms. (4.4 lbs.),
are added to them.
When these substances have been added, the fluid,
which assumes a black color, is thoroughly stirred,
and is then allowed to stand quietly for about six
hours. Dark-colored, resinous products will be sepa¬
rated on the bottom of the vessel. These are removed,
and the oil is subjected to washing. For this purpose
the oil is drawn off from the sediment on the bottom,
is washed first with warm water, and then treated with
weak lye to remove the last traces of acid.
Special attention must be paid to removing the least
trace of free acid, or else the oil suffers injurious
changes. The purified oil is then distilled once more,
and the density of the fluid passing over observed.
As long as the density is below 0.88 the distillate,
consisting of almost pure benzole, which is especially
well adapted for dissolving certain resins, is removed,
and the oil actually suitable for varnishes, which must
have a density of at least 0.88, is caught by itself.
The oil suitable for varnishes is as clear as water,
and its special superiority lies in the fact that it re-
14 *
162 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
mains entirely unchanged when exposed to the air and
light. This oil is particularly well suited for dissolv¬
ing light-colored resins, and, therefore, may be used
for such varnishes as are specially required to be as
colorless as possible. Excellent qualities of solutions
of copal, sandarac, and mastic can be prepared with
the assistance of these oils.
Yarnishes prepared with tar oil are used for very
different purposes, and for the sake of brevity we will,
therefore, alw T ays use the term tar-varnish oil for these
oils.
Colorless Negative Varnish. ■
Parts.
Dammar • .... 2
Mastic ...... 1
Sandarac . . . . .0.5
Chloroform . . . . .20
Tar-varnish oil . . . .20
For preparing this varnish the finely-powdered re¬
sins are tied in a small linen bag and suspended from
the lower part of the cork into a bottle containing the
corresponding quantity of fluids. The solution will
be accomplished in a short time if the bottle is put in
a moderately warm place. After the resins have been
dissolved, the clear varnish is poured off from the un¬
commonly small quantity of sediment. The process
of lacquering the plates with the varnish is very
quickly accomplished, as the solvent shows great vola¬
tility.
DIRECTIONS FOR PREPARING.
163
Excellent Asphaltum and Amber Varnish , by
Landerer.
Bottles of hyalite glass are generally used to pro¬
tect medicines or other easily decomposing substances
against the effect of light; but if such bottles cannot
be had, it becomes necessary to paste black paper over
them, or to coat them with a black varnish.
To prepare the latter asphaltum is dissolved in tar
oil. The bottles may be coated either thick or thin,
as may be desired, with this excellent black varnish,
and the coating will dry in a few minutes, especially
when the bottles to which it has been applied are
placed in the sun or near a warm stove.
A varnish which is just as beautiful and dries as
quickly can by prepared by dissolving common amber,
which has first been melted, in chloroform. If this
solution is poured into a glass, or a glass vessel is
coated with it, it dries and leaves a beautiful, glossy
color behind. This varnish, which can be used for
many purposes, may be colored at will, and can also
be dissolved loy pouring a few drops of caustic liquid
ammonia upon it, and the articles coated with it can
be thus entirely freed .from the varnish.
Tar Oil and Copal Varnish.
Parts.
Light-colored copal .... 4
American pine resin .... 2
Sandarac ...... 1
Venetian turpentine 1
Varnish oil . . . .20
164 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
The work is done by carefully melting the copal
together with the pine resin, the sandarac and turpen¬
tine are next added, and finally the varnish oil. The
mass should be fluid, but no longer hot, and is first
thoroughly stirred before the varnish oil is added. It
is then filtered in a covered funnel through a layer of
cotton.
Elastic Tar-oil Varnish.
The superiority of the following varnish consists in
the fact that it is almost colorless, and when applied
in a thin layer, does not show cracks, even after the
lapse of considerable time. It is, therefore, especially
adapted for coating finely-polished woods, and for
turned articles.
Parts.
Sandarac ..... 6
American pine resin ... 2
Mastic ...... 2
Venetian turpentine ... 1
Camphor ..... 0.2
Oil of lavender .... 0.2
Varnish oil . . . .24
Alcohol (90 per cent.) ... 4
The resins are melted together with the turpentine,
the camphor and oil of lavender are dissolved in the
spirit of wine, and this solution is added to the resins.
DIRECTIONS FOR PREPARING.
165
Printer's Varnish with Tar Oil.
Parts.
Linseed oil .... 100
6
40
20
Litharge
American pine resin
Tar-varnish oil
The litharge is boiled with the linseed oil and pine
resin until the mass commences to draw threads in
cooling. It is then, while still hot, mixed with the
varnish oil. This varnish dries very quickly on ac¬
count of the volatility of the varnish oil, and must,
therefore, be kept in well-closed vessels.
Coal Asphaltum Lacquer.
When tar is distilled, there remains finally in the
distilling apparatus a mass, which when cold, assumes
a glossy-black appearance, and shows some of the
qualities of excellent asphaltum. This tar asphaltum
is particularly well adapted for the fabrication of
lacquers, and in the following, we give a few direc¬
tions for preparing such lacquers which may be used
for various purposes. If dissolved in volatile oils and
used by itself, coal-asphaltum to be sure produces
lacquers of a beautiful, black color and great lustre,
but they are quite brittle. This asphaltum is there¬
fore mostly used for the fabrication of lacquers in
connection with other bodies, and substances posses¬
sing the property of decreasing this brittleness are
employed for this purpose. The following directions
166 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
will serve for preparing a coal-asphaltum lacquer
which can be used equally well for glass, wood,
leather, and metal.
100 parts of coal-tar asphaltum are melted together
with 40 parts of colophony, and then mixed with 20
kilogrammes (44 lbs.) of linseed-oil varnish. When
this has been intimately mixed together, 40 kilo¬
grammes (88 lbs.) of oil of turpentine and 40 grammes
(1.4 ozs.) of tar-varnish oil are added to the mass.
The mixture is ready when a sample rubbed upon a
glass plate solidifies to a glossy, black coating in a
quarter of an hour.
If the sample should show no lustre, a few kilo¬
grammes of tar-oil varnish are added to the mass and
thoroughly mixed with it.
Tar-asphaltum Lacquer.
West Indian copal .
\ •
Parts.
. 80
American pine resin
. ,
. 30
Mineral asphaltum .
•
. 30
Tar asphaltum
.
. 30
Yellow wax
. #
6
Venetian turpentine
•
. 6
The substances are melted and made uniform by
stirring. This can be recognized by the melted mass
running off in a uniformly thick stream from the
spatula. To the melted mass, and when it is still
mod era tel v warm.
DIRECTIONS FOR PREPARING.
167
Parts.
Resin-oils . . . . .12
Linseed-oil varnish . . . .80
Oil of turpentine . . . .30
Benzole . . . . . 30 to 45
are added.
But the benzole must be added at the very last, and
the quantity of this depends on the object for which
the lacquer is to be used. If it is desired to produce
a thinly-fluid lacquer, more benzole has to be used.
The more thinly fluid the lacquer is, the more beauti¬
ful and durable will it be. On account of its great
lustre, this lacquer can also be used for the manufac¬
ture of the so-called Japanese w r ares. It will take a
very beautiful gloss by repeatedly rubbing it with a
flannel rag.
Double Asphaltum Lacquer.
Mineral asphaltum
Tar asphaltum .
American pine resin
Linseed-oil varnish
Oil of turpentine
Light coal-tar oil
Benzole
Lampblack
In preparing this kind of lacquer, the following
method is observed: The natural asphaltum is first
melted together with the colophony, the tar asphaltum
Parts.
18
18
18
10
10
10
20
2
168 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
is then added, and the other fluids are only mixed with
these bodies after they have become uniformly melted.
Finally the linseed-oil is added, which should be first
intimately rubbed together with the lampblack.
Asphaltum Lacquer for Leather.
Parts.
Mineral asphaltum .... 10
Tar asphaltum .... 10
American pine resin . . .10
Wax ...... 2
Paraffin . . . . . 3
are mixed together for preparing this very beautiful
lacquer, which is also used under the name of military
lacquer, for lacquering straps, cartridge-boxes, etc.
Forty parts of good linseed-oil varnish and two parts
of Paris blue are added to the melted mass. The
fluid is then heated under continual stirring until it
commences to give off heavy vapors. From this time
on, samples of it must be tested. If a cooled-off
sample can be drawn out into fine threads, and leaves
no fat-like edge when dropped hot upon a piece of
paper, the mass is allowed to cool off as much as pos¬
sible without becoming viscid, and
Parts.
Oil of turpentine .... 10
Benzole . . . . . .10
are added to it.
A solution of 11 parts of methyl-violet in 10 parts
of strong alcohol must first be applied to the leather
DIRECTIONS FOR PREPARING.
169
to be lacquered, and when this has become dry, the
lacquer is laid on. The coating of lacquer will then
have a glossy, bluish black appearance.
Directions for other Volatile Varnishes.
Amber Varnish.
Parts.
Amber ......
30
Venetian turpentine
5
Oil of turpentine . . . .
100
Amber and Copal Varnish.
Parts.
Amber ......
10
Copal ......
30
Venetian turpentine
5
Oil of turpentine . . . .
80
Copal Lacquer for Mechanics.
Parts.
East Indian copal . . . .
1
Oil of turpentine . . . .
1
Benzole ......
1
The benzole must only be added after the solution
has been accomplished and the fluid has cooled off.
Varnishes for Making Rubber Balloons Impermeable.
These varnishes are prepared of farinaceous sub¬
stances, gum tragacanth, or other vegetable gum, dex¬
trine, sugar, albumen, collodion prepared without
ether, glue (insinglass, common glue, or lip-glue).
15
170 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
These are freed from all undissolved substances by
straining them through a hair sieve, and must be en¬
tirely clear. The main point in respect to these var¬
nishes is that they should form an impermeable but as
thin a layer as possible upon the balloon or other
articles to which they may be applied. The balloon
is coated with the varnish as soon as it is filled with
gas, for the purpose of closing the pores of the rubber
and to cover them with a film through which the hy¬
drogen gas cannot penetrate. Water or diluted spirit
of wine is used as a solvent for the substances. Fatty
substances must not be employed, as they might exert
a decomposing effect upon the rubber. Only the col¬
lodion is mixed with a very small quantity of castor
oil, so that the film produced upon the balloon may
not be too brittle.
Receipt I.
If the varnish is to be prepared of gum and sugar,
the following ingredients are used : —
Parts.
Gum
. 32
Sugar
. 8
Water
. 60
The proportions may be changed at will, according
as it is desired to have the varnish more or less pliant.
The varnish becomes harder if less sugar is used.
DIRECTIONS FOR PREPARING.
171
Receipt II.
If dextrine is used for making the varnish : —
Parts.
Dextrine . . . . . .28
Best glue ...... 12
Water . . . . . .60
are taken.
These proportions may also be varied according as
the varnish is to be more or less pliant. It becomes
harder the more dextrine is employed. If a very
pliant varnish is desired, but not very durable, glue
alone may be used, by taking 60 to 70 parts of water
for each 100 parts of varnish to be prepared. In re¬
gard to the collodion varnish, this must contain from
5 to 6 per cent.‘of castor oil, but the collodion must
be prepared without ether.
Receipt III.
The following mixture may also be used: —
White wine . .700 grams. (24.5 ozs.)
Gum tragacanth . 200 u (7 ozs.)
Treacle . . 150 “ (5.25 ozs.)
These substances are mixed together and boiled for
thirty minutes, are then allowed to cool olf, and com¬
pounded with
300 grams. (10.5 ozs.) of alcohol. This mix¬
ture is filtered and immediately filled into bottles.
172 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
Black Lacquer for Iron.
Common asphaltum is melted in a boiler, and recti¬
fied petroleum is added to it under continual stirring
until a cooled-off sample shows sufficient consistency
to be applied with a brush. The drying of this var¬
nish can be much accelerated by heat, as it will bear
a high degree of heat, and besides its beautiful, black
color possesses the valuable quality of being elastic.
For articles of iron there is no cheaper, and at the
same time better protecting coat than one of asphal¬
tum and petroleum lacquer.
Lacquer for Iron.
Parts.
Asphaltum
.20
Colophony
5
Lampblack
2
Petroleum
. 50
Caoutchouc Varnishes.
Caoutchouc varnishes possess the exceedingly valu¬
able property of offering a complete resistance to the
influence of water, and in this respect surpass all
other varnishes. Besides, in consequence of the elas¬
ticity of the caoutchouc, articles coated with this var¬
nish will show no cracks, even if they stand never so
long. There are numerous solvents used for prepar¬
ing these varnishes, but sulphide of carbon, ether, and
oil of turpentine are especially used for the purpose.
The oil of caoutchouc gained in the dry distillation of
DIRECTIONS FOR PREPARING.
173
caoutchouc possesses scarcely a greater solving power
than the oil of turpentine, but the latter is by far the
cheaper. Benzole is particularly w T ell adapted for
forming the caoutchouc solutions, and is to be preferred
to the sulphide of carbon (though this is also an ex¬
cellent solvent for caoutchouc), if only for the reason
that the Vapors of benzole do not exert such an inju¬
rious effect upon the health of the laborers as those of
sulphide of carbon.
Strictly speaking, every solution of caoutchouc is
already a varnish, and such solutions are particularly
well adapted where a colorless coating, and one which
will not crack, is desired. Copperplates and maps can
be very well coated with a simple solution of caout¬
chouc in sulphide of carbon. The best method for
preparing these varnishes is to allow the caoutchouc to
swell up in the sulphide of carbon, and to effect the
final solution by adding benzole and placing the vessel
in warm water. The solutions should remain standing
as long as possible upon the undissolved residuum to
become clear. They are then carefully poured off into
other bottles, and stored away until they are to be
used. But the bottles must be tightly corked, as this
solvent is very volatile. Varnishes containing other
varnish—especially copal varnish—besides caoutchouc
possess the good qualities of both varnishes, though
they dry somewhat slower than the pure caoutchouc
varnish. But the last-named quality may be rather
called an advantage than otherwise, as solutions of
caoutchouc in benzole or sulphide of carbon dry so
15 *
374 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
quickly as to require special skill to apply them in a
uniform layer.
Caoutchouc Varnish.
Parts.
Caoutchouc ..... 1
Sulphide of carbon . . . .10
The caoutchouc is cut up in small pieces, these are
placed in a bottle and sulphide of carbon is poured
over them, and the tightly closed bottle put in a warm
place. The caoutchouc swells up very much, but dis¬
solves only partly, and after standing for a long time
forms a clear solution over a slimy sediment. The
solution must be poured off very carefully.
Benzole dissolves caoutchouc better. Portions of it
are gradually added to the caoutchouc until this is
changed into a jelly. This is then reduced with light
tar-oil (having a density of 0.84 to 0.85) and filtered.
The most complete solution is obtained by pouring ben¬
zole over the pieces of caoutchouc which have been
treated with sulphide of carbon, and mixing the solu¬
tions together.
This varnish dries with extraordinary quickness,
leaving a very thin film behind, and is therefore espe¬
cially suitable for coating copperplates, maps, photo¬
graphs, etc. The layer of varnish has neither color
nor lustre, is therefore invisible, and articles varnished
with it can be cleansed with a moist sponge. If a
tissue is dipped into this varnish or painted over with
it, the stuff will be made water-proof, and fine cotton
DIRECTIONS FOR PREPARING.
175
or silk goods treated in this manner assume a very
peculiar transparent appearance. Burns covered with
this varnish cease to pain, as it excludes the air and
heals very quickly.
Whenever an article is to be made water-proof in
the cheapest manner, this varnish is the best means
for accomplishing the object. Matches and rockets
dipped several times into this varnish may lie in water
for hours without losing their inflammability.
Linseed Oil and Caoutchouc Lacquer.
1 kilogramme (2.2 lbs.) of caoutchouc is swelled up
with 0.5 kilogramme (1.1 lb.) of ether and made fluid
by heating. It is then compounded with 1 kilogramme
of warm linseed oil and 1 kilogramme of warm oil of
turpentine. The fluid is then put in a bottle to clear.
Elastic Caoutchouc Varnish.
1 kilogramme (2.2 lbs.) of colophony is heated to
such a point that the mass commences to throw out
vapors ; 500 grammes (17.5 ozs.) of caoutchouc cut
into small pieces are then gradually added. The
mixture must be constantly stirred, and, when it has
become quite uniform, 1 kilogramme of hot linseed oil
is added in portions. It is then heated until disagree¬
ably smelling vapors commence to be developed. The
vessel is then taken from the fire, and the stirring is
continued until the entire mass has become cold.
The varnish obtained in this manner can be advan¬
tageously used as a perfectly water-proof coating for
176 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
leather and tissues, and such articles coated with it
can be repeatedly bent without cracking the lacquer.
Only unsatisfactory results are obtained by endeav¬
oring to dissolve caoutchouc in common petroleum;
for caoutchouc is only soluble in petroleum almost free
from water. It is only necessary to treat petroleum
with sulphuric acid to free it from water. For this
purpose, 100 parts by weight of petroleum are mixed
with 10 parts by weight of concentrated sulphuric
acid in a vessel provided with a stirring apparatus.
When the two fluids have been again separated, the
petroleum is placed in a bottle containing 1.5 kilo¬
gramme (3.3 lbs.) of litharge and 0.5 kilogramme (1.1
lb.) of pyrolusite. The bottle is then thoroughly
shaken and left quietly standing to allow the fluid to
become clear. Petroleum treated in this manner is
an excellent solvent for caoutchouc, and should be
used especially in all cases where it is desired to
obtain a varnish which will dry quickly.
Hard Caoutchouc Lacquer.
Old combs of hard caoutchouc or other waste of
caoutchouc can be used for preparing this excellent
lacquer which may be used for all purposes. The
hard caoutchouc is melted in small portions in an iron
pot, but it must be constantly stirred with an iron
spatula to prevent the mass from burning to the pot.
When all has been melted, the fluid mass is poured
out upon a tin-plate and broken into pieces after it has
become cold. These pieces, resembling glossy black
DIRECTIONS FOR PREPARING.
177
pitch, are pat in a bottle, and five to ten times their
quantity of rectified oil of turpentine poured over
them. Instead of using oil of turpentine alone, a
mixture of equal parts of this and benzole may also he
used, which will dissolve the caoutchouc in a short
time.
When the greater part of the mass has been dis¬
solved, it is carefully poured off from the sediment-,
and i dark brown lacquer is obtained which furnishes
an excellent coating for metal, and, when repeatedly
applied, gives it a glossy black color resembling that
of the hard caoutchouc itself..
Lacquer for Leather.
Parts.
Caoutchouc varnish . . . .3
Volatile copal varnish . . . .3
Lacquers for Metals.
Gold Lacquer for Metals.
A solution of white shellac in strong spirit of wine
is mixed with so much of a saturated solution of picric
acid as to give the desired gold color to the fluid when
it is applied in a thin layer. The solution is com¬
pounded with 1 per cent, of crystallized boracic acid,
which is easily dissolved.
Black Lacquer for Metals.
A tenth part of finely ground vine-black is added
to the ordinary black lacquer for metals prepared with
178 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
asphaltum. The lacquer by this loses the disagreeable
quality of cracking, and this can be still more com¬
pletely prevented by using the lacquer very thin and
repeating the application.
Hugue 1 s Dead Lacquer.
This lacquer has no gloss after it has become dry,
and is also entirely colorless. It may be prepared
according to the following directions: —
Ether
Parts.
. 560
Benzole
.
. 240
Sandarac
#
. 40
Canadian balsam
• •
. 10
The sandarac resin is first dissolved in the ether,
and then the remaining fluids are mixed with the solu¬
tion, and the lacquer is cleared by being allowed to
stand quietly for some time.
Dead Varnish for Metal Articles.
Sandarac
Parts.
3
Castor-oil
1
Spirit of wine
. 20
Blaclc-Tar Lacquer.
Coal-tar is heated in a boiler to such a degree as to
bring it to a lively ebullition. The articles to be lac¬
quered are also first strongly heated, then dipped into
the hot tar and allowed to drain off well over the
DIRECTIONS FOR PREPARING.
179
boiler. They will then have a glossy, black appear¬
ance, and can stand a pretty high temperature without
the lacquer undergoing a change.
Black Amber Lacquer for Metals.
This lacquer is prepared in the following manner:
Chips of amber are melted in an iron vessel, and the
same quantity by weight of the finest asphaltum in
another vessel, and both resins are heated to a point
where they commence to evolve heavy vapors. As
soon as this takes place, boiling linseed-oil is added to
each of the resins. The linseed-oil should be one-half
the quantity by weight of the resins originally used.
The oil is stirred thoroughly into the resins, and both
fluids are then put together into one vessel. This lac¬
quer has the valuable quality of retaining its lustre
even after frequently repeated washings, and does not
crack off. In lacquering articles of metal with it, it is
advisable to heat them pretty strongly, and to use the
lacquer also in a hot state, as it can then be applied in
a very thin layer. An excellent lacquer is also ob¬
tained by using copal instead of amber, but it is less
durable than the somewhat dearer amber lacquer.
Lacquer for Lron.
If it is desired to protect iron against the influence
of the atmosphere in a cheap and at the same time
durable manner, no simpler and cheaper means can be
found than treating it with ozocerite. Ozocerite is a
fossil wax found in a layer of bituminous shale, which
180 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
is brought into commerce from America as well as
from Galicia and Roumania. It forms a brown resin¬
ous mass, and fuses at about 60° C. (140° F.). For
the purpose of lacquering articles of iron with ozoce¬
rite, this is melted in a boiler and the melted mass is
heated to the boiling point of water. The sheet-metals
to be lacquered should be previously made as bright
as possible by rubbing them with sand. They are
then dipped into the melted mass, allowed to drain off,
and then the ozocerite is set on fire by holding the
metal over a coal fire. After the ozocerite has
burned for some time, the flame is extinguished, and
the iron appears then with a tenaciously adhering,
black coating, which perfectly resists the influence of
the atmosphere, and suffers no injury from acids and
alkaline bodies. If the iron is to be used for vessels
which are to be employed for holding
it is advisable to repeat the lacquering.
alkaline fluids
Varnish for Mechanics.
Parts.
Colophony ....
. 25
Dragon’s-blood
5
Gamboge ....
6
Gutta-percha ....
. 10
Shellac ....
3
Volatile tar-oil
. 200
This varnish is particularly adapted for all mechani
cal work which is to show bright metal, as, for instance,
photographic objectives, microscopes, etc. The quan-
DIRECTIONS FOR PREPARING. 181
tity of dragon’s-blood is either increased or decreased
according as it is desired to have a bronze, yellow, or
brass color.
Grold Lacquer for Metals.
Parts.
Asphaltum . . . . .10
Volatile tar-oil .... 100
Black , (flossy Lacquer for Metals.
Parts.
Asphaltum . . . . 50 to 60
Volatile tar-oil .... 100
Asphaltum dissolves very easily in volatile tar-oil,
and furnishes a coating for metals which adheres very
tenaciously ; the first receipt is especially adapted for
brass, bronze, etc., and can be made of a light golden
color by suitably reducing it; the second receipt may
be especially recommended to mechanics, as with it
a glossy, black coating can be applied on iron in a
very simple manner, a coating which can stand con¬
siderable heat without being destroyed. It is ad¬
visable to apply the varnish in a thin layer, to dry
it quickly over a coal-fire and to repeat the operation
till the coating is of sufficient thickness. This kind of
lacquering, when rubbed, takes a very fine polish.
* Wax Lacquer.
Parts.
White wax . . . . .10
Benzole . - . . . . 15 to 18
16
182 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
The solution reduced with petroleum or light tar-oil
is very suitable for a varnish for mechanics (for bright,
especially white, metal), and furnishes a coating which
is almost invisible, but which preserves perfectly the
lustre of the metal and Avhich can stand a considera¬
ble degree of heat.
XI.
FAT VARNISHES.
Fat varnishes are prepared with fat oils, and the
principal among these is linseed oil. In describing
the raw materials used for the fabrication of var¬
nishes, we have already drawn attention to the fact,
that linseed oil possesses the property of drying in a
short time when exposed to the air in a thin layer.
This property is still more increased if the linseed oil
is heated for a length of time to a temperature at
which decomposition takes place, or to use the practi¬
cal term is “ boiled.” But the quickest way of
changing linseed oil into varnish is by adding certain
chemical products such as protoxide of lead, binoxide
of manganese (pyrolusite), or borate of manganese to
it while it is being boiled.
Chemical Process.
Although many eminent chemists have investigated
the subject, yet, up to the present time, the process
FAT VARNISHES.
183
which goes on during the boiling of the varnish has
not been sufficiently explained ; we are especially un¬
able to explain the action of the compounds of lead,
and still less that of such substances as borate of man¬
ganese, a body of which one part is sufficient to change
two thousand parts of linseed oil into varnish.
The celebrated Dutch chemist Mulder gives the
following explanation of the process by which vaimish
is formed. Linseed oil, like every other fat oil, is a
salt-like body, and consists of a combination of oxide
of glyceryle with fat acids ; among these the oxide of
glyceryle in the linoleic acid is of the most importance
to us, as linoleic acid forms a particularly characteristic
component of linseed oil. When the combination
consisting of linoleic acid and oxide of glyceryle is
destroyed, the linoleic acid is set free and forms a
body which eagerly absorbs oxygen from the air, and
this process goes on very quickly especially at an in¬
creased temperature, and the linseed oil is thereby
changed into a tough, elastic body whose properties
correspond to a certain degree with those of caoutchouc
and is called linolin-caoutchouc. According to further
investigations by Mulder, it is claimed, that the re¬
maining part of the linoleic acid which has been set
free by boiling (that is the part which is not at once
changed into linolin-caoutchouc) is changed into a very
peculiar acid. Mulder calls it linox acid, and it dries
to a leather-like mass, while the entirely unchanged
oxide of glyceryle forms, when exposed to the air, a
half-solid, tough mass.
184 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
We do not intend to discuss further these purely
chemical questions, but we would say a few words
about the action of the chemical products used in the
fabrication of varnishes. The action of protoxide of
lead, binoxide of manganese, and oxide of zinc may be
explained by the fact that these oxides, being stronger
bases than the oxide of glyceryle, effect a separation
of the latter body and then form salts (or soaps) with
the acids set free.
The effect of minium (red lead), of permanganate
of potash, and that of pyrolusite, may be explained
by the fact, that these bodies evolve oxygen when
boiled with the linseed oil, and, therefore, accelerate
the oxidizing process, and, on the other hand, are
changed into bases (protoxide of lead and binoxide of
manganese), which form a combination with the fat
acids.
In respect to the formation of varnish by the borate
of manganese, a body which has made its way in the
industry in a short time, on account of its excellent
properties for forming varnish, we can give no theo¬
retical explanation, except we would assume that at a
higher temperature the linoleic acid possesses the
property of driving the boracic acid out of the borate
of manganese, and of forming a combination with the
protoxide of manganese at the moment it is set free
from the combination.
If linseed oil is heated or boiled until decomposition
commences, it requires some time to obtain the oil en¬
tirely pure, as a scum is continually formed on the
FAT VARNISHES.
185
surface. This consists principally of vegetable gum,
albumen, and similar substances, which have not been
removed in refining the oil. It must be heated until
no more scum is formed, and the formation of varnish
can only be proceeded with when the surface of the
oil has become smooth and of a dark color. It may
be recommended to subject the oil first to a simple
refining process, so as to avoid the too long heating,
which would otherwise be necessary for completely
separating the coagulable substances of the linseed oil.
The oil to be refined is put in a large vessel, and
an equal volume of caustic potash, 1 to 1J per cent,
strong, is added to it. The oil and the caustic potash
are mixed intimately together with a paddle, and
allowed to stand overnight. As soon as the caustic
potash, which has absorbed nearly all the albuminous
substances, etc., has become completely separated from
the oil, it is drawn off, and the oil is treated several
times with water to remove the last traces of the caustic
potash.
Oil treated in this manner—the process was origi¬
nated by Wiederhold—gives, according to our expe¬
rience, scarcely any scum, when it is heated, and can
be quickly worked into varnish.
Another method of preparing the oil for the fabri¬
cation of varnish, is to store it as long as possible ex¬
posed to the influence of light. The large so-called
carboys of green glass used for hydrochloric acid,
which will hold from 50 to 60 kilogrammes (110 to
132 lbs.) of oil, are well adapted for this purpose.
16 *
186 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
The longer the oil can be stored in this manner the
easier can it be changed into a varnish which will
quickly dry when exposed to the air.
Linseed-oil varnish can be compounded to varnishes
with the resins, especially with hard resins, such as
amber, copal, mastic, which deserve to be called the
most excellent of all varnishes, as such varnish, or
lacquer, prepared in a suitable manner, and by using
choice materials, will not only possess great lustre and
hardness, but, besides, great elasticity and tenacity,
the valuable quality of perfectly resisting for years
the influence of air and w r ater.
Practical Part of Varnish Boiling.
The boiling of varnish is an operation requiring the
greatest attention, as not only the entire quantity of
oil boiled at one time may be lost if the work is car¬
ried on carelessly, but also a very dangerous fire may
be caused by the oil boiling over and taking fire.
When linseed oil is gradually heated, it first throws
off - water-vapors, which are succeeded by disagreeably-
smelling vapors, which originate from the products of
the dry distillation of the oil. This decomposition
shows itself also by a phenomenon resembling that of
boiling; the oil throws up bubbles and assumes a
darker color. Now it is very important that the tem¬
perature should not be allowed to rise above a certain
degree.
Unfortunately the workmen, as a general rule, do
not use a thermometer—600° 0. (572° F.) would be
FAT VARNISHES.
187
about a right temperature—but depend only on practi¬
cal tests; such, for instance, is the so-called feather test,
which consists in a chicken-feather being dipped into
the hot oil, and when this bends together and shrivels
up with a gently crackling noise, the right temperature
is supposed to have been reached.
As many badly smelling vapors are developed dur¬
ing the boiling of varnish, and these have an injurious
effect upon the eyes and the mucous membrane of the
nose, many manufacturers boil the varnish in the open
air. We cannot approve of this method, because a
sudden rain might have an injurious effect, as the rain¬
drops falling into the hot oil are immediately changed
into steam, by which the hot oil would he thrown out
of the boiler, and the laborers would he in danger of
receiving severe burns.
The oil should he heated only from below in such a
manner that the sides of the boiler are not touched by
the gases of the fire. By this arrangement an exces¬
sive heating can he far more easily avoided. Linseed
oil, like all fat oils, is a bad heat-conductor ; therefore,
to prevent over-heating or scorching on the bottom of
the boiler, the greatest care must be taken to mix, by
constant stirring, the hot oil with that which is less hot.
