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THE 
 
 PAINTERS' ENCYCLOPEDIA. 
 
 CONTAINING 
 
 DEFINITIONS OF ALL IMPORTANT WORDS 
 
 IN THE ART OF 
 
 PLAIN AND ARTISTIC PAINTING, 
 
 WITH DETAILS OF PRACTICE IN 
 
 COACH, CARRIAGE, RAILWAY CAR, HOUSE, SIGN AND 
 ORNAMENTAL PAINTING, 
 
 INCLUDING 
 
 GRAINING, MARBLING, STAINING, VARNISHING, POLISH- 
 ING, LETTERING, STENCILING, GILDING, BRONZING, 
 
 AND VALUABLE HINTS AND HELPS IN 
 
 SCENE PAINTING, PORCELAIN PAINTING, PLAIN 
 PAINTING, DISTEMPER PAINTING, 
 
 AND ALL WORK IN WHICH A BRUSH, PENCIL OR PALETTE IS USED. 
 
 EL A BORA TEL V I L LUSTRA TED. 
 
 BY 
 
 FRANKLIN B. GARDNER, 
 
 Author of ii The Complete Carriage and Wagon Painter " "Everybody's Paint 
 Book" "How to Paint, etc., etc., etc. 
 
 NEW YORK: 
 
 M. T. RICHARDSON, Publisher. 
 1887. 
 
Copyrighted, 1887, 
 By M. T. RICHARDSON. 
 
 GIBB BROS., 
 ELECTRIC POWER PRINTERS, 
 57 ROSE ST., NEW YORK. 
 
 THE J PAUL GETTY CEN ( cR 
 LIBRARY 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 The general character of this book is indicated by its 
 title. The several topics are treated with a view to 
 technically instruct those who desire to make a study 
 of the art of painting- as practised in the paint-shops 
 and studios of the United States. 
 
 Every effort has been made to ensure scientific 
 accuracy in all the statements made. The knowledge 
 acquired during- a close connection with the business 
 for thirty-five years is embodied in these pages. The 
 employment of engravings, wherever it was deemed 
 necessary to more fully explain the letter-press, will 
 be found to add greatly to the value of the work as an 
 instructor, while the many extended articles, mostly 
 original, will, it is believed, be interesting even to 
 those who read only for pleasure, or for information on 
 general topics. 
 
 Care has been taken to make the book one easy of 
 consultation, virtually, a Dictionary in one alphabet, 
 readily distinguishable from a collection of exhaustive 
 treatises, and as such it is submitted by 
 
 THE AUTHOR. 
 
THE 
 
 Painters' Encyclopedia. 
 
 A is the first letter in almost all alphabets, excepting-, 
 perhaps, the Ethiopian where it takes the thir- 
 teenth place. The Roman alphabet of which the 
 letter press of this book consists, forms the base 
 of all other alphabets used to express the English 
 language. In fact there are but two alphabets 
 in common use, namely : the Gothic and the Ro- 
 man. 
 
 For many years the formation of the letters of 
 the alphabet, based as they were upon the Roman, 
 remained unchanged by sign writers and en- 
 gravers ; that is, the general features of a letter, 
 whether Roman, Gothic, Antique or one of varie- 
 ties of ornamental letters, would be used and no 
 endeavors be made to add to or detract there- 
 from ; but of late years there seems to be no end 
 to the shapes given to letters, and in many cases 
 this is so extravagantly carried on, that the origi- 
 nal form of the letter is lost, and one is obliged 
 to study a line well before the words can be read. 
 This is due, principally to type founders and letter 
 cutters, who, in order to increase their sales in- 
 vent "new styles," for which a demand is soon 
 
% 
 
 6 ABSORBENT GROUND. 
 
 created, as is the custom of the hatter, with his 
 spring 1 and summer styles. (See Lettering.) 
 
 Absorbent Ground. — A term given by painters to 
 a water-color mixture, which is laid upon canvas 
 or wood, which at once imbibes the oil of sub- 
 sequent coats of oil paint, leaving the colors in 
 which the design is made dry and brilliant. Art- 
 ists who work on silk and satin grounds, spread 
 the oil from their tubes upon blotting paper to 
 allow the oil to be absorbed then mix it upon 
 their palette with spirits of turpentine. 
 
 In carriage and car painting, the principal aim 
 is to make the foundation as non-absorptive as 
 possible, so that the oil of subsequent coats will 
 remain and oxidize with pigment as it was ap- 
 plied. 
 
 Accidental Colors. — Those colors which depend on 
 the affections of the eye. Thus, if we look for 
 some time upon a piece of yellow cloth, and sud- 
 denly turn the eye from it, we will see the color 
 of indigo ; red will give green, and so on. (See 
 Complimentary Colors.) 
 
 Adulteration. — The adulteration of pigments and 
 vehicles for paint is carried on to a great extent 
 by unprincipled dealers, and great care should 
 be taken to purchase only from reliable trades- 
 men, which, though not a certainty against adul- 
 teration, will at least lessen the chances of 
 imposition. 
 
 White lead may be adulterated with barytes, 
 the bane of all paints. Lakes, blues, and in short 
 all the stock of the paint shop may be tampered 
 with. It is not supposed that every painter is 
 chemist enough to detect the true from the false, 
 

 
 ADULTERATION o 7 
 
 but where there is doubt he may try the follow- 
 ing-: 
 
 To know when white lead is pure, rub a little of 
 it in the fingers and throw it on a piece of live 
 charcoal ; if pure the whole of it will turn a yellow- 
 ish hue, and in a few minutes will take the form of 
 metallic globules ; but if adulterated there will be 
 a residue of white earthy matter. 
 
 To detect vermilion, place a little on a red-hot 
 iron, if pure it will evaporate entirely ; if not, there 
 will be a residue of white earthy matter. 
 
 Chrome yellow may be tested by pouring a little 
 nitric acid upon it ; if it effervesces, it is adulter- 
 ated ; if it does not, it is pure. 
 
 Genuine indigo will burn. 
 
 Ultramarine is not affected by nitric acid when 
 adulterated ; but if pure it will lose its color com- 
 pletely. 
 
 The cost of genuine white lead and other colors 
 can readily be obtained by consulting any of the 
 numerous trade journals. The colors desired being 
 determined, one can form an approximate esti- 
 mate of what they should cost simply ground in 
 pure linseed oil, and any offer of "pure paint" at a 
 price which the cost for raw material precludes 
 should be carefully avoided. Pay a fair price, and 
 then insist upon a pure article. 
 
 While it is of great importance that the pigments 
 should be as good and pure as possible, it is even 
 of greater importance that what goes into them 
 should be of the best material and make. The best 
 of paints may, and will, prematurely perish if poor 
 japan or oil is used. A poor paint will wear much 
 longer with good japan and oil, than a good paint 
 with poor japan and oil. The oil and gum used 
 
s 
 
 AERIAL PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 in making- japans and varnishes is the "glue" 
 which holds the particles of paint together, and in 
 proportion as these are well made, and of a good 
 material the paint retains its tenacity a longer or 
 shorter time. 
 
 In keeping with the flood of poor paints put upon 
 the market by grinders, the varnish men iiave 
 been called upon for cheap japans and liquid driers, 
 until it has come to pass that these so-called driers 
 can be bought at a price below the actual cost of 
 raw linseed oil or turpentine, the price of gum not 
 considered. Any painter or consumer of paints 
 that stops to consider a moment must know that in- 
 ferior materials are being used, and the inference 
 is that they are rosin and benzine. 
 Aerial Perspective. — An optical term referring- to 
 color in the same manner as the term Linear Per- 
 spective refers to form. Distance diminishes the 
 size of an object, and distorts its form so far as 
 all those lines which run in the direction of vision 
 seem to converge and finally to meet. Thus the 
 two rows of houses forming an avenue are suffi- 
 cient to make the effect of perspective strikingly 
 felt, as they seem to meet each other in some 
 distant point, though in reality they are per- 
 fectly parallel. Distance also weakens the color 
 of an object, and under certain circumstances it 
 completely changes it. Thus the green forest and 
 the gray rocks become, at a certain distance, and 
 under certain circumstances, blue, perspective, 
 linear and aerial, and is therefore the means by 
 which painters represent distance. Linear per- 
 spective (q. v.) was first fully understood and ap- 
 plied by Michael Angelo in 1475 ; Aerial perspec- 
 tive by Claude Lorain in 1600. 
 
AMARANDA LAKE. 
 
 
 
 Affinity. — A chemical term used to denote a kind of 
 attraction by which the particles of different bodies 
 unite. Thus, when an acid and an alkali combine, 
 a new substance is formed called a salt, entirely 
 different in its chemical properties from either an 
 acid or an alkali. 
 
 When the ingredients composing- paint are put 
 together there is a certain species of affinity ex- 
 isting, but it is not the same affinity known to the 
 chemist. Again there is said to be a certain 
 quality of affinity between coats of varnish or 
 paint applied one over the other, and where this 
 does not exist there will be chipping or flaking of 
 one or more of the coatings, or the whole paint 
 structure may leave the surface over which it was 
 spread. 
 
 Alcohol. — Highly rectified spirit extracted by simple 
 distillation from various vegetable juices and in- 
 fusions of a saccharine nature, which have under- 
 gone vinous fermentation. Alcohol is the solvent 
 used in making spirit varnishes, although of late 
 years a similar substance called wood naphtha or 
 wood alcohol has in many cases superseded the 
 pure alcohol. 
 
 All-over Patterns. — A design of free growth, re- 
 peating horizontally and vertically. 
 
 Aluminium Leaf. — Thin sheets of metal used in 
 place of silver leaf, made from aluminium, a metal 
 which resists oxidation in a great degree. This is 
 called by some " nickel leaf", it is inexpensive and 
 durable. 
 
 Amaranda Lake. — A color inclining to purple, de- 
 riving its name from amaranth, a purple flower 
 which when plucked from its stem is a long time 
 
10 
 
 AMARANTH. 
 
 fading or withering-. This lake is said to he very 
 durable, but it is more of an artist's color than 
 for general work. 
 
 Amaranth. — A color inclining to purple. To make 
 it, tint white with blue and red, then sadden with 
 black. 
 
 Amassette.— An instrument similar in shape to a 
 palette-knife (q.v.) made of horn or ivory and used 
 by French painters for mixing colors. 
 
 Amber. — A fossil resin of trees belonging to an order 
 now extinct. It is found in various colors, but 
 chiefly in orange and yellow tints. 
 
 Amber Varnish. — A varnish made with amber as 
 follows : Having finely pulverized amber, put 
 eight ounces in a vessel containing half a pint of 
 best spirits of turpentine, place the vessel over a 
 fire till the amber is melted ; then add two ounces 
 of powdered shellac and heat again. Keep stir- 
 ring till the gum is melted, then add to the whole 
 an ounce of cold-drawn linseed oil. Stir all well 
 together, strain and it is fit for use. 
 
 Amber Varnish. — Take of amber gum, one pound ; 
 boiled oil (pale), 1 2 ounces ; turpentine, one pint. 
 First, put the amber in an iron vessel and heat it 
 until semi-liquid ; then add the oil, mix thorough- 
 ly, remove from the fire and when cooled a little, 
 put in the turpentine. This forms an excellent cov- 
 ering for uncolored wood, as holly or pine, being 
 very pale in color and extremely hard when dry. 
 
 Amber Varnish (Black). — Amber gum, one pound ; 
 boiled oil, one-half pint ; asphaltum, 8 ounces ; tur- 
 pentine, one pint. Melt the gum as before directed, 
 then add the asphaltum previously dissolved in 
 
AMERICAN METHOD. 
 
 11 
 
 the oil, heat all very hot, then remove from the 
 fire and allow to cool a little, when the turps may 
 be added. Black resin is used in place of the as- 
 phaltum by some manufacturers, but the asphal- 
 tum is best. 
 
 Amber Varnish (Pale.) — Take five pounds of the 
 pale transparent gum, melt it and add hot clari- 
 fied linseed oil, two gallons, boil until it strings — 
 like boiling molasses — then add four gallons of 
 turpentine. Good drying oil may be used, or 
 driers may be added if desired to dry quickly. 
 
 Amber Varnish (Pale). — Melt 8 ounces of gum, 
 and add one-half gallon of boiled oil, then dilute 
 with turpentine as above mentioned. 
 
 American Method of Carriage Painting.— The 
 
 name given to a system of painting vehicles of 
 any kind wherein certain prepared liquids and 
 paints are used, and certain means adopted for 
 doing the work, by which economy, dispatch, and 
 a uniform excellent quality of results are attained. 
 The system of painting, as here laid down, has 
 received the hearty commendation and adoption 
 of many of the leading carriage and car-builders 
 of both this country and Europe, and we do not 
 hesitate to devote a large amount of space to 
 present our readers with every detail ; giving in 
 most part the directions laid down by the Messrs. 
 Valentine & Company, who manufacture the lead- 
 ing articles used in this method. Supplemented 
 with copious notations by the author of this 
 work. 
 
 1. The Priming. — The first or priming coat upon 
 wood or iron, is of great importance, for on the 
 durability of the foundation, the durability of 
 
AMERICAN METHOD. 
 
 the superstructure mainly depends. There are 
 several methods employed for priming work, for 
 which various advantages are claimed. Some 
 think the old Engish method the best — consisting 
 of boiled oil and white lead with a little " patent 
 dryer " — but few there are who now depend upon 
 that as a priming, owing to the widespread denun- 
 ciation of boiled oil in the trade journals. There 
 are but few carriage-builders who could afford to 
 follow the method of painting as done by such 
 men as Thomas Gocldard, of Boston, a few years 
 ago. Customers nowadays are unwilling to wait 
 from six months to a year for the painting of 
 their carriage, and still less willing to pay the 
 price that must follow such a protracted piece of 
 work. 
 
 Carriages are now painted in first-class style 
 and manner in from fourteen to twenty days. 
 The principal reason for this, is the use of a prim- 
 ing, which obviates the application of several 
 coats of white lead paint, yet forms a solid but 
 elastic foundation. Priming must possess the 
 following qualities in order to insure good and 
 durable work : Penetrativeness, that it may 
 enter the pores of the wood and help to fill them ; 
 adhesiveness, that it will remain firm in the 
 pores, and not chip or flake and fly off ; com- 
 pactness, that it may form sufficient body to hold 
 up the subsequent coats, and prevent the absorp- 
 tion of moisture ; elasticity or toughness, to pre- 
 vent the chipping, peeling or flaking of after-coats ; 
 and uniform consistency, that all parts may be 
 done in an easy and uniform manner. Of the 
 many primings now in use by the leading carriage 
 painters of this country are permanent wood 
 
AMERICAN METHOD. 
 
 13 
 
 filling (of which more anon), and white lead and 
 raw oil. 
 
 It is claimed, on the one hand, that paint, no 
 matter what the composition maybe, simply forms 
 a coating- on the surface of wood or iron, and pro- 
 tects only so long as it remains uninjured, which 
 period of time would be shortened were it not for 
 the varnish coats which protect the paint. Now, 
 the oil absorbed from the point is trifling in com- 
 parision with the amount required to fill the pore, 
 and prevent further absorption. Beside this, the 
 volatility of turpentine and oil, after they have 
 entered the pores, causes them to evaporate, to 
 some extent, and to leave, under the coating of 
 paint, empty and hungry pores, which are so often 
 the cause of "chipping" and "flaking"; ' 'striking 
 in" or "loss of luster" in the varnish coats, owing, 
 without doubt, to the absorption of the oil from 
 subsequent coats by this porous under-ground. 
 
 2. Linseed Oil as a Primer. — Linseed oil, although 
 classed among the fat oils, possesses the quality 
 of penetration to a very great extent ; indeed too 
 much so, to have much value as a priming when 
 used alone. It has been found that when the outer 
 surface of such a priming has thickened, and be- 
 come partially dry, by the absorption of oxygen, 
 the under part is still soft, and is sucked more or 
 less into the pores of the wood ; but having no 
 great body or filling qualities, it does not perma- 
 nently stop them. It is evident that the presence 
 of turpentine would not help to remedy this defect 
 on the part of the oil, but would only increase it. 
 
 3. The Question of Time. — As we have before men- 
 tioned, the question of time is one of great impor- 
 
14 
 
 AMERICAN METHOD. 
 
 tance nowadays. Now, the method of filling- the 
 pores of the wood with numerous coats of white 
 lead and oil paint, will no doubt produce durability, 
 provided that proper care is taken, and plenty of 
 time given for each coat to dry thoroughly before 
 the next is applied. But to do this is difficult 
 where the work is at all done in a hurry; and if one 
 coat is imperfectly dried or preceded or followed 
 by coats of varying elasticity, there is liable to be 
 trouble. 
 
 This demand for speedy work, coupled with the 
 known difficulty of turning out a quick job in white 
 lead priming and filling which should be durable, 
 was the means of calling out the modern method 
 of carriage painting, known as the " Piotrowski 
 method," after the inventor of the Priming. 
 Walerian Piotrowski ; and afterwards christened 
 by the author of this book u The American Method 
 of Carriage Painting." Which we will now 
 briefly describe. 
 4. Priming Carriage and Ca^ Bodies. — Perma- 
 nent Wood Filling, the universal priming, is sup- 
 plied by the manufacturers, Messrs. Valentine 
 & Company of New York, in proper condition for 
 immediate use. It is a liquid of about the same 
 consistency as varnish, in two grades of color, 
 "light" and "dark"; the former being almost 
 colorless is used, principally, for work which is to 
 be painted in light colors ; the latter being of a 
 black-walnut color is used on any work where 
 color is no object. This is excellent for staining 
 pine and other soft woods to imitate hard wood. 
 The general character of the two are the same, the 
 only difference being in the color. There should 
 be nothing added to the P. W. F. but, if it appears 
 
AMERICAN METHOD. 
 
 15 
 
 too thick, in case of very cold weather, it may be 
 turned into a tin vessel and tv armed in a kettle of 
 hot water. When the body is completed by the 
 wood-worker, the painter gives it a thorough dust- 
 ing* inside and out, and proceeds to "prime it." 
 Pouring from the can a small quantity of P. W. F. 
 (it does not require much to coat a body, as one 
 gallon will, if rightly used, go over a surface of 
 from 800 to 1000 square feet of whitewood or pine), 
 with an ordinary paint brush — perfectly clean, or 
 one kept for the purpose, and not used for paint, 
 he coats over a portion of the body, say : the back, 
 or one side, taking- no great pains to spread it 
 evenly, he may daub it on, then, immediately wipe 
 over and rub in every part with rags (cheap 
 calico or muslin torn in pieces). This rubbing 
 with rags spreads the priming- evenly, and forces 
 it into the pores. Go on in this manner until the 
 whole is done, over wood and iron alike, leaving- 
 no surface coat as of paint or varnish, the hand 
 should scarcely be soiled or greased if passed over 
 a finished portion of the work. The canvassed 
 parts inside, if any, may be painted with slush 
 paint, for they would absorb a great amount of 
 P. W. F. with no corresponding benefit. It can- 
 not be too strongly impressed upon the mind of the 
 painter desiring- to make a successful use of the 
 P. W. F., that it must be put on sparingly and be 
 ivell imped or rubbed into all parts of the tvork, 
 and that only one coat should be applied. 
 
 The body should now be set aside to dry, and 
 forty-eight hours should be given, unless the 
 weather is favorable, when the time may be short- 
 ened to 36, and even to 24 hours without detri- 
 ment. There will be a thin film covering the 
 
16 
 
 AMERICAN METHOD. 
 
 hard parts of the wood, and the iron work, and 
 the P. W. F. being composed principally of oil and 
 a gummy or filling- substance will have entered 
 the pores and sealed them against the entrance 
 of dampness or the liquids from subsequent coats 
 of paint. 
 
 5. Priming the Wheels and Under Parts. — When 
 the wheels, beds, bars, etc., are finished by the 
 wheelwright, and before the grain of the wood is 
 raised by the atmosphere, a coat of P. W. F. is 
 put on over every part in the same manner as the 
 body, wiping it well with rags ; being careful to 
 coat the bottom of bars, tread of wheels, etc., for 
 this material is a bar to all dampness, and will 
 thus render the work more durable. This pre- 
 liminary coat is not properly the priming, for it 
 is put on to prevent the grain of the wood from 
 absorbing oil and dirt from the smith's hands, and 
 to prevent the rims or felloes from swelling with 
 the water used in putting on the tires. When 
 the ironing is completed, every part of the wood 
 is sandpapered and filed down until nothing but 
 clean wood and iron are seen, and every trace of 
 P. W. F. is removed from the surface — for the 
 preliminary coat has fulfilled its mission. 
 
 The preparation of the gears at this stage, is 
 the main operation, for if they are well done, but 
 little labor remains to be accomplished. The 
 priming is now in order, and going over every 
 part with P. W. F. in the same manner as at 
 first, this is soon ready for standing aside to dry. 
 The wood pores are sealed up, the surface of the 
 wood has a thin film covering it as also the iron- 
 work, and a more tenacious coating is not easily 
 found. The time employed so far upon the gears 
 
AMERICAN METHOD. IT 
 
 has been trifling-, compared to the old-fashioned 
 method of filling 1 up with with white lead and oil, 
 which we will now describe : 
 6. White Lead Priming.— White lead, the base or 
 foundation, should be pure, but dealers have 
 many means of adulterating it with sulphate of 
 baryta, or barytes (a native ore), gypsum, or 
 plaster-of-paris and carbonate of lime, or common 
 chalk, all of which are detrimental. Linseed oil, 
 the purest raw oil, also, should be used, but this 
 is often adulterated with menhaden (fish) oil, or 
 cotton-seed oil, and who can tell when the 
 materials he uses are pure ? Having" secured 
 what is supposed to be pure — and that from a 
 well-known responsible maker we will suppose to 
 be, the next requisite is pure black, in order to 
 form a gray or lead color. With these ingredients 
 the priming is formed. The white lead is beat 
 up with the raw oil until of a paint-like consist- 
 ency, then a little of the black is added to form a 
 clean lead color. Some add driers, such as Brown 
 Japan or Japan Gold size, but many prefer to use 
 none whatever. The priming- thus made is now 
 spread on the wood, and with a self-satisfactory 
 air the painter runs the job out on the drying 
 shed or other convenient place to dry. The oil of 
 the priming- gradually leaves the pigments — white 
 lead and black — and seeks the interior of the 
 wood, sucked in, as it were, by capillary attrac- 
 tion, and the pigments are thus virtually strained 
 and left upon the surface in a semi-dry porous 
 state — while the oil that entered the wood, not 
 being- a gummy or filling substance, stains the 
 interior of each little pore only — so much for 
 the priming ! Next, a coat of white lead and oil 
 
AMERICAN METHOD. 
 
 of similar consistency is put over it. The oil from 
 this coat is drank in by the porous pigments, 
 through which it passes and spreads itself over 
 the stain which the first coat gave to the pores, 
 and the second coat pigments are strained and 
 left porous, so on until possibly (if a good job is 
 to be made), five coats of "lead color " is given ; 
 by which time the pores may have become filled 
 by the successive layers of oil, and the pigment on 
 the surface too, is finally cemented together or 
 partially so. This is called the foundation, and 
 it was the only known way to paint a carriage 
 for many years. 
 
 The time consumed was enormous to our modern 
 views ; weeks were allowed the coatings to dry, 
 days were passed in sandpapering, and finally, 
 in order to meet the demand for quicker work, 
 the number of coats were lessened with a corres- 
 ponding decrease in durability, for no matter 
 what is put upon the surface, if of a liquid nature, 
 the wood will absord it, and unless it has power 
 to close those hungry pores, absorption will go on. 
 
 Anti- Absorption is the key-note of the Amer- 
 ican method of painting. 
 
 Kough-Stuff. — The leveling or rough-stuff coats 
 consist of a coarse mineral paint, designed to level 
 down or fill up all imperfections in the surface of 
 the carriage body (it is not used on gears), 
 such as plane and file marks, brad holes, etc. 
 
 The pigment is mixed with oil, japan varnish 
 and turpentine, and although the painter may 
 have a good recipe for this paint, and may mix it 
 himself, he cannot rely upon getting exactly the 
 same amount of elasticity at one time as at 
 another time, if mixed in small quantities. There- 
 
AMERICAN METHOD. 
 
 19 
 
 fore the ready-prepared paint, mixed from a 
 formula, which experience and careful tests have 
 proved best, and mixed in large quantities by 
 weight and measure is by far the surest and 
 safest to use. Valentine & Company's ground 
 rough-stuff is thus prepared, and it will also har- 
 monize and assimilate with the priming- of P. W. F. 
 best, for it is mixed with the same grade and make 
 of linseed oil. The P. W. F. priming on the body 
 being dry, it only requires a good dusting when it 
 is ready for the rough-stuff. This for the first 
 coat should have a very little raw oil added to 
 make it more in keeping with the elastic priming, 
 and it must not be spread too thick ; thick coats 
 are apt to show brush marks, and brush marks 
 in the rough-stuff will show in the finishing 
 varnish. Put the rough-stuff on smoothly and 
 set the body away for 48 hours to harden, or, if 
 preferred, when 24 hours have passed the largest 
 holes may be puttied part full, then give the other 
 24 hours for drying. 
 
 The second, third and fourth coats of rough- 
 stuff may be put on one day apart, then a thin 
 coat of stain, to guide the workman while rubbing, 
 say some yellow ochre or other cheap pigment 
 mixed in japan and turpentine, may be added. 
 
 Rough-stuff will always give better satisfac- 
 tion when applied in a medium thin coat. It is 
 entirely against common-sense to plaster on a 
 great mass of this paint, with the desire to level 
 the work quickly— better by far to put on extra 
 coats. 
 
 The rubbing of the rough-stuff, being a purely 
 mechanical operation, we will describe under its 
 proper head "Rubbing". 
 
AMERICAN METHOD. 
 
 When the work of rubbing is completed, the 
 body should be washed clean, and well dried off 
 with a chamois skin; then set aside for the evapor- 
 ation of moisture from the porous paint. 
 
 This "drying out" is of vital importance, and 
 should never be neglected. 
 
 Rough-stuff, providing it is good-rubbing rough- 
 stuff, is necessarily porous, no matter what pig- 
 ment or vehicle is used, and a portion of the water 
 used in rubbing is absorbed by it; therefore it is 
 essential, after the moisture has all been evapor- 
 ated, that the pores be closed, in order that the 
 oil of subsequent coats may not be absorbed by 
 them. 
 
 It is the aim in this system of painting to form 
 a non-absorptive surface, and it will be seen that 
 if the P. W.F. closed up the pores of the wood, it will 
 assuredty close up the pores of the leveling paint ; 
 therefore, a coating is applied to the rubbed sur- 
 face of paint in the same manner as in priming 
 the wood, i. e., wiping off all that will readily leave 
 the surface, thus rendering the paint elastic, yet 
 proof against the entrance of oil from all subse- 
 quent coats of color or of varnish. 
 . Coloring the Body. — The P. W. F. put on over 
 the rough-stuff having been allowed from 24 to 48 
 hours for drying; the coloring is now in order. 
 The surface must not be disturbed by sandpaper, 
 but a simple dusting off may be necessary. It is 
 customary with some painters to lay on a ground 
 coat of some color corresponding with the color 
 they intend to make the job, but this is more to 
 economize time in making a solid job and to save 
 expensive color, and with the exception of a few 
 extra fine or transparent colors, which are inten- 
 
AMERICAN METHOD. 
 
 21 
 
 sified or made more brilliant by application over 
 particular grounds, the color proper may be laid 
 directly on the prepared surface. 
 
 For black, either lampblack or Valentine's 
 Royal or coach black may be used for the first 
 coat, having sufficient oil in the mixture to cause 
 an egg-shell gloss, lay it on with a camel's-hair 
 brush and give, say 12 hours for drying. 
 
 To better illustrate the painting of a body, we 
 will take, for example, a job to be painted a dark 
 green, which is a standard color and one of the 
 most durable colors used in carriage work, and 
 carry it through to the finish. The panels only 
 are to be put in color, the remainder to be black. 
 Our first duty is to prepare a ground or prepara- 
 tion coat, and the following" will be found a good 
 formula : 
 
 ^ . To produce a dark green ground, mix lamp- 
 black and chrome yellow, with Crown coach 
 japan and turpentine to a proper consistency for 
 grinding- in the mill — approximating- as nearly 
 as possible the desired shade of green. When 
 ground add a tablespoonful of raw oil to a pint 
 of paint, and when well stirred together test 
 its drying qualities by spreading a little on the 
 thumb-nail and blowing upon it to hasten evapor- 
 ation, if it dries "dead" add a few drops of oil or 
 rubbing- varnish, or if too glossy add turpentine 
 until an egg-shell gloss is obtained. 
 
 This ground work or preparation coat should be 
 put on with a camel's-hair brush as smoothly as 
 can be, allowing no laps or brush marks to remain 
 visible. 
 
 The black portions are next to be done, and this 
 paint may be mixed in the same manner as the 
 
AMERICAN METHOD. 
 
 green — of lampblack or ivory black. When all is 
 coated set the job aside to dry until the next day, 
 at which time it should be well inspected and if 
 any scratches or indentations are found, soft dark 
 putty must be used to fill them, then rub over 
 gently with No. 1 sandpaper, partly worn, to pre- 
 pare it for the color proper — dark green and ivory 
 black. The dark green may be made as follows : 
 
 I£. Pulverize, on the stone, some Dutch pink, 
 and mix it with half and half japan gold size and 
 turpentine and grind it fine. Then mix in the same 
 manner some Prussian blue and grind it into an- 
 other cup. Now, little by little, add the blue to 
 the Dutch pink, stirring it constantly, until the 
 desired shade of green is obtained, and temper the 
 mixture with raw oil in the same manner as ex- 
 plained for the ground coat. Apply with camel's- 
 hair brush. The black parts may now receive 
 another coat of ivory or drop black. If ready- 
 mixed colors are used, instead of mixing them as 
 above, take Valentine's royal green for the green 
 parts, and jet black for the black portions, tem- 
 pering- them as described with oil. 
 
 It is the usual custom to make color-and-varnish 
 by adding to a partly filled cup of varnish a little 
 color ; but it is considered best by some of the first- 
 class painters to grind the dry pigment directly in 
 varnish, and thus overcome the objection to the 
 oil and turpentine in the color-and- varnish. How- 
 ever, in the work before us, we desire to produce a 
 rich or deep shade of green, and to carry out the 
 plan, we will glaze the color, instead of putting on 
 color-and-varnish, in its ordinary mixture. Yel- 
 low lake possesses the power, when used for a 
 glazing over green, to increase the intensity or 
 
AMERICAN METHOD. 
 
 23 
 
 depth of the color, and many handsome shades are 
 made in that way. It may be mixed as follows : 
 
 I£ . Pulverize the lumps and mix it in hard-drying' 
 body varnish; grind fine, then add a very little of 
 the Dutch pink color. Stir well and apply with 
 badger-hair varnish brushes. 
 
 The black parts are now ready for color-and- 
 varnish and we desire — as in the case of the 
 panels— a first-class black ; so instead of using 
 ordinary color-and-varnish, we will employ black 
 japan (which see). Three coats of this well rubbed 
 with pulverized pumice between each coat, will 
 give a good, jet-black surface for finishing over. 
 
 The glazed panels having been rubbed lightly 
 with pumice-stone, and a coat of hard drying 
 bod}' varnish given, at the time the black japan 
 was applied, the whole is now ready for a final 
 rubbing down and finishing coat of wearing body 
 varnish. 
 
 9. The Gears. — We left the gears with the priming 
 of P. W. F., and after 24 hours we may apply 
 either a thin coat of lampblack color, or a thin 
 lead color, the object of which is to see the open 
 grain and imperfection so that putty may be 
 used to plaster over and fill them. The surface 
 of the P. W. F. must not be rubbed, the paint 
 should be applied as smoothly as possible, for no 
 great amount of sandpapering is to be done. 
 Putty all imperfections after the paint has dried, 
 which will be perhaps 48 hours, for this first coat 
 over the P. W. F. should be a little more oily 
 than is necessary in any other coatings. 
 
 When the putty is dry, gently rub over with 
 fine sandpaper, but don't cut through the paint. 
 When done, dust off, apply the color and color- 
 
24 
 
 AMERICAN METHOD. 
 
 and-varnish, as usual, moss clown, give a second 
 coat of color-and-varnish, rub this latter with 
 pumice-powder, wash off, stripe, and give a coat 
 of clear elastic leveling- varnish, let dry, rub 
 again and finish with elastic gear varnish. 
 
 This completes the work of the American 
 method, and we believe any one at all acquainted 
 with painting will readily see the correctness of 
 our theory, regarding absorption, and be enabled 
 by our description of how the work is done, to 
 give it practical test in his workshop. "We add 
 on opposite page a synopsis of the method showing 
 the time consumed in doing a piece of work. 
 
 American Vermilion.— A pigment made from 
 white lead and bichromate of potash. These are 
 boiled together, washed, filtered, pressed, dried 
 and pulverized, either with rollers or with the 
 hand. It must not be rubbed so hard as to break 
 the crystals, or it will lose its color and show what 
 it really is — orange chrome. American vermil- 
 ion is greatly inferior to that known as English 
 vermilion (which see), but for ordinary work such 
 as wagons and trucks it answers a good purpose. 
 It should never be ground in the paint-mill. 
 
 Amethyst. — A purple or violet color used by artists 
 in emblazoning the arms of English nobility. 
 
 Ammonia. — A volatile alkali, which is a deadly 
 enemy of varnish. It is an important chemical 
 compound in the form of a transparent, colorless 
 and pungent gas. The name was probably derived 
 from the temple of Amnion in Libya, Africa, near 
 which the chloride of ammonium was first made 
 from the soot produced by burning camels' dung. 
 It is now obtained as a by-product in thedistiJla- 
 
AMERICAN METHOD. 
 
 25 
 
 SYNOPSIS 
 
 OF THE 
 
 AMERICAN METHOD ON BODIES. 
 
 1st day, Apply P. W. F., and wipe off, For drying give 48 hours. 
 
 od " 
 
 First coat of rough-stuff a little oily, 
 
 
 48 
 
 
 5th " 
 
 2d " " ordinary, 
 
 «< 
 
 24 
 
 tt 
 
 6th " 
 
 3d " " " 
 
 
 24 
 
 a 
 
 7th " 
 
 4th " 
 
 <« 
 
 24 
 
 
 8th " 
 
 Stain coat over rough-stuff 
 
 « « 
 
 24 
 
 a 
 
 9th " 
 
 Rub down with pumice-stone. 
 
 
 
 
 10th " 
 
 P. F. W. rubbed over and well wiped off, 
 
 «« 
 
 24 
 
 tt 
 
 12th " 
 
 1st coat of color or lampblack. - 
 
 «< 
 
 24 
 
 n 
 
 13th " 
 
 2d " " ivory black, - 
 
 a 
 
 24 
 
 a 
 
 14th » 
 
 1st coat of color-and-varnish or Black Japan, 
 
 tt 
 
 48 
 
 a 
 
 16th " 
 
 2d " " 
 
 
 48 
 
 tt 
 
 18th *' 
 
 3d " 
 
 a 
 
 48 
 
 a 
 
 20th " 
 
 Finishing coat of Wearing Body Varnish. 
 
 
 18 days. 
 
 
 ON GEARS. 
 
 
 
 
 1st day, P. W. F. put on the completed gear and 
 
 
 
 
 
 wipe off, give 
 
 48 hours. 
 
 2d " 
 
 Putty up all open-grained places 
 
 
 24 
 
 
 4th " 
 
 Sandpaper, putty, and put on P.W.F. again, 
 
 
 48 
 
 1 1 
 
 6th " 
 
 Apply color lampblack, - 
 
 tt 
 
 24 
 
 < t 
 
 7th " 
 
 Apply color-and-varnish, quite strong, - 
 
 
 48 
 
 tt 
 
 9th " 
 
 Rub and give second coat of color-and- 
 
 
 
 
 
 varnish, - - - - - 
 
 
 48 
 
 a 
 
 11th " 
 
 Rub down, stripe, and ornament, 
 
 tt 
 
 24 
 
 it 
 
 12th " 
 
 Give coat of rubbing varnish, 
 
 a 
 
 48 
 
 1 1 
 
 14th " 
 
 Finish with Elastic Gear Varnish. 
 
 
 13 days. 
 
 The above time is given as the minimum or shortest possible 
 time to do a first-class job, but as the painter will generally have 
 more time to spare upon the job, he may divide it, giving the 
 extra time for the P. W. F. and the varnish coats to harden. 
 
AMMONIA. 
 
 tion of bituminous coal in making gas, and from 
 refuse animal matter in preparing bone-black, etc. 
 
 A solution of this gas in water is used in medi- 
 cine and is called spirits of hartshorn, or liquid 
 ammonia. 
 
 This pungent alkali exists in bituminous coal, 
 whence it is thrown off in form of gas ; also in 
 animal life, whence it is thrown off by the respir- 
 atory organs ; and the atmosphere of large cities 
 is impregnated with it. Spirits of ammonia is 
 used by the painter as a detergent or remover of 
 varnish coats on carriages, and although it effect- 
 ually destroys the surface and enables the work- 
 man to scrape and wash off the varnish or paint, 
 it is not recommended by the experienced painter, 
 except for common work, owing to the liability of 
 injury to the wood and consequent trouble in 
 re-painting. 
 
 It is a well-known fact among carriage-makers 
 that the largest share of the work they turn out 
 is ruined by ammonia, and yet it seems impossible 
 for them to educate their customers — carriage 
 owners — up to that point, where judgment in the 
 housing of a carriage is needed. Stables are fitted 
 up with a view to prevent the ammonia from the 
 horses getting into the carriage house, and after 
 all their care in this respect — as they think — com- 
 munication is made between stable and carriage 
 house by doors, which are frequently ajar. The 
 manure is in some cases carted through the room, 
 and we have known of cases where a drain from 
 the stable carrying off the liquid excresences, 
 passed under the floor of the carriage house, and, 
 connecting with the drain from the washing floor 
 within, sent up unrestrained the very enemy they 
 
AMMONIA. 
 
 had sought to exclude. The odor of ammonia is 
 very strong-, and yet there may he a sufficient 
 quantity in the air to affect the varnish, hut not 
 sufficient to be readily discovered by the smell. 
 Livery stables are, as a rule, thoroughly impreg- 
 nated with ammoniacal gas, and here it is that 
 much city work is destroyed, unthought of. The 
 action of the gas is said to be, by an eminent 
 chemist, as follows : The gas rises and having an 
 affinity for almost everything, settles in the form 
 of a powder upon each mite of dust floating in the 
 atmosphere. The dust settles to its resting place, 
 possibly some part of a well-painted carriage, and 
 carries with it the ammonia, which, so long as it 
 remains dry, is inactive, but so soon as the least 
 dampness or moisture strikes it, the enemy begins 
 its work annihilating the life of the varnish — oil. 
 Thus it is where a carriage standing in a poorly 
 contrived house, and used daily (with frequent 
 washing or run out in damp weather), will show 
 the effects of ammonia much quicker than another 
 carriage standing unused in the same room. The 
 effects of ammonia on a varnished surface is, first, 
 a dullness or loss of lustre upon parts exposed to 
 falling dust ; those parts, such as the slanting 
 side of the seat ; the sides just under the seat 
 skirt, etc., will appear as bright as ever; second, 
 a million fine lines or minute cracks running in 
 ever}^ direction, next a dry whitish powder which 
 may be rubbed off with the hand, and finally the 
 utter decay of varnish and possibly paint. Large 
 cracks are seldom caused by ammonia , it is a grad- 
 ual eating away of the oily portion of the material, 
 leaving the gum to be rubbed or washed away. 
 Various plans have been tried to arrest the ris- 
 
28 
 
 ANGLE FITCH. 
 
 ing of ammoniacal gas in stables, one of which be- 
 ing- the sprinkling of chloride of lime around the 
 floor, and said to form with ammonia, chloride of 
 ammonia or sal ammoniac, which is not volatile, 
 but we have never known of a case where a cure 
 was effected. The sure way is to keep all var- 
 nished work, such as carriages, in a separate build- 
 ing, which should be dry and moderately warm, 
 for cold will affect varnish almost as badly as am- 
 monia. 
 
 Angle Fitch.— A small, flat brush 
 with the hair or bristles placed at 
 an angle with the handle, used 
 by decorators in running lines or 
 stripes on flat surfaces. 
 
 Anglo Japanese Work. — Orna- 
 mented work done with autumn 
 leaves, fastened by gum or cement 
 to a painted surface. An old work- 
 box or other like article is coated 
 with ivory black, ground in brown 
 japan to dry quickly, after which 
 autumn leaves are laid on and AngliTfitch 
 gummed securely in the order de- Brush. 
 sired. When dry the whole is varnished with 
 several coatings of carriage rubbing varnish. 
 
 Aniline Black Varnish.— The French have recent- 
 ly brought out a beautiful black varnish made as 
 follows : Dissolve 7 drachms of antique blue, 2 
 drachms fuchsine, 5 drachms napthaline yellow, 
 in one quart alcohol. One application is suffi- 
 cient to render any object an ebony black. 
 
 Aniline Colors. — Aniline was discovered in 1826 by 
 Unverdorben, as a product of the distillation of 
 
ANTIQUE PAINTING. 
 
 29 
 
 indigo. It attracted immediate attention from 
 chemists, was made the subject of many research- 
 es, which contributed greatly to enlarge the facts 
 and theories of modern chemistry. But it did not 
 acquire any commercial importance till 1856, when 
 W. H. Perkins prepared from it the beautiful pur- 
 ple dye mauve. 
 
 The brilliancy and intensity of this color attract- 
 ed the attention of chemists and dyers, and in a 
 short time an entirely new series of colors was 
 discovered by which the art of dyeing has been 
 almost revolutionized. Attempts have been made 
 to introduce colors made for the painter from ana- 
 line, but so far they have proved extremely fugitive. 
 
 Antimony Yellow. — Yellow pigments formed by a 
 compound of the oxides of lead and antimony. 
 The principal one of these yellows is Naples yellow, 
 a soft shade of canary color, and one frequently 
 used for panel colors on carriages and sleighs. 
 It is extremely hard to grind either upon the stone 
 or in a mill, and resort is had by some painters 
 to soften the lumps by placing the pigment in a 
 tin vessel having holes in the bottom and pouring 
 water upon it. The water is absorbed, and when 
 the superabundant water has drained through the 
 holes, the pigment is placed upon a board or table 
 to dry ; after which it is found to crush and grind 
 easily. 
 
 There are many other pigments which may be 
 treated in a similar manner, but in every case care 
 should be taken that all moisture has evaporated 
 before mixing the pigment for paint. 
 
 Antique Painting. — A name frequently used in the 
 place of transferring (which see). 
 
30 
 
 ANTWERP BLUE. 
 
 Antwerp Blue. — Also called, Haarlem, Berlin, or 
 Mineral blue. A pigment similar to Prussian 
 blue, but of a lighter color and brighter. Tube 
 color of this blue is preferred by artists to Prus- 
 sian blue on account of its durability. Prussian 
 blue is a fugitive color, in artists' work. 
 
 Antwerp Brown. — A mixture of asphaltum and dry- 
 ing oils which is less liable to the troubles, such 
 as cracking, chipping, etc., than the ordinary 
 asphaltum of the dealer. Bituminous coal and 
 bituminous ochres, peat or bog earth afford similar 
 browns, and these too are often added to the 
 asphaltum solution. It is seldom used on car- 
 riage work. 
 
 Arabesque. — A peculiar kind of fantastic decoration 
 as its name implies — after the Arabian manner — 
 commonly employed in architecture, and which 
 Spanish Moors are supposed to have introduced 
 into modern Europe. Arabesque consists usually 
 of combinations of plants, birds and animals of all 
 kinds, including the human figure, and embracing 
 not only every natural variety, but stepping with- 
 out hesitation beyond the bounds of nature. 
 Raphael's arabesques which adorned the Vatican, 
 are said to be the most beautiful and the most 
 famous which the modern world has produced. 
 Many of the designs sold as transfers or decalco- 
 manie are of this order, and there could scarcely 
 be anything more appropriate for sleighs and 
 wagon work. 
 
 Architrave. — Moldings enclosing door or window, 
 and also next beneath a frieze. 
 
 Armenian Blue. — The ancients employed a species 
 of ultramarine, and called also by them Cyanus, 
 
ASPHALTUM. 
 
 31 
 
 which was extremely durable and of an expensive 
 character. The blue now labeled American, is 
 simply an imitation. 
 
 Arsenical Green. — A pigment similar to Scheele's 
 green, Mitis green, Paris green, etc., all being, 
 simply, the arsenite of copper. 
 
 Arsenic Yellow. — A pigment prepared from arsenic 
 fluxed with litharge and then powdered. It is 
 similar to orpiment (q. v.) in color, but not being 
 affected by lead it is not so liable to change in tint. 
 All tints, however, of white lead are destroyed by 
 arsenic colors. 
 
 Asphaltum. — Called also bitumen, mineral pitch, 
 Jews' pitch. It is found in a natural state upon 
 the shores of the Dead sea, and from which that 
 expanse of water takes the name of Asphaltic 
 Lake ; and is also found as a residue in the distil- 
 lation of various resins and bituminous matters, 
 in preparing- essential oils. Asphaltum is princi- 
 pally dissolved in spirits of turpentine and is sold 
 by the retailer at a low price. Its fine brown 
 transparency lures to its free use in shading on 
 gold, notwithstanding- the rapid destruction which 
 awaits the work on which it is much employed, 
 owing* to its disposition to crack by changes of 
 temperature and the atmosphere, but for which it 
 would be a most beautiful pigment. 
 
 For shading gold scrolling, it is best to add 
 one-third burnt sienna tube color, which lends a 
 warmer hue to the shade, and adds durability. 
 The manner of working the asphaltum shading, 
 may here be mentioned. The gilding being com- 
 pleted, give it a coat of rubbing varnish, for if 
 the shade be put upon unvarnished gold, a portion 
 
ASPHALTUM. 
 
 will be absorbed and the work will appear cloudy 
 or ' 'muddy," a feature which the varnish prevents; 
 beside, when the gold has been varnished over there 
 will be no trouble in wiping- off any of the shade 
 that is not correct or desirable. 
 
 The varnish coat being- dry, remove the gloss by 
 rubbing with pumice-stone and water, or curled 
 hair, then with the asphaltum and sienna mixture 
 (as before stated) thinned so it is very transparent 
 — simply a glazing with turpentine and liquid drier 
 or japan. Begin the laying on, using a rather 
 short-haired camel's-hair pencil, putting the shade 
 only where it is required to be darkest ; let it dry, 
 then go over it again and blend off to the light 
 shades, and repeat until the shade is dark enough 
 — do not seek to make it too dark a shade. There 
 are movements or "sweeps" of the pencil that 
 cannot be described, one must see the work done 
 to be proficient. Never make an attempt to 
 retouch a spot, or laps will occur and spoil the 
 work. 
 
 Black japan as used by the carriage-maker is 
 composed principally of asphaltum gum. And 
 the baking japans of the japanner are also pre- 
 pared from it. 
 
 Asphaltum forms a good stain for changing 
 oak-grained work to black walnut. Simply dilute 
 the asphaltum with rubbing varnish until a glaz- 
 ing is produced, then apply an even coat with 
 varnish brushes. Asphaltum was, and may 
 be still, used by glass sign painters to back up 
 their gold leaf, .but its certainty to peel off by 
 atmospheric changes, no matter how it may be 
 mixed, should discourage its use entirely. Asphal- 
 tum is a useful paint or lacquer in every carriage 
 
AUREOLIN YELLOW. 
 
 33 
 
 paint shop for glazing over "touched up " places 
 on black, before varnishing", and especially is this 
 the case where the ground was made with black 
 japan. 
 
 Auburn.— A brownish red, made by adding red to 
 raw umber. 
 
 Aureolin Yellow. — An excellent pigment, not acted 
 upon by lime or potash and therefore extensively 
 used for fresco and silicious painting. It is ex- 
 tremely permanent, and is not affected by admix- 
 ture with other colors. 
 
B 
 
 B. — The second letter of the English alphabet, con- 
 sisting of a vertical bar joined to two semi-circles. 
 The lower circle of the letter is made a trifle larger 
 than the top circle, although this is not so notice- 
 able when the letter is in proper position, as it is 
 when it is turned over or " upside down." This is 
 done to give a perfect balance to the letter, for if 
 the upper and lower semi-circles were alike, the 
 letter would appear as if it could easily be pushed 
 over. As it is, it stands firmly and presents a bold 
 appearance. 
 
 Back-ground. — That part of a picture which repre- 
 sents the extreme distance, or the space behind a 
 group of figures. 
 
 Backing. — In painting or gilding on glass, that which 
 is to appear on the front of the glass is, when dry 
 coated upon the back, called backing or " backing 
 up". It was the practice some years ago to back 
 up gold letters with asphaltum, owing to its quick 
 drying and glossy properties, but experience has 
 proved that this is a very bad proceeding, the as- 
 phaltum being extremely fugitive. A mixture of 
 lamp-black and varnish with some oil added is far 
 superior as a backing — in fact any oil paint will 
 answer a good purpose. 
 
 Badger. — An animal very similar to a bear, in- 
 habiting most parts of Europe, Asia and North 
 
BAKING JAPAN. 
 
 35 
 
 America; one species found in this country is 
 called the ground hog". The hairs or bristles of 
 this animal are made into brushes for painters. 
 
 A large proportion of the so-called badger-hair 
 brushes are made with a mixture of white skunk 
 and hog hair. Even in the badger-hair there is 
 a difference in quality ; the winter killed animals 
 produce the best hair, and that which grows down 
 the back is decidedly the best and liveliest, and 
 makes a brush that will give perfect satisfaction 
 and outwear those made of inferior stock. These 
 brushes, preferred by the best workmen for var- 
 nishing on carriage bodies to the fitch-hair (q. v.) 
 brush, from the fact that they hold or carry more 
 varnish, possess more spring or elasticity, and 
 the hair is not apt to break and give annoyance 
 in varnishing as is the case with the fitch. 
 
 Badger Softener. — A brush made of badger-hair, 
 for use in softening or blending the marks made 
 in graining various woods. 
 
 Baking Japan. — A composition of asphaltum or 
 Jews' pitch (q. v.), used for giving color and a 
 gloss at the same time to any surface capable of 
 withstanding a strong heat, as hardware tools, 
 machinery, etc. A baking japan should be made 
 with a view to certain adaptions, as for example, a 
 japan exactly suited for tinware and goods of that 
 description Avhich requires a temperature of say 
 120 degrees Fah. to properly bake, would be 
 entirely inappropriate for grates and fenders and 
 other iron goods which are to be exposed to rough 
 usage, or, perhaps, to a considerable degree of 
 heat while in use. The latter work needs an oven 
 at about 500 degrees Fah., in which it will harden 
 
BAKING JAPAN. 
 
 in about twenty minutes, if the work is well pre- 
 pared, while at the temperature requisite for the 
 other class of goods, it will not harden and become 
 durable though baked for daj^s. On the other 
 hand, the japan exactly suitable for the lighter 
 goods would be burned and irretrievably injured 
 at this high heat. Consumers will learn from this 
 hint, if they have not already learned from experi- 
 ence, that it is of the utmost importance for them 
 to let the varnish manufacturer or dealer know 
 exactly what uses his japans are required for, in 
 order to be supplied with the kind adapted to the 
 particular work in hand. Much vexation would 
 be saved if japanners would follow the rule of pro- 
 curing different and suitable brands of japan for 
 their different kinds of work, and much vexation 
 will be caused if they neglect to do so ; and persist 
 in the common habit of coating lunch boxes with 
 the same coating they apply to piano plates and 
 sewing machines. Another cause of bad results is 
 the tendency on the part of the emplo3 7 es and even 
 of the boss himself, no matter how intelligent, to 
 tamper with the composition of the best adapted 
 stock by thinning, thus rendering it entirely unfit 
 for the use intended or indeed for any other. A 
 good japan for cast-iron work, we will say, is com- 
 posed of certain ingredients in certain proportions, 
 these ingredients always bearing the same rela- 
 tion to each other, and each being as necessary as 
 the others to perfect the mass. Among these in- 
 gredients, glutinous matters form no inconsidera- 
 ble part. Now, when a japan exactly adapted to 
 its use in this way is applied to a piece of iron and 
 afterward submitted to an appropriate degree of 
 heat, to the mind of the uneducated artisan it ap- 
 
BAKING JAPAN. 
 
 37 
 
 pears to simply dry and form a glossy and endur- 
 ing- coating- on the surface of the metal. Really, 
 however, the process is a much more complicated 
 one. In the first place the heat applied to the 
 metal opens the pores of that metal, at the same 
 time rarifying and expelling the air contained in 
 those pores. Then the coating applied, rendered 
 more than ordinarily fluid by the same heat sinks 
 into and fills up the apertures thus opened and 
 rendered vacant, and the consequence is that the 
 japan not only sticks to the surface of the iron, as 
 it is said to do in common parlance, but it is abso- 
 lutely rooted thereto by myriads of invisible but 
 tenacious roots which extend down into its very 
 body. 
 
 Next comes the cooling process in which the 
 pores return to their former size, gripping these 
 roots more firmly as they contract until the film 
 on its exterior is held to the metal almost as rigidly 
 as though it were a part and parcel thereof. 
 
 The case viewed in this light, it will not be diffi- 
 cult for anyone to comprehend what the result 
 will be where the character of the japan is altered 
 by the unguarded addition of turpentine or oil. 
 
 The question at once arises, how should our 
 japans be liquified when of too firm a consistency ? 
 Precluded from the use of turpentine, our standard 
 resort, and also of oil, what shall be used for thin- 
 ning? We answer, use baking copal varnish 
 which has properties which not only render it the 
 best thinner at present known, but which has 
 other properties which fit it to proper^ anchor the 
 japan to the metal. Having prepared the japan 
 for use, the next necessity — also a very important 
 one — is to have the surface of the metal in a pro- 
 
38 
 
 BAKING JAPANS. 
 
 per state ; particularly to have it cleaned from all 
 substances which will prevent the coating 1 from 
 taking- hold, such as animal oils, coal oil, or other 
 extraneous matters. 
 
 In regard to the number of coats necessary to 
 the production of good work, a great deal de- 
 pends upon the nature of the metal to be covered. 
 Lead, and some compositions, for example, require 
 a priming of lamp-black and oil, while others can 
 be effectively manipulated without extra labor by 
 one application and one heat. Where more than 
 one application of japan is requisite, let the first 
 be thinner than those to succeed it, in order that 
 it may properly sink in and clinch and form a bed 
 for the others. It should also be baked at a high- 
 er temperature than the others, as there should 
 be no material softening of this coat when once 
 fixed. This will also avoid the expulsion, on the 
 second baking, of any vapors from it through the 
 other, thereby preventing bubbling, blistering, 
 cracking and porousness of the outer layer. There 
 was a time when it was considered absolutely nec- 
 essary to forestall all japans with a priming of the 
 nature of that above mentioned, but happily the 
 developments incident to experience and progress 
 have enabled varnish manufacturers to so improve 
 upon ancient modes of manufacture that they are 
 enabled now to furnish the tradesman with a stock 
 which will produce the desired effect, except upon 
 the substances alluded to, without the necessity of 
 this double or treble outlay of time. 
 Banner Work. — Painting on canvas and muslin is 
 sometimes a difficult job, but if the paint be pro- 
 perly mixed and the material to be worked on 
 properly prepared there is less difficulty. Stretch 
 
BANNER WORK. 
 
 39 
 
 the canvas upon a partition or upon the floor, 
 and tack it fast, then lay out the lettering 
 with white chalk, or very lightly with charcoal, 
 now dash over the whole a plentiful supply of 
 clean water, and with paint mixed with japan and 
 turpentine (no oil) proceed with the work ; a flat 
 bristle pencil is excellent for outlining-, filling- in 
 with a larg-er brush. A g-ood plan for large let- 
 ters is to use a strip of tin in the manner of a sten- 
 cil to form the edg-e of a letter, then fill in with a 
 larg-e brush. For fine muslin the work may be 
 done with ordinary lettering- pencils. Oil color is 
 apt to work badly ; the oil leaves the paint and 
 saturates the canvas around the letters, but japan 
 color will not do so. Some prefer to fill the can- 
 vas with starch or flour paste, before lettering-, 
 and there are no objections to it that we know of 
 except the loss of time, waiting- for the paste to 
 dry. 
 
 Stencils may be used to advantag-e on mus- 
 lin and canvas work, and we know of painters who 
 have larg-e stencils of letters cut out in paste- 
 board, which they use for the purpose. Silk and 
 satin require a different mode of operations. 
 Stretch the material upon a wall and secure it well 
 by tacks. Lay out the general plan, as ribbons, 
 border, picture ground, etc., and go overall with- 
 in the boundaries with size, using a short stiff 
 bristle brush, or a small sponge may be used to 
 advantage, using care not to drop any of the size 
 on parts of the material not to be painted. The 
 size may be made of gelatine, two ounces to a pint 
 of water — when the gelatine is dissolved, strain it 
 through coarse muslin, and apply it while still hot. 
 Some prefer to size the silk all over, but it is 
 
40 
 
 BARYTA WHITE. 
 
 best to do only that which is to be painted. When 
 the size is dry lay on a coat of white paint to all 
 within the lines, going- to within one-sixteenth of 
 an inch from the edge of the sizing- with the brush. 
 When the white is dry the work is ready for pic- 
 ture, lettering- or gilding- as desired. The white 
 of an egg is used by some artists for sizing, while 
 others use coach japan and turpentine. 
 
 Baryta White. — (Sometimes called constant or per- 
 manent white.)— A pigment made from "heavy 
 spar", or in other words the sulphate of barium. 
 It is a good white for fresco and water color 
 painting. 
 
 Baryta Yellow — The true Lemon Yellow, made of 
 chromic acid and barium, and sometimes called 
 Yellow Ultramarine. 
 
 Bate. — The marks in wood, i. e., the grain, knots, 
 eyes, curls, etc., of wood, as in graining, to imitate 
 various woods. 
 
 Bay. — One division of a series of panels and pilasters. 
 
 Bed-Moldings. — Members of a cornice next above 
 the frieze. 
 
 Bell of a Capital.— The shaft as seen behind the 
 leaves. 
 
 Belt or Border. — Ornamental stripes put around or 
 through a panel, more particularly used on sleighs. 
 Ornamental belts and borders are supplied in trans- 
 fer or decalcomanie, and they will be found excel- 
 lent for hurried work. Many feet of which can be 
 put on in a few minutes more uniform and perfect 
 than any hand- work. 
 
bird's-eye view. 
 
 41 
 
 Bice. — A light blue color prepared from smalts. By 
 mixing- it with yellow orpiment bice green is 
 formed. 
 
 Binary Colors. — Compound colors. Those colors 
 which are produced by mixing the primary colors 
 in pairs ; as orange, produced by mixing- red and 
 yellow ; green, from yellow and blue; violet, from 
 blue and red. 
 
 Binding. — The cohesion given to particles of paint 
 by liquids ; such as oil, varnish, japan, etc. When 
 the quality known as binding- is gone from paint, 
 the pig-ment will rub off in a fine dust, and this 
 loss of binding- when the paint was properly mixed, 
 is generally due to absorption of the liquids by a 
 porous foundation. {See American Method of 
 Carriage Painting.) If dry pigment be mixed 
 with spirits of turpentine alone, there will be no 
 binding, and as soon as the turpentine has evap- 
 orated the color may be brushed off. Oil oxidizes 
 and forms a sort of resin which binds the particles 
 of pigment, but it does not follow that oil (linseed 
 oil) must be used in all cases. Varnish, japan, 
 liquid-drier, all of which contain oil as a base, 
 may be used to advantage, and thus the paint be 
 made to dry in a short time. For stains, where 
 water is the medium, a little sugar, molasses, 
 white of an egg, etc., may be added as a binding, 
 while ale beer is preferred as a vehicle by many. 
 
 Bird's-eye View. — A phrase used among artists to 
 designate the picture of any machine, building, 
 etc., where the spectator is supposed to look from 
 above. The plan of such a picture is parallel to 
 the horizon. 
 
42 
 
 BISMARCK BROWN. 
 
 Bismarck Brown. — A mixture of burnt sienna 
 chrome yellow and lake. (See Brown.) 
 
 Bistre. — This is a brown color used in water-color 
 painting. It is prepared from the root of beech- 
 wood. All the insoluble residue, after a thorough 
 washing', is mixed with gum water and formed 
 into cakes. 
 
 Bitumen. — A resinous substance rendered brown by 
 the action of fire. (See Asphaltum.) 
 
 Black. — The total absorption of all the rays of light 
 constitute black ; on the same principle that white, 
 also an absence of color, is produced by the reflec- 
 tion of all the light. White is pure light, not 
 broken into colors ; black is darkness in which all 
 colors are absorbed. There are several pigments 
 which supply us a black, as lamp-black, ivory- 
 black, bone-black, etc., which see. 
 
 Black-Board Paint.— The paint for a black-board on 
 which to use chalk, should be composed of material 
 that gives a good black color, has a slight rough- 
 ness, and from which the chalk marks may be 
 easily removed. Common oil paint is unfitted for 
 the purpose. 
 
 Take one quart of shellac dissolved in alcohol to 
 a thin varnish consistency, or else procure from 
 the dealer, shellac varnish ready prepared. Add 
 three ounces of pulverized pumice-stone, two ounces 
 pulverized rotten-stone, four ounces of lamp-bla ck; 
 mix the last three ingredients together, moisten 
 a portion at a time with shellac varnish, and grind 
 as thoroughly as possible with a knife or spatula 
 upon a marble slab or glass ; after which pour in 
 the remainder of the varnish — sufficient to form 
 a paint — stirring often to prevent setting. 
 
BLACK FOR FINE PAINTING. 
 
 43 
 
 One quart will furnish two coats for eight square 
 feet of board not previously painted. 
 
 It is quick drying, and the board may be used 
 in a short time. A preparation for black-boards, 
 under the name of " Silicate slate paint " is now in 
 market, and it is highly recommended by those 
 who have used it. 
 
 The draft-boards of a carriage factory should 
 be coated with the above paint at least once a 
 month to keep them in good order. 
 
 Black Chalk. — A kind of black oclay containing a 
 large quantity of carbon, found in various parts 
 of Europe. The finer sorts are made into artists' 
 crayons. The black chalk most commonly seen 
 is charcoal made of willow wood. Great care is 
 taken in burning the twigs of the willow tree to 
 charcoal, for if not thoroughly charred the stick 
 will be hard, and if too much burned it will 
 crumble easily. 
 
 Black Color-and-Varnish. — The carriage painter 
 uses such a quantity of this material that varnish 
 manufacturers thought it best to prepare it for 
 them, and thus it is that we find in market, cans 
 of the material bearing that name. It is simply 
 the best quality ivo^-black, ground-fine in rub- 
 bing varnish. Being mixed in large quantities it 
 is far more uniform than that mixed by the painter, 
 and it is also much more convenient. Though not 
 as black as black japan, it is said to be more 
 durable. 
 
 Black for Fine Painting.— When camphor gum is 
 burned and the soot collected by means of a paper 
 funnel or a saucer inverted over it, the result 
 mixed with gum-arabic will be found far superior 
 to the best ivory-black. 
 
44 
 
 BLACK LEAD. 
 
 Black Lead. — Plumbago or G?*aphite, is a native 
 carburet of iron or oxide of carbon, found in many 
 countries, but partic ularly in Borrodale, in Cumber- 
 land and Russia, where there are mines of it, from 
 which a good qualit}' is obtained, and it is consum- 
 ed in large quantities in the formation of craj^ons 
 and black-lead pencils which are in universal use. 
 In oil it is useful as it possesses remarkably the 
 property of covering-, forms very pure gray tints, 
 dries quickly, injures no color chemically, and 
 endures forever. 
 
 The carriage striper will find it a very useful 
 pigment or bronze (as it is used the same as bronze). 
 He first prepares the ground for striping, in the 
 same manner as if about to apply gold bronze, lays 
 on the size, etc., but instead of using bronze, the 
 black-lead is rubbed over the size, this gives a sort 
 of metallic lustre to the stripe, and when it is 
 glazed over with very thin carmine or blue, it pro- 
 duces a very fine effect. 
 
 Black Japan. — A composition of asphaltum and oil. 
 This article was introduced into the carriage 
 shops of the United States many years ago under 
 the name of " English Black Japan," and was 
 employed almost exclusively at that time for 
 blacking the iron work on bodies ; but its advan- 
 tages over the ordinary black color-and-varnish 
 (q. v.) upon all portions colored black on bodies 
 was soon discovered and its employment adopted 
 by many first-class builders. However, there 
 were comparatively few who achieved success 
 with it, and its importation decreased until Messrs. 
 Valentine & Co. began its manufacture under the 
 name of u Black Body Varnish," since which time 
 it has been in use in many of the best shops, and 
 
BLACK JAPAN. 
 
 45 
 
 its superiority over all other mixtures for black 
 surfaces is fully established. Black japan is a 
 liquid of about the same consistency as varnish, 
 of a jet-black color, although of a brownish tint 
 when applied over a light color, or on tin or glass. 
 Furthermore, while ordinary blacks have a green- 
 ish hue when varnished, this article will retain its 
 jet color. It has no grains as a mixture of 
 pigment and varnish, and its flowing qualities are 
 good. Many err in supposing that it will cover 
 at once, and thus take the place of color, and 
 furnish with two or three applications a perfect 
 surface over any ground ; but this is not the case. 
 It was never intended for such a purpose ; it is 
 semi-transparent, and when put upon a white 
 ground produces a brownish tint or glaze. 
 
 The manner of use by the best painters is : first, 
 having the body (it is seldom used on gears) 
 colored and color-and-varnished, then well rubbed 
 down with pumice-stone and water, the body is 
 turned upon its side, and the upper portion is 
 coated with japan, applied with varnish brushes, 
 and worked over as quickly as possible, for the 
 japan sets quickly. In a few minutes the japan 
 will have flowed down level and have set, so that 
 the body may be turned over and the other parts 
 done in the same manner. Of course the material 
 can be put on while the body is resting on a trestle 
 in a natural position, but there being a liability of 
 runs and flows in the surface, it is best to turn 
 the body so that the the work may be done on the 
 horizontal parts. 
 
 Black japan should be given plenty of time for 
 drying before another coat, or coat of varnish is 
 
46 
 
 BLACK SABLE. 
 
 put over it, else it is apt to turn green ; but if well 
 dried it is ever a perfect jet-black. 
 
 Black japan varnish is made by putting* in the 
 jet pot 48 pounds of Naples or other foreign asphal- 
 tum, except the Egyptian, and as soon as it is 
 melted pouring in ten gallons of raw linseed oil, 
 using a moderate fire. Then fuse 8 pounds of dark 
 gum animi in the gum pot, mix with two gallons 
 of hot oil and pour it into the jet pot. Afterwards 
 fuse two gallons of dark or sea amber in a ten- 
 gallon iron pot ; keep stirring while fusing, and 
 whenever it appears to be overheated and rising too 
 high, lift it from the fire for a few minutes. When 
 it appears completely fused mix in two gallons of 
 hot oil and pour the mixture into the jet pot. 
 Continue the boiling for three hours longer, and 
 in that time introduce the proper quantity of driers; 
 draw out the fire, letting the preparation remain 
 over-night. Then boil it until it rolls hard ; let it 
 cool and afterwards mix it with turpentine. 
 
 Black Sable. — The hair used in pencils for striping 
 and ornamenting is obtained from the tip of the 
 tail only of the Sable Martin, an animal com- 
 mon to both hemispheres, but there is so small 
 an amount which can be used for making pencils 
 that the price is extremely high, a simple tail 
 bringing as high as $3.00 to $5.00. For lettering 
 and scrolling there is no pencil that equals the 
 sable. (See Pencils.) 
 
 Blanc D' Argent. — Or silver white. — These are false 
 appellations of a white lead, called also French 
 white. It is brought from Paris in the form of 
 drops, is pure white, but of less body than flake 
 white, and has all the properties of the best white 
 leads. 
 
BLISTERING. 
 
 47 
 
 Blaze-Stick. — A tool used in graining- to imitate 
 various woods. It consists of a piece of wood 
 three inches long and one inch wide, shaved down 
 very thin. A paper card is sometimes used in- 
 stead. Its purpose is to make the bright blazes 
 in the centre of a branch or crotch of a tree by a 
 dexterous twist of the tool, or sliding it up and 
 bearing it round to the right or left. 
 
 Blender. — A brush used to blend or intimately mingle 
 certain parts of work by artists and grainers, so 
 that it cannot be told where one shade of color 
 begins, or where another leaves olf — to soften the 
 marks made by graining comb and wiping cloth 
 and thus make a better imitation of hard woods. 
 
 Blending. — The method of laying- different tints so 
 that they may mingle together while wet, and 
 render it impossible to discover where one color 
 begins and another ends. A variety of tints of 
 nearly the same tone, employed on the same object 
 and on the same part, gives a richness and mellow- 
 ness to the effect, while the outline, insensibly 
 melting into the back-ground, blends the objects 
 together and preserves them in unison. 
 
 Blistering.— One of the " deviltries " of varnish and 
 paint. The swelling- out of parts of a varnished 
 or painted surface into bubbles or blisters, similar 
 to that produced by the action of heat. Blistering 
 of a varnished surface after the varnish has had 
 proper time to harden, is due to the evaporation of 
 moisture which lies confined under the shell of 
 varnish. 
 
 This evaporation is caused by heat, and it is 
 seldom, if ever, a blister will rise upon a varnished 
 surface, without the temperature is raised to an 
 
BLISTERING. 
 
 extreme degree, near to that which the varnish 
 received in its manufacture. 
 
 The accumulation of moisture under the varnish 
 may be brought about in several ways ; the most 
 particular one being in the closing in of moisture 
 in the rough-stuff. During the rubbing of the 
 rough-stuff the water used is partty absorbed, and 
 unless due care is taken to give ample time 
 for "drying out" before the application of subse- 
 quent coats a great amount of moisture will be 
 confined within the cells of the porous paint. 
 Boiled oil contains 
 moisture or volatile 
 properties, and when 
 steam is used to ex- 
 press the oil from the 
 seed the percentage is 
 increased. Turpen- 
 tine, an extremly vol- 
 atile liquid, also forms 
 an evaporating sub- 
 stance which slight FlG> 2 ._block Letter. 
 heat renders active, 
 
 and in its haste to reach the air it disturbs the 
 outer surface, either lifting an elastic coating into 
 bubbles or blisters, or bursting open a hard and 
 inelastic one into cracks. The primary cause, 
 then, of blistering is moisture, either in the form of 
 wet moisture, or of evaporating liquids. The wood 
 may have been painted before it had been seasoned, 
 or it may have been steamed or wet in course of 
 preparation. Paint may have been applied before 
 the rough-stuff was free from dampness, either of 
 which would have caused disastrous results. 
 Dry blistering is simply the hasty absorption of 
 
BLUE CARMINE. 
 
 49 
 
 the liquids from outer coats by paint or putty 
 which is extremely porous, depriving- the coatings 
 of the requisite amount of binding and adhesive- 
 ness. 
 
 Block Letter. — The name given to a style of letter 
 whose parts are of one width or nearly so. The 
 letter H shown in Fig*. 2 fully illustrating- this 
 particular feature. There are several kinds of 
 such letters, known as "Full Block," "Half 
 Block," etc. (which see). 
 
 Blood-Red. — The color of blood. Carmine (q. v.) is 
 the pigment which gives this color. 
 
 Blue. — One of the primary colors. A color that can- 
 not be composed by mixture of other colors. The 
 paucity of blue pigments, in comparison with those 
 of yellow and red, is amply compensated by their 
 value and perfection ; nor is the palette without 
 novelty, nor deficient in pigments of this color, of 
 which the following comprise some of those of 
 most importance to the painter : Ultramarine, 
 cobalt blue, smalt, Prussian blue, royal blue, 
 Antwerp blue, etc. (which see under their re- 
 spective heads). 
 
 Blue Ashes. — A pigment made by combining- lime 
 with a weak solution of nitrate of copper. 
 
 Blue Black. — A well burned charcoal, made by burn- 
 ing- wine lees (the refuse in making grape wine). 
 Seldom found in modern paint shops. 
 
 Blue Carmine.— A pigment which is very little 
 known. It is said to be of a beautiful blue color, 
 and durable in strong light, but is subject to change 
 in hue, by other substances, and is blackened by 
 foul air. For these reasons it is of but little value. 
 
50 
 
 BLUE FOR WALLS. 
 
 Blue for Walls and Ceilings.— To 3 pints of water 
 add ! pound of whiting- and 1 pound of blue vitriol, 
 and boil slowly for several hours, stir frequently, 
 and when it has become quite cold, pour off the 
 liquid and mix the cake of color with good glue 
 size and use it the same as white- wash. 
 
