/ - fc- ( ■ \ I Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2017 with funding from Getty Research Institute https://archive.org/details/interiordecorato02hayd DIAGKMI OFTm: FEEyiMK SECOMMKY cSr lERTIARY COLOURS SD-JtJSay inv*' T’lK INTERIOR DEEOi: \T< it O l>.t ii A i\ V ADaF'.!'- ■ Ijn'ETllO!" >K- ; :OKATT0> B. K. . \ no0?!;-PAii;TER Ar ..-.' batou to t FiiV'At THf'. .11:70 i.' 11 E E T; rtA : V H A ^ R 0 ' fSiiKP s. // INTERIOR DECORATOR, BEING THE LAWS OF HARMONIOUS COLORING ADAPTED TO mTERIOR DECORATIONS. WITH OBSERVATIONS ON THE PRACTICE OE HOUSE PAINTING. BY D. R. HAY, HOUSE-PAINTER AND DECORATOR TO THE QUEEN, EDINBURGH. FIKST AMERICAN, PROM THE SIXTH LONDON EDITION. PHILADELPHIA : HENRY CAREY BAIRD, INDUSTRIAL PUBLISHER, 406 Walnut Street. 1861 . PHILADELPHIA: COLLINS, PRINTEE, 706 JAYNE STREET PREFACE. In laying before the public a sixth edition of this treatise, I have to express my gratitude for the favorable reception it has hitherto met with, and to assure my readers that I have thereby been stimulated to exert myself to the utmost to render it, on the present occasion, more theoreti- cally and practically useful. Although the colored diagrams are now re- duced to one, yet that one contains all the colors of which the various diagrams in the former editions were composed, more correctly balanced as to their relative powers, and more permanently secured against change. I have re-written the whole treatise, and have It peeface, expunged all extraneous matter in order to make room for additions more intimately connected with the subject. And as a more convenient arrangement, I have now divided it into two distinct parts; the first theoretical, and the second practical. Both of these I have treated as popularly as the nature of the subject would admit of, and, therefore, trust this edition will be found superior to any of its predecessors. D. K. HAY. Edinburgh, 90 George Street. CONTENTS. PART I. PAGE Introduction 13 On the Theories of Color 29 On the Analogy Between Color and Sound . . 42 On Colors Generally 53 Primary Colors 53 Secondary Colors 53 Tertiary Colors 54 Diagram with names of Colors and Hues . . 55 Tints 55 Shades . ; 55 On the Application op the Laws of Harmonious Coloring to House-Painting and Manufactures 62 On Colors Individually 78 White 78 Yellow .83 Orange Color 88 Red 90 Purple 97 VI CONTENTS. PAGE Blue . . . . . . ' . , .99 Green . . . . . . . . . 102 Black 106 PART II. ON THE PRACTICE OF HOUSE PAINTING. On the Materials Employed in Plain Painting . 109 White-Lead Ill Litharge 114 Sugar-of-Lead 114 Red-Lead and Orange-Lead .... 114 .Chrome-Yellow . 115 Ochres 116 Terra-di-Siena 117 Indian Red 118 Vermilion 118 Lake 120 Colcothar of Vitriol 121 Venetian Red, Light Red, and Spanish Brown . 121 Prussian Blue . . . ' . . . . 122 Factitious Ultramarine 123 Turkey Umber 124 Linseed Oil 125 Spirits of Turpentine . . . . . .126 On the Methods of Executing Plain Painting . 128 On the Materials Employed in Ornamental Paint- ing 137 Vandyke Brown and Ivory Black . . . 137 Copal Varnish 138 CONTENTS. Vll PAGE On Imitations of Woods and Marbles . . . 141 On the Various Modes of Decorating the Ceilings AND Walls of Dwelling-Houses . . . .156 Distemper 162 Gilding ' . ... 163 Paper-Hangings . . - 167 Stippled Flat Painting and Gold . . . 175 Imitation of Gold Embroidery . . . .177 Decorative Borders . . ' . . . .178 Imitation Damask 180 Imitation Morocco Leather - . . . . 182 Notes 185 Note A, on the Analogy Between Sound and Color 185 Note B, on Cheap Painting . . . .188 Note C, — Eeminiscences of the Painting and Decorating of Abbotsford . . , . 191 Note D, on the Dwelling-Houses of the Ancients 206 Y } PART I. INTRODUCTION. Although the experimental inquiries of the natu- ral philosopher have long since established as a scientific fact, that colors are regulated by the irre- fragable laws of harmony in their combinations ; and although the works of most of the masters in high art, both ancient and modern, give practical illustrations of the same truth, yet the error of con- sidering the arrangement of various colors as a matter of mere caprice or fancy, is still prevalent. In the decoration of our dwellings, in the colors of our dress, in the arrangement "of our flower gar- dens, and, indeed, in almost every case where colors are brought together in the ordinary requirements of life, fashion more than scientific knowledge, seems, in a great degree, to regulate our proceed- ings. But the caprices of fashion are guided by no rules whatever, but are subjects upon which most nations and individuals differ widely; and there are no productions or customs to which these 2 14 INTEODUCTIO^T. caprices have given rise, however extravagant or absurd, but what have had, and still have, their admirers, while they bear the gloss of novelty or stamp of fashion. Fancy or choice is, and may be employed with perfect propriety in all matters of taste, both as to individual colors and their combinations. We are all individually entitled to have our likings for, and antipathies to particular colors, hues, shades, or tints. We may also, individually, have our par- tiality to particular modes of arrangement amongst various colors, — some may delight in a gay and lively style of coloring — some in the rich and powerful, and others in the deep and grave — some may have a partiality for complex arrangements, while others prefer extreme simplicity. But this is the case in music also ; eveiy variety of style and composition has its particular admirers ; yet it never is assumed, that the arranging of the notes in a melody, or other musical composition, is a mat- ter of mere caprice or fashion. All know that the arrangement of notes in such cases is regulated by fixed laws ; proved also, by the experimental in- quiries of the natural philosopher, to depend on certain phenomena in nature, which cannot be de- viated from without giving offence to the ear ; therefore, a knowledge of those laws is considered INTRODUCTION. 15 absolutely requisite to every one who wishes to cultivate that pleasing art, either practically or as an amateur. This is precisely the case in regard to coloring ; for it does not matter under what circumstances a variety of colors are presented to the eye — if they be harmoniously arranged, the eflfi^t will be as agreeable to that organ as harmo- nious music is to the ear; but if not so arranged, the effect on the eye must be unpleasant, and the more cultivated the mind of the individual, the more annoyance will such discordance occasion him. The laws of harmonious coloring seem not only to have been thoroughly understood by those great painters of antiquity, whose works have been the admiration and study of succeeding ages, bpt were even so far back as amongst the early Egjq^tians, carried to the greatest perfection in the more hum- ble art of the internal and external chromatic decorations of architecture. Those travellers who have visited the remains of the magnificent cities and tombs erected by the wonderful people, speak of this branch of art as having been executed upon an evidently regular sysfem of harmon}^ which had for its basis the fundamental laws, or first princi- ples, that ought still to regulate the proceedings of the colorist, especially in those branches of art 16 INTRODUCTION. where high genius is not required, and where the practitioner must be confined within the bounds of teachable rules. The Romans, too, at the period of their greatest refinement, seem to have paid a due regard to these laws in the applying of color to the useful arts, of which fact the remains of Pompeii and Hercula- neum afford ample proof. The accounts given by artists and amateurs, of the interior decorations of the dwelling-houses of these ancient cities, all con- cur in eulogizing the scientific knowledge which their coloring displays. It appears, that the deco- rators of those days used, upon all occasions, the most brilliant and intense colors, without either discord or crudity appearing in their works. But their seience did not stop here, for, by a knowledge of the various styles of coloring, and of their j^roper adaptation, they employed great masses of deep color, even black itself, on the walls of their rooms, sepecially such as were lighted from the top, or, rather, that were altogether uncovered ; thus coun- teracting the brilliant and abundant light of the Italian sky. The practice of scientific coloring seems still to exist amongst the Italians. An eminent writer on the art of painting, and an amateur of the highest class,* who has done much * James Skene, Esq., of Rubislaw. INTEODUCTION. 17 in an official capacity for the encouragement and improvement of our national manufactures, thus describes the practice of house-painting amongst the modern Italians : — “ In Italy, the study and acquirements of a house- painter are little inferior to what is requisite for the higher branches of the art ; and, in fact, the practice of both is not unfrequently combined. They are more^ conversant with the science, as well as the practice of coloring, with the rules of harmony, and with the composition of ornamental painting in all its branches ; so that their works might be trans- ferred to canvas, and admired for their excellence. In fact, the great frescoes of the first masters, which have been the admiration of ages, were but part of the general embellishment of the churches and palaces of Italy. And the most celebrated names in the list of artists have left memorials of their fame in the humble decorations of the arabesque, in which all the exuberance and playfulness of fancy are displayed, as well as the most enchanting harmony of brilliant colors. It is in this essential point of harmony that our practice is particularly' defective ; we rarely see, in the simple painting of our apartments, any combination of colors that is not in some part offensive against even the com- mon rules of art, if there are any rules observed, 2 ^- 18 INTRODUCTION. save those of mere caprice or chance — although there are certain combinations pointed out by the laws of optics, which can as little be made to harmonize as two discordant notes in music. The unpleasant effects arising from such erroneous mix- tures and juxtapositions, we are often sufficiently aware of, without having the skill requisite to assign the reason, any more than the painter who chose them. This accounts for the prevalent use of neutral colors in our ornamental painting, which is less liable to offend by whatever bright color it may be relieved, and likewise the safer and more agreeable combination of the different shades of the same indefinite color. But no sooner do our painters attempt any combination of decided colors than they fail. The ornamental painting in Italy is almost entirely in decided colors of the most brilliant hue, and yet always inexpressibly pleasing ' in the combinations, because the rules of harmony are known and attended to. Neither is this pro- ficiency confined to the decoration of palaces, pr the more elaborate and expensive works ; we have seen in dwellings of a much humbler cast, and indeed in general practice, the most graceful de- signs of ornament, painted, not in the simple man- ner of Camayeu, but displaying every possible tint of bold and vivid coloring, and melting into each INTKODUCTION. 19 other with all the skill and harmony of a piece of brilliant music.” Until very lately, white, neutral hues, and pale tints of color only were used in the painter’s de-# partment of our internal decorations, — a practice that it is difficult at first view to account for in a country like this, where we are, by a variable cli- mate, denied the study and enjoyment of nature’s coloring for so many days in every season of the year ; and must, consequently, content ourselves with what the interior decorations of our dwellings afford. This vapid tameness in the coloring of our dwell- ings is the more inexcusable, when we reflect, that as harmonious music delights and refines the mind through the ear, so does harmonious coloring act as an agent of civilization, in delighting and refin- ing the mind through the visual organ. I believe, however, that this long banishment of the true beauty of coloring from the apartments of our dwelling-houses had its origin, not in any want of feeling or taste for coloring on our part, as com- pared with our Continental neighbors, but from our having lost the art of applying colors har- moniousl}^ unless by the intuitive feeling of genius. There is an inherent principle in the human mind, however uncultivated it ma}' be, that responds to 20 INTEODUCTION, harmony — either in color, sound, or form ; and as silence is preferable to bad music, so is neutrality to positive coloring, unless the latter be regulated Jby the laws of harmony, which render it to the eye what music is to the ear. This quality in coloring is perfectly irrespective of imitative art, for so long as the forms of the individual colors are agreeable and proportionate to the eye, so long will their harmonious arrangement convey as much pleasure to the mind, through that organ, as there is con- veyed to it through the ear by the proper perform- ance of a piece of instrumental music. Many attribute our apathy in regard to rich coloring, to the uncongenial nature of the climate of this country. This cannot be, for in no country in the civilized world does nature exhibit, in the revolution of a year, such a splendid variety of colorific harmony — in which our snowy winter is but a pause. This pause is first interrupted by the cool vernal melody of spring, gradually leading the eye to the full rich tones of luxuriant beautj^ ex- hibited in the foliage and fiowers of summer, which again as gradually rise into the more vivid and powerful harmonies of autumnal coloring, suc- ceeded, often suddenly, by the pause of winter. But how often, in the depth of winter, when the colorless snow clothes the face of nature, do the most glorious harmonies of color present INTEODUCTION. 21 themselves in the purple and gold of a winter sky. These picturesque effects have doubtless contributed largely to distinguish the British school of painting, as a school of color. The picturesque beauty of. nature’s coloring, however, lies in the province of genius to imitate in works of high art; for the generality of mankind may admire it, but cannot deduce from it its first principles, in such an intel- ligible form, as to found laws upon them to govern that species of coloring which belongs to the more humble arts, the improvement of which is the chief object of this treatise. What I have elsewhere said in regard to the picturesque beauty of nature’s forms, I may here repeat as applicable to the no less picturesque beauty of her coloring; namely, that because it may afibrd the poet some of the finest themes for the exercise of his genius, we do not assume that it also supplies that knowledge of language which enables the generality of mankind to read and un- derstand his poetry. Neither is the coloring of nature to be transferred to works of ornamental art, by means of mere imitation, any more than poetry can be produced by its mere description. The hand that blends the tints and hues in works of imitative art, must be guided b}^ a mind so con- stituted, as to possess a quick and keen perception 22 INTEODUCTION. of the most subtle developments of the principles of beauty, and deeply imbued with that faculty which reciprocates at once to these developments. Such a mind- constitutes that species ot** genius which cannot be inculcated by any process of tuition, and, therefore, none but those who possess it intuitively are capable of imitating properly the beauties of nature. To study the beaut}^ of nature’s forms and coloring, is, doubtless, one of the most delightful modes of emplo^dng the perceptive and reflective powers of the mind, but, to attempt to imitate them picturesquely, without the qualifica- tion of genius, is a waste of labor ; and the adapta- tion of those defective imitations, indiscriminately, to ornamental purposes, has done more to degrade high art than any other species of barbarism. For decorative purposes, and in their application to manufactures, colors must be systematized, and the elements of their various modes of combina- tions thoroughly understood, so that the beauty of such applications of colors could be comprehended by the generality of mankind, as easily as a simple sentence in written language. But the decorator and the manufacturer are too partial to that species of imitative art which requires the light and shade as well as the coloring of natural objects. In short, instead of acquiring a knowledge of the elementary INTRODUCTION’. 