The Boiling Apparatus .
The motion occasioned by stirring the oil, as well
as the strong expansion of the oil itself when heated,
demands that the vessel in which the oil is boiled should
never be filled more than about three-quarters full.
188 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
The accompanying illustration, Fig. 7, represents a
simple apparatus for boiling varnishes, which offers the
greatest security against losses from boiling over and
danger of fire, and also protects the laborers from the
Fig. 7.
effects of the noxious vapors ; and, further, makes it
possible to immediately extinguish the fire under the
boiler in case through careless firing the temperature
of the oil should rise so high that a boiling over of the
oil should be feared. On account of the danger from
fire connected with this work, it will be of course neces¬
sary to place this apparatus in a fire-proof room, which
should be either vaulted or provided with an iron roof.
FAT VARNISHES.
189
The apparatus consists of the boiler K , furnished
with a stirring apparatus R, which is put in motion by
the angular gearing C and the crank M. The boiler
is bricked in in a fireplace; the grate R of this con¬
sists of two parts moving on pivots, which are kept in
position by the rod 8. In the ashpit of the fireplace
is placed a tub, W , filled with water. Though only
the lower part of the boiler K is bricked in in the
fireplace, yet the contents of the boiler may become
overheated by carelessness. If this is feared, the two
parts of the grate can be dropped immediately by
drawing out the rod 8, the fuel drops into the tub W ,
and is there extinguished.
To protect the workmen as much as possible from the
vapors of the hot oil, a helmet H is placed upon the
flat rim of the boiler, which passes into a pipe leading
into the chimney E. The vapors ascending from K
pass with the gases from the fire into the open air.
Of course the capacity of the apparatus depends
on the size of the factory. When large quantities
are worked at one time, the heat can be easily regu¬
lated, and a large quantity of uniform varnish is ob¬
tained.
Varnishes are divided into lead, manganese, or zinc
varnishes, according to the metallic compound with
which they have been boiled. The quantities of these
bodies to be used for changing linseed oil into varnish
vary very much according to the different receipts, as
much as from 1 to 50 parts by weight for every 100
parts of linseed oil.
190 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
Lead Varnishes.
Until within a very short time compounds of lead
were the only known means of changing linseed oil
into a quickly drying varnish,—into a siccative. Al¬
though lead varnishes possess many disadvantages,
yet large quantities of them are still manufactured.
We can only ascribe this to the desire to hold on to
what is old, because varnishes prepared with com¬
pounds of manganese can be manufactured cheaper
even than lead varnishes.
The principal disadvantage of lead varnishes is
found in the fact that the dissolved compounds of lead
change very easily into black sulphide of lead, which
makes the varnish in time darker, and gives to the
coating a dirty appearance. Should the varnish be
even rubbed together with a color containing sulphur,
as, for instance, yellow cadmium (jaune brillant) or
cinnabar (vermillion), which is the sulphide of mer¬
cury, the color in a short time assumes a smoky ap¬
pearance, and finally becomes entirely black.
For the reasons mentioned above, the preparing of
lead-siccatives should be entirely done away with in
the fabrication of varnishes, and this can be the easier
done as no customer will especially demand a varnish
prepared with compounds of lead or compounds of
manganese. To the buyer it is all the same, he only
demands that the varnish should dry quickly, and
form a permanently light-colored layer which will re¬
sist the influence of the weather well.
FAT VARNISHES.
191
Ordinary Litharge Varnish.
For preparing this varnish, the required quantity of
linseed oil is brought into the varnish-boiler and heated
until scum commences to form on the surface of the
oil. This scum is constantly removed with a flat pan
having a perforated, sieve-like bottom through which
the oil taken up with the scum can run back into the
boiler. When no more scum is formed and the sur¬
face of the oil has become smooth and of a dark color,
the litharge is added under constant stirring. For
each 100 kilogrammes (220 lbs.) of oil, from 2 to 3
kilogrammes (4.4 to 6.6 lbs.) of litharge, ground as
fine as possible, are used.
Before the latter is used it should be thoroughly
dried so as to be sure that it contains not even a trace
of water. Should the litharge be added to the hot oil
in a moist state, the latter would fly out of the boiler,
in consequence of the sudden development of vapor.
Litharge becomes sufficiently dry when heated for
about an hour and a half at a temperature of 110° to
120° C. (230 to 248° F.), but it should then at once
be added to the oil.
After the litharge has been added, the fire should
be increased so as to keep the oil in constant ebullition
in the meanwhile evolving vapors, and it should be
kept at this temperature for about 2J to 3 hours. The
mass should be thoroughly stirred every eight or ten
minutes, to prevent the heavy litharge from sinking to
the bottom of the boiler. When the fluid has become
192 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
so viscid as to commence to draw threads on the stir¬
ring-paddle, the fire is increased to such a degree that
the oil begins to evolve heavy vapors, and the beard of
a feather quickly shrivels -up when the feather-test is
applied.
From this time on, the fire is no longer stirred, but
care is taken to distribute the heat uniformly by dili¬
gent stirring, for this is just the point of greatest dan¬
ger in regard to the running over and igniting of the
oil. As soon as no more vapors are emitted, the
stirring is discontinued, the fire allowed to die out, and
the ready varnish is allowed to stand in the well-cov¬
ered boiler until it has entirely cooled off. During
this time the larger part of the undissolved litharge and
a tenacious mass of oil will have settled on the bottom.
1 his sediment is allowed to remain in the boiler and is
stirred through the linseed-oil at the next boiling.
The ready varnish is lifted out with ladles and put
into store-barrels to become clear. It always holds
some particles in suspension, which will make it turbid,
but as it cannot be passed through close filters on ac¬
count of its viscid condition it must suffice to pass it
through linen, which must not be too close, and which
will retain the coarsest parts.
The longer the varnish is kept in the store-barrels,
the biightei it will become, as all the heavy bodies
suspended in it will sink to the bottom, and besides its
diying power increases also as old varnish becomes
diy in a few hours after it has been applied. I'ts
power of drying is still further increased by not filling
FAT VARNISHES.
193
the barrels entirely full and leaving the bung-holes
open, but it is advisable to cover them loosely with
paper to prevent dust from falling into the varnish.
Minium (Red-Lead) Varnish.
Lead varnish is prepared quicker and more com¬
pletely by using minium or red lead, an oxide of lead
containing more oxygen, than when litharge alone is
employed. When minium is heated, a part of its oxy¬
gen is set free, and acts upon the linseed oil as an
oxidizing agent. The product formed by oxidation
then forms a combination with the oxide of lead.
One of the principal conditions for quickly changing
linseed oil into varnish is, that the compounds of lead
are used in as finely divided a state as possible ;
therefore, the greater expense of buying washed pro¬
toxides and red oxides of lead should not be regretted,
as by doing so, time, labor, and fuel are saved.
Lead Varnish without Boiling.
The following proportions are used for preparing
this varnish :—
Parts.
Sugar of lead .
. 5 to 7.5
Litharge .
5
Linseed oil
100
Lead vinegar is prepared by dissolving the sugar of
lead in water and treating the solution with litharge.
The litharge is first rubbed together with a small part
of the linseed oil, then stirred together with the rest
17
194 FABRICATION OP VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
of the oil, and finally the lead vinegar is added. The
fluids must be intimately mixed together by thorough
stirring, which should be continued for at least from
one and a half to two hours. We would recommend
\
the mixing of the fluids in a barrel fastened to a turn-
able axle. The barrel should be about five-sixths full.
When the fluids have been thoroughly mixed together,
they are allowed to stand quietly until two distinctly
separated layers have been formed, the lower of which
consists of the solution of sugar of lead, and the
upper of varnish.
Varnish obtained in this manner has a very light
color, and is so thinly fluid, that it can be filtered
through cotton or felt. On account of its thinly fluid
condition, the lead dissolved in it can also be separated.
Sulphuric acid forms insoluble sulphate of lead with
every soluble compound of lead ; therefore, one per
cent, of sulphuric acid mixed with five parts of water
is added to the varnish, and the mixture stirred for
half an hour. The varnish assumes a milky appear¬
ance, but soon becomes clear, as the sulphate of lead,
being very heavy, sinks quickly to the bottom.
Litharge and Minium Varnish.
A good varnish can be conveniently prepared in any
large pot or boiler without the necessity of actually
boiling it by mixing together the three compounds of
lead used for boiling varnish. One part of litharge
and one part of minium are intimately mixed together
with one and a half part of sugar of lead, and one kilo-
FAT VARNISHES.
195
gramme (2.2 lbs.) of this mixture is placed in a bag of
close linen. A boiler or pot is then filled with 30
liters (7.92 gals.) of water and about 80 liters (7.92
gals.) of linseed oil, and the bag suspended in the oil.
The mass is then heated until all the water has been
evaporated, and the varnish is filtered through a felt
funnel while it is still hot.
The two last mentioned methods for preparing lin¬
seed-oil varnish are especially suitable for mechanics
who desire to prepare their own siccatives. Very
good, quickly drying varnishes can be prepared in
this manner on any common cook-stove without danger,
as the oil does not require to be heated very much.
Manganese Varnishes.
Manganese varnishes are prepared with the help of
protoxide, sesquioxide, binoxide (pyrolusite) of man¬
ganese, but especially with that of borate of manga¬
nese. The last-named compound particularly furnishes
varnishes of such excellent qualities, that it deserves
the preference above all other compounds used for the
same purpose.
Borate of Manganese Varnish.
We prepare this varnish in a simple manner accord¬
ing to the following method: two kilogrammes (4.4
lbs.) of borate of manganese perfectly dry and free
from iron {i. e., pure white), and changed into a fine
flour, are gradually stirred into 10 kilogrammes (22
lbs.) of linseed oil which have been previously heated
196 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
in a suitable vessel. The salt is uniformly divided in
the fluid by constant stirring, and is heated until the oil
shows a temperature of 200° C. (392° F.). As has
been already mentioned, only borate of manganese en¬
tirely free from iron furnishes quickly drying varnish.
At the same time 1000 kilogrammes (2200 lbs.) of
linseed oil are brought into the varnish-boiler and
heated until it commences to throw up bubbles. The
contents of the vessel in which the linseed oil together
with the borate of manganese has been heated, are
then allowed to run in a thin stream into the boiler,
the fire is increased, and the entire mass is brought
into violent ebullition. When ebullition has continued
for about twenty minutes, the ladling out of the var¬
nish is commenced, and this, while still hot, is filtered
through cotton, and can be used at once. Wooden
tablets dipped into the varnish while still hot will, in
sixteen or eighteen hours, become covered with a
perfectly dry, glass-like layer of varnish.
It was shown by special experiments which we made
on this subject, that borate of manganese possesses the
property of changing, even at a very low tempera¬
ture, linseed oil into varnish; in fact, a temperature
of 40° C. (104° F.) suffices for the purpose. If a
small linen bag containing about 30 grammes (1.05
ozs.) of borate of manganese is suspended in a bottle
holding about 10 liters (2.64 gals.) of linseed oil, and
this bottle is put in a pot filled with water, and placed
in a warm place, for instance, on the plate of a cook-
FAT VARNISHES.
197
stove, the linseed oil will be changed into a quickly-
drying siccative in from ten to fourteen days.
Although borate of manganese produces the best
results of all compounds of manganese, yet for the sake
of completeness we will describe in the following pages
some methods of working with other compounds; but
we remark once more, that none of them furnish better
results than the borate, while the process of preparing
varnish with them is more tedious and complicated
than with the last-mentioned compound.
Varnish with Sesquioxide of Manganese.
1000 kilogrammes (2200 lbs.) of linseed oil are
put in a boiler, and heated to a temperature of about
70° to 80° C. (158° to 176° F.) ; 8 kilogrammes (6.6
lbs.) of crystallized sulphate of manganese are dis¬
solved in as little w r ater as possible, by heating it in a
special iron vessel. When it is dissolved, the vessel
is lifted from the fire, and a solution of 10 kilogrammes
(22 lbs.) of caustic potash, in a little water, is added,
and quickly stirred through it, and the contents of the
vessel are then poured into the oil. The mass, at first
turbid, assumes a dark color in about half an hour,
but becomes clear at the same time, as a sample taken
from the boiler will prove, because the hydrate of the
sesquioxide dissolves in the oil.
As soon as the oil is in this condition, a rubber pipe
with a metal rose on the end of it is sunk into the
boiler, and a current of air is for several hours forced
through the oil by a pump. The color of the oil be-
17*
198 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
comes constantly lighter, because the hydrate of the
sesquioxide of manganese is decomposed and brown
sesquioxide is precipitated.
The formation of varnish is in all cases accelerated
by forcing air through the oil, as thereby a chance is
offered to the oil to absorb large quantities of oxygen.
Special apparatuses have been constructed for this
purpose. They consist of a tall iron pipe placed above
the boiler in which the oil is heated. The oil is lifted
from the boiler by a pump, divided into small drops
by passing through a rose, and falls down through the
pipe like a shower of rain. At the same time a cur¬
rent of hot air is forced through the pipe in an oppo¬
site direction from that of the falling oil, therefore
upwards.
This method might be especially adapted for large
factories where it would be required to produce con¬
siderable quantities of varnish in a very short time.
But the ordinary method answers all purposes for
quantities of linseed oil up to 1000 kilogrammes
(2200 lbs.), especially when borate of manganese is
used.
Varnish with Pyrolusite.
Good varnish can be prepared with binoxide of man¬
ganese, found in nature as pyrolusite, by heating 100
kilogrammes (220 lbs.) of oil to a temperature of
about 180° to 200° C. (356° to 392° F.), and add¬
ing a mixture of 2 kilogrammes (4.4 lbs.) of finely
powdered pyrolusite and 2.5 kilogrammes (5.5 lbs.)
FAT VARNISHES.
199
of sulphuric acid. This mixture, when heated, evolves
oxygen, which promotes the oxidation of the oil, and
at the same time dissolves the sesquioxide of manga¬
nese in the oil. When it has been heated for about
one and a half hour, thick milk of lime, obtained by
slacking 1 kilogramme (2.2 lbs.) of burnt lime, is
added, and after this has stood for about twelve hours
the varnish is filtered through a felt funnel.
Varnish with Oxide of Zinc.
Though oxide of zinc used in a pure state, when
boiled with linseed oil, produces varnish, yet it dries
very slowly, and has only the advantage over lead
varnish of not acquiring a dark color when exposed to
air containing sulphide of hydrogen, as sulphate of
zinc is white. Used in combination with borate of
manganese, oxide of zinc does excellent service, but
we have good reason to suppose that the oxide of zinc
does no work whatever, and that the borate of man¬
ganese must here also be considered a3 the actually
effective agent.
French manufacturers advertise at a pretty high
price a mass which they call “ siccatif zumatique.”
According to their statements this mass possesses the
extraordinary power of drying forty times its weight
of zinc-oil paint in the course of one day. But as is
well known, any tolerably good varnish dries suffi¬
ciently well in twenty-four hours to allow the coating
to be touched with the hand ; therefore, the so mucli-
lauded property of “ siccatif zumatique” is nothing so
200 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
very extraordinary after all. According to different
analyses, the article in question consists of from 90 to
95 per cent, of borate of manganese, and 5 to 10 per
cent, of oxide of zinc. As we have already seen, a
considerably smaller quantity of borate of manganese
is sufficient to change pure linseed oil into siccative.
Considered from a chemical standpoint the only ad¬
vantage of an addition of oxide of zinc would be that
the peroxide of manganese is separated from the
borate of manganese by the oxide of zinc. But up
to the present time it is an open question whether this
is actually the case.
To judge from what we have mentioned about the
nature of the different methods of preparing fat var¬
nishes, scarcely a doubt can remain as to which of
them deserves the preference. The manganese var¬
nishes, and amongst them the varnish prepared with
the borate of manganese, must be considered as the
most valuable of all. A manufacturer, after once hav¬
ing made comparative experiments with varnishes pre¬
pared with borate of manganese and those prepared
with compounds of lead, will be convinced in a short
time that lead varnishes must be considered as obsolete
products, not only because they always become darker,
but they may even cause the coating to become en¬
tirely black, and besides, the varnishes prepared with
borate of manganese have a lighter color, and dry
quicker than those prepared with compounds of lead.
FAT VARNISHES.
201
Frequently resins are added to the fat varnishes, or
they are mixed with oil of turpentine varnishes.
When the work is carried on by only adding resins to
the varnishes, and generally the hardest and best
resins, such as amber and copal, are only used for this
purpose, the so-called fat lacquers or lac-varnishes are
obtained. In the other case, mixed varnishes are ob¬
tained inferior in quality to the actual fat lac-var¬
nishes, though it is customary to also term them fat
lacquers.
Directions for Preparing Fat Lacquers.
As has already been mentioned, fat lacquers are
prepared with the help of the hardest resins, i. e.,with
copal or amber. These lacquers deserve to be re¬
garded as the most valuable of all varnishes. The
qualities in which they especially excel are a beautiful,
glossy, glass-like appearance, which loses its beauty
only after a long time, even if exposed to the influence
of the weather; next, they possess considerable elas¬
ticity, and finally they do not crack or peel off.
There are a large number of receipts for preparing
such varnishes, and such receipts are frequently of¬
fered for sale. Actually these varnishes are not more
difficult to prepare than others. As in manufacturing
other varnishes, the principal point of the whole work
is that a complete solution of the resins in the fat oils
take place, and that the resin be not merely changed
to a slime-like mass.
202 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
Copal Lacquer.
Apparently the simplest method of preparing fat
copal lacquer would be by intimately mixing copal
dissolved in any volatile solvent with a good linseed-
oil siccative, and by evaporating the solvent by heating
the lacquer in a distilling apparatus. The solvent
could be regained by cooling off, while the dissolved
copal would remain in the fat oil. But, as is well
known, such a process would require the use of thor¬
oughly melted copal. But the cost of the latter would
be considerably higher than if the work were done
with the ordinary, i. e., undistilled copal, as a consid¬
erable loss of volatile products is caused by dry dis¬
tillation.
In practice it is, therefore, the object to at least
reduce as much as possible the loss caused by distil¬
ling the copal. This may be done by heating the
copal only to such a degree that it appears to be en¬
tirely melted, and by trying to unite the melted mass
with the linseed oil.
Fat Copal Lacquer by Boiling
can only be obtained of faultless quality by special
skill, as it is not by any means easy to hit the exact
moment when the copal unites with the oil. That is
to say, this union takes place only at a certain degree
of heat. In the following we give directions which,
if strictly observed, will always produce varnish of
excellent quality. Take
FAT VARNISHES.
203
Parts.
Copal.28 to 32
Linseed oil ... 100
Litharge . . . . 2 to 3
Oil of turpentine . . . 70 to 80
The quantity of copal to he used determines also
the quantity of oil of turpentine. A smaller quantity
of the hard East Indian copal will be required, and
more oil of turpentine may be added; but if soft
copal is used, a larger quantity of it will be necessary,
and the quantity of oil of turpentine must he decreased.
In case the work has to be done with a variety of
copal never before used, it will be necessary to deter¬
mine the quantities by a little experiment.
The entire mass of the linseed oil is heated in a
suitable boiler until the oil commences to throw up
small bubbles ; while keeping the oil at this tempera¬
ture, the fourth part of the entire quantity of copal is
melted over an open fire, in a small boiler having ears
provided with wooden handles. This melting requires
the greatest care and attention of the workman. The
copal must be constantly stirred; should the separate
pieces commence to adhere strongly to each other, the
more solid pieces must be dipped under the formed
fluid in such a manner as to keep all parts at as uni¬
form a heat as possible. Finally, the resin is all
melted, and, when heated further, commences to throw-
up bubbles and to smoke. This is the moment when
the melted resin must be mixed with the hot linseed
oil.
204 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
With a ladle holding about twice as much oil 'by
weight as the quantity of copal melted at one time,
the hot oil is dipped from the boiler and allowed to
flow in a very fine stream through the narrow spout of
the ladle into the melted copal. In the mean while
the mass must be stirred very quickly and without in¬
termission, until the contents of the boiler form a uni¬
form, quietly flowing mass.
This small boiler is then placed alongside of the
large boiler to keep it hot, and the same operation is
repeated in another boiler with another fourth part of
the quantity of copal. This boiler is also kept warm,
and a third and fourth boiler containing the corre¬
sponding quantities of copal and oil are taken in hand.
When the work with the last (fourth) boiler is finished,
all the solutions of copal are added to the linseed oil
still remaining in the large boiler.
The small boilers are quickly emptied in succession,
and the contents of the large boiler are now continu¬
ally and uniformly stirred. As a considerable quan¬
tity of viscid solution of copal remains adhering to
the sides of the small boilers, this must be gained as
quickly as possible. As soon as the solution has been
poured into the large boiler, a ladleful of oil of tur¬
pentine is poured into the small boiler, which has been
first thoroughly heated, and an attempt is made to de¬
tach as quickly as possible the solution of copal adher¬
ing to the sides of the boiler, and to mix it with the
oil of turpentine. It is best to use for this purpose a
supple spatula of hard wood, which may be easily
FAT VARNISHES.
205
bent into a form corresponding to that of the side of
the boiler. Ratan covered with rubber is also very
suitable for this purpose. When the sides of the
boiler have become bright, which may be easily ob¬
served by tilting the boiler a little, the four boilers
are allowed to stand in a warm place until the lacquer
in the large boiler is done.
The linseed oil in the boiler, now containing the
entire quantity of copal to be used in solution, must
now be boiled into varnish. As has been mentioned
in the foregoing receipt, litharge may be used for this
purpose, though we have used borate of manganese
for a longtime, and with the best success (0.25 part of
borate of manganese is sufficient for 100 parts of lin¬
seed oil). The litharge, or borate of manganese, is
allowed to fall gradually into the solution, which, in
the mean while, is stirred very strongly, and the tem¬
perature is raised to the necessary degree. The scum
appearing on the surface of the oil must be constantly
removed.
When the fluid has been boiled for two hours, count¬
ing from the time when the litharge was added, tests
are commenced to be made. When a spatula is dipped
into the fluid, the lacquer should adhere to it in a
thick layer, and drop from it in transparent, golden
threads, becoming very thin towards the last. By the
so-called drop-test a drop of the lacquer, when allowed
to fall upon glass, should form a high arch, and when
cold should be of the consistency of thick, thread-
18
206 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
drawing syrup. Firing is discontinued as soon as this
phenomenon appears, and the contents of the boiler
are allowed to cool off* to about 60 ° or 70° C. (140°
or 158° F.), and then the oil of turpentine contained
in the four small boilers is added.
The remaining quantity of oil of turpentine must
not be added in too large portions. First about 10
per cent, of the quantity of oil of turpentine is added,
and later on only 5 per cent., and the fluid should be
tested every time after it has been thoroughly stirred.
As long as the tested fluid is yet viscid in a correspond¬
ing degree after it has become cold, and quickly be¬
comes thick, more oil of turpentine may be added.
But if it is observed that the fluid already becomes
less viscid after only a small quantity of oil of turpen¬
tine has been added, it is a sure proof that the limit
of adding oil of turpentine has been reached, and that
the quality of the varnish would be injured by adding
any more.
Well-prepared copal lacquer should be viscid, and
have a light golden color, should be easy to apply and
without forming streaks, and should become completely
dry in from six to twelve hours.
As may be seen from the above description, this me¬
thod of preparing copal lacquer is quite complicated, and
requires at least two workmen, and these are sufficient
only when they are very experienced, and it is, there¬
fore, advisable to add a third workman (for stirring).
FAT VARNISnES.
207
Fat Copal Lacquer without Boiling.
It has been previously mentioned that melted copal
can be easier dissolved than that which has not been
melted. Therefore, if distilled copal is used, a fat
copal lacquer can be prepared without boiling being
necessary. This is done by the use of water vapor,
which is conducted in serpentine pipes through a mix¬
ture of fat and volatile oils, in which the copal is
immersed.
Apparatus for Preparing Lacquer.
It is not always practicable to introduce and use
steam in a varnish factory, as this would only pay
Fig. 8.
j>
H
where very large quantities of varnish are manufac¬
tured. But for many purposes boiling water may be
substituted for steam. Fig. 8 represents an apparatus
208 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
we use for preparing very quickly large quantities of
fat copal lacquer without boiling.
A boiler K is bricked in in a fireplace H. The
bottom of the boiler is bent inwards, so as to offer a
larger heating surface to the flame. In this boiler is
placed a second boiler F, the bottom of which is pro¬
vided with a pipe A , which is closed by a cock. The
boiler F is closed by a peculiarly shaped cover. This
consists of a strip of sheet-iron bent at a right angle,
which runs around the whole edge of the boiler, and
forms with this a gutter R. The cover D is so shaped
as to fit exactly into this gutter. If the latter is filled
with linseed oil, and the cover is placed in position, the
interior space of the vessel F is hermetically closed,
but without danger from steam pressure in the interior
of the vessel, because as soon as steam is developed
it presses the fluid in the gutter outward and escapes.
A projecting ring is fastened in the interior of the
boiler F , at about two-thirds of its height, upon which
is placed a flat vessel 0 , the bottom of which is per¬
forated like a sieve. This vessel serves for the recep¬
tion of the copal, which must be broken into coarse
pieces before being used.
For copal lacquer we use the following quan¬
tities :—
Parts.
Copal (distilled) .... 100
Copal oil (volatile) . . . .20
Oil of turpentine . . 300 to 350
Linseed oil .... 100
FAT VARNISnES.
209
We commence the work by filling the boiler K with
■water, and bringing it to the boiling point. At the
same time the linseed oil to be used is put into the
boiler. 20 parts of the copal are brought together
with 20 parts of volatile oil formed by the distillation
of the copal, and the thus-formed solution is poured to
the linseed oil. Then the vessel 0 is put in position
and filled with the copal. Finally enough oil of tur¬
pentine is added to the entire mass to cover the copal
about 1 decimeter (3.94 inches) high, and then the
cover is placed in the gutter filled with linseed oil.
A sufficiently strong fire is continually kept up for
three or four hours to keep the water in K constantly
boiling. The evaporated water must be replaced from
time to time. Of course by this process the contents
in the vessel F may acquire a higher temperature than
that of the boiling water, which is 100° C. (212° F.);
but this heat is sufficient to dissolve the copal.
The advantages offered by this apparatus deserve
special attention. Considerable fuel and labor are
saved, as the stirring is entirely done away with; no
oil of turpentine is lost, as the inner space of F , as has
been mentioned above, is hermetically closed by the
gutter filled with linseed oil; all danger of the hot
fluids igniting, which is so great when open vessels
are used, is removed, and a very light-colored and en¬
tirely clear varnish is obtained, especially when the
pieces of copal are not placed immediately in the ves¬
sel C, but are laid upon a linen cloth spread out upon
18 *
210 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
the bottom, which will serve as a filter for the solution
of copal.
When the copal has been completely dissolved—the
time required for this must be learned by experience
—the ready varnish is allowed to flow off by opening
the cock on the discharge-pipe A. The rarefaction of
the air caused in the vessel F by the varnish running
off would have the effect of forcing the linseed oil con¬
tained in the gutter R to F by the pressure of the
outer air. It is, therefore, necessary to remove the
lid before the cock is opened.
As soon as the varnish has run off, the apparatus is
again prepared, and in this manner considerable
quantities of the best copal lacquer can he made in a
short time with a comparatively small apparatus, as
the vessel F can he immediately filled with linseed-
oil as soon as the ready lacquer has run off without it
being necessary to interrupt the firing. Even the
copal is dissolved somewhat more quickly in the still
warm apparatus.
Colorless Copal Lacquer.
For certain purposes, especially when the lacquer
is to be applied on a colored ground, it does not mat¬
ter much even if the lacquering has a somewhat yel¬
lowish shade. But if the lacquer is to be laid on a
white ground, for instance, such as paper, light-colored
wood, etc., a yellowish shade of the lacquer, even if
ever so slight, would have a disturbing influence. And
FAT VARNISHES.
211
this can scarcely be avoided if copal and manganese
siccative alone are used.
We prepare an entirely colorless, fat copal lacquer
in the following manner: The finely powdered copal
(East Indian copal) is dried for several hours in a
current of hot air—at least 120° C. (248° F.). The
powder is then placed in a large glass bottle together
with entirely dry powdered glass or quartz-sand, and
these are mixed together by shaking the bottle.
Enough chloroform or petroleum-naphtha is poured
upon the mixture, while it is yet warm, to cover the
powder, and the bottle well closed is allowed to stand
quietly overnight. The copal coming in contact with
chloroform swells up, and can be easily dissolved in
other fluids.
When the copal is swollen the contents of the bottle
are brought into the apparatus represented by Fig. 2
(page 88), and a suitable quantity of oil of turpen¬
tine is added to them.
At first it is only gently heated, and the apparatus
is so arranged that the vapors of the chloroform, which
must be condensed in the serpentine pipe, flow back
into the apparatus. After the mass has been heated
for about an hour at a temperature of from 60° to 70°
C. (140° to 158° F.), we may be sure that the dis¬
solving of the copal has made considerable progress,
and the cooling vessel is now arranged in such a man¬
ner that the vapors of the chloroform or petroleum-
naphtha condensed to a fluid may run off from the lower
end of the serpentine pipe. If the temperature is not
212 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
allowed to rise higher than the boiling point of the
chloroform or petroleum-naphtha, these fluids can be
regained entirely pure and without loss, as the oil of
turpentine is not very volatile at this temperature.
As soon as the solvent has been distilled off, the
cooling vessel is again so arranged that the vapors
passing over must again flow back into the apparatus,
and a strong fire is kept up for about one-half to three-
quarters of an hour to make the oil of turpentine boil
vigorously. During this time the copal will com¬
pletely dissolve in the oil of turpentine.
While the solution of copal is boiling, very light-
colored varnish prepared with borate of manganese is
heated to a temperature of 100° C. (212° F.) in an
open boiler placed in a water-bath. As soon as the
boiling of the turpentine is interrupted, the solution of
copal is cooled off by drawing the fire. When it
shows a temperature of from 60° to 70° C. (140° to
158° F.) we commence to lift it out with a ladle, and
pour it into the boiler with the varnish, and thoroughly
stir it after each ladleful has been poured in.
When finally the last portion of the solution of
copal has been mixed with the varnish, heating is en¬
tirely discontinued. But the mixture is still stirred
without intermission for about twenty minutes, and
then the very light-colored lacquer is filled into large
glass bottles, where it becomes entirely clear.
FAT VARNISHES.
213
Properties of Fat-Copal Lacquer.