 Blueing and Greening. — Terms applied to the 
 change in the color of finished vehicles, caused by 
 the exclusion of light or the presence of impure 
 air, such as gas from a coal fire ; the effect being 
 to turn blacks, blues, and kindred colors green- 
 ish, while in connection with dampness, varnish 
 will become bluish or smoky. The effect may be 
 removed by washing, but when the body of the 
 varnish has changed color, the only cure consists 
 in rubbing down and re-varnishing. Accidental 
 and very satisfactory exceptions may now and 
 then occur. As for instance : A gentleman return- 
 ing from Europe, sent his carriage to the coach- 
 builder to be painted green ; it had originally been 
 black, but was found to have changed to a deep 
 green, 03^ reason of long storage in a dark, close 
 stable, and so uniformly, that by simply blacking 
 the moldings, and re-varnishing, it was returned 
 to the owner with a bill as if re-painted to order. 
 The blueing of varnish may be frequently noticed 
 during a heavy rain storm. And as all high 
 grade varnishes will thus turn blue, there appears 
 to be no remedy, although some varnishes will 
 turn more readily than others. The sun removes 
 the blue appearance. 
 
 Blue Orchre. — A mineral color of rare occurrence, 
 found in Cornwall, Eng., and in North America. 
 What Indian red is to the color red, and Oxford 
 
BODY GREEN. 
 
 51 
 
 orchre to yellow, this is to other blue colors. 
 It is admirable rather for its modesty and solid- 
 ity, than for the brilliancy of its color. 
 
 Blue Tint- — In coloring", this tint is made of ultrama- 
 rine and white, mixed to a light azure color. It 
 follows the yellows, and with them makes greens, 
 and with reds it produces purples. 
 
 Blue Verditer.— A beautiful light blue color, obtain- 
 ed from the waste nitrate of copper by adding- to it 
 a quantity of chalk. It is little affected by light; 
 but time, damp and impure air, turn it green and 
 ultimately blacken it — chang-es which ensue even 
 more rapidly in oil than in water. It is therefore 
 used principally for distemper painting-, though it 
 has been found to stand well many years in water- 
 color drawing's, when kept dry. 
 
 Body. — A thick consistency of color. The quality of 
 opaqueness or covering- power. The quality of 
 thickness as opposed to fluidity in varnish and 
 other liquids. We say a paint has no bod} r when 
 it does not cover the ground over which it is spread, 
 thoug-h it may appear thick, and we say a paint 
 has a good body when it covers well, even when 
 applied very thinly ; as a g-ood ivory-black over 
 white china completely hides the surface of the 
 china. 
 
 Body Colors. — In heraldic painting there are parts 
 when the color must be laid right on in such a 
 manner that it may form a thick, uniform coating 
 on which the outline is traced, and this paint is 
 called body color. It is also applied to any finely 
 ground color to be used on a carriage body. 
 
 Body Green. — Called also a "Nile Green," a dark 
 green best made b} T repeated coatings as described 
 
52 
 
 BODY REST. 
 
 herewith. First coat the work with a mixture of 
 Prussian blue, Milori green and black, as near the 
 desired shade possible, then glaze (q. v.) with 3^el- 
 low lake or Dutch pink. 
 
 Body Rest. — A sort of bench or rest for carriage 
 bodies when they are turned upon the side or end, 
 for convenience in rubbing, 
 and to prevent the bruising 
 of that part which comes in 
 contact with the rest or floor. 
 It consists of two pieces of 
 board; say, one foot square, 
 and one-and-a-half inches 
 thick, nailed together, as 
 shown in the engraving, the edge of the upright 
 piece being well padded and covered with leather. 
 
 Body Stand. — For resting carriage bodies upon when 
 painting. A great variety of stands are to be seen. 
 Some utilize barrels, boxes, and kegs, while others 
 employ the patent body rests or jack, this is a 
 contrivance for sustaining light carriage bodies, 
 in almost any position while being painted or var- 
 nished; this "jack" is provided with an eccentric 
 clamp which "bites" the bottom strip of a light 
 body — or an extra strip screwed on — and so fitted 
 with a segmental gear and interlocking pawls that 
 the body may be turned to suit the convenience of 
 the workman. It may be also used in painting 
 wheels. (See also Jack.) 
 
 Body Varnish.— A superior quality of copal varnish, 
 made from the best materials from formulas which 
 a long experience and the most careful and costly 
 tests have proved the best. Most body varnishes 
 bear a name which distinguishes the qualit3 T ; as, 
 
BOILED OIL. 
 
 53 
 
 "Wearing- Body," "Medium Drying Body," 
 "Hard Drying- Body," etc. (See Varnish.) 
 Boiled 05L — Linseed oil (raw) becomes slowly con- 
 verted by the action of the air into a tough semi- 
 transparent mass ; but this property is possessed 
 in a far higher degree by the so-called boiled oil, 
 that is to say — an oil which has been brought by 
 the action of heat and of oxidizing materials into 
 a state of greater activity, in fact — into a state of 
 incipient slow oxidation, the result of which is the 
 formation of the substance termed linoxine, which 
 in many of its properties corresponds to caout- 
 chouc. The substances with which linseed oil is 
 boiled are litharge, oxide of zinc, and peroxide of 
 manganese. It is certainly preferable to carry 
 the operation of boiling upon a water bath, or at 
 least with vessels provided with steam jackets. 
 The oxides are employed in coarse powders, which 
 are suspended in a linen bag in the oil. In prac- 
 tice, 1 part of oxide of zinc or litharge is taken 
 to 16 parts of raw oil ; and of the manganese 1 
 part to 10 of oil ; the oxides become partly dis- 
 solved in the oil, while they aid in converting the 
 palmitine, etc. (not linoleine), into plaster (lead 
 or zinc soap). Boiled linseed oil usually contains 
 from 2.5 to 3 per cent of litharge dissolved. Nei- 
 ther the addition of sulphate of zinc, nor such ab- 
 surdly added substances as onions, bread crust or 
 beet root have any result whatever. The lower 
 the temperature at which linseed oil is boiled the 
 brighter its color. Mulder found that when raw 
 linseed oil, especially if old, was kept from 12 to 
 18 hours at a temperature of 100 degrees, it ac- 
 quired the property of boiled oil. Sometimes after 
 boiling, linseed oil is bleached by exposing it in 
 
54 
 
 BONE-BLACK. 
 
 shallow trays made of sheet-lead and covered with 
 sheets of glass to the action of strong summer 
 sunlight. 
 
 Bone- Black. — A pigment obtained by heating animal 
 bones to redness in a retort or closed vessel. 
 
 It is deprived of the phosphate of lime with which 
 it is blended by the action of hydrochloric (muriatic) 
 acid, when it yields one of the most valuable forms 
 of animal charcoal. It is often palmed off for ivory- 
 black (q. v.) which is greatly superior to it in color 
 and durabilty. Many know this pigment under 
 the names of patent black, drop black, etc. For 
 animal black any animal matter serves, the heat 
 dissipating the oily and resinous elements. For 
 bone-black, the bones are placed in a crucible and 
 subjected to great heat. In cooling, the gases of 
 heavy oil, mixed with tarry matter and ammonia 
 are condensed. Bone-black, the residue, is separ- 
 ated by dilute hydrochloric acicl. Excellent char- 
 coal black is that produced by inclosing wood in a 
 cast-iron cylinder, wholly excluding from the 
 action of the air, and placing it over a strong fire. 
 The cylinder is allowed to get red-hot. The whole 
 of the gaseous ingredients being then disengaged, 
 the fire is extinguished, and the charcoal allowed 
 to cool in the cylinder. The woods that furnish 
 the best charcoal for painters are the beech and 
 vine, the former yielding a black of a bluish, and 
 the latter one of a grayish cast. Wine lees, after 
 being calcined, washed several times in boiling 
 water, and ground to a fine powder, yield a fine 
 velvety black, which, however, is chiefly used by 
 copper-plate painters. Peach-stones burned in a 
 close vessel, jdeld charcoal which, after being 
 ground, may be successfully used for that kind of 
 
BOTTLE GREEN. 
 
 55 
 
 black generally known by the name of raven gray. 
 A very pure charcoal is also made by exposing 
 white sugar candy in a earthenware retort. When 
 charcoal, obtained from any of these sources, is 
 employed in priming, it should be mixed with a 
 very small portion of white-lead and made up for 
 use with drying oils. 
 
 The best of all blacks, used by artists on canvas, 
 is made from ivory shavings, in a crucible closely 
 stopped, and afterwards ground very fine. It 
 may be freed from every possible impurity by wash- 
 ing it in muriatic acid or weak aqua fortis, and is 
 then an extremely rich and intense color ; but 
 being costly, it is not employed in ordinary work. 
 The water-color called China ink, is merely ivory- 
 black perfectly pure, mixed with a solution. 
 Bottle Green or Yellow Lake Green-— A very 
 useful and at this time a very fashionable color 
 for gears or bodies. It is produced in the follow- 
 ing manner : First prepare a ground, as solidly 
 as possible, i. e., free from streaks and spots, with 
 color made of lemon chrome yellow and black; 
 the proportions cannot be definitely stated, and 
 the eye of the workman must tell the moment to 
 stop adding one ingredient to the other, owing to 
 the varying strength of the pigments used ; how- 
 ever, the shade of green best suited is that of 
 bottle glass. The chrome yellow and black both 
 having been mixed and ground separately in 
 japan, there will be no trouble experienced in add- 
 ing one to the other until the desired shade is 
 obtained. This being done, take a small quantity 
 of Dutch pink and Prussian blue — ground in japan 
 — and mix them to a rich shade of bottle green. 
 This forms the color proper. The groundwork 
 
56 
 
 BREAK. 
 
 of yellow and black being smooth and well dusted 
 off, apply the " Dutch pink green" smoothly with 
 a camel's-hair brush, having first thinned the 
 paint to a milk-like consistency. One coat should 
 be sufficient, and if care is exercised, the surface 
 will be in good order to receive the glazing. 
 
 Having at hand some yellow lake, mix it with 
 hard drying body varnish — instead of japan, and 
 run it through the mill, next add about two 
 tablespoonfuls of the Dutch pink color to each 
 pint of the yellow lake glazing, and when the color 
 on the job is dry, dust off, and lay the yellow lake 
 in the same manner as if it was color-and- varnish. 
 This gives a 
 rich, deep 
 --green and one 
 that can be 
 made in no 
 
 other way. ^ „ «»«—,—, 
 
 ~ ; , Fig. 4.— Brick Header. 
 
 Care should 
 
 be taken that no yellow, such as lemon or orange 
 chrome be mixed with the Dutch pink or the yel- 
 low lake, but a drop of red, such as vermilion or 
 carmine will improve it by giving it a warmer hue. 
 
 The tone of the color may be changed so as to 
 be suitable for both body and gears. By simply 
 glazing the color proper with pure yellow lake 
 the tone will be more yellow. By adding a drop 
 or two of blue to the glazing a bluish green will 
 result ; and a little vermilion and blue will give it 
 an olive hue. 
 
 Break. — An ornament put in parts of a long line or 
 stripe to break up or destroy the unpleasant ap- 
 pearance of an unbroken line, or the monotony of 
 a continuous stripe. 
 
BROKEN COLORS. 
 
 57 
 
 Brick Header. — A brush shaped, as shown in en- 
 graving", of short, stiff bristles, used for putting 
 the lines on brick and stone work. 
 
 Brick Red- — The color of bricks. Venetian red 
 used alone makes a very fair brick color, although 
 some prefer to darken it with Spanish brown or to 
 lighten it with orange mineral. 
 
 Bridle. — An extra binding of cord or other material 
 put upon a new brush to confine the bristles until 
 they are partly worn down. (See Brushes.) 
 
 Bringing Out Grain. — The application of several 
 coats of varnish, oil or other liquid in order to 
 cause the grain of the wood to appear plainly. 
 Permanent wood filling (q. v.) is an excellent coat- 
 ing for hard-wood to bring- out the grain, or for 
 staining soft-wood to imitate hard-wood. One 
 application of this liquid is applied with a brush 
 and then rubbed over with rags to work it into 
 the wood, then, if a dead oil finish is desired, a 
 second coat is applied — after 48 hours for drying 
 — in the same manner. If a gloss is desired, one 
 or two coats of varnish may be put on instead of a 
 second coat of P. W. F. 
 
 Broad Stripe. — A stripe over one-half inch in width. 
 (See Striping.) 
 
 Brocades. — Large and rich, but somewhat erratic, 
 damask patterns of oriental origin. 
 
 Broken Colors. — Pure colors mixed with black 
 from the lightest to the deepest tone. For ex- 
 ample, if blue be mixed with red yellow, a little 
 black is produced which reduces or breaks the 
 orange. 
 
:»8 
 
 BRONZE. 
 
 Bronze. — A metallic powder, made by reducing- the 
 metals, gold, silver, copper, etc., to powder by 
 grinding 1 upon a marble slab while held in a pasty 
 mass, by the addition of honey. When sufficient- 
 ly levigated the honey is washed away with water 
 and the sediment, when dried, becomes the bronze 
 of commerce. There are many qualities and 
 shades of color. The best way to use bronze is to 
 put it on dry over gilding size (q. v.) using a piece 
 of chamois skin or plush as a rubber ; this gives a 
 metallic lustre not obtained when the bronze is 
 mixed as paint. Bronze, however, does not equal 
 foliated metals in reflecting light, and consequent- 
 ly is far less brilliant than gold, silver or copper 
 leaf. Bronze may be obtained of the following 
 colors : white, silver, flesh, light and dark gold, 
 rich gold, lemon, orange, fire, copper, carmine, 
 crimson, lilac, violet, brown, and light and dark 
 greens ; and for hurried or cheap ornamenting 
 the painter may manipulate them sometimes to 
 good advantage. The universal complaint 
 against gold bronze is that it soon blackens or 
 changes color. The remedy, in so far as a remedy 
 can be given — consists in buying pure gold bronze, 
 made from gold leaf. Inferior gold bronze is 
 made from leaf that contains silver or copper, and 
 when these metals are present they soon oxydize 
 or blacken. The writer has ever had success in 
 the use of gold bronze by following these simple 
 directions, viz. : First be certain that the gilding 
 size is in a proper condition, i. e., slightly " tacky," 
 for if otherwise the bronze will be "drowned " or 
 sink into the size and be partially covered by it. 
 Then when the bronze has been applied and well 
 rubbed over with chamois skin, apply a very thin 
 
BRONZE. 
 
 59 
 
 coating- of French shellac varnish (q. v.) with a 
 camel's-hair pencil. This coating* will dry in a few 
 minutes and its principle purpose is to protect the 
 metallic powder from the acid which is present in 
 finishing varnishes and which is almost certain 
 to form verdigris when put directly upon the 
 bronze, and this tends to blacken it. We have 
 seen some beautiful work clone in scrolling with 
 colored bronzes, proving- that they may in skillful 
 hands be made to produce very pleasing- color 
 effects. 
 
 Application of Bronze Colors. — Bronze powders, 
 whatever the colors they have been made to as- 
 sume by heat or acids, may be applied so thinly 
 as to be partly transparent, and so very attrac- 
 tive effects are induced by the use of a colored 
 - varnish, or wash, to the surface before applying- 
 the powder. Thus different shades of one color 
 may be produced by mixing with the alcoholic so- 
 lution that prepares the surface for the reception 
 of the powder, certain proportions of ivory-black, 
 burnt umber, or other volatile pigments, which 
 dry readily, but leave their stain. The most 
 pleasing effects of bronzing are produced by the 
 manipulations of the artist workman. Applying 
 it as taste demands, he employs the softest of 
 brushes. Where the original tint is to remain, 
 the surface is wiped with silk floss, or rabbit's 
 foot. Where prominences should show bodily, 
 the protuberances are carefully burnished with 
 queerly shaped implements of agate, flint, or of 
 hardened steel or blood-stone, these hand tools be- 
 ing ground to curves, angles, and edges to fit the 
 sinuosities of the work. They require practice 
 and use, as well as taste, in working. 
 
GO 
 
 BRONZE GREEN. 
 
 Chocolate Color Bronzing.— For producing choc- 
 olate bronze effects on chandeliers, gas-fittings 
 and other metal surfaces, the following- method 
 may be adopted : The body pigment is to be made 
 up of white lead ground in varnish, thinned with 
 turpentine and tinted with a mixture of Spanish 
 brown, Venetian red and vegetable black. The 
 proportions of these pigments must be regulated 
 by trial and taste, the red predominating if a 
 bright chocolate is required or the black if a dull, 
 deep tint is desired. This must be put on a sur- 
 face free from grease, oil, dust, dirt, rust or patch- 
 es of old paint. When dry, go over the surface 
 lightly with a coat of gold size and when this has 
 become tacky, dust on the bronze powder with a 
 pad of cotton wool evenly on the surface, and then 
 cover the article to protect it from the dust. 
 When quite dry sweep off loose particles of bronze 
 powder with a feather broom and coat the whole 
 with copal varnish. The article is finally heated 
 in the oven of a stove, the temperature not exceed- 
 ing 300° Fahrenheit. The same process, without 
 the heating, will do for wood. 
 
 Bronze Green. — A mixture of five parts chrome 
 green, two parts umber, and one part of black. 
 This color is excellent for iron railings, and other 
 such work, where gold bronze can be used advan- 
 tageously in lightening up the prominent parts to 
 make it ornamental. 
 
 Brought-Forward. — Plain painting prepared for 
 decoration. 
 
 Brown. — Most people are mistaken in the classifica- 
 tion of browns, and many colors which rightly 
 claim the name of brown are known by another 
 
BROWN. 
 
 01 
 
 name, while there are many colors called brown, 
 which are simply dark red and maroon colors. 
 Brown, rightly speaking", is a warm broken color, 
 of which yellow is one of its principal constituents, 
 and under which classification we find umber, 
 sienna, and several other earthy pigments. Red 
 and black mixed form what many call brown; 
 but until the black predominates in the mixture, 
 or a little yellow is added, it is really a dark red 
 and not a brown. Spanish brown is not, correct- 
 ly speaking-, a brown, but a dark red. Many 
 varieties of dark red are formed by the painter, 
 and called brown, which lead us astray sometimes 
 in our comprehension of what brown really is, 
 and it is quite impossible to form a correct idea of 
 the color by its name. We may class broivn 
 under two divisions; first, those which rightly 
 come under that, as umber, Vandyke brown, 
 manganese brown, cappagh brown, asphaltum, 
 and all grades descending- from black to olive; 
 and second, those which are called brown by the 
 painters, but which do not properly belong- under 
 that term, as defined by scientists. Umber and 
 sienna, both the " burnt" and "raw," are useful, 
 and often called into requisition in matching 
 shades of color. The browns made with umber 
 for a base and called "umber browns," are in 
 demand on fine carriag-e panels or g-ears; and 
 these glazed with yellow lake give a variety of 
 shades, the yellow lake giving a great depth of 
 color, and a yellowish hue, while the same ground 
 glazed with lake or carmine (light^) gives a 
 reddish tint of great beauty. By adding one part 
 of lemon yellow to three parts of burnt umber a 
 beautiful color is formed called "olive brown." 
 
BROWN JAPAN. 
 
 This is one of the yellowish browns verging 1 on to 
 olive, and the shade may be varied by a change 
 in the proportion of ingredients. Japan brown is 
 a beautiful color when properly mixed, and is 
 made by adding a very little Indian red (q. v.) to 
 black japan. This method of forming a brown is 
 an excellent one where old work is to be re-colored, 
 the japan laying over an old varnish surface 
 without the danger of cracking so often exper- 
 ienced. A color known as " Bismarck brown " 
 may be made as follows : First make a ground 
 of two parts burnt umber to one of white lead ; 
 put over this two coats of burnt sienna, and glaze 
 with a mixture of one ounce carmine, one-half 
 ounce of English crimson lake, and one ounce of 
 best gold bronze. When a light color is required 
 use a ground of English vermilion (q.v.) and glaze 
 as above. 
 
 Brown Japan. — A composition of shellac gum and 
 oil, used as a drier in the mixing of pa ints. Some 
 painters use the simple word Japan to express the 
 above, while others (the manufacturers) give it the 
 name of " Crown Coach Japan." 
 
 There is a great difference in japans put upon 
 the market, and in order to ensure good work, care 
 should be exercised in the selection of this useful 
 article. A good japan should assimilate with 
 raw linseed oil, otherwise the paint containing the 
 two ingredients will be apt to thicken up or curdle 
 before it can be applied. 
 
 The best way to test japan is to add a few drops 
 to a small quantit}^ of raw linseed oil, stirring the 
 mass for a moment, and thus ascertain whether a 
 smooth liquid is formed, or a curdled mass the 
 
BRUSHES. 
 
 03 
 
 result. The latter being- sufficent proof to con- 
 demn it. 
 
 Brown Pink. — A vegetable lake, made from French 
 berries and dye woods. It is a fine, rich, trans- 
 parent color, but inclines more toward a citrine, or 
 an orange color, than to a brown. It is a very 
 fugitive color. 
 
 Brown Stain. — For staining* woods a brown color, 
 sulphuric acid, more or less diluted, according* to 
 the intensity of the color to be produced, is applied 
 with a rag* or brush to the wood, previously clean- 
 ed and dried. A lighter or darker brown stain is 
 obtained, according to the strength of the acid. 
 When the acid has acted sufficiently, its further 
 action is arrested by the application of ammonia. 
 Tincture of iodine yields a fine brown coloration, 
 which, however, is not permanent unless the air 
 is excluded by a thick coating of varnish. Nitric 
 acid gives a fine permanent yellow, which is con- 
 verted into a dark brown by the subsequent 
 application of tincture of iodine. 
 
 Brunswick Green. — A pigment obtained by expos- 
 ing* metallic copper to the action of muriate of 
 ammonia. It is a chloride and oxide of copper. 
 It is also generated by the action of sea-water 
 upon copper, and it may be said to be, virtually, 
 verdigris. 
 
 Brushes. — Are made of bristles and of hair, bound 
 to a handle by cord, wire, metal stamped to 
 imitate wire, tin, copper and brass. The oval 
 and round paint and varnish brushes are general- 
 ly bound with cord, wire or its imitations, and 
 copper and brass. The flat bristle, fitch, badger, 
 
BRUSHES. 
 
 bear and camel's-hair brushes with tin. The 
 ordinary paint brushes contain the inferior or 
 coarser grades of bristles ; the varnish brushes 
 the selected or finer qualities. The oval and 
 round brushes are numbered by the brush-maker 
 to designate sizes, from No. 6 down to No. 1, 
 thence from one (naught) to 6 naughts (thus, 
 000,000). For carriage painting the sizes between 
 one and four naughts are considered best — the 
 smaller ones may be used, but it is advantageous to 
 use as large a brush as possible on most of the 
 work. Small brushes called "tools" are num- 
 bered from 1 up to 10, the latter being the largest. 
 Brushes are generally used in sets, as, for ex- 
 ample, in painting a body or gear, we would use 
 a large brush for laying the paint, and a small 
 " tool " for "cleaning up " around the moldings, 
 nuts and bolt-heads. It would be an almost endless 
 task to illustrate and describe all of the many 
 varieties of paint and varnish brushes, and a few 
 of the principal ones only will receive attention 
 here. Russia is the great bristle growing country, 
 and her exports reach as high as 5,000 tons of this 
 commodity every year. Hogs in countless herds 
 roam the deep Muscovite forests, where the oak, 
 the pine, the beech, larch and other nut bearing 
 trees cover the ground with acorns and nuts to 
 the depth of a foot or more. But these swine are 
 not all of value for their bristles. The perfect 
 bristle is found only on a special race, and that 
 race fattened in a certain way. On the frontiers 
 of civilization all over the Muscovite territory are 
 the government tallow factories, where animals 
 reared too far from the habitation of men to be 
 consumed for human food are boiled down for the 
 
BRUSHES. 
 
 G5 
 
 sake of their fat. The swine are fed on the refuse 
 of these tallow factories at certain seasons, and 
 become in prime condition after a few months 
 feeding-. It is from these animals that the bristles 
 of commerce mainly come. When the swine are 
 fattened, and their bristles in fine order, they are 
 driven in kraals so thickly that they can scarcely 
 stand — irritated and goaded by the herdsmen till 
 they are sullen with rage — kicking striving, 
 struggling and scrambling together in feverish 
 rage, they are seized one by one, by the kak koffs 
 — a class of laborers educated to plucking swine — 
 and their bristles pulled out by the roots. The 
 perspiration into which the poor creatures are 
 thrown by their exercise causes their bristles to 
 yield easily. The process is pleasant neither to 
 the eye nor the ear. The hog" strenously resists 
 with loud outcries, and vehement opposition. It 
 does no good. Once seized, he is instantly divest- 
 ed of his clothing" and then immediately released, 
 g'oes grunting off to the woods. 
 
 The so-called f< French bristles" are principally 
 from Russia stock, cleaned and bleached to render 
 them white and exceedingly elastic, yet soft as 
 an infant's hair. From these are made the fine 
 pencils of the artist. Length, elasticity, firmness 
 and color are elements that constitute their excel- 
 lence, and the bristle expert can readily assort 
 them for their special uses. 
 
 The ordinary paint brush for g-eneral work is 
 made either from selected Russia bristles, or 
 with an inferior gray centre, inclosed by fine white 
 bristles. Carriage and wagon painters usually 
 select the best, i. e., Russia bristles, and the size 
 known as four naught (0000) is used for rough-stuff 
 
BRUSHES. 
 
 and foundation coats, while the house painter would 
 choose a larger one possibly. A new brush of this 
 description will not work well unless " bridled," 
 *. e., having- an extra binding- added, and this may 
 be done in several ways. 
 
 F IG> 5. —The Ordinary Paint Brush, Four Naught Size. 
 
 1. By winding a strong cord around the bristles 
 to about the middle of the same, or, as far from the 
 original binding as desired. 2. By covering a por- 
 tion of the bristles with leather stitched on tightly. 
 3. By wrapping a piece of muslin around the 
 brush, then tying a cord at the centre of the bris- 
 tles turn the muslin back and tie it securely to 
 
 Fig. 6.— Badger-Hair Varnish Brush. 
 
 the handle. 4. By using the patent metallic band 
 or binder, and by other means, the object being 
 to shorten the exposed bristles until the brush is 
 partly worn down, when the extra binding may 
 be removed. 
 
BRUSHES. 
 
 67 
 
 Badger-Hair Varnish Brush. — The badger-hair 
 brush is next in importance. It is well bound in 
 tin, hair set in glue, handle nicely japanned, and 
 chisel-pointed. For varnishing" small panels or 
 parts of a body it has no equal. The best badger- 
 hair is imported on the skin from Germany and 
 Russia. 
 
 Camel's-Hair Brush. — For laying fine color no 
 better brush can be had than the camel's-hair 
 brush — called by some "mottlers," by others 
 " blenders," and again by others " spalters," each 
 term, however, is foreign to the American 
 carriage painter, and the " Camel's-hair brush" is 
 
 Fig. 7.— Camel's-Hair Brush. 
 
 by far the most appropriate, and most commonly 
 used. The hair used in these brushes, however, 
 is not all taken from the camel, much of it being 
 from the tail of the Russian brown squirrel. The 
 hair is first cut from the tail with scissors, the 
 wool or under fur combed out, and then tied in 
 bunches ready to be straightened. This requires 
 skill and practice. The hair is placed in metal 
 cups having a thick, loaded bottom, and by a 
 quick motion of the hand, drummed on the bench 
 for a considerable time, until the pointed or fine 
 ends are all even with each other. In the process 
 of cutting and cupping the lengths are kept sepa- 
 
68 
 
 BRUSHES. 
 
 rate as far as possible. The hair is now ready for 
 the brush-maker, who cups and combs it out, 
 weig-hs the quantity required, and places it into 
 the ferrules or tin bands. It requires skill to 
 handle the short, slippery hair and keep it in 
 shape. It is not many years, when work of this 
 kind was all done abroad. Now, it is claimed by 
 experts that the American manufacture of most 
 kinds of brushes excels the foreign g-oods. The 
 chiseled camel's-hair brush, as made by Miles 
 
 Fig. 8.— Gilder's Camel's Hair Tip. 
 
 Bros. & Co., of New York, is something- entirely 
 new, and is certainly a very fine brush and well 
 calculated to do smooth, particular work. An- 
 other class of these g-oods made by the same 
 firm, are made extra thick and from picked 
 camel's-hair, the binding of brass having- its edg-e 
 turned under, which gives additional security to 
 the hair and prevents cutting- the hair on the edg-e 
 of the binding-, which too frequently happens. 
 Camel's-Haik Tool. — Small brushes, called 
 tools, made of camel's-hair are used for black- 
 
BRUSHES. 
 
 69 
 
 ing irons, lacquering-, and other work of like 
 nature. The next brush to be considered is the 
 camel's-hair duster, a tool used mostly by gilders 
 in removing the loose gold leaf from their work 
 when gilding. These are bound in split quill and 
 fastened with wire. The next to claim attention 
 is the gilder's camel's-hair tip. This is made by 
 laying- a thin layer of hair between two pieces of 
 card-board and gluing the whole firmly together, 
 as shown, it is used to lift and carry to the work 
 the pieces of gold leaf. A slight moisture or 
 
 Fig. 9.— Wall Brush. 
 
 stickiness is given the hairs by simply passing- 
 them over the face or hair of the head, and then 
 the g-old leaf can be easily lifted from the cushion 
 on which it has been cut and dexterously laid upon 
 the gilding size. 
 
 For painting walls a large flat bristle brush is 
 used — see cut — made of all white bristles, bound 
 in copper, brass or galvanized iron. It has 
 always been a difficult task to make a wall brush 
 to stand the hard usage it generally receives, 
 but now that machinery of the most approved 
 pattern has been introduced in the brush factory 
 these brushes are made under warrantee, 
 
70 BRUSHES. 
 
 Blenders, mottlers, stipplers, top grainers, 
 and several other classes of brushes together, 
 with pencils, etc., will be noticed under their 
 respective heads. 
 
 Fig. 10.— The Flat, Bristle Varnish Brush. 
 
 Flat Bristle Varnish Brush.— These are made of 
 the best white bristles, set with glue, doubled 
 nailed, soft yet very elastic, with chiseled points. 
 They are considered the best brush made by many 
 of the best varnishers. They are put up in sets, 
 as shown in the engraving-, from one inch in width 
 to three inches, the price being- about $3.50 per 
 set. These brushes, if used with care, will wear a 
 long time. 
 
 Fig. 11.— A Flat, Chiseled Brush. 
 
 Flat, Chiseled Brush.— Flat paint brushes are 
 preferred by some. These are chiseled or ground 
 off on the sides to form a thin edge. They are 
 bound in tin or rubber and are graded in size by 
 their width. 
 
BRUSHES. 
 
 71 
 
 Flattened Round Tool (Chiseled). — This is 
 superior to the "sash tool" for cleaning" between 
 the spokes, and for finishing around the various 
 parts of the gear. This brush is tin-bound, well 
 riveted, and the bristles are set in giue, which is 
 insoluble in turpentine and oil, and therefore supe- 
 
 Fig. 12.— Flattened Round Tool, Chiseled. 
 
 rior to the cement used by some brush-makers. 
 The size best suited for the carriage painter is 
 about one and a quarter inches in width. This is 
 also an excellent tool for varnishing, in trimming 
 up around moldings, etc. 
 Fitch-Hair Brush. — This brush was formerly in 
 extensive demand as a varnish brush but of late 
 years the badger has supplanted it, owing, in a 
 degree, to the numerous imitations in the market, 
 
 Fig. 13.— Sash Tool. 
 
 and also to the liability of the rotting away or 
 breaking of the hairs when in use. The hair is 
 mostly from the tail of the skunk. 
 Sash Tool. — A sash tool, or small brush, shaped as 
 shown in cut, is necessary as an auxiliary to the 
 large brush, for cleaning up in corners, etc. 
 
BRUSH-KEEPER. 
 
 Oval Varnish or Paint Brush. — As the under 
 parts of a carriage are not rubbed with lump 
 pumice-stone, the same as the body, the paint 
 must be applied with greater care, and the 000 
 oval brush will work best, laying the paint smooth- 
 ly and leaving but few, if any, brush marks. The 
 " chiseled' 7 brush should always have preference 
 over a partly worn one, as the bristles are as a 
 rule softer upon their extreme ends. The com- 
 panion of the oval brush is the flattened tool here 
 shown. 
 
 Fig. 14.— Oval Varnish Brush, Chiseled. 
 
 Brush-Keeper. — There are several plans in use for 
 keeping brushes in good condition, a few of these 
 we illustrate. Many varnish rooms are provided 
 with a large tin box having two compartments, 
 one for the best, the other for common varnish 
 brushes ; but this plan is not a good one, for the 
 large quantity of varnish required — provided the 
 brushes are suspended in varnish — presents a large 
 surface to the air when the box is opened, and the 
 varnish soon becomes thickened and useless. 
 Small cans are the best. The brushes are sus- 
 pended from wires which run through a hole in 
 the handles, and the brushes are allowed to hang 
 just deep enough to cover one-half the binding. 
 
BRUSH-KEEPER. 
 
 73 
 
 Varnish, as a general thing", is delicate in its 
 choice of company; a little turpentine, a little oil, 
 or a little of anything, except its own kind, will 
 make it liable to pit, or crawl, or flake, or cut up 
 some caper, and that dangerous little is frequently 
 supplied by putting into the varnish-cup a brush 
 fresh from a bath of another liquid. 
 
 In an experience of thirty years, the writer has 
 found no liquid so well adapted for filling the 
 brush-keeper, as the best finishing varnish made 
 
 Fig. 15.— Device for Preserv- Fig. 16.— Another Method 
 ing Paint Brushes. of Preserving Brushes. 
 
 without driers (expressly for the purpose). This 
 material is not in the market and to procure it, 
 one must order it from a varnish-maker. Such 
 a liquid will last for years without skining over, 
 if care is taken to wipe out the varnish from the 
 brush before suspending it in the keeper. 
 
 For keeping paint brushes, it is only necessary 
 to suspend them in water. A good plan being to 
 drive nails through the staves of a tub or pail on 
 which to affix the brushes. The water should be 
 allowed to just cover the bristles or hair, for if it 
 
74 
 
 BUFF COLOR. 
 
 covered the binding-, the parts swell and burst the 
 binding". 
 
 Buff Color. — A color made by a mixture of white, 
 yellow and red pigments. 
 
 Burgundy Lake. — A name given to a preparation 
 of lake color which has the muddy or dirty red 
 hue of Burgundy wine. It may be made by add- 
 ing asphaltum to any bright lake. 
 
 Burning Off. — When it is desired to remove old 
 paint from any surface, in order to re-paint, burn- 
 ing off is resorted to where no better means are 
 at hand. This is done in several ways; one of 
 which is to heat a large block or bar of iron to a 
 red heat, then, holding it a few inches from the 
 paint, the latter will rise in blisters and soften so 
 that it may be easily scraped from the surface. 
 Another plan is to use a furnace made of sheet 
 iron, and so formed that its front can be present- 
 ed to all parts of the work in hand, such as sharp 
 corners, etc. Another plan is to employ a rubber 
 hose from a gas-jet, a burner being fitted to the 
 end of the hose, and this has been improved upon 
 by an inventive Yankee, in making a burner 
 which admits to the flame atmospheric air, giving 
 an increased degree of heat with the same amount 
 of gas. Lamps of various shapes and kinds have 
 been in use, some burning alcohol, some gasoline, 
 all very good where gas and better means for get- 
 ting heat to the paint are not at hand. 
 
 Burnishing. — The gloss or lustre of a metallic sur- 
 face, as of gold leaf, made by rubbing it with a 
 smooth hard substance, such as a dog's tooth 
 fitted into a handle, or a piece of agate, and other 
 hard stones. When burnishing gold leaf, a piece of 
 
BURNT UMBER. 
 
 75 
 
 India paper is put between the metal and burnish- 
 ing tool to prevent tearing it from the surface. 
 Frame gilders are the principal burnishers of 
 gold leaf, it being scarcely ever thought of in the 
 carriage shop. 
 Burnt Carmine- —Madder carmine or cochineal 
 carmine partially charred by fire until it assumes 
 a rich purple hue. Used principally by protrait 
 painters for drapery, etc. 
 
 Burnt Sienna. — Crude or raw sienna heated to a 
 red heat acquires a deep reddish brown hue, and 
 is known as burnt sienna. It is in great demand 
 in the paint shop, being useful as a color by itself 
 or mixed with other pigments, and also for imitat- 
 ing* the grain of woods. ' It makes a beautiful 
 tint with white, and for striping on fine work it is 
 used extensively. It is a rich semi-transparent 
 brown orange, and when properly mixed and ap- 
 plied it is a very durable color. 
 
 Burnt Umber. — Umber is a natural ochre abound- 
 ing with decayed vegetable matter, of the nature 
 of peat. 
 
 This pigment when burnt or roasted gives a 
 beautiful dark brown shade, frequently seen on 
 carriage panels. It is a very durable color, and 
 when a trifling amount of red and black are added 
 to it it is called umber brown, a favorite color in 
 some localities. Umber is a natural drier, hold- 
 ing in its parts a large share of manganese, and it 
 will therefore dry well, though mixed with a larg- 
 er share of oil than almost any other pigment. 
 However, this addition should be made judicious- 
 ly. Burnt umber being semi-transparent the 
 ground should be a similar but darker color, as 
 
BURNT VERDIGRIS. 
 
 Indian red, lamp-black and a little yellow. It is 
 an excellent stain for pine wood to make a black- 
 walnut color ; simply wet the pigment with water, 
 or, better, with old ale, and rub it over the wood, 
 let dry, then varnish over it. 
 
 Burnt Verdigris. — Verdigris roasted until it assumes 
 an olive shade. Many of the greens may thus be 
 changed in hue by heating them on a shovel over 
 the fire. 
 
c 
 
 Cadmium Red. — A pigment which approaches an 
 orange scarlet color — an artist's color. 
 
 Cadmium Yellow. — A pigment made by passing a 
 stream of sulphurated hydrogen through a solu- 
 tion of nitrate or sulphate of cadmium. It is a 
 warm, yellow pigment, which passes readily into 
 tints with white lead, appears to endure light and 
 remains unchanged in impure air. The metal 
 cadmium being hitherto scarce, it has been but 
 little employed in the arts, except in water colors. 
 
 Camel's-Hair. — Hair from the animal of that name, 
 used for making brushes and fine pencils. (See 
 Brushes.) 
 
 Canada Balsam. — A kind of turpentine obtained 
 from the Balm of Gilead Fir, a native of Canada 
 and the upper part of the United States. It is a 
 transparent liquid, almost colorless, with an agree- 
 able odor and an acrid taste. It pours readily out 
 of a vessel or bottle and shortly dries up and be- 
 comes solid . When fresh it is of the consistence 
 of thin honey. It is used as an ingredient in var- 
 nishes, in mounting objects for the microscope, 
 etc. To make a varnish for drawings, prints, 
 maps, etc., take Canada balsam one ounce ; spirits 
 of turpentine two ounces ; mix together. The 
 drawing should first be put upon a stretcher and 
 
CANARY COLOR. 
 
 sized with a thin solution of isinglass, and dried, 
 then varnish with a soft brush — a badger. 
 
 Canary Color. — The color of a canary bird, made 
 by mixing- lemon yellow, or the pigment known as 
 patent yellow with white lead. 
 
 Cane Work. — The imitation of cane by striping. 
 To lay out cane work, first provide a thin wooden 
 ruler, say f of an inch wide. The width of ruler 
 
 Fig. 17.— Showing the Lines for Making 
 Imitation Cane-Work. 
 
 will govern the size of opening in the cane. The 
 ruler must be perfectly true, so that a line drawn 
 on either side the space between the lines shall 
 present no variation. The marker used should be 
 so formed that it will follow closely on the edge of 
 the ruler. On a flat surface a rigid or stiff ruler 
 may be used. Vertical lines are first marked, then 
 by the aid of a square the horizontal lines may be 
 marked off at right angles. Then the diagonal 
 lines may be added. If the work is properly laid 
 
CARMILION. 
 
 79 
 
 out each hole of the cane work is an octagon or 
 nearly so. The paint for cane work may he made 
 by mixing- to white a little yellow ochre and a little 
 sienna, until the desired shade is reached. It is 
 well to allow one course of lines dry before laying 
 others across them. Cane work may be purchased 
 in sheets of transfer or decalcomanie, or upon 
 paper ready to be glued or fastened to the panel. 
 
 The best imitation cane is made under Barry's 
 patent, composed of flexible paint. It is to be had 
 in sheets ready for cutting to size and pasting on 
 the work. Brewster & Co. of Broome street, and 
 many other leading carriage-builders employ this 
 in preference to any other, which certain^ recom- 
 mends it. 
 
 Cappagh Brown. — A pigment composed principally 
 of bog-earth or peat, mixed or mineralized by man- 
 ganese in various proportions. That in which the 
 peat most abounds is the most transparent, deep 
 and rich in color and dries promptly in oil. It is 
 similar to a mixture of superior Vandyke brown 
 and asphaltum in appearance. 
 
 Car- body Color. — A color much used on railway 
 cars. Composed of yellow, white and a little 
 red. 
 
 • 
 
 Carmelite Brown. — A mixture of black and Van- 
 dyke brown — a very dark brown of French origin. 
 
 Carmilion. — A sort of carmine, made by a secret 
 process, in which the coloring properties are never 
 brought to a dry state, as ordinary pigments. It 
 appears to answer a good purpose on some de- 
 scriptions of work., and is not so expensive as 
 carmine. 
 
80 
 
 CARMINE. 
 
 Carmine. — A beautiful red pigment made from cochi- 
 neal. The color is so extensively used by carriage- 
 painters and is at the same time so expensive, 
 compared with ordinary pigments, that it seems 
 worthy unlimited space in its description, and from 
 one of the best sources of information we have 
 gathered the following : 
 
 The cochineal insects feed upon the leaves of the 
 Quercus coccifera, a low evergreen oak with 
 prickly leaves, and on other plants of a similar 
 nature. The females fix themselves firmly on the 
 plant, which serves them as a habitation, and 
 never quit this spot. Each insect lays several 
 thousand eggs, which proceed from the body 
 through an aperture placed at the extremity of the 
 abdomen, and pass under the belly to be hatched. 
 Death then insues ; the body of the mother dries 
 up ; its two membranes become flat, and form a 
 sort of shell or cocoon, in which the eggs are en- 
 closed, and from whence the little cohineals soon 
 proceed. When the insects are in proper state 
 they are brushed off the cactus plant with a 
 squirrel's tail, and killed by immersing them in hot 
 water, they are afterward dried in the heat of the 
 sun, or in the warmth of a stove. The finest 
 cochineals, however, are killed by dry heat and 
 not by immersion. Three harvests are made 
 annually ; the first being the best. It has been 
 estimated that 70,000 dried insects are required, 
 on a average to form a pound weight of cochineal. 
 Cochineal is wrinkled with parallel furrows across 
 its back, which are intersected in the middle by a 
 longitudinal one — ~by this the true cochineal is dis- 
 tinguished from any fictitious preparation. The 
 coloring matter is obtained in the. following man- 
 
CARMINE. 
 
 81 
 
 ner, in a state of purity. Ground cochineal is boiled 
 for about twenty minutes in fifty times its weight 
 of water, the strained decoction, after being* allowed 
 to subside for a quarter of an hour, is decanted off 
 and precipitated with a solution of acetate of pro- 
 toxide of lead, acidulated with acetic acid. There 
 are several methods emplo3^ed in the preparation 
 of carmine ; that described by Dr. Pereira, is per- 
 haps the most approved. A decoction of the insect 
 is made in water. To this is added a precipitant, 
 generally bichloride of tin. It is then put in a 
 large shallow vessel, and allowed to rest. Slowly 
 a deposit takes place, which adheres to the side 
 of the vessel, and the liquid being poured off it is 
 dried, this dry precipitate is carmine. The 
 German method consists in pouring a certain 
 quantity of a solution of alum into the decoction of 
 cochineal. 
 
 There are some remarkable peculiarities about 
 the production of carmine : the shade and character 
 of color is altered by slight, very slight, differences 
 in the temperature at which it is prepared ; and 
 with every variation in the circumstances of il- 
 lumination a change is discovered in the color. 
 Sir Humphrey Davy relates the following anec- 
 dote in illustration of this : "A manufacturer of 
 carmine, who was aware of the superiority of the 
 French color, went to Lyons for the purpose of 
 improving his process, and bargained with the 
 most celebrated manufacturer of that cit3 T for 
 the acquisition of his secret, for which he was to 
 pay ,£1,000 ($5,000). He saw all the process, and 
 a beautiful color was produced, but he found not 
 the least difference in the French method and that 
 which had been adopted by himself. He appealed 
 
CARMINE. 
 
 to his instructor, and insisted that he must keep 
 something- concealed. The man assured him that 
 he had not, and invited him to inspect the process 
 the second time. He minutely examined the water 
 and the materials, which were in every respect 
 similar to his own, and then, very much surprised 
 he said, ' I have lost both labor and my money, for 
 the air of England does not admit us to make good 
 carmine.' 'Stay,' said the Frenchman ; 'don't 
 deceive yourself. What kind of weather is it now ? ' 
 'A bright sunny day,' replied the Englishman. 
 'And such are the days,' said the Frenchman, 
 ' upon which I make my color : were I to attempt 
 to manufacture on a dark and cloudy day, my 
 results would be the same as yours. Let me advise 
 you to make your carmine on sunny days !' " 
 
 Six drachms of carmine may be obtained from 
 one pound cochineal. Rouge for the face is made 
 by mixing half a pound of levigated French chalk 
 with two ounces of freshlj T -prepared carmine. 
 The grade of carmine known as " French No. 40 " 
 is most extensively used by carriage-painters, it 
 being a bright and handsome shade. The ground 
 over which carmine is put must be made to suit 
 the requirement of the case, for it is seldom applied 
 as a solid color, and glazing" is resorted to to econ- 
 omize, as well as to produce various shades. The 
 names given to the different shades of carmine, 
 — made by changes in the ground employed — are 
 " bright, " "medium, " " dark." When we speak 
 generally of a carmine job, we mean a deep En- 
 glish vermilion ground, lightly glazed with car- 
 mine. When we speak of a " bright " carmine, 
 we mean a ground of light English vermilion, 
 glazed in the same manner. For a "medium" 
 
CARRIAGE PAINTING. 
 
 83 
 
 job, we make the ground a little darker with 
 Indian red ; and for a ' 'dark carmine" we add 
 more Indian red, which gives us the color known 
 in New York shops as "French red." To mix 
 carmine we prefer to use any light colored rub- 
 bing varnish, mixing and grinding it quite thick 
 at first, then adding more varnish to form the 
 glazing-, run it through the mill the second 
 time. 
 
 Carmine is of great service to the ornamenter, 
 enabling him to produce delicate shades of red or 
 pink by repeated glazings or by admixture with 
 white. Mixed with asphaltum, verdigris, delicate 
 greens, olives, drabs, etc., it imparts a warm tinge 
 without injuring- the color ; washed over green 
 it gives a warm shade. 
 
 Carmine Lake. — This pigment is made from the 
 second washings in making carmine. It is one of 
 the most serviceable lake colors on the list, owing 
 to the various shades which can be produced 03^ 
 simply changing the shade of the ground- work. 
 
 Carnation-— The natural color of flesh, or a sort of 
 delicate pink, made by mixing three parts lake and 
 one part white. 
 
 Carriage Painting.— The painting of a carriage so 
 as to secure a mirror-like surface, free from blem- 
 ishes of every kind, is an art which requires a 
 high grade of genius and intelligence ; and yet, 
 the tendency of the times is to fill the paint-shops 
 with a class of workmen who, from inferiority of 
 intellect and education, are considered unable to 
 learn other branches of the trade. It is true that 
 anybody can do a part of the work in a paint-shop 
 and do it well, but it does not follow that because 
 
CARRIAGE PAINTING. 
 
 a boy can sandpaper off a job, he can apply a coat 
 of paint, and yet a very large proportion of the 
 foundation coats are laid by boys or men with no 
 skill or judgment, and to this cause more than 
 any other may be attributed the large number of 
 poorly painted carriages in the country. It re- 
 quires practice to make a painter, but it also 
 requires study. The nature of paints aud oils, the 
 effects of mixing- vegetable and mineral pigments, 
 all require study, and no matter how skillful a 
 man may be with the brush, he can never become 
 a good painter without combining theory with 
 practice. The harmonizing of colors and the 
 effects of lights and shades are of as much impor- 
 tance to the coach-painter as to the artist engaged 
 on landscapes ; but the coach-painter must go 
 further. He must produce a perfect surface, and 
 in such a manner as to ensure durability, though 
 exposed to sun and storm. He must also study 
 how to stripe and ornament, not merely how to 
 draw a line of a different color, but where that 
 line should be drawn to produce the best effect. 
 Man} 7 a carriage body that looked well in the 
 wood-shop has been made to look ungainly after 
 the painter has drawn his lines upon it. The im- 
 portance of correct taste in this respect cannot be 
 over estimated, and every boy who enters the 
 shop to learn the painter's trade should make it a 
 leading study. The eye must be constantly prac- 
 ticed on colors, as it is by practice only that a true 
 discrimination in shades can be attained. When 
 painters learn their trade in this manner, we hope 
 to see an end to the miserable compounding and 
 blending of colors so noticeable at the present 
 time. 
 
CHANGEABLE COLORS. 
 
 85 
 
 Cassel Earth.— A pigment of the ochre family, of a 
 russet brown hue — very similar to Vandyke 
 brown (q, v.). 
 
 Celestial Blue.— A pigment made by the mixture 
 of yellow prussiate of potassa, chloride of barium, 
 perchchloride of iron and sulphate of ammonia — 
 not extensively used. 
 
 Cerulean or Egyptian Blue.— A pigment used in 
 water and fresco painting, made of carbonate of 
 soda, powdered flint and copper. 
 
 Ceruse. — The name given to an extra fine quality of 
 white lead. 
 
 Chamois-Skin.— The skin used by the painter for 
 drying off water, and called a " shammy," derives 
 its name from the chamois, an animal of the ante- 
 lope kind, whose hide was, and may occasional] y 
 be found in a carriage paint-shop. Those most 
 in use being nothing more than alum-dressed 
 sheep-skins. The best are known as " French oil- 
 dressed" which are warranted to remain soft after 
 washing, costing from $8.00 to $16.00 per dozen. 
 The best quality are thin, though compact and 
 soft, care should be taken to keep them free from 
 dirt, grease, soap, etc., which w T ould tend to in- 
 jure the work. Never use a chamois for drying 
 the hands and face when washing. 
 
 Chamoline. — A color similar to that of a chamois 
 skin when wet ; made by mixing white, yellow 
 ochre and a small quantity of red. 
 
 Changeable Colors.— Colors that appear to be of 
 a different hue when viewed in different angles of 
 light. Prussian blue is one of this class, by mix- 
 ing the color to dry "dead" it will appear reddish 
 
86 
 
 CHANGEABLE SIGN. 
 
 in one light, and dark blue in another. Clear var- 
 nish should be put over the dead color, as color- 
 and- varnish takes away that feature. Dichroism 
 is the scientific term used to denote this peculiar- 
 ity. 
 
 Changeable Sign. — A sign which shows three dif- 
 ferent reading's — made in the following manner : 
 Make a wooden sign-board in the usual manner, 
 and have a projecting molding around it. Next 
 cut thin grooves — a saw-scarf — in the molding 
 one inch apart, allowing each cut to reach the sur- 
 face of the sign-board. In each of these grooves 
 insert strips of tin or other thin metal one inch 
 wide, and long enough to reach across the sign- 
 board from the upper to the lower molding. 
 When all arranged, take out the tin strips and 
 paint them the desired color of the sign-board, 
 doing the board at the same time. Next, put the 
 letters on to the board as usual, then laying the 
 strips of tin edge to edge, letter other words on 
 each side, then slip the tins into the grooves in 
 their regular order. This will give you a sign 
 reading three different ways, as viewed from the 
 three positions— front, right and left. 
 
 Charcoal Black.— A black pigment made of burnt 
 peach stones, white sugar and other substances. 
 
 Cherry Brown. — A color made by glazing a ground 
 of Vandyke brown, with a thin carmine glaze. 
 
 Chestnut Color.— A color made by the mixture of 
 two parts red, two parts yellow, and one part 
 black. 
 
 Chiaro - Oscuro (pronounced Ke-ar-o- Os-ku-ro) . — 
 That branch of painting which has for its object 
 the combination and arrangement of the light and 
 
CHISEL-POINT. 
 
 87 
 
 shadow of a picture to the best advantage. Relief 
 and depth, and what is generally called the effect 
 of a picture, are produced by Chiaro-Oscuro. 
 
 China White. — A pure white pigment, made by the 
 assorting of the purest flakes of zinc white. 
 
 Chinese Lake. — A name sometimes given to scarlet 
 lake. 
 
 Chinese Vermilion. — A pigment of a bright red 
 color made by the Chinese and with whom its 
 manufacture is a secret. It was for many years 
 the only vermilion used in this country. It came 
 wrapped in papers containing one ounce each, and 
 so expensive that but little was used. Vermilion 
 is now used in enormous quantities and the English 
 make has almost completely run the Chinese 
 brand out of the market. 
 
 Chinese Yellow.— A pigment made by the Chinese 
 consisting of very bright sulphuret of arsenic. 
 
 Chipping. — The breaking or flying off of a coating 
 or coatings of paint and varnish from the surface 
 on which it was spread. The prime cause being 
 unelastic mixtures of paint, i.e., paint which was 
 mixed to dry too quickly and consequently devoid 
 of oil or other elastic vehicle. 
 
 Chisel- Point. — A term applied to those brushes 
 having the hair or bristles coming down to a point 
 or " chisel-edge." Brushes w r ere formerly made 
 with the bristles of equal length and the painter 
 was compelled to " wear down" a brush on coarse 
 work until he obtained the requisite shape. The 
 brush-maker inserts the desired quantity of brist- 
 les for a brush into a tin receiver, and they are by 
 that means brought to a point, with the flag-end 
 
88 
 
 CHLORIDE OF ZINC. 
 
 of the bristle left on, the upper end or butt is then 
 cut off square and the handle affixed thereto. 
 This is better than to grind off the bristles or to 
 " wear down" as some do, as it leaves the brush 
 soft yet elastic upon its extreme point. 
 
 Chloride of Zinc. — Once used to advantage as a 
 cement, is now highly recommended as a paint. 
 A convenient application for this purpose is made 
 by stirring- a mixture of oxide and chloride of zinc 
 in cream of tartar, adding- starch enough to bring 
 it to the proper consistency, then boiling- the 
 whole and allowing- it to cool. If the paint is to 
 be colored in any way a pigment of the desired 
 shade is introduced before boiling- with the starch. 
 In course of half an hour the paint becomes dry 
 and hard. This paint does not become darkened 
 in the air, and is without smell ; and even in win- 
 ter, in consequence of its quick drying, will admit 
 a second and third coat in the space of a few 
 hours. It can be cleaned with soap and water, 
 like an oil paint, and its action, in consequence of 
 containing the chloride of zinc, is as a preserva- 
 tive of wood, rendering 1 it almost incombustible, a 
 peculiarity which can be increased by adding a 
 small quantity of borax. 
 
 Chocolate Color. — Add a small quantity of lake or 
 carmine to burnt umber ; or take Indian red and 
 black and add a very little yellow. Chocolate 
 brown is but another name for this mixture. 
 
 Chrome Green. — This pigment is known to chemists 
 as the sesquioxide of chromium, and it is prepared 
 by several processes, one of which is as follows : 
 A mixture of three parts of neutral chromate of 
 potassa and two of sal ammoniac is heated in a 
 
CHROME ORANGE. 
 
 89 
 
 crucible. The two salts are decomposed, and there 
 is formed an oxide of chromium mixed with 
 chloride of potassium. The latter salt is removed 
 by several washing's of hot water, the product is 
 then calcined to increase its brightness . In paint- 
 ing with chrome green, it is best to have a well 
 made ground work of lead color, then in most 
 cases, one coat of the color will cover it solidly, 
 and it should always be borne in mind that no more 
 color should be applied than is sufficient to cover 
 the ground, for too many coats will make a por- 
 ous foundation for the varnish coats, and loss of 
 lustre or cracking will result. Where more than 
 two coats are required to cover, the third coat 
 should contain a good proportion of varnish. 
 Chrome Green is well adapted for sleighs, light 
 trotting wagons, or for machinery. It is seldom 
 used in its purity upon carriage work, except for 
 striping and ornamenting. With white it forms 
 beautiful light green tints which are extremely 
 durable. It covers well and dries in a short space 
 of time when properly mixed. 
 Chrome Orange.— Dichromate of lead, which is a 
 splendid orange color, is obtained by adding to a 
 solution of nitrate of lead a solution of chromate 
 of potash, to which an equivalent of hydrate of 
 potash has been added. It is also obtained by 
 fusing together five parts of nitre and one part 
 chromate of lead. Chromate of potash and 
 dichromate of lead are formed, and the former 
 salt is removed by washing. Chrome Orange 
 holding a large share of red in its composition, 
 cannot be successfully used in making greens with 
 blue, or tints of bright yellow. The principle 
 should always be kept in mind — to use a color or 
 
90 
 
 CHROME YELLOW. 
 
 pig-men t which contains the least of any objection- 
 able tint, as, for instance, in making a green 
 color, we seek the purest yellow, one which has 
 but little, if any, red in its composition, to add to 
 the blue ; or in preparing an olive color, we choose 
 a reddish or orange yellow to add to black. This 
 color finds favor with the ornamenter and letterer, 
 and the striper generally prefers the ready mixed 
 orange to one made of yellow and red. 
 
 Chrome Yellow- — Chemistry and the arts are in- 
 debted to Vauquelin for the discovery of chro- 
 mium, a peculiar metal which he found in 1797, in a 
 sample of Siberian red lead (chromate of lead). 
 Vauquelin distinguished in the new metal the re- 
 markable coloring power of its combinations ; in- 
 deed the name he chose means color. Among the 
 combinations of chromium, the most employed in 
 the arts are the chromate of lead, lime and baryta. 
 The neutral chromate of lead is of a very fine and 
 bright yellow, and is known as lemon chrome by 
 a majority of painters. 
 
 Cinnaber. — Vermilion (which see). 
 
 Citrine. — The first of the tertiary class of colors or 
 ultimate compounds of the three primaries — yel- 
 low, red and blue, in which yellow is the predomi- 
 nating color, and blue the extreme subordinate. 
 Citrine being an immediate compound of the 
 secondaries, orange and green, of both of which 
 yellow is a constituent, the latter color is of doubt- 
 ful occurrence therein, while the other two pri- 
 maries enter singly into the composition of citrine. 
 There is also a species of brown pink dye called 
 citrine lake, prepared from quercitron bark. 
 
CLOUDING. 
 
 91 
 
 Claret Color. — A deep red, taking- its name from 
 claret wine. Some of the lakes and carmine will 
 give this color ; or, mix red and black, or blue and 
 carmine. There are many shades of claret wine, 
 as deep, pale, etc., and it is rather an unsatisfac- 
 tory term to use in expressing a color. 
 
 Clay Drab. — A color made by mixing equal parts of 
 raw sienna, raw umber and white lead, then 
 tinted with a few drops of chrome green. 
 
 Cleaning Paint. — Soiled paint, whether on wood- 
 work or canvas, may, it is said, be cleaned per- 
 fectly by first dipping a rag in finely powdered 
 and well-sifted Spanish white, and then rubbing 
 the surface in question, gently with it, thereby 
 removing dust, grease, etc., from the colors. The 
 surface is then to be washed in fresh water by 
 means of a sponge, and dried with a soft chamois 
 skin. The colors appear as fresh as new, and the 
 whole process has many advantages over the use 
 of soap. 
 
 Clearcole. — A mixture of thin size and whiting 
 spread over old painted parts in houses to cover 
 grease spots and dirt, and aid in the drying of 
 subsequent coats of oil paint. It is also used by 
 some painters as a priming for new wood. To a 
 certain extent the size stops the absorbent powers 
 of the wood or plaster, but it prevents the proper 
 adhesion of the oil paint, which soon cracks and 
 peels off. 
 
 Clouding.— The same as smoky, "foggy." These 
 terms are self - explanatory when used by the 
 painter, and are synonymous with the English ex- 
 pression " blooming, " which still more aptly de- 
 scribes that the brilliancy of a varnished surface is 
 
92 
 
 COBALT BLUE. 
 
 obscured by a " bloom " as on a plum or cucum- 
 ber. When clouding- occurs on finished work, as 
 it frequently does, where the carriage is exposed 
 in a repository impregnated with the sulphur 
 fumes of the smith's forge, it may be removed b} T 
 washing with cold water, and allowing the job to 
 stand in the sun and open air for a while. The 
 want of ventilation, and dampness will cause a 
 smoky appearance of the varnish. The technical 
 explanation of this trouble is " moisture condens- 
 ing on the surface and leaving a residue of car- 
 bonic acid combined with other impurities." 
 
 Cobalt Blue.— A pigment prepared from the metal 
 cobalt, much used in scene painting. 
 
 Cobalt Creen. — A pigment prepared from cobalt, 
 with the addition of oxide of zinc or iron. It is of 
 a pure but not very powerful gre'en color, quite 
 durable. Binmann's Green is the same thing. 
 
 Colcothar. — A pigment made by the calcination of 
 the green sulphate of iron (copperas) upon plates 
 until it has lost its combined water and become 
 white. It is then pulverized, heated and submit- 
 ted to the action of sulphurous acid. 
 
 Cologne Earth. — A brown earthy pigment found in 
 the neighborhood of Cologne, on the river Rhine. 
 
 Color. — In art, means either the pigment employed 
 to produce a certain effect to the ey e, or the effect 
 thus produced. Color must be regarded by the 
 artist not so much the result of application of one 
 or more pigments separately as of their use in 
 the innumerable combinations of which they admit. 
 The primary colors as they are called — red, blue 
 and yellow — if compounded in various proportions, 
 
COLOR FOR GRAINING GROUND. 
 
 93 
 
 either in twos, or all three tog-ether, produce every 
 hue in nature or in art, every tint that is physical- 
 ly possible. First when combined in twos, they 
 produce the three secondary colors — that is to say, 
 blue and red make purple or violet ; 3 f ellow and 
 red, orange ; blue and yellow, green. The grays 
 and browns, again, are compounded of all three 
 of the primaries in unequal or varying* proportions. 
 
 Color B I i nd ness. — A term introduced to denominate 
 a defect of vision, owing- to which some persons 
 are either unable to discern a single color, such 
 as red ; or to distinguish between two colors, such 
 as red and green. This defect is called chroma- 
 topseudopsis. 
 
 Color for Graining Ground.— For light wainscot 
 oak, take white lead and yellow ochre, mixed to 
 the required tint. Some grainers prefer a per- 
 fectly white ground for very light oak for inside 
 work, but it is always difficult for any but a per- 
 fect master of the art to proceed satisfactorily on 
 a white ground, and the work, when completed, 
 is apt to have a chalky effect, even though a dark 
 varnish be used. 
 
 For a darker wainscot oak, mix white lead, 
 medium chrome yellow and yellow ochre. 
 
 For dark oak, mix white lead, Venetian red and 
 yellow ochre. 
 
 For very dark oak, mix white lead, raw sienna, 
 burnt umber and Venetian red. 
 
 These colors, mixed in different proportions, 
 will produce a multiplicity of tints suitable to re- 
 ceive the graining color, their strength being of 
 course determined by the greater or lesser quan- 
 tity of white lead. 
 
94 
 
 COLORLESS VARNISH. 
 
 For Mahogany, some prefer a ground of yellow- 
 ish cast, while others choose one approaching" a 
 bright red. The reds and yellows used are 
 Venetian red, red lead, vermilion, raw sienna, burnt 
 sienna, orange chrome, etc. These colors can be 
 mixed to the tint required, an addition of white 
 lead being made in each case, as the positive reds 
 and yellows are too powerful unless diluted. Ve- 
 netian red, orange chrome and white lead are the 
 colors most generally used and these colors will, 
 according to their predominance or subordination, 
 make such a variety of tints that the most fastidi- 
 ous grainer need have no misgiving as to results. 
 
 For Rosewood, use Venetian red, vermilion and 
 white lead. Scarlet lake is sometimes added for 
 best work, and some mix with the reds a small 
 quantity of raw sienna or chrome yellow. 
 
 For Bird's-eye maple and satin wood, use pure 
 white grounds, and it is of the utmost importance 
 to have the grounds painted with finely strained 
 colors and perfectly smooth. 
 
 Colorless Varnish.— A colorless varnish suitable 
 for prints, oil paintings and hard white wood, 
 may be made by dissolving 2.5 ounces of shellac 
 in a pint of rectified spirits of wine. To this must 
 be added about five ounces of well-burnt animal 
 charcoal that has been recently heated, and the 
 whole boiled for a few minutes. If on filtering a 
 small portion of the mixture through blotting 
 paper it is not found to be perfectly colorless, more 
 charcoal must be added until the desired result is 
 obtained. When this has been achieved, the mix- 
 i are must be strained through a piece of silk and 
 filtered through blotting paper. 
 
COPAL GUM. 
 
 95 
 
 Colorone. — A substitute for oil, japan and varnish 
 in color mixing". 
 
 Complementary Colors.— The color required with 
 another color to form white light, is called the 
 complementary of that color ; thus, red is the 
 complementary of green, and vice versa ; blue is 
 the complementary of orange, and vice versa; 
 yellow is the complementary of violet, and vice 
 versa; because blue and orange, red and green, 
 yellow and violet each make the full complement 
 of rays necessary to form white light. 
 
 Contrast. — The laying in of colors to a picture or 
 other ornamental design so that one gives great- 
 er effect to the other. All art is a system of con- 
 trasts ; lights should contrast with shadows, 
 members with members, groups with groups. It 
 is this which gives life, soul and motion to a com- 
 position. 
 
 Copal Cum. — Although commonly called a gum 
 scientific research has demonstrated that it is a 
 misnomer from the fact that true, gums are soluble 
 in water, while copal gum is dissolved only in oil 
 of turpentine. If it were a gum, distilled water 
 would, of course, dissolve it to a certain degree ; 
 if it were a resin, it would be easily dissolved in 
 alcohol ; if it were a g-um-resin, both menstrua 
 would have some effect upon it, and as they have 
 none, this proves that the substance belongs to 
 another class than the gums and resins. We may 
 explain what appears to be. an error in termino- 
 logy, by conceiving of true copal as being a fossil 
 gum — a substance that was once a true gum, 
 soluble in water, and having the other essential 
 qualities of a gum, but whose characteristics have 
 
COPAL GUM. 
 
 been so changed, by the action of outward influ- 
 ences, that the ordinary tests of its identity are 
 no longer available. 
 
 There are many varieties of copal gum, which 
 differ greatly from each other in appearance and 
 chemical properties. The great bulk of copal 
 comes from different parts of Africa, and it forms 
 a very important feature of the export trade of 
 that country. 
 
 We shall direct our remarks mainly to the 
 Zanzibar copal, that variety being the less in 
 quality, and therefore the one most used in var- 
 nishes of the highest grade, and it is the kind 
 about which we have the most direct and definite 
 information . 
 
 It is generally supposed that Zanzibar copal 
 is found on the island of Zanzibar, but this is not 
 the case. A very little only, and that of an infer- 
 ior quality, is found on this island. However, the 
 port of Zanzibar occupies the position of trading 
 post at which the copal is collected and shipped 
 by the merchants who are there established. In 
 seasons of ordinary activity the shipments of copal 
 from Zanzibar to the United States far exceed the 
 shipments made to any other country. Consider- 
 able of the copal is found lying upon the surface 
 of the grounds, which, in commerce, is called 
 "surface gum," but this is not so valuable as 
 that which lies deeper in the sand. Usually 
 the copal is found at a depth of from a few inches 
 to three or four feet, and it is seldom that the 
 native diggers go deeper than this, but there is a 
 reason to believe that the gum would be found at 
 a much greater depth, and perhaps in much larg- 
 er quantities. The greater the depth at which 
 
COPAL GUM. 
 
 97 
 
 it is found the greater the purity and value of 
 the gum. Copal dug* before the rains is always 
 more impure than that which comes afterward, 
 because it is more of a surface gum. But during 
 the rainy season, when the soil is moist and soft, 
 the natives dig deeper, and the copal comes in 
 larger pieces and of better quality. The first 
 operation after the gum is collected, is to pass it 
 through coarse sieves to separate the small from 
 the large pieces, the latter being called by those 
 in the business " pandy-pandy." The remainder 
 of the gum, which has passed through the first 
 sieve, is then passed through a finer one, and all 
 that runs through is " refuse," consisting of dirt 
 and small pieces of gum, that are not saleable, 
 and this is thrown into the sea. The gum having 
 been assorted into two sizes, is now cleansed by 
 being- placed in a solution of weak potash water. 
 This does not always remove the adhering- dirt, 
 and it becomes necessary to scrape each piece 
 separately, but as labor is cheap in Africa this is 
 not an expensive operation. Having been cleans- 
 ed, and classified by the merchants of Zanzibar, 
 the copal is ready for shipment in the first vessel 
 that arrives. The gum-room of a well organized 
 varnish factory is generally a busy place. Here 
 we see oblong boxes of gum coming in from " over 
 the sea." Here it is assorted by boys, who from 
 constant practice, have become experts in dividing 
 the bright, crystal-like pieces from the dark 
 brown, spotted or discolored ones ; and here the 
 several grades are sorted, weighed and wheeled 
 to the melting room. 
 Copal, To Dissolve in Alcohol.— Dissolve one 
 ounce of camphor in a quart of alcohol, put it 
 
98 
 
 COPPER COLOR. 
 
 into a circulating* glass, and add eight ounces of 
 copal gum in small pieces ; set it on a sand heat, 
 so regulated that the bubbles may be counted as 
 they rise from the bottom, and continue the same 
 heat till the solution is completed. This process 
 a\ ill dissolve more copal than the menstruum will 
 retain when cold, and it will be economical to set 
 the vessel aside for a few days to settle, then pour 
 off the clear varnish, leaving the residue for future 
 operation. This solution will be found excellent 
 as a varnish for pictures, it being exceedingly 
 clear and bright. 
 
 Copper Color. — The color of the metal copper, made 
 with two parts of yellow, one of red, and one of 
 black. Copper bronze is frequently used to pro- 
 duce this color. 
 
 Copper Greens. — A class of pigments having the 
 metal copper for a base, among which may be 
 mentioned, verdigris, mineral green, green lake, 
 emerald green, French green, marine green, etc. 
 These greens are generally bright in color and 
 well suited for house-painting and work of like 
 character, but not so well adapted for the fine arts. 
 
 Cracking. — The breaking up of the painted surface 
 into parts more or less minute, as of a looking- 
 glass when fractured. The principal causes of 
 which are : 1st, Putting too much oil in the under 
 coats. 2d, Quick painting over oil painting ; and 
 it must be borne in mind that the filling up pro- 
 cess on carriage bodies is of the nature of " Presto 
 painting," for which reason the priming coats 
 have to be united with considerable caution and 
 practical knowledge. By no means must they 
 dry glossy, which is evidence of too much oil. 
 
CRAYON CONTE. 
 
 on 
 
 3d. By destruction of the oily properties of the 
 varnish through exposure to atmospheric or solar 
 influences. 4th, By the action of ammonia or 
 other alkalies. 5th, By reason of unsuitable 
 driers in the varnish, or added thereto after its 
 manufacture. 6th, Springing- of the wood or rup- 
 ture of the ground, work of the painting- by severe 
 jars. The drying- of oily color is often so slow 
 that it does not crack the subsequent coats until 
 the work has been varnished and run out. 
 
 Crawling. — A term applied to paint or varnish 
 which, after being- spread, its surface presents 
 portions which have contracted. The remedy for 
 this difficulty is g-enerally found in wiping- over the 
 surface on which the paint or varnish is to be laid 
 with a damp cloth, or by throwing- water in small 
 quantities upon the paint while brushing- it. 
 
 Crayon. — The name given to pieces of charcoal, 
 white and red chalk of convenient size and shape, 
 which are used for drawing- on various kinds of 
 paper, and for sketching- cartoons, or the outlin- 
 ing- of painting's of considerable size on canvas. 
 Crayons of various colors and tints, are also made 
 by mixing- vegetable and mineral coloring- matters 
 with pipe clay or chalk and giving- consistency 
 and adhesiveness to the mass by the addition of 
 gum-water, soap, wax or some similar substance. 
 
 Crayon Conte. — The name given to a kind of crayon 
 made of lamp-black and a very fine clay, said by 
 artists to be an excellent quality of crayon. The 
 ingredients are baked, and any desired degree of 
 hardness is given by allowing it to remain in the 
 oven a certain length of time. It derives its name 
 from the inventor, a French chemist. 
 
100 
 
 CREAM COLOR. 
 
 Cream Color. — A color made of five parts white, 
 two parts yellow, and one of red. 
 
 Crems or Kremnitz White. — A white carbonate 
 of lead sometimes called Vienna white, being- 
 brought from Vienna in cakes of cubical form. 
 Though highly reputed it has no superiority over 
 the best white lead made in this country. 
 
 Creosote Wood Stains.— The creosote stains take 
 their name from one of their most important in- 
 gredients — Cresol, or "Creosote" — which is a 
 well-known preservative of all vegetable tissues. 
 This substance unites with the albuminous or sappy 
 part of the wood, which is naturally the first to 
 decay, and forms with it a compound which resists 
 all change from water or the variations of climate. 
 It also is said to protect the wood against the 
 ravages of insects — notably the white ant of the 
 South. 
 
 These stains are made in a great variety of 
 colors suitable for exterior uses ; and their effect 
 upon the pretty shingled villas and cottages now 
 so much in vogue is extremely picturesque and 
 beautiful. 
 