23 laws of color and form, in order to apply them in the simple combinations which the humble arts of house-painting and weaving require, the poetry of high art is attempted ; and, those who make the attempt not being possessed ,of that high genius which can reach the truth of the picturesque beauty of nature, the feelings are not touched, nor the sympathies excited by such works. It is really astonishing that people of highly cultivated minds, who can look with pleasure upon the delicate color- ing and «fxquisite forms of the real flowers to be found in most drawing-rooms, can endure, at the same time, the sight of the wretched imitation flowers upon the paper-hangings and carpets, with which these apartments are often decorated. Habit does a great deal in familiarizing the senses to im- pressions that would otherwise excite very disagree- able feelings. A man with a flne ear for music may get so accustomed to the sound of sharpening saws, and the noise of the tinsmith’s hammer, that in course of time they will not much annoy him. So many a person of a fine eye for color become so ac- customed to the harsh and discordant coloring of many of our carpets and paper-hangings, as to treat their presence with indifference. Happily, there has of late j^ears been a great movement made, in this country, towards a better 24 INTEODUCTION. knowledge of coloring in the useful arts, and espe- cially in the decoration of our dwelling-houses. But much remains to be done, for there has as yet been little more than mere agitation, and there appears a great timidity on the part of the public generally, in respect to departing from the quiet neutrality that has so long rendered our apart- ments insipid and comfortless to the eye, and adopting in its stead a more full-toned and rich style of coloring. To become acquainted with the laws '.of harmo- nious coloring — is neither a diflScult nor an un- pleasant task; and as the first principles upon which they are based, are identical with those upon which depend the harmony of sound and of form, their acquirement would improve our know- ledge in matters of taste generally. I may here reiterate what I have on other occasions stated that in this cojintry we are as much, in want of that knowledge which conduces towards a proper appreciation of the correct and the beautiful, in works of ornamental art, as we are of operatives in that particular branch. It would appear, however, from the recent intro- duction into this country of foreign artists, that our appreciation is rather gaining ground upon our practice. But although the number of those inge- INTEODUCTION. 25 nious foreigners were multiplied to one hundred for each individual, it could not supersede the neces- sity and utility of studying those first principles to which, whether applied intuitively or through acquired knowledge, the ornamental works of these foreigners owe whatever beauty they may possess. It is not the mere adoption of a more fiorid style of decoration in our public buildings, and in some of the mansions of the nobility of the land, that will -do what is required to be done for this art. Every man of ordinary education ought to have such a knowledge of the teachable laws of color- ing, as would enable him to be a judge of such works, and to distinguish between the aflectation of harmony of color, and its true development, either by intuitive genius, or b}^ the appiication of those fixed principles, a knowledge of which may be so easily acquired. But our general knowledge, even of the propriety necessary to be observed in decoration, is so far below the requisite standard, that the grossest absurdities are often committed. For instance, we find the most fiimsy and fantastical stjde of orna- mental design, borrowed at third or fourth hand from a building devoted to the private luxuiy of an ancient Roman, adopted as a suitable st3de for the interior of an arcade, remarkable for its plain sub- 3 26 INTRODUCTlOlsr. staiitial massiveness, and devoted to a species of ]3ublic business of such a grave nature as to be of vital importance to our prosperity and independ- ence, as one of the nations of the civilized world. It is scarcely possible to conceive a greater degree of decorative incongruity than this, yet it has been committed in one of our greatest national edifices, amidst all the agitation that exists in regard to national advancement in the art of ornamental design. An excellent writer on decoration in the Atlie- nseum^ No. 840, p. lOH, very justly observes, “That certain principles of decoration may be laid down, which, if recognized and applied, would make our dwellings much more cheerful and comfortable, which might make them comparatively beautiful, not only without any additional cost, but would make the keep of them more economical, by ren- dering them, to an equal degree, independent of the caprices of fashion. It is the absence of correct principles which causes decoration and furniture to be out of fashion, tiresome, palling to the eye, and subject to constant change; whereas, what is really beautiful, being based on everlasting principles, is subject to no change. We think the greater part of the painting of a house might be a work to last for a life, with benefit even to the journeymen INTRODUCTION'^ 27 painters, and infinite satisfaction to the house in- habitant. A truly melancholy suspension of com- fort is the work of painting a house. Your whole little world so turned upside down, that it hardly rights itself before the work has to be done again. What a comfort it would be to undergo the penance only once in a life, instead of every seven years ! “It seems to us quite a mistake, though a very common and popular one, to imagine that beauty is necessarily costly in its production. Nothing could be cheaper in material and manufacture than the earthenware pots of the ancient Etrurians ; yet they have perfect and everlasting beauty in their forms. The preference of one color to another, within a very wide range of colors, is not at all a thing of greater or lesser cost. So far from beauty being costly, it would more often happen, that in a given number of existing specimens of decoration, the greater beauty and harmony would be obtained at a smaller cost of labor and material, than what are expended to produce ugliness and confusion. Take at random a dozen patterns of paper-hangings, of various colors and devices, and in the majorit}’ of them, we believe it could be shown that their cost of production might be materially lessened, whilst their beauty would be greatly enhanced.” Practical experience in my profession lias long 28 IJ'J'TRODUCTION. since convinced me of the correctness of these ob- servations, and of the satisfaction and advantage arising to the employer as well as to the trades- man, by a strict adherence, on the part of the latter, to the principles here indicated. I shall conclude this introduction by reiterating the fact — that it is to the want of an inculcation of teachable rules to the mechanic and manufacturer, as producers of beauty, and to the public generally, as appreciators of it, that we must attribute our present deficiency in J^sthetical Taste. ON THE THEORIES OF COLOR. When I first pnblislied this Treatise there ex- isted two theories, and I hesitated long which of the two to adopt. The one theory was that estab- lished by Sir Isaac Newton, and adopted by Sir David Brewster, and other philosohical writers on chromatics, and a short account of it may make what follows more clearly understood by the generality of readers. The Newtonian theory was discovered, or rather the discovery of others was confirmed, by that great philosopher in the following manner : — In the window-shutter of a darkened room he made a hole of about the third of an inch in diam- eter, behind which, at a short distance, he placed a prism, so that a ray of the sun’s light might enter, and leave it at equal angles. This ray — which before the introduction of the prism pro- ceeded in a straight line, and formed a round spot upon a screen placed a few feet distant from the window, was now found to be refracted — ap- 3 ^ 80 THE LAM^S OF peared of an oblong form, and composed of seven different colors of tbe greatest brilliancy, imper- ceptibly blended together, viz., violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, and red. This is called tbe solar or prismatic spectrum. Tbe theory said to be established by this ex- periment was, that the white light of the sun is composed of several colors, which often appear by themselves, and that this white light can be separated into its elements. By-making a hole in the screen upon which the spectrum is formed, opposite to each of these colors successively, so as to allow it alone to pass, and by letting the color thus separated fall upon a second prism. Sir Isaac Kewton found that the light of each of the colors was alike irrefrangible, — because the second prism could not separate any of them into an oblong image, or any other color than its own; hence, he called all the colors simple or homogeneous. The other theory was that which seemed adopt- ed by almost all who had written on coloring connected with the fine arts, and was, that there were only thre,e simple or homogeneous colors, and that all others resulted from their various modes of combination. Although this theory HARMONIOUS COLORING. 81 seemed only to be established in a practical point of view, and was unsupported by any scientific experiments, yet it appeared to me more consist- ent with the general simplicity of nature, and I could not believe that she required seven homo- geneous parts to produce what art could do by three. For instance, an artist can make all the colors, and indeed a correct representation of the prismatic spectrum (so far as the purity of his ma- terials will allow), with three colors only, whilst, according to the theory of Sir Isaac Newton, «even simple or homogeneous colors were the constit- uents of the real one. The following discovery, made by Buffon, and illustrated by succeeding philosophers, helped to strengthen me in the conviction.that the scientific theory might be, like that of the practical artist, reducible to three simple or homogeneous parts. If we look steadily for a considerable time upon a spot of any given color, placed on a white or black ground, it will appear surrounded by a border of another color. And this color will uniformly be found to be that which makes up the harmonic triad of red, yellow, and blue ; for if the spot be red, the border will be green, which is composed of blue and yellow ; if blue, the 82 THE LAWS OF border will be orange, composed of yellow and red; and if yellow, the border will be purple, making in all cases a triunity of tke three pri- mary colors. With a view to throw such light upon the sub- ject as my limited opportunities would permit, I tried over the experiments by which Sir Isaac Kewton came to the conclusion, that there were seven primary elements in the solar spectrum, and the same results occurred ; I could not sepa- rate any one of the colors of which it seemed composed into two. The imperceptible manner in which the colors were blended together upon the spectrum, however, and the circumstance of the colors which practical people called com- pound, being always found between the two of which they understood it to be composed, to- gether with my previous conviction, induced me to continue my experiments: and although I could not, by analysis, prove that there were only three colors, I succeeded in proving it to my own satisfaction, synthetically, in the following man- ner : — After having tried every color in succession, and finding that none of them could be separated into two, I next made a hole in the first screen. HAEMONIOUS COLOEING. 83 in the centre of the blue of the spectrum, and another in that of red. I had thereby a spot of each of these colors upon a second screen. I then, by means of another prism, directed the blue spot to the same part of the second screen on which the red appeared, where they united and produced a violet as pure and intense as that upon the spectrum. I did the same with the blue and yellow, and produced the prismatic green ; as also with the red and yellow, and orange was the result. I tried, in the same man- ner, to mix a simple with what I* thought a compound colpr, but they did not unite ; for no sooner was the red spot thrown upon the green than it disappeared. I tried the same experiment with two gpec- trums, the one behind, and of course a little above the other, and passed a spot of each color successively over the spectrum which was farthest from the window, and the same result occurred. It therefore appeared to me that these three colors had an affinity to one another that did not exist in the others, and that they could not be the same in every respect, except color and refrangibilit}^, as had hitherto been taught. These opinions, the result of my experiments. 34 THE LAWS OF I published in 1828, as being an appropriate part of a treatise of this nature, and I did so with great diffidence, well knowing that I was soaring far above my own element in making an attempt to throw light upon such a subject. I had, however, the gratification to learn that these facts were afterwards proved in a communication read to the Eoyal Society of Edinburgh, by Sir David Brewster, on the 21st of March, 1831, in which he showed that white light consists of the three primary colors, red, yellow, and blue ; and that the other colors shown by the prism are com- posed of these. It may, therefore, now be confi- dently assumed, that there are in the scientific theory, as in that of the artist, only three primary homogeneous colors, of which all others are compounds. It is not, however, so satisfactorily settled that the light of the sun is composed of colored rays. Transient colors are more likely to be the result of the action of light uffon shade, and not the separation of light into its elements. This is not a new theory, for it was orignally advanced by Aristotle, and afterwards adopted by Leonardo da Yinci. Neither has it been set aside by modern investigators, for Goethe has taken the place HAEMONIOUS COLORING. 85 of Aristotle, and it may be said that be has now established it as a fact in natural philosophy ; whilst his translator, Eastlake, has, like Leo- nardo da Yinci, adopted and elucidated it as connected with the practice of high art. Goethe states his opinion in the following terms : — “ Light* and darkness, brightness and obscurity, or, if a more general expression is preferred, light and its absence, are necessary to the production of color. Next to the light, a color appears which we call yellow, another appears next to the darkness which we call blue ; when these, in their purest state, are so mixed that they are exactly equal, they produce a third color called green. Each of the two first-named colors can, however, of itself, produce a new tint, by being condensed or darkened ; they thus acquire a reddish appearance, which can be in- creased to so great a degree that the original blue or yellow is hardly to be recognized in it ; but the intensest and^-purest red, especially in physical cases, is produced whqn the tw'o ex- tremes of the yellow-red and the blue-red are united. This is the actual state of the appear- ance and generation of colors. But we can also assume an existing red in addition to the definite 36 THE LAWS OF existing blue and yellow, and we can produce contrariwise, by mixing wbat we directly produce by augmentation or deepening. With these three, or six, colors, which may be conveniently included in a circle, the elementary doctrine of colors is alone concerned. All other modifica- tions, which may be extended to infinity, have reference to the technical operations of the painter and dyer, and the various purposes of artificial life. To point out another general quality, we may observe, that colors, throughout, are to be considered as half-lights, as half- shadows, on which account, if they are so mixed as recipro- cally to destroy their specific hues, a shadowy tint or gray is produced.”* Eastlake observes, “That the opinion so often stated by Goethe, namely, that increase in color supposes increase of darkness, may be granted without difficulty.” f Again, he observes, — “Aristotle’s notion respecting the derivation of color from white and black, may perhaps be illustrated by the following opinion on the very similiar theory of Goethe. ‘ Goethe and Seebeck * Goethe’s Theory of Colors. Translated by Eastlake. Introduction, pp. xlii. xliii. t Ihid. Note, p. 365. HABMOmOUS COLOBING. 87 regard color as resulting from tlie mixture of white and black, and ascribe to the different colors a quality of darkness by the dif- ferent degrees of which they are distinguished — passing from white to black, through the gra- dations of yellow, orange, red, violet, and blue ; while green appears to be intermediate again between yellow and blue. This remark, though it has no influence in weakening the theory of colors proposed by Newton, is certainly correct, having been confirmed experimentally by the researches of Herschel, who ascertained the rela- tive intensity of the different colored rays, by illuminating objects under the microscope by their means. “ ‘Another certain proof of the difference in brightness, of the different colored rays, is afforded by the phenomena of ocular spectra. If, after gazing at the sun, the eyes are closed, so as to exclude the light, the image of the sun appears at first as a luminous or white spectrum, upon a dark ground, but it gradually passes through the series of colors to black ; that is to say, until it can no longer be distinguished from the dark field of vision ; and the colors which it assumes, are successively those intermediate 4 between white and black, in the order of their illuminating power of brightness, namely, yellow, orange, red, violet, nnd blue. If, on the other hand, after looking for some time at the sun, we turn our eyes towards a white surface, the image of the sun is seen at first as a black spectrum upon the white surface, and gradually passes through the different colors, from the darkest to the lightest, ^nd at last becomes white, so that it can no longer be distinguished from the white ' surface.’ These authorities appear quite sufficient to warrant the adoption of the hypothesis, that shade as well as light acts in the production of transient colors, and that the solar spectrum is the result of the ternary division of the action of light upon darkness performed by the three- t sided prism. But the original cause of light and color is a point upon which natural philosophers have not as yet come to a decision, and as little beyond conjecture had been advanced upon the subject, I hazarded the publication of an idea of my own * Elements of Physiology, by J. Muller, M. Translated from the German by William Bailly, M. D. London ; 1839. HAEMONIOUS COLOEING. 39 upon it in an appendix to another work (The Nomenclature of Colors, &c.). In this hypothesis I adopted the theory, that ct)lor is an intermediate phenomenon between those of light and darkness, the perception of which, like light itself, is con- veyed to the mind through the most perfect of our senses ; and that the impression made upon this sense conveys to the understanding the per- ception of light and color, by means of some inherent quality in the atmosphere, which we know to be an elastic fluid — impenetrable, inert, movable, and possessed of a certain gravity, reducible in proportion to the degree of attenua- tion to which it may be subjected, and when pure, to consist principally of nitrogen gas and oxygen gas, with a small proportion of aqueous vapor and carbonic acid. Now as these elements are, according to a well-established theory, composed of individual atoms or molecules, I supposed it probable that the sun, or any other luminous body, might act upon these atomic particles, elec- trically or otherwise, so as to put them into harmonic motion amongst themselves, each upon its own axis, thus rendering them luminous by friction, and producing pure or white light. I supposed it ^Iso to be probable that the partial 40 THE LAWS OF interruption of tMs atomic motion might produce shades, — a change in its mode, colors, — and its total interruption, blackness. As every material body is also understood to be composed of atoms, it may likewise be reasonably supposed that their modes of arrangement, in the constitution of such bodies, as well as their individual configuration, will render them capable of receiving this motion of light in ways so infinitely various, as to account for the production of every possible variety of shade and color. Many processes in dyeing pro- duce colors simply by a change in the arrange- ment of the atoms of which the substance dyed is composed, thus affecting the atomic motion of light upon its surface. It is equally probable that the mode of arrangement of the atoms in crystals, and other transparent media, may be thus affected, and made to communicate a like motion to those of the atmosphere beyond them, producing colored light, as those atoms on the surface of opaque Bodies reflect it. In the article on Chkomatics, in the Eiicych- jpsedia Britannica^ the hypothesis advanced is, that variously colored rays emanate from the sun, each possessing a different degree of intensity, and that there may possibly be a multitude of rays of f HARMONIOUS COLORING. 41 eacli color, moving with various velocities, and only affecting the sense when they have the velocity appropriate to thal^color in the ey§. But the hypothesis of atomic motion which I have suggested, is independent of any such complicated process : for although the motion it supposes to he communicated by luminous bodies to the gaseous atoms may be various, the progress of the communication may be perfectly uniform. Simplicity seems the first principle in all nature’s works, and, as I have elsewhere ob- serVed, the more we investigate her operations, the more we become convinced of the simplicity of the means by which the phenomena that are daily attracting our attention are performed. If, therefore, we can account for the phenomena of light and color as satisfactorily by the means known to exist, as by supposing the necessity of material particles, or an ethereal fluid to assist these (agreeable to the different theories of New- ton and Huygens), the subject is simplified, and so far agrees with the facts which philosophy has brought within the sphere of our knowledge. 4 ^' 42 THE LAWS OF ON THE ANALOGY BETWEEN COLOE AND SOUND. Harmonious arrangements of colors being sucb combinations as, by certain principles of onr nature, produce an effect on the eye, similar to that wbicb is produced by harmonious mi^ic on the ear, and as a remarkable conformity exists between the science of color and that of sound, in tbeir fundamental principles, as well as in their effects, I shall probably best lead the reader to a proper comprehension of the former by tracing this analogy, the more especially as the art of music is much more generally understood, although, at the same time, it is niuch to be re- gretted that a knowledge of its first principles, or natural philosophy, is very rare, even amongst its professors. This analogy will help to show, that the laws which govern color are irrefraga- ble, and, at the same time, a knowledge of them as practically necessary to the colorist in art, manufacture, or decoration, as a knowledge of HARMONIOUS COLORING. 43 those which govern sound is to the musician. It is well known to those who have studied music in the proper way, that there are three funda- mental notes, viz., the first, third, and fifth of the scale~-and technically called the tonic, the medi- ant, and the dominant — and that these notes, when sounded together, produce the common ' chord, which is the foundation of all harmony in musical compositfon. So it is in chromatics, — there are likewise only three fundamental colors, —blue, red, and yellow, forming the triad from which arises all harmony in painting. By the combination of any two of these pri- mary colors, a secondary color of a distinct kind is produced ; and as only one absolutely distinct denomination of color, called a hue, can arise from a combination of the three prinraries, the full number of really distinct tones is seven, cor- responding to the seven notes in the complete scale of the musician. Eacb of these colors is capable of forming a key or tonic for an arange- ment, to which all the other colors introduced must refer subordinately. This reference and subordination to one particular color or hue gives a character to the whole, which is precisely the 44 THE LAWS OF case in regard to tlie key-note in musical compo- sition. This characteristic of an arrangement of color is generally called its tone ; but it appears to me that this term is more applicable to individual hues, as it is in music to voices and instruments alone. Yet, to avoid obscurity, I shall continue to use it in the sense in which it is generally ap- plied to coloring. From the three primary colors — yellow, red, and blue — arise, first, the secondary colors — orange, purple, and green, and then an infinite variety of hues, tints, and shades ; so that the colorist, like the musician, notwithstanding the limited number of the fundamental parts of his art, has ample scope for the production of origi- nality and beauty in the various combinations and arrangements of which they are susceptible. The three homogeneous colors — yellow, red, and blue, have a numerical relation to each other, in their respective powers, which correspond in a remarkable manner to the numerical ratios found to exist in the respective lengths of the monochord that produce the harmonics in music, and the corresponding undulations which their vibration produce in the atmosphere. HAEMONIOUS COLOKING. 45 When the three primary colors are reflected from any opaque body, in their proper propor- tions, neutrality is produced. They are then in an active state by reflection, but each is neu- tralized, to a certain extent, by the relative effect that the others have upon it. When they are absorbed, or the action which produces them interrupted, in the same proportions, they are in a passive state, and black is the result. When transmitted through any transparent body, the effect is the same; but in the first case they are material or inherent, and in the second impalpa- ble or transient. Color, therefore, depends en- tirely on the reflective or refractive power of bodies, as the transmission or reflection of sound does upon their vibratory powers. The secondary colors arise from the combina- tion of the primary colors in the following manner: Yellow and red, being mixed, produce orange color ; red and blue, purple ; and yellow and blue, green ; and^heir peculiar quality will depend upon the relative quantities and intensity of the primary colors of which they are com- pounded. These secondary colors are called the accidental or complimentary colors to the pri- maries, from the phenomenon already referred to. 46 THE LAWS OP And this is precisely the case in regard to musi- cal notes. When any given note is sounded, especially upon a stringed instrument, it is either accompanied or immediately succeeded by others, which are called itsdiarmonics. Out of this reci- procating quality amongst colors, arises all chromatic harmony, and it consequently embodies the first principles of beauty in coloring, as the harmonic relations of the three notes in music, called the tonic, the dominant, and the mediant — or the 1st, 5th, and 3d of the scale — embody the first principles of beauty in sounds. I here place the 5th before the 3d, because the numerical relation of the 5th to the 1st is relative to the number 3, whilst that of the 3d is relative to the number 5 ; and' it is here worthy of remark, that the 5th first succeeds the tonic, although an octavo higher, and afterwards- the 3d, another octavo higher. Neither do the complimentary colors appear in an intensity equivalent to the color upon which the eye rest^ but evidently much weaker. From the combination of the secondary colors arise the tertiaries or primary hues, which are also three in number, as follow : olive or blue- hue, from the mixture of the purple and green ; HAEMONIOUS COLOEING-. 47 citron or yellow-liuej from the mixture of the green and orange; and russet or red-hue, from * the mixture of orange and purple. These three colors, it will be observed, are produced by the admixture of the same ingredients — the three primaries — which always, less or more, neutral- ize each other in tri unity. The most neutral of hues being gray, the mean between black and white,, as any of the secondaries are between two of the primaries, it may appropriately be termed, although in reality a hue, the seventh color. These tertiary colors,' however, stand in the same relation to the secondary colors that the secon- daries do to the primaries — olive to orange, citron to purple, and russet to green; and their proportions will be found to be in the same accordance, because they neutralize each other integrally. Out of the primary hues, by a similar mode of combination and proper balancing of their rela- tive powers, arise the secondary hues, which have been popularly termed brown, marone, and slate, but are more properly orange-hue, purple- hue, and green-hue ; and to these the same rules of contrast are equally applicable. Besides this relation of contrast in opposition, 48 THE LAWS OF colors have a relation in series, whicli is their melody. This melody, or harmony of succession, is found in all the natural phenomena of color. ■ Each color on the prismatic spectrum, and in the rainbow, is melodized by the two compounds which it forms with the other two primaries. Eor instance,' the yellow is melodized by the orange on the one side, and the green on the other, the blue by the green and purple, and the red by the purple and orange. Field, in his excellent Essay on the Analogy and Harmony of Colors, has shown these coincidences by a diagram, in which he has accommodated the chromatic scale of the colorist to the diatonic series of the musi- cian, showing that the concords and discords are also singularly coincident — but such an illustra- tion would be too complex for a work of this simple kind. The senses of hearing and seeing do each con- vey to the mind impressions of pleasure or pain, in the modes in which they are acted upon by external objects — hearing, by the modes in which such objects, by their motion, produce an effect upon the surrounding atmosphere, and seeing, by the modes in which light acts upon them. In other works I have endeavored to point out, in HAEMONIOUS COLOEING. 49 detail, the mathematical nature of these modes, and to show that the elements of beauty in sound, color, and form, are identical in the numerical ratios of their powers upon each other. These details need not, therefore, be gone further into here, especially as to my wish to treat the subject less abstrusely and more concisely than in the works to which reference has j ust been made. Sounds, when addressed to the ear in intelligi- ble language, convey to the mind a meaning, either descriptive of an idea, or of some^ object which is acknowledged by the understanding, and _this ma}^ be entirely independent of music. Forms, when intelligibly presented to the eye, representing, even in outline, any known object or established idea, convey to the mind an under- standing of the object or idea entirely independ- ent of color. It is well known as a physiological fact, that there are individuals whose ears are so constituted that they cannot distinguish music from any other species of sound, although their sense of hearing may be perfect in every other respect ; and that there are also individuals whose eyes are so constituted that they are equally in- capable of distinguishing colors, although their orga'ns of vision may likewise be perfect in every 5 50 THE LAWS OF otlier respect. Therefore, there seems to be a physiological analogy exhibited in these organs of sense. When we reflect on 'the nature of music, we find it to. be simply a variety of sounds, having a mathematical relation to each other in their pitch and in their duration, arranged, in the first instance, so as to follow each other in certain modes agreeably to these mathematical relations. This mode of succession produces a melody or air, which is the subject of the composition. In the second instance, that it is composed of a variety of sounds, relating also mathematically to each other in combination, or as they are made to agree with each other when produced simulta- neously ; and this is called harmony. Sounds arranged in this way, convey no further intelligible meaning to the mind of man, than that which depends upon the propriety of their combination in both these respects. Now this propriety in their combination has been proved ho depend upon irrefragable laws, which are based upon a branch of natural philosophy called acoustics. The power with which the human mind may HARMONIOUS COLORING. 51 duction of sounds in successive and combined harmony, having individually in themselves no intelligible meaning — is well known. The turbid and excited mind may be soothed, and the most benign feelings of our nature excited — men may be roused from a state of apathy to attempt deeds of daring valor, or withdrawn, from sinfulness to remorse and devotion — by the influence of music. In all this we have nothing more than a scien- tific combination of sounds addressed to the ear. Nature also presents sounds to the ear, as she does color to the eye, in those subtle combina- tions that are often in both cases adopted by men of genius, as themes for the highest productions in art. From nature, we receive both impres- sions, with equal intensity ; our eye is as much delighted by the ever varying tints and hues of the landscape, as our ear is by songs of birds, the murmuring of streamlets, or sighing of the gentle winds of summer. But in the one case, science combined with art, has enabled us to produce an infinite variety of beautiful effects, by combina- tions of mere sounds, while the arranging of colors, unless in connection with imitative art, is still very generally considered a matter of mere whim or caprice. Though the artist enhances 52 THE LAWS OP Ills work by judicious coloring, yet it bas other constituents of excellence which form its subject. In the same way, the song of the poet is enhanced by appropriate music. But the music of the composer may be produced with a certain effect, independently of the words of the poet, because the science of its composition is understood, while the coloring of the picture, for want of a know- ledge of the science of chromatics, can in no other way be produced, than in connection with its language — the imitation of nature which it exhibits. No one will deny to the eye, the power of affect- ing the mind as sensibly, by what it conveys to the sensorium, as the ear does through the same medium ; and what is the coloring of poetry but appropriate music ? and this music, as just ob- served, may affect the mind to a certain extent, independently of the poetry. It therefore appears clear, that if the science of coloring was properly cultivated, it might be made to affect the mind, independently of any other intelligible meaning than its scientific combination. It is such con- siderations as these that give importance to the analogy between color and sound. (Note A.) HAEMONIOUS COLOEING. 