Coatings of this lacquer have an excellent lustre,
are very transparent, and at the same time very tena¬
cious. This lacquer is especially suited for lacquering
fine white furniture which has been painted with fine
oil colors, and has then been pumiced smooth. The
lacquer appears upon the white ground like a coating
of glass.
Photographers frequently complain that the lacquers
at their disposal are not hard enough, and, moreover,
possess the disadvantage that the coating of the glass
plate becomes full of cracks when stored for any
length of time, so that it is almost impossible to obtain
clear copies from such plates. We have made special
experiments in regard to this, and have found that the
most beautiful results are obtained by using copal
lacquer prepared according to the above-described
method.
Hundreds of copies were taken from glass photo¬
graphs varnished by pouring this lacquer over them,
without the slightest change being observed in the
layer of lacquer, even when examined with a magnify¬
ing glass. But to make the coating of lacquer as
durable as this, it is absolutely necessary that the
photographic plate should be entirely dry. If this is
not the case, this one, like all other lacquers, will in
time become blistered. The only objection which can
be advanced in regard to this lacquer, as compared
with other photograph lacquers which have been pre-
214 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
pared with volatile solvents, is, that it requires quite
a long time before it becomes completely dry. The
time required is about twenty-four hours, while the
volatile lacquers dry in a few minutes. This, to be
sure, is a disadvantage which cannot be denied, but it
is very small indeed, when compared with the ad¬
vantages offered by the other good qualities of this
lacquer.
Fat-Amber Lacquers.
These are prepared in the main in the same manner
as the copal lacquers. Distilled amber may be used
directly with linseed oil, but this produces darker-
colored varnishes than when a solution of the resin
is first prepared and this is mixed with a good sic¬
cative. The properties of fat-amber lacquers are
neaily the same as those of the copal lacquers, but
they are not as elastic as the latter. No better lac¬
quer than good, fat-amber lacquer can be chosen for a
surface requiring a very durable, glossy coat of lac¬
quer without much elasticity. But copal lacquer is
to be preferred where the latter property is required.
Fat lacquers can also be colored, and this is done in
a manner similar to that mentioned in treating of vola¬
tile lacquers; but they are not very frequently colored,
as complete transparency is one of the principal qual¬
ities desired in this lacquer. Usually the article to be
lacquered is first painted the required color, and the
layer of lacquer is applied on the coat of paint.
FAT VARNISHES.
215
Other Fat Lacquers.
Manganese and Zinc Siccative.
The siccative proposed under this name contains
oxide of zinc, and protoxide of manganese, and it is
claimed possesses the quality of protecting coats of
white paint from becoming darker, but this appears to
us very doubtful. This siccative is prepared by mix¬
ing 1 part of sulphate of manganese with 2 parts of
acetate of manganese and 97 parts of carbonate of
zinc, and by adding 4 parts of this mixture to 100
parts of linseed oil, w T hich has been previously heated
to a temperature of 200° C. (892° F.), and it is
claimed that the varnish is ready when the heating
has been continued for from five to ten hours. It is
evident that the protoxide of manganese, present in this
varnish, is the only cause of its drying, and it appears
to us that it is far more suitable to use borate of man¬
ganese.
Pjlug's so-called Platina Paints.
These paints, on account of their great power of
resistance, have been especially recommended for coat¬
ing objects exposed to the influence of the weather.
According to many analyses, they are nothing but
ordinary linseed-oil varnishes, containing zinc-white,
iron-ochre, or zinc-dust, according to the color required.
As the composition shows, these paints differ in noth¬
ing from the cheap paints commonly used. The
216 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
praise bestowed upon the platina paints as being es¬
pecially durable seems, therefore, to be nothing but a
business claim.
Black Paint for School-Slates.
Parts.
Shellac ...... 8
Paris black ..... 8
Paris blue ..... 0.5
Burnt umber ..... 4
Siccative . . . . .10
• Spirit of wine . . . .70
The shellac is dissolved in the spirit of wine, the
other substances are thoroughly mixed together, and
quickly rubbed together with the solution of shellac.
XII.
PRINTER’S VARNISHES.
The fabrication of printer’s ink goes hand in hand
with that of varnish, and deserves to be urgently
recommended to the manufacturer of the latter arti¬
cle, on account of the large returns which a good
article of printer’s ink yields. In many factories the
fabrication of printer’s ink is treated as if it were a
secret, but it is not that by any means. But many
manufacturers have a certain skill in carrying out the
details of the work, which exerts a considerable in¬
fluence upon the quality of the product.
PRINTER S VARNISHES.
217
Good printer’s ink should possess the following pro¬
perties : It should show a glossy, black color, and
consist of an absolutely uniform mass. The presence
of the smallest solid body in printer’s ink, even if it
is only a minute lump of lampblack, is sufficient to
cause a stain in printing. Further, printer’s ink
should possess the property of remaining unchanged
for a considerable time when exposed to the air—but
must also become completely dry in a short time after
it is imprinted upon paper. Finally, it must penetrate
only to a certain depth into the paper without soak¬
ing through, or it would be impossible to print the
paper upon both sides so that it could be read. As
will be seen from the foregoing, these are qualities which
it is not easy to combine, and for this reason the manu¬
facture of actually good printer’s ink belongs to the
most subtile labors of the manufacturer of varnishes.
It is very difficult to state exactly of what printer’s
ink consists. Linseed oil is the principal ingredient
used. This is partly changed into resin, and partly
decomposed by heating it in a suitable manner, and
thus a particular kind of varnish is formed. Besides
this, soap, resins, and various kinds of coloring matter
are used, and the process is a different one when sim¬
ply black printing-ink or printing-color is to be pre¬
pared. When printing-ink alone is to be manufac¬
tured, no attention need be paid to the color of the
varnish which forms the basis of the mass, but this
must be done when printing-colors, especially the lighter
shades, are to be prepared.
19
218 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
The work commences with refining the linseed oil.
A fine quality of linseed oil should always be chosen
for preparing printer’s ink, as when an ordinary quality
of oil is used a disagreeable odor will adhere to the
ink, and it will have an ugly brownish shade of color.
The oil is mixed with a small percentage of concentrated
sulphuric acid, and heated for a few hours. In doing
this, care must be taken not to allow the temperature
to rise above 100° C. (212° F.). After the oil has
been heated it is allowed to rest, and is then drawn off
from the sulphuric acid, and repeatedly washed with
warm water until every trace of sulphuric acid has
been removed. If the oil has been treated in the right
manner, it should have a light yellow color, and be
entirely free from smell. It must be protected from
the air until it is used, as it will dry very quickly when
it is in this condition.
The refined oil must then be boiled. The so-called
boiling consists in heating the oil to such a degree that
a part of it becomes decomposed. But especially con¬
structed vessels must be used for this purpose, as the
volume of the oil increases in an extraordinary degree
in consequence of the many bubbles which are formed.
The most suitable apparatus used for this purpose is
represented by Fig. 9.
It consists of a cylinder of sheet-copper. A ring
or rim bent upwards like a shell is placed about half
way up on the sides of the cylinder. The top of the
cylinder is surrounded by a strong iron ring, on which
printer’s varnishes.
219
are fastened the chains of a tackle, which enables the
attendants to lift the cylinder quickly from the fire¬
place. A helmet or cover of sheet-iron, which ought
Fig. 9.
to fit as air-tight as possible upon the cylinder, com¬
pletes the apparatus, and this should be placed in a
fire-proof vault so as to prevent all danger from fire.
A hole connected with a well-drawing chimney should
he left in the top of the vault to carry off the vapors
arising from the boiling linseed oil, as they are inju-
220 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
rious to the eyes and respiratory organs. The work¬
man who is appointed to watch the progress of the work
should be provided with a stool high enough to enable
him conveniently to take samples out of the cylinder.
The chains of the tackle should be fastened to a mov¬
able crane, so that at the word of command an assist¬
ant can lift the cylinder immediately from the fireplace
and move it aside. The cylinder is filled only half
full with oil, and a strong fire is kept under it at the
commencement of the work. The oil will soon com¬
mence to bubble, making a crackling noise. This bub¬
bling is caused by the escape of water vapors which are
developed from the oil and originate from water mixed
mechanically with it. The bubbling entirely ceases in
a short time, and as the temperature rises the oil, which
now has become entirely black, swims quietly and
uniformly in the cylinder.
From this moment on the oil rises constantly in the
cylinder, and throws small bubbles on those places
where it comes in contact with the sides of the cylin¬
der. As soon as vapors of a pungent odor commence
to rise from the oil, which always accompany its de¬
composition, the attendant must continually pay the
strictest attention to the oil. The moment the entire
mass of the oil commences to bubble up, and vapors
are also developed from the interior, the fire must be
quickly moderated at once, or else the fluid will surely
boil over, even if the most capacious vessel should be
used. If the oil should continue to rise notwithstand¬
ing the fire having been moderated, the cylinder must
printer’s varnishes.
221
at once be lifted from the hearth, and must only he
replaced when the oil has subsided. But if the oil
should flow over nevertheless, the overflow will he
collected in the rim, and is poured back into the cyl¬
inder.
If the work is done carelessly—especially when the
oil is heated too quickly—the oil flows over incessantly,
ignites in most cases, and burns with a bright flame,
depositing large quantities of soot. Should this take
place, the lid should first be thrown upon the cylinder,
and this lifted from the hearth as quickly as possible.
As long as the workmen have not sufficient experience,
it is advisable to put only two-thirds of the quantity of
oil to he boiled into the cylinder at one time, and to
cool the fluid off by pouring cold oil into it in case it
threatens to overflow.
The best plan is to keep the oil at such a tempera¬
ture that the developed vapors will commence to burn
when a lighted candle is held near them, and continue
to burn as long as they are in contact with the flame
itself, but will go out as soon as the flame is removed,
or that they can be at least easily extinguished by
placing the lid upon the cylinder. The firing is then
regulated in such a manner that the vapors will be de¬
veloped quietly and uniformly, without a further ris¬
ing of the contents of the cylinder, and the condition
of the oil is tested by the so-called thread-test.
To make this test, a small quantity of the oil is
lifted from the cylinder by a wooden spatula. This is
cooled off by swinging it to and fro, and a drop of the
19 *
222 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
mass is then squeezed between the fingers and drawn
out. In doing this viscid threads should be formed
from one finger to the other, and these should reach a
length of 4 to 5 centimeters (1.56 to 1.95 inch) be¬
fore they break. If the threads break sooner the
boiling must be continued. If the sample is of the
required quality, the cylinder is at once lifted from the
fire, and the varnish is allowed to cool olf, or it is sub¬
jected to the so-called burning. This consists in ignit¬
ing the vapors and allowing the mass to burn for about
five minutes. The fire is then extinguished by placing
the lid upon the cylinder.
In many factories it is customary to burn the var¬
nish, and many manufacturers consider this burning
absolutely necessary to obtain a good article. But
the author of this work, having made many experi¬
ments on this subject, is fully convinced that the burn¬
ing—no matter for Avhat purpose the varnish is to be
used—is a very unsuitable process. The most ex¬
cellent varnish is obtained by continuing the boiling
of the linseed oil for a sufficiently long time ; the burn¬
ing of the varnish causes considerable loss.
Burning the varnish makes it very dark. This, of
course, is of no consequence when it is to be used for
preparing printer’s ink, but the case is quite different
if red, blue, green, or any printing-colors of a deli¬
cate shade are to be prepared with such varnishes.
For printing-colors of delicate shades of color, burned
varnishes cannot be at all used.
The consistency of printer’s varnishes differs ac-
printer’s varnishes.
223
cording to the purposes for which they are to he used;
the more elegant the printing is to be, the more the
varnish must be boiled down, and the greater will be
the expense of producing such an article. For news¬
papers, and generally for printing which must be done
quickly, a more fluid varnish is used than for printing
books. The thickest varnish is used for copperplate
and lithograph printing.
Hemp oil, which is much cheaper than linseed oil, is
sometimes used instead of the latter. Though it pro¬
duces a pretty good color, yet the disagreeable smell
of the oil adheres to it, and for this reason varnish
prepared with this oil should never be used for the
finer colors.
Sometimes resin is added to the varnish, so that it
will not be required to be boiled down so much. It is
best to use the ordinary, pure, brown pine resin for
varnish which is to be used for preparing printing-ink,
but it is more suitable to use the light-colored Ameri¬
can resin if it is to be used for printing-colors. The
resin should be refined by melting and filtering it be¬
fore it is used, to prevent pebbles or plant-parts, which
are frequently mixed with the resin, from reaching the
varnish. The resin is added to the oil when the latter
has been heated so far that its boiling is plainly notice¬
able on the edge of the cylinder. For 120 parts of
linseed oil 40 to 50 parts of resin and also 12 to 14
parts of soap are used. The purpose in adding soap
to printer’s ink is to facilitate the cleansing of the
forms which have been used. The form can be simply
224 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
washed off with a brush. The principal quality for
the soap to he used is that it must be entirely dry.
For this purpose it is cut up into thin shavings, and
these are thoroughly dried. Yellow rosin soap an¬
swers for ordinary printing-ink, but white tallow soap
must be used for fine colors.
Many manufacturers add, to the linseed oil which
is to be worked into printer’s varnish, a certain quan¬
tity of very finely ground indigo, which gives a beau¬
tiful tone to the color. But it is more suitable, and
at the same time cheaper, to add about 1 per cent, of
the finest Paris blue. This dissolves entirely in the
oil when the latter has been boiled for some time, and
partly imparts to it the qualities of the so-called blue
lacquer.
Appendix.
Printer’s varnishes are generally not sold as such,
but are at once changed into printing-ink or printing-
colors by the manufacturer. Lampblack prepared
in special apparatuses is generally used for printing-
ink. The various mineral and lac colors are used for
printing-colors.
All substances used for coloring the varnishes must
be rubbed very fine, and the coloring matter must be
mixed with the varnish in the most careful manner, so
as to obtain an absolutely uniform color. As our
work is exclusively devoted to the fabrication of var¬
nishes and lacquers, we can occupy ourselves with the
subject only so far as it relates to the fabrication of
SOAP LACQUERS.
225
printer’s varnishes, but would refer our readers who
take an interest in the subject to the excellent work:
“ Die Fabrikation der Mineral und Lack Farben, von
Dr. Josef Bersch,” in A. Hartleben’s Verlag, Wien,
1878 (The Fabrication of Mineral and Lac Colors,
by Dr. Joseph Bersch, published by A. Hartleben,
Vienna, 1878), which contains a thorough description
of the processes for preparing lampblack and printing-
colors.
XIII.
SOAP LACQUERS.
Soap lacquer possesses several properties which
make it very valuable for certain purposes. This lac¬
quer, which can be prepared very cheaply, possesses
especially two qualities deserving to be particularly
mentioned, namely, that it remains entirely unchanged
in water, and has a considerable degree of elasticity.
The following is the simplest method of preparing it:
Good tallow soap is boiled in rain-water so that a clear
solution is formed, and this is filtered through several
close cloths while it is still hot. The solution is heated
again and diluted with an equal volume of rain-water.
Then a boiling-hot solution of alum is added to it as
long as a precipitate of sebate of aluminium is formed.
This precipitate is allowed to settle, the fluid standing
over it is poured off, and the precipitate washed several
times with boiling water.
226 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
The precipitate is then dried and heated in a pot
standing in a vessel filled with boiling water, until it
becomes transparent. Oil of turpentine is then heated
in a pot nearly to the boiling point, and a sufficient
quantity of the aluminium soap is added to form a
solution of the consistency of thick varnish. Should
this prove too viscid when it has become cold, it can
be easily reduced by adding hot oil of turpentine.
Articles which have been coated with this lacquer
should be placed near a hot stove so that they will
dry quickly. Coatings of this soap lacquer do not
show a great deal of lustre, but, as has before been
said, are very durable and besides are cheap.
Johnson's Varnish for Preparing Water-proof Paper
and Water-proof Tissues.
Green vitriol is dissolved in water, a solution of
soap is added to this, and the precipitate of iron soap
which is formed is collected. When this precipitate
has become dry and is then dissolved in sulphide of
carbon, or in benzole, a fluid is obtained which leaves
behind a water-proof layer upon paper or tissues. If
the paper or tissue is to remain white, a solution of
alum is used instead of that of green vitriol, and a
white aluminium soap is then obtained, which is used
in the same manner.
Coatings with Water-glass.
Such coats adhere to walls in an actually durable
manner only when the paints to be applied with the
FITTING UP A VARNISH FACTORY.
227
assistance of water-glass are first mixed with a little
water to a perfectly uniform dough, and this is mixed
in small portions with the water-glass. Only so much
paint should be prepared at one time as can be used
up in about one hour, as the solution of water-glass
easily coagulates, and it is then no longer possible to
apply the paint uniformly.
XIV.
FITTING UP A VARNISH FACTORY.
Only a few general remarks can be made relative
to the fitting up of a varnish factory, as this will
principally depend on its size and capacity. It is still
customary with many mechanics themselves to prepare
the varnishes and lacquers they use ; cabinet-makers,
turners, painters, etc., belong to this class. In this
respect it is scarcely possible to speak of a factory.
The entire outfit in such cases consists, as a general
rule, of a room with a cook-stove, a few pots and
glass-bottles. It need only here be said that the
work room should, if possible, be fireproof, and should
not, on account of danger from fire, be used at the
same time as a store-room for inflammable fluids and
varnisb.
Two points must especially be kept in view in fit¬
ting up a varnish factory where work is to be carried
on on an extensive scale, namely, to obtain as much
228 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
security against fire as possible, and to carry off the
bad-smelling vapors. Therefore, care should be had
to place the apparatuses used for boiling the varnish
in fire-proof rooms. They should be vaulted if possi¬
ble, or at least have iron roofs, and wooden floors
should be avoided. The best plan for carrying off the
bad-smelling vapors, which are especially developed
in boiling linseed-oil varnish, is by conducting them
immediately into the chimney, which should be of a
considerable height so as not to molest the neighbors.
But, if it can be so arranged, the most suitable way
is to conduct the vapors under the grate of a furnace
so that they may be entirely burned. But this can
only be done in case the work is carried on with an
entirely closed apparatus, and this is inconvenient,
as it is very difficult to observe the condition of the
fluids contained in the apparatus, as even panes of
glass set in the upper part of it do not allow of a close
observation, and besides it must be opened from time
to time to take out samples for testing the fluid.
Fabrication of Varnish by Steam.
In a large factory it is advisable to work by steam,
as by so doing not only the greatest security against
fire is obtained, but the work can be done more quickly,
and the greatest economy in the use of fuel is possible.
A steam-boiler of suitable size is placed in a special
room entirely separated from the actual working-room.
It is advisable to place it in a cellar under the factory,
and thus complete security against all danger from
FITTING UP A VARNISH FACTORY.
229
fire may be obtained, as there will be no fire in the
working-room proper. The tension of the steam in
the boiler need be but very moderate—-about 2 to 21-
atmospheres will be sufficient. The boiler has two
pipes, one for furnishing steam of a temperature some¬
what higher than that of water boiling in open vessels,
and the other to conduct steam to the superheating
serpentine pipe of which we shall shortly speak.
The apparatuses in which the resins are to be dis¬
solved, the volatile solvents to be distilled oil’, etc.,
must be so arranged that the steam can give off its
heat. This is obtained by placing in the vessels ser¬
pentine pipes through which the steam passes, and
these must be sufficiently inclined to allow the water
formed by the condensing of the steam to flow off.
Larger apparatuses are sometimes made with double
sides, and the steam passes through the open space
between the two sides.
The form of the vessels is generally that of upright
cylinders, and they are provided externally with wooden
jackets to prevent them from being cooled off by the
air.
According to special experiments we have made on
this subject, linseed oil can be changed into the best
siccative by heating it together with borate of manga¬
nese for several days at a temperature somewhat higher
than 100° C. (212° F.), which can be easily reached
with ordinary steam. But, of course, this method
cannot readily be employed on a large scale on account
20
230 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
of the comparatively long time required for heating
the oil.
The Superheating Apparatus.
To obtain in a few hours a quickly drying varnish
from linseed oil it is necessary to raise the temperature
of the oil to the point where decomposition commences.
But to obtain such a temperature by the use of steam,
apparatuses of extraordinary strength would be re¬
quired, as the tension of the steam, as is well known,
quickly increases with an increase of temperature.
But there is a simple method by which water vapor
can be heated to a temperature of above 300° C.
(572° F.) without it being necessary to use vessels of
more than ordinary strength.
To attain this object — to superheat” the water
vapor—the simple apparatus shown in Fig. 10 is used.
The cast-iron pipes A, A, rest upon two benches
built of brick in a furnace furnishing a very hot flame.
The pipes are connected with each other by curved
tub^s of copper, B and C. These curved tubes have
been tightly driven into the pipes A without any other
connection, and rest upon the benches in such a manner
that the fire cannot directly strike them.
The steam passes from the steam boiler B F F at
a temperature corresponding to the pressure prevailing
in the boiler, into the pipe system A, A, which is kept
at a red heat by the fire burning under it, and passes
out of the pipes at 6r, having a temperature which
may be above 400° C. (752° F.). It is a very good
FITTING UP A VARNISH FACTORY.
231
plan to build the superheating furnace large enough
to be able to add a few pipes in case the steam should
not be hot enough. If fewer pipes are sufficient, the
spare room of the fire-box can be bricked up.
Fig. 10.
It is not absolutely necessary to work with steam in
a varnish factory ; hot air answers the same purpose.
If it is desirable to work in this manner an uninter¬
rupted stream of air is driven into the pipe system of
the superheating apparatus by a centrifugal fan, and
the air is conducted back to the fan after it has left
232 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
the greater part of its heat in the boiling apparatus,
so that it may be said the work is actually done with
the same quantity of air, which constantly makes a
circuit between the superheating apparatus and the
vessel in which the varnish is boiled.
It is self-evident that no lead pipes, but only iron
or copper pipes, can be used in apparatuses in which
superheated steam or superheated air is employed.
Copper pipes, though much dearer than iron pipes,
deserve the preference, as they do not produce dark-
colored varnishes, though they may be somewhat af¬
fected by the hot oil.
Though it is very expensive, yet it is advisable to
silver the metallic surfaces with which the varnish
comes in contact. The coating need only be very
thin, and can be preserved uninjured for years if the
apparatuses are carefully treated, as they are not sub¬
jected to any friction. But as the bottom of the ves¬
sel suffers from friction by the stirring apparatus with
which the powdered resins must be kept in motion, it
is advisable to have these parts constructed of enam¬
elled iron.
The above description gives a general idea of the
rational arrangement of a factory. The details will
depend on the room at disposal, and the size of the
factory itself.
FABRICATION OF SEALING-WAX.
Sealing-wax is said to be an East Indian invention
which first became known in Europe in the middle
ages. It seems that its use was first introduced in
Spain, and from there spread over the rest of Europe,
at least the respective names given to it would indicate
this. The French word for it is “circe d’Espagne,”
and the Italian “ cera di Spagna” (Spanish wax). The
English word “ sealing-wax” is synonymous with the
German word “ Siegelwachs,” and it originated very
likely from the fact, that, before the present composi¬
tion of sealing-wax was known, colored wax was gene¬
rally used for sealing letters, as is yet done at the
present day for stamping se^ls upon deeds and public
documents.
Sealing-wax, in general, consists of a mixture of
resins to which turpentine, essential oil, and fragrant
balsams are added, partly for the purpose of diminish¬
ing the natural brittleness of the resins as well as to
facilitate their melting by heat, and partly to impart
to them a sweet odor ; besides various coloring sub¬
stances are mixed with them.
Good sealing-wax should be smooth, glossy, and not
brittle ; it must bear the highest summer temperature
20 *
234 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
without becoming soft, and when burnt must melt
easily without evolving smoke or a disagreeable odor,
but at the same time must not become so thinly fluid
as to drop. The seal made with the wax should have
the same appearance as the unmelted sealing-wax,
i.e., it must neither change its color nor lose its lustre.
The fracture of good sealing-wax should be smooth,
not too lustreless, and especially must not have an
earthy appearance.
The fabrication of sealing-wax can be very conveni¬
ently combined with the manufacture of varnish, as the
resins also play the principal role in this branch of the
industry, indeed, are even of greater importance than
in the fabrication of varnishes themselves, as the prin¬
cipal materials for sealing-wax are nothing else but
resin.
I.
MATERIALS USED FOR THE FABRICATION OF
SEALING-WAX.
A large part of the materials used for sealing-wax
have already been mentioned in treating of the sub¬
stances used for the fabrication of varnishes, and as
far as these are concerned, we would refer the reader
to Sections IV., V., and VI. of the first part of this
work.
The principal materials used for sealing-wax are
FABRICATION OF SEALING-WAX.
235
shellac and turpentine. But besides these, several
other kinds of resins are used, such as mastic, sanda-
rac, and benzoin for the finer qualities ; colophony
and pitch. Fragrant balsams, balsam of tolu, balsam
of Peru, as well as* sweet-scented oils, such as oil of
lavender, oil of mace, oil of cloves, etc., are added to
hide the disagreeable odor of the burning resin.
But the coloring substances are of great importance
as well as those which we will call indifferent sub¬
stances, which only serve the purpose of augmenting
the entire mass without exerting any influence upon
the composition. Such substances, which must gene¬
rally be of a white color, are, for instance, chalk,
gypsum, zinc-white, and carbonate of magnesia. Some¬
times brick-dust is used as an indifferent substance for
common qualities of sealing-wax.
Of the Principal Materials.
It is absolutely necessary, that the shellac to be
used for the finer qualities of sealing-wax should be
bleached, as the reddish-brown coloring matter adher¬
ing to the natural shellac, would exert a disturbing
influence, especially upon light and delicate colors
which are most popular in the more expensive varie¬
ties of sealing-wax. Unbleached shellac can only be
used for dark-colored sealing-wax, brown to black, as
the color of the shellac will be covered by the dark
coloring substances which will have to be added. It
is always advisable for the manufacturer of sealing-
wax, who buys large quantities of shellac, to bleach it
236 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
himself. If it is desirable to exercise particular
economy, a light-colored variety of shellac may be
used for light colored but not such fine qualities of
sealing-wax, instead of bleached shellac, but the colors
will be less beautiful.
Turpentine is the next principal material which is
used, and Venetian turpentine is to be preferred to any
other kind. But colophony and oil of turpentine may be
used as very suitable substitutes for turpentine, and
this besides offers the great advantage that it is always
in one’s power to regulate at will the fluidity of the
mass by adding a larger or smaller quantity of oil of
turpentine.
As most commercial turpentine is contaminated by
splinters of wood, leaves, etc., it cannot be used imme¬
diately, but it becomes necessary to filter it for the
purpose of freeing it from these admixtures. This is
a tedious labor on account of the viscid condition of
the turpentine, but it can be accomplished in the
quickest way by heating the turpentine in a vessel
filled with water heated to a temperature of 100° C.
(212° F.), and filtering it through a linen cloth.
Besins, such as mastic and elemi, are only added in
small quantities and for the finer qualities of sealing-
wax to the actual base of the sealing-wax, which
is composed of shellac and turpentine, or of shellac,
colophony, and oil of turpentine. Benzoin, balsam of
Peru, and the other essential oils, are only used for
the perfumed varieties. In respect to the last-named
substances, we would recommend that they be pro-
FABRICATION OF SEALING-WAX.
237
cured from firms of good standing, and that rather a
higher price should he paid for them than might be
asked for them in another store, as just such articles
as balsam of Peru and essential oils are found, only
too frequently, badly adulterated, and sometimes con¬
tain but a small percentage of the substances whose
names they bear.
Of the Pigments which are used in the Fabrication
of Sealing - Wax.
The number of coloring substances used is a very
large one, as there is at present a demand for sealing-
wax of all kinds of colors, and it is brought into the
market in all possible shades. The best plan for the
manufacturer is not himself to prepare the pigments
he needs, but to buy them. It may be only recom¬
mended to prepare some few colors for which an extra¬
ordinarily high price is asked in the stores.
Red Pigments.
Of all the colors employed, red is the one of which
the largest quantities are used. We know a consider¬
able number of red coloring substances which may be
used for coloring sealing-wax. In regard to the price,
it is, of couse, necessary to use cheap coloring sub¬
stances for cheap kinds of sealing-wax, but to be sure,
they never give such a beautiful appearance to the
article as the finer ones. For instance, the beautiful
scarlet color of fine red sealing-wax, can only be pro-
238 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
duced with the aid of cinnabar; but not with minium
(red-lead), colcothar, etc.
Cinnabar
is now always prepared in an artificial manner, namely,
by heating mercury with sulphur. Cinnabar is sul¬
phate of mercury. This expensive coloring substance
is but seldom adulterated, as a very slight addition of
other red coloring substances injures the fiery appear¬
ance of cinnabar, on which depends its commercial
value. The purity of cinnibar can be easily ascer¬
tained by heating a small quantity of it red hot. If
the cinnabar is pure, it will volatilize without leaving
a residuum.
In consequence of its great weight, cinnabar would
make the sealing-wax too heavy, and it is, therefore,
necessary to add a certain quantity of an indifferent
substance to the sealing-wax to he colored with this
coloring substance, which will make it less dense.
Minium.
The commercial minium has several shades of color,
according to the degree of heat at which it is pre¬
pared. The color varies from a shade inclined towards
orange, to a beautiful scarlet. The tint of some kinds
of minium can^be considerably improved by heating
them carefully upon bright sheet-iron, but the tempera¬
ture must not be allowed to rise too high, as this would
discolor the minium.
FABRICATION OF SEALING-WAX.
239
Colcothar (Indian-Tied').
Under this name, but also under that of caput mor-
tuum , a reddish-brown coloring matter is brought into
the market, which consists of sesquioxide of iron, and
can be bought at a very low price. Good colcothar
produces sealing-wax of a very nice color. The most
beautiful kind of this coloring matter is obtained in the
following manner: Green vitriol is dissolved in rain
water, the solution is filtered, and to this a solution of
binoxalate of potassa, also prepared with rain water
and filtered, is added as long as a precipitate is formed.
After a few hours, the fluid standing over the precipi¬
tate is poured off, the latter is stirred up with some
rain water, and is again allowed to settle. This is re¬
peated several times, the precipitate is then collected
upon a cloth, and dried in a place where it is protected
from dust. The yellowish-green mass which has been
collected upon the cloth, is rubbed very fine and heated
in a porcelain dish under constant stirring. When a
certain degree of heat has been reached, it catches
fire and gradually subsides into a very fine powder of
a fiery, but pleasant reddish-brown color.
Bole
is a clay colored red by being mixed with more or less
sesquioxide of iron; a darker coloring can be imparted
to it by mixing it with red chalk, but this, as well as
the commercial colcothar, is a pigment which can only
be used for common kinds of sealing-wax.