 Crest. — A device worn upon a helmet and represented 
 above a shield of arms. Crests are not borne 
 above the arms of ladies, except the Queen. 
 
 Crinkling Up. — A term applied to varnish when it 
 assumes a wrinkled appearance. It may be caused 
 by varnish which is too new ; but more frequently 
 to inexperienced workmanship, in putting on the 
 varnish in uneven patches and not brushing it 
 equally, and when this superabundance exists on 
 the surface, the excess of varnish must crinkle up 
 for obvious reasons. 
 
CUP. 
 
 101 
 
 Cross (Her). — An ordinary, formed by lines drawn 
 palewise and fesswise, enclosing one-fifth of the 
 shield, or one-third if charged. A cross gules is 
 termed the cross of St. George. A plain cross is 
 one of which the extremities do not reach to the 
 circumference of the escutcheon, but are couped. 
 A cross crosslet is one crossed on each arm. A 
 cross flory has three points at each end. Amal- 
 tese cross has arms increasing- in breath toward 
 the end, with double points. The cross of St. 
 Andrew, is in form of an X. There are numerous 
 styles of crosses, but the above are the principal 
 ones. 
 
 Crystal Varnish. — This varnish is excellent for 
 maps, drawings, etc., and may be made as follows : 
 Take Canada balsam, 1 oz.; spirits of turpentine, 
 2 oz.; mix together. Before applying this varnish 
 to a drawing or colored print, the paper should 
 be placed on a stretcher, and sized with a thin 
 solution of isinglass in water, and dried. Apply 
 with a soft camel's-hair brush. 
 
 Cup. — A small tin vessel, round and with a flat 
 bottom ; having a handle on one side, and open at 
 the top. Ordinary tin cups may be used for hold- 
 ing paint, but cups used in varnishing should have 
 a flat side made on the top edge that one may 
 wipe the brushes over without fear of rounding 
 them. There should be, at least, three cups used 
 for work on a heavy body, in order to keep the 
 varnish from the particularly difficult or promi- 
 nent parts, perfectly clean, and free from air bub- 
 bles. Varnish cups are also made with double 
 bottom between which sand is put, to make the 
 cup heavy and not liable to be overturned when 
 
102 
 
 CURDLING. 
 
 wiping- out a brush ; and in some instance the 
 sand is heated to render the varnish more limpid . 
 Varnish cups should be left in a bath of strong* 
 potash lye until every particle of varnish is eaten 
 off, then rinsed in clean water and dried before use. 
 Clean varnishing can never be done if the cup used 
 is covered both inside and out with gummy and 
 partially dried varnish. 
 
 Curdling. — A term applied to paint which thickens 
 or curdles ; due in most cases to the use of poor 
 japan. If a poorly made japan be added to lin- 
 seed oil, the mass will curdle, not mix together ; 
 but when the japan is of a good quality a perfect 
 assimilation of the two ingredients will result. 
 
 Curled Maple Graining.— Imitation of this wood 
 may be made as follows : Prepare a light cream 
 color for the ground, by mixing chrome yellow and 
 white lead, and burnt sienna or Venetian red to 
 tinge it. Paint the work with this and when dry 
 prepare the graining mixture by mixing in equal 
 proportions, raw sienna and Vandyke brown (dry) 
 in old ale ; spread the graining mixture (called 
 "rubbing 1 in") over the cream colored paint — do- 
 ing a little at a time — then draw a piece of cork 
 over across the work to form the grains which 
 run across the wood. This will dry in a few min- 
 utes when it should be varnished. To grain maple 
 in oil for outside work, prepare a rich cream 
 ground as before. Then for the graining color, 
 grind equal parts of raw sienna and umber in 
 boiled oil and turpentine, adding a small quantity 
 of beeswax dissolved in turpentine to hold the 
 grain in place. Spread this over the ground 
 work, make the lights by rubbing off the graining 
 
CUTTING IN. 
 
 103 
 
 mixture with a piece of leather or a rag", soften 
 the edges slightty by rubbing* over a blender, 
 and when dry put on the top grain with burnt 
 umber and raw sienna, ground in ale with the 
 white of an egg* added. When dry, varnish with 
 hard drying* body varnish. 
 
 Cutch. — A number of pieces of parchment or animal 
 skins, between which gold is placed to be beaten 
 out into sheets. 
 
 Cutting Down. — This term is applied to the rubbing 
 of rough-stuff coatings with lump pumice-stone ; 
 and to the rubbing of paint on bodies or g*ears, 
 with sand-paper ; also to the rubbing of varnish 
 with pulverized pumice-stone. 
 
 Cutting In- — Applied to the application of color 
 around a letter or stripe. In the case of letters, 
 the ground is put on around the letter instead of 
 putting the letter upon the ground. 
 
D 
 
 Da mar. — A gum obtained from certain species of 
 pine trees ; it is hard, brittle and similar to copal, 
 largely used in making- varnishes. Damar var- 
 nish is almost colorless, being- of a milky hue and 
 mixed with zinc white it forms what is known as 
 "china g-loss." It is not durable when exposed to 
 the weather, but for inside work and for some of 
 the purposes of the artist it is excellent. 
 
 Damask. — The name given to textile fabrics in which 
 figures of flowers, prints, or others not of geome- 
 trical regularity are woven. Painting in imitation 
 of such fabrics is fashionable and certainly very 
 pleasing, while at the same time the work is done 
 in an easy and inexpensive manner upon the side 
 walls of a room. 
 
 The wall needs no preparation if it be hard- 
 finish, and none, other than that given to all 
 kalsomined walls (sizing) if kalsomined. First 
 draw a design of flowers, leaves, or whatever 
 fancy dictates, and make a perforated pattern. 
 Dust this upon the wall with a pounce-bag (q. v.) 
 filled with Venetian red or black. Next proceed 
 to mark the red lines with a soft black crayon. 
 When the plan is thus all laid out, mix whiting 
 and carriage rubbing varnish, or furniture var- 
 nish, to form a medium thick paint, add a little 
 dissolved borax (say i lb to a quart of turpentine) 
 and stir all well together. If the mixture be too 
 
DARK RICH BROWN. 
 
 105 
 
 thick to spread nicely and it covers the marks of 
 the crayon completely, thin it with turpentine 
 until it does not do so, for the crayon marks must 
 be seen through the paint. When properly pre- 
 pared, paint over the whole side wall, and let it 
 stand a while to set. Now with a very coarse 
 graining comb (q. v.) comb it over, running the 
 lines of the comb from ceiling to floor at an angle 
 of say 45 degrees ; then cross comb it directly at 
 right angles — this gives the appearance of woven 
 fabric. The combing done, take a flattened stick 
 and smooth out the combings which are within 
 the boundary of the design, leaving all outside of 
 . the figure untouched and let all dry hard. When 
 dry, give a thin coat of glue-size and kalsomine 
 the wall with a bluish or greenish tint. The 
 combings will show out splendidly and the figures 
 will be quite smooth, so that the appearance of 
 damask will deceive many. This work may be 
 done with oil paint in a similar manner. 
 
 Damp Blue. — Or, as called by some, Brunswick 
 Blue and Celestial Blue, is made by precipitating 
 the alumina from a solution of alum by carbonate 
 of soda, and adding sulphate of baryta ; sulphate 
 of iron ; yellow prussiate of potash and some 
 bichromate of potash. When dried it is known as 
 Brunswick Blue, but when not dried it is called 
 Damp Blue. 
 
 Dark Lead Color-— White lead and lamp-black 
 
 mixed to suit ; any shade may be made. 
 
 Dark Rich Brown- — A color much admired for 
 panels or for gears on carriages, made of Indian 
 red five parts, Prussian blue one part; mix and 
 grind in brown japan and turpentine equal parts, 
 
106 
 
 DAUB. 
 
 add a very little raw linseed oil, say, a tablespoon- 
 ful to a pint of paint. Ety changing- the propor- 
 tions of the pigments the color can be made light 
 or dark. Vermilion and ivory-black will make a 
 good brown, but all browns made with red and 
 black are improved or softened by the addition of 
 yellow. Umber brown, Vandyke brown, sienna 
 brown, etc., are all pigments of the brown order, 
 but require the addition of other pigments to 
 lighten or darken or give richness. Umber brown 
 without a drop or two of red is a cold, raw color, 
 unless placed in juxtaposition to the required red- 
 dish paint. 
 
 Daub. — To paint in a rough manner. A workman 
 who does not fully understand his trade is some- 
 times called a daub or dauber. 
 
 Dead Black Paint. — In the Locomotive, issued 
 monthly by the Hartford Steam Boiler and In- 
 spection Company, is a recipe for painting brass 
 tubes, optical instruments, etc., a dead black. 
 The writer claims that after trying numberless 
 unsatisfactory recipes, he has at last found one 
 which is perfection in every respect. Take two 
 grains of lamp-black, put it into any smooth, shal- 
 low dish, such as a saucer or small butter plate, 
 add a little gold size, and thoroughly mix the two 
 together. Just enough gold size should be used 
 to hold the lamp-black together. About three 
 drops of such size as may be had by dipping the 
 point of a lead-pencil about half an inch into the 
 gold size, will be found right for the above quan- 
 tity of lamp-black ; it should be added a drop at a 
 time, however. After the lamp-black and size are 
 thoroughly mixed and worked, add twenty-four 
 
DEAD FINISH. 
 
 107 
 
 drops of turpentine, and again mix and work. It 
 is then ready for use. Apply it thin with a 
 camel's-hair brush, and when it is thoroughly dry 
 the articles will have as fine a dead black as the3 r 
 did when they came from the optician's hands. 
 
 Dead Color. — A term given to paint that dries with- 
 out gloss. This is brought about by the use of 
 more turpentine than oil, japan, or varnish. 
 House-painters generally use the word "flat" to 
 convey the same meaning. 
 
 Deadening. — A term together with, "perishing," 
 " sinking in," "withering," "grain showing," 
 " s adding down," "striking in" and "going 
 sleepy," applied to one very serious deviltry on 
 the part of varnish, it loses its brilliant mirror- 
 like surface and becomes dull or lustreless. The 
 common causes for which are : First, from unsea- 
 soned timber. Second, from imperfectly dried un- 
 dercoats. Third, from absorption of the oils of 
 the varnish. Fourth, the failure to allow the es- 
 cape of gas from the can before applying it. Ab- 
 sorption is the principal agent. (See American 
 Method.) 
 
 Dead Finish. — A lustreless surface. A term applied 
 to the finish produced by rubbing the gloss from 
 varnish with pulverized pumice-stone and oil, the 
 surface being left in a semi-lustrous state by omit- 
 ting the polishing process. Much of this work is 
 done on furniture with shellac varnishes rather 
 than with copal owing to its quick and hard dry- 
 ing properties. Dead finish is given to painting 
 in houses, by mixing the paint with turpentine 
 principally, and is called "flatting" by the house- 
 painter. 
 
108 
 
 DEC ALCOM ANIE . 
 
 Decalcomanie. — The art of transferring- pictures or 
 designs printed or painted upon prepared paper 
 to other surfaces. (See Transfer Ornaments.) 
 
 Deep Buff. — A mixture of white, yellow and red, 
 forms a color known as bull', and by increasing* the 
 quantity of red and yellow a deep buff is pro- 
 duced. 
 
 Deepen. — To darken, as to deepen the shadows of a 
 picture thereby making them more intense by 
 adding- a stronger or darker color to the already 
 dark parts. 
 
 Detergent. — A chemical preparation, which when 
 spread on a painted surface, softens the paint so 
 that it can be easily removed by scraping-. Some 
 of these chemical preparations are self-destroying, 
 and one ingredient neutralizes the effects of the 
 others, yet the composition is not active without 
 that ingredient, and therefore as the detergent 
 cannot be kept for any length of time it must be 
 mixed in small quantities as required. Lime, 
 potash, soap, soda, are among- the principal in- 
 gredients of detergent. 
 
 Deviltries. — A term used by coach-painters to in- 
 dicate the detestable action of paint and varnish 
 at various times. The subject is indeed an exten- 
 sive one, and we prefer to note the many " devil- 
 tries" under their respective heads than to extend 
 this article to so great a length. The deviltries of 
 paint and varnish we find in adulteration of ma- 
 terials. Fading, darkening-, greening, cracking, 
 chipping, peeling, being gritty, fatty, greasy, 
 curdling, pitting, clouding, blistering, etc., which 
 see under their proper headings. 
 
DIAPER. 
 
 109 
 
 Dexter. — Right, as opposed to left, or sinister (Her) m 
 The right hand side of a shield. 
 
 Diaper. — An exceedingly pretty style of ornament 
 consists of the application of a "diaper" in colors 
 to the lower portions of the pilaster, as shown in 
 Fig. 18. The term "diaper" as applied to decora- 
 
 Fio. 18.— Diaper Work. 
 
 tion may require probably some little explanation. 
 "Among early decorators several kinds of diaper 
 are met with, the most common extending itself 
 over large surfaces in a running or geometrical 
 pattern, executed in a darker shade of the ground 
 color. Sometimes it was used for exterior decora- 
 tion as a series of red devices arranged upon an 
 
110 
 
 DIAPER. 
 
 uncolored ground, or more properly, a ground 
 possessing no other color than the prevailing tint 
 of the building." 
 
 Diaper is most useful to supply the place of 
 middle tints, the introduction of which might de- 
 stroy the brilliancy and interfere with the keeping 
 of polychromatic painting. In addition to this 
 valuable property, and its especial peculiarity as 
 a series of repetitions of a single design, this sys- 
 tem of mural embellishment possesses a yet 
 stronger recommendation on the score of its ex- 
 treme simplicity. 
 
 This fact alone should be sufficiently obvious to 
 popularize the modern revival of an ancient prac- 
 tice, which was, in one period of art history, not 
 only to be found upon the walls of dwelling-houses, 
 but formed an important feature in the magnifi- 
 cently illuminated manuscripts of the mediaeval 
 era. 
 
 The colors most suited to the production of 
 diaper ornaments and other similar decorative 
 purposes are the following recognized combina- 
 tions : 
 
 White ornaments on yellow ground. 
 
 Yellow on white. 
 
 Yellow on red. Red on yellow. 
 
 Black on red. Red on black. 
 
 Salmon tint on brown. Brown on gray. 
 
 Gray on brown. Yellow on gray. 
 
 Brown on green. Green on stone color. 
 
 Gray on black. Red on gray. 
 
 Red and gray alternating on stone color. 
 
 Red and black alternating on stone color. 
 
 Black, white and reel alternating on stone color. 
 
DISTEMPER PAINTING. 
 
 Ill 
 
 Distanced Lines. — In striping", when a broad stripe 
 is drawn with fine lines on each side of it and at a 
 short distance from it, the 
 
 lines are said to be dis- 
 tanced. As " a broad stripe 
 
 of red with distanced lines Fig. 19.— Distanced 
 of cream color." LlNES - 
 Distemper Painting. — A coarse kind of painting-, 
 in which the colors — of a commoner kind than those 
 usually employed for artistic purposes — are mix- 
 ed in a watery glue, such as size and whiting. 
 The chief purposes for which distemper is now 
 used are the coloring of walls, scene-painting", and 
 in staining- paper for walls. The so-called fresco 
 painting (q.v.) of to-day is principally distemper. 
 The whitening or coloring of walls and ceilings 
 commonly called " Kalsomining" is simply a com- 
 mon kind of Distemper and fresco work. The base 
 of Distemper is either whiting, or Spanish white, 
 the latter being purer, and this mixed to a cream- 
 like consistency with warm glue water forms the 
 white, while a coloring- of any tint may be had by 
 simpry adding other pigments in small quantities. 
 
 Plaster of Paris is often added to whiting and 
 the whole mixed with clear water, the plaster act- 
 ing- as a binder, and it is certainly far more clean- 
 ly, as there is no liability of its being affected by 
 damp as in the case of animal size. 
 
 Comminuted or finely powdered glue has of late 
 years become an article of commerce, and its 
 adaptability for mixing with whiting in proper 
 proportions to form Distemper or Kalsomine when 
 wet with boiling water, has been taken advantage 
 of, and now one may purchase almost any desired 
 tint of prepared or "dry kalsomine" at a village 
 
112 
 
 DOTTER. 
 
 store. A good wall brush (see Brushes) should be 
 used to apply distemper colors to a large surface, 
 a common white-wash brush being* unfit for the 
 purpose. 
 
 Dotter. — A tool used in graining-, made by rolling a 
 piece of cloth saturated with graining color until 
 a point is formed ; this point must, however, be 
 open like the aperture of a funnel , but semicircular 
 in shape, and with this the dots or eyes of maple 
 wood are imitated. 
 
 Fig. 20.— Double Shaded Letters. 
 
 Double Shade. — In lettering or scrolling the double 
 shade is frequently used. It consists of an addi- 
 tional width in the ordinary shade (or properly, 
 thickness) of a letter added in some other color, as 
 for example: a black shade upon a red ground 
 would be double shaded by another of same width 
 in carmine, or a glazing of asphaltum. The idea 
 being to blend the intense contrasting shade to 
 the ground color. (See Lettering.) 
 
 Dragon's Blood. — A resinous substance from the 
 juice of a plant found in the East Indies. There 
 are two sorts, but that in drops is the best. It is 
 
DRYING. 
 
 113 
 
 used to color varnishes, lacquers and stains, and 
 is of no use otherwise to the painter. 
 
 Dressing. — A term used to express the laying- or 
 leveling- of varnish upon a surface. The varnish 
 is spread over a surface, and the brush is passed 
 over it in various ways to cause it to lie uniform, 
 and this is called " Dressing- " the varnish. 
 
 Drying.— A term applied to the solidification of 
 paints and varnishes, but improperly, as it signi- 
 fies that a body moistened by a liquid loses that 
 liquid by evaporation. Although the spirits of 
 turpentine that is generally used to diminish the 
 viscidity of the oil in paints, and to enable the 
 mixture to flow better, evaporates, there is left a 
 fluid coat thicker than before, but by no means 
 dry, being in the condition called "set"; and 
 from this point in the hardening process, far from 
 losing anything by evaporation, the coat hardens 
 by absorbing oxygen from the air. 
 
 A panel of wood painted or varnished, dries 
 more quickly in a jar of oxygen than in the air, 
 and does not dry at all in a jar filled with car- 
 bonic acid gas. A freshly painted surface may 
 be kept for a long time under water without dry- 
 ing-, not because it wets like a cloth, but because 
 the water keeps it from the oxygen of the air. 
 
 Other things being equal, paint and varnish 
 dries more quickly at a temperature of 80° than 
 below. This explains why in practice the propor- 
 tions of driers should vary in summer and 
 winter, in mixing paint for outside work, and it 
 shows also why paint shops should be kept at a 
 summer temperature. 
 
 All the fixed oils have an attraction for oxygen, 
 
114 
 
 DRYING. 
 
 and by exposure to the air they either become 
 hard and resinous or sour and rancid. Those 
 which exhibit the first property in a marked 
 degree, as linseed oil, poppy oil, rape and seed oil 
 etc., are called drying oils, and are used as 
 vehicles for colors. The drying- quality is greatly 
 increased by boiling, either alone, or with litharge, 
 sugar of lead, etc., when the product forms the 
 boiled oil or drying oil of commerce. 
 Colorless Drying Oil. — Heat 5 gallons of water 
 to the boiling point in a vessel holding 15 gallons, 
 when boiling add 5 gallons linseed oil and 1 pound 
 red lead, keep it constantly stirred and boil for 
 2 hours, then remove it from the fire and let 
 settle. 
 
 Dark Colored Boiled Oil. — A good drying oil for 
 use in house painting is made by boiling, with 
 constant stirring, 1 gallon of linseed oil with 
 f pound of powdered litharge, until a skin forms, 
 then remove the scum, and when cold and settled 
 decant the clear portions. 
 
 Driers for Dark Colored Paints.— Grind the 
 best litharge with drying oil. A small portion 
 added to paint will cause it to dry quickly. 
 
 For light colored paint, sulphate of zinc or 
 sugar of lead may be substituted for the litharge. 
 
 Pale Boiled Oil. — Boil 1 quart linseed oil and 
 2 ounces white vitriol (sulphate of zinc) with one 
 quart of water until the water has all evaporated, 
 then allow it to settle. 
 
 Dusting Off-— The thorough cleaning from dust of a 
 surface to be varnished is something that has 
 puzzled the painter for years. The tenacity with 
 which the little bits of lint adhere to a panel, and 
 
DUTCH ULTRAMARINE. 
 
 115 
 
 the unsightly appearance they give to the varnish 
 if left on the work is a source of trouble. There 
 are several ways to remove these specks. 
 
 One painter in preparing- a body for varnish, oils 
 his duster, that is, he applies a few drops of sweet 
 oil to one hand then rubs the two palms together 
 until the oil is well distributed ; he then rubs the 
 tip of his bristle duster lightly over the palm until 
 it has taken up a little oil. With this duster he 
 then goes lightly over the panel and the oil helps 
 to take up any remaining particles of dust or lint. 
 This is fairly effective. Another, substitutes var- 
 nish for oil, and with this prepares his duster in 
 the same manner. This is preferable to the oil 
 method, for the varnish is more adhesive. The 
 third uses instead of a regular duster a flat bristle 
 varnish brush— for instance, the one with which 
 he has just varnished a roof or arch— this he 
 passes lightly over the panel, after it has been 
 well scraped out and allowed a little time to get 
 sticky. This is one of best plans we know of, for 
 it takes off every speck. The use of silk, etc., for 
 cleaning a job is now obsolete. 
 
 Dutch Metal.— An imitation of gold leaf, made of 
 very inferior metal— used in scene painting. 
 
 Dutch Pink.— A pigment of a dark leather color, 
 similar in appearance to yellow lake, made by im- 
 pregnating common whiting with vegetable yellow 
 tinctures. It is not a durable pigment, except 
 when glazed with yellow lake. 
 
 Dutch Ultramarine.— Same as Cobalt Blue. 
 
E 
 
 Easel. — A frame on which a painter supports his can- 
 vas or sign-board while working-. It is so contriv- 
 ed that the work may be raised or lowered at will, 
 or be thrown forward or back as desired. The 
 common easel consists simply of three strips of 
 wood hinged together at 
 the top, and supplied with 
 a series of holes in which 
 pegs are inserted on which 
 to rest the canvas or other 
 work. 
 
 Eastlake Ornamentation. 
 
 — A modern idea of archi- 
 tecture and decoration, 
 originating with Mr. Chas. 
 E. Eastlake of England, a 
 full account of which may Yiq. 21.-An Easel. 
 be found in a work pub- 
 lished by him, entitled " Hints on Household 
 Tastes." Unfortunately it is simply a "style" 
 — not a classified " order " with defined principles 
 of treatment and uses of application and delinea- 
 tion. Delineated with taste and judgment, it may 
 be made pleasing to the eye ; but the excessive 
 gaudery indulged in by a class of reckless adven- 
 turers who abuse the integrity of this new idea by 
 extravagant, unsightty and ill-conceived creations 
 of their own, is calculated to render it offensive 
 
EBONIZING SOFT WOODS. 
 
 117 
 
 and repulsive to those enjoying* a fair degree of 
 refinement in the aesthetics of ornamentation ; 
 this may cause its rejection even as a " style " 
 except by a limited number who prefer oddities, 
 or, who, being devoid of skill in the art, wish to 
 palm off " monstrosities'' as works of art. 
 bonizing Soft Woods. — 1. Into a quart of boil- 
 ing water put one-and-one-half ounces of copperas 
 and two ounces of logwood chips. Lay on hot. 
 When dry, wet the surface again with a solution 
 formed of two ounces of steel filings dissolved in 
 half a pint of vinegar. 
 
 2. Wash the wood with a concentrated aque- 
 ous solution of acetate of iron of fourteen degrees 
 Baume. Repeat this until a deep black is produc- 
 ed. 
 
 3. Brush with a strong- decoction of logwood 
 chips several times, then give it a coat of vinegar 
 in which rusty nails have been laid. 
 
 4. Boil in four quarts of water one pound of 
 logwood, add a couple of handfuls of walnut shells 
 (or pods). Boil again, and take out the refuse, 
 add a pint of vinegar, and apply boiling-. After- 
 wards dissolve one ounce of green copperas in a 
 quart of boiling water, and apply hot. 
 
 5. Boil one-half pound of chip logwood in two 
 quarts of water, add one ounce of pearlash, and 
 apply hot. Now, boil one-half pound of logwood 
 in a couple of quarts of water, as before, and add 
 one-half ounce of verdigris and one-half ounce of 
 copperas, strain and put in one-half pound of 
 rusty steel filings. With this go over the work a 
 second time. 
 
 6. One gallon of vineg-ar, one-half pound of 
 green copperas, one-quarter pound of China blue, 
 
118 
 
 EDGING. 
 
 two ounces of nut-galls, two pounds of extract of 
 log wood. Boil over a slow fire, then add a pint of 
 iron rust. Wash the wood with this. 
 
 7. First sponge the wood with a solution of 
 chlorhydrate of aniline in water, to which a little 
 copper chloride has been added. When dry, 
 repeat with a solution of potassium, bichromate. 
 Do this two or three times. 
 
 8. Make a solution of sulphate of iron, by dis- 
 solving two ounces of sulphate in a pint of hot 
 water. Paint the wood repeatedly with this. 
 When dry, apply a hot decoction of logwood and 
 gall-nuts two or three times. When this has 
 dried also, clean with a wet sponge before polish- 
 ing. 
 
 9. Infuse gall-nuts in vinegar in which rusty 
 nails or steel filings have soaked, and paint the 
 wood in this. 
 
 Of course when the work has become dry again, 
 sandpaper down the grain, and get a smooth face, 
 and as work to be ebonized must be quite free 
 from holes, oil and fill in an}^ of these with pow- 
 dered drop-black mixed in a filler. Then give all a 
 coat of quick-drying varnish, and rub down with 
 finely pulverized pumice-stone and linseed oil until 
 a good surface is acquired. 
 
 You may get a good, varnish for ebonized work 
 by dissolving black wax in spirits of wine. (See 
 Staining Woods.) 
 Edging. — A fine stripe or line drawn upon the edge 
 of a letter. Upon gold lettering this line, either 
 a light color or a dark one, is invariably used to 
 form a perfect edge to the metallic letter or to 
 give it prominence. Edging is sometimes put all 
 around a letter and sometimes only upon the edge 
 
ELASTIC GEAR VARNISH. 
 
 119 
 
 opposite to the shade ; the object then "being to 
 give to the work the appearance of strong light 
 upon that edge, and this called by some "high 
 light" or "high lighting a letter." For letters 
 under four inches in height the line is usually 
 made the size of a stout line of striping ; except 
 for very small letters when an exceedingly fine 
 line is used. For large letters the edging will be 
 from^ of an inch upward. 
 
 Edging when well done, i. e., all the lines 
 straight, of uniform size, and the corners well 
 made, gives a finish to a letter superior to any 
 other. Painted letters are seldom edged or light- 
 ed. The color used for gold lettering, is generally 
 a light cream color, however, much depends upon 
 the color of the ground. Upon a light ground, as 
 white, yellow, etc. ; the edging maybe black, red, 
 blue, green or any color that will be prominent, 
 may be employed, and in some case one color will 
 be used on the shade side and another on the light 
 side. 
 
 Egg-Shell Gloss.— A term frequently used by 
 painters, meaning that the surface of paint, when 
 dry, presents a similar gloss as that upon an egg- 
 shell, subdued, not full and lustrous, showing that 
 the quantity of oil or varnish in the mixture is not 
 in excess. 
 
 Elastic Gear Varnish. — The name given to a var- 
 nish designed more particularly for the wheels 
 and under parts of carriages, and although pos- 
 sessing a large share of elasticity, will dry suffi- 
 ciently hard for handling in from eight to ten 
 hours. One coat of this varnish over a well made 
 foundation will give extreme durability. It is 
 
120 
 
 ELASTIC LEVELING VARNISH. 
 
 pale, limpid, and works easily under the brush. 
 The painter will be able to flow it over a wheel 
 before giving- it the final " dressing " or laying- off. 
 
 Elastic Leveling Varnish.— The name given to a 
 varnish, designed for under coats on carriage 
 bodies or gears. It is a medium between Hard- 
 Drying Body varnish and Quick leveling varnish, 
 in nearly all its qualities. It is limpid, yet will 
 thicken while being applied, and rubs nicely owing 
 to its hard drying quality, yet as its name implies 
 it is sufficiently elastic to please the most fastidi- 
 ous. 
 
 Ellipse, How to Draw. — To lay out a perfect 
 oval is very simple providing you know how. 
 Suppose we want an oval to fill a given space, say 
 fifteen inches long and eight inches wide, we first 
 draw a horizontal line through the centre of our 
 space, which on the accompanying cut is marked 
 N N. Then across its centre we draw the vertical 
 line H H. Next measure, from the centre M, 
 seven and a half inches each way on the line N, 
 and four inches each way on the line H, which 
 gives us the exact space that our oval must fill. 
 Now take the compasses (or dividers), and putting 
 one leg on the centre M, place the other leg at the 
 point seven and a half inches off, on line N ; lift 
 the compasses, being careful not to displace them, 
 and set one leg- on spot H, four inches from cen- 
 tre, and turn the other leg down until it strikes 
 line N, which it will do about two inches from the 
 spot N, and that spot is marked A on our cut. 
 Then turn it the other side of centre M, and mark 
 the other spot O on line N. Now stick a pin or 
 tack into the points O and O, and a pin or tack in 
 
EMERALD GREEN. 
 
 121 
 
 point H at the top. Next take a piece of string 
 and tie it around the two pins quite tig-lit, then 
 remove the pin at point H, and put in its place the 
 point of a pencil, as shown in the eng-raving, and, 
 keeping the string- taut, move the pencil along. 
 You will find that the string directs the course of 
 the pencil point, and the result will be a perfect 
 oval, or properly, ellipse. The ellipse may be 
 made any size or shape, i. e., long and narrow, or 
 broad and short, etc., by simply laying out the 
 
 Fig. 22.— Method of Laying Out an Ellipse. 
 
 measurements on the lines H and N : for instance, 
 if we measure twenty-two inches on line N, and 
 four inches on line H, the oval will be very long 
 and slim, but nevertheless a perfect ellipse. This 
 may be done with the compass alone, but it can 
 not be done so well or so correctly as by the above 
 method. 
 
 Emerald Green.— The name of a copper green pig- 
 ment. It is the most vivid of this class of colors, 
 being rather opaque and powerfully reflective of 
 
122 
 
 ENAMEL BLUE. 
 
 light. Its hue is not common in nature, but well 
 suited for brilliant works. It works well in water, 
 but with difficulty in oil and dries badly therein. 
 The only true emerald green is, however, that of 
 chrome, with which metal nature gives the green 
 color to the emerald. 
 
 Enamel Blue. — A name often given to blue smalt 
 (which see). 
 
 Enameled Leather Varnish. — A preparation for 
 giving leather that appearance it had when new. 
 We append the Messrs. Valentine's directions for 
 use. "First clean the leather thoroughly with 
 soap and water, and when dry, if soft and pliable, 
 put on at once a thin coating of the E. L. V., using 
 a medium-sized bristle brush. Should the leather 
 be very hard, old and stiff, apply first, a coating 
 of our Permanent Wood Filling with a brush or 
 sponge, and ivipe well with rags so as to leave 
 no P. W. F. on the surface. Let it stand over 
 night to dry ; then apply a coat of the E. L. Var- 
 nish, which will dry in a hour or so ready for use. 
 This varnish may also be used for staining oak- 
 grained wood-work in houses, to give a black- wal- 
 nut appearajnce to the same. 
 
 The patent-leather of America takes the lead of 
 all others, and its preparation and use is so closely 
 allied to carriage painting, we give space to a 
 description of the process of coloring it. There 
 are three distinct operations : 1st, preparation of 
 the surface ; 2d, varnishing ; 3d, drying. The 
 object of the first operation is to close, as much as 
 possible, the pores of the skins ; a ground is thus 
 obtained ready to receive the varnish. The mix- 
 ture used is linseed oil, white lead and litharge, 
 
ENAMELED LEATHER VARNISH. 
 
 123 
 
 in the following- proportions : 20 lbs. of lead, 20 lbs. 
 of litharge and 27 gallons of oil. They are boiled 
 together until reduced to the consistence of a 
 syrup. 
 
 This composition is united with chalk, or ochre, 
 according to the circumstances, then spread on 
 the skin with a steel tool. The first coating is al- 
 lowed to dry, and two more coats are applied in 
 like manner, when the surface is rubbed with 
 lump pumice-stone, several more coatings are ap- 
 plied, until perfect uniformity prevails, then the 
 pumice-stone is applied the second time ; a suffi- 
 ent thickness must be obtained to prevent the var- 
 nish from penetrating the leather, and rendering 
 it hard and brittle. This can be easily understood, 
 as the oil penetrating too far into the pores, they 
 would become hard during the heating, and thus 
 cause small holes over the entire surface. After 
 this is finished, three to five layers of oil without 
 ochre, but colored with ivory-black and enough 
 spirits of turpentine to enable it to flow evenly 
 over the entire surface, are applied. The object 
 of this last operation is to make a black ground, 
 very black and of a high polish ready to receive 
 the varnish. After each layer, the leather is dried 
 in the drying room. Frequently the surface 
 receives a polish by rubbing it over with fine 
 tripoli, or pumice-stone, with a piece of woolen rag. 
 
 A good varnish is composed of 20 lbs. of spirits 
 of turpentine, 10 lbs. thick copal varnish, 1 lb. as- 
 phaltum and 20 lbs. of oil prepared as above. 
 
 The asphaltum can be replaced by an equal 
 quantity of Prussian blue, or ivory-black, accord- 
 ing to the article desired, the one giving a reddish 
 and the other a blackish tint. The temperature 
 
124 
 
 ENGLISH. 
 
 of the drying- room is about 170 degrees. The 
 patent-leather varnish is left there for about 15 to 
 20 days before being- applied to the surface. In 
 order that these operations be successful, it is nec- 
 essary that the tanning and curbing of the 
 leather be done with great care. The leathers are 
 manufactured in all colors, white, red, blue, yel- 
 low, etc., and copal varnish used in nearly every 
 case. 
 
 English.— A prefix denoting the origin of various 
 articles, as, English vermilion, English varnish, 
 English rubbing stone, etc., all coming from En- 
 gland. 
 
 English Red.— A name often given to Venetian red 
 (which see). * 
 
 Escutcheon {Her).— A shield on which armorial 
 bearings are depicted. 
 
 Express Wagon Painting.— The painting of ex- 
 press or business wagons may be performed in 
 three different ways as follows : 
 1st. Lead Priming Method. — The body being 
 ready, apply a coat of pure keg-lead and raw lin- 
 seed oil, having the paint mixed very thin, i. e., a 
 little lead in a large quantity of oil — and set the 
 job aside for a week, to dry. Then sandpaper 
 well, and apply a clean-looking lead color, using a 
 little japan dryer, and give two or three days to 
 dry. Next putty up all the imperfections, give 
 one day more, then cut down with sandpaper, and 
 put on the third coat of lead paint, having more 
 drier in it, or less oil. Give another careful look 
 over and a close puttying, and when dry, it will be 
 read3 T for the final sandpapering, preparatory to 
 
EXPRESS WAGON PAINTING. 
 
 125 
 
 laying* the color. The color may be dark green, 
 made by mixing* Prussian blue with chrome 
 green, or better still, use deep Milori green, add 
 sufficient oil to agree with the under coats of lead. 
 Two coats of color and one of color-and-varnish 
 will generally be sufficient in getting- the job 
 ready for striping- and ornamenting". 
 
 2d. The Knifing or Putty Method. — When the 
 priming coat is dry (and this may be lead prim- 
 ing, or wood filling-), mix keg-lead with turpentine 
 and japan drier, add a very little lamp-black and 
 apply to a portion of the work ; in a few minutes 
 the paint will assume a dull appearance, when it 
 must be scraped over with a broad, flat, putty- 
 knife, in the same manner as if plastering- with 
 putty. This process rubs the lead paint, which has 
 lost much of its turpentine by evaporation, into 
 the pores of the wood. Every part of the body ; 
 ribs, panels, top-strip, sill, etc., must be knifed 
 over, and any superfluous paint be nicely cleaned 
 off. Then allow a day for drying*, give it a g-ood 
 sandpapering and apply color as usual. 
 
 3d. Wood Filling and Rough-Stuff Process. — 
 The body being- completed no further than the 
 frame work, it receives a priming- of P. W. F. 
 (q. v.) The chamfers and faces of the rails or 
 ribs are plastered w T ith putty and sandpapered when 
 dry. They are now ready for color, which may 
 be ivory- black. The panels are sawed out and 
 smoothed by the woodworker, being left from 
 i to f of an inch wider than necessary to fit the 
 frame- work to allow for shrinkage. These then 
 receive a priming coat of Permanent Wood Fill- 
 ing', which is put on freely and well rubbed in with 
 rag's, until no surface coating is left, it having 
 
126 
 
 EXPRESS WAGON PAINTING. 
 
 been nearly all absorbed by the wood. Give 48 
 hours for drying-, unless the weather is very 
 favorable, as in summer, and then apply to the 
 face side of the panels, rough-stuff, which may 
 either be ready ground, or shop mixed as follows : 
 3 parts English filling, or mineral paint ; 2 parts 
 of white lead, with brown japan two parts, and 
 rubbing varnish one part, dilute with turpentine. 
 For the first coat add a very little oil, because 
 that which comes next to the priming must be a 
 little more elastic than the subsequent coats need 
 be. 48 hours should be given for the first coat of 
 rough-stuff to dry, after which, two coats, with 
 no oil in the mixture may be applied, one coat 
 each day. Stain the panels, and rub down with 
 pumice-stone as usual; give plenty of time for 
 the moisture to dry out of the porous rough-stuff, 
 then with a rag filled with P. W. F. rub over the 
 surface to close the pores and give it a binding or 
 adhesive property. The body-maker may now fit 
 the panels and screw them fast from the inside, 
 and the outside of the body will be found in good 
 condition. Some prefer to color and prepare the 
 ribs and the panels before they are put together, 
 but it is not a good plan. The rough-stuffing of 
 the panels we commend, inasmuch as that part of 
 the wood between the panel and rib or frame is 
 thus well painted, allowing no chance of injury 
 by water enteriug at those places ; and besides it 
 makes a smoother job. 
 The Gears. — These having been similarly primed 
 with P. W. F., and the smith having completed 
 the iron-work, the first operation is a good cutting- 
 down with sandpaper, which prepares the work 
 for a second coat of P. W. F., put on in the same 
 
EXPRESS WAGON PAINTING. 
 
 127 
 
 manner as before, i. e., well wiped or rubbed in. 
 When this is dry, putty up all imperfections, such 
 as open-grained places. Sandpaper, and apply a 
 coat of flesh color — white and red mixed, as a pre- 
 paration for vermilion. Next, mix English ver- 
 milion, light shade, and apply that as the color ; 
 color-and- varnish next, then moss off and stripe. 
 The body having- been colored with green and 
 black, is also ready for striping". 
 
 The style of striping- on this work and ground 
 will be a black panel stripe | of an inch in width, 
 with fine lines of white twisted up in various 
 shapes to fill the centres of the panels or blank 
 spaces. The body has the ribs black with fine 
 lines of white or cream color on the faces of the 
 ribs. No striping- on the panels. The inside of 
 the body may have two coats of pea green and 
 one of color-and-varnish, which finishes that part. 
 
 If the panels are lettered in gold, it will be well 
 to give a coat of rubbing varnish, then rub down 
 with pulverized pumice-stone and finish with some 
 good quality of finishing- varnish. 
 
 It has been demonstrated by repeated experi- 
 ment that gold lettering and ornamenting* will 
 wear longer when the size is put upon dead color, 
 instead of on a rubbed surface of varnish, but, as it 
 is a little more difficult for the workman to lay 
 his size thus, there are but few who recommend it. 
 
F 
 
 Facing. — The careful rubbing- of a surface, are the 
 final touches given to a surface of rough-stuff by 
 gently rubbing with pumice-stone. 
 
 Facing Coat-— The coat of Permanent Wood Fill- 
 ing- put upon a rubbed rough-stuff surface, in the 
 place of facing lead, to answer the same purpose, 
 as well as to hermetically seal the pores of the 
 paint and thereby add durability to the whole 
 paint structure. 
 
 Facing Lead. — A coating of dry white lead and 
 lamp-black — preferably dry lead to prevent the use 
 of oil — put over the rubbed surface of rough-stuff, 
 to enable the workman to see any imperfections 
 in the surface, such as scratches, dents, etc. 
 When dry, it is carefully rubbed smooth with 
 pumice-stone. 
 
 Fat Oil. — Linseed oil that has become thickened by 
 age, or by heating, is used for size in gilding, and 
 is called fat oil size, for others, see oils. 
 
 Fatty. — Paint having too much oil in it will become 
 ' ' fatty" if allowed to stand exposed to the air. 
 It is a partial oxidation of the oil. 
 
 Fawn Color. — Color of the young deer, made of 8 
 parts of white, one of vermilion, two of yellow, 
 and one of umber. 
 
FILLING. 
 
 129 
 
 Felt- — A stuff of wool and fur made by rolling- and 
 pressing", used by painters in connection with pul- 
 verized pumice-stone to rub varnished surfaces. 
 The words " Felting down" is used in Europe in 
 place of the word "rubbing." 
 
 Festooning. — A term applied to varnish which has 
 run down from moldings, etc., in waves, festoons 
 or curtains. The varnish may be too new, and 
 thin, or it may have been thinned or mixed with 
 oil, or by being put on with a brush having no 
 elasticity it was left thick in some places and thin 
 in others. A slow drying and durable varnish is 
 more liable to run into festoons than a hard and 
 quick drying one. When this is the case, and the 
 painter cannot prevent the running in any other 
 way, he may add a little hard drying body var- 
 nish. 
 
 Field (Heraldry). — The field is divided into nine 
 points : A, the dexter chief point ; B, the middle 
 chief ; C, the sinister chief point ; D, the honor or 
 collar point ; E, the fess point ; F, the nombril or 
 navel point; G, the dexter base; H, the middle base ; 
 I, the sinister base point. It will be observed that 
 the dexter (right) and sinister (left) sides of the 
 shield are so-called from their position in relation 
 to the supposed bearer of the shield, and not to 
 the eye of the spectator. 
 
 Field's Carmine. — The name frequently given to 
 madder carmine, or lake. 
 
 Filling. — Any material used for filling the pores or 
 grain of wood, as starch, whiting, putty of various 
 kinds, preparatory to varnishing or painting. 
 
130 
 
 FILLING. 
 
 Filling {Arch). — The wall surface between the dado 
 and the frieze or cornice; also the ground of a 
 panel. 
 
 Finisher. — Among- carriage-painters, the one who 
 puts on the last coat of varnish, usually designat- 
 ed the finishing- coat. The finishing is the most 
 delicate part of carriage painting, and is becoming 
 a distinct and separate branch of the trade. 
 
 Fire Checks. — A species of cracking, of a painted 
 or varnished surface — the cracks are very small, 
 running in every direction, forming squares, tri- 
 angles and circles, but seldom visible until a fine 
 lustre is obtained with the varnish coats. The 
 cause of " fire checks" (a name derived from that 
 of overheated pottery) is solely attributable to 
 the application of one coat of paint being put on 
 a surface of paint not thoroughly hardened. 
 Though similar checks may be seen in a varnish 
 coat where turpentine has been used to clean the 
 surface, or been mixed with the varnish, also 
 where glue-water has been left to dry upon the 
 varnish. 
 
 Fire- Proof Paint.— An oxide of iron pigment, some- 
 times called Ohio paint, Grafton paint, Mineral 
 paint, etc. It is generally of a dark red color, 
 very inexpensive, and used extensively on bridges, 
 freight cars, etc. 
 
 Firing Off.— A term used by painters for the use of 
 
 fire or hot irons, or a gas-jet in removing paint 
 and varnish from a surface. (See Burning Off, 
 Detergent and Ammonia.) 
 
 Fitch. — A small brush made of bristles and used 
 more particularly for such work as lettering on 
 
FLAKE WHITE. 
 
 131 
 
 canvas or muslin, and by artists on large work, 
 such as pictures on show wagons or in scene 
 painting. (See Brushes.) 
 
 Flaking;. — Denotes the separation of one coat of color 
 or varnish from another, or of the entire body of 
 paint from the ground, in scales or flakes. 
 " Peeling " is a similar difficulty, the paint leav- 
 ing the ground in soft particles, as the bark from 
 a stick. The cause of which may be attributed to : 
 1st, oil colors laid upon a part of the work where 
 a joint was not properly sealed up, so as to ex- 
 clude wet. 2d, because the previous coat of color 
 had not been mossed or paired off to flatten it 
 properly. 3d, because the work had been done on 
 a too much polished surface, especially on the 
 rounded surfaces and sharp edges of the wheels 
 and under parts. 4th, because the color was 
 non-adhesive, or non-elastic, rendered so probably 
 by the adulteration of the oil or pigments of which 
 it was composed ; or because it was intentionally 
 made quick drying. 5th, because the wood was 
 not thoroughly dry. 6th, varnish will chip or 
 flake off, when the surface has been washed with 
 hot water in winter, or when sleet or rain has 
 frozen upon it in a thin sheet, and allowed to re- 
 main for a time, also when glue water has been 
 applied over it. 
 
 Flake White.— White lead in the form of scales 
 or plates, sometimes gray on the surface. It 
 takes its name from its figure, is equal or 
 sometimes superior to Cremz white (q. v.) and 
 is an oxidized carbonate of lead. Flake white 
 is prepared by exposing this lead to the action of 
 vinegar in beds of fermented tan. It is blacked 
 
132 
 
 FLATTING. 
 
 by sulphuretted hydrogen, hydro-sulphate of am- 
 monia, and consequently needs a drying and pro- 
 tecting vehicle. It has no injurious action on 
 vegetable or other colors. When free from pipe 
 clay or sulphate of barytes it is soluble in diluted 
 nitric acid or acetate acid. It is the best white ex- 
 tant for oil or resin, particularly when pure, which 
 is generally evidenced by exceeding whiteness 
 and opacit}^. However, it is usually adulterated 
 with sulphate of barytes, chalk, and pipe clay, all 
 which trashy substances cause it to darken when 
 blended with unctuous or resinous particles. 
 There are other whites of lead varying in body 
 and brilliancy, and even obnoxious to the action 
 of mephitic vapors, as Roman and Venetian 
 whites and sulphate of lead. The whites of bis- 
 muth, pearl and antimony are injured by light as 
 well as by mephitic vapors. 
 Flatting. — When it is desired that paint when dry 
 shall present a fiat or dull appearance without 
 any gloss. Carriage-painters usually substitute 
 the word "dead" for flat. 
 
 Special care is necessary in laying all the coats 
 which precede the flatting ; they must be evenly 
 spread, and be smoothened with sandpaper in 
 order that they may be perfectly level, otherwise 
 the smallest irregularities will appear in the fin- 
 ished surface. 
 
 The paint used by house-painters for flattening 
 consists of white lead, with which of course the 
 necessary coloring matter is mixed, turpentine 
 alone being used as the medium with which the 
 paint is thinned. The color should be rather 
 lighter than is required, as it darkens a little 
 whilst drying. 
 
FLOWING QUALITY. 
 
 133 
 
 Japan gold size is sometimes used instead of 
 patent driers to assist or hasten drying". 
 
 When the paint is spread as usual, brushes 
 called stipplers are used to dab against the wet 
 paint, producing a level grain over the whole sur- 
 face, something like the tooth on drawing paper. 
 
 Some painters use extra care in spreading the 
 color and do not stipple it afterwards, but as a 
 general thing the stippling plan is best. 
 
 Flockings. — A fine lint or dust from a woven woolen 
 fabric of various colors, used principally by sign- 
 painters. The lettering having been gilded, all 
 the ground outside of the letters is painted over 
 with a tenacious varnish or oil paint of similar 
 color to the flockings to be used, then, while still 
 wet, the flockings are sifted upon the work, and 
 the board being left in a horizontal position for a 
 time, the flockings adhere to the ground, when 
 dry, the superflous flockings are brushed off, and 
 the sign then has the appearance of velvet or 
 cloth. 
 
 F logger. — A sort of whip used for dusting away 
 charcoal after a sketch is completed by scene- 
 painters. It is made with several odd strips of 
 canvas two feet in length bound tightly on a stick, 
 or old broom handle. 
 
 Flowing Quality-— One of the essentials of good 
 varnish. By floiving, all the marks of the brush 
 are obliterated and a glass-like surface is obtained. 
 In early days this feature was not recognized, and 
 resort was had to polish carriage bodies, by rub- 
 bing with pulverized stone, oil, etc., but now, a 
 varnish that will not flow out and give a smooth 
 glassy surface is looked upon as unfit for use. 
 
134 
 
 FLUIDITY. 
 
 Fluidity. — The quality of being- limpid, thin, as oppos- 
 ed to gummy, an important feature in good var- 
 nish. 
 
 Fork. — An iron rod formed like the letter Y and 
 having its three ends sharpened to a point. Used 
 in carriage shops as a prop for a body or sleigh 
 when turned on its side or end. 
 
 Frankfort Black.— A sort of lamp-black made by 
 burning grape-vine twigs and cuttings, principally 
 used in making printers' ink. 
 
 French. — A prefix denoting the origin of various pig- 
 ments ; as, French chalk, French green, etc. 
 
 French Gray. — Simply white, tinted with ivory- 
 black. 
 
 French Red. — A local name given in New York for 
 a color made by mixing vermilion with Indian red, 
 then glazing with carmine when the ground is 
 dry. 
 
 French Ultramarine. — An inferior quality of ultra- 
 marine, of which there are several varieties, but 
 as none of them are valuable acquisitions to 
 the paint bench we leave them unnoticed. 
 
 French White. — (See Blanc D' Argent.) 
 
 Fresco Painting. — The term applied to painting 
 executed upon plaster while it is still wet or fresh. 
 Many celebrated artists and well-known writers 
 have maintained that fresco is the only way in 
 which the highest efforts in art should be embodi- 
 ed. A very large proportion of the best works of 
 the Italian schools, particularly those of Rome 
 and Florence, are done in this manner ; and many 
 of the chief paintings of the German school are 
 
fuller's earth. 
 
 135 
 
 executed in fresco. The colors used are mostly 
 earths or minerals, as few others will stand the 
 action of lime ; these are ground and applied with 
 pure water. The ground to be painted on is the 
 last or smooth coating of plaster. As much only 
 as can he painted in one day is spread on immedi- 
 ately before the painter begins to work, and all 
 that he does not paint over that day is scraped 
 off. The next day the plasterer joins closely an- 
 other portion of plaster for the painter to work 
 upon. 
 
 The fresco painting in the United States is 
 simply distemper painting (which see). 
 
 Frise Green. — A pigment made of sulphate of 
 copper and salammoniac. 
 
 Frosting.— By some called " Diamond dust," is 
 made by blowing glass very thin and then break- 
 ing it or crumbling it to dust or small pieces. It 
 is sprinkled upon a ground of white, sized or made 
 tacky by the addition of oil or varnish to the paint. 
 
 Fuller's Earth. — A mineral consisting chiefly of 
 silica, alumina and water, with a little magnesia, 
 lime and peroxide of iron. It has a remarkable 
 power of absorbing oil or grease, and is often used 
 as a detergent for removing- varnish from paint- 
 ings ; applied wet with water, and plastered on to 
 the thickness of an inch and let to dry. 
 
G 
 
 Gamboge. — A gum resin, from a species of trees 
 found in Cambodia, it is of a brig-lit yellow color, 
 opaque, brittle, and soluble in alcohol. It is a 
 very useful water-color pigment, but will not work 
 in oil. 
 
 Gellert's Green.— A pigment made by mixing 
 cobalt blue, flowers of zinc and chrome yellow. 
 
 Gibson. — A small three-sided rest or bench for sus- 
 taining a carriage body in an inclined position 
 while undergoing painting or rubbing. 
 
 Gilder's Cushion. — A padded palette used for 
 spreading and cutting gold leaf. It is generally 
 about eight inches by five in size, and is made by 
 stretching a piece of chamois skin over a piece of 
 board previously covered with baize. 
 
 Gilder's Knife. — A tool for cutting gold leaf. It is 
 shaped similar to a table knife, with a long and 
 flexible blade ; the edge must be perfectly even 
 and not sharp. 
 
 Gilder's Tip.— A sort of flat brush for lifting and 
 placing gold leaf. It is made by placing a very 
 thin layer of camel's-hair between two pieces of 
 card-board and glueing all together. It is gener- 
 ally from three-and-a-half to four inches in width. 
 
GILDING. 
 
 137 
 
 Iding. — Before passing- on to notice the methods of 
 gilding" generally adopted by sign writers, it may 
 be here pointed out that an inferior kind of metal, 
 in imitation of gold leaf, is procurable at a lower 
 price. This, however, is an article which is hard- 
 ly worth attention. It can only be adopted for 
 temporary announcements, as its properties are 
 evanescent and it ought not on any account to be 
 
 Fig. 23.— Gilder's Cushion or Palette. 
 
 used for work subjected to close inspection, be- 
 cause it always presents atawdiy, " Cheap Jack" 
 appearance, however dexterously it may be laid 
 on. Indeed, it never approaches pure gold leaf in 
 its effects. The difference between the two is 
 just that between a gold sovereign and a counter- 
 feit one, and can be detected by any experienced 
 person. Like the common tinsel, known as 
 "Dutch metal," which can be bought at a still 
 
GILDING. 
 
 lower rate, the inferior quality of gold leaf is 
 chiefly used for theatrical scenery, where a tem- 
 porary brilliancy is required and durability is not 
 an object. Dutch metal is extensively used by 
 shopkeepers for "gilding" laurel and other leaves, 
 holly berries and so forth for Christmas displays, 
 and formerly designs in gingerbread covered with 
 this article were quite an "institution" at all 
 kinds of fairs, to no small amazement of rustics 
 and children. For this and kindred purposes, 
 Dutch metal is quite as effective as the best gold 
 leaf, and owing to its greater thickness it is much 
 less difficult to handle. Indeed, anyone unaccus- 
 tomed to the use of gold leaf could not hope to suc- 
 ceed in performing with it the apparently easy 
 task of gilding even gingerbread. 
 
 The metal is beaten out to such a degree of tenuity 
 that it requires a steady and skillful hand to man- 
 age it satisfactorily, and this can only be acquired 
 as the result of repeated trials and many vexa- 
 tious failures. Dutch metal, on the contrary, is 
 so thick as to be manageable (in so far as it is 
 capable of management) by any person however 
 inexperienced. Were it not for an extreme thin- 
 ness of gold leaf, it would not be possible to pre- 
 vent the multitudinous joinings from showing. 
 If executed by an unskilled workman, the joinings 
 of the gold are sometimes perceptible and numer- 
 ous fractures caused by breaking the gold leaf, 
 technically called "spider legs," are here and 
 there apparent. But if the gilding be skillfully 
 and property performed, no matter how numerous 
 the pieces of gold leaf employed, it will appear 
 as if it were done by a single leaf, instead of an 
 
GILDING. 
 
 139 
 
 aggregation of small pieces, often of irregular 
 sizes and various shapes. 
 
 For the purpose of gilding, the tools necessary 
 are a cushion, cutting knife, and a "tip," each of 
 which calls for a few words of explanation. 
 
 A gilder's cushion is a flat piece of wood, meas- 
 uring about 8 inches by 5, covered first with baize 
 and then with soft wash leather, which is drawn 
 tightly over it. An edge of skirting of about 3 
 inches in height protects three of the sides, and is 
 intended to keep the gold leaves from flying off 
 the cushion, for the merest draft is enough to 
 scatter them in all directions. A loop is then 
 placed under the cushion for the insertion of the 
 thumb of the left hand to hold it by while in use, 
 the loop answering the same purpose as the thumb 
 hole of a palette ; and sometimes there is a second 
 loop for the cutting knife. This knife is used for 
 cutting the gold leaf upon the cushion. It has a 
 long and flexible blade, with a perfectly straight 
 and smooth edge and must be kept very clean, or, 
 instead of cutting the gold, it will merely tear it 
 and crumble it up rendering its use a matter of 
 difficulty. A "tip" is a sort of flat brush, made 
 of a thin layer of some soft hair, and held 
 together between two pieces of pasteboard. This 
 brush can be obtained of different widths, and of 
 various lengths of hair. It is used for removing 
 the gold leaf from the cushion to the part to be 
 gilded. The tip should be drawn lightly across 
 the face or hair, and then placed upon the gold, 
 when the moisture on the brush derived 
 from the face, slight though it be, will 
 cause the gold to adhere to it sufficiently to enable 
 the workman to lift it up and deposit on the sur- 
 
GILDING. 
 
 face prepared for its reception. If a leaf of gold 
 has been cut in a dozen pieces by the cutting- knife, 
 each piece may be placed in its position by means 
 of the tip. 
 
 Some sign writers adopt this plan, which is that 
 most commonly practised by experienced gilders 
 for outside work. They shake out about a dozen 
 leaves of gold upon the cushion, put them on one 
 side against the parchment screen, then lift one leaf 
 with the cutting knife to the middle of the cushion, 
 and when it has been flattened by a slight puff of 
 the breath, it is cut to the desired dimensions, and 
 lifted and placed in position with the tip. (There 
 is required in this gentle puff of breath a something 
 which will at first greatly perplex the beginner. 
 We can only define it as " knack," to be acquired 
 by experience. When performed by a skillful 
 workman, it is apparently the simplest thing in 
 the world, but a great many of the puffs at the 
 outside will result in disappointment and loss of 
 the leaves of gold. There is no royal road to the 
 acquisition of this art, which is apt to deceive the 
 uninitiated by its apparent simplicity ; but the be- 
 ginner must expect to pay the usual forfeit de- 
 manded of inexperience, before he becomes a pro- 
 ficient gilder from the cushion.) Of course piece 
 after piece is placed on the parts to be gilded, in 
 the same way, until the whole space is covered. 
 The leaf is then rubbed over gentty or rather 
 pressed against the gold -size, with a pad of cotton 
 wool, by which means the superfluous pieces of 
 gold are removed and the jagged edges smoothed. 
 Other sign writers, again, when gilding out of 
 doors, prefer to take the gold leaf from the book 
 without cutting it at all. They turn back the 
 
GILDING. 
 
 141 
 
 paper leaves, and place the gold leaf direct against 
 the surface, which has been prepared for it, By 
 following- this plan, however, a great portion of 
 the gold leaf is wasted, and, as it seems, without 
 any corresponding advantage. The slighest draft 
 or current of air renders it a matter of no small 
 difficulty to proceed in the manner here indicated, 
 and, indeed, it would be impossible to do so if there 
 were the least wind, unless the workman was 
 carefully sheltered from it by some kind of awning 
 or close covering. The same applies also to the 
 method of gilding out of doors with tip and cush- 
 ion, already described, (In speaking of the cover- 
 ing under which gilders in exposed situations 
 work, it may be remarked that many persons have 
 an idea that the object is to keep their art a secret, 
 whereas, in reality, it is a matter of necessity.) 
 
 There is, however, another method of gilding 
 which has only of late years become known to 
 and adopted by the sign writer, and it possesses 
 so many advantages, and is so easy of applica- 
 tion, that, for all practical purposes, it is most 
 preferable for the sign writer, who is almost in- 
 variably called upon to gild on a flat surface. If 
 it were not so the method about to be explained 
 would be valueless, because it cannot be applied 
 advantageously to carved or moulded work. 
 
 The writer should procure a clean sheet of 
 silver or tissue paper, of not too great a body, and 
 rub it over on one side only with a piece of white 
 wax candle, or even beeswax will do as well as 
 anything. This should be held between the 
 thumb and forefinger of the right hand, and 
 rubbed rather briskly over the surface of the 
 tissue paper, which should be placed upon a book 
 
142 
 
 GILDING. 
 
 or something- flat, so that the wax is spread even- 
 ly throughout. The paper which has thus been 
 rubbed will, when held sideways to the light, be 
 seen to have a glossy surface, and will possess a 
 certain " tackiness " or sticky quality, scarcely 
 perceptible to the touch, but sufficient to cause 
 the gold leaf to adhere to it. After a whole sheet 
 of paper has been waxed as described, it should 
 be cut into squares a little larger than the leaves 
 of the book of gold. This having been done, the 
 gold leaf book should be carefully opened, and the 
 waxed side of the tissue paper gently pressed 
 against the gold with the hand. On removing 
 the paper the gold leaf will be found attached to 
 it. Each leaf of gold should be taken out in the 
 same way until the whole book is emptied. The 
 gold leaf, being thus secured upon the tissue 
 paper is ready for use. It must be evident that 
 the difficulty experienced through the extraordin- 
 ary thinness of the gold, is by this means to a 
 great extent overcome. The tissue paper with 
 the gold attached can be handled by any person, 
 however inexperienced, and may be used over and 
 over again. 
 
 Let it be supposed that the letters to be gilded 
 have been written in the most suitable material, 
 and that they are ready to receive the gold leaf. 
 All that the writer has to do is to take up the 
 tissue paper with his left hand, and to place it 
 with the gilded side to the letters, and having 
 rubbed the back lightly with the right hand, the 
 gold will come off the paper and adhere firmly to 
 the mordant with which the lettering has been 
 written. Besides the simplicity of this method of 
 gilding, another great advantage it possesses is 
 
GILDING. 
 
 143 
 
 the small amount of waste that takes place. The 
 tissue paper being- semi-transparent, the gold leaf 
 shows through it, and the operator can see where 
 any portion of the gold adheres to the paper, 
 and can accordingly place it on such portions of 
 the work as it will best fit, without an undue 
 number of joinings, though by this process if the 
 g-old leaf be good, not the slightest trace of any 
 joinings is discernible. It will readily be under- 
 stood that every particle of the gold can be made 
 use of. 
 
 In addition to these advantages, this method of 
 gilding possesses other recommendations which 
 are deserving of mention. 
 
 In the first place, the labor of affixing* the gold 
 leaf to the tissue paper, and subsequently to the 
 lettering, can be performed by an apprentice, or 
 anyone who would utterly fail if called upon to 
 use it in either of the ways previously described. 
 Then, again, as already intimated, gilding from 
 the tip or cushion, or from the book without cut- 
 ting, cannot be effected out of doors if there hap- 
 pens to be any force of wind. Indeed, the ordi- 
 nary draft or current of air which frequently passes 
 through a street is a serious hindrance to the op- 
 erations of the gilder by either of these two pro- 
 cesses, which even now may be called the " common 
 processes "; for the plan recommended, simple as 
 it is, has not long been discovered, and some of 
 the old school of workmen still adopt these cum- 
 brous and wasteful methods of working 1 . In either 
 of the foregoing methods the gold leaf should be 
 g*ently dabbed over with a pad of cotton wool, 
 which will smooth the surface of the gold, and re- 
 move all superfluous pieces of gold leaf. 
 
144 
 
 GILDING. 
 
 There is one thing- preliminary to the process of 
 laying* on the gold which has not yet been noticed. 
 A newly painted surface is, of course sticky, or 
 what is technically called "tacky"; and if the 
 gold leaf were to be applied to such a surface, it 
 would adhere, or " hang " as it is called, to parts 
 of the ground color where the mordant had not 
 touched, and where the gold was not required. It 
 is needful therefore, before the writing is even 
 marked out that the newly painted surface should 
 be " pounced " — that is, dabbed over lightly with 
 dry whiting ; but care should be taken that the 
 loose particles are dusted off carefully. If the 
 ground be a dark one, this pouncing (which is 
 best done by placing the whiting in a linen bag 
 and making a kind of pad or ball, which should be 
 dabbed over the work) will so far lighten it that 
 the writer will be able to distinguish any lines that 
 he may make with the sable pencil charged with 
 size, and the size will restore the ground to its 
 original color. But, if the ground be a light one, 
 the pouncing will not have this effect, and hence 
 it becomes necessary to mix some kind of color 
 with the size to enable the workman to make cer- 
 tain that he has thoroughly covered the portion 
 to be gilded. The whiting is removed from the 
 ground, after the gold leaf is applied, by means of 
 a damp chamois leather. 
 
 The mordants used for gilding are of different 
 kinds. Picture-frame gilders generally make use 
 of what is technically called gilders' size, made of 
 fat oil, in which yellow ochre has been ground. 
 This is, under certain circumstances a good ma- 
 terial for the purpose of the sign writer, but it is 
 too thick for general adoption, especialty in cold 
 
GILDING ON GLASS. 
 
 145 
 
 weather, when it is unmanageable with the sable 
 pencil. In hot weather it may be used to advan- 
 tage. The leaf must not be applied to this size for 
 at least 24 hours after its application, and it will 
 remain tacky for two or three days. 
 
 When work has to be done quickly, a size may 
 be made from one of the following- formulas : 
 
 First — Size which will be ready for the gold in 
 two hours : one pint permanent wood filling, half- 
 pint crown coach japan, or one-quarter pint japan 
 gold-size. 
 
 Second — Size to let set over-night before apply- 
 ing the gold : one pint permanent wood filling, 
 one-quarter pint crown coach japan, or one- 
 eighth pint japan gold-size. 
 
 Third — Size for quick work or jobbing : one 
 part permanent wood filling, and three parts of 
 japan gold-size, or a little less of brown japan, if 
 preferred. 
 
 Fourth — Size for ordinary work, moderately 
 quick drying : half-pint wearing body varnish, 
 and one pint crown coach japan. 
 
 Fifth — Size for extra-durable work, not to be 
 varnished : take boiled linseed oil in a saucepan, 
 and heat it until it catches fire ; allow it to burn a 
 minute, then smother the blaze and let cool ; it is 
 now ready for use. 
 
 Sixth — Size for almost immediate gilding : one 
 part quick leveling varnish, and two parts touch- 
 ing-up glazing. 
 
 Iding on Class. — The process of gilding upon 
 this material is as follows : Draw out upon a 
 sheet of white paper the letters or ornament re- 
 quired, and fill in the sketch so made with black 
 paint, so that the pattern is visible upon both sides 
 
146 
 
 GILDING ON GLASS. 
 
 of the paper. Reverse the paper and fix it by its 
 edges to the hack of the glass with paste. Thor- 
 oughly clean the glass upon its face with wet 
 whiting and a silk handkerchief, place it in a slant- 
 ing position if possible, and commence to gild. The 
 mordant used for fixing the gold leaf to the glass 
 is made thus : Take some fine isinglass (as much 
 as will cover a sixpence) and put it in a teacup, 
 fill the cup half full with boiling water, and stir ; 
 pour in while the water is still warm enough alco- 
 hol to fill up the cup, and then strain the mixture 
 through a clean silk handkerchief. Wash on this 
 mixture upon the parts to be gilded with a camel's- 
 hair brush, wait until the surface is sticky, and 
 then apply the gold leaf as in all gilding. Cut the 
 gold leaf to the size of the gilding before applying, 
 unless the surface to be gilded is not wider and 
 higher than three inches or four inches ; when so 
 small as this lay on the gold in squares without 
 troubling about the shapes of the ornaments and 
 letters. Gild from the top of the glass, placing 
 the first piece of gold at the highest part of the 
 design, and be careful each succeeding sheet over- 
 laps the one last laid. Any gaps left in the put- 
 ting on of the gold leaf will show when the work 
 is finished, and, therefore, the worker must put 
 on plent}^ of gold leaf and see that no space, how- 
 ever small, is left unclecorated. 
 
 Press the gold leaf gently to the glass with a 
 cotton wool pad, and leave the glass in a dry and 
 warm room until the gilding is dry, which is 
 known by its looking burnished and no longer 
 crinkly and dead. Rub it in this state with cotton 
 wool to increase its burnished appearance, and to 
 remove the loose pieces of gold leaf between the 
 
GILDING ON GLASS. 
 
 147 
 
 letters and ornament. The gilding- will now show 
 many imperfections, and the various joints where 
 the gold leaf has been cut will he visible. These 
 will require to be manipulated. Re-size the whole 
 of the gilding with the isinglass mordant, putting 
 that on with great care, so as not to remove the 
 gold leaf, and, when it is "tacky," re-gild the 
 whole, following out the process of the first gild- 
 ing in every detail. When the gold is quite dry, 
 put on from two to four coats of size (letting one 
 dry before applying another), in order to increase 
 the brilliancy of the gold. The longer the gold 
 leaf is left in this stage upon the glass the more 
 firmly will it adhere. A damp sponge will remove 
 it the first day, but after two months the alcohol 
 will have caused it to adhere so firmly that it will 
 be most difficult to detach it. A week should be 
 allowed to elapse between the gilding and the 
 painting. The outline of the ornament, etc., must 
 be transferred to the gold surface as the next 
 stage. To do this rub dry whiting over the front 
 side of the paper pattern, place this face down- 
 ward upon the gilding, -and go over every outline 
 with a pointed and hard pencil. The whiting will 
 stick to the gold where it has been pressed down 
 by the pencil, and upon removing the pattern and 
 blowing off the loose whiting clear white lines will 
 remain upon the gilding. 
 
 The next process is to paint the back of the gold 
 over with japan black, such as is used by coach 
 builders. For this purpose use a sable writing 
 pencil, and keep the paint within the white out- 
 lines, and quite up to them. If on looking on the 
 right side of the glass the black paint should show 
 through the gilding another coat of size must be 
 
148 
 
 GILDING PORCELAIN. 
 
 put on before the black paint is applied, as these 
 size coats prevent the paint from penetrating* 
 through the gilding. When the black paint has 
 thoroughly dried wash off all the gold leaf not re- 
 quired with a sponge and warm water. The orna- 
 ments and letters gilded upon the glass can be 
 straightened and rendered sharp at their edges, 
 if they look ragged, by being scraped with a knife 
 or sharp chisel, after the black paint is dry. Col- 
 ored painting, such as broad shadows to letters 
 or additional foliage to ornaments, paint on the 
 glass after the black background to the gilding 
 is dry ; use ordinary oil colors thinned with oil 
 and a very little turpentine for these, and keep 
 the edges of the shadows straight and clear by 
 the help of a straight-edge and a pointed stick, 
 cutting the edge sharp with these while the color 
 is wet and wiping away with a rag the superfluous 
 color. Paint backgrounds on the same glass in 
 oil colors, using a large brush when the ornamen- 
 tation is dry. Mix varnish with the colors or buy 
 them ready prepared. 
 
 Gilding Porcelain.— Dissolve in linseed oil an 
 equal weight of copal ; add as much turpentine 
 as will enable you to appty the size as thin as 
 possible to the parts to be gilded. Place the 
 article in a stove oven until it will almost burn 
 the fingers, then the size becomes adhesive, and 
 the gold leaf laid upon it will stick. When cool, 
 brush off the superfluous gold, and burnish with a 
 steel or dog's tooth burnisher, taking care to in- 
 terpose a piece of India paper between the gold 
 and the burnisher. 
 
 Class Paper. — The name given to fine sandpaper by 
 decorators. 2. A fine quality of rubbing paper 
 
GLAZING. 
 
 149 
 
 made of pulverized glass in place of sand ; the 
 same as emery paper is made with emery powder, 
 etc. 
 
 Glass Frame Holders. — A convenience for holding* 
 frames of a carriage while painting or varnishing 
 them, consisting of two uprights of hard wood 
 framed into foot pieces, and a tie piece. The up- 
 rights should be at least 4 inches wide and 2 inch- 
 es thick, tapering at the top to 2 inches square, 
 
 Fig. 24.— Glass Frame Holder. 
 
 framed 30 inches apart, the whole 4 feet high. On 
 one upright a sharpened pin is inserted, and on 
 the other a cranked screw with sharpened point, 
 is fitted. Then, the frame or other object placed 
 upon the point, and pressed by the screw is held 
 in such a way that it may be turned upon either 
 side to varnish or paint it. Our engraving so well 
 illustrates this contrivance that further descrip- 
 tion is unnecessary. 
 Glazing. — The word glazing seems to be a triplet in 
 the painter's vocabulary. When a pane of glass 
 is put in place it is called glazing. When soft 
 putty is forced into the pores of wood, or any 
 
150 
 
 GLAZING. 
 
 rough place is filled with putty, it is also called 
 glazing, and when the transparent coating of 
 color is put upon the painted surface, it is also 
 called glazing, and unless one is conversant with 
 the art of painting he will be unable to know 
 which of these is meant when he hears the word. 
 The glazing of color is an art that but few acquire 
 in perfection, owing perhaps to wrong ideas in 
 mixing the glazing. Carmine is an expensive 
 pigment, and for that reason glazing is resorted 
 to, while on the other hand Yellow lake is inex- 
 pensive, and is used as a glazing to enrich the 
 ground color. Blue also is made richer by glaz- 
 ing than when the pure ultramarine is used as a 
 body color. 
 
 The most beautiful lake colors are made by 
 glazing dark reds with carmine, and this is done 
 not so much to make a nice color as to make a 
 durable one. 
 
 The peculiarities of glazing are that it be mixed 
 to set slowly, to dry hard like rubbing varnish, 
 and to flow smoothly without heavy flows or 
 clouds. To make a nice carmine job, first paint a 
 smooth ground of vermilion, the deep English 
 vermilion being preferable, although it does not 
 cover so well as the light or pale grade of same. 
 The color being on and dry, add to the vermilion 
 color-and- varnish a little carmine to deepen and 
 enrich it, and apply. When dry rub the surface 
 smooth, for in glazing any imperfections will be 
 multiplied and made to appear as a mountain 
 from a molehill. Pulverized pumice-stone and 
 water cannot be used ' successfully after the glaz- 
 ing is done ; therefore great care must be taken to 
 have the surface smooth before the glazing is at- 
 
GLAZING. 
 