53 ON COLOES GENERALLY. Theee are only three distinct classes of colors, and they are termed primaries, secondaries, and tertiaries, or hnes. A PRIMAEY COLOR is a simple element that cannot he separated into parts, but may be re- duced to a tint by white, or to a shade by black. The admixture of either of the other two primary colors changes it to a secondary color. A SECONDARY COLOR is Consequently pro- duced by the combination of two primary colors. These secondaries, like the primaries, may be reduced to tints and shades by the admixture of white or black, and may also, by the subordi- nation of either of their component parts, be changed in tone, while their names generally remain the same. Hence arise an immense num- ber of modifications of each of these secondary colors, — of orange from the yellowest to the red- 5 ^* 54 THE LAWS OF dest — of green from the yellowest to the bluest — and of purple from the reddest to the bluest, with a few exceptions which shall be afterwards noticed. A secondary color cannot, therefore, be changed in character, but by the admixture of its contrasting primary, or by its combination with one of the other secondaries, by either of which it becomes a hue. A TEETiAEY COLOE, or HUE, is Consequently compounded of two secondary colors, and is, con- sequently, a mixture of the three primaries ; it may, therefore, be modified in tone to a much greater extent than either of the two preceding classes. These modifications are effected by the predominance or subordination of any of its com- ponent parts, as also by the power of neutraliza- tion possessed by each of those parts upon the other two. Each of the six colors has its specific hue, and they may be thus compounded. Yellow-hue, by orange and green ; red-hue, by orange and purple ; blue-hue, by purple and green ; orange-hue by yellow-hue and red-hue ; green-hue, by yellow- hue and blue-hue ; and purple-hue by red-hue and blue-hue, as shown upon the followig dia- fTT’Qm n nnlrkVPrl rk-p wlninli +iflA- HAEMONIOUS COLOEING. 55 DIAGEAM OF THE PEIMAEY AND SECONDAEY COLOES AND THEIE HUES. A TINT is not in itself a specific color or line, bnt one of tlie gradations of any color or line from its most perfect state of intensity towards wliite. The variety of tints is, therefore, incal- culably greater than that of colors and hues. A SHADE is, in like manner, one of the incal- culable gradations of any color or hue from its most perfect state of intensity towards black. 66 THE LAWS OF In their contrasting powers, colors must bear relation to one another in respect to their hue, tint, and shade. A hue of any color mu^ bear a relative proportion to the hue with which it is intended to form an equal contrast in the pre- dominance of the color from which it takes its name. A tint of one color introduced into an arrangement as an equivalent contrast to a tint of another color, ought to be equal in dilute- ness, or in its stage of approximation towards white. And, in like manner, shades of two colors intended to contrast each other equally, ought to be of equal depth. All these equal contrasts depend upon the relative powers of the primary and secondary colors," one of which must predominate in every hue, tint, and shade : because when they are equally compounded, they produce neutrality. It is, therefore, easy for any one with a good eye, and such a know- ledge of the relative powers of the six colors as may be very easily attained, to produce this elementary species of harmonious coloring. Black and white, however, as they form a per* feet contrast to each other, being the extremes of light and shade, impart this quality to the 1 j 1 1*1 i 1 . • -1 rm HARMONIOUS COLORING. 57 fore, as a shade deepens towards black, the tint employed as a perfect contrast of light and shade, as welt as color, ought to approximate in an equal ratio towards white. But besides the contrasts that are equal as to color, and as to light and shade, there is a more refined species by which all the colors in a com- position, except one, are held in a certain degree of subordination, in order to give that particular color a force or prominence in the group ; and this applies to the light and shade by which the intensity of the colors is reduced, as much as to the colors themselves. Such contrasts may be termed imperfect, and it is by these especially that the teachable coloring of the decorator or of the manufacturer, can approach the unteachable coloring of high art. As a knowledge of these contrasts can only be given by going into greater detail than would be consistent with the simple nature of this treatise, — and, indeed, could not bo understood without such a number of colored diagrams as would render it too expensive for many of those for whose use it is principally in- tended, — I must refer such of my readers as may wish to go more'" deeply into the subject, to my “Principles of Beauty in Coloring Systematized,'’ 58 THE LAWS OF I and my “Nomenclature of Colors, Hues, Tints, and Shades.” As the effect of all arrangements of colors de- pends as much on the media which accompany and unite them as on the colors themselves, the greatest attention ought to be paid to the tone and character of this class of hues. It is by adapting them properly that the greatest distinc- tions are reconciled and brought to an imper- ceptible adjunct; and it is by them that tone, keeping, and repose, are given to the whole. A neglect of these mediatory colors is the chief cause of that crudity and confusion of parts, so conspicuous in many of the colored goods manu- factured at the present period. In arranging colors, therefore, either in manu- factures or decoration, whether a few or a great variety are to be employed, the effect of the whole, as well as the several compbnent parts, will depend as much on attention to this as on the skill with which they 'are harmonized in contrast and succession 'to each other. And it must be borne in mind, that no perfectly harmo- nious arrangement of colors can be made unless all the three primaries be present, either in a HAEMONIOUS COLORING. 59 of harmony depend upon a predominance, either of one of these three, or of one of the secondaries. The diagram to which I have already alluded, exhibits a general harmony of all the colors of any distinctive character, simple and compound, except the neutral gray, which is represented, although imperfectly, by the engraved ground- work. It will be observed that each limb of this diagram forms a series of hues proceeding from one of the primaries, and producing a dis- tinct melody, or harmony in succession, of that color. It will also be seen, that in each of these harmonies, although a primary color predomi- nates, as a key-note does in music, the other two primaries enter, in combination, into the arrange- ment, as shall be more fully noticed in treating of them separately. There is also shown, upon this diagram, the progress of color from light to darkness, or from white to black ; as also in its nine central divisions, the harmony, in succes- sion and contrast, of the primary and secondary colors. Its general arrangement, I trust, will likewise show that all the colors and hues, in their greatest intensity, may be brought together without crudity or harshness resulting from their combination. 60 THE LAWS OF The terms warm and cold, as applied to color, are not very generally understood ; I shall, there- fore, endeavor to explain their meaning. Of the three primary colors, red is most allied to warmth, and blue to coldness, whilst yellow re- mains neutral in these respects. Indeed, red- fully embodies the principle of warmth, and blue of coldness, because wherever the former predominates in any mixed color, the tone is reckoned warm in the degree of such predomi- nance ; and where the latter predominates, the compound is termed a cool-toned hue, to the ex- dent also of the predominance of that color. The term warm, or hot, as some writers have it, being applied to red, in art, may have originated in the resemblance of that color to fire, as much as from its powerful effect upon the eye ; and that of cold, to blue, from being so opposite to red in its effects; but, whatever the terms may have arisen from, they are perfectly significant, and thoroughly understood by painters and amateurs. It should, therefore, J3e kept in view, that yellow is a color allied to light, without being either of a cool or a warm tone — that red is intermediate as to light and shade, but decidedly of a warm tone — and that blue is a color allied to darkness, HARMONIOUS COLORING. 61 and decidedly of a cool tone. Eed is not altered in tone by tbe introduction *of yellow, because the product of tbe mixture, orange, is decidedly a warm-toned color ; neither is blue altered in tone by tbe introduction of yellow, because tbe product of tbe mixture, green, is a cool-toned color. Yellow imparts light to red and blue, and blue imparts shade to red and yellow. In all general arrangements, which are not necessarily confined to any particular leading color, it ought to be kept in view, what nature has pointed out in the most distinct manner in all her coloring, namely, that those cool-toneS and tempered colors which are most agreeable to the eye should’ predominate, and that vivid and intense colors should upon all occasions be used with a sparing hand. 6 62 THE LAWS OF ON THE APPLICATION OF THE LAWS OF HAE- MONIOUS COLORING TO HOUSE-PAINTING AND MANUFACTURES. The boose-painter sbould start with the prin- ciple so apparent in the coloring of nature, to which reference has just been made^ namely, that bright and intense colors should be used with a sparing hand, especially in situations where they receive a direct light ; and that such colors should only be employed to heighten the general effect,- and to add splendor to rich and full-toned arrangements by their sparkling quali- ties. The manufacturer has a greater latitude, for his productions may, i-n most cases, be neutralized by what accompanies them in a more general arrangement. In the finest specimens of Persian and Turkish carpets, the deep tones of indigo and brown predominate, while the bright hues HAEMONIOUS COLORING. 63 and tints only appear to detail and heigliten the effect of the pattern. • It has been said that coloring, like sound in music or poetry, should be an echo to the sense, and according to the general sentiment which the subject should inspire, it will be gay, lively, sombre, or solemn. Although this remark was made with reference to subjects of high art, it is equally applicable to the coloring of the apart- ments of a dwelling-house, and, indeed, to that of every building whatever, as well as to every kind of colored manufacture employed in their decoration. Every artist in the higher branches of painting has a particular style of coloring to study, pecu- liarly adapted to the nature of the generality of his subjects, but the house-painter’s styles must not only be as various as the uses of the apart- ments which he decorates, but must vary accord- ing to the different tastes of his employers : and, further, he must take into consideration not only the style of architecture, the situation, whether in town or country, but the very rays by which each apartment is lighted, whether they proceed directly from the sun, or are merely reflected from the northern sky ; he must confine himself 64 THE LAWS OF to neitlier a vivid, sombre, warm, nor cold style of coloring ; all must be equally at bis command, and in all, tbe same strict attention to barmony must be observed. Tbe bouse-painter^ bas often another very serious difficulty to encounter. A variety of bigbly and variously-colored furniture is shown him, to which tbe coloring of tbe different parts of a room must be suited; it is here that bis powers of balancing, harmonizing, and uniting, are called forth ; it is this which obliges him, as Sir Joshua Eeynolds says of the artist, ever to hold a balance in his hand, by which he must decide the value of different qualities, that, when some fault must be committed, he may choose the least. In toning and harmonizing the colors in a pic- ture, an artist has the assistance of light and shadow, and can make his shades accord with the tone in such a manner as to improve the general harmony ; but as the colors of the house-painter and manufacturer are all liable to be placed in full light, they must be toned in themselves, to prevent that unnatural crudeness so annoying to the eye. How, then, can we account for the con- tinued prevalence of those gaudy paper-hangings HAEMONIOUS COLOEING. 65 wliicli impinge tTie most powerful rays in all their vigor, or those carpets where the preponderance of bright yellow and red attracts the eye, and injures the effect of everything which is placed upon them ? And if, according to the rules which regulate the higher branches of the art, simplicity of arrangement prevents confusion, where a variety of colors are introduced, the colors, on the generality of such articles, are most errone- ously arranged. These errors must proceed from a general negligence of the rules of har- mony. I do not mean by this that bright and vivid colors are always offensive. I have already said that they add richness and grandeur, when used in their proper places, and in proper quan- tities ; but they should by no means cover the floor or walls of an apartment, unless under very peculiar circumstances. It may here be observed, that in ^tll pictures representing interiors, when a group of figures is introduced, there may occa- sionally appear a piece of rich drapery or furni- ture, painted in equally vivid and bright colors with the figures, and which may, in a great mea- sure, improve ihe general eftect and harmony ; but who ever saw, in a work of merit, the colors on the wall, or carpet on the floor of the apart- 6 ^ 66 THE LAWS OF ment, making a monopoly of attraction, and cansing those upon the figures and furniture to sink into insignificance ? There may be many excellences in a picture which may compensate for a defect in harmony^ and the artist may still retain a high character for drawing, expression, &c. ; but nothing can excuse a deficiency in this respect either in an apartment or a piece of manufacture. If the decorations of the apartment or fabric of the cloth be costly, the defect in harmony is the more to be regretted. I have asserted that a want of knowledge, or general negligence of the rules in harmony, is the cause of our errors in decoration and manu- factures ; and this fact is still apparent, even in regard to our most splendid habitations and palaces, the apartments in which, although often rendered pleasing from the interest excited by the profusion of pictures with which they are hung, too often display a want of harmony in their other decorations. This does not always proceed from the painting alone, but often from a want of unison between it and. the furniture; for each may be perfect in its own way, and yet the harshest discord exist between them. HAEMONIOUS COLOEING. 67 This is an obvious defect ; for when there is no particular tone or key fixed on for the color- ing of an apartment, — that is, when one part of the furniture is chosen without any reference to the rest, and the painting done without any refer- ence to the furniture, discord is generally the re- sult. Such an incongruous mixture is, in com- parison to a tastefully decorated apartment, as far as regards coloring, what a child produces with its first box of paints to a good picture. A second and more common fault is the pre- dominance of some bright and intense color, either upon the walls or floor. It is evident that the predominance of a bright and overpowering m color upon so large a space as the floor or wall of a room, must injure the efiect of the finest furniture. This great error often arises from the difficulty of choosing a paper-hanging or carpet, and our liability to be bewildered amongst the multitude of patterns which are produced, the most attrac- tive of which, on a small scale, are often, from this very circumstance, the more objectionable in regard to their forming a large mass in an apartment ; particularly as the artists who design them seem to be regulated by no fixed princi- 68 THE LAWS OP pies, but, from tbeir repeated deviations from the established rules of harmony, appear to give themselves up to the vague pursuit of novelty alone. A third error is introducing deep and pale colors, which may have been well enough chosen in regard to their hues, but whose particular degrees of strength or tint have not been at- tended to. Thus the intensity of one or more may so affect those which they were intended to balance and relieve as to give them a faded and unfinished appearance. This may proceed from applying the general laws without any regard to the more subtle principles of the art; for, al- though it is always necessary to subdue and # temper such colors as are introduced in large quantities, yet when they are reduced by dilu- tion alone the effect cannot be good. This error is also very common in the coloring of carpets and paper-hangings. In such productions the degree of intensity of the individual colors is seldom taken into account. A pale tint of blue is often introduced as an equivalent to the richest orange color, and sometimes a small portion of lilac — one of the lightest tints of purple: — as a balancing color to a quantity of the most intense HARMONIOUS COLORING. 