240 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
Carmine
is such an expensive pigment, that it is scarcely pos¬
sible to use it even for the finest qualities of sealing-
wax, though directions are given in many hooks how
to prepare sealing-wax of a bright red color with the
help of carmine.
Vienna Lake and Madder Lake
are combinations of different red coloring substances
with alumina, protoxide of lead, and oxide of zinc.
At the present time these lakes are prepared of an
excellent quality, and in all shades of color. The
manufacturer of sealing-wax should always choose the
most fiery article, and most thoroughly saturated with
color he can find.
Yellow Pigments .
Yellow sealing-wax is frequently demanded as an
article of luxury, and yellow pigments are also fre¬
quently used for various mixed colors, or for preparing
sealing-wax which shall show different gradations of
color.
Chrome Yellow.
This is without doubt the most beautiful of all yel¬
low pigments, and can be easily made by dissolving
sugar of lead in rain-water, and adding to this a solu¬
tion of bichromate of potassa as long as a precipitate
is formed. This precipitate is washed, dried, and then
FABRICATION OF SEALING-WAX.
241
forms a bright yellow powder consisting of chromate
of lead, and in commerce is called chrome-yellow.
On account of its sombre color and great weight
chrome-yellow is generally not used in a pure state,
but is mixed with chalk, magnesia, or some other white
substance.
Mineral Yellow or Cassel Yellow
is a beautiful yellow color produced by carefully fusing
litharge, and by grinding and washing the powdered
mass. It is also remarkable on account of its great
weight.
Ochre
is a yellow or yellowish-brown earth, and can only
be used for ordinary kinds of sealing-wax, as it does
not possess a warm tint of color, and besides has
the disagreeable property of giving an earthy smell to
the sealing-wax, even if it is added in very small
quantities.
Green Pigments.
For coloring sealing-wax green, it is always best to
use a mixture of a yellow and a blue pigment, or the
green ultramarine. To be sure there are very beauti¬
ful green pigments, such as the genuine green cinna¬
bar and chrome-green, but they are entirely too expen¬
sive for use in the fabrication of sealing-wax, and
besides their use is not to be recommended, as the
same shades of color possessed by these expensive
21
*
242 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
pigments can be produced by a suitable mixing of
yellow and blue.
Blue Pigments.
Ultramarine and mountain blue are used for the
lighter shades, and Berlin blue for the darker shades.
As ultramarine is very inexpensive, it may be used
even for very cheap kinds of sealing-wax.
Brown Pigments.
Several earthy substances known as umber sienna,
burnt sienna, Cassel brown, etc., are used for pro¬
ducing beautiful brown colors. Burnt sienna espe¬
cially possesses a very beautiful warm tone of color,
and for this reason is to be preferred to other brown
pigments, and also on account of it being a very pro¬
ductive and very cheap pigment.
Black Pigments.
Finely divided carbon which according ~to its origin
is called soot, lampblack, ivory-black, vine-black, etc.,
is alone used for giving a black color to sealing-wax.
Frequently, these different kinds of black pigment can
only be bought at very high prices ; but it is not at
all necessary to use them for the fabrication of sealing-
wax, as common soot, if well prepared, answers for all
our purposes.
The commercial soot has frequently a brownish shade
of color which is produced by adhering products of
tar, and a disagreeable smell which is especially ob-
FABRICATION OF SEALING-WAX.
243
servable in burning sealing-wax prepared with common
soot. Soot can be prepared in a simple manner by
carefully calcining it. This will remove the disagreea¬
ble smell, and at the same time a pure black color will
be obtained.
Generally, a stove-pipe about 50 centimeters (19.7
inches) long, and closed on both ends by well-fitting
covers, is used for this purpose. The pipe is filled
with the soot to be calcined, in such a manner that it,
being gently pressed into the pipe, comes up to about
4 to 5 centimeters (1.6 to 1.9 inches) below the upper
rim. The upper lid, through which a hole of about
the thickness of a straw has been made, is then placed
tightly upon the pipe, and all the joints are smeared
over with clay. It is also advisable to cover the en¬
tire pipe with clay to prevent it from being burnt
through.
The pipes filled with soot are then placed in an air-
furnace in such a manner that the perforated cover is
uppermost, and brought to a red heat. When the
attendant is convinced that the entire mass of soot is
thoroughly calcined, the fire is extinguished, and after
twenty-four hours, the pipes are opened—or, at least,
not before the entire contents have become cold. The
bad-smelling tar products which give a brownish color
to the soot have been destroyed, and the latter is now
entirely odorless and of a velvet-like black color.
244 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
Vine-Black or Frankfort Black
is a beautiful, black pigment, which can be prepared
at a nominal cost in wine-growing countries. The
same kind of sheet-iron pipes mentioned above are
used for preparing it. The pipes are filled with pieces
of vine-shoots, and heated as long as gases escape
from the hole in the upper lid, but the hole should be
made somewhat larger than for soot. The carbonized
residuum remaining in the pipes is put into a vessel
filled with water which has to be changed seve¬
ral times, for the purpose of dissolving the alkalies.
To the last water but one, a quantity of hydrochloric
acid equal to one-fourth of the volume of water is
added to dissolve the last traces of alkaline substances.
The residuum, when rubbed fine and washed, is the
finest vine-black.
White Pigments.
White substances are added to sealing-wax for three
reasons, namely, first, to decrease the weight of the
wax which has been colored with very heavy pigments
such as cinnabar and chrome-yellow, and at the same
time to increase the bulk of the sealing-wax ; secondly,
to obtain lighter-colored masses of sealing-wax; and
thirdly, to impart an actually white color to it.
In the first two mentioned cases it does not matter
much what the nature of the substance is which is added
to the mass of the sealing-wax, provided it is of a pure
white color and of but little weight. But in the last
FABRICATION OF SEALING-WAX.
245
case where the white substance is also to serve as the
actual coloring matter, its nature must be taken into
especial consideration, and only such coloring sub¬
stances should be chosen as will give to the sealing-
wax a beautiful white appearance resembling enamel.
A special effort should be made to obtain this appear¬
ance in all other varieties also, with the exception of
transparent sealing-wax, as seals made with such seal¬
ing-wax are the most beautiful.
Chalk.
Chalk occurs, as a mineral, in many places in such
masses as to form regular mountain-chains. The coast
of a great part of England, the island of Rugen, etc.,
consist of chalk-cliffs. Chalk consists essentially of
the same substances as white marble, that is, of car¬
bonate of lime. It presents very peculiar forin 3 under
a strong magnifying glass, and we know now that all
chalk has been formed from the remains of minute ani¬
mals or plants, in whose shells the mineral substance
was present.
Chalk, as found in nature, contains many inclosures,
such as flints, sand, petrifications, etc., and, therefore,
must be especially prepared before it can be used for
the various purposes for which it is employed (for
writing, paints, etc.). Chalk is prepared by grinding
and washing it, and by forming the powder into a dough
with water, to which has been added a very small
quantity of some kind of paste. This is then dried
and cut into pieces, and furnishes the chalk for writ-
21 *
246 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
ing. For our purposes it is sufficient to wash the
chalk, and to dry the powder. The principal property
of chalk, fit to be used for the fabrication of sealing-
wax, consists in its pure white color.
G-7/p sum
is also a frequently occurring mineral. Only the
whitest, finely ground gypsum, the so-called burned
(i. e. dephlegmated) gypsum, such as the moulders of
plaster of Paris figures use, can be employed in the
fabrication of sealing-wax. The variety of gypsum
occurring in colorless crystals, and known by the name
of specular gypsum or selenite, is used for the trans¬
parent variety of sealing-wax. Before using the sele¬
nite, it must be powdered and washed.
Carbonate of •Magnesia
is found in commerce as a dazzling white, very fine
powder, which is uncommonly light. Magnesia, being
dense and at the same time of a yellowish color—caused
by a small quantity of sesquioxide of iron contained in
it—is of less value. Carbonate of magnesia is espe¬
cially valuable to the manufacturer of sealing-wax on
account of its light weight, and is particularly used as
an addition to such sealing-wax as is compounded with
heavy pigments.
Zinc- White
is found in commerce as a milk-white, fine powder,
and can be used without further preparation.
FABRICATION OF SEALING-WAX.
247
Sulphate of Baryta (.Permanent White).
This white pigment, distinguished by its great
weight and unchangeableness, can be procured in
commerce, but the price asked is so high that it is
more advisable for the manufacturer to prepare it
himself. It is especially adapted for preparing white,
enamel-like varieties of sealing-wax.
Sulphate of baryta is prepared by dissolving chlo¬
ride of barium in rain water, and by adding sulphuric
acid to the solution as long as a precipitate is formed.
On account of its great weight, the thus-formed pre¬
cipitate of sulphate of baryta (permanent white) set¬
tles quickly to the bottom and forms an uncommonly
delicate powder of a dazzling white color. The water
is poured off from the precipitate and clean water is
poured over it, the process being repeated several
times. When the precipitate has been sufficiently
washed, it is dried.
Nitrate of Bismuth , or Flake- White ,
produces the most beautiful white color, but commands
a high price. For this reason it is advisable for the
manufacturer to prepare this pigment also himself,
especially as it can be done with very little trouble.
Nitrate of bismuth, or flake-white, is obtained in the
following manner: Bismuth is placed in a glass vessel
and fuming red nitric acid is poured over it. The
acid has a strong effect upon the metal, suffocating
reddish-brown vapors are formed and the bismuth is
gradually dissolved.
248 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
When the bismuth has been entirely dissolved, the
contents of the glass are poured into a vessel contain¬
ing about one hundred times the quantity of rain wa¬
ter and stirred. The entire fluid assumes at once a
milky appearance, and in a few hours the nitrate of
bismuth will have settled to the bottom in the form of
a white powder. This is then washed and dried. The
fluid standing over the precipitate still containing some
bismuth in solution is evaporated until crystals are
formed, and these are again dissolved in nitric acid and
the operation is repeated. The nitrate of bismuth or
flake-white obtained in this manner furnishes the most
beautiful, enamel-like, white sealing-wax.
Bronze-powder
in all possible shades is also used as an addition to va¬
rious kinds of sealing-wax. Finely powdered mica is
used for the cheaper, so-called aventurin sealing-wax,
which shows yellow or white spangles of a metallic
lustre in a transparent ground-mass. Mica is a fre¬
quently occurring mineral which as is well known is
also used as a sand for drying ink.
All the materials used in the fabrication of sealing
O
wax, whether they are resins or pigments, must be
thoroughly dried before they are used. To save the
expense of a special apparatus for drying these mate¬
rials, it is advisable to utilize for this purpose the heat
developed by the stove upon which the mass for the
FABRICATION OF SEALING-WAX.
249
sealing-wax is melted. For this purpose a shelf is
placed all around the walls, about 50 centimeters (19.7
inches) below the ceiling, of the room in which the
stove stands, and the materials, resins, chalk, magne¬
sia, pigments, etc., are put up in paper hags and placed
upon this shelf. As the warm air arising from the
stove always goes up to the ceiling of the room, the
materials will he sufficiently dried when they remain
for a few days in this warm air.
The mass for sealing-wax is prepared in the follow¬
ing manner: The actual raw materials, namely, the
resins and turpentine, are first melted in suitable ves¬
sels, then the indifferent substances, such as chalk,
magnesia, etc., are stirred into the fluid mass, and
finally the pigments are added. If the mass is to he
perfumed with balsam of Peru or essential oils, they
are added immediately before the ready mass is to
he formed into sticks, as they are very volatile.
If only one pigment alone, for instance cinnabar,
chrome-yellow, or Berlin blue, is to be used, nothing
else is to be done but to add the pigment, which has
been first somewhat warmed, to the mass and to incor¬
porate it with it thoroughly by continual stirring. But
where certain shades of color, such as rose-color,
violet-blue, or mixed colors, such as orange, green, or
violet, are to be produced, a somewhat different method
has to be used.
No white substances are then added to the resins,
but they are kept back and mixed with the coloring
substances in a porcelain dish large enough to hold the
250 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
entire quantity of white substance and coloring sub¬
stance to be used. The dish is placed upon a stove so
that the materials may become warm, as they can be
easier incorporated with the melted mass of resin. For
lighter shades, for instance, rose-color, a dark red pig¬
ment such as madder-lake is mixed with a sufficient
quantity of the white substance to give to the mixture
a far darker color than is desired for the sealing-wax
© J
as the shade of color desired for the ready sealing-
wax can be easily produced by gradually adding white
substance and by frequent testing.
Any of the previously mentioned white substances
can be used for producing a lighter shade of color, and
by increasing the quantity of them all possible grada¬
tions of color may be obtained. In a similar manner
all shades of orange can be obtained by a suitable
mixing of yellow with red, of green by mixing yellow
with blue, of violet by mixing red with blue. For
gray a small quantity of black is added, etc. etc. It
must be left to the experience of the workman to hit
the right shade of color by a suitable mixing.
II.
MELTING THE SEALING-WAX MASS.
This is the most particular work of all in the manu¬
facture of sealing-wax. It must be accepted as a
principle in regard to this work, that the mass should
MELTING THE SEALING-WAX MASS.
251
be melted at as low a temperature as possible, and the
heat should never be greater than is required to keep
the mass in a fluid state. This object can be attained
only by working a not too large quantity of sealing-
wax at one time in the melting vessel. We generally
use vessels in which can be prepared about 10 kilo¬
grammes (22 lbs.) of ready sealing-wax, and large
enough to allow the mass to be quickly stirred.
Many manufacturers melt the mass upon a furnace
constructed like a common cook-stove, where the fire
heats cast-iron plates upon which the articles to be
heated are placed. But we consider such a stove as
a very incomplete apparatus, as it is impossible to
uniformly heat the entire surface of the plates, as
those exposed most to the fire are generally already
red hot while the more distant plates are scarcely
warm. But independent of these evils such stoves are
always somewhat dangerous on account of fire. One
drop of the fluid mass when this is ladled out may fall
upon the hot plates, may become ignited, and commu¬
nicate the flame to the contents of the melting vessels,
and though a fire might be prevented by quickly
covering the vessels, yet the mass would be spoiled
in most cases, because burning sealing-wax turns
black.
We have constructed a melting apparatus where the
evils above mentioned are avoided, and it is possible
to regulate the temperature so accurately that it will
not rise higher than is actually required. This appa¬
ratus serves at the same time for the so-called polish-
252 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
ing of the sealing-wax, and therefore, does away with
the necessity of building a special polishing apparatus.
Figure 11 represents a cross section of such an ap¬
paratus.
The Melting Apparatus.
This consists of a small furnace, 0 , about one
meter (3.28 feet) high; the upper door T serves for
introducing the fuel, for which purpose it is best to use
small pieces of coke such as is furnished by gas works.
Fig. li.
The lower door can be either partly opened or entirely
closed by a slide S, by which the consumption of the
fuel can be regulated. There is no grate in this stove;
the ashes can be removed through the lower door.
The gases of combustion pass into the chimney through
the pipe R.
The stove is entirely surrounded by a sheet-iron
casing M, which stands at a distance of about 5 centi-
MELTING THE SEALING-WAX MASS.
253
meters (1.96 inches) from the stove, and the same dis¬
tance from the floor. The air between the casing and
the stove becomes hot, ascends in the direction indi¬
cated by the arrows, and is replaced by cold air flow¬
ing in between the casing and the stove.
Alongside of the casing of the stove and connected
with it stands a table surrounded on all sides by a
sheet-iron screen W. Upon the table stands a sheet-
iron tub V filled with sand, and resting upon iron sup¬
ports A. The tub is covered with a sheet-iron plate
B. In this plate are four or six round holes in which
the melting vessels Gr are placed in two rows. On the
bottom of the polishing hearth H is a plate 1, which is
cut in such a manner as to give it the appearance of
a grate. Underneath this plate is a similar one 2,
which can be shifted by the handle 0 in such a way
that the cuts in the two plates cover each other. If it
is desired to use all the available heat for melting, the
cuts in plate 1 are closed by shifting plate 2.
The hot air arising from the stove heats the tub V
and the sand contained in it, and the mass of sealing-
wax contained in the vessels (r commences to melt.
As soon as it is melted the fire in 0 is moderated by
partly closing the lower opening by the slide S, and it
is possible to keep the mass for a long time in a fluid
state without a stronger heat being required, as the hot
sand retains the heat. The sheet-iron plate B which
covers the sand is placed there for preventing the
loss of such sealing-wax as might accidentally drop in
ladling it out of the melting vessel.
22
254 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
Well-enamelled cast-iron pots of the shape shown in
the illustration should be used for melting, and a spe¬
cial pot for every mixture. If a pot has to be used
for a differently colored mass, it should first be allowed
to become entirely cold, when the sealing-wax still ad¬
hering to the sides can be easily removed from the
smooth surface.
The melting is done by first placing the shellac
in the pot and melting it under continual stirring
with a flat paddle of hard wood. The turpentine is
then added and intimately mixed with the shellac.
Then the remaining substances, such as chalk and col¬
oring matter, are dropped in a thin stream into the
melted mass, which from this time on should be stirred
uninterruptedly. Quick stirring is absolutely neces¬
sary, especially when very heavy coloring substances
are used, as these easily sink to the bottom.
When the entire mass seems to be uniform, it is ex¬
amined by lifting the paddle and catching the dropping
sealing-wax upon a cold, smooth plate of sheet-metal,
where it quickly solidifies, and can then be examined
in regard to color, hardness, and fracture. If the
mass is found satisfactory, the fire is sufficiently
moderated to keep it in a melted state, the sub¬
stances for perfuming the wax are quickly stirred in,
and the forming of the sticks is immediately proceeded
with.
MOULDING THE SEALING-WAX.
255
III.
FORMING OR MOULDING THE SEALING-WAX.
Special forms are required to shape the sealing-wax
into sticks. These consist of one piece for rectangu¬
lar, square, or triangular sticks, hut must be of two
pieces for round or oval sticks. In the latter case,
one-half of the form is provided with holes into which
fit protuberances on the other half to prevent the form
from shifting. When the forms are used for moulding,
the two halves are firmly pressed together by a screw-
clamp.
The forms which consist of one piece are made of
rectangular brass plates, in which are hollowed out
lengthwise channels about 1 millimeter (0.089 inch)
wider on the top than on the bottom, as this will very
much facilitate the lifting out of the cold sticks. As
both ends of the channels are left open, iron plates are
laid on the narrow ends of the form to prevent the
sealing-wax from running out when poured into the
channels. These forms are generally twice as long as
the sticks of sealing-wax found in commerce.
The forms consisting of two pieces, each half of
which forms a half-cylindrical channel which, when
the form is closed, form an entire cylinder, stand gene¬
rally upright when used for moulding. They are,
therefore, made somewhat broader on the bottom, and
256 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
are set upon a level metal plate. These forms are
only as high as the stick of sealing-wax is to be long.
Many manufacturers place the forms upon a stone,
or cool them off while moulding, by laying them upon
boxes of sheet-metal filled with cold water for the pur¬
pose of congealing the mass as quickly as possible. Of
course, by employing this method, the forms can be
used again in a very short time after each mould-
ing, but the sticks of sealing-w^ax become too brit¬
tle. We, therefore, prefer not to cool the forms off,
but to place them upon a wooden table. We cool the
form oft only by dipping it in cold water, and care¬
fully drying it, when it has become so hot that the
sealing-wax would require a long time for congealing.
The work of lifting out the congealed sticks is
easily accomplished, if the forms are entirely plain,
but if they are engraved, they must be touched up for
a long time before the sticks can be lifted out clean.
In such cases it is advisable to slightly rub the en¬
graved places with oil of turpentine. If the sealing-
wax is to be gilt or silvered on certain places, the
gold-leaf or silver-leaf is placed in the form, or it is
dusted with bronze powder.
When made of brass the forms for moulding sealing-
wax are rather expensive on account of the cost of en¬
graving. But they can be constructed very cheaply
by a simple method, and only one single form is
required for the purpose, but this must be worked in
a faultless manner, A stick of fine sealing-wax is
MOULDING THE SEALING-WAX.
257
moulded in this form. Fine olive oil in as thin a layer
as possible is then rubbed over the surface of the
stick of sealing-wax. This is done with a tuft of
fine cotton. The oiled stick is laid in a longish form
and plaster of Paris is poured over it. When this has
become hard it is carefully detached from the stick
and thoroughly dried out at a moderate heat. It is
then rubbed over with olive oil and a stick of plaster
of "Paris is moulded in it, which resembles in every
respect the first casting of sealing-wax. When the
stick of plaster of Paris has been thoroughly dried,
it is placed in a small wooden box and melted type-
metal is poured over it, but this must not be heated
any more than is absolutely necessary to bring it to
the melting point. In this manner forms of type-
metal are obtained which can be used like the brass
forms. Many copies can also be made from a single
form by the galvano plastic process.
The moulding process is carried on in the following
manner : The melted sealing-wax is taken from the
melting vessel with a ladle and poured into a casting-
ladle which is provided with a spout and a wooden
handle, and which has been previously heated. From
this it is poured into the forms in a uniform stream.
The forms consisting of one piece are covered with a
board when the sticks have become cold, they are then
turned over and the sticks are detached from the chan¬
nels of the forms by a gentle knock. Forms consist¬
ing of two pieces are opened and the sticks pushed
out. In regard to these forms it may be mentioned
22 *
258 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
that clean moulded sticks can only be obtained by
slightly beating the form. The form should therefore
be gently heated before the first casting, which can be
done in the simplest manner by placing it up the plate
B of the melting apparatus.
Variegated sealing-wax which should show a mar¬
bled surface is prepared by moulding sticks about as
thick as a quill and placing them alongside of each
other. They are then sufficiently heated to become
soft, are twisted regularly together into spiral lines
and rolled into a cylinder upon a smooth stone slab.
IV.
POLISHING THE STICKS OF SEALING-WAX.
Only the finer qualities of sticks of sealing-wax ob¬
tained from the forms show a certain lustre upon their
surfaces. Poorer qualities do not possess this lustre,
but it must be imparted to them by a special operation
which is called polishing, dressing, and also enamelling.
As nearly every kind of sealing-wax bears an inscrip¬
tion or stamp, the stamping is done at the same time
as the polishing. The finer sorts are generally also
polished, though as a rule they come from the form in
a smooth state.
In older factories there are special polishing stoves
for this purpose. These consist of a nich built of
brick. On the bottom of this is an iron plate which is
POLISHING THE STICKS OF SEALING-WAX. 259
strongly heated by a fire made under it and heating
also the air in the nich. We gain the same object by
the contrivance H shown in Fig. 11, which consists
of a box of sheet metal or wood open in front and into
which hot air is admitted by shifting the plate 2. The
air need only be hot enough to melt the surface of the
sticks of sealing-wax in a short time.
The polishing process is carried on in the following
manner: A workman holds a number of double sticks,
without one stick touching the other, half-way into the
polishing stove until the surface of the sticks com¬
mences to melt and the sticks themselves become bent.
When this takes place, he places the sticks before a
workman sitting opposite to him. He pushes the
sticks upon a small board lying before him, and with
the left hand presses another small board upon the
second length of the stick and imprints the stamp.
It is necessary to hold the sticks between these two
small boards, as their shape is easily destroyed, espe¬
cially if they are very soft and the “ stamper” uses
too much force in imprinting the stamp. When they
have been stamped, the first workman takes them
again and holds the other half which has not yet
been polished in the polishing stove, and then the
second workman stamps these also. The stamps con¬
sist of brass frames in which the single letters of which
the inscription is composed are placed and held in
place by a screw, or they consist of an engraved
brass-plate. The last-named stamps serve generally
260 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
the purpose of imprinting ornamentations and ara¬
besques upon the sticks.
The double sticks are now cut apart. This is done
in the following manner: 30 to 40 sticks are laid
alongside of each other, and are scratched exactly in
the centre with a sharp knife and by using a ruler.
They are then turned over and scratched on the other
side also. If both scratches are exactly opposite to
each other the sticks can be easily broken smoothly
apart on these places, and the fractures need only be
slightly polished tg finish the article.
If ready sticks of sealing-wax are to he gilded or
silvered, it is only necessary to touch the respective
places with a brush dipped in strong spirit of wine,
and to apply the gold-leaf or silver-leaf, which will
then adhere very tenaciously. The sticks can also be
bronzed in a similar manner.
V.
RECEIPTS FOR SEALING-WAX.
There are a great number of receipts according to
which one or the other kind of sealing-wax is to be
prepared. In the following we give only a compara¬
tively small number, but all of them have produced
good results. This is the case even with the cheaper
qualities, which, under the name of parcel-wax, are
used for sealing packages, although, of course, they
RECEIPTS FOR SEALING-WAX.
261
do not possess the excellent properties of those fine
sealing-waxes which are prepared by using the finest
materials.
Red Sealing-ivax.
As is well known, red sealing-wax is the most used
of all the varieties of sealing-wax. Its beauty and its
price are determined by the quantity of shellac and
cinnabar contained in it; only the finest qualities con¬
tain cinnabar exclusively as a coloring principle. The
inferior kinds contain very little shellac, but much
common resin, and no cinnabar at all; minium, col-
cothar, bole, or other cheap pigments are substituted
for the latter.
But we must lay it down as a general rule that not
too much resin must be added to the sealing-wax, or
else the latter will become too thinly fluid, drop too
easily, and smoke very much when lighted. Many
manufacturers assert that chalk should not be used,
because the acids of the shellac expel carbonic acid
from it and form a combination with the lime. But
this happens only when the shellac is heated more
than is necessary. No carbonic acid is set free if the
shellac is only heated to the melting point, and it is
not required for our purposes to heat it any further.
FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
A. Very Fine Red Sealing
Wax.
Shellac
I.
Parts.
. 120
Turpentine
. 80
Cinnabar ,
. 90
Oil of turpentine
9 9
. 20
Magnesia .
. 80
Shellac
II.
Parts.
. 110
Turpentine
•
. 60
Oil of turpentine
•
. 10
Chalk
• • •
, 10
Magnesia ,
9 • 9
. 20
Cinnabar ,
.
. 80
Shellac
III.
Parts.
. 100
Turpentine
.
. 10
Oil of turpentine
• • .
. 5
Chalk
, , s .
. 15
Gypsum .
. .
. 15
Magnesia ,
.
. 2
Cinnabar .
• •
. 65
RECEIPTS FOR SEALING-WAX.
263
B. Medium Fine Red Sealing-Wax.
I.
Parts.
Shellac ...... 10
Turpentine . . . ... .80
Oil of turpentine .... 4
Chalk ...... 30
Magnesia . . . . ., . 10
Cinnabar . . .... 60
II.
Parts.
Shellac ...... 60
Resin . . . . . . 40
Oil of turpentine .... 4
Turpentine . . . . .70
Chalk ...... 15
Gypsum ...... 15
Cinnabar ..*... 45
III.
Parts.
Shellac . . . . . .40
Resin ...... 60
Turpentine . . . . .60
Oil of turpentine . • . . 5
Chalk.20
Gypsum ...... 10
Cinnabar ...... 40
264 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
C. Common Parcel Wax.
I.
Parts.
Shellac
. 35
Resin
. 65
Turpentine
. 50
Oil of turpentine
. 5
Chalk
. 25
Gypsum .
. 10
Cinnabar .
II.
. 25
Parts.
Shellac .
. 20
Resin
. 80
Turpentine
. 50
Oil of turpentine
. 5
Chalk
. 30
Gypsum .
. 5
Minium
. 60
Very Common Parcel Wax.
Parts.
Shellac . . .
. 15
Resin
. 85
Turpentine
. 60
Oil of turpentine
. 5
Chalk
. 20
Brick dust
. 10
Colcothar .
. 50
RECEIPTS FUR SEALING-WAX.
265
E. Wagner’s Receipts for Preparing Sealing-
Wax.
A. Fine Red Sealing-Wax.
I.
Parts.
II.
Parts.
III.
Parts.
IV.
Parts.
V.
Parts.
Shellac ....
550
620
550
700
760
Turpentine
740
680
600
550
410
Chalk or magnesia .
300
200
Gypsum or zinc-white .
200
. .
Sulphate of baryta .
ioo
380
300
320
Cinnabar
130
220
340
300
540
Oil of turpentine
••
20
40
B. Ordinary Red Sealing-Wax.
I.
Parts.
n. iii.
Parts, j Parts.
IV.
Parts.
V.
Parts.
Shellac .
. t 520
490 620
710
740
Turpentine
600
580 520
600
420
Pine resin
440
440 ' 320
210
160
Chalk
180
..
100
Sulphate of baryta.
320 300
120
Cinnabar
180
130 200
400
520
C. Black Sealing-Wax.
i.
Parts.
II.
Parts.
III.
Parts.
IV.
Parts.
V.
Parts.
Shellac ....
480
560
660
740
680
Turpentine
520
440
420
380
360
Pine resin
460
500
400
340
300
Chalk ....
280
180
140
140
150
Soot ....
80
Bone-black
420
300
300
320
Asphaltum
••
200
23
266 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQ'JERS, ETC.
Parcel- Wax.
Parts.
Colophony ....
. 2000
Pine resin ....
. 1000
Turpentine ....
. 500
Chalk.
. 750
Oil of turpentine .
30
For brown, 1000 parts umber or 1000 parts bole
are added to this mass.
Yellow Sealing- Wax.
Only lead colors can be used for yellow sealing-wax,
and of these chrome-yellow produces the most beautiful
color. But if sealing-wax‘compounded with chrome-
yellow is very strongly heated in lighting it, the mass
becomes discolored, in consequence of a decomposi¬
tion of the lead colors. Therefore, yellow sealing-wax
must be very fusible to avoid this evil. Every kind
of sealing-wax becomes more fusible by adding a
larger quantity of turpentine, but it also becomes less
hard the more turpentine is added.
Fine Yellow Sealing- Wax.
Parts.
Shellac . . . - - .76
Turpentine . . . - .85
Pine resin . . . . .45
Gypsum ...... 15
Chalk.15
Ochre . . . . . .45
RECEIPTS FOR SEALING-WAX.
267
The shellac used for fine qualities of yellow sealing-
wax must be bleached, or else it will be impossible
to produce a pure tone of color. All gradations of
yellow, from orange to red, can be produced by add¬
ing cinnabar or chrome-red to fine qualities and mi¬
nium to inferior qualities of sealing-wax.
Green Sealing-Wax , I. ( Fine ).
Parts.
Shellac
70
Turpentine
80
Pine resin
40
Magnesia .
15
Berlin blue
Chrome-yellow .