 151 
 
 tempted. Mix the dry carmine — a lump as large 
 as a walnut, will be sufficient for a light buggy 
 gear — with some good rubbing varnish, and grind 
 it as fine as possible, then add more finishing 
 varnish until the color is simply a colored varnish ; 
 if too strong in color it will be streaked. Now 
 add a few drops of raw oil to prevent its setting 
 too quickly ; use a flat badger-hair brush, and do 
 but a small part of the work at once, that is on a 
 buggy gear ; flow it on to say one-half a wheel, 
 and lay it off quickly, then do the other half, and 
 make as few movements of the brush as possible, 
 and never after it begins to set. Clean up every 
 part as you go along, being sure to rub the brush 
 around every nut, end of spokes, etc., and proceed 
 thus till all is done, keeping the wheels turning 
 all the time slowly until the varnish is set. Ex- 
 perience only can tell one how to do glazing. 
 One will flow it on one spoke only ; another can 
 do the whole wheel before laying it off, and so on. 
 Yellow lake is used in a similar way. Over a 
 dark bottle green it gives a beautiful tone or 
 hue, over yellow it gives a beautiful greenish 
 yellow. The Nile greens and rich bottle greens 
 seen on many carriage panels are made by glaz- 
 ing with yellow lake. Bright blue is made by 
 glazing with Prussian blue ground with ultra- 
 marine. 
 
 Glazing, when applied to colors by the carriage- 
 painter, signifies the act of laying transparent 
 colors ^ver a previously prepared groundwork. 
 Carmine, the various colored lakes, and verdigris 
 have not sufficient covering power or body to pro- 
 duce a solid piece of painting, therefore they re- 
 quire a foundation suited to their respec- 
 
152 
 
 GLOSS. 
 
 tive colors. All painting" of this kind is called 
 glazing-. 
 
 In the Eastern States painters speak of glaz- 
 ing with putty ; by this they mean the act of 
 puttying a surface all over, so as to speedily fill 
 the grain and pores of the wood. In the West- 
 ern States this puttying process is called 
 " plastering." 
 
 Gloss. — A mixture of zinc white and white damar 
 varnish, used as a sort of color-and-varnish over 
 white paint in houses, also by painters on stages 
 and car interiors. Carriage-painters use zinc 
 white mixed with a light colored varnish — hard 
 diwing body — for painting" white work. The 
 ground being formed of white lead, the zinc color- 
 and-varnish is put on to the number of three 
 coats sometimes and then the gloss is removed by 
 rubbing with pumice powder until an egg-shell 
 gloss is produced. If striping or ornamenting is 
 put on this ground, the stripes and ornaments are 
 pencil varnished — the durability of the ground is 
 said to be greater than if the lustre was left upon 
 it. Zinc white is not apt to turn yellow as quickly 
 as white lead, and therefore finds favor with car- 
 riage-painters, for all white work, hearses, and 
 sleighs particularly. House-painters use zinc 
 gloss for a finish of white on parlors and fine work, 
 laying a coat over a ground of white lead. 
 
 Glossy. — A paint-ground that shows, when dry, too 
 great a gloss, and denotes that too much oil or 
 varnish was used in the mixture. Tb£ effect of 
 which is to cause the subsequent coat to crack or 
 crawl or give trouble in some other way. 
 
 Gold Color. — Yellow ochre, burnt sienna, raw um- 
 ber, and white, may be mixed so near the color of 
 
GOLD LEAF. 
 
 153 
 
 gold in half shadow, that a gold pattern upon it 
 will not show in some, lights. 
 
 Cold Lacquer. — A varnish used by gilt molding- 
 makers to color silver leaf so that it will have 
 every appearance of gold ; made as follows : 
 
 Tji, . Seed lac 3 oz.; turmeric, 1 oz.; dragon's blood, 
 i oz.; alcohol, 1 pint ; digest together for a week 
 with frequent shaking, decant and filter. It is 
 customary to dissolve the resins (pale lac or san- 
 darac) and the coloring matters separately, so that 
 at any time a lacquer of a given tint may be pro- 
 duced by their mixture. The solution of coloring 
 matter should be concentrated. 
 
 Gold Leaf. — Gold rolled and beaten into thin sheets. 
 Upon entering a gold-beating establishment the 
 vistor's attention is first attracted by the din of 
 numerous hammers weighing from eight to eigh- 
 teen pounds apiece, falling under the skillful grasp 
 of the sturdy pounders, on the packs in which is 
 the precious metal. The men resemble so many 
 blacksmiths at the anvil, except that the blows 
 are less rapid and the strokes more measured and 
 regular, and there is more rebound to the ham- 
 mers. Then, too, without changing the monot- 
 ony of the strike, the gold-beater shifts his ham- 
 mer from one hand to the other, and turns the 
 little bunch of skin on which it descends first to 
 one side and then to the opposite one, and then 
 ' back again, for he cannot pound steadily in one 
 place ; his packet must be kept in motion. The 
 first |tool used to break down the gold is called a 
 "cutch," three-and-a-half inches square, made of 
 vellum or a straw-colored vegetable parchment 
 containing 180 sheets ; and a second tool used 
 (called shoder), composed of TOO sheets of gold- 
 
154 
 
 GOLD LEAF. 
 
 beater's skin, made of a thin elastic skin, a 
 membrane taken from an ox. After this tool 
 (shoder) has been used about 200 times as a 
 mould, and as the third and finishing tool, and 
 when no longer fit for the finishing part of the 
 work, is cut down to four-and-a-half inches square, 
 and used for the second reduction in substance of 
 the gold. The third tool, are moulds containing 
 850 to 900 sheets of skin five-and-a-quater inches 
 square, and are of very fragile nature, easily torn 
 and extremely sensitive to changes in the atmos- 
 phere. 
 
 The brime, or talc, used by gold-beaters to 
 cleanse the skins before working, is a marine de- 
 posit found, it is believed, only in French Flanders. 
 
 In addition to the before named working mate- 
 rials employed in the manufacture of gold leaf are 
 crucibles, acids, pearl ashes, salt, saltpetre, borax, 
 gum, mercury, and Malacca cane. 
 
 The metal being alloyed, is melted, poured into 
 an ingot, flatted between steel rollers, till it at- 
 tains the shape of a ribbon of the thickness of 
 stout wrapping paper. Two ounces and ten penny- 
 weights, tro}^, is then given to the workmen to 
 produce 2,000 leaves of gold three and three-eights 
 inches square and return 33 dwt. debris. 
 
 Having annealed the gold the beater proceeds 
 to divide it in pieces averaging seven grains each, 
 making about 165 or 170 pieces — these are placed 
 separately between the leaves of the " cutch ;" 
 care being taken to place them in the centre, two 
 bands of parchment are then placed around the 
 cutch and a sixteen or eighteen pound hammer 
 is used to beat it until the gold covers the entire 
 square ; this hammering occupies fifteen or twenty 
 
GOLD LEAF. 
 
 155 
 
 minutes. The gold is then taken out with wooden 
 pincers and twelve sheets placed on a cushion 
 (made of calf -skin) evenly on each other they are 
 folded over a knife, cut, turned again and cut, di- 
 viding each leaf into four equal quarters, and so 
 on till all are cut ; the 165 pieces are now 660 pieces 
 or quarters. Having dried in hot presses the 
 "shoder," these quarters are placed in the centre 
 of the shoder, one piece of gold between each skin, 
 and beat with a twelve-pound hammer until the 
 gold has covered the skin. Here the workmen 
 reduces the weight, so as to correct any irregu- 
 larity which may have arisen in dividing the gold, 
 by beating the leaf out of the edges of the shoder, 
 the same being rubbed off with a sponge, is placed 
 away till the whole piece is completed. The beat- 
 ing of the shoder occupies two hours. The moulds 
 are prepared for work by beating them in plains 
 (composed of stout old hand- made paper, each 
 skin being .placed separately) for one hour with an 
 eighteen-pound hammer. The mould is then dried 
 in hot presses, rubbing each skin eight times with 
 a hare',; foot and some brime calcined and reduced 
 to a fine powder. When pressed again they are 
 ready for the gold. A reed of Malacca cane made 
 in the shape and size of a table-knife is used to di- 
 vide the leaf into four equal parts, the 660 pieces 
 or quarters from the shoder making 2,840 pieces 
 or quarters, and beat again making the above 
 number of leaves. These quarters are now placed 
 in the mould and beaten, then heated, cooled, and 
 beaten again for twelve hours with a seven-pound 
 hammer. The moulds being beat, the leaves are 
 taken out one at a time, placed on a cushion, cut 
 by a machine which trims off the edges, leaving 
 
156 
 
 GOLD LEAF. 
 
 the leaf three-and-three-eighth inches square. 
 These are placed in books carefully dried, 25 
 leaves in each book. Young* girls are generally 
 employed to put the leaf in books ; the work- 
 woman opens the mould and with a pair of 
 wooden pincers trims and patches any imperfect 
 leaves, then places it in the little paper book, the 
 leaves of which have been rubbed over with red 
 ochre to prevent the adhesion of the gold. She 
 fills these books for two-and-a-half cents each, 
 and a fair day's work is sixty books. There 
 are soy ~ al colors of gold leaf, the palest, gen- 
 erally 1; own as "pure virgin,'' but a few degrees 
 removed from white, approximating to silver, 
 while Tie "deep," as it is technically called, 
 approaches a copper color, being alloyed with 
 a large admixture of that metal. There is 
 then the "medium" or "yellow" color, and for all 
 practical purposes, this is most generally useful, 
 inasmuch as it is not so apt to become stained by 
 the varnish which, in sign writing, is nearly al- 
 ways coated over gilt work. If the medium color 
 be left unvarnished it is more durable than either 
 of the other colors. It possesses sufficient depth 
 to prevent it from appearing silvery, as " pure 
 virgin" does when left unvarnished, and it has not 
 that coppery hue which distinguishes the " deep" 
 gold. Moreover the " medium" is not so liable as 
 the other colors to be acted upon by the atmos- 
 phere when used on outside work. 
 
 In exposed situations out of doors, pale gold leaf 
 should always be varnished over, or, in the course 
 of a few months, it will become tarnished. Deep 
 g-old will also tarnish if exposed, if left unvarnish- 
 ed. Wagon and carriage-painters, however, will 
 
GOLD LEAF. 
 
 157 
 
 seldom be troubled with tarnishing, for all their 
 work it varnished over. 
 
 Too much care cannot be bestowed upon the 
 selection of gold leaf, as the dearness of gold offers 
 a great inducement for the employment of metals 
 of less value in its manufacture. Pure gold being 
 too ductile to be worked between the gold-beater's 
 skin, a certain amount of alloy is always added, 
 varying from three to twelve grains to the ounce. 
 Generally there is about six grains to the ounce 
 or, one-eightieth part. The alloy consists of silver 
 or copper, and sometimes both, aud this accounts 
 to some extent for the difference in color of the 
 gold leaf. It sometimes happens that the gold 
 leaf is kept exposed to a damp or uncongenial at- 
 mosphere. In this case it will be found to adhere 
 partly to the paper leaves of the book, and it will 
 be impossible to remove it without tearing it in 
 pieces, when it is almost if not entirely worthless. 
 Gold leaf should fall freely from the book, on the 
 leaves being opened without any particle sticking 
 to the paper. Some painters place the book be- 
 fore the fire for an hour or so previous to use, in 
 order to dry the gold leaf and render it more man- 
 ageable. 
 
 Owing to the great expense of gilding, in con- 
 sequence of the thickness of the leaf, various sub- 
 stitutes for gold were formerly used. The Italians 
 invented a method of overlaying with silver leaf 
 or some cheap white metal those parts which they 
 wished should have the appearance of gold, and 
 then, by applying a yellow transparent varnish 
 the white metal was made to assume the required 
 color, and at the same time to present a metallic 
 splendor. This is clone at the present day by 
 
158 
 
 GOLD PAINT. 
 
 picture-frame and molding* gilders, the varnish 
 or lacquer being- made as follows : 
 
 Deep Gold Colored Lacquer. — Seed lac, 3 oz.; 
 tumeric, 1 oz. ; dragon's blood, J oz ; alcohol, 
 1 pint ; digest for a week, frequently shaking ; 
 decant and filter. 
 
 Medium Gold Lacquer. — Put into a clean four gal- 
 lon tin, 1 pound of ground tumeric, ounces of 
 gamboge, 3^ ounces powdered gum sandrac, f 
 pound of shellac, and 2 gallons of spirits of wine. 
 When shaken, dissolved, and strained, add 1 pint 
 of turpentine varnish (q. v.) and mix all together. 
 
 "Double gilding" was at one time resorted to 
 by some sign writers, with the view of giving the 
 work additional brilliancy and permanence. 
 Now, however, so far as the sign writer is con- 
 cerned, this plan is never resorted to (except in 
 the case of gilding on glass, which is a totally 
 different branch of the art (See Glass Gilding), the 
 advantage derivable from it being disproportion- 
 ate to the cost of the metal and the extra cost of 
 putting it on. 
 
 Cold Paint. — A mixture of gold bronze and some 
 light, limpid varnish. This is excellent for use 
 where pouncing cannot be resorted to, to prevent 
 sticking, as in putting on a monogram or orna- 
 ment to a finished panel. It does not prove so 
 durable, however, as gold laid over size. 
 
 Grafton Paint- — A coarse earth, called by various 
 names, as fire-proof paint, mineral paint, roofing 
 paint, etc. It is found in various shades of color 
 from light gray to reddish brown, and is used ex- 
 tensively in the preparation of rough-stuff for car- 
 riage work. 
 
GRAINING. 
 
 159 
 
 Graining. — The imitation of the natural veining, curl, 
 etc., of woods, and is performed in the first case 
 by laying- an opaque ground in strong oil paint of 
 the general color of the wood to he imitated, but 
 lighter, and when dry, covering- this with a coat 
 of transparent color, of the proper hue and full 
 depth, prepared either with turpentine or water 
 color. 
 
 The operations — of which there are many — are 
 performed with common brushes, and as soon as 
 the ground is dry the process called over-grain- 
 ing is commenced. This is executed by a varie- 
 ty of tools, consisting- of broad, flat, and thin 
 brushes, used either spread, turning- the hand, or 
 edgewise — hair pencils of various sizes, combs, 
 and rubbers, which as occasion requires are 
 drawn over the paint so as to leave the streaky 
 grains, curls and knots, according- to the skill of 
 the grainer. Rags are used to wipe off some of 
 the graining color, as desired, and various lines, 
 eyes, veins, knots, etc., are touched and re-touch- 
 ed until the desired effect is obtained, the work 
 being subsequently varnished. 
 
 In graining work that is paneled, the lights 
 and shades of the panel should be stronger than 
 on the rest of surface. The rails and stiles of 
 doors should be more simple than the panels in 
 the imitation of dark decorated woods, as rose- 
 wood. If cross rails are full of work, make the 
 upright stiles plain, for their appearance is 
 changed by their position with regard to light. 
 Perhaps the greatest triumph in staining is imi- 
 tating successfully the curls of mahogany. 
 Graining in maple woods is suitable for dining- 
 rooms ; the color of maple varies very much, and 
 
160 
 
 GRAINING COMB. 
 
 therefore it is necessary to select a choice piece of 
 imitation. Pollard oak graining suits well for a 
 dining-room with its warm color and rich effect, 
 the color varying from the lightness of maple to 
 the darkness of mahogany, so affording a range 
 of choice. Oak color is adapted to all styles of 
 wainscot, harmonizing with warm colors on wall 
 space, whether this be prepared or painted, and 
 making pleasing contrasts with cold ones. It 
 also looks well on the ceiling cornices of lobbies. 
 In wainscot graining the lights and shades on the 
 panels should be the strongest. If the prevalent 
 color of a room be warm, the graining of the 
 woodwork should respond ; if crimson, maple, 
 satin wood or oak graining may be employed ; if 
 green, some cool toned and light colored wood. 
 Smoothness of surface is important in the grained 
 imitation of woods, as well as the rendering of 
 deep transparent and shadowy half tints. The 
 grainer should not revel, as we have seen some 
 do, in knots, which, indeed, should be left out, as 
 well as the representation of cross-grained stuff, 
 which the architects would avoid in real wood, 
 whether for stiles, rails, or panels. Where wood 
 has been previously painted, the grainer should 
 examine it closety to see that it is not liable to 
 peel off, and so spoil his work. Where marble 
 has to be imitated, in order to secure a transpar- 
 ent effect the best polished" copal should be used 
 with colors, never turpentine. 
 Graining Comb-— Tool used to mark the grain in 
 imitating various woods or graining. They are 
 made of steel, iron, leather, etc., and are generally 
 supplied in sets of from six to eight, varying in 
 coarseness, the best being of American make of 
 
GRECIAN BORDER. 
 
 161 
 
 polished metal put up in tin cases. Those made 
 of leather are sold by the inch, the American make 
 having- 20 inches in a set at 75 cents. French, 48 
 inches in a set, $3.00. The steel combs vary from 
 1 inch to G inches in width. 
 
 Fig. 25.— A Graining Comb. 
 
 Graphite. — Plumbago, most generally known as 
 Black Lead, though a very unfortunate name, as 
 no lead enters into the composition of the mineral. 
 It is of a grayish black color, with somewhat of a 
 metallic lustre, and is perfectly opaque. It is 
 sometimes used as a pigment. 
 
 Crass Green. — A color made by adding three parts 
 of chrome yellow to one of Prussian blue. 
 
 Gray. — A color formed of black and white, ash color. 
 French gray is simply white and black with the 
 addition of a very little yellow and red. 
 
 Grecian Border. — A meandering stripe composed 
 entirely of horizontal and vertical lines ; frequent- 
 ly used in striping sleighs and for body belts. 
 
162 
 
 GREENING. 
 
 Greening. — The term greening- is applied to the color 
 change in black, and the cause may be laid to : 
 First, the action of ammonia when a carriage is 
 kept standing where this volatile gas is plentiful ; 
 Second, when dark colored and consequently poor 
 varnish is used in finishing ; Third, with black- 
 japan surface, when a coat of black-japan or var- 
 nish is put on before the under surface of black- 
 japan is thoroughly dry. A carriage kept con- 
 stantly covered, or in a dark room will frequently 
 be found with black portions changed to a dark 
 green color. This change of color is sometimes 
 taken advantage of by the painter, and he is en- 
 abled thereby to turn out some beautiful jobs with 
 dark green (a shade which it would be impossible 
 for him to make with ordinary pigments). He 
 simply blacks off the moldings, or runs a black 
 stripe around a panel, leaving the greened black 
 as the body color and the bright fresh black 
 throws out the green color in all its beauty. 
 
 Green. — One of the prismatic colors, produced by a 
 combination of blue and yellow.rays, is very com- 
 mon in the vegetable kingdom, but rare in the 
 mineral. There is only one metal, copper, which 
 affords in its combinations the various shades of 
 green in general use. 
 
 Green pigments are prepared also by the mix- 
 ture of yellow and blue, and is most perfect when 
 in the proportion of 3 parts yellow to 8 of blue, of 
 equal intensity. Greens are also made in shade or 
 richness, by glazings over certain green grounds. 
 There are many varieties of greens, many of 
 which bearing a local name only we will not notice. 
 The following list embraces the principal ones, 
 
GROUND. 
 
 16S 
 
 each of which may be found under its appropriate 
 head : 
 
 Crit. — Degree of hardness or texture, as hard, soft, 
 or coarse grit, as applied to rough-stuff or rubbing - 
 stone. 
 
 Critty. — Paint which is not ground fine is said to be 
 gritty. Any coarse appearance of paint. 
 
 Ground. — Called by many painters "preparation." 
 The first layer of color, on which other colors are 
 laid. For most all opaque colors a clean lead- 
 colored ground is suitable, but for those colors 
 which are in the least transparent, a color similar 
 to them must first be applied to make the coating 
 solid or free from streaks, clouds, etc. 
 
 Arsenical green. 
 Brunswick green. 
 Chrome green. 
 Cobalt green. 
 Copper green. 
 Emerald green. 
 Frise green. 
 Gellert's green. 
 Holly green. 
 Invisible green. 
 
 Schweinfurth's green. 
 Varley's green. 
 
 Quaker green. 
 Sap green. 
 
 Mineral green. 
 Moulin's green. 
 Mountain green, 
 Native green. 
 Olive green. 
 
 Paris green. 
 
164 
 
 H 
 
 Haerlem Blue.— A pigment similar to Antwerp 
 Blue (which see). 
 
 Hairing Off. — See mossing" off. 
 
 Hamburgh Lake.— The same as Scarlet Lake (q.v.). 
 
 Hard Drying Body Varnish.— The finest quality of 
 rubbing or leveling varnish made. It is fully 
 equal to finishing varnishes in paleness, fullness, 
 and lustre, and is frequently used for finishing 
 hurried work. It works well enough under the 
 brush, and in 48 hours may be rubbed with pul- 
 verized pumice-stone and water preparatory to re- 
 ceiving a finishing coat. Although intended for 
 carriage bodies, it is one of the best ingredients 
 for color-and-varnish on either bodies or gears, 
 and for use in some paints or for glazings, partic- 
 ularly for white work. 
 
 Harmony.— The general accordance of the objects in 
 a picture with one another, and their subordin- 
 ation to the principal object, so that all unite to 
 constitute a pleasing whole. It is effected by a 
 due combination of lights and shades, or by such 
 contracts as are sufficient to relieve the distant 
 groups. 
 
 Heraldry. — Heraldry takes its name from herald, 
 which meant in olden times an officer in princely 
 
HERALDRY. 
 
 165 
 
 courts, whose duty was, among* others, to settle 
 disputes arising on the question of ancestry and 
 lineage and the subject of coats-of-arms. The 
 shield and the helmet make up the essential part 
 of a coat of arms. On carriages they are painted 
 either in relief or in their proper colors, the latter 
 being indicated in the design by a variation of 
 tinting or shading in conventional lines, of which 
 more below. Almost every coat-of-arms is com- 
 posed of three distinct parts : first, the colors ; 
 second, the field or fields on the shield ; and third 
 the figures on the same. The colors are either of 
 the following : Gold or yellow as a substitute ; 
 silver or white ; red for the loud color ; blue, 
 green, purple, or purple on white ; and black for 
 the color of iron. All these colors have a sym- 
 bolic meaning, namely : 
 
 Gold is nobility, virtue, greatness. 
 Silver for justice, purity, innocence. 
 Red — courage. 
 
 Blue — fidelity, consistency, science. 
 Green — mildness . 
 Purple — royalty. 
 Black — danger. 
 
 As stated before, all colors are expressed on 
 black drawings, engravings, and even on reliefs 
 on stone, by customary lines which are still the 
 same as they were in the seventeenth century. 
 We illustrate this by the small cuts on page 167 : 
 Fig. 26 represents a shield filled with dots which 
 express gold ; Fig. 27 shows a blank field indicat- 
 ing silver ; Fig. 28 is tinted with vertical lines> 
 meaning red ; Fig. 29 is shaded in horizontal lines 
 for blue ; Fig. 30 is filled with diagonal lines 
 
HERALDRY. 
 
 running- from the top of the shield to the bottom 
 and in the direction from right to left, indicating- 
 green. (We here remark that in Heraldry the 
 right side of the shield is that which is left when 
 looking at it on the paper, for the reason that it is 
 imagined that you are carrying the shield before 
 you.) In Fig. 31 the diagonal lines run from top 
 to bottom, but in the opposite direction, namely, 
 from left to right, representing purple. A black 
 field is expressed by horizontal and vertical lines 
 crossing each other at right angles as shown on 
 Fig. 32. 
 
 A rule in the building of coats-of-arms is, that 
 metals never be placed over metals, and color on 
 top of color, or the coat is either not genuine or at 
 least was given on a particular and important oc- 
 casion. Modern heraldry is very strict in the 
 composition of colors, which during the middle 
 ages were of less importance and rather optional. 
 This is the reason why the colors of the oldest 
 coat-of-arms in existence cannot be defined with 
 absolute certainty. The shield or field can be 
 single or compound. In the first instance it has 
 a single color ; in the second it can have a 
 variety of colors. A line from the left of the 
 shield on top to the right on bottom is said to 
 cut it left ; a line in the opposite direction 
 cuts the shield right. A vertical line divides 
 the shield, and a horizontal line splits the 
 same. The division and splitting can be re- 
 peated, and will produce on the shield what are 
 termed spaces or fields, if filled with figures. 
 Fig. 33 shows a shield divided in spaces, which 
 again have their separate denominations. ABC 
 is called the head of the shield ; D E F the belt, or 
 
HERALDRY. 
 
 167 
 
 Fig. 26.— Gold. Fig. 27.— Silver. Fig. 28.— Red. 
 
 Fig. 29.— Blue. Fig. 30.— Green. 
 
 Fig. 31.— Purple. Fig. 32.— Black, Fig. 33. 
 
168 
 
 HERALDRY. 
 
 centre, or road ; G HI the foot ; AD G the right 
 side; BEH the field of battle; CFI the left 
 side ; E, the heart ; B, the centre of head ; H, the 
 centre of foot. The position of figures, if there 
 are more than two of them, is exactly prescribed. 
 If there are three figures, they are to be placed in 
 spaces A, C, H ; four A, C, G, I; five in B, E, 
 H, D, F. The figures on coats-of-arms are either 
 natural or imaginary. The former are mostly 
 animals, plants, stars, the sun and moon, and the 
 elements, water, fire and earth. Lions and leop- 
 ards are very common, and the position in which 
 they are represented is again guided by certain 
 principles. In the thirteenth, fourteenth and 
 fifteenth centuries, animals were painted in a 
 conventional style, without regard to their being 
 life-like, and only since the sixteenth century the 
 execution is more natural, and thus lost its mark- 
 ed heraldic character. Besides mythical animals 
 we also find on coats-of-arms artistic figures con- 
 sisting of weapons, clothing, common utensils, 
 buildings, rivers, castles, bridges, ships, tools and 
 instruments. 
 
 The form of shields has varied in almost every 
 century : the oldest on record being of a very queer 
 shape. Married ladies used to have two coat-of- 
 arms — that of their parents and their husbands. 
 The helmet is an attribute of importance to coats- 
 of-arms ; it is mostly painted in gold, and is found 
 with or without a shield. The open helmet is the 
 property of the nobility, and citizens have it shut. 
 Shield bearers on coats-of-arms originated at the 
 time of the tournaments, and mythical animals ; 
 negroes for bearers are quite common. The paint- 
 ing of coats-of-arms, crests, monograms, etc., has 
 
HERALDRY. 
 
 169 
 
 not been cultivated to a great extent in this 
 country, owing- no doubt to the facility offered to 
 carriage-makers to buy ready-made ornaments — 
 or transfers. This is to be regretted, because this 
 work is always in demand by private parties, in- 
 dependent of the superior transfer ornaments to 
 be had in the trade. The colors used for heraldic 
 painting are those put up in collapsible tubes, of 
 which there are about ninety different kinds. 
 Winsor & Newton's being considered by many art- 
 ists to be the best, but it will be found that Amer- 
 ican colors are equally in demand. 
 
 The following list of finely-prepared oil colors 
 for artists will give the reader an idea of the 
 large number of fine colors that are supplied in 
 tubes. Although few painters may ever be called 
 upon to use all of the colors on the list, still it 
 should be a satisfaction to know them by name : 
 
 American vermilion. 
 
 Cadmium, light. 
 
 Antimony yellow. 
 
 " deep. 
 
 Antwerp blue. 
 
 1 ' orange 
 
 Aspbaltum. 
 
 " yellow. 
 
 Bistre. 
 
 Caledonian brown. 
 
 Bitumen. 
 
 Cappah brown. 
 
 Blue black. 
 
 Carmine lake. 
 
 Blue verditer. 
 
 Cassel earth. 
 
 Bone brown. 
 
 Capucine madder. 
 
 Brilliant yellow. 
 
 Cerulean blue. 
 
 Brown madder. 
 
 Chinese blue. 
 
 Brown ochre. 
 
 Chinese green. 
 
 Brown pink. 
 
 Chinese vermilion. 
 
 Burnt carmine. 
 
 China white. 
 
 Burnt lake. 
 
 Chrome green, No. 1, light. 
 
 Burnt Roman ochre. 
 
 " 2, med. 
 
 Burnt sienna. 
 
 "3, deep. 
 
 Burnt terra verte. 
 
 Chrome orange. 
 
 Burnt umber. 
 
 Chrome red. 
 
 Cadmium, lemon. 
 
 Chrome yellow. No. 1, light. 
 
HERALDRY. 
 
 Chrome yellow, No. 2, mi 
 " 3, de 
 
 Citron yellow. 
 Cobalt blue. 
 Cobalt green. 
 Cologne earth. 
 Copal megilp. 
 Cork black. 
 Cremnitz white. 
 Crimson lake. 
 English vermilion. 
 Emerald green. 
 Emeraude green. 
 Extract of gamboge. 
 Extract of vermilion. 
 Flake white. 
 Flesh ochre. 
 French carmine. 
 French green. 
 French Naples yellow. 
 French vermilion. 
 Gamboge. 
 Gaude lake. 
 Green lake. 
 Gold ochre. 
 Imperial orange. 
 Indian lake. 
 Indian red. 
 Indian yellow. 
 Indigo. 
 Italian pink. 
 Ivory black. 
 King's yellow. 
 Lamp black. 
 Lemon yellow. 
 Light red. 
 Light red sienna. 
 Madder carmine. 
 Madder lake. 
 Madder lake, deep. 
 Malachite green. 
 
 I. Mars brown. 
 >. Mars orange. 
 
 Mars red. 
 
 Mars violet. 
 
 Mars yellow. 
 
 Mauve lake. 
 
 Megilp. 
 
 Mummy. 
 
 Naples yellow, No. 1, light. 
 
 " 2, med. 
 " 3, deep. 
 
 Neutral tint. 
 New blue. 
 Olive lake. 
 Olive tint. 
 Orpiment. 
 Oxford ochre. 
 Orange vermilion. 
 Oxide of chromium. 
 Paris blue. 
 Paris green. 
 Paul Veronese green. 
 Payne's gray. 
 Perfect yellow. 
 Permanent blue. 
 Permanent white. 
 Permanent green. 
 Persian red. 
 Pink madder. 
 Prussian blue. 
 Prussian brown. 
 Prussian green. 
 Purple lake 
 Purple madder. 
 Raw sienna. 
 Raw umber. 
 Reuben's madder. 
 Robert's lake. 
 Robert's lake, No. 1. 
 
 " 2. 
 " " 3. 
 
HERALDRY. 
 
 171 
 
 Robert's lake, No. 4. 
 
 Roman ochre. 
 Rose lake. 
 Rose madder. 
 Rose pink. 
 Scarlet lake. 
 Scarlet madder. 
 Scarlet vermilion. 
 Sepia. 
 
 Silver white. 
 Sugar of lead. 
 Terra rosa. 
 Terra verte. 
 
 « • tt Q 
 
 tt tt 
 " " 8. 
 
 Transparent gold ochre. 
 
 Transparent oxide of chromi- 
 
 Uitramarine. [um. 
 
 Ultramarine ash. 
 
 Vandyke brown. 
 
 Venetian red. 
 
 Verdigris. 
 
 Verona brown. 
 
 Veronese green. 
 
 Violet carmine. 
 
 Yellow lake. 
 
 Yellow madder. 
 
 Yellow ochre. 
 
 Zinc white. 
 
 Zinnober green, light. 
 
 medium, 
 deep. 
 
 These colors cost from $1.50 to $12.00 per dozen 
 tubes. 
 
 In addition to these procure small bottles of 
 copal or mastic varnish, turpentine and japan gold- 
 size (q. v.) a square or oval palette, a palette-knife 
 and a few red-sable pencils, from the finest to 
 those the size of a goose-quill. 
 
 For working-, the colors should be arranged on 
 the palette in the following order : White in the 
 centre, the colors which cover to the right, and 
 transparent ones to the left. In this way you 
 avoid the useless mixing up of the latter kinds. 
 Use a mahl-stick to rest the hand upon, and it is a 
 good plan to have a wet shammy laid over the 
 spot touched by the end of the stick. 
 
 The design is first drawn on paper and its out- 
 line pricked full of holes with a fine needle. The 
 paper is then laid on the panel and tipped with a 
 small bag made of flannel or muslin and filled with 
 pulverized chalk or whiting. After removing line 
 
172 
 
 HOLIDAY. 
 
 the contours with thin color. The parts to be 
 gilded are then sized, and when dry so as to be 
 "tacky" the gold-leaf is put on. (See Gilding.) 
 Imitation of gold is made by mixing- Cremnitz 
 white, cadmium yellow, burnt sienna, and raw 
 umber. Genuine silver-leaf is seldom if ever used, 
 as it soons turns black, and the imitation— pure 
 white— is preferred. Gold is shaded with burnt 
 sienna, or asphaltum. The red plush often seen 
 on coat-of-arms is made with crimson lake and 
 vermilion, shaded with brown ochre and light- 
 ened with vermilion. The light should in all 
 cases be laid on bold and bodily ; the shades, on 
 the contrary, as smooth as possible. 
 
 Holiday. — A term applied to a missed spot in paint- 
 ing or varnishing — a part not painted. 
 
 Holly Creen. — An ochre, same as Terre-verte (q. v.). 
 
 Hooker's Creen.— A water color paint. 
 
 House Painting. — There are many methods em- 
 ployed by house-painters in arriving at the same 
 result, namely : a finished job ; and it may be 
 thought by some that the directions we give for 
 painting a house are not correct, but to these we 
 simply point to the preface of our book, and go on 
 with explanations or description of the process 
 generally followed from the commencement to the 
 conclusion. 
 
 Before beginning to paint neiv work, all projec- 
 tions, such as lumps of glue, etc., must be cleared 
 away with the putty-knife and duster. Then all 
 knots in the wood must be killed with knotting 
 (q. v.) to prevent the pitch or turpentine in the 
 knots from oozing out and spoiling the appearance 
 of the painting when finished. After the knotting 
 
HOUSE PAINTING. 
 
 173 
 
 is dry and hard, which it does quickly, the prim- 
 ing, or first coat is put on. This is made of white 
 lead thinned with oil and having- a little drier 
 (q. v.) to harden it. Sometimes new wood has a 
 coat of clear-cole (q. v.) applied to it, but this is 
 better on old and dirty wood which has never 
 been painted than on new smooth work. 
 
 As soon as the priming- is dry, all nail-holes, 
 cracks, etc., must be stopped with putty. It is 
 useless to do this before the priming has been ap- 
 plied, because putty will not adhere to wood unless 
 painted* 
 
 After this has been done the second coat may 
 be applied, and for new work this should be made 
 up chiefly of oil, because oil is most efficient in 
 stopping the action of the wood ; then the third, 
 and even a fourth coat my be applied. In laying 
 on the color, the brush should be passed back- 
 wards and forwards and in every direction, to 
 spread the color evenly and work it well into the 
 wood, in the earlier coats. Finally, the brush 
 should be drawn up and down, or backwards and 
 forwards, as the case may be, in the direction of 
 the grain of the wood, taking care to leave no 
 marks of the hairs of the brush. In painting a 
 door, or any nice piece of work in which part is 
 sunk and part raised, the moldings or bead-work 
 should be painted first with a sash tool, and then 
 the panels, styles, and rails with a brush. No 
 coat should be laid on a previous coat until that 
 coat shall be perfectly dry and hard ; and before 
 beginning to paint any piece of work, whatever 
 may be the number of the coat, every particle of 
 dust that may have settled on it should be care- 
 fully removed with the dusting brush. 
 
HOUSE PAINTING. 
 
 Such is the method of painting new work. In 
 painting- old work the process is somewhat differ- 
 ent. All surfaces should be looked over and 
 cleaned from grease, and it is a good plan to wash 
 the worst or greasy spots over with turpentine. 
 The first coat after priming in new work should 
 he paint in which oil predominates ; but for old 
 work more turpentine is best. 
 To Remove Old Paint from Woodwork. — (1) 
 Make a very strong solution of common washing 
 soda, and appry it until the paint can be easily 
 scraped away. (2) Apply naptha until the paint 
 is softened, and can be scraped off with a knife. (3) 
 Slake 3 pounds stone lime in water, and add 1 pound 
 pearlash, and sufficient water to make it into a 
 thick mush-like consistency, apply it with a brush 
 and leave it on the paint from eighteen to twenty- 
 four hours, when the paint may be easily scraped 
 off. (4) Burn off by use of lamps, furnace, torch, 
 gas, etc. 
 
 A greater number of coats are required on plas- 
 ter than on wood, because plaster will absorb 
 more oil than wood will. Thus if three coats are 
 sufficient for wood, four and sometimes five will 
 be wanted for plaster. 
 
 In painting plaster, the first coat should consist 
 of white lead well thinned with oil, and plenty 
 of liquid drier, or litharge to ensure drying 
 quickly. The plaster will be saturated with oil to 
 some depth and the second and third coats may 
 have a goodly share of turpentine, and some of 
 the color with which the walls are to be tinted 
 when finished. The fourth coat should consist of 
 a darker shade of color than that to be used for 
 the finishing coat, mixed with equal quantities of 
 
HOUSE PAINTING. 
 
 175 
 
 oil and turpentine. The last coat should be mixed 
 with spirits of turpentine only, and a little gold- 
 size to harden it. This coat, which is called the 
 "flatting" (q. v.) should be somewhat lighter 
 than the selected tint, because it will dry darker. 
 In painting plaster, every coat should be allowed 
 to dry thoroughly and remain for four or five 
 days before the next is put on ; the last coat but 
 one, however, should not be allowed to stand 
 more than two days before the finishing coat is 
 laid over it. 
 
 The compositions of priming for new work, have 
 been described ; the proportions of the ingredients 
 used for second and following coats for old and 
 new work, and the meaning of certain expressions 
 used in painting to imply combinations of a certain 
 number of coats, will now be laid down as fol- 
 lows : 
 
 (1) Second Coat for New Work, or oil second 
 color. — White lead thinned with oil and a little 
 turpentine, with some driers. In winter more 
 driers must be used than in summer. 
 
 (2) Second Coat for Old Work, or turpentine 
 second color. — White lead thinned with about 
 three parts of turpentine to one of oil, with a little 
 driers. When much turpentine is used less driers 
 are required. 
 
 (3) Turpentine Color. — Color thinned almost en- 
 tirely with turpentine, and used only when the 
 work is to be finished in oil, so that the last coat 
 may have a better gloss. 
 
 (4) Third, or Ground Color. — Color thinned with 
 two parts oil and one part turpentine, and tinted 
 in shade darker than the finishing color. 
 
176 
 
 HOUSE PAINTING. 
 
 (5) Finishing Oil Color. — Thin with a little more 
 oil than turpentine, and tint to desired color. 
 
 (6) Flatting, or finishing' turpentine color, is 
 thinned with turpentine and has no Shine. 
 
 (7) Bastard Flat is thinned with turpentine and a 
 little oil, which renders it more durable than per- 
 fect flatting-. To procure a good flat, it is neces- 
 sary to have a perfectly even glossy ground, and 
 it should be of the same tint ; but a little darker 
 than the finishing tint. 
 
 The terms for certain combinations of coats in 
 painting, and the various kinds of coats that each 
 term implies, are as follows : 
 
 (1) Clear-cole and Finish. — Stop defects with 
 putty, clear-cole, and finish with oil finishing 
 color as directed. 
 
 (2) Two Coats in Oil.— Turpentine second color, 
 and finishing oil color. 
 
 (3) Two Coats in Oil and Flat. — Turpentine 
 second color, third color, and flat. 
 
 (4) Three Coats in Oil. — Turpentine second color, 
 turpentine color, and finishing oil color. 
 
 (5) Three Coats in Oil and Flat. — Turpentine 
 second turpentine color, third or ground color, 
 and flatting. 
 
 (6) Four Coats in Oil (New work). — Oil priming, 
 oil second color, turpentine color and oil finishing 
 color. 
 
 (7) Four Coats in Oil and Flat (New work).— 
 Oil priming, oil second color, turpentine color, 
 third or ground color and flatting. 
 
 Suggestions in Regard to Desirable Shades and 
 Trimmings. — For dwellings in elevated or exposed 
 situations — grays, drabs, olives and other dark 
 colors are most desirable. For dwellings not so 
 
HOUSE PAINTING. 
 
 situated or which are surrounded by shade trees, 
 the yellow and lighter tints are preferable. 
 
 When the molding", cornice or other ornamental 
 work is heavy, i. e., presents a large surface, the 
 lighter trimming shades should be used, and 
 where the ornamental work is light and graceful 
 in design, the darker trimming shades are more 
 effective. 
 
 When any shade of green is used on blinds, use 
 any of the red shades for sashes, beading, etc. 
 
 When two colors are used on large plain sur- 
 faces, a dividing line of some darker color, or 
 black, should be drawn between them. 
 
 For cottages, villas, sea-side and summer 
 hotels, etc., very rich effects are produced by 
 using a different body color on two or three 
 stories. 
 
 It is a well known fact that the average cost of 
 applying paint is from two to four times as much 
 as the cost of the paint itself, but probably not 
 more than one in a hundred purchasers stop to 
 think of the questionable economy of expending 
 from fifty to one hundred dollars for labor, in ap- 
 plying twenty- five or thirty dollars' worth of infer- 
 ior paint, which, after a year or so, affords neither 
 protection nor ornament, when the use of a strict- 
 ly first-class paint (costing twenty per cent, or 
 say five or six dollars more for sufficient to paint 
 a small house), would insure a serviceable and al- 
 ways pleasing result for at least two or three 
 times as long. 
 
 Another important fact — which no intelligent, 
 honest painter will deny — should also be more 
 generally known, viz.: that a gallon of paint com- 
 posed of the best materials, thoroughly combined 
 
178 
 
 HOUSE PAINTING. 
 
 will, in consequence of its superior "body" and 
 capacity, " cover" from twenty to twenty-five per 
 cent more surface than a gallon of such paints as 
 are commonly sold. 
 
 Regarded from an art point of view, there are 
 but three colors, namely : blue, red and yellow. 
 
 Blue, reel and yellow have been termed primary 
 colors ; they cannot be formed by the admixture 
 of any other colors. All colors other than blue, 
 red and yellow result from the admixture of the 
 primary colors. 
 
 By the admixture of blue and red, purple is 
 formed ; by the admixture of red and yellow, 
 orange is formed ; and by the admixture of yellow 
 and blue, green is formed. 
 
 Colors resulting from the admixture of two 
 primary colors are termed secondary; hence 
 purple, orange and green are secondary colors. 
 
 By the admixture of two second ary colors a 
 tertiary color is formed ; thus, purple and orange 
 produce russet (the red tertiary) ; orange and 
 green produce citrine (the yellow tertiary) ; and 
 green and purple, olive (the blue tertiary) ; rus- 
 set, citrine and olive are the three tertiary colors. 
 
 When a light color is juxtaposed to a dark 
 color, the light color appears lighter than it is and 
 the dark color darker. 
 
 When colors are juxtaposed, they become influ- 
 enced as to their hue. Thus, when red and green 
 are placed side by side, the red appears redder 
 than it actually is, and the green greener ; and 
 when blue and black are juxtaposed, the blue 
 manifests but little alteration, while the black as- 
 sumes an orange tint or becomes "rusty." 
 
 No one color can be viewed by the eye without 
 
HOUSE PAINTING. 
 
 179 
 
 another being* created. Thus, if red be viewed, 
 the eye creates for itself green, and this green is 
 cast upon whatever is near. If it views green, 
 red is in like manner created and cast upon adja- 
 cent objects ; thus, if red and green are juxtapos- 
 ed, each creates the other in the eye, and the red 
 created by the green is cast upon the red, and the 
 green created by the red cast upon the green ; 
 and the red and the green become improved by 
 being juxtaposed. The eye also demands the 
 presence of the three primary colors, either in 
 their purity or in combination ; and if these are 
 not present, whatever is deficient will be created 
 in the eye, and this induced color will be cast upon 
 whatever is near. Thus, when we view blue, 
 orange, which is a mixture of red and yellow, is 
 created in the eye, and this color is cast upon 
 whatever is near ; if black is in juxtaposition with 
 the blue, this orange is cast upon it, and gives to 
 it an orange tint, thus causing it to look "rusty." 
 
 In like manner, if we look upon red, green is 
 formed in the eye, and is cast upon adjacent colors ; 
 or if we look upon yellow, purple is formed. 
 
 Harmony results from an agreeable contrast. 
 
 Colors which perfectly harmonize improve one 
 another to the utmost. 
 
 In order to perfect harmony, the three colors 
 are necessary, either in their purity or in combi- 
 nation. 
 
 Red and green combine to yield a harmony. 
 Red is a primary color, and green, which is a 
 secondary color, consists of blue and yellow — the 
 other two primary colors. Blue and orange also 
 produce a harmony, and yellow and purple, for in 
 each case the three primary colors are present. 
 
HOUSE PAINTING. 
 
 It has been found that the primary colors in 
 perfect purity produce exact harmonies in the 
 proportions of 8 parts of blue, 5 of red, and 3 of 
 yellow ; that the secondary colors harmonize in 
 the proportions of 13 of purple, 11 of green, and 8 
 of orange ; and that the tertiary colors harmonize 
 in the proportions of olive 24, russet 21, and 
 citrine 19. 
 
 There are, however, subtleties of harmony 
 which it is difficult to understand. 
 
 The rarest harmonies frequently lie close on the 
 verge of discord. 
 
 Harmony of color is, in many respects, analo- 
 gous to harmony of musical sonuds. 
 
 Blue is a cold color and appears to recede from 
 the eye. 
 
 Red is a warm color, and is exciting; it remains 
 stationary as to distance. 
 
 Yellow is the color most nearly allied to light ; 
 it appears to advance toward the spectator. 
 
 At twilight blue appears much lighter than it 
 is, red much darker, and yellow slightly darker. 
 By ordinary gas-light blue becomes darker, red 
 brighter, and yellow lighter. By this artificial 
 light a pure yellow appears lighter than white it- 
 self when viewed in contrast with certain other 
 colors. 
 
 By certain combinations, color may make glad 
 or depress, convey the idea of purit}^ richness or 
 poverty, or may affect the mind in any desired 
 manner, as does music. 
 
 When color is placed on a gold ground, it should 
 be outlined with a darker shade of its own color. 
 
 When a gold ornament falls on a colored ground, 
 it should be outlined with black. 
 
HUNGARY GREEN. 
 
 181 
 
 When an ornament falls on a ground which is 
 in direct harmony with it, it must be outlined with 
 a lighter tint of its own color. Thus, when a red 
 ornament falls on a green ground, the ornament 
 must be outlined with a lighter red. 
 
 When the ornament and the ground are in two 
 tints of the same color, if the ornament is darker 
 than the ground, it will require outlining with a 
 still darker tint of the same color ; but if lighter 
 than the ground no outline will be required. 
 
 Hue.— The terms "tint," shade," " hue" and " color," 
 are very often used incorrectly even by persons 
 who ought to know better. The first three are 
 confounded one with the other, or used indiscrim- 
 inately, even by painters and others who are in 
 the habit of handling paints and colors. Every 
 compound of the three primary colors is a hue. 
 For example green being a mixture of blue and 
 yellow may vary in hue from the yellowist to the 
 bluest ; orange, being a mixture of yellow and 
 red may vary in hue from the yellowist to the 
 reddest. 
 
 A great number of hues may be made by a 
 combination of the three primaries, the name of 
 the hue being the same as that of the predominat- 
 ing primary. A color mixed with white forms a 
 tint, and one in which black is introduced gives 
 us a shade. 
 
 Hungary Blue. — A name often given to Cobalt 
 Blue. 
 
 Hungary Green. — A carbonate of copper, found in 
 a natural state in the mountains of Saxony and 
 Hungary, mixed with earthy matters. 
 
182 
 
 HUNTING HORN. 
 
 Hunting Horn. {Her.)— A horn used to cheer the 
 hounds in pursuit of game. It is a frequent 
 bearing" in Heraldry. When adorned with rings 
 it is said to he garnished. 
 
 Hurst. (Her.) — A charge representing a small 
 group of trees borne upon a mount or base. 
 
183 
 
 I 
 
 Icicling. — A term applied to the appearance of little 
 tears or icicles on a varnished surface, caused by 
 the varnish sagging* down in small streaks from 
 any little nibs or specks of dust, also, if varnish 
 be rubbed before perfectly hard, the nibs or lumps 
 will sweat out, and when varnish is put on these, 
 it will cause every one of these nibs to form drops 
 or icicles. To avoid this, the job must be rubbed 
 immediately before applying the varnish with 
 pumice rag and then washing clean. 
 
 Imbrued. {Her.) — Signifies bloody, or dropping 
 with blood. Weapons thus blazoned are drawn 
 with drops of blood falling from them. 
 
 Indian Ink- — A composition of lamp-black and glue 
 or size. The Chinese use vegetable juices which 
 renders it more brilliant and lasting. It is used 
 for designs in black and white. 
 
 Indian Red- — A very rich iron ore, hematite, or 
 peroxide of iron. It is an anomalous red, of a 
 purple-russet hue, of good body, and valued when 
 fine for its pureness and laky tone of its tints. In 
 a crude state it is a coarse powder, full of extreme- 
 ly hard and brittle particles of a dark appearance, 
 sometimes magnetic, and is greatly improved by 
 grinding and washing over. Its chemical tenden- 
 cy is to deepen, nevertheless it is very perma- 
 
184 
 
 INDIAN YELLOW. 
 
 nent; neither light, impure air, mixture with other 
 pigments, time, nor fire, effecting- in general any 
 sensible change in it. This pigment varies con- 
 siderably in its hues ; that which is most rosy 
 being esteemed the best, and affording the purest 
 tints. Inferior red ochres have been formerly 
 substituted for it, and have given it a variable 
 character, but can now be abundantly obtained 
 pure from respectable color-men. 
 Persian-Red is another name for this pigment. 
 
 Indian Yellow. — A coloring matter highly esteemed 
 by painters. It is imported from India in the 
 form of balls, each weighing three or four ounces. 
 These are of a dark brown color externally, but of 
 a bright yellow in the interior. It is of a fetid odor 
 and supposed to be a urinary sediment of the camel 
 or buffalo after the animal has fed on decayed and 
 yellow mango leaves. It is used more extensively 
 in water-color painting. 
 
 Indigo. — An extract from the plant indigofera, 
 found in America, Egypt, and the East Indies. 
 The purest only is used for oil painting, that of an 
 inferior quality may be used in distemper painting. 
 — A preparation from the leaves of the anillo is 
 sometimes fraudulently substituted for indigo, but 
 may be at once detected by throwing a piece into 
 the fire, as genuine indigo will not burn. 
 
 Indorsed. {Her.) — Applied to two animals placed 
 back to back. Two keys, two wings, etc., may 
 also be indorsed, and a pelican is always drawn 
 with its wings endorsed. 
 
 Infamed or Defamed. {Her.)— An epithet applied 
 to a lion or other animal which has lost its tail, 
 the loss being supposed to disgrace it. 
 
IODINE SCARLET. 
 
 185 
 
 Ingress. — A name given to a grade or quality of 
 paper used for sketching upon, and having its 
 surface roughened in such a manner by machinery, 
 that the marks made by a pencil or crayon appear 
 to be small dots. 
 
 Initial. — The first letter of a word, frequently placed 
 on the door panels of a coach instead of a mono- 
 gram or heraldic design. 
 
 Inherent Colors. — All material colors, more pro- 
 perly called pigments and dies ; Transient colors 
 are the colors of light and the eye, such as the 
 rainbow, etc. 
 
 Inside Coach Finishing Varnish.— The name 
 given to a varnish intended for finishing car inter- 
 iors, and where great dispatch is necessary one 
 coat over a surface made by Inside Rubbing Var- 
 nish will answer well ; but it is recommended in 
 ordinary cases to flow on two coats in the following 
 manner : When the first coat is dry, do not rub it, 
 but simply wash it well and shammy it dry, then 
 flow on the second coat, before the surface has 
 time to sweat. A car finished with this varnish 
 will only require a single coat of the same annually 
 to preserve it for years. 
 
 If desired to leave the work with an egg-shell 
 gloss, the lustre may be taken off with pulverized 
 pumice-stone, and a finish given by rubbing slight- 
 ly with rotten-stone and water. 
 
 Iodine Scarlet. — A new pigment, far exceeding the 
 brilliancy of vermilion, it is the Iodide of Mer- 
 cury. It has strong body, but if mixed with a 
 metal palette-knife it is apt to change the color, 
 ivory or bone knives must be used. With all its 
 
186 
 
 ISOCHROMATIC. 
 
 beauty it is fugitive and therefore is not exten- 
 sively used. 
 
 Isochromatic. — Having* the same color. 
 
 Isinglass. — A kind of gelatine prepared from the 
 air bladder of sturgeons, used in making sizing 
 for gilding on glass (which see). 
 
 Italian Pink. — A pigment made by impregnating 
 whiting with vegetable yellow tinctures in the 
 same manner as Dutch pink. 
 
 Iron Brown. — A pigment belonging to a class in 
 which are brown ochre, Prussian brown, etc. 
 
 Ivory Brown. — See bone brown. 
 
 Ivory- Black. — The charcoal of ivory. Ivory chip- 
 pings from the ivory-workers is placed in a close- 
 ly covered crucible and heated to a red heat, then 
 when cooled, the contents are ground in water. 
 Ivory-black is extremely hard to grind fine in or- 
 dinary mills, but color-makers prepare it for 
 use ground to the last degree of fineness, and it is 
 now considered more economical to purchase and 
 use the ready prepared black. 
 
187 
 
 j 
 
 Jack. — A name applied to various machines for hold- 
 ing bodies in the proper position while being- paint- 
 ed or varnished ; also, a contrivance for raising 
 
 Fig. 34.— Jack for Carriage Bodies. 
 
 and lowering the wheels of a vehicle to enable the 
 same to be turned as desired while washing, paint- 
 ing, etc. (See Body Jack.) 
 
 Japan. — A drier for paints, generally made by dis- 
 solving shellac gums in boiling linseed oil. (See 
 Brown Japan, Black Japan, and Crown Coach 
 Japan.) 
 
 Japan Cold-Size. — A drier for paints, made in a 
 different manner from ordinary japan, and posses- 
 
188 
 
 JAPAN BROWN. 
 
 sing* double the power of the latter ; being of a 
 light color it is well adapted for use in all li&nt 
 colors. 
 
 Japan Brown-— A beautiful shade of brown made 
 by mixing" to black japan any red pigment, vermil- 
 ion, Indian red, etc. The paint when mixed is 
 similar in appearance and consistency to color-and- 
 varnish, and should be applied in a similar man- 
 ner; i. e., with varnish brushes. It is excellent 
 
 Fig. 35. — Automatic Jack, or Body and Wheel Rest. 
 
 for re-painting a carriage ; in which case rub down 
 the old varnish to remove the gloss, and apply the 
 japan brown directly to the work, two coats will 
 generally make a good job, and by its use, no fear 
 of cracking need be entertained, for the coatings 
 will be elastic and quite unlike dead color. 
 
 Jet-Black. — The very deepest black ; the color of the 
 mineral, jet. 
 
 Jonquil Yellow. — A color used mostly by fresco- 
 painters, and is made by mixing flake white and 
 chrome yellow, to which is added a very little ver- 
 milion or carmine. 
 
Y 
 
 189 
 
 K 
 
 Kalsomine. — A mixture of size and pigment, used 
 as a coating* for walls and ceilings. To make it, 
 take zinc white or Paris white (the former is best) 
 6 pounds, light colored glue \ pound. Soak the 
 glue in a vessel containing about three pints of 
 warm water until it is jellied ; then add a pint of 
 water and heat the whole until it becomes fully 
 dissolved and quite thin. Put the Paris white 
 into a large pail, pour on hot water and stir it 
 until the liquid appears like thick milk. Now 
 mingle the glue liquid with the white, stir it 
 thoroughly, and stand the pail in a cool place. 
 When it has become semi-jellied, that is, neither a 
 limpid liquid nor a strong mass of jelly it is in 
 proper condition to apply, and this peculiar state 
 will be readily discovered by a little experience, 
 for when as it should be, it will spread easily with 
 the brush without spattering and it can be 
 worked over the wall smoothly and without leav- 
 ing brush-marks. The regular kalsomine brush 
 is best for use, notwithstanding the advice given 
 in some publications to use a common white-wash 
 brush, good work cannot be done with them. 
 The brush must be moved over the work in short 
 strokes in every directions, not as in painting or 
 whitewashing in straight lines, and care must 
 be taken to apply the kalsomine in squares not 
 
190 
 
 KEG LEAD. 
 
 too large, and each one to blend into the other 
 without time for the edges to dry and show the 
 lap or connections. This forms a white kalso- 
 mine, which may be improved by the addition of 
 a few drops of blue. Any color or tint may be 
 made by simply wetting up some dry pigment, as 
 umber, sienna, yellow, green, etc., with warm 
 water, and adding it little by little to the white. 
 To prepare the wall for kalsomining wash off all 
 old coloring with a sponge and water else it will 
 be apt to rub up with the new kalsomine and 
 cause streaks, or a coating of glue size may be 
 spread on the work, a quarter pound of dissolved 
 glue in a pail of water laid on with the kalsomine 
 Jjrush and allowed to dry hard will make the 
 work of kalsomining quite easy, when two coats 
 of kalsomine are necessary to make a good job, 
 but it must not be forgotten that a coat of glue 
 size is necessary before the second is applied. 
 
 Keg Lead. — A common term for white-lead ground 
 in oil and put up in small kegs — tub-lead is also 
 used in the same sense. 
 
 Kermes. — A small insect, similar to the cochineal 
 insect, from which is obtained a brilliant and dura- 
 ble color. 
 
 Key- — A guide mark made in stencil plates by which 
 correctness of position is secured when one stencil 
 plate is to be used in stenciling over the marks 
 made by a preceding stencil plate. It consists in 
 the cutting of a small portion of the first stencil 
 in the one to be used over it ; then when these 
 openings are placed upon their proper places 
 the stencil plate will be in the right place for 
 painting over. 
 
KREMNITZ WHITE. 
 
 191 
 
 King's Yellow- — A pigment. The sulphuretted 
 oxide of arsenic ; same as yellow orpiment, or auri- 
 pigmentum. 
 
 Knotting. — Shellac varnish is said to be the best 
 coating* to put over knots in wood before painting 
 it, to prevent the sap from striking through. A 
 mixture of glue size and red-lead is sometimes 
 used, gutta-percha dissolved in ether is also a 
 good knotting. Some painters, where extra care 
 is requisite, lay on gilding size and put a leaf of 
 gold, silver or nickel upon each knot. 
 
 Kowrie or Kauri. — A species of resin or gum pro- 
 duced by the kauri-pine, a native of New Zealand. 
 It is sometimes found in pieces as large as a child's 
 head, of a dull amber color, where forests of these 
 trees have formerly grown, and is obtained by 
 digging. It is also collected from the trees from 
 which it has newly exuded, and is then of a whitish 
 color. It is used in making varnishes. 
 
 Kremnitz White.— White carbonate of lead. 
 
192 
 
 L 
 
 Label. {Her.) — A figure consisting of a horizontal 
 stripe or fillet, with three points dependent from 
 it. A number of changes are made in the label, 
 some having five points and others extending 
 across the whole shield. Like other marks of 
 cadency, labels are sometimes borne as perma- 
 nent distinctions by a particular branch of the 
 family. 
 
 Lac Lake. — A pigment prepared from a resin which 
 exudes from the branches of several tropical trees. 
 It is a deep, rich, transparent color, less brilliant 
 and more durable than the color extracted from 
 cochineal and kermes, but inferior to madder in 
 both these respects. 
 
 Lacquer. — A varnish or glaze for coating polished 
 metals, wood, etc., to impart the appearance of 
 gold or to prevent the sudden oxidation of the 
 metal . For Brass — mix 8 ounces shellac, 2 ounces 
 annotto, 2 ounces sandarac, J ounce of dragon's 
 blood, 1 gallon spirits of wine. Heat the article 
 to be lacquered, and apply the mixture with a 
 camePs-hair brush. For Tin — mix turmeric, 
 4 drachms ; dragon's blood, 4 scruples ; red saund- 
 ers, 1 scruple ; shellac, 1 ounce ; gum mastic, 5 
 drachms ; Canada balsam, 2 drachms ; alcohol, 8 
 ounces ; spirits of turpentine, 80 drops. 
 Most of the gilt-molding we see is made to look 
 
LAKE. 
 
 193 
 
 like gold by lacquering- over silver-leaf, tin-foil,etc, 
 the lacquer used being- made of gums dissolved in 
 naphtha, spirits of wine, or other volatile oil, with 
 various coloring substances, as dragon's blood, 
 saffron, etc. 
 
 Lake. — The name given to certain pigments, many 
 of which are a deep red or maroon color. Yet 
 several of other colors are included under this 
 name as green lake, yellow lake, etc. The lakes 
 are numerous, both from variety of appellations 
 and the substances from which they are prepared. 
 The coloring matter of common red lake is Brazil 
 wood, which affords a very fugitive color. Super- 
 ior red lakes are prepared from cochineal, lac and 
 kermes ; but the best of all is prepared from the 
 root of the madder plant. All lakes ground in 
 linseed oil are disposed to become livery or thick, 
 but ground in poppy oil they keep better — a hint 
 some of the prepared-color makers may utilize. 
 The adulteration of lakes, particularly of madder 
 lake, is carried on to a great extent by the manu- 
 facturers, but we have at command various 
 processes by which we may determine their puri- 
 ty. Every lake with alumnia for a base, is solu- 
 ble in muriatic acid, or in vinegar to which a few 
 drops of the acid have been added. After the 
 lake has been dissolved ether is added and the 
 whole well shaken. If the lake has been adulter- 
 ated with Pernambuca, japan or Brazil wood 
 lakes, the ether will be colored a bright gold 
 color. If adulterated with Brazil wood, an effer- 
 vescence will occur, and a small quantity of iodine 
 dropped in will color the solution blue. 
 
 Water is not colored with madder lakes, while 
 it is colored with carmine lakes. 
 
194 
 
 LAMP-BLACK. 
 
 Violet lake will turn to a dirty orange color if 
 moistened with muriatic acid, when adulterated. 
 Madder lake adulterated with Prussian blue is 
 changed to green by the acid. 
 
 Scarlet lake is prepared from cochineal ; it is a 
 beautiful transparent color, of excellent body, 
 working well in both water and oil. When mixed 
 with whites to form tints it is not permanent, and 
 it also soon fades if laid on as a glazing. In the 
 manufacture of lakes, the coloring matter is ex- 
 tracted, and then to precipitate the solution alum 
 or alkali is thrown in, and this falling to the bot- 
 tom and becoming intimately intermixed with the 
 sediment which is dried and ground into dry lake 
 powder, gives the painter very often serious trou- 
 ble. He finds that in some cases his paint chips 
 or flakes, or the varnish put over it does so, while 
 the same varnish on other colors does not. He 
 also finds that the color " livers up" and " works 
 tough" and of all the paint in the shop none will 
 give him so much difficulty to make a good job. 
 So great is the trouble with lakes, that many 
 painters have discarded them entirely, and now 
 depend solely upon carmine to form the desired 
 color ; which is done by making the ground either 
 light or dark red, then glazing with carmine. 
 Lamp-Black.— Pure carbon. First on the list of 
 black pigments is lamp-black ; and although of 
 late years its use has been limited owing to its 
 oleaginous nature, it still has a place in many car- 
 riage paint shops, and proves to be a very use- 
 ful pigment. It is made in the following manner: 
 The first requisite is a receiver to hold the smoke 
 generated from a large lamp, in which oil or other 
 fatty substance is burned, or it may be produced 
 
LEMON COLOR. 
 
 195 
 
 from a kettle of burning- resin ; but the oil-lamp 
 produces the best lamp-black, and the best vege- 
 table oil gives the finest color and quality of pig- 
 ment. A large cone-topped building, similar to 
 our gas-receivers, is fitted with a movable interior 
 roof, which just fits the inside of the building and 
 is raised and lowered by a rope and pulley from the 
 top. The smoke from the burning resin or oil is 
 allowed to enter near the bottom, and there is a 
 hole in the roof affording a certain amount of draft 
 and allowing the escape of the lighter portions of 
 smoke. 
 
 When a quantity of soot is formed in the receiv- 
 er the lamp or fire is extinguished, and the mova- 
 ble roof is lowered from the outside to the bottom. 
 This scrapes down the large black flakes which 
 have adhered to the sides of the receiver, and 
 which— after purification by burning and sifting 
 to remove what oily substance still remains— be- 
 comes the lamp-black of the painter. 
 
 Laps. — In laying a coat of paint or varnish it some- 
 times happens that one part will dry or set before 
 the part next adjoining is touched with the brush, 
 then when that part is touched the paint or var- 
 nish will lap over and cause a sort of ridge to be 
 formed— called a lap. 
 
 Lavender. — A grayish blue color, made by adding 
 Prussian blue to dark lead color. 
 
 Lead.— (See White Lead.) 
 
 Lead Color. — The color of the metal lead, made by 
 mixing eight parts of white, one black, and one of 
 blue. 
 
 Lemon Color.— The color of the lemon, made by 
 
196 
 
 LEMON YELLOW. 
 
 mixing five parts of lemon yellow, and two parts 
 of white. 
 
 Lemon Yellow. — A beautiful light and vivid color. 
 It is not liable to change by damp or impure air, 
 or by the action of light, or by the steel palette- 
 knife, or by mixture with other pigments either in 
 water or oil. Though possessing the name, it is 
 not the true color of the lemon. (See Baryta 
 Yellow.) 
 
 Lead Poisoning. — A disease which attacks those 
 who are constantly handling white-lead, or those 
 who have for a long time been using water charg- 
 ed with lead salt. It assumes four phases : Lead 
 colic, lead rheumatism, lead palsy, disease of the 
 brain. 
 
 The first mentioned is by far the most frequent, 
 and is characterized by sharp continuous abdom- 
 inal pains which are usually diminished on pres- 
 sure ; by hardness and depression of the abdominal 
 walls ; slowness of the pulse and general disturb- 
 ance of the whole system. The blue line on the 
 gums serves at once to distinguish it from other 
 colic. 
 
 Persons exposed from their occupation to the 
 risk of lead-poisoning should be especially attentive 
 to cleanliness; and if the}^ combine the frequent 
 application of the bath with the use of sulphuric 
 lemonade as a drink they may escape the effects 
 of metallic poison. 
 
 Lettering. — The painting of letters on wagons, cars, 
 and stages, is one of the finest branches of the 
 trade, and it is made a specialty by many, par- 
 ticularly in large cities. The work is much finer 
 than the work of a sign writer, and the style of 
 
LETTERING. 
 
 197 
 
 letters used are in most cases entirely different. 
 The wag-on letter work is invariably varnished, 
 while the sign-painter's work is seldom coated 
 over ; the former doing- his work with quick-dry- 
 ing colors or size, and the latter with slow-drying 
 
 Fig. 34.— New York Style of Roman Letter. 
 
 oil-colors and oil-size. It is not our intention to 
 give a lengthy treatise on the art of lettering, but 
 sufficient to notice the principal points thereof. 
 Taking- the Roman letter for a base, we find that 
 almost every section of the country or large city 
 
 Fig. 35.— Boston Roman Letter. 
 
 has a peculiar style of letter as, for example, the 
 New York and Boston Roman are widely different 
 in general form, as shown in the engravings, and 
 it is difficult to lay out an alphabet which will be 
 pronounced perfect by people in .different places. 
 
LETTERING. 
 
 The New York Roman is considered the handsom- 
 est by those living" in that city and vicinity, and 
 just so with Boston, Chicago, etc., each think their 
 style the best. There is one thing that may be 
 said of New York, and that is, there is such a 
 conglomeration of styles to be seen, that one can 
 scarcely tell what is local and what has been taken 
 from some other city. This is owing to the influx 
 of letterers from all parts of the world, and par- 
 ticularly from Paris. The French letterers have 
 made sad havoc with our lettering business, and 
 although in some cases improvement is seen, as a 
 rule, the standard is far below that recognized as 
 
 Fig. 36.— Full Block Letters. 
 
 national. The letters on a vehicle should be bold ; 
 that is, as free from fantastic twists and turns as 
 possible,so that the hurried reader may comprehend 
 at once its import. If one is obliged to stop a car to 
 study out the lines of letters, before risking him- 
 self on a unknown journey, the "headway" of 
 the road would be seriously interfered with. 
 Therefore on such work the Gothic letter is exten- 
 sively used. The painter knows this style better 
 by the name of "Block," and he has the "Full 
 Block" and " Half Block," plain or ornamented, 
 to choose from. Then there is another style, call- 
 ed also by some "block," but the proper name of 
 
LETTERING. 
 
 199 
 
 which is " Antique." These forms of letters have, 
 of late years, been twisted into every conceivable 
 shape so that their identity is almost lost. 
 
 So great a number of st3^1es present themselves 
 that we forego all thought of illustrating them 
 and will leave the reader to choose a style from 
 the myriads of examples, while we describe how the 
 work is done. 
 
 The tools necessary for doing lettering are not 
 numerous, and the whole outfit may be carried 
 in the pocket, if need be. A palette (q. v.) may 
 be made which folds together in halves, as shown 
 in the engraving, by simply adding a pair of small 
 
 Fig. 37.— Concord Style of Lettering for Express 
 Wagons. 
 
 brass hinges and a wooden button after the pal- 
 ette has been cut through its centre. A rest-stick 
 may be made in sections, using- the brass ferrules 
 of a fishing-pole. A pair of dividers, and a box 
 containing pencils is all that will be necessary to 
 carry from place to place. The pencils for letter- 
 ing should be of the best quality, and always 
 be kept well greased and straight when not in use. 
 Sable-hair pencils are decidedly the best for either 
 paint or gold -size, and these are described under 
 their appropriate head. 
 
 The paint used should be well ground, and, al- 
 though it is desirable to have it dry quickly, a few 
 drops of raw oil will cause it to work better under 
 
200 
 
 LETTERING. 
 
 the pencil, and not delay the drying- to any great 
 extent. Tube colors are not so well adapted for 
 lettering- as those freshly mixed on the stone, 
 thoug-h some prefer them. They are too " short/' 
 t. e., they will not flow down nicely and pencil 
 marks are thus made which are unsig-htly. The 
 palette cup should he well supplied with turpentine, 
 
 a y 
 
 REST STICK. 
 
 Fig. 38.— Palette and Rest Stick. 
 
 and the paint be thinned and well worked with 
 the pencil, before putting- it on the work. 
 
 To put on g-old or silver leaf size must be used, 
 and the panels must be prepared to prevent the leaf 
 from adhering- to any part not sized . To do this, 
 just rub the panel with pulverized pumice-stone 
 and water, wash off, and dry well with a chamois. 
 Then with a bag of whiting-, pounce over every 
 part of the panel, leaving- a thin film of dust upon 
 
LETTERING. 
 
 201 
 
 it ; gently dust this over with a soft duster to re- 
 move all superfluous whiting-, then begin the lay- 
 ing out of the letters. If it be the sides of a top 
 wagon, where a circular line is desired, stick a 
 tack, or an awl into the floor or other place, in 
 line of the centre, and tie a string to it, then with 
 a piece of chalk, allowing the string to hold 
 the hand within the desired boundary, strike the 
 lines. It is not considered good taste to make 
 two circular lines follow each other, there should 
 be a straight line, an ornament, or stripe immedi- 
 ately below the circle, as shown in the engraving. 
 
 Fig. 39.— Laying Out Lettering. 
 
 The lines being drawn for the extreme boundary of 
 the letters at the top and bottom, it may be well, 
 as some do, to mark lines for the top and bottom 
 bars of the letters. Spell out the words to be put 
 on, and make a dot of chalk for the space of each 
 letter, and also for the space between the words 
 and mark these spaces with a cross. Many pro- 
 fessionals mark out very carefully each letter with 
 chalk or pencil, before they begin the painting, 
 but this is like the telegraph operator who reads 
 from a printed ribbon ; another who reads by 
 sound can do better. Just so with the letterer 
 who learns to paint the letters directly with the 
 
202 
 
 LETTERING. 
 
 pencil, he will produce work which seems freer, 
 not so stiff and mechanical, as that done by the 
 one who follows the chalk mark. 
 
 For lettering- to be in gold, a medium setting* 
 size should be used, and care should be taken that 
 it is so mixed that it will flow nicely, and not set 
 with bubbles or heavy flows in it. Under the 
 heading "size" or " gilding size" the readers will 
 find full directions for making several qualities. 
 For sign work oil-size only should be used. 
 