69 yellow. This is inverting the natural order of colors altogether, as will be more particularly shown in the sequel. There is a fourth defect, and rather a common one, and that is, a want of the media already al- ■ luded to, as uniting and harmonizing an assem- blage of bright colors, which may, in other re- spects, be perfectly well arranged ; for it is a rule in the higher branches of the art, that confusion of parts of equal strength should always be avoided. A room of this description resembles a Chinese landscape, where foreground and dis- tance are unceremoniously jumbled together. An opposite defect to this has already been referred to, — namely, monotony, or a total want of variety ; for some are so afraid of committing errors in point of harmony, that neutral tints only are introduced, and sometimes one tint of this kind alone prevails. Yariety is a quality found to exist in the most trifling as well as in the grandest combinations of nature’s coloring ; and it is, as already observed, in uniting and making an arrangement of various colors har- monious and agreeable to the eye, that the skill ' of the house-painter and manufacturer chiefly consists. It is this which produces what is termed 70 THE LAWS OF repose in a picture, a quality equally desirable in the coloring of an apartment. The foregoing observations have been fully "borne out by subsequent writers on this art. The writer in the Athenseum^ already quoted, observes : — “For our part, we are disposed to believe harmonious coloring, consistently employed in the decoration of all buildings — inhabited build- ings especially, where we spend a great part of our lives — not to be either slight or unimportant in its influence on the moral tone of the inhabit- ants. As we may read to some extent the char- acter of individuals in their dress, sb we believe we might do so, in the character of their dwell- ings. Hence a very dull-minded, tasteless people we may be pronounced to have been during the eighteenth century. A room of bright and cheer- ful appearance surely tends to dispel gloomy and melancholy associations, whilst a dark and dis- mal cell provokes them. Glitter and tawdri- ness disturb thoughtfulness, whilst quietude in coloring tends to suggest it. “ ^ Experience,’ says Goethe, ‘ teaches us that particular colors excite particular states of feel- ing.’ It is related of a witty Frenchman, ‘II HARMONIOUS COLORING. 71 pretendoit que son ton de conversation avec Madame etoit change depuis qn’elle avoit change en cramoisi le meabie de son cabinet, qni etoit bleu.’ “The great majority of domestic apartments at the present time, even in houses of the first class, have scarcely any marked feature of deco- ration about them which indicates taste or know- ledge. They present a monotonous sameness and deficiency of any principles of taste — the varieties of character which occur, from time to time, being regulated only by the caprices of fashion. Sometimes every room you enter is of one color. la one of the most splendid of modern houses in the metropoKs — we mean in Sutherland House — we have been especially struck with the monotony of white and profuse gilding, in the forms of the Louis Quinze period. Sometimes the rage is for warm shades of coloring, at others for cold, though the preponderating taste seems to take refuge in dull, characterle^g, neutral coloring. ‘ People of refinement (to quote Goethe again) ‘have a disinclination to colors. This may be owing partly to weakness of sight, partly to the uncertainty of taste, which readily takes refuge in absolute negation.’ During one season 72 THE LAWS OF salmon color, as it is called, ■ reigns supreme ; tlien sage color succeeds salmon; drab follows sage or slate ; and then all varieties of crimson put out tbe drabs. Eacb is employed in its turn, without the slightest reference to any of the questions which should determine its appro- priateness or otherwise. It is the same with or- namental patterns. One year you find every drawing-room papered with patterns of flowers, another year scrolls will be all the rage. One year small patterns are correct — in the following, large only can be tolerated; and whilst each fashion reigned, each was exclusively used. Crimson walls in south aspects, leaden-colored ones in north aspects. Small patterns applied to rooms large and small, and large patterns to rooms small and large. A like absence of any recognized principle is seen in the carpets and hangings. When crimson walls were oftenest seen, then was the call for drab and light-colored carpets. More by luck than anything else, it is now^^ the fashion to have the carpets darker in color than the walls. We may often enter a room which, preserving something of each shifting fashion of the few past years, exhibits a violation of every principle of harmonious HARMONIOUS COLORING. 73 decoration. Walls of a liot and positive color in a room with a southern aspect — blue ceilings fuller of color than the drab carpets, with curtains and hangings of scarlet — and perchance a huge sofa covered with black horse-hair. Not a single thing appropriate or consistent, but the whole a medley of unsuitableness.” To proceed properly in decoration, the tone or key is the first point to be fixed, and its degree of warmth or coldness will be regulated by the use, aspect, and light of the apartment. The next pointvis the style of coloring — whether gay, sombre, or otherwise. This is more particularly regulated by. -the use of the apartment, and" the sentiments which it ought to inspire ; for, as Sir Joshua Eeynolds says, in regard to coloring, “ What may heighten the elegant may degrade the sublime.” Unison, or a proper combination of parts, is the next consideration. The tone is generally fixed by the choice of the furniture, and this ought to have particular reference to the aspect, because the furniture of a room may be considered, in regard, to coloring, in the same light as a key-note in music, or as the principal figures in a picture, and the general tone must, therefore, depend upon the colors of 7 74 THE LAWS OF whicli it is composed; for instance, if the pre- vailing color be bine, gray, cool green, or lilac, the general tone must be cool; but if, on the other hand, it be red, orange, brown, yellow, or a warm tint of green, the tone must be warm. But, as stated before, there can be no pleasing combination of colors without variety. This, by judicious management, may be given without in the least interfering with the tone, for it is merely the general color of the furniture which ought to fix the tone, and there may be the most decided contrasts in its parts, which, by the in- troduction of proper medial hues throughout the room, can be reconciled and united. Apartments lighted from the south and west, particularly in a summer residenoe, should be cool in their coloring; but the apartments of a town house ought all to approach towards a warm tone ; as also such apartments as are lighted from the north and east of a country residence. When the tone of an apartment is therefore fixed, first by the aspect and then by the choice of the furniture, it is the business of the house- painter to introduce such tints upon the ceiling, walls, and wood- work as will unite the whole in perfect harmony. This, as I have already ob- HARMONIOUS COLORING. 75 served, is a difficult task : tlie colors of the furni- ture may be arranged by a general knowledge of the laws of harmony, but the painter’s part can- not be properly added without the closest atten- tion to the more subtle operations of those laws. The style of coloring is the next point to be fixed, and will depend entirely on the use of the apartment. In a drawing-room, vivacity, gayety, and light cheerfulness, should characterize the coloring. This is produced by the introduction of tints of brilliant colors, with a considerable degree of contrast and gliding ; but the brightest colors and strongest contrasts should be upon the furniture, the effect of which will derive ad- ditional value and brilliancy from the walls be- ing kept in due subordination, although, at the same time, partaking of the general liveliness. The characteristic coloring of a dining-room should be warm, rich, and substantial ; and where contrasts are introduced, they should not be vivid. This style of coloring will be found to correspond best with the massive description of the furniture: gilding, unless in very small quantities for the sake of relief, or to carry off the effect of picture-frames, should be avoided. Breakfast parlors ought to be painted in a 76 THE LAWS OF medial style between that of a drawing-room and dining-room. The most appropriate style of coloring for libraries is rich and grave, and no higher color- ing shonld be employed than is necessary to give the effect of grandeur, and unite the painting with the richness produced by the bookbinder’s art. This can scarcely be done by neutral hues ; but care should be taken not to disturb the quietness jvhich ought to characterize the coloring of all apartments of this description by any masses of vivid color. In bed-rooms, a light, cleanly, and cheerful style of coloring is the most appropriate. A greater degree of contrast may be here admitted between the room and its furniture than in any other apartment, as the bed and window- curtains form a sufficient mass to balance a tint of equal intensity upon the walls. There may, also, for the same reason, be admitted gayer and brighter colors upon the carpet. Staircases, lobbies, and vestibules, should all be rather of a cool tone, and the style of the color should be simple and free of contrast. The effect to be produced is that of architectural grandeur, which owes its beauty more to the HAEMONIOUS COLOEING. 77 effect of light and shadow than to any arrange- ment of colors ; yet they ought not to be so entirely free from color as the exterior of a mansion, but should be in coloring what they are in use — a link between exterior simplicity and interior richness. Staircases and lobbies being made cool in tone, and simple in the style of their coloring, will much improve the effect of the apartments which enter from them. ^ It will be observed, that in the foregoing obser- vations I have taken notice only of such apart- , ments as are to be found in the town or country residences of gentlemen of modern fortune ; and, although, the general principles I have endeavored to elucidate are equally applicable to the palace and the cottage, yet, in the higher class of edifices, we find grand staircases, cor- ridors, saloons, &c., requiring in every individual case a peculiar mode of treatment, for which it is impossible to lay down any general rules. 7 * 78 THE LAWS OP ON COLORS INDIVIDUALLY. White is tiie full and unmodified action of ^liat atomic motion which is, agreeably to the hypothesis already explained, assumed to be the cause of light being reflected from the surface of bodies, as black is understood to be the total in- terruption of that motion. White is therefore naturally contrasted by black. The first modifi- cation of this atomic motion that has a distinc- tive character, as a primary element in the chro- matic series, is that which produces yellow — a less vigorous action — because the presence of color implies shade, and shade is a modification of light towards darkness. Yellow is, therefore, the melodizing color to white in the primary series. White harmonizes in conjunction and opposition with all colors. In conjunction, it produces every variety of tint, and in opposition^ it contrasts in various degrees of power, in pro- HARMONIOUS COLORING. 79 portion as the principle of shade or of color is opposed to it. For instance, when opposed to blue, the contrast is less powerful than that produced bj its opposition to black, but more pleasing, because the coldness of the blue thus imparts a warmth of tone to the white, however colorless it may have appeared previously to its being placed in juxtaposition with the blue. In like manner, white appears of a cool tone when contrasted with red, but pure yellow, from bein^ its ruelodizing color, does not affect its tone by contrast. White, from being the representative of light, has a gay and cheerful effect upon the eye. Popularly, there are various kinds of white- under the names, cream-white, French-white, pearl-white — and even the terms reddish-white and bluish-white are sometimes used. But this is a false nomenclature, for all those whites are tints of specific colors, and they ought to be named as such. Cream-white, for instance, is a light tint of yellowish orange-color; French- white — a light tint of reddish purple ; and pearl- white — a light tint of bluish purple. When a light tint of any color is placed beside the color itself in an intense state, the tint will certainly 80 THE LAWS OP appear a pure white, but if placed against pure white, the color with which it is tinged will appear, and it is, therefore, a tint of that color. Having, however, elsewhere entered into the subject of nomenclature fully, and wishing to retain the original simplicity of this treatise as much as possible, I shall continue, in this Part, the same nomenclature adopted in the former editions. French-white and cream-white are the only two whites which are generally understood, or used in decorations besides the purest white. The first of these being of all tints the most aerial, is often employed in house-painting, and when the situation, furnishing, and character of an apartment are properly adapted, it has an extremely pleasing effect. Either French-white, or cream- white, may be made the prevailing color of a drawing-room in a country residence, and where the hangings and furniture are com- posed of light blue, or any other delicate tint of silk, satin-wood, various light marbles, and gilding, the most lively and cheerful effect imaginable is produced. It may be requisite to observe, that French-white, when used on walls, should be kept rather low in tone, so as HAEMONIOUS COLORING. 81 not to interfere with the effect of the furniture. This peculiar tint can only be introduced when all the other tints are light and cool in tone, as any quantity ^ intense or rich coloring com- pletely subdues it ; and where gilding forms part of the arrangement, a little additional warmth should be given to its tone. The same may be said of pure white — all colors brought into contact with it should be light and cool, amongst which tints of gray and green are the most suitable. Yery light yellow, of the tint of the primrose, forms also a pleasing melody with pure white. In rooms where white and other cool tints predominate upon the walls and wood- work, the furniture should be of an equally light descrip- tion. Bamboo and satin-wood are the best woods. The same considerations should regulate the choice of the carpet and curtains. White, not many years ago, was the only color in use for the wood- work of rooms of every description: it has now almost entirely given way to shades of various colors, and imitations of the finer kinds of woods. It is still, however, adopted for bed-rooms, particularly in summer residences, where its light, cheerful, and cleanly effect is 82 THE LAWS OF extremely pleasing, wlien not destroyed by tbe introdaction of strong and deep colors. A south light is the best for white, and all such colors and furniture as assimilate to it. When it is the predominating color in a room lighted from the north, it ought to approach slightly towards a cream-color, so as to counter- act as much as possible the cold reflection of such a light. In patterns for colored manufactures, pure white ought not to be used along with intense and rich colors, unless melodized by light and deli- cate tints. Indeed, it ought, in manufactures as in decoration, only to be used where the char- acter of the arrangement is of a light and deli- cate nature. Its effect in arrangements of deep, rich, and intense colors, is generally harsh and spotty. When employed as a groundwork for a carpet, it ought to be, to a certain extent, reduced in intensity, by which great additional effect will be given to the tints with which the pattern is colored. When the general tone of a pattern of this description is warm, — that is, where red and yellow prevail, the white ought to be slightly tinged towards a cream-color. On the other hand, when the tone is cool, blue or green being HAEMONIOUS COLOKING. 