■ ;
25
Green Sealing-Wax , IT. ( Ordinary ).
Parts.
Shellac
50
Turpentine
40
Pine resin
80
Gypsum .
15
Chalk
20
Mountain blue .
Ochre
-30
Green ultramarine may also be used to great ad¬
vantage for the finer qualities, instead of a mixture of
colors, and it is a sufficiently good substitute for the
dear jrreen cinnabar and chrome-sreen. We have not
268 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
given separate quantities of blue and yellow pigment
to be used, as the different shades of green may be
obtained by varying the quantities of each.
• Blue Sealing-Wax.
Shellac ....
Turpentine
Pine resin
Magnesia ....
Chalk ....
Blue coloring matter .
Parts.
. 70
. 60
, 35
. 10
. 20
20 to 25
Light-colored ultramarine or mountain blue is used
for light-blue varieties, Berlin blue for the darker
kinds. Blue sealing-wax of a lighter color, pro¬
duced by mixing Berlin blue with oxide of zinc or
nitrate of bismuth, has a very beautiful enamel-like
appearance. As blue colors are very sensitive towards
admixtures, bleached shellac should always be used if
it is desired to obtain sealing-wax of a beautiful color,
and the greatest care must also be exercised in the
choice of the pine resin. Entirely opaque and brown-
colored resin must never be used. It must be laid
down as a general rule to use only light-colored ma¬
terials for fine yellow, light-red, green, blue, and
violet kinds of sealing-wax, so that the purity of tone
of the color may not be impaired.
RECEIPTS FOR SEALING WAX. 269
Brown Sealing- Wax.
Parts.
Shellac . . . • • .70
Turpentine .... .60
Pine resin . . • • .40
Gypsum ...... 20
Chalk.20
Umber . . . • • .20
The shellac used for preparing the tender chocolate-
brown sealing-wax must not be too dark. The product
of the above receipt is dark-brown, and unbleached
shellac and dark resin may be used for preparing it.
Of course the same holds good in an equal degree in
regard to the following varieties: —
Black Sealing- Wax, I.
Shellac
.
Parts.
. 50
Turpentine
•
. 90
Pine resin
•
. 65
Chalk
.
. 40
Soot
•
. 12
Black Sealing- Wax, II.
Shellac .....
Parts.
. 80
Turpentine
. 60
Resin
. 60
Chalk
. 15
Gypsum .
. 10
Vine-black
. 35
23*
270 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
By following the above receipts, the intelligent
manufacturer will have no difficulty in preparing mix¬
tures of various colors corresponding to a certain degree
of fineness.
For preparing sealing-wax of different shades of
color, which present an especially beautiful appearance
when the differently colored single sticks are laid
along-side of each other like a scale of colors, it will
be advisable to arrange a normal scale of colors con¬
sisting of single sticks, the coloring of which has been
especially successful. The shading of the colors in
this scale must harmonize, and the sticks lying along¬
side of each other must show, for instance, all grada¬
tions from white through rose-color to the darkest,
most fiery red, which is prepared with madder lake.
For one still inexperienced, it is difficult to produce
these shades of color by a suitable mixing of the color¬
ing substances; but this can be easily acquired by a
simple knack. We will take red sealing-wax as an
example which can be prepared in different shades
from the tenderest rose-pink to dark red.
The respective scale of red colors is first painted
upon paper with a good water-color; this scale serves
for comparing the test-samples of sealing-wax.
Further, a certain quantity of entirely white seal¬
ing-wax (1 kilogramme) (2.2 lbs.) is melted, and
the same quantity (1 kilogramme) of finely pow¬
dered sealing-wax of as dark a red color as possi¬
ble is held in readiness. The latter is added to the
RECEIPTS FOR SEALING-WAX.
271
•white sealing-wax until a test sample shows the shade
which is desired according to the painted scale. If
now the remainder of the powdered red sealing-wax
is weighed, we know exactly how much must be added to
the white mass to produce the desired red shade of color.
If the white and the red ground mass are produced
according to this direction, and mixed according to the
proportions obtained in the above-described manner,
exactly the same shades of color will always be ob¬
tained.
The same method is followed with all other colors,
and by a little attention the manufacturer may acquire
a collection of directions by which he can produce
sealing-wax of every imaginable color.
Specialties in Sealing Wax.
By specialties we understand here certain kinds of
sealing-wax which are used exclusively for certain
purposes, such as sealing-wax for bottles, or such as
are in less demand, as transparent sealing-wax, aven-
turin sealing-wax, etc.
Sealing-wax for Bottles
belongs to the most ordinary sorts of sealing-wax, and
of course can only be colored with the cheapest kinds
of coloring matter. Many manufacturers prepare seal¬
ing-wax for bottles of a mixture of common pine resin,
turpentine, chalk, and the respective coloring matter
only. To be sure these kinds of sealing-wax are very
cheap, but they do not answer the purpose as well as
272 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
they should. As is well known, the corks are covered
with a layer of sealing-wax by dipping the necks of
the bottles into the melted mass. This congeals very
quickly on coming in contact with the cold glass, and in
consequence of this, at once becomes more brittle and
frequently breaks when gently touched. If it is tried
to make the sealing-wax less brittle by increasing
the quantity of turpentine, it happens very frequently,
that it remains sticky even in cold weather.
To avoid these evils, nothing else can be done, but
to add a certain quantity of shellac, 10 to 15 per cent.,
to the composition. This will increase the cost of the
article somewhat, but its quality will be so much im¬
proved, that it will not become sticky even if exported
to a hot climate.
It may here be mentioned that the demand for seal¬
ing-wax for bottles has lately fallen off very much
as many wine dealers, liquor manufacturers, etc.,
prefer not to coat them with it, hut to cover the
corks with metal caps instead.
Transparent Sealing- Wax.
Transparent, or more correctly translucent sealing-
wax, belongs to the very finest qualities, as only very
much refined materials can be used for preparing it.
Bleached shellac alone is not sufficient; sealing-wax
only becomes transparent by adding a corresponding
quantity of mastic, and by using only very fine, light
colored, and very viscid turpentine.
In the following, we give three receipts for preparing
RECEIPTS FOR SEALING-WAX.
273
such masses for sealing-wax, which may be colored as
desired by mixing suitable coloring matter with it. A
very beautiful variety, and which can be prepared at
a comparatively low cost, is the so-called aventurin
sealing-wax, which is obtained by stirring finely pow¬
dered yellowish or bronze-colored mica into the melted
ground mass.
Gold or silver sealing-wax is obtained by mixing
finely powdered leaf-metal with the melted ground
mass.
Ground Masses for Translucent
Sealing- Wax.
i.
Parts.
Bleached shellac
. 15
Viscid turpentine
. 15
Mastic ....
. 30
Chalk ....
. 10
II.
Parts.
Bleached shellac
. 30
Viscid turpentine
. 35
Mastic ....
. 40
Zinc-white
. 20
III.
Parts.
Bleached shellac
. 30
Viscid turpentine
. 40
Mastic ....
. 50
Sulphate of baryta
. 30
(Or nitrate of bismuth) .
. 30
274 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
The last named mixture, No. III., is especially
adapted for preparing the very beautiful so-called en¬
amelled sealing wax, which actually possesses the half¬
transparent appearance of enamel. This mixture is
especially beautiful when a tender rose-color is given
to it by using fiery madder-lake. A seal made with
this sealing-wax, bears great resemblance to a cameo.
Sealing-Wax for Deeds , etc.
As is well known, very large seals, for deeds, pub¬
lic documents, etc., are not imprinted in ordinary seal¬
ing-wax, but a mass which is half soft, even at an
ordinary temperature, the actual sealing-wax, is used
for the purpose, and to protect the seal from injury,
it is inclosed in a special case which is fastened to the
document by cords or ribbons. In the following, we
give three receipts for preparing this sealing-wax, and
would remark that the product prepared according to
the second receipt is very suitable for a so-called em¬
bossing-wax for engravers.
Sealing- Wax I.
Light-colored colophony .
Turpentine
Clarified tallow
Whitening
Minium
Parts.
60
35
30
40
30 to 40
RECEIPTS FOR SEALING WAX.
275
Sealing- Wax II.
Parts.
White wax ....
. 50
Turpentine .
. 15
Cinnabar ....
10
Glycerine .
5
In both cases, the ingredients are
melted together
and stirred while cooling off until they congeal.
Sealing- Wax III.
Parts.
Colophony .
3
1.5
Tallow . . . • •
Turpentine .
o
. D
Chalk .
4
Minium .
4
This mixture is of considerable consistency at an
ordinary temperature, but if a piece
of it is held in
the hand for some time, it becomes so soft that ma-
pressions can be taken with it, and
it adheres also
with considerable tenacity to paper,
wood, and glass.
276 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
APPENDIX.
Blue Lacquer.
Lately a receipt for preparing an excellent and
beautiful blue-black lacquer has been frequently
advertised as a so-called trade-secret, and high prices
have been asked for making known the ingredients.
The lacquer in question, which derives its name “blue
lacquer” from the substance known as Paris blue used
in preparing it, possesses the highest degree of elas¬
ticity or rather tenacity of all lacquers which have
been proposed for lacquering leather, and imparts to it
a glossy black color. Blue lacquer is prepared in
the following manner: Good linseed oil is boiled with
5 to 10 per cent, of the finest Paris blue until a test
sample of the mass, which assumes an intensely black
color during the boiling, forms a tenacious and glossy
mass when applied to a piece of leather when it has
become cold.
The ready lacquer is poured off from the undissolved
Paris blue which can again be used for another opera¬
tion. The lacquer is used by drying the leather to be
coated with it at a temperature of between 40° and
50° C. (104° and 122° E.). Properly prepared blue
lacquer should remain so tenacious when it has become
dry that a piece of leather coated with it may be
strongly bent repeatedly without cracking the lacquer.
BLUE LACQUEll.
277
This lacquer, as may be seen by the foregoing de¬
scription, can be prepared in a simple manner and at
the same time at small expense, but we will call atten¬
tion to a few knacks which are absolutely necessary
for the work to be successful.—The Paris blue to be
used must be perfectly pure , i. e. no foreign sub¬
stances must be mixed with it; when a sample of it is
burned upon sheet-metal only a small heap of yellow¬
ish-brown ashes musi finally remain. Special atten¬
tion must be paid that the Paris blue is thoroughly
dried before it is added to the oil. It is best to dry it
after it has been powdered by spreading it in a thin
layer upon a piece of paper and placing it upon the
plate of a stove. The oil to be used should be as old
as possible and entirely clear, and the blue lacquer
should always be boiled in the same pot, which, after
the work has been finished, is set aside without cleans¬
ing, but simply covered with paper. When the
pot is to be used for another operation, it is advisable
to pour some linseed oil upon the undissolved sediment
and to stir it thoroughly to prevent it from burning.
By accurately observing these directions a faultless
blue lacquer of excellent quality and beauty will al¬
ways be obtained.
24
THE ART
OF
VARNISHING AND LACQUERING.
Section I.
The art of varnishing and lacquering includes first
the preparing of putties and stains, then a description
of the apparatus and tools used, rules which must be
observed in varnishing and lacquering, and the means
for pumicing, polishing, etc. In short, it is the art of
applying colors, varnishes, and lac-varnishes to arti¬
cles of wood, sheet metal, and leather, and drying,
pumicing, and polishing them.
j Preparation of Putties required for the Varnishing
and Lacquering .
Putties serve for making surfaces of wood even, for
filling up holes, etc., and are used before the stains
and varnishes are applied.
1. Thompson's Grlue Putty.
125 grammes (4.38 ozs.) of good glue are boiled in
1 kilogramme (2.2 lbs.) of water until the glue has
280 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
been dissolved. Then 5 grammes (0.175 oz.) of
powdered alum and 180 grammes (6.3 ozs.) of rye
flour are added to the glue water and thoroughly
mixed with it. On the other hand, three to four sheets
of blotting paper, which have first been torn into small
pieces, are placed in a dish with finely sieved saw¬
dust. . Enough of these substances is kneaded into
the glue paste to form a tenacious putty with which all
the crevices and holes in the wood can be filled up.
2. Putty with Linseed-oil Varnish.
White lead, umber, minium, and litharge are mixed
to a tenacious dough with thoroughly boiled linseed-
oil varnish, to which has been added a little amber
varnish, and the putty thus obtained is placed in the
holes with a wooden spatula.
3. Putty of Isinglass and Chalk.
Isinglass is dissolved in water, and finely powdered
chalk is added to the solution until a thick paste is
formed. The cracks, joints, and holes of the wood
are then filled up with this putty.
4. Pilling Up.
This filling color for carriages originated in England,
and has lately come into extensive use in all carriage
factories, as it answers the purpose very well for which
it is intended. It has a gray to brown color, and is
prepared by grinding in a machine.
THE ART OF VARNISHING AND LACQUERING 281
Parts.
Filling up . . . . .15
White lead ..... 3
Chalk.2
Siccative ...... 4
Oil of turpentine .... 2
Section II.
Preparation of Stains to be used in the Art of
Varnishing and Lacquering .
Wood and other articles of horn, bone, and ivory
are stained for the purpose of giving to them a more
beautiful color. According to their composition, the
stains are applied either cold or warm with a sponge,
or the articles themselves are immersed in the stain.
Wood which is naturally veined, becomes especially
beautiful by holding it over a coal-fire and gently
heating it before a warm stain is applied. It acquires
by this very beautiful dark and light streaks. The
wood which is to be stained may also be placed in a
boiler. The liquor is then poured over it, and boiled
until the color has thoroughly penetrated the wood.
I. Mahogany Stains.
1. Madder . . 500 grams. (17.5 ozs.)
Rasped yellow wood 250 grams. (8.75 ozs.)
are boiled for one hour in 2.50 kilogrammes (5.5 lbs.)
of water, and the boiling liquor is applied to the arti-
24 *
282 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
cles of wood until the desired color has been pro¬
duced.
2. Powdered turmeric . 80 grams. (1.05 ozs.)
Powdered dragon’s-blood 30 grams. (1.05 ozs.)
are digested in 250 grammes (8.75 ozs.) of 80 per
cent, strong alcohol, and when the latter seems to be
thoroughly colored, it is filtered through a cloth. The
filtrate is heated and applied warm to the wooden ar¬
ticle.
3. Madder . . . 500 grams. (17.5 ozs.)
Ground logwood . 250 grams. (8.75 ozs.)
are boiled for one hour in 2.50 kilogrammes (5.5 lbs.)
of water. This is filtered while still warm, and the
warm liquor is applied to the wood. When this has
become dry and it is desired to produce a darker ma¬
hogany color, a solution of 15 grammes (0.525 oz.)
of carbonate of potassa in 2 kilogrammes (4.4 lbs.) of
water is applied to the wood. This solution is pre¬
pared cold, and filtered through blotting-paper.
4. 10 grammes (0.35 oz.) of aniline are dissolved
in 250 grammes (8.75 ozs.) of spirit of wine 90 per
cent, strong. Then another solution of 10 grammes
(0.35 oz.) of aniline yellow in 500 grammes (17.5 ozs.)
of spirit of wine 90 per cent, strong is made, and
this is added to the aniline solution until the required
reddish-yellow color is obtained. By adding a little of
a solution of aniline brown (10 grammes (0.35 oz.) of
aniline brown in 300 grammes (10.5 ozs.) of spirit of
wine 90 per cent, strong), the color is still more com¬
pletely harmonized, and a color very closely resem-
THE ART OF VARNISHING AND LACQUERING. 288
bling mahogany can be given to elm and cherry wood
with this mixture.
5. A new stain very suitable for imitating wood is
prepared as follows, according to E. Pfuscher: —
20 grams. (0.7 oz.) of logwood
are boiled in 100 grammes (3.5 ozs.) of water down to
about one-half. This is then filtered, and 8.5 grammes
(0.12 oz.) of chloride of baryta are dissolved in it.
II. Red Stains.
1 kilogramme (2.2 lbs.) of finely powdered Lima
red dye-wood and 60 grammes (2.1 ozs.) of carbonate
of potassa are put in a glass bottle and digested in 2.5
kilogrammes (5.5 lbs.) of water for eight days in
a warm place ; the bottle should be frequently shaken.
It is then filtered through a cloth, the fluid is heated
and applied to the article to be stained until the latter
acquires a beautiful red color. If it is desired to
brighten the color, a solution of 60 grammes (2.1 ozs.)
of alum free from iron in 1 kilogramme (2.2 lbs.) of
water is applied to the article while it is still wet. The
last solution can be prepared by heat; when it has
been accomplished, it is filtered. As soon as the
stains have become dry they should be rubbed with a
rag moistened with linseed oil, after which the varnish
may be applied.
2. Purple Stain.
1 kilogram. (2.2 lbs.) of rasped logwood,
2.50 kilograms. (5.5 lbs.) of rasped Lima red
dye-wood,
284 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
are boiled for one hour in 2.50 kilogrammes (5.5 lbs.)
of water. It is then filtered through a cloth and ap¬
plied to the article to be stained until the desired color
has been obtained.
In the mean while a solution of
5 grams. (0.175 oz.) of carbonate of potassa in
500 grams. (17.5 ozs.) of water
has been prepared, and a thin coat of this is applied
to the article stained red. But strict attention must
be paid not to apply too thick a coat of this solution,
or else a dark blue color would be the result.
3. Red Stain for Horn , Ivory , and Bone.
500 grammes (17.5 ozs.) of red Brazil-wood are
boiled for one hour in 2 kilogrammes (4.4 lbs.) of milk
of lime and filtered through a cloth. The articles of
horn, ivory, or bone, to be stained are boiled for one
hour in a solution of 30 grammes (1.05 ozs.) of alum
in 500 grammes (17.5 ozs.) of water. They are then
placed in the above stain, and allowed to remain there
until the desired color has been produced. Articles
stained in this manner will acquire a beautiful purple
color by dipping them in alum-water.
4. Purple Stains for Horn , Ivory , and Bone.
500 grammes (17.5 ozs.) of logwood are boiled in
2 kilogrammes (4.4 lbs.) of milk of lime, and the
same method is observed as given in No. 3.
THE ART OF VARNISHING AND LACQUERING. 285
5. Bright Bed Stain for Horn , Ivory , and Bone.
250 grams. (8.75 ozs.) of logwood, and
250 grams. (8.75 ozs.) of red Brazil-wood
are boiled in 2 kilogrammes (4.4 lbs.) of milk of lime.
It is applied in the same manner as the foregoing.
6. Bright Bed Stain for Bone and Ivory.
This is prepared by dissolving
1 gram. (0.085 oz.) of genuine carmine in
80 grams. (4.05) ozs.) of sal ammoniac
by heating it gently. This stain is used warm, and in
such a manner, that the articles to be stained remain
for a few hours in the fluid and should be frequently
turned while there. The polishing is generally done
with some soap-water and finely powdered chalk.
7. Bed Stain for Leather.
250 grams. (8.75 ozs.) of shavings of red Brazil¬
wood are placed in a bottle, 1 kilogram. (2.2 lbs.) of
wine vinegar is poured over them, and they are di¬
gested for eight days, and stirred frequently in the
mean while. The solution is then filtered through a
cloth.
In the mean while a solution of
30 grams. (1.05 ozs.) of alum free from iron in
250 grams. (8.75 ozs.) of water
is prepared, and the above preparation of Brazil-wood
is added to this under constant stirring. A very
beautiful red is obtained in this manner. The shav-
286 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
ings of Brazil-wood may also be boiled in rain water,
and this be compounded with a solution of bitartrate
of potassa.
8. Cochineal Stain for Leather.
80 grams. (1.05 ozs.) of the finest cochineal are
powdered and digested in 500 grammes (17.5 ozs.) of
alcohol 80 per cent, strong, until it is dissolved, and
the solution is then filtered. More or less cochineal
is taken according as the color is required to be darker
or lighter.
9. Scarlet Stain for Leather.
80 grams. (1.05 ozs.) of scarlet berries
are bruised, and dissolved in 120 grammes (4.2 ozs.) of
alcohol 80 percent, strong, and the solution is filtered.
10. Purple Stain for Leather.
250 grams. (8.75 ozs.) of Brazil-wood shavings,
or,
60 grams. (2.1 ozs.) of scarlet berries,
are boiled in 1 kilogramme (2.2 lbs.) of water in an
earthen pot, or in a bright copper boiler. The decoc¬
tion is filtered and compounded with a sufficient
quantity of fluid chloride of zinc 1 to obtain either a
lighter or a darker color.
1 Chloride of zinc for this purpose is obtained by gradually
dissolving 120 grammes (4.2 ozs.) of granulated English zinc
in 250 grammes (8.75 ozs.) of nitric acid and filtering the
solution.
THE ART OF VARNISHING AND LACQUERING. 287
11. Crimson Stain.
A solution of
4 grams. (0.14 oz.) cochineal,
4 grams. (0.14 oz.) cream of tartar,
12 grams. (0.42 oz.) of solution of zinc,
is prepared. The mixture is thoroughly shaken, and
the contents of the bottle are exposed to heat for
twenty-four hours. Spirit of sal ammoniac is then
added in drops until the desired color is obtained.
III. Black Stains for Wood.
1. 500 grams. (17.5 ozs.) of Brazil-wood, and
15 grams. ( 0.525 oz.) of alum,
are boiled for one hour in 1.25 kilogrammes (2.75
lbs.) of water. The colored liquor is then filtered
from the boiled Brazil-wood, and applied several times
boiling hot to the wood to be stained. This will
assume a violet color. This violet color can be easily
changed into black by preparing a solution of
60 grams. ( 2.1 ozs.) of iron-filings, and
80 grams. ( 1.05 ozs.) of common salt in
500 grams. (17.5 ozs.) of vinegar.
The solution is filtered, and applied to the wood,
which will then acquire a beautiful, black color.
2. Another Receipt.
250 grams. (8.75 ozs.) of gall-nuts, and
1 kilogram. (2.2 lbs.) of logwood,
are boiled in 1 kilogramme (2.2 lbs.) of rain water
288 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
for one hour in a copper boiler. The decoction is
then filtered through a cloth, and applied several times
while it is still warm to the article of wood to be
stained. In this manner, a beautiful black will be
obtained.
3. Bunge's Chrome Ink as a Black Stain for
Wood.
This is prepared by dissolving
15 grams. (0.525 oz.) of extract of logwood, in
1 kilogram. (2.2 lbs.) of hot rain water,
and by adding to the lukewarm solution,
1 gram. (0.035 oz.) of chromate of potassa.
When this is applied several times to the article to be
stained, a dark-brown color will first be obtained. To
change this into a deep chrome-black, the solution of
iron-filings, common salt, and vinegar, given under
III. 1, is applied to the wood, and the desired color
will be produced.
4. Alizarine ink as a black stain for wood.
Several coats of this are applied to the wood, but
every coat must be thoroughly dry before the other is
put on. When the articles are dry the solution of
iron-filings, common salt, and vinegar, as given in
III. 1, is applied to the wood, and a very durable
black will be obtained.
THE ART OF VARNISHING AND LACQUERING. 289
5. Black Stain for Horn.
2.50 kilograms (5.5 lbs.) of burned lime
are slaked in a little water so that a powder-like hy¬
drate of lime is obtained ; this is mixed with
1 kilogram. (2.2 lbs.) of minium,
and this mixture is formed into a thick paste with such
lye as soap-boilers use having a specific weight of
1.036. The articles of horn are placed in this solution
for 24 hours ; they are then taken out, rinsed off with
water, dried with a cloth and brushed over with rape-
seed oil, and then again rubbed dry.
6. Finest Black Stain for Horn.
4 grams. (0.14 oz.) of silver
are dissolved in 60 grammes (2.1 ozs.) of nitric acid
(aqua fortis), and this solution is applied several times
to the article to be stained, but it is absolutely- neces¬
sary that the first coat should be entirely dry before
another is applied. The articles are then burnished
and made bright.
7. Black Stain for Leather.
120 grams. (4.2 ozs.) of bruised gall-nuts and
500 grams. (17.5 ozs.) of green nut-shells
are boiled in 750 grams. (26.25 ozs.) of rain water.
When the mixture has boiled for one hour, the liquor
is strained through a cloth. The leather to be colored
is first stained with the solution of iron-filings, com-
25
290 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
mon salt, and vinegar as given under III. 1, before
the above decoction is applied.
According to Herzog a black stain for wood giving
to it a color resembling ebony is obtained by treating
the wood with two fluids one after the other. The
first fluid to be used consists of a very concentrated
solution of logwood and to
10 grams. (0.35 oz.) of this fluid are added
0.50 gram. (0.017 oz.) of alum.
The other fluid is obtained by digesting iron-filings
in vinegar. After the wood has been dipped in the
first, hot fluid, it is allowed to dry, and is then treated
with the second fluid, several times if necessary. .
IV. Blue Stains.
1. A beautiful blue stain is obtained by gradually
stirring
15 grams. (0.52 oz.) of finely powdered indigo
into
120 grams. (4.2 ozs.) of sulphuric acid of 60
per cent, and by exposing this mixture for 12 hours
to a temperature of 25° C. (77° F.). The mass is
then poured into 5 to 6 kilogrammes (11 to 13.2 lbs.)
of rain water and filtered through felt. This filtered
water is applied several times to the wood until the
desired color has been obtained. The more the solu¬
tion is diluted with water the lighter will be the color.
THE ART OF VARNISHING AND LACQUERING. 291
2. Another Receipt.
30 grammes (1.05 ozs.) of the finest indigo car¬
mine are dissolved in 250 grammes (8.75 ozs.) of wa¬
ter, and this is applied several times to the articles of
wood to be stained. A very fine blue is in this man¬
ner obtained.
3. Blue Stain of Elder-berries for Leather.
1 kilogramme (2.2 lbs.) of the elder-berries are
boiled with 30 grammes (1.05 ozs.) of alum free from
iron in 1 kilogramme (2.2 lbs.) of wine vinegar for one
hour, and the liquor is then strained through a cloth.
On the other hand,
10 grams. (0.35 oz.) of blue vitriol
are dissolved in 50 grammes (1.75 ozs.) of wine-vin¬
egar, and this solution is also filtered.
If leather is to be colored blue, the decoction of
elder-berries is applied uniformly with a sponge.
When the coating is dry, it is brushed over lightly
with the solution of blue vitriol in vinegar.
4. Blue Stain for Wood.
\
100 grams. (3.5 ozs.) of French verdigris
are dissolved in 100 grammes (3.5 ozs.) of urine, and
250 grammes (8.75 ozs.) of wine vinegar. The solu¬
tion is filtered and applied to the article of wood to
be stained.
Then a solution of
292 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
60 grams. (2.1 ozs.) of carbonate of potassa in
250 grams. (8.75 ozs.) of rain water
is prepared, and the article colored with the verdigris
is brushed over with this solution until the desired
blue color makes its appearance.
5. Blue with Aniline.
Without doubt the newest processes of staining
wood blue, are those with aniline colors. The follow¬
ing colors may be chosen for the staining liquor: —
Bleu de Lyon (reddish blue),
Bleu de Lumiere (pure blue),
Light blue (greenish blue).
These colors are dissolved in the proportion of
1 part of coloring substance to
30 parts of spirit of wine,
and the wood is treated with the solution.
Y. Yelloio Stains.
1. Yellow Stain for Wood.
60 grammes (2.1 ozs.) of finely powdered turmeric
are digested for several days in 500 grammes (17.5
ozs.) of alcohol, 80 per cent, strong, and then strained
through a cloth. This solution is applied to the arti¬
cles to be stained. When they have become entirely
dry, they are burnished and varnished.
2. Another Receipt.
15 grammes (0.52 oz.) of nitric acid (aqua fortis)
are compounded with 45 grammes (1.57 ozs.) of rain
THE ART OF VARNISHING AND LACQUERING. 293
water, and the article to be stained is brushed over
with this. Undiluted nitric acid gives a brownish-
yellow’ color.
3. Yellow Stain for Horn.
500 grammes (17.5 ozs.) of alum, free from iron,
are dissolved in 2 kilogrammes (4.4 lbs.) of rain
water.
The articles of bone, ivory, or horn to be stained
are allowed to lie in this for one or two hours. In the
mean while
200 grams. (7 ozs.) of yellow berries 1
are boiled with
120 grams. (4.2 ozs.) of carbonate of potassa
in
1 kilogram. (2.2 lbs.) of water,
for one hour, and then strained. The articles stained
with alum are placed in this decoction, and allowed to
lie in it for one hour. They are then taken out and
dried.
4. Yellow Stain for Leather.
15 grammes (0.52 oz.) of saffron cut in small
pieces, are digested in 60 grammes (2.1 ozs.) of
alcohol, 80 per cent, strong, for several days at a
1 Yellow berries (grains of Avignon) are obtained from a
dye-producing Christ-thorn, Rhamnus infectorius , a bush
which grows in France, Spain, and Italy, and which, accord¬
ing to Linnaeus, belongs to the fifth class Pentantria, first
order Monogynia, and to the family of Rharnnece juss.
294 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
moderate heat. The solution is filtered, and applied
directly to the leather.
5. Another Receipt.
500 grammes (17.5 ozs.) of ground yellow wood, or
500 grammes (17.5 ozs.) of birch leaves are boiled
for one hour in 1 kilogramme (2.2 lbs.) of vinegar,
and the fluid is strained. The articles to be colored
are first stained with a solution of
30 grams. (1.05 ozs.) of carbonate of potassa,
or
30 grams. (1.05 ozs.) of alum, free from iron,
in
1 kilogram. (2.2 lbs.) of rain water,
and are then brought for one hour in contact with the
above decoction.
It is best to apply the solution of alum, or carbon¬
ate of potassa, with a sponge to the leather, which
has first been stretched, and when this has become
dry, to apply the coloring liquor also with a sponge.
6. Bright Yellow Stain for Leather.
30 grams. (1.05 ozs.) of finely-powdered cur¬
cuma, and
15 grams. (0.52 oz.) of gamboge,
are digested at a gentle heat for a few days in 750
grammes (26.25 ozs.) of alcohol, 80 per cent, strong,
and the fluid is then filtered. The process is the
same as has been indicated above, under 5, either
with or without alum, or carbonate of potassa.
THE ART OF VARNISHING AND LACQUERING.
295
Wooden articles are brushed with the solution until
the desired yellow color has been produced.
7. Another Receipt.
500 grams. (17.5 ozs.) of barberries 1 are boiled
in
1 kilogram. (2.2 lbs.) of water,
and the decoction is filtered. In this case, also, a solu¬
tion of alum or carbonate of potassa in water is used
before applying the decoction to the article.