 The shading of a letter gives it prominence, or, as 
 the saying is, throws it out, and it is of as much im- 
 portance to learn to shade well as 
 it is to make a letter. The word 
 shade is used by most painters to 
 designate the thickness, while a 
 shade proper is called " cast shad- 
 ow.*' If a letter be cut out of 
 an inch-board and placed in posi- 
 tion, the idea of a shade will be at 
 once given — the thickness — while, FlG 4o._shad- 
 if the light be allowed to fall upon ing of Paint- 
 the letter as it stands, so as to ed Letter. 
 clearly define its outline, we have 
 the "cast shadow." Shading on painted letters is 
 seldom allowed to touch the letter (see engraving) 
 a distance of at least one-eighth of an inch is al- 
 lowed, which prevents the clumsy appearance 
 otherwise given. Gold or silver on the other hand 
 is always shaded close to the letter. A shade 
 should not be heavier than the bar close to the let- 
 ters, except when it is made double (as shown in 
 cut) or more, even made into a perspective letter, 
 where the shade forms the bulk of the whole — the 
 face of the letter being but a trifling affair, com- 
 
LILAC. 
 
 203 
 
 pared with it. There is no law or even custom to 
 govern the width, form or color of a shade, so long- 
 as one keeps within the hounds of harmony of con- 
 trast or analogy. A blue letter upon a red ground 
 or vice versa, will invariably cause difficulty to 
 decipher, or pain, to an educated eye, simply 
 because the harmony of contrast 
 is overridden, but by simply add- 
 ing to the edge of the letter a 
 white line, the difficulty will be 
 overcome. The addition to such 
 a letter of a green shade, and we 
 outstep the pale of harmony alto- 
 gether ; as before said, so long as 
 the painter keeps within a reason- 
 able degree of harmonic color, he 
 need not worry about the width 
 of his shading. 
 
 Fig. 41.— Double 
 Shade of Let- 
 ter. 
 
 Lightning Gilder-— A contrivance for laying gold- 
 leaf on stripes, consisting of rubber wheels of 
 various widths, fitted to a handle. The proper 
 width being chosen, the book of gold is opened 
 and the wheel is rolled over the gold, which ad- 
 heres to it and it is then transferred to the part of 
 the work which has been sized. 
 
 For rapidity, economy of gold, etc., it seems to 
 answer a very good purpose. It is a patented 
 article. 
 
 Light Red- — An ochre of a russet-orange color. 
 
 Light Buff. — A color formed of 5 parts of white and 
 3 parts yellow ochre. 
 
 Lilac-— The color of lilac flowers ; made by mixing 
 white, carmine and ultramarine blue. 
 
204 
 
 LINE. 
 
 Line. — A fine or narrow mark made with a striping 
 pencil or pen. Lines are always less than one- 
 sixteenth of an inch in width ; if wider marks are 
 made they are called stripes. {See Striping.) 
 
 London Smoke. — A color made by mixing* two 
 parts burnt umber with one of red and one of 
 white. 
 
 Lime Water. — The clear water found standing" upon 
 slaked lime may be used to advantage by the 
 painter in preventing the deposit of pigment 
 from vehicle. It readily assimilates with oil, and 
 when added to white-lead and oil it forms a sort 
 of cement which is very durable. Some manufact- 
 urers of prepared paints use it extensively in 
 their preparations in order to keep the pigment in 
 suspension, or, in other words, to prevent settling 
 of heavy pigment in the can or package. 
 
 Live ring Up. — A term applied to paint which, owing 
 to the mixture of improper or inferior ingredients, 
 will coagulate, thicken, or, as better expressed, 
 "liver up." A poor quality of japan will some- 
 times cause paint to thus liver up, and again it 
 may cause a chemical action of heat. We have 
 repeatedly seen paint become so hot as to prevent 
 the handling of the cup without a cloth holder, 
 and others testify that paint has even blazed 
 within the cup, due to chemical disagreement of 
 the ingredients of the paint. 
 
 Locomotive Varnish. — A varnish intended more 
 particularly for locomotives which, being varnish- 
 ed more frequently than cars, and the varnish on 
 them being protected somewhat by the oil from 
 the " waste " used in cleaning them, do not re- 
 
LUMINOUS COLORS. 
 
 205 
 
 quire so durable an article as railway coach 
 finishing, and usually sufficient time cannot be 
 given for drying-, we therefore commend locomo- 
 tive finishing in place of it. The dispensing 
 with a quicker drying varnish for under coats is 
 just as desirable on the inside as on the outside of 
 cars, and because of the increased durability, we 
 recommend the use of locomotive finishing for 
 all coats on locomotives and tenders, when time 
 can be taken ; but when dispatch is indispensible 
 or of more importance than durability many use 
 inside coach rubbing and locomotive rubbing for 
 the under coats. 
 
 Luminous Colors. — Yellow, red, orange, light 
 green and the light tones of blue and white. 
 
206 
 
 M 
 
 Madder.— The root of a plant (Rubia) found in the 
 tropical parts of both the old and new world ; the 
 finest quality, however, comes to us from the 
 government of Baku on the Caspian sea. Many 
 rich colors are prepared from madder root 
 — which see. 
 
 Madder Carmine. — A pigment prepared from mad- 
 der, and differing- from the rose lakes of madder 
 principally in texture, and in the greater rich- 
 ness, depth and transparency of its color, which 
 is of various hues, from rose color to crimson. 
 
 Madder Lake. — A pigment made from madder, by 
 boiling- it in a solution of alum, then filtering- the 
 liquid and adding- sufficient carbonate of soda to 
 cause precipitation of the red coloring- matter 
 of the madder, which alone has been dissolved by 
 the boiling- solution of alum. This lake is used in 
 both oil and water painting-. 
 
 Madder Orange. — A madder lake of an orang-e hue, 
 varying- from yellow to rose-colored brown. 
 
 Madder Purple. — A very rich deep carmine, pre- 
 pared from madder. Though not a brilliant 
 purple, its richness, durability, transparency and 
 superiority of color, have given it the preference 
 to the purple of gold-purple, and to burnt car- 
 mine. 
 
MARBLING. 
 
 207 
 
 Madder Yellow. — A pigment made from madder 
 root, a reddish yellow hue. 
 
 Magenta. — A red or crimson color extracted from 
 aniline, used principally as a dye. 
 
 Magenta Lake. — A pigment of a dark purple shade, 
 imitating the color of magenta dyes. 
 
 Magilp. — A composition of linseed oil, mastic varnish 
 and turpentine, used by artists as a vehicle for 
 their glazes. 
 
 Mahl-Stick. — A stick upon which a painter leans his 
 hand when at work ; sometimes called a rest-stick. 
 Those which are fitted with joints as a fishing-pole 
 are very convenient to carry in the pocket. Maul- 
 sticks are made from three to four feet in length. 
 
 Malachite. {Hungary or Mountain Green.) — An 
 expensive pigment made from a mineral found in 
 the Ural Mountains. It is a beautiful shade of 
 green. 
 
 Manganese. — A metal the oxides of which are used 
 as siccatives or driers for oil, etc., also a pigment 
 of considerable body. 
 
 Mantling or Lambrequin. (Her.)— An ornament 
 depicted as hanging down from the helmet, and 
 behind the escutcheon. 
 
 Marbling. — In painting the imitation of various 
 kinds of marble, general directions for which 
 follow : 
 
 To Imitate Black and Gold Makble. — First 
 color the surface to be marbled with ivory-black ; 
 second, coat with black japan. Then for the vein- 
 ing, mix white, yellow ochre and a very little 
 vermilion to form a gold color ; dip a pencil in 
 
208 
 
 MARBLING. 
 
 this color and daub on the ground with great 
 freedom some large patches, from which small 
 threads must be drawn in various directions. In 
 the deepest parts of the black a white vein is run 
 with a large number of fine scraggly lines attached 
 to it, but care must be taken that these lines are 
 connected with and run in a similar direction to 
 the main vein. This work may be done either 
 with oil or distemper colors. One or two coats of 
 varnish completes the work. 
 
 Jasper Marble. — The ground should be bluish 
 white ; then put on patches of rich reds or rose 
 pink, leaving spaces of white ; then partly cover 
 these spaces with various browns to form fossils ; 
 in some places run in veins ; then put in a few 
 white spots to the centre of some of the red 
 patches, and leave in places masses of the ground 
 nearly white ; varnish. 
 
 Sienna Marble.— Prepare a smooth light buff 
 ground. Then mix for the veining a variety of 
 tints, with ivory-black and Indian red ; by add- 
 ing a little white to this, other shades are formed. 
 Also mix some tints from Indian red and Prussian 
 blue, with white. Now give the surface a thin 
 coat of the buff ground color and while wet, take 
 a large feather, dip it into turpentine, then into 
 the darkest vein color, and form a leading vein 
 right across the work, giving it a broken or irreg- 
 ular appearance ; run a few straggling veins from 
 this ; now use the feather in the neutral tints and 
 put in some smaller veins, breaking it into small 
 irregular pieces on, or springing from the leading 
 vein. Next wipe over the whole with a badger 
 brush until it appears soft and mellow; when 
 dry, slightly grease the surface with linseed oil, 
 
MARBLING. 
 
 209 
 
 then with a feather dipped in very thin white 
 make irregular touches in and about the large 
 veins ; blend softly with the badger; then go over 
 and glaze patches here and there, using yellow 
 ochre and raw sienna, or a little crimson lake. 
 Touch up the leading vein with a little ivory- 
 black, let dry and varnish. 
 
 Black Bardella Marble. — Ground color, a very 
 light lead color. With a feather and black, 
 figure all over in lines running into each other, 
 very close in places, some very fine with short 
 lines or strokes crossing them, soften with the 
 badger brush, then glaze over with thin white, 
 stronger in some places than others ; touch up 
 the lines with fine lines of black. 
 
 Italian Pink Marble. — Over a white ground apply 
 a coat of white paint, compound tints of ultrama- 
 rine and white-lead, and vermilion and white-lead, 
 each being mixed with equal quantities of oil and 
 turpentine, and with these dab patches on the 
 white paint while yet wet, and with a brush well 
 soften the patches together. On the palette place 
 some Indian red, and with a small feather dipped 
 in turpentine, and some of the Indian red, work 
 the pattern and well soften. When this is dry, mix 
 some white-lead, mixed rather thinly with turpen- 
 tine, and flat the whole of the work, then with a 
 feather dipped in turpentine scumble over the work, 
 and subsequently put in whites with white-lead 
 and turpentine. When the work is perfectly hard 
 it is to be varnished. 
 
 Verde Antique. — Is either black or dark green, the 
 marbling colors being dark brown and green. 
 Scumble over the work with these, then with Bruns- 
 
210 
 
 MARBLING. 
 
 wick green and white-lead scumble over again, 
 and soften with a badger ; next with a fitch paint 
 masses of white of various shapes — squares, irreg- 
 ular triangles, etc. — and similar masses of black. 
 The student may here be reminded of the differ- 
 ence between scumbling and glazing-, in the latter 
 the colors are thinly mixed so as to be transparent ; 
 in the former, the color is mixed thick, and thinly 
 spread or rubbed on it with a hard brush. 
 Egyptian Green Marble.— This marble in color 
 closely resembles Verde Antique ; it is a superior 
 serpentine ; and there are several sorts, which are 
 called by different names, which would be of little 
 service to the painter, as they are all for his pur- 
 poses comprehended under one title. Egyptian 
 green differs from Verde Antique in the form of 
 the veins, which run in a more horizontal direction, 
 having a greater quantity of small fossil substan- 
 ces mixed with it, and the dark veins frequently 
 running in streaks, which often appear as if broken 
 by violence. 
 
 White Veined Marble. — The ground is white, and 
 the veins may be made with a marbling crayon or 
 camel 's-hair brush while the ground is wet. 
 
 Florentine Marble. — The ground is white, Indian 
 red and black, mixed to form a very light reddish 
 neutral tint. The veins are umber or burnt sienna ; 
 they are laid on very irregular, while the ground 
 is wet; sometimes they are very close together, 
 and then seem to break suddenly into forms of 
 rocks or ruins — an effect which must be studied 
 from natural specimens, and be imitated by hand. 
 
 Black and Gold Marble. — The ground is black : 
 paint the larg-e spots from which the fibrous veins 
 
MARBLING. 
 
 211 
 
 are to run with yellow ochre and white, the bright 
 tone of which must be heightened by the addition 
 of vermilion. These masses must be dabbed with 
 freedom upon the ground with a brush full of 
 color, and while quite wet, threads must be 
 drawn from them in all directions, some of course 
 being larger and thicker than others. 
 
 A white vein is sometimes seen running in the 
 deepest parts of the black, with small threads at- 
 tached to it, crossing each other and the yellow 
 veins in all directions. 
 
 Another way, is to paint the ground a deep 
 ivory -black ; put on the veins in white, yellow 
 ochre and burnt and raw sienna, using a camel's- 
 hair brush ; glaze the spaces between the veins 
 with a thin coat of gray or white, over which pass 
 a few white veins. The veins may also be put in 
 with gold leaf. 
 Porphyry Marble. — Mix the ground color of Vene- 
 tain red with a little vermilion and white, until it 
 is of the tint required. The first layer of spots is 
 produced by sprinkling in the following manner : 
 Mix some of the ground color with a large quan- 
 tity of white in a paint-pot, and use a large brush 
 which has been well worked in the color ; hold the 
 palette-knife over the edge, so that as much as 
 possible of the color may be forced out of it ; 
 then, taking the handle of the brush between the 
 palms of the hands, roll it to and fro with rapid 
 motion, the ends of the hairs being below the level 
 of the paint-pot, but not touching the paint — this 
 is called " wringing out" the brush — and a further 
 quantity of the paint will be thus discharged; now 
 hold the handle of the brush against it ; the color 
 that still remains in it will thus fall on the sur- 
 
212 
 
 MARINE GREEN. 
 
 face in a variety of small dots. Great care is nec- 
 essary at this stage, to distribute the spots equal- 
 ly ; otherwise while one part of the work will be 
 left only partially spotted, others may be so thick- 
 ly covered that the drops will run one into the 
 other and make a blotch. 
 
 When the work is dry, the sprinkling- may be 
 repeated by dipping- the brush into a color rather 
 deeper than the ground ; it may be Indian red with 
 sufficient white to give it a body. The sprinkling 
 with this color must be done very sparingly, and 
 rather more in some parts than others. 
 
 The last sprinkling is to be done with a clean 
 small tool dipped in white paint only, and the 
 spots are to be very fine. The stick should be held 
 at some distance from the work, as the farther 
 away the finer will be the dots. In some speci- 
 mens, after the three spatterings being done, a nar- 
 row opaque white vein is run among the spots, and 
 transparent threads drawn in various directions. 
 
 Marine Green. — The color of the sea; a shade of 
 green. 
 
 Marking on Class. — To mark out letters, etc., 
 first coat the glass over with whiting mixed with 
 water ; let dry, then with a sharpened stick mark 
 the desired letters or whatever upon the whitened 
 surface, and then paint or gild the letters on the 
 reverse side of the glass. The amateur will find 
 this an excellent plan, and, too, he may nicely 
 outline the letters after they are thus marked, 
 with a fine line of black, then when the outline is 
 dry proceed with the gilding. 
 
 Maroon Color. — A color made by a mixture of 
 three parts carmine and two parts yellow. 
 
MAUVE PASTE. 
 
 213 
 
 Maroon Lake. — A reddish brown pigment. 
 
 Massicot. — A mineral occurring- in shapeless masses 
 of a yellow color, brittle, with earthy fractures. 
 A protoxide of lead, used as a pigment. Yellow 
 protoxide of lead. The dross of melted lead roast- 
 ed until of a uniform yellow color. 
 
 Mastic. — A species of gum-resin, used in making 
 . an almost colorless varnish, for maps, prints, etc. 
 It is imported chiefly from Morocco. The name 
 "mastic" is also given to certain cements, com- 
 posed of litharge and burned clay reduced to 
 powder then mixed to a paste with linseed oil. 
 
 Matching. — Making any piece or pieces of wood of 
 which any piece of furniture is made up, match or 
 correspond, so that they may be of a uniform 
 color. It will therefore be understood that some 
 parts may require lightening and others darken- 
 ing. For the first, make a strong solution of ox- 
 alic acid in hot water, and add a few drops of 
 spirits of nitre, and wash this carefully over the 
 parts to be lightened ; when quite dry, the surface 
 should have two or three coats of white polish. 
 (2) Give the parts to be lightened a wash of a clean 
 white stain and another of white varnish ; give 
 the intermediate parts a coat of common varnish, 
 and oil the untouched white parts ; bring all up to 
 an equal tint by a darkening stain, if necessary. 
 Darkening. — The darkeners generally used are log- 
 wood, lime, brown soft-soap, dyed oil, and various 
 chemicals, such as aquafortis, sulphate of iron, 
 nitrate of silver, etc. 
 
 Mauve Paste. — A scenic paint, the same color its 
 name implies. 
 
214 MENHADEN OIL. 
 
 Menhaden Oil. — Oil obtained from the fish known 
 as menhaden or moss-bunker, one of the herring 
 family. It is used as an adulterant, and a substi- 
 tute for linseed oil. 
 
 Milori Green. — A sort of green lake, made by mix- 
 ing in certain proportion ferrocyanide of potas- 
 sium, sulphate of iron, acetate of lead and chromate 
 of potassa. It far surpasses chrome green in rich- 
 ness, possesses a good body, covers well, and when 
 mixed with white in varying proportions it forms 
 a brilliant pea-green. 
 
 Mineral Black. — A native impure oxide of carbon 
 of a soft texture found in Wales. It is not so 
 black as ivory-black, and on account of its solid 
 body it makes a good preparation for black of a 
 better color. Russian black is the same. 
 
 Mineral Brown. — A bright, transparent brown, 
 something like sienna, made by mixing equal parts 
 of sulphate of copper and prussiate of potash in 
 water, then evaporating the water. 
 
 Mineral Green. — Carbonate of copper, obtained by 
 precipitating a hot solution of sulphate of copper 
 by carbonate of soda. 
 
 Mineral Yellow.— A compound of oxide and chloride 
 of lead, obtained by digesting powdered litharge 
 in a solution of common salt, then washing, dry- 
 ing and fusing the product. 
 
 Mittis Green.— An arseniate of copper made by 
 mixing a solution of acetate or sulphate of copper 
 with arsenite of potash. It is, in fact, Scheele's 
 green. 
 
MONOGRAM. 
 
 215 
 
 Mixing Colors. — In mixing- colors, it is the custom 
 of some painters to lay out upon the stone the re- 
 quisite quantity of various pigments, and then 
 mix and grind the mass in the mill, but by this 
 means dull or " lifeless " colors are produced. To 
 do this properly the required pigments for a given 
 color should be mixed and ground separately, then 
 the proper proportions may be put together and 
 thoroughly mixed. By this means all the fresh- 
 ness of the color will be retained, a more perfect 
 commingling of the particles will be insured, and 
 there will be less liability of separation in the cup, 
 or settling of one heavy pigment from the others, 
 which is sure to destroy the uniformity of coloring. 
 
 Mordant. — Any sticky matter employed to make 
 gold leaf or bronze adhere — a size. 
 
 Mossing Off. — Rubbing a varnished or painted sur- 
 face with moss (trimmer's stuffing material), to 
 remove the gloss or to smooth the surface. Rub- 
 bing with curled hair is called " hairing off." 
 
 Mottler. — A flat camel's-hair brush. (See Brushes.) 
 
 Monochrome. — A painting- executed in a single 
 color, but relieved by light and shade. A draw- 
 ing- in chiaro-oscuro (q. v.) is a monochrome, 
 whether in black and white or in any other color 
 and white. The silhouette is not a monochrome 
 thoug-h executed in a single color. 
 
 Monogram. — A character composed of two or more 
 letters of the alphabet, often interlaced with other 
 lines and used as a cipher or abbreviation of a name. 
 A perfect monogram is one in which all the letters 
 of the word are to be traced. Painters and engrav- 
 ers in Germany and Italy have used monograms 
 
MONOGRAM. 
 
 to a large extent as a means of distinguishing 
 their works. In these the initial letters of their 
 names were often interwoven with figures of a 
 symbolical character, so as to form a rebus of the 
 artist's name. Monograms are the ruling fashion 
 as ornaments on carriage panels, and an American 
 considers a handsome monogram of his name with 
 a feeling not altogether unlike that pride with 
 
 T.S. English. T.S. Louis XV. 
 
 T.S. Modern. T.S. Florentine. 
 
 Fig. 42.— Monograms. 
 
 which a European nobleman considers his coat-of- 
 arms. It is his S3^mbol. If anyone should spit 
 on it, he would feel it a personal insult. But the 
 main office of a monogram is and must be that of 
 a trade-mark. A striking trade-mark, capable of 
 catching the attention and impressing the memory, 
 sells more goods than the smartest traveler ever 
 
MONOGRAM. 
 
 217 
 
 did. In order to fill this office, it is necessary for 
 the letters to be arranged in the design so that 
 they both tell the name in a plain and absolutely 
 
 Fig. 43.— Monogram and Fig. 44.— Monogram and 
 Crest. Coronet. 
 
 Fig. 45.— Coat-of- Fig. 46.— Garter, Monogram 
 Arms. and Crown. 
 
 unequivocal manner, and impress it on the mem- 
 ory either by the beauty of the design or by awak- 
 ening ideas which easily and properly associate the 
 name with the business. But to invent such a 
 
MONOGRAM. 
 
 monogram requires a sort of talent. Some people 
 have quite a knack for contrivances of the kind, 
 while others are unable to make even the slightest 
 device. The carriage-painter, however, will often 
 be asked to invent a monogram whether he has 
 talent for the business or not. In such a case, he 
 is likely to go to a monogram-book for support. 
 J. Sabin & Sons, of New York, publish such a book, 
 containing about one thousand designs, of which 
 several are very good and only a few absolutely 
 
 Fig. 47.— Coat-of-Arms, with Supporters. 
 
 bad. We could illustrate this article on mono- 
 grams b}^ hundreds of cuts, but it might be a hun- 
 dred years before a single one of the combina- 
 tions of letters would be called for. 
 
 The designing and proper execution of mono- 
 grams is often one of the most puzzling tasks 
 which a painter has to undertake, and the follow- 
 ing suggestions, printed in "Coach, Harness 
 and Saddlery," by the author of this book, will be 
 found useful to many of our readers. 
 
MONOGRAM. 
 
 219 
 
 To lay out or design a monogram, first procure 
 some well-calendered letter or note paper, some 
 tissue paper — or, what is better, transparent draw- 
 ing paper or muslin — and two or three lead pencils 
 of different degrees of hardness : say, one quite 
 hard, another medium, and another soft. Next 
 decide upon the style of monogram best suited 
 to your wants, and (supposing you have no printed 
 samples to work by) lightly sketch the prominent 
 letter on the paper, erasing with a piece of rubber 
 any imperfect marks, and carefully correcting un- 
 til you are satisfied with the drawing. Next, go 
 over the lines with soft pencil to make them black- 
 er. Now lay over the drawing a piece of tissue 
 paper, and re-draw the lines. This is simply to 
 preserve the letter you have perfected. Remove 
 the tissue paper, and proceed with the hard pencil 
 to lightly sketch the other required letter, paying 
 no attention to interlacing them at this time, but 
 keeping the object constantly in view. Rub out 
 and correct faults in the outlines until you are 
 satisfied, remembering that you need have no fear 
 of destroying the letter first drawn, as you have a 
 duplicate. When the second letter is drawn to 
 please 3 r ou, blacken the lines as before, and work 
 the crossings or interlacings. Now lay the tissue 
 paper over the drawing and mark the second letter 
 in its correct place. Proceed in like manner if 
 more than two letters are to be combined. When 
 all the single letters are prepared, lay the tissue 
 paper upon a piece of writing paper ; secure it by 
 pinning so that it cannot move, and with a fine 
 needle pick the outlines carefully. You now have 
 a " pounce pattern," with which you can transfer 
 the outlines to the panel, and a tissue paper draw- 
 
 / 
 
220 
 
 MONOGRAM. 
 
 ing by which you are guided in making the cross- 
 ings and interfacings . These form a guide for 
 future work. 
 
 Whenever a specimen hook of monograms is at 
 the disposal of the designer the work may be 
 greatly simplified. In this case, after a choice of 
 single letters has been made, lay the tissue paper 
 over one of these ; sketch this out in detail, and 
 then, by placing the sketch over the other letters, 
 one by one, and turning and twisting it until it 
 < ' comes right," sketch in the others, shade up 
 the crossings or the leafing, and the pattern will 
 then be ready for the needle holes. It may be 
 mentioned here that, in case the design is symmet- 
 rical — that is, uniform on each side of the centre, 
 as in the Florentine style^the drawing should be 
 made as follows : Fold and crease a piece of writ- 
 ing paper ; open it out flat and draAv one-half of 
 the design, allowing the crease in the paper to 
 form the centre. Blacken the lines with soft pen- 
 cil, then fold the paper again as before, and, after 
 laying it on some hard surface, rub it over with an 
 ivory or bone paper-folder (or the handle of a tooth 
 brush) to transfer the pencil marks from one side 
 to the other, when, upon unfolding the sheet, the 
 complete design will be found accurately marked 
 out. This plan may be changed if preferred, by 
 first folding and marking the paper as before, and 
 then turning the marked side out, when you may 
 proceed to pick with a needle through both thick- 
 nesses of paper. 
 
 The pattern and colors now being ready, the 
 next thing in order is the tools. The pencils 
 should be of red sable hair, bound in tin, with long 
 handles of red cedar. The finest pencils made are 
 
MONOGRAM. 
 
 221 
 
 about the size of a knitting- needle, but if these can- 
 not be obtained it is an easy matter to cut others 
 down to the proper size. The hair should be one- 
 quarter of an inch in length. A small palette 
 knife, with which to mix colors on the palette, 
 tog-ether with a rest stick, pounce bag, and small 
 bottles of Japan and turpentine, will then complete 
 the outfit. 
 
 To begin the painting of a monogram the first 
 requirement is to know what color the gears are 
 to be striped, as the colors used in striping- almost 
 invariably govern the color or colors used in the 
 ornament. Exceptions sometimes occur, as in the 
 case before alluded to of coats-of-arms ; in this 
 case the colors are arbitrary and the monogram 
 should be painted in the predominating color, if in 
 relief, or in the color of the coat of arms. When 
 painting in relief — that is, in one color with its 
 tints and shades — it is a good plan to first lay the 
 whole design in with a medium shade of the color, 
 which gives an opportunity to lay in the shades 
 with the dark shades of that color, and then the 
 lights with tints of the same color made by the addi- 
 tion of white. Man3 T first lay in thew hole design in 
 gold or silver, and then glaze one letter with car- 
 mine, another with blue, another with verdigris, 
 and so on. Where there are three letters, two 
 may be colored, say Indian red glazed with car- 
 mine, and the prominent letter with vermilion, " cut 
 up" with dark red and high-lighted with vermilion 
 and white. Asphaltum is extensively used as a glaze 
 over gold letter. Carmine letters may be shaded 
 with asphaltum and high-lighted with yellow or ca- 
 nary color. It will be discovered by a very little 
 practice that the strength or tone of a high-light 
 
222 MOUNTAIN BLUE. 
 
 may be greatly improved by simply changing" the 
 tint of white 03^ a drop of another color ; as, if a 
 vermilion ground is to be high-lighted, a drop of 
 red in the white will show better than when the 
 pure white is used, and, as such " points " are 
 better learned by experience, we leave them here. 
 
 Mountain Blue. — Carbonate of copper, though used 
 as a pigment ; it is not durable, turning green in a 
 short time. 
 
 Mountain Green. — A native carbonate of copper, 
 combined with white earth, and often striated 
 with veins of mountain-blue, to which it bears the 
 same relation that green verditer does to blue 
 verditer ; nor does it differ from these in any 
 property essential to the painter. 
 
 Mud Spotting. — A trouble experienced by owners of 
 carriages when mud, particularly city street mud 
 (containing ammonia) or the mud of lime districts, 
 is allowed to dry upon a varnished surface. So 
 long as it remains moist there is but little danger 
 of spotting, for it is the suction or capillary at- 
 traction of the dry mud which extracts the oil 
 from the varnish. Most all varnishes are acted 
 on in similar manner. Washing and sunning 
 generally returns the gloss to the varnish. 
 
 Muller. — A block of stone or glass used to crush and 
 grind pigment. It is used in connection with a 
 slab of marble, or a thick plate of glass. 
 
 Mummy.— A substance similar to asphaltum com- 
 bined with animal remains, found in the cata- 
 combs of Egypt. 
 
 Munich Lake. — A pigment made from Brazil wood, 
 often used in place of carmine on cheap work. 
 
223 
 
 N 
 
 Naples Yellow. — A pigment compounded of the 
 oxides of lead and antimony, anciently prepared 
 at Naples, under the name grallolina. It is not 
 so vivid a color as patent yellow, hut it is of a 
 pleasing" light, warm, golden-yellow tint. Like 
 most other yellows, it is opaque, and in this sense 
 is of good hody. It is not affected by the light of 
 the sun, and may he safely used in oil or varnish. 
 It is, however, liable to change, even to blackness 
 by damp and impure air, when used as a water 
 color, or unprotected by oil or varnish. 
 
 Native Green. — A true chrome green, the coloring 
 matter of which is the pure oxide of chrome 
 which, being free from lead, is durable, both 
 against the action of sunlight and impure air. 
 
 Native Manganese Brown.— A bog earth or peat, 
 the same as cappagh brown (which see). 
 
 Neutral Colors. — Those colors in which the hue is 
 broken by partaking of the reflected colors of the 
 objects which surround them. There are three 
 neutral colors, namely, white, black and gray. 
 
 Normal Colors. — The colors of the spectrum, blue, 
 red, yellow, orange, green and violet. 
 
 Nowed. (Her.)— Tied in a knot. Usually applied to 
 a snake or the tail of a dragon. 
 
224 
 
 NUT BROWN. 
 
 Nut Brown. — The color of the hazel-nut, made by a 
 mixture of burnt sienna, burnt umber and white. 
 
 Nut Oil. — An oil expressed from various nuts and 
 used as a vehicle by artists ; poppy oil, however, 
 being" a better drier, has superseded it of late 
 years. 
 
225 
 
 o 
 
 Oak Color. — The color of oak wood, made by mixing- 
 eight parts of white with two of yellow ochre. 
 
 Ochre. — A name applied to certain metallic oxides 
 occurring- in an earthy or pulverant form, espe- 
 cially to such as are used for pigments ; as red 
 ochre, yellow ochre, etc. Golden ochre is a choice 
 variety of native ochre, and is also manufactured 
 similarly to chrome yellow. 
 
 Offer Up. — The act of trying the effect of a desig-n, or 
 of a color in its intended position. 
 
 Oils. — Oily bodies are generally divided into two 
 classes, fixed or fat oils, and essential or volatile 
 oils ; but they are entirely dissimilar, both in pro- 
 portion and composition, except in the one com- 
 mon property of greasiness. The two classes may 
 be readily distinguished, the essential oils emitting- 
 at ordinary temperatures an intensely odorous 
 and penetrating vapor, and, when placed on paper, 
 not producing a permanent greasy spot, while the 
 stain of a fixed oil does not disappear by exposure, 
 or even when subjected to a g-entle heat. 
 
 Drying-oils, or siccatives, vary from the non- 
 drying by becoming gradually converted into solid 
 masses by exposure to the atmosphere. Their 
 principal use is in the preparation of varnish and 
 paints ; and the more quickly they become hard 
 
226 
 
 OILS. 
 
 by exposure, the more valuable are they for these 
 purposes. Their siccative or drying- properties 
 may be increased by adding- litharge and heating 
 the oil until it acquires a reddish hue. Oxide of 
 manganese, oxide and sulphate of zinc, and mag- 
 nesia, will produce a similar effect. 
 
 Such is boiled-oil which was once universally 
 employed, but it has many disadvantages, and is 
 now but little used in painting carriages and rail- 
 way cars — for house painting it is still employed 
 to a large extent. Freshly made oil will not dry 
 so well as old ; and it is possible that one or more 
 of the foreign matters present retard the absorp- 
 tion. The oil being purified, it is brought more 
 freely in contact with oxygen. In making var- 
 nish — the best quality — linseed oil is purified of all 
 the substances which go towards preventing the 
 absorption of oxygen or cause it to be greasy or 
 mucilaginous. Liebig devised a method of remov- 
 ing this latter impurity by precipitating at the 
 ordinary temperature, and produced a superior 
 and less colored drying oil, by agitating it for 
 some time with a mixture of water, litharge, and 
 sub-acetate of lead, without the application of 
 heat. 
 
 In extracting linseed oil, the seeds are first 
 bruised or crushed, then ground, and afterwards 
 subjected to pressure in a hydraulic press or a 
 screw press, sometimes without heat, and some- 
 times with the aid of steam heat at about 200° F. 
 Linseed oil is usually amber colored, but when 
 perfectly pure it is colorless. It has a peculiar 
 and rather disagreeable odor and taste. That 
 made without heat (cold drawn) is purer, and less 
 apt to become rancid than that in which heat is 
 
ORANGE. 
 
 227 
 
 applied in making-. By cold expression it yields 
 from 18 to 20 per cent, and with heat from 22 to 
 27 per cent, of oil. 
 
 Oil Painting. — Painting" in which the medium for 
 using- the colors consists partly of oil. 
 
 Oil of Spike.— A volatile oil, at one time much used 
 as a vehicle for paints, but owing- to its impurity 
 by adulteration it is now but seldom used. 
 
 Oil of Lavender. — An oil used principally by enamel- 
 ers, to whom it is particularly valuable from its 
 consistency being- such as to prevent the colors 
 that are mixed with it from running-. It drys 
 well and more uniformly than any other oil, and 
 is excellent for artists' use. 
 
 Oil of Poppies. — A perfectly colorless oil, used prin- 
 cipally in very delicate artists' work. Being- very 
 fat, it is liable, unless very old, to be insufferably 
 long- in drying-. 
 
 Oil of Turpentine.— (See Spirits of Turpentine.) 
 
 Olive. — The color of the olive, made by mixing- green 
 and violet, or eig*ht parts of yellow, one of blue, 
 
 and one of black. 
 
 i . 
 
 Olive Brown. — A color formed of three parts burnt 
 umber and one part of chrome yellow. 
 
 Olive Green. — Similar to Quaker green (which see). 
 
 Or- (Her.) — One of the metals employed in blazon- 
 ing-. Gold. 
 
 Orange. — The color of an orange — a deep rich yellow. 
 This color having' a larg-e share of red in its com- 
 position, cannot be successfully used in making- 
 greens or tints of light yellow. The principle 
 
228 
 
 ORANGE LEAD. 
 
 should always be kept in mind — to use a color or 
 pigment, when mixing* colors, which contains the 
 least of any objectionable tint, as, for instance, in 
 making a green color, we seek the purest yellow, 
 one which has but little, if any, red in its composi- 
 tion, to add to blue ; or in preparing an olive color 
 we choose a reddish or orange yellow to add to 
 black. 
 
 Orange Lead. — The same as orange mineral. 
 
 Orange Mineral. — The same as red lead, a pure ox- 
 ide of lead ; produced by exposing metallic lead to 
 the action of heat, taking care not to fuse it. It 
 is mostly employed as a pigment in painting iron 
 vessels and iron-work generally. It has an affini- 
 ty for the latter metal, and serves admirably in 
 protecting it from corrosion. One description of 
 orange mineral is produced by the slow calcination 
 of white lead in iron trays. This form is not used 
 as a pigment. 
 
 Orange Ochre.— A bright yellow ochre, burnt, 
 which gives it warmth, color, transparency and 
 depth. Called also Spanish ochre. 
 
 Ornament. — That which adorns or embellishes ; that 
 which added to another thing makes it more beau- 
 tiful to the eye. 
 
 Ornamenting. — The application of ornamental de- 
 signs, heraldic coats-of-arms, monograms, fancy 
 stripes, borders, etc. Carriages are generally 
 finished with a small ornament, monogram or 
 cipher on the door panel, or the centre of the side 
 in buggies, and a short description of such work 
 demands our attention. 
 First, The Tools. — The smallest sizes of red sa- 
 
ORNAMENTING. 
 
 229 
 
 ble pencils, bound in tin (see Pencils), are required, a 
 r full set of tube colors — say two dozen — embracing 
 all the principal colors, a palette, rest-stick, small 
 bottles of oil, varnish and turpentine (all of which 
 may be found noticed under their respective 
 heads). 
 
 Second, The Design. — A knowledge of drawing* 
 is an indispensable acquisition to one who desires 
 
 Fig. 48.— Ornamenter's Box of Tools, etc. 
 
 to make progress in this branch of the art ; how- 
 ever, he maj r copy designs and in some cases do 
 very well. To get a working copy of such orna- 
 ments, take tissue paper, or other transparent 
 paper, lay it over the design and draw the out- 
 lines, then, place the drawing on to a piece of 
 writing paper, laid upon a soft pine board, and 
 prick the lines with a fine needle, to form a pounoe 
 
230 
 
 ORPIMENT. 
 
 pattern. Then with a little whiting tied up in, a 
 piece of coarse muslin to form a pounce hag*, lay 
 the pattern upon the place desired and gently pat 
 it over with the bag*. A little of the whiting will 
 pass through the needle-holes and thus distinctly 
 mark the pattern upon the surface. 
 
 Next, prepare the palette by squeezing out of 
 the tubes a small quantity of each color that is to 
 be employed, and proceed to paint the ornament. 
 It is a good plan to coat the whole figure inside 
 the outlines, first with quick-drying light color, 
 then to put in the desired colors ; by that means 
 there is no danger of any portion of the design be- 
 ing obliterated. Several pencils should be em- 
 ployed, as it not only injures the pencil to wash it 
 often iu turpentine, but clean colors cannot be so 
 easily made. 
 
 The general fashion now is to put all such or- 
 namental designs "in relief" or monochrome, all 
 one color with its shades and tints. 
 
 Orpi merit. — Commonty called Yellow Arsenic. It 
 is a compound of fifty-eight parts of arsenic and 
 forty-two of sulphur. It is good in the produc- 
 tion of straw colors, but being exceedingly hard to 
 grind is not in common use. 
 
 Over-C raining. — Sundry short markings iu lights 
 and shades dashed across the grain, or sprinkled 
 in the larger lights in pleasing confusion ; and 
 certain mottled appearances irregularly disposed 
 throughout the grain are termed over-graining, 
 which is, as its name implies, the application of a 
 graining color over the grain already made on the 
 wood. The over-graining color in general use for 
 oak is made up of Vandyke brown ground up in 
 
OVER-GRAINING. 
 
 231 
 
 Fig. 49.— Leather Graining Comb, 
 
 Fig. 53.— Steel Graining-Comb. 
 
232 
 
 OVER-GRAINING. 
 
 water. The method of applying it is as follows : 
 Pour enough of the water color above mentioned 
 on a dinner plate to thinly cover it, have by the 
 side of it a basin filled with stale beer; clip the 
 pencil over-grainer in the beer, then dip the tips 
 of the hairs into the water color, and draw the 
 tips lightly from top to bottom of the panel in 
 straight lines over the combings ; then with the 
 mottler, and put in the mottled appearance seen 
 near the broader veins and knots ; then while the 
 color is still wet, soften down all the hard lines 
 and rough edges with the badger softener. Over- 
 graining should not be commenced until the 
 graining is dry and hard, nor should it be delayed 
 longer than necessary. If this should be unavoid- 
 able, the grain may " ciss " at the water color. 
 To prevent " cissing " go over all the grain with 
 a sponge dipped in a thin paste of whiting or 
 fuller's earth. A few minutes spent at watching 
 a grainer at work will be time well spent in learn- 
 ing the practical part of the art. The convention- 
 al method of oak-graining is as follows : Apply 
 the graining color with a pound brush to panel 
 and rails, with a sash tool, to stiles ; then go over 
 all the color with a coarse leather comb drawn in 
 straight lines lengthwise of the intended grain, 
 then go over this again with a finer comb, giving 
 a wav} 7 appearance to the grain by short trem- 
 blings of the hand and accidental slippings to right 
 or left ; then go over some parts toward the edges 
 of panels, stiles and rails with a fine steel comb, 
 and thus put in the finer grain on those parts. 
 Next wipe out the graining color with a view 7 to 
 produce a pretty effect in parts rather than to 
 imitate the natural grain of the wood, putting in 
 
Fig. 56.— Comb for Dividing Over-grainer. 
 
4 
 
 OVER-GRAINING. 
 
 a curly knot here and there in the panels tog-ether 
 with an occasional wavy, or zigzag light across the 
 grain; then put in a few broad lights to imitate 
 heart wood here and there in the rails, and tone 
 off to the sides. Wipe out only a feAv lights on 
 the stiles across the grain, and thus leave the 
 appearance of the panels and rails being framed 
 with a darker and closer grained wood, the lighter 
 and more open grain being- seen on the rails. In 
 this style of graining- the imagination of the work- 
 man conceives veining-s and markings, such as 
 could not possibly be found in a well made oaken 
 door, some of them, although of an oaken char- 
 acter, taking the form of grotesque letters and 
 words. The over-graining, too, is frequently put 
 on to produce a pretty effect instead of copying 
 nature. But the continuation of this article seems 
 superfluous when graining can be done quite sat- 
 isfactorily by mechanical means, as rollers, stencil 
 plates, etc. (See Graining Plates.) 
 Graining Plates. — Strong, thin, flexible, and finery 
 tempered metal plates, designed and cut from 
 choice, natural and artistic specimens from natural 
 wood into stencils. The surface of these plates 
 are corrugated by a peculiar process to admit of 
 air, and prevent the wet rubbed-in graining color 
 on the work from being marred or injured with the 
 plates, while being laid thereon to wipe out the 
 figures or designs of the plates, which would 
 otherwise suck off the color if not thus corrugated. 
 
 Fig. 57 shows Plate 6 in actual use. Any 
 plate in set can be thus slid along over the wet 
 color in one hand, while wiping out with wide 
 fine steel comb (teeth lapped in a piece of graining 
 cloth) with the other hand. There is no cloth 
 
GRAINING PLATES. 
 
 235 
 
 over the comb shown in engraving", simply to 
 show the position of the comb, which is held almost 
 flat ivhile wiping quickly over the plate, as the 
 plate moves slowly along in straight or graceful 
 curves over the wet color, producing graining in 
 an almost endless and ever-changing variety of 
 designs, and suitable for the grain of almost any 
 wood desired to be grained, by changing grounds 
 and graining- colors to suit the wood to be imitated. 
 Sliding* the plate in the opposite direction makes 
 the graining work smaller and finer if so desired. 
 
 Fig. 57.— Graining-plate in Use. 
 
 The coarse steel comb, shown at A, is a common 
 two-inch comb that had once nine teeth in all, but 
 every alternate tooth is purposely broken out, 
 leaving but five teeth in all. Such are easily 
 made from old coarse steel combs. In using, a 
 piece of cloth is put over the teeth, which is all 
 that is needed to comb or continue out the sides of 
 the heart work into plain combing to any width of 
 heart desired. The small pores or checks as shown 
 in the work are put in after with the check stip- 
 pler. The entire work is then well blended against 
 the heart points or grain of the hearts, which gives 
 the softened or feather edge to the work, and is 
 thm completed. 
 
23G 
 
 OVER-GLAZE PAINTING. 
 
 The engraving below shows a panel of oak 
 lights done with Plate 24, matched or joined edge 
 to edge, and also end to end, which shows a wide 
 double width finished panel, with all the work in the 
 centre of the panel, instead of just one edge, and 
 balance combed as is usually done. With the 
 Oak Light plate, sliding movement, as per No. G 
 Heart Plate, like sliding sample shoivn in the 
 engraving below, the oak lights in any of the 
 plates are expanded, enlarged or scattered more 
 separate and further apart, and making, if desired, 
 less than one-half the amount of dappled Avork ap- 
 
 Fig. 58.— Panel of Oak. 
 
 pear on the door, or work to be grained, than is 
 in the plate itself when held steady and wiped 
 without sliding it. Thus are great and beautiful 
 varieties obtained, and excellent work accom- 
 plished in the most rapid and easy maimer, even 
 by the most inexperienced grainer. 
 
 Over-glaze Painting on Porcelain.— The mite- 
 rials and appliances which the painter will find it 
 necessar3 r , or at some time or other advisable, to 
 use are as follows : 
 
 1. Earthenware or porcelain articles, either 
 
 white or of one uniform color. 
 
 2. Brushes — CameFs-hair and sable. 
 
 3. Medium or vehicles. 
 
OVER-GLAZE PAINTING. 
 
 237 
 
 4. Vitrifiable pigments or enamel colors. 
 
 5. Palette and receptacle for mixed color. 
 
 6. Palette knives, steel and ivory. 
 
 7. Pieces of linen rag- free from lint. 
 
 8. A painting table. 
 
 9. Slab and muller. 
 
 10. Pointers or scrapers. 
 
 11. Rest for arm and hand. 
 
 12. Horizontal wheel. 
 
 13. Easel. 
 
 14. Burnishers. 
 
 Essentials. — It is essential that the articles num- 
 bered from 1 to 8 should be sufficiently represent- 
 ed at the outset in the beginner's stock, the others 
 may be obtained as the need for them arises. It 
 will amply suffice to start with a single plate or 
 tile, two or three brushes, two mediums, a couple 
 of colors, a palette, a palette-knife, and a piece of 
 rag. There is further a great advantage in hav- 
 ing a limited stock in hand, for the beginner is 
 thereby saved the temptation, too often irresist- 
 ible, to enter upon work for which he is not yet 
 qualified. 
 
 Ware. — Earthenware, as a class, is softer than 
 porcelain, and will not in general stand the re- 
 peated firings required by elaborate work, and for 
 such work the best and most perfect porcelain 
 procurable will not be too good. 
 
 Tiles. — The most serviceable articles to practice upon 
 are the thick earthenware tiles glazed on one side, 
 and these are at the same time most generally ob- 
 tainable, and from their fair quality, good glaze, 
 and extreme cheapness, most acceptable. They are 
 ordinarily made square in sizes from four inches up- 
 
238 
 
 OVER-GLAZE PAINTING. 
 
 wards. These square tiles are best adapted for 
 stoves and mantle-pieces, or for walls, the paint- 
 ing- on each tile either being- a design complete in 
 itself or forming part of a large picture. 
 
 Plaques of Slabs.— There are also thin, oblong, or 
 square, or round, or oval slabs or plaques glazed 
 on one of the sides or on both. These are finer and 
 more suited for inlaying in cabinets, sideboards, 
 thick book covers, such as the covers of albums or 
 of books for, say, a collection of photographs of 
 choice works of art, and generally where compar- 
 ative lightness is an object. For practice, tiles 
 that are glazed on both sides are particularly ser- 
 viceable, as they may be painted on both sides. 
 
 Dishes and Plates.— These may be had in all sizes, 
 and either round or oval. The plates may be had 
 in flat, convex and concave shapes, and the oval 
 ones are rather better for landscapes, etc. 
 
 Defects. — The ware must be free from defects of 
 all kinds, even ware having the glaze scratched 
 should be avoided. 
 
 Brushes. — The brushes will be made of either 
 camel's-hair or sable, and we illustrate those which 
 will fill every requirement. Whatever kind may be 
 selected the best only of that kind should be used. 
 It is impossible to produce a highly-finished work 
 with bad tools. In a good brush, when dry, the 
 body is perfectly elastic, and the hairs have a per- 
 fect spring and lie equally together. 
 
 A brush should not be purchased without being 
 tested. Always test your brushes in cold water, 
 never by drawing them between the lips and wet- 
 ting them with spittle, for the warm spittle inva- 
 riably crinkles the hairs and ruins the brush. If 
 
OVER-GLAZE PAINTING. 
 
 239 
 
 the seller will not proffer a giass of water, ask for 
 it, and if not produced do not buy. The water 
 forthcoming-, dip the hairs in it so that they be- 
 come fully charg-ed. Then holding- the handle 
 tig-htly between the ends of the thumb and second 
 fing-er, suddenly depress the latter, retaining- the 
 
 Fig. 59.— Design for Painting on Porcelain. 
 
 brush between the thumb and first fing-er. This 
 jerk will send off the superfluous water, and then 
 the brush, if g-ood, will at its end present, if a 
 round or small flat one, a fine point ; if a large flat 
 one, a fine, straight, or slig-htly curved line, to 
 which in either case the body has regularly de- 
 
240 
 
 OVER-GLAZE PAINTING. 
 
 creased. If a round brush snould, after this test, 
 have protruding- hairs in the body, or free hairs at 
 the end, or a flat one have some parts of its line 
 thicker than others or depressed, or the termin- 
 ating point or line be not led up gradually, reject 
 
 Fig. 60.— Design for Painting on Porcelain. 
 
 it, without further consideration — it is not a good 
 brush. 
 
 Skies, Water, and Grounding.— For skies and 
 water in which there is a pretty large sheet of col- 
 or, either of one intensity or graduated, and to be 
 left as laid, or to have the clouds or lights picked 
 
OVER-GLAZE PAINTING. 
 
 241 
 
 out, a flat brush, as shown in Fig". 64, is generally 
 best ; but in smaller or somewhat irregular work, 
 that shown in Fig". 65, which is often called a sky- 
 brush, is perhaps most serviceable. The size 
 should be such as to allow of enough paint being 
 
 Fig. 61. Fig. 62. Fig. 63. Fig. 64. Fig. 65. 
 
 Fig. 61.— Flat Short Sable. Fig. 62.— Round Ordinary 
 Sable. Fig. 63.— For Lining or Tracing. Figs. 64, 65.— 
 Water or Sky, Washing in or Grounding Colors. 
 
 taken up to give a complete line of full width. 
 Fig. 65 is also well suited for washing in large 
 
242 
 
 OVER-GLAZE PAINTING. 
 
 masses of foliage. Either brush answers well for 
 back-grounds or ground -laying*. 
 
 For General Use. — The brushes or pencils depict- 
 ed in Figs. 61, 62, 66 to 69, and 77, will be found 
 serviceable, the sizes varying according to the 
 size of the work in hand. Fig. 66, an extremely 
 fine sable, is for the most delicate work in the 
 
 Fig. 66. Fig. 67. Fig. 68. Fig. 69. 
 
 Fig. 66.— 00 Miniature Sable. Fig. 67.— Small Finisher, 
 Camel-hair. Fig. 68.— Small Rose, Camel-hair. Fig. 
 69. — Large Shader. 
 
 features of small faces, such as nostrils, lips, 
 the iris, etc. ; Figs. 67, 68, and 77, in quills, are 
 specially made for this work. Fig. 69, and a 
 size or two smaller than that represented, are 
 useful in large shading, such as broad drap- 
 
OVER-GLAZE PAINTING. 
 
 243 
 
 eries in big- painting's, and in foregrounds. Fig. 
 61 is a short, flat sable, highly used in giving 
 crisp touches with paint rather stiffer than usual. 
 Fig. 62 is an ordinary round sable. Both of these 
 last are in metal settings. With regard to the 
 difference between round and flat brushes, it 
 
 Fig. 70. Fig. 71. Fig. 72. Fig. 73. 
 
 Fig. 70.— Bander., Fig. 71.— Softener. Fig. 72.— Dabber, 
 Flat Top. Fig. 73.— Dabber, Skew Top. 
 
 may be stated that the latter are often a little 
 more useful in a skilled hand, as a greater variety 
 of stroke and touch can be given with them. Both 
 
244 
 
 OVER-GLAZE PAINTING. 
 
 sable and camel's-hair may "be obtained in quills 
 or set in metal or albata. 
 
 Liners, Tracers and Banders. — Fig-. 63 represents 
 a brush known as a liner. This has very long 
 hair, and is a fine and very supple brush, capable 
 of holding, for its diameter, a very large quantity 
 of paint. It is used for drawing circular lines 
 round plates or vases, and may be had in three or 
 four sizes. Fig. 70 also comes into use in circular 
 
 Fig. 74. Fig. 75. Fig. 76. Fig. 77. 
 
 Figs. 74, 75.— Superfine Fitch-hair Brushes. Fig. 76.— 
 Softener. Fig. 77.— Special Rose, Camel-hair. 
 
 work, and with it bands of color are described. 
 The possession of it is not, however, an absolute 
 necessity, as with experience a large liner can be 
 made to do its work. 
 
OVER-GLAZE PAINTING. 
 
 245 
 
 Dabbers. — The foregoing- are brushes used in actu- 
 ally laying the paint on the ware. There are 
 others required for distributing it ivhen such an 
 operation is necessary. These are fitch brushes 
 or dabbers and softeners (see Figs. 71 to 75). The 
 former are employed to render even a coat of 
 paint which is perhaps impossible, owing to irreg- 
 ularities in the surface of the ware or from some 
 other cause, to lay quite flat with the painting. 
 
 Softeners are brushes with very fine and soft hair, 
 and are used in softening tints and rendering 
 them more delicate, and for toning down the edges 
 of clouds are excellent. 
 
 All brushes should be well rinsed in turpentine 
 after use, and before the paint has time to dry in 
 among the hairs. Spirits of wine, which is some- 
 times recommended for cleaning brushes, should 
 never under any circumstances be used. 
 
 Mediums. — These are requisites, and upon the kind 
 used and upon their quality depends, to an extent 
 greater than is generally supposed, the appear- 
 ance of the finished work. The mediums are, as 
 their other general name of vehicles indicates, the 
 carriers of the paint, the means by which it may 
 be spread. The mediums in general use and which 
 give every satisfaction are of two kinds — a spirit 
 and an oil ; the latter being the vehicle proper, the 
 former, the thinning agent to render practicable 
 the spreading of the mixed oil and paint in a coat 
 of any desired depth or thickness. The spirit and 
 the oil are both either of turpentine or of tar — 
 spirit and oil of turpentine being used together, 
 and spirit and oil of tar. 
 
 Turpentine. — The ordinary turpentine of the house- 
 painter will answer the purpose, but it will be 
 
246 
 
 OVER-GLAZE PAINTING. 
 
 Fig. 78.— The Rose. Design for Porcelain Painting. 
 
OVER-GLAZE PAINTING. 
 
 247 
 
 found best to procure rectified spirits of turpentine 
 as sold by the drug-gist, which is as clear as the pro- 
 verbial crystal, and as limpid as the purest water. 
 The common turpentine may be used for washing- 
 brushes. The oil of turpentine is also known as 
 fat oil. It is viscid, much of the consistency of 
 golden syrup, and has something of the color of 
 clouded amber. This may be purchased for a few 
 cents a small bottle, but it may be prepared from 
 spirits of turpentine by any one, thus : Into a flat 
 saucer pour a little spirits of turpentine, say a 
 tablespoonful, according to the size'of the saucer, 
 and over the saucer place a layer of muslin, suffi- 
 ciently close in texture to prevent dust getting to 
 the turpentine, and yet not so close as to prevent 
 evaporation. The saucer with the muslin drawn 
 tight over it should now be put in a place where 
 evaporation will be free, but not over the fire or 
 stove so as to hasten evaporation, or the heat 
 might dissipate the whole. When the spirituous 
 part of the liquid has passed off there will be found 
 left the oil at the bottom of the saucer. Fresh 
 spirit may be added, and the process repeated un- 
 till there is enough oil to pour off. 
 
 Tar. — The spirit of tar is in two shades — one a rich 
 amber, the other a dark brown, but both are alike 
 in nature. The oil of tar corresponds to it in the 
 same way as the oil of turpentine does to the spirit 
 of turpentine. The spirits of oil of tar are of simi- 
 
 t lar use to the other spirit and oil, and are employ- 
 ed principally by those who object to the vapor of 
 the turpentine as causing headache or affecting- 
 the throat. The spirits of turpentine and of tar 
 are extremely volatile, the former being- somewhat 
 more so than the latter ; and during the working-, 
 
248 
 
 OVER-GLAZE PAINTING. 
 
 sufficient may pass off to render the paint some- 
 what troublesome to deal with. This difficulty 
 is, however, only a slight one, and is easily over- 
 come by the use of a little 
 
 Oil of Lavender, or oil of spike, as it is sometimes 
 called. This is a perfectly volatile and fluid oil, but 
 very much less volatile than either of the above 
 mentioned spirits, and a small quantity is added 
 to the other mediums used when it is desired to 
 keep the work open, that is — to counteract its dry- 
 ing or fattening- through loss of spirit. 
 
 The Mediums should be kept in bottles with 
 closely fitting- stoppers, especially the spirits, as 
 otherwise these would quickly become "fat" by 
 evaporation . 
 
 Paint. — The colors used in painting- upon china or 
 earthenware are, for the most part, oxides of cer- 
 tain metals. A few colors, however, such as the 
 deep transparent blues, and yellows from one 
 source, are really, to a certain extent, stained 
 glass, the glass having- more or less completely 
 dissolved the coloring- matter. China or enamel 
 colors then, from their containing-, as an essential 
 constituent, a glass or flux of vitrifiable composi- 
 tion, are called vitrifiable pigments. 
 
 Complete Palette. — The following- list of colors in 
 dry powder will serve our purpose : 
 
 BLACK. 
 
 BLUE. 
 
 Old Tile. 
 
 Soft. 
 Deep. 
 
 Turquoise Outremer. 
 Soft. 
 
 Schwartzenburgh. 
 
 BLUE. 
 
 Azure. 
 
 Deep. 
 
Fig. 79.— The Crocus. Design for Porcelain Painting. 
 
250 
 
 OVER-GLAZE PAINTING. 
 
 -t>Xv \J VV IN • 
 
 ORANGE. 
 
 xtLLio Li let LI, 
 
 uaiK, 
 
 -L> I LlIloWlUJv* 
 
 Ijlgllt. 
 
 Ohpst/niit. 
 
 Opaque. 
 
 
 Strong Deep. 
 
 
 PURPLE. 
 
 VJt/1 I 1 1 till. 
 
 Ordinary. 
 
 V J \ * ' _ LI • 
 
 ixoyai. 
 
 Ol i uo 
 Wll VtJ. 
 
 Kuby d Or. 
 
 Sepia. 
 
 RED. 
 
 V cUlUVKc. 
 
 .fclesn, Nos. 1 and 2. 
 
 
 ' ' Shadow. 
 
 •Pin i*m inp 
 
 Ordinary. 
 
 Pink. 
 
 
 Rose* Oora.l 
 
 ocai lei. 
 
 J-/LIXJ1II I J'* 
 
 SILVER. 
 
 " Ordinary, 
 
 Prepared. 
 
 Dti ong. 
 
 VIOLET. 
 
 nu A V 
 VjrlviA. x • 
 
 ljiiac, i, 4) ana o. 
 
 J3J acK. 
 
 Mauve. 
 
 jr ean. 
 
 v io let. 
 
 VV lULtJ OlJclUOW. 
 
 w jtiirji. 
 
 1 > K 1 . 1 ..N . 
 
 X I cl I U. 
 
 Celadon. 
 
 Medium. 
 
 << "PTqv/1 
 
 SUvft 
 OOlt. 
 
 Deep. 
 
 
 Dover. 
 
 "Ruff 
 
 x>un. 
 
 Emerald. 
 
 Ivory. 
 
 Gordon. 
 
 T irrhf 
 
 L/ignt. 
 
 
 Onnmip 
 
 Sevres. 
 
 Persian. 
 
 " Light. 
 
 " Hard. 
 
 Shading. 
 
 
 Moist Oil-Colors. — These, as well as moist ivater- 
 colors prepared expressly for this kind of painting, 
 can be purchased at most any large city paint- 
 dealer's store. 
 
 Processes. — Having all the general requisites at 
 hand we are ready to begin work. Before, how- 
 
Fig. 80.— The Primrose. Design for Porcelain Painting. 
 
252 
 
 OVER-GLAZE PAINTING. 
 
 ever, we bring- out our brushes and mix our colors, 
 we must decide wfc^e the color is to go when it is 
 mixed. The first concern is the design, and this 
 whether we intend to have a background or not. 
 Therefore, our first operations will be directed 
 toward producing' 
 The Outline. — Material. — According to the method 
 which may be adopted for sketching- the outline, 
 there will be required a black lead-pencil^ HB or B, 
 lithographic crayon, a tracing point, tracing paper, 
 transfer paper, a pounce, Indian ink, rose pink, or 
 lamp-black, and gummed paper or modelling wax. 
 
 Lithographic crayon may be made by mixing 32 
 parts bees-wax, 4 parts purified tallow, 24 parts 
 soap, 1 part nitrate of potassium, dissolved in 8 
 parts water, 6 parts lamp-black. 
 
 The surface of the ware having been thorough- 
 ly cleaned by washing, and dried, the design may 
 be marked on by either of the following plans : 
 1, By marking with lithographic crayon; 2, 
 black lead-pencil ; 3, pricked stencil pattern and 
 pounce-bag ; 4, copying or transfer paper. The 
 design being drawn on the ware we proceed to 
 mix the color with the mediums. Different pig- 
 ments require different proportions of medium, 
 and the same pigment requires varying propor- 
 tions, according to the end sought. It may be 
 said generally that the ordinary blues, rose, and 
 purple take most " fat " and the yellows the least. 
 More fat, again, is required when it is desired to 
 lay color flat, as in backgrounds, either with the 
 brush, or when the use of the dabber is contem- 
 plated ; or to have the color flow to a very slight 
 extent as in delicate shading ; or to lay a very 
 thin tint. 
 
OVER-GLAZE PAINTING. 
 
 253 
 
 General Rule for Oil and Spirit. — Powder 
 Color: In mixing" powder color, the orthodox 
 direction is to lay a little powder on the slab, and 
 add to it just so much oil as will make it into a 
 thick paste, to be subsequently reduced to the 
 requisite thinness by spirit. The grinding- is done 
 on the slab with the muller, and when ground to 
 a thick cream consistency it is called prepared 
 color. 
 
 Moist Oil-Color. — Those who adopt moist oil-color 
 in tubes, will find that the color when fresh, 
 contains exactly the right quantity of oil. The 
 color only requires thinning- to be fit for use. 
 
 Moist Water-Colors. — Require no grinding*, sim- 
 ply dilution, but it must be remembered water- 
 colors cannot be used where the outlines are 
 made with lithographic crayons, for these being 
 greasy would grease the brush, and the water- 
 color instead of laying flat, would ridge and spot. 
 
 Firing. — The ware being painted the next step is to 
 make the work imperishable by fire ; and this 
 part of the process need not be done by the ama- 
 teur or the painter, for the maintenance to a 
 nicety of different definite degrees of heat in 
 furnaces of special adaptation are not to be found 
 united except in factories devoted to the business. 
 It is not surprising to find it assumed in some 
 books on the subject that the work has been 
 successful, and gone bravely through its fiery 
 ordeal. Such a result is of course gratifying, but 
 it is not always forthcoming. If the painting has 
 gone to the kiln with too much oil in it, it is 
 certain that the color will blister. If it comes 
 back with a dry powdery look, with the color 
 
4 
 
 OVER-GLAZE PAINTING. 
 
 scarcely adhering, it shows that the color was 
 over-diluted with turpentine. 
 
 The remedy for dryness is simply repainting-, 
 using- more oil. The reined} 7 " for blistering is 
 simply chipping off the blisters, and then rubbing 
 down the irregularities. 
 
 Fig. 81.— Lilies of the Valley, Forget-Me-Not, and 
 Pelargonium. 
 
 We give a few hints on the painting of 
 monochrome (one color) work, and a study of 
 lilies of the valley, forget-me-not, and pelargo- 
 nium. 
 
 Painting the Leaves. — The lily leaves will be done 
 
OVER-GLAZE PAINTING. 
 
 255 
 
 with full strokes of the brush, well filled. The 
 strokes should be taken from point to stem, ob- 
 serving the central line and the curve of the 
 edges. In this case, the lines of the leaf are to be 
 left by the brush marks, sc there is no process to 
 be observed for producing* a flat tint, which would 
 be absurd. The flowers will be painted over. If 
 the outline has been properly done and dried, it 
 will rub up in the painting, and will show through 
 sufficiently. In doing the pelargonium leaf, no 
 care need be taken to keep within the crenated 
 edge or the part touching the flower. Paint 
 freely and before the paint is dry, remove what 
 lies beyond the edge with a piece of rag, which 
 may or may not be dampened with spirits of 
 turpentine. This removal must be effected from 
 the edge outward, and not along the edge, as 
 this would leave a fine line of deeper tint. In 
 this leaf there are light veins. These may be 
 made out in two ways. First, the leaf may 
 have a light coat first, then, with a stick 
 point, take off the paint right down to the ware, 
 which shows up its glaze, and then, when this 
 first coat is dry, go over the whole again with 
 the tint or tints proper to give the required 
 depths, covering the lines first taken out. Second, 
 the veins may be gone over with a fine brush, just 
 dampened, not wet, with spirit. This lightens the 
 first-laid coat exactly on the lines of the veins, 
 but it requires more care than the other way. 
 The forget-me-not leaves are simple, and take the 
 plain brush stroke. 
 The Flowers. — Those of the lily and forget-me-not 
 over the leaves are to be taken out. This may be 
 done with a rag while the paint is moist, or with 
 
256 
 
 PAINT. 
 
 a scraper after it has dried. The former operation 
 is the easier. The lights of the lily flowers will be 
 the white glaze of the ware unpainted. In paint- 
 ing the shadows on these flowers, a little extra 
 fat will be advisable, and the shadows must be 
 very delicate and well-toned. The greatest care 
 must be taken so to tone as to preserve the round- 
 ness of the flower. The pelargonium petals have 
 a decided tint which, on the plain ones, covers only 
 half the petal — the half next the edge. The re- 
 mainder is very faint, the faintest next the throat. 
 This effect may easily be produced thus — paint the 
 well-toned half, then with a dry brush carry the 
 coloring from the inner edge of that half down to 
 the centre. The color must be a little oily for this, 
 and a dry brush will spread enough color. The 
 forget-me-not petals will have, for the most part, 
 flattish tints, and only require a little careful treat- 
 ment. Do not overload the brush with color. If 
 too much color has been used it may easily be re- 
 moved with a rag, but care must be taken to do 
 this gently, so as not to raise the outline. 
 
 The tile, when dry, may be sent to be fired, and 
 if the foregoing directions have been successfully 
 followed, the painting will return ready for fram- 
 ing. 
 
 Paint, in view of utility, is employed as a protect- 
 ive covering to a body against the injurious influ- 
 ences of the air, water, and other destructive 
 agencies. Wood and common metals are especial- 
 ly attacked by oxygen contained in the atmosphere, 
 of which it constitutes about 21 per cent, being 
 the T Vo- part of the whole atmosphere. It is also 
 a component part of water, forming nearly 
 of its whole weight. Although its presence is ab- 
 
PAINT. 
 
 257 
 
 solutely necessary to the continuance of animal 
 life, yet metals exposed to the air are consumed 
 by the oxygen as if in a fire. The utility, therefore, 
 of paint a sa protector is so apparent that any 
 study of its composition and properties, which will 
 tend to improve it in any degree, is of great im- 
 portance. 
 
 Paint is understood to he a mixture of a liquid 
 and a solid in powder. The desirable physical 
 conditions of these are that the liquid should have 
 a certain amount of viscidity in order to maintain 
 the powder in suspension, and that the powder 
 should be as fine as possible, and nearly of the 
 same specific gravity as the liquid. Linseed oil is 
 undoubtedly the best mixture for paints that are 
 to be exposed to the weather, unprotected by var- 
 nish. It absorbs oxygen and becomes solid and 
 waterproof, and yet it always possesses some elas- 
 ticity which prevents it from cracking. Theory 
 and the almost united voice of practical painters, 
 after centuries of experience, have decided that, in 
 view of its inherent properties and its cost, nothing 
 at present known can take its place. There may 
 be special uses of paint where some other article 
 may be substituted with advantage, yet we can- 
 not reasonably look beyond the class of substances 
 known as drying oils for a substitute. Volatile 
 oils, such as resin oils, which oxydize into brit- 
 tle resins, are altogether out of the question. 
 Nor will any solution of India-rubber or gutta-per- 
 cha take the place of linseed oil, by reason of ex- 
 pense as well as their inferior properties. Linseed 
 oil, therefore, is the very best liquid for paint. 
 Paint which is to be used for the coloring, only, of 
 carriage panels or gears, need not to be made dura- 
 
258 
 
 PAINT. 
 
 ble by oil in the paint, for the several coatings of 
 varnish — of which oil is the principal constituent — 
 renders the work as durable as desired to be, tak- 
 ing- into consideration the time to be spent upon 
 such work. The composition of paint is varied, 
 according- to the purpose to which it is put. 
 White House-paint may be made as follows : Two 
 quarts of skim-milk, 8 ounces of fresh slaked lime, 
 G ounces of linseed oil, 2 ounces of white Burgundy 
 pitch, and 3 pounds of Spanish white. The lime 
 must be slaked in water, exposed to the air, 
 mixed in about one-quarter of the milk ; the oil in 
 which the pitch is previously dissolved must be 
 added gradually, then the rest of the milk, and 
 afterwards the Spanish white. This quantity is 
 sufficient for 27 square yards, and the cost is 
 trifling-. 
 
 To make a cheap paint impervious to the 
 weather : Dissolve eight pounds of glue (commi- 
 nuted or ground glue is best) in boiling water, and 
 with this slake a bushel of quicklime until it be- 
 comes of the usual consistence of paint. Lay on 
 three coats of this mixture with a paint brush, 
 taking care that each coat is dry before another is 
 applied ; over the third coat — before it is dry — 
 dust sand or gray-stone dust from a dredger. By 
 mixing a colored pigment with this paint any 
 color may be had. A substitute for oil paint is 
 made by pouring a gallon of boiling water upon a 
 pound of quicklime and two ounces of sugar-of- 
 lead. When the lime has become completely 
 slaked, the mixture is to be stirred, and it is then 
 fit for use. Coloring ingredients may be added if 
 desired. 
 
 The outside of houses should be painted during 
 
PAINT. 
 
 250 
 
 autumn or winter. Hot weather injures the paint 
 by driving the oil into the wood, causing the pig- 
 ment to become dry and crumbling, but when it is 
 laid on in colder weather it hardens upon the sur- 
 face and is far more durable. 
 
 Paint Cup. — A vessel for holding paint, generally of 
 tin and containing one pint. Those vessels which 
 are used by the house-painter are called paint- 
 tubs, pots, or buckets. 
 
 Paint-Mill. — A mill used for grinding paints. The 
 most popular paint-mill for shop use is that known 
 as the " Harris mill," but the advent of ready- 
 prepared paints has caused a partial disuse of this 
 once useful implement. Many prepared colors 
 are ground to a fine degree in mills through which 
 a stream of cold water passes to prevent the heat- 
 ing of the bearing surfaces. These mills turn out 
 the paint as near perfection as can be, and quite 
 rapidly. 
 
 Paint Mixed with Petroleum. — Petroleum pene- 
 trates wood and excludes air and moisture by fill- 
 ing the pores. Old buildings may be much improv- 
 ed by a coat of crude petroleum and pigment 
 (any color) put on with unsparing hand with a 
 whitewash brush, for the greater the amount put 
 on within reason, the better. The pure oil with- 
 out coloring is excellent for the preservation of 
 sills and timbers of a barn or outbuilding. 
 
 Paint, to Reduce with Water.— Mix gum shellac, 
 1 pound ; sal soda, \ pound ; water sufficient to 
 cover ; boil all together till dissolved ; when cool 
 bottle for use. Then to a quart of oil paint mixed 
 as usual add \ pint of the shellac mixture, which 
 
260 
 
 PAINT-STONE . 
 
 will thicken it, and water may be added to thin 
 to a working* consistency. 
 
 Paint Stone. — A flat stone or slab of marble on 
 which colors are mixed or ground. The slab 
 should be at least two inches thick, to ensure 
 against breaking when crushing hard pigments 
 or pounding putty to a stiff dough. A plate of 
 glass fastened to a board with putty or thick 
 paint, forms an excellent ''paint stone." 
 
 Paint Skins. — The skins that dry upon the top of 
 paint left standing for any length of time may be 
 made fit for use again by simpty soaking them 
 in strong sal soda water for a few days, then 
 mixing with oil and straining. 
 
 Painters' Colic.— A disease to which painters more 
 than any other class of men are subject. It is 
 caused by the presence of lead in the system, 
 absorbed through the skin by contact with paints 
 containing that metal, especially those known as 
 white and red lead. The disease is considered 
 serious, being, usually, a mild form of paralysis 
 (see Lead Poisoning). 
 
 Painters' Cream. — A composition used by artists 
 to cover oil paintings in progress, when they 
 leave off their work ; it prevents drying and con- 
 sequent showing of lines where new work is 
 begun. It consists of six parts of fine nut oil and 
 one part of gum mastic. The mastic is dissolved 
 in the oil, and then is added a quarter part of 
 acetate, or sugar of lead. When well incorporat- 
 ed with the dissolved mastic, water must be add- 
 . ed and thoroughly mixed until the whole has 
 the consistency of cream. It is applied with a 
 
PAINTING. 
 
 261 
 
 soft brush and is easily removed with water and 
 a sponge. 
 
 Painters' Stand. — A bench on which the painter, 
 when varnishing', places his cups and brushes. 
 The brushes, of which he uses several when 
 varnishing a heavy body, are rested by inserting 
 the point of the handle in holes bored through the 
 upright back, as shown in the cut; this prevents 
 
 Fig. 82.— Painter's Stand. 
 
 the bristles or hairs from coming in contact with 
 any substance which might leave lint or dust 
 upon them. A drawer is fitted to the stand in 
 which he may keep "pickers " and such like aids 
 to his work. The stand is made of pine wood so 
 as to be light, and easily moved from place to 
 place around the room. 
 Painting. — The art of representing objects to the eye 
 on a flat surface, by means of lines and color, 
 
262 
 
 PAINTING. 
 
 with a view to convey ideas and awaken emotions. 
 It is done by means of light, shade, and color. 
 Also the application of a mixture of pigment and 
 a medium or vehicle to any surface, for the pur- 
 pose of preserving or beautifying- it. Also, the 
 act of working" with paints, etc. 
 