83 the prevailing color, it may be tinged towards purple or gray. When white, however, is used, not as the medium to an arrangement, but as a contrasting color to any particular tint, it ought to be toned with the opposite hue. Yellow, of the three primaries, partakes most of the nature of white, being the lightest of all decided colors, and the brightest on the pris- matic spectrum: it is neither a warm nor a cold color. Its contrasting color is purple, a com- pound of the other two primaries. It combines with red in producing orange-color, and when compounded with blue, it producer green. These are, therefore, its melodizing colors. It is the ' most powerful of the positive colors as to light, and consequently the least agreeable to the eye when unaccompanied, or when predominating in a pure state. Being the most allied to light of the positive colors, it, next to white, forms the most powerful contrast to black. There are • many varieties of yellow in the popular nomen- clature of colors: but what is here meant by yellow is the color of the yellow jasmyn, or most intense lemon color. Yellow, of course, forms 84 THE LAWS OF a component part of all the tertiary or neutral hues, either in predominance or subordination. The tertiary in which it is the archeus or ruling color is that commonly called citron, but more properly yellow-hue, which being a com- pound of orange and green, the two secondaries into which yellow enters, has a greater proportion of that color than either of the other two tertiaries. Citron, or yellow-hue, is of itself a soft and pleas- ing color to the eye, and is the lightest of all the distinct hues arising out of the treble combina- tion of the primaries. It is very useful as a contrasting color amongst low tones of purple and crimson. In tracing yellow still further down in the scale, the next understood color in which it predominates is the semi-neutral hue, brown, or orange-hue — a most efficient color in all the low parts of every warm-toned arrange- ment. The upper limb of the colored diagram which faces the title-page exhibits yellow in its various combinations and gradations of hue down to black. There are, of course, countless interme- diate hues and shades between any two of those upon the diagram. In artificial lights, pure yellow apparently HARMONIOUS COLORING. 85 loses mucli of its intensity, because it cannot be easily distinguished from white. This occurs from all such lights being less or more of a yel- low tone, and consequently, diffusing this color over all objects within their influence: white thereby becoming yellow, and yellow remaining unaltered. In decoration, pure yellow cannot be employed in large masses, but merely as a heightening color ; yet light tints of yellow have a very pleasing effect in bedrooms, especially such as are lighted from -the north and east, and form an agreeable arrangement with white, lilac, or chintz furniture. They have also the advantage of be- ing easily lighted, and thereby appearing very cheerful at night. There is no color that requires more manage- ment than yellow in colored manufactures, yet in these it is almost always employed in its purest and brightest tones: while the other colors, which, according to their relative powers, ought to be of greater intensity, are very generally much weaker. Whether this proceeds frj5u?i the ease with which it is produced in dyeing, or from a desire to produce a striking effect, it is hard to say, but ffs abuse in this way must be apparent 8 86 THE LAWS OF to all people of taste wlio have paid any atten- tion to the matter. Yellow is, hoAvever, in its varions tints and combinations, of the greatest value in producing brilliancy and richness, as will be afterwards shown. Some of Grdethe’s remarks upon yellow, and some of the colors that proceed from it, are cu- rious. He says : “ When a yellow color is com- municated to dull and coarse surfaces, such as common cloth, felt, or the like, on which it does not appear with full energy, the disagreeable effect is apparent. By a slight and scarcely per- ceptible change, the beautiful impression of fire and gold is transformed 'into one not undeserving the epithet foul, and the color of harmony and joy reversed to that of ignominy and aversion. To this impression the yellow hats of bankrupts, and the yellow circles on the mantles of Jews, may have owed their origin. As no color can be considered as stationary, so we can very easily augment yellow into reddish by condensing or darkening it. The color increases in energy, and appears in red-yellow more powerful and splendid. All that we have said of yellow is applicable here in a higher degree. The red- yellow gives an impression of warmth and glad- HARMONIOUS COLORING. 87 ness, since it represents the hue of the intense glow of fire, and of the milder radiance of the setting sun. Hence it is agreeable around us ; and again, as clothing, in greater or less de- grees is cheerful and magnificent. A slight tendency to red immediately gives a new cha- racter to yellow ; and while the English and Germans content themselves with pale-yellow colors in leather, the French, as Costel has re- marked, prefer a yellow enhanced to red ; in- deed, in general, everything in color is agreeable which belongs to the active side. As a pure yellow passes very easily to red-yellow, so the deepening of this' last to yellow-red is not to be arrested. The agreeable, cheerful sensation which red-yellow excites, increases to an in- tolerably painful impression in bright yellow- red. The active side is here in its highest en- ergy ; and it is not to be wondered at that impetuous, robust, uneducated men should be especially pleased with this color. Among sav- age nations the inclination for it has been uni- versally remarked ; and when children, left to themselves, begin to use tints, they never spare vermilion and minium. In looking steadfastly at a perfectly yellow-red surface, the color seems 88 THE LAWS OF actually to penetrate tlie organ. It produces an extreme excitement, and still acts thus when somewhat darkened. A yellow-red cloth dis- turbs and enrages animals. I have known men of education to whom its effect was intolerable, if they chanced to see a person dressed in a scar- let cloak, on a gray, cloudy day.” It will here be observed that Grdethe terms what we call orange-color, red-yellow, and what we call scarlet, yellow-red, which is, certainly, a more correct nomenclature. Oeahge-coloh is the next color in the series ; it is a compound of yellow and red,pn equal pro- portions. Between these two colors it appears in the prismatic spectrum, rainbow, and other natural phenomena ; they may, therefore, be J^ermed its melodizing colors. Its contrasting color is blue. Orange- color is the extreme point of warmth in coloring-; because the red, in which exists the principle of warmth, is lighted up by a color whose nature does not reduce this warmth, but, by adding light to it, gives it more intensity. Therefore, as blue embodies the principle of cold- ness of tone, and has least light of any decided color, the contrast between orange and blue is HARMONIOUS COLORING. 89 more powerful tliaii that between any other two colors. In its combination with green, orange produces the tertiary citron, and with purple the tertiary russet. Although orange-color is perhaps the most powerful pf all colors, yet it possesses a mellow- ness and richness which renders it one of the most effective in all general arrangements. It should, however, next to yellow, be employed with a ^ very sparing hand; for it is, as well as that primary and red, offensive to the eye when viewed alone, and unresolved by a proper pro- portion of its contrasting and melodizing colors and hues. The various beautiful tints produced by the dilution of orange are the most useful in heightening all ornamental coloring, amongst which that termed gold-color is pre-eminent. Orange-color, like the other two secondaries, has great variety of hue, according to the predomi- nance of either of its component parts. As it advances towards yellow, by a predominance of that color in its mixture, pure blue can no longer be employed as a perfect contrast or neutralizing color, but hues of purple, advancing towards the perfect state of that color in the same ratio as the orange-color advances towards yellow, 8 ^- 90 THE LAWS OF On the other hand, when orange-color recedes towards red, by a subordination of yellow in its composition, green, in its various hues, becomes the perfect contrasting color; and as the red predominates in the orange-color, so ought the green to approach towards its perfect or prismatic purity. It is not, however, always necessary p)r desirable that colors emj)loyed as harmonizing accompaniments to one another should be of equal power, although it is most essential to the colorist to know the proper method of making them so. Suppose Orange-color to be the key adopted for an arrangement of colors, either in the decora- tion of an apartment, or in the design of a carpet, or other piece of manufacture, the blue ought to be subordinate, either in intensity or quantity ; and this subordination in intensity ought to be in shade rather than tint, or by neutralizing the blue by the admixture of a small portion of orange- color. In the medial colors employed in an arrange- ment of this character, the deep rich tones of russet, citron, and brown, or, more properly, red- hue, yellow-hue, and orange-hue, ought to pre- dominate, relieved occasionally by the deepest HAEMONIOUS COLOEING. 91 shades of indigo or deep purplish blue. Black and white are both out of tone in such an arrange- ment, especially the latter. Pure orange-color, from its great power, is not often employed in decoration, yet many of its hues are the best adapted for window- curtains, chair 'Seats, and other furniture, where ^ gorgeousness and splendor are desirable. The gold and giraffe hues so employed, along with pure emerald-green on the wails, produce when properly harmonized by their accompaniments, one of the most pleasing effects in ordinary decoration. In this case, however, the green is the ruling color, and such an arrangement will therefore admit of all such hues, shades, and tints being introduced as harmonize with that color. Eed is the third in the chromatic series, and second of the primaries. It is the most positive of all colors; holding the middle station between yellow, which is most allied to light, and blue, which is most allied to shade — it is of all colors the most powerful. The secondaries with which it melodizes in series are, of course, orange and purple, which are produced by its combinations with the other two primaries. Its contrasting 92 THE LAWS OF color is green, a compound of yellow and bine, in eqnal portions as to power. Eed is decidedly a warm color, and, to a certain extent, communi- cates this quality to every color or hue into which it enters. The effect of warmth is most apparent in its combinations with yellow, for in those with blue it becomes more, cool and retiring. From the medial situation of red, and from its power in subduing the effect of such colors as enter, in minute proportion, into combination with it, its name is very indiscriminately applied. The first , decided or specific color produced in its approach towards yellow is scarlet, called by Goethe yellow-red, and in its approach towards purple it produces the most splendid of all its various tones — crimson. But before arriving at either of these understood colors, there are an immense variety of tones, to all of which the general term red is commonly applied. It is not easy to de- scribe what is meant by pure red ; probably the most intense geranium-color is the nearest approx- imation generally understood. That which I have given upon the diagram is the nearest I could produce by a pigment, yet it is far from being perfect. HARMONIOUS COLORING. 93 The tertiary in which red predominates is russet, or red-hue, a medial hue between purple and orange, and consequently haying a double occurrence of red in its composition ; therefore, it is the most positive and warm of the hues. It is of great power and value in all the deep parts of any warm-toned arrangement, as a contrasting color to the deep hues of ^een, necessarily brought in as relieving colors. The semi-neutral marone, or purple-hue, is the next understood hue in its descent to black. This hue is the most useful of all semi-neutrals in such arrange- ments as are best adapted for patterns of carpets, and other variously colored manufactures. ' It is deep and clear, and -although allied to red, is sufihciently cool to admit of its being used as the deepest shade in such arrangements as have a predominance of cool-toned colors. Trom the positive nature of red, there is no color that requires more toning, and management, when exhibited in large masses, either in decora- tion or iu variously colored manufacture. The effect of red individually being striking and powerful, it has, like yellow, been much too indiscriminately employed. We have only to look at nature for the proper use of this color. 94 THE LAWS OF W e shall there see that red seldom appears in its full intensity, and when it does so, it is at that season when its effect is balanced and neutralized by the general verdure which clothes the earth. Eed, however, in nature as in art, is indispensa- ble in producing, by combination, *that variety of hue so essential to the effect of every arrange- ment of colors. *The landscape painter knows well that neither sky, water, nor foliage, can be successfully imitated without the introduction of this color. Pure red, and its various approximations towards scarlet, are too violent and obstrusive to be used in large masses, either in decoration or in any general arrangements of colors upon a piece of manufacture, unless under very peculiar circumstances. It forms, however, like orange, an excellent leading color or key-note. On all such occasions, its contrasting color, green, ought to be tempered by being toned towards olive: bright green, if employed at all, ought to be used in very small quantities. The tertiaries ought generally to be those in which red predominates, and blue is subordinate to yellow, and these should be relieved by deep rich hues of green. HAKMOXIOUS COLOEING. 95 A small proportion of gold-color adds brilliancy and effect to arrangements of this description. There is an exception, however, to this rule in decoration-; some rooms are so lighted that the direct rays are entirely thrown upon the floor, and the walls left comparatively in shade. In cases of this kind, I have known a bright scarlet upon the wall produce an excellent effect, the want of direct light preventing it from obtrud- ing upon the eye. In such cases deep-toned colors ought to predominate on the carpet. Gilding is of much importance in melodizing and heightening the effect of apartments deco- rated in this style. Crimson is, of all the tones arising from the naellowing of the primary red, the most gorgeous and useful as a leading color. The green which relieves it best is that which approaches the cit- ron hue. This color, from the splendid and rich effect which it always produces, and from its being, of all the tones of red, the most cool and mellow, is much used in internal decoration. It is also, when of a proper shade and tone, an excellent ground for pictures, and associates well with gilding. This latter quality proceeds from the crimson partaking, in a small degree, of the 9^6 THE LAWS OF property of purple as well as red — the one being the contrasting color to yellow, and the other the melodizing color to orange; the color of gold, in its lights and shadows, producing these two. From these circumstances, crimson, of a proper depth and hue, has been generally adopted as a ground for pictures, by the proprietors of those splendid mansions where the finest collections are to be seen. This has led to its adoption in general; but, from the great variety of hues which are produced under this name, many glaring errors, have arisen. Most of the flocked papers so much in use, and erroneously called crimson, partake more of the tone of scarlet, while others are crimson on the pattern, with a tint of pink on the ground. This often arises from the pattern being of one material and the ground of another ; and even when the ground and pattern are at first the same, the former from its being a thin wash of water-color upon white paper, is soon reduced to a pale pink — while the pattern, from its facility in collecting dust, be- comes a dark sombre red. From crimson proceeds that beautiful series of tints called pinks or rose -colors, which are so HAEMONIOUS COLOEING. 97 essential as heiglitening reds in all cool-toned arrangements. There are ’various other denominations of red, but they are all, with the exception of the purest color, compounds of two or all of the primaries. PuEPLE lies next in series to red, of which . color and blue it is composed, in equal propor- tions as to power. In this state of intensity it forms the proper contrasting or neutralizing color to pure yellow. The two primaries of ’ which it is compoifiided are its melodizing colors. Although red be one of its component parts, it is not a positively warm color, and is very retiring in effect: being also the darkest of the secondary colors, it bears the nearest re- lation to black or shade, as its contrasting color, yellow, does to white or light. Prom these qualities, purple is a pleasing color to the eye, in which respect it is second only to green. In its combination with green it produces that soft and useful tertiary color called olive, or blue- hue, and with orange the most powerful of this class, russet, or red-hue. Purple has, like the other compound colors, various tones, but these are bounded in its ap- 9 98 THE LAWS OP proacli towards red by crimson, and towards blue by indigo. Its tints baye also popular names peculiar to themselves, such as lilac, peach-blossom, and several others. Purple is not much used as a leading color in decoration, which, I believe, arises from its bad effect in artificial light. It has been already noticed, that all artificial lights, used for econo- mic purposes, are less or more of a warm and yellow tone, as any one may observe in viewing the flame of a candle or gas-lamp in daylight. Yellow being the natural contrast to purple, and being thus diffused over it, neutralizes and in- jures its effect. Indeed, all cool colors are less or more injured by the effect of such lights, while warm colors, from their being allied to red, are improved in brilliancy. The diagram facing the title, by being viewed in clear day- light, and immediately after in candlelight, will illustrate this fact in a sufiiciently satisfactory manner. This effect of artificial light is worthy of particular attention, for it is not only the posi- tive color upon which it is produced, but upon compound hues of every description, according to the predominance of one or other of the pri- maries in their composition. HAEMONIOUS COLORING. 