8. Yellow Stain from Weld (Dyer's Weed').
500 grams. (17.5 ozs.) of weld 2 are boiled in
1.5 kilograms. (3.8 lbs.) of water
for one hour, and used in the same manner as 7.
9. Yellow Stain for Wood.
45 grams. (1.57 ozs.) of carbonate of potassa are
dissolved in 120 grams. (4.2 ozs.) of rain water.
This solution is poured over
15 grams. (0.52 oz.) of annotto,
and this mixture is allowed to stand for three days in
a warm place, being frequently shaken in the mean
1 Barberries are obtained from the common barberry-bush,
Berber is vulgaris , which belongs to 6th class Hexandria, 1st
order Monogynia, to the family of Berberidece ventenant , and
grows in Europe and Central Asia.
2 Weld comes from Beseda luteola. This plant belongs to
the 11th class Bodecandria, 3d order Trigynia , belongs to the
family Lapparidece, and is much cultivated.
296 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
while. It is then filtered and 5 grams. (0.175 oz.) of
spirit of sal ammoniac are added to it. The stain is
now ready, and the articles to be stained will acquire
a very beautiful bright yellow color by placing them
in it.
10. Bright Grolden-yellow Stain.
15 grams. (0.52 oz.) of finely powdered madder
are digested for twelve hours with 60 grams. (2.1 ozs.)
of diluted sulphuric acid, 1 and then filtered through a
cloth. The articles to be stained are allowed to re¬
main in this fluid from three to four days, when they
will be stained through.
11. G-olden-yellow Stain for Bone and Ivory .
5 grams. (0.175 oz.) of picric acid
are dissolved in
• 30 grams. (1.05 ozs.) of hot water.
On the other hand,
2 grams (0.07 oz.) of concentrated sulphuric acid
are diluted with 10 grams. (0.35 oz.) of hot water,
and the freshly smoothed articles are laid in the fluid,
and are frequently turned. They are then taken out,
dried off, and placed in a solution of picric acid while
this is still hot, where they remain until they are uni¬
formly yellow. A lustre is given to them by polishing
' Diluted sulphuric acid for this purpose is obtained by
compounding 15 grammes (0.52 oz.) of English sulphuric
acid with 120 grammes (4.2 ozs.) of rain water.
THE ART OP VARNISHING AND LACQUERING. 297
with soap, water, and fine whiting. (This is a very
good method for coloring billiard balls yellow.)
12. Another Receipt.
10 grams. (0.35 oz.) of aniline yellow are dis¬
solved in
300 grams. (10.5 ozs.) of spirit of wine.
The wood is brushed over with this solution, or is
placed in it. If some aniline red is added to this stain,
all shades of color from orange to bright reddish yel¬
low can he obtained.
VI. Green Stains.
1. Green Stain for Wood.
120 grams. (4.2 ozs.) of purified verdigris are
dissolved in 500 grams. (17.5 ozs.) of vinegar.
The hot solution is applied to the articles of wood,
which have been previously warmed, until the desired
result has been obtained.
2. Green Stain for Horn , Ivory , and Bone.
120 grams. (4.2 ozs.) of copper, cut up finely,
are gradually dissolved in
375 grams. (13 ozs.) of nitric acid (aqua fortis),
and the articles to be stained are boiled in this solu¬
tion until they have assumed a fine green color.
3. Green Stain for Leather.
45 grams. (1.57 ozs.) of verdigris, and
15 grams. (0.52 oz.) of sal ammoniac,
298 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
are dissolved in 250 grams. (8.75 ozs.) of wine vine¬
gar. If a small quantity of saffron extract is added
to this, a yellowish-green color, the so-called parrot-
green, is obtained.
4. Another Receipt.
If leather is first coated with a solution of Berlin
blue, and then with a yellow stain, a beautiful, durable
green will also be obtained.
5. Grreen Stain for Wood , Horn, Ivory, Bone, and
Leather.
15 grams. (0.52 oz.) of fine indigo carmine are
dissolved in 00 grams. (2.1 ozs.) of rain water.
Then—
5 grams. (0.175 ozs.) of pure picric acid are
dissolved in 60 grams. (2.1 ozs.) of boiling hot rain
water, and both solutions are mixed together. A very
beautiful, durable green color will in this manner be
obtained, and can be used for the various manipu¬
lations.
Only a weak solution of picric acid is required for
staining pine wood green.
6. Another Receipt.
10 grams. (0.35 ozs.) of aniline green are dis¬
solved in 120 grams. (4.2 ozs.) of spirit of wine, and
the wood to be stained is treated with this solution.
All the different shades of green may be produced
by adding blue or yellow stain.
TIIE ART OF VARNISHING AND LACQUERING. 299
VII. Tortoise-shell Stain for Horn.
A tough dough is prepared from
500 grams. (17.5 ozs.) of white litharge,
1 kilogram. (2.2 lbs.) of finely powdered un¬
slaked lime,
1.5 kilogram. (3.3 lbs.) of soap-boiler’s lye,
having a specific -weight of 1.036.
The places of the horn which are to become dark
are covered with this dough, and the horn is allowed
to remain in contact with the dough for about twenty-
four hours, until the latter has become entirely dry.
The horn is then cleansed with a brush.
VIII. Brown Stains. For Leather.
1. 500 grams. (17.5 ozs.) of dried and powdered
nut-shells are boiled for one hour in
1500 grams. (52.5 ozs.) of milk of lime, and
strained through a cloth. This decoction is applied
frequently to the leather.
2. 120 grams. (4.2 ozs.) of ground logwood,
120 grams. (4.2 ozs.) of annotto,
are boiled in 500 grams. (17.5 ozs.) of rain water and
a solution of
15 grams. (0.52 oz.) of carbonate of potassa in
75 grams. (2.62 ozs.) of vinegar, is added to
the above decoction.
3. A brown stain is also obtained by rubbing to¬
gether, upon a marble slab,
300 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
120 grams. (4.2 ozs.) of umber,
15 grams. (0.52 oz.) of the finest lampblack,
in oil, with
500 grams. (17.5 ozs.) of ox-gall.
4. Hirschberg' 1 s Stain for Walnut.
To give to walnut a dark color resembling rose¬
wood, Hirschberg uses a solution of
5 grams. (0.17 oz.) of bichromate of potassa in
30 grams. (1.05 ozs.) of water.
This solution is applied to the walnut with a sponge,
and the wood is then pumiced and polished.
5. Walnut Stain for Soft Wood .
By a simple staining furniture of pine or birch wood
can be easily made to appear as if it had been veneered
with walnut veneer. For this a solution of
90 grams. (3.15 ozs.) of manganate of potassa,
and
90 grams. (3.15 ozs.) of sulphate of manganese, in
5 liters (5.25 quarts) of hot water, is made.
This solution is applied to the wood with a brush,
and this must be repeated several times. The man
ganate of potassa is decomposed when it comes in con¬
tact with the woody fibre, and thus a beautiful and
very durable walnut color is obtained. If small
wooden articles are to be stained in this manner, s,
very much diluted bath is prepared, the articles are
dipped into it and kept there for one to five minutes,
according as the color is desired lighter or darker.
THE ART OF VARNISHING AND LACQUERING. 301
IX. Violet Stain for Leather.
500 grams. (17.5 ozs.) of Brazil-wood are boiled
for one hour in 1.25 grams. (0.44 oz.) of water, and
the decoction is then filtered.
Another solution of 120 grams. (4.2 ozs.) of cop¬
peras in 250 grams. (8.75 ozs.) of water is prepared,
and this is mixed with the decoction of Brazil-wood.
Violet stains are also obtained by mixing red and blue
stains together.
Section III.
Workshop and Tools.
By the workshop of avarnisheror lacquererwe under¬
stand a well-lighted, spacious room, which is best located
on the ground floor. It should be provided with a
coal-stove, and the floor should be either of boards or
of asphaltum. Of course it is understood that the
room is always kept free from dust, not by sweeping
it, but by wiping it up with a wet cloth. If the room
were to be swept with a broom, the freshly-lacquered
or varnished article would be completely spoiled, as
the dust would settle upon the moist coating of lacquer
or varnish, and the result would be that the surface
would not be smooth.
In the room should be also a large table with draw¬
ers, in which the different paint-brushes, varnish-
brushes, camels-hair-brushes, pencils, etc., the spatulas
26
302 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
of iron, wood, or bone, the rulers, and paint-boards
are kept.
The palettes and brayers, as well as the grinding
machine for colors, are kept upon smaller tables.
In a roomy closet provided with lock and key, large
and small pots, and earthen and porcelain dishes, are
stored, as well as bottles of tin and glass, in which
the oils and varnishes to be used are kept. The ves¬
sels for cleansing the brushes and those in which they
are kept, dust-brush and all such articles, are also kept
in the closet.
The room should be further furnished with several
wooden horses and trestles, and a so-called dryi'ng-
oven (lacquering-oven).
Section IV.
Art of Lacquering and Varnishing .
By lacquering is generally understood the art of
first applying any desired color to various articles of
wood, stone, iron, ivory, horn, leather, clay, sheet-
metal, then to rub them, and finally coat them with
lac-varnish. In a narrower sense, only coating with
lac-varnish is to be understood by lacquering.
G-eneral Rules.
As has been already mentioned, articles to be lac¬
quered receive first a ground-color, which is called
priming. This ground-color consists of one or more
coats of oil-color, according to the nature of the arti-
THE ART OF VARNISHING AND LACQUERING. 303
cle to be lacquered. But the articles must be thor¬
oughly cleansed before this ground-color can be ap¬
plied. This is done by rubbing them with pumice-
stone, by grinding them with water and a stone, or
simply by dusting them off with a feather-brush, dust¬
brush, etc. Every coat of the priming must be thor¬
oughly dry before the second coat is applied, and
special care should be had that the priming is done in
a place free from dust. When the coat of oil-paint has
become dry, it is rubbed with pumice-stone powder
and shave-grass (horse-tail), and then cleansed, which
is done by washing it with a sponge and clear water.
If the articles are to be decorated, for instance, with
drawings, or ornaments in gold, silver, or bronze, this
is done after the last priming, and they must also be
thoroughly dry before the lacquer is applied. Then
the first coat of lacquer is given, and in doing this
care must be had not to injure the decorations. When
this coat has become thoroughly hard , it is gently
rubbed with powdered pumice-stone,tripoli, and burnt
hartshorn and felt, and then washed oft. The second
coat is then given. If the lacquering is also to be
polished it is, of course, necessary that the last coat
of lacquer should be thoroughly dry and hard, so that
the polish will show a proper lustre.
We now proceed to the separate labors which have
to be performed in lacquering.
1. Priming .—This consists of one or more coats of
oil-paint, which must be applied according to the na¬
ture of the article. But it must be laid down as a
304 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
rule that the second coat should be applied in a direc¬
tion opposite to that of the first; and in regard to
articles of wood we must draw attention especially to
these rules: that the wood should be thoroughly dry,
that the first coat applied should not be too thick, that
it is to be applied in the direction of the grain of the
wood, and that it should be thoroughly rubbed into
the pores of the wood.
2. Pumicing the Priming .—This is done with
smooth pieces of pumice-stone and water, but for finer
articles linseed oil is used instead of water. A great
deal of practice is required to do this so that one place
does not become deeper than another, and the pumic¬
ing must be done not in one direction, but with a cir¬
cular motion, so that all places are touched uniformly
and with equal pressure. When this has been done
the article is thoroughly cleaned with a soft sponge
and water, and rubbed with a soft chamois skin and
then dried. Rubbing with linen rags must be rejected,
as no clean ground can be obtained with them.
3. Paying on the Color .—This is done with a fine
paint-brush, and on finer articles with a camel’s-hair
brush. The colors used for this purpose must be rub¬
bed very fine, and must be applied very uniformly and
not too thickly. To get the layer of color as uni¬
form as possible, it is best to go over it once more
with a very fine brush. At the present time a little
lac-varnish is mixed with the priming, by which as
uniform a coat as possible is obtained. Of course,
where more coats than one are to be given, the neces-
THE ART OF VARNISHING AND LACQUERING. 305
sary quantity of paints for all coats should be pre¬
pared at one time, to avoid the possibility of getting
the second somewhat lighter or darker than the first,
as otherwise two kinds of ground would be formed in
pumicing, by the lower coat, be it darker or lighter,
shining through. As has been already mentioned, all
the coats must be allowed to become thoroughly dry ;
then we proceed to
4. Pumicing the Paint .—This is done with shave-
grass (horse-tail) and pumice-stone. Here it is neces¬
sary to proceed with the greatest care, so that all ine¬
qualities of surface are removed, but without rubbing
through the paint, or else the painting would have to
be repeated. When the pumicing is finished, the
article to be lacquered is cleansed with water and
dried with soft leather. It is then ready for receiving
decorations, etc.
5. Varnishing .—First of all the room in which this
very delicate work is to be done must be entirely free
from dust; much moving about in it should not be
permitted, and for this reason not many workmen
should work in one room, as dust will naturally be
raised by their moving to and fro. The varnishes to
be used, the oil as well as the volatile varnishes, should
be kept in hermetically closed vessels of glass, por¬
celain, or tin, and should be opened only while they
are in use. Either camel’s-hair brushes or bristle
brushes are used for laying on the varnish. Their
sizes must correspond with the articles to be varnished,
but they must not be too small, so that the labor may
26 *
306 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
be accomplished quickly. Brushes which lose bristles
when used should be thrown aside. It is best to
cleanse the brushes with oil of turpentine after they
have been used, and to wrap them up in paper. If a
brush is dried up, it is best to lay it aside, though it
can be softened with oil of turpentine which has been
gently heated, but it never will become as good as
before, and, therefore, it should be a guiding rule to
cleanse every brush immediately after it has been used.
Varnishing requires a great deal of practice and
skill, and therefore general rules only can be laid
down in regard to it.
Amongst these it may be especially mentioned that
the work should be done quickly, that no place be
touched twice, that the varnish always be laid on in
one direction, that not too much varnish is taken on
the brush at one time, as by doing this uneven places
will be formed. Oil-varnish is laid on cold, and in a
room which is not heated (of course only during the
summer), but volatile varnish is applied, either cold
or warm, according as wood, paper, or metal is to be
lacquered. In the first case it is laid on cold, in the
latter when heated only. The volatile varnish to be
used is not placed directly upon the fire, but is put in
a tin vessel filled with hot water. Volatile lacquer
must be treated with special care, and must be laid on
the article to be lacquered, which has first been heated,
in a warm room. Care must also be taken not to breathe
or blow upon the article, as in such case the varnish
THE ART OF VARNISHING AND LACQUERING. 307
will quickly' coagulate, absorb moisture, and turn
white. n
As has already been mentioned, lac-varnishes must
not be laid on too thickly, and under no consideration
in a layer of varying thickness, as blisters and wrinkles
Avill be formed, without mentioning the fact that the
work will be uneven.
Two coats of oil-varnish and three of volatile var¬
nish are generally sufficient, but if the lacquered arti¬
cles are to be polished, four coats of oil-varnish and
five of volatile varnish will be required. If oil-var¬
nishes are to be polished, they must be pumiced after
each coat has been applied.
It must further be accepted / as a rule that lacquer¬
ing in the open air should be done only on clear days,
and, of course, not in the sun. Fog or damp air
causes the coat of lacquer to turn white, or at least
gives to it a dull look, and the sun will blister lacquer
which is not completely dry.
6. j Pumicing Lac-Varnishes .—The object of pum¬
icing lac-varnishes is to remove any inequalities of
surface which may have been formed. It will easily
be understood that this is a labor requiring special
skill. But pumicing lac-varnishes cannot be omitted,
under any consideration, as the lacquered article
would not look well. Just the reverse of this, the
lacquered article must be pumiced so smooth that its
surface shines like a mirror.
7. Polishing Lac-Varnishes .—If fat varnishes are
to be polished, they must first be pumiced with pum-
308 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
ice-stone powdered as fine as possible. The layers of
lacquer are then rubbed with burnt hartshorn, or
burned and prepared oyster-shells, mixed with water,
until the hartshorn or oyster-shells have become dry,
and the lacquered article shows lustre. The rubbing
is done with a small pad. When this operation is fin¬
ished, some deer-suet is taken upon the pad and the
article rubbed with this, and then some hair-powder is
used, which will remove the grease left from the suet.
The article will then have acquired a beautiful lustre.
But special care must be taken to thoroughly examine
the powdered hartshorn, or oyster-shells, and to sepa¬
rate any particles of sand which may have been acci¬
dentally mixed with it, as these would do great injury
to the work by scratching it.
.Volatile lac-varnishes are polished in the same man¬
ner as described above.
Materials Used for Pumicing in the Art of
Lacquering.
These materials are pumice-stone in pieces, so-called
raw pumice-stone, very finely powdered, and washed
pumice-stone, tripoli, emery, animal charcoal, prepared
hartshorn, oyster-shells, whiting, shave-grass (horse-
tail), felt, woollen cloth, leather, and linen.
Varnishing of Wooden Articles , Carriages , and
Furniture.
It is necessary to accurately observe the following
rules in varnishinsr: —
THE ART OF VARNISHING AND LACQUERING. 309
1. Examination of the Article.— The carriage or
wao-on, which is received from the builder, is thor-
ouo-hlv examined, and the first labor of the varnisher
is to be done, in case any cracks or flaws are found in
the body parts.
The varnisher prepares hot glue, takes finely picked
flax, dips this into the glue, and fills the cracks with
it. It is allowed to dry thoroughly, and all the super¬
fluous sdue is then removed.
When this operation is finished, and the respective
parts of the body have been smoothed, the next work
is proceeded with.
2. Soaking with Linseed-Oil Varnish. — This is
done to prevent moisture from penetrating. A uni¬
form layer of linseed-oil varnish is applied, and as
soon as the first coat has become thoroughly dry the
second coat is laid on.
3. Puttying (filling up).—It may happen that de¬
pressions are found in the panels, and to remove them
they are filled up with putty. When the putty has
become perfectly dry, the guide coat is laid on.
4. Laying on the Priming Coat. —The so-called
priming coat consists of a mixture of finely rubbed
ochre, finely rubbed umber, linseed oil, oil of turpen¬
tine, white litharge, and copal varnish in such propor¬
tions that the entire mass can be easily applied without
being too thin. This priming coat is then laid on the
body of the carriage. The first coat, when dry, is
succeeded by six or seven other coats, but the one coat
must always be entirely dry before the next is applied.
310 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
The coat may be considered dry when the finger-nail
leaves no impression. Finely powdered pumice-stone
is generally mixed with the last coat of the priming
coat. T his causes the coat to be granulated, and
facilitates the pumicing of the article.
Then follows: —
5. Pumicing the Ground .—This is done with por¬
ous and fibrous pumice-stone, which is ground smooth
on one side. Several pieces, some round and some
square, are required for this. Attention must be paid
that the piece of pumice-stone which is used for pumic¬
ing is always sharp enough. If it does not take hold,
it is rubbed with another piece of pumice-stone until
it has become sharp enough.
ihe greatest care must be observed in pumicing the
panels that not a single place remains untouched; for
this reason the pumiced place must be frequently
washed off with clean water, so as to be able to ob¬
serve whether it has been sufficiently pumiced, or
whether the labor has to be continued. The ground
should become as smooth as glass, and after it has been
washed off it should be thoroughly dried with chamois
skin.
6. G-round Coat (Disguise Coat ) and its Applica¬
tion .—This is composed of white lead, with a mixture
of linseed-oil varnish and oil of turpentine, a small
quantity of very fine white litharge and amber lacquer.
One or two coats of this paint are given, but it must
never be laid on too thick. Here, also, the first coat
must be thoroughly dry before the second is laid on.
THE ART OF VARNISHING AND LACQUERING. 311
7. Pumicing the Disguise Coat. —This is accom¬
plished best by using very finely powdered pumice-
stone and a piece of felt or cloth and water. Pumic¬
ing is continued until no more inequalities are observed
in the surface, and the places are washed off with a
sponge, and carefully dried.
8. Laying on the Principal Color. —The color which
is to be given to the carriage must be very finely rubbed-
together with a mixture of linseed-oil varnish and tur¬
pentine, the siccative is added, and must be always
protected from dust. When it is to be used either
amber lac varnish or copal lac varnish is added.
Of this three to four coats are given. But two, or,
at the utmost, three coats are sufficient, if the paint is
to receive a glazing. Two or three coats of glazing
are laid on when the coats of paint have become thor¬
oughly dry. The glazing used for this purpose must
be very finely rubbed with fat oil lac varnish, and al¬
lowed to settle, so that the upper part forms a colored
varnish. Special care must be observed in laying on
the glazings uniformly, and if this is done, they stand
like a mirror upon the paint when they have become
dry.
9. Pumicing the Principal Paint. —Shave-grass
(horse-tail) and very finely powdered pumice-stone are
used for this purpose, and felt and powdered pumice-
stone later on. The purpose of doing this is to re¬
move all inequalities of surface which may have been
formed. When all the parts have been pumiced, they
312 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
are washed with clean water, and carefully dried with
chamois skin.
The next work is—
10. Decorating and Striping .—Generally this con¬
sists only of narrower or wider stripes of different
colors, gold borders, and coats of arms. The paint
used for striping is generally rubbed together with
linseed oil varnish and oil of turpentine, and com¬
pounded with a small quantity of finely powdered
sugar of lead. It is generally laid on with the so-
called drawing brush, and requires great skill and a
sure hand.
For coats of arms and gold ground the finest yellow
ochre is rubbed together with a little white lead in old
but entirely clear linseed oil varnish, which must not
be of too great consistency. If this mixture is ap¬
plied, and allowed to dry for eighteen to twenty hours,
the coating is ready for the gold.
All the decorations must be smooth and even, or
they Avill suffer injury when the varnish is pumiced.
11. Laying on the Varnish .—As soon as the
stripes and other decorations are dry, they are wiped
off with a moist chamois skin to remove any dust which
may have settled upon them, and a coat of varnish is
then quickly laid on. The coat is repeated twice or
three times. When the varnish has become somewhat
dry in the shop, the carriage is brought into the air
and sun, but it must be frequently turned about so that
it will dry uniformly.
THE ART OF VARNISHING AND LACQUERING. 313
When the last coat of varnish has become entirely
dry-
12. Pumicing and Polishing is commenced. This
is done with very finely powdered pumice-stone, and a
piece of felt or chamois-skin. When this has been
done—
13. The Last Coat of Varnish is laid on with
quick, uniform strokes. This last coat is not pum¬
iced.
Varnishing of Furniture, Cases, Instruments, etc.
1. Wooden Articles to he Varnished. —The prin¬
cipal rule for these is that the respective articles are
pumiced and thoroughly smoothed ; this may be done
with pumice-stone and shave-grass (horse-tail). Then
all the defective places are puttied up with a putty
consisting of sawdust and glue, and what is super¬
fluous of this is carefully removed. Then the scraper
is used, and when the work has been done thoroughly,
the surface is rubbed smooth with a suitable piece of
pumice-stone. It is advisable to repeat the pumicing
with powdered pumice-stone to prevent any place from
remaining untouched, and then to go over it with shave -
grass, which will make the respective places entirely
smooth.—
When the ground has been pumiced smooth, the
following has to be taken into consideration: —
a. If it is desired to preserve the natural color of
the wood, one or more coats of lac-varnish are laid on
at once ; the coat of varnish is either left as it is, or
27
314 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
it is pumiced, and the wood receives another coat of
varnish, and this last coat is polished.
b. If the articles are to be stained, one of the
stains, the receipts of which have been given upon
preceding pages, is used for the purpose. When the
stain is dry the articles receive from four to five coats
of colorless varnish, and the work is finished by pol¬
ishing the last coat.
c. Wooden articles may also first be coated with
glue, or linseed-oil varnish, and can then be varnished
with the various colored varnishes.
d. The articles to be varnished are veined, either
with color prepared with size (glue-water), beer, or
vinegar, or with linseed-oil varnish. These are rubbed
together with a yellow, reddish-brown, brown, or
other pigment, according to the natural color of the
wood which is to be imitated. When the work of
sizing the article is finished and the coat is entirely
dry, the articles are pumiced and receive then three
or four coats of lac-varnish.
e. Sizing for mixing the color is best prepared by
boiling 60 grammes (2.1 ozs.) of glue in 500 grammes
(17.5 ozs.) of water, and by adding a small quantity
of a decoction of garlic or wormwood to it. The arti¬
cle to be varnished receives three or four coats of this.
It is claimed that the decoction of garlic or wormwood
will prevent the wood-worm from attacking the arti¬
cles. When the coat of sizing has become entirely
dry it is rubbed off with shave-grass. The so-called
chalk ground is obtained by mixing very fine whiting
THE ART OF VARNISHING AND LACQUERING. 315
with the sizing and by laying three or four coats of
this on the article. The ground is pumiced with pum¬
ice-stone and water. When all has been pumiced
smooth and thoroughly cleansed, three or four coats of
paint are laid on, and when this is entirely dry it is
rubbed with shave-grass, cleansed, and varnished with
volatile lac-varnish.
/. The priming coat of oil-paint is put on the arti¬
cles to be varnished in the following manner: The
articles are first coated with hot, well-boiled, linseed-
oil varnish ; they receive then a coat of a mixture of
ochre and white lead, rubbed together with linseed-oil
varnish, or still better, with siccative, and when this is
dry, are pumiced with pumice-stone and water. As
soon as all places have been uniformly pumiced, a coat
of the color which the article is to have is laid on.
For this purpose it is best to incorporate the pigment
in as fine a state as possible with good linseed-oil var¬
nish, to reduce it with oil of turpentine to the desired
consistency, to compound it with a small quantity of
copal varnish, or amber varnish, and then give a coat
of it to the article in question.
When dry it is pumiced with powdered pumice-
stone and felt, and then the varnish is laid on.
Thicker or thinner lac-varnish is used for this purpose
according to the state of the temperature.
Therefore thinner varnish must be used when the
air is cold, and thicker varnish when it is warm.
Veining with oil-paint is done in the following man¬
ner: The article receives first one or two priming
316 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
coats of oil-paint; this, when dry, is pumiced, and
the veining is then done, either with oil-paint or
water-color. The first process is easier than the last.
The kinds of wood principally imitated are oak, curled
maple, walnut, rosewood, and mahogany, and, of
course, the ground color to be used depends on the
kind of wood to be imitated. These are—
for oak , white lead and ochre ;
for curled maple , white lead and a small quan¬
tity of ochre ;
for walnut, white lead and umber;
for rosewood and mahogany, burnt ochre and
colcothar (Indian red).
The water colors for veining are prepared by mix¬
ing—
for oak, umber;
for curled maple, burnt sienna ;
for walnut, umber;
for rosewood, burnt sienna and umber ;
for mahogany, sienna, with a little red,
with water, vinegar, or beer, and they are then laid
on according to the rules of the art. The veining
itself is done with a brush or sponge, wooden, horn,
or leather combs, and in modern times also with vein¬
ing rollers made of leather or rubber and provided
with the pattern of the texture of the wood ; quills
and even the fingers are also employed for the pur¬
pose. The lac-varnish is laid on as soon as the veined
ground is dry and has been pumiced. Usually two
TIIE ART OF VARNISHING AND LACQUERING. 317
coats are given, but the second should never be laid
on before the first is entirely dry.
If the veining is to he done with oil-paint, a priming
coat of water-color is first laid on, and this is rubbed
in with linseed-oil varnish as soon as it has become
dry. The veining is done with a camels-hair brush,
and the above mentioned colors mixed with linseed-oil
varnish. The work is glazed as soon as the veining is
dry. This is done with umber, sienna, crimson lacquer,
or even carmine lacquer, for very fine articles. The
articles are then varnished, but not before the glazing
is dry.
Articles of Tin and Metal which are to he Lacquered.
The lacquering of tin and metals differs from that
of wood. The first require far fatter lac-varnishes
than the latter. They are dried in especially con¬
structed ovens (lacquering ovens).
The usually rough articles of tin must be thor¬
oughly smoothed and pumiced before they can be lac¬
quered, when they receive a coat of linseed-oil var¬
nish, and are thoroughly dried by a strong heat. They
then receive four or five primary coats, are again
thoroughly dried, and then pumiced with pumice-stone
and water until the surfacp is as smooth as a mirror.
When these important operations have been finished
the principal color is laid on. This is rubbed together
with linseed-oil varnish and oil of turpentine, and
compounded with copal varnish. The articles receive
at least three to four coats of this, but every coat
27 *
318 FABRICATION OF' VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
must be thoroughly dry before the next one is laid on.
When the last coat has become as hard as stone the
article is pumiced with powdered pumice-stone and
shave-grass, the various decorations are put on and
allowed to dry, and the article is then varnished with
copal lacquer. When this coat of varnish is dry the
article may be pumiced with powdered pumice-stone
and felt, it is then thoroughly cleansed and carefully
dried, and finally receives one or two coats of varnish.
It is absolutely necessary that all the described opera¬
tions should be carried on with the greatest care.
What has been said of tin-ware applies in general
also to articles of iron and steel , only they require
less preparation. When they are ground smooth and
polished, it is only necessary to give them a coat of
oil-varnish, which is allowed to dry hard, and then the
same process is carried on as has been described for
tin-ware.
Articles of copper , brass and zinc require a fat,
pliant lac-varnish, and specially careful treatment. As
most of these articles are soldered and possess more
or less fatty matter, the first care must be to free them
from this. This is done by thoroughly rubbing the
articles with sawdust. They are then cleansed and
treated with fat and well-drying paints and varnishes,
and dried at a moderate degree of heat. Pumicing
and cleansing are done in the same manner as has
been described for tin-ware.
The colors mostly used in lacquering the above
named wares are—
THE ART OF VARNISHING AND LACQUERING. 319
1. Blade .—This color is produced either by giving
the article a coat of fine calcined lampblack mixed
with linseed-oil varnish, or by giving it at once a coat
of asphaltum varnish. For common articles the ordi¬
nary asphaltum varnish may also be used to advantage
upon iron, copper, zinc, etc. Both methods are good,
and the coats dry quickly.
2. Brown is produced by laying on a priming coat
of Venetian red compounded with a small quantity of
calcined lampblack. When dry it receives a coat of
glazing.
3 . Bed .—A mixture of cinnabar, linseed-oil varnish
and oil of turpentine, is prepared for this, and com¬
pounded with a small quantity of copal varnish. The
article receives from three to four coats of this, is
thoroughly dried, and then glazed.
The glazing is prepared by rubbing fine carmine-
lacquer with linseed-oil varnish and oil of turpentine,
and by compounding this with some copal varnish.
This is allowed to stand quietly for a few days. The
thin part is then poured off' from the sediment, and the
painted articles are coated quickly and uniformly.