 In the compilation of this book it was not in- 
 tended to enter the field of fine arts any more than 
 could possibly be avoided, and our attention was 
 given more particularly to the useful arts, of 
 which the painting- of carriages, houses, etc., be- 
 longs, but it will not be amiss, now that Ave find 
 ourselves so closely allied to fine art to give a brief 
 description of the various branches of work com- 
 ing under the head of fine art painting. It is but 
 a few years since the principal modes of painting 
 could be counted upon the finger ends, while now 
 we find the number legion. Water-color, crayon, 
 miniature, oil painting, encaustic, fresco, etydoric, 
 enamel, glass painting, etc. 
 
 Water-Color. — Sometimes called limning, in which 
 style the colors are prepared with gum or size, and 
 applied with water. The characteristics are clear- 
 ness and transparency of tint. 
 
 Crayon.— In which the colors are ground in gum 
 and water, and formed into small cylinders. 
 When skilfully used, they give a soft and pleasing 
 effect. 
 
 Miniature. — Small portraits on ivor} T or vellum. 
 Water-colors are used in this style ; the colors are 
 applied in minute dots, which gives great softness 
 to the gradations of tint. 
 
 Oil Painting. — Colors ground in oils are not only 
 more enduring but more forcible in their effects. 
 
PAINTING. 
 
 263 
 
 Fresco. — The colors in this method are laid on a 
 wall newly plastered, with which they become in- 
 corporated. 
 
 Encaustic. — Is performed with colors mixed with 
 wax and varnish or water ; the word implies exe- 
 cuted by fire, and heat is employed in the applica- 
 tion of the colors, which are clear and brilliant. 
 
 Enamel. — A mode of painting" with vitrified colors 
 on g'old, copper, silver, etc. The operation is per- 
 formed by fire. 
 
 Elydoric painting is that in which water and oil are 
 both used in applying- the colors. Its principal 
 advantages are that the artist is able to add the 
 freshness of water-colors and the high finishing of 
 miniature, to the mellowness of oil painting", in 
 such a manner that the work appears like a stereo- 
 scopic view when seen through concave lens. 
 
 Mosaic. — Is a kind of painting- executed with small 
 pieces of glass, or wood, pebbles, enamel, etc., 
 fixed upon any substance with mastic. When an 
 artist commences a work in mosaic, he cuts on a 
 stone plate a certain space which he encircles with 
 bands of iron. This space is covered with thick 
 mastic, on which are laid conformably to the par- 
 ticular design, the various substances intended to 
 be used. Fifteen thousand different shades of 
 color are emplo3 r ed . The art is attributed to the 
 Greeks. 
 
 Glass Painting. — In painting" on this material, the 
 paints are mixed with water and turpentine, and 
 being laid on the glass are allowed to dry ; the 
 outline is then corrected with a sharp instrument. 
 The glass is then put into a furnace and the colors 
 are fused into it. 
 
264 
 
 PALETTE. 
 
 Palette. — An oval board, or piece of porcelain or 
 wedgwood, on which an artist places his colors for 
 immediate use. Some palettes are made square or 
 oblong-, others are cut through the centre and sup- 
 plied with hinges, and a button to fasten them 
 open. These can be conveniently carried in the 
 pocket. 
 
 Fig. 83.— Palette. 
 
 Fig. 84.— Palette-Cup. 
 
 Palette-Cup. — A small cup made of tin, used in con- 
 nection with the palette, for holding liquids : either 
 thinners or dryers. Twin cups of this sort may 
 be purchased, and these are considered best, as it 
 is frequently the case that two liquids are to be 
 used in the work. 
 
 Palette- Knife. — A flat, thin knife, rounded at the 
 end, as shown in Fig. 85, used by painters to mix 
 colors on the paint stone or grinding slab. A 
 
 c 
 
 Fig. 85 — Palette-Knife. 
 
 good knife should possess a fair degree of flexibil- 
 ity, but if too flexible good work cannot be done 
 with it. 
 
 Panel Stripe. — A striping in which two stripes are 
 connected at one or both ends by a cross stripe, 
 forming a square or panel. 
 
PATENT GRAINING ROLLER. 
 
 265 
 
 Pantograph — An instrument devised for the purpose 
 of copying- drawings, so* that the copy may be 
 either similar to or larger or smaller than the 
 original. 
 
 Parti-Colored- — Colored with various hues or varie- 
 gated with divers colors. 
 
 Paris Green. — An arsenite of copper, and a rank 
 poison. It contains about three parts copper to 
 seven parts of arsenic. It is sometimes known as 
 Scheele's Green, but is in fact different. (See Mit- 
 tis Green.) It is a beautiful light green, but ow- 
 ing to the trouble in spreading it, and its extreme- 
 ly poisonous character, it is not much used at the 
 present day. 
 
 Pasticcio. — A work of art, of original conception as 
 to design, but a direct copy of the style and man- 
 ner of some other painter. 
 
 Patent Yellow. — A pigment made with sea-salt and 
 litharge. Turner's patent consists in decompos- 
 ing sea-salt, by mixing two parts salt with one of 
 litharge, moistening them and leaving them to- 
 gether 24 hours. The product is then washed, 
 filtered, and evaporated by which soda is obtained. 
 A white substance is left undissolved, which, when 
 heated changes its color and forms Patent or Turn- 
 er's Yellow. This pigment is highly prized by 
 coach-painters, making delicate canary color, with 
 white, but it is a very hard substance to grind in 
 ordinary mills, and lemon chrome is often substi- 
 tuted for it. 
 
 Patent Graining Roller. — An implement used by 
 painters to mark the grain in imitating various 
 woods, the roller being first run over a flat sur- 
 face of fresh paint, and then transferred to the 
 
266 
 
 PEACH COLOR. 
 
 work. A similar roller, as shown in Fig-. 87, is 
 also used for marking- the over-grain of oak. 
 
 Peach Color.— The pale, red color of the peach blos- 
 som, made by mixing seven parts white to one 
 part each red, blue and yellow. This color forms 
 an excellent ground for vermilion. 
 
 Pea-Creen. — A light shade of green approximating 
 that of the pea, made by mixing five parts of 
 white with one of chrome green, or milori green. 
 
 Pean. (Her.) — One of the furs in heraldry, differing 
 from ermine only in the tinctures ; the ground be- 
 ing sable and the spots gold. 
 
 Pearl White. — A denomination applied to two pig- 
 ments ; one falsely so called, prepared from bis- 
 muth, which turns black in sulphuretted hydrogen 
 gas or any impure air, and is used as a cosmetic ; 
 the other prepared from the waste of pearls and 
 mother-of-pearl, which is exquisitely white and of 
 good body in water, but of little force in oil or var- 
 
 Fig. 86.— Patent Graining 
 Roller. 
 
 Fig. 87.— Combing 
 Roller. 
 
PENCIL. 
 
 267 
 
 nish ; it combines, however, with all other colors 
 without injuring" them, and is itself perfectly per- 
 manent and innoxious. 
 
 Pediment. (Arch.) — A triangular, segmental or 
 decorative crowning to a doorway. 
 
 Pendant- — A cluster of hanging fruit, flowers or 
 foliage. 
 
 Pencil- — A name applied to instruments for writing, 
 drawing, or painting, and differing as much in 
 their construction as in the use to which they are 
 put. The class generally known as hair pencils 
 are much used by all painters, especially for 
 decorative work. They are really a variety of 
 small brushes, and are made of hog's bristles, 
 camel 's-hair, fitch-hair, sable-hair, ox-hair, etc., 
 bound in quills and metal. These pencils are 
 known by different names according to their use, 
 or shape and size, such as dagger pencils, sword 
 pencils, lettering pencils, striping pencils, orna- 
 menting pencils, etc. In making pencils great 
 care must be taken to so arrange the hairs that 
 the ends may be made to converge to a fine point 
 when dipped in turpentine. (Here let us remark: 
 It is a bad practice to put a hair pencil in the 
 mouth, moisten it with spittle and draw it be- 
 tween the lips to form a point, and thus be ena- 
 bled to judge of its shape, for the warm spittle is 
 certain to cause the hairs to " crinkle " or become 
 crooked, and it also destroys the prime feature of 
 a good pencil — its elasticity.) The hairs are 
 fastened in quills, by first boiling the quills to 
 swell and soften them, then, when the hairs are 
 drawn in, the quill cools and shrinks tightly 
 around the hairs. The extreme end of a pencil 
 
Crew. 
 
 Extra Small Swan. 
 
 Large Swan. 
 
PENCIL. 
 
 269 
 
 should never be cut, as the cutting* tends to make 
 the end blunt and no pencil will then work well. 
 Sable lettering- pencils are seldom in good condi- 
 tion until they have been used for a time and 
 partly worn. Pencils should be kept in a covered 
 box when not in use, well greased with tallow to 
 keep them from drying hard. Striping pencils 
 may be cemented down to glass or tin with tallow ; 
 the others simply laid carefully away. 
 
 A pencil is a brush, but not every brush is a 
 pencil. 
 
 The painter invariably says lead pencil and 
 slate pencil, but seldom, if ever, says hair pen- 
 cil. 
 
 He will say fine-line pencil, broad-line pencil, 
 lettering pencil, cutting up pencil, scrolling 
 pencil, ornamenting pencil ; and it is understood 
 that they are made from some kind of hair, either 
 red or brown sable, camel-hair, squirrel-tail, or 
 Siberian ox-hair. 
 
 When you purchase a camel-hair pencil, that is 
 not positive evidence that there is a filament of 
 the hair of the camel in it ; and a set of sable 
 pencils which you prize may be wholly innocent of 
 a hair of the real sable; so long as you believe 
 them to be real camel-hair or real sable-hair, and 
 they are good and work satisfactorily, there is no 
 harm done. 
 
 Camel-hair, or its imitation, is softer and 
 weaker than real sable, Russian sable (skunk), or 
 ox-hair, and this quality adapts them for soft 
 touches, and for use in all colors except those 
 composed of lead and zinc. 
 
 As each single hair of real sable and its substi- 
 tute, and ox-hair as well, has more stiffness than 
 
270 
 
 PENCIL. 
 
 the former, this quality renders them better 
 adapted for heavy colors. 
 
 A pencil is fitted for the varieties of touch re- 
 quired Iry the length, quantity and quality of the 
 hair, and the method of insertion. 
 
 A pointed pencil has its hair inserted in a round 
 quill or ferrule. 
 
 When the hair is inserted flat, the end of the 
 pencil cannot spring- to a sharp round point. 
 
 The pointed pencils are suited for fine detail 
 work, and to free strokes of various kinds when 
 the color is to be applied heavy. 
 
 The flat pencils apply the color thinner and 
 more crisply. 
 
 The hair of pencils range in length from ^ to 
 2-J inches. 
 
 The round ornamenting and miniature pencils 
 have considerable hair in proportion to their 
 length, so that the largest, with the hair 1^- long, 
 is too stocky to properly respond to the touch in 
 lettering and striping. 
 
 Lettering pencils must be shorter than those 
 designed for drawing stripes, and yet the letter- 
 ings pencil must partake somewhat of the flexi- 
 bility of the striper in order to give true and 
 square outlines, which are in fact a series of 
 short stripes. 
 
 The hair of lettering pencils for ordinary pur- 
 poses measures from f to H inches, as f , 1, 1^, 
 1| inches ; and as the length is increased so is the 
 quantity of material which preserves the free 
 working qualities and adapts the increased sizes 
 to larger work. 
 
 Striping pencils must be weaker than lettering 
 pencils ; in other words, the hair must be increas- 
 
PENCIL. 
 
 271 
 
 ed in length — If, 2 and 2£ inches are the usual 
 lengths. 
 
 The striping pencil is a lazy thing, for it will 
 not do duty except as it is allowed to lie flat, and 
 then it must be dragged along. But therein lies 
 its real worth, for a long stripe cannot be well 
 made by a series of short splices. 
 
 The large stripes are well adapted for scroll 
 work — for scrolls require true, clean outlines, 
 which cannot be made by a short stocky pencil. 
 
 The stocky pencil, however, is superior to the 
 striper for filling in the body of a scroll and work- 
 ing the color down flat. 
 
 The " cutting-up " pencil is emplo3*ed for 
 feathering and various other strokes, which may 
 be termed shaded, as they are composed of light 
 and heavy parts. 
 
 The hair of the cutting-up pencil should be f or 
 1 inch long, and inserted in a quill or round fer- 
 rule. 
 
 The sword pencil is one in which the hair is in- 
 serted flat. It is used for drawing long stripes, 
 chiefly fine lines, the edge of the pencil being ap- 
 plied to the surface to be striped. 
 
 The hair being flat at the heel, gives it increas- 
 ed buoyancy when it is wet with color. 
 
 The "dagger" pencil differs from the sword 
 pencil, in having the hair inserted of various 
 lengths, so that while one edge is straight the 
 other is beveled from point to heel. 
 
 Like the sword pencil, it is used on its edge, the 
 beveled edge being applied. 
 
 This same shape, but with shorter hair, is 
 valuable for producing sweeping strokes. 
 
 Porcelain painters have a camel-hair pencil, 
 
PENCIL. 
 
 which they use for striping-, that has the end 
 beveled ; and also a short, stocky pencil for blend- 
 ing- that has a beveled point. 
 
 A short, thick pencil with square point is used 
 for the same purpose. 
 
 For painting- grounds they use a short, stocky, 
 camel-hair pencil with round, blunt point, which 
 might be termed club shape. 
 
 All pencils, except those used for drawing 
 stripes, require handles, in order to admit of the 
 free movement of the wrist and fore-arm. 
 
 These pencils are held like a writing pen, but 
 the fingers are kept well back from the pencil, and 
 where great freedom of touch is requisite the hand 
 is supported by a "rest-stick, " which is given a 
 sweeping motion in unison with the arm. 
 
 Pencils are made by hand and require exceed- 
 ing care and nicety in their production ; and as 
 the best material is scarce and very dear it would 
 be unreasonable to expect to get the best pencil 
 at a low price. 
 
 A set of fine sable pencils, although seeming 
 unreasonably dear, are cheap when compared with 
 those of inferior grades, when both are put into 
 constant service. Pencils are numbered from 1 
 up to 20. 
 
 You may purchase camel-hair lettering and 
 striping pencils, assorted sizes, at from $2 to $12 
 per gross, while the ordinary black sables are 
 worth from $5.50 to $30 a gross, and the superfine 
 ones will cost from $14 to $100 per gross. 
 
 Pencils are used for a variety of purposes other 
 than painting in oil, water and vitrifiable colors. 
 
 They form a part of the druggist's stock. The 
 soft camel-hair pencil is used in the sick-room and 
 
PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 273 
 
 in the hospitals for applying cooling- and healing- 
 lotions, and in some instances it is called painting-, 
 although no paint is used. 
 
 Camel-hair pencils take the place of pens with 
 the Chinese, and they and the Japanese surpass 
 all other people in dexterity of handling. 
 
 Penciling Brick. — The lines in imitation of mortar 
 are drawn with a brush, called by some a ' 'brick 
 header" (q. v.), along a straight-edge. The paint 
 should be mixed with turpentine, and be used thick 
 enough not to run. 
 
 Pencil Over-Crainer. — Several pencils set in a block 
 of wood or other handle for drawing a number of 
 lines at one time and at an equal distance apart 
 in over-graining. 
 
 Perspective- — The art of representing, on a plane 
 surface, the appearance of objects, however 
 
 Fig. 89.— Pencil Over-Grainer. 
 
i 
 
 PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 diversified, similar to that they assume upon a 
 glass-pane interposed between them and the eye 
 at a given distance. The representation of a solid 
 object on a plane surface can show the original in 
 no other point of view but that from which it is at 
 the time beheld by the draughtsman ; the least 
 change in any of the parts require a change in the 
 whole; unless in fancy drawings where a facsimile 
 is not required. Nor can any deviation from the 
 several lines, which will be hereafter explained, 
 and on which the truth and correctness of repre- 
 sentation depend, be allowed without changing 
 the bearings, direction and tendency of all perspec- 
 tive lines which constitute the basis of that faith- 
 ful and converging series which unite all the com- 
 ponent parts in the most pleasing and harmonious 
 manner. The following definitions of the princi- 
 pal features in the science and application of per- 
 spective will prove useful to the student, viz.: pro- 
 jection delineates objects in plane, by means of 
 right lines called rays, supposed to be drawn 
 from every angle of the object, to particular points. 
 When the objects are angular, these rays necessa- 
 rily form pyramids, having the plane or superfices, 
 whence they proceed, for their basis ; but when 
 drawn from or to circular objects they form a 
 cone. Ichnography, or ichnographic projection, 
 is described by right lines parallel among them- 
 selves, and perpendicular to the horizon, from 
 every angle of every object, on a plane parallel 
 to the horizon, the points where the perpendicu- 
 lar lines or rays cut that plane being joined by 
 right lines. The figure projected on the horizon- 
 tal plane is likewise called the plan, or seat of 
 that object on the ground plane. The points are 
 
PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 275 
 
 the sites, or seats of the angles of the object. 
 The lines are the seats of the sides. By this we 
 are to understand how the basis of figures repre- 
 sented as superstructure stand, or are support- 
 ed ; and we are further enabled to judge of, indeed 
 to measure, their several parts and their areas. 
 
 Orthography represents the vertical position 
 and appearance of an object ; hence orthographic 
 projection is called elevation. When we see the 
 front of a house, we give it that term, but when 
 the side is displayed, we call it the profile. If we 
 suppose a house or other object to be divided by 
 a plane passing perpendicularly through it in a 
 line at right angles with the point, we call it the 
 lateral section ; but if the plane pass in a direc- 
 tion parallel with the front, it is termed a longi- 
 tudinal section. If the plane passes in neither of 
 the former directions (not, however, deviating 
 from the vertical) it is said to be an oblique sec- 
 tion. 
 
 These give us modes of laying down plans, of 
 showing the parts and the manner in which the 
 interiors of edifices are arranged ; consequently 
 are indispensible to the architect or surveyor, and 
 indeed should be understood by every person in 
 any way connected with building or designing. 
 Nor should the following be neglected, viz.: sce- 
 nography, which shows us how to direct the visual 
 rays to every point or part of a picture ; and 
 stereography, which enables us to represent solids 
 on a plane, from geometrical projection ; whence 
 their several dimensions, i.e., length, breadth and 
 thickness may all be represented, and be cor- 
 rectly understood at sight. We suppose our 
 readers to have some knowledge of geometry be- 
 
276 
 
 PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 fore they commence on this or any other of the 
 abstract sciences which are founded thereon. 
 
 An original object is that which becomes the 
 subject of the picture, and which is the parent of 
 the design. Any plane figure may become an ob- 
 ject, as may any of its parts, as a broken pillar, 
 the ruins of a house, the stump or branch of a 
 tree ; but we generally speak of objects as relating 
 to entire figures as solids, or to as much rural or 
 other scenery as may be embraced under an angle 
 of 60 degrees formed by two lines meeting at the 
 eye. This will explain why we are enabled to rep- 
 resent so great a number of distant objects, while 
 the front or foreground will contain, comparative- 
 ly, but a few ; it being obvious that as the lines 
 forming the angle become more distant, the more 
 may be included in them. 
 
 Original planes, or lines, are the surfaces of the 
 objects to be drawn ; or they are any lines of those 
 surfaces ; or it means the surfaces on which these 
 objects stand. 
 
 Perspective plane is the picture itself, which is 
 supposed to be a transparent plane, through 
 which we view the objects represented thereon. 
 
 Vanishing planes are those planes which are 
 marked upon the picture, by supposing lines to be 
 drawn from the spectator's e3^e parallel to any 
 original lines, and produced until they touch the 
 picture. 
 
 Ground plane is the surface of the earth, or 
 plane of the horizon, on which the picture is sup- 
 posed to stand. 
 
 The ground line is formed by the intersection of 
 the picture in the ground plane. 
 
 The horizontal line is the vanishing point of 
 
PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 277 
 
 the horizontal plane, and produced in the same 
 manner as any other vanishing' line, i. e., by pass- 
 ing* a plane through the eye parallel to horizontal 
 plane. 
 
 The point of sight is the fixed point from which 
 the spectator views the perspective plane. 
 
 Vanishing points are the points which are mark- 
 ed down in the picture, by supposing lines to be 
 drawn from the spectator's eye, parallel to any 
 original lines, and produced until they touch the 
 picture. 
 
 The centre of a picture is that point on the per- 
 spective plane where a line drawn from the eye 
 perpendicular to the picture, would cut it, conse- 
 quently it is that part of the picture which is near- 
 est to the eye of the spectator. 
 
 The distance of the picture is the distance from 
 the eye to the centre of the picture. If what has 
 been already said and repeated, regarding the 
 angle of 60 degrees, is understood, the spectator 
 will never bring the picture so near to himself as 
 to occasion the eyes to expand, indeed to strain, 
 so as to embrace more than that angle. 
 
 The distance of a vanishing point is the distance 
 from the eye to that point where the converging- 
 lines meet. All parallel lines have the same van- 
 ishing points : that is, all such as are in a build- 
 ing, parallel to each other, when not represented 
 exactly opposite to and parallel with the eye, will 
 appear to converge toward some remote point, i.e., 
 their vanishing point. Circles when retiring- in 
 such manner, are represented by ellipses, pro- 
 portioned to their distances ; their dimensions are 
 ascertained by enclosing them within a square, 
 which being divided into any number of equal parts 
 
278 
 
 PERMANENT WOOD-FILLING. 
 
 or checkers, will show all the proportions of those 
 most remote. A bird's-eye view is supposed to be 
 taken from some elevated spot which commands 
 such a prospect as nearly resembles the plane or 
 ichnography of the places seen. Thus a view 
 from a high tower, or from a mountain, gives 
 nearly the same representation as if offered to a 
 bird flying- over them ; whence the term. 
 
 Permanent Wood-Filling.— A patented mixture 
 similar in appearance to varnish, designed for the 
 first coat or priming on any substance to be fol- 
 lowed by varnish or paint coats. 
 
 Picking Out- — A name used by English painters in 
 the same sense that we in America use the word 
 striping. 
 
 Pigment. — Paint: A preparation used by painters, 
 etc., to impart color to bodies. 
 
 Pink. — A light red or rose color. Pinks are produced 
 by extreme dilution of cochineal, carmine, Brazil- 
 wood colors, with whiting. Some mineral pinks 
 for oil colors are obtained from preparations of 
 manganese. The term pink is also applied to 
 several yellow colors, as Dutch Pink, etc. 
 
 Pinxt. — An abbreviation of the Latin word Pinxit, 
 which an artist usually places after his name on 
 any of his productions, and which means : He 
 painted it. 
 
 Pin- Holing. — Innumerable small indentations in a 
 varnished surface, caused in most cases in the 
 same manner as pitting (q. v.). It is generally 
 attributable to the sweating of the under coat of 
 varnish, or to color which has dried with an oily 
 or glossy surface. Pin-holing- is one of the dev- 
 
PITTING. 
 
 279 
 
 iltries of varnish, and at times, with all the care 
 the painter may have taken to guard against it, 
 it will occur. Wiping- the surface with a damp 
 chamois before laying the varnish, will be found 
 a ready means of preventing trouble. 
 
 Pitting. — A trouble or "deviltry" which besets the 
 painter, and consists in the surface of a coat of 
 varnish being filled with small pits or hollows, 
 like the marks on the face of a person who has had 
 small-pox. The causes for this are many and goes 
 to show how extremely careful and how intelli- 
 gently the coach-painter must do his work. Pit- 
 ting may arise when too much oil has been used 
 in the under coats ; when the rubbing varnish has 
 a very hard or glossy surface; when the last 
 rubbing coat is a mixture of varnish and japan or 
 turpentine, or two varnishes of different make — 
 the surface is then uneven and when rubbed with 
 pumice-stone one part rubs hard, another soft; 
 the soft portions not affiliating with the outer 
 coat, forms pits ; and where the hard spots are the 
 varnish appears bright. When the rubbing has 
 been too thorough and several coatings have been 
 laid bare, so that the different varnishes under- 
 neath exercise a sufficient degree of absorption to 
 cause pits ; when the varnish is at fault, is too 
 fresh, is dirt3 T , or the gas generated in the can has 
 not been allowed to escape before putting the var- 
 nish in use ; when particles have got upon the sur- 
 face while preparing it for varnish, as through im- 
 pure water, or from a dirty chamois skin, or 
 sponge, or soap, grease, etc. The breath of the 
 workman will materially affect a surface so that 
 pitting may occur. If the brushes used w 7 ere not 
 
280 
 
 PLASTERING. 
 
 clean, or if they have been kept suspended in oil. 
 A draft of cold air will cause pitting-. A change 
 in the temperature of the room will affect the var- 
 nish, and to sum up : if the room, the varnish, the 
 work, etc., is not as it should be there will be 
 trouble, and it is no wonder the painter calls such 
 " deviltries." 
 
 Plastering.— Spreading- paint or putty with a putty- 
 knife. 
 
 Plum Color. — A sort of purple color, made by mix- 
 ing two parts white, one Prussian blue and one 
 red. 
 
 Polishing.— In olden times all fine work in the car- 
 riage shop was polished, for flowing varnish was 
 then unknown. It is done in the following man- 
 ner : Several coats of hard-drying copal varnish 
 having been applied and thoroughly hardened, the 
 surface is well rubbed with pulverized pumice- 
 stone and water in the same manner as in prepar- 
 ing the surface for varnishing over. A good wash- 
 ing follows, then pulverized rotten-stone is used in 
 place of the pumice-stone, and the surface is 
 rubbed until it presents a smooth and semi-shin- 
 ing appearance, then sweet oil is substituted for 
 the water and the rubbing with rotten-stone and 
 oil is continued until a brilliant gloss is obtained. 
 The oil is next removed with soft rags and wheat 
 flour. 
 
 Polishing with spirit-varnish is best adapted for 
 furniture, pianos, the inside fittings of carriages, 
 etc., and is done as follows : 
 
 Having made the surface of the wood as clean 
 and smooth as possible, and having well dusted 
 it, the next thing to do is to fill all open-grained 
 
POLISHING. 
 
 281 
 
 places with one of the many wood fillers now in 
 market, or with a mixture of corn starch and ja- 
 pan. A good sand-papering- with No. or 1 sand- 
 paper prepares it for the polish. The polish con- 
 sists of spirits of wine, 1 pint ; gum sandarac, i 
 oz.; gum lac, i oz.; gum shellac, -§ oz. Expose 
 the whole to a gentle heat, frequently shaking 
 the mixture until the gums are dissolved. 
 
 Another. Wood naptha, i pint ; orange shell 
 lac, 1 oz.; dragon's blood, £ oz.; benzoin, \ oz.; 
 prepare as above. 
 
 Another. Orange shell lac, 1| ozs.; spirits of 
 wine, 1 pint ; mix as above. 
 
 The method of applying these polishes is the 
 same for all. A flannel rubber is made and dipped 
 in the polish and a piece of fine old linen is then 
 put over the rubber. When the polish oozes 
 through the covering, slightly moisten the pad 
 with linseed oil. Another way is to strain the 
 linen over the flannel pad and then to moisten the 
 linen with a drop or two of the polish, and a drop 
 or two of oil. The pad should be held in the right 
 hand, and the linen strained tightly, so that the 
 pad may present a rounded surface. Apply the 
 pad to the surface of the wood in a series of light 
 strokes, made by a circular sweep of the hand, un- 
 til the surface is nearly dry, when the pad should 
 be passed up and down in the direction of the 
 grain of the wood. When the rubber is dry, some 
 more polish and oil must be put upon it in the 
 same manner as before and the rubbing continued. 
 
 Plenty of what is generally called " elbow 
 grease " should be given to the work, and not too 
 much polish. Beginners generally lay on a large 
 quantity of polish in clots or thick coats, but when 
 
282 
 
 POLISHING. 
 
 this is done the polish does not look well, neither 
 has it permanent effect. No more polish should 
 be laid on than is absolutely necessary ; the polish 
 should be well rubbed in and finished off with a 
 little spirits of wine or naptha, whichever happens 
 to be used in the polish. The naptha or spirits of 
 wine, as the case may be, should at first be laid on 
 very gentry, and with great care, otherwise it will 
 dissolve and remove the polish already laid on ; 
 but if care is taken, its effect will be not only to 
 give the polish a better gloss, but to render it 
 more lasting. Some woods absorb a great deal of 
 polish and in order to prevent it a coat of size or 
 shellac varnish is given before the application of 
 the polish. 
 
 In the Dictionaire Technologique, an accurate 
 French work, we find the following directions for 
 French polishing : 
 
 Gum sandarac, fourteen ounces and two 
 drachms ; gum mastic in drops, seven ounces and 
 one drachm; shellac (the yellower the better), 
 fourteen ounces and two drachms ; alcohol of 
 0.8295 sp. gr., three quarts and one pint. 
 
 Pound the resinous gums and effect their solu- 
 tion by continued agitation, without the aid of 
 heat. 
 
 If the woods are porous, seven ounces and one 
 drachm of Venice turpentine. 
 
 Before using the polish, the wood should be made 
 to imbibe a little linseed oil, the excess of which 
 should be removed with soft rags. The polish 
 should be applied by saturating a piece of old soft 
 coarse linen cloth, folded into a sort of cushion, 
 rubbing the wood softly at first, turning the linen 
 until nearly dry, then saturating and rubbing 
 
PRIMARY COLORS. 
 
 283 
 
 again. If the polish becomes sticky apply a drop 
 or two of olive oil. Finish by rubbing- with a clean 
 cloth moistened with pure alcohol. 
 
 Potash Lye* — A solution of potash is used by the 
 painter for removing- or " eating off" varnish or 
 paint. It is excellent for cleaning varnish cups, 
 the cups being thrown into an earthen vessel filled 
 with the lye and allowed to remain until wanted 
 for use, when a good washing in water renders 
 them as clean as when new. 
 
 Pounce-Bag. — A small bag containing a dry color- 
 ing substance. In some instances, whiting tied in 
 a rag, the ends and corners being brought togeth- 
 er and firmly fastened. It is used to distribute 
 whiting over a surface to be gilded, which effectu- 
 ally prevents the gold from adhering ; also when 
 the painter has drawn a pattern of a scroll or 
 other ornament on stiff paper, he perforates the 
 lines with pin-holes, and then laying the pattern 
 upon the job in hand, gently rubs it or pats it 
 with the pounce-bag, which drives the powder 
 through the perforations and marks the outlines 
 of the design on the surface beneath. For glass 
 or light-colored grounds some Venetian red or 
 other cheap reddish pigment is used. 
 
 Primary Colors. — In the theory of painting, red, 
 yellow and blue are called primary colors, be- 
 cause they are those from which all other colors 
 are supposed to be derived ; and the} 7 cannot of 
 themselves be resolved or decomposed into other 
 colors. 
 
 When two primary colors are mixed they form 
 secondaries (q. v.) . When all three of the primaries 
 are mixed in equal strength and proportion they 
 
284 
 
 PRIMING. 
 
 kill each other and produce black ; or in a state 
 of dilution gray. The primaries and secondaries 
 are the sources from which all other tints and 
 hues are formed. 
 
 Priming. — The first coat applied to a surface. 
 White lead and oil was at one time the only pre- 
 paration for priming- in use, but of late years 
 there are many preparations, each claiming- supe- 
 riority. (See American Method.) 
 
 Prussian Blue.— A color discovered by Diesbach, of 
 Berlin, in 1720, and then studied out theoretically 
 and practically by many chemists and manufac- 
 turers. The pigment is made from dried blood, 
 hair, wool, waste of skins and leather, flesh, ani- 
 mal oils, soot, and hone-black, in connection with 
 carbonate of potassa, alum, sulphate of iron, etc. 
 
 It is one of the strongest colorings in the list of 
 colors, and is a veiy durable color, either in its 
 purity, or when added to white in the formation of 
 tints or light blues. Being inferior in point of 
 brilliancy or richness to ultramarine, it is seldom 
 used as a color on carriages, but as a ground for 
 ultramarine it has no equal. Prussian blue being 
 a primary color it cannot be formed by any mix- 
 ture of pigments, but it enters into all the broken 
 colors as browns, purples, grays, etc., which 
 makes it a very useful color on the paint bench. 
 Prussian blue may be made changeable by simply 
 coating a surface with "dead color" and then 
 using clear varnish over it. This leaves that red- 
 dish sheen always noticeable in the dry color, and 
 gives it the appearance of double color. 
 
 Prussian Brown. — A color obtained by adding a 
 solution of yellow prussiate of potash to a solu- 
 
PUMICE. 
 
 285 
 
 tion of sulphate of copper, which throws down a 
 precipitate of deep brown ; this, when washed and 
 dried, is equal to madder, and possesses greater 
 permanency. 
 
 Pumice, or Block Pumice-Stone. — Lava thrown 
 from a volcano, of which there are two varieties, 
 the light and the dark, the former deriving- the 
 name pumice from its appearance to foam. The 
 lava, after being- ejected, is influenced by the con- 
 ditions in which it is placed. When cooled under 
 pressure it becomes compact and sometimes 
 changed into solid rock ; but when cooled in the 
 open air it presents the form and structure of the 
 article of commerce which is familiar to every 
 painter. 
 
 The word pumice is supposed to be from the root 
 of the Latin, Spuma, foam — because the stone 
 bears a strong resemblance to foam. Nicholson 
 said it is a substance frequently ejected from vol- 
 canoes, of various colors, gray, white, reddish- 
 brown or black; hard, rough, and porous ; specifi- 
 cally lighter than water, and resembling the slag 
 produced in an iron furnace. It appears to con- 
 sist of parallel fibers, owing to the parallelism and 
 minuteness of the crowded cells. It is supposed 
 to be produced by the disengagement of gas, in 
 which the lava is in a plastic state. 
 
 Pumice is of three kinds — glassy, common, and 
 porphyritic. That which is termed gray is best 
 adapted for cutting down a painted surface, but it 
 must be selected with a view to lightness and po- 
 rosity. That in which the pores are large, cuts 
 fast, but also wears awa} 7 very rapidly ; but this 
 kind is preferable to that variety which is very 
 close, and has solid veins through it. 
 
286 
 
 PUMICE. 
 
 Pumice-stone has a grain or a direction in which 
 the partition walls run, and the tooth, or cut- 
 ting- edge, is obtained by sawing the stone at 
 right angles or across the fibers, which exposes 
 the cells, and prevents the stone from readily clog- 
 ging. The skillful rubber prepares his pieces of 
 pumice-stone to suit the various sizes and shapes 
 of the surfaces presented, which may be plane, 
 convex, or concave. 
 
 The necessary implements are a good saw to 
 divide the lumps, and a good file to assist in fac- 
 ing the pieces and shaping them, and to round off 
 all the jagged edges of the stone beyond the cut- 
 ting face. 
 
 The sawing and shaping should be done by the 
 aid of water, the usual plan being to keep a file in 
 a bucket of water, and to immerse the stone while 
 refacing it ; or, two flat-faced pieces may be 
 rubbed together in water. 
 
 When there is at hand a large level piece of 
 English rubbing stone, it also answers well for 
 facing the pumice-stone, and if the latter retains a 
 little of the grit of the coarser stone, it will assist 
 in cutting the rough stuff in the early stage of the 
 rubbing, but would not be advisable at a later 
 period. 
 
 Professional rubbers (those who do nothing else) 
 are quick to select the stones best suited to the 
 work in hand, and to shape them to fit corners^ 
 and both convex and concave parts. The flat sur- 
 face is not by any means the easiest to cut down 
 level, from the fact that the so-called flat surface is 
 often slightly sunken, so that the flat-faced piece 
 has to be used cautiously until it conforms itself to 
 the hollows. The slightly convex surface is the 
 
PUMICE. 
 
 287 
 
 easiest to handle, while the concave needs consid- 
 erable care ; but if the stone is shaped pretty 
 nearly to the convexity presented it will soon wear 
 itself down to a perfect fit, but even then the rub- 
 bing- must proceed cautiously to avoid scratching-. 
 Crosswise, at an angle, is the better plan, and if 
 when near the finish there are small places that 
 the stone did not bring down low enough, they 
 may be corrected with smaller pieces of stone. 
 
 Some years ago a coarse, irregular-shaped stone 
 was introduced to the notice of painters as English 
 rubbing stone. If it was intended to supersede 
 pumice-stone it signally failed ; but the painters 
 g-ave it a place in the rough-body room, and after 
 fair trial rendered the verdict that it was useful 
 for cutting the outer surface of the rough-stuff, 
 but too firm and granular for the close work re- 
 quired at the close of rubbing, and at this point it 
 was cast aside for the old and ever-reliable 
 pumice-stone. 
 
 An innovation which came to stay was that of 
 manufactured block pumice, well known as shu- 
 macher fabrik. Now here was a happ}^ thought, 
 for the blocks were composed of real pumice-stone, 
 and having porosity in imitation of it, graded into 
 three degrees of fineness, as No. 1,2, 3, or coarse, 
 medium, and fine. 
 
 The blocks resembled bricks with the upper 
 corners rounded off. At first sight the painter 
 handled them suspiciously, probably because they 
 looked so solid, smooth, and trim. He was so ac- 
 customed to the rough appearance of the natural 
 stone in the lump that he had serious doubts that 
 man could successfully imitate that made by the 
 original manufacturers, the terrible volcanoes. 
 
288 
 
 PUNCTUATION. 
 
 But it was long" ago settled that the imitation is 
 superior to the real in the particulars of being 
 convenient in form, equal in cutting qualities, and 
 more economical in use. 
 
 Pulverized pumice-stone is used for leveling or 
 removing the imperfections on a varnished surface 
 by rubbing with a cloth or felt in connection with 
 water, preparatory to re-varnishing or polishing. 
 
 Punctuation of Signs. — The correct punctuation 
 of a sign is of more importance than many sup- 
 pose, and to give some idea of punctuation we add 
 a few of the most important: 
 
 MEN'S AND BOYS' CLOTHING. 
 LADIES' SALOON. 
 CASHIER'S DESK. 
 U. S. EXPRESS CO. 
 BROWN, JONES & ROBINSON. 
 
 The period (.) is used at the end of every sen- 
 tence, even if it be but one word , as Bank. Boots 
 and Shoes. John Hall, Dealer in Paints, Oils 
 and Glass. 
 
 The comma (,) is used to show the omission of 
 words as shown in the following : 
 
 Brown and Hall and Co. are Dealers in Hats 
 and Caps and Furs and so forth. 
 
 To avoid the use of and the comma is substitut- 
 ed, thus : 
 
 Brown, Hall & Co., Dealers in Hats, Caps, 
 Furs, etc. 
 
 The apostrophe (') is used to show the omission 
 of letters in the beginning or middle of a word, 
 thus : Comp y y f or company ; genH agH for gen- 
 eral agent. 
 
PUTTY. 
 
 289 
 
 It is also used to show the possessive, thus : 
 Blair's Store. Smith's Boat. 
 
 If the owner's name terminates with an s the 
 apostrophe follows the s ; as Jones' Store. Al- 
 though we frequentty see signs where the s is 
 added, it is not correct, and particularly is this 
 deplored in the writing* of a name ending with 
 double s as Bliss's Store. 
 
 When more than one person is spoken of in the 
 possessive, the apostrophe should follow the s, 
 as Gents' Room, Brown Brothers' Bank. 
 
 When a period (.) would tend to throw a line out 
 of perfect uniformity it may be omitted without 
 great detriment, but with care in laying out the let- 
 tering this need not occur. It is generally best not 
 to take into the measurement of a line of letters the 
 period at the end, as it will tend to throw the last 
 letter too far from the edge of the sign board. 
 
 Purple. — One of the secondary colors, being a mix- 
 ture of five parts red to eight of blue, which forms 
 a perfect purple. 
 
 Putty- — A kind of paste or cement, of which there 
 are several varieties ; 1, putty for glass in win- 
 dows, and for nail-holes, etc., in house painting, is 
 made of whiting and linseed oil kneaded into a 
 stiff dough. 2. French Putty. Seven pounds lin- 
 seed oil and four pounds umber are boiled for two 
 hours, and 62 grammes wax stirred in. After re- 
 moval from the fire 5-J lbs. fine chalk (whiting) 
 and 11 lbs. white lead are added and thoroughly 
 incorporated : this putty is said to be very hard 
 and permanent. 3. Carriage Putty. — Dry white 
 lead and whiting equal parts, made into a dough 
 with equal parts of rubbing varnish and Crown 
 
290 
 
 PUTTY-KNIFE. 
 
 coach japan. 4. Carriage Putty. — White-lead 
 in oil and whiting" in equal parts (in hulk, not 
 weight) made into a dough with Crown coach 
 japan. 5. "Glazing or Plastering" Putty. — 
 White-lead in oil, a little lamp-black to color, mix 
 to a paint consistency, with brown japan, then 
 thicken to soft putty by adding either dry white 
 lead or whiting. 6. Putty for Hearse Glasses. — 
 Mix lamp-black to a soft putty consistency with 
 rubbing varnish and oil equal parts, then pro- 
 cure a piece of plush or coarse velvet and unravel 
 it, so as to secure the short fibre or flockings ; mix 
 this intimately with the putty, in the same man- 
 ner as the plasterer mixes his cow-hair with plas- 
 ter ; and when it is put around a glass in a hearse 
 body no fear may be felt of the putty rattling out 
 to endanger the glass. 
 
 Putty- Knife. — A short-bladed knife with either a 
 pointed or a square end, used for spreading putty 
 in nail-holes, etc., or for puttying around glass in 
 window frames. 
 
291 
 
 Q 
 
 Quaker Green. — A green of olive cast; sometimes 
 called bronze-green. It can be purchased ready 
 prepared in cans of 1 or 5 lbs. capacity. 
 
 Quarter. (Her.) — An ordinary of quadrangular form 
 resembling' a banner, and laid as a charge upon 
 the field of which it contains one-fourth part, as 
 the name implies. 
 
 Quartering. (Her.) — The marshalling or regular 
 arrangement of various coats in one shield, there- 
 by denoting- the several alliances of one family 
 with the heiresses of others. 
 
 Qualities of Pigments.— The general qualities of 
 good pigments, technically called colors, are : 1, 
 beauty of color, which includes purity, brightness 
 and depth ; 2, body ; 3, transparency or opacity ; 4, 
 working well ; 5, keeping their place ; 6, drying 
 well ; and 7, durability ; but few pigments possess 
 all these qualities in equal proportion. 
 
 Quick Leveling Varnish.— As its name implies, it 
 is a varnish to be used for leveling- coats on car- 
 riage bodies or gears, and dries quickly. For 
 hurried work it has no superior. It can be rubbed 
 in ten hours without sweating, and being a free 
 working varnish, a good surface can be easily 
 brought up with it. It rubs nicely, and is an ex- 
 cellent varnish for inside house work or for furni- 
 
292 
 
 QUICK BLACK LACQUER. 
 
 ture, and in fact any use where a hard, quick 
 varnish is desired. 
 
 Quick Black Lacquer.— A jet-black, and very 
 quick-drying* lacquer (or japan) for hastily repair- 
 ing- the iron work of carriages, etc. It dries in an 
 hour, and requires to be varnished over. Black 
 japan is preferable because more durable. 
 
 Quick Color. — Color made to dry quickly. Mix the 
 dry pigment, black, blue, green, etc., with a good 
 quality of japan, which may be tested by putting 
 a few drops in the palm of the hand, and then 
 adding a little raw linseed oil — if the japan 
 be good, the mixture will not curdle, but a perfect 
 assimilation of the two will result — and run the 
 paint through the mill as fine as possible. 
 This " quick color," by the addition of varnish, is 
 made into color-and-varnish, and the addition of 
 oil (a tablespoonful to a pint of paint) forms panel 
 color. Paint that has oil in it should not be used 
 for making color-and-varnish, as it is liable to 
 "crawl" or "pit." 
 
293 
 
 R 
 
 Railway Coach Finishing-Varnish.— This var- 
 nish is to the car-painter what wearing-body is 
 to the carriage-painter — the best quality of var- 
 nish for the exterior of railway cars. It is the 
 custom of car-painters now-a-days to apply two 
 coats of this varnish, instead of using more rub- 
 bing varnish coats. A good washing and drying 
 with the chamois will prepare the surface for the 
 second coat, providing it be applied immediately 
 after washing and before any sweating of the sur- 
 face begins. This adds greatly to the durability 
 of the work. 
 
 Rampant. (Her.) — A term used to describe lions, 
 tigers, bears, etc., when represented as standing 
 erect on their hind legs and pawing the air with 
 their fore feet. 
 
 Raw Sienna. — An ochre, of a brownish-yellow color 
 found near Sienna, Italy. 
 
 Raw Umber. — A natural ochre abounding with de- 
 cayed vegetable matter, of the nature of peat. 
 It is a good drier, holding in its parts a large 
 share of manganese, and it will therefore bear a 
 larger proportion of oil than almost any other 
 color. When burned or roasted it gives a beauti- 
 ful dark brown shade of color. It is highly es- 
 teemed by the carriage-painter in making umber 
 browns, etc. 
 
294 
 
 REALGAR. 
 
 Realgar. — Native tersulpliide of arsenic, composed 
 of 70 per cent of arsenic, and 30 of sulphur. It is 
 of various tints of red ; it is found in Hungary 
 and used quite extensively as a pigment. 
 
 Red. — The second and intermediate of the primary 
 colors, standing- between yellow and blue, and in 
 like intermediate relation to white and black, or 
 light and shade. It is pre-eminent among colors 
 as well as the most positive. It gives some de- 
 gree of warmth to all colors; but most to those 
 which partake of yellow. The list of red pigments 
 may be noted as follows : 
 
 Amaranda lake. 
 
 Rose lake. 
 
 Burnt carmine. 
 
 Rose madder. 
 
 Burnt sienna. 
 
 Rose pink. 
 
 Carmine. 
 
 Royal red. 
 
 Carmine lake. 
 
 Rose scarlet. 
 
 Carmoisen lake. 
 
 Scarlet lake. 
 
 Chatemuc lake. 
 
 Solferino lake. 
 
 Crimson lake. 
 
 Turkey red. 
 
 Florentine lake. 
 
 Tuscan red. 
 
 Indian red. 
 
 Venetian red. 
 
 Italian red. 
 
 Vermilion, American. 
 
 Light red. 
 
 " California. 
 
 Mars red. 
 
 " Chinese. 
 
 Munich lake. 
 
 " English. 
 
 Orange mineral. 
 
 " French. 
 
 Persian scarlet. 
 
 " Italian. 
 
 Persian red. 
 
 " Trieste. 
 
 Red lead. 
 
 " Zubia. 
 
 Red Lead or Minium. — A compound of the protox- 
 ide and peroxide of the metal. It is a very dis- 
 tinct red color, requiring but little preparation. 
 
 Relief. — Painting an ornament or monogram with 
 one color in different degrees of strength. As for 
 instance, if blue be employed, the relief or round- 
 
ROMAN WHITE. 
 
 295 
 
 ness would be brought out by using- different tints 
 of blue and white. 
 
 Resolvent. — A paint resolvent is really a prepara- 
 tion for removing the paint and varnish from any 
 surface. Equal parts of sal soda and quicklime 
 make an effectual resolvent for some kinds of paint, 
 notably the interior painting in houses. (See 
 Detergent.) 
 
 Reno's French Umber-— An earth, holding a large 
 share of oxide of iron, used as a filling, or rough- 
 stuff for carriage bodies. 
 
 Rinsing Cup. — A cup or can provided with a 
 perforated division or bottom about one-half its 
 depth, which may be removed for cleaning the 
 vessel. The cup is kept filled with turpentine, and 
 wiien pencils are rinsed in it the color falls to the 
 bottom, and the extra perforated bottom prevents 
 the disturbance of the sediment 
 
 where pencils are being rinsed. 
 
 Roan. — A color between yellow and 
 gray. 
 
 Roof Brush.— A brush for painting 
 roofs of buildings and other like 
 
 work, generally made as shown, -pm. 90.— Roof 
 virtually three brushes in one, Brush. 
 and made to fit a long handle so 
 that the workman may stand .up at his work. 
 
 Roman White. — Is of the purest white color, but 
 differs from French white in the warm flesh color 
 of the external surface of the large square masses 
 in which it is usually prepared. 
 
296 
 
 ROSE COLOR. 
 
 Rose Color. — The hue or color of a rose, made by 
 mixing* carmine and white — when this color is in- 
 dicated, the red rose is generally meant. 
 
 Rose Pink. — A pigment made by impregnating 
 common whiting with cochineal or madder reds ; it 
 is extremely fugitive. 
 
 Rotten-Stone.— A mineral consisting chiefly of 
 alumina, with about ten per cent of carbonaceous 
 matter, and a little silica. It is found in New 
 York State. It is brown ; either grayish, reddish 
 or blackish. It is soft and easily pulverized, and 
 is used by painters for polishing or for rubbing 
 the surface of bodies. When a carriage body has 
 been rubbed with pulverized pumice-stone, and 
 washed clean, a second light rubbing with rotten- 
 stone will greatly improve the work, as the latter 
 is finer and softer than the pumice, and every little 
 scratch made in the first rubbing may be obliter- 
 ated and a perfectly smooth surface be secured for 
 flowing varnish over. 
 
 Rough-Stuff. — A coarse paint, used to level over 
 or fill the pores and inequalities of surface on 
 carriage bodies and railway cars. 
 
 It is made from the following or similar formu- 
 las : 1, Yellow ochre, sifted, two parts ; keg-lead 
 (white lead ground in oil) one part ; mix and 
 grind stiff in turpentine ; add rubbing varnish, 
 two parts ; crown coach japan, one part. Thin as 
 desired with turpentine. 2, English filling 
 (q. v.), two parts ; keg-lead, one part ; turpentine, 
 two parts ; japan gold-size, one part ; bottoms 
 of wearing-body varnish, one-half part. Pass 
 through the mill the filler and lead, then mix in 
 the other materials. 3, Dry white lead, 1^ lbs. 
 
ROYAL RED. 
 
 297 
 
 English filling-, 4 lbs., ground separate, in enough 
 turpentine to form a stiff paste. Mix and add 
 keg-lead, one pound ; japan gold-size, one pint ; 
 bottoms of wearing-body varnish, J pint; thin 
 with turpentine. 4, First coat over priming. — 
 Take five pounds of English filling, two pounds 
 tub-lead, one pint oil, one pint finishing varnish, 
 and one-and-a-half pints of japan gold-size; grind 
 quite fine, thin with turpentine to use. Second, 
 third, and fourth coats. — Take five pounds English 
 filling, two pounds dry white lead, one-half pint 
 of oil, two pints rubbing varnish, two pints japan 
 gold -size, thin with turpentine. 
 
 Either of these receipts will give good results 
 if properly mixed. But it is considered best by 
 those who aim to make and preserve their reputa- 
 tion for doing good work, to employ only the 
 ready prepared rough-stuff, from the fact that it 
 is mixed from a formula which long experience 
 has proved the best, and being made in large 
 quantities by exact weight or measure is uniform 
 to the last degree. 
 Royal Red. — This color, so desirable in decoration, 
 may be made so as to imitate vermilion by taking 
 eosine as a base. The following separate solutions 
 must first be made : Eosine, three-eighths of an 
 ounce, dissolved in three pints of water ; sulphate 
 of alumina, two ounces, in one pint of water ; 
 acetate of lead, three-and-one-half ounces, in 
 one pint of water. The solution of eosine is first 
 added to that of sulphate of alumina, and then the 
 solution of acetate of lead is poured on both. The 
 mixture is to be filtered and washed, and when 
 dry will yield three-and-one-fifth ounces of pure 
 lead vermilionette. The color will not be injured 
 
298 
 
 RUBBING. 
 
 if, for the sake of a larger quantity of material, a 
 paste is made — six ounces of dry barytes, and 
 water — and added to same, together with a few 
 drops of gum dragon to increase the brilliancy. 
 Mix well, and dry. 
 Rubbing. — The act of abraiding or leveling either a 
 painted or a varnished surface in order to remove 
 all irregularities. There are five distinct kinds of 
 rubbing to be performed in a carriage paint shop : 
 
 1, Rubbing coarse paint to a smooth surface by 
 the use of lump pumice-stone or like material; 
 
 2, The rubbing of a surface with sand-paper to 
 smoothe it and prepare for subsequent coats ; 3, 
 Rubbing with curled hair or moss a surface of 
 varnish or paint to remove the lustre or slight 
 irregularities; 4, Rubbing with pulverized 
 pumice-stone and water ; a varnished surface, to 
 make it smooth for receiving more varnish ; and 
 5, Rubbing the last rubbed surface with pulver- 
 ized rotten-stone and water to remove any marks 
 left by the pumice-stone. 
 
 Next in importance to laying varnish properly 
 is that of rubbing it with pumice-stone, prepara- 
 tory to applying a subsequent coat ; for it is not 
 unfrequently the case that a body which has been 
 well varnished throughout the rubbing-coats 
 does not produce a fine finish, while on the other 
 hand a body indifferently varnished, when taken 
 in hand by a competent workman, will be so 
 corrected by rubbing as to give perfect satisfaction. 
 Rubbing is an art, and although most painters 
 can rub, their work seldom comes up to the 
 standard of those who do nothing but rubbing in 
 large factories. 
 
 The pumice powder used for rubbing should be 
 
RUBBING. 
 
 299 
 
 neither too fine nor too coarse; a medium grade will 
 be found best for ordinary work. This, however, 
 should not be entirely depended upon as regards 
 freedom from lumps or coarse grains, but the 
 painter should have a small fine sieve, through 
 which to pass all pumice powder before putting it 
 upon the work, for the least grit or coarse piece 
 of the stone may injure the panel, causing much 
 extra labor and expense. 
 
 The above precaution is not the only one to be 
 observed. The painter must also secure good 
 clean cloth or felt for the rubber. . A piece of an 
 old head-lining or cushion-top is not exactly the 
 thing, for there may be a tack or some grit lodged 
 within it to scratch the surface. A clean piece of 
 cloth from the trimmer's bench will last longer, 
 as well as do better service. We have always 
 given preference to a piece of old felt hat, as a 
 rub-rag, finishing around the moldings with 
 a soft cloth. A pine stick is sometimes useful in 
 rubbing out small indentations in a job and such 
 places should always be rubbed, not slighted. 
 There is also quite a difference in water, though sel- 
 dom thought of. Rain water is preferable, because 
 it is soft and pure. Water from an old well, possi- 
 bly containing a percentage of ammonia or alkali, 
 from the stable or decayed vegetable matter, is 
 not suitable for rubbing or washing a body. If 
 the water used be clean but hard, a piece of soda 
 the size of a hickory nut will improve it, rendering 
 it soft and better adapted for cleaning the work. 
 Next, the sponge used should be clean. Avoid using 
 one fresh from the pail of soap suds, where the 
 painters have washed their hands; or one filled 
 with turpentine and oil, such as we have frequent- 
 
RUBBING. 
 
 ly seen in paint shops. Cleanliness in these mat- 
 ters is of the utmost importance, without which 
 trouble of some kind is liable to occur. The 
 "shammy," as it is called, should be a real 
 chamois skin, not lime-cured sheepskin. Who 
 ever saw a cheap chamois that did not deposit 
 more lint and dirt on a panel than it removed ? 
 Real French oil-dressed chamois skin is the best 
 and cheapest. 
 
 The tools being- perfect, let us look at the work 
 in hand. The body having- been standing aside 
 for some time, has probably some dust upon it, 
 and the rubbing must not be proceeded with until 
 that is removed. Therefore, with clean water and 
 a clean sponge the whole bod} 7 is well cleansed and 
 dried off with the chamois. Then saturating the 
 rub-rag with water, dip it into the moistened 
 pumice powder and lay it on the panel, bearing 
 on quite light at first to spread the pumice over a 
 part of the work before giving it the pressure 
 necessary to cut the varnish surface. Rub a 
 panel well around the edges, and the central por- 
 tion will be passed over sufficiently in so doing to 
 get its proper share without extra care. Rub 
 lengthwise the panel, and carefully draw the rag 
 across the ends, then wash off the pumice and 
 chamois dry. Do not put too much pumice powder 
 on the panel at once, nor leave the panel until 
 the pumice is quite well reduced to fine powder ; 
 the finer the better the appearance of the work. 
 Be particular to keep all parts of the work clean. 
 Do not let the pumice-stone and water dry upon 
 the work under any circumstances. Go on from 
 panel to panel until all is done, washing everything 
 clean and keeping it so as you proceed. Do not 
 
RUBBING FELT. 
 
 301 
 
 soak the chamois for hours, in a pail of water, nor 
 wring 1 it out any oftener than necessary ; a clamp 
 chamois will be more effectual as a drier, and 
 hard wringing* will destroy it sooner than ordin- 
 ary use. When the job is well rubbed with pumice, 
 and an extra fine finish is desired, go over the 
 whole surface with clean rags, dipped in pulver- 
 ized rotten-stone and water ; then wash clean, and 
 dry off with the chamois. Then, to secure a good 
 job of varnishing, run the body into the varnish- 
 room and lay on the varnish before there is 
 the least sign of " sweating" upon the rubbed 
 surface. 
 
 Rubbing-ln. — The application of graining color, a 
 large brush being used to put the color on, and well 
 brushed over, spread, or rubbed in, before the 
 grain marks are added. The term is applied to 
 the application of priming on carriages. 
 
 Rubbing Felt. — A thick felt material used for rub- 
 bing varnished surfaces with pumice powder or 
 rotten-stone. Painters were at one time in the 
 habit of cutting their rubbing cloths from an old 
 felt hat, but manufacturers have come to their aid 
 with the material in sheets, and one firm, Valen- 
 tine & Co., the varnish makers, have put in mar- 
 ket a patented article of perforated felt. This is 
 made in various thicknesses, and small holes are 
 punched through it at intervals of say one-half an 
 inch over the whole surface ; these are intended to 
 retain some of the pumice powder and thus supply 
 what is required without frequent dipping, and, 
 besides, to retain some of the varnish gum rubbed 
 off, so that the surface of the rubbing cloth will 
 not so soon become glazed over. 
 
302 
 
 RUBBING COATS. 
 
 Rubbing Coats.— Those coats of varnish which are 
 put on to a surface for the purpose of making- a 
 smooth and level foundation for the floiving coat 
 or coats of finishing- varnish. It is seldom the 
 case that a coat of rubbing varnish is laid as nice- 
 ly, that is, as clean and free from blemish, as a 
 coat of finishing- varnish. Painters are apt to 
 slight their under coats, and put too much depend- 
 ence in the rubbing to bring the work up smooth. 
 The more pains taken with rubbing coats, the less 
 labor required in rubbing, and the better the work 
 will be. 
 
 If brush marks are left in the rubbing coat of 
 varnish, they may be rubbed out, but it occasions 
 extra labor to remove them. It sometimes hap- 
 pens that rough-stuff is laid on too thick and 
 brush marks are left in, then there will be an ap- 
 pearance of brush marks in the varnish coats, 
 when in reality the varnish coats are smooth, 
 and perfectly free from brush marks. The marks 
 of the brush in the rough-stuff will show in the 
 finish. 
 
 Rubbing coats should a flow out" as nicely as 
 finishing coats, and the} 7 will do so if freely ap- 
 plied and not brushed too long. 
 
 Ruben's Brown. — A rich brown pigment, of a 
 warmer and more ochreous color than Vandyke 
 brown. 
 
 Running, Sagging, Crawling. — Technical terms 
 given to a streaked appearance of the varnish 
 coat after it has set, and may be caused by var- 
 nishing over an oily glossy surface, or a sweating 
 coat of varnish. It may be prevented by washing- 
 the work, or by rubbing with curled hair or a 
 
RUSSET. 
 
 303 
 
 damp chamois. " Crawling-" may be caused by 
 the perspiration of the hands upon the work, and 
 again, varnish is liable to crawl (in the same man- 
 ner as water thrown upon giass) when applied in 
 a cold room, or upon a cold surface. 
 
 Russet. — A reddish brown color, made by mixing 
 the primary colors in the proportion of two parts 
 red and one each of blue and yellow. 
 
304 
 
 s 
 
 Sable. — The fur or hair of an animal of the weasel 
 species. Although the name is synonymous with 
 black, there is a red sable-hair of which artists' 
 pencils are formed. The black sable pencils are 
 made of the hair which grows at the extreme end 
 of the tail of the animal, therefore, its scared 
 and cost. Striping and lettering pencils are made 
 of this hair, bound in quills, and for heavy color 
 they are excellent. Some of the black sable-hair 
 is fully two inches in length, but the red sable-hair 
 cannot be obtained over an inch in length, the 
 latter is soft yet elastic, and is generally bound in 
 tin with long cedar handles designed expressly for 
 artists' use. 
 
 Sadden-— A technical term used by painters to ex- 
 press the dulling of a color. The opposite of 
 brighten, as, white and yellow make a bright flesh 
 color, but a drop of black will sadden it. 
 
 Sandy, Seedy or Specky.— Terms applied to var- 
 nish when the surface appears as if fine sand or 
 seed had been sprinkled over it. A newly made 
 varnish, which has not had sufficient time to ripen, 
 is liable to make the work look "seedy," but an 
 experienced workman should be able to tell, as 
 soon as he puts his brush into such varnish, that 
 it will not do to use it immediately ; if set away, 
 
SALMON COLOR. 
 
 305 
 
 however, and allowed to mature, it will in a few 
 months correct this, trouble. To use varnish from 
 a freshly opened can, without first uncorking- it 
 and allowing exposure to the air during- a few 
 hours, that the ' ' spirit of varnish" as it is called, 
 may evaporate, will sometimes cause a specky 
 finish. "Chilling'" of varnish is sometimes caused 
 by keeping the cans stored in a cold place or setting 
 upon the floor, the coldest part of the room, and 
 the effect is specky varnish. A good warming on 
 or above the stove will cure this difficulty. It has 
 been said by chemists that the specks seen in 
 chilled varnish were particles of drier crystallized 
 from the state of solution ; and this may have 
 some bearing on the case, but we have seen both 
 varnish and the purest raw linseed oil have that 
 specky appearance at a temperature of about 40 
 degrees. All varnishes deposit more or less 
 settlings when left standing for a long time, and for 
 this reason, when five-gallon cans are used, at 
 least one-eighth should be set away for less par- 
 ticular purposes when the other seven-eighths 
 have been used out. Specks are liable to occur in 
 varnish that has skinned over ; these specks are 
 simply the broken skin. Dust or pumice powder 
 will also produce specks in the work, but the 
 greatest of all troubles in this respect is ' 'chill- 
 ing." The cans of varnish should be kept upon a 
 shelf in a warm dry room, and be disturbed as 
 little as possible. 
 
 Saffron Color.— A deep yellow. 
 
 Salmon Color. — A color made by mixing five 
 parts of white, one yellow, one umber, and one of 
 red. 
 
336 
 
 SANDING. 
 
 Sanding. — Fine white sand is thrown from a cup 
 having* a perforated cover, similar to a pepper 
 box, or blown from a pair of bellows, with the 
 head of a water-pot attached, upon fresh paint. 
 To imitate stone the color should be several shades 
 darker than the desired finish, and the paint 
 should be mixed principally with boiled oil. The 
 sand should be well dried before use. 
 
 Sap Green. — The juice of buckthorn-berries ferment- 
 ed for seven or eight days, after which a little 
 alum is added ; and when evaporated to a thick 
 consistency it is pressed into bladders and hung 
 up until entirely dry. It is principally used in 
 water-color. 
 
 Sash Tool. — A small round brush made of bristles, 
 and used for painting sashes, hence its name. 
 
 Saxon Green. — Carbonate of copper found in a nat- 
 ural state in the mountains of Saxony and Hun- 
 gary. It is of a pale hue, and is sometimes called 
 ' 1 Hungary green." 
 
 Scarlet Lake. — A pigment of a beautiful transpar- 
 ent color and excellent body, working well in both 
 water and oil ; like other lakes it dries slowly. 
 Strong light discolors and destroys it ; its tints 
 with white lead, and its combinations with other 
 colors, are not permanent. It ought never to be 
 used as a glazing. 
 
 Scaffold Bracket. — A contrivance for the use of 
 
 house-painters. Fig. 91 gives a very clear idea of 
 its construction ; it is made of wrought-iron, the 
 lower or supporting beam branching- out into two 
 arms, which end in hooks and hang* upon the 
 rounds of the ladder. The upper portion is a flat 
 
SCENE PAINTING. 
 
 307 
 
 piece of wrought-iron, with its upper edge notched 
 so that the loop of the hook attaching" it to the 
 upper round may be removed from one to the other 
 and thus bring- the lower beam to a level, what- 
 ever may be the slant of the ladder. All that is 
 needed for its use is a couple of strong ladders, 
 such as are found in the ordinary outfit of any 
 painter, and a strong plank, and you can make a 
 good, serviceable scaffold, suitable for the use of a 
 
 Fig. 91.— Scaffold Bracket. 
 
 painter, carpenter, or mason in their work on the 
 exterior of a building. Mr. Wm. T. Comstock, No. 
 6 Astor Place, N. Y., is the manufacturer of these 
 brackets, and further information may be obtain- 
 ed from him. 
 
 Secondary Colors. — The primary colors in pairs : 
 as red and yellow forming orange, blue and yel- 
 loiv forming green, red and blue forming violet. 
 
 Scene Painting. — This peculiar department of 
 painting, as contradistinguished from all others, 
 possesses its own laws, its own practice, and its 
 scientific rules in the same manner as perspective. 
 The scene-painter, in the first instance, should 
 
308 
 
 SCENE PAINTING. 
 
 be thoroughly conversant with the laws of color, 
 as it is only by that means that he can judge ac- 
 curately of the appearance the colors he paints by 
 day will have when subjected to an intense artifi- 
 cial light. In the next place, it is indispensable 
 that he be well versed in the rales of both linear 
 and aerial perspective. He traces by fixed geomet- 
 rical operations, lines blended or inclined, which 
 the spectator at the proper point of view imagines 
 to be straight ones. He uses chiefly water-colors, 
 on account of their operating promptly and pre- 
 senting no glossy surface. There are two descrip- 
 tions of lights to be considered in scene painting — 
 one the light which the painter supposes to illu- 
 minate his picture, and the other that which actu- 
 ally does light up the canvas, such as head, foot 
 and side lights ; and the position and power of 
 these must be carefully studied by the artist be- 
 fore he begins work. 
 
 Generally the scenes should have a tone favora- 
 ble to every color of the dress. If, however, the 
 scene-painter is obliged to depart from so favora- 
 ble an undecided tone, and to represent a red or 
 yellow chamber, a white tent, or a green garden, 
 the actors should be clever enough to avoid sim- 
 ilar colors in their dresses. If an actor in red uni- 
 form enters a red room, the upper part of his body 
 vanishes, and only his legs are seen ; if with the 
 same dress he enters a green garden, his legs van- 
 ish, and the upper part of his body is conspicuous. 
 Thus an actor in a white coat and dark trowsers, 
 will have the upper part of his body vanish in a 
 white tent while his legs will disappear against a 
 dark background. Even when the scene painter 
 is obliged to have a red or yellow chamber, or a 
 
SCENE PAINTING. 
 
 309 
 
 green garden or wood, these colors should be 
 somewhat faint and hazy, that every dress in the 
 foreground may be relieved and have the proper 
 effect. 
 
 We will now describe in detail the various imple- 
 ments, brushes, and materials employed in scene 
 painting, for the artist must have all these at hand, 
 and be fully equipped before he can think of com- 
 mencing work. The brashes, being one of the most 
 important items, will first receive attention. 
 
 Fig. 92 is an oval ground brush. Numbers re- 
 quired — two No. |, one No. j-, one No. 1. 
 
 Fig. 93 is a scene-painter's tool. These are sim- 
 ilar to the ordinal sash tools ; the hairs, however, 
 are longer, being from 4 to 4| inches in length. 
 One each of Nos. 8, 10 and 12. Two each Nos. 1, 
 2, 4 and 6. 
 
 Fig. 94 is a flat hog-hair brush. One each, 1, 2, 
 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14 and 16. 
 
 Fig. 95 is a round hog-hair brush. One each, 
 Nos. 1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 and 12. 
 
 Fig. 96 is a bevelled lining fitch. These are 
 used for ruling lines with the straight-edge, and 
 will be found to do the work better than any other 
 sort. Two each \ inch, f inch, 1 inch. 
 
 Quilled or Fine Tools are used also by most scene- 
 painters. They are small sash tools, but bound in 
 quill, and will do well for fine work, one each of 
 every other number will be found sufficient. 
 
 Figs. 97 and 98 are two or one-knot ground dis- 
 temper brushes for priming the canvas and laying* 
 in large masses of color. 
 
 Stencil Brushes. — One or two of these will be re- 
 quired when painting interiors or prosceniums. 
 
310 
 
 SCENE PAINTING. 
 
 Fig. 92.— Pound Fig. 93.— No. 12 Fig. 94.— No. 12 
 Brush. Scene-Painter's Flag Hog-Hair 
 
 Tool. Liner. 
 
SCENE PAINTING. 
 
 311 
 
 rTVl 
 
 Fig. 95.— No. Fig. 96.— No. 8 Fig. 98.— Another 
 
 12 Round French Hog- Form of Double 
 
 French Hair Liner Brush. 
 
 Tool. (bevelled). 
 
312 
 
 SCENE PAINTING. 
 
 One No. 4, one No. 12, and one No. 24, will perhaps 
 be found handy. 
 
 This concludes the brushes. 
 
 Fig-. 99 is a 12-inch palette knife used for manip- 
 ulating- the colors with. 
 
 Fig. 99.— Palette Knife. 
 
 Fig. 100.— Size Kettle. Fig. 101.— Fig. 102.— Earthen- 
 Ladle, ware Pan for Soak- 
 ing Gilder's Whit ; 
 
 ing. 
 
 Fig. 103.— Paint Pot. Fig. 104.— Paint Tin. 
 
 Fig. 100 is an ordinary tin kettle used for melting 
 the size in. 
 
 Fig. 101 is a tin ladle which is used for taking 
 size out of the kettle. 
 
 Fig. 102 is an earthenware pan for soaking- 
 whiting-. 
 
SCENE PAINTING. 
 
 313 
 
 Fig*. 103 an earthenware pot, and Fig. 104 a tin 
 saucepan for holding- and warming- colors. 
 
 Fig. 105 is an easel, about 5 feet high for holding 
 the model or design of scene about to be painted. 
 
 Figs. 106 and 107 are a stone and muller, the 
 former a marble slab, about 2 feet square, used for 
 grinding colors on. It should be mounted on 
 
 for Tracing Outlines. 
 
 wood and have ledges round three sides to prevent 
 colors running off. In some painting rooms mills 
 are used for grinding colors. 
 
 Fig. 108 is charcoal for " drawing in" scene on 
 canvas. It is generally tied firmly on a stick to 
 give a larger range and freedom to the hand. 
 
 Fig. 109 A is a chalk line on reel, and B a 
 flogger. The latter is used for dusting away char- 
 coal after a sketch is completed. It is made with 
 several odd strips of canvas, 2 feet in length, 
 
 Fig. 108.— Charcoal and Stick 
 
 Fig. 107.— Muller. 
 
314 SCENE PAINTING. 
 
 bound tightly on to an old piece of broom-handle, 
 as shown in the illustration. 
 
 Fig-. 110 is a wooden palette, 4 feet by 2-J- feet. It 
 should have a ledge 3 inches high round three 
 sides. On the left hand and at the back are 
 eighteen to twenty divisions or compartments for 
 holding the different colors (see sketch). On the 
 right hand generally stand the pots or cans, con- 
 taining the weak and strong size. The palette 
 must have three good coats of w T hite oil paint, and 
 be well sand-papered. The brushes are generally 
 
 Fig. 109.— Chalk Line (A) Fig. 110.— Sketch showing 
 and Flogger (B). form of Scene-Painter's 
 
 Palette. 
 
 laid out on the right of palette when being used, 
 to be easy of access. 
 Canvas. — This is sold in two widths and several 
 qualities. In width it is 36 inches and 72 inches ; 
 the latter is the best, as there are not so many 
 seams required. Unbleached muslin may be used 
 for small scenes, and may be had in all widths up 
 to 60 inches. Gold, silver, and colored foils, 
 Dutch metal, frosting, spangles, etc., are employ- 
 ed for pantomine and burlesque scenery, and 
 will be described later on. The following articles 
 will, possibly, complete our list of requisites, viz., 
 
SCENE PAINTING. 
 
 315 
 
 a sponge, a plumb-bob and line, a two-foot rule, a 
 pair of large shears, and a pair of wooden com- 
 passes. 
 
 Colors. — Next in importance come the colors, and 
 they will be named in the order in which it is con- 
 venient to place them on the palette. 
 
 Whiting. — The best gilder's whiting only should 
 be used, as it lasts longer, and contains less lime 
 than the common article of domestic use. It is 
 generally sold in lumps, and when required for 
 painting should be broken up and put in the earth- 
 en pan, Fig. 102. Enough water must be added 
 to make a stiff paste, care being taken not to make 
 it a liquid. The last remark applies to all colors 
 when put into the stock-pots ready for use. It is 
 used to mix with most of the colors to reduce them, 
 and also to give them greater covering power. 
 Mixed with size, it is known as priming for cover- 
 ing new canvas with. The pan containing the 
 whiting should stand on the table to the left of the 
 palette. 
 