99 Purple may be used in large quantities in any general arrangement, especially when of a cool tone. In the richest patterns of carpets, shawls, and such like pieces of manufacture, its deepest hues are invaluable. Its powers of contrast to all the warm tones of yellow gives them ad- ditional warmth and brilliancy, while its natural clearness prevents it from ever appearing dusky or heavy, except under the influence of artificial light. Blue is the third »of the primary colors, and fifth of the chromatic series. It is, of the pri- maries, the nearest in relation to shade, as yellow is to light. It is the only absolutely cool color, and communicates this quality to all hues into the combination of' which it enters. The con- trasting color to blue is the secondary orange, and its melodizing colors in series, green and purple ; with the former of which, however, it is more discordant than either of the other two primaries are with either of their melodizing colors. This gives rise to the necessity of a seventh color of a neutral description, which ought generally to be interposed between these two colors when in their perfect state of inten- 100 THE LAWS OF sitj. This neutral hue is gray, the medium between warm.th and coolness, and between light and shade, or black and white. The tertiary color olive, or blue-hue, from being the medial hue between purple and green, and arising from their combination, has a pre- dominance of blue in its composition, and is, therefore, the tertiary that first occurs in the progress of blue to black, or to negation in shade. Olive, or blue-hue, individually considered, is soft and unassuming, a^id is of great use in all arrangements whether of a cool or warm tone. Its effect -as a melodizing hue with blue, green, and purple, will be seen by reference to the dia- gram. But it is in its contrasting powers in the lower hues of warm-toned or brilliant composi- tions that it is most valuable. It relieves and harmonizes, according to its various tones, the tertiaries — russet, citron, mar one, and brown. Owing, however, to the discord already noticed, it ought never to be brought into immediate contact with blue, but should be melodized by the intro- duction of a semi-tonic hue between them. This hue may be a gray of a warm purplish tone, which will melodize best in being blended with the blue, and produce harmony in coming dis- HAEMONIOUS COLORING. 101 tinctly against the olive in its full warmth. Slate- color is the next hue in the progress of blue down to black, which, from its peculiar nature, cannot be used in any but cool-toned arrangements. Blue is individually a pleasing and, at the same time, a brilliant color. It may, therefore, be used in any general arrangement of colors, as it is in the coloring of nature, in a much larger proportion than either of the other two primaries. As a leading color in decoration, -it is extremely beautiful when in its proper place. For instance, in the drawing-room of a summer residence, especially when lighted from the south,- its effect, as a key, vis cool and refreshing, as also in bed- rooms of the same description. In all variously- colored manufactures of silk, pure blue, when properly introduced, is both sparkling and pleas- ing ; but in worsted manufactures, its shades and tints are the most useful; but probably from some difficulty in procuring a proper dye, it is seldom, if ever, produced in perfect purity in such fabrics. Pale tints of blue, or any other cool color, ought never to be introduced into warm arrangements. In such cases it ought always to be used in its deepest hues and shades. This ought to be particularly attended to by 9-:f 102 THE LAWS OF designers of patterns for manufactures : fos the indiscriminate introduction of light cool tints is a prevailing error amongst them. It has already been explained, that warm colors are naturally allied to light, and cool colors to shade. Light tints are, therefore, when employed in such designs, enhanced and strengthened by being of a warm tone, and are, consequently neutralized and sunk as they approach to that which is cool. In the works of the most eminent artists, this coolness and subordination of the shades, and glowing warmth in the lights, must be apparent to all who have paid any attention to the subject. Geeek, although the last in the general series which I have adopted, is the medial or second of the secondary colors, because it is a compound of yellow and blue, in equal proportions — the one primary being most allied to light, and the other to shade. Its melodizing colors are of course these two primaries, and its contrasting color the remaining primary, red. As red is the most decided or pre-eminent of the primaries, so green is the most cool and soft of the secondaries, and the most pleasing and agreeable of all decided colors. It is also unlike the other two second- HAEMONIOUS COLORING. 103 arie»in this ^ respect — that, in its approximation to either of its component parts, it produces no other distinct denomination of color — all its tones retaining the same name. Out of the union of green with orange arises the lightest of the ter- tiary colors, citron ; and out of that with purple the deepest, olive, to which it appears particu- larly allied. Green is nature’s favorite color, prevailing over the face of the landscape to> a far greater extent than any other. By a beneficent exercise of the divine wisdom, it is exhibited in its greatest intensity and depth when the sun’s rays are most powerful, thereby counteracting the intensity of their reflection, and refreshing the eye by its soft and soothing influence. Green, however, like every other element in nature’s coloring, seldom appears in vegetation in its primitive purity — hence the beautiful accordance between the green of the landscape and the blue of the sky, so evi- dently assisted in both harmony and melody by the intervention of the warm and neutral gray, which prevails intermediately in the distance of the one and the horizon of the other. Green in its various tones, as may naturally be supposed, is a favorite color in decoration, and would be 104 THE LAWS OF mucli more so, were it not that in artificial Jiglit its effect is much deteriorated, becoming in most cases dull and heavy. The cause of this I have already explained in treating of yellow and purple. This, however, may in a great measure be avoided by toning it, by keeping it in its proper place, and by select- ing proper colors as ap accompaniment to it. A rich tone of green upon the walls of a drawing- room, accompanied by cream-color, French- white, and gilding on the cornice, ceiling, and wood- work, with damask hangings of giraffe and gold color, and a suitable carpet, never fails to pro- duce a pleasing and splendid effect in any light. When this arrangement is inverted, that is, when the hangings and chair-seats are green, and the walls of a warm tone, the effect is equally beauti- ful in daylight ; but in artificial light it is injured by the green being neutralized, and the warm tone on the wall rendered more effective ; thus making that which is principal in the arrange- ment, and of the smallest quantity, recede, while that which ought to retire and be subordinate is . brought forward. This applies to all other colors employed in decoration, according to their rela- HAEMONIOUS COLOEING. 105 tive powers of reflecting or absorbing such kinds of light. Of all decided colors, green may be used with most freedom in manufactures. In carpets, espe- cially, it ought almost always to preponderate. They receive the rays of light more directly during the day than any other part of the furni- ture or decoration ; and ^ green in its various hues, is not only in that light most pleasing, but also relieves and harmonizes others more effectu- ally than any other color. Its bright and vivid tones and tints are easily neutralized, and seldom produce crudity or harshness of effect in any arrangement. Eich and deep tones of green, es- •a pecially when tempered towards a tertiary hue, harmonize with and give value to all descrip- tions of warm colors. Its cooler hues and shades ought, however, to be used with more caution; for they are apt to appear heavy, and although blue predominates in them to the same extent that it does in the hues of purple called indigo, yet they have not the same clearness. As already observed, there cannot be produced any other absolutely distinct description of color but one, and that is by a combination of the, three primaries, or, what is the same thing, any two of 1C6 THE LAWS OF the secondaries. Of the infinite mnltitude of hues which arise out of the triple combination, I have in another part adopted, as the seventh color, the most neutral of them all, gray. Those tertiary hues that are distinguished by a predominance of one of the primary or secondary colors in their composition, I have noticed in treating of the colors themselves. In decorative arrangements, oak may be reckoned of a citron, and mahogany of a russet hue, and they will, of course, bear the relation of these tertiaries to the other colors with which they are associated. Black, as already noticed, is produced by the total interruption of the action which produces light, and its natural contrast is white — being the most perfect state of that action. Black can only be used in large quantities in arrangements of a cool and sombre character, and ought always to be pure and transparent. Bor want of this quality in the black employed in the generality of worsted fabrics, it has always a sooty and heavy effect. It oiight, therefore, to be em- ployed in such manufactures with great caution. Perhaps the most general error in the coloring of the carpets manufactured in this country was. HAEMONIOUS COLOEING. 107 till of late, the too frequent use of black and white. The deepest shades should never go be- low indigo, marone, or brown, and the highest tints, as already observed, would be much im- proved by being mellowed down by some warm color. v_More latitude may be taken with black in the coloring of silk manufactures, as it can be produced on that material in the greatest clear- ness and depth. Its use in modern decoration is rather limited, being generally confined to chair- seats, door-mountings, and dining-room chimney- pieces. In the decorative painting, however, of Pompeii and Herculaneum, it was used in large quantities ; and in combination with the intense and brilliant colors which accompanied it, produced the most splendid effect. This evidently resulted from the perfect knowledge possessed by the deco- rators of that period of the relative powers of their materials, which seem to have been in their hands what the keys of a powerful organ would at the present period be in those of an accom- plished musician. Yet this-^se of the brightest and deepest colors, by the ancient Eoman, was perhaps more a particular characteristic of style, than a beauty in their decorative coloring. But, THE LAWS OF 108 . as already observed, it was tbe best adapted to tbeir clear skies, and, in some cases, nncovered apartments. Black, and its contrasting bne, white, are tbe two most dangerous elements in tbe whole chro- matic series ; the one being at the bottom and the other at the top of the scale ; and particular care is, therefore, required in their management. When an arrangement of rich and intense colors is here and there interrupted by patches or shadings of black, as too often happens in patterns of carpets and other subjects of a similar nature, the effect is harsh and unpleasant. It ought, therefore, in all such designs, to be ac- companied and mellowed by those deep hues that lie next in the natural series. White should in like manner, as before noticed, be introduced by a gradation of the lightest tints, otherwise the effect will be spotty and broken. It is very difficult to give rules that will be applicable in all cases, but it is trusted the above will be of some use in the general practice of the decorator and manufacturer. HAEMOmOUS COLORING. • 109 PART II, ON THE PRJfOTICE OF HOUSE-PAINTINO, The principles which operate in the produc- tion of beauty iii the art of house-painting, con- stitute a branch of the science of ^Esthetics, with which the public are becoming daily more ac- quainted ; but the practical department of this •art is still enveloped in mystery. Such mystery, however, ought not to exist in a country like Great Britain, where this department of house- painting cannot fail to be a subject of general interest, inasmuch as it is calculated to enhance greatly the durability of our dwelling-houses and public buildings, and the comfort of their occu- pants, by preserving them from the effects of a changeable climate and humid atmosphere. 10 110 THE LAWS OP In this country the ceilings and walls of the apartments in our dwelling-houses and other buildings are almost uniformly finished in plaster. Now, it is well known that this com- position is remarkable for its great facility in absorbing moisture. Consequently, when an un- painted plastered apartment is left for any length of time without the benefit of a fire, or heated air supplied by other means, a portion of that humidity with which our atmosphere is generally loaded will be absorbed, and the room thereby rendered unwholesome, and its wood-fittings, as well as the plaster itself, impaired in durability. The first and most important object in deco- rating a house is, therefore, to render its interior walls impervious to this absorption, and the most effectual way to do this is to paint them. Important as this operation is, it is often mis- managed to such an extent that families are put to all the inconvenience, trouble, and expense of a thorough painting several times during the ■best part of a lifetime, where once might suffice. The cause of this shall now be shown. The materials employed by the house-painter, in what is termed plain painting, are — HARMONIOUS COLORING. Ill WHITE-LEAD, LITHARGE, SUGAR-OF-LEAD, RED-LEAD, ORANGE-LEAD, CHROME-YELLOW, CHROME-GREEN, YELLOW-OCHRE, TERRA-DI-SIENA, INDIAN RED, VERMILION, LAKE, ,CALGOTHAR OR VITRIOL, VENETIAN RED, SPANISH BROWN, PRUSSIAN BLUE, FRENCH ULTRAMARINE, TURKEY UMBER, ENGLISH UMBER,' LAMP-BLACK, LINSEED OIL, SPIRITS OF TURPENTINE. Witli the nature, properties, and varieties of each of these ingredients used in the compound- ing of paint I shall endeavor to make the reader acquainted. White-Lead forms, or ought to form, the body of almost all light-colored paints, often constituting nine-tenths of the composition. It is a carbonate of the metal from which it takes its name, and is prepared by exposing thin plates of cast lead to the action of the vapor of ascetic acid, air, and carbonic acid. Other pro- cesses are employed for the same purpose, but it is by this process only that the resulting car- 112 THE LAWS OF bonate of lead is obtained of that degree of ^density and opacity, and ftiat perfect freedom from crystalline texture, which properly fit it for paint. This is called the Dutch process, and was introduced into England about the year 1780. It is fully described, together with, the other processes, in Brande’s Manual of Chemistry^ fifth edition, p. 844. The quality of this article ought to be considered of the greatest import- ance by the house-painter, as upon it depends the durability of his work ; yet it is, of all the materials he employs, the most difficult to be obtained in an unadulterated state. For all general purposes he procures it ground in oil to the consistency of a thick paste, which is pro- duced by mixing the carbonate in a damp state with refined linseed oil, and passing them through a mill, in which they are properly amalgamated. It is in this process that adulte- ration takes place. Formerly fine chalk or whiting used to be employed by the manufac- turer to cheapen this article, but when thus adul- terated, the presence of the chalk was detected by its specific gravity. While this mode was in use, the late Sir John Kobison, secretary to the Eoyal Society of Edinburgh, being elected HARMONIOUS COLORING. 