Usually two or three coats are required according as
the color is to be light or dark. Strong heat must be
used for drying the articles, as the glazing is difficult
to dry. When the glazing is thoroughly dry it is
pumiced and then varnished.
4. Crreen is produced with mineral green. The
treatment is the same as given for red, only green is
frequently mixed with yellow and white. The articles
32.0 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
to be lacquered receive first a white priming coat.
Dark green is prepared with green cinnabar and glazed
with verdigris, ihis color should not be exposed to a
great heat.
f). 1 allow, Chamois .—By chamois-yellow we under¬
stand a mixture of white, yellow,.and red. Chrome-
yellow also does excellent service for yellow. Two or
three coats are sufficient.
6. Blue .—A mixture of Paris blue and white, or
ultramarine and white, is used for a blue priming coat,
according as the color is to be light or dark. ° It is
glazed with either Paris blue, ultramarine,or cobalt blue
(Thenard’s blue).
Other colors are treated in the same manner. A
few coats are generally sufficient for covering, and it
is then only necessary to lay on'the lacquer.
Marbled ground is produced by pumicing the arti¬
cles, which have first received a black priming, by rub¬
bing them with oil of turpentine, and exposing them to
heat. Then a sharply cut bristle brush is soaked with
oil of turpentine, and the hot articles are sprinkled
with it. It is advisable to hold the articles at some
distance to prevent the fine drops from falling upon
them. The drops falling upon the article scatter and
form a ring on the edge. Gold or silver bronze is
laid upon these rings before they become entirely dry.
What is superfluous is rubbed off after they have be¬
come dry.
Tortoise-shell ground is produced by giving the ar¬
ticle a one-colored ground of cinnabar, or any other.
THE ART OF VARNISHING AND LACQUERING. 321
fine brown lac-eolor. When this coat is dry it is pum¬
iced and glazed with carmine-lacquer. The following
method-is then observed : The wick of an oil-lamp is
screwed up higher than usual, so that it commences to
soot, and more or less dark places are produced upon
the still wet glazing by holding the article over the
wick of the lamp and turning it to and fro. When
the desired places have been produced in this manner,
pumicing is commenced, and the article is then var¬
nished.
Rosewood ground is imitated by giving the article,
upon which the ground is to be imitated, a priming
coat of calcined lampblack. This is allowed to be¬
come thoroughly dry, and is then pumiced. On the
other hand a paint of Venetian red and carmine-lac¬
quer, or cinnabar and carmine-lacquer, is prepared
with linseed-oil varnish, and the article is veined with
a brush according to a sample of a polished piece of
rosewood. When this is dry it is glazed with carmine-
lacquer, varnished and pumiced.
Decorations with Copperplates and Lithographs .—
The apparatus consists of a plate, which is etched for
'reprinting. When the apparatus is prepared, the fol¬
lowing method is observed : —
First a printer’s varnish of linseed oil is prepared,
which is mixed with the so-called Frankfort black.
The varnish must possess great consistency. The
plate is heated and some of the ink is put uniformly
upon the etched parts with the finger; the greater
part of the ink is wiped off, and the plate is cleansed
322 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
with lye. When this has been done the plate
is brought into the press, a previously moistened
paper is laid upon it, this is covered with a cloth
folded several times, and then drawn through the press.
The paper is then carefully removed, moistened with
water, and laid upon the article. The impression of
the copperplate is imprinted upon the article by a
small roller covered with cloth, and the paper is then
removed.
The same manipulation is used for lithographs.
Bronze-painting is done with metal-dust, genuine
gold leaf, party-gold, silver bronze, and gold bronze,
mostly upon black ground. Parisian camels-hair pen¬
cils are used for the purpose ; the bronze is rubbed
in with a piece of felt upon the previously prepared
ornamentation. Patterns cut out of oiled paper are
used for the decorations. Genuine leaf gold is laid
upon the still moist varnished places. All these
operations require a great deal of skill, and this the
workman can only acquire by constant practice.
Lacquering of Leather differs essentially from
that of tin-ware and articles of metal. One of the
main points is to use a pliant lacquer which will
stand being bent in any way, will neither break off
nor crack, and yet possess the necessary degree of
hardness.
The outside of the leather to be varnished must
have been well finished and rubbed with train oil. It
is then stretched upon a frame, is somewhat moistened
THE ART OF VARNISHING AND LACQUERING. 323
and pumiced, and smoothed with a piece of pumice-
stone and with powdered pumice-stone.
When the leather is dry a coat of varnish, made of
linseed oil, is laid on. The manner of preparing this
lacquer, which is generally done by the lacquerer him¬
self, has been fully described under “blue lacquer,”
in the appendix to the first part of this work.
Simple Process of Removing a coat of Lacquer , etc.,
from Tinned Metal Plate.
BY D. H. EMSMANN, OF STETTIN.
About twenty-five years ago I accidentally brought
a lacquered tin box in contact with leather through
which mercury had been pressed, and found, to my
surprise, that the lacquered surface of the box came
off in its entirety in the form of a delicate leaf. I
was sorry that I had damaged the beautifully orna¬
mented box, but as it had been already injured, I ex¬
perimented also with the remaining surface, and suc¬
ceeded in removing everywhere the coat of lacquer
without tearing it.
The explanation of this phenomenon was simple.
The box was made of tinned sheet-iron, and the coat
of lacquer had been partly broken off on the edges ;
the mercury remaining on the leather had formed an
amalgam with the tin; a fluid layer had been formed
between the surface of the iron, and in consequence
of this the leaf of lacquer floating so to say upon the
fluid, could be removed with the greatest ease.
824 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
The question now arose, whether this phenomenon
could be used to advantage in any manner, and several
experiments were made for this purpose. I painted
tinned sheet iron with linseed-oil varnish, such as is
used for lacquering, and in doing this I handled the
brush always in one direction. When this coat of
varnish had become dry, in a few days I laid on a
second in a direction crossing the first coat at a right
angle. When this coat had become dry a cut was
made with a knife through the varnish down to the
tin, and some mercury was dropped upon this ; the
entire layer of varnish came off, and showed a parch¬
ment-like, smooth surface on the side which had
touched the tin.
When the mercury had evaporated I again put a
coat of linseed-oil varnish on the same tin, and re¬
peated the operation in the above described manner
until a layer about one millimeter (0.039 inch) thick
had been formed. This required quite a considerable
time on account of the varnish drying but slowly. I
obtained, however, a plate like strong leather, with a
surface as smooth as a mirror.
From the obtained leather I cut rectangular tri¬
angles and rulers for mathematical instrument cases.
But as these were not very solid, but rather brittle, I
stretched a sheet of paper over a frame and coated it
repeatedly on both sides in the above mentioned man¬
ner, and obtained in half the time sheets of any desired
thickness, which, on account of the inclosed paper,
THE ART OF VARNISHING AND LACQUERING. 325
proved to be more suitable for the indicated purpose,
but bad not so smooth a surface.
This matter may now be inquired into further, as
by this short statement I only intend to incite to
further researches.
Very likely leaves of any desired size and thickness
and of various substances can be produced in this
manner, which may prove especially useful for certain
purposes. Paper covered on both sides with a layer
of linseed-oil varnish, and then coated with size,
answers all the purposes of parchment. It is possible
that a substance might in this manner be prepared
which, in many cases, could be used as a substitute
for leather.
28
APPENDIX.
JAPANESE AND CHINESE LACQUERS.
Although, on account of their costliness, it is not
very likely that these lacquers will ever come into exten¬
sive use in our industry, yet for the sake of completeness
we will give in the following pages a short description of
the products which give such prominence to Japanese
lacquered articles.
The Japanese lacquers are purely natural products, and
are obtained from the varnish tree ( Vernix or Rhus verni-
cifera), a kind of sumac, indigenous in Japan as well as
in some parts of China.
A larger or smaller number of horizontal incisions, 6
to 9 centimeters (2 to 3.5 inches) long, and 1 centimeter
(0.39 inch) deep are made with an especial instrument in
the trunks, which are generally about as thick as an arm,
and the lateral branches of the tree. These incisions are
then made somewhat deeper with a kind of knife, and
in the course of three or four days a clear, thick, resinous
juice, mixed with some milky matter, commences to exude
from them.
This juice is removed from time to time with a small
tool shaped like a lancet, is put in small cans or barrels,
and thus brought into use.
328 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
The juice in afresh state is yellow to grayish-white and
viscid, but on exposure to the air soon becomes brown,
then black and very hard. The lacquer obtained from the
branches of the tree is valued far higher than that from
the trunk, as it becomes a great deal harder than the lat¬
ter. r I he lacquer is graded into several qualities by keep¬
ing it for some time in well-closed vessels, and by after¬
wards taking off the upper layer, which has in the mean
while become better. Lacquer which has become too
thick is reduced with one-fifth of its weight of sesame
oil. The entirely black lacquer is prepared in the open
air by stirring the fresh juice (which shows poisonous
properties 1 ) for two or three days, and by adding water
containing iron.
The only treatment which this invaluable natural pro¬
duct, which the Japanese know how to make of excellent
service to them, undergoes, is to press it through a pecu¬
liar, extraordinarily strong, but at the same time very thin
paper, to free it from the small impurities.
The lacquers are either used with or without an addition
of mineral pigments, such as cinnabar, Berlin blue, ver¬
digris, chrome yellow, etc.
There is a great number of varieties, and these are
known by the following names :—
Ordinary lacquer,
Common lacquer,
Natural lacquer,
Yoshino lacquer,
Shiun-Kei lacquer,
1 Many people become sick from merely inhaling the va¬
pors of this juice.
JAPANESE AND CHINESE LACQUERS.
329
Seshimo (ground) lacquer,
Djotame (brown) lacquer, I. quality,
Tscliiutame (brown) lacquer, II. quality,
Djohana (dark) lacquer, I. quality,
Tschiuhana lacquer, II. quality,
Hakushita (gilders’) lacquer,
Roiro (best black) lacquer,
Nakanuri lacquer (for laying on ground),
Nuriate (dark) lacquer,
Kurodame (dark brown) lacquer,
Djo-tshiu (ordinary dark) lacquer,
Namitame (common brown) lacquer,
Nashiji (very finest, transparent) lacquer.
Lacquer mixed with yellow pigment,
Lacquer mixed with cinnabar (three qualities),
Ordinary red lacquer,
Lacquer mixed with Berlin blue.
The following are used as pigments : cinnabar, minium,
Berlin blue, verdigris, red ochre, chrome yellow, Djino-
Ko meal. The following are used for laying on under the
lacquer: a paint made from come/i«a communis, Dutch
gold dust, false green gold dust, silver dust, copper dust,
genuine gold dust, imitation gold and silver leaf, tinfoil,
and gold and silver leaf cut into small pieces.
The following articles are used as aids in lacquering:
pulverized haliotis shell, powdered charcoal, powdered
charcoal made from magnolia wood for pumicing and
polishing, powdered hartshorn, menoko, hemp finely cut.
Further, for lacquering itself: wooden spatulas, and
different sizes of broad brushes, made of stiff, short
bristles.
28 *
330 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
Baron von Ransonnet gives the following account of the
application of Japanese varnishes :—
The articles to be varnished are generally made of wood,
and it they are constructed of several pieces are usually
pasted over with paper or cloth, but the joints are then
plastered over with a mixture of burnt earth, and the so-
called Wan tan-goschi (Seshime) lacquer. This operation
is repeated several times, but only at intervals of at least
one day, and the surface is carefully pumiced every time
until the form of the article leaves nothing more to be
desired. Only when this is entirely satisfactory, pure
lacquer is laid on the article with a flat brush of stiff,
short bristles. On account of dust the articles are dried
in closed boxes. It is a remarkable thing that the lacquer
dries especially quick in a moist atmosphere. When the
first layer of lacquer is dry, which may be the case in
twenty-four hours, the surface is rubbed with wet charcoal
in a similar manner as we use pumice-stone.
Articles for the Japanese market are treated far more
carefully than those for export.
When the article is to be ornamented with gold decora¬
tions, the drawing is first made with white chalk, the
ornamentation is then laid on more or less thick with a
mixture of Wantan-goschi lacquer and yellow clay, and
for very superior work with a dough formed therefrom,
and when the painting is half dry it is coated with fine
gold dust, laid on with raw cotton. If the gold is to be
durable, thin layers of reddish lacquer and gold are laid
on three times over these ground layers. A more or less
fine or granular appearance is thereby given to the gold,
or different shades to its color. When a good gold lac¬
quer is used, the ornamentation is, strictly speaking, a
JAPANESE AND CHINESE LACQUERS. 331
kind of relief, which rises above the black or red ground,
but frequently also above the ground of the same color on
account of its form alone.
There are in Japan numerous fluid lacquers of different
qualities, which are called “ UKuschi,” and these are
usually brought into the market in small round wooden
boxes of about 8 centimeters (3 inches) in diameter, and
protected from dust and drying out by paper floating on
the top. Seshime lacquer is the most solid of all va¬
rieties ; it is used for gluing, for manufacturing paste,
and finally for ground for laying on paint. The Japanese
pound of this lacquer costs 7 marks ($1.68).
But the most expensive of all varieties is the lacquer
called “ Nashigi,” which is used for the last outer coat.
When fresh it has a gray color, but this soon changes into
black on exposure to the air. The Japanese pound costs
12 marks ($2.88).
It is self-evident that the costliness of the fluid lacquer
alone must make all lacquered articles dear. Besides the
quantity of gold used is often considerable, and finally it
frequently requires several years to carry out the decora¬
tion of larger articles with regular lacquered paintings.
The fine gold lacquer is also the most costly the Japanese
possess, and many articles are paid for with nearly their
weight in gold, a price which few connoisseurs in Europe
would be willing to give.
The art of the so-called old lacquer is very simple, and
not lost, by any means, as many believe; only a poorer
quality has come into use, which did not formerly exist
to such a large degree. But if in modern times the quan¬
tity of good lacquer which is produced has decreased, the
use of lacquer has become far more general.
332 FABRICATION OF VARNISHES, LACQUERS, ETC.
The few articles of furniture of the Japanese, from the
throne of the mikado covered with gold, to the small din¬
ing table from which the laborer eats his frugal meal, are
all lacqueied, yea, even the bowls in which the hot soups,
the rice, and other numerous dishes of the rich are served,
consist mostly of wood coated with lacquer.
Pleasing appearance, lightness, cleanliness, small power
of conducting heat, and finally extraordinary durability,
have secured to the Japanese lacquer its general use in
Japan.
It has been several times tried to introduce the manu¬
facture of Japanese lacquers into Europe, but without any
success, as all experiments made with them have failed on
account of their drying too slowly. The lacquer requires
in oui climate fouiteen days and even more to become
dry, a time in which even the most skilful and patient
lacquerer would despair of keeping dust from the work,
even if he should use all means of protecting it.
On the other hand, it is the extraordinary care which
is required in the use of Japanese lacquers, and finally the
high price demanded for it, circumstances which plainly
prove that at the present time the most excellent Japanese
lacquers cannot be employed in Europe.
Chinese Lacquers.
These are also produced from the varnish tree (Rhus
vernicifera ), but, according to Dr. Scherzer’s statement,
partly undergo a certain treatment, and partly are used in
the condition in which they are obtained. They are mixed
with nut oil, water, hog gall, and vinegar into a paste of
a lustrous black color.
JAPANESE AND CHINESE LACQUERS. 333
The author himself had, some time since, occasion to
examine Chinese varnishes, and found them identical with
the Japanese varnishes. The prices at which they were
offered at Canton were as follows : Finest Chinese var¬
nish, 10s. 6rf. ($2.62) per pound ; No. 1 prepared and other
Chinese varnish, 3s. 7 d. (8Gc.) per pound ; No. 2 Chinese
varnish, Is. Gd. (36c.) per pound. Cost of transportation,
etc. from Canton to Vienna amounted to 30 kreuzers
(14 cts.).
INDEX.
Aceton, 54
Adulteration of linseed oil, 41,
42
Adulterations of drying oils, 44-
46
Alcoholometer, Tralles’, 53
Alcohol sulphuris, 55
Alizarine ink, a black stain for
wood, 288
Amber, 59
and copal varnish, 169
and elemi lacquer, 152
gold lac varnish, 132
lacquers, fat, 214
temperature for the dry dis¬
tillation of, 96, 97
varnish, 169
Aniline colors, 69, 70
Animal charcoal for decoloration
of varnishes, 105
Apparatus, distilling, 93, 94
for boiling linseed oil, 187—
189, 218, 219
for decoloring varnishes,
106, 107
for dissolving resins, 87-89
for preparing copal and
boiling the lac
quer, 91, 92
lacquer, 207-210
melting, for sealing-wax,
250-254
superheating, 230-232
Artists, varnishes for, 138
Art of manufacturing lacquers
and varnishes, antiquity
of, 26
of varnishing and lacquer¬
ing, 279-325
Asphaltum, 57, 58
dissolved in tar oil. a coat¬
ing for metals, 181
lacquer, 165, 1 66
double, 167
for leather, 168
Balloons, varnishes for making
rubber, impermeable, 169-171
Balsams, 56
Barbadoes turmeric, 70
Barrels, glazes for, 158-160
Baryta, sulphate of, 247
Basket and wickerwork, lacquer
for, 117
Benzine, 50
Benzoin resin, 60
Benzol, 50
a solvent for caoutchouc
varnishes, 173, 174
Bernartli’s lacquer for floors,
126
Binoxide of manganese, 82
Bismuth, nitrate of, 247
Bisulphide of carbon, 55
Black amber lacquer for metals,
179
for lacquering metal arti¬
cles, 319
336
INDEX.
Black—
lacquers for iron, 172
for leather, 145, 146
for metals, 177
pigments, 242
sealing wax, 265, 269
stain for horn, 289
for leather, 289
for wood, 287, 288
tar lacquer, 178
wood lacquer, 136
Bleaching of linseed oil, 40-42
Blue for lacquering metal arti¬
cles, 320
lacquer, 276, 277
pigments, 242
sealing-wax, 268
stain for wood, 291
of elderberries for lea¬
ther, 29 1*
Blue stains, 290-292
with aniline, 292
Boiling of varnish, great care
required in, 186
varnish, the practical part
of, 186-193
Bole, 239
Bookbinders, copal lacquer for,
152
Bookbinder’s lacquers, 120-122
varnish, 119
Borate of manganese, 82-84
the formation of var¬
nish by, 184
varnishes, 195-197
Bottle caps, varnish for, 125
Bottles, medicine, varnish for
coating, 163
sealing-wax for, 271, 272
Boxes and fancy articles, lac
varnish for, 124
Brass, copper, and zinc articles
to be lacquered, treat¬
ment of, 318
lacquer for, 141
Bronze colored shoe lacquer,
147
Bronze—
painting for lacquered metal
articles, 322
powder, 248
Brown bookbinder’s lacquer
120 , 121
for lacquering metal arti¬
cles, 319
pigments, 242
sealing-wax, 269
stains for leather, 299
Burning varnish, 222
Cabinet-makers’ polish, ordi¬
nary, 112
white, 114
Camphor, 49, 50
melting and boiling points,
50
Caoutchouc, 65
dissolving in petroleum, 176
every solution of, a varnish,
173
lacquer, waterproof, 157,
158
varnishes, 172-177
solvents for, 172
valuable properties of,
172
Carbon, bisulphide of, 55
Carbonate of magnesia, 246
Carmine, 73, 240
Carriages, lacquers for, 155-157
Cassel yellow, 241
Cerasin, 68
Chalk, 245
Chemical products, 32, 76-84
Chinese lacquers, 332, 333
turmeric, 70
varnish for articles of wood,
118,119
Chloride of lime, bleaching shel¬
lac with, 67
Chrome ink, a black stain for
wood, 288
yellow, 240
Cinnabar, 238
INDEX.
337
Classification of lacquers and
varnishes, 28-30
Coal asphaltum lacquer, 165,166
tar oil, varnishes with, 160-
169
oils, purification of, 160
removing the free
acids in, 161
suitable for var¬
nishes, charac¬
teristics of, 161,
162
which can be used
for varnishes,
160
Cochineal stain for leather, 286
Colcothar, 239
Colophony, 60
Colored varnishes, with gold
lustre, for frame mouldings,
130
Coloring matter, 32
substances, 69-75
varnishes, 108
Colorless copal lacquer, 210-212
negative varnish, with coal
tar, 162
Colors, preparation of, for metal
articles to be lacquered, 219—
223
Comb makers, lacquers for, 136
Copal, Angola, 62
Borneo, 62
East India, 61
Gaboon, 62
hard, 61
kawrie, 62
lacquer, 202
for bookbinders, 152
for mechanics, 169
qualities which it
should possess, 206
with, without boiling,
207
Manilla, 62
quantities of distillate from,
96
29
Copal—
resins, 60-63
qualities of, 61
roasting, 90
Sierra Leone, 61
soft, 62
solvent for, 95-97
temperature for the dry
distillation of, 96, 97
varnish, elastic, 123
varnishes, volatile, 122
weight of the distillate
from, 96
West India, 62
Zanzibar, 61
Copals, hard and soft, charac¬
teristics of, 62, 63
Copper, brass, and zinc articles
to be lacquered, treat¬
ment of, 318
plates and maps, insoluble
varnishes for, 140
lacquer for, 137
Cornices, gilt, varnish for, 129
imitation gilt, varnish for,
128
Cotton-seed oil, 43, 44
Crimson stain, 287
Curled maple, imitation of, 316
Dammara Australis, 62
orientalis, 63
Dammar and copal varnishes,
152
for barrel glaze, 159
lacquer for photographs,
elastic, 144
resins, 63
varnishes, 150, 151
Dark carriage lacquers, 156, 157
colored polish, 113
Dead ground for imitation gilt
frames, 129
varnish for metal articles,
178
Decoloration of varnishes, 105—
108
338
INDEX.
Decorating and striping, 312
Decoration of lacquered metal
articles with copperplates and
lithographs, 321, 322
Deeds, sealing-wax for, 274, 275
Density of oils, 45
Directions for preparing fat lac¬
quers, 201, 215
Dissolving, roasting, and dis
tilling apparatus, 93, 94
Distilling apparatus, coating
with varnish, 94
of resins, 85-97
Dragon’s-blood, 71
Drying oil, process of, 34, 35
Drying oils, 32-46
absorption of oxygen
by, 37
adulterations of, 44-46
elfect of different color¬
ed light upon, 37
various, 43, 44
varnish, to obtain a quickly,
230
Dutch furniture varnish, 117
gold varnish, 154
varnish for artists, 138
Ebony lacquer fpr woodwork,
118
Elastic caoutchouc varnish, 175
copal varnish, 123
dammar lacquer for photo¬
graphs, 144
tar-oil varnish, 164
varnish, universal, 148
Elemi resin, 63, 64
Emstnann’s process of removing
lacquer from tinned metal
plate, 333-325
English durable gold lac-varnish,
121
glossy lac-varnisli, 135
lac-varnish for boxes and
fancy articles, 124
polish, 112
red furniture varnish, 116
Essential oils and chemical pro¬
ducts, 31
Ether, 54
a solvent for caoutchouc
varnishes, 172
Fabrication of sealing-wax, 233—
275
of varnishes and lacquers,
85-232
Factory, fitting up a varnish,
227-232
Fancy articles, lac-varnish for,
124
Fat-amber lacquers, 214
Fat-copal lacquer, 202
by boiling, 202-206
testing while boiling,
205
without boiling, 207
lacquers, properties of, 213,
214
Fat lacquers, coloring, 214
directions for prepar¬
ing, 201-215
fine qualities of, 201
principal point in man¬
ufacturing, 201
Fat non-drying oils, 31
Fat-oil varnishes, 29
Fat oils, how obtained, 38
varnishes, 182-216
which mode of prepa¬
ration the best, 200
Fats, composition of, 33 •
effects of exposure to the
air, 34
what they are, 33
Filling up, 280, 281
Filtration of varnishes, 103, 104
Fine black, 244
Flake white, 247
Floor, stain for, 127, 128
lacquers for, 125, 126
Fluid raw materials, 31
Forming or molding the sealing-
wax, 255-258
INDEX.
339
Frame mouldings, colored var¬
nishes with gold lustre for,
130
Frankfort black, 244
French polish, 113
sandarac lac-varnish, 137,
138
varnish for artists, 138
Freudenwoll’s gold-lac varnish,
154
Furniture, cases, instruments,
etc., 313-317
sandarac varnish for, 116
varnish, Dutch, 117
English red, 116
Gamboge, 71, 72
Gilders, varnish for, 149
Gilt articles, lacquer for, 149
cornices, varnish for, 129
frames, imitation, dead
ground for, 129
mouldings, varnish for, 133
Glaze for the inside of barrels,
159
Glazes for barrels, 158-160
G lossy lacquer for leather, cheap,
147
lacquers, 134
lac varnish, 135
Gold lacquer, for metals, 177
(mixed), 153
lacquers, 130
lac varnish, for leather and
metal, 154
Freudenwoll’s, 154
Held’s, 153
varnishes, 131-133
lustre, colored varnishes
with, 30
sealing-wax, 273
varnish, 149
Dutch, 154
Grape-seed oil, 43, 45
Green for lacquering metal arti¬
cles, 319
pigments, 241
Green—
sealing-wax, 267
stain for horn, ivory, and
bone, 297
for leather, 297, 298
stains for horn, ivory, bone,
and leather, 298
for wood, 297, 298
Ground coat (disguise coat) and
its application, 310
masses for translucent seal¬
ing-waxes, 273, 274
Gummi elasticum, 65
Gums and resins, 31, 56-69
what they are, 56
Gutta percha, 64
Gypsum, 246
Hard caoutchouc lacquer, 176,
177
lacquer for photographic
negatives, 144
varnish, universal, 148
Harness-makers, lacquer for,
147
Held’s gold-lac varnish, 153
mastic varnish for paste¬
board, 141
Hemp oil, 42
for varnishes, 223
Hirschberg’s stain for walnut,
300
Horn, ivory, and bone, stains
for, 284, 285, 289, 293, 296,
297, 298, 299
Hot-air, use of, in varnish fac¬
tory, 230, 231
Hugue’s dead lacquer, 178
Hydrate of protoxide of manga¬
nese, 81
of sesquioxide of manga¬
nese, 81 *
Hydrocarbon compounds, 160
Hydrocarbons, 48
obtained from petroleum,
50
340
INDEX.
Imitation gilt cornices, varnish
for, 128
frames, dead ground
for, 129
Indian red, 239
Indigo, 72, 73
carmine, 73
with printer’s varnish, 224
Ink, printer’s, 216, 217
Insoluble varnishes for copper¬
plates and maps, 140
Instruments, varnishing, 313-
Iron and steel articles to be lac¬
quered, treatment of, 318
lacquers for, 172, 179, 180
Ivory, horn, and bone, stains
for, 284, 285, 289, 293, 296,
297, 298, 299
Japanese and Chinese lacquers
327-333 ’
fluid lacquers, 331
hard lacquers, 331
lacquer work, 26
turmeric, 70
varnishes, application of,
330-332
Johnson’s varnish for water¬
proof paper and water-proof
tissues, 226
Kerosene, 50
Lacquer, removing coat from
tinned metal plate, 323-325
Lacquering and varnishing, gen¬
eral rules for,
302, 303
the art of, 279-
325
of articles of metal, 317-323
Lacquers and varnishes, fabrica¬
tion of, 85-232
properties they
should possess,
25
Lacquers and varnishes—
universal use of,
27
volatile, directions
for preparing,
108-182
volatile, prepara¬
tion of, 97-108
what is under¬
stood by, 25,28
Japanese and Chinese, 326-
• 333
soap, 225-227
Lac, seed, 74
Lac-varnish for boxes and fancy
articles, 124
for turners, 124
Lakes, 240
Lampblack, 73, 74
Landerer’s asphaltum and am¬
ber varnish, 163
Laying on the color, 304, 305
the varnish, 312
Lead, compounds of, 76-80
disadvantages of, 78-
• . 80
pigments for sealing-wax,
237
red, 77
sugar of, 77, 78
tendency of, to combine
with sulphur, 78, 79
varnish without boiling, 193
194
varnishes, 190
disadvantages of, 190
must be considered ob¬
solete, 200
vinegar, 78, 193
Leather and metal, gold-lac var¬
nish for, 154
asphaltum lacquer for, 168
black lacquers for, 145
146
caoutchouc lacquer for, 177
lacquering of, 322
lacquers for, 145-147
/
INDEX.
341
Leather—
stains for, 285, 286, 289,
291, 293, 294, 297, 298,
299, 301
Linseed oil, 39-42
adulteration of, 41, 42
and caoutchouc lac¬
quer, 175
apparatus for boiling,
187-189, 218, 219
bleaching of, 40—42
care to be taken in
boiling, 221
chemical process for
changing into var¬
nish, 182-186
composition of, by heat¬
ing, 186
effect of exposure to
the air, 36
heated, vapors from,
186
how obtained, 39
in printer’s ink, 217
or fat lacquer boiling,
203-206
properties of, 39, 40
quickest way of chang
ing into varnish, 182
temperature at which
it should be boiled,
136, 187
testing when boiling,
221, 222
varnish, compounded
to varnishes with re¬
sins, 186
Litharge, 76
aud minium varnish, 194,
195
varnish, 191-193
boiling, 191, 193
temperature at which
it should be boiled,
191,192
Madder lake, 240
Magnesia, carbonate of, 246
Mahogany, imitation of, 316
polish, 113
Manganese and zinc siccative,
215
binoxide of, 82
borate of, 82-84
compounds of, 80-84
hydrate of protoxide of, 81
of sesquioxide, and ses-
quioxide of, 81
oxides of, 80
properties of, 80
protoxide of, 81
varnishes, 195-199
superior qualities of,
200
the best, 200
Maple, imitation of, 316
Maps and copperplates, insolu¬
ble varnishes for, 140
Marble ground for lacquering
metal articles, 320
Mastic, 65, 66 '
varnishes, 140, 141
Materials for sealing-wax, treat¬
ment of, 248
used for the fabrication of
sealing-wax, 234-250
Mechanics, copal lacquer for,
169
varnish for, 180
Medicine bottles, varnish for
coating, 163
Melting apparatus for sealing-
wax, 252-254
the sealing-wax mass, 250-
254
Metal and leather, gold lac var¬
nish for, 154
articles to be lacquered,
treatment of, 317, 318
Metals, colorless varnish for,
142
lacquers for, 177-181
Mineral yellow, 241
Minium, 238
29*
342
INDEX.