 1. Flake White. — A fine solid white, apt to turn 
 a brownish color in the course of time. It is used 
 for extra brightness, and where the highest lights 
 are required. It is sold in lumps, and can be 
 crushed with the palette-knife to be fit for use. _ 
 
 2. Lemon Chrome. — A brilliant light yellow, 
 largely used in scene-painting. It is sold in soft 
 lumps, and only requires to be crushed in water as 
 above. 
 
 3. Orange Chrome. — A rich color of the same na- 
 ture as the former, but of a much darker shade. 
 
 4. Golden or Yellow Ochre. — This is a most 
 useful and inexpensive color, and will often be re- 
 
316 
 
 SCENE PAINTING. 
 
 quired. It is sold in powder, and only requires 
 the addition of water to be ready for use. 
 
 5. Raw Sienna. — A rich golden yellow, and is 
 chiefly used for glazing-. It is sold in hard lumps, 
 but had better be procured, ready ground, in a 
 state of a pulp. 
 
 6. Burnt Sienna. — A rich glazing color. A small 
 quantity of this should be kept in oil ready for 
 use. It will be required for painting and shading 
 on gold foil or gold leaf. 
 
 7. Raw Umber.— A color often required, sold in 
 dry powder, or in pulp. 
 
 8. Burnt Umber.— A useful brown, used for glaz- 
 ing purposes. 
 
 9. Vandyke Brown. — A rich dark brown, often 
 used, and a good glazing color. Sold, ready 
 ground, in water. 
 
 10. Venetian Red.— A cheap and useful color, often 
 in request, and has great covering power. Sold 
 in powder, and requires no grinding. 
 
 11. Vermilion. — A bright red in powder, of which 
 there are several grades (q. v.) requires no grind- 
 ing. 
 
 12. Rose Pink. — One of the most useful colors used 
 in scene painting, and very cheap. It will be con- 
 tinually required, and is sold in soft lumps. Can 
 be ground on the slab with the palette-knife or 
 muller. 
 
 13. Damp Lake. — A deep crimson, and often re- 
 quired. It is sold in damp state, and should al- 
 ways be kept moist. It is one of the best of glaz- 
 ing colors. 
 
 14. Brown Lake. — A rich claret-colored brown, 
 
SCENE PAINTING. 
 
 317 
 
 sold in pulp, same as the last. It is rather expen- 
 sive so should be used sparingly. 
 
 15. Ultramarine.— A fine bright blue, sold in pow- 
 der, and only requires to be plunged in water for 
 use. 
 
 16. Indigo. — A deep, dark blue, often required, and 
 a good glazing color. Indigo is extremely hard to 
 grind — it has first to be soaked for several hours 
 in boiling water, and then carefully ground with 
 the muller. It had better be procured ready 
 ground when possible. 
 
 17. Dark Brunswick Green.— A cheap and useful 
 green, but not of lasting duration, of great bright- 
 ness. For extra good work, such as the painting 
 of prosceniums and act drops, the green lakes, 
 afterwards mentioned, should be used. Sold in 
 powder, and requires no grinding. 
 
 18. Light Brunswick Green.— Similar to the pre- 
 vious color, but several shades lighter. 
 
 19. Prussian Blue. — A beautiful, rich and power- 
 ful blue, now largely used by leading artists. Is 
 very hard and requires much grinding, so had best 
 be obtained in pulp. 
 
 20. Drop, Ivory, or Blue-Black.— The first or the 
 last of these three blacks will do for ordinary work, 
 but for an y thing particular ivor3 7 -black is recom- 
 mended. Sold in soft lumps, and easy to grind. 
 
 If there are more divisions made to the palette, 
 the following colors may be added with considera- 
 ble advantage : 
 Dark Medium and Light Green Lakes.— A most 
 useful green, veiy powerful and lasting, and of 
 great richness. It is rather expensive, and is sold 
 in jars in a damp or pulpy state. 
 
318 
 
 SCENE PAINTING. 
 
 Mauve Paste. — The same color as its name implies, 
 and useful for painting- draperies and costumes in 
 figure painting 1 . 
 
 Dutch Pink. — A most useful yellow in distemper 
 painting", and mixes well with any color. It is 
 much used for the high lights in foliage painting-, 
 and is so often required that it always finds a 
 place on the palette. It mixes well with greens 
 to get different tints and shades. 
 
 There are certain other colors that will often be 
 in request, and it may he well to name them. 
 
 Crimson Lake, Scarlet Lake and Yellow Lake. 
 
 — Very rich colors, used mostly for draperies, and 
 
 sold in pulp, price very high. 
 Carnation Paste. — A useful color for draperies, 
 
 and much used for that purpose. It is cheaper 
 
 than lake. 
 
 Carmine Paste. — A rich crimson, used for draper- 
 ies and glazing-. It is very dear, and does not 
 keep long-. 
 
 Blue Verditer. — A useful blue for nig-ht skies and 
 scenes. Sold in powder, but of a sandy nature. 
 
 Azure Blue. — A beautiful lig-ht blue, very brig-ht 
 and delicate, used for painting a certain class of 
 skies, such as a cloudless summer sky as seen in 
 Italy or Spain. 
 
 Damp Blue. — A cheap common blue ; can be used 
 for common work not intended to stand long. 
 
 Emerald Green. — A rich, bright green, not often 
 required. 
 
 Bronze Green. — A dark sage green, sold in pow- 
 * der. 
 
 Dark Brown Ochre. — A cheap and useful brown; 
 
SCENE PAINTING. 
 
 319 
 
 used for foregrounds and rockwork. Sold in pow- 
 der. 
 
 Orange Red. — A useful color, and not dear. Can 
 be often used for heightening the effect in several 
 descriptions of scenes. 
 
 Red Lead. — The ordinary red lead, can be used in 
 place of vermilion on much work. 
 
 Chinese Red. — A deep red, may be used in place of 
 many of the lakes. 
 
 Indian Red. — Similar to Venetian red, but darker. 
 
 Salin Red. — A powder of a light pink or red color. 
 
 Crimson Red. — Another red, sold in powder. 
 
 Spanish Brown. — A good and useful red brown, of 
 an earthy nature. It has wonderful covering- 
 powers, is very cheap in powder. 
 
 There are many others that might be mentioned 
 but space will not permit. Such as, Schweinfurt- 
 er green, Neuwieder green, silver white, Bremen 
 blue, Solferino, Munich lake, Florentine lake, 
 Vienna lake, and Cobalt blue, which is a very 
 superior blue for skies. 
 
 Purchasing Colors. — The reader will perhaps be 
 pleased to have some idea as to what colors he 
 should obtain to begin with, and the quantity of 
 each he should order. 
 
 Seven pounds each of flake white, Dutch pink, 
 yellow and brown ochre, orange-lead, Venetian 
 red, rose pink, Brunswick greens (dark, medium 
 and light), drop black, German ultramarine, 
 celestial blue and damp lake. Four pounds each 
 indigo, orange chrome, yellow chrome, vermil- 
 ion and Vandyke brown. 
 
 Three pounds each Prussian blue, burnt and raw 
 siennas, burnt and raw umbers and brown lake. 
 
320 
 
 SCENE PAINTING. 
 
 One pound each azure blue, Chinese red, crim- 
 son lake, carnation paste, mauve paste, dark and 
 light green lakes. 
 
 Fourteen pounds of gilder's whiting and a firkin 
 of best double size. 
 
 The regular painting-room in our large theatres 
 is in most cases situated in the " flies" — i. e., over 
 the stage. When the scenes are painted in such a 
 place the framework on which the canvas is tacked 
 for painting is made to sink through a slot or 
 opening in the floor of the paint-loft and is gradu- 
 ally wound up as the artist proceeds with his 
 work. In cases where the painting is done on a 
 level with the stage and a sufficient depth below 
 not allowing the frame to sink low enough, re- 
 course is made to a kind of scaffolding technically 
 termed the "painting" bridge," the painting frame 
 in this instance being a fixture ; these various ap- 
 pliances we will now describe. 
 Movable Painting Frames. — In order that the 
 scene-painter may execute his work in a rapid and 
 masterly manner, he should be able to reach any 
 portion of his scene at will, and the quickest way of 
 doing this is by having an opening in the floor as 
 previously described. Fig. Ill is an illustration of 
 the manner in which a large painting frame of 
 this description is worked ; A, is the purchase 
 wheel ; B, the spindle ; C, the counterweight line ; 
 D, counterweight, which balances weight of 
 frame ; E, lines attached to frame for raising and 
 lowering it and which wind on and off spindle or 
 axle of purchase wheel ; F, the line from purchase 
 wheel to windlass ; G, the windlass ; H, frame for 
 canvas. Fig. 112 is a section of the same. 
 
 For smaller and lighter scenes, we show a modi- 
 
321 
 
322 
 
 SCENE PAINTING. 
 
 fication of the above, which is worked by counter- 
 weights only, after the manner of a window-sash, 
 the sketch (Fig. 113) explains everything. 
 The Painting Bridge.— One of the simplest forms 
 of painting is shown in Fig. 114. It works on 
 wheels and can be constructed to take to pieces by 
 using bed screws instead of nails. A couple of 
 stout planks are required— one for the artist to 
 stand on, the other to hold palettes, colors, etc. 
 A still more simple kind of bridge is that shown in 
 Fig. 115, and consists of a couple of trestles or lad- 
 ders, and some two-inch planks. These are easily 
 procurable. 
 
 It may not be out of place to explain a few of 
 the terms and phrases made use of by the profes- 
 sion inside a theatre, as many of these words will 
 no doubt be used in latter paragraphs. 
 Act Drop.— A picture, or single painted surface of 
 canvas, let down by way of a blind or curtain be- 
 tween the acts, so as to close up the proscenium 
 opening. 
 
 Borders.— Also known as " hanging scenes" and 
 " soffits." Borders are of three descriptions ; in- 
 terior, sky and foliage borders. The interiors are 
 painted to imitate ceilings or roofs of rooms, huts, 
 etc., the other two are used for exterior scenes. 
 They are merely strips of painted canvas hung 
 across the top of the stage to screen the space 
 above. 
 
 Box Scenes.— Instead of the usual wings ranged 
 one behind the other, as in the old method, there 
 is a series of "flats" on each side, extending from 
 the proscenium wing up to the back. The back 
 part of the stage is likewise enclosed in this man- 
 
323 
 
324 
 
 SCENE PAINTING. 
 
 ner ; the stage is thus completely enclosed on all 
 three sides, the doors, windows, etc., being- placed 
 where required. By this means a more perfect 
 representation of a room can be obtained, than 
 where wings are employed. Known, also, as " en- 
 closed chamber scenes." Such a scene as this, of 
 course, represents the sides and further end of the 
 room. 
 
 Fig. 115. — Painting Bridge of Boards supported on 
 Trestles. 
 
 Backing. — A small " cloth " or piece of canvas 
 placed behind where an opening- occurs in the 
 scenery at the back, such as French windows, 
 double or folding- doors, etc. This may be made 
 to represent a conservatory, a street, veranda, or 
 open country. If for interiors, a hall or side room 
 may be shown. When lattice windows are used, 
 a g-ood distant view of the country is very effec- 
 tive, if strong-ly lighted by ground lights. 
 
 Built Scenery. — Scenes that are built out on the 
 stage, mostly of wood, and decorated by the artist 
 to form part of his picture. They are generally 
 strongly made. A bridge or mountain-path on 
 which a number of actors could walk or stand at 
 
SCENE PAINTING. 
 
 325 
 
 the same time, illustrates our meaning. The 
 balcony in "Romeo and Juliet " is a small piece 
 of scenery of this description. 
 
 Cloths. — These are the scenes which work up and 
 down on rollers from the bottom, and known 
 generally as " back scenes " or " rolling scenes" ; 
 in the paint-loft they are invariably called 
 "cloths." The scene at the extreme back is 
 termed the " back cloth," or " drop scenes." 
 
 Cut Cloths.— Scenes with portions cut out after 
 being painted on the frame. In exteriors they 
 consist of woods, with the spaces left between the 
 trunks of trees and branches cut away. The 
 foliage cut in places, which makes the scene very 
 effective. Ruins, arches, etc., are also treated in 
 this way. 
 
 Distemper or Tempera. — All scene painting is ex- 
 ecuted in distemper — that is, with colors mixed up 
 with size and water. 
 
 Flats. — Scenes, the canvas for which is strained 
 upon framing ; they are similar to side wings, 
 but much larger. 
 
 Sliding Flats are two broad frames, each 
 half the width of the stage. They are worked on 
 from either side, meeting each other and uniting 
 in the centre. These are used when a practicable 
 door or window is required in a scene, which has 
 closed in on the back scene, and where for this 
 reason, a drop scene is of no use. They can be 
 used on any part of the stage, but are generally 
 pushed on from the second entrance. Flats can of 
 course be used also as back scenes ; in fact, inte- 
 riors consist mainly of these. Interiors are sel- 
 dom painted on " cloths " excepting for corridors, 
 
326 
 
 SCENE PAINTING. 
 
 passages, etc., where doors and windows are not 
 required. Pantomine and burlesque interiors, 
 such as kitchens, with all the different utensils 
 painted in, attics and caves, are, as a rule, painted 
 on cloths. 
 
 Open Flats. — Are similar to cut cloths, as they 
 serve the same purpose. They are scenes cut out 
 in places so that the actors can pass through 
 them, as in groves, caves forests, and open 
 arches. 
 
 Flies. — The galleries running along each side of the 
 stage, above the proscenium opening and where 
 all drops are fixed and worked for lowering or 
 raising drop scenes. 
 
 Fan Pieces. — Used in transformation scenes, and 
 work like a fan, suddenly collapsing and discover- 
 ing a fairy, etc. 
 
 Ground Pieces. — Low pieces of profile running 
 across the stage on the floor, used to mask a row 
 of lights. 
 
 Glazing. — Going over work already painted with 
 transparent colors diluted with strong size. 
 
 " Laying In." — This term is given to the first paint- 
 ing, and consists of putting in the middle or half 
 tints of the picture, using broad masses of color 
 of the required shades. Over this the high lights 
 and shades are afterwards put in. 
 
 Marking Up. — Marking the outlines bolder, espe- 
 cially in the foreground, and should be done with 
 strong size mixed with the proper pigments. 
 
 Mordant. — A cement used in fixing Dutch metal to 
 the scenes. 
 
 Profile-. — Thin boards covered with a particular 
 kind of canvas to prevent them from splitting. 
 
SCENE PAINTING. 327 
 
 The artist marks out the outlines, and the carpen- 
 ter saws them out. 
 
 Practicable Scenes. — Those which contains doors, 
 windows, fire-places, cupboards, etc., capable of 
 being" worked and used. Any piece of scenery, 
 such as coppers, bridges, porches, gates, stiles, 
 etc., made sufficiently strong to be used by the 
 actor, is known by the term "practicable." 
 
 Priming. — A composition of double size and gilder's 
 whiting, a coating of which is applied to the can- 
 vas in a warm state. Also known as " sheep- 
 skin." 
 
 Raking Piece. — Similar to a set-piece. Small 
 pieces of canvas and profile painted to imitate 
 rocks, mossy slopes, banks, etc., and set on one 
 side of the stage. They are sometimes made for 
 the actor to lie on. 
 
 Rises and Sinks. — The scenes in this case are di- 
 vided, but not like a pair of flats. They part 
 horizontally — one part rising into the flies, and 
 the other part sinking through the stage to the 
 mazarine below. 
 
 Sizing. — New canvas is always given a coat of 
 strong size as soon as strained. This and the 
 "priming" is generally done by the laborer, hence 
 he is styled the " first artist" in the theatre. 
 
 Set Pieces. — Scenes placed obliquely on one side of 
 the stage when it is required to show a cottage, 
 corner of a house, or porch. They are also placed 
 across the stage, to form palings, low walls, side 
 of ship, bridges, etc. 
 
 Set Scenes. — These are very elaborate. Instead of 
 the whole picture being painted on the back drop 
 the distance only is put in, middle distance and 
 
328 
 
 SCENE PAINTING. 
 
 foreground being- composed of set pieces, raking- 
 pieces, and ground rows, with strong lights be- 
 hind each. It requires great skill and experience 
 to paint and arrange a set scene. 
 
 Scruto. — A sort of hinge, made by cutting through 
 a piece of profile wood without cutting the canvas. 
 
 Trick Scenes. — Scenes which can be instantly 
 changed, as where ruins change to a lighted 
 palace, before the eyes of the audience. 
 
 Tableau Curtains. — Used in place of act-drop, 
 they open in the centre and rise in graceful folds 
 to each side and top of the proscenium. 
 
 Thin Coloring. — A process employed to give the 
 effect of greater distance to any part of the scene, 
 to impart a hazy appearance to a picture. 
 
 Wings, or Side Scenes. — These are merely scenes 
 placed obliquely behind each other, on each side 
 of the stage, to hide the view behind, and cover 
 the entrances and exits of the actors. 
 
 Mixing Colors. — The most difficult feature of 
 painting in distemper is, that the colors dry so 
 much lighter than they are when first put on, and 
 many of them have, by gaslight, an entirely 
 different appearance than they have in the day- 
 time. Most colors dry several shades lighter than 
 they are when wet ; and, worse still, they do not 
 all dry lighter in the same proportion ; so that 
 any person new to the work cannot estimate the 
 particular shade of his paint when first laid on. 
 It is, therefore, advisable for the artist to try his 
 colors on a small scale at first, and dry them in 
 front of the fire. 
 
 To render the colors opaque, a certain propor- 
 tion of whiting or flake white is always mixed up 
 
SCENE PAINTING. 
 
 329 
 
 with them according" to the shade desired. 
 Transparent and glazing- colors being- an excep- 
 tion to this rule — no whiting is used with them. 
 The strength of the size also makes a vast differ- 
 ence; very strong size darkens. As to the ap- 
 pearance of colors at night : French ultramarine, 
 a bright blue by daylight, is a muddy purple by 
 gaslight, and therefore unfit for distant tints or 
 for brig-htness. Verditer blue, Cobalt blue, 
 Celestial blue are best. Yellow is much lighter 
 by gaslight, and rose pink loses its brightness. 
 The colors being all mixed with water to a pulpy 
 state are now put into the compartments on the 
 palette, putting- no more on the palette than is re- 
 quired for immediate use. In scene painting 
 many of the different shades are only obtained by 
 mixing one color with the other while on the 
 palette. The way to do this is as follows : Sup- 
 pose we wanted a purple, the artist w r ould take up 
 a clean brush and dip it in the size-can he would 
 then transfer it quickly to the compartment on the 
 palette containing the rose pink, and having got a 
 good brushful of this color, would spread it on the 
 palette, he would then dip the brush in the ultra- 
 marine and mix this also with the rose pink, and 
 to get it a shade or two lighter he would dip the 
 brush in the whiting pan. Tints composed of 
 three or four colors can be rapidly compounded in 
 this way, adding more size as often as required to 
 render them workable. Where a lot of color is 
 required, as for skies, etc., the colors are mixed in 
 pots, and to get the various tints the painter dips 
 his brush first in one pot and then in another, and 
 in this way puts in a sky of perhaps a dozen 
 different hues. 
 
SCENE PAINTING. 
 
 For f oliage, a quiet general tint may be obtained 
 by mixing- Dutch pink with black, indigo with 
 blue verditer. Light ochre with green lake gives 
 a rich green, which may be changed to a cool one 
 037- the addition of indig-o. For sunset skies mix 
 in separate pots the following- : verditer and indi- 
 g-o ; verditer and damp lake ; damp lake and 
 orang-e chrome. For clouds, mix verditer and 
 orang-e red, or Venetian red and azure blue ; rose 
 pink and azure blue. For cold gray clouds add a 
 little black. For lig-hts in clouds, mix yellow 
 ochre and rose pink, or yellow ochre and orange 
 red. For distant foliage mix verditer and rose 
 pink, or use Dutch pink alone. For the sea, 
 Dutch pink, verditer, indigo, raw sienna, azure 
 blue and emerald green will be found most useful. 
 For rocks some of the following tints will be use- 
 ful : indigo, burnt sienna and rose pink ; emerald 
 green and black ; Vandyke brown and ultrama- 
 rine; indigo, rose pink, and ochre. Black and 
 Venetian red make a useful gray. For gold 
 colors mix brown ochre and Dutch pink ; or Dutch 
 pink and sienna or Vandyke brown ; these for lay- 
 ing in. For the lights use flake white and lemon 
 chrome, orange and yellow chrome, chrome and 
 Dutch pink. Purple and mauve look fresh by day, 
 but are dirty and muddy by gaslight. For moon- 
 light skies a good tint is verditer and indigo 
 mixed. For clouds add black and more indigo. 
 Water is generally the color of the sky and 
 the objects that are reflected therein, such as trees, 
 banks and rushes. For branches and trunks of 
 trees, use indigo, lake and yellow ochre ; burnt 
 sienna and ultramarine ; Dutch pink, burnt sien- 
 na, and indigo. For grass, use pure greens, mix- 
 
SCENE PAINTING. 
 
 331 
 
 ing more or less yellow chrome for high lights. 
 In painting- dead leaves use chrome and burnt 
 sienna. For stone buildings, mix .yellow ochre, 
 umber, and indigo, or ochre, celestial blue and 
 red. For bricks, Venetian red ; and for shadows 
 add ultramarine. Where fire is reflected use 
 orange lead. 
 
 Great care should be taken in mixing tints— for 
 some colors like Prussian blue, are so strong that 
 a very little will suffice, so if used without due 
 thought it becomes necessary to add more of the 
 other colors. 
 
 Fig. 116.— Charcoal Stove Fig. 117.— Gas Stove, 
 for Warming Colors, Etc. 
 
 Some painters mix molasses or golden syrup 
 with their size, which makes the colors work more 
 freely. In painting a scene on a new "cloth" the 
 first thing to be done, after the canvas is strained, 
 is to size it all over. This is done with strong size, 
 i. e., size (such as purchased ready mixed) melted 
 in a kettle with just water enough to prevent 
 burning. 
 
 Working Size consists of one part size to four 
 parts of water, the size being first melted or 
 warmed up and measured, the requisite amount 
 of water can then be added. Strong size and 
 
332 
 
 scheele's green. 
 
 working- size when mixed together is known as 
 half and lialf size. 
 
 Ordinary glue can be used by simply dissolving- 
 it in water and boiling*. To ascertain the amount 
 of water necessary : Dip the fing-ers in the size and 
 then close them tightly for about a minute, if, 
 when separating, they adhere slightly to each 
 other, the size is properly made. If they stick too 
 firmly the size is too strong, and vice versa. It is 
 a mistake to use size too strong as it causes the 
 color to crack and peel off. 
 
 A sufficient has now been said, possibly, to en- 
 able the would-be scenic artist to begin operations, 
 supposing that he has already made himself fa- 
 miliar with the laws of drawing and perspective, 
 for these are of vital importance. The next best 
 thing is to visit a theatre and "look on" while the 
 work is being done, and that will be found to be a 
 better instructor than any words we might write 
 or illustrations present. 
 
 Scheele's Green.— An arsenite of copper. (See 
 Mittis Green.) Its manufacture and use are so 
 dangerous to health, they are forbidden by law in 
 France. 
 
 Screen. — A contrivance for protecting parts of a 
 carriage body from dust, while it is undergoing 
 painting or varnishing. A screen is made by 
 covering, or stretching, upon a light wooden frame 
 either paper or cloth, and sometimes of thin 
 roofing boards. In some shops, screens are thus 
 made, large enough to cover a light bod} 7 , which 
 is a good plan where the varnish room is defective. 
 Screens made upon the Japanese plan, i. e., those 
 used in dwellings, and which stand upon the floor, 
 
SCROLL PAINTING. 
 
 333 
 
 are excellent in a varnish room, to partly surround 
 a job and thus protect it from dust and cold drafts. 
 When not in use, screens should be kept in some 
 convenient place outside the varnish room, and 
 when wanted for use, they should first be given a 
 light washing or sponging and then be wiped dry 
 with a chamois, to free them from dust. 
 
 Scroll Painting- — A branch of decorative art. The 
 principal demands for executing this class of work, 
 are a knowledge of drawing, light and shade ; a 
 free hand, an accurate or quick discerning eye, 
 good tools, and a mind unclouded with other 
 matters — for close attention to the work is indis- 
 pensable. 
 
 The first of these requirements — drawing — is 
 taught in special books or by special teachers, and 
 with the supposition that the student has already 
 a knowledge of the art, even if it be but a limited 
 one, we proceed to — 
 Lesson 1. — All the requirements at the outset, are 
 some sticks of chalk, and a good sized blackboard. 
 Then, the formation of circles and curved lines 
 must be practiced, drawing them with the chalk in 
 a bold and confident manner in every conceivable 
 direction, alwa3 r s bearing iu mind that the draw- 
 ing of one correct circle or sweep out of a hundred, 
 is not perfection ; and he must keep to work, 
 drawing, wiping off, and drawing- again, until in 
 an easy off-handed mark can be made at com- 
 mand. 
 
 He must not expect to make elaborate scrolls or 
 anything like them, until he has acquired full com- 
 mand of the chalk. Not only are circles and curved 
 lines necessary, but frequently straight and paral- 
 lel lines, as shown in Figs. 118 and 119, are to be 
 
334 
 
 SCROLL PAINTING. 
 
 made, and it will be well to draw these, alternat- 
 ing- with the curved, until both the curved and 
 straight lines can be easily and quickly produced 
 with the chalk. 
 
 The line made in a serpentine form or double 
 sweep is called Hogarth's line of beauty, and is 
 embodied in all the beautiful forms of nature and 
 art, such lines are frequentty drawn with the com- 
 passes, and may be so drawn by the professional ; 
 but m order to train the muscles of the hand and 
 
 Fig. 118. Fig. 119. 
 
 eye, it is best for all such auxiliaries to be laid 
 aside, then, confidence will be established, and 
 strength, freedom and beauty will be added to 
 the designs. The drawing of parallel lines either 
 curved or straight may seem to be of little use, 
 but this is done to "coach" the eye and hand to 
 work harmoniously together. The student 
 having become proficient with the chalk, in draw- 
 ing the curves and straight lines may now pass 
 on to — 
 
 Lesson 2. — First let us suppose that we are in 
 an inland town, awaj^ from stores where first- 
 
SCROLL PAINTING. 
 
 335 
 
 class tools are to be had ; away from the great 
 city, where ornamental designs are in abundance, 
 and where frequent opportunity is given to see the 
 handiwork of others, and thus improve the eye. 
 To make the tools for the work in hand is not so 
 hard a task as many suppose — supposing of 
 course that we have a camel's-hair blender or 
 brush with which ordinary coloring is done — from 
 this we cut a small quantity of hair, say, twenty- 
 five or thirty single hairs, being careful to keep 
 them in their relative position, that the point 
 may not be so blunt or stubby that cutting must 
 be resorted to — the natural ends of the hairs 
 
 make the softest and best point to a pencil — tying 
 the little bunch of hairs near the butt end with 
 firm thread or silk, we look about for a small 
 feather from which to cut the quill, into which to 
 insert the bunch of hairs. This done we find that 
 a fine ornamental pencil is not so much after all, 
 so far as making is concerned. Now for the paint. 
 The color, or paint as some would call it, for this 
 work should be mixed in some quick-drying var- 
 nish or japan and tempered with linseed oil until 
 it dries with a little more gloss than an egg-shell 
 has, then thinned with turpentine, upon the palette. 
 Paints mixed with oil, or tube colors, dry too slow- 
 ly and do not as a general thing, flow so freely 
 
 Fig. 120. 
 
SCROLL PAINTING. 
 
 from the pencil — or else if thinned too much flow 
 too freely and cause trouble. The next in order 
 is the design, and this must come spontaneously 
 from the end of the pencil. We are not about 
 to present you with finely drawn and pricked pat- 
 terns. Here you will see what to do without pat- 
 terns. The first mark made with the pencil 
 (paint pencil we mean, not a lead pencil) will be 
 the line of beauty, which was practiced upon with 
 chalk, and with that knowledge gained it will be 
 quite easy to make it. This forms the starting- 
 point. The little pencil which was made from 
 the hair of the blender, we find, will by a light 
 
 Fig. 121.— The Line of Beauty. 
 
 pressure make a fine line, while a heavy pressure 
 produces a proportionate heavy line, being- very 
 similar to the action of a pen upon paper : so in 
 making- the line of beauty, we beg-in with a very 
 lig-ht pressure increasing- as we come to the other 
 end, then stopping- abruptly we find just such a 
 mark as shown above (Fig-. 121). 
 
 The next is the leafing ; and this is done by a 
 simple heavy pressure upon the pencil and a light 
 pressure upon lifting the same from the work, 
 which makes a mark like Fig. 122 ; a series of such 
 marks — all made with little or no exertion, and 
 with one dab of the pencil only — will form a fig- 
 ure something like Fig. 123, which would be an 
 excellent pattern for a spoke face. This style of 
 ornamentation ma} T be carried on throughout the 
 
SCROLL PAINTING. 
 
 337 
 
 parts of a gear, on beds, bar springs, wheels, etc., 
 and here in the 2nd lesson you are enabled — if you 
 have practiced well — to make an ornament. And 
 now in Lesson 3, we will look at the next variety 
 of off-hand ornamentation, namely light scrolls. 
 
 Fig. 122. Fig. 123. 
 
 Lesson 3. — For this work the paint should be quite 
 thin and semi-transparent, and a tint of green, 
 will perhaps look well, so mixing some keg lead 
 and turpentine, and adding a drop of chrome 
 green, then a few drops of quick varnish, we 
 
 Fig. 124. Fig. 125. Fig. 126. Fig. 127. 
 
 begin ; with the transparent paint, each mark of 
 the pencil as it is twisted around will leave upon 
 the work lines of light and heavy color, forming 
 beautiful shades, and giving to each leaf and stem 
 an effect not easily produced by other means. It 
 must be understood that one mark of the pencil is 
 sufficient to produce the desired effect, and if the 
 
338 
 
 SCROLL PAINTING. 
 
 work be retouched, all beautiful lines will be 
 effaced. With the small camel's-hair pencil lay 
 on with one sweep, a mark as shown in Fig. 124 ; 
 forming- the foundation or main portion of a leaf. 
 Now by adding- the two points shown in Fig-. 125, 
 and the additional point shown in Fig-. 126, a full 
 leaf will be formed, and by repeating- these leaves, 
 if properly placed, a very handsome scroll may be 
 made. The extension of a leaf is shown in Fig-. 
 127 ; in which we begin to see something- that 
 looks " scrolly." These are the main features of a 
 scroll pattern, and if the student will practice as 
 we have shown until he has the knack at his 
 fingers' ends, and can paint them right, left, up, 
 down, and in any conceivable way, he may g-o on 
 with Lesson No. 4. The desire to push forward 
 and grasp the whole art at once is not the proper 
 way to succeed, and the longer the student is in 
 the primary class the more proficient he will 
 become. The designs have now become suffi- 
 ciently interesting for an extended amount of 
 practice, and we desire to have the student invent 
 Ms oivn patterns, these Figs. 128, 129 and 130, 
 being simply to show what can be done with the 
 information imparted in the three lessons already 
 given. 
 
 Lesson 4. — There are a thousand peculiar shapes 
 and forms constituting scrolls. The learner 
 should choose one or two standard designs and 
 practice on these until he makes them perfectly, 
 then, add new features as he improves. Each 
 curved line of a scroll must be an easy and grace- 
 ful sweep, and harmony of design must also be very 
 carefully attended to. For instance, if the design 
 is intended for a centre-piece, circles of the largest 
 
Fig. 130. 
 
SCROLL PAINTING. 
 
 diameter should form the centre, and a gradual 
 diminution of curves, in their various forms, be 
 made to extend therefrom, until the end or apex 
 is reached, on either side. The same rule is applic- 
 able to a corner pattern, and a close observation 
 of such work made by an experienced hand will at 
 once clearly define the idea we wish to convey. 
 
 This balance of proportions is by many begin- 
 ners entirely everlooked, and if so, no matter how 
 well the painting- may be done the result will be 
 in the eyes of a connoisseur a failure. 
 
 The parts which make up a scroll pattern should 
 be connected, or at least touch each other, and 
 not as we frequently see them, remain disjointed, 
 or completely isolated from the parent stem. 
 
 The copying- from frescoed or engraved ara- 
 besques not expressly designed for such use is not 
 to be commended, for in both cases the designs 
 although faultless as works of art in their origi- 
 nal position, will invarably be found too finely 
 wrought or too delicately shaded to supply the 
 place of a wagon, car or stage scroll pattern. 
 Very valuable ideas, certainly, may be drawn 
 from them, but a direct copy should never .be 
 made. In designing a scroll, the form of panel 
 should at once decide the size and general form of 
 the scroll. In closing our lessons in scrolling, we 
 present two scroll designs for practice, and would 
 be pleased to have the student make them in gold 
 and shades as follows: on the design with 
 
 gilding-size — after having rubbed the panel over 
 with whiting to prevent the gold from sticking — 
 using a camel 's-hair lettering pencil, then, when 
 the size is " tacky" lay the gold leaf (and here 
 we would remark, for practicing, it is just as well 
 
312 
 
 SCROLL PAINTING. 
 
 to use gold bronze ; a paper containing an ounce 
 costing but sixty cents, and sufficient for covering 
 1000 square feet of scroll patterns on painted pa- 
 per) wash off clean and dry with a chamois, and 
 if time is at disposal lay over the gold a thin coat 
 of rubbing varnish — which makes a better surface 
 for shading on — but if not proceed to shade the 
 
 Fig. 132.— Design for a Flat Scroll. 
 
 scroll. Procure some common asphaltum and a 
 very little burnt sienna, thin them, when mixed 
 together with turpentine, and with a short-haired 
 camels' pencil Jay in the shades as shown in the 
 engravings, putting it on very thin, and repeating 
 the washing of shade until the darkest parts 
 are dark enough and all blend off into the gold 
 
SCROLL PAINTING. 343 
 
 without showing" the connection. Next upon 
 those parts and edges where the light is supposed 
 to fall, put fine lines of cream color and others on 
 the prominent lights, of white. 
 
 Fig. 133.— Design for a Flat Scroll. 
 
 The Roman scroll having received attention at 
 our hands, we will now look at the Flat Scroll. 
 This description of scrolling or ornamentation is 
 nowadays very fashionable on railway cars, par- 
 ticularly for head linings; they are similar to 
 those commonly employed by fresco-painters. 
 
344 
 
 SCRUBS. 
 
 There are three modes of putting- on these scrolls, 
 the first and simplest being in plain gold, with no 
 shades or lights ; the second, in various colors ; 
 the third in colors and gold, but with no shading. 
 Remember that flat scrolling is accompanied by 
 shading, which latter is peculiar to scrolling " in 
 relief." Much of the work of flat scrolling is done 
 with a pencil in the same manner as scroll strip- 
 ing (g. v.). 
 
 But little information can be given in writing 
 concerning the designing of flat scrolls. Suffice 
 is to say, the patterns are infinite in number and 
 variet} T , ranging from the simplest curves up to 
 elaborate combinations of curves and straight 
 lines. The beginner should first study the sim- 
 plest forms. In the same manner as we have 
 suggested with those " in relief," and as he be- 
 comes familiar with the requirements of the work 
 he will naturally become more fertile in designing 
 and more daring in execution. 
 
 Scrubs. — A short-haired bristle brush, used by art- 
 ists in painting on velvet, plush, etc. 
 
 Sea-Creen. — The color of the sea; a faint bluish- 
 green tint. 
 
 Seam Brush. — A brush made of horse-hair and 
 bristles, formed similar to a Brick Header (q. v.). 
 
 Sealing-Wax Varnish. — Crush and pulverize a stick 
 of ordinary sealing-wax to fine powder and put it 
 in a bottle with spirits of wine. Allow it to stand 
 without heat, shaking the bottle frequently, until 
 the wax is all dissolved and the mixture is of the 
 consistency of varnish. A 2-ounce stick of wax 
 will be sufficient for a half pint of spirits. This 
 varnish dries quickly, and should be made only as 
 
SHELLAC. 
 
 345 
 
 . required for use. It gives to work-boxes and such 
 articles the appearance of Indian japanning'. 
 
 Self-Color or Self-Tint. — A pattern in two or more 
 tones of a similar hue. 
 
 Setting. — The state in which varnish passes from a 
 limpid fluid to a thick or congealed gum. When 
 varnish has been spread upon a surface, it begins 
 to thicken, and when that thickening- has gone on 
 until there is no liability of the varnish moving" 
 from where it was put — by running' or sagging 
 down — it is said to have set. 
 
 Sharp Color. — A bright, rich or positive color, also 
 a quick drying* paint. 
 
 Shade. — The dark portion of a picture; the thickness 
 or relief given to a letter when painted upon 
 a flat surface; degree or gradation of light or 
 color. 
 
 Shellac, or Shell Lac— The latter being the proper 
 orthography — a resinous substance which, in 
 India, flows from certain trees in the form of 
 lucid tears, in consequence of punctures made 
 upon their branches by a small insect. 
 
 It is found in commerce in three forms — stick 
 lac, seed lac, and shell lac. Stick lac is the 
 substance in its natural state investing the small 
 twigs of trees, which are generally broken off in 
 collecting it. When separated from the twigs and 
 partly cleansed it is known as seed lac. Shell lac 
 is the seed lac after it has been melted, purified 
 and formed into thin cakes. 
 
 Shellac is very apt to be adulterated with 
 common resin, and hence, unless when a pale 
 lacquer is required, most artizans prefer seed lac. 
 
346 
 
 SIENNA. 
 
 When lac is mixed with a little resin and colored 
 with vermilion or ivory-black it forms sealing- 
 wax. 
 
 Shellac is soluble in alcohol, but not in turpen- 
 tine ; shellac varnish is extensively used in the 
 arts. 
 
 Sienna or Terra de Sienna.— An ochre formerly 
 called Sienna Earth. The raw sienna is a peculiar 
 yellow, and when burned is a dark red chestnut 
 color. Great care is exercised in selecting and 
 burning- this pigment, as it is generally used 
 where its brightness and clearness of tone is 
 brought out in the transparency more than its 
 body. 
 
 Silking. — A term applied to the appearance of a 
 varnished surface, when it is like a textile or 
 fibrous material, as silk or enameled leather. It is 
 generally caused by cold draughts upon the var- 
 nish, but the mixing of turpentine with the varnish, 
 or the use of a brush from out the brush-keeper in 
 which oil is used to preserve the brushes, will 
 cause silking. Brush marks, made by working 
 the varnish too long, often give the appearance of 
 silking. 
 
 Silver Leaf. — Silver or alloys of same, beaten out 
 like gold leaf into thin sheets. It is notoriously 
 fugitive, oxydizing to a dull copper color very 
 soon after being exposed to the atmosphere, and 
 its use is extremely limited in late days. Nickel 
 or Aluminium leaf has taken its place in most 
 cases. 
 
 Size. — A glutinous or adhesive substance, of which 
 there are man}?- kinds, and used for many purposes. 
 Size maybe used for fastening to any surface gold 
 
SMOOTHING BRUSH. 
 
 347 
 
 or other metal leaf, bronze, flockings, etc., and 
 these will be found fully described under the re- 
 spective heads of Gilding on Wood, Gilding on 
 Glass, etc. (which see). 
 
 A size for ceilings and walls to be painted, 
 papered or kalsomined, is made by simply dissolv- 
 ing* one-half a pound of glue in a pail of boiling- 
 water. Size for plaster casts to be painted may 
 be made as follows : Dissolve one ounce of albumen 
 (white of egg) in four ounces of acetic acid, or 
 strong- vinegar. 
 
 Slush Paint. — The refuse from paint-cups and var- 
 nish cups, or any waste paint thrown into a 
 receptacle and kept for coarse work, such as paint- 
 ing- the inside and bottoms of carriages, roofs, 
 around chimneys, etc. The economical painter 
 will seldom allow any great quantity of slush to 
 accumulate, and if used soon after it comes from 
 the cups there will be no waste, while if allowed 
 to dry hard it becomes worthless. 
 
 Smalt. — A coarse powder, made in various colors. 
 Used for signs, etc. The letters being- first laid 
 out and gilded, an oily, sticky paint, near the color 
 of the smalt to be used, is then " cut around " the 
 letters, and while yet " wet," the board being laid 
 horizontally, the smalt is sifted upon it to the 
 depth of i an inch, left to dry, after which the 
 superfluous smalt is brushed 
 off. Blue, green, black and ^/^N. 
 
 brush made as shown in the 
 
 annexed figure, for smoothing- down paper-hang- 
 
 red smalts look well with 
 gold. 
 
 Smoothing Brush. — A bristle 
 
 Fig. 135. —Smoothing 
 Brush. 
 
348 
 
 SNOTF COLOR. 
 
 ings, when applying the paper to the wall or 
 ceiling-. They answer the purpose designed ad- 
 mirably, and are better than the whisk-broom and 
 wad of cloth which paper-hangers were wont to 
 use in olden times. 
 
 Snuff Color. — Four parts chrome yellow and two 
 of Vandyke brown. 
 
 Soffit. — The sloping- ceiling of a staircase, the 
 under-side of a cornice next the ceiling, and the 
 ceilings of beams and openings. 
 
 Soluble Class, or Water-Class.— This liquid is 
 now much used for painting where it is desirous 
 of rendering Avood incombustible, and for floors 
 in place of wax and oil. A floor is first well 
 cleaned, and then the cracks are filled up with a 
 cement of water-glass and whiting; afterward 
 water-glass of sixty to sixty-five degrees of the 
 thickness of syrup is applied with a stiff brush. 
 Any desired color is imparted to the floor in a 
 second coat of the water-glass, and additional coats 
 are to be given until the requisite polish is ob- 
 tained. A still higher finish may be given by 
 pumicing of the last coat and rubbing it well with 
 oil. It can also be advantageously used in paint- 
 ing houses, decorations for theatres, scenery, and 
 so forth. 
 
 Spanish Brown. — A dull red pigment, similar to 
 Venetian red, but inferior and used only for com- 
 mon work. 
 
 Spar Varnish. — A varnish originally intended for 
 coating vessels, masts and spars, hence its name ; 
 but being found excellent for other purposes — as 
 for example, the outer doors of dwellings — it is 
 extensively used by house-painters. 
 
SPONGE. 
 
 349 
 
 .Sponge. — A fibrous and porous marine substance, 
 found far down in ocean depths, clinging' to rocks 
 and shells, and is gathered in the Mediterranean 
 and in the West Indies. Under the microscope 
 the sponge presents a singular appearance, and it 
 is affirmed that it is actually pinned together by 
 metallic pins, with heads and points, similar to 
 those used at the toilet. These microscopic pins 
 are set at every angle, thus holding the parts 
 together. 
 
 Sponges should be selected with care, for many 
 of them are "weighted" with ]ime and sand, being 
 sold by the pound. In choosing sponges, the 
 light-colored varieties (not bleached), and those of 
 a size that will not require cutting will be found 
 best. Occasionally the dark kinds will answer 
 the purpose but they are generally more open and 
 weak in fibre. The several varieties of sponges 
 are classed according to their market value as 
 " sheep's wool," " yellow," " fox glove," " grass," 
 etc. The first named is the variety most sought 
 as it brings the highest price. The most of the 
 vessels engaged in the sponge trade are owned and 
 fitted out at Ke}^ West. The outfit of a sponge 
 schooner consists of a number of long poles with 
 hooks fastened on the end for gathering the 
 sponges ; from three to seven small boats called 
 "dingies," with provisions for from eight to 
 twelve weeks ; water glasses, etc. In sponging, 
 each dingy carries two men, with water-glasses, 
 hooks and other necessities. While one man 
 sculls the boat about, the other, lying across the 
 boat's thwart with his head in the water-glass, 
 scans the bottom for sponges. The water-glass 
 is nothing but a deep wooden pail with a circular 
 
350 
 
 SPURS. 
 
 pane of glass for a bottom. Placing- this upright in 
 the water, and putting- the head in far enough to 
 exclude most of the light, one can easily see an 
 object on the bottom in six or seven fathoms of 
 water. The sponger directs the sculler how to 
 go by waving his hand, and when in a desirable 
 position, he thrusts his long pole down and hooks 
 a sponge. 
 
 The vessels remain out upon the bars from 
 Monday until Friday evening of each week, com- 
 ing into the keys in order to clean the sponges 
 gathered the week previous, put those gathered 
 the current week into the crawls, put their wood 
 and water on board, and prepare for the next 
 week. The freshly gathered sponges are put into 
 crawls or pens, made by driving posts in the sand, 
 where at low water they will be almost dry. 
 Here they are left until the next Saturday to be 
 washed by the tides. In the following Saturday 
 they are cleansed by striking them one or two 
 light blows with a paddle. 
 
 Spurs. — The parts of a letter projecting from the 
 main stem, or perpendiculars of a letter ; and a 
 distinguishing feature between the full block and 
 the half block letters (which see). 
 
 Spruce Ochre.— A dark variety of Yellow Ochre. 
 
 Stains.— To restore the true old color of oak newly 
 worked, put a few old nails or pieces of rusty iron 
 in a bottle with vinegar, and leave them for a few 
 days that a portion of the iron may be dissolved. 
 If this be applied to new oak it will turn it to a 
 purplish black, but oiling and polishing will re- 
 move the purple hue ; when, however, the solution 
 is applied to old oak newly worked it will restore 
 it to its proper color. 
 
STAINING WOOD. 
 
 351 
 
 Stain Coat. — A coating- put over a surface of rough- 
 stuff of some different color, and generally made 
 of some cheap pigment, japan and turpentine, to 
 enable the workman to see when by his rubbing 
 with pumice-stone and water that the surface is 
 level, for when the stain coat is all rubbed off the 
 surface should be smooth. 
 
 Staining Wood. — The staining- of plain wood to 
 color it, or to give it the appearance of another 
 variety, as the staining- of soft pine to imitate 
 mahogany, rosewood, etc., is altogether a differ- 
 ent process from dyeing it, and it requires no prep- 
 aration before the stain be applied as in dyeing. 
 
 A beautiful variety of graining may be executed 
 with strong acids on plain wood, brought out by 
 heat, in which way the nitrous acids and aqua- 
 fortis applied affords amber and yellow shades of 
 a darker and dusky hue, so as together to imitate 
 the various hues of the tortoise-shell, after which 
 the work is cleaned off and varnished. 
 The following are stains for wood : 
 
 1. Cheap Black Walnut Stain. — Burnt umber, 2 
 parts ; rose pink, 1 part ; glue, 1 part ; water 
 sufficient ; heat all together and dissolve com- 
 pletely. Apply to the wood with a sponge, then, 
 when dry, varnish with shellac. 
 
 2. Ebony Stain. — Drop black, 2 parts ; rose pink, 1 
 part ; mix with turpentine ; varnish with shellac. 
 
 3. Extra Ebony Stain. — Pour 2 quarts of boiling- 
 water over 1 oz. of powdered extract of log- 
 wood, and when the solution is effected, 1 dr. of 
 yellow chromate of potash is added, and the whole 
 well strained through coarse flannel, When 
 rubbed on wood it produces a deep black. Two or 
 three applications will be necessary. 
 
352 
 
 STAINING WOOD. 
 
 4. Rosewood Stain.— To imitate rosewood it is 
 necessary to use two stains, a red and black, and 
 to make these, proceed as follows : 
 
 To a gallon of water add one pound of logwood 
 chips and a double handful of walnut peels or 
 shells, and boil until a strong dark-colored solu- 
 tion results, then strain to remove chips and add 
 one pint of best vinegar. This forms the black 
 stain. 
 
 To make the red stain.— Boil | pound of logwood 
 in 3 pints of water till it is of a very dark red ; 
 add | ounce salt of tartar (carbonate of potassa). 
 While boiling hot stain the wood with two or three 
 coats, then when dry form streaks with the dark or 
 black stain (as above) using a flat paint brush 
 which has been cut so that its point or end is 
 ragged, and a ver}' fair imitation of rosewood will 
 result. This process may be transposed if desir- 
 ed : that is, stain first with the black, then with 
 the red. 
 
 5. The Best Ebony Stain.— Boil ^ lb. of logwood 
 chips in 2 qts. of water, add 1 oz. pearlash and 
 brush the hot solution over the wood. Then take 
 1 qt. of the logwood decoction and 1£ oz. verdigris 
 and \ oz. of copperas; strain and throw m \ lb. 
 of iron rust. Brush the wood with this and oil it. 
 
 G. French Mahogany Stain. — The wood being well 
 smoothed is rubbed with dilute nitrous acid. Then 
 1 oz. dragon's blood is dissolved in a pint of spirit s 
 of wine ; this, and \ oz. carbonate of socla, are then 
 mixed together and filtered, and the liquor is laid 
 on with a soft brush. The application is repeated 
 and in a short interval the wood will appear like 
 mahogany. 
 
STAINING WOOD. 
 
 353 
 
 7. To Darken Light Mahogany. — To avoid the 
 patched appearance when the mahogany furniture 
 is repaired, wash the new mahogany with soap- 
 lees, or dissolve quicklime in water and use in the 
 same way, being 1 careful not to let either be too 
 strong or it will make the wood too dark. 
 
 8. Black Walnut Stain. — Boil for a quarter of 
 an hour 1 qt. of water to which is added 1^ ozs. 
 washing soda; 2^ ozs. Vandyke brown; J oz. bichro- 
 mate of potassa. Apply with a brush, either hot 
 or cold. 
 
 9. Crimson Stain. — Boil 1 lb. of Brazil dust in 
 3 qts. water for an hour, strain it and add J oz. 
 of cochineal ; boil again for a short time, and it 
 will be ready for use. If a brighter scarlet is 
 desired, boil ^ oz. saffron in 1 qt. of water and 
 apply before putting on the red stain. 
 
 10. Cherry Stain. — Take rain water 4 qts ; annato, 
 5 ozs., boil in a copper kettle until the annato is 
 dissolved, then put in a piece of potash the size of 
 a walnut and keep it on the fire half an hour, then 
 bottle for use. 
 
 11. Darkening Mahogany.— To darken mahogany 
 with a deep tint, and yet keep plenty of color, a 
 small amount of chromate of potash may be 
 melted in a quart of water, and applied with a 
 piece of woolen cloth. 
 
 12. Walnut Stain. — Genuine powdered Vandyke 
 brown is mixed with a small amount of pearlash 
 in cold water, by heating till it becomes a paste, 
 and a quart of boiling water gradually poured on 
 and stirred. Also apply with a piece of woolen 
 cloth. 
 
 13. Fine Brown Stain. — This may be obtained by 
 
354 
 
 STAINING WOOD. 
 
 diluting the walnut stain with three times its 
 volume of water. 
 
 14. Black Stain. — An extract of logwood, obtained 
 by boiling it three hours in water, is to be applied 
 hot, making a red stain. Coat this over with 
 vinegar that has stood three hours in a jar, with 
 rusty nails at bottom, and you have your black. 
 
 15. Rosewood. — Grain with above vinegar. 
 
 16. Brown Oak. — The walnut stain as described, 
 diluted to the shade required, will serve for brown 
 oak. 
 
 17. Birch. — A good imitation of birch is obtained 
 by a solution of chromate of potash. 
 
 18. Red Oil. — Red oil for mahogany is got by sim- 
 mering linseed oil into which alkanet root has 
 been thrown. The oil must be closely watched. 
 
 19. Oak Over-graining. — Vandyke brown, ground 
 in water, is placed on a plate, with a basin of stale 
 beer beside it; the pencil over-grainer is dipped in 
 the beer, and then the tips of hairs into the water 
 color. The tips are drawn lightly from top to 
 bottom of the panel, in straight lines, over the 
 combings. The mottler is then brought into 
 requisition for broader veins and for knots, and 
 while the color is still wet the badger softener. 
 To prevent "cissing," go over all the grain with 
 a sponge dipped in a thin paste of whiting, or 
 Fuller's earth. 
 
 20. Pine Staining. — Many excellent stains of pine 
 may be obtained by using the ordinary graining 
 colors, Vandyke brown, raw and burnt sienna, 
 ultramarine blue, etc., applied with a brush, 
 without previous preparation, and then wiped off 
 with a cloth — a method that brings out clearly 
 
STAR PATTERN. 
 
 355 
 
 the grain or marks of the wood, which in pitch 
 pine, now being" extensively used for fittings, are 
 often extremely beautiful. A better method for 
 g-eneral work, French polish being ordinarily 
 too expensive, is, where dark oak or mahogany 
 stains are not wanted, lig-ht varnishes, of which 
 two coats are to be applied. The glue size with 
 which the work is first coated, in order to fill up 
 the pores of the wood, should not be too thick, as 
 in that case it is liable to crack. 
 21. Staining Pine a Walnut Color. — A foreign 
 exchange, under the heading of " Changing Poor 
 Pine to Walnut," says : " One part of walnut 
 peel extract is mixed with six parts of water, and 
 the wood is coated with the solution. When the 
 material is about half dry, a solution of bichro- 
 mate of potash with water is rubbed on it, and 
 this completes the operation. It is said to defy 
 detection. 
 
 Star Pattern, How to Draw. — Star patterns may 
 be easily laid with the dividers, laying off, for in- 
 stance, in five parts, moving the dividers and run- 
 ning around from the central upper dot A until the 
 point of the dividers just returns to A, and five 
 dots are made, ABODE. A line from point 
 to point, as shown in the second cut, will then 
 form a perfect five-pointed star. Any number of 
 points may be made by proceeding in a similar 
 manner. Stars of different sizes, cut out of leather 
 or oil-cloth, will be found very handy in the smith- 
 shop for marking step pads, etc. This pattern is 
 frequently called for in the paint-shop, and one is 
 often surprised to find good workmen who are un- 
 able to properly lay out the same with the divid- 
 ers. When a star is painted, it is generally best 
 
350 
 
 STENCILING. 
 
 to shade it, or give it " fullness," and this is done 
 by simply dividing- each point into two shades of 
 color, taking a line from centre of star to point. 
 
 Stenciling. — The application of ornamental designs, 
 letters, etc., to a surface, by spreading color over 
 a perforated pattern. It is a process which, by 
 its simplicity, the ease and rapidity with which it 
 is executed, and the moderate amount of artistic 
 skill which it demands, specially recommends it- 
 self to the amateur decorator. 
 The purposes to which it can be applied are 
 
 A 
 
 Fig. 136.— Star Pattern. 
 
 many, and its extensive use in the car shops, as 
 well as by decorators in dwellings, has brought it 
 to favorable notice with the general public. 
 
 In making stencil plates for various kinds of 
 work, many different materials have been em- 
 ployed — paper, metal, leather, oil-cloth, etc. For 
 general purposes, that most used is paper, as 
 being cheapest, best fitted to draw the design upon, 
 and most easily cut. Stiff cartridge paper is ex- 
 tensively used, while some workmen prefer a sort 
 
STENCILING. 
 
 357 
 
 of leather-colored thin pasteboard, sold under the 
 name of " printers' press packing-." On this the 
 desig-n can be easily drawn, and the parts cut out 
 with a sharp pen-knife while resting- upon a piece 
 of g-lass. Care must be taken to cut clearly and 
 accurately, the curves must be true and bold, and 
 all ang-les well cleaned out, for any slig-ht imper- 
 fections in the stencil-plates will show in an ag-- 
 gravated form in the work. 
 
 To give solidity to the paper some coat the 
 stencil after it has been cut, with shellac varnish 
 or as some call it " knotting-," which prevents the 
 absorption of the liquids which are used upon it. 
 Another useful material for plates is that known 
 as "oiled foolscap." This is excellent for small 
 plates or very fine work, besides its semi-trans- 
 parency enables one to lay it over a drawing- and 
 trace. Tin foil is sometimes used where the sten- 
 cil is to be put on a curved surface, but it is not 
 durable and requires great care in its use. Sheet 
 brass and copper make the most durable stencil- 
 plate, but the cost and trouble of cutting- with a 
 graver render it undesirable. A necessary point 
 to be observed in making- stencil-plates is to leave 
 a sufficient number of "ties;" that is, bands 
 crossing- the opening's at intervals, and thus 
 serving- to hold the plate tog-ether. By referring- 
 to the illustrations, and observing- the arrang-e- 
 ment of one of the desig-ns, these ties will be 
 more clearly understood. These ties may be cov- 
 ered on the work, either by putting- one pattern 
 over another or Irv the use of the pencil. 
 
 For the benefit of those who may wish to 
 stencil, but do not care for the trouble of making- 
 plates, we may say, that a large variety of stencil 
 
358 
 
 STENCILING. 
 
 patterns, working- size, are published, and that in 
 most large paint stores the cut patterns may he 
 purchased. 
 
 Stencil brushes, specially made for this work are 
 to be bought at the dealers. They are of short 
 hair, flattened across the end for the purpose of 
 dabbing, fixed in round handles bound in tin or 
 brass. 
 
 Stenciling has a perfectly legitimate use as a help 
 in laying- in decorations which are afterwards to 
 be finished by hand penciling. When stenciling is 
 thus made only a preliminary process, the design 
 
 Fig. 137.— Brush used in Stenciling. 
 
 may be treated freely. Breadth and simplicity 
 are no longer essentials, and in making the plates 
 ties may be put in at random, or wherever they 
 will give greatest strength, for all traces of them 
 can be removed, as before said, with the pencil, yet 
 a difficult matter in purely stenciled work, as the 
 pencil will not give precisely the same texture as 
 the stencil brush. Thus used stenciling becomes 
 an invaluable aid to an indifferent draughtsman, 
 who by this means get in all the main details leav- 
 ing only unimportant parts to be made good after- 
 wards by hand work. 
 
 Used as a decorative process, stenciling has a 
 character of its own, and an interest in proportion 
 as it is characteristic. The ignorant or timid 
 decorator is ashamed or half afraid of the stencil- 
 
STENCILING. 
 
 359 
 
 ed look, and seeks to obliterate the traces of the 
 process. The experienced artist values the char- 
 acter that comes of stenciling", and would rather 
 accentuate than blur it. He prides himself upon 
 the aptness of his design to the method of its ex- 
 ecution, and is best pleased with it when he feels 
 he has invented something- that could not have 
 been so satisfactorily reproduced by any other 
 process. 
 
 The drawback to the utility of stenciling", if not 
 entirely removed, may at least be modified by the 
 adoption of the plan shown in the accompany- 
 ing" diagrams. 
 
 Fig. 138 represents a scroll stencil cut in the ordi- 
 nary manner, the pieces A B C D requiring to 
 be joined by hand after stenciling the pattern. In 
 Fig. 139 the same scroll is shown, but with the 
 parts A B C D extended into simple leaf form, the 
 foliated position of each coming directly in place of 
 the " tie," and at once obviating the necessity of 
 re-touching the pattern after transfer to the work 
 in hand, as the design is complete. From this 
 example it will be seen that the introduction of a 
 more ornamental scroll is really less likely to 
 take time than a perfectly plain curve. 
 A very unique effect may be produced by the 
 
 Fig. 138. Fig. 139. 
 
 Stencil Plates. 
 
 Fig. 140. 
 
360 
 
 STENCILING. 
 
 introduction of imitation inlaid work on the ordi- 
 nary graining of doors and dados. The method 
 
 Fig. 141.— Stenciling on a Door Panel. 
 
 is simple and capable of infinite variations. The 
 engraving. Fig. 141, represents one panel of a door 
 so treated, and will, if worked on the principles 
 
STENCILING. 
 
 361 
 
 described, be found a satisfactory addition to the 
 usual decorative work. 
 
 After the door has been grained, preferably in 
 imitation of satinwood for the panels, the first 
 necessary step is to prepare the stencil. 
 
 The parts of the design possessing* a scroll 
 formation should be carefully cut with a sharp 
 penknife out of a sheet of cartridge paper pre- 
 pared by the application of one coat of patent 
 knotting on each side. It is better to draw the 
 design correctly previous to coating the paper. 
 
 Having- prepared the stencils, thoroughly clean 
 the panel by wiping* it with a chamois or wash 
 leather to remove any grease, etc., from contact 
 with the distemper now to be used. The panel 
 should have been previously varnished. If the 
 inlay is to imitate walnut, take equal parts of 
 Vandyke brown, burnt sienna, and a little damp 
 lake to impart warmth of color. 
 
 These must be ground in water and should be 
 used with sufficient stale beer to render the color 
 workable. Coat the panel right over, and with a 
 hog-hair mottler vary the tints by taking out 
 some portions of it before it dries, softening the 
 whole with a badger-hair brush. When this is 
 thoroughly dry the panel is ready for the stencil. 
 
 The stencil being laid on in its proper place, go 
 over it with the stencil brush dipped in japan 
 gold-size thinned with turpentine, taking care to 
 use it as sparingly as possible to prevent spread- 
 ing. The lines may be drawn with the same 
 medium, using an angle fitch and straight 
 edge. In about an hour the gold -size will be dry 
 enough to bear washing with water, and a soft 
 sponge and water will soon remove the distemper, 
 
362 STENCILING. 
 
 Fig. 142.— Stencil Designs. 
 
STENCILING. 
 
 363 
 
 leaving the parts covered by the size, consequently 
 a walnut inlay on a satin-wood panel. 
 
 The greatest care must be taken that the var- 
 nish has become dry before any attempt is made 
 to coat the work with distemper. The firmness 
 of hand and precision of touch indispensable to the 
 decorator can only be obtained by patient practice 
 with the black-lead pencil ; as well does it afford 
 that education of the eye to the beauty and sym- 
 
 A 
 
 Fig. 143.— Knives for Cutting Stencils. 
 
 metry of ornamental forms which the copying of 
 outline examples alone can give. 
 
 The design drawn, we may now consider the 
 method of producing a stencil from it. Stencils 
 may be cut in vellum, paper, parchment, lead foil, 
 and thin brass ; the two latter are unsuitable to 
 the requirements of the decorator, the lead foil 
 being used principally by glass writers and em- 
 bossers. Having prepared the paper, the process 
 of cutting out will be found to demand the great- 
 est care, and, above all, well ground and sharpened 
 tools. Have an oil-stone within reach, therefore, 
 
STENCILING. 
 
 365 
 
 and use it frequently. It is quite useless going to 
 work with a blunt knife. There is much diversity 
 of opinion as to the most suitable blade for stencil 
 cutting. The ordinary penknife blade is scarcely 
 graduated enough for the purpose, for sweeping 
 round the curve in the pattern shape. The best 
 blade to my fancy is the example A (Fig. 143), 
 while the angle cut, B, is equally useful for 
 straight lines. C, is another useful shape for very 
 fine work. 
 
 In cutting, the knife should be held firmly be- 
 tween the forefinger and thumb, the thicker part 
 of the blade resting lightly against the tip of the 
 second finger. The stencil paper should be held 
 in its position b}^ the left hand. In cutting a curve 
 draw the paper gently but steadily awa} r from the 
 body, and consequently against the cutting blade 
 in the direction required by the degree of curva- 
 ture shown in the design. A square of polished 
 plate glass is the best material for, cutting on. 
 Perforations of a circular form are made by the 
 use of a leather-punch, procurable at any tool 
 warehouse. These punches are made in various 
 sizes, and are so constructed that the pieces cut 
 out of the stencil paper by the cutting edge pass 
 into the body of the punch, whence they are easily 
 removed at the opening in the upper portion of 
 the implement. It is not necessary to strike the 
 punch, a firm pressure of the hand is generally 
 sufficient for the purpose required, slightly turn- 
 ing the wrist at the same moment. 
 
 Glass has been objected to by some stencil- 
 cutters on the supposition that it has the effect of 
 destroying the keen edge requisite in making a 
 satisfactory stencil. Some prefer a sheet of tin as 
 
Fig. 145.— Stencil Designs. 
 
STONE OCHRE. 
 
 367 
 
 a substitute, while hard' wood or stone has even 
 been suggested : none of these, in my opinion, 
 equal the polished plate-glass, provided my sug- 
 gestion as to the oil-stone be taken into account. 
 A sheet of tin might, and probably does, answer 
 for the time, but the repeated indentations of the 
 surface and the deep cuts or scratches it receives 
 beneath the pressure to which it must of necessity 
 be subjected, militate against its use. The edge 
 of the knife may not be so much injured, but the 
 point may at any moment slip into one of the 
 scratches, and that simple deviation from the 
 direction in which it was intended it should have 
 gone would not improbably ruin an early completed 
 stencil-plate. 
 
 It is, again, a frequent mistake to make a sten- 
 cil on too stout a paper. The strength of paper 
 does not depend upon its stoutness ; a closely 
 woven thin paper often possesses greater tenacity 
 than much more bulky specimens. Cartridge 
 paper may be used for almost every purpose. 
 
 Stiff Color-— Full-bodied paint. 
 
 Stippling. — This is a process of treating the surface 
 with the butt of the bristles, in order to give a 
 solid effect. It requires about double time, and a 
 full coat of color underneath. It is used for fine 
 wall work, and, recently, for heavy (broad) wood 
 surfaces, as it destroys brush marks and lines, and 
 gives a full effect. 
 
 Stone Color. — Five parts of white, two of yellow, one 
 of raw umber. 
 
 Stone Ochre. — An earthy oxide of iron, forming a 
 pigment of considerable permanence in oil or 
 water. 
 
3G8 
 
 STOPPING. 
 
 Stopping-— The English term for puttying, as m 
 filling- in and making- good all nail-holes, bad 
 joints, cracks, etc. The circumstance calling- for 
 the greatest care in stopping, is where a panel or 
 other part of the work has received a blow, or a 
 delve or shallow cavity is formed. The best way 
 to repair such a spot is to deepen it by pricking 
 holes in it with an awl or a nail, and these should 
 incline in different directions, and should be more 
 thickly placed or more numerous near the edges 
 than in the middle of the space. Tacks are some- 
 times driven into such shallow places, with the 
 head left a little way out from the bottom, so that 
 the putty may cling around it and remain firmly. 
 
 Fig. 146.— Straight-Edge. 
 
 Straight-Edge.— There are many varieties of 
 straight-edge in use among decorators, but much 
 of their utility depends upon the bevel. In Fig. 
 146 is shown two of different bevels, that marked A 
 is most often met with, but a few words will tend 
 to convince the reader that B is really the safest 
 in working. Much of the steadiness of your line 
 arises from the perfectly even contact of the 
 straight-edge with the surface of the work, and it 
 is at once obvious that the wider the surface of 
 the straight-edge available to lay on the work, 
 the steadier may it be held by the workman, 
 and the less liable is it to " shift " by the contact 
 
STRIPING. 
 
 3G9 
 
 of the lining-fitch as it passes along" the bevel. 
 The straight-edge is made of various woods, ma- 
 hogany, slightly polished, being perhaps the best, 
 but for ceiling work deal or pine is preferable, be- 
 ing so much lighter in weight, an important con- 
 sideration not to be overlooked. An angle-fitch 
 is the proper tool for running all lines upon a flat 
 surface. The sizes commonly in use for general 
 purposes are from f in. to H in - m width. Of 
 course smaller sizes are made for finer work. 
 
 For running distemper lines it may be noted that 
 the color should be thinned with water only in 
 order that it may flow freely from the fitch, and 
 further, that it may be used much more fluid in 
 substance than the color used for the corners or 
 other parts of the ceiling. 
 
 Straw Color. — Five parts yellow, two of white, one 
 red. 
 
 Stripe. — A line or long narrow division of anything 
 of different color from the ground {See Striping). 
 
 Striping. — The application of colored lines of single 
 or of various widths upon a painted surface, par- 
 ticularly on carriages and railway cars. 
 
 To stripe a carriage well it is requisite that the 
 workman be supplied with good tools, such as 
 sable-hair or camels '-hair pencils of various 
 widths or sizes, and with paint, or as commonly 
 called "color," mixed in the best manner and 
 ground as fine as possible, for no real fine work 
 can be made with poor materials. 
 
 The actual work of striping may be learned in 
 a few moments by simply watching the move- 
 ments of a good striper, but it requires extended 
 practice to educate the eye and hand up to that 
 

 
 STRIPING. 
 
 standard where first-class work is readily turned 
 out. The hand alone, no matter how cunning- it 
 may be in the use of the striping- pencil, will never 
 be successful without the aid of a quick and ac- 
 curate eye, for that is really the prime mover. 
 
 Fig. 147. —Showing the Position of the Hand in Striping 
 the Rim of a Whlel. 
 
 The eye must be quick to detect the slig-htest varia- 
 tion from a correct line and to chang-e the move- 
 ment of the hand before a wrong- or crooked mark 
 is made. 
 
 The eye of the workman is directed, when once 
 the pencil is laid upon the work, alternately from 
 the gauge line, if marked, or an imaginary one if 
 
STRIPING. 
 
 371 
 
 not ; then to the heel or butt of the pencil where 
 it touches the guage line, resting- here during the 
 drawing of the line, leaving the point of the pencil 
 to follow the course of the butt, which it will in- 
 variably do. 
 
 The pencil is held between the thumb and fore- 
 finger, and the middle finger acts as a gauge or 
 guide. The illustration, Fig. 147, shows the hand 
 in position while striping the rim of a wheel. The 
 axle having been raised upon a Avheel-board (q. v.) 
 or jack, the wheel is kept slowly revolving, with 
 the left hand, until the stripe is complete. Care 
 must be taken in the filling or charging of the 
 pencil; the paint should be worked or thinned 
 upon the palette until of an even consistency, and 
 the hairs of the pencil should be well straightened 
 out before the stripe is begun, and this is of great 
 importance when a corner or angular connection 
 is to be made. When the paint has run out of the 
 pencil and refilling becomes necessary, the stripe 
 should be overrun for several inches in order to 
 make the connection perfect. Pencils for striping 
 are made of sable-hair, camel-hair, and ox-hair. 
 
 The sable-hair pencils are best for heavy colors, 
 such as white lead, etc., camel-hair being softer 
 and is therefore preferred by most stripers. The 
 ox-hair pencils (made from the hair which grows 
 in the ear of the ox), are best adapted for heavy 
 colors on coarse work, such as trucks, etc. Pencils 
 can be purchased ready-made, both round and flat, 
 and of many sizes ; but an experienced striper can 
 generally make his fine liners, by cutting up a 
 large pencil, much more to his satisfaction than he 
 can buy. 
 
 The flat or dagger pencil is considered by most 
 
372 
 
 STRIPING. 
 
 workmen to be the best form, as a greater amount 
 of work can be done with it in a specified time, 
 owing- to the quantity of paint it will carry. 
 Stripes from eight to ten feet in length have been 
 easily drawn with these without filling. 
 
 Fig. 148.— Broad Striping Pencil. 
 
 Broad striping, unless done with heavy color, is 
 best done with a camel-hair pencil. To choose 
 these tools, be sure that the hair is perfectly 
 straight, dark-colored, and not over two and one- 
 
 Fig. 149.— Three Sizes of Striping Pencils. 
 
 half inches in length, for if too long the hairs will 
 drop or sag down to such an extent as to be almost 
 useless ; while if too short a straight line cannot 
 be drawn. The old-fashioned round pencils are 
 still in use in many shops, and we illustrate them 
 here. Never, under any circumstances draw a 
 striping pencil through between the lips to form a 
 point, as many do when purchasing them, for it 
 ruins a pencil to come in contact with warm 
 spittle. 
 
STRIPING. 
 
 373 
 
 All pencils should be well cared for after use. 
 It is a poor practice to stick them against a win- 
 dow-pane with candle grease. A covered box to 
 exclude the dusk is not expensive, and in this the 
 pencils may be laid away in safety, having- first 
 g iven them a plentiful anointing- with a mixture 
 of tallow and sweet oil which will not get hard in 
 winter. Then have a piece of tin or glass just fit- 
 ting- the box, on which to lay them straight. If a 
 pencil gets bent or out of shape, it can be straight- 
 ened by simply greasing it and drawing it between 
 the finger and a warm iron. 
 
 The varieties of stripes, governed by their width 
 and arrangement are very many, and we give be- 
 low a complete list of those in general use. The 
 different stripes are named according to their 
 widths, beginning with the " hair-line," the finest 
 line that can be drawn to advantage, and increas- 
 ing to the "broad stripe," beyond which the 
 stripe is known by its measure, as " three-quarter- 
 inch stripe," "inch stripe," and so on until 
 those made above one-and-a-half inches in width 
 are called "belts." All tracings made by the 
 striping pencil which are more than one-sixteenth 
 of an inch in width are called ' ' stripes." All less 
 than that are designated as " lines." 
 
 In some cases double stripes, in width up to No. 
 11, are used, but it is more frequent to introduce 
 smaller stripes or lines in connection with them as 
 shown in the following combinations. 
 
 When the marks which form a double stripe or 
 line are placed far apart, either with or without 
 the addition of a centre line or stripe, the combi- 
 nation is then called "distanced." 
 
374 
 
 STRIPING. 
 
 " Hair line." 
 "Fine line." 
 " Medium." 
 "Stout line." 
 "Round line." 
 " Heavy round line." 
 " Light stripe." 
 "Narrow stripe." 
 
 " Medium stripe." 
 
 " Heavy stripe." 
 
 " Broad stripe." 
 " Double fine line." 
 " Double medium line. 
 
 Double stout line." 
 
 Double round line. 
 
 " Double light stripe. 
 