113 a commissioner of police, had a small vessel filled with genuine^ white-lead and a similar vessel filled with that which was procured by contract for the city works, and the difference of gravity was found to be several ounces in the pound-weight. But the possibility of detecting the adulteration of white-lead is now rendered very difficult, from its being reduced by the admixture of a cheap mineral substance called sulphate of baryta, which resembles lead in its gravity, but not in its density and opacity, and is now very largely employed in this way. Therefore the painter, who by competition must work at low rates, is naturally liable to be tempted by the offer of white-lead below the market price, by which he effects a small saving in his material, while the employer sustains a great loss from the want of proper durability in the work. The only mode of detecting the presence of baryta in white-lead is by its insolu- bility in dilute nitric acid, pure lead being entirely dissolved by it. But this is rather a difficult process when the paint is in its manu- factured state, and the only way in which a painter can be quite safe is to make his orders worthy of the manufacturer’s particular atten- 10 -^ 114 THE LAWS OF tion, by giving tbe highest price, as also by taking a large quantity at a time, in which case it may be warranted free of adulteration. For the thick paste into which white-lead is ground by the manufacturer, the painter reduces it, by means of linseed oil and spirits of turpen- tine, to that consistency more properly called paint, as shall afterwards be explained. Lead supplies to the painter other materials besides its carbonate. Lithaege, the fused oxide of that metal, made by the simple action of heat and air in the process of extracting silver from lead, is used as a drying ingredient in tTie first coats of paint employed upon wood and plaster; and when linseed oil is boiled for coarse out-door work, litharge is dissolved in it for the same purpose. SuGAE-OF-LEAD, another dryer, is made by exposing ’lead to the fumes of vinegar or pyro- ligneous acid — dissolving the white powder thus produced in excess of acid, and then crystallizing it. Eed-Lead and Oeange-Lead are other oxides HARMONIOUS COLORING. 115 of lead produced from, litharge, and are con.- verted into paint by being mixed with linseed oil, and reduced to a smooth paste by the painter. This he performs by spreading the red-lead, when mixed with the oil, upon a slab of Ar- broath pavement-stone, of about thirty inches square, and working it over this surface by means of another stone, called a muller, whieh is of a conical form, with a base of about five inches diameter ; it is generally made of whin- stone, and held between the hands of the painter while triturating the paint between it and the slab. Litharge and sugar-of-lead are also sub- mitted to the same process before being mixed ' v/ith the paint. Lead unites with iron, with the alkalies, and with earth, in producing the chrome colors, which are — Chrome- Yellow of various tones, from the clearest lemon to the deepest orange color. This pigment is made by adding a limpid solution of the ehromate of potash to a- solution, equally limpid, of acetate, or nitrate of lead ; and the tones of its color are deepened by the addition * of subacetate of lead, or rendered pale by a solu- tion of alum or sulphuric acid, in the course of 116 THE LAWS OP their manufacture. There are also reds, blues, and greens, which are chromates, and made by processes of a somewhat similar nature, but the yellow is by far the most important to the house- painter — being almost the only bright yellow now in use. Like most other manufactured colors, it varies greatly both in quality and price ; and the only security the painter can have for its being genuine, and of the finest quality, is to purchase it from a manufacturer of high respectability, a*nd give the, highest price. It comes from the manu- facturer in dry lumps, and is converted into paint by the process already described. The OcHEES are another class of yellows of which there is great variety. They are a native earthy mixture of silica and alumina, colored by oxide of iron, with occasionally a little calcare- ous matter and magnesia, and are found between strata of rock and sand. Ochre varies in color from a light tint of tempered yellow to a ‘tempered red, and in price from Id. to Is. per lb. Yellow-ochre may be made of a dull red-hue by being gently calcined. Native red-ochre is called red chalk, but is never converted into a pigment. The lower qualities of ochre are found HARMONIOUS COLORING. 117 in large quantities in this country, and are used for mixing the commonest kinds of paints for out- door work, floor-cloths, &c. The finest quality is found at Siena, in Italy, and is called — Terra-di-Siena. This species of ochre is as useful to the professor of high art as it is to the house-painter. It has great density, without opacity, and produces delicate tints when mixed with white paint, or when used as a transparent color upon a light groundwork. The house- painter who wishes to do ample justice to his employer, should use no other yellows for inte- rior painting besides chrome-yellow of the best kind, and terra di Siena^ because by these two pigments every color or hue, of which yellow is an element, may be produced, and because they are the only yellows that can be depended upon for durability. When calcined, terra di Siena forms one of the most beautiful hues of reddish-orange or brown, which is as useful in producing tints, by its admixture with white paint, as it is by its trans- parency in giving richness to shades when used as a glazing color. ^ Of Beds there are locitinj kinds, principally 118 THE LAWS OF manufactured. Perhaps the only native red, besides the burnt ochres, converted into a pig- ment by the house-painter, is Indian Eed. Indian Eed is brought to England in its native state, n of a common Pump and its Operation ; The Construction and Operation of a Force Pump ; The Operation of a Fire Engine; The Operation of a Lifting Pump; The Hydraulic Ram ; The Archimedian Screw ; The Chain Pump ; Mercurial Steam Gauge ; Examina- tion Papers. Appendix.— E xamples ; Answers to Examples. 5 PRACTICAL A3MD SCIEJSTTIPIO BOOKS, Bullock. The Rudiments of Architecture and Building: For the use of Architects, Builders, Draughtsmen, Ma- chinists, Engineers and Mechanics. Edited by John Bul- lock, author of “ The American Cottage Builder.” Illus- trated by Two Hundred and Fifty Engravings. '• In one vol- ume, 8vo $3.50 Burgh. The Slide Valve Practically Consid- ered. By N. P. Burgh, Engineer. Completely Ulus. 12mo.. .$2.00 Burgh. Practical Rules for the Proportion of Modern Engines and Boilers for Land and Marine Purposes. By N. P. 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A Practical Treatise on Mechan- ical Engineering: Comprising Metallurgy, Moulding, Casting, Forging, Tools, Workshop Machinery, Mechanical Manipulation, Manufac- ture of Steam-engines, etc., etc. With an Appendix on the Analysis of Iron and Iron Ores. By Francis Campin, C. E. To which are added. Observations on the Construction of Steam Boilers and remarks upon Furnaces used for Smoke Prevention; with a Chapter on Explosions. By R. Arm- strong, C. E., and John Bourne. Rules for Calculating the Change Wheels for Screws on a Turning Lathe, and for a Wheel-cutting Machine. By J. La Nicca. Management of Steel, including Forging, Hardening, Tempering, Annealing, Shrinking, and Expansion. And the Case-hardening of Iron. By G. Ede. 8vo. Illustrated with 29 plates and 100 wood engravings ' $6.00 Contents. — I ntroduction — On Metallurgy; On Forging Iron; On Moulding and Casting; On Cutting Tools; On Workshop Machinery; On Manipulation : On the Pnysical Basis of the Steam-engine ; On the Principles of Mechanicai Construction ; On the General Arrangement of the Steam-engine ; On the General Principles of Steam Boilers ; Preliminary considerations on the Applicability of various kinds of Steam-engines to various purposes ; On the details of Steam-engines ; On Pumps and Valves ; On Steam Boilers ; On Propellers ; On various- applications of Steam-power and Apparatus connected therewith; On Pumping Engines; On Rotative Engines; On Marine Engines; On Locomotive Engines; On Road Locomotives: On Steam Fire Engines ; On Boilers generally, and a Radical Reform in those 9 PRACTICAL AND SCIEITTIPIC BOOKS, for Marine purposes suggested ; Smoke Prevention and its fallacies ; Re- marks on Smoke-burning, by John Bourne ; Explosions : an investigation into some of the causes producing them, and into the deterioration of Boil- ers generally ; Rules for Calculating the Change Wheels for Screws on a Turning Lathe, and for a Wheel-cutting Machine ; Explanation of the Methods of Calculating Screw Threads ; The Management of Steel. Appendix. — The Analysis of Iron and Iron Ores. Glossab ?. — Index. Capron de Dole. Dussance. Blues and Car- mines of Indigo. A Practical Treatise on the Fabrication of every Commer- cial Product derived from Indigo. By Felicien Capron de Dole. Translated, with important additions, by Professor H. Dussauce. 12mo $2.50 Clough. The Contractor’s Manual and Build- er’s Brice-Book : Designed to elucidate the method of ascertaining, correctly, the Value and Quantity of every description jf Work and Materials, used in the Art of Building, Iron their Prime Cost in any part of the United States, collected from extensive experience and observation in Building and Designing ; to which are added a large variety of Tables, Memoranda, etc., indispensable to all engaged or concerned in erecting buildings of any kind. By A. B. Clough, Architect, 24mo., cloth. . .75 Colburn. 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Illustrated by 12 large plates and 34 engravings. Tn Press. Contents, — Part I. Practical Mechanics, with Formulae and Calculations applicable to Spinning. Part II. Spinning of Combed, and Combed and Carded Wools on the Blule. Part III. French and English Spinning. Part IV. Carded Wool. Larkin. The Practical Brass and Iron Found- er’s Guide: A Concise Treatise on Brass Founding, Moulding, the Metals and their Alloys, etc. : to which are added Recent Improve- ments in the Manufacture of Iron, Steel by the Bessemer Process, etc., etc. By James Larkin, late Conductor of the Brass Foundry Department in Reaney, Neafie & Co.’s Penn Works, Philadelphia. Fifth edition, revised, with Extensive Additions. In one volume, 12mo $2.25 Lieber. Assayer’s Guide; Or, Practical Directions to Assayers, Miners, and Smelters. By Oscar M. Lieber. 12mo., cloth $1.25 Love. 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Contents.— Introductory Chapter— The Boiler ; The Engine ; Getting up the Steam ; Duties to Machinery when under Steam ; Duties to Machinery during an Action or after an Accident ; Duties to Engine, etc., on arriving in Harbor. Miscellaneous. Appendix. Main and Brown. Questions on Subjects Con- nected with the Marine Steam-engine, And Examination Papers ; with hints for their Solution. By Thomas J. Main, Professor of Mathematics, Royal Naval College, and Thomas Brown, Chief Engineer, R. N. 12mo., cloth $1.50 Main and Brown. The Indicator and Dyna- mometer, With their Practical Applications to the Steam-engine By Thomas J. Main and Thomas Brown. With Illus- trations $1.50 Makins. A Manual of Metallurgy, More particularly of the Precious Metals, including the Methods of Assaying them. Illustrated by upwards of 50 engravings. By George Hogarth Makins, M. R. C. S., F. C. S., one of the Assayers to the Bank of England ; Assayer to the Anglo-Mexican Mints ; and Lecturer upon Metallurgy at th^ Dental Hospital, London. In one vol., 12mo.. .$3.50 Contents.— General Properties of the Metals ; General View of the Com- bining Properties of the Metals ; Combination of Metals with the Non- Metallic Elements ; Of Metallic Salts ; Of Heating Apparatus, Furnaces, etc. ; Of Fuels Applicable to Metallurgic Operations ; Metals of the First Class ; Metals of the Second Class ; The Principles of Electro-Metal- lurgy. Marble Worker’s Manual: Containing Practical Information respecting Marbles in general, their Cutting, Working, and Polishing ; Veneering, et^ feet wide, from 1 Sheet to 23 Sheets, to weigh 112 pounds per Bundle. Table showing the Weight per Sheet, and the Thick- ness on the Wire Gauge of Sheet Iron 4 feet long by 3 feet wide, from 1 Sheet, to 19 Sheets, to weigh 112 pounds per Bundle. Table showing the Weight per Sheet, and the Thickness on the Wire Gauge of Sheet Iron 6 feet long by 2 feet wide, from 1 Sheet to 23 Sheets, to weigh 112 pounds per Bundle. Table showing the IVeight per Sheet, and the Thickness on tlie Wire Gauge of Sheet iron 6 feet long by 2>^ feet wide, from 1 Sheet to 18 Sheets, to weigh 112 pounds per bundle. Table showing the Weight per Sheet, and the Thickness on the Wire Gauge of Sheet Iron 6 feet long by 3 feet wide, from 1 Sheet to 15 Sheets, to weigh 112 pounds per Bundle. Table showing the weight per Sheet, and the Thickness on the Wire Gauge of Sheet Iron 6 feet long by 2 feet wide, from 1 Sheet to 19 Sheets, to weigh 112 pounds per Bundle. Table showing the Weight per Sheet, and the Thickness on the Wire Gauge of Sheet Iron 6 feet long by 2)-^^ feet wide, from 1 Sheet to 16 Sheets, to weigh 112 pounds per Bundle. Table showing the Weight per Sheet, and the Thickness on the Wire Gauge of Sheet Iron 6 feet long by 3 feet wide, from 1 Sheet to 12 Sheets, to weigh 112 pounds per bundle. Short Weight into long. Long Weight into Short. 25 PEACTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC BOOKS, Rural Chemistry : An Elementary Introduction to the Study of the -Science in its Relation to Agriculture and the Arts of Life. By E. Solly, Hon. Mem. of Agr. Society, England. Large 12mo $1.50 Contents. — Introduction— I. Objects of Chemistry ; Affinity ; Na- ture of Combination and Decomposition ; The Elements ; The Air, its Pro- perties and Composition ; Oxygen and Nitrogen : Combustion, results ot Combustion ; Carbonic Acid Gas ; Water, Ice, and Steam ; Effects of Frost ; Latent Heat ; Composition of Water; Hydrogen. Chapt. II. — Carbon, its Different Forms ; Cohesion ; Combustion and Decay ; Carbonic Acid Gas, produced by Respiration, Cumbustion, Fermentation, etc. ; Nature of Acids and Salts ; Carbonic Oxide ; Carburetted Hydrogen, Fire Damp, Coal Gas ; Compounds all definite; Combining Weights; Nitrogen combined with Hydrogen forms Ammonia ; Carbonate, Sulphate, Muriate, and Phosphate of Ammonia ; Nitric Acid ; Nitrates ; Sulphur, Sulphurous Acid ; Sulphuric Acid, Sulphates ; Sulphuretted Hydrogen ; Chlorine, Muriatic Acid ; Iodine, Bromine ; Phosphorus, Phosphoi’ic Acid. Chapt. III. — Metals ; Bases ; Alka- lies ; Potash, its Properties ; Carbonate and Nitrate of Potash, Gunpowder ; Soda, Common Salt, Sulphate, Carbonate and Nitrate of Soda ; The Alkaline Earths ; Lime, its Nature and Properties ; Carbonate, Sulphate, and Phos- phate of Lime ; Magnesia, its Carbonate, Sulphate, Muriate, and Phosphate. Chapt. IV. — The Earths, Alumiua, its Properties ; Alum ; Silisia, or Silicic Acid; Silicates of Potash and Soda ; Glass ; Silicates in the Soil, in Plants ; The Metals, their Oxides and Salts ; Iron, its Oxides ; Rusting of Iron ; Pyrites ; Sulphate of Iron, or Green Vitriol ; Gold ; Silver ; Mercury ; Copper ; Sulphate of Copper, or Blue Vitriol ; Zinc ; Tin ; Manganese ; Lead ; Metallic Alloys. Chapt. V.— Organic Matter ; Vegetable Substances ; Lignin, or Woody Fibre ; Starch, Varieties of Starch ; Gum, Soluble and Insolubly Sugar, Cane and Gr.ape, its manufacture ; Gluten, Albumen, Legumine , Fibrin, Gliadine ; Chemical Transformations ; Formation oi Gum, Sugar, etc. ; Fermentation ; Lactic Acid ; Manufacture of Wine ; Al- cohol ; Brandy and Grain Spirit ; Brewing ; Bread-making ; Vinegar or Acetic Acid. Chapt. VI.— Vegetable Brinciples ; Vegetable Acids ; Citric, Tartaric, Malic, and Oxalic Acids;- Oils, fixed and volatile. Manufacture of Soap; Resins, Pitch and Tar; Coloring Matters, Dyeing; Inorganic Constituents of Plants ; Animal Matter ; Albumen ;. Fibrin ; Caseine, Milk, Butter, and Cheese; Gelatine-; Tanning, Leather ; Fat; Bone; Protein; Food of Animals ; Respiration ; Circulation of the Blood ; Digestion ; For- mation of Fat ; Cookery, Roasting and Boiling ; Action of Medicines. Chapt. VII. — The Food of Plants; Substances Derived from the Air ; Sources of Oxygen, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, and Carbon ; Substances Derived from the Soil ; Sources of Earthy Substances ; Composition of Soils, their For- mation ; Decomposition of Silicates ; Mechanical Structure of Soils ; The Saline Constituents of Soils ; Organic Matters in Soils, Humus, Humic Acid, their use in Soils; Germination, Malting; Moisture, Air and Warmth; Influence of Light ; Office of the Leaves ; Roots ; Formation of Organic Matter; Flowers, Fruit, Seeds; Organic and Organized Matter; Vitality of Embryo; Nature of Seeds; Earthy Substances in Plants; Effects of Climate ; Action of Plants on the Air. Chapt. VIII. — Deterioration of Soils, its Cause ; Modes of Maintaining the Fertility of the'Soil; Theory of Fallowing ; Rotation of Crops ; Subsoil, Ploughing ; Draining ; Manure ; Organic Manure ; Animal Manure, contains Nitrogen ; Results of Putrefac- tion ; Sulphuretted Hydrogen ; Loss of Manure ; Liquid Manure ; Animal Excrements, Guano ; Modes of Fixing Ammonia, by Acids, by Gypsum, etc. ; Strong Manures ; Wool, Rags, Oil ; Bones ; Super-phosphate of Lime ; Veg- etable Manures ; Sawdust, Seaweed ; Green Manures ; Irrigation ; Inorganic Manures ; Lime, Chalk, Marl, Shell Sand ; Gypsum ; Phosphate of Lime ; Ashes ; Burnt Clay ; Soot, Charcoal ; Gas Liquor ; Potash ; Alkaline Salts ; Nitrates, Common Salt ; Salt and Lime. Chapt. IX.— Composition of Par- ticular Crops ; Composition of Wheat; Barley; Oats; Rye; Maise; Rice; Buckwheat ; Linseed ; Hempseed ; Oil-seeds ; Beans ; Peas ; Lentils ; Vetches; Potatoes; Batatas; Jerusalem Artichoke; Oxalis ; Cabbage; Turnips; Mangel-Wurzel; Carrot; Parsnip; Clover; Lucern; Saintfoin ; Composition of Particular Manures ; Cows’ Urine ; Horse-durig ; Pigs’ dung ; Night-soil; Urine; Bones of Oxen; Cows; Horses; Pigs; Farmyard-dung; Guano; Wood-ashes; Lixiviated Ashes ; Peat Ashes ; Kelp. Index. 26