Minium—
varnish, 193
Monkhoven’s retouching varnish
for negatives, 143
Monmory and Rapbanel’s var¬
nish for floors, 126, 127
Moulding the sealing-wax, 255-
258
Mouldings, gilt varnish for, 133
Mulder’s explanation of the pro¬
cess by which varnish is
formed, 183
Naphtha, 50, 51
Natural products, 31
Neil’s carriage lacquers, 155,
156
Nitrate of bismuth, 247
Non-volatile, 31
Nut oil, 43
Oak, imitation of, 316
Ochre, 241
Oil, conversion of, into varnish,
by exposure to the light,
185, 186
cotton-seed, 43, 44
grape-seed, 43, 44
hemp, 42
lacquers, 29
linseed, 39-42
effect of exposure to
the air, 36
nut, 33
of turpentine, 48, 49
a solvent for
caoutchouc var¬
nishes, 172
Austrian and
French, proper¬
ties of, 48
varnishes, 97-101
directions for,
150
paintings, very transparent
mastic varnish for, 141
poppy, 42
Oil-
pumpkin, 43
Oils, density of, 45
drying, 32-46
adulterations of, 44-46
and non drying, bound¬
ary between, 34
composition, chemical
process in, 36, 37
various, 43, 44
fat non-drying, 31
refining of, 38
tar, 51
testing of, 44-46
Oxide of zinc, 83
varnish with, 199,
200
Ozocerite, 179, 180 .
Paraffin, 69
Parcel wax, 264, 266
Paris brown bookbinder’s lac¬
quer, 121
Pasteboard, mastic varnish for,
141
Permanent white, 247
Permanganate of potassium, 82
Petroleum and petroleum naph¬
tha, 50, 51
treatment of, to make a sol¬
vent of caoutchouc, 176
Pflug’s so-called platina paints,
215
Photographers, varnishes and
lacquers for, 142—
145
qualities required for,
142
Photographic negatives, 143
Photographs, lacquer for, 213
Pigments, 32
for sealing-wax, 237
Platina paints, Pflug’s, 215
Pliable sandarac lac varnish for
wood, 115, 116
Polish, dark-colored, 113
English, 112
INDEX.
343
Polish—
French, 113
mahogany, 113
ordinary cabinet-maker’s,
112
Vienna,113
white cabinet-maker’s, 114
Polishing lac varnishes, 307
the sealing-wax, 258-260
Poppy oil, 42
Preparation of volatile varnishes
and lacquers, 97-108
Priming, 303, 304
coat, laying on, 309
oil paint, application
of, 315
Principal color, laying on, 311
paint, pumicing, 311
Printer’s ink, 216, 217
varnish, with tar oil, 165
varnishes, 216, 217
consistency of, 222, 223
Properties of fat copal lacquers,
213, 214
Protoxide of manganese, 81
Pumicing lac varnishes, 307
materials used for, 308
the disguise coat, 311
the ground, 310
the paint, 305
the priming, 304
the principal paint, 311
Pumpkin oil, 43
Purple stains, 284
for leather, 286
for horn, ivory, and
bone, 284
Putties, 279, 280
Putty of isinglass and chalk, 280
with linseed-oil varnish, 280
Puttying, 309
Pyroacetic spirit, 54
Pyrolusite, 80
varnish with, 198, 199
Quickly drying glossy lac var¬
nish, 134
Ransonnet, Baron von, on the
application of Japanese var¬
nishes, 330-332
Raw materials, 30-84
Receipts for sealing-wax, 260-
275
Red for lacquering metal arti¬
cles, 319
furniture varnish, 116
Indian, 239
lead, 77
varnish, 193
sealing-wax, 261-265
stain for leather, 285
stains, 283-287
for horn, ivory, and
bone, 284, 285
Red wood lacquer, 136
Removing lacquer from metal
plate, 323-325
Resin added to varnish, 223
dammar, 63
dissolved, 110
elemi, 63, 64
lacquer (fat), 158
lacquers, 135
Resins added to fat varnishes,
201
and gums, 56-69
apparatus for dissolving,
87-89
dissolving, roasting, and
distilling, 85-97
for sealing-wax, 236
fossil or mineral, 57
importance of sorting before
using, 86
melting of, 91
plant producing, 57
solutions of, 110
to be powdered before melt¬
ing, 86
vegetable, how found, 57
which produce the most
beautiful varnishes, 57
Retouching varnish for nega¬
tives, 143
344
INDEX.
Retouching varnish—
for photographs, 143
Rosewood ground, lacquering
metal articles, 321
imitation of, 316
Runge’s chrome ink, black stain
for wood, 288
Saffron, 74, 75
Sandarac, 66
lac varnish, 137, 138
for wood, pliable,
115, 116
varnish, 148
for artists, 138
for furniture, 116
Sanders-wood, 75
Scarlet stain for leather, 286
School slates, black paint for,
216
Seed-lac, 74
Sealing-wax, characteristics of a
good, 233, 234
fabrication of, 233-275
forming or moulding,
255-258
■ invention of, 233
mass for, preparation
of, 249
melting, 250-254
materials used for the
fabrication of, 234-
250
of what it consists, 233
polishing the sticks of,
258-260
receipts for, 260-275
specialties in, 271
Sesquioxide of manganese, 81
varnish, 197, 198
Sheet metal, lacquer for, 152
Shellac, 66, 67
bleaching with chloride of
lime, 67
characteristics of, 66
for sealing-wax, 235
varnish, 114
Shoe lacquer, bronze-colored,
147
“Siccatif zumatique,” 199, 200
Siccative, manganese and zinc,
215
Sign painters, lacquers for, 158
Silver sealing-wax, 273
Slates, black paint for, 216
Soaking with linseed-oil varnish,
309
Soap, adding to printer’s ink,
223
lacquers, 225-227
Sohnt: Bros., Paris brown book¬
binder’s lacquer, 121
Solvent for copal, 95-97
quantity of, to be used for a
varnish, 109, 110
Spirit of wine, 52, 53
table of weight of a
litre, for different
percentages of alco¬
hol, 111
varnish, 98, 99
varnishes, directions
for, 114
varnish for wood work,
115
Stain for floor, 127, 128
Staining wooden articles, 314
Stains, mahogany, 281-283
used in the art of varnish¬
ing and lacquering, 281-
301
Steam, fabrication of varnish by,
228-232
Succinum, 59
Sugar of lead, 77, 78
Sulphate of baryta, 247
of lead, bleaching of linseed
oil with, 41
Sulphide of carbon, a solvent for
caoutchouc varnishes, 172
Sulphur, colors made with, 79
effect of bringing varnish
in contact with colors
made with, 79
INDEX.
345
Sulphuric acid, bleaching of
linseed oil with, 41
Superheating apparatus, 230-
232
Tar asphaltum, 58
lacquer, 166, 167
Tar oil and copal varnish, 163
varnish, elastic, 164
varnishes, 100
oils, 51
Terra cotta, lacquer for, 148
Testing of oils, 44-46
Thompson’s glue putty, 279, 280
gold lac varnish, 131
Tin and metal articles to be lac¬
quered, treatment of, 317, 318
Tinsmiths, lacquers for, 137
Tortoise-shell ground for lac¬
quering metal arti¬
cles, 320, 321
stain for horn, 299
Translucent sealing-waxes,
ground masses for, 273, 274
Transparent mastic varnish for
oil paintings, 141
sealing-wax, 272
Turmeric, 70
Turner’s lacquer, 123
latest lac varnish for, 124
Turpentine, 68
for sealing wax, 236
oil, boiling point of, 49
oil of, 48, 49
density of, 49
varnishes, 99-101, 150
Universal elastic varnish, 148
hard varnish, 148
Uruschi, 331
Varnish, 163
boiling, the practical part
of, 186-193
burning, 222
fabrication of by steam,
228-232
Varnish —
factory, fitting up a, 227-
232
importance of knowing for
what use it is intended,
109
last coat of, 313
Varnishes and lacquers, fabrica¬
tion of, 85-232
properties they should
possess, 25
universal use of, 27
volatile, directions for
preparing, 1 OS-
182
preparation of,
97-108
what is understood
by,25,28
division of, 189
fat, 182-216
for photographers, 142
printer’s, 216-227
to change the qualities of,
109
various properties of, 109
Varnishing, 305-307
and lacquering general
rules for, 302, 303
the art of, 279-325
of furniture, cases, instru¬
ments, etc., 313-317
of wooden articles, car¬
riages and furniture,
308-317
Veining of articles to be var¬
nished, sizing for color,
preparing, 314
with oil paint, 315-317
with water colors, 316
Venetian turpentine, 68
Vernis d’or, 149
Vienna lake, 240
Vienna polish, 113
Violet stain for leather, 301
Volatile copal varnishes, 122
... • .. .
346
INDEX.
Volatile—
fluids, used in the fabrica¬
tion of varnishes, 47-55
lacquers or varnishes, 29
raw materials. 31
varnishes and lacquers, di¬
rections for prepar¬
ing, 108-182
and lacquers, prepara¬
tion of, 97-108
on a small scale, 102
Wagner’s receipts for sealing-
wax, 265
Wall papers, lacquers for, 139
Walnut, imitation of, 316
stain for soft wood, 300
Water-colored pictures, lac var¬
nish for, 139
glass coating with, 226, 227
Waterproof caoutchouc lacquer,
157,158
coating for leather and tis¬
sues, 175, 176
paper, varnish for, 226
tissues, 226
Wax, 31, 68
fossil, 179, 180
lacquer, 181, 182
Weiderhold’s process of con¬
verting oil into varnish, 185
Wessner’s quickly-drying glossy
lac varnish, 134
White bookbinders’ lacquer,
120-122
cabinet makers’ polish, 114
pigments, 244
Wicker work, lacquer for, 117
Wood, Chinese varnish for ar¬
ticles of, 118, 119
lacquers, 136
pliable sandarac lac varnish
for, 115, 116
spirit, 52
stains for, 287, 288, 291,
292, 295, 297, 300
Wood work, ebony lacquer for,
118
spirit varnish for, 115
Wooden articles to be varnished,
treatment of, 313-317
Workshop and tools for var¬
nishing and lacquering, 301,
302
Yellow, chamois, for lacquering
metal articles, 320
pigments, 240
sealing-wax, 266
stain, bright golden, 296
for horn, 293
for leather, 293, 294,
295
for wood, 292, 295
from weld, 295
golden, for bone and
ivory, 296, 297
Zinc articles to be lacquered,
treatment of, 318
oxide of, 84
varnish with, 199, 200
white, 246
THE END.
C^TJLLOGrTTIE
OF
practical and Scientific Boo^
PUBLISHED BY
Henry Carey Baird & Co.
INDUSTRIAL PUBLISHERS, BOOKSELLERS AND IMPORTERS,
810 Walnut Street, Philadelphia.
Any of the Books comprised in this Catalogue will he sent by mail, free of
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AMATEUR MECHANICS’ WORKSHOP:
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ANDRES.—A Practical Treatise on the Fabrication of Volatile
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From the German of Erwin Andres, Manufacturer of Varnishes
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From the German of Dr. Emil Winckler and Louis E. Andes.
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ARLOT.—A Complete Guide for Coach Painters:
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<T)
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HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.’S CATALOGUE.
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HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.’S CATALOGUE.
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SOOTH.—Marble Worker’s Manual:
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BOOTH and MORFIT.—The Encyclopaedia of Chemistry,
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BRANNT.—A Practical Treatise on Animal and Vegetable
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BRANNT.—A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of Soap
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Illustrated by 163 engravings. 677 pages. 8vo. . . $7.50
BRANNT.—A Practical Treatise on the Raw Materials and the
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HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.’S CATALOGUE.
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BUCKMASTER.—The Elements of Mechanical Physics;
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BURGH.—Practical Rules for the Proportions of Modem
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BYLES.—Sophisms of Free Trade and Popular Political
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BOWMAN.—The Structure of the Wool Fibre in its Relation
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8vo. . $6.50
VlYRNE.—Hand-Book for the Artisan, Mechanic, and Engi¬
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HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.’S CATALOGUE.
7
Polishing, etc. By Oliver Byrne. Illustrated by 185 wood en¬
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Change Wheels for Screws on a Turning Lathe, and for a Wheel-
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Illustrated with twenty-nine plates and 100 wood engravings $5.00
8
HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.’S CATALOGUE.
CAREY.—A Memoir of Henry C. Carey.
By Dr. Wm. Elder. With a portrait. 8vo., doth . .
CAREY.—The Works of Henry C. Carey :
Harmony of Interests: Agricultural, Manufacturing and Commer'
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CLARK.—Tramways, their Construction and Working:
Embracing a Comprehensive History of the System. With an ex'
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COLBURN.—The Locomotive Engine :
Including a Description of its Structure, Rules for Estimating its
Capabilities, and Practical Observations on its Construction and Man¬
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COLLENS.—The Eden of Labor; or, the Christian Utopia.-
By T. Wharton Collens, author of “ Humanics,” “The History
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COOLEY.—A Complete Practical Treatise on Perfumery:
Being a Hand-book of Perfumes, Cosmetics and other Toilet Articles.
With a Comprehensive Collection of Formulae. By Arnold T
Cooley. 121110. . . . . . . _ _ $i. r o
COOPER.—A Treatise on the use of Belting for the Trans»
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With numerous illustrations of approved and actual methods of ar¬
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1 ractical Directions for the Treatment, Care and Management of
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chapters on the Transmission of Power by Ropes; by Iron and
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on the Experimental Investigations of Morin, Briggs, and others. By
John H. Cooper, M. E. 8vo.83.50
CRAIK.—The Practical American Millwright and Mvler.
By David Craik, Millwright. Illustrated by numerous wood en¬
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HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.’S CATALOGUE.
<>
CREW.—A Practical Treatise on Petroleum :.
Comprising its Origin, Geology, Geographical Distribution, History,
Chemistry, Mining, Technology, Uses and Transportation. Together
with a Description of Gas Wells, the Application of Gas as Fuel, etc.
By Benjamin J. Crew. With an Appendix on the Product and
Exhaustion of the Oil Regions, and the Geology of Natural Gas in
Pennsylvania and New York. By Charles A. Ashburner, M. S .
Geologist in Charge Pennsylvania Survey, Philadelphia Illustrated
by 70 engravings. 8vo. ^08 pages .... $.1-00
CROSS.—The Cotton Yarn Spinner :
Showing how the Preparation should be arranged for Different
Counts of Yarns by a System more uniform than has hitherto been
practiced; by having a Standard Schedule from which we make all
our Changes. By Richard Cross. 122 pp. i2mo. . 75
CRISTIANI.—A Technical Treatise on Soap and Candles:
With a Glance at the Industry of Fats and Oils. By R. S. Cris
TIANI, Chemist. AuLhor of “Perfumery and Kindred Arts.” Illus¬
trated by 176 engravings. 581 pages, 8vo. . . . $ 7 - 5 °
CRISTIANI.—Perfumery and Kindred Arts:
A Comprehensive Treatise on Perfumery, containing a History of
Perfumes from the remotest ages to the present time. A complete
detailed description of the various Materials and Apparatus used in
the Perfumer’s Art, with thorough Practical Instruction and careful
Formulae, and advice for the fabrication of all known preparations of
the day, including Essences, Tinctures, Extracts, Spirits, Waters,
Vinegars, Pomades, Powders, Paints, Oils, Emulsions, Cosmetics,
Infusions, Pastilles, Tooth Powders and Washes, Cachous, Idair Dyes,
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Lockwood’s Dictionary of Terms:
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MICHELL.—Mine Drainage:
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The whole being adapted for convenient use by Engineers, Surveyors,
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tion. By James Morton. Second Edition, enlarged, with the
Metric System. i2mo. ....... $1.00
NAPIER.—Manual of Electro-Metallurgy:
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By James Napier. Fourth American, from the Fourth London
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NAPIER.—A System of Chemistry Applied to Dyeing.
By James Napier, F. C. S. A New and Thoroughly Revised Edi¬
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including the Chemistry of Coal Tar Colors, by A. A. Fesquet,
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Printing, as shown at the Universal Exposition, Paris, 1867. Illus¬
trated. 8vo. 422 pages . ..$3-5°
NEVILLE.—Hydraulic Tables, Coefficients, and Formulae, for
finding the Discharge of Water from Orifices, Notches,
Weirs, Pipes, and Rivers:
Third Edition, with Additions, consisting of New Formulae for the
Discharge from Tidal and Flood Sluices and Siphons; general infor¬
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NICHOLSON.—A Manual of the Art of Bookbinding:
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NORMANDY.—The Commercial Handbook of Chemical An¬
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Or Practical Instructions for the Determination of the Intrinsic 01
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NORRIS.—A Handbook for Locomotive Engineers and Ma¬
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Comprising the Proportions and Calculations for Constructing Loco¬
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NYSTROM.—On Technological Education and the Construc¬
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For Naval and Marine Engineers. By John W. Nystrom, late
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O’NEILL.—A Dictionary of Dyeing and Calico Printing:
Containing a brief account of all the Substances and Processes in
use in the Art of Dyeing and Printing Textile Fabrics ; with Practical
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ORTON.—Underground Treasures'.
How and Where to Find Them. A Key for the Ready Determination
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OSBORN.—The Metallurgy of Iron and Steel:
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OSBORN. —A Practical Manual of Minerals, Mines and Min
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Comprising the Physical Properties, Geologic Positions, Local Occur¬
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OVERMAN.—The Manufacture of Steel:
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A Handbook for Blacksmiths and Workers in Steel and Iron, Wagon
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22
KENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.’S CATALOGUE.
PERCY.—The Manufacture of Russian Sheet-Iron.
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REGNAULT.—Elements of Chemistry:
By M. V. Regnault. Translated from the French by T. Forrest
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RICHARDS.— Aluminium :
Its History, Occurrence, Properties, Metallurgy and Applications,
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RIFFAULT, VERGNAUD, and TOUSSAINT.—A Practical
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HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.’S CATALOGUE.
23
F. Malepeybe. Translated from the French, by A. A. Fesquet;
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ROPER.—A Catechism of High-Pressure, or Non-Condensing
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ROPER. — Use and Abuse of the Steam Boiler.
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24
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ROSS.—The Blowpipe in Chemistry, Mineralogy and Geology:
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Eleventh edition. 4to.$10.00
SHUNK.—A Practical Treatise on Railway Curves and Loca¬
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SLATER.—The Manual of Colors and Dye Wares.
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THOMAS.—The Modern Practice of Photography:
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ORBIN—BRULL.—A Practical Guide for Puddling Iron and
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By Ed. Urbin, Engineer of Arts and Manufactures. A Prize Essay,
HENRY CAREY BAIRB & CO.’S CATALOGUE.
2 >
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VAILE.—Galvanized-Iron Cornice-Worker’s Manual:
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7 ILLE.—The School of Chemical Manures :
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Cloth . .i SO
1 VAHL.—Galvanoplastic Manipulations :
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WALTON. —Coal-Mining Described and Illustrated:
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WARE.—The Sugar Beet.
\ Including a History of the Beet Sugar Industry in Europe, Varieties
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WARN.—The Sheet-Metal Worker’s Instructor:
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WARNER.—New Theorems, Tables, and Diagrams, for the
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The whole illustrated by numerous original engravings, comprising
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Showing all the Combinations of Solid Forms which occur in Railroad
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WATSON.—A Manual of the Hand-Lathe :
Comprising Concise Directions for Working Metals of all kinds,
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Polishing; Inlaying by Veneers, and various methods practised to
produce Elaborate work with Dispatch, and at Small Expense. By
Egbert P. Watson, Author of “ The Modern Practice of American
Machinists and Engineers.” Illustrated by 78 engravings. #1.50
WATSON.—The Modern Practice of American Machinists and
Engineers :
Including the Construction, Application, and Use of Drills, Lathe
Tools, Cutters for Boring Cylinders, and Hollow-work generally .with
the most Economical Speed for the same; the Results verified bj
Actual Practice at the Lathe, the Vise, and on the Floor. Togethet
HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.’S CATALOGUE.
29
with Workshop Management, Economy of Manufacture, the Steam-
Engine, Boilers, Gears, Belting, etc., etc. By Egbert P. Watson.
Illustrated by eighty-six engravings. i2mo. . . . ^- 5 °
WATSON.—The Theory and Practice of the Art of Weaving
by Hand and Power :
With Calculations and Tables for the Use of those connected with the
Trade. By John Watson, Manufacturer and Practical Machine-
Maker. Illustrated by large Drawings of the best Power Looms.
8vo. . $ 7-50
WATT.—The Art of Soap Making:
A Practical Hand-book of the Manufacture of Hard and Soft Soaps,
Toilet Soaps, etc., including many New Processes, and a Chapter on
the Recovery of Glycerine from Waste Leys. By Alexander
Watt. Ill. i2mo..$3-oo
WEATHERLY.—Treatise on the Art of Boiling Sugar, Crys¬
tallizing, Lozenge-making, Comfits, Gum Goods,
And other processes for Confectionery, etc., in which are explained,
in an easy and familiar manner, the various Methods of Manufactur.
iag every Description of Raw and Refined Sugar Goods, as sold by
Confectioners and others. 121110.$*- 5 °
WIGHTWICK.—Hints to Young Architects:
Comprising Advice to those who, while yet at school, are destined
to the Profession; to such as, having passed their pupilage, are about
to travel; and to those who, having completed their education, are
about to practise. Together with a Model Specification involving a
great variety of instructive and suggestive matter. By :orge
W.1GHTWICK, Architect. A new edition, revised and considerably
enlarged; comprising Treatises on the Principles of Construction
and Design. By G. Huskisson Guillaume, Architect. Numerous
illustrations. One vol. i2mo. ...... £2.00
WILL.—Tables of Qualitative Chemical Analysis.
With an Introductory Chapter on the Course of Analysis. By Pro¬
fessor Heinrich Will, of Giessen, Germany. Third American,
from the eleventh German edition. Edited by Charles F. Himes,
Ph. D., Professor of Natural Science, Dickinson College, Carlisle, Pa
8 vo. . .$1-50
WILLIAMS.—On Heat and Steam:
Embracing New Views of Vaporization, Condensation, and Explo¬
sion. By Charles Wye Williams, A. I. C. E. Illustrated 8vo.
$3 50
WILSON.—A Treatise on Steam Boilers :
Their Strength, Construction, and Economical Working. By Robert
Wilson. Illustrated i2mo.$2.00
WILSON.—First Principles of Political Economy :
With Reference to Statesmanship and the Progress of Civilization.
By Professor W. D. Wilson, of the Cornell University. A new and
revised edition. 121110.#1.50
30 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.’S CATALOGUE.
WOHLER.—A Hand-Book of Mineral Analysis:
By F. WoHLER, Professor of Chemistry in the University of Gottin¬
gen. Edited by Henry B. Nason, Professor of Chemistry in the
Renssaiaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York. Illustrated
I2mo ..
WORSSAM.—On Mechanical Saws:
From the Transactions of the Society of Engineers. 1869. By S. W.
Worssam, Jr. Illustrated by eighteen large plates. 8vo. $2.50
RECENT ADDITIONS.
ANDERSON.—The Prospector’s Hand-Book:
A Guide for the Prospector and Traveler in Search of Metal Bearing
or other Valuable Minerals. By J. W. Anderson. 52 Illustrations
I2m 0 . cn
BEAUMONT.—Woollen and Worsted Cloth Manufacture:
Being a Practical Treatise for the use of all persons employed in the
manipulation of Textile Fabrics. By Robert Beaumont, M. S. A.
With over 200 illustrations, including Sketches of Machinery,
Designs, Cloths, etc. 391 pp. 121110.$2.50
BRANNT.—The Metallic Alloys :
A Practical Guide for the Manufacture of all kinds of Alloys, Amal¬
gams and Solders used by Metal Workers, especially by Bell Founders,
Bronze Workers, Tinsmiths, Gold and Silver Workers, Dentists, etc.|
etc., as well as their Chemical and Physical Properties. Edited
chiefly from the German of A. Krupp and Andreas Wildberger, with
additions by Wm. T. Brannt. Illustrated. i2mo. $2.5 o
BRANNT—A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of Vine¬
gar and Acetates, Cider, and Fruit-Wines;
Preservation of Fruits and Vegetables by Canning and Evaporation;
Pieparation of Fruit-Butters, Jellies, Marmalades, Catchups, Pickles,
Mustards, etc. Edited from various sources. By William T.
Brannt. Illustrated by 79 Engravings. 479 pp. 8vo. $5.00
BRANNT.—The Metal Worker’s Handy-Book of Receipts
and Processes:
Being a Collection of Chemical Formulas and Practical Manipula¬
tion 3 f°r the working of all Metals; including the Decoration and
Beautifying of Articles Manufactured therefrom, as well as their
1 reservation. Edited from various sources. By William T.
Brannt. Illustrated. i2mo. « 2 so
HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.’S CATALOGUE- 31
OAVIS._A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of Bricks,
Tiles, Terra-Cotta, etc.:
Including Hand-Made, Dry Clay, Tempered Clay, Soft-Mud, and
Stiff-Clay Bricks, also Front, Hand-Pressed, Steam-Pressed, Re¬
pressed, Ornamentally Shaped and Enamelled Bricks, Drain Tiles,
Straight and Curved Sewer and Water-Pipes, Fire-Clays, Fire-Bricks,
Glass Pots, Terra-Cotta, Roofing Tiles, Flooring Tiles, Art Tiles,
Mosaic Plates, and Imitation of Intarsia or Inlaid Surfaces, com¬
prising every Important Product of Clay Employed in Architecture,
Engineering, the Blast Furnace, for Retorts, etc., with a History and
the Actual Processes in Handling, Disintegrating, Tempering and
Moulding the Clay into the Shape, Drying Naturally and Artificially,
Setting, Burning with Coal, Natural Gas and Crude Oil Fuels, En¬
amelling in Polychromic Colors, Composition and Application of
Glazes, etc., including Full Detailed Descriptions of the Most Mod¬
ern Machines, Tools, Kilns and Kiln Roofs used. By Charles
Thomas Davis. Second Edition. Thoroughly Revised. Illus¬
trated by 217 Engravings. 501 pp. 8vo. . . . $5.00
POSSELT.—Technology of Textile Design :
Being a Practical Treatise on the Construction and Application of
Weaves for all Textile Fabrics, with minute reference to the latest
Inventions for Weaving. Containing also an Appendix, showing
the Analysis and giving the Calculations necessary for the Manufac¬
ture of the various Textile Fabrics. By E. A. Posselt, Head
Master Textile Department, Pennsylvania Museum and School of
Industrial Art, Philadelphia, with over 1000 illustrations. 293
pages. 4to.$5.00
POSSELT.—The Jacquard Machine Analysed and Explained:
With an Appendix on the Preparation of Jacquard Cards, and
Practical Hints to Learners of Jacquard Designing. By E. A.
Posselt. With 230 illustrations and numerous diagrams. 127 pp.
4 to . $300
RICH.—Artistic Horse-Shoeing :
A Practical and Scientific Treatise, giving Improved Methods of
Shoeing, with Special Directions for Shaping Shoes to Cure Different
Diseases of the Foot, and for the Correction of Faulty Action in
1 rotters. By George E- Rich. 62 Illustrations. 153 pages.
i2mo. ... $i.oo
RICHARDSON.—Practical Blacksmithing :
A Collection of Articles Contributed at Different Times by Skilled
Workmen to the columns of “ The Blacksmith and Wheelwright,”
and Covering nearly the Whole Range of Blacksmithing, from the
Simplest Job of Work to some of the Most Complex Forgings.
Compiled and Edited by M. T. Richardson.
Vol. I. 210 Illustrations. 224 pp. i2mo. . . . $1.00
Vol. II. 230 Illustrations. 262 pages. i2mo. , . #1.00
32 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.’S CATALOGUE.
RICHARDSON—The Practical Horseshoer: *
Being a Collection of Articles on Horseshoeing in all its Branches
which have appeared from time to time in the columns of-“The
Blacksmith and Wheelwright,” etc. Compiled and edited by M. T.
Richardson. 174 illustrations.$1.00
ROPER.—Instructions and Suggestions for Engineers and
Firemen:
By Stephen Roper, Engineer. i8mo. Morocco . $2.00
ROPER.—The Steam Boiler: Its Care and Management:
By Stephen Roper, Engineer. 12mo., tuck, gilt edges. $ 2.00
ROPER.—The Young Engineer’s Own Book:
Containing an Explanation of the Principle and Theories on which
the Steam Engine as a Prime Mover is Based. By Stephen Roper,
Engineer. 160 illustrations, 363 pages. i8mo., tuck . #3.00
ROSE.—Modern Steam-Engines:
An Elementary Treatise upon the Steam-Engine, written in Plain
language; for Use in the Workshop as well as in the Drawing Office.
Giving Full Explanations of the Construction of Modern Steam-
Engines : Including Diagrams showing their Actual operation. To¬
gether with Complete but Simple Explanations of the operations of
Various Kinds of Valves, Valve Motions, and Link Motions, etc.,
thereby Enabling the Ordinary Engineer to clearly Understand the
Principles Involved in their Construction and Use, and to Plot out
their Movements upon the Drawing Board. By Joshua Rose. M. E.
Illustrated by 422 engravings. 410., 320 pages . . $6.00
ROSE.—Steam Boilers:
A Practical Treatise on Boiler Construction and Examination, for the
Use of Practical Boiler Makers, Boiler Users, and Inspectors; and
embracing in plain figures all the calculations necessary in Designing
or Classifying Steam Boilers. By Joshua Rose, M. E. Illustrated
by 73 engravings. 250 pages. 8vo. .... $2.50
SCHRIBER.—The Complete Carriage and Wagon Painter:
A Concise Compendium of the Art of Painting Carriages, Wagons,
and Sleighs, embracing Full Directions in all the Various Branches,
including Lettering, Scrolling, Ornamenting, Striping, Varnishing,
and Coloring, with numerous Recipes for Mixing Colors. 73 Illus¬
trations. 177 pp. i2mo.$1.00
VAN CLEVE.—The English and American Mechanic:
Comprising a Collection of Over Three Thousand Receipts, Rules,
and Tables, designed for the Use of every Mechanic and Manufac¬
turer. By B. Frank Van Cleve. Illustrated. 500 pp. i2mo. $2.00
WAHNSCHAFFE.—Guide for the Scientific Examination of
the Soil:
By Dr. Felix Wahnschaffe. Translated from the German by
William T. Brannt. Illustrated by numerous Engravings. 8v&.
(In preparation.^
39
97 990
GETTY CENTER LIBRARY CONS
TP 935 A56 1882 BKS
c. 1 Andres. Erwin.
A practical treatise on the fabrication
3 3125 00328 9861