 Fig. 150.— Various Striping Lines. 
 
STRIPING. 375 
 
 Ornamental stripes are used mostly on business 
 wagons or sleighs, almost all such work being 
 done by patterns. The ornamental stripes are 
 
 Fig. 151.— Striping for Busi- Fig. 152.— Another Method 
 ness- Wagon Gears. of Striping Gears. 
 
 first drawn on paper, and then each mark of the 
 lead-pencil is punctured with a pin, the holes being 
 made as closely together as possible. This pat- 
 
376 STRIPING. 
 
 tern is then laid on the surface to be ornamented, 
 and rubbed over with a small pounce bag (q. v.). 
 A fine ornamenting pencil is then used, with which 
 to execute the pattern. Good judgment is neces- 
 sary in the application of striping, and many con- 
 ditions must be taken into account in determining 
 the color, width, and combinations of the stripes. 
 The painter should look well to the form of the 
 work, its weight, and the effect his striping will 
 have on it. The wheels of a light trotting wagon 
 or sulk^r do not require a broad stripe on each 
 side of the spokes to make them look lighter and 
 more slender than they really are, but, by the 
 same means, the appearance of a heavy wheel 
 may be lightened and improved. The style and 
 arrangement of the striping on a farm or busi- 
 ness wagon would be entirely out of place on a fine 
 pleasure carriage. 
 Odd Styles of Striping for Carriage Parts.— 
 
 Half -and- Half. — This is done by striping one- 
 half of each spoke lengthwise with a color differ- 
 ent from the ground- work. If the ground be 
 straw color and a light brown is selected for strip- 
 ing, then run the brown from hub to felloe on the 
 back half of the spokes, and stripe the remainder 
 of the carriage part in the usual way. The brown 
 may be run on the dead color, over colors that 
 cover solidly without varnish in their mixture. 
 Again, the spokes may be halved by carrying the 
 brown, or any other color, half way from the hub 
 to the felloe, covering the spoke all around. 
 
 Dotted Line. — A fine line put at centres of the 
 several parts. It is kept an inch or more from 
 the hub and felloe, and ends have one or two dots 
 of the same color. 
 
STRIPING. 
 
 Dotted and Forked. — Same as the former, ex- 
 cept that it has a double fork at the centre, which 
 forms a diamond, or any other break may be 
 placed at the centre that is easy to put on. 
 
 Dotted and Scrolled. — This is a single line, 
 dotted as before, and having- the fronts of spokes 
 and other suitable places varied by the introduc- 
 tion of simple scrolls, touched up with colors con- 
 trasting* with the striping- color. 
 
 Double Fine Line, Ornamented. — Which may 
 be done at the centres of the spokes, or at centre 
 or ends on the other parts, by plain stripes or 
 scrolls. 
 
 Triple Lines. — Three fine lines, atone time, the 
 centre one slig-htly the heavier, and at another the 
 outside lines the largest, but in both cases the 
 centre line is a half inch the long-er at each end, 
 and is dotted. 
 
 Broken Broad Line. — This is a broad line run 
 on and afterwards cut in two at the centre with 
 the ground color, making- a half-inch opening-. 
 Edg-e, or distance fine lines are then run on, and 
 are joined by cross lines at the opening- of the 
 broad line, or the edg-e and distance lines may be 
 omitted, and the break in the broad line filled with 
 short fine lines at right angles to the broad line, 
 the middle one to be somewhat the long-er. 
 
 Short Broad Line. — Broad line on centre of 
 spokes, to be one-third the leng-th of same, and 
 the spaces above and below the broad line filled 
 with fine lines forked to the width of broad stripe. 
 
 Having- given a few examples of the treatment 
 of a single line or Stripe, it will be in place to show 
 the effect of a repetition of a single figure or form, 
 composed of a single line, and as here given the 
 
378 
 
 STRIPING. 
 
 Fig. 154.— Corner Designs for Striping. 
 
STRIPING. 
 
 379 
 
 completed drawing- represents what is termed a 
 border. The border is used chiefly on sleigh 
 bodies and showy wagon work, but occasionally 
 is in fashion for carriages. In the styles here 
 shown, No. 1 is after the style of the Greek Fret 
 or Meander, and it will be readily noticed that the 
 single form resembles the letter S, but it has 
 square instead of round corners. The dotted lines 
 give the spacing 1 and proportions. There are five 
 equal horizontal spaces, and six equal vertical 
 spaces. For the horizontal stripes of the pattern, 
 the first, third and fifth spaces are taken, and for 
 the vertical stripes, counting from the left, the 
 first, fourth and sixth spaces are used. The 
 spaces are, therefore, the same width as the run- 
 ning line. 
 
 No. 2 was produced by doubling the former key 
 pattern; that is, there are two of the S forms 
 brought together, which produce a resemblance to 
 the block T. The lines and spaces are otherwise 
 the same as in No. 1 
 
 No. 3 is identical with No. 1, when first laid out, 
 the only change being the cutting of the corners 
 at an angle, and yet so slight an alteration is 
 sufficient to make quite a different border. 
 
 No. 4 is also like No. 1, with the exception that 
 it has inclined instead of vertical lines. The lines 
 are at angle of 65°. No. 2 may be similarly 
 treated. 
 
 In No. 5, there is presented an extra bend, or 
 block form, which it will be seen is nothing more 
 than a change of the inner horizontal line, from a 
 single straight line to the embattled shape. This 
 renders the border a trifle more difficult of execu- 
 tion, but more pleasant when completed. 
 
380 
 
 STRIPING PEN. 
 
 String. — A horizontal band or border. 
 
 Striping Pen. — An ordinary drawing- pen may be 
 used for striping', but a patent pen, so arranged 
 that the color was regulated in its flow by set 
 
 JSo. 4. 
 
 No. 5. 
 
 Fig. 153.— Borders or Belts. 
 
 screws, etc., was once brought out by one Cross- 
 ingham, of Croton Falls, N. Y., but he did not 
 make a success of the instrument on the market, 
 although excellent work could be done with it. A 
 
SURFACER. 
 
 381 
 
 good striper needs no mechanical device, his eye 
 and hand alone being sufficient to produce the 
 best results. 
 
 Sugar of Lead. — A drier for paints. It should be 
 ground fine, and may be used in delicate colors 
 such as lakes, but if used in glazing or in varnish 
 it is apt to cause pitting. Its use in late years is 
 limited, owing to the perfection to which liquid 
 driers have been brought. 
 
 Surfacer. — Liquid substance or substances composed 
 of coarse pigments, as ochre or similar to ochre, 
 which are used to level up or load the grain of the 
 wood, after the priming or first coat has been ap- 
 plied. A surfacer requires to be leveled down 
 with lump pumice-stone and water. In the sys- 
 tem of carriage painting brought out by Murphy 
 & Co., of Newark, N. J., there are four surfacers 
 used, namely : 1st, Surfacer A — Priming coat ; 
 2d, Surfacer B — Loading coat ; 3d, Surfacer C — 
 Leveling coat ; 4th — Sealing coat. These four 
 surfacers — the first designed to prime the wood 
 and to permeate its fibres; the second designed to 
 load the pores of the grain; the third designed to 
 level the surface; and the fourth to seal it over 
 — constitute a course of kindred coatings, which 
 combine to produce a surface that for smoothness, 
 solidity and wearing quality is unsurpassed. 
 
 Sweating. — The technical term applied to a greasy 
 gloss which makes its appearance upon a var- 
 nished surface after it has been rubbed and 
 allowed to stand. The cause of sweating is the 
 reappearance of the gloss, showing that the var- 
 nish is not hard enough to rub and receive another 
 
382 
 
 SWORD PENCILS. 
 
 coat. The sweating- of rubbing- varnish is a 
 common occurrence, and the inexperienced painter 
 who varnishes over a sweated surface would no 
 doubt be surprised to see his work " enameled," 
 " crinkled up," or " like corduroy." The remedy 
 for this trouble, if time cannot be given for the 
 varnish to harden, is to rub it lightly, wash clean, 
 and immediately apply the varnish — not giving it 
 time to sweat. 
 
 Sword Pencils. — Or as called by some dagger pen- 
 cils. These cannot be purchased ready-made, as 
 they should be made, therefore we will explain 
 how to make them. Take a small piece of wood 
 — hickory is best — and form a handle as shown in 
 the engraving, having it flat, instead of round ; 
 split it edgewise to the depth of say f of an inch ; 
 then, having some good sable or camePs-hair at 
 
 Fig. 154.— Sword Pencils. 
 
 hand, take a sufficient quantity to fill the split 
 with five or six layers of hair, straighten the butt 
 ends by dropping the hair loosely upon the bench 
 or table, and dip that end into some melted glue, 
 then, having opened the split by the insertion of 
 a pin at its inner end, lay the glued end of the 
 hairs evenly within it ; pull out the pin, to allow 
 the split to close, and tie a piece of silk or thread 
 around, as shown at A to hold firmly together. 
 Do not cut the extreme point, if possible to get 
 along without it. If cutting must be done to make 
 
SYSSING. 
 
 383 
 
 a point, cut just as little as possible ; grease the 
 pencil, draw it between the finger and a warm 
 iron and it is ready for use. 
 How to Use Them. — Fill the pencil, as usual, with 
 color, and holding it edgewise to the work, draw 
 a line with it until by experience you know just the 
 amount of pressure to put on, for the less pres- 
 sure the finer the line, and vice versa. By keeping 
 a steady pressure upon the pencil and allowing 
 about one-half the length of the hair only to touch 
 the work, a uniform stripe man}^ feet in length 
 may be drawn. The mass of hair acts as a reser- 
 voir for the paint. These pencils are coming into 
 use in most of the best shops, and those who have 
 acquired the knack of ha ndling them say they can 
 do more and better work with them than with the 
 old style pencils. It requires some considerable 
 practice to master the art, however. 
 
 Syssing or Cissing. — A term employed by English 
 painters, being synonymous with " crawling " as 
 used in America, but applied more particularly to 
 this trouble in connection with repair work, and 
 under certain conditions. It is a common plan 
 for an English painter, when a job is brought to 
 him for varnishing only, to give it a thin coating, 
 first, of a mixture of gold-size varnish and tur- 
 pentine, made up as wanted. The object of this 
 is to set the dirt or kill any grease that may be 
 hanging around it. If this is not flatted down, 
 i. e., rubbed with pumice powder — and generally it 
 is not, because it is too thin for flatting — the var- 
 nish laid over it will run up in lumps, which is 
 called " syssing " and of course the job is spoiled, 
 there being no remedy but to rub off the varnish and 
 
SYSSING. 
 
 varnish again properly. The painter may save 
 himself all this trouble by putting' about two 
 tablespoonfuls of turpentine into a pail of water 
 and washing" off the work before attempting" to lay 
 the varnish. " Syssing- " will occur on any work 
 not rubbed with pumice as it should be. 
 
385 
 
 T 
 
 Tacky- — A term used to express the state of a var- 
 nished or sized surface. When the varnish or 
 size is spread upon a surface, it thickens, or ' 'sets, " 
 and rapidly hastens on to that state known as dry, 
 but just before it reaches that dry state, it is tacky, 
 i. e., sticky. The hand may pass over it lightly 
 without disturbing- it but if the finger be placed 
 directly upon the size or varnish it will adhere. 
 It is then ready to receive gold leaf, bronze, or 
 whatever other ornament is desired. 
 
 Tadpoles. — A name given to specks which appear 
 at times on a varnished surface, the same being 
 of the shape of the tadpole, i. e., a round spot, 
 with an elongation or tail. This trouble is due to 
 defects in the under coat ; when small specks in 
 the under coat are rubbed down level, the varnish 
 at that spot is not as hard as the surrounding sur- 
 face and consequently sweat occurs, which acts 
 on the finishing varnish put over it, and little 
 mounds with a comet-like tail are seen. To 
 remedy this, always give the work a light rubbing 
 with a pumice rag just before the varnishing is 
 begun, wash and dry well and no tadpoles will 
 appear. 
 
 Tan Color. — A color of oak bark, made by mixing 
 five parts burnt sienna, two of yellow, and one of 
 raw umber. 
 
386 
 
 TEMPLET. 
 
 Tertiary Colors-— There are three only, namely : 
 citrine, russet and olive. Each of these is com- 
 posed of, or can be resolved into, either two sec- 
 ondary colors or the three primaries : thus, citrine 
 consists of green and orange, or of a predominant 
 yellow with blue and red ; russet is compounded of 
 orange and purple, or of a predominant red with 
 blue and yellow ; and olive is composed of purple 
 and green, or of a predominant blue with yellow 
 and red. 
 
 Terra-Verte. — A bluish-green ochre, not very bright 
 but quite durable. There are several varieties of 
 this pigment, viz : green bice, holly green, ver- 
 detto, verona green, etc. When calcined it forms 
 another pigment known as verona brown. 
 
 Templet {Hutchinson' 's Patent) . — A sheet of metal 
 through which perforations are made correspond- 
 ing with lines which go to make up the alphabet, 
 and through which a pencil point is drawn to 
 sketch out a skeleton form of any desired letter — 
 plain block. It is convenient for amateurs. 
 
 Tempera Colors. — Colors in nearly their natural 
 state, finely ground in spirits, and crushed to pow- 
 der. They are generally called powdered colors. 
 Mixed with gum they form the water-colors of an 
 artist. 
 
 Thinning. — Spirits of turpentine is used principally 
 for thinning paint, and there seems to be nothing 
 to equal it. However, in preparing the thinning 
 for striping or lettering, a few drops of oil added 
 to the turpentine will cause the pencil to work 
 better, and this small percentage will in no wise 
 affect the drying. 
 
TINT, 
 
 387 
 
 Tie-— The connecting- band of a stencil plate; the 
 parts which hold the stencil together (See Stencil- 
 ing). 
 
 Tint.— Any color added to white forms a tint. Also 
 a slight coloring- or tincture distinct from tne 
 ground or principal color. 
 Some of the tints in common use may be of 
 value as follows : 
 Straw Color.— "White lead, Massicot (in oil). 
 Whiting, Dutch Pink (in distemper). 
 " Chrome Yellow. 
 Lavender, Lilac and French Grays.— Produced 
 by the predominance of white, blue or red. 
 White, Lake, Indigo. 
 
 " Lake, Prussian Blue. 
 " Indian Red, Prussian Blue. 
 " Vermilion, Prussian Blue. 
 " Indigo, Rose Pink. 
 Pearl Gray.— White, Black, Prussian Blue. 
 Gray Tints.— Of a blue hue. 
 White, Verditer. 
 " Blue Black. 
 " Lamp Black. 
 " Indigo. 
 Gray Tints.— Of a brown hue. 
 White, Madder Brown, Prus. Blue. 
 
 " Yellow Ochre. 
 
 " Indian Red, Indigo. 
 
 " Light Red, Prussian Blue. 
 
 " Burnt Sienna, Lake, Indigo. 
 
 Brown Tints.— White, Lake, Prussian Blue, Yellow 
 Ochre. 
 
 White, Lake, Indigo, Yellow Ochre. 
 
 " Raw Sienna, Madder Lake, Prussian Blue. 
 
388 
 
 TINT. 
 
 Brown Tints — Continued. 
 White, Light Red, Indigo. 
 
 " Vandyke Brown, Lake, Indigo. 
 " Burnt Sienna, Indigo. 
 
 Lake. 
 
 Green Tint.— White, Italian Pink, Antwerp Blue. 
 
 " Prussian Blue, Italian Pink. 
 " Yellow Ochre, Indigo. 
 " Burnt Sienna, Indigo. 
 " Brown Pink, Indigo. 
 " Raw Umber, Indigo. 
 Pea Green. — White, French Green. 
 
 " Olympian Green. 
 " Brunswick Green. 
 " Prus. Blue, Chrome Yellow. 
 Sage Green. — White, Prussian Blue, Raw Umber. 
 
 " Antwerp Blue, Stone Ochre. 
 Olive Green. — White, Raw Umber, Prussian Blue. 
 Orange Tints. — White, French Yeilow. 
 
 " Orange Lead. 
 " Dutch Pink. 
 " Chrome Yellow, Vermilion. 
 Pink Tints.— White, Rose Pink. 
 
 " Crimson Lake. 
 " Scarlet Lake. 
 Salmon Color. — White, Venetian Red. 
 
 " Vermilion. 
 Peach Tints. — White, Vermilion, Indian Red, Pur- 
 ple, Brown. 
 
 White, Vermilion, Indian Red, Purple, Brown and 
 Burnt Stone Ochre. 
 Violet Tints. — White, Vermilion, Prussian Blue, 
 Lampblack. 
 
TRACEOTYPES. 
 
 389 
 
 Chocolate. — White, Spanish Brown, Venetian Red, 
 
 Vegetable Black. 
 Sky Blue. — White, Prussian Blue. 
 Flesh Tint. — White, Light Red, Yellow Ochre. 
 
 White, Lake, Vermilion, Naples Yellow. 
 Drab and Stone Color. — White, Burnt Umber. 
 
 " Raw Umber. 
 " Yellow Ochre. 
 White, Yellow Ochre, Lampblack. 
 White, Raw Umber, Lampblack. 
 Lead Color. — W^hite, Black. 
 
 " Black, Indigo. 
 It must of course be understood that the colors 
 are not mixed in equal quantities, but in such 
 proportions as will produce the required tint ; the 
 slightest predominance of any one of the pigments 
 gives the prevailing tone of the tints, while the 
 addition of a further quantity of white produces 
 all the numerous gradations, from lavender and 
 lilac to French gray. 
 
 ' All colors in distemper are lighter when dry 
 than they appear in a wet condition. 
 
 By mixing white with the original color a tint is 
 made ; by mixing color with color, compound colors 
 or hues are formed ; w T hile from the mixture of 
 colors or tints with black, shades result. 
 
 Traceotypes- — The letters of the alphabet in vari- 
 ous styles and sizes, cut out of pasteboard, and 
 used by laying them on the w r ork and marking 
 around them. For a beginner these may be of 
 value, but a professional has no use for them. 
 
 Transfer Ornament- — A design or ornament of 
 any kind, painted or printed upon paper which has 
 been suitably prepared, and which can afterwards 
 
TRANSFER ORNAMENT. 
 
 be transferred to another surface. To enable the 
 painter to ' prepare his own transfers, so as to 
 economize time, while the job is being* painted, 
 first procure some unsized letter paper and flow 
 upon one side a thin layer of mucilage or dissolved 
 gum arable ; lay this aside to dry, oat of the way 
 of dust. Then lay out the design and paint it in 
 the same manner as if putting it upon the carriage 
 panel. Next, procure some soft yet moderately 
 thin blotting paper— lithograph paper will answer 
 — and coat one side of that with mucilage or gum 
 as before, let dry, and when the paint of the design 
 is dry, slightly moisten the gum on the blotting 
 paper, and lay the painted ornament face down 
 upon it, pressing it firmly or rubbing it gently 
 with a smooth hard substance. Let this dry, 
 after which dampen the back, i. e., the paper on 
 which the design was painted, and remove the 
 paper in the same manner as if it was a transfer or 
 decalcomanie picture. This transfers the painting 
 face down to the soft paper. It may now be laid 
 aside until the job is ready to receive it ; when that 
 time comes transfer it to the panel by simply siz- 
 ing the ornament with either transfer cement, or 
 quick-drying varnish, in the same manner as a 
 transfer ornament would be done. The face of the 
 design will be to all appearance the same as if 
 painted directly upon the panel. 
 
 Transfer ornaments, as purchased from the 
 dealers, are made by the lithographic process, as 
 follows : 
 
 The first step in the process, after making the 
 design, is to take an outline drawing. This draw- 
 ing is then transferred to as many stones as there 
 are colors in the ornament. Before the stone 
 
TRANSFER PAPER. 
 
 391 
 
 receives the outlines it must be polished to a 
 glass}^ smoothness with pumice-stone. The best 
 work requires from twelve to twenty stones, cost- 
 ing* about $80 each. Crayon is now covered over 
 such portions of the stone as are to receive a 
 certain color — the brown shading" of a scroll, or 
 the blue sky of a landscape it may be — which, 
 when the stone has been placed under acid, are 
 the only portions of its surface that will receive, 
 or transfer to paper, any color whatever. The 
 next stone is prepared in the same way, and so on 
 until the stones are ready. The first stone is then 
 placed upon the bed of the press, which is the last 
 in a chromo-lithograph, being transposed that the 
 ornament may show perfect when transferred. 
 The color having been spread over it with a roller, 
 as in type printing, the sheets of prepared paper, 
 upon which the picture is to be printed, are 
 placed upon it, one by one, and an impression 
 taken. When the whole edition has received the 
 first color, the second stone takes the place of the 
 first, and the sheets are run through the press 
 again, and the second color received. The second 
 stone is then replaced by the third, and so on 
 until the picture is finished. The paper is 
 prepared with a coating of gum that can easily be 
 dissolved by water. Decalcomanie is the same 
 thing as transfer ornaments. It is a French 
 name, and more particularly used in connection 
 with designs of flowers, landscapes, etc. 
 
 Transfer Paper. — Paper so prepared that by a light 
 pressure upon it with a hard point of pencil or 
 other material, the coloring matter will be trans- 
 ferred to the surface upon which it is laid. Used 
 for copying a print or drawing, by laying the 
 
392 
 
 TRANSPARENT PAPER. 
 
 paper upon a sheet of white paper, the print then 
 being* laid over all, and pinned securely in posi- 
 tion. The outlines of the print are then traced 
 with a blunt needle point. 
 
 To make transfer paper — rub a piece of ordinary 
 printing- or newspaper over with lard or tallow to 
 well grease it, then rub in any colored dry pigment 
 desired, lampblack being one of the best ; when 
 the pigment has been well rubbed in, wipe off the 
 superfluous coloring matter. 
 Transparent Paper.— This is used by artists and 
 draughtsmen in copying' drawings, etc., and one of 
 the best known methods of preparing it is as fol- 
 lows : Take Canadian balsam dissolved in tur- 
 pentine, and apply to ordinary white printing paper 
 a thin coating so as to permeate it thoroughly, 
 after which, with a thicker solution of the same, 
 go over both sides of the paper, keeping the paper 
 warm by performing the operation near a fire. A 
 third and perhaps a fourth coat may be applied 
 until the texture of the paper is seen to merge 
 into a homogeneous translucency. Paper pre- 
 pared according to this process is said to come 
 nearer than any other to the highest standard of 
 perfection in transparent paper. Care must be 
 used in making, as the materials are highly inflam- 
 mable. 
 
 Transparent Colors-— It is well understood that 
 transparency in the proper sense is opposed to 
 opaqueness. A transparent body — strictly speak- 
 ing — suffers rays of light to pass through it, so 
 that objects can be seen distinctly. 
 
 Air, water, and glass are examples of transpa- 
 rent bodies. 
 
 The word, however, is sufficiently accurate for 
 
TRANSPARENT COLORS. 
 
 393 
 
 all practical purposes, and, although in the use of 
 a transparent color we cannot see the ground color 
 over which it is laid, still the ground work exerts 
 a modifying influence on the so-called transparent 
 color, and the educated eye of the painter sees the 
 ground color, or at least is conscious of its modi- 
 fying effect on the superimposed color. There is a 
 mutual support between the two, a giving and 
 taking, the end sought being what painters term 
 depth and richness, which cannot be gained by an 
 opaque or heavy-bodied color. 
 
 An opaque color presents to the eye a compact 
 film, while the beauty of a glazing color is due to 
 its property of lying loosely, so to speak, and as 
 varnish is employed the color is asserted by the 
 transparent medium. 
 
 The painter may obtain transparent colors in 
 crimson, scarlet, purple, blue, yellow, green, and 
 brown, and semi-transparent ones of less purity of 
 tone ; and as they may be used clear, over various 
 grounds, mixed with one another, or modified by 
 small proportions of opaque colors, every desired 
 effect presented in nature may be correctly imi- 
 tated, and the extreme richness be produced on 
 surface work. 
 
 Carmine and the lakes, from cochineal and the 
 madder root, supply all that is desirable in red . 
 
 Dutch pink, Italian pink, and patent yellow 
 furnish the yellow tones, and ultramarine stands 
 unrivalled as a blue. 
 
 Verdigris, emerald green, and green lake add to 
 the list transparent greens of great beauty ; and 
 asphaltum has no equal among the browns. 
 Raw sienna supplies a dull yellow, and burnt 
 sienna a very valuable brown orange. The list 
 
TRANSPARENT COLORS. 
 
 might be somewhat enlarged, but those given 
 comprise those which are most useful. 
 
 An opaque color may be rendered semi-trans- 
 parent by using a large proportion of the vehicle 
 to that of color, but such mixtures are compara- 
 tively of but trifling value. 
 
 Transparent colors are usually applied so as to 
 retain the tone of the pigment, as it appears when 
 moistened with oil or varnish. Thus scarlet, 
 crimson, and purple-toned lake are painted over 
 grounds of light and deep vermilion, Indian and 
 Tuscan red, and as greater depth of color is desired, 
 the change is made in the ground color. A very 
 brilliant red is produced by giving a thin wash of 
 carmine over vermilion, and the same shade of 
 carmine may be deepened through browns of 
 varying depths, the limit being black. We may 
 glaze lake over blue, or blue over lake, and pro- 
 duce purple or violet hues, but this is not generally 
 practised outside of striping and ornamenting. 
 The red -toned lakes place at the disposal of the 
 painter a wealth of warm glazing colors ; in fact, 
 nothing better could be imagined. 
 
 Next in order is yellow, which is termed an 
 advancing color, and when free from the orange 
 cast, and is glazed over white or delicately tinted 
 grounds, produces brilliancy without gaudiness. 
 
 Patent yellow gives clear, white tones. Dutch 
 pink and yellow lake, when " wet up," are of a 
 dull yellow, and may be glazed over drab ground- 
 colors, with good effect, but they are at present 
 employed to add richness to what are termed sea, 
 bottle, and olive greens. In this arrangement, the 
 true color of the yellow is hidden, and its yellow 
 tone interposes between the foundation color and 
 
TRANSPARENT COLORS. 
 
 395 
 
 the eye, a yellow medium thus producing trans- 
 parency and richness that cannot be gained by 
 any other means. 
 
 The soft mild green, produced by English var- 
 nish over black, is well known to coach painters, 
 and they know also, that the precise tone cannot 
 be imitated. 
 
 A pure, dark, rich blue, is supplied by ultrama- 
 rine blue. It may be classed as more retiring than 
 many shades of green that are popular, and yet 
 blue is but little used for panels. 
 
 It is usually glazed over dark lead color and 
 mixtures of Prussian or Antwerp blue and white. 
 
 But that is by no means the limit, as it may be 
 successfully glazed over white, straw color, yellow, 
 orange, etc., etc. 
 
 Verdigris is a perfectly transparent bluish 
 green, of exceeding beauty, and in former times 
 was in constant use by coach painters for panels of 
 heavy work. 
 
 Ornamental painters are now lavish of it, on 
 gold and silver leaf, and it has almost lost its 
 place as a panel color. 
 
 Among the browns, asphaltum is the most 
 transparent, and when painted over a dark 
 groundwork, imparts richness, all its own. 
 
 Transparent colors are sometimes modified or 
 changed by the addition of those that are opaque. 
 Thus, burnt umber and yellow lake, or Dutch 
 pink, produce a soft warm brown ; Prussian blue 
 gives a rich green, and so on. The reverse of this 
 process is to add a small proportion of the trans- 
 parent to the opaque color, as lake added to Indian 
 or Tuscan red, and to the strong-bodied, mixed 
 browns. Of course this is in the line of economy, the 
 
396 
 
 TUBE COLORS. 
 
 purpose being- to retain the body or covering power 
 of the opaque color, and a tinge of richness from the 
 transparent one. There is scarcely a limit to the 
 variety that may be produced, and hence the 
 skilled painter has no difficulty in bringing out 
 new effects in colors. 
 
 Brick Head- 
 
 Trencher. — A name often given to the 
 er " or lining brush (which see). 
 
 Tube Colors. — Colors ground in oil, 
 and for convenience in handling 
 are put up in long metal tubes, 
 having a screw cap upon one end. 
 By compressing the sides of the 
 soft metal tube the color is ejected, 
 when the cap may be replaced and 
 in this condition will keep for a long 
 time. Artists seldom think of 
 using any other colors in these 
 days, and the carriage painter will 
 find them excellent for striping, 
 etc. Carmine, ultramarine and a 
 few other expensive colors are now 
 put up in collapsable tubes of this 
 description holding a pound of 
 color. 
 
 Turner's Yellow.— (See Patent Yel- 
 loiv, the same thing.) 
 
 Touching Up. — The act of repairing parts of a 
 piece of work where the painting is broken or worn 
 off. This often occurs in the rubbing process, 
 sharp corners or edges are laid bare sometimes to 
 the wood, and "touching up" must be done to 
 hide these defects. 
 
 Many painters on this account are disinclined to 
 
TURKEY UMBER. 
 
 397 
 
 use japan because, as they say, of trouble in 
 matching* the jet color if it is necessary to " touch 
 up." But this difficulty is easily overcome. 
 
 In the first place the job should be— at the time 
 for the last coat of varnish — so level, and so well 
 rubbed, that no " touching- up " is necessary. 
 However, accident may cause these places, and to 
 cover them, first g-o over with a thin coat of quick- 
 drying- ivory-black, then coat again with common 
 asphaltum — which can be procured at any paint 
 store — thinned down with turpentine and applied 
 with a small camel 's-hair brush ; the spot will then 
 be the same color as the other parts of the job. 
 
 Turkey Umber. — A native earth found in the 
 Roman province of Umbria (whence its name) and 
 in the Island of Cyprus. The native earth, called 
 raw umber, is in light brown lumps, and is roasted 
 to produce burnt umber. Immense deposits of 
 umber are found in this country, but none of them 
 approach that from Cyprus in brightness of color, 
 and yet they are sold, both dry and ground in oil, 
 and as an adulterant of the foreign article. 
 
 Turpentine- — One of the products of the pine tree, 
 of which there are four — rosin, crude turpentine, 
 tar and pitch. Spirits of turpentine presents a 
 fine illustration of one of the marvelous revela- 
 tions made known by chemical science. The con- 
 stituents of this liquid and of the oil of lemons are 
 hydrogen and carbon in precisely the same pro- 
 portions, and yet no means of co averting the one 
 into the other has ever been discovered. Nature, 
 mighty alchemist that she is, manufactures in her 
 secret laboratory, from the same materials, com- 
 pounds differing from each other thus widely, 
 and man vainly endeavors to find the secret of her 
 
398 
 
 TURPENTINE. 
 
 skill. By chemical operations, spirits of turpen- 
 tine is resolved into a number of substances of no 
 particular value, the most curious of which is arti- 
 ficial camphor, so called from its singular resem- 
 blance in odor and appearance to that of gum. It 
 is made by the action of hydrochloric acid on the 
 spirits of turpentine. One of the most powerful 
 solvents of india-rubber, and of many of the gums 
 and resins, is spirits of turpentine. It possesses 
 electrical affinity and polarizes light : it absorbs 
 ozone to such a degree that if left standing a length 
 of time it acquires the power of bleaching vegeta- 
 ble colors. In the art of painting no substitute 
 for it has ever been obtained, though the scanty 
 supply from 1860 to 1865 stimulated much endea- 
 vor in this direction. The various light products 
 of petroleum were used for a time, but were aban- 
 doned as soon as spirits of turpentine could be 
 procured. Low grades of white paints are made 
 whiter by its use, while those in which benzine is 
 used steadily turn yellow. The mode of gathering 
 the products of the pine tree and their preparation 
 for market, would no doubt be an interesting 
 subject to many of our readers, but space will not 
 permit it just here. Turpentine is formed by the 
 distillation of the gum which exudes from the tree. 
 The operation is conducted in large turnip-shaped 
 stills, made of copper and set in brick-work, the 
 fire being applied directly to the bottom of the 
 still. The stills will hold from ten to fifty barrels 
 of gum. This is " charged" at the top and the 
 cap fitted on. This cap connects by an arm with 
 the worm, around which cool water is constantly 
 running. As the process of distillation goes on, 
 the distiller adds from time to time a little water 
 
TURPENTINE. 
 
 399 
 
 to prevent scorching", and tries his charge by insert- 
 ing a rod in a small hole in the top of the still, in- 
 tended for the purpose. When the process has 
 reached a certain point, he draws his fire and 
 allows the still to cool a little; then he takes off 
 the cap, and from the liquid mass inside skims otf 
 all the chips and bark, of which there is always 
 more or less in the gum. If the cap is taken off 
 too soon the whole charge will take fire from 
 rapid oxidation. The spirit being condensed in 
 the worm, runs out, mingled with considerable 
 water, into a tub; the water, on account of its 
 specific gravity, settling at the bottom. From 
 this tub the spirits are syphoned off into well- 
 glued barrels for shipment. Though the whole 
 operation is one of great simplicity apparently, 
 yet to insure a good article and a high price, care 
 and strict attention is required in conducting it. 
 From Wilmington, N. C, southward, and nearly 
 all the way to Florida, the pitch-pine trees, with 
 blazed sides, attract the attention of the traveler. 
 There are several kinds of pine trees, including 
 Roumany, and pitch-pine. The latter is the only 
 valuable one for "boxing" as it is called, and 
 differs a little from the yellow pine, with which it 
 is sometimes confounded at the North. The 
 owners of these pine lands generally lease the 
 "privilege" for the business, and receive about 
 $125 for a crop, which consists of 10,000 " boxes." 
 The boxes are cavities cut into the tree near the 
 ground so as to hold about a quart, 
 and from one to four boxes are cut in a tree, the 
 number depending upon its size. One man can 
 attend to and gather the crop of 10,000 boxes 
 during the season, which lasts from March to 
 
TURPENTINE. 
 
 September. About three quarts of pitch or gum 
 is the average production of each box; but to 
 secure this amount, the bark of the tree above the 
 box must be hacked away a little every fortnight. 
 Doing- this so often and for successive seasons, 
 removes the bark as high as can easily be reached, 
 While the quality of the gum constantly decreases, 
 in that it yields less spirit, as the turpentine is 
 called, and then the trees are abandoned. The 
 gum is scraped out of the boxes with a sort of 
 wooden spoon, and at the close of the season, after 
 the pitch on the exposed surface of the tree has 
 become hard, it is removed by scraping, and is 
 only good for resin, producing no turpentine. 
 The gum sells for $1.50 a barrel to the distillers. 
 From 16 barrels of the crude gum, which is the 
 average capacity of the stills, 80 gallons of tur- 
 pentine and 10 barrels of resin are made. The 
 resin sells for from $1.40 to $5 per barrel, accord- 
 ing to quality, and just about pays for cost of gum 
 and distilling, leaving the spirit, which sells for 
 40 cents a gallon, as the profit of the business. 
 Immense quantities of resin await shipment at the 
 stations along the line, and the pleasant odor en- 
 ters the car windows as you are whirled along. 
 After the trees are unfit for further boxing, and 
 are not suitable for lumber, they are sometimes 
 used to manufacture tar ; but the business is not 
 very profitable, and is only done by large com- 
 panies, who can use their surplus labor. The trees 
 are cut up into wood which is piled in a hole in the 
 ground and covered with earth, and then burned 
 the same as charcoal is burned elsewhere. The 
 heat sweats out the gum, which uniting with the 
 smoke runs off through a pipe provided for the 
 
TURPENTINE VARNISH. 
 
 401 
 
 purpose. A cord of wood will make two barrels 
 of tar, which sells for $1.50 per barrel, and costs 
 37-J cents to make. The charcoal is then sold for 
 cooking- purposes. 
 
 The name turpentine is here given without the 
 appellation oil or spirits, some calling it properly 
 " oil of turpentine," others, "spirits of turpen- 
 tine." The name of turpentine is applied to a 
 liquid, or soft solid product of certain coniferous 
 plants, and there are several varieties as follows : 
 
 American or white turpentine. 
 
 Bordeaux turpentine. 
 
 Venice turpentine. 
 
 Strasburg turpentine. 
 
 Canadian turpentine, or Canada balsam. 
 
 Chio turpentine. 
 
 Frankincense. 
 
 Turpentine Varnish.— A resin varnish used prin- 
 cipally on musical instruments, toys, etc. It is 
 made as follows : resin, one pound ; boiled linseed 
 oil, one pound. Melt, then add spirits of turpen- 
 tine, two pounds — mix well. 
 
 Tuscan Red- — An iron oxide, obtained by burning- 
 suitable ochres — it is a very durable color. 
 
402 
 
 U 
 
 Ultramarine. — From ultra, beyond, and marinus, 
 the sea, because it was formerly brought from be- 
 yond the sea. A blue pigment, highly valued for 
 the purit} 7 , delicacy and permanency of its color, for- 
 merly obtained from the precious stone lapis lazuli 
 by a tedious process. The chemical properties of 
 the pigment are, silica, 35.8; alumina, 34.8; soda, 
 23.2 ; sulphur, 3.1 ; carbonate of lime, 3.1 = 100.0, 
 and it is now prepared from such formula instead 
 of making it from the precious stone of the Great 
 Bucharia. Pure ultramarine varies in shade from 
 light to dark, and in hue, from pale warm azure to 
 the deepest cold blue, the former of which, when 
 impure in color, is called ultramarine ashes. It 
 requires a good ground-work when used pure, and 
 this should be as near the desired shade of finish 
 as can be well obtained with other blues. Being a 
 very transparent pigment, the ground must be 
 solid, for any streaks or clouds in the ground 
 would be seen through several coatings, and great 
 care must be taken to have the surface smooth, 
 otherwise, in rubbing the varnish coats, imperfec- 
 tions in color will be made. 
 
 Umber. — An earth. (See Burnt Umber.) 
 
 \ 
 
403 
 
 V 
 
 Vandyke Brown. — A pigment obtained from a 
 kind of peat or bog earth of a fine, deep, semi- 
 transparent brown color. It owes its name and 
 reputation from the supposition of its being- the 
 brown used by the celebrated painter Vandyke, in 
 his pictures. It is a useful color on the palette or 
 in the paint-shop for gears or panels, and finds 
 favor with many painters as a saddening for colors 
 which appear too glaring. This color is also pre- 
 pared by the calcination of certain yellow ochres 
 found in the south of France, but as this generally 
 holds a large share of brown grit (glass sand) 
 which is added to increase its weight, the former is 
 of more value. 
 
 Vegetable Black. — A pigment extensively used in 
 Europe in place of lampblack. 
 
 Vehicle. — The liquid with which the various pig- 
 ments are applied — the medium. 
 
 Venetian Red. — An iron oxide, made by burning 
 certain ochres. The brightness of the color de- 
 pends upon the materials used and the skill of the 
 workman in burning. 
 
 Verdigris. — A diacetate of copper, made by corrod- 
 ing copper with acids. It is a very transparent 
 color and is seldom used in any other way than as 
 glazing. It makes beautiful green shades over 
 gold leaf in scrolling and ornamenting. 
 
404 
 
 VENTILATION. 
 
 Varnish. — Carriage varnish is considered the high- 
 est grade of all varnishes, being one of the most 
 sensitive of substances ; it requires great experi- 
 ence in its manufacture. It must be delicate yet 
 durable, dainty yet tough ; brilliant but colorless ; 
 flow freely but uniformly ; set slowly but harden 
 quickly. English varnishes were for many years 
 the standard, and these were used on almost all 
 the work built in this country. These varnishes 
 were first imported about 42 years ago, i. e., in 
 1840, by J. R. Lawrence, a New York city carriage 
 maker, since which time American ingenuity has 
 been at work to make varnishes which would 
 equal the English. We are enabled to say now, 
 that some of the American varnishes have not 
 only equaled but surpassed them. It would 
 occupy too much space to enter into the 
 details of varnish making for there are so many 
 varieties of the manufactured article, so many 
 opinions regarding varnish, and so great a 
 number of formulas for its mixture. In years 
 gone by when it was absolutely necessary for one 
 to make his own varnish, it possibly would have 
 been an interesting subject for the readers of such 
 a book as this, but as any kind or quality for any 
 conceivable purpose can be obtained at leading 
 paint stores, there seems to be no pressing need 
 for a long array of formulas for making varnish, 
 and thus we leave it. 
 
 Ventilation.— The means of supplying fresh air to a 
 paint shop. This is of vital importance in the 
 varnish room, and all first-class shops are supplied 
 with some contrivance by which air may or may 
 not be admitted. The windows should be made air 
 tight by the use of weather strips, and it is a good 
 
VERDITER. 
 
 405 
 
 plan to provide double sashes, i. e., have a pair of 
 sashes to open and shut from the inside, like shut- 
 ters. A pipe at least a foot in diameter should ex- 
 tend upward through the roof, having- upon its 
 outer end a revolving- jack: theinner end may be 
 fitted with a damper, which may be opened or 
 closed at will. This arrangement will be found 
 very satisfactory, inasmuch as it carries off by 
 suction or draught the foul air. Varnish dries or 
 hardens by absorbing- oxyg-en from the atmosphere, 
 and when the room is closed nearly air-tigiit, the 
 amount of oxyg-en in the room will soon be lessen- 
 ed by the absorption of the varnish, and conse- 
 quently the drying- process will then g-o on more 
 slowly, but when fresh air is admitted, by the exit 
 of the deoxyg-enized air throug-h the ventilator, the 
 varnish will have something- to feed upon and will 
 dry and harden better. 
 Verditer. — A blue pigment formed from a sulphate 
 or nitrate of copper by lime, the precipitate being 
 ground up with an excess of lime ; green verditer 
 is formed by sea-salt and sulphate of copper. 
 
 Verditure. — The palest shade of green. 
 
 Verona Green. — An ochre of bluish-green belonging 
 to a family of which green bice, verdetto, holly 
 green, and terre-verte are members. These 
 greens are found in the Mendip Hills, France, Italy 
 and the Island of Cyprus, and have been employ- 
 ed as pigment from the earliest times. They are 
 almost unknown in the carriage paint-shop. 
 
 Violet. — The color of the violet-purple. One of the 
 secondary colors, red and blue combined. 
 
 Viridian, or Guignet's Green. — A beautiful green 
 much used by artists. It is a light bluish-green, 
 
406 
 
 VEINING HORN. 
 
 which cannot be imitated by mixtures of blue and 
 yellow. 
 
 Veining Horn. — A piece of horn formed to take the 
 place of the thumb-nail in graining- to imitate 
 various woods. Wrap a piece of soft rag* over the 
 horn, hold it in the right hand pressed by the 
 thumb against the inside upper portion of the 
 first and second fingers, with the thumb slightly 
 overlapping the first finger, and near the small 
 end of the horn and with the rag-protected horn 
 wipe out all the lights to form the heart-wood and 
 knots in the grain. When the 
 grainer is possessed of a good, long, 
 and nicely rounded thumb-nail of 
 the right hand, he need not care for 
 • the veining horn — but accident may 
 deprive him of this natural imple- 
 ment. 
 
 Vienna Green-— Same as Brunswick Fig. 156.— Vein- 
 or Schweinfurt green {which see). ING HoRN - 
 
 Vermilion.— A brilliant red pigment found in a nat- 
 ural state, and manufactured artificially, called 
 cinnaber when crystallized, and vermilion when 
 powdered. The red sulphite of mercury is found 
 in all mercury mines. 1 part of sulphur and 2 parts 
 of mercury are intimately mixed and sublimated 
 (brought to a vapor and again condensed to a solid 
 b} 7 heat) in clay pots; the pots are then broken and 
 their contents ground in a mill. Another method 
 of manufacture is as follows : Take BOO grammes 
 of mercury, 14 of sulphur, 75 of hydrated potassa, 
 and 450 grammes of water. Mix and grind the 
 mercuiw^ and sulphur, then pour on the ethiops thus 
 formed, the solution of potassa and stir it; put the 
 
VERMILION. 
 
 407 
 
 mixture in earthen pots and heat on a sand-bath 
 at a temperature of 100 degrees Fah. After seven 
 or eight hours the water will be evaporated and the 
 product will pass from a brown to a bright red 
 color. 
 
 To use vermilion observe the following- rules : 
 For carriage parts or panels, prepare the work by 
 coating with white tinted with red to form a deli- 
 cate pink color. Mix the vermilion in an earthen 
 vessel, using a stick or wooden palette-knife to 
 stir it, with equal parts of Japan gold-size and 
 hard drying body-varnish. Mix to a stiff paste, 
 and add sufficient turpentine to thin it for spread- 
 ing evenly with a soft brush. The vessel should 
 then be set away in a clean place, to allow the 
 mixture to assimilate, for vermilion, owing to its 
 sensitiveness, should never be ground in the mill 
 or come in contact with metal surfaces. When it 
 has set a few hours, it should be stirred well, and 
 its application may then be begun. It must be 
 laid on evenly and rubbed no more than necessary. 
 Frequent stirring is necessary , that the heav}^ glob- 
 ules of color may not fall to the bottom, leaving 
 near the surface those which are lighter and which 
 have an orange tint. Two thin coats are generally 
 necessary, but the surface should not be rubbed. 
 When the second coat is dry, put a little of the 
 color into a cup of hard drying body-varnish, for 
 the color-and- varnish coat, and apply it with a bad- 
 ger or fitch varnish brush. This makes a pure 
 vermilion job. If a carmine job is desired, it is 
 best to add a little carmine to the second coat of 
 vermilion color. Carmine tends to prevent the 
 darkening of vermilion by partially excluding sun- 
 light, but of course the painter does not always 
 
VERMILION. 
 
 desire* to use carmine with it. The brilliancy of 
 vermilion is heightened and rendered more prom- 
 inent by association with other colors. Red has 
 its complementary in a mixture of blue and yellow 
 which forms green. A neutral color, white and 
 black, harmonizes with it, but the color is not so 
 intensified as it is by green. A stripe of green 
 over red will not only be pleasing to the eye, but 
 will make the latter less likely to look faded or 
 dark because its complementary color being pres- 
 ent and intensifying it, the eye would not so 
 quickly discern any change that might take place. 
 
 There are two brands of English vermilion used, 
 i. e. y the English vermilion, light or pale, and deep 
 or dark. The former is used for lettering, strip- 
 ing, etc., as it possesses more body; the latter is 
 best for panel or gear color. 
 
 Of late years a new brand called German ver- 
 milion has found favor with carriage painters, and 
 and as it appears durable, and may be obtained at 
 a low price, it is superseding the English vermilion 
 to a great extent. 
 
409 
 
 W - 
 
 Wagon Jack. — A simple contrivance for raising 
 and holding- up an axle so that the wheel may he 
 turned to paint or varnish it. To make a cheap 
 and an excellent wagon jack : take the end of a 
 broken shaft — always to he found in a carriage 
 shop — and fit to it the hack rest, a strip of hard 
 wood about two feet long; bore a hole through both 
 and insert a bolt for a pivot, then a small hole in 
 front to hold an iron pin, on which the axle rests, 
 completes the work. A wheel may be raised or 
 lowered without touching the gear with the hands, 
 and no adjustment of the jack is necessary, it is 
 always ready. 
 
 Water Colors. — Colors ground and mixed with 
 water and gum, or size instead of oil. For draw- 
 ings on paper, or for waiter-colored pictures, they 
 are prepared with great care. The coarser grade 
 of work is done with colors mixed with glue-size 
 — virtually, distemper or kalsomine. 
 
 Water-Tool. — A small brush used in washing a 
 body or gear. The ordinary house-painter's sash- 
 tool is generally used for this purpose. 
 
 Wall Brush. — A wide, flat, bristle brush designed 
 for painting walls, ceilings, and other large sur- 
 faces. (See next page.) 
 
 Wedgwood Tints. — The delicate colors adopted 
 by Josiah Wedgwood, for cameo grounds, etc. 
 
410 
 
 WEARING-BODY VARNISH. 
 
 Wash Leather. — The name often given to a cham- 
 ois skin or " shammy " {which see). 
 
 Wearing-Body Varnish-— This varnish is made of 
 the best materials the inventive genius of man can 
 compound. It is designed for the final or finishing- 
 coat over carriage bodies, is pale in color, and 
 exceedingly limpid, so that it works well under the 
 brush and possesses that quality so much admired 
 by the varnisher, and known as " thickening under 
 the brush," in order that a heavy coat may be 
 laid upon a panel without fear of its running down 
 in festoons or clouds or heavy masses. It is the 
 
 Fig. 157.— Wall Brush. 
 
 king of all varnishes made, i. e., the best, most 
 durable, brilliant, and therefore valued at the 
 highest price, of varnishes. This varnish is less 
 liable to turn blue by reason of dampness than 
 most finishing varnishes. 
 
 White.— Having the color of snow. It is not strictly 
 a color, and yet white light is said to be a compo- 
 sition of all colors. 
 
 White Chalk.— Carbonate of lime, used for drawing 
 on dark surfaces. 
 
WHITE LEAD. 
 
 411 
 
 Whiting. — The same as chalk, a carbonate of lime, 
 but of inferior quality. It is extensively used in 
 making" putty {which see). 
 
 White Lead. — (Known also as Cremnitz, Dutch 
 Hamburg-, Flemish, Venetian, and Roman white.) 
 The system employed in the manufacture of white 
 lead, in this country, is called the old Dutch 
 system, and is recognized as the best. The pig- 
 lead is melted and run into moulds, forming what 
 are called "buckles," weighing- about a pound 
 each, and shaped like a stove grate. These are 
 placed in earthen pots, but kept from contact with 
 the acetic acid (vinegar) with which the latter are 
 charged, by means of projections made purposely 
 on the pots, and upon which the buckles rest. 
 The pots are then stacked up in what are known 
 as beds — large frame structures, roofed in and 
 provided with double walls — to the number of ten 
 thousand or more. They are placed upon layers, 
 with boards and tan between each, and piled up 
 to the height of the building, the bottom of which 
 and spaces between the walls all being- padded 
 with tan-bark, till the whole is tightly shut in, and 
 the contents of the pots are left to the silent 
 action of chemical laws. The tan generates heat, 
 makes an oxide of the lead, and vaporizes the acid, 
 and with the carbonic acid formed in decomposi- 
 tion of the tan, gradually reduces the metal to a 
 beautiful snow-white substance. The result is 
 only attained after an interval of ten to fourteen 
 weeks, when the beds are opened and the buckles 
 found transformed into carbonate of lead. 
 
 From the beds it is taken to long, revolving- 
 screens, through the meshes of which it falls into 
 bins prepared for its reception, and any uncorrod- 
 
412 
 
 WHITE LEAD. 
 
 ed particles of metal are separated and returned 
 to the melting- cauldrons. The pots, upon being- 
 taken out, contain no acid and the lead has 
 increased considerably in bulk and weight. The 
 lead, after having passed through the separating 
 screens, is first thoroughly washed, to deprive it 
 of any free acid, stain or impurities, and is then 
 ground in water, between heavy burr-stone mills, 
 into a pulpy mass ; this is then gathered and 
 pumped upon drying-pans in the kiln-house. 
 Deprived by this means of its water, the product 
 becomes dry white lead of commerce. This dry 
 or carbonate of lead is then kneaded with a suitable 
 quantity of linseed oil, generally in the proportion 
 of eig-ht pounds of oil to one hundred of lead. The 
 mixture is then ground fine in mills and packed for 
 shipment and use. 
 
 White lead forms the base or foundation of all or 
 nearly all light colors used by the carriage paint- 
 er. To mix it for first coats or priming, raw 
 linseed oil only should be employed, and the white 
 lead should be sparingly used — just sufficient to 
 color the oil — for it is the oil which gives durabili- 
 ty and not the lead. 
 
 To mix color but little oil is used, if any, and in 
 most cases the oil that is already ground in the 
 lead is an excess, and must be partially extracted. 
 Thin the white lead with turpentine to a milk-like 
 fluid, stir all well together, then set it aside for a 
 day or two, at the end of which time a large share 
 of the oil, together with some of the turpentine, 
 will be found quite free from the lead, on the 
 surface ; this should be poured off, and if it be 
 desired to remove more of the oil, another addition 
 of turpentine, and settling, should be given. 
 
WHITE LEAD. 
 
 413 
 
 However, one " washing " will generally take 
 away a sufficient quantity of oil to make the keg- 
 lead ready for mixture as color. Now, add to the 
 washed lead a little rubbing varnish (of light shade) 
 say: one gill to a quart of the softened lead, and 
 this will give ' 'binding " and "drying " qualities 
 to the paint. Stir well, and if too thick to spread 
 nicely, add a little turpentine. Two coats of this 
 color over a light ground, should make a solid 
 foundation. A white surface will remain white 
 much longer if no clear varnish be laid over it. 
 Apply to the ground made by two coats of color 
 as above described, a flowing coat of white color- 
 and- varnish, made by mixing some of the 
 "washed" lead with light colored finishing- 
 varnish. When dry, rub down as usual, with 
 pulverized pumice stone, and give a second coat of 
 same, or if an extra job is desired zinc white may 
 be substituted for the lead. Next gently rub the 
 glass off with pumice powder, leaving a smooth 
 and even egg-shell gloss only, to the work. If 
 striping, ornamenting or lettering is to be done, 
 this may now be added, and then pencil- varnished, 
 that is, the stripes, ornaments, or letters should be 
 varnished with clear finishing varnish. 
 
 Taking the " washed" white lead for a base the 
 following tints may be made : 
 Normal gray, 8 parts white to 2 of black. 
 Lead color, 8 parts white, 1 blue, and 1 black. 
 Oak color, 8 parts white, and 1 yellow ochre. 
 Fawn color, 8 parts white, 1 red, 2 yellow and 1 
 
 umber. 
 
 Flesh color, 8 parts white, 3 red, and" 3 yellow. 
 Peach blossom, 8 .parts white, 1 red, 1 blue and 1 
 yellow. 
 
414 
 
 WHITEWASH. 
 
 Willow-green, 5 parts white and 2 verdigris. 
 Pea-green, 5 parts white and 1 chrome green. 
 Stone color, 5 parts white, 2 yellow and 1 umber. 
 Lemon color, 5 parts white and 2 medium chrome 
 yellow. 
 
 Rose color, 5 parts white and 2 carmine. 
 Light buff, 5 parts white and 1 yellow ochre. 
 Drab color, 9 parts white and 1 umber. 
 French gray, white tinted with ivory black and 
 red. 
 
 Pearl color, white tinted with black, blue and red. 
 
 Carnation, 1 part white, and 3 lake. 
 
 Plum color, 2 parts white, 2 blue, and 1 red. 
 
 Whitewash. — The white coating given to the light- 
 houses of the United States is made as follows, 
 having been found to answer the purpose nearly as 
 w T ell on wood, brick or stone as oil paint and is 
 m uch cheaper : Slack half a bushel of lump lime 
 with boiling water, k eping it covered during the 
 process. Strain it and add a peck of salt, dissolved 
 in hot water ; three pounds of ground rice put in 
 boiling water, and boiled to a thin paste; half a 
 pound of powdered Spanish whiting, and a pound 
 of clear glue dissolved in warm water. Mix all to- 
 gether and let stand for several days. Keep the 
 whitewash in a kettle or portable furnace, and 
 when used put it on as hot as possible with white- 
 wash brushes. 
 
 Another method of preparing whitewash con- 
 sists in adding to the slacked lime 2 pounds of sul- 
 phate of zinc and 1 pound of common salt ; this 
 hardens the wash so that it will not easily rub off. 
 
 An improved whitewash is made with sulphate 
 of baryta in place of lime as follows: Take i lb. 
 of powdered or softened glue and dissolve it by 
 
WHEEL-REST. 
 
 415 
 
 heat in a quart of water. Six pounds of baryta is 
 then made into a milky solution with hot water and 
 the glue size is added. A good stirring* while hot 
 and its application with a good brush will pro- 
 duce good results. 
 
 Wheel-rest. — A contrivance for holding a wheel 
 while it is being painted, striped, etc. It is the 
 habit in some shops to bore a hole in a post or 
 
 Fig. 158.— Wheel-rest. 
 
 other part of the building, and then insert an iron 
 rod on which to suspend the wheel. 
 
 Willow- Green- — A color made by mixing white 
 with emerald-green, or verdigris. 
 
 Withering;. — Same as " deciding" {which see). 
 
 Wrinkling. — A term used by painters to indicate a 
 wrinkled or " drawn up" appearance in varnish 
 coats. Wrinkling is caused by a too heavy 
 flow of varnish ; the outside surface absorbs oxy- 
 
WRINKLING. 
 
 gen, and, drying*, forms a skin over the larger 
 mass of varnish ; this, in turn, gives up a portion 
 of its volatile oils, which lessen its hulk, and the 
 outside skin thereby becoming- larg-er than neces- 
 sary to cover the under mass, draws up in ridges 
 or wrinkles, somewhat resembling the wrinkling 
 of the skin in old age. 
 
417 
 
 Y 
 
 Yel low. — A color of golden hue, and of many varieties. 
 It is one of the three primaries and with blue 
 forms green. 
 
 Yellow Colors. — The yellow pigments employed by 
 painters are : 1. The varieties of chrome prepared 
 from chromate of lead. 2. Several colors technical- 
 ly called pinks — Brown pink, prepared as a lake 
 from a decoction of French berries or fustic ; and 
 English pink and Dutch pink, both lakes, pre- 
 pared by different processes, from French yellow 
 berries and tumeric. 3. Naples yellow, a mixture 
 of metallic antimony, red lead, and oxide of zinc 
 calcined, added to a small quantity of lime, then 
 fused, and afterwards ground to powder. 4. Pat- 
 ent yellow consists of 23 parts of chloride of lead 
 and 27 parts of carbonate of lead well mixed in 
 powder, then fused together. 5. King's yellow is 
 a tersulphuret of arsenic. 6. Weed yellow is pre- 
 pared from a decoction of weed, or dyer's weed 
 with alum, and is in fact another lake. 7. Gam- 
 boge, the chief yellow coloring in water-painting. 
 
 Yellow Earth. — A coarse yellow ochre, often sold 
 under the name of Prussian red, English red, etc. 
 
 Yellow Lake. — A pigment made by saturating whit- 
 ing with vegetable yellow tinctures in the same 
 manner as rose pink. It may be imitated by mix- 
 ing equal parts of raw umber and white, and adding 
 
418 YELLOW ORPIMENT. 
 
 a small quantity of Naples yellow, and a drop of 
 scarlet lake. 
 
 Yellow Ochre-— Same as yellow earth. 
 
 Yellow Orpiment.— The sulphuretted oxide of zinc, 
 of a beautiful bright and pure yellow color, used as 
 a pigment (See Orpiment). 
 
419 
 
 Z 
 
 Zinc White. — (Sometimes called Chinese white), 
 oxide of the metal zinc, a beautiful snow- white sub- 
 stance used in painting-. It is made as follows : 
 The carbonate and silicate of zinc being- crushed 
 and mixed with 33 per cent, of coal, is put into a 
 large fire-brick furnace, just as it comes from the 
 mines. Air is blown into the furnace, and the oxy- 
 gen in it oxidizes the metallic zinc vapor, for which 
 it has a great affinity, as soon as it is liberated. 
 The oxide of zinc is thus formed, and is propelled 
 by air forced into the furnaces into a high tower in 
 white flocculent particles,with which are associated 
 coal ashes and particles of other foreign substances. 
 It is driven by powerful blowers through a series of 
 chambers connected by pipes ; the majority of the 
 oxide associated with impurities deposits in the 
 tower, and the less impure in the chambers and 
 cooling house, the most flocculent and purest pass- 
 ing through pipes to which muslin bags are 
 attached and in which it is collected. The best is 
 like white wheat flour, though very much heavier. 
 Zinc white is used principally in making- China 
 gloss (q. v.) for the interior of houses, and by 
 artists. 
 
 Zinc, the Painting of. — This metal is frequently 
 used for the sides of business wagons, and unless 
 it is properly prepared for painting, the least jar 
 will cause the paint to flake from its greasy,, anti- 
 
420 
 
 ZAFFRE. 
 
 adhesive surface. To prevent this, first rub the 
 zinc over with dilute muriatic acid, which will 
 remove the " greasiness " and roughen it. Then 
 apply a coat of permanent wood filling as directed 
 (q. v). This permanent wood filling is a very tena- 
 cious substance and will cling firmly to the metal, 
 and the paint will cling to this filling, and a good 
 job will result. 
 
 Zaffre. — A blue pigment prepared from metal cobalt 
 (See Cobalt Blue). 
 
 Zubia Vermilion.— A local name of a substitute for 
 vermilion made by a New York house, but of 
 transient durability. 
 
 Zinc Green. — (Sold also as cobalt green, and Rin- 
 man's green) made by macerating Prussian blue 
 in a solution of chloride of zinc. 
 
421 
 
 RECIPES. 
 
 Black Stencil Ink. 
 
 Mix together 1 part of lampblack, 1 part Prussian 
 blue, with glycerine, then add an equal quantity of 
 gum arabic (dissolved) and glycerine to form a thick 
 paste. 
 
 To Transfer Engravings to Glass. 
 
 First coat the glass with a thm coat of carriage rub- 
 bing varnish and let it dry hard. Apply the second coat 
 and while it is drying prepare the engraving by wetting 
 the paper thoroughly, then lay it between newspapers to 
 take off all water from the face side. The varnish 
 should be " tacky" after a few hours, that is, if the 
 finger is pressed upon it it appears sticky, but if 
 simply passed over the surface it seems quite dry, or 
 does not stick. Take the engraving from the news- 
 papers, and lay it face downwards upon the varnish. 
 Rub it down lightly to secure perfect adhesion, then 
 let it dry hard. Now, moisten the paper and rub it off 
 with the finger, leaving nothing but the printers' ink on 
 the varnish. Give a thin coat of varnish, and if 
 desired it may be colored on the back with oil paint to 
 make a durable and elegant picture. 
 
 Cement for Fixing Glass Letters. 
 
 Marine glue mixed thick in wood naptha will secure- 
 ly fasten glass letters to glass window panes. The 
 windows must be perfectly cleaned with ammonia and 
 
422 
 
 RECIPES. 
 
 whiting-, before any attempt is made to put any cement 
 upon it. 
 
 Cement for Broken Marble. 
 
 To one and a half pounds of plaster of Paris, add 
 one pound of gum arabic made into a thick mucilage 
 with water, and sifted quicklime six ounces. Mix 
 thoroughly, heat the marble, and apply the mixture. 
 
 Chamois Skins — to Clean. 
 
 Chamois skins are best cleaned by the use of plenty 
 of soap, weak soda and clean water. Allow the skin to 
 lay for a while, well rubbed over with soft soap, then 
 rub it until it is clean. Rinse in warm water to 
 which a little soda has been added, and use yellow 
 soap. A small quantity of soap left in the skin will 
 improve its softness, while pure water rinsing will 
 harden it. After rinsing wring it well in a rough towel 
 and dry quickly, then rub it and work it well in the 
 hands and it will become almost like new. 
 
 Furniture Paste. 
 
 1. Spirits of turpentine, beeswax and linseed oil, 
 equal parts. Melt all together and cool for use. 2 
 Turpentine, 10 ounces ; beeswax, 4 ounces ; alkanet 
 root, melt all together and strain for use. 3. White 
 wax, one pound ; liquor of potassa, one-half gal- 
 lon; boil until of the proper consistency. 4. Yel- 
 low beeswax, 20 parts, resin, one part; alkanet 
 root, one part ; turpentine, six parts; linseed oil, six 
 parts ; dissolve by heat, strain and cool. 
 
 Colored Varnish. 
 
 A colored varnish, for metal work, cork, etc., by 
 dissolving sealing-wax of the color required in spirits 
 
RECIPES. 
 
 423 
 
 of wine. Apply with a camel's-hair brush, which 
 should be cleansed, when done with, by soaking" in 
 spirits of wine. 
 
 To Bronze Plaster Casts. 
 
 Coat the figure with isinglass size until the surface 
 continues in a moist state, and will absorb no more ; 
 then touch it over carefully and sparingly with gold 
 size, and put it away in a clean dry place for several 
 hours, until the size feels sticky and almost dry ; then 
 rub on the bronze powder, using a soft cameFs-hair 
 brush for the deep parts and a piece of velvet or plush 
 on the higher parts, which will take on a bright 
 metallic lustre if the size is in a proper condition, i. e., 
 not too dry, nor too wet. 
 
 To Clean a Hair-Pencil. 
 
 Rinse the paint out thoroughly with turpentine, then 
 work the brush well in fine ashes or other like dust, 
 shake the hair out well and the pencil will always 
 appear as good as new. The directions given in some 
 publications to wash pencil in soap and water are en- 
 tirely at variance with 35 years' experience. The water 
 and alkali destroy the elasticity of the hair, or bris- 
 tles, and ruins the brushes. 
 
 Gilding Glass and China. 
 
 Grind gold leaf to a fine powder on a glass or marble 
 slab while mixed with honey, then wash out the honey 
 by adding water and allowing the gold to fall to the 
 bottom of the vessel, dry well, and a very superior gold 
 bronze will be the result ; mix the powder with gum 
 water to a paint-like consistency, add a small quantity 
 of powdered borax, and apply the mixture to the glass 
 or china with a camel's-hair pencil. Heat is then ap- 
 
424 
 
 RECIPES. 
 
 plied by a stove until the borax fuses, when the gold 
 will be fixed. It must then be burnished with a metal 
 or dog's-tooth burnisher. 
 
 Pearl Inlaying. 
 
 The inlaid work as seen on sewing* machines, etc., is 
 done as follows : Select the choicest thin scales of the 
 shell — called shell pearl — and after laying upon the 
 work a heavy coat of black baking japan, place them 
 as desired and press them well into the soft japan; put 
 the work in the oven and bake as usual. Two or 
 three coats of japan will be necessary to level up the 
 work, then the surface must be rubbeddown with lump 
 pumice stone, and polished. The painting and gilding 
 should now be put on and then a flowing coat of var- 
 nish over all. 
 
 To Improve the Color of Mahogany. 
 
 Put into an earthen basin one pint of linseed oil, ten 
 cents worth of alkanet root, and ten cents worth of 
 rose pink ; stir well together and let stand for several 
 hours. Thoroughly clean the mahogany, then wet the 
 wood well and let dry ; then polish oft" with linen rags. 
 The white spots made on mahogany tables by hot 
 dishes or water may be removed by first rubbing the 
 spot with linseed oil and afterwards pouring on spirits 
 of wine and rubbing with a soft cloth. Another plan 
 is to take six parts spirits of salts, one part of salts of 
 lemon ; mix and keep in a bottle. When required for 
 use, rub a little on the spots, and rub well. 
 
 Oil Finishes. 
 
 Linseed oil, twelve ounces ; black resin, three ounces; 
 vinegar, three ounces ; rectified spirits, two ounces ; 
 butter of antimony, eight ounces ; spirits, of salts, one 
 
RECIPES. 
 
 425 
 
 ounce. Melt the resin and oil, remove from the fire 
 and add the vinegar, allow it to boil a few minutes, 
 stirring* it meanwhile, then let cool and bottle for use. 
 
 2. Two ounces alkanet root added to one pint of lin- 
 seed oil; heat, strain, and add one ounce of lac varnish. 
 
 3. Same as No. 2, with addition of one ounce of rose 
 pink. 
 
 Dark Colored Boiled Oil. 
 
 Put into a gallon of linseed oil one pound of litharge 
 and allow it to simmer or slowly boil until a skin ap- 
 pears on the surface, then remove from the fire, skim 
 the skin off and let cool. 
 
 Pale Boiled Oil. 
 
 Put two ounces of sulphate of zinc into one quart of 
 linseed oil and one pint of water; heat until the water 
 is all evaporated then decant for use. 
 
 Very Pale Drying Oil. 
 
 Mix two ounces of dry sulphate of lead with one 
 pint of pale linseed oil and agitate the bottle for several 
 days, after which place it in the sun to settle. 
 
 Drying Oil Without Boiling. 
 
 With the oldest linseed oil obtainable mix two per 
 cent of manganese borate and heat on a water-bath to 
 100°. 
 
 Pencils for Marking on Glass. 
 
 Melt together four parts of stearic acid, three parts 
 mutton suet, and two parts of beeswax ; then add six 
 parts red lead and one part purified carbonate o'f 
 potassa; set aside in a warm place and stir frequently, 
 for an hour or more, then pour into glass tubes to form 
 the pencils. 
 
426 
 
 RECIPES. 
 
 Painting on Silk. 
 
 Stretch the silk on a light frame and wash it well 
 with alum water, let dry thoroughly, and apply a wash 
 of isinglass dissolved in water — say, as much isin- 
 glass as will lay on a half dollar, in a quart of water. — 
 Now draw the design with crayon or charcoal, or 
 pounce it on the silk, and paint with oil or water 
 colors. The isinglass size will prevent the spreading 
 of the paint. 
 
 The best isinglass is made from the air bladders of 
 the sturgeon, and is imported from Russia, where that 
 fish largely abounds. 
 
 To Remove Ink Stains from Mahogany, etc. 
 
 Add two ounces of oxalic acid and one ounce of but- 
 ter of antimony to a pint of water. 
 
 To Soften Old Putty. 
 
 Muriatic acid spread, with a rag tied on a stick, over 
 the putty will soften it quite readily, when it may be 
 scraped off with a knife or chisel. When the putty 
 has been removed wash off clean with water. 
 
 Imitation of Ground Glass. 
 
 Take 90 grains sandarac and 20 grains mastic gum, 
 and dissolve them in 2 ounces of methylated ether, and 
 add a small quantity of benzine — from an ounce to two 
 ounces ; lay on with a small brush. 
 
 To Remove Scratches in \ arnish. 
 
 Scratches will entirely disappear if a cloth well sat- 
 urated with raw linseed oil be laid over them 
 
RECIPES. 
 
 42T 
 
 Crystal Varnish for Drawings, Maps, etc. 
 
 Take one ounce of Canada balsam, spirits of turpen- 
 tine two ounces, mix together. Before applying" this 
 varnish, the paper should be placed on a stretcher, 
 and be sized with a thin solution of isinglass in water, 
 and dried. Apply with a soft camel's-hair brush. 
 
 Whitewash — to Clean from a Ceiling. 
 
 Make a thick paste of wheat flour in which put a 
 goodly share of alum. Apply to the ceiling with a 
 whitewash brush, being sure to cover the ceiling 
 thoroughly; then shut the doors, and let it stand over 
 night. In the morning the greater part of the white- 
 wash will be found to have fallen to the floor, and that 
 which remains upon the wall will be easily scraped off. 
 
 Pencils — to Clean from Dried Paint 
 
 Put a little turpentine in a saucer and set fire to it ; 
 let it burn until it is warm, then extinguish, and rub 
 the hairs of the pencil in it. 
 
TRADE 
 
 VA l rNTshES 
 
 11 THE STANDARD FOR QUALITY." 
 
 MARI- 
 
 Established 1832. 
 
 Incorporated 1882. 
 
 YALENTINE & COMPANY, 
 
 Manufacturers of High-Grade 
 
 Coach iii Car IiraMi 
 
 ^^r^> COLOES, 
 NEW YORK, 245 Broadway. 
 
 CHICAGO, 
 68 Lake Street. 
 
 BOSTON, 
 153 Milk Street. 
 
 PARIS, 
 21 Rue de Lappe. 
 
 Partial List of Medals and. Awards given to 
 Valentine's Varnislies. 
 
 International Exhibition, Philadel- 
 phia 
 
 Exposition Umverselle, Paris, 
 France 
 
 Amsterdam International Exhibi- 
 tion, Amsterdam, Holland 
 
 Exposition Internationale des 
 Sciences, Appliquees a 1'Indus- 
 trie 
 
 ft elb'Hirne International Exposition, 
 Melbourne, A us 
 
 Adelaide Exposition, Melbourne, 
 bo. Aus 
 
 American Institute of the City of 
 .New York 1859- 
 
 S76 
 
 87S 
 883 
 
 S70 
 880 
 88 1 
 870 
 
 Maryland Institute for the Protec- 
 tion of Mechanic Arts 1873 
 
 Massachusetts Charitable Mechanic 
 
 Association, Boston i?6o 
 
 Mechanics' and .Agricultural Fair 
 Association of the State of 
 Louisiana 1873 
 
 Agricultural Society of New So. 
 
 Wales 1877 
 
 Mechanics' Institute, San Francis- 
 co, California 1877 
 
 World's Industrial and Cotton 
 Centennial Exposition, New 
 Orleans 188 s 
 
F. W. DEVOE & CO., 
 
 Cor. Fulton and William Sts., New York, 
 
 MANUFACTURERS OF 
 
 DRY COLORS. 
 
 Colors in Oil, in Japan, and in Distemper. 
 
 VARNISHES AND JAPANS. 
 
 Pure Mixed Paint 
 
 FOR HOUSE PAINTING, 
 
 We wish to call your attention to the fact that we guarantee 
 our ready-mixed paints to be made only of pure linseed oil and 
 the most permanent pigments. They are not "Chemical," 
 " Rubber," " Patent," or " Fireproof." We use no secret or 
 patent method in manufacturing them, by which benzine and 
 water are made to serve the purpose of pure linseed oil. 
 
 SAMPLES OF FIFTY WESIKABLK SI5AWES F«»l£ 
 
 M A NUFACTURERS OF 
 
 FINE BRUSHES 
 
 OF EVERY DESCRIPTION, 
 
 AND ALL 
 
 Painters' Supplies, Artists' Materials, Etc. 
 
 COEIFI^T, DEVOE 6z CO., Chicago. 
 
Li 
 
GETTY RESEARCH